2014
SPIE DSS•TECHNICAL SUMMARIES
www.spie.org/DSS

Baltimore Convention Center
Baltimore, Maryland, USA
DSS Expo: 6-8 May 2014
Conferences & Courses: 5-9 May 20141

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TWO MAJORSYMPOSIA•ONE PREMIER
EXHIBITION•
Contents

Online at: www.spie.org/dss

Technical Conferences
DEfense + Security

Sensing Technology + Applications

9070:

Infrared Technology and Applications XL.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 3

9098:

Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 278

9071:

Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, andTesting XXV.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 32

9099:

Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 288

9100:

Image Sensing Technologies: Materials, Devices, Systems, andApplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

9101:

Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VII. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 307

9102:

Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII: Advanced
Applications in Industry and Defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316

9103:

Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing IX.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 323

9104:

Spectral Imaging Sensor Technologies: Innovation Driving
Advanced Application Capabilities. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 328

9072:

Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects, andObscured Targets XIX. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 45

9073:

Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE)
Sensing XV. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 57

9074:

Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, andIntelligence (C3I) Technologies for Homeland Security andHomeland Defense XIII. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 70

9075:

Biometric and Surveillance Technology for Human and
Activity Identification XI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 76

9105:

Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 332

9076:

Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR)
Systems and Applications XI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 82

9106:

Advanced Environmental, Chemical, and Biological Sensing
Technologies XI. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 339

9077:

Radar Sensor Technology XVIII. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 89

9107:

Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 345

9078:

Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 105

9108:

Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 357

9079:

Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability, Integration, andNetworking for Persistent ISR V.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 111

9109:

Compressive Sensing III.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 364

9110:

Dimensional Optical Metrology and Inspection for Practical
Applications III .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 371

9080B: Atmospheric Propagation XI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 125

9111:

Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 380

9112:

Sensing Technologies for Global Health, Military Medicine, andEnvironmental Monitoring IV. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 391

9113:

Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 401

9114:

Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIII.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 408

9115:

Energy Harvesting and Storage: Materials, Devices, andApplications V.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 414

9116:

Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 422

9117:

Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 426

9118:

Independent Component Analyses, Compressive Sampling,
Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 437

9080A: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 117
9081:

Laser Technology for Defense and Security X. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 129

9082:

Active and Passive Signatures V.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 139

9083:

Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors, Systems, andApplications VI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 142

9084:

Unmanned Systems Technology XVI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 170

9085:

Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 182

9086A: Display Technologies and Applications for Defense, Security,and Avionics VIII.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 191
9086B: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XIX: Design and Applications.  .  .  .  . 195
9087:

Degraded Visual Environments (DVE): Enhanced, Synthetic, andExternal Vision Solutions (ESXVS) 2014 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 198

9119:

9088:

Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, andUltraspectral Imagery XX. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 203

Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired Computation: Theory andApplications VIII.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 446

9120:

Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing, Security, andApplications 2014.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 452

9121:

Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion: Architectures,
Algorithms, and Applications 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

9089A: Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 216
9089B: Motion Imagery for ISR and Situational Awareness II .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 221
9090:

Automatic Target Recognition XXIV. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 224

9091:

Signal Processing, Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target
Recognition XXIII .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 231

9092:

Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 247

9093:

Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 254

9094:

Optical Pattern Recognition XXV.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 260

9095:

Modeling and Simulation for Defense Systems and Applications IX .  .  .  .  . 264

9096:

Open Architecture/Open Business Model Net-Centric Systems andDefense Transformation 2014.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 269

9097:

Cyber Sensing 2014 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 273

2

SPIE DSS 2014

·

9122:

Next-Generation Analyst II .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 466

9123:

Quantum Information and Computation XII .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 471

9124:

Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 477

SPIE is the international society for optics and photonics, a not-for-profit organization founded in 1955 to advanced light-based technologies. The Society serves nearly
225,000 constituents from approximately 150 countries, offering conferences, continuing
education, books, journals, and a digital library in support of interdisciplinary informationexchange, professional growth, and patent precedent. SPIE provided $3.2 million in support of education and outreach programs in 2013.

www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
Monday - Thursday 5 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9070 Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-1, Session 1

Latest results from packaged and unpackaged image sensors, including readnoise, dark noise, and quantum efficiency, are presented here.

Digital night vision: an IR CMOS solution to 1
mLux imaging

9070-3, Session 1

Martin U. Pralle, James E. Carey III, Homayoon Haddad, SiOnyx Inc.
(United States)

3D numerical simulation of planar P+nheterojunction In0.53Ga0.47As photodiodes indense arrays, part I: Dark current dependence on
device geometry

SiOnyx has demonstrated 1 mLux imaging at 60 FPS on a highly scalable
1.3 Megapixel CMOS image sensor. This performance is enabled by the
combination of enhanced quantum efficiency in the near infrared regionof the spectrum together with state of the art low noise image sensor
design. Quantum efficiency enhancements are achieved through SiOnyx’s
proprietary ultrafast laser semiconductor processing technology that greatly
enhances the absorption of light within the thin pixel layer. The spectral
sensitivity ranges from 400 to 1200nm enable the capture of both visible
and nightglow photons for imaging from daytime through twilight and into
nighttime conditions. This technology demonstrates 10 fold improvements
in infrared sensitivity over incumbent imaging technology while maintaining
complete compatibility with standard CMOS image sensor process flows.
Applications include surveillance, nightvision, and 1064nm laser see spot.
Imaging performance metrics will be discussed.

Adam R. Wichman, Boston Univ. (United States); Roger E.
DeWames, Corbin Co. (United States); Enrico Bellotti, Boston Univ.
(United States)
In0.53Ga0.47As on InP P+ n photodiodes are a preferred technology for
imaging the visible and short wave infrared in 600 to 1700 nm. Applications
sensitive to high detectivity, camera size, weight, and power reduction
require photon shot noise-limited performance at temperatures near 300K.
Under overcast, moonless conditions with photon flux 10^10 [ph cm-2s-1] these limitations pose stringent requirements for dark current noise
and uniformity. These requirements focus continued interest on reducing
high-density, small-pitch focal plane array dark current. Analytical models,
however, provide limited insight on root causes for performance bounds inthis double heterostructure device. In this work we use three-dimensional
numerical simulation to investigate diffusion-limited dark current forthe planar InGaAs structure in 3x3 focal plane arrays with radiative
recombination dominating the intrinsic recombination mechanisms. Under
these conditions diffusion lengths, ranging from 20 to 40 um, exceed
individual pixel pitch, so that nearest neighbors limit lateral diffusion
currents in the array pixels. This numerical approach lets us investigate theinfluence of geometry on dark diffusion current, and provides a diagnostic
tool to investigate correlations between observed behavior and root causes
for arbitrarily specified architectures in this material system.

Demonstrated performance characteristics:
Pixel size : 5.6 & 10 um
Array size: 720P/1.3Mpix
Frame rate: 60 Hz
Read noise: 2 ele/pixel
Spectral sensitivity: 400 to 1200 nm (with 10x QE at 1064nm)
Daytime imaging: color (Bayer pattern)
Nighttime imaging: moonless starlight conditions
1064nm laser imaging: below 10 uJ in room light conditions

9070-2, Session 1

9070-4, Session 1

A monolithic 640x512 CMOS imager with highNIR sensitivity

3D numerical simulation of planar P+nheterojunction In0.53Ga0.47As photodiodes
in dense arrays, part II: Modulation transfer
functions modeling

Stefan C. Lauxtermann, Sensor Creations, Inc. (United States);
John Fisher, Brandywine Photonics, LLC (United States); Michael H.
MacDougal, Attollo Engineering, LLC (United States)

Adam R. Wichman, Boston Univ. (United States); Roger E.
DeWames, Corbin Co. (United States); Enrico Bellotti, Boston Univ.
(United States)

CMOS image sensors have become the workhorse technology in consumer
cameras operating in the visible domain. However, remote sensing,biomedical and machine vision applications requiring high sensitivity
outside the 400nm and 650nm wavelength range can usually not be servedby these mainstream silicon sensors. The choice until now has been fully
depleted (FD) CCDs or hybrid FPAs. FD CCDs and silicon hybrid FPAs,
built upon a photocharge collection region up to 100 times thicker than
the region in commercial CMOS parts, have high quantum efficiency up
to 1100nm wavelength. But these traditional FD devices suffer from all orsome of the following inherent drawbacks: limited data bandwidth, highdesign and manufacturing cost, poor pixel scaling, high readout noise, andobsolescence.

Current manufacturing has facilitated smaller pixel dimensions forlattice-matched InGaAs on InP short-wave infrared detectors, with recent
demonstrations reporting feasibility for 5 um pixel arrays. Due to its
technological maturity, this material system continues to gain attention for
low-light level imaging applications. With pixel dimensions smaller thanminority carrier diffusion lengths, crosstalk from lateral carrier diffusion
remains important to the conventional array performance. Analyticalmodels, however, provide limited insight on root causes for performancebounds in this double heterostructure device. In this work we develop athree-dimensional numerical simulation for dense P+n In0.53Ga0.47As on
InP photodetector focal plane arrays using a conventional planar, backilluminated structure. We evaluate optical generation with finite differencetime domain analysis, and model carrier transport in a drift-diffusion
analysis simultaneously solving the carrier continuity and Poisson equations.
Using this model we investigate array modulation transfer function
variations with pixel pitch and junction implant geometries for small
dimension arrays. By accounting for diffusion effects, these results should
provide a benchmark against which to evaluate modulation transfer function

To solve this problem, we have developed a monolithic, fully depleted
backside illuminated imager with 15 micron pixel pitch and VGA resolution
on high resistivity silicon with thicknesses of 50um, 100um and 200um,
respectively. The imager is highly programmable and supports frame
rates between 30 – 1000Hz through 1, 2, 4 or 8 analog output ports. A
high efficiency snapshot shutter provides exposure time control from200nsec – 30 msec at a readout noise < 10e-. With the built in 2x2 binning
function, the signal to noise ratio can be improved by nearly a factor of 4,
and a maximum frame rate of 4000Hz becomes possible at a resolution of
320x256.

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLcontributions from other effects, such as crosstalk attributable to photon
recycling.

PIN arrays with small pitch and low dark current density at higher operation
temperatures.

9070-5, Session 1

New developments on InGaAs focal plane array
Jerome Coussement, Anne Rouvie, El Houcine Oubensaid, Odile
Huet, Sébastien Hamard, Jean-Patrick Truffer, Maxime Pozzi, Patrick
Maillart, Eric M. Costard, Yann Reibel, Thibault Augey, SOFRADIR(France)
SWIR detection band benefits from natural (sun, night glow, thermalradiation) or artificial (eye safe lasers) photons sources combined to
low atmospheric absorption and specific contrast compared to visible
wavelengths. It gives the opportunity to address a large spectrum of
applications such as defense and security (night vision, active imaging),
space (earth observation), transport (automotive safety) or industry (nondestructive process control).

9070-8, Session 1

SWIR detectors for night vision at AIM
Heinrich Figgemeier, Matthias Benecke, Karl C. Hofmann, Reinhard
Oelmaier, Alexander Sieck, Joachim C. Wendler, Johann Ziegler, AIM
INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany)

InGaAs material appears as a good candidate to satisfy SWIR detectionneeds. The lattice matching with InP constitutes a double advantage to thismaterial: attractive production capacity and uncooled operation thanks to
low dark current level induced by high quality material.
The recent transfer of imagery activities from III-VLab to Sofradir provides
a framework for the production activity with the manufacturing of highperformances products: CACTUS320 and CACTUS640.
The developments, begun at III-Vlab towards VGA format with 15µm pixel
pitch, lead today to the industrialization of a new product: SNAKE640. On
one side, the InGaAs detection array presents high performances in terms ofdark current and quantum efficiency. On the other side, the low noise ROIC
has different additional functionalities. Then this 640x512 @ 15µm module
appears as well suited to answer the needs of a wide range of applications.
In this paper, we will present the Sofradir InGaAs technology, some
performances optimization and the last developments leading to
SNAKE640.

9070-6, Session 1

Michael W. Delamere, UTC Aerospace Systems (United States)

AIM has developed a Read-Out-Integrated-Circuit (ROIC) with 640x512 pixel
and 15 µm pixel pitch for low light level applications. The ROIC supports
internal or external correlated double sampling (CDS) for reduction of kTCnoise. Along with CDS a rolling shutter (RS) mode has been implemented.
The input stage of the ROIC is based on a capacitive transimpedance
amplifier (CTIA) with two selectable gain settings. The dark current of our
SWIR MCT detectors has been significantly reduced recently to allow forhigh operating temperatures. In contrast to InGaAs, the MCT material offers
the unique possibility to adjust the cut-off wavelength according to theapplication while maintaining the matching of the lattice constant to the
CdZnTe substrate.

9070-9, Session 1

High Sensitivity Megapixel and VGA shortwave IR imagers are presented.
The imagers have 1280x1024 and 640x512 resolution FPAs with 12.5 µm
pitch. The associated camera electronics are designed to optimize small
SWaP and performance for a variety of applications including man-portable
and airborne systems. Performance characterization of both these imagers
is presented showing low-noise, high dynamic range capability suitable forchallenging operational environments including light-starved and urban
environments as well as a variety of industrial applications

High-performance SWIR HgCdTe FPA
development on silicon substrates
Ramana Bommena, Jeremy D. Bergeson, EPIR Technologies, Inc.
(United States); Priyalal S. Wijewarnasuriya, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (United States); Richard Kodama, Jun Zhao, Fikri
Aqariden, Silviu Velicu, EPIR Technologies, Inc. (United States)

9070-7, Session 1

Low-dark current 1024x1280 InGaAs PIN arrays
Ping Yuan, James J. Chang, Joseph C. Boisvert, Rengarajan
Sudharsanan, Nasser H. Karam, Spectrolab, Inc. (United States)
Photon counting imaging applications requires low noise from both detector
and readout integrated circuit (ROIC) arrays. In order to retain the photoncounting-level sensitivity, a long integration time has to be employed andthe dark current has to be minimized. It is well known that the PIN darkcurrent is sensitive to temperature and a dark current density of 0.5 nA/
cm2 was demonstrated at 7 ºC previously. In order to restrain the size,
weight, and power consumption (SWaP) of cameras for persistent largearea surveillance on small platforms, it is critical to develop large format

SPIE DSS 2014

Detectors for the SWIR spectral range are particularly suitable forobservation under haze weather conditions or under twilight or moon light
conditions. In addition SWIR detectors allow utilization of the airglow for
observation under moonless sky. SWIR detectors are commonly basedon InGaAs or HgCdTe, (MCT) respectively, demanding for extremely low
dark current to ensure a high signal to noise ratio under low backgroundconditions.

The electro-optical parameters of SWIR Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) with
1.8 µm cut-off wavelength have been measured and the key performanceparameters will be presented.

Low-noise, small SWaP, SWIR imagers for lightstarved high-sensitivity applications

4

In this paper we report on the growth, fabrication and testing of a
1024x1280 InGaAs PIN focal plane arrays with 12.5 µm pitch with lessthan 0.5 nA/cm2 dark current density at 15 °C. Based on our previous
low-dark-current PIN designs, the improvements were focused on theepitaxial material design and growth control; and PIN device fabrication
process to minimize the perimeter leakage current and junction diffusion
current. We will present characterization data and analyses that illustrate
the contribution of various dark current mechanisms. Furthermore, opticalresponsivity and pixel capacitance data that are also of critical importanceto array sensitivity will be presented.

·

HgCdTe is an attractive material that historically has been of interest
primarily as the absorber material in photovoltaic detector applications
at mid and long wavelengths. Recently there is growing interest in using
HgCdTe for shorter wavelengths, because it provides the natural ability totune the bandgap by adjusting the alloy composition for a broad rangeof wavelengths. So far, most research and development on NIR and SWIR
imaging has focused on ternary and quaternary III V mixed crystals such
as InGaAsP, InGaAs/InP, and AlGaAsSb. However, III V materials exhibit
degraded performance for cutoff wavelengths longer than 1.7 µm due to anincreasing lattice mismatch with the growth substrate. HgCdTe on the other
hand maintains a nearly constant lattice parameter over the entire rangeof alloy composition. This study investigates the application of HgCdTematerials grown on Si substrates for extended SWIR band operation beyond
1.7 µm.

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
We report the development of high performance low cost SWIR infrared
detectors from MBE-grown HgCdTe on 3” CdTe-buffered silicon substrates.
The experimental findings demonstrate that despite the large latticemismatch between HgCdTe and Si substrate, the materials and detector
performances are sufficiently better than those reported for III V mixed
crystals. High minority carrier lifetime of the order 3 µs at room temperature
was measured on the as grown material. Photodetectors fabricated fromthis material produced low dark current densities on the order of 10 6 A/
cm2 and 10 3 A/cm2 at 200K and 300K. Quantum efficiency exceeding 70%
at 2.0 µm, without antireflective coating, was measured on single element
detectors. Further, FPAs have been fabricated with this HgCdTe on Si
material and imaging and radiometric characterization has been performed
from 77K through room temperature.

infrared panoramic 360-degree surveillance sensors. HGH’s expertise with
infrared surveillance technologies complies with various markets: perimeter
surveillance of critical areas as well as situational awareness on watercrafts.
For two years, HGH has optimized and tested new MWIR panoramic sensors.
The Spynel-S, a rotating infrared camera linked to a processing unit via a
Gigabit Ethernet link which includes a cooled 640x512 pixels MWIR array,
was released early this year.
HGH also improved its Cyclope software and redesigned its GUI. Cyclope
now allows interfacing with other types of sensors (RADARs, AIS and PTZ
cameras) and supervision systems. Distance estimation was improved taking
into account a digital elevation model. Time stamps and a synthetic timeline
were developed to ease forensic analysis of panoramic videos.
At the same time, HGH designed a new extra-large resolution sensor
involving a MWIR megapixel FPA detector (1280x1024 pixels): the Spynel-X.
It provides outstanding high-resolution 360-degree images (> 100Mpixels).
The sensor required the development of a completely new data transfer andprocessing system. Images are pre-processed on a FPGA-DSP board, thentransferred through a 10GigE optical fiber link and processed by a multi PC
station.

9070-10, Session 1

A miniature VGA SWIR camera using MT6415CA
ROIC
Selim Eminoglu, Gokhan S. Yilmaz, Serhat Kocak, Mikro-Tasarim Ltd.
(Turkey)

Spynel-X will be tested this Autumn, 2013, in representative outside
configurations including coastline surveillance on a semaphore. Its main
characteristics are:

No Abstract Available• Thermal resolution: NETD <30mK.
• Image resolution: 92000 (H) x 1280 (V) (for 5° VFOV configuration).
• Dimensions and weight: 385mm x 580mm, <40kg.

9070-11, Session 2

The mechanical frame of Spynel was designed in collaboration with anindustrial design agency to give a technologic, robust and elegant aspect tothe camera.

Panoramic thermal imaging: challenges andtradeoffs
Shimon Aburmad, Opgal Optronic Industries Ltd. (Israel)

9070-13, Session 2

Over the past decade we have witnessed a growing demand for electrooptical systems that can provide continuous 3600 coverage. Applications
such as perimeter security, autonomous vehicles, and military warning
systems are a few of the most common applications for such Panoramic
Imaging capability.

A long-range camera based on an HD MCT arrayof 12µm pixels
Douglas J. Davy, Stuart F. N. Ashley, Bryan Davison, R. Kennedy
McEwen, Andrew P. Ashcroft, Richard Moore, SELEX ES Ltd. (United
Kingdom)

There are several different technological approaches for achieve Panoramic
Imaging. Solutions which are based on rotating elements do not provide
continuous coverage as there is a time lag between updated. Continuous
panoramic solutions are either using “stitched” images from multiple
adjacent sensors, or using sophisticated optical designs which warp a
panoramic view onto a single sensor.

The development of a new thermal imaging camera, for long range
surveillance applications, is described together with the enabling
technology. Previous publications have described the development of large
arrays of 12µm pixels using Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE)
grown Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT) for wide area surveillance
applications. This technology has been leveraged to produce the low
cost 1280x720 pixel Medium Wave IR focal plane array at the core of the
new camera. Also described is the newly developed, high performance,
x12 continuous zoom lens, which together with the detector, achieves
an instantaneous field of view of 12.5 rad/pixel enabling long detection,
recognition and identification ranges. Novel image processing features,
including the turbulence mitigation algorithms deployed in the camera
processing electronics, are also addressed. Resultant imagery andperformance will be presented.

When dealing with panoramic imaging in the visible spectrum, high volume
production and advancement of semiconductors technology enabled
the use of CMOS/CCD image sensors with high pixel counts, small pixel
dimensions, and low costs.
However, In the Infrared spectrum, the growth of the detector pixel counts,
pixel size reduction, and cost reduction is happening at a slower rate due tothe complexity of the technology and laws of physics.
In this work we will explore the challenges which are involved in achieving
3600 panoramic thermal imaging, and will analyze aspects such as spatial
resolution, FOV’s, data complexity, FPA utilization, system complexity,
coverage and cost of the different solution types.
We will provide illustrations, calculations, and trade-offs between 2 solutions
evaluated by Opgal : A unique 3600 lens design using an LWIR XGA
detector, and the stitching of 3 adjacent LWIR sensors equipped with low
distortion 1200 lens.

9070-14, Session 2

9070-12, Session 2

Harald Hovland, Forsvarets Forsknings Institutt (Norway)

High-resolution panoramic images withmegapixel MWIR FPA

The tomographic scanning (TOSCA) principle use signals detected using
line detectors to scan a scene at regularly distributed angles. These line
scan signals are then processed to reconstruct 2-dimensional images.
In the simplest form, a 1-axis rotating conical scan optics scans across a
simple patterned reticle, the signal collection being done with a single pixel
detector. An experimental multispectral camera using this approach has

Experimental tomographic scanning (TOSCA)
imagers

Vincent Leboucher, HGH Systèmes Infrarouges (France)
Following its current strategy, HGH maintains a deep effort in developing its

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLbeen demonstrated in the visible region, and gives a fundamental insight
into the imaging properties of conical scan sensors, which have been
popular in use as hot-spot trackers. A significantly different array based
approach is demonstrated to work in the infrared region. The presentation
will go through the inner workings of the TOSCA principle, and signals
extracted and videos made from imaging scenes will demonstrate several
unique aspects of TOSCA imagers, such as the inherently perfect alignmentof multispectral channels in such an imager, and the capability of handlinglight modulation in the scene with frequencies higher than the frame rate.

professional individuals.
Through a revolutionary concept that turns smartphones into fully functional
thermal cameras, we have explored how these two worlds can converge by
utilizing the best of each technology.
We will present the thought process and conclusion of our development
process, resulting in a low-power, high resolution, lightweight USB thermal
imaging device that fits any smartphone and requires literally no calibration.
We will show the implications of this device on thermal imaging technology,
making it more accessible to a wider audience. Through the implementationof common practices taken from the mobile world, we will explore how
an eco-system of developers and users may evolve around this concept.
We will then highlight the main technology and go-to-market differences
between this new concept and other attempts to mobilize thermal
technology, highlighting their respective pluses and minuses.

9070-16, Session 2

Time-resolved multispectral imaging
Frédérick Marcotte, Vincent Farley, Telops (Canada)

We will also provide a live demonstration using a clip-on thermal imaging
device connected to an Android based smartphone, and will share someinsights and challenges we came across during this development process.
Finally, we will discuss the opportunities that this innovative technology
brings to the market.

For years, scientists have been using broadband cameras to performmeasurements in the infrared spectral bands. In order to improve theoutcomes of these studies, Telops has developed a fast multispectral
imaging system in the LWIR and MWIR band.
This paper presents the improvement that a fast infrared multispectral
imager adds to the traditional infrared investigations and how this system
can be applied in defence innovation research. An overview over thetechnology is presented and discussed along the results obtained during a
combustion experiment.

9070-19, Session 2

Case studies: using infrared technology forevidentiary purposesJohn Lester Miller, Noel D. Jolivet, Joel Hansen, FLIR Systems, Inc.
(United States); Rico Beniga, Postland Police Dept. (United States);
Rich Austria, Portland Police Dept. (United States)

9070-17, Session 2

Infrared light-field imaging using single carbon
nanotube (CNT) detector
Ning Xi, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
The conventional photographs only record the sum total of light rays ofeach point on image plane so that they tell little about the amount of lighttraveling along individual rays. The focus and lens aberration problems havechallenged photographers since the very beginning. This problem becomes
more serious in infrared imaging. The light field photography was proposed
to solve the problem. Lens array and multiple camera systems were used
to capture angular information, by reordering which the different views ofscene were captured. The coded aperture is another method to encode
the angular information in frequency domain. However, lens aberration
still is an inescapable problem when acquiring angular image. In the paper,
we propose micro plane mirror optics, together with compressive sensing
algorithm to record angular information to avoid aberration problem. The
micro mirror reflects objects and forms a virtual image behind the plane inwhich the mirror lies. It consists of millions microscale mirror which works as
CCD array in camera and it was controlled separately so as to project linear
combination of object image on lens array. The carbon nanotube based
infrared detector, which has low thermo noise, high signal to noise ratio, andfast responsibility, will sum up all image information on it, without image
shape effect. Based on a number of measurements, compressive sensing
algorithm was used to recovery angular image, and computed different
views of scene to reconstruct an infrared light field image.

9070-135, Session 2

Color night vision system for ground vehicle
navigation
Ehsan Ali, Hemain Qadir, Samuel Kozaitis, Florida Institute ofTechnology (United States)

9070-18, Session 2

Thermal imaging as a smartphone application:
Exploring and implementing a new concept
Omer Yanai, Opgal Optronic Industries Ltd. (Israel)
Today’s world is going mobile. Smartphone devices have become an
important part of everyday life for billions of people around the globe.
Thermal imaging cameras have been around for half a century and are
now making their way into our daily lives. Originally built for military
applications, thermal cameras are starting to be considered for personal use,
enabling enhanced vision and temperature mapping for different groups of

6

Infrared technology and imaging systems are already used extensively
by the law enforcement (LE) community, typically to gain a tacticaladvantage or obtain immediate situational awareness. As the use of infrared
technology becomes more affordable and widespread, LE is finding new
ways to use it and leverage the results in the courtroom as evidence. A
case study will be presented where infrared imagery was used to support
the Portland Police Bureau (PPB) in prosecuting an individual for a crimewhere a conviction might not have been assured without said imagery. Tests
conducted at FLIR Systems combined with expert witness testimony by a
FLIR employee helped a jury understand the significance of a key piece ofinfrared evidence, resulting in a conviction of the criminal. This case was thefirst Federal case of its kind where infrared imagery was used forensicallyas evidence and, as such, established precedence. Prior to this, infrared
imagery has been offered and debated in court only as to whether it
constitutes a legal search. Courtroom observations and lessons learned fromtrials have shown that both industry and LE can do a better job of making
the prosecution’s cases stronger utilizing infrared technology and thus
taking criminals off the street.

SPIE DSS 2014·

Operating in a degraded visual environment due to darkness can posea threat to navigation safety. Systems have been developed to navigate
in darkness that depend upon differences between objects such astemperature differences or reflectivity at various wavelengths. Such systems
use a combination of passive and active sensors to discriminant between
objects. However, adding sensors increases the complexity of a system byadding multiple components that may create problems with alignment andcalibration. An approach is needed that is passive and simple for widespread
acceptance.
We considered a system that depends to some degree on what is expected.
For example, when driving a ground vehicle, a road is typically at the

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-22, Session 3bottom of a scene, and the sky is at the top. We used this concept to aid
the development of a passive system for to improve safety while driving aground vehicle at night. Our approach used a type of augmented display for
operating in a degraded visual environment that is continuously updated. A
publically available dataset filled in the regions of the thermal imagery when
there was no signal, and an image fusion method was used where there wasa thermal signal. Using this approach, we were able to produce imagery
acquired at night that appeared as if in the daylight. Such an approach could
improve the safety of nighttime navigation.

A new joint laboratory between SOFRADIR andONERA for the development of advanced DDCA
with integrated optics
Guillaume Druart, Nicolas Guérineau, ONERA (France); Yann Reibel,
Serge Magli, Noura Matallah, SOFRADIR (France)
Today, both military and civilian applications require miniaturized opticalsystems in order to give an imagery function to vehicles with small payload
capacity. After the development of megapixel focal plane arrays (FPA)
with micro-sized pixels, this miniaturization will become feasible with the
integration of optical functions in the detector area. In the field of cooled
infrared imaging systems, the detector area is the Detector-Dewar-Cooler
Assembly (DDCA). A dewar is a sealed environment where the detector iscooled on a cold plate.

9070-20, Session 3

Cooled IR detectors for military and space
applications at i3system
Sooho Bae, Young-Ho Kim, Byung-Hyuk Kim, Ho-Jun Lee, Han
Jung, i3system, Inc. (Korea, Republic of)

SOFRADIR and ONERA have launched a new research and innovation
partnership to develop disruptive technologies for DDCA to improve theperformance and compactness of optronics systems. With this collaboration,
we will break down the technological barriers of DDCA, a sealed and cooled
environment dedicated to the infrared detectors, to allow the investigationof optical designers to bring advanced optics inside the DDCA. This
technological breakthrough will bring more compact multipurpose thermal
imaging products, as well as new thermal capabilities such as 3D imagery or
multispectral of hyperspectral imagery.

This paper shows the current status of cooled IR detector technologies
at i3system, South Korea. Mass production technology of i3system has
successfully supplied thousand units of QVGA cooled IR detectors to Korean
military system since 2010. i3system has small pitch cooled IR detectors
with 320x256 and 640x512 formats for several different applications
such as thermal sights and 24-hour operation observation units. Also, ourcooled IR detector has been launched in STSAT-2C satellite through KSLV-I
program on 2013 which was South Korea’s first launch vehicle for satellite.
Owing to our robust and intensive development and test programs, ourdetector technologies have been space qualified without any further efforts.
Currently, development programs for SXGA cooled detector are being
progressed and its preliminary performances are addressed.

The previous developments will be recalled (The cameras SOIE and FISBI,
the on-chip camera…) and the future trends will be presented.

9070-23, Session 3

9070-21, Session 3

Smart filters: from VIS/NIR to MW/LWIR
protection

Cooled and uncooled infrared detectors formissile seekers

Ariela Donval, Tali Fisher, Ofir Lipman, Moshe Oron, KiloLambda
Technologies, Ltd. (Israel)

Udi Mizrahi, Rami Fraenkel, Jacob Haski, Lior Shkedy, Itay
Shtrichman, SCD Semiconductor Devices (Israel)

New development of imaging systems implies the use of multi bandwavelength, VIS, NIR, MW and LW, for imaging enhancement and more data
presenting. Some of those systems, such as < see spot>, are designed for
applications requiring in plus, the ability to see the aiming point of a laser
designator.

Electro-optical missile seekers pose exceptional requirements for infrared(IR) detectors. These requirements include: very short mission readiness(time-to-image), one-time and relatively short mission duration, extreme
ambient conditions, high sensitivity, fast frame rate, and in some cases small
size and cost.

The use of laser ‹see spots› to assist in target identification and tracking canunintentionally result in a laser beam reflected back into the sensor, leading
to transient dazzling or permanent damage of the sensor. This scenario canlead to non-operation optical imaging system.

SCD is engaged in the development and production of IR detectors formissile seeker applications for many years. 0D, 1D and 2D InSb focal
plane arrays (FPAs) are packaged in specially designed fast cool-down
Dewars and integrated with Joule-Thomson (JT) coolers. These cooled
MWIR detectors were integrated in numerous seekers of various missile
types, for short and long range applications, and are combat proven. New
technologies for the MWIR, such as epi-InSb and XBn-InAsSb, enable fastercool-down time and higher sensitivity for the next generation seekers.

The need to protect the system from the same kind of laser it is required
to observe, is presenting an engineering challenge. The usual spectral filter
solution is obviously not suitable in this case, since it will block completely
the same laser wavelength range required for designation.
We propose a novel passive solid-state threshold-triggered Wideband
Protection Filter (WPF) that blocks the transmission only if the power
exceeds a certain threshold. As opposed to fixed spectral filters, whichpermanently block only specific wavelengths, the wideband filter is clear
at all wavelengths until hit by damaging light. We propose a new solution
based on laser energy threshold activation, rather than wavelength
dependent activation. Wideband Protection Filter (WPF) is a totally
passive filter-layer exhibiting transparency at all wavelengths including
the visible and IR ranges. However, when struck by high power lasers, thefilter undergoes a transformation at the exact point of the impinging rays,
restricting their passage, while other areas of the filter are unaffected andenable the acquisition of the image using a thermal imaging system. The
WPF can provide a suitable solution for optical imaging systems, which
are open for the wavelength region of the laser designator. We present a
special design of WPF suitable for dual- and multi- band wavelength range,
including transmission and functionality performances

The uncooled micro-bolometer technology for IR detectors has advanced
significantly over the last decade, and high resolution - high sensitivity FPAs
are now available for different applications. Their much smaller size and costwith regard to the cooled detectors makes these uncooled LWIR detectors
natural candidates for short and mid-range missile seekers.
In this work we will present SCD’s cooled and uncooled solutions foradvanced electro-optical missile seekers.

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-24, Session 4

9070-26, Session 4

Antimonide-based superlattices for LWIR
imaging (Invited Paper)

InAs/GaSb Type II superlattice barrier devices
with a low dark current and a high-quantum
efficiency (Invited Paper)

Manijeh Razeghi, Northwestern Univ. (United States)
In recent years, the narrow-bandgap antimonide-based semiconductors
are widely regarded as one of the strong candidate material systems forfabrication of the third generation of infrared imagers and integrated circuitswith ultra-high speed and ultra-low power consumption. Antimonidebased semiconductors mainly refer to the binary, ternary, and quaternarycompound semiconductors, such as GaSb, InSb, AlSb, InAsSb, InSbBi, InTlSb,
and InTlAsSb. Furthermore, antimonide-based semiconductors can be used
to form artificial quantum structures such as GaSb/InAs, InAs/InAsSb, or
InAs/AlSb/GaSb type-II superlattices.
Study of different antimonide-based semiconductors for infrared detectionand emission applications has been an active field of research at Center for
Quantum Devices (CQD) for more than two decades. These efforts coveralmost all members of antimonide-based semiconductors family from
simple binary compounds, such as InSb, to complicated quaternary ones
like InTlAsSb. In the other hand, antimonide-based type-II superlattices
have been subject of extensive studies at CQD. These studies resulted indemonstration of infrared photodetectors and imagers which can cover
infrared spectrum from 1.5 to longer than 32&mu;m.
This talk will cover the latest results and Best solution for highperformances, large format, multicolor LWIR imaging.

9070-25, Session 4

InAs/GaSb superlattice detectors for the longwavelength infrared regime
Robert Rehm, Jan-Michael Masur, Johannes Schmitz, Jasmin
Niemasz, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik(Germany); Petra Fries, Detlef Eich, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH
(Germany); Martin Walther, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte
Festkörperphysik (Germany)Over the last few years, InAs/GaSb superlattice (SL) infrared (IR) detectors
have shown tremendous progress both in the mid-wavelength (MWIR, 3-5µm) and in the long-wavelength (LWIR, 8-12 µm) atmospheric windows.
Favorable fundamental properties like, e.g., a widely adjustable bandgap,
a high quantum efficiency and low dark current render the InAs/GaSb SL
material into an attractive alternative to CdHgTe or InSb-based devices,which are widely used for high-performance IR detectors and imagers.
Recently, various groups have taken advantage of the flexibility in the InAs/
GaSb/AlSb material system to engineer device concepts with advanced
bandstructures, which significantly pushed the electrooptical performance.

SPIE DSS 2014

Type II InAs/GaSb superlattices (T2SLs) are a promising III-V alternativeto HgCdTe for infrared Focal Plane Array (FPA) detectors. Over the past
few years SCD has invested a considerable effort in the modeling, growth,
processing and characterization of high performance T2SL detector
structures suitable for FPA fabrication. Our LWIR structures are based on an
XBp design, analogous to the XBn design that lead to the recent launch of
SCD’s InAsSb HOT MWIR detector (TOP= 150 K). The T2SL XBp structures
have a cut-off wavelength of ~9.5 µm and are diffusion limited with a darkcurrent at 78K that is within one order of magnitude of the MCT Rule 07
value. We demonstrate 30 µm pitch 5 x 5 test arrays with 100% operability
and with a dark current activation energy that closely matches the bandgap
energy measured by photoluminescence at 10 K. From the dependence ofthe dark current and photocurrent on mesa size we are able to determine
the lateral diffusion length and quantum efficiency (QE). The QE agrees very
well with the value predicted by our recently developed k.p model [Livneh
et al, Phys. Rev. B86, 235311 (2012)]. The model includes a number ofinnovations that provide a faithful match between measured and predicted
T2SL bandgaps from MWIR to LWIR, and which also allow us to treat otherpotential candidate systems with strong bandgap bowing, such as the
Gallium free InAs/InAsSb superlattice (GFSL). We will present a criticalcomparison of GFSL vs. T2SL for LWIR FPA applications.

9070-27, Session 4

Development of bi-spectral InAs/GaSb type IIsuperlattice image detectors (Invited Paper)
Tim O. Stadelmann, Andreas Wörl, Matthias Wauro, Volker
Daumer, Jasmin Niemasz, Wolfgang Luppold, Fraunhofer-Institut
für Angewandte Festkörperphysik (Germany); Thomas Simon,
Marc Riedel, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany); Robert
Rehm, Martin Walther, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte
Festkörperphysik (Germany)

For the LWIR regime, we predominantly develop InAs/GaSb SL detectors
based on heterojunction device concepts. Today, this approach is consideredmost efficient for increasing the operating temperature of imaging
cameras. The bandstructure calculations, which guide our device design,
have been undertaken with a refined version of the Superlattice Empirical
Pseudopotential Method (SEPM) that we painstakingly verified. The proof
of concept was achieved with first heterojunction devices showing morethan one order of magnitude lower dark current compared to conventional
homojunction devices with the same absorber bandgap along with quasibias-independent quantum efficiency at low operating voltage. Successive
heterojunction device designs are expected to achieve further reduced darkcurrent. In order to demonstrate the imaging performance of the LWIR InAs/
GaSb SL heterojunction devices, the wafers are processed into detector
arrays with 640x512 pixels at 15 µm pitch and hybridized to a customdesigned read-out integrated circuit (ROIC) by standard Indium-bump flip
chip technology.

8

Philip Klipstein, Yael Benny, Rami Fraenkel, Alex Glozman, Steve
Grossman, Olga Klin, Lidia Langoff, SCD Semiconductor Devices(Israel); Yoav Livneh, Israel Ministry of Defense (Israel); Inna
Lukomsky, Michal Nitzani, Lior Shkedy, Itay Shtrichman, Noam
Snapi, SCD Semiconductor Devices (Israel); Avi Tuito, Israel Ministryof Defense (Israel); Eliezer Weiss, SCD Semiconductor Devices(Israel)·InAs/GaSb superlattices are characterized by a broken-gap type II bandalignment. Their effective band gap can be engineered to match mid to far
infrared (IR) photon energies by selecting appropriate layer thicknesses
during crystal growth. Fraunhofer IAF, with its expertise in growing such
structures by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and through the developmentof a mesa insulation process complemented by a proprietary passivation
technology, has been instrumental in establishing the potential of thematerial system for high performance IR photodiodes.
Together with our industry partners, we have developed this technology into
image detectors capable of spatially and temporally coincident detection
in two mid IR wavelength ranges and built up the capacity for small-scale
production of such detectors to support specific applications in threat
warning systems.
We review the present status of the processing technology and reportcontinuous improvements achieved in key areas of detector performance,
including defect density and noise behavior. Recently developed
measurement techniques enable the characterization of ensembles
of individual detector elements at device operating temperature andwe present initial statistical results for diode characteristics and noise

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLproperties. Such data facilitates assessment of detectors before sensor
assembly and can be related to process parameters and sensor performanceas well as to predictions from theoretical models. Identified correlations
form a basis for further device and process optimization.

layer thicknesses. The SLS layer utilized a p-i-n detector design with an InAs
top contact (10 nm), GaSb bottom contact (100 nm), and a SLS absorption
region (100 nm) consisting of 8 monolayers (MLs) InAs/8 MLs GaSb. Single
element SLS detectors with 410 µm x 410 µm mesa area were fabricatedusing standard optical lithography and dry etching techniques. A plasmonic
coupler was then realized inside the 300 µm circular apertures of thesesingle element detectors by the formation of a corrugated metal (Au)surface.

9070-28, Session 4

Comparison of the electro-optical performancesof MWIR InAs/GaSb superlattice pin photodiodes
with symmetrical and asymmetrical designs

The SLS single element detector integrated with an optimized plasmonic
coupler design increased the quantum efficiency (QE) by a factor of threeat an operating temperature of 77 K and 4 µm illumination wavelengthcompared to a reference detector structure, and each structure exhibitedthe same level of dark current. Further performance considerations andimprovements for a SLS single element detector design integrated with theplasmonic coupler will be discussed during the presentation.

Edouard Giard, ONERA (France); Rachid Taalat, Marie Delmas, JeanBaptiste Rodriguez, Philippe Christol, Univ. Montpellier 2 (France);
Isabelle Ribet-Mohamed, ONERA (France)

This work was supported by AFOSR

Asymmetrical InAs/GaSb superlattice (SL) pin photodiodes were recently
proposed to both decrease the dark current (since it should decrease theintrinsic carrier concentration) and increase the quantum efficiency (since itshould increase the wavefunctions overlap) of MWIR SL photodetectors.

9070-31, Session 6

Pretreatment for surface leakage current
reduction in type-II superlattice MWIR
photodetectors

An improvement of more than one decade on the dark current has alreadybeen demonstrated. In this paper, we show that the quantum efficiency
doesn’t reach the expected values : the “InAs-rich” devices (with 7.5 InAs
monolayers (ML) and 3.5 GaSb MLs in each period) indeed exhibit a lower
quantum efficiency than the symmetrical devices at 0V bias voltage.
Moreover, the quantum efficiency of this asymmetrical device strongly
depends on the bias voltage. To state on this puzzling behavior, we reportmeasurements of quantum efficiency as a function of wavelength and bias
voltage for several devices : first of all, we compare a symmetrical one, an
InAs-rich asymmetrical one and a GaSb-rich asymmetrical one, all of themwith an active zone thickness of 1µm. Then we compare InAs-rich devices
with different active zone thicknesses (0.5, 1 and 4µm). All these devices
exhibit a cut-off wavelength of 5µm @ 80K. Our experimental results areinterpreted thanks to a fully analytic model which predicts the quantum
efficiency of our PIN photodiodes. We point out that the low quantum
efficiency values at 0V and the dependence of the quantum efficiency on
the bias voltage are due to a non optimal transport of carriers.

Hiroshi Inada, Kenichi Machinaga, Sundararajan Balasekaran,
Kouhei Miura, Yukihiro Tsuji, Masaki Migita, Yasuhiro Iguchi,
Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd. (Japan); Haruyoshi Katayama,
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Japan); Masafumi Kimata,Ritsumeikan Univ. (Japan) and Japan Aerospace Exploration
Agency (Japan)
Focal plane array based on type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice (T2SL) is
expected as an alternative to HgCdTe. In order to improve the performanceof T2SL detector, it is important to build a reliable fabrication process.
Especially, mesa formation and passivation with understanding of surface
leakage mechanism is critical issue. Generally, the existence of dangling
bonds at crystal surface or damaged layer and native oxides on etchedmesa sidewall leads to surface leakage currents, which mostly degrade thedetector performance. Many researchers adopted SiO2 film as an effective
passivation layer, which was deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor
deposition at low temperature. However, good passivation requires not only
stable film, but also an effective surface treatment before passivation.

9070-29, Session 5

On the origin of 1/f noise in electronic devices(Keynote Presentation)

In this work, we present dry etching mesa formation and the effect ofpretreatment of passivation on the performance of T2SL p-i-n photodiodefabrication.

Paul R. Norton, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

T2SL was grown on GaSb:Te substrate using molecular beam epitaxy
method. The photodiodes have a p-i-n structure. Mesa structure wasformed by inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etching with halogen
gas mixture. Prior to SiO2 passivation, treatments such as phosphoricacid, NH4OH wet cleaning and dry cleaning were conducted. From I-V
measurements of the variable area test diodes, we estimated the bulk
limited R0A value and surface resistivity of the pretreated and untreatedsamples. It was found that dry cleaning was more effective to surface
leakage reduction. Results of electrical and optical characterization of thesedevices will be discussed

No Abstract Available

9070-30, Session 6

MWIR superlattice detectors integrated with
substrate side-illuminated plasmonic coupler
Seyedeh Marziyeh Zamiri, Elena Plis, Jun Oh Kim, Seung-Chang Lee,
Alexander Neumann, Steven. R. J. Brueck, Sanjay Krishna, Ctr. forHigh Technology Materials (United States)

9070-32, Session 6

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of mid-wave infrared (MWIR) detectors basedon InAs/GaSb strained layer superlattice (SLSs) may be significantly
enhanced at selected wavelengths by integrating the detector with a backside illuminated plasmonic coupler. The application of a simple metal-SLS
structure directly on the GaSb substrate can result in radiation losses into
the substrate due to the low refractive index of SLS layer, however, insertionof a higher refractive index material, such as germanium (Ge), into themetal-SLS structure can confine the surface plasmon waveguide (SPW)
modes at the surface.

Passivation of long-wave infrared InAs/GaSb
superlattice detectors with epitaxially grown
ZnTe
Elena Plis, Ctr. for High Technology Materials (United States)
and SKINfrared, LLC (United States); Maya N. Kutty, Ctr. for HighTechnology Materials (United States); Sanjay Krishna, Ctr. for HighTechnology Materials (United States) and SKINfrared, LLC (United

In this work, metal (Au)-Ge-SLS structures were designed with varied Ge

9+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLStates); Stephen A. Myers, SKINfrared, LLC (United States); Chihyu
J. Chen, Jamie D. Phillips, Univ. of Michigan (United States)nBn detectors are found to be more tolerant of defects produced by latticemismatch and by irradiation. Defects more weakly increase dark currents in
nBn detectors compared to pn-junction based devices, and cooling reduces
the defect-produced dark currents more rapidly in nBn detectors than inconventional photodiodes.

In past decade, T2SL detectors with promising performance have beenreported by various institutions thanks to the extensive modeling efforts,
improvement of T2SL material quality, and development of advanced
low-dark-current architectures with unipolar barriers (Xbn, CBIRD, pBiBn,
M-structure, etc).

9070-34, Session 6

One of the most demanding challenges of present day T2SL technology is
the suppression of surface leakage currents associated with the exposed
mesa sidewalls, which appear during the definition of device optical area.
Typical FPA pixels with dimensions of ~20um x 20um have large surface/volume ratio and their performance is strongly dependent on surface
effects. In order to overcome the limitation imposed by surface leakage
currents, a stable surface passivation layer is needed.

Low dark current “N” structure superlattice MWIR
photodetectors

In this paper we report on InAs/GaSb T2SL detectors operating in the LWIR
spectral region (100% cut-off wavelength of ~9.8µm at 77K) passivated withepitaxially grown ZnTe. In order to compensate for the high conductivityof ZnTe passivation it was doped with chlorine to 1 x 10^18cm^?3
concentration. Dark current measurements reveal the significant reductionof noise current after ZnTe passivation. The passivated circular mesa device
with 50 µm diameter demonstrated dark current of 3.2 x 10^-5 A/cm^2 at
77K and bias of -100mV. The performance details of T2SL LWIR detector
passivated with ZnTe will be discussed during the presentation.
Support from AFOSR FA9550-10-1-0113 and MDA SBIR Phase II Contract
HQ0147-11-C-7603 is acknowledged.

9070-33, Session 6

Defect-related dark currents in III-V MWIR nBn
detectors
Gregory R. Savich, Daniel E. Sidor, Univ. of Rochester (UnitedStates); Christian P. Morath, Vincent M. Cowen, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Gary W. Wicks, Univ. of Rochester (UnitedStates)Ömer Salihoglu, Abdullah Muti, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey); Tunay Tansel,
Rasit Turan, Middle East Technical Univ. (Turkey); Yuksel Ergun,
Anadolu Univ. (Turkey); Atilla Aydinli, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey)
Commercially available read out integrated circuits (ROICs) require the FPA
to have high dynamic resistance area product at zero bias (R0A) which
is directly related to dark current of the detector. Dark current originatesfrom surface and bulk contributions. Recent studies on band structure
signiﬁcantly suppressed the bulk contribution of the type-II superlattice
infrared photodetectors (N structure, M structure, W structure). In thisreport, we will present improved dark current values for unipolar barrier
complex supercell superlattice system which is called as “N structure”. The
unique electronic band structure of the N structure increases electron-holeoverlap under bias, signiﬁcantly. N structure aims to improve absorption by
manipulating electron and hole wavefunctions that are spatially separated
in type-II superlattices, increasing the absorption while decreasing thedark current. In order to engineer the wavefunctions, we introduce a thin
AlSb layer between InAs and GaSb layers in the growth direction which
also acts as a unipolar electron barrier. Despite the difﬁculty of perfectlattice matching of InAs and AlSb, such a design is expected to reduce darkcurrent. Experiments were carried out on single pixel with mesa sizes of
100x100 – 700x700 µm2 photodiodes. Temperature dependent dark current
with corresponding R0A resistance values are reported. The dark currents
presented in this study are at least an order of magnitude lower thanprevious work.

9070-35, Session 6

The effect of defects on the dark current characteristics of MWIR, III-V
nBn detectors has been studied both theoretically and experimentally.
Two different types of defects are compared, those produced by latticemismatch and by proton irradiation. The performance of nBn detectors arecompared to that of more standard, pn-junction based photodiodes. The
dependence of dark current density on defect concentration, temperature,
and applied voltage are examined.

New model for the ideal nBn infrared detector
Marion B. Reine, Photon Detector Physics, LLC (United States);
Benjamin Pinkie, Jonathan Schuster, Enrico Bellotti, Boston Univ.
(United States)

It is shown that the effects on dark currents are similar, regardless of thetype of defects induced. Introduction of defects always elevates darkcurrents; however the effect on dark current is different for nBn detectors
and conventional photodiodes. Defect-related currents in photodiodes
are found to be proportional to the defect concentration, while defectrelated currents in nBn detectors scale as the square root of the defectconcentration indicating that nBn’s are more weakly affected by defects.
Additionally, the thermal activation energies of defect currents inconventional photodiodes are generally and approximately half the bandgap
energy but are always near the full bandgap for nBn detectors.
It is also shown that the experimentally measured dark current and its
dependence on temperature, voltage, and defect concentration are
consistent with classical Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) generation models.
In conventional photodiodes, the measured defect-related dark currents
are well described by a model of SRH generation in the depletion region,
resulting in the production of drift current. In nBn detectors, the results
are consistent with SRH generation in the neutral, n-type absorber region,
through which diffusion current is produced.
Finally, it is observed that the RoA values of nBn detectors are unchangedby the introduction of defects, despite the fact that the dark currents
at operating voltages are increased by the presence of defects. As aresult, RoA is not a useful parameter for gauging the performance of nBn
detectors.

We have been using a synergistic combination of finite-element numericalsimulations and analytical modeling to determine quantitatively the device
physics and operation of ideal back-illuminated InAs-based nBn infrared
detectors having a simplified configuration. By “ideal” nBn we mean thatthe operation and performance are governed only by fundamental inherent
mechanisms: the only current mechanism is diffusion current and theonly recombination mechanisms are Auger-1 and traditional radiative. The
configuration is simplified in that the n-type absorber and contact layers
have the same doping concentration and are of comparable thickness. The
motive is to understand how the ideal simplified nBn detector operates andto provide useful limiting expressions for the J(V) and QE(V) characteristics
to which actual nBn data can be compared. Our numerical simulations
have led to a new quantitative analytical model for the ideal simplified nBn
detector. The new feature of this model is the key role that hole transport
across the thin wide-gap barrier layer plays in determining the J(V) andQE(V) characteristics. The new model is applicable to either a p-type or an
n-type barrier layer. The simulations and new analytical model elucidate theoverwhelming importance of the electrical type and doping concentrationof the barrier layer to the operation of the nBn detector, particularly theamount of bias voltage necessary to overcome the valence band barrier
when the barrier layer is n-type.

We find that compared with conventional photodiodes, the dark currents of10

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-36, Session 6

9070-39, Session 7

Performance comparison of barrier detectors andHgCdTe photodiodes (Invited Paper)

Characterization of moldable glasses for imaging
lenses in the short-wave infrared (SWIR)

Piotr Martyniuk, Antoni Rogalski, Military Univ. of Technology(Poland)

Alan Symmons, LightPath Technologies, Inc. (United States)
The growing demand for short wave infrared (SWIR) sensors and cameras
has focused attention on the need for lower cost optics in this infrared
region. Traditional low Tg moldable glasses typically stop transmitting in the
SWIR region. New low dispersion, moldable glasses have been found thattransmit through 3 microns and in combination with Precision Glass Molding(PGM) can bring this enabling technology to SWIR optics.

No Abstract Available

9070-37, Session 7

Growth and characterization of 6” InSb
substrates for use in large-area infrared-imaging
applications

This investigation reviews the material performance for a potential moldable
solution in the SWIR range. Material properties including coefficient ofthermal expansion, index of refraction, transmission and change in index
over temperature are explored. Specific attention is given toward glasses
that achieve high yields during precision glass molding and are candidates
for commercial success.

Mark J. Furlong, IQE IR (United Kingdom); Gordon Dallas, James P.
Flint, Greg Meshew, Galaxy Compound Semiconductors, Inc. (UnitedStates); Rebecca J. Martinez, David Small, Andrew Mowbray, Wafer
Technology Ltd. (United Kingdom)

9070-40, Session 7

Examination of laser-induced heating on multicomponent chalcogenide glass

In this paper we report on an industry first; the commercial growth andcharacterization of 6” diameter InSb substrates that are suitable for use
in the fabrication of MWIR focal plane infrared detectors. Results will bepresented on the production of single crystal 6” InSb ingots grown by the
Czochralski (Cz) technique, supported by the analysis of bulk material
quality by X-ray diffraction (XRD). We will also assess the electrical qualityof new 6” InSb crystals and present uniformity information on Hall mobility,
resistivity and carrier level from which we will infer comparisons on therelative dark current performance of the material grown. High quality,
epitaxy-ready type surfaces have been prepared and we will demonstrate
how the key surface quality characteristics of roughness (< 0.5 nm rms),oxide thickness (<20 Å) and flatness (<7 µm TTV) have been maintained
across production processes that scale 4” to 6” wafer formats. We conclude
by presenting our road map for the development of large area InSb
substrates and describe how developments in Czochralski crystal growthand surface finishing technology will support industry’s requirements todeliver higher performance, large format IR focal plane array type devices.

Laura Sisken, Joshua D. Bradford, CREOL, The College of Optics andPhotonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Peter F. Wachtel,
Benn H. Gleason, Clemson Univ. (United States); Lawrence Shah,Martin C. Richardson, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Kathleen A. Richardson,
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States) and Clemson Univ. (United States)
Chalcogenide glasses have been well known to have good transparency
into the infrared spectrum. They do however have lower thresholds forphoto- and thermal- induced changes including photo-expansion, refractive
index changes, mechanical property changes, crystallization, and ablation[1,2]. These changes can be induced by laser irradiation, which can allow
one to be able to spatially modify the materials properties by moving
either the beam or the sample. This control of material properties could
lead to next-generation IR optical components. In the following study
experiments were performed to assess various changes in the material usedby exposing the material to different laser irradiation conditions in order tounderstand the effects of these conditions on material property changes.
Thresholds of some of these changes were also investigated, with a main
focus on photo-expansion and ablation by varying the exposure time andpower. Simulations were then subsequently performed to try to estimate
the temperature increase from the irradiation using various computational
methods. The stability of the simulations with respect to material property
values and computational tolerances was also looked into. These simulations
can then be used to help de-convolve whether observed changes were
optically or thermally induced. They can also be used to help to be able
to predict expected changes in a material due to given laser irradiation
conditions.

9070-38, Session 7

Multiwafer growth of GaInAs photodetectors on
4” InP by MOCVD for SWIR imaging applications
Mark J. Furlong, Mark Mattingley, Sung Wook Lim, Matthew Geen,
Wynne Jones, IQE IR (United Kingdom)
Photodiodes based on the GaInAs/InP material system responding in the
1.3-1.7 µm wavelength range are of interest in a wide range of applications,from optical power and channel monitors in telecommunication systems
through to advanced night vision imaging using large format focal plane
type detectors for defence and security applications. Here we report on
our results of GaInAs PIN photo detector structures grown on 2”, 3” and4” InP by low pressure Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)in both a standard (8 x 4”) and new large volume format (12 x 2”, 3” or 4”)
reactor configurations. High quality, lattice matched InP/GaInAs epitaxial
layers were grown and we demonstrate that when moving from an 8 to
12 wafer configuration, high degrees of thickness uniformity (<3%, FTIR),
lattice mismatch (<0.1%, XRD) and compositional uniformity (<2 nm, PL) canbe maintained. The surface quality of epitaxial wafers will be assessed byvarious surface analytical techniques. We also make comparisons with theperformance of 3” photodetector structures grown, this demonstrating that
MOCVD production processes have been successfully scaled. We conclude
by discussing the material requirements for large area infrared focal planearray photodetectors and describe how MOCVD growth technology willaddress industry’s requirements for increasing device sizes with improved
performance.

11+1 360 676 3290

[1] “Direct femtosecond laser writing of optical waveguides in As2S3 thinfilms,” A . Zoubir, et. al., Optics Letters 29 7 (2004)[2]“Effect of IR femtosecond laser irradiation on the structure of new sulfoselenide glasses”, L. Petit, et. al., Optical Materials 29 1075–1083 (2007)

9070-41, Session 7

Laser damage resistant multiband high-reflective
opticsJue Wang, Brian P. Roy, Joseph C. Crifasi, Corning Tropel Corp.
(United States); Michael Orr, Corning NetOptix (United States)·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
Diamond-turned Aluminum has been extensively used for infrared opticalsystems due to its light weight and broadband spectral performance.
Dialectical multilayer coatings, on the other hand, offer high laser damage
resistance with relatively narrowed spectral bandwidth. Combining dielectric
multilayer coatings with diamond-turned Aluminum enables one to derive
Aluminum based laser damage resistant multiband high reflective optics.
In this contribution, spectral performance of laser durable coatings ispresented with a spectral coverage from the visible to the IR at various
angles of incidence. Coating design and deposition process were evaluated
via atomic force microscopy, white light interferometry as well laserinduced damage threshold test performed at 1064 nm, 20 ns and normal
angle of incidence. A laser-induced damage threshold of up to 19.5 J/cm2
was realized. In addition, laser-induced damage morphology was revealedby scanning electron microscopy along with a focus ion beam cutting fordamage cross-sectional images. The damage mechanism was discussed interms of nodular defect formation during film growth and ejection underlaser irradiation.

9070-109, Session Posters-Tuesday

Extended wavelength InGaAs infrared detector
arrays based on three types of material structures
grown by MBE
Haimei Gong, Xue Li, Tao Li, Xiumei Shao, Shanghai Institute ofTechnical Physics (China)
Extended wavelength InGaAs infrared detector arrays in 1.0~2.5μm
spectral rang based on three types of material structures grown by MBE
were studied. The first type InGaAs detectors, marked by sample 1#, were
fabricated using P-i-N epitaxial materials, mesa etching technique, side-walland surface passivating film. The second type InGaAs detectors, marked bysample 2#, were fabricated using N-i-P epitaxial materials, mesa etching
technique, side-wall and surface passivating film. The third type InGaAs
detectors, marked by sample 3#, were fabricated using n-i-n epitaxial
materials, planar diffusion process and surface passivating coating. I-V
curves, low frequency noise and response spectra of these detectors were
measured at the different temperature. The response spectra of thesedetectors cover 1.0~2.5µm wavelength range. The dark current density of
three types InGaAs detectors are 28nA/cm2, 2?A/cm2, 9?A/cm2 at 200K
and -10mV bias voltage, respectively. Sample 1# shows the lowest darkcurrent at the same temperature and the same bias voltage as Sample
2# and Sample 3#, which mainly results in the improvement of surface
passivation film and the depth of mesa etching. The frequency spectrum of
the noise of sample 1# has an inflection point at about 10Hz frequency, 1/f
noise play an obviously role in the detectors below the 10Hz frequency.

Temperature dependence of junction
performance for mid-wavelength n-on-p HgCdTe
detectors by laser beam-induced current
microscope
Weicheng Qiu, Weida Hu, Zhenhua Ye, Yueming Wang, Shanghai
Institute of Technical Physics (China); Xiang-Ai Cheng, Rui Wang,
National Univ. of Defense Technology (China); Fei Yin, Bo Zhang,
Xiaoshuang Chen, Wei Lu, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)HgCdTe-based photodiodes are widely used in the fabrication of various
infrared detectors for military and civil purposes. However, the performanceof HgCdTe infrared photodetector is still easily affected by different defects
and complex doping mechanism in the manufacturing process. So, thedevice yield of HgCdTe based IRFPAs is very low. Currently, Laser-beaminduced-current (LBIC) measurements as a high-resolution, nondestructive
optical technique have been applied to characterize the opto-electricalproperty of junction at intermediate processing stage, which could
significantly promote efficiency and save costs.

The results show that Hg-interstitial diffusion, temperature activateddefects, and leakage current mechanism jointly lead to the p-n junction
transformation depended on temperature, and wider band gap comparedwith the long-wave HgCdTe photodiode may correlate with thedisappearance of junction extension effect.

An uncooled capacitive sensor for IR detection

9070-112, Session Posters-Tuesday

Georg Siebke, Kathrin Gerngroß, Peter Holik, Sam Schmitz, Markus
Rohloff, Simon Tätzner, Siegfried Steltenkamp, Ctr. of Advanced
European Studies and Research (Germany)

A fabrication and characterictics of
microbolometer detectors using VOx/ZnO/VOx
multilayer thin film processing

The beetle Melanophila acuminata detects forest fires from distances as
far as 80 miles away. To accomplish this, the beetle uses highly specific
IR receptors with a diameter of approximately 15 µm. These receptors aremechanoreceptors that detect deformations induced by the absorption ofradiation. Although the detection mechanism is understood in principle, it isstill unclear how the beetle reaches such high sensitivity.

Myung-Soo Han, Dae Hyoen Kim, Hang-Ju Ko, Jae Cheol Shin, Hyo
Jin Kim, Korea Photonics Technology Institute (Korea, Republic of)In this work, a novel fabrication method for VOx-ZnO multilayers with mixed
phase of the VO2 and V2O3 through the diffusion of oxygen by annealing at
low temperature is presented. A stable sandwich structure of a VOx/ZnO/
VOx multilayer was deposited at room temperature, through the oxygengas flow rate, by RF sputtering system, and the mixed phase was formed
through oxygen diffusion by annealing at O2 atmosphere. The results showthat the single phase like multilayer formed by this process has a high
TCR of more than -2.5%/K and low resistance of about 100 kohm at room
temperature. XRD results for the as-deposited VOx/ZnO/VOx multilayer

In this work, we present the biomimetic approach of an uncooled IR
sensor based on the beetle’s receptors. This sensor is based on a fluidfilled pressure cell and operates at room temperature. Upon absorbing IR
radiation, the fluid heats up and expands. The expanding fluid deflects one
electrode of a plate capacitor. By measuring the change in capacitance,
the volume increase and the absorbed energy can be inferred. To preventthe risk of damage at high energy absorption, a compensation mechanism
is presented in this work. The mechanism prevents large but slow volume

SPIE DSS 2014

9070-111, Session Posters-Tuesday

It has been found that there was n-type inversion region extension indifferent long-wave HgCdTe photodiodes at low temperature (87K)
comparing with that at room temperature (300K). In this paper, we reporton the disappearance of photosensitive area extension effect and the novel
temperature dependence of junction performance for mid-wavelength
HgCdTe detectors. The n-type region is formed by B+ ion implantationon Hg-vacancy-doped p-type HgCdTe. The opto-electrical properties ofjunction under different temperatures are characterized by laser beam
induced current (LBIC) microscope. The physical mechanism of temperatureon junction transformation is elaborated and demonstrated using numericalsimulations.

9070-110, Session Posters-Tuesday

12changes inside the pressure cell by a microfluidic connection of the pressure
cell with a compensation chamber. The channel and the compensationchamber act as a microfluidic low-pass filter and do not affect theoverall sensitivity above an appropriate cut-off frequency. Using MEMS
technology, we are able to incorporate the complete system into a siliconchip with an area of a few mm?. Here, we show a proof-of-concept andfirst measurements of the sensor. With model calculations at hand, we will
present an optimized sensor layout with respect to a maximized sensitivity.

·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
and annealed at 300 oC in oxygen for 50 min are presented. XRD of asdeposited films was showed that V2O5 peak is dominant, and annealed
films were VO2 peak. We could confirm the formation of mainly V2O5 phaseand that the film was more crystallized into V2O5 by annealing at 300 oC in
O2 from the XRD results. And, as the annealing temperature is increasing, a
TCR value was increase, also we investigated with a different annealing timeon the multilayer films. Silgle pixel bolometer detector was fabricated withbulk micromachining process, and then the device process results will bepresented.

junction depth after annealing. However, it’s inconvenient or imprecise todetermine the junction depth on HgCdTe epilayer by traditional methods,
like differential Hall method, C-V method and EBIC method.

9070-113, Session Posters-Tuesday

I-V characteristic and Laser Beam Induced Current (LBIC) measurements
were applied to determine the HgCdTe junction edge. The LBIC signal
orrectification characteristic indicates the existence of a pn junction and viseversa. The junction depth is extracted from the position where the junction
region disappears and the slope of the etching bar. The junction depth of
intrinsic doped HgCdTe was measured, which is about 2.4 micrometers. A
significant 0.4 micrometer thick n- region was observed. Moreover, junction
depths of samples annealed at different experiment parameters were also
investigated. The junction depths were linear with etching time at the sametime. By this method, it’s possible to measure the three dimensional profile
of a planar pn junction.

In this work, a novel junction profile measurement method is proposed.
A serial of junctions were fabricated by B+ implantation. Then a beveledbar which was about 10 millimeters long and several micrometres deep
was formed by carefully controlled wet-etching. The remaining depth of nregion changes from the full depth that is about 5.3 micrometers after ion
implantation to zero depending on its lateral position and the slope of theetching bar.

Three-dimensional plasmonic metamaterial
absorbers for high-performance wavelength
selective uncooled infrared sensors
Shinpei Ogawa, Daisuke Fujisawa, Tomohiro Maegawa, Masashi
Ueno, Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Japan); Masafumi Kimata,Ritsumeikan Univ. (Japan)
A three-dimensional plasmonic metamaterial absorber (3D PMA) wasinvestigated in order to enhance the performance of wavelength selective
uncooled infrared (IR) sensors. 3D PMA is the two-dimensional array of themetal-based circle-shape microdisk connected to the metal plate with thepillar. All components of 3D PMA such as the microdisks, pillars, and metal
plates are based on the thin plasmonic metal such as Au, Ag, Al and so on.

9070-116, Session Posters-Tuesday

Advanced cryocoolers for high-end IR missile
warning systems

The absorption properties of 3D PMA were calculated by the Rigorous
Coupled Wave Analysis. The thickness of each component can be reduced
to be about twice the thickness of the skin-depth. The gap between the
microdisks and the metal plate or the height of the pillar is such narrow as afew hundred nanometers. The plasmonic resonance of thin metal structure
reduces thermal mass of IR absorbers.

Ilan Nachman, RICOR-Cryogenic & Vacuum Systems (Israel)
The growth in world demand for infrared missile warning systems (MWS)
originated development of new technologies, in particular, special cryogenic
coolers. Since such a cryocooler is a core component in High end IR
system, RICOR has met the challenge by developing new models capableof withstanding high ambient vibration conditions along with ambient
temperature extremes in excess of 100°C, as typical for airborne jet fighter
applications.

The strong wavelength selective absorption was realized by the plasmonicresonance mode of the microdisks and the narrow-gap guided mode
between the microdisk and the metal plate. The disturbance of the pillar forthe both resonance can be negligible due to the plasmonic resonance on
the edge of the microdisks. The absorption wavelength is defined mainly by
the size of the microdisk regardless of the period. Therefore, the absorption
wavelength is longer than the surface period, which leads to the small pixelsize.

The development focused on cryocooler rigid structures approach andcold finger optimization in order to achieve high cooling capacity at highambient, withstand the high level of vibrations and keep the challenged
demand of detector Line of Sight.

The small thermal mass and pixel size can be realized using 3D PMA
structure. The results obtained here contribute to the high-performance
uncooled IR sensors for a multi-color imaging.

In order to withstand such harsh environmental vibration, the cold finger
and outer Dewar structure have been significantly ruggedized; efficientheat sinking methods have been applied and also novel vibration isolation
methods have been implemented.

9070-115, Session Posters-Tuesday

The electronic design concept is based on a rigid structure of the controller,
the PCB of which has been designed with internal heat sinking paths andspecial components being able to withstand above temperatures extremes.

Mercury cadmium telluride implanted junction
profile measurement and depth control

As a final stage of development, such cryocoolers were successfully
qualified by RICOR in harsh environmental conditions and accelerated life
demonstration test was performed at IDDCA level.

Songmin Zhou, Chun Lin, Yanfeng Wei, Zhenhua Ye, Haibin Li, Dan
Liu, Ruijun Ding, Li He, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)9070-117, Session Posters-Tuesday

Dark current measurement of Type-II superlattice
infrared focal plane array detector

The junction formation is one of key techniques to fabricate the HgCdTe
focal plane arrays (FPAs). The qualities of the junctions act one criticalrole to the HgCdTe FPAs performance. Parameters of the junction include
the junction depth, doping species and levels, defects’ concentration andso on. Usually, the junctions of planar HgCdTe FPAs are formed by ion
implantation. The implantation processing will introduce damages into thepn junctions. The damages will increase the Schocley-Read recombinationand trap assistant tunneling (TAT) probability, and eventually degrade themerit factor (R0A) and HgCdTe FPAs performances. Therefore, in orderto prohibit the degeneration and improve the dark current characteristic,
annealing process is applied to eliminate the implantation damages, andit would push the depletion of junction to a deeper place which has lessdamage and dislocations to avoid the influence of the damages. To identify
the annealing effect, an efficient way is to measure the expansion of

13+1 360 676 3290

Michito Sakai, Haruyoshi Katayama, Junpei Murooka, Japan
Aerospace Exploration Agency (Japan); Masafumi Kimata,Ritsumeikan Univ. (Japan); Yasuhiro Iguchi, Sumitomo ElectricIndustries, Ltd. (Japan)
We report a result of dark current measurement of Type-II superlattice(T2SL) infrared focal plane array (FPA). We used a 6um cutoff T2SL FPA
introduced a readout integration circuit (ROIC) ISC0903 of FLIR Systems.
In order to measure the dark current of FPA, we obtained images withdifferent exposure time in a fully-closed cold shield of 77K. Using a temporalchange rate of output and assuming a charge conversion efficiency of ROIC,·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
we obtain a dark current density of the FPA. The averaged dark current
density of all pixels is 8?10-7 A/cm2 at the bias of -100mV. We also compare
the result of a dark current measurement using a test element group (TEG),
which is a single pixel detector, fabricated by the same process of FPA. The
dark current density of TEG is 1?10-5 A/cm2 at the bias of -100mV which
is higher than that of FPA. We discuss the discrepancy of the dark current
density between FPA and TEG.

screening.
The reliability of a crycooler at space environment analyzed in accordancewith the space mission and the redundancy implications for set of
cryocoolers work in parallel by thermal switching will be reviewed.

9070-120, Session Posters-Tuesday

Linear VOx-Au thin film bolometer array withsimultaneous low-resistivity and high TCR

9070-118, Session Posters-Tuesday

Ferroelectric infrared detector with nano-SiO2
thermal isolation layer

Evan M. Smith, Univ. of Central Florida (United States) andPlasmonics, Inc. (United States); James C. Ginn III, Andrew Warren,
Christopher J. Long, David Shelton, Plasmonics, Inc. (United States);
Robert E. Peale, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

Shuo Sun, Jinglan Sun, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China); Yu Zhu, Suzhou Institute of Nano-tech and Nano-bionics(China); Jianlu Wang, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China); Yaohui Zhang, Suzhou Institute of Nano-tech and Nanobionics (China); Xiangjian Meng, Junhao Chu, Shanghai Institute ofTechnical Physics (China)
The thermal isolation layer plays a significant role in thermal infrared
detector.At present, two kinds of structures for the thermal isolation, i.e.
free standing micro-bridge structure and porous SiO2, were usually adopted
for ferroelectric infrared detectors. The performance of the devices withthese structures may be degraded or fail because of the mechanical stressmismatch between the multilayer or the high roughness of the porous
SiO2 surface. As indicated by previous works, the thermal conductivity ofnanostructure SiO2 may be one order smaller then that of bulk silica. In thispaper the ferroelectric infrared detector with nanostructure SiO2 thermal
isolation layer was reported. Pillar or slanted nanorod arrays of SiO2 are
fabricated using Glancing Angle Deposition(GLAD) on Si substrate at room
temperature, and the porosity higher than 74%. To obtain a smooth surface,an intermediate layer of SiO2 with porosity varying from 60% down to
0% is fabricated in between the SiO2 nanostructrued thin films and thelower Al electrode to further reduce the surface roughness. The surface
roughness of the electrode is less than 22nm. Upon this, the prototype
detector with P(VDF-TrFE) function layer and semitransparent NiCr top
electrode with size 50*50um was made by the standard photolithographymethod. The processing temperature of the devices is lower than 200?
which is comparable with the standard ROIC technique. The voltage
responsivity of the device is up to 6500 V/W and 1500 V/W at 1Hz and
30Hz, respectively. The dielectric loss are both about 0.02 at 1Hz and
30Hz. The thermal conductivity of nano-SiO2 is 1.96E-4 W/m K, estimatedfrom the frequency dependence of the voltage responsivity of the device.
With such a small thermal conductance, the responsivity should be higher
than the experimental result. The performance can be improved further byincreasing the absorption of the radiation for the device, which is only about
13% at present.

9070-119, Session Posters-Tuesday

Adaptations of RICOR’s tactical cryocoolers forspace missions

We present a design for a low-noise bolometer based on the temperaturedependent conductivity of VOx-Au film. Usual thin film bolometerscompromise between low resistivity and high temperature coefficient ofresistivity (TCR). Our vanadium oxide is alloyed with a small concentrationof gold by co-sputtering, which potentially gives very low resistivity andvery high TCR simultaneously. The film is implemented into an air bridge
device having high thermal conductivity and small thermal time constant
optimized for 30 to 60 Hz frame rates. The linear array functions as a
low-power profile sensor with a modulated bias. For 1 V bias, we predict
responsivity exceeding 1200 V/W. Johnson noise dominates, but thermal
fluctuations also contribute, yet predicted NEP values are predicted as low
as 1.0 x 10-11 W/Hz1/2. Preliminary device testing shows film resistivity below
2.5 ?-cm with TCR exceeding -2.0%. Preliminary measurements of NETD arereported.

9070-121, Session Posters-Tuesday

Recent improvements on mid-IR chalcogenide
optical fibers
Christophe Lafond, Jean-François Couillard, Jean-Luc Delarosbil,
Fernand Sylvain, CorActive High-Tech Inc. (Canada)
Fabrication process of arsenic-sulfide (AsS) and arsenic-selenide (AsSe)
optical fibers has been improved to enhance the transmission in the mid-IR
region.
Core and cladding glass rods precursors AsS and AsSe are synthesized in
evacuated quartz ampoules by the melting-quenching method of highly
purified raw materials. Typical attenuation spectrum of AsS or AsSe opticalfibers shows impurities bands, such as SH, SeH, OH, which limit theiroperation and cause the increase of the attenuation loss in the mid-IR.
Precursors purification methods and glass processing were improved
to minimise those impurities bands. Regarding AsS fibers, long length
optical fibers lower than 0.15 dB/m of attenuation around 2.7 microns wereobtained with SH and OH impurities concentrations lower than 0.5 ppm and10 ppb respectively. In the case of AsSe, the minimum of attenuation locatedat 6 microns is 0.2 dB/m and SeH concentration is lower than 0.5 ppm.
Efforts have been also made to improve the mechanical properties which
are usually affected by several parameters such as drawing conditions
or heterogeneous inclusions contained in the glass. The double-crucible
method gives high quality core/clad interface and consequently increases
the strength of the fiber. Inclusions consist mainly of carbon and silica
particles. Those impurities enter the glass from initial precursors andare also formed by interaction with the apparatus material. Thanks tothe process improvement, impurities particles are minimized and tensile
strengths up to 45 kpsi and 55 kpsi are reached for AsSe and AsS fibers
respectively.

Sergey V. Riabzev, RICOR-Cryogenic & Vacuum Systems (Israel)
Cryogenic cryocoolers represent a significant enabling technology forearth and space science enterprises. Many of the space instruments requirecryogenic refrigeration to enable the use of advanced detectors to observea wide range of phenomena.
Space programs such as Crism, Chemin, Messenger and others integrated
RICOR’s cryocoolers which adapted for space missions and passed flight
acceptance tests, qualification thermal tests and life test.
The adaptation frame of work includes extensive cryocooler characterizationand qualification test program to validate the cryocooler capability,
thermal interfacing design with the detector, vibration export control,
efficient heat dissipation in vacuum environment, robustness mounting
design, compliance with outgassing requirements and strict performances

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-122, Session Posters-Tuesday

9070-124, Session Posters-Tuesday

Determination of combustion products by passive
FTIR optical remote sensing

ARINC 818 adds capabilities for high-speed video
sensors and systems

Steven V. Plowman, Midac Corp. (United States)

Tim Keller, Great River Technology, Inc. (United States)

A number of unique characteristics endow optical remote sensing
techniques with a huge potential range of applications. The analysis requires
no sampling apparatus and reports concentrations in near real time. Fouriertransform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is in the vanguard of this range oftechniques. While optimally an infrared source would be used in conjunction
with an FTIR spectrometer, the only essential requirement is a bodyradiating mid infrared photons, that is to say a source of heat.

ARINC 818, titled Avionics Digital Video Bus, is the standard for cockpit
video that has gained wide acceptance in both the commercial and military
cockpits including the Boeing 787, the A350XWB, the A400M, the KC-46A
and many others. Initially conceived of for cockpit displays, ARINC 818 is
now propagating into high-speed sensors, such as infrared and opticalcameras due to its high-bandwidth and high reliability.
The ARINC 818 specification that was initially release in the 2006 and has
recently undergone a major update that will enhance its applicability as ahigh speed sensor interface. The ARINC 818-2 specification was approved in
November 2013.

In most applications involving analysis of combustion products, this criterion
is satisfied by the nature of the research. The use of a heat source in thismanner is known as passive FTIR. Firefighters have used FTIR optical remotesensing during building fires, researchers use the method in the analysis ofsimulated fires, and groups as diverse as volcanologists and process control
engineers have found utility in the technique

The revisions to the specification include: video switching, stereo and
3-D provisions, color sequential implementations, regions of interest,
data-only transmissions, multi-channel implementations, bi-directional
communication, higher link rates to 32Gbps, synchronization signals, options
for high-speed coax interfaces and optical interface details. The additions tothe specification are especially appealing for high-bandwidth, multi sensor
systems that have issues with throughput bottlenecks and SWAP concerns.
ARINC 818 is implemented on either copper of fiber high speed physicallayers, and allows for time multiplexing multiple sensors onto a single link.

In this study scientists from MIDAC Corporation and Underwriters
Laboratory monitored a test burn at the UL facility in Chicago, IL using
passive FTIR. A proprietary polystyrene product was packed into cardboard
boxes, which were then placed on wooden pallets, which were in turnarrayed in racks. Ignition was instigated at 4 points using blow torches. The
temperature of the fire was modified with an automated sprinkler system.
The spectrometer was mounted on a tripod without a telescope. The system
was deployed on an observation balcony, and manually aligned by scientists
using breathing apparatus. Data acquisition was controlled remotely.
The window of the spectrometer was aimed at the seat of the fire. Many
approaches exist to address the problem of producing absorbance spectra.
The preferred approach of MIDAC applications scientists is to fabricate
a background spectrum from the sample spectra themselves. Results
show that passive FTIR is a suitable technique for the identification andquantification of many common combustion products.

This paper discusses each of the new capabilities in the ARINC
818-2 specification and the benefits for ISR and countermeasures
implementations.

9070-125, Session Posters-Tuesday

Thermomechancial characterization in a radiantenergy imager using null switching
Javaneh Boroumand Azad, Imen Rezadad, Evan M. Smith, Robert E.
Peale, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

9070-123, Session Posters-Tuesday

On the use of magnesium alloys for aerospaceand defense mirrors

We present the analysis of thermomechanical noise for a MEMs-based
infrared detector using null switching (NS) based on US patent No. 7977635.
Unlike most detectors, which transduce IR to a change in resistance or
capacitance, this detector transduces incident radiation to a change inthe duty cycle of a repetitively closing switch. Hence, in the NS detector,
signal is determined by the time that the switch closes. The uncertainty inthe time of contact depends only on noise amplitude, not noise frequency.
Thermomechanical noise is estimated using the equipartition theorem,
giving a maximum rms vibrational amplitude of 45 pm for the fabricatedcantilever switch at its natural frequency. This gives a worst case timing
uncertainty of 700 ns and an NEP of 2 pW/Sqrt[Hz].

Kenneth S. Woodard, Lovell E. Comstock, Leonard G. Wamboldt,
Joseph C. Crifasi, Corning NetOptix (United States)
Extreme lightweighting is becoming more of a demand in the aerospace anddefense applications but they don’t want the cost associated with beryllium
or other exotic materials (SWAP-C). The current standard for producing costeffective, high performance mirrors is to diamond turn finish mirror blanks
from wrought aluminum alloy (typically 6061-T6) stock. Lightweighting
is achieved by machining away material to optimize the mirror stiffness
versus figure. 80% material removal is about the limit for geometricallightweighting while still retaining the structural integrity required forboth the fabrication process and the operational environment. To reduceweight further typically requires material density and/or stiffness modulus
improvements.

9070-126, Session Posters-Tuesday

Multistep plasma etching process for thedevelopment of highly detective InSb mid-IR
sensor arrays

If the mirror geometry is already fixed and not fully stressed or there isroom to take advantage powered relationship between section thickness
and bending stiffness, then magnesium is an option to produce lighter
weight mirrors than aluminum but without the cost of beryllium. This paper
summarizes the status of diamond machined finishing and coating ofmagnesium alloys to produce cost effective, lightweight mirrors with high,broadband reflectivity and low scatter finish.

Chulkyun Seok, Seoul National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Minkyung
Choi, Ewha Woman’s Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jinwook Jung,
Sehun Park, Seoul National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); In-Sang Yang,
Ewha Woman’s Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Yongjo Park, Advanced
Institutes of Convergence Technology (Korea, Republic of); Euijoon
Yoon, Seoul National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Indium-antimonide (InSb) is the most popular material for a detector in
the 3-5 μm range for mid-infrared (mid-IR) detecting system. Especially,it has a great importance in defense and sensing area due to a wide range
of applications in military devices such as missile chasing system. InSb

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLphotodetectors with p-n junctions formed by epitaxial growth with in-situ
doping show the lower dark current and the higher operating temperature(100K) compared to the conventional InSb diodes made by ion implantation.
For the fabrication of a device using InSb epitaxial layer, a plasma etchingprocess is essential and the development of optimized etching process is
one of the most important issues in order to fabricate highly sensitive InSb
mid-IR sensor arrays.
In the first step of this work, to evaluate the suitability of conventional
etching methods, ion beam etching (IBE) with CH4/H2/Ar gas mixture,
Cl2/Ar gas mixture, Ar gas were investigated relatively. In the case of IBE
with CH4/H2/Ar and Cl2/Ar gas mixture, by-products such as carbide andchloride were formed on the etched surface. In the case of Ar IBE, ionswith high energy induced structural damages near the bombarded surface.
To overcome the limitation of conventional techniques, we developed
the multi-step plasma etching process for InSb using a gas mixture of Ar
and N2. Combining two method, the multi-step plasma etching process
was sequentially performed at pure Ar, Ar:N2=1:1, Ar:N2=1:2, and pure N2
ambient. When we gradually increased the amount of N2 gas flow during
etching process, RMS roughness decreased from 1.9 to 0.4 nm. Moreover
FWHM of LO peak (191 cm-1) in Raman spectra decreased from 7.11 to 5.46
and the intensity ratio of ITO/ILO also decreased from 0.14 to 0.07. These
results indicate that multi-step plasma etching process is more effective
in reducing the surface damage induced by ion-etching than that ofconventional methods. Moreover, the thin-nitride layer on the etched InSb
surface induced by N2 reactive ions resulted in passivation of dangling
bonds. As a result, the product of resistance and area (R0A) enhanced
from 2x103 to 9.3x103 ohm cm2. It represents that detectivity (D*) can be
drastically enhanced by using multi-step etching process.

of large arrays due its inherently superior resistance uniformity. In addition,
the resistivity of amorphous silicon could be modeled by Arrhenius’equation which significantly eases the computation of the correction tablefor TEC-less operation.
In this paper, we show that a sheet resistance uniformity better than 2.5%
could be achieved over a wafer by fine tuning the deposition process. This
produces dies with resistance uniformity less than 1%, which is comparablewith the value reported for amorphous silicon-based microbolometers.
In addition, we show that the resistivity can be modeled by Arrhenius’equation with a regression coefficient of 0.995.

9070-129, Session Posters-Tuesday

Implementation of high-dynamic range pixel
architecture for SWIR applications
Melik Yazici, Huseyin Kayahan, Omer Ceylan, Sohaib S. Afridi, Atia
Shafique, Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)
This paper presents novel unit cell architecture for short wave infrared(SWIR) imaging applications. It has two input stages which are CTIA andSFD covering for both respectively low and high light, levels and automatic
input stage selection circuitry that chooses best input stage. In order toselect best input stage 2 step integration scheme is used. In the first very
short integration charge is stored to determine which input stage will be
used according to reference level, second integration is normal integration.
Along with analog information, 1 bit digital information that contains which
input stage is provided from cell. This information can be used for nonuniformity corrections. CTIA uses small capacitor in order to improve noise
performance in low light levels; SFD uses moderate size capacitor for highlight levels. User can select 2 modes for FPA manual and automatic mode.
In manual mode, user can set CTIA or SFD for all pixels according to userneeds. In automatic mode, each pixel selects input stage itself according
to light level. Light level threshold can be adjusted with reference voltage.
Automatic input stage selection for each pixel brings high SNR level andlow noise along with highest possible dynamic range for SWIR imaging
applications. CMOS 0.18um technology is used to realize unit cell. In thearchitecture of unit cell, circuit level techniques are used to optimize layout
size. CTIA is designed as differential cascode amplifier. Differential amplifier
can be used as comparator for input stage selection. Output of differential
amplifier is connected to latch to store selected input stage information.
Single pixel is fabricated and measurement results are provided along withsimulation results.

9070-127, Session Posters-Tuesday

Mid-wavelength infrared focal plane arrays basedon type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice
Yanqiu Lv, Junjie Si, Luoyang Optoelectro Technology Development
Ctr. (China)
A mid-wavelength 128*128 infrared focal plane arrays based on InAs/GaSb
type-II superlattice was presented in this work. Superlattce materials weregrown on GaSb substrates using MBE technology. Absorber structure for
mid-wavelength detcetor was designed to be 8ML (InAs) / 8ML (GaSb).
The pixel of the detector had a conventional PIN structure with a size of
50um *50 um. The device fabrication process consisted of mesa etching,side-wall passivation, metallization and flip-chip hybridization with readout
integrated circuit (ROIC). The dark current I-V curve, responsivity spectra
and blackbody current responsivity were measured at 77 K. The detector
had a cut-off wavelength of 5.0um, and a peak detectivity more than 10^11cmHz^1/2W^-1. Concept proof of infrared imaging was also demonsrated
with the focal plane array at liguid nitrogen temperature.

9070-130, Session Posters-Tuesday

Using quantum filters as edge detectors ininfrared images
Daniela D. B. M. Bolaños Marin, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

9070-128, Session Posters-Tuesday

Some new filters inspired in quantum models are used as edge detectors
in infrared images. In this case, Bessel, Hermite and Morse filters will beapplied to detect edges and fibrillar structures in infrared images. The edge
detectors will be built by the Laplacian of the mentioned quantum filters.
Furthermore, using curvature operators, curvature detectors and amplifiersof contrast will be constructed to analyze infrared images.

Vanadium oxide thin film with improved sheet
resistance uniformity
Francis Genereux, Francis Provençal, Bruno Tremblay, Marc-André
Boucher, Christine Alain, INO (Canada)

The quantum filter prototyping will be done using computer algebra
software, specifically Maple and its package, ImageTools. The quantum
filters will be applied to infrared images using the technique of convolutions
and blurred derivatives. It is expected that designed quantum filters
will be useful for analysis and processing of infrared images. As future
investigations, we propose to design plugins with the quantum filters thatcan be incorporated into the program ImageJ, which will facilitate the use of
the quantum filters for the infrared image processing.

Resistance uniformity is playing a key role in the development of large,
high resolution uncooled microbolometer arrays. With worsening resistanceuniformity, gain and offset variations increase and therefore the dynamic
range is reduced. Although several approaches have been proposed tocompensate for gain and offset simultaneously, they all either decrease the
SNR or increase the complexity of the chip. In addition, they are generallybarely compatible with TEC-less operation. Therefore, improvement of theresistance uniformity is often the most efficient way to address this issue.
It has been recently argued that amorphous silicon-based microbolometers
are more suitable than VOx based microbolometers for the microfabrication

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-131, Session Posters-Tuesday

9070-134, Session PS2

Lightweight ZERODUR: a cost-effective thermallystable approach to both large and small
spaceborne telescopes

COUGAR: A liquid nitrogen cooled InGaAs camera
for astronomy and electro-luminescence
Urbain Van Bogget, Vincent Vervenne, Rosa Maria Vinelli, Koen
van der Zanden, Xenics NV (Belgium); Patrick J. Merken, Xenics
NV (Belgium) and RMA (Belgium); Jan P. Vermeiren, Xenics NV(Belgium)

Tony Hull, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States); ThomasWesterhoff, SCHOTT AG (Germany)
ZERODUR®, known as the “gold standard” mirror material for systems which
require dimensional stability in the presence of gradients and transients, is
now available lightweighted to the 85% to 90% level for high performance
spaceborne telescopes. The technical approach to making these primary
mirrors is the same, whether the aperture is less than 0.3m to larger than
4m. Since each mirror blank is made from a single monolithic billet ofnear zero expansion, isotropic and homogeneous ZERODUR® material, theresulting mirror is very stable over a wide range of scenes and orbits. Such
telescopes can accommodate internal thermal design challenges of sensors
addressing both non-thermal (UV, visible, low light level TV, NIR, SWIR, andmm) as well as thermal imaging systems (MWIR and LWIR), and deliver
optimal performance. We will discuss this technology, and present actual
examples of 0.3m and 1.2m mirrors recently built by SCHOTT. The method
used to manufacture the lightweight substrate allows for remarkably
attractive costs and lead times, low risk and is relevant to present and future
spaceborne sensor trades.

Xenics has designed and manufactured a 640*512 pixel, 20 µm pitch
InGaAs array for electro-luminescence characterization and astronomical
applications in the [0.9 – 1.55 µm] range. The FPA is mounted in a liquid
nitrogen dewar and is operated by a low noise frontend electronics.
One of the biggest problem in designing sensors and cameras for electroluminescence measurements is the auto-illumination of the detectors by
the Readout circuit. Besides of proper shielding of the detectors, the ROIC
shall be optimized for minimal electrical activity during the integration timeof the very-weak signals coming from the circuit under test. For this reason
a SFD architecture (like in the Hawaii sensor) was selected, resulting in a
background limited performance of the detector.
The pixel has a (somewhat arbitrary) full well capacity of 400 000 e- and asensitivity of 2.17 µV/e-.
The dark signal is app. 1 e-/pixel/sec and with the appropriate Fowler
sampling the dark noise is below 5 e-rms.
The power consumption of the circuit is limited 2 mW, allowing more than
24 hours of operation on less than 1 l of liquid nitrogen. The FPA is equippedwith 4 outputs (optional readout on one single channel) and is capable ofachieving 3 frames per second. Due to the non-destructive readout it ispossible to determine in a dynamic way the optimal integration time foreach observation.

9070-132, Session Posters-Tuesday

Theoretical modelling of LWIR nBn HgCdTe
photodetector
Zhenhua Ye, Yiyu Chen, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)The Cougar camera is equipped with ultra-low noise power supply and bias
lines; the electronics contain also a 24 bit AD converter to fully exploit thesensitivity of the FPA and the camera.

The nBn structure with an electron barrier sandwiched by n-type cap andabsorber layers is predicted to suppress the Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH)
generation-recombination processes and surface leakage. The MCT nBn
structure has been studied by several groups to implement high operating
temperature (HOT) device.

9070-136, Session PS2

HySpex ODIN-1024: a new high-resolution
airborne HSI system

In this report, the numerical analysis of the Hg1-xCdxTe nBn device in
LWIR region (λc=10μm) is performed with Crosslight APSYS. The detector
performance characterized by dark current, photo current and detectivity
is optimized by adjusting structural parameters such as Cd component
and doping of each layer under various biases. Among the parameters,
the trade-off between ∆Ec and ∆Ev is most intensively affected by Cd
component of the barrier which was modified carefully and accomplishedfirstly. Furthermore, the effect of the trap density and trap energy levelon the device performance is also investigated especially according to theprocessing techniques.

Søren Blaaberg, Trond Løke, Ivar Baarstad, Andrei Fridman, Norsk
Elektro Optikk AS (Norway)
HySpex ODIN-1024 is a next generation state-of the-art airborne
hyperspectral imaging system developed by Norsk Elektro Optikk AS. Near
perfect coregistration between VNIR and SWIR is achieved by employing
a novel common fore-optics design and a thermally stabilized housing.
Its unique design and the use of state of the art MCT and sCMOS sensors
provides the combination of high sensitivity and low noise, low spatial andspectral misregistration (smile and keystone) and a very high resolution(1024 pixels in the merged data products). In addition to its supreme data
quality, HySpex ODIN-1024 includes real-time data processing functionalities
such as real-time georeferencing of acquired images. It also features built-in
onboard calibration system to monitor the stability of the instrument. The
paper presents data and results from laboratory tests and characterizations,as well as results from airborne measurements.

At 110K, the optimized detectivity of the LWIR MCT nBn device reaches
7.5?10^10 cmHz1/2/W in this report, better than that of the DLPH device(7.6?10^10 cmHz1/2/W). The novel nBn HgCdTe structure is potentiallyvaluable in LWIR region since the controllable p-doping issue iscircumvented and passivation precess is simplified.

9070-133, Session Posters-Tuesday

A 4-channel mixed-signal ASIC for analog ROICs
and FPAs

9070-42, Session 8

Improved high-operating temperature MCT MWIR
modules

Selim Eminoglu, Murat Isikhan, Nusret Bayhan, S. Tuncer Soyer,
Serhat Kocak, Cem Yalcin, Mikro-Tasarim (Turkey)

Holger Lutz, Rainer Breiter, Heinrich Figgemeier, Timo Schallenberg,
Wilhelm Schirmacher, Richard Wollrab, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE
GmbH (Germany)

No Abstract Available

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLHigh operating temperature (HOT) IR-detectors are a key factor to size,
weight and power (SWaP) reduced IR-systems. Such systems are essential
to provide infantrymen with low-weight handheld systems with increased
battery lifetimes or most compact clip-on weapon sights in combination
with high electro-optical performance offered by cooled IR-technology.
AIM’s MCT standard n-on-p technology with vacancy doping has been
optimized over many years resulting in MWIR-detectors with excellent
electro-optical performance up to operating temperatures of ~120K. In
the last years the effort has been intensified to improve this standard
technology by introducing extrinsic doping with Gold as an acceptor. As
a consequence the dark current could considerably be suppressed andallow for operation at ~140K with good e/o performance. More detailed
investigations showed that limitation for HOT > 140K is explained byconsequences from rising dark current rather than from defective pixel level.
Recently, several crucial parameters were identified showing great promise
to further optimization of HOT-performance. Among those, p-typeconcentration could successfully be reduced from the mid 10^16 / cm^3 to
the lower 10^15/ cm^3 range.

µm), especially useful for mid and long range applications. The detector
has an InAsSb active layer and is based on the new “XBn” device concept,
which eliminates the Generation-Recombination dark current and enables
operation at temperatures of 150K or higher, while maintaining excellent
image quality. Such high operating temperatures reduce dramatically thecooling requirements of Focal Plane Array (FPA) detectors and allow for
the use of a smaller closed-cycle Stirling cooler. As a result, the complete
Integrated Detector Cooler Assembly (IDCA) has about 60% lower power
consumption and a much longer lifetime compared with IDCAs based onstandard InSb detectors and coolers operating at 77K.
In this work we present a new large format IDCA designed for 150K
operation. The 15 µm pitch 1280?1024 FPA is based on SCD’s XBntechnology and digital Hercules ROIC. The FPA is housed in a robust Dewar
and is integrated with Ricor’s K508N Stirling cryo-cooler. The IDCA has aweight of ~750 gram and its power consumption at a frame rate of 100Hz
is ~ 7 W. The Mean Time to Failure (MTTF) of the IDCA is more than 20,000
hours, greatly facilitating 24/7 operation.
We describe key electro-optical performance parameters of the newdetector.

Since AIM is one of the leading manufacturers of split linear cryocoolers,
an increase in operating temperature will directly lead to IR-modules withimproved SWaP characteristics by making use of the miniature members of
its SX cooler family with single piston and balancer technology.

9070-45, Session 8

The paper will present recent progress in the development of HOT MWIRdetector arrays at AIM and show electro-optical performance data incomparison to focal plane arrays produced in the standard technology.

Lead salt TE-cooled imaging sensor development

9070-43, Session 8

Progress on development of a lead salt thermoelectrically-cooled imaging
sensor will be presented. The imaging sensor architecture has been
integrated into field-ruggedized hardware, and supports the use of leadsalt-based detector material, including lead selenide and lead sulfide.
Images and video are from a lead selenide focal plane array on Silicon ROICat temperatures approaching room temperature, and at high frame rates.
Lead salt imagers uniquely possess three traits: (1) Sensitive operation athigh temperatures above the typical ‘cooled’ sensor maximum (2) Photonic
response which enables high frame rates faster than the bolometric,
thermal response time (3) Capability to reliably fabricate 2D arrays fromsolution-deposition directly, i.e. monolithically, on Silicon. These lead salt
imagers are less expensive to produce and operate compared to other IR
imagers based on II-VI HgCdTe and III-V InGaAsSb, because they do not
require UHV epitaxial growth nor hybrid assembly, and no cryo-engine
is needed to maintain low thermal noise. Historically there have beenchallenges with lead salt non-uniformities and noise. Staring arrays of leadsalt imagers are promising today because of ROIC technology advances andfabrication improvements. Non-uniformities have been addressed by on-FPA
nonuniformity correction and 1/f noise has been mitigated with adjustablenoise filtering without mechanical chopping. Finally, improved deposition
process and measurement controls have enabled reliable fabrication of highperformance, lead salt, large format staring arrays on the surface of large
Silicon ROIC wafers. The imaging array performance has achieved 30 mK
at 2.5 millisecond integration time with f/1 lens in the 3-5 μm wavelengthband with a two-stage TE cooler operating at 230 K. Operability of 99.6% isreproducibly available on 240 ? 320 arrays.

Kenton A. Green, Sung-Shik Yoo, Christopher Kauffman, Northrop
Grumman Electronic Systems (United States)

Ultra-low power HOT MCT grown by MOVPE for
handheld applications
Luke Pillans, Selex ES Infrared Ltd (United Kingdom); Les G.
Hipwood, R. Kennedy McEwen, Andy D. Parsons, Jay Harji, SELEX
Galileo Infrared Ltd. (United Kingdom)
In 2012 Selex ES demonstrated High Operating Temperature (HOT) MCT
detectors with 5μm cut-off wavelength and f/4 aperture operating attemperatures above 200K. These detectors are grown by Metal Organic
Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) which enables fine control over the photodiode structure. Since 2012 Selex has created two further generationsof MOVPE HOT MCT, progressively improving operability and yield. This
paper presents performance data for Selex’s third generation of HOT
MCT technology and describes the improvements to the diode design
and materials processing that have enabled these advances. A parallel
program has developed miniature Dewars with lower heatload and reduced
manufacturing costs. When integrated with the latest generation ofminiature linear cryo-engines the required cooler power is reduced to theregion of 1W at temperatures of 200K. This paper will present example
imagery from a detector operating with <1
Watt cooler input power. The combination of third generation HOT MCT,
high efficiency Dewars and miniature linear coolers will allow a drastic
reduction in SWAP-C for long range hand-held thermal imagers.

9070-46, Session 8

9070-44, Session 8

Type-II superlattices for HOT infrared imagers(Invited Paper)

Large format 15µm pitch XBn detector
Yoram Karni, Philip Klipstein, Eran Avnon, Eyal Berkowitz, Omer
Cohen, Yossi Cohen, Roman Dobromislin, Itay Hirsh, Olga Klin, Inna
Lukomsky, Igor Pivnik, Omer Rozenberg, Itay Shtrichman, Michael
T. Singer, Shay Sulimani, Eliezer Weiss, SCD Semiconductor Devices(Israel)Manijeh Razeghi, Northwestern Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available

Over the past few years, a new type of High Operating Temperature (HOT)photon detector has been developed at SCD, which operates in the blue
part of the MWIR atmospheric window (3.4 - 4.2 µm). This window is
generally more transparent than the red part of the MWIR window (4.4 - 4.9

18

SPIE DSS 2014·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-47, Session 8

9070-49, Session 8

Molecular beam epitaxy grown GaSb-based IR
photodetectors

Midwave infrared interband cascade
photodetectors and focal plane arrays (Invited
Paper)

Dmitri Loubychev, Joel M. Fastenau, Yueming Qiu, Amy W. K. Liu,
IQE Inc. (United States); Edwin J. Koerperick, Jon T. Olesberg,
Dennis Norton Jr., ASL Analytical, Inc. (United States); Mark J.
Furlong, IQE IR (United Kingdom)

Zhaobing Tian, Sebastian E. Godoy, Theodore Schuler-Sandy, Clark
Kadlec, Erin Dughie, Ha Sul Kim, Sanjay Krishna, The Univ. of New
Mexico (United States)

The GaSb-based family of materials and heterostructures provides richbandgap engineering possibilities for a variety of infrared (IR) applications.
Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) has become the primary technology forthe growth of mid-wave and long-wave IR photodetector structures on
GaSb substrates up to 4 inch diameter as well as on GaAs substrates
up to 6-in diameter. In particular, nBn barrier-type photodetectors haveattracted significant interest due to suppression of dark currents and astraight-forward, reproducible structure design, and are progressing towardcommercial manufacturing applications. Device architectures utilize the 6.1
Å GaSb-based alloys such as InAsSb absorber layers with AlGaAsSb barrier
layers, where the barrier material has appropriate band alignment withthe absorber to eliminate current blocking for photo generated carriers,
thus reducing electron-related dark currents. Such photodetectors withbulk InAsSb absorbers were demonstrated at cutoff wavelengths in the
4.2~7.0 µm range. Alternative detector architectures, including strained
superlattices, can push into the 7~11 µm range. Recently, InPSb-based alloy
lattice-matched to GaSb has been evaluated as an nBn absorber material
for short wave IR applications in the 2.8~3.2 µm range. In this paper, we willreport our latest results on the MBE growth of GaSb-based photodetector
structures covering the short-wave to long wave IR spectral range. Material
properties based on AFM, XRD, cross-section TEM and low temperature PL
characterization will be presented, as well as electrical data from large-area
mesa diodes. We will also discuss the feasibility of integrating a short-wave
photodetector with similar GaSb-based mid- and long-IR nBn devices on thesame GaSb substrate.

The Interband Cascade (IC) photodetector with InAs/Ga(In)Sb type-II
superlattice (T2-SL) absorbers has many unique features. In such IC detector
design, the T2-SL absorption region is sliced into multiple thinner absorbers,
sandwiched between electron barriers and hole barriers, forming one
stage, and multiple stages electrically connected in series. The asymmetricenergy-band alignment and efficient carrier transport channel have enabled
IC detectors to operate under (near) zero-bias. The large lifetime contrast
and the great design flexibility make IC detectors very suitable for hightemperature operations. Our effort has led to the demonstration of midIR single pixel device operating up to 450 K under zero-bias, and thesedevices have achieved superior electrical performance compared to MCT
technology at higher operation temperatures. In this presentation, we will
discuss the new developments of low-noise mid-IR IC photodetectors andtheir focal plane arrays. Device study about the influence of design on their
optical and electrical performance will be discussed, and the most recent
technical progress will also be reported. Support from AFRL and AFOSR is
acknowledged.

9070-50, Session 9

Uncooled digital IRFPA-family with 17µm pixelpitch based on amorphous silicon with massively
parallel Sigma-Delta-ADC readout
Dirk Weiler, Frank Hochschulz, Daniel Würfel, Renee Lerch, Thomas
Geruschke, Simone Wall, Jennifer Heß, Qiang Wang, Holger Vogt,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Mikroelektronische Schaltungen und
Systeme (Germany)

9070-48, Session 8

Absorption characteristics of mid-wave infaredstrained layer superlattices

This paper presents the results of an advanced digital IRFPA-family
developed by Fraunhofer-IMS. The IRFPA-family compromises the twodifferent optical resolutions VGA (640 x 480 pixel) and QVGA (320 x 240
pixel) by using a pin-compatible detector board. The uncooled IRFPAs aredesigned for thermal imaging applications in the LWIR (8 .. 14µm) range
with a full-frame frequency of 30 Hz and a high thermal sensitivity. The
microbolometer with a pixel-pitch of 17µm consists of amorphous silicon as
the sensing layer. By scaling and optimizing our previous microbolometer
technology with a pixel-pitch of 25µm we enhance the thermal sensitivityof the microbolometer. The microbolometers are read out by a novel
readout architecture which utilizes massively parallel on-chip Sigma-DeltaADCs. This results in a direct digital conversion of the resistance changeof the microbolometer induced by incident infrared radiation. To reduce
production costs a chip-scale-package is used as vacuum package. Thisvacuum package consists of an IR-transparent window with antireflection
coating and a soldering frame which is fixed by a wafer-to-chip process
directly on top of the CMOS-substrate. The chip-scale-package is placed ona detector board by a chip-on-board technique. The IRFPAs are completely
fabricated at Fraunhofer-IMS on 8” CMOS wafers with an additionalsurface micromachining process. In this paper the architecture of thereadout electronics, the packaging, and the electro-optical performance
characterization are presented.

Gamini Ariyawansa, Elizabeth H. Steenbergen, Joshua M. Duran,
Luke J. Bissell, John E. Scheihing, Michael T. Eismann, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
The mid?wave infrared (MWIR) spectral range has presently become thespectral region of choice for forward looking infrared sensor systems on
military aircraft due to the advantages of greater image contrast, enhanced
diffraction?limited resolution, and lower cost focal plane arrays (FPAs)
with high operability. Today’s MWIR FPA technology is primarily basedon matured semiconductor materials such as InSb and HgCdTe, however,
the recently emerged MWIR type?II superlattice (T2SL) technology is ofpotential future interest. Although T2SL material development and device
design efforts have advanced to the FPA stage, there are still some areasof basic material research that need to be investigated. In this work, thefocus is on infrared absorption characteristics of T2SL structures basedon both InAs/GaSb and InAs/InAsSb material systems. Optical constants
are obtained by infrared transmission spectroscopy and variable angle
spectroscopic ellipsometry, and the effects of various T2SL parameters(such as material, thickness, and doping) on these optical constants will be
discussed. T2SL detectors have proven to be the next candidate for highoperating temperature MWIR detectors due to acceptably low dark currents;
however, to reach the quantum efficiency of InSb detectors, T2SL detectors
should exhibit InSb?Like absorption characteristics.

19+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-51, Session 99070-54, Session 9

Latest improvements in µ-bolometer thin film
packaging: paving the way for low-cost consumer
applications

High-G launch testing of a low-cost un-cooled
LWIR imager

Jean-Jacques Yon, Geoffroy Dumont, Valérie Goudon, Sébastien
Becker, Agnès Arnaud, CEA-LETI-Minatec (France); Sébastien
Cortial, Christel-Loïc Tisse, ULIS (France)
Silicon based vacuum packaging is a key enabling technology for achieving
affordable uncooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays (IRFPA) required by
the promising mass market that shows momentum for some extensive
consumer applications, such as automotive driving assistance, smart
presence localization, building management…
Among the various approaches studied worldwide, CEA, LETI in partnershipwith ULIS is committed in the development of a unique technology referred
to as PLP (Pixel Level Packaging), where each bolometer pixel is sealed
under vacuum, using a transparent thin film deposition on wafer which
operates as an array of hermetic micro caps above the focal plane, eachcontaining a single microbolometer.
In continuation of the PLP studies conducted so far for a regular 320 x
240 IRFPA, this paper emphasizes on the straightforward scalability of thetechnology which was successfully applied to smaller arrays, typically 80 x
80 pixels FPAs . The relevance of the technology regarding the two formats
is discussed, considering both performance and cost issues. It is shownthat the low fill factor of the PLP arrangement is not any more an issue if
we consider small arrays preferably fitted for consumer applications. The
discussion is mainly supported by the electro optic performance of the PLP
based 80x80 demonstrator, which relevant figures are extensively presented
in this publication.

A miniature low-cost LWIR camera with a
160x120 microbolometer FPA
Murat Tepegoz, Selim Eminoglu, Tayfun Akin, MikroSens Ltd.
(Turkey)

9070-55, Session 10

Nickel oxide and molybdenum oxide thin films forinfrared-imaging prepared by biased target ionbeam deposition
Yao Jin, Thomas N. Jackson, Mark W. Horn, The Pennsylvania State
Univ. (United States)

Nickel oxide and molybdenum oxide thin films were prepared byreactive sputtering of nickel and molybdenum metal targets in a biased
target ion beam deposition tool. In this deposition system, the Ar+ ion
energy (typically lower than 25 eV) and the target bias voltage can be
independently controlled since ions are remotely generated. A residual gas
analyzer (RGA) is used to precisely control the oxygen partial pressure.
A real-time spectroscopic ellipsometry is used to monitor the evolutionof microstructure and properties of deposited oxides during growth andpost-deposition. The properties of deposited oxides thin films depend on
processing parameters. The resistivity of NiOx thin films is in the rangeof 0.5 to approximately 100 ohm-cm with a TCR from -2%/K to -3.3%/K,
where the resistivity of MoOx is between 3 and 2000 ohm-cm with TCRfrom -2.1%/K to -3.2%/K. We also report on the thermal stability of these
deposited oxide thin films.

No Abstract Available

9070-53, Session 9

Evaluation of 1/f noise in prospective IR imaging
thin films
Hitesh A. Basantani, David Saint-John, Myung Yoon-Lee, Thomas
N. Jackson, Mark W. Horn, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates)Vanadium oxide (VOx) and hydrogenated SixGe1-x systems are the two
predominant thin film material systems used in resistive IR imaging. Whilethin films of VOx used in microbolometers have a resistivity typicallybetween 0.1 and 1 ?-cm with a TCR between -1.4%/K to -2.4%/K, SixGe1-x:H
thin films have a resistivity between 1,000-4,000 ?-cm with a TCR between-2.9%/K to 3.9%/K. Future devices may require higher TCR materials
however higher TCR is loosely associated with higher resistivity andtherefore high noise. This work compares 1/f noise of high resistivity VOx
and Ge:H thin films having |TCR| > 3.6%/K. The high TCR thin films of VOx
were found to be amorphous while, depending on the deposition conditions,
the Ge:H thin films were either amorphous or nanocrystalline + amorphous.
Evaluation of these VOx and Ge:H thin films indicates a superior processproperty relation of 1/f noise in Ge:H thin films (with normalized Hooge
parameter > 10^-20 cm^3) in comparison with thin films of VOx (normalized
Hooge parameter > 10^-18 cm^3).

SPIE DSS 2014

UAVs and smart munitions require low-cost IR sensors that fit withinvery small volumes, yet offer acceptable performance and landing/launch survivability. The LWIR band provides unique contrast for specificapplications in both UAVs and smart munitions, with smart munitions
presenting an additional challenge of high g-loads during launch. Thesehigh g-loads are not typically a design target of low-cost, un-cooled COTS
IR sensors. This work addresses the challenges of adapting a COTS LWIR
un-cooled FPA for launch survivability. The sensor will be modeled formechanical stability and weaknesses identified. Modifications will be madeto improve launch survivability and multiple units will be tested. Data will bepresented on the optical performance (MTF) both before and after launches
for multiple locations across the lens.

Vanadium oxide (VOx) thin films have been intensively used as sensing
materials for microbolometers. VOx thin films have good bolometricproperties such as low resistivity, high negative temperature coefficient ofresistivity (TCR) and low 1/f noise. However, the processing controllability ofVOx fabrication is difficult due to the multiple valence states of vanadium. In
this study, metal oxides such as nickel oxide (NiOx) and molybdenum oxide(MoOx) thin films have been investigated as possible new microbolometer
sensing materials with improved process controllability.

9070-52, Session 9

20

Jason E. Tiffany, Don E. King, Kyle C. Manning, Francis C. Brown,
David G. Drewry Jr., Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.
(United States)·

9070-56, Session 10

Polarization selective uncooled infrared sensor
using an asymmetric two-dimensional plasmonic
absorber
Shinpei Ogawa, Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Japan); Kyohei Masuda,
Yousuke Takagawa, Masafumi Kimata, Ritsumeikan Univ. (Japan)
A polarization selective uncooled infrared (IR) sensor has been developed
using an asymmetric two-dimensional plasmonic absorber (2D PLA). 2D
PLA is the Au-based 2D periodic dimple structure, where the photon can be
manipulated by the spoof surface plasmon polariton. We have introduced

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLasymmetricity to 2D PLA in order to realize the polarization selectivefunction. The numerical investigations demonstrate that 2D PLA with theellipsoidal dimples (2D PLA-E) produces a polarization dependence on its
absorption property due to the asymmetric shape of the ellipse.

in the sensing material. In this work, we report the design of uncooled
pyroelectric detectors which utilized a nanometer sized truss to support thesuspended detector. The design and performance of pyroelectric detectors
have been conducted by simulating the structure with Intellisuite™ utilizing
Finite Element Method (FEM). The simulated detectors had a spider weblike structure with each of the strut of spider web had a width of 100 nm.
Ca modified lead titanate (PCT) was employed as the thermometer becauseof its high pyroelectric figure of merit. The pyroelectric detectors utilized
Ni0.8Cr0.2 absorber, PCT sensing layer, Ti electrodes, Al2O3 structurallayer to obtain low thermal conductance between the detector and Si
substrate. Three different types of pyroelectric detectors were designed
and analyzed. The first design had linear electrode and simple spider web
support. The value of the thermal conductance of this detector was foundto be 3.98E-8 W/K. The second design had a longer thermal path than
the first one and had a thermal conductivity of 2.41E-8 W/K. The design
was optimized for the best result by modifying the shape, dimension andthickness of various layers namely absorber, electrodes, sensing layerand struts. The thermal conductance of the third design was found tobe as low as 4.57E-9 W/K which is significantly lower than previously
reported values. This investigation pushed the performance of pyroelectric
uncooled infrared detectors towards their fundamental limits by reducing
the thermal conductance to a level where it is dominated by the radiative
exchange. The highest calculated detectivity and reponsivity values were
1.15E10 cm Hz1/2/W and 4.9E7 V/W respectively with this value of thermal
conductance.

A microelectromechanical systems-based uncooled IR sensor using a 2D
PLA-E was fabricated through a complementary metal oxide semiconductor(CMOS) and a micromachining technique. 2D PLA-E was formed by Au layer
sputtered on the SiO2 with the ellipsoidal holes. The Al layer was introduced
to the backside of the 2D PLA-E in order to reflect the scattering lightand prevent the absorption of SiO2. The measurement of the polarization
dependence of responsivities shows that the responsivity was selectively
enhanced depending on the polarization according to the asymmetricity ofthe ellipse.
The results obtained here are the direct evidence that a polarization
selective uncooled IR sensor was realized simply by introducing
asymmetricity to the surface structure of 2D PLA without any polarizers or
optical resonant structures. It indicates that a pixel array where each pixel
has a different detection polarization would be developed for polarimetric
imaging by a standard CMOS and a micromachining technique.

9070-57, Session 10

Repulsive electrostatic force in MEMS cantileverIR sensors

9070-59, Session 11

Imen Rezadad, Javaneh Boroumand Azad, Evan M. Smith, Ammar
Alhasan, Robert E. Peale, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

A new digital readout integrated circuit (DROIC)
with pixel parallel A/D conversion with reduced
quantization noise

A MEMS cantilever designed for IR sensing that lifts from the surface byelectrostatic repulsion and moves down due to IR absorption is described.
The design is comprised of three conductors: a fixed buried plate, a fixedsurface plate, and a moveable cantilever. All have the same square shapeand are arranged parallel in a vertical stack with aligned edges. The surface
plate and cantilever are biased at the same potential, and the buried plate is
oppositely biased. This paper is focused on demonstration and optimizationof electrostatic repulsion and its effect on device performance. Analytical
calculation, using values of position-dependent coefficients of capacitanceand electrostatic induction from finite-element numerical calculation,
demonstrates the repulsive force on the cantilever and determines its
magnitude. Finite element simulations of local fields confirm these results
and give the distribution of the force across the cantilever. Size and motion
effects have been studied. The electrostatic repulsion is compared with
Casimir sticking forces. Individual MEMS cantilever devices of 100 micron
dimension and also 3 by 3 arrays of 20 micron element dimensions were
fabricated and repulsive forces signatures are observed experimentallyby video microscopy and induced currents. Finally an optimum design issuggested to achieve highest repulsive force and best performance in IR
detection. Advantages such as higher fill factor and easier fabrication canhighlight the design among other featured MEMS devices with repulsive
force. Possible applications include IR detection, switches, and micromirrors.

Huseyin Kayahan, Omer Ceylan, Melik Yazici, Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci
Univ. (Turkey)
A new pixel design has been proposed for PFM DROIC to reduce thequantization noise without further increasing the power consumption or
pixel sizes. The method relies on a coarse quantization on charge domain
which is followed by a fine quantization on time domain. In the first phasecircuit operates as an ordinary PFM pixel and measures the stored charge by
counting the number of resets. The remaining value, residue, is to be further
measured for reduced quantization noise. This measurement is done ontime domain in the proposed pixel. Counter is operated as a clocked counter
while allowing the integration to continue until a final threshold crossing.
Using a high speed clock enables very low quantization noise levels.
The proposed method has been proven on a prototype array of 32x32
with a pixel size of 30µm x 30µm. The process technology is 90nm CMOS.
Quantization noise of 161e- together with 2.33Ge- charge handling capacity
has been measured. Among the state of the art PFM DROICs, proposedarchitecture has the lowest FoM for power efficiency of 465fJ/LSB. The
peak SNR is limited by the switching noise to 71dB and the dynamic range
is 130dB. The operation of the proposed method for low power applications
with moderate quantization noise levels is also discussed.

9070-58, Session 10

Design of a nanomachined pyroelectric detector
for low-thermal conductance9070-60, Session 11

Md Muztoba, Noureddine Melikechi, Mukti Rana, Delaware State
Univ. (United States)

A high-dynamic range ROIC for SLS and other IR
focal planes

Uncooled infrared detectors are utilized in nightvision systems and scientificinstruments such as spectrometers and radiometers. They provide good
performance that has enabled systems to be developed which have reduced
size, weight, and power consumption. Yet uncooled infrared detectors still
have not reached their fundamental limits of performance. The evolutionof lithography through direct write ebeam lithography, nanoimprinting,and deep ultraviolet lithography has enabled sub-100nm features to bepatterned. Pyroelectric detector is a class of thermal detector in which thechange in temperature causes the change in the spontaneous polarization

Eugene M. Petilli, Scott TeWinkle, Intrinsix Corp. (United States)

21+1 360 676 3290

A high dynamic range ROIC featuring 16 bit Sigma-Delta data conversion
has been developed for SLS and other IR Focal Planes. Sigma-Deltaarchitecture enables tradeoff of sensitivity against power, foveal imaging,and dynamic target tracking.
In many applications where high dynamic range is desired, Sigma-Deltaarchitectures have displaced most other architectures for analog to digitalconversion (ADC). This is primarily because they have high performance/·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
power ratio while being low cost. Until now, it’s been generally believedthat Sigma-Delta ADCs are not useful in Read-Out ICs (ROICs), because
they do not handle well the abrupt transitions resulting from multiplexing of
uncorrelated pixels.
The key innovation behind this work is a serpentine read-out order in which
the sampling of multiplexed pixels is limited to adjacent pixels, enablinguse of high dynamic range, low power Sigma-Delta ADCs in ROICs. Opticaleffects, both lens limitations and diffraction limits attributable to the large
wavelengths in the IR spectrum, result in spatial filtering which limits thedifferences seen by adjacent pixels. With serpentine read-out order, thespatial filtering effects, rather than ADC effects, set the limit in resolving
adjacent pixels.
Using numerical methods, we emulated the effects of reading out sample
images in this serpentine order and processed the resulting waveforms
through a model of a Sigma-Delta ADC. Results were compared with theoriginal image and the nature and details of the readout modified. Edgeeffects were significantly reduced by adding redundant serpentine readouts(each with its own ADC) which overlap and occur in opposite directions
from those of the other serpentines. Averaging of the two digitized outputs
on a pixel by pixel basis reduces edge effects, improves noise and SEU
tolerance, and reduces inter-symbol interference. The redundant readouts
also support an interleaved, double frame rate mode.
Two generations of ROIC are both designed for a hybridized imager where
the detector and ROIC are mated in raw form, utilizing per pixel bumpinterconnect. The CTIA is implemented on the ROIC, aligned with the
pixel locations on the detector. The present implementation divides thearray into slices of 32 columns. Each slice processes a serpentine of pixels
which winds across the columns before dropping down when the row isincremented, after which the readout is in the opposite direction. A single
Sigma-Delta ADC is implemented for each slice. All of the multiplexing
control and analog switching is located under the area dedicated to the
pixel interconnects.

summation counters, is realized with VerilogHDL. Summation counters andparallel-to-serial converter to convert 16 bit parallel output data to single bit
output are also realized with Verilog HDL. Synthesized verilog netlists areplaced&routed and combined with analog under-pixel part of the design.
Quantization noise of analog-to-digital conversion is less than 500e-. Since
analog signal is converted to digital domain in-pixel, non-uniformities andinaccuracies due to analog signal routing over large chip area is eliminated.
ROIC is fabricated with 0.18µm CMOS process and chip area is 10mm2.
Post-layout simulation results of the implemented design and measurement
results of fabricated chip are also presented. ROIC supports bi-directionalscan, bypass operation, pixel select/deselect, automatic gain adjustment,
and is programmable through serial or parallel interface. Input referrednoise of ROIC is less than 750 rms electron, while power consumption isless than 20mW. ROIC is designed to perform both in room and cryogenic
temperatures.

9070-63, Session 12

Technical considerations for designing low-cost,long-wave infrared objectives
Gerard M. Desroches, Kristy Dalzell, Blaise Robitaille, Raytheon
ELCAN Optical Technologies (Canada)
With the growth of uncooled infrared imaging in the consumer market, thebalance between cost implications and performance criteria in the objective
lens must be examined carefully. The increased availability of consumergrade, long-wave infrared cameras is related to a decrease in military
usage but it is also due to the decreasing costs of the cameras themselves.
This has also driven up demand for low-cost, long-wave objectives thatcan resolve smaller pixels while maintaining high performance. Smaller
pixels are traditionally associated with high cost objectives because ofhigher resolution requirements but, with careful consideration of all therequirements and proper selection of materials, costs can be moderated.
This paper examines the cost/performance trade-off implications
associated with optical and mechanical requirements of long-wave infraredobjectives. Optical performance, f-number, field of view, distortion, focus
range and thermal range all affect the cost of the objective. Because raw
lens material cost is often the most expensive item in the construction,
selection of the material as well as the shape of the lens while maintaining
acceptable performance and cost targets were explored. As a result of
these considerations, a low-cost, lightweight, well-performing objective was
successfully designed, manufactured and tested.

Generation one is designed for 30um pixel pitch, for SLS detectors at
cryogenic temperatures. It is implemented in a 0.18um Tower-Jazz process.
It interfaces with a 320 by 256 two color pixel array and supports frame
rates to 240fps. At SNR of 12 bits, power consumption is 400mW, or
160nWatt/Pixel-FPS.
Generation two is designed for 12um pixel pitch at room temperatures. It ispresently being implemented in the same 0.18um Tower-Jazz process. Thisversion is designed for a 896 by 512 pixel array. It achieves its SNR of 16 bitswith substantially lower 16nWatt/Pixel-FPS.

9070-61, Session 11
9070-64, Session 12

ROIC for uncooled microbolometer FPAs/ mixedsignal ASIC for analog ROICs and FPAs

Compact multispectral continuous zoom camera
for colour and SWIR vision with integrated laser
range finder

Selim Eminoglu, Mikro-Tasarim (Turkey)
No Abstract Available

Martin Huebner, Martin Gerken, Bertram Achtner, Mario O.
Münzberg, Cassidian Optronics GmbH (Germany)

9070-62, Session 11

In an electro-optical sensor suite for long range surveillance tasks the optics
for the visible (450nm – 700nm) and the SWIR spectral wavelength range(900nm – 1700 nm) are combined with the receiver optics of an integrated
laser range finder (LRF) . The incoming signal from the observed scene andthe returned laser pulse are collected within the common entrance apertureof the optics. The common front part of the optics is a broadband corrected
lens design from 450 – 1700nm wavelength range. The visible spectrumis splitted up by a dichroic beamsplitter and focused on a HDTV CMOS
camera. The returned laser pulse is spatially separated from the scene signal
by a special prism and focused on the laser receiver diode of the integrated
LRF.

Implementation of pixel level digital TDI for
scanning type LWIR FPAs
Omer Ceylan, Huseyin Kayahan, Melik Yazici, Atia Shafique, Sohaib
S. Afridi, Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)
Implementation of a CMOS readout integrated circuit (ROIC) based on
pixel level digital time delay integration (TDI) for scanning type LWIR focal
plane arrays (FPAs) is presented. TDI is implemented on 8 pixels with oversampling rate of 3. Analog signal integrated on integration capacitor isconverted to digital domain in pixel, and digital data is transferred to TDI
summation counters, where contributions of 8 pixels are added. Output
data is 16 bit, where 8 bits are allocated for most significant bits and 8 bits
for least significant bits. Control block of the ROIC, which is responsibleof generating timing diagram for switches controlling the pixels and

22

SPIE DSS 2014

The achromatic lens design has a zoom factor 14 and F#2.6 in the visible
path. In the SWIR path the F-number is adapted to the corresponding chip
dimensions . The alignment of the LRF with respect to the SWIR camera lineof sight can be controlled by adjustable integrated wedges.

·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
The two images in the visible and the SWIR spectral range match in focus
and FOV over the full zoom range between 2° and 22° HFOV. The SWIR
camera has a resolution of 640x512 pixels. The HDTV camera provides a
resolution of 1920x1080. The design and the performance parameters of themultispectral sensor suite is discussed.

in Vis-SWIR-MWIR-LWIR bands, with enhanced chemical durability. In eachlayer type, methods and materials are used to process the layer so as toachieve the desired layer characteristics, which aid to enhance the durability
performance of the stack. Any given layer may improve stack durability,
but it is the combination of these layer types that result in this high levelof performance. This paper will discuss the performance of this stack when
exposed to salt fog, salt solubility, and extended humidity environments.

9070-65, Session 12

Design challenges of variable magnification/
variable object distance (VMODO) systems

9070-68, Session 12

Fast, electrically tunable filters for hyperspectral
imaging

Steven H. Vogel, Christopher C. Alexay, Troy A. Palmer, Naomi J.
Pollica, StingRay Optics, LLC (United States)

V. Liberman, Lalitha Parameswaran, Christopher Gear, Alberto
Cabral, Mordechai Rothschild, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)

There are many applications for optical zoom systems which operate
through a range of working distances while at the same time requiring
multiple magnification levels. The challenges associated with the designof these systems are greater than either a fixed focal length system ora continuous zoom system operating with an image at infinity. In thispaper we will explore some of the optical and mechanical issues involved,
the available tradeoffs between high optical performance and simple
mechanical designs, and provide some of the approaches/solutions wefound to these issues.

No Abstract Available

9070-69, Session 13

Comparison of the thermal effects on LWIR
optical designs utilizing different infrared opticalmaterials (Invited Paper)

9070-66, Session 12

Alan Symmons, Raymond J. Pini, LightPath Technologies, Inc.
(United States)

Folded path LWIR system for SWAP constrained
platforms

The growing demand for lower cost infrared sensors and cameras has
focused attention on the need for low cost optics for the long wave andmid-wave infrared region. The thermal properties of chalcogenides provide
benefits for optical and opto-mechanical designers for the athermalizationof lens assemblies as compared to Germanium, Zinc Selenide and othermore common infrared materials.

Erin F. Fleet, Dale Linne von Berg, Michael L. Wilson, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Thomas G. Giallorenzi, DCS Corp.
(United States); Barry M. Mathieu, Barry Design Associates, Inc.
(United States)

This investigation reviews typical infrared material’s thermal performanceand the effects of temperature on the optical performance of lens systems
manufactured from various optical materials.

Folded path reflection and catadioptric optics are of growing interest,
especially in the long wave infrared (LWIR), due to continuing demands for
reductions in imaging system size, weight and power (SWAP). We present
the optical design and laboratory and field test data for a 50 mm focal
length low f/# folded-path compact LWIR imaging system. The opticaldesign uses 4 concentric aspheric mirrors, each of which is described byannular aspheric functions well suited to the folded path design space. The
4 mirrors are diamond turned onto two thin air-spaced aluminum plates
which can be manually focused onto the uncooled LWIR microbolometer
array detector. Stray light analysis will be presented to show how specializedinternal baffling can be used to reduce stray light propagation throughthe folded path optical train. The system achieves near diffraction limited
performance across the FOV with a 15 mm long optical train and a 5 mmback focal distance. The completed system is small enough to reside within
a 3 inch diameter ball gimbal.

9070-70, Session 13

Optical glasses transparent in visible and thermal
infrared region for multispectral imaging (Invited
Paper)
Xiang-Hua Zhang, Laurent Calvez, Antoine Brehault, Univ. deRennes 1 (France); Joël Rollin, Thales Angénieux S.A. (France);
Philippe Adam, Délégation Générale pour l’Armement (France)
The fusion of the two complementary images, in visible/SWIR (short wave
infrared) and in thermal infrared will lead to many new applications both incommercial and defense fields. As an example, for car driving assistance,
visible/SWIR image is better for reading road indications and for detecting
the presence of ice on the road. Thermal image is much better for seeing
further and pedestrians in foggy condition and during the night. For defense
applications, it is, for example, easier to move in the dark with intensified
SWIR image and thermal imaging is indispensible to detect hidden hot
target.

9070-67, Session 12

Implementation of a durable multispectral mirror
coating for light-weighted ISR systems
Leonard G. Wamboldt, Corning NetOptix (United States); Robin M.
Walton, Corning Inc. (United States); Jue Wang, Corning Specialty
Materials, Inc. (United States); Gary A. Hart, Corning Tropel Corp.
(United States); Jason Ballou, Timothy R. Soucy, Kenneth S.
Woodard, Joseph C. Crifasi, Shane M. Stephens, Corning NetOptix(United States)

There are many optics operating either in the visible/SWIR region or in the
far infrared region. Only two materials, known since long time, ZnS and
ZnSe, can be considered for producing multispectral optics even they cover
only partially these two spectral bands. The only way to produce complex
asphero-diffractive optics, indispensable with these materials, is to use theexpensive single point diamond tuning.

Corning Advanced Optics recently developed an enhanced durable silver
coating on T6 6061-Al and other light weighted substrates like magnesium,
silicon carbide, and graphite. This thin film stack consists of 5 layer types
that when combined together result in a multiband mirror, highly reflective

23+1 360 676 3290

Chalcogenide glasses have been developed for thermal imaging andthe advantages of these materials are associated with the possibility offabricating complex and efficient optical elements with direct precision·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
molding. Commercial chalcogenide glasses are usually transparent up to 14µm without significant visible transmission.

in the current study we focus on the properties of a chemically stable,
branched copolymer of poly(sulfur-random-1,3-diisopropenylbenzene)(poly(S-r-DIB). Copolymers with elemental sulfur content ranging from
50% to 80% by weight were studied by UV-VIS spectroscopy, FTIR, andprism coupling for refractive index measurement. Clear correlation between
material composition and the optical properties was established, confirmingthat the high polarizability of the sulfur atom leads to high refractive index
while also maintaining low optical loss. Applications of the materials for bulk
optics and infrared components will also be discussed.

In this talk, we will present our last work on the development ofchalcogenide-halide glasses with extensive transmission from 0.4 µm up to
12 µm, covering the entire visible range and the two atmospheric windowsof 3-5 µm and 8-12 µm. The optical, mechanical and chemical properties
will be presented. The possibility of molding optics, chromatic aberration
correction, antireflection coating will be discussed.

9070-71, Session 13

9070-73, Session 14

Multispectral optics designs using expanded
glass map (Invited Paper)

Layered chalcogenide glass structures for IR
lenses (Invited Paper)

Shyam S. Bayya, Daniel J. Gibson, Vinh Q. Nguyen, Erin F. Fleet,
Jas S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Jay N.
Vizgaitis, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate(United States)

Daniel J. Gibson, Shyam S. Bayya, Jas S. Sanghera, Vinh Q. Nguyen,
U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Dean A. Scribner,
Northrop Grumman Mission Systems (United States); Velimir M.
Maksimovic, Northrop Grumman Information Systems (UnitedStates); John A. Gill, Northrop Grumman Corp. (United States);
Allen Yi, The Ohio State Univ. (United States); John P. Deegan,
Rochester Precision Optics, LLC (United States); Blair L. Unger, BLU
Optics, LLC (United States)

Materials are needed for multiband IR imaging applications withtransparency over a broad spectral range covering SWIR, MWIR and LWIR
wavelength regions. The choices are often limited to zinc sulfide (ZnS),
zinc selenide (ZnSe), Germanium (Ge) and a few commercially available IR
glasses. Many of these materials have fixed refractive indices and cannot
be tailored for dispersion compensation over a broad spectral region as isneeded for multiband achromats.
We report new multispectral materials that transmit from 0.9 to > 12 µm in
wavelength. These materials fill up the glass map for multispectral optics
and vary in refractive index from 2.38 to 3.17. They show a large spread indispersion (Abbe number) and offer some unique solutions for multispectral
optics designs. Our results provide a wider selection of optical materials
to enable simpler achromat designs. For example, we have developed
glasses that have relatively high Abbe number in both the MWIR and LWIR
regions, while our MILTRAN ceramic has low Abbe number in both regions.
This makes for a very good combination of glasses and MILTRAN ceramic(analogous to crown and flint glasses in the visible) for MWIR + LWIR dualband imaging. These new NRL glasses have negative or very low positive
dn/dT making it easier to athermalize the optical system. The advantages of
new multi-spectral optics designs using the expanded material database will
be presented at the conference.

9070-74, Session 14

IR GRIN optics for SWaP sensitive platforms(Invited Paper)

9070-72, Session 13

Daniel J. Gibson, Shyam S. Bayya, Jas S. Sanghera, Erin F. Fleet, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Sulfur copolymers for infrared optical imaging(Invited Paper)
S. Namnabat, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona(United States); J. Griebel, College of Optical Sciences, Univ. of
Arizona (United States); J. Pyun, The Univ. of Arizona (UnitedStates); R. A. Norwood, E. Dereniak, College of Optical Sciences,
The Univ. of Arizona (United States)
The development of organic polymers with high refractive indices has been
widely investigated, as a possible alternative to inorganic metal oxide,
semiconductor, or chalcogenide-based materials for a variety of opticaldevices and components, such as waveguides, anti-reflective coatings,
charge-coupled devices and fiber optic cables. In principle, organic-based
polymers are attractive for these applications because of their light-weight,
ease of processing, mechanical toughness, and facile chemical variation
using commercially available precursors. However, one of the fundamental
challenges associated with organic polymers is their generally low refractive
indices in comparison to their inorganic counterparts. In this paper wereport on the optical characterization of a new class of sulfur copolymers
that are readily moldable, transparent above 500nm, possess high refractive
index (n > 1.8) and take advantage of the low infrared absorption of S?Sbonds for potential use in the mid-infrared at 3-5 microns. These materials
are largely made from elemental sulfur by an inverse vulcanization process;24

A technique for fabricating novel infrared (IR) lenses can enable a reductionin the size and weight of IR imaging optics through the use of layered glass
structures. These structures can range from having a few thick glass layers,
mimicking cemented doublets and triplets, to having many thin glass layers
approximating graded index (GRIN) lenses. The effectiveness of thesestructures relies on having materials with diversity in refractive index (large∆n) and dispersion and similar thermo-viscous behavior (common glasstransition temperature, ∆Tg = 10°C). A library of 10 chalcogenide glasses
with broad IR transmission (NIR through LWIR bands) was developed tosatisfy these criteria. The lens fabrication methodology, including glass
design and synthesis, sheet fabrication, preform making, lens molding andsurface finishing will be presented.

SPIE DSS 2014·

Graded index (GRIN) optics offer potential for both weight savings andincreased performance but commercial availability has so far been limited
to visible and NIR bands (wavelengths shorter than about 0.9 µm). NRL
has developed novel diffusion-based IR-GRIN lens technology compatible
with all IR wavebands (SWIR, MWIR and LWIR). IR-GRIN optics can enable
compact multiband imagers for weight sensitive platforms including small
UAVs and soldier handheld, helmet or weapon mounted cameras. The IRGRIN lens technology, design space, testing methodology and performanceadvantages will be presented.

9070-76, Session 15

Optical cryocoolers outshine thermoelectrics(Invited Paper)
Richard I. Epstein, Thermodynamic Films (United States) and Univ.
of New Mexico (United States); Mansoor Sheik-Bahae, The Univ. of
New Mexico (United States); Markus P. Hehlen, Los Alamos National
Lab. (United States)
Compact, vibration-free solid-state refrigerators, are ideal for coolingwww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
infrared sensors. Such coolers could be integrated into infrared cameras,
eliminating the need for liquid cryogens or bulky, noisy mechanical coolers.
Currently, the dominant solid-state cooling technology is thermoelectriccooling, which uses the Peltier effect. Despite decades of effort, the lowest
achievable temperature for multi-stage thermoelectric coolers (TECs) isaround 170 K. Programs at ThermoDynamic Films, LLC, the University of
New Mexico and Los Alamos National Laboratory have made important
strides developing an entirely different solid-state cooling technology,
optical refrigeration, which removes heat by anti-Stokes fluorescence. Thisapproach has advanced to the stage where it now cools to much lower
temperatures than TECs. Laboratory measurements have demonstrated
optical refrigeration cooling from room temperature to 114 K. This talk will
describe the physical principles and current status of optical refrigerationand our goals for the near future. One immediate goal is building
lightweight, compact optical refrigerators that can be easily integrated withIR sensors. In parallel, we are developing improved cooling materials that
can allow optical refrigeration to cool below the 80 K. The talk will also
describe our longer-term goals and approaches for improving the coolingefficiency of optical refrigerators to exceed that of current generation of
mechanical cryocoolers. In parallel, we are developing improved coolingmaterials that can allow optical refrigeration to cool below the 80 K. The
talk will also describe our longer-term goals and approaches for improving
the cooling efficiency of optical refrigerators to exceed that of current
generation of mechanical cryocoolers.

In a Stirling-type Pulse Tube cooler with a dual opposed piston compressor,
the residual vibration exported by the cooler is primarily a result of residual
imbalances between compressor halves.

9070-137, Session 15

The effect on exported vibration as well as power efficiency is discussed andcompared between Stirling and Pulse Tube type coolers.

Lanthanide-doped materials for solid state
optical refrigeration (Invited Paper)

9070-79, Session 16

Using an electronic feedback loop and driving compressor halves
independently, the exported force from the compressor can be regulated tonegligible levels. This has been demonstrated in a multitude of commercial
applications as well as in space applications. However, in the tactical infraredmarket where Stirling coolers with a moving displacer are predominantly
used, this technology has not seen widespread use.
In a novel application of adaptive vibration reduction, the residual exported
forces resulting from the motion of the free moving displacer of a Stirlingcold finger can be compensated, by using a linear dual opposed piston
compressor with two independently driven pistons as an active balancer.
The used vibration reduction algorithm is fully adaptive, enabling effective
suppression of exported vibrations independent of the operating conditionsof the cooler such as orientation, ambient temperature, tip temperature andheat load.
A theoretical analysis of the first-harmonic suppression of the exported
force due to the free moving displacer is provided, measurements arepresented on different cooler types and orientations, and the effect ofintegration aspects - hard mount versus suspended mount – is discussed.
It is shown that, with careful attention to integration aspects, adaptive
vibration reduction enables Stirling coolers to be used in applications where
vibration sensitivity was previously prohibitive for this technology.

Markus P. Hehlen, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States);
Mansoor Sheik-Bahae, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States);
Seth D. Melgaard, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States) and Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); Richard I. Epstein, The Univ.
of New Mexico (United States) and ThermoDynamic Films, LLC(United States)

RICOR’s cryocoolers development andoptimization for HOT IR detectors
Amiram Katz, RICOR-Cryogenic & Vacuum Systems (Israel)
The world growth in research and development of High Operating
Temperature IR detectors impels the development process and the
optimization of “HOT” cryocoolers at RICOR.

Optical refrigeration of solids is possible in some materials that exhibit
anti-Stokes fluorescence. Glasses and crystals doped with lanthanide
ions such as Yb3+ and Tm3+ have proven most successful in recent years,
culminating in recent solid-state laser cooling to below 100 K from room
temperature. The operating point of a solid-state optical refrigerator is acompromise between operating temperature and heat lift. The laser-coolingmaterial plays a key role in this tradeoff, with the important factors being
the absorbed laser power, the pump wavelength, the external quantum
efficiency, and undesired background absorption by impurities. Thesematerial parameters will be discussed, and the latest laser-cooling results
achieved with Yb3+-doped YLiF4 crystals will be reviewed. Transitionmetal ion impurities limit the cooling performance as they can directly
absorb pump light or act as acceptors in energy-transfer processes from
Yb3+, producing parasitic heating within the laser-cooling material. Such
impurities are often present at ppm levels in commercial materials. However,
low ppt impurity levels are needed for efficient laser coolers, making
purification of starting materials a necessity. Several methods for removing
transition-metal impurities are discussed. Next-generation ultrapure fluoride
crystals are expected to have 10x lower background absorption than current
materials, enabling the higher Yb3+ concentrations needed for efficientpump light absorption. Such materials may be able to cool to near theboiling point of liquid nitrogen (77 K) or have heat lifts approaching 1 Wattat 100 K.

The development emphasis on the “SWAP” configuration which is small size,
low weight and low power consumption, in order to optimize IDDCA for
future hand held thermal sights.
This paper will present optimization tests results performed on a “HOT”
prototype cryocoolers at the FPA temperature range of 110 - 200K and also
will review the development activities that will be implemented in orderto minimize “Idle electronic and mechanical losses” hence minimizing theregulated power consumption.
As a result of the new approach of developed cryocoolers for HOT
detectors, the improvement in the reliability is analyzed and will be reported
in the paper.

9070-80, Session 16

Ruggedizing infrared integrated Dewar-detectorcooler assemblies for harsh environmental
conditions
Alexander Veprik, Nataniel Ashush, Baruch Shlomovich, Yaakov
Oppenheim, Yaakov Gridish, Ezra Kahanov, Alina Koifman, SCD
Semiconductor Devices (Israel); Avi Tuito, SIBAT (Israel)

9070-78, Session 16

Adaptive vibration reduction on dual-opposed
piston free displacer Stirling cooler

Cryogenically cooled infrared electro-optical payloads have to operate andsurvive frequent exposure to vibration and temperature extremes typicalof the modern battlefield. This necessitates the development of special
approaches to ruggedizing their sensitive components.

Roel Arts, Bram de Bruin, Daniel Willems, Garmt de Jonge, Tonny
Benschop, Thales Cryogenics B.V. (Netherlands)

The ruggedizing requirement holds true specifically for Integrated DewarDetector-Cooler Assemblies, (IDDCA) the infrared Focal Plane Array(FPA) of which is supported by a thin-walled cold finger placed inside an25+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
evacuated Dewar. Without sufficient ruggedizing of the FPA support, harshenvironmental vibration may lead to an excitation of structural resonancesthat result in excessive FPA motion or even in mechanical fractures due
to material overstressing. Furthermore, with standard solutions there may
be insufficient heat sinking from IDDCA, especially at high environmental
temperatures. This may lead to an increase of the reject temperature of thethermodynamic cycle negating the overall thermodynamic performanceof the cryogenic cooler along with giving rise to parasitic radiation andconduction heat load.
The authors present their approach to the ruggedizing of IDDCA by the
optimal combination of stiffening elements and wideband dynamic dampingthat are compatible with the requirements of the thermal and mechanicalinterfacing of the cold finger base. The outcomes of analytical predictions
are supported by the results of full scale-testing.

9070-81, Session 16

AIM cryocooler developments for HOT detectors
Ingo Rühlich, Markus Mai, Carsten Rosenhagen, Andreas Withopf,
AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany)
Significantly increased FPA temperatures for both Mid Wave and Long Wave
IR detectors, i.e. HOT detectors, which have been developed in recent years
are now leaving the development phase and are entering real application.
HOT detectors allowing to push size weight and power (SWaP) of Integrated
Detectors Cooler Assemblies (IDCA’s) to a new level. Key component mainly
driving achievable weight, volume and power consumption is the cryocooler.

9070-83, Session 16

A linear drive cryocooler for ultra-small infrared
sensor systems

In response to continuing requirements for smaller, lighter, and lower power
cryocoolers for tactical IR applications, DRS Technologies has developed its
smallest linear drive cooler for the micro-Integrated Dewar Cooler Assembly(µIDCA). The entire cooler/Dewar assembly occupies slightly more than 2
cubic inches in a rectangular form that measures about 1-inch by 1-inch by
2-inches.
The design goals and constraints are presented and the resulting design isdiscussed. Operating parameters and testing results are summarized.
In addition to the review of the uIDCA cryocooler, this paper presents a brief
update of long-term reliability and life testing for a variety of DRS’ linear
drive cryocoolers. This testing program was initiated prior to 2000 and has
demonstrated cooler lifetimes in excess of 50,000 hours.

MTTF for the cooler will be in excess of 30,000h and thus achieving low
maintenance cost also in 24/7 applications. The SX020 compressor isbased on a single piston design with integrated passive balancer in a new
design achieves very low exported vibration in the order of 100mN in thecompressor axis.
AIM is using a modular approach, allowing the use of 5 different compressor
types with the same type of Stirling expander. The 6mm expander with a
total length of 74mm is now available in a new design that fits into standard
dewar bores originally designed for rotary coolers. Also available is a 9mm
coldfinger in both versions. In development is an ultra-short expander witharound 35mm total length to achieve highest compactness.
Technical solutions and key performance data for AIM’s HOT cryocoolers will
be presented.

9070-82, Session 16

High-efficiency digital cooler electronics foraerospace applications

9070-84, Session 16

Analysis of life demonstration test results andfield data for RICOR’s high-reliable cryocoolers
Racheli Moshe, RICOR-Cryogenic & Vacuum Systems (Israel)
The growing demand for EO applications that work around the clock
24hr/7days a week, such as in border surveillance systems, emphasizes theneed for a highly reliable cryocooler having increased operational availability
and decreased integrated system Life Cycle (ILS) cost. In order to meetthis need, RICOR has developed linear and rotary cryocoolers technologies
which meet this challenge.
Cryocoolers MTTF analyzed by theoretical reliability evaluation methods,
demonstrated by normal and accelerated life demonstration tests at
Cryocooler level and finally verified by field data analysis were derived from
cryocoolers operating at the system level.

Thomas T. Luong, Lauren Shaw, J. Brian Murphy, Edgar A.
Moody, Andrew L. Lisiecki, Michael J. Ellis, Carl S. Kirkconnell, Iris
Technology Corp. (United States)
Closed-cycle cryogenic refrigerators, or cryocoolers, are an enabling
technology for a wide range of aerospace applications, mostly related toinfrared (IR) sensors. While the industry focus has tended to be on themechanical cryocooler thermo mechanical unit (TMU) alone, implementation
on a platform necessarily consists of the combination of the TMU and a

SPIE DSS 2014

A family of high end digital cryocooler electronics has been developed toaddress the widest possible range of high end aerospace infrared sensor
applications. The presented electronics are readily scalable from 10W to500W output capacity; experimental performance data for both a 25W and150W version are presented. The combination of a FPGA-based controller
and dual H-bridge motor drive architectures yields high efficiency (>92%
typical) and precision temperature control (+/- 30 mK typical) for a wide
range of mechanical cryocooler types and vendors. This paper focuses
on recent testing with the AIM SX030, AIM SF100, and Thales LPT 9510
cryocoolers.

Richard Rawlings, Graham Averitt, Jessica Aguilar, DRS
Technologies, Inc. (United States)

AIM cryocooler developments are focused to compact, lightweight linear
cryocoolers driven by compact and high efficient digital cooler drive
electronics (DCE) to also achieve highest MTTF targets. This technology
is using moving magnet driving mechanisms and dual or single piston
compressors. Whereas SX030 which was presented at SPIE in 2012
consuming less 3 WDC to operate a typical IDCA at 140K, next smaller
cooler SX020 is designed to provide sufficient cooling power at detector
temperature above 160K. The cooler weight of less than 200g, a total
compressor length of 60mm makes it an ideal solution for all applications
with limited weight and power budget, like in handheld applications. For
operating a typical 640x512, 15µm MW IR detector the power consumption
will be less than 1.5WDC.

26

mating set of command and control electronics. For some applications thecryocooler electronics (CCE) are technologically simple and low cost relative
to the TMU, but this is not always the case. The relative cost and complexityof the CCE for a space-borne application can easily exceed that of the TMU,
primarily due to the technical constraints and cost impacts introducedby the typical space radiation hardness and reliability requirements. Highend tactical IR sensor applications also challenge the state of the art incryocooler electronics, such as those for which temperature setpoint andfrequency must be adjustable, or those where an informative telemetry
set must be supported, etc. Generally speaking for both space and tacticalapplications, it is often the CCE that limits the rated lifetime and reliability of
the cryocooler system.

·

The paper will focus on the reliability evaluation models for different
technologies, report and analyze life demonstration test data at different
mission profiles and verify the results by fielded cryocoolers operating as afeedback to approve the theoretical assumptions and calculation models. In
addition, it will review the system’s end user needs and expectations fromadvanced high reliable cryocoolers.

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-85, Session 17

9070-87, Session 17

Hemispherical curved monolithic cooled anduncooled infrared focal plane arrays for compact
camerasOptimized MCT IR-modules for high-performance
imaging applications
Rainer Breiter, Holger Lutz, Stefan Rutzinger, Timo Schallenberg,
Joachim C. Wendler, Detlef Eich, Heinrich Figgemeier, Ingo Rühlich,
AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany)

Kevin Tekaya, Manuel Fendler, Delphine Dumas, Commissariat àl’Énergie Atomique (France); Karim Inal, Elisabeth Massoni, Mines
ParisTech (France); Guillaume Druart, ONERA (France); DavidHenry, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique (France)

In today’s typical military operations situational awareness is a key element
for mission success. In contrast to what is known from conventional warfare
with typical targets such as tanks, asymmetric scenarios now dominate
military operations. These scenarios require improved identification
capabilities, for example the assessment of threat levels posed bypersonnel targets. Also, it is vital to identify and reliably distinguishbetween combatants, non-combatants and friendly forces. To satisfy theserequirements, high-definition (HD) large format systems are well-suited dueto their high spatial and thermal resolution combined with high contrast.
Typical applications are sights for long range surveillance, targeting andreconnaissance platforms as well as rotorcraft pilotage sight systems.

InfraRed (IR) sensor systems like night vision goggles, missile approachwarning systems and telescopes have an increasing interest in decreasing
their size and weight. At the same time optical aberrations are always moredifficult to optimize with larger Focal Plane Arrays (FPAs) and larger field ofview. Both challenges can now take advantage of a new optical parameter
thanks to flexible microelectronics technologies: the FPA sphericalcurvature. This bio-inspired approach can correct optical aberrations (e.
g. field of view curvature, coma, etc.) and reduce the number of lenses incamera conception.

In 2012 AIM presented first prototypes of megapixel detectors with
1280x1024 elements and 15µm pitch for both spectral bands MWIR and
LWIR. The modular design allows integration of different cooler types,
like AIM’s split linear coolers SX095 or SX040 or rotary integral types
depending whatever fits best to the application. Large format FPAs havebeen fabricated using liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) or molecular beam epitaxy(MBE) grown MCT.

Firstly, a new process to curve thin monolithic devices has been applied touncooled microbolometers FPAs. A functional 256x320 25μm pitch (roughly1cm?) uncooled FPA has been thinned and curved. Its electrical response
showed no degradation after our process (variation of less than 2.3% on the
response). Then a two lenses camera with a curved FPA is designed andcharacterized in comparison with a two lenses camera with a flat FPA. Their
Modulation Transfer Functions (MTFs) show clearly an improvement in termsof beams dispersion.

To offer high resolution in a more compact configuration AIM started thedevelopment of a 1024x768 10µm pitch IR-module. Keeping electro/optical
performance is achieved by a higher specific charge handling capacity of
the readout circuit (ROIC) in a 0.18µm Si CMOS technology. The FPA size fits
to a dewar cooler configuration used for 640x512 15µm pitch modules.

Secondly, a new process to fabricate monolithic cooled flip-chip MCTIRCMOS FPAs was developed leading to the first spherical cooled IR FPA: a
256x320 30 μm pitch FPA (roughly 1 cm?), with a spherical bending radiusof 550 mm. A standard opto-electrical characterization at 80 K of theimager shows no additional short circuit and no mean response alterationcompared to a standard IRCMOS shown in reference. Noise is also studied
with a black body between 20 and 30°C.

The paper will present the development status and performance of large
format IR-modules at AIM with small pixel pitch integrated in compact
dewar cooler configurations

9070-86, Session 17

9070-88, Session 17

Mercury cadmium telluride focal plane arraydevelopments at Selex ES for astronomy andspectroscopy

Sofradir’s recent improvements regarding
the reliability and performance of HgCdTe IR
detectors

Ian M. Baker, SELEX Galileo Infrared Ltd. (United Kingdom); Gert
Finger, European Southern Observatory (Germany); Keith Barnes,
SELEX Galileo Infrared Ltd. (United Kingdom)

Xavier Brenière, SOFRADIR (France)
Sofradir IR detectors are being deployed in a lengthening line of space
applications (earth observation, atmospheric observation, scientificmissions, etc…), and also in the whole range of tactical applications(portable cameras, missile seekers, airborne and naval systems, etc…).

Selex-ES in Southampton, UK, is developing advanced infrared detectors
for space and astronomy applications. Large format arrays, up to 2k x 2k,
for the near-infrared and short wavelength bands utilise MOVPE HgCdTe
on low cost GaAs to achieve low dark current and near-ideal MTF. Thesearrays can use conventional or avalanche photodiode arrays (APDs). APDs
are also applied to high frame-rate, single photon applications, such as that
required for wavefront sensors, interferometry and imaging of transient
events. Most recent research is based on a custom device called Saphira(320x256/24micron) and measurements have been performed by theEuropean Southern Observatory (ESO) in low flux conditions. Saphira has
32 parallel outputs for 5 Kframes/s and non-destructive readout to enable‘down the slope’ or Fowler sampling techniques. Using MOVPE APDs withan avalanche gain of 50x, an operating temperature of 85K and 10ms
integration time, very few pixel defects are observed. The read noise with 8
Fowler sample pairs was measured to be 0.26 electrons.

Sofradir is taking advantage of these two areas. Firstly, space applications
are developing new advances and technologies that can later be
introduced in the production of IR detectors for tactical applications,
thereby increasing their quality and reliability. In addition, Sofradir canbetter satisfy space application requirements for failure rates, as these canonly be demonstrated with the large number of detectors manufactured,
which tactical applications provide. As a result, this approach offers acontinuous cycle for reliability of IR detectors, accelerating reliability
growth in production, and at the same time meeting requirements for space
applications.
This paper presents recent improvements introduced in production lines of
HgCdTe detectors, that increase performances, image quality, and reliability.

9070-89, Session 17

Dual-band photon sorting plasmonic MIM
metamaterial sensor
Young Uk Jung, The City College of New York (United States); Igor

27

+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL
Bendoym, National Science Foundation (United States); Andrii B.
Golovin, David T. Crouse, The City College of New York (UnitedStates) and National Science Foundation (United States)

9070-91, Session 17

We propose a plasmonic metal-insulator-metal (MIM) metamaterial
design for the sensing of two infrared wavelength bands. This structure
can simultaneously capture light in the mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR)and long-wavelength infrared (LWIR). Our design is based on couplingof incident electromagnetic waves to a sub-wavelength plasmonic mode
within a MIM metamaterial. Photon sorting can be performed such thatlight of a broad spectrum can be incident upon a surface that “splits” thelight according to wavelength, sorting the light of different wavelengths todifferent areas of the MIM where it is then absorbed by the insulator. Two
different structures described in this work are (1) Square-type structure
which consists of absorbing insulator and metal on top being periodicallyarranged on the metal substrate and (2) Meander-type structure which
consists of absorbing insulator and metal on top and being connected toform meander shape. Mercury Cadmium Telluride (HgCdTe) posts are usedabsorbing materials within the MIM structure to generate free carriers andallow for collection of the carrier charges. Most dual-wavelength or twocolor IR detection systems are costly and vertically-stacked complicatedsemiconductor structure. However, the proposed models have compact
designs and can detect polarized or arbitrary polarized incident waves
and exhibit efficient light splitting and absorption for the IR spectral
band. Structural and material properties, the electric field distributions
and Poynting vector fields at the resonance frequencies are provided.
Applications include thermal imaging, night vision systems, rifle sights,
missile detection and discrimination, dual bandwidth optical filters, lighttrapping, and electromagnetically induced transparency.

Michael D. Jack, RVS (United States)

Advances in MCT APDs
No Abstract Available

9070-92, Session 18

The rationale for ultra-small pitch IR systems(Invited Paper)
Michael A. Kinch, DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates)9070-90, Session 17

Latest developments in the p-on-n architecture at
DEFIR
Laurent Mollard, Pierre Castelein, Florent Rochette, CEA-LETI(France)
Since 2005, in the scope of “DEFIR”, the joint laboratory between CEA-LETI
and SOFRADIR, p-on-n photodiodes and FPAs (Focal Plane Arrays) havebeen developed and optimised . This p-on-n architecture, obtained by As
implantation into an In doped base layer, offered a significant decrease of
the dark current compared to our n-on-p standard architecture. Following
these developments, this p-on-n technology has been successfullytransferred to SOFRADIR for industrial production . Results obtained on
TV format, 15 µm pitch, showed that this first architecture has reached its
maturity with excellent results in LWIR and MWIR.

9070-93, Session 18

HDVIP five-micron pitch HgCdTe focal planearraysJohn M. Armstrong, Mark R. Skokan, Michael A. Kinch, Joseph D.
Luttmer, DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc. (United States)

In parallel, further developments and studies are still in progress at CEA-LETI
in order to improve the photodiode performance and understanding of thephysical mechanisms.
In this way, new p-on-n architectures have been studied on LPE (Liquid
Phase Epitaxy) in the VLWIR spectral band. Using this new architecture, thetransition temperature, where the dark current shifts from diffusion limited
regime to another one, has been lowered by more than 10K. Extremely low
dark current has been obtained, down to 50 e-/s/pixel.
Concerning MWIR and LWIR spectral bands, the reduction of production
cost and the increase of resolution need smaller pixel pitches with larger
format. In this way, first results have been obtained on test diodes withpixel pitch as low as 8 µm. The I(V) and R(V) plots illustrate the very goodcharacteristic of our p-on-n diodes. These photodiodes present large
reverse breakdown voltage, witnessing the quality of our device fabrication
procedure.

SPIE DSS 2014

Infrared detector pixel pitch has been decreasing, driven by interest in
higher resolution, larger displays, and decreased cost. Previous generationsof focal plane arrays (FPAs) were on 50, 40, 30, and 20µm pitch. 12µm pitch
FPAs are now available. DRS Network and Imaging Systems has developed
ultra-small 5µm pitch infrared detectors for the LWIR and MWIR bands
as part of the DARPA AWARE Lambda Scale effort. This technology is amajor advance in the state of the art for infrared imaging sensors. The pixel
density of 4 million pixels/cm? enables the production of lower cost FPAs
from HDTV resolution up to many millions of pixels.
DRS’ HgCdTe high-density vertically integrated photodetector (HDVIP™)
pixel architecture was scaled down to 5µm pitch. LWIR and MWIR FPAs in
the 1280x720 high-density format were built on a new read-out integrated
circuit. The 5µm pitch FPAs use 82% less HgCdTe area to produce thesame number of pixels at 12µm pitch. FPA operability above 99.7% wasdemonstrated for both HgCdTe cutoffs using a defect limit of twice themedian RMS noise level. LWIR FPAs were packaged into f/1.0 cameras fordemonstration and imagery was collected.

In parallel of industrial production, CEA-LETI team have developed andcharacterized new p-on-n architecture and technological process which
could open new ways for the next generation of p-on-n photodiodes.

28

Large area high density vertically integrated (HDVIP) HgCdTe midwave infrared (MWIR) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) focal plane arrays(FPAs) are now available with a 5um pitch, and excellent performancewith regard to noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD), pixel
operability, and modulation transfer function (MTF). This analysis examines
the potential benefits provided by these ultra-small pitch FPAs, not juston the resulting reduction in system size, weight, and power (SWAP),
but also on the enabled improvement in system performance under
extreme operating conditions, such as elevated operating temperatures.
This potential performance strongly depends on the magnitude of darkcurrents associated with the chosen FPA detector architectures andmaterials technologies, and this analysis compares the limitations ofprevailing HgCdTe photodiode architectures with today’s III-V barrier layer
photoconductors, not only with regard to the current marketplace, butalso with regard to achieving the ultimate end-goal of background anddiffraction limited MWIR and LWIR FPA performance at room temperature.
Such a goal also imposes severe requirements on many other aspects of
IR FPA technology, such as excess 1/f noise, unit cell well capacity, andthe development of pixel delineation and hybridization technologies toachieve a sufficiently adequate MTF for the ultra-small pitches involved. The
challenges associated with these topics will be discussed.

·

www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-94, Session 18

9070-96, Session 18

Getting small

MTF issues in planar small pixel pitch quantum IR
detectors

Yann Reibel, Nicolas Ricard, Eric Mallet, Laurent Rubaldo, David
Billon-Lanfrey, SOFRADIR (France); Nicolas Guérineau, Guillaume
Druart, ONERA (France); Olivier Gravrand, CEA-LETI (France);
Gérard L. Destéfanis, CEA-LETI (France) and ONERA (France)

Olivier Gravrand, Alexandre Ferron, Florent Rochette, Laurent
Mollard, CEA-LETI-Minatec (France); Jocelyn Berthoz, Laurent
Rubaldo, SOFRADIR (France)

Recent advances in miniaturization of IR imaging technology have led to aburgeoning market for mini thermal-imaging sensors.

The actual trend in quantum IR detector development is the design of verysmall pixel pitch arrays. This is motivated by several aspects. First, it gives
the ability to reach higher fabrication yield at a given FPA complexity tolower the cost of IR focal plan arrays. Moreover, it allows also higher formats
for the same chip size, allowing the use of the same optics with a higher
image resolution within a given system. From previously 30µm pitch, thestandard pixel pitch is today 15µm and is expected to decrease to 12µm inthe next few years. Furthermore, focal plane arrays (FPA) with pixel pitch as
small as small as 10µm pitch has been demonstrated in the last few years.

Seen in this context our development on smaller pixel pitch has made much
more compact products feasible. When this competitive advantage is mixed
with smaller coolers made possible by HOT technology, we achieve valuable
reductions in the size, weight and power of the overall package.
In the same time, we are moving to a global offer based on digital interfacesthat provides our customers with simplification on the IR system design
process while freeing up more space. Additionally we are also investigating
new wafer level camera solution taking advantage of the progress in microoptics.

Such ultra-small pixel pitches are very small compared to the typical length
ruling the electrical characteristics of the absorbing materials, namely
the minority carrier diffusion length. As an example for low doped N type
HgCdTe or InSb material, this diffusion length is of the order of 30 to
50µm, ie 3 to 5 times the targeted pixel pitches. This might have strong
consequences on the modulation transfert function (MTF) for planar
structures, where the lateral extension of the photodiode is limited bydiffusion. For such aspect ratios, the self-confinement of neighboring diodes
may not be efficient enough to maintain optimal MTF. Therefore, this issue
has to be addressed in order to take full benefits of the pixel pitch reductionin terms of image resolution.

This paper discusses recent developments on hot and small pixel pitch
technologies as well as efforts made on compact packaging solution
developed by SOFRADIR in collaboration with CEA-LETI and ONERA.

9070-95, Session 18

Benefits of oversampled small pixel Focal Plane
Arrays (FPAs)

This work aims at exploring the MTF evolution of HgCdTe and InSb FPAs
decreasing the pixel pitch below 15µm. Both experimental measurements
and finite element simulations will be used to discuss the different issues.
Different scenarii will be compared, namely deep mesa etch between pixels,
internal drift,…

John T. Caulfield, Jerry Wilson, Cyan Systems (United States); Nibir
K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (UnitedStates)Recently, imaging systems using smaller sub diffraction sized pixels haveshown good imaging results. There are known limits in undersampled andcritically sampled sensors regarding resolution and aliasing. Oversampling
the image using sub-diffraction size pixels offers much more than improved
resolution, smaller FPAs, optics, and dewar systems. Oversampled pixels
results in processing techniques for smaller pixels that enable a numberof related systems benefits such as improved Instantaneous Field of View
(IFOV), Noise Equivalent Power (NEP), False Alarm Rate, and detection
range, as well as other system level benefits.

9070-97, Session 19

Resonator-QWIPs and FPAs (Invited Paper)
Kwong-Kit Choi, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Murzy D.
Jhabvala, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States); Jason
Sun, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Christine A. Jhabvala,Augustyn Waczynski, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (UnitedStates); Kimberley Olver, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Cyan Systems has developed a small pixel ROIC/FPA that demonstrates
these features. We will demonstrate that spatial oversampling can
improve aliasing, sensitivity, and drive reductions in False Alarms throughoversampled correlated processing. Oversampled pixels allow larger format
FPAs and smaller optics, resulting in reductions in size, power, and weight.
Oversampled IR sensors will also improve detection and acuity in turbulent
and hazy conditions over larger pixel IR focal plane array sensors.

The quantum efficiency of QWIPs is difficult to predict and optimize.
Recently, we have established a quantitative 3-dimensional electromagnetic
model for QE computation. In this work, we used this model to designand optimize new detector structures. In one approach, we adjusted thedetector volume to resonate strongly with the scattered light from thediffractive elements (DEs). The resulting intensified field increases thedetector QE correspondingly. We tested this resonator-QWIP concept on
five detector materials and obtained satisfactory agreements between
theory and experiment. The observed single detector QE ranges from 15 to71%, depending on the realized pixel geometry and the matching detectormaterial. We processed one of the materials into hybridized FPAs andobserved a QE of 30% with a conversion efficiency of 11%, in agreementwith the theory. With these measured QE and CE, the NETD is projected to
be 15 mK with 2.4 ms integration time under f/2 optics. The operability for
NETD less than 25 mK is 99.57%. By using rings as DEs, the FPA spectral
nonuniformity can also be minimized with an observed value of 3% incomparison with the 6% for gratings. With a proven EM model, we further
designed different R-QWIPs for a wide range of applications, including
high conversion efficiency detection, narrow band detection through a
medium, narrow band detection at a gaseous medium, simultaneous twocolor detection, sequential voltage tunable two-color detection, broadband
detection at Landsat wavelengths, and detection of circularly polarized light.
Experimental efforts are underway.

We will show quantitative data to illustrate the improvements in resolution,
NEP, detection range, and false alarm suppression of the oversampled IR
sensor as the temporal and spatial oversampling are increased. We will
review the phenomena of reducing pixels size has on improving Noise
Equivalent Power. We will show how smaller pixels have lower SNR,
and how using temporal and spatial oversampling can compensate andeffectively increase SNR lost with smaller pixels. We will quantify the limitsof performance of Oversampling based on theory, and also with Monte
Carlo type analysis using realistic parameters such as shot noise and thermal
noise. We will review in detail the results of the Monte Carlo modeling ofoversampling FPA. We will derive and demonstrate the theoretical limits ofboth temporal and spatial oversampling using both on and off Focal Plane
processing that is required to realize good performance.

29+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-98, Session 19

9070-100, Session 20

Comparison of two complementary surface
plasmonic structures and their enhancement on
infrared photodetectors

Low latency image processing
Derek Robison, BAE Systems (United States)
No Abstract Available

Guiru Gu, Xuejun Lu, Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States)
Two complimentary Plasmonic structures, metallic disc array and 2
dimensional subwavlength hole array (2DSHA), are fabricated, measured,
examined and analyzed. The excited SPPs by the two different plasmonic
structures are visualized by the near field microscope. The metallic discarray and 2DSHA enhancement on QDIPs are also evaluated and compared.
The 2DSHA give much higher peak photocurrent enhancement about 40
times, while the metallic disc array can provide 12 times with broad band
enhancement. The cause of generating the different enhancement results
is deeply analyzed. It’s indicated that the QDIP performance enhancement
depends on the nature of the excited field and interaction of the strong
plasmonic fields with the QDs. Future suggestions are provided to improvethe device enhancement based on the experimental and simulations
results. The results provided in this work consolidate our efforts in bringing
the innovative view of plasmonic research through two complementary
plasmonic structures. This work can be more meaningful in the future
potential applications of metallic particles.

9070-101, Session 20

Digital CMOS focal plane array with on-chip
multiple-accumulate units for low-latency image
processing
Jeff Little, MIT (United States); Brian M. Tyrrell, Richard D’Onofrio,
Christy Fernandez-Cull, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9070-102, Session 20

Hardware acceleration of Lucky-Region Fusion(LRF) algorithm for imaging

9070-99, Session 19

Christopher R. Jackson, Garrett A. Ejzak, Univ. of Delaware (UnitedStates); Mathieu Aubailly, Jony Jiang Liu, Gary W. Carhart, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)

Low-cost SWIR sensors: advancing theperformance of ROIC-integrated colloidal
quantum dot photodiode arrays
Ethan J. D. Klem, Jay S. Lewis, Chris W. Gregory, Dorota S.
Temple, RTI International (United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (United States); Priyalal S.
Wijewarnasuriya, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
RTI has developed a novel photodiode technology based on solutionprocessed PbS colloidal quantum dots (CQD) capable of providing low-cost,high performance detection across the Vis-SWIR spectral range. This
technology has shown the potential to overcome the limitations of InGaAs
FPAs that have held back the widespread adoption of high performance
SWIR imaging systems. Although InGaAs-based focal plane arrays (FPAs)
provide excellent detectivity and low noise they are characterized by highcosts, limited visible-spectral response, and costly integration with Si
ROIC devices. The inherent ease of fabrication of RTI’s CQD photodiodetechnology makes it well suited for fabricating low cost, high yield detectors.
RTI’s CQD diodes can be processed at room temperature directly on ROICs
without the need for the hybridization step required by InGaAs detectors.
This reduces cost and leads to reduced pixel size and larger arrays.
We will present performance and yield data of diode arrays fabricateddirectly onto ROIC substrates and onto passive Si substrates. We will discuss
recent advances in device architecture and processing leading to devices
with room temperature dark currents of 2 nA/cm^2 and sensitivity from 350
nm to 1.7 µm. We will also show developments in advancing the responsivityof the detectors through the incorporation of a low-temperature transparent
conducting oxide electrode. In addition, results evaluating reduced pixel size
detectors from a previously demonstrated 30 x 40 µm down to 10 x 10 µm
and 5 x 5 µm will be discussed.
This combination of high performance, dramatic cost reduction, andmulti-band sensitivity is ideally suited to expand the use of SWIR imaging
in current applications, as well as to address applications which require a
multispectral sensitivity not met by existing technologies.

30

SPIE DSS 2014·

“Lucky-region” fusion (LRF) is a synthetic imaging technique thathas proven successful in enhancing the quality of images distorted byatmospheric turbulence. The LRF algorithm extracts sharp regions of animage obtained from a series of short exposure frames, and “fuses” thesharp regions into a final, improved image. In our previous research, the LRF
algorithm had been implemented on a PC using a compiled programming
language. However, the PC does not have sufficient processing power tohandle real-time extraction, processing and reduction required when the
LRF algorithm is applied not to single picture images but rather to realtime video from fast, high-resolution image sensors. This paper describes
a hardware implementation of the LRF algorithm on a VIRTEX-7 field
programmable gate array (FPGA) to achieve real-time video processing.
The novelty in our approach is the creation of a “black box” LRF video
processing system with a general camera link input, a user controllerinterface, and a DVI video output. We also describe a custom hardware
simulation environment we have built to test our LRF implementation.

9070-103, Session 20

Smart pixel imaging with computational arrays(SPICA) (Invited Paper)
Christy Fernandez-Cull, Brian M. Tyrrell, Richard D’Onofrio, MeganBlackwell, Andrew Bolstad, Mike Kelly, Joseph H. Lin, Jeff Little, MIT
Lincoln Lab. (United States)
Smart pixel imaging with computational arrays (SPICA) transfers image
plane coding typically realized in the optical architecture to the focal
plane array, thereby minimizing signal-to-noise losses associated witha binary-valued mask and inherent diffraction concerns. MIT Lincoln
Laboratory has been developing both active and passive digital-pixel
focal plane array (DFPA) devices for many years. In this work, we haveleveraged legacy designs that have been modified with new features to
produce a computational imaging array (CIA) with advanced per-pixelprocessing capabilities. We describe the use of the CIA digital readout
integrated circuit (DROIC) for on-chip background estimation and removal,
image plane filtering, two-dimensional (2D) transient target tracking, andthree-dimensional (3D) transient target estimation. In this work, we use
a CIA DROIC capable of a 1 kHz global frame rate with up to 100 MHz

www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9070:
Infrared Technology and Applications XL

9070-107, Session 21

temporal multiplexing, where each pixel is modulated by a time-varying,pseudo-random, and duo-binary signal (+1,-1,0). This paper will focus on
experimental results associated with 3D target estimation from per-pixel
time-domain encoding with the CIA DROIC with limited loss of spatial
resolution. We will compare structured and pseudo-random encoding
strategies and employ linear inversion and non-linear total variation
regularization algorithms to estimate a 3D (x,y,t) datacube from a 2D (x,y)
temporally-encoded image. By transferring image plane coding to the ROIC
and utilizing sophisticated processing, our CIA facilitates on-chip temporalsuper-resolution.

Near-infrared face recognition utilizing open CV
software
Louiza Sellami, Hau Ngo, U.S. Naval Academy (United States)
Commercially available hardware, freely available algorithms, and authors’developed software are synergized successfully to detect and recognize
subjects in an environment without visible light. This project integrates
three major components: an illumination device operating in near infrared(NIR) spectrum, a NIR capable camera and a software algorithm capable ofperforming image manipulation, facial detection and recognition. Focusing
our efforts in the near infrared spectrum allows the low budget system tooperate covertly while still allowing for accurate face recognition. In doing
so a valuable function has been developed which presents potential benefits
in future civilian and military security and surveillance operations.

9070-104, Session 20

A bio-inspired IR sensor with on chip object
computation
Paul L. McCarley, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); John T.
Caulfield, Cyan Systems (United States)

9070-108, Session 21

No Abstract Available

Automated, long-range, night/day, active-SWIR
face recognition system

9070-105, Session 21

Brian E. Lemoff, Robert B. Martin, Mikhail Sluch, Kristopher M.
Kafka, Andrew Dolby, Robert V. Ice, West Virginia High Technology
Consortium Foundation (United States)

Multispectral image fusion for face recognition at
a distanceFang Hua, Stephanie Schuckers, Clarkson Univ. (United States)

Covert, long-range, night/day identification of stationary human subjects
using face recognition has been previously demonstrated using theactive-SWIR Tactical Imager for Night/Day Extended-Range Surveillance(TINDERS) system. TINDERS uses an invisible eye-safe, SWIR laser
illuminator to produce high-quality facial imagery under conditions ranging
from bright sunlight to total darkness. The recent addition of automation
software to TINDERS has enabled the autonomous identification of moving
subjects at distances greater than 100 m. Unlike typical cooperative, shortrange face recognition scenarios, where positive identification requires
only a single face image, the SWIR wavelength, long distance, anduncontrolled conditions mean that positive identification requires fusing theface matching results from multiple captured images of a single subject.
Automation software is required to initially detect a person, lock on andtrack the person as they move, and select video frames containing highquality frontal face images for processing. Fusion algorithms are required
to combine the matching results from multiple frames to produce a highconfidence match. These automation functions will be described, and results
showing automated identification of moving subjects, night and day, atmultiple distances will be presented.

With the development of sensing technologies, image fusion of thermal
and near IR images is becoming an active area of investigation for facerecognition in challenging night operating environments. Each sensing
modality has its own limitations, however, there is much utility in fusing
these imagery together. In this paper, a new software-based registrationand fusion of thermal and near infrared (IR) image data is proposed in order
to illustrate the advantages and limitations of data fusion from multiple IR
spectrums for face recognition in night operations.
There are 3 major contributions in this work: First, a new image registration
method is proposed to spatially co-register thermal and near IR image pairs.
Our rapid and accurate facial feature detectors for thermal and near IR
images are helped to locate and align facial features for the registration.
Second, fusion of co-registered thermal and near IR image pairs is
introduced and applied to generate one informative composite facial image.
Fusing thermal and near infrared imaging data offers a viable means for
improving the performance of face recognition techniques based on a single
imaging modality. Pixel-based fusion in wavelet domain and feature-based
fusion in eigenspace domain are investigated in this work and employed toadaptively select an optimum fusion strategy when dealing with varying
resolution of images.
Third, performances of face recognition using thermal IR, near IR andthermal-near IR fused images are conducted with LBP, SIFT and PCA
methods.
Experimental results show that the applied fusion method provides
improvement of the spatial resolution and also improves face recognition
system performance. Current night vision technologies are enabled throughimaging in the active and passive cameras, especially the dual-mode active/
passive cameras. This paper paves the way toward utilizing this dual-mode
active/passive camera in face recognition at a distance.

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV
Tuesday - Thursday 6 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9071 Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV

9071-1, Session 1

9071-3, Session 1

Comparison of IRST systems by SNR

Thermal imager sources of nonuniformities:
modeling of static and dynamic contributions
during operations

Charles Kim, Ron K. Meyer, Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems(United States)
Infrared (IR) cameras are widely used in search and track. IR search andtrack (IRST) systems primarily use one of two distinct spectral bands: midwave IR (MWIR) or long-wave IR (LWIR). Each of these bands have its own
merit, yet system engineers often have to make a choice between them due
to various constraints. Many have compared them in a number of ways. The
comparison includes field data and analysis under various scenarios. Yet,it has been a challenge to make the right decision in choosing one bandover the other band for a new scenario. Evaluating the performance of any
system usually includes three areas: signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), resolution
and clutter rejection. We focus on SNR. The SNR not only helps to make adecision for a new system, but also determines the range for detection. We
have identified the common parameters for both bands. We have produced
a general formula for comparison using noise equivalent differential
temperature (NEDT) as a basis. We have shown examples under certain
cases, each of which illustrates the evaluation and benefit of one band over
the other. They provide an insight for system engineers to determine relative
performance between the two bands in light of SNR.

Due to the fast-growing of cooled detector sensitivity in the last years, 1020 mK temperature difference between adjacent objects can theoreticallybe discerned on the image if the calibration algorithm (NUC) is capable totake into account and compensate every spatial noise source. To predict
how the NUC algorithm is strong in all working condition, the modelingof the flux impinging on the detector becomes a challenge to control andimprove the quality of a properly calibrated image in all scene/ambientconditions including every source of spurious signal.
In literature there are lots of papers dealing with NU caused by pixel-topixel differences of detector parameters and by the difference between
the reflection of the detector cold part and the housing at the operative
temperature. These models don’t explain the effects on the NUC results
due to vignetting, dynamic sources out and inside the FOV, reflected
contributions from hot spots inside the housing (for example thermalreference far of the optical path).
We propose a mathematical model in which:9071-2, Session 1

1) detector and system (opto-mechanical configuration and scene) areconsidered separated and represented by two independent transfer
functionsField of view selection for optimal airborne
imaging sensor performance2) on every pixel of the array the amount of photonic signal coming fromdifferent spurious sources are considered to evaluate the effect on residual
spatial noise due to dynamic operative conditions.

Tristan M. Goss, P. Werner Barnard, ASELSAN Inc. (South Africa);
Halidun Fildis, Mustafa Erbudak, Tolga Senger, Mehmet E. Alpman,
ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey)

This article also contain simulation results showing how this model can beused to predict the amount of spatial noise.

The choice of the Field of View (FOV) of imaging sensors used in airborne
targeting applications has major impact on the overall performance of thesystem. Conducting a market survey from published data on sensors usedin stabilized airborne targeting systems shows a trend of ever narrowing
FOVs housed in smaller and lighter volumes. This approach promotes theever increasing geometric resolution provided by narrower FOVs, while
it seemingly ignores the influences the FOV selection has on the sensor’s
sensitivity, the effects of diffraction, the influences of sight line jitter andcollectively the overall system performance.

9071-4, Session 1

Accounting for chromatic variations insystem modeling and its influence on system
performanceThis paper presents a trade-off methodology to select the optimal FOV
for an imaging sensor that is limited in aperture diameter by mechanicalconstraints (such as space/volume available and window size) by balancing
the influences FOV has on sensitivity and resolution and thereby optimizing
the systems performance. The methodology may be applied to staring
array based imaging sensors across all wavebands from visible/day cameras
through to long wave infrared thermal imagers.
Some examples of sensor analysis applying the trade-off methodology are
given that highlights the performance advantages that can be gained by
maximizing the aperture diameters and choosing the optimal FOV for an
imaging sensor used in airborne targeting applications.
This paper presents a trade-off methodology to select the optimal FOV
for an imaging sensor that is limited in aperture diameter by mechanicalconstraints (such as space/volume available and window size) by balancing
the influences FOV has on sensitivity and resolution and thereby optimizing
the systems performance. The methodology may be applied to staring
array based imaging sensors across all wavebands from visible/day cameras
through to long wave infrared thermal imagers.
Some examples of sensor analysis applying the trade-off methodology thathighlights the performance advantages that can be gained by maximizing
the aperture diameters and choosing the optimal FOV for imaging sensor
used in airborne targeting applications.

32

Barbara Sozzi, Monica Olivieri, Claudio Giunti, Paolo Mariani,
Stefano Zatti, Antonio Porta, SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy)

SPIE DSS 2014·

Jonathan G. Hixson, David P. Haefner, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
To accurately model the performance of today’s vastly different arrayof visible cameras, ranging from the cheap low end cell-phone cameras
to high end high definition surveillance sensors, the affect of using abroadband modulation transfer function (MTF) versus a spectrally varying
MTF on target acquisition range performance predictions is explored. The
monochromatic MTF is a spectral average across wavelength weighted by
the sensors spectral sensitivity and scaled by the spectral behavior of thesource. For reflective band sensors (400nm-700nm for this exercise), where
there are significant variations in spectral shape of the reflected light, thisspectral averaging can result in very different MTFs and therefore varying
range performance. We explore the influence of this spectral averaging on
performance utilizing NV-IPM v1.1 (Night Vision Integrated Performance
Model). We examine the errors in range performance when a system ischaracterized with one illumination and the performance is quoted foranother. We also show how systems with the same predicted performancefor a particular illumination can have different performance under otherspectral illuminations due to the different systems chromatic behavior.
Our results summarize the accuracy of different assumptions to how amonochromatic MTF can be approximated and how the measurement
conditions under which a system was characterized should be consideredwhen modeling performance. In conclusion recommendations are made forwww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV
when a sensor designer needs to pay attention to the affects of chromatic
variations on sensor range performance.

In this paper, we demonstrate the direct optimization of the full LWIR
system model including the optics, sensor, processing and display degrees
of freedom with system level metrics including SWAP and detection range.
The end result is a system with superior SWAP for a given detection range.

9071-5, Session 1

Method for quantifying image quality in pushbroom hyperspectral cameras

9071-7, Session 2

Performance trade space analysis for
multifunction EO-IR systems

Gudrun Hoeye, Trond Løke, Andrei Fridman, Norsk Elektro Optikk
AS (Norway)

Keith A. Krapels, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (UnitedStates); Ronald G. Driggers, St. Johns Optical Systems (UnitedStates)In this work we suggest a method for quantifying image quality in pushbroom hyperspectral cameras. Important criteria for the image quality ofsuch cameras are image sharpness as well as good spatial and spectral
co-registration. Spatial misregistration – such as keystone and variationsin the point-spread-function (PSF) across the spectral channels – distortthe captured spectra. Similar types of errors occur in the spectral direction(smile effect and corresponding PSF variation). Quantifying these errors,
as well as the image sharpness, would allow for evaluation and comparisonof the performance of different hyperspectral imagers. However, how tomeasure and quantify these errors is currently not well defined.

As pixels have gotten smaller and focal plane array sizes larger, it may bepractical to make EO-IR systems which are inherently multifunctional. A
system intended to perform threat warning, pilotage imaging and target
acquisition imaging would be a multifunctional system. This notional system
could be panoramic or hemispheric with cameras covering segments ofspace simultaneously. It could save cost and weight over federated systems.
However, can all of these disparate tasks be performed successfully by asingle system? Or will the trade-offs compromise the potential savings?

Using the suggested method, we will show how misregistration errors andsharpness can be measured and quantified in a reliable and consistent way
for different types of hyperspectral cameras. The mathematical framework
will be described as well as the suggested measurement procedure. We willshow how the measured camera performance can be presented graphicallyin an intuitive and easy to understand way – facilitating the comparison ofdifferent hyperspectral imagers. Finally, we will quantify the performance ofan existing hyperspectral camera using this method.

Targeting sensors have typically been designed to create long range,high resolution imagery for detection and identification. The imagery
is optimized to suppress the scene/clutter and maximize the target
signature. Pilotage sensors have typically been wide field of view withunity magnification systems which maximize scene contrast to enable safe
flight. Threat warning sensors are intended to detect unresolved (spatiallyor temporally) targets/events using algorithms to discriminate them fromclutter or solar glint. The first two applications involve imagery for humanoperator consumption, while the third is processed by algorithms. With
these disparate performance goals, there is a wide variety of competing
metrics used to optimize these sensors – F-number, FOV/IFOV, frame rate,
NETD, NEI, FAR, Probability of Identification, etc. This study is a theoreticallook at how these performance parameters and system descriptors trade
and their relative impacts.

The performance criteria established by this method could be useful
guidelines when designing a new hyperspectral camera. The suggested
method could become the standard for how to measure and quantify theimage quality of push-broom cameras.

9071-6, Session 1

Direct optimization of LWIR system for
maximized detection range and minimized SWAP

9071-9, Session 2

Lab and field measurements to evaluate a
differential polarimetric IR (DPIR) search sensor

Robert M. Bates, FiveFocal LLC (United States)
With reductions in microbolometer size and cost, LWIR systems are
increasingly being developed for unmanned aerial and ground vehicle
applications with challenging size, weight, and power constraints. Past
optimization of imaging systems toward the simultaneous objectives ofimproved stand-off detection and low size, weight, and power required an
iterative, multi-disciplinary design process. Historically, the system design
has been a very manual process which results in components that are
unnecessarily over-engineered resulting in added size, weight, power, or
cost to the system.

Roger W. Thompson Jr., Van A. Hodgkin, Kevin R. Leonard, Bradley
L. Preece, Keith A. Krapels, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States)
Differential polarimetry has shown the ability to enhance target signaturesby reducing background signatures, thus effectively increasing the signalto-noise ratio on target. This method has mainly been done for resolved,
high contrast targets. For ground-to-air search and tracking of small, slow,
airborne targets, the target at range can be sub-pixel and hard to detect
against the background sky. Given the unpolarized nature of the thermal
emission of the background sky, it should be possible to use differential
polarimetry to “filter out” the background, and thus enhance the ability ofdetecting sub-pixel targets. The first step in testing this hypothesis is todevise a set of surrogate sample targets and measure their polarimetricproperties in the thermal IR in both the lab and the field. The goal ofthis paper is to determine whether or not it is feasible to use differential
polarimetry to search, detect, and track small airborne objects.

Through the development of system simulation and optimization softwarethat incorporates the optical lens model with the target, sensor, display,and observer models, the end-to-end performance of the system can be
optimized directly according to the probability of task performance using
the standard targeting task performance (TTP) metric. With the subsystems
incorporated into a model with optimization capabilities, trade-offs are
more directly balanced across system components so that no component
is over-designed for the objectives. Further, by incorporating a detailed
optical model, the performance of the system can be balanced across field,
providing critical insight into trade-offs with optical distortion, relative
illumination, and MTF in meeting the system goals.

9071-10, Session 2

Full system optimization has been approached in the past by attempting
to link disparate software packages together through a data interface. The
authors have found this approach to be severely limited by the speed ofthe data connections. In the approach taken here, a complete software
implementation was developed to bring all modeling aspects within one
environment, enabling rapid system optimization. The optimized model isvalidated using NV-IPM as the standard.

33+1 360 676 3290

Modeling the identification of helicopter landing
hazards in degraded viewing conditions
Jeremy B. Brown, Eddie L. Jacobs, Zachary Tate, The Univ. ofMemphis (United States)·

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV
Helicopter induced brownout can reduce visibility and hide potentially
dangerous landing hazards. This research describes an approach todefine a model for the probability of identifying a hazard, given image
degradations of contrast and noise experienced during brownout conditions.
Images of potential landing hazards were collected under two different
contrast conditions. These images were then degraded using a brownout
simulation. Human perception experiments were performed to quantify task
performance of detecting a hazard under degraded conditions and used toform a model of performance. An observer analysis is performed to quantify
the bias and sensitivity of the observers. Data from the highest performing
observers is used for further model development. Multiple models areproposed, which include not only the parameters, but also the parameterinteractions. Linear regression techniques, logit and probit, are used to
fit the models to the data. Models are assessed for goodness using the
Akaike Information Criteria. A successful model relates image degradation
parameters to task performance and could be used to quantify image
processing algorithm performance, as well as provide additional information
to automate image processing to achieve task performance.

image is subjected to various amounts of blur and noise. Metrics for theaccuracy of segmentation have been developed and measured for each
image and segmentation algorithm. Using the computed metric values
and the known values of blur and noise, a model of performance forsegmentation is being developed. Preliminary results are reported.

9071-12, Session 3

Technologies for low-bandwidth, high-latency
unmanned ground vehicle control
Teresa L. Pace, SenTech, LLC- A DSCI Co. (United States); Lee Hunt,
Prioria Robotics, Inc. (United States); Ken Cogan, SenTech, LLC- A
DSCI Co. (United States)

Polarization filters are commonly used as a simple means of increasing
the contrast of a scene thereby increasing sensor range performance. Thechange in the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is a function of the polarization
between the target and background, the orientation of the filter, and theoverall transparency of the filter. However, in the midwave and longwave
infrared bands, the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD), which
directly affects the SNR, is a function of the filters reemission and its
reflected temperature radiance. This paper presents a simple method for
tracking the polarization as a function of wavelength, numerical aperture,and signal orientation through Night Vision Integrated Performance Model(NV-IPM) in order to predict the change in SNR and NETD. A host oflaboratory and field measurements conducted at Night Vision Electronic
Sensors Directorate (NVESD) are utilized to help validate the method andperform design studies of conventional infrared systems equipped withdifferential polarization filters.

Automation technology has evolved at a rapid pace in recent years; however,many real-world problems require contextual understanding, problem
solving, and other forms of higher-order thinking that extends beyond thecapabilities of robots for the foreseeable future. This limits the complexityof automation which can be supplied to modern unmanned ground vehicles(UGV) and necessitates human-in-the-loop monitoring and control for some
portions of missions. In order for the human operator to make decisions
and provide tasking during key portions of the mission, existing solutions
first derive significant information from a potentially dense reconstructionof the scene utilizing LIDAR, video, and other onboard sensors. A dense
reconstruction contains too much data for real-time transmission over amodern wireless data link, so the UGV electronics must first condense thescene representation prior to transmission. The control station receives
this condensed scene representations and provides visual information to
the human operator; the human operator then provides tele-operationcommands in real-time to the UGV. This paper discusses approaches todense scene reduction of the data required to transmit to a human-inthe loop as well as the challenges associated with them. In addition, thecomplex and unstructured nature of real-world environments increases
the need for tele-operation. Furthermore, many environments reducethe bandwidth and increase the latency of the link. Ultimately, worsening
conditions will cause the tele-operation control process to break down,
rendering the UGV ineffective. In a worst-case scenario, extreme conditions
causing a complete loss-of-communications could result in mission failure
and loss of the vehicle. This paper also discusses an autonomy component
which enables key activities when the communications link cannot support
tele-operation and it also discusses the detection of unsafe or unpredictedconditions occurring during automated operations.

9071-64, Session 2

9071-13, Session 3

Modeling segmentation algorithm performancein NV-IPM

High-dynamic range imaging using FAST-IR
imagery

Micah J. Lies, Eddie L. Jacobs, The Univ. of Memphis (United States)

Frédérick Marcotte, Vincent Farley, Telops (Canada)

Imaging sensors produce images whose primary use is to convey
information to human operators. However, their proliferation has resulted inan overload of information. As a result, computational algorithms are being
increasingly implemented to simplify an operator’s task or to eliminate
the human operator altogether. Predicting the effect of algorithms on task
performance is currently cumbersome requiring estimates of the effects ofan algorithm on the blurring and noise, and “shoe-horning” these effects
into existing models. With the increasing use of automated algorithms
with imaging sensors, a fully integrated approach is desired. While sensor
technologies and algorithms differ, specific tasks can be identified thatencompass a wide range. Those tasks are segmentation of objects from thespatio-temporal background, object tracking over time, feature extraction,and transformation of features into human usable information. In thispaper research is conducted with the purpose of developing a general
performance model for segmentation algorithms based on image quality. A
database of pristine imagery has been developed in which there is a wide
variety of clearly defined regions with respect to shape, size, and inherent
contrast. Both synthetic and “natural” images make up the database. EachOne of the biggest and challenging limitations of infrared cameras insurveillance applications is the limited dynamic range. Image blooming andother artefacts may hide important details in the scene when saturation
occurs. Many different techniques such as using multiple exposure times
have been developed in the past to help overcome these issues. However allthese techniques feature non negligible limitations.

9071-11, Session 2

Predicted NETD performance of a polarized
infrared imaging sensor
Bradley L. Preece, Van A. Hodgkin, Roger W. Thompson Jr., Kevin
R. Leonard, Keith A. Krapels, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States)

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SPIE DSS 2014

This paper presents a new high dynamic range algorithm developed by
Telops. It is based on a pixel-wise exposure-time independent calibration as
well as a pixel based frame summing. This technique benefits from the useof a high frame rate camera (> 20 000 fps). Description of the hardware isalso included. Finally results from a combustion experiment are presented
and discussed.

·

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV

9071-14, Session 3

Edwards, Dynetics, Inc. (United States)

A virtual environment for modeling and testing
sensemaking with multisensor information

Computational imaging techniques can be used to extend the depth offield of imaging sensors such that the sensors become less expensive tobuild and athermalize with no loss to performance. Optical phase canbe manipulated to create an image that is optimized for a detection andtracking algorithm as well as reconstructed digitally to form an image
suitable for viewing. A typical low-cost sensor which is used for target
detection and tracking may run an algorithm which requires different
features and resolution from its imagery than would a system optimized
for a human. This offers a unique opportunity to optimize both optics andimage processing for a system which can maximize mission performanceas well as minimize production cost. Simple computational techniques have
not yet been successful in passive, low-signal environments due to noise
issues. This study examines the use of a simple computational technique inan algorithmic application in which optimal reconstruction may occur withlower noise. This paper will describe the model, simulation, and prototype
which resulted from a detailed and novel system design and modelingprocess. The goal of this effort is to accurately model the anticipatedperformance and to prove actual cost savings of a tracking sensor which
employs computational imaging techniques.

Denise M. Nicholson, Sae Schatz, Robert Hoppenfeld, DSCI (UnitedStates)Given the challenges of today’s Irregular Warfare (IW), members of small
infantry units must be able to function as highly sensitized perceivers
throughout large operational areas. Improved Situation Awareness (SA)in rapidly changing, uncertain fields of operation may also save lives oflaw enforcement personnel and counter-terrorist responders. A criticalcompetency for these personnel is sensemaking: the ability to quickly andaccurately assess the environment through the perception of all essential
salient environmental and behavioral cues in the environment. This requires
the full use of all available intelligence sources including communications,multi-spectral images from unmanned aerial vehicles, night vision
goggles, binoculars, optical sights, and laser range finders. Althoughadditional data from improved emerging sensor technologies can increase
the understanding of the tactical operating picture, challenges such as
interpretation and fusion of the multi-source data and information overload
can occur. This paper discusses a Future Naval Capability Research Program,sponsored by the Office of Naval Research, which has developed a virtualenvironment for analysis and human-in-the-loop testing of perception anddecision making performance using state of the art scene simulation andmodeled imagery from multi-source systems. We will present results fromour human systems engineering approach including 1) the developmentof requirements and test metrics for individual and integrated systemcomponents, 2) the system architecture design 3) images of the prototype
virtual environment testing system and 4) a discussion of the current andfuture testing capabilities of the system. In particular, we will examine
the potential to model, test and analyze the impact of advances in sensor
spatial, spectral, and temporal resolution to a user’s sensemaking capability
and small unit operational readiness.

9071-18, Session 4

Night vision integrated performance model forcamera calibration and prediction
David P. Haefner, Jonathan D. Fanning, Brian P. Teaney, U.S. Army
Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
The Night Vision Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM) is a systemengineering tool developed to provide an intuitive platform for component
and parameter based trade studies. The success of this tool is rooted in
its ability to accurately trace photons from an arbitrary scene through aspecified atmosphere and each component in an imaging device (optics,
filters, sensors, etc.) up to and including the human visual system. NV-IPM
can also be used in conjunction with laboratory measurements to provide
an accurate assessment of system performance with respect to theoreticalspecifications. The measured component can then be used to conduct tradestudies across scenes and situations beyond those measured. In this article,
we demonstrate how NV-IPM can be used to accurately predict various
aspects of color imaging system performance (blur, signal, and noise)using a linear shift invariant representation of the system. The modeled
performance shows excellent agreement with measurements for bothmonochromatic and colored scenes.

9071-15, Session 3

Performance assessment of compressive sensing
imaging
Todd W. Du Bosq, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)
Compressive sensing (CS) can potentially form an image of equal quality
to a large format, megapixel array, using a smaller number of individual
measurements. This has the potential to provide smaller, cheaper, andlower bandwidth imaging systems. To properly assess the value of such
systems, it is necessary to fully characterize the image quality, including
artifacts, sensitivity to noise, and approach limitations. Full resolution
imagery of an eight tracked vehicle target set at range was used to simulate
CS measurements and reconstruct images from a single-pixel CS camera
for various levels of compression and noise. For comparison, a traditional
camera was also simulated setting the number of pixels equal to the numberof CS measurements in each case. Human perception experiments were
performed to determine the identification performance within the tradespace. The performance of the nonlinear CS camera was modeled with
the Night Vision Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM) by mapping thenonlinear degradations to an equivalent linear shift invariant model. Finally,
the limitations of compressive sensing modeling will be discussed.

9071-19, Session 4

Imaging system sensitivity analysis with NV-IPM
Jonathan D. Fanning, Brian P. Teaney, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
This paper describes the sensitivity analysis capabilities to be added to afuture version of the NVESD imaging sensor model NV-IPM. Imaging systemdesign always involves tradeoffs to design the best system possible withinsize, weight, and cost constraints. In general, the performance of a welldesigned system will be limited by the largest, heaviest, or most expensive
component. Modeling is used to analyze system designs before the system
is built. Traditionally, NVESD models were only used to determine theperformance of a given system design. NV-IPM has the added ability toautomatically determine the sensitivity of any system output to changes inthe system parameters. The component-based structure of NV-IPM tracks
the dependence between outputs and inputs such that only the relevant
parameters are varied in the sensitivity analysis. This allows sensitivity
analysis of an output such as probability of identification to determine thelimiting parameters of the system. Individual components can be optimized
by doing sensitivity analysis of outputs such as NETD or SNR. This capability
will be demonstrated by analyzing example imaging systems.

9071-16, Session 3

Low-cost computational imaging infrared
imaging
Kyle R. Bryant, U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering
Command (United States); Ryan K. Rogers, William Derrick

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
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9071-20, Session 49071-23, Session 5

Modeling laser radar systems in the Night Vision
Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM)

Uncertainty analysis of sensor abilities in the
short-wave infrared spectral region based onnightglow as the main lightsource

Kevin R. Leonard, Van A. Hodgkin, Bradley L. Preece, Roger W.
Thompson Jr., Keith A. Krapels, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC
NVESD (United States)

Thomas Svensson, Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)

Active imaging systems are currently being developed to increase the target
acquisition and identification range performance of electro-optical systems.
This paper reports on current efforts to extend the Night Vision Integrated
Performance Model (NV-IPM) to include laser radar (LADAR) systems forunresolved targets. Experimental data for an exemplar target are comparedwith modeled results.
Combining this new LADAR modeling capability with existing sensor andenvironment capabilities already present in NV-IPM will enable modelingand trade studies for military relevant systems.

9071-21, Session 4

NV-IPM components for full-spectrum irradianceand path radiance using Modtran

Images collected in the short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral range aresimilar to visual (VIS) images and are easier to interpret for a humanoperator than images collected in the thermal infrared. Another big
advantage is the ability to penetrate ordinary glass which also means thatconventional lens materials can be used. A drawback is that the sensor’s
abilities to work under dark conditions are dependent on external lightsources. At moonless conditions, the dominant natural light source isnightglow, whose level is significantly higher in SWIR compared to VIS.
However, local and temporal variations of nightglow, like variations in othermeasurands, give rise to measurement uncertainties. Therefore, real abilities
for SWIR cameras under dark conditions can be quite different comparedwith predicted abilities. In this paper the variation of the nightglow
intensity is quantified by estimation of standard uncertainties. The
standard uncertainties are compared with calculated combined standard
uncertainties.

9071-24, Session 5

Joseph P. Reynolds, Brian P. Teaney, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC
NVESD (United States)
The Night Vision Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM), recently
released by the US Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate(NVESD), now uses full spectral modeling throughout the image chain. The
spectral signal is only collapsed at points in the chain where it is physicallycombined, such as broad band detectors and the human visual system. The
initial release of the model uses the standard spectral irradiance data fromprevious Night Vision models. This legacy data only spans wavelengths
from 400 nm to 2000 nm, and the atmospheric conditions and solar/lunar
geometries are limited. A new component developed for NV-IPM utilizes
Modtran to calculate ground irradiance over a broader range of conditions,
including all night conditions, covering wavelengths from 300 nm to 15000
nm. In addition, a new Modtran atmospheric transmission component willcalculate target and background path radiance, for cases where the sky-toground ratio approximation is unknown or inaccurate. Both components will
be available in a future version of NV-IPM.

A uniform method for modeling target
acquisition with indepentent networkd imaging
sensors
Melvin H. Friedman, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (UnitedStates)

DISTRIBUTION A. Approved for public release: distribution unlimited.

The search problem discussed in this paper is easily stated: given timedependent search parameters (P_∞,?) for a single sensor searching fora single target, calculate how the probability a single observer acquires
a target grows with time. In a previous paper, by requiring the solution
satisfy six requirements, the solution was expressed in terms of recursion
relationships which used specialized functions. The code using recursion
relationships is intricate. The analytical solution in this paper requires
one assumption, and is easier to code and understand than the previous
solution. The results of this paper may find application in war gamemodeling.

9071-22, Session 59071-25, Session 5

Modeling static and dynamic detection of humans
in rural terrain

General design considerations for highperformance mobile land-based EO/IR pointing
and tracking systems

Eric A. Flug, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate(United States)
Historically, the focus of detection experiments and modeling at the Night
Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) has been on detecting
military vehicles in rural terrains. A gap remains in understanding thedetection of human targets in rural terrains and how it might differ fromdetection of vehicles. There are also improvements that can be madein how to quantify the effect of human movement on detectability. Twoexperiments were developed to look at probability of detection and time
to detect of fully exposed human targets in a low to moderate clutter
environment in the Infrared. The first test uses static images of standing
humans while the second test uses videos of humans walking across thescene at various ranges and speeds. In addition to developing Acquireparameters for use in wargaming, task difficulty parameters (V50’s) arecalculated to calibrate NVESD sensor performance models, specifically
NVThermIP and NV-IPM, for these tasks. Results will be presented alongwith a discussion about the computation of contrast for small targets, theeffect of motion on detection, and a description of follow-on work.

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SPIE DSS 2014

Michael N. Sweeney, General Dynamics-Global Imaging
Technologies (United States)
High performance and mobile pointing and tracking systems are criticalfor future battlefield management. These systems can detect, identify,
and track a broad spectrum of potential threats including missiles,
projectiles, and aircraft. Multi-spectral performance from visible throughlong wave infrared using multiple zoom optical systems and sensors thatare commonly boresighted provide maximum utility to detect, identify,
geo-locate, and track targets under all day/night, weather and battlefield
conditions over long ranges. Scene stabilization, high frame rates, timestamped synchronization of images among coordinated assets, and covert
communication networking is critical to automated operational supremacy
within the environment by prioritizing and activating rapid and appropriate
responses. Modularity and open architecture for all of the major mechanical,
electrical, optical, firmware and software elements is also critical for ease of
performance upgrade, mission re-configuration, reliability, maintenance, andlife cycle cost.

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV
setups yield consistent transmission values.

Novel optical systems including reflective, refractive, and catadioptric
designs, both fixed focal length and continuous zoom, servicing visible,
SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR wavelength spectrums, are being continuously
improved within industry. Advances in optical design and manufacturing
enable unprecedented optical performance for a given aperture andpackage size. A wide variety of cooled and uncooled high fidelity focal
plane arrays are available or emerging to match advances in optical systems,
scene stabilization, and video processing. Very high video frame rates are
required to adequately image fast moving targets. Structurally optimized
gimbal structures, precision ball bearings, rotary pivot flexures, motors, andangular position sensors combined with advances in electronic stabilization
ensure crisp and low jitter images simultaneously among all of the sensors
that comprise the EO/IR payload.

Setups and their calibration will be described and test results oncommercially available lenses will be published.

9071-28, Session 6

Modulation transfer function measurement of
microbolometer focal plane array by Lloyd’s
mirror method

The following discussion examines the confluence of optical, sensor, andpointing technologies required for seamless immersion within sophisticatedbattlefield communication and management systems. Notional and real-life
examples are profiled in the context of trade-off discussions.

Guillaume Druart, Sylvain Rommeluère, Viale Thibault, Nicolas
Guérineau, Isabelle Ribet-Mohamed, ONERA (France); Arnaud A.
Crastes, Alain Durand, ULIS (France); Jean Taboury, Lab. Charles
Fabry (France)

9071-26, Session 5

Today, both military and civilian applications require miniaturized and cheap
optical systems. One way to achieve this trend consists in decreasing the
pixel pitch of focal plane arrays.
In order to evaluate the performance of the overall optical systems, it isnecessary to measure the modulation transfer function (MTF) of thesepixels. However, small pixels lead to higher cut-off frequencies andtherefore, original MTF measurements that are able to extract frequencies
up to these high cut-off frequencies, are needed.

SWIR range performance prediction for longrange applications
Emanuele Guadagnoli, Piero Ventura, Gianni Barani, Antonio Porta,
SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy)

In this paper, we will present a way to extract 1D MTF at high frequencies by
projecting fringes on the FPA. The device uses a Lloyd mirror placed nearand perpendicular to the focal plane array. Consequently, an interference
pattern of fringes can be projected on the detector. By varying the angle
of incidence of the light beam, we can tune the period of the interference
fringes and, thus, explore a wide range of spatial frequencies, and mainly
around the cut-off frequency of the pixel which is one of the mostinteresting area.

Long range imaging systems have applications in vessel traffic monitoring,border and coastal observation, and generic surveillance. Often, signreading and identification capabilities are required, and medium- or longwave infrared systems are simply not the best solution for these tasks,
because of the low scene contrast. Among reflected light imagers, theshort-wave infrared has a competitive advantage over the visible and nearinfrared spectrum, being less affected by path attenuation, scattering andturbulence. However, predicting a SWIR system long range performancestill represents a challenge because of the need of an accurate atmosphericmodelling.

Illustration of this method will be applied to a 640x480 microbolometer
focal plane array with a pixel pitch of 17µm in the LWIR spectral region.

In this paper, we present the key limiting performance factors for long range
applications, and how we used popular atmospheric models to extract thesynthetic simulation parameters needed for range performance prediction.
We then present a case study for a long range application, where the main
requirement is to read a vessel name at distances greater than 10km. The
results show a significant advantage of SWIR over visible and near-infrared
solutions for long range identification tasks.

9071-29, Session 6

So that’s what space invariant means: how tomeasure and report NETD
William Derrick Edwards, Ryan K. Rogers, Dynetics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Kyle R. Bryant, Christopher L. Dobbins, Samuel B. Wood,
U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command(United States)

9071-27, Session 6

Methodology for lens transmission measurementin the 8-13 micron waveband: Integrating sphereversus camera-based

For over 30 years, the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Research,
Development, and Engineering Center (AMRDEC) has specialized incharacterizing the performance of infrared (IR) imaging systems in thelaboratory and field. In the late 90’s, AMRDEC developed the AutomatedIR Sensor Test Facility (AISTF) which allowed efficient deployment testingof Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) payloads. More recently, AMRDEC has
tested many uncooled infrared (UCIR) sensor systems that have potential
size, weight, power, and cost (SWAPC) benefits for certain fielded U.S. Army
imaging systems. To compensate for relatively lower detector sensitivities,
most UCIR systems operate with very fast f/# optics. When measuring theNoise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) the techniques used tomeasure traditional cooled infrared systems are invalid when applied tosystems with f/#’s faster than 2.5. Currently the industry standard procedure
for measuring NETD artificially boosts response thereby improving NETD;
this is incorrect and does not represent the actual sensitivity of a systemin the field. Additionally, in order to compare these camera cores or sensor
systems to one another, it is imperative to scale the NETD values for
f/# and waveband differences accurately. This paper will outline proper
measurement techniques to report camera core and system level NETD, as
well as demonstrate methods to scale the metric for changes in waveband
and f/#.

Norbert Schuster, Jan Verplancke, Bergeron S. Salethaiyan, John W.
Franks, Umicore Electro-Optic Materials (Belgium)
Transmission is a key parameter in describing a lens, but is also often thesubject of controversy. Most published lens transmission values are based on
spectrophotometric measurement of plane-parallel witness pieces obtained
from coating processes.
The difficulty in accurately estimating lens transmission lies in measuring theratio between the signal of ray bundles deviated by the lens under test andthe signal of non-deviated ray bundles without lens (100% transmission).
Sources for mistakes in LWIR are manifold: background radiation, reflection
from “rough” surfaces, and/or unexpected transmission bands.
Two different setups are built and tested: An integrating sphere-based setup
and a camera-based setup. After some mechanical modifications on initial
setups, measured signals without lens and with lens under test stabilize.
Reference elements such as an uncoated ZnSe-lens are used for calibrationof both setups. Respecting solid angle-based radiometric relations, both37

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
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9071-30, Session 6

to be measured. All the calculation are taken care externally (interferogram
processing). We use this new set up to perform tests on the angular spectral
response of an IR detector and to analyse the relationship between spectral
response and pixel mechanical behaviour.

Test equipment and method to characterize a
SWIR digital imaging system

In this paper, ULIS presents the setup of this measurement as well as
the technical issues that needed to be addressed. We will also show
measurement results performed on 17µm pitch pixels with normal incidence
and with different tilt angles. We will then try to shed some theoretical lighton the results and the limitations of this protocol using simple optical cavity
modelling.

John Green, Tim Robinson, Esterline Control Systems (UnitedStates)Shortwave Infrared Focal Plane Array (SWIR FPA) Imaging Systems are
an invaluable tool for many aviation applications. This is largely basedon technology improvements for sensitivity, resolution, frame rate, size
reduction, the ability to use the system without active cooling, and unit
cost. The Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) has particular interest in
the possibility that a helmet mounted FPA imaging systems may offer asignificant advantage to the US war fighter by providing enhanced nightand day vision.

9071-33, Session 7

There are several manufacturers of uncooled SWIR infrared cameras. Given
the number of manufactures and various camera options available, it isbeneficial to characterize the imaging systems using common test methods.
By adopting a common analysis method, the performance of various
imaging systems manufactured by different OEMs can be compared. Thiscan be achieved by testing these systems on a common “Test Bench” using
standard test procedures.

NVLabCAP: an NVESD-developed software tool
to determine EO system performance
Stephen D. Burks, Joshua M. Doe, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)

This paper proposes a testing system designed to characterize a digital
imaging system. The proposed testing system was developed under the
AFRL research contract Advanced Night Vision Imaging System – Cockpit
Integration. The equipment and test procedures developed under thiscontract provide the means to independently characterize the performanceof SWIR imaging systems. The test equipment is capable of measuring
relative spectral responsivity, noise equivalent irradiance, dynamic range,
linearity, dark noise, image uniformity, and image artifacts.

Engineers at the US Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate
have recently developed a software package called NVLabCap. This
software not only captures sequential frames from thermal and visible
sensors, but it also can perform measurements of signal intensity transfer
function, 3-dimensional noise, field of view, super-resolved modulationtransfer function, and image bore sight. Additionally, this software package,along with a set of commonly known inputs for a given thermal imaging
sensor, can be used to automatically create an NV-IPM element for thatmeasured system. This model data can be used to determine if a sensor
under test is within certain tolerances, and this model can be used toobjectively quantify measured versus given system performance.

9071-31, Session 6

9071-34, Session 7

Calibration of uncooled LWIR microbolometer
imagers to enable long-term field deployment

NIST traceable measurements of radiance andluminance levels of night-vision-goggle testinstruments

Paul W. Nugent, Joseph A. Shaw, Montana State Univ. (UnitedStates)We describe radiometric calibration methods that enable long-term
deployment of uncooled microbolometer infrared imagers without on-board
calibration sources. These methods involve tracking the focal-plane-arrayand camera-body temperatures and compensating for the changing camera
response. The compensation is derived from laboratory measurements withthe camera viewing a blackbody source while the camera temperature isvaried in a thermal chamber. Results are shown that demonstrate absolutetemperature uncertainty of 0.35 degrees C or better over a 24-hour
period, with more than half of this uncertainty inherent in the blackbody
source to which the measurements are compared. This work was driven byenvironmental remote sensing applications, but the calibration methods arealso relevant to a wide range of infrared imaging applications.

IR microbolometer array spectral response
measurement and angular effect using FTIR
Aurelie Touvignon, Fabien Romanens, Julien Favreau, Alain Durand,
ULIS (France); Olivier Gravrand, CEA-LETI (France); Christel-LoïcTisse, ULIS (France)
To appreciate the impact of technological recipes’ evolution on the spectral
response of micro-bolometer array and to estimate their membranemechanical stability, ULIS is using an original method which consists ofmeasuring the spectral response of detector array over a large part of thedetector simultaneously. This is done by tweaking the standard protocol ofcommercial FTIR where the IR detector of the FTIR is replaced by the array

SPIE DSS 2014

In order to perform radiance and luminance level measurements of nightvision-goggle (NVG) test instruments, NIST developed new-generationtransfer-standard radiometers (TR). The new TRs can perform low-level
radiance and luminance measurements with SI traceability and low
uncertainty. The TRs were calibrated against NIST detector/radiometerstandards holding the NIST photometric and radiometric scales. An 815 nm
diode laser was used at NIST for the radiance responsivity calibrations. A
spectrally flat filter correction was made for the TRs to correct the spectral
responsivity change of the built-in Si photodiode for LEDs peaking atdifferent wavelengths in the different test sets. The radiance responsivity
transfer with its uncertainties are discussed.
At present, the manufacturer of the NVG test instruments (test sets)
converts the output radiance into equivalent luminance that can be
manually set on the test set. The calibration factor, which is the radianceto equivalent-luminance ratio, (introduced by the manufacturer) is
analyzed in this work. The radiance values that belong to the selecteddifferent equivalent luminance values were measured with the TRs. The
TRs propagate the traceablity to the NIST detector-based reference scales.
There are two basic luminance levels in a test set. A fixed 1fL is provided
by a green LED for instrument checkup. In addition, equivalent-luminancelevels, produced by an IR-LED source that peaks at about 815 nm, can beselected (adjusted) from zero to 3 mfL. A user selected low output-radiancelevel of the test-set can be used for NVG gain determinations. Both the fixed
1 fL luminance of the test-set (set by the manufacturer) and the integrated
output-radiance (for equivalent luminance levels equal to or higher than
10^-4 fL) were measured with the TRs. The highest standard deviation of
the mean was 0.6 %. The radiance uncertainty obtained from the three
TR measurements was 4.6 % (k=2) at 10^-4 fL. The obtained deviations of

9071-32, Session 7

38

George P. Eppeldauer, Vyacheslav B. Podobedov, National Instituteof Standards and Technology (United States)·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV
the measured calibration factors from the 2.48 x 10^-6 W fL / (cm^2 sr)
calibration factor (for 1 fL equivalent luminance) were about 9 %. The output
radiance of a commercial IR sphere source (earlier used as standard) andthe radiance responsivity of a secondary standard commercial detector
unit, which was originally calibrated against the commercial IR spheresource, were also measured with the TRs. The performances of the NVG test
instruments were evaluated and the manufacturer produced radiance andluminance levels were calibrated with SI/NIST traceability.

one can think of.
The MRC measurement can be performed widely along the guidelinesof the MRC measurement of a visual camera. Typically measurements
are performed with a set of resolution target (e.g. USAF Target 1951)
manufactured with different contrast values from 50% down to less than 1%.
For a given illumination level the achievable spatial resolution is measured
for every target.
To use this method for SWIR cameras the irradiation parameters haveto be translated from the photometric units to radiometric units. A
radiation source is necessary with appropriate emission in the SWIR range(incandescent lamp) the irradiance of which is measured in W/m? insteadof Lux = Lumen/m?. Furthermore, the contrast values of the targets may
differ from the values determined for the visual range and thus have to
be calibrated newly for the SWIR range. In addition, the SWIR illuminationlevels for typical daylight and twilight conditions have to be defined.

9071-35, Session 7

An alternate method for performing MRTD
measurements
Alan Irwin, Jack T. Grigor, Santa Barbara Infrared, Inc. (UnitedStates)The measured MRC values of some cameras are compared to the specified
performance data of the devices.

The Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference test (MRTD) is one of thetests typically required to characterize the performance of thermal imaging
systems. The traditional test methodology is very time intensive, requiring
data collection at multiple temperatures and target frequencies. This
paper will present an alternate methodology using a controlled blackbody
temperature ramp rate. This allows selection of the temperature at which atarget is determined “resolved” without stopping.

9071-38, Session 8

Wafer level test solutions for IR sensors
Sebastian Giessmann, Frank-Michael Werner, Cascade MicrotechGmbH (Germany)

MRTD curves generated from data collected at multiple ramp rates andtarget frequencies is compared with MRTD curves using the same target
frequencies and settled temperatures. The same sensor and test hardware
is used for each data collection. Testing is conducted by multiple trained
observers. Multiple ramp rates will be Test results using the traditional
method will be compared to test results using this alternate method.

Wafer probers provide an established platform for performing electricalmeasurements at wafer level for CMOS and similar process technologies.
For testing IR sensors, the requirements are beyond the standard probercapabilities. This presentation will give an overview about state of the art
IR sensor probing systems reaching from flexible engineering solutions toautomated production needs.
Cooled sensors typically need to be tested at a target temperature below
80 K. Not only is the device temperature important but also the surrounding
environment is required to prevent background radiation from reaching
the device under test. To achieve that, a cryogenic shield is protecting the
movable chuck. By operating that shield to attract residual gases inside
the chamber, a completely contamination-free test environment can be
guaranteed. The use of special black coatings are furthermore supporting
the removal of stray light. Typically, probe card needles are operating at
ambient (room) temperature when connecting to the wafer. To avoid theentrance of heat, which can result in distorted measurements, the probecard is fully embedded into the cryogenic shield. A shutter system, locatedabove the probe field, is designed to switch between the microscope viewto align the sensor under the needles and the test relevant setup. This
includes a completely closed position to take dark current measurements.
Another position holds a possible filter glass with the required aperture
opening. The necessary infrared sources to stimulate the device are locatedabove.

9071-36, Session 7

Testing military sensor systems in the laboratory
and field
James McKechnie, Jack T. Grigor, Alan Irwin, Santa Barbara Infrared,
Inc. (United States)
Testing of military sensor systems presents unique problems to test
personnel whether in the laboratory or the field. Military sensors include
active and passive systems operating in the visible, NIR, SWIR, MWIR,
and LWIR, typically imaging systems, laser range finders/designatorsand illuminators. Performance is typically defined in terms of resolution,
sensitivity, range, power, etc.
Sensor requirements are defined by the end user in terms of target
detection, recognition, and discrimination. Sensor manufacturers define
performance in more technical terms such as MTF, MRTD, resolution, beam
divergence and other figures of merit. Correlating test results with the end
users requirements is problematic. This paper discusses this gap.

Uncooled sensors (microbolometer) also have challenging test
requirements. The integration of those requirements is presented as well.

9071-39, Session 99071-37, Session 8

An affordable 7.7 to 12.3 micron spectral imager
using a cooled detector array and high-resolution
circular variable filter (CVF): system description
and performance

Characterization of SWIR cameras by MRC
measurements
Martin Gerken, Harry H. Schlemmer, Hubertus A. Haan, Christofer
Siemens, Mario O. Münzberg, Cassidian Optronics GmbH (Germany)

Dario Cabib, CI Systems (Israel) Ltd. (Israel)

Cameras for the SWIR wavelength range are becoming more and more
important because of the superior observation range for day-light operation
under adverse weather conditions (haze, fog, rain). In order to qualify acamera for a given application characterization of the camera by meansof the Minimum Resolvable Contrast MRC concept is favorable as the MRC
comprises all relevant properties of the instrument. With the MRC known fora given camera device the achievable observation range can be calculated
for every combination of target size, illumination level or weather conditions

39+1 360 676 3290

Spectral imagers in the Long Wave IR spectral range (8 to 12 microns) sufferfrom the problem of high production costs because the existing commercial
cooled array detectors are expensive, and in fact they are prohibitively
expensive for many applications.
As a result, the drive to lower the cost of Long Wave IR spectral imagers isstrong: this was the main motivation for CI to propose a new design thatallows these spectral imagers to be more affordable. One area of possible·

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV
cost reduction without relinquishing the advantages of a cryogenicallycooled detector is the method used to provide the spectral information. CI
Systems has developed a long wave IR (7.7 to 12.3 micron) spectral imager
concept using a Circular Variable Filter (CVF), (a proprietary component
based on multiple layer interference filter technology) which has advantages
over the interferometric Fourier Transform method commonly used inthis spectral range. The CVF method has its own development challenges;
however, once proven, this concept may be more suitable and affordable
for applications in which a spectral resolution of 0.5% of the wavelength(or 50 nm at 10 microns) is required. The design of the optical system
must minimize background signals without being cooled to cryogenic
temperatures, so we called it VIrtually COld (or VICO). After publishing
the first prototype characterization data in September 2013 we present
in this paper additional and more advanced measurement examples andperformance data.

9071-40, Session 9

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
and micro-pulse lidar (MPL) atmospheric
inversion technique to characterize path radiance

The combination of a near-infrared (NIR) aerosol lidar and a midwaveinfrared (MWIR) spectroradiometer are used to determine the verticalaerosol absorption and extinction profile in a coastal environment.
When available for clear sky daytime measurements a multichannel sun
photometer is also used. The sun photometer provides path integrated
optical depths. Because of the broad spectral coverage a more completecharacterization of the aerosol is achieved. A bimodal hydrosol model isused to connect the various measurements requiring particles in the micronand 10s of nm size range. The micron sized particles are most important in
the NIR/visible region. The nm sized particles and most important in the
MWIR and LWIR spectral regions. To extract aerosol information from adown welling spectral radiance measurement, the 4-micron window region
is utilized. This requires correction from molecular continuum contributions,in particular the far blue wing of the asymmetric stretch band of CO2.

Frédérick Marcotte, Vincent Farley, Telops (Canada); Myron R. Pauli,
U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
A new generation Midwave Infrared Camera, FAST-IR 1500, by TELOPS
allows full imaging at 1500 This allows access to image high speed
phenomena with high temporal as well as spatial resolution. Examples ofsuch high speed phenomena are ballistic impacts and muzzle flashes. The
faster frame rate also provides more robustness against some types of
temporal clutter such as solar glint which can interfere with detection andidentification of objects of interest.. Additionally, a combination of shortand long integration times can allow a higher dynamic range imaging thanin a single integration time camera. The TELOPS™ FAST-IR 1500 camera
has integration times that can range from 6 ?s to > 500 ?s. The camera
is also capable of imaging a window of 128 x 32 or 64 x 64 at 20000 Hz.
The camera also contains fast-switching neutral density filters which canincrease sensor dynamic range by several orders of magnitude if needed.
In other words, bright and dim objects can be discerned instead of justchoosing between imaging only bright objects or imaging only dim objects
with bright objects in saturation. Selected scenes at various signal-to-noiseand signal-to-background ratios will be shown at different frame rates withanalysis of the appropriate detection metrics relating to target detection,
target tracking, and scene dynamic range. Measurements and analysis
indicates that short integration time images can be summed/integrated
digitally to obtain high sensitivity imagery with very small losses comparedto low speed (large integration time) imagery.

9071-43, Session 10

Developing a broad spectrum atmosphericaerosol characterization for remote sensing
platforms over desert regions
Shadrian B. Strong, Andrea M. Brown, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States)

9071-41, Session 10

Evaluation of turbulence mitigation methods
Adam W. M. van Eekeren, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands); Claudia S. Huebner, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany); Judith Dijk, Klamer
Schutte, Piet B. W. Schwering, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands)
Atmospheric turbulence is a well-known phenomenon that diminishes
the recognition range in visual and infrared imagery. There exist manydifferent methods to compensate for the effects of turbulence. Some use a
hardware approach, such as adaptive optics, some use a software approach.
This paper focuses on the performance of two software-based methods
to mitigate the effects of low- and medium turbulence conditions. Bothmethods are capable of processing static and dynamic scenes. The first
method consists of local registration, frame selection, blur estimation anddeconvolution. The second method consists of local motion compensation,fore-/background segmentation and weighted iterative blind deconvolution.

SPIE DSS 2014

9071-42, Session 10

Michael E. Thomas, Andrea M. Brown, David M. Brown, Cadence
A. Martin, Shadrian B. Strong, Marc B. Airola, Johns Hopkins Univ.
Applied Physics Lab. (United States)

High-dynamic range and high-speed imaging
in the TELOPS FAST-IR 1500 midwave infrared
camera40

A comparative evaluation is done on some representative sequences
captured during a NATO SET 165 trial in Dayton. The benefits and costs ofdifferent processing steps, such as local registration and frame selection, will
be evaluated using quantitative measures. The amount of blurring and tilt in
the imagery are relevant measures for such an evaluation. It is shown thatboth methods improve the imagery by reducing the blurring and tilt andtherefore enlarge the recognition range. Furthermore the measurements will
be compared with the characteristics of the optical system, which will givean insight of the maximum obtainable performance.

·

Remotely sensed imagery of targets embedded in Earth’s atmosphererequires characterization of aerosols between the space-borne sensor andground to accurately analyze observed target signatures. The impact ofaerosol microphysical properties on retrieved atmospheric radiances has
been shown to negatively affect the accuracy of remotely sensed datacollects. Temporally and regionally specific meteorological conditions
require exact site atmospheric characterization, involving extensive andtimely observations. Alternatively, climatologically-based assessments
may minimize significant short-term changes. We present a methodology
to utilize a subset of ground-based data collected near two sites in White
Sands New Mexico that provides aerosol properties including asymmetry,
optical depth, absorption/extinction coefficients, and indices of refraction
from the visible to long-wave infrared wavelengths for seasonal radiative
analysis. Daily averaged data is input in the radiative transfer model
MODTRAN 5 in order to assess differences between aerosol properties
retrieved from ground versus space from the NASA Aqua MODIS instrument.
We find atmospheric radiance correction factors to be the greatest in the
short-wave (1.3 – 3 µm) and long-wave (7 – 9 µm) infrared regions, arehighly site-specific, and do not appear to have a seasonal correlation, while
the transmittance correction factors exhibit consistent seasonal trends
among sites.

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV

9071-44, Session 10

be cost prohibitive and time consuming. In this work we validate an existing
turbulence image simulator against a well characterized dataset, including
two-handed weapons and resolution targets. The robust dataset wascollected through a diurnal cycle for a variety of ranges and sensor systems.

Spectrally dependent hydrated aerosol
signatures observed in maritime environments
Shadrian B. Strong, Michael E. Thomas, Andrea M. Brown, Mary R.
Keller, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)

9071-47, Session 11

Aerosol MTF revisited

Recent FTIR atmospheric observations in maritime environments, such as
Hawaii, have often revealed clear, high-visibility conditions at visible andshortwave infrared wavelengths, but exhibit significant attenuation in the
mid-wave- and long-wave-infrared. This phenomenon is not unique, as it
has been observed by airborne spectral imaging systems. However, its cause
has not been definitively proven nor correlated with precise meteorologicalconditions. One theory for these observations is the existence of small
hygroscopic particulates (< 200 nm in diameter) that are too small toscatter visible light but which may have significant absorption effects inthe thermal infrared. The effect of these particulates is anticipated to begreatest in high-humidity environments, such as those found in tropicallocations. This effect is difficult, if not impossible, to replicate with available
radiative transfer models, given the need to produce high transmission at
visible wavelengths and reduced transmission in the thermal infrared withlimited aerosol characterization capabilities. Consequentially, model-based
atmospheric characterization for sensors from the visible to long-wave
infrared would require different atmospheric parameterizations for pathradiance and transmittance corrections in such environments. In a step
towards developing broad-spectrum atmospheric characterization, we
compare our maritime FTIR measurements with a preliminary model ofhydrated aerosol particulates and evaluate these data against Weather
Research Forecast (WRF) numerical weather model simulations of aerosol
concentrations.

Natan S. Kopeika, Arkadi Zilberman, Yitzhak Yitzhaky, Ben-Gurion
Univ. of the Negev (Israel)
Different views of the significance of aerosol MTF have been reported. For
example, one recent paper [OE, 4/2013, pp. 046201] claims that the aerosol
MTF “contrast reduction is approximately independent of spatial frequency,
and image blur is practically negligible”. On the other hand, another recent
paper [JOSA A, 11/2013, pp. 2244-2252] claims that aerosols “can havea non-negligible effect on the atmospheric point spread function”. We
present clear experimental evidence of common significant aerosol blurand evidence that aerosol contrast reduction can be extremely significant.
In the IR, it is more appropriate to refer to such phenomena as aerosolabsorption MTF. The reason is that the aerosol MTF includes transmission
and absorption effects,by all particulates including air molecules, and in the
IR the atmospheric absorption is usually much more significant than scatter.
Consequently, relative humidity has a critical role in determining thermal
image resolution according to atmospheric transmission.The role of imaging
system instrumentation on such MTF is addressed too. Field of view, forexample, in the visible and NIR limits received scattered light to very small
angles of forward scatter as described by the aerosol phase scatteringfunction which is anyway strongly biased towards very small scattering
angles. In the thermal IR, this truncation may be even stronger because
there is less scatter. These effects truncate the aerosol-absorption PSF, thus
decreasing blur size but at the same time increasing aerosol-absorption
MTF spatial frequency bandwidth by orders of magnitude. Conservation ofenergy causes atmospheric absorption to decrease aerosol-absorption MTF
in a spatial frequency dependent manner, thus contradicting the OE paper.

9071-45, Session 10

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
characterization of atmospheric fluctuations
along slant paths

9071-48, Session 11

Cadence A. Martin, Michele B. Lohr, Michael E. Thomas, David M.
Brown, Shadrian B. Strong, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics
Lab. (United States)

DARPA superresolution vision system (SRVS)
robust turbulence data collection and analysis
Richard L. Espinola, Kevin R. Leonard, Roger W. Thompson Jr., U.S.
Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States);David H. Tofsted, Michael S. D’Arcy, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Sensor system noise needs to be known to determine the limits of detecting
a feature. For passive infrared spectral sensors the noise is characterized
in terms of the noise equivalent spectral radiance, NESR. The net NESR(NESR_net) has two components, the internal NESR of the instrument(NESR_instr) and the external NESR of the path being viewed by thesensor (NESR_path). For an FTIR, the NESR_instr is measured by viewing
a stable blackbody and computing the standard deviation of the sinetransform of the interferogram. NESR_net is then measured by viewing ascene and computing the standard deviation of the sine transform of theinterferogram. NESR_path is then determined knowing the instrument and
net NESR. NESR_path is driven by temperature and species concentration
fluctuations along a path and can dominate over the instrument noise.

Atmospheric turbulence degrades the range performance of militaryimaging systems, specifically those intended for long range ground to
ground target identification. The recent Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) Super Resolution Vision System (SRVS) program
developed novel post-processing system components to mitigate turbulence
effects on visible and infrared sensor systems. As part of the program, theUS Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD and the US Army Research Laboratory
Computational & Information Sciences Directorate (CISD) collaborated on afield collection and atmospheric characterization of a two-handed weapon
identification dataset through a diurnal cycle for a variety of ranges andsensor systems. The robust dataset is useful in developing new models andsimulations of turbulence as well as a standard baseline for comparison of
sensor systems in the presence of turbulence degradation and mitigation. In
this paper, we describe the field collection and atmospheric characterizationand present the robust dataset to the defense, sensing, and security
community. In addition, we present an expanded model validation of
turbulence degradation using the field collected video sequences.

9071-46, Session 11

Validation of atmospheric turbulence simulationsof extended scenes
Kevin R. Leonard, Richard L. Espinola, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC
NVESD (United States)
Atmospheric turbulence causes blur, distortion and intensity fluctuations
that can severely degrade image quality of electro-optic and thermal
imaging systems. Realistic simulated imagery is needed to evaluate theeffects of turbulence and provide input for evaluation of mitigation andimage processing algorithms since turbulence-based data collections can

41+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV

9071-49, Session 11

systems.

Multiple angle analysis of optical backscattermeasurements for determination of cloudparticulates for UAV/weather balloon applications
Rahul Dixit, David J. Klotzkin, Binghamton Univ. (United States)
It is crucial for an aircraft to know the environment in which it is flying
to avoid ash particulates and potential for icing. Optical backscattering
provides enormous information but it can be difficult to interpret. In thispaper, we present an algorithm for determination of size informationof water droplets, distinguishing of water from ice, and identification ofconcentration of ash particles. The information is acquired from a simple,
integrated, unmanned-aerial-aircraft (UAV) worthy system that takes
optical backscattering measurements at a variety of angles and scattering
wavelengths and two polarizations. In this work, two collimated, concentricand polarized lasers illuminate the sample volume. From the reflected
polarization ratio at 135°, the mean water droplet size and their number
density can be determined over a range of 1-50µm microns with a resolutionof 5µm. Sample density can be determined by signal amplitude. Detectionof silica particles is incorporated by examining the response ratio at 90° to
135°. Measured results and agreement with theoretical calculations will bereported.

9071-50, Session 11

Three-dimensional temperature estimation ofa fire plume using multiple longwave infrared
camera views

Development and evaluation of technologies fortesting infrared imaging sensors
Heard S. Lowry, Sid L. Steely, Ken D. Bynum, Randy A. Nicholson,
Aerospace Testing Alliance (United States)
Ground testing of space- and air-borne imaging sensor systems aresupported by vis-to-LWIR imaging sensor calibration and characterization,
as well as Hardware in the Loop (HWIL) simulaltion with high-fidelity
complex scene projection to validate sensor mission performance. To
accomplish this successfully, there must be the development and evaluationof technologies that are used in space simulation chambers for such testing,including emitter array cryotesting, silicon carbide mirror cryotesting, andflood source development. This paper provides an overview of such efforts
being investigated and implemented at Arnold Engineering Development
Complex (AEDC).

Real-time scene and signature generation forladar and imaging sensors

In order to determine true radiometric quantities in intense fires a three
dimensional (3D) understanding of the fire radiometric properties isdesirable, e.g., for estimating peak fire temperatures. Imaging pyrometry
with a single infrared camera view can provide only two dimensional
path-averaged radiometric information. Multiple camera views, however,can form the basis for determining 3D radiometric information such asradiance, emissivity, and temperature. Analytically the fire can be divided
into subvolumes in which radiometric properties are assumed roughly
constant. Using geometric and thermal equilibrium relationships between
the fire subvolumes, together with LWIR camera imagery acquired at
multiple carefully defined camera views, radiometric properties of each
sub-volume can be estimated. In this work, initial proof-of-principle results
were obtained by applying this analysis to sets of LWIR camera imagery
acquired during intense (2500 – 3000 K) fires. We present 3D radiance andtemperature maps of the fires obtained using this novel approach.

Leszek Swierkowski, Chad L. Christie, Leonid Antanovskii, Efthimios
T. Gouthas, Defence Science and Technology Organisation(Australia)
A real-time scene generation framework, VIRSuite, has been developed inrecent years at the Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Australia,
to support hardware-in-the-loop (HWIL) simulation and all-digital test
and evaluation of guided weapons. Rapid advances in imaging sensor
technologies and their subsequent incorporation into military applications
underpin the ongoing development of VIRSuite. The recent improvements
in our program enhance its capacity for testing advanced sensors, including
those with multi-modal imaging capabilities.

9071-51, Session 12

Protecting IR scene simulators from the dynamics
of flight motion simulators
Robert W. Mitchell, Ideal Aerosmith, Inc. (United States)
A Flight Motion Simulator (FMS) requires a specific configuration to satisfy
scene projector specifications. The design of the FMS must carry the IR
projector, meet the accuracy, and support the dynamic requirements. Ina typical simulator configuration, the high accuracy and high dynamics
have conflicting requirements. The high accuracy requires a stiff gimbal
design to minimize deflections. The high dynamics require a low inertia,
lightweight system to provide high performance. The IRSS design has similar
requirements: stiffness, accuracy, and reduced deflections. Increasing thesize and weight of the IRSS for the optical considerations, has a negative
effect on the axis bandwidth, acceleration, and travel capabilities of existing

SPIE DSS 2014

9071-52, Session 12

9071-53, Session 12

Michele B. Lohr, Michael E. Thomas, Todd M. Neighoff, Daniel T.
Prendergast, Austin Dress, Sean Happel, Karen M. Siegrist, Yale
Chang, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)

42

Parametric curves are presented of the shock loads to the IRSS in relation toweight and dynamic performance. Relationships are provided to support thebasis for the shock absorber design. Recommendations are also provided
for the structural integrity for the IRSS design. A compromise in the IRSS
design is required as improved structural stiffness and scene complexity
increase the weight. Other types of materials are available to reduce weight,
but have positive and negative features. A typical set of specifications ispresented that can be used as a baseline for the IRSS and motion systemdesign to mitigate shock damage.

·In this paper we report on these latest VIRSuite developments anddescribe the extension in capabilities that has been achieved. One of theadvancements is the development of an improved version of the flash
LADAR scene simulation module. The new module is capable of simulating
range imagery for both Linear Mode and Geiger Mode LADAR systems.
A feature of this module is the simultaneous real-time generation ofboth range data and IR imagery for a specified spectral band. Anotheradvancement is the significant upgrade to the recently developed dynamic
thermal signature prediction module. The module has been provided witha new heat diffusion solver and an advanced and more accurate calculationof heat fluxes. The latest developments preserve all previous features ofour scene generation framework and VIRSuite is now capable of generating
multi-modal imagery for a wide range of scenarios including air, land andmaritime environments. Detailed aspects of the development, performance,
capabilities and limitations of the current scene generation system will bepresented and discussed.

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV

9071-55, Session 12

results are supported by calculations suggesting that the relatively heavy
holes will be less likely to tunnel through their barriers compared to thelighter electrons. This suggests that EL recombination occurs mainly near
the p injectors, and that very little light production occurs in the rest of thesuperlattice.

Real-time simulation of combined short-wave
and long-wave infrared vision on a head-up
display

The energy of LWIR photons is quite low so only a low voltage drop is
required across the active region. Cascading multiple superlattices in series
brings the total voltage up to a level where it is more easily driven byexisting RIIC technologies. The result can be quite a thick structure – eachsuperlattice consists of many layers and these layers are repeated manytimes. This thick structure can pose problems in array fabrication, as it isnecessary to etch deep and narrow trenches to separate the pixels. The
finding that the holes are confined near the p-barrier will permit thinnersuperlattice LEDs which will be easier to process into arrays.

Niklas Peinecke, Sven Schmerwitz, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany)
Landing under adverse weather conditions can be challenging, even if the
airfields are well known to the pilots. This is true for civil as well as militaryaviation. Within the scope of this paper we concentrate especially on
fog conditions. European Union funded project ALICIA brought together
partners from industry and research. It was established to build a functional
simulation demonstrator for a landing-aid system, especially for landings
under foggy weather conditions. Several systems were integrated to help
pilots in order to land safely when almost no visual cues are available.
Among these systems is a head-up display that can display a generated
symbology together with a raster-mode infrared image. We will detail how
we implemented a real-time enabled simulation of a combined short-wave
and long-wave infrared image for landing on Clermont-Ferrand airport inFrance, based on open source software. A major challenge was to integrate
several already existing simulation solutions, e.g., for visual simulation andsensors with the required data-bases. For the simulations DLR’s in-housesensor simulation framework F3S was used, together with a commerciallyavailable airport model that had to be heavily modified in order to provide
realistic infrared data. Special effort was invested for a realistic impression of
runway lighting under foggy conditions. We will present results and sketch
further improvements for future simulations.

9071-57, Session 12

Ultrahigh-temperature emitter pixel development
for scene projectors: performance data
Joseph D. LaVeigne, Santa Barbara Infrared, Inc. (United States)
To meet the needs of high fidelity infrared sensors, under the Ultra High
Temperature (UHT) development program, Santa Barbara Infrared Inc.
(SBIR) has developed new infrared emitter materials capable of achieving
extremely high temperatures. The current state of the art arrays based on
the MIRAGE-XL generation of scene projectors is capable of producing
imagery with mid-wave infrared (MWIR) apparent temperatures up to
700K with response times of 5 ms. The Test Resource Management Center(TRMC) Test and Evaluation/Science & Technology (T&E/S&T) Program
through the U.S. Army Program Executive Office for Simulation, Training
and Instrumentations (PEO STRI) has contracted with SBIR and its partners
to develop a new resistive array based on these new materials, using ahigh current Read-In Integrated Circuit (RIIC) capable of achieving higher
temperatures as well as faster frame rates. The status of that development
will be detailed within this paper, including performance data fromprototype pixels.

9071-56, Session 12

Carrier transport in type-II long-wavelength
infrared superlattice LEDs and implications forarray designDavid Westerfeld, Youxi Lin, Sergey Suchalkin, Gela Kipshidze,
Takashi Hosoda, Stony Brook Univ. (United States); Boris Laikhtman,
Power Photonic Corp. (United States); Leon Shterengas, Gregory
Belenky, Stony Brook Univ. (United States)

9071-58, Session 12

Scalable emitter array development for infrared
scene projector systems

Three InAs/InGaSb superlattice structures were grown by molecular beam
epitaxy on GaSb substrates. Each structure contained two superlattices:a mid-wave infrared (MWIR) structure adjacent to a long-wave infrared(LWIR) structure. The MWIR and LWIR superlattices were similar with theemission wavelength changed by altering the thickness of the InAs layers
while the thickness of the In0.25Ga0.75Sb layers was held constant. A
p-type InGaSbAs injection layer was grown on one side of the MWIR and
LWIR superlattices, while an N-type GaSb barrier was grown on the otherside

Joseph D. LaVeigne, Santa Barbara Infrared, Inc. (United States)
Several new technologies have been developed over recent years that makea fundamental change in RIIC architecture possible, which can lead to an
operational and cost effective solution for producing large emitter arrays
based on the assembly of smaller sub-arrays. Array sizes of 2048x2048 andlarger are required to meet the high fidelity test needs of today’s modern
infrared sensors. The Test Resource Management Center (TRMC) Test and
Evaluation/Science & Technology (T&E/S&T) Program through the U.S. Army
Program Executive Office for Simulation, Training and Instrumentations(PEO STRI) has contracted with SBIR and its partners to investigate
integrating new technologies in order to achieve array sizes much larger
than are available today. SBIR and its partners have undertaken several
proof-of-concept experiments that lay the groundwork for producing a tiled
emitter array. We report on the results of these experiments, including thedemonstration of edge connections formed between different ICs with agap of less than 10µm.

The three samples differed in the number of periods in the superlattices andalso in the arrangement of the superlattice layers. Two of the samples had
the MWIR superlattice closer to the n side barrier while the other sample
was reversed, with the MWIR superlattice closer to the p side barrier.
The samples were mounted in a liquid nitrogen cryostat and theelectroluminescence (EL) and photoluminescence (PL) spectra of thesamples were recorded and compared. In the case of PL, carriers weregenerated largely as a result of absorption in the relatively thick barrier
layers. Carriers generated in the barriers are captured in the lower band
gap superlattice regions where they thermalize and recombine to produce
light. The intense light from the 1.064 μm q-switched Nd:YVO3 pump laser
was expected to reach both barriers, so that excited carriers should be
injected into both ends of the superlattice sandwich. In the EL case, holes
are injected from one side of the structure and electrons are injected fromthe other.
The different injection methods produced strikingly different emission
spectra. The differences in the EL and PL spectra can be explained by ifholes are not able to traverse the superlattice, but electrons can. These43+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9071: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXV

9071-59, Session Posters-Thursday

9071-61, Session Posters-Thursday

A novel approach for contrast enhancement ofthermal infrared images using quantized local
boundary pattern

Application of responsivity and noise evaluation
method to infrared thermal imaging sensors
Dong-Ik Kim, Ghiseok Kim, Geonhee Kim, Ki-Soo Chang, Korea
Basic Science Institute (Korea, Republic of)

Gyuhee Park, Yong-Sung Kim, Shichang Joung, SK Telecom (Korea,
Republic of)In this paper, A novel approach for contrast enhancement of thermal
infrared images using quantized local boundary pattern is proposed.
Enhancing the contrast of an image is very important for image visualization
for human visual system. The main issue for this research area is trade off
between contrast increasing and noise amplification. Algorithm using global
transfer function of an image is suitable for real-time system because of
the simplicity for implementation. Unfortunately, it can not be suitable for
WDR(Wide Dynamic Range) system. Recently, Various WDR algorithms areproposed to retain the enhancing the global contrast and the loss of local
details. But they are required very high complexity and not suitable for realtime system without multi core GPUs integrated server.
Proposed algorithm uses features of QLBP(Quantized Local Boundary
Pattern) for enhance the local contrast and prevent the high frequency
component dominant effect on histogram domain. Global transfer function
is obtained by DRSHE(Dynamic Range Separate Histogram Equalization)
which has good result in thermal image. Next process is QLBP map
generation of input frame. The QLBP helps to analyze the measurement forenhancing amount. After QLBP map calculation is performed, global transfer
function is respectively applied to each pixel using correlation between pixel
and QLBP map. Real-time implementation on TI DSP 6446 platform canbe achieved by simplified arithmetic operation. To evaluate the algorithm
performance, we designed thermal camera based SCD`s VGA LWIR
uncooled detector(17um). The experimental results show that proposed
algorithm prevented above-mentioned problem and preserved naturalnessof an image tha conventional methods. Since contrast between target andbackground is significantly enhanced without noise amplification, proposed
algorithm can be utilized thermal surveillance imaging system such as IRST,
EOTS and DVE.

9071-60, Session Posters-Thursday

Background character research for synthetical
performance of thermal imaging systems
Jihui Wang, Xiaowei Wang, Songlin Chen, Weiqi Jin, Beijing Instituteof Technology (China)
Background is assumed to be uniform usually for evaluating theperformance of thermal imaging systems, however the effect of backgroundcannot be ignored for target acquisition in reality, background characteris important research content for thermal imaging technology. Target
Task Performance(TTP) model uses target-to-background contrast Ctgt
to describe the effect of background for target acquisition, and canaccurately predict system performance with system angle magnification.
MRTD Channel Width(MRTD-CW) model proposed by us in recent years
had been used to analyze the synthetical performance of thermal imaging
systems and obtain system optimal angle magnification. Information
quantity NMRTD was used to describe synthetical system performancein MRTD-CW model. In this paper, the effect of background for thesynthetical performance was continued to research based on MRTD-CW
model. A background noise parameter s was built in MRTD model andused to describe the background character. A background experiment
was designed, and some typical backgrounds(namely grass background,concrete road background, trees background and snow background) noisecharacter were analyzed by s. MRTD including s was introduced into MRTDCW model, the effect of above typical backgrounds for target acquisition
were analyzed by MRTD-CW model. NMRTD for different backgrounds was
figured out with system angle magnification, and compared with TTP model.
Result showed that MRTD-CW model can analyze the effect of backgroundfor synthetical performance of thermal imaging system.

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SPIE DSS 2014·

In this study, the evaluation method for the responsivity and noisecharacteristics of a commercial infrared thermal
imaging camera and a custom-made sensor module was presented.
Signal transfer functions(SiTFs) and noise equivalent temperature
differences(NETDs) of the two sensor modules were obtained by using
a differential mode blackbody that is able to control the temperature
difference ?T between an infrared target and its background. And weverified the suitability of our evaluation method through the comparison
between the found NETD and the specification of the camera. In addition,
the difference of 0.01 K of the two noise equivalent temperature differences
calculated from with and without nonuniformity correction suggests thatthe nonuniformity correction isessential process for the evaluation of the infrared thermal imaging cameras.
Finally, in case of the custom-made sensor module, only temporal NETD wasfound because of its higher nonuniformity characteristics.

9071-63, Session Posters-Thursday

WAHRSIS: a low-cost, high-resolution whole sky
imagerSoumyabrata Dev, Nanyang Technological Univ. (Singapore);
Alexandros Fragkiadakis, Advanced Digital Sciences Ctr.
(Singapore); Yee Hui Lee, Nanyang Technological Univ. (Singapore);
Stefan Winkler, Advanced Digital Sciences Ctr. (Singapore)
In order to understand and mitigate the effects of clouds on satellite- andother air-to-ground communication links, fine-grained cloud monitoringis required. Traditional methods of use satellite images and radar data. In
this work, we present a novel ground-based camera system (a.k.a. wholesky imagers) as an additional high-resolution source of cloud data. The
high cost, low resolution, and complex operation of existing systems has
prevented them from widespread deployment. This paper presents a new
Whole Sky Imager (WSI) called WAHRSIS (Wide Angle High-Resolution
Imaging Sky System) that is designed and developed at the Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore. The instrument captures the full 180
degrees field of view within a single picture frame using a circular fisheye lens and a standard digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera with ahigh-resolution sensor. A sun blocker, used to eliminate the sun glare,
is positioned via two stepper motors and an Arduino microcontroller.
WAHRSIS uses mainly commodity components and thus can be built at
a significantly lower cost (under US$ 3000 for the entire instrument) as
compared to other WSIs. Furthermore, unlike expensive multi-spectral
imaging systems, WAHRSIS performs a detailed quasi-multi-spectral
cloud analysis by removing the conventional IR/UV filter from the DSLR
camera, thereby allowing better insights into cloud type and density.
The paper will also discuss the geometric and color calibration of theimaging system of WAHRSIS. Initial results indicate the potential for thewidespread deployment of such an instrument in many applications,
including communication, aviation, weather prediction, or solar irradiation
measurement.

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
Monday - Wednesday 5 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9072 Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX

9072-1, Session 1bottom of water surface.
This paper describes an implementation of automated change detection(ACD), where reference and repeat-pass images are geographically coregistered onto a single grid for CCD.

Automatic target recognition for autonomous
systems
Jason C. Isaacs, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City Div. (UnitedStates)9072-4, Session 1

Feature-based recognition of submerged objects
in holographic imagery

The classical paradigm of anomaly detection in images breaks down incluttered and noisy environments. In this paper we present an “upgraded”
and ultimately more robust approach to object detection and classification
in sonar images. The classical approach to detection and classification insonar imagery is match-filtering, followed by edge highlight and shadow
estimation, then size estimation for feature extraction. In our approach wereplace match-filtering with a weighted highlight-shadow detector; we
generate features encompassing both shape and texture; and finally, theclassification is performed using a boosted decision tree. The technique isdemonstrated on real and synthetic aperture sonar (SAS) imagery.

Christopher R. Ratto, Nathaniel Beagley, Kevin C. Baldwin, Kara R.
Shipley, Wayne I. Sternberger, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics
Lab. (United States)
The ability to autonomously sense and characterize underwater objects
in situ is desirable in application areas utilizing unmanned underwater
vehicles (UUVs). These applications may include remediation of mines,
unexploded ordnance, or hazardous materials. In this work, underwater
object recognition was explored using a digital holographic system.
Holographic systems provide the potential for reduced size, weight, andpower requirements as compared to conventional imaging approaches.
In this work, a preliminary experiment was performed in which several
objects of varying size, shape, and material were submerged in a 43,000
gallon test tank. Holograms were collected from each object at multiple
distances and orientations, with the imager located either outside thetank (looking through a porthole) or submerged (looking downward). The
resultant imagery from these holograms was preprocessed to improve
dynamic range, mitigate speckle, and segment out the image of the object.
A collection of feature descriptors were then extracted from the imagery tocharacterize various object properties (e.g., shape, reflectivity, texture). The
features extracted from images of multiple objects, collected at different
imaging geometries, were then used to train statistical models for object
recognition tasks. The resulting classification and regression models wereused to perform object classification as well as estimation of various
parameters of the imaging geometry. Results of applying these models
in cross-validation indicate that certain queries may be dependent upon
the outcomes of others, and these observations should be considered indevelopment of future autonomous sensing algorithms for UUVs employing
holographic imagers.

9072-2, Session 1

Representational learning for object recognition
in sonar imagery
Jason C. Isaacs, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City Div. (UnitedStates)Learned representations have been shown to give promising results forsolving a multitude of novel learning tasks, even though these tasks may
be unknown when the generative model is being trained. A few notable
examples include learning of Topic Models, Deep Belief Networks, Deep
Boltzmann Machines, and Local Discriminative Gaussians inspired by humanlearning. This self-learning of new concepts via rich generative models has
emerged as a promising area of research in machine learning. Although
there has been recent progress, existing computational models are still far
from being able to represent, identify and learn the wide variety of possible
patterns and structure in real-world data. An important issue for further
consideration is the use of unsupervised representations for novel target
recognition applications. This work will discuss and demonstrate the useof auto-encoders for learning discriminating representations of objects insonar imagery. The objective is to make these representations more abstractand invariant to noise in the training distribution and improve performance.

9072-5, Session 1

Target identification using synthetic aperture
acoustics

9072-3, Session 1

Coherent change detection technique forsynthetic aperture sonar

Mary Knox, Stacy Tantum, Leslie M. Collins, Duke Univ. (UnitedStates)Tesfaye G-Michael, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City Div.
(United States)

Synthetic aperture acoustic (SAA) imaging is an effective method forlocating surface-laid objects in a spatial scene. SAA-based imaging methods
are relatively inexpensive, with respect to both necessary equipment andcomputational requirements, and potentially provide complementary
information to other spatial scene sensors, including ground penetratingradar. In this work, the SAA system consists of a speaker to generate
acoustic signals aimed at the ground surface and a microphone to record
the acoustic reflections off of the ground and surface-laid objects. The
transmitted acoustic signal is a 10 millisecond chirp from 2 kHz to 16 kHz,
repeated 25 times per second. The goal of this work is to distinguishbetween three types of surface-laid objects -- jagged rocks, river rocks, andconcave capped cylinders -- from the SAA information. All three objects
exhibit similarly shaped strong acoustic reflections in the time domain. Since
there is significant similarity in the time domain responses from the threeobjects, the frequency domain responses are investigated for identifying
them. More specifically, features based on the distribution of energy acrossfrequency (2 kHz to 16 kHz) are extracted from the microphone recording.

Automatic Change Detection (ACD) compares new and stored terrain
images for alerting to changes occurring over time. For image correlation
ACD to reliably detect the appearance of small man-made objects in sonar
imagery, the background of two scenes being compared must quantitatively
be similar. Synthetic aperture sonars (SAS)–coherent sensors that produce
fine-scale, range-independent resolution seafloor images–are well suitedfor this approach. Sources of degradation in inter-scene coherence include
system imperfections, changes in the scene between imaging events, anddecorrelation due to variations in viewing geometry–termed baseline or
spatial decorrelation. In CCD the phase difference between two images
acquired from slightly different positions or times are analyzed. These
images are acquired on two different SAS passes with relative geometry.
The phase coherence and the image correlation are estimated over the
spatial kernel, and can be used to detect changes that are placed on the45+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
Experimental results show that the three objects are distinguishable
according to these frequency domain features. Additional features are also
considered.

9072-8, Session 39072-6, Session 2

Daniel C. Heinz, U.S. Army CERDEC Intelligence and Information
Warfare Directorate (United States); Michael L. Brennan, CACIInternational Inc. (United States); Michael B. Steer, North Carolina
State Univ. (United States); Adam W. Melber, John T. Cua, U.S. Army
CERDEC Intelligence and Information Warfare Directorate (UnitedStates)High to very high-frequency metal/anomaly
detector

Digital shearography as a ground vibration sensor
for acoustic detection of buried mines
Vyacheslav Aranchuk, Ina Aranchuk, James M. Sabatier, Univ. ofMississippi (United States)

Typical metal detectors work at very low to low frequencies. In this papera metal/anomaly detector design that operates in the high to very highfrequency range is presented. This design uses a high-Q tuned loop antenna
for metal/anomaly detection. By measuring the return loss or voltage
standing wave ratio a frequency notch can be detected. Tuning to the
optimal location of the notch can be accomplished by monitoring the phase
response. This phase monitoring technique can be used to ground balance
the detector. As a metal object is moved along the longitudinal axis of theloop antenna a substantial shift in the frequency of the notch is detected.
For metal targets the frequency shift is substantially higher. For ferrite andother targets the frequency shift is substantially lower. This frequency shiftis created by the proximity of the target causing a change in the impedanceof the antenna. Experiments with a prototype antenna show detection isvery good at long detection ranges and with very low power requirements.
The detector requires only one loop with one winding which is used for bothtransmit and receive. This allows for a metal/anomaly detector with a very
simple design. This simple design with a single wire shall be lightweightand depending on loop size – may significantly increase detection depth
performance. In the full paper, modeling and further experimental results
will be presented. Performance results for various types of soil and for
different types of targets will be shown.

Acoustic detection of buried mines has proved itself as a technique thatprovides high probability of detection and very low false alarm rate.
The method consists of exciting ground vibrations and measuring thevibration characteristics of the ground at many points with a laser Doppler
vibrometer (LDV). While LDVs can provide vibration measurements of theground with sub-nanometer sensitivity, their performance is affected by theplatform motion. As a result, field applications of LDVs require operationfrom a mechanically stable platform, or compensation for the platform
motion. This paper investigates application of digital shearography as analternative technique for ground vibration sensing in acoustic detection ofburied mines. Digital shearography is a laser interferometric technique thatmeasures difference in displacement between corresponding points in animage of the object and its sheared copy. Due to the lack of the reference
beam it has low sensitivity to platform motion. This feature along with highspatial resolution makes shearography an attractive technique for acoustic
detection of buried mines and IEDs. In this work the ability of shearography
to measure vibration signatures of buried mines has been investigated.
Experimental results on sensitivity of shearography for detection of buried
mines and spatial characteristics of shearograms of buried mines arepresented and discussed in the paper.

9072-7, Session 29072-9, Session 3

Exploiting spatial and phase correlations forseismic mine detection

Homemade explosives in the subsurface asintermediate electrical conductivity materials: a
new physical principle for their detection

Jordan M. Malof, Mary Knox, Peter A. Torrione, Leslie M. Collins,
Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Duke Univ. (United States)
Seismic mine detection has been experimentally validated as a means
to detect buried threats at greater standoff distances than many othertechnologies for subsurface detection. One approach to seismic basedmine detection utilizes surface vibrational measurements from a laser
vibrometer and a known stimulus acoustic signal in order to characterize
the acoustic-to-seismic coupling ratio of the earth, which is altered by
the presence of a landmine. Recent investigations into the efficacy ofseismic mine detection using traditional techniques have indicated that
detection performance drops when the surface of the ground is disturbed.
This is a routine condition in the field and therefore presents problems forpractical acoustic detection systems. The first part of this work undertakes
a baseline evaluation and comparison of established algorithms and humanperformance. Performance is evaluated on laser vibrometer measurements
taken under both pristine and disturbed soil conditions in order to evaluate
the impact of disturbed earth. It is shown that humans presented withvisual representations of the data are capable of discriminating between
targets and non-targets better than current algorithms, particularly when
the ground surface is disturbed. The second part of this work explores
new features for seismic mine detection that exploit the spatial and phasecorrelations that are currently unexploited by established methods. The
developed methods are shown to provide additional information and thus
improve performance when combined with established features, resulting in
performance closer to that obtained by human visual inspection.

Steven A. Grant, Benjamin E. Barrowes, Steven A. Arcone, U.S. ArmyEngineer Research and Development Ctr. (United States)
Detection of homemade explosive (HME) containing ammonium nitrate(AN) in the subsurface is of great interest to the US military and its coalition
partners. Due to the hygroscopy of AN, this HME is expected to be anintermediate electrical conductivity material (IECM), defined here as one
having electrical conductivity greater than soils, which have conductivities
0.1 to 1000 mS/m, but less than metals, which have electrical conductivities
on the order of 10 MS/m. Our preliminary experimental and numericalmodeling have established that AN-containing HME in the subsurface can,in all likelihood, be detected by electromagnetic exploration geophysics
techniques, specifically by ground penetrating radar (GPR) and byelectromagnetic induction (EMI). The electromagnetic induction signaturesof HME for these techniques are distinctive. For example, in the case of EMI,the maximum quadrature response frequencies for IECM targets have beenfound to be greater than 100 kHz.

9072-10, Session 3

The magnetic polarizability of thin shells
Jonathan E. Gabbay, Waymond R. Scott Jr., Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)
The ability to detect and dispose of buried hazards requires effective meansby which to discriminate between hazardous targets and benign clutter. In
that regard, wideband Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) sensors have shown

46

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
mechanical constraints. Therefore, a new set of hybrid coils is optimized
and implemented, and the optimization and design methods explained. In
this new set, the receive coil is manufactured on a PCB, and the transmit
coil is wire wound on a composite form. These new coils address many ofthe problems encountered with the initial coils, such as difficulty in coilspacing, low inductance, high transmit resistance, and uneven heating that
led to drift. Proper spacing of the coils is very important to obtaining a low
coupling factor, so an improved method of spacing and then permanently
fastening the coils together is developed. Permanently fastening the coils
permits improved coil characterization, including coil coupling and field
patterns. The results of the characterization are then shown.

significant promise in their ability to classify buried metallic objects basedon their response to illumination by a time-varying magnetic field. This
follows primarily from the observation that a target’s EMI response, at least
partially, provides an indication to a target’s shape and size. Additionally, theresponse varies predictably with a change in a target’s orientation.
A target’s EMI response can be expressed compactly in its magnetic
polarizability dyadic, a form that describes the reaction of a scatterer to anarbitrary magnetic field. The work in this paper decomposes the magnetic
polarizability dyadic using Baum’s singularity expansion method, by which
the dyadic may be expressed as an expansion of a series of decaying current
modes.
The target response is computed for thin conducting shells using a Methodof Moments (MoM) approach, where the two-dimensional current density
is expressed using a stream function. The singularity expansion is thencomputed through an eigenvalue decomposition of the MoM matrix. The
eigenvalue decomposition produces the eddy current modes supported by
the target along with their relaxation frequencies which are then related tothe singularity expansion.

9072-13, Session 4

Optimizing electromagnetic induction sensors for
dynamic munitions classification surveys
Jonathan S. Miller, Gregory Schultz, White River Technologies, Inc.
(United States)

Using this approach, the singularity expansion of different classes of targets
will be studied. Empirical formulas and observations that describe thebehavior of the modes will be provided when possible.

The prevalence of innocuous clutter at munitions response sites presents achallenge to remediation efforts that often devote substantial resources tothe excavation and identification of these non-hazardous objects. Recent
development of advanced electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor arraysthat enable multi-axis illumination of magnetic anomalies has enabled theimplementation of methodologies that effectively discriminate clutter from
unexploded ordnance (UXO) or other munitions and explosives of concern(MEC). Currently, standard protocol for detection and classification of MEC
comprises a two-step process that includes an initial low resolution dynamic
EMI survey to detect magnetic field anomalies associated with potential
threats followed by a higher resolution static EMI survey that enables
classification of these anomalies. While this approach has demonstrated
significant success in producing effective classification of UXO, conducting
two successive surveys is time consuming. Additionally, target picking basedon analysis of low resolution EMI data can lead to ineffective placement of
the classification sensor during the follow-up cued survey. An alternative
method is to employ sensors that enable detection and classification fromdata collected during a single dynamic survey. This one-pass approachrequires sensors that feature several unique attributes, including effective
multi-axis illumination across the full sensor swath. We present data and test
results from an advanced EMI sensor optimized for one-pass surveys. We
demonstrate how tradeoffs between spatial sampling resolution, positioning
accuracy, and time decay sampling affect the classification quality ofthe data. We also present design considerations that produce optimaltransmitter and receiver configurations for these dynamic classification
surveys.

9072-11, Session 3

Experimental detection and discrimination ofburied targets using an improved broadband CW
electromagnetic induction sensor
Waymond R. Scott Jr., Gregg D. Larson, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Experimental results from field testing of an improved version of the
Georgia Tech EMI system that has been under development for the past
several years are presented. The system has improved accuracy andsensitivity while being more power efficient than earlier systems. The
accuracy improvements are obtained by improved shielding while thesensitivity improvements are obtained with improved preamplifiers. A
switched-mode power amplifier is used to improve the power efficiency
without degrading the performance.
Methods and features that can be used to separate the response of
metallic targets from the soil response are presented. These include
parameters related to the logarithmic soil model and other parameters
related to the phase of the soil response. When a target is present, theshape of the measured response has been shown to be a good feature fordiscrimination between certain classes of metallic targets; however, thisfeature is degraded when the soil response is comparable to the target
response. Methods for dealing with this mixed response by removing thelogarithmic soil model are presented. Data from the field test will be used todemonstrate the viability of these methods and the relative performance ofthe features will be shown.

9072-14, Session 4

Automatic classification of unexploded ordnanceapplied to live sites for MetalMapper sensor
Johnny B. Sigman, Benjamin E. Barrowes, Kevin A. O’Neill, Yinlin
Wang, Fridon Shubitidze, Dartmouth College (United States)

9072-12, Session 3

Implementation of optimized electromagnetic
induction coils

This paper examines a previously introduced method for automaticclassification of Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) across several datasetsfrom live sites. The sensor used was the MetalMapper, a time-domain
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) sensor, with 3 orthogonal transmitters and7 separate 3-axis receiver cubes. Each transmitter is activated sequentially,
and magnetic field is recorded on all receivers. From the sensor data,
extrinsic and intrinsic parameters are determined using the Differential
Evolution (DE) and Ortho-Normalized Volume Magnetic Source (ONVMS)
algorithms, respectively. The inversion provides spatial locations andintrinsic time-series total ONVMS principal eigenvalues. These are fit toa power-decay empirical model, the Pasion-Oldenburg model, providing
dimensionality reduction to 3 coefficients (k, b, and g) for each object. The
anomalies are grouped using the unsupervised clustering Weighted-PairGroup Method with Averaging (WPGMA) algorithm. Central elements ofMark A. Reed, Waymond R. Scott Jr., Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Continuous-wave electromagnetic induction systems generally use separatetransmit and receive coils. These coils are usually wound to minimize themutual coupling between the coils. However, the winding methods used
to minimize the coupling either reduce the depth performance of thesystem or make the coils poorly compatible with a ground penetratingradar (GPR). A method of optimizing a pair of coils that significantly
lessens these limitations was previously presented, but implementation of
the original optimized coils presents practical issues, often as a result of47+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
each cluster are dug, and the results are used to train the next round of dig
requests. A Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) was used for our supervised
learning algorithm, in which a multivariate Gaussian probability density
represents each class of UXO in the feature space. We request ground truths
for anomalies in rounds, until there are no more Targets of Interest (TOI) in
consecutive requests. Results of the studies are demonstrated and analyzed.

9072-15, Session 4

A combined joint diagonalization: MUSIC
algorithm for subsurface targets localization

9072-17, Session 5

Yinlin Wang, Johnny B. Sigman, Thayer School of Engineering at
Dartmouth (United States); Benjamin E. Barrowes, Kevin A. O’Neill,
Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth (United States) and
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Ctr. (United States);
Fridon Shubitidze, Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth(United States) and Sky Research, Inc. (United States)
This paper presents a combined joint diagonalization (JD) and multiple
signal classification (MUSIC) algorithm for estimating subsurface objects
locations from electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor data, without
solving ill-posed inverse-scattering problems. JD is a numerical techniquethat finds the common eigenvectors that diagonalize the set of multistatic
response (MSR) matrices measured by the time-domain EMI sensor.
Eigenvectors from targets of interest (TOI) can be then distinguished fromnoise-related ones, as shown in previous studies. Filtering is also carriedout in JD to improve signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the data. The MUSIC
algorithm utilizes the orthogonality between signal and noise subspaces
in MSR matrix, which can be separated with information provided by JD.
An array of theoretically-calculated Green’s functions are then projected
onto the noise subspace, and the location is estimated by the minimum
owing to the orthogonality. This combined method is applied to data of theTime-Domain Electromagnetic Multisensor Towed Array Detection System(TEMTADS), which is a 5x5 array of concentric transmitter/receiver pairs.
Examples of TEMTADS test stand data and field data collected at Spencer
Range, Tennessee are analyzed and presented. The studies show that due
to its non-iterative mechanism, the method can be executed fast enough toprovide real-time estimation of object location in the field from survey data
sets.

Acquisition and processing of advanced
sensor data for ERW and UXO detection andclassification
Gregory Schultz, Joe Keranen, White River Technologies, Inc.
(United States); Zeke Topolosky, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States); Jonathan S. Miller, White River
Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Remediation of explosive remnants of war (ERW) and associatedunexploded ordnance (UXO) has seen improvements through the injectionof modern technological advances and streamlined standard operatingprocedures. However, reliable and cost-effective detection and geophysicalmapping of sites contaminated with ordnance such as cluster munitions,abandoned weapons, and improvised explosive devices rely on the ability
to discriminate hazardous items from metallic clutter. In addition toanthropogenic clutter, handheld and vehicle-based metal detector systems
are plagued by natural geologic and environmental noise in many post
conflict areas. We present new and advanced electromagnetic induction(EMI) technologies including man-portable and towed EMI array dataacquisition software and processing algorithms. While these systems
feature vastly different form factors and transmit-receive configurations,they all exhibit several fundamental traits that enable successful featureclassification of EMI anomalies. Specifically, multi-directional sampling of

SPIE DSS 2014

Detecting and classifying small and deeptargets using improved EMI hardware and dataprocessing approach
Fridon Shubitidze, Dartmouth College (United States); Benjamin
E. Barrowes, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Ctr.
(United States); Johnny B. Sigman, Yinlin Wang, Dartmouth College(United States); Irma Shamatava, White River Technology, Inc.
(United States); Kevin A. O’Neill, Dartmouth College (United States)
The appearance of next-generation EMI sensors has been accompaniedby the development of advanced EMI models and new interpretationand inversion schemes that take advantage of the richness and diversityof the data provided by these instruments. The technologies havebeen successfully tested in various scenarios, including ESTCP liveUXO classification studies, and have demonstrated superb classification
performances. One of such sensors is 2x2 3d TEMTADS. The instrument
consists of 4 transmit square loops and four vector receive sensors a 2 x
2 grid. The sensor activates the transmitter loops in sequence, one at atime, and for each transmitter all receivers measure the complete transient
response over a wide dynamic range of time. Thus, in cued interrogation
mode the sensor provides a total of 4x3x4=48 high-fidelity data at each
instrument location. The studies have showed, that the system’s ability todetect and classify small targets (i.e., with calibers ranging from 20 to 60mm) and deep targets (burial depth more than 11 times targets diameter)
till is a challenging problem using a standard detection approach. In orderto overcome this problem, in this work , the standard approach is replacedwith the joint diagonalization technique. Namely, first multi static response
data (MSRD) is created by using different combinations of Tx coils, thenthe joint diagonalization technique is applied to MSRD matrix, eigenvalues
are extracted and used for targets detection. Finally, to improve targets
classification the Tx currents magnitudes are increased from 6 Amperes
to 14 Amperes, and targets parameters are extracted using the orthonormalized volume magnetic source technique. Studies are done for a
37mm projectile placed at 42cm, 68 cm and 86 cm under the 2x2 TEMTADS
instrument. The targets detection and classification performances areillustrated for 6 Ampere and 14 Ampere Tx currents

9072-16, Session 548

scattered fields from targets and corresponding high volume of unique data
provide a rich information for extracting useful classification features forclutter rejection analysis. The quality of classification features and successof discrimination algorithms depend largely on the extent to which the data
resolve unique physics-based parameters. To date, most of the advanced
sensors enable high quality inversion by producing data that are extremelyrich in spatial content through multi-angle illumination and multi-point
reception.

9072-18, Session 5

Advanced EMI models for survey data processing:targets detection and classification
Fridon Shubitidze, Dartmouth College (United States); Benjamin
E. Barrowes, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Ctr.
(United States); Irma Shamatava, White River Technology, Inc.
(United States); Johnny B. Sigman, Yinlin Wang, Kevin A. O’Neill,
Dartmouth College (United States)
One of the most challenging aspects of survey data processing is target
picking. The fundamental input for the classification is dynamic datacollected along survey lines. These data are different from the static dataobtained in cued mode and used for target classification. Survey data are
typically collected using just one transmitter loop (the Z-axis loop) andfeature short data-point collection times and short decay-transient times.
The collection intervals for each data point are typically 0.1 s, and the signal·

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
repetition rates are typically 90 or 270 Hz (in other words, the transient
decay times are 2.7 ms or 0.9 ms). Reliable classification requires multipleside/angle illumination; i.e., to conduct reliable classification it is necessary
to combine and jointly invert multiple data points. However, picking thedata points that provide the optimal information for classifying targets
is a difficult task. The traditional method plots signal amplitudes on a 2D
map and picks peaks of signal level without properly accounting for theunderlying physics. In this paper, the joint diagonalization is applied tosurvey data sets to improve data pre-processing and target picking. The JD
technique is an EMI data analysis and target classification technique and isapplicable for all next-generation multi-static array EMI sensors. The method
extracts multi-static response data matrix eigenvalues. The eigenvalues aremain characteristics of the data. Recent studies have demonstrated thatthe method has great potential to quickly estimate the number of potential
targets and moreover classify these targets at the data-pre-processing
stage, in real time and without the need for a forward model. Anotheradvantage of JD is that it provides the ability to separate signal from noise
making it possible to de-noise data without distorting the signal due tothe targets. In this paper the JD technique is used to process dynamic datacollected at South West Proving Ground using the 2 x 2 TEMTADS system.
The joint eigenvalues are extracted as functions of time for each data point
and summed/stacked them together, and used for creating detection maps.
Once targets are detecting then a set of data are chosen for each anomalies
and inverted using the ortho-normalized volume magnetic source technique.
The detection and classification results are demonstrated

variations. The coils are also fabricated on an FR-4 printed circuit board(PCB) and applied to a typical time domain EMI landmine detector as asearch coil. For each coil configuration, the detection range for subsurface
metallic landmines are measured and compared to the simulated magnetic
field strengths. The experimental results are consistent with the predictions
made by the field simulation.
It is demonstrated that the coil geometries with smaller inner side lengths
and trace spacing have deeper detection ranges. The fields generated by
the coil with smaller inner side lengths are shown to be larger and moreconcentrated at a close distance than the coils with larger inner side lengths.
Thus, the coil with a small inner side length can have a high sensitivity forsmall targets near the ground surface, which may be missed by coils withlarge inner side lengths.

9072-21, Session 6

Experiment design for measuring the probabilityof detection in remote sensing: How many
objects? How many passes?
Peter A. Torrione, Leslie M. Collins, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Duke Univ.
(United States)
Buried threat detection system (e.g., GPR, FLIR, EMI) performance can besummarized through two related statistics: the probability of detection(PD), and the false alarm rate (FAR). These statistics impact system rate offorward advance, clearance probability, and the overall usefulness of thesystem. Understanding system PD and FAR for each target type of interest
is fundamental to making informed decisions regarding system procurementand deployment. Since PD and FAR cannot be measured directly, proper
experiment design is required to ensure that estimates of PD and FAR are
accurate. Given an unlimited number of target emplacements, estimating
PD is straightforward. However in realistic scenarios with constrained
budgets, limited experiment collection time and space, and limited numberof targets, estimating PD becomes significantly more complicated. For
example, it may be less expensive to collect data over the same exact target
emplacement multiple times than to collect once over multiple uniquetarget emplacements. Clearly there is a difference between the quantityand value of the information obtained from these two experiments (onecollection over multiple objects, and multiple collections over one particular
object). This work will clarify and quantify the amount of information gained
from multiple passes over one target compared to collecting over multiple
unique target burials. Results provide a closed-form solution to estimating
the relative value of collecting multiple times over one object, or emplacing
a new object, as well as numerical simulations to evaluate the impact on
estimates of probability of detection.

9072-19, Session 5

Multichannel transmit/receive metal detector coilarray for vehicular applications
Korkut Yegin, Yeditepe Univ. (Turkey); Hasan Bellikli, TÜBITAKBILGEM (Turkey); Hilmi Öztürk, TÜBITAK National Research Instituteof Electronics and Cryptology (Turkey); Hakki Nazli, Mahmut Dağ,TÜBITAK BILGEM (Turkey)
Metal detector coil design has been matured to great extent over theyears. However, vehicle mounted or remotely operated metal detectors
require different specifications and these specifications dictate multiple
transmit and receive coils operating in various settings. Unlike handheld
operation, detector is more susceptible to metallic body of the vehicle.
Moreover, ground calibration is also different than handheld devices. Coilgeometries and intercoupling between them play a significant role in systemdesign and performance. In this study, we present analytical and numericalsimulations of proposed coil geometries. Time gating, coil coupling, andcoil-to-GPR antenna coupling are analyzed in terms of performance metrics.
Experimental data will also be presented for the proposed geometries.

9072-22, Session 69072-20, Session 5

Improved resistive-vee dipole-based arbitrary
polarization antenna system for ground
penetrating radar

Geometric approach of planar spiral mono-coildesign to maximize the detection range of timedomain electromagnetic induction landmine
detector

James W. Sustman, Waymond R. Scott Jr., Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)

Bobae Kim, Seung-gyu Yang, Gwangju Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of); Seunghoon Han, Seung-eui Lee,
Samsung Thales Co., Ltd. (Korea, Republic of); Kangwook Kim,
Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of)

A broadband arbitrary polarization antenna system for ground penetratingradar applications has been improved. The antenna system uses four,crossed, resistive-vee dipole (RVD) antennas operating bistaticly to measure
the simultaneous transmission and reception of multiple polarizations. The
RVD has low self clutter, low radar cross section and wideband performance.
The RVD is a linearly polarized antenna, but other polarizations can besynthesized through the use of two orthogonal RVDs to transmit or receive
orthogonal field components. The antenna system is able to distinguishrotationally symmetric and linear targets with its ability to transmit andreceive both senses of circular polarization. For example, linear targets
such as wires or pipes can be identified by even scattering of both sensesof circular polarization. The RVDs in the previous RVD-based CP (circularlyThis paper investigates the variation of the detection range of mono-coilelectromagnetic induction (EMI) landmine detector as the geometry of thesearch coil is varied. The coil geometry considered in this paper is planarsquare spiral coils with a fixed outer side length of 45 cm. The side length of
the inner square and the spacing between the wires are varied.
Static magnetic field distributions induced by the coils are simulated using
the finite element method (FEM) to study the effect of the geometric49+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
polarized) antenna were not designed for CP synthesis. The shape andresistive profile of the RVD were modified to improve dual CP performance.
The design of the RVD was optimized through simulation to improve CP
synthesis and forward gain, while maintaining low self clutter, low radarcross section, and wide bandwidth. Additional simulations demonstratethat the improvements to the RVD make it easier to correctly discriminate
targets based on their geometries.

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a very promising technology forsubsurface threat detection. A successful algorithm employing GPR
should achieve high detection rates at a low false-alarm rate and do so
at operationally relevant speeds. GPRs measure reflections at dielectricboundaries which occur at the interfaces between different materials.
These boundaries may occur at any depth, within the sensor’s range, andfurthermore, the dielectric constants could be such that they induce a 180
degree phase shift in the received signal. As a result of these time-of-arrivaland phase variations, extracting features from target responses in GPR is notstraightforward. In this work, a method to mitigate polarity and alignment
variations based on an expectation-maximization (EM) principal-component
analysis (PCA) approach is proposed. This work shows how model-basedtarget localization can significantly improve performance. Performance ismeasured according to the improvement in the ROC for classification before
and after the data is properly aligned and phase-corrected.

9072-23, Session 6

Comparison of ring resonator relative
permittivity measurements to GPR data
Marie Fishel, Erik Rosen, Phillip Koehn, Institute for Defense
Analyses (United States)
Field experience has shown that soil conditions can have large effects on
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) detection of buried targets of interest.
The relative permittivity of the soil determines the attenuation of theradar signal. The contrast between the relative permittivity of the soil andthe target is critical in determining the strength of the reflection from thetarget. In this paper, a microstrip ring resonator is used to measure therelative permittivity of the soil and various target fill materials. For thismeasurement technique, a microstrip ring resonator is placed in contact
with a material medium and the real and imaginary parts of the relative
permittivity are determined from changes in resonant frequencies (between
600 MHz and 2 GHz) and the quality factor of the resonator, respectively.
Measurement results are compared to data collected by a GPR.

9072-24, Session 6

Physics-based deformations of ground
penetrating radar signals to improve thedetection of buried explosives
Rayn T. Sakaguchi, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins, Peter A.
Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)
A number of recent algorithms have shown improved performancein detecting buried explosive threats by statistically modelling target
responses observed in ground penetrating radar (GPR) signals. Thesemethods extract features from known examples of target responses to train
a statistical classifier. The statistical classifiers are then used to identify
targets emplaced in previously unseen conditions. Due to the variation intarget GPR responses caused by factors such as differing soil conditions,classifiers require training on a large, varied dataset to encompass the signal
variation expected in operational conditions. These training collections
generally involve burying each target type in a number of soil conditions,at a number of burial depths. The cost associated with both burying thetargets, and collecting the data is extremely high. Thus, the conditions
and depths sampled cover only a subset of possible scenarios. The goalof this research is to improve the ability of a classifier to generalize to new
conditions by deforming target responses in accordance with the physicalproperties of GPR signals. These signal deformations can simulate a target
response under different conditions than those represented in the datacollection. This research shows that improved detection performance inpreviously unseen conditions can be achieved by utilizing deformations,even when the training dataset is limited.

9072-25, Session 6

Target localization and signature extraction in
GPR data using expectation-maximization andprincipal component analysis
Daniel Reichman, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Peter A. Torrione, Leslie M.
Collins, Duke Univ. (United States)

50

SPIE DSS 2014·

9072-26, Session 7

A robust Bayesian approach to target detection
applied to explosive threat detection in handheld
ground penetrating radar data
Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins, Peter A. Torrione, Duke Univ.
(United States)
Target detection algorithms for ground penetrating radar (GPR) datatypically calculate local statistics for the background data surrounding atest sample as a means to assess changes in the data from background. To
ensure that the local statistics are indicative of only the background dataand not the data due to a potential target, a guard-band is employed toprohibit the data near the test sample from being used in the calculations.
The selection of the guard-band can greatly impact performance, and thevalue chosen should be based on the expected size of a target response,a challenging task when the target population varies greatly. This work
develops a robust Bayesian approach to target detection that does not
require selection of a guard-band. By modeling the data using Student’s-T
distribution rather than a Gaussian distribution, an inference algorithm isdeveloped that automatically identifies outliers from the background andexcludes them while calculating the local statistics. The algorithm that wasdeveloped is applied to handheld GPR data, where it is shown to provide
improved performance over any particular selection of a guard-band
when the size of targets varies due to either a diverse target population or
uncertain spatial sampling in the data.

9072-27, Session 7

Change detection using down-looking groundpenetrating radar
Erik Rosen, Marie Fishel, Elizabeth Ayers, Phillip Koehn, Institute for
Defense Analyses (United States)
Down-looking ground penetrating radar (DLGPR) has been used extensively
for buried target detection. For operational implementations, the sensor isused in direct detection mode, where algorithms process data while passing
over targets, and decisions are made before a system has overpassed thetarget. Change detection differs by utilizing passes over lanes and roadways
prior to target burial. Change detection performance can improve upon
direct detection performance by comparing current data with prior data, but
it also has inherent operational limitations. Performance enhancements can
include the mitigation of anomalies not associated with targets, as well as
increased detection probabilities of deeper targets through indirect means.
In the latter case, deep buried targets that do not appear in the GPR data
can be indirectly detected using change detection methods, if the patchof ground where the target is buried has been significantly modified fromits original undisturbed state. In this paper, we explore decision-based andimage-based change detection approaches for enhancing the performanceof a DL GPR system, and enumerate the limitations of the approach.

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
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9072-28, Session 7

regarding the presence of buried threats. The PLSDA and hyperbolic filters
were generated for a data set containing multiple target types. Both PLSDA
and hyperbolic filters outperformed a prescreener for target subsets, andperformed similarly over all target types. Relative to one another, both
PLSDA and hyperbolic filters performed equally well. PLSDA filters, however,can be trained much faster than the corresponding hyperbolic filter
exhaustive search.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using downlooking ground-penetrating radar data
Erik Rosen, Marie Fishel, Phillip Koehn, Institute for Defense
Analyses (United States)
Down-looking ground penetrating radar (DLGPR) has been used extensively
for buried target detection. Data collected over the years by one system inparticular allows for the study of the dependence of detection performanceon target dependent factors such as target type, metallic content, andburial depth, as well as environmental and testing factors that may influence
detection such as direction of travel, soil types, soil moisture content, andother testing conditions. In this paper, we analyze GPR data collected overtargets using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) techniques. ANOVA provides
a straightforward statistical method for determining whether one or morefactors affect the response of the system under study. For our purposes,
the system response is not the detection probability, but is instead thealgorithm(s) output of the GPR detector, or more fundamentally, themagnitude of the peak signal over the target. Based on the results of the
ANOVA analysis, we make recommendations for future data collections
using basic principles of Design of Experiments (DOE).

9072-31, Session 8

Fusion of multiple algorithms for detecting
buried objects using fuzzy inference
Hichem Frigui, Amine B. Khalifa, Univ. of Louisville (United States)
We present a fusion method, based on fuzzy inference, for detecting
buried objects using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data. The GPR sensor
generates 3-dimensional data that correspond to depth, down-track, andcross-track. Most discrimination algorithms process only 2-D slices of the
3-D cube: (down-track, depth) or (cross-track, depth). The performanceof the down-track and cross-track discrimination algorithms can varysignificantly depending on the target shape, burial orientation, and otherenvironmental conditions. In some cases, these algorithms can provide
complimentary evidence, while in other cases they provide contradicting
evidence. Thus, effective fusion of these algorithms can achieve higher
probability of detection with fewer false alarms.

9072-29, Session 7

Context-dependent multiple kernel learning for
explosive hazards detection in forward-looking
ground-penetrating radar

The proposed fusion method is capable of learning meaningful and simple
fuzzy rules for different regions of the input space generated by partial
confidence values of the different discriminators. To learn the rules, first,
the input space is partitioned to identify local contexts. Second, input
membership functions are learned based on the statistics of the partial
confidence values of the individual discriminators within each context. Third,
output membership functions are generated by considering the distributionsof targets and non-targets within each context as well as additional
background information. Finally, the input and output membership functions
are combined into a Mamdani-type fuzzy inference system. The output of
the learning process is a fuzzy rule base adapted for different contexts.

John Becker, Timothy C. Havens, Timothy J. Schulz, Michigan
Technological Univ. (United States)
The main challenge in detecting explosive hazards with FLGPR is that
there are multiple types of targets buried at different depths in a highlycluttered and highly-variable background environment. A vast array oftarget, clutter signatures, and local site conditions exist, which makes
the design of effective detection algorithm difficult, especially of thosealgorithms based on physics-based models. Recent work in this application
has focused on machine learning-based fusion methods, including fusion ofmultiple modalities of sensors (e.g., FLGPR and infrared), fusion of multiple
frequency sub-band images in FLGPR, and feature-level fusion using
multiple kernel learning (MKL). For this paper, we will develop automatic
methods for choosing optimal kernel combinations for disparate locations in
the operational environment. In essence, the algorithm automatically selectsfrom a code-book of learners, each tuned to a different type of overalltarget condition. Using FLGPR data collected at a US Army test site, we willcompare the performance of several methods for automatic tuning of MKL
detection schemes to localized contexts.

Results on large and diverse GPR data collections show that the proposed
fusion approach can identify local, simple, and meaningful rules capableof non-linear fusion of different discriminators. We also show that the
proposed fuzzy inference outperforms commonly used fusion methods.

9072-32, Session 8

Fusion of forward-looking infrared and groundpenetrating radar for improved stopping
distances in landmine detection
Jordan M. Malof, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins, Peter A.
Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)

9072-30, Session 7

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a popular sensing modality for buried
threat detection that offers low false alarm rates (FARs), but suffers from ashort detection stopping distance. This short stopping distance leaves little
time for the system operator to react when a threat is detected, limiting
the speed of advance. This problem arises, in part, because of the way GPR
data is typically processed. GPR data is first prescreened to reduce thevolume of data considered for higher level feature-processing. Although
fast, prescreening introduces latency that delays the feature processing andlowers the stopping distance of the system. In this work we propose a novel
sensor fusion framework where a forward looking infrared (FLIR) camera
is used as a prescreener, providing suspicious locations to the GPR-based
system with zero latency. The FLIR camera is another detection modalitythat typically yields a higher FAR than GPR while offering much larger
stopping distances. This makes it well-suited in the role of zero-latencyprescreener. In this framework, GPR-based feature processing can begin
without any latency, improving stopping distances. This framework wasevaluated using well-known FLIR and GPR detection algorithms on a large

Hyperbolic and PLSDA filter algorithms to detectburied threats in GPR data
Dmitry Kalika, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins, Peter A.
Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)
Ground Penetrating radar (GPR) is a commonly used modality for thedetection of buried threats. This work explores two approaches for buried
threat detection in GPR data that we refer to as the hyperbolic filter
and PLSDA filter algorithms. The hyperbolic filter algorithm leverages
the hyperbolic shape of buried threat GPR responses, while the PLSDA
algorithm uses a PLSDA linear classifier to learn a filter based on classifier
weights. A hyperbolic filter is trained and optimized by doing a grid searchover a set of hyperbola parameters. The PLSDA filter is generated byaligning GPR data and training PLSDA weights on that feature space. The
correlation between each filter and the 2D GPR data provides information

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
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dataset collected at a Western US test site. Experiments were conducted
to investigate the tradeoff between early stopping distance and FAR.
The results indicate that earlier stopping distances are achievable while
maintaining effective FARs. However, because an earlier stopping distanceyields less data for feature extraction, there is a general tradeoff between
detection performance and stopping distance.

and supervised learning to generate input-output mapping of labeledtraining data. DFL approaches are well suited for BEH detection because
they 1) are computationally efficient, 2) can compactly represent highly
non-linear functions, and 3) have proven capable of accurate classificationin noisy environments. We use DFL algorithms to process state-of-the-art
ground penetrating radar data and detect BEHs.

9072-33, Session 89072-35, Session 8

Shallow depth subsurface imaging withmicrowave holography

Vehicle-mounted ground penetrating radar (Mine
Stalker III) field evaluation in Angola

Andrey Zhuravlev, Sergey I. Ivashov, Vladimir Razevig, Igor Vasiliev,
Bauman Moscow State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation)

Stephen J. Laudato, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

Subsurface sounding at shallow depths using microwaves is traditionallyapproached using pulsed ground penetrating radars. These radars record
time of flight when two-dimensional signal is acquired over an area ofinterest. Post processing of acquired data results in a stack of images
for further analysis. With such a technique, a detected anomaly can beclassified based on object visible features, the quantity and quality of which
depends on resolution of radar system. In the paper microwave holography
is considered as a tool to obtain high resolution images of shallowly buried
objects. The acquisition of signal is performed at a grid of frequencies by
a two-dimensional mechanical scanner moving single transceiver over an
area of interest at close proximity to the surface. The described FFT-based
reconstruction technique is used to obtain a stack of plan view images
considering only one selected frequency from operating frequency set. The
extent of synthetically formed aperture and the wavelength define planview resolution, which at sounding frequencies at 4 and 7 GHz amounted
to 3 and 2 cm respectively. The system has remarkably short depth of focus
which allows easy selection of proper focusing depth. Small distance of theburied objects to the antenna does not prevent from obtaining clean images
due to multiple reflections of the signal as it happens with impulse radars.
The description of the system hardware and signal processing technique
is assisted by the description of experiments conducted in dry sand. The
microwave images of anti-personnel and anti-tank mines and various
clutter objects are demonstrated. Those images allow target discrimination
based on the same optically observable small features. The demonstrated
technology is seen promising to be modified and employed according
to specific practical needs required in demining or survey systems. As an
example of such modification to inspect construction materials, holographic
subsurface radar RASCAN is considered.

The U.S. Department of Defense Humanitarian Demining Research andDevelopment (HD R&D) Program, The Non-Intrusive Inspection Technology(NIITEK), Inc. and The HALO Trust have over the last decade funded,developed and tested various incarnations of a prototype vehicle mounted
ground penetrating radar (GPR) system dubbed the Mine Stalker. The HD
R&D Program and NIITEK developed the Mine Stalker to detect low metalanti-tank (LM AT) mines in roads. The country of Angola is severely affected
by LM-AT mines in roads, some of which are deeply buried. The threat fromLM AT mines such as the South African Number 8 and the Chinese Type72 still persist from Angola’s 30 years of civil war. Many of these LM AT
threats are undetectable at depths greater than 5 to 10 centimeters using
metal detection technology. Clearing these routes is a critical requirement
before Angola can rebuild its infrastructure and improve safety conditions
for the local populace. The Halo Trust, a non-governmental demining
organization (NGO) focused on demining and clearance of unexploded
ordnance (UXO), has partnered with the HD R&D Program to conduct anoperational field evaluation (OFE) of the Mine Stalker in Angola. Preliminary
testing and training efforts yielded encouraging results. This paper presents
a comprehensive review of the data collected, testing results, system
limitations, and deficiencies while operating in a real world environment.
Our goal is to promote discussion and recommendations for hardware
and software improvements, while providing valuable data collected anddocumented under real world conditions for continued development of thesystem’s automatic target recognition algorithms.

9072-34, Session 8

Lance E. Besaw, Philip J. Stimac, Applied Research Associates, Inc.
(United States); Brian P. Burns, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States)
Improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and other buried explosive hazards(BEHs) have been, and continue to be, one of the most deadly threats on
the modern battlefield. Current handheld sensors rely on a highly trained
operator for them to be effective in detecting BEHs. New algorithms areneeded to reduce the burden on the operator and improve the performanceof handheld explosive hazard detectors. Traditional anomaly detection
and discrimination algorithms use “hand-engineered” feature extraction
techniques to characterize and classify threats. In this work we use state-ofthe-art Deep Feature Learning (DFL) algorithms to transcend the traditional
approaches of BEH detection (e.g., principal component analysis and realtime novelty detection techniques). Recently, DFL approaches have provensuperior to traditional hand-engineered feature extraction methodologiesof the past 20+ years because the algorithms automatically learn theimportant features from the data at multiple scales of abstraction without
explicit human feature-engineering. DFL techniques use unsupervised
learning to generate compressed representations of unlabeled, input data

SPIE DSS 2014

Towards eye-safe standoff Raman imaging
systems
Martin Glimtoft, Petra Bååth, Swedish Defence Research Agency(Sweden); Heikki K. Saari, Jussi Mäkynen, Antti Näsilä, VTT
Technical Research Ctr. of Finland (Finland); Henric Östmark,Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)

Deep learning algorithms for detecting explosive
hazards in ground-penetrating radar

529072-36, Session 9·Standoff Raman imaging systems have shown the ability to detect single
explosives particles. However the laser intensities needed restricts theapplications where they can be safely used. The next generation imaging
Raman system has been developed based on a 355 nm UV laser, and in
addition to eye-safety allowing discrete/invisible measurements. The
non-dangerous exposure levels for the eye are several orders of magnitude
higher in UVA than in the visible range.
FOI in collaboration with VTT have developed an imaging system capableof precise selection of Raman shifts in combination with high out-of-band
blocking. The system is based on a by VTT developed compact, highresolution (0.2 nm @ FWHM) UV Fabry-Perot Interferometer (UV-FPI).
The stable operation of the UV-FPI module under varying environmental
conditions is arranged by controlling the temperature of the moduleand using a closed loop control of the FPI air gap based on capacitive
measurement. Until now there has not existed a tunable wavelength filterin the UV-range with high enough performance to allow Raman imaging ofminute traces.
The system presented consists of a 3rd harmonics Nd:YAG laser with 1.5

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
We present an optical approach for the detection of fuel oil (the volatilecomponent in ammonium nitrate-fuel oil explosives) that relies on IR
absorption spectroscopy in a laboratory environment. Our proposed systemutilizes a three filter set to separate the IR signals from fuel oil and various
background interferents in the sample headspace. Filter responses for thechemical spectra are calculated for various filter sets.

W average output at 1000 Hz, a 200 mm Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope,
UV-FPI filter and an ICCD camera for signal gating and detection. The
design principal leads to Raman spectrum in each image pixel. The system isdesigned for field use and easy maneuvering.
A plate with a pattern of holes in decreasing sizes has shown the ability todetect ammonium nitrate particles down to ~300 µm on 10 meter distance.
Measurement time varies between 10-60 s depending on sensitivity andnumber of substances scanned for.

We demonstrate that using specific filter sets allows distinguishing between
pure fuel oil, hexanes, and acetone, as well as various mixtures of thesecomponents. We examine the effects of varying carrier gasses and humidity
on the collected spectra and corresponding filter response. We study thefilter response on these mixtures over time as well as present a variety
of methods for analyzing the filter response functions to determine theresponse of this approach to detecting fuel oil in various environments.

9072-37, Session 9

An excimer-based FAIMS detector for detectionof ultra-low concentrations of explosives
Gennadiy E. Kotkovskiy, Alexander A. Chistyakov, Alexey V. Sychev,
National Research Nuclear Univ. MEPhI (Russian Federation);
Anatoly N. Perederii, Moscow State Institute of Radiotechnics,
Electronics and Automation (Russian Federation)

9072-39, Session 10

Currently, the development of the methods providing increase in sensitivityof gas analyzers for detecting of ultralow concentrations of organic
compounds in air is a needed and urgent problem.

Applications of “forced-resonance-imaging” (FRI) for standoff detection ofconcealed IED (PBIED and VBIED) are presented with the aid of examples
using live explosives. Research on the subject was initiated in 2008. It
uses the radar principle to arrive at a novel technique for interrogation of
personnel and vehicles (cargo, etc.) for explosives. This novel low powerelectromagnetic platform is capable for almost real time realization of
PBIED and VBIED at standoff using either fixed portal configuration(transmission mode) or vehicle mounted configuration (reflection mode).
Sensor development has been done based on the “Weak Signal” theory andutilizing a newly developed concept of “forced- resonance” in which thetarget (IED) frequency response is measured sequentially through a numberof discrete frequency steps within the operating bandwidth of the detection
algorithm. The overall system is configured to transmit low-power RF energy(between 6-dBm to 10-dBm equivalent to 3.99 mw to 10.02 mw) through51 sequential steps within a pre-selected operating frequency band for
personnel / vehicle borne explosive detection. The intermediate frequency(IF) for internal processing of the received signal is maintained at 1000 Hz.
Combination of 51 frequency steps and 1000 Hz IF will provide the fastest
possible sequential trace by trace interrogation of vehicle for a pre-selected
operating frequency band. The amount of explosive would be from 1-kg to
400-kg and the time to scan an average size personnel / vehicle moving
at a slow speed would be 3.1 seconds. Moving personnel / vehicles are
fielded within the low-power transmitted regime of sensors and presenceor absence of the explosive is detected by real time processing of received
signal. Each radar trace is acquired at a rate of 0.069 second at a preestablished standoff distance. The received signal from personnel / vehicle
under investigation is processed and should it contained explosive materiala colored or white radar cross-section (signature) depending on the display
mode, appears instantly on the monitoring screen to warn the operatorof the inherent danger. The monitoring display screen can be installednear the sensor or remotely in another check point or multiple locations
for real time observation. Once the presence of explosive is detected ina personnel / vehicle then the necessary decision can be made using theprotocol to neutralize or cease its functionality through available assets.
The design of an appropriate candidate sensor for IED detection must be
based on accounting for the material make up in addition to the density andsize of the explosive fill. This makes the BakhtarRadar uniquely qualified
as a novel platform for such detection because its realization is primarily
dependent on material makeup as demonstrated in a recent investigation
conducted on “shielded weapons grade nuclear material” detection at Las
Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). FRI provides a cost effective sensor
for standoff detection of IED and can be configured for ease of installation
either in portal or mobile configuration. Examples are provided on detection
and discrimination of vehicle and personnel borne IEDs.

FRI for standoff detection of IED
Khosrow Bakhtar, Bakhtar Technologies, LLC (United States)

A new method of explosives detection based on the field asymmetric ion
mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) and ionization by an excimer emitter has
been developed jointly with portable detector. The excimer emitter differsfrom usual UV-ionizing lamps by mechanism of emitting, energy andspectral characteristics. The applied Ar2-excimer emitter has the working
volume of 1 cm3, consuming power 0,6 W, the energy of photons of about
10 eV ( ?=126 nm), the FWHM radiation spectrum of 10 nm and emits morethan 1016 photon per second that is two orders of magnitude higher thanUV-lamp of the same working volume emits. This also exceeds by an orderof magnitude the mean power of 10-Hz solid state Nd3+ - laser of 1mJ pulse
energy at ?=266 nm that is also used to ionize the analyte. The Ar2-excimer
ionizes explosives by direct ionization mechanism and through ionization oforganic impurities. The developed Ar2-excimer-based ion source does not
require cooling due to low level discharge current of emitter and could workwith no repair more than 10000 hrs.
The developed detector can analyze both vapors and traces of explosives.
The FAIMS spectra of the basic types of explosives like TNT, RDX, DNT, NG,
ANFO, PETN, octogene etc. under Ar2-excimer ionization are presented. The
detection limit determined for TNT vapors equals 1x10-14 g/cm3 , for TNT
traces - 100 pg.

9072-38, Session 9Filter-based chemical sensors for hazardous
materials
Kevin J. Major, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte (UnitedStates); Kenneth J. Ewing, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Menelaos K. Poutous, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte(United States); Jas S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ishwar D. Aggarwal, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte(United States)
The development of new techniques for the detection of homemade
explosive devices is an area of intense research for the defense community.
Such sensors must exhibit high selectivity to detect explosives and/or
explosives related materials in a complex environment. Spectroscopic
techniques such as FTIR are capable of discriminating between the volatilecomponents of explosives, however, there is a need for less expensive
systems for wide-range use in the field. To tackle this challenge we areinvestigating the use of multiple, overlapping, broad band infrared (IR)filters to enable discrimination of volatile chemicals associated with an
explosive device from potential background interferents with similar
chemical signatures.

53+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX

9072-40, Session 10(United States)

Low-cost detection of RC-IED activation signals
in VHF band

It is well-known that a pattern recognition system is only as good as thefeatures it is built upon. In the fields of image processing and computer
vision, we have numerous spatial domain and spatial-frequency domainfeatures to help characterize aspects of imagery such as color, shape,
and texture. However, these features suffer at times in part from the factthat they extract both object(s) of interest and background (surrounding
context) information. A goal of this research is to filter as much taskspecific irrelevant information as possible, e.g., tire tracks, surface texture,etc., to allow a system to focus on image features in spatial regions thatlikely belong to the object(s) of interest. Herein, this is coined soft feature
extraction.

Victor H. Camargo, Jose I. Marulanda, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
The proliferation of RC-IED is a growing threat around the world, the easeof construction and low cost of such devices are transforming common
things in lethal tramps. The fight against this threats normally involve theuse of sophisticated and expensive equipments of Electronic Warfare basedon high speed DSP systems, just to detect the presence of detonation
signals. In this work is showed how to find activation signals based on thecharacteristic of the power in a specific band and the previous knowledge
about the detonation signals. As proof of concept we have taken theinformation about the RC-IEDs used in the Colombian conflict and develop
an algorithm to find detonation signals based on the measured power infrequencies between 136MHz and 174MHz (Civil 2 meter band)

This idea is demonstrated in the context of an explosive hazards detection
system using forward looking infrared imagery. We also investigate
different ways to spatially contextualize and calculate statistical featuresfrom shearlet filtered candidate image chips. Furthermore, we investigate
different localization strategies relative to exploitation of surrounding
background context and different ways to group these image features
to reduce the false alarm rate of an explosive hazard detection system.
Performance is explored in the context of Receiver Operating Characteristic
curves on data from a U.S. Army test site that contains multiple target andclutter types, burial depths, and times of day.

9072-41, Session 10

Prospect for standoff detection using a coherent
high-harmonic x-ray beam

9072-44, Session 11

Henry C. Kapteyn, Margaret M. Murnane, Univ. of Colorado at
Boulder (United States)

A method of evolving novel feature extraction
algorithms for detecting buried objects in FLIR
imagery using genetic programming

No Abstract Available

9072-42, Session 11

Alex Paino, James M. Keller, Mihail Popescu, Kevin E. Stone, Univ. of
Missouri-Columbia (United States)

Ladar-based IED detection
Philip Engström, Håkan Larsson, Dietmar Letalick, Swedish Defence
Research Agency (Sweden)
In the last decades improvised explosive devices, IED’s, have become aneveryday threat for armed forces accounting for many lost lives. An IED
is a bomb constructed and deployed in a non-standard manor. They areused in many situations but the particular one that we are addressing is theroadside bomb. An object filled with explosive and connected to some sortof triggering mechanism or a cell phone is placed just beside the road andwhen a car drives by it is triggered. The scenario with road side IED’s is aparticular active research topic since it is feasible to detect that something
has changed or seems out of place. A trained operator can sometimes see
this type of IED before it is too late and it should be possible to construct anautomatic system to do the same.
In this paper we present our research on Ladar-based IED detection where
we perform change detection on laser scanned data. The idea is to acquireand store a model of the surroundings under normal conditions and be able
to detect new, missing or changed objects. To gain knowledge on the lower
boundaries of the needed resolution we have done static measurementswith a high resolute terrestrial Riegl VZ-400 laser scanner. We present ourfindings from various measurements and conclude which objects may be
detected and with which algorithms. Our goal however is a dynamic system
and we have developed a relatively simple demonstrator based on a SICK
LMS-511 scanner and a navigation system based on stereo vision combinedwith IMU and GPS. We present some preliminary results from this system.

9072-45, Session 11

Convolutional neural network approach forburied target recognition in FL-LWIR imagery

9072-43, Session 11

Investigation of different localization strategies
for spatial and spectral features for buried
explosive hazard detection in FL-LWIR

Kevin E. Stone, James M. Keller, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (UnitedStates)A convolutional neural network (CNN) approach to recognition of buried
explosive hazards in forward-looking long-wave infrared (FL-LWIR)
imagery is presented. The convolutional filters in the first layer of the
network are learned in the frequency domain, making enforcement ofStanton R. Price, Derek T. Anderson, Mississippi State Univ. (UnitedStates); Kevin E. Stone, James M. Keller, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia

54

SPIE DSS 2014

In this paper we present an approach that uses Genetic Programming(GP) to evolve novel feature extraction algorithms for greyscale images.
Our motivation is to create an automated method of building new feature
extraction algorithms for images that are competitive with commonlyused human-engineered features, such as Local Binary Pattern (LBP) andHistogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG). The evolved feature extraction
algorithms are functions defined over the image space, and each produce
a real-value feature vector of variable length. Each evolved feature
extractor breaks up the given image into a set of cells centered on every
pixel, performs evolved operations on each cell, and then combines theresults of those operations for every cell using an evolved operator. Using
this method, the algorithm is flexible enough to reproduce both LBP and
HOG features. The dataset we use to train and test our approach consistsof a large number of pre-segmented image “chips” taken from a Forward
Looking Infrared Imagery (FLIR) camera mounted on the hood of a moving
vehicle. The goal is to classify each image chip as either containing or notcontaining a buried object. To this end, we define the fitness of a candidate
solution as the cross-fold validation accuracy of the features generated bysaid candidate solution when used in conjunction with a Support Vector
Machine (SVM) classifier. In order to validate our approach, we compare theclassification accuracy of an SVM trained using our evolved features with theaccuracy of an SVM trained using mainstream feature extraction algorithms,
including LBP and HOG.

·

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
zero-phase and zero-dc response characteristics much easier. The spatial
domain representations of the filters are forced to have unit l2 norm,and penalty terms are added to the online gradient descent update toencourage orthonormality among the convolutional filters, as well smooth
first and second order derivatives in the spatial domain. The impact ofthese modifications on the generalization performance of the CNN modelis investigated. The CNN approach is compared to a second recognition
algorithm utilizing shearlet and log-Gabor decomposition of the image
coupled with cell-structured feature extraction and support vector machineclassification. Results are presented for multiple FL-LWIR data sets recently
collected from US Army test sites. These data sets include vehicle position
information allowing accurate transformation between image and world
coordinates and realistic evaluation of detection and false alarm rates.

makes the method object-rotation agnostic. A partially covered or obscured
object, however, is problematic as it impairs the scaling algorithm, making
the subsequent matching less accurate and reducing the accuracy of theclassification decision.
This paper considers several techniques to handle the similar problem
posed by input images that are obscured or in which the target is partiallycovered. These approaches, which include scaling based on mean, medianand mode values (instead of maximal / quartile values), are compared withthe base algorithm to assess the impact on performance in the general case,obscured scenarios and obstructed scenarios. This assessment is performed
both qualitatively and quantitatively.

9072-48, Session 129072-46, Session 11

3D LASE-M three-dimensional-lidar airborne
system emulator maritime

Road recognition in poor quality environments
for forward looking buried object detection

Michael J. DeWeert, BAE Systems (United States)

Pooparat Plodpradista, James M. Keller, Mihail Popescu, Tomothy
Madison, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States)

Imaging flash LIDAR is an effective method for airborne searches of theocean surface and subsurface volume. The performance of ocean LIDAR
depends strongly on the sea surface (waves, whitecaps, and flotsam), on
water turbidity, and on the characteristics of the objects of interest. Costeffective design of the LIDAR system and processing algorithms requiresa modeling capability that can deal with the physics of light propagation
through the air-water interface, into the ocean, and back to the LIDAR
receiver. 3DLASE-M is a physics-based LIDAR simulator that yields highfidelity images for 3-dimensional algorithm development and performance
predictions. Among the effects captured are:Detecting unpaved roads in a poor quality environment is an important
step toward autonomous navigation. In the application of forward looking
buried object detection, it is crucial to anticipate directional changes sothat the imaging systems can adapt apriori. Unlike road detection in paved
streets or highways, unpaved roads in a desert environment introduce many
complications to the road detection algorithm, such as similarity in color
and texture on both road and non-road areas and the absence of clearly
defined road edges. Also, unpaved roads may include many foreign objects
like grass, rocks, road wash-outs, or even trees and bushes. The varieties ofthese foreign objects are too many to be included all in the training data.

* Laser glint and glitter* Focusing and de-focusing due to surface wave refraction* De-polarization of propagating laser light

In this paper, we propose a reinforcement random forest algorithm as anovel approach to detect unpaved road regions at stand-off distances. A
random forest classifier is used to differentiate between road and nonroad pixels/patches without over fitting the training data. Utilizing thereinforcement technique, the algorithm can handle foreign objects that
we encounter in real world driving. Furthermore, classifying road pixels at
different distances generate multiple levels of road confidence for eachpixel. Using different threshold values of this confidence level provides
adaptability to the road finding results. The selection of low threshold value
produces better detection rates but also increases false alarms. On the other
hand, high threshold values lower the detection rate and decreases false
detections. The proposed algorithm is tested on color video of unpaved
roads from an arid environment.

* Multiple-scattering-induced beam spread and image blurring* Absorption and backscatter in the water volume* Variable target and bottom reflectance
The simulator uses a hybrid engine that combines ray tracing with smallscattering theory to run much faster than purely Monte-Carlo models. It
also incorporates a quasi-universal scattering phase function, making it
applicable to a wide range of water types. The sea surface is modeled with
the US Army Corps of Engineers TMA model, with a selectable directional
spectrum.

9072-49, Session 129072-47, Session 12

Detection of obscured targets with IR
polarimetric imaging

Detection of obscured and partially covered
objects using partial network matching and an
image feature network-based object recognition
algorithm

David B. Chenault, Joseph L. Pezzaniti, Polaris Sensor Technologies,
Inc. (United States)
A polarization thermal sensor is presented that has ability to detectmanmade objects even when there is little or no thermal contrast, or when
the object is obscured by clutter or vegetation. Imagery will be shown for
scenarios in which polarization contrast remains high during periods of zerothermal contrast. Also, data will be presented that shows the detection ofmanmade targets in natural clutter, long after thermal equilibrium of thetarget with the background has been established.

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
An approach to image classification based on the analysis of the networkof points generated by an image feature detection algorithm has been
proposed. This network-based approach is designed to look at the networks
produced by two images of similar or dissimilar objects and scale and thencompare them, making a classification decision. The scaling is based onusing maximal or quartile (25%, 50%, 75%) node-to-node path lengths tocharacterize the relative size of the two input images. Using this approach,the resolution of the image or the distance from the target is abstracted(though it is still relevant from a visibility of image feature perspective).
The distance between image features of various types is used to createa network of type-specific feature-to-feature distances. This network is
compared to the networks of various known objects (or could be used tomatch unknown objects to other unknown objects). This network approach55+1 360 676 3290

9072-50, Session 12

Investigation of disturbed earth detection in thevery long wavelength infrared (VLWIR)
Kenneth J. Ewing, Jas S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)·

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Conference 9072: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XIX
The Reststrahlen effect, which refers to an enhanced reflectance for soils
in the 7 – 9 μm wavelength range, can be used to detect disturbed earth
associated with buried IEDs. The Reststrahlen band intensity is proportional
to the size and distribution of silica particles in surface and sub-surface
soil. Soils containing predominantly large silica particles exhibit a greater
intensity Reststrahlen band than soils containing a greater fraction ofsmaller silica particles. Undisturbed surface soil contains primarily large
silica particles while smaller silica particles are present in the subsurface soil.
This distribution is primarily driven by weathering of the soil by wind andrain over time. When the earth is disturbed by digging the size distributionof silica particles is changed resulting in the disturbed earth surface soil
containing a greater number of small silica particles then the surrounding
surface soil. This results in a decrease in the reflected light for the disturbed
earth which can be detected as a difference in contrast in an IR image ofdisturbed and undisturbed earth enabling identification/location of buried
IEDs.
This paper investigates the utility of a second Reststrahlen band in the 17 –25 µm spectral region for the enhanced detection of disturbed earth.

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SPIE DSS 2014·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV
Tuesday - Thursday 6 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9073 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV

9073-1, Session 1

Results for measurements of reflectance standard materials as well as datafrom several materials of interest will also be presented. A complementaryreflectance database for the same materials is also being developed in thevisible and near infrared (VNIR). The VNIR data, which is measured using adispersive spectrometer and Spectralon coated sphere, overlaps with theinfrared data in the shortwave region. Reflectance data comparisons fromthe two instruments in the overlap region will also be given.

Active FTIR-based standoff detection in the
3-4-micron region using broadband femtosecond
optical parametric oscillators (Invited Paper)
Derryck T. Reid, Zhaowei Zhang, Heriot-Watt Univ. (United
Kingdom); Christopher R. Howle, Defence Science and Technology
Lab. (United Kingdom)

9073-3, Session 1

Development of an ultrahigh-performance
infrared detector platform for advanced
spectroscopic sensing systems

We describe the implementation of standoff Fourier transform infrared(FTIR) spectroscopy using a broadband mid-infrared optical parametricoscillator (OPO). This signal-resonant OPO was based on a 20 mm-longmagnesium oxide doped periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) crystal
and synchronously pumped by a fiber amplifier seeded by a mode-locked
Yb: KYW laser. The mid-IR idler output from the OPO had an average powerof 100 mW, with a spectral coverage over 2700 -3200 cm-1. The pulse widthand pulse repetition rate of the mid-IR pulse train were ~3 ps and 100 MHz
respectively.

Manish Jain, Amethyst Research Inc. (United Kingdom); Gary
W. Wicks, Amethyst Research Inc. (United States) and Univ. ofRochester (United States); Andrew R. J. Marshall, Adam Craig,
Lancaster Univ. (United Kingdom); Terry Golding, Amethyst
Research Inc. (United States) and Amethyst Research Ltd. (United
Kingdom); Khalid Hossain, Amethyst Research Inc. (United States);
Christopher R. Howle, Kenneth J. McEwan, Defence Science andTechnology Lab. (United Kingdom)

The mid-IR OPO output was collimated to a diameter of approximately
8 mm, then directed to a home-built FTIR spectrometer consisting of aMichelson interferometer with a scanning mirror. Along with the mid-IR
OPO beam, a 632.8-nm He-Ne beam was coupled into the interferometer
for absolute frequency calibration of spectroscopic signals. After theinterferometer, the light was directed to the surface of interest and thescattered light collected by an MCT or PbSe detector. No averaging was
required, and only point sampling was implemented, with an acquisition rateof ~10 Hz, which could be significantly improved by use of a faster scanningmirror for the Michelson interferometer.

Implementation of laser-based remote (standoff) sensing of threat agents(explosives, toxic industrial chemicals or chemical warfare agents), bydetecting the distinct infrared spectral absorption signature of thesematerials, has made significant advances recently. This is due in part tothe availability of infrared and terahertz laser sources with significantly
improved power and tunability. However, there is a pressing need fora versatile, high performance multispectral infrared sensor that cancomplement and enhance the recent advances achieved in laser technology.
In this paper we discuss and present results of new, high performance
infrared detectors based on III-V barrier diodes. Unipolar barrier diodes,
such as the nBn, have been very successful in the MWIR using InAs(Sb)based materials, and in the LWIR using type-II InAsSb/InAs superlatticebased materials. This work addresses the extension of the barrier diodearchitecture into the SWIR region, using GaSb-based and InAs-basedmaterials. The program has resulted in detectors with unmatchedperformance in the 2-3 micron spectral range. Temperature dependent
characterization has shown dark currents to be diffusion limited and equal
to, or within a factor of 5, of the Rule 07 expression for Auger-limited
HgCdTe detectors. Furthermore D* values are superior to those of existing
detectors in the 2-3 micron band. Of particular significance to spectroscopic
sensing systems is the ability to have near-BLIP performance at operation
temperatures compatible with robust and reliable solid state thermoelectriccoolers.

Remote detection for water vapor, chemical agent resistant coating (CARC),
and a thiodiglycol droplet, on highly-irregular real-world surfaces, including
a concrete, a CARC plate and an aluminium plate, was demonstrated at astandoff distance of 2 meters with excellent signal to noise.
Compared with an ‘incoherent’ high-temperature blackbody radiation
source, a broadband mid-infrared optical parametric oscillator source isinherently more suitable for standoff spectroscopy because of its excellent
spatial coherence and high spectral brightness.
This technique promises to open up many applications including
environmental diagnosis, detection of gas leaks or toxic industrial spills,
identification of chemical warfare agents, explosives or other hazardous
materials, and analysis of contaminated water or soils.

9073-2, Session 1

Quantitative total and diffuse reflectancelaboratory measurements for remote andstandoff sensing

9073-4, Session 1

Thomas A. Blake, Carolyn S. Brauer, Yin-Fong Su, Bruce E. Bernacki,
Tanya L. Myers, Brenda M. Kunkel, Timothy J. Johnson, PacificNorthwest National Lab. (United States)

Real-time identification of aerosol sized particles
using single-beam CARS

Past laboratory and field work by researchers performing thermal infrared
remote sensing of geological surfaces, for example, has shown that for mostmaterials a laboratory measurement of the total directional/hemisphericalreflectance, R, of a target surface and the use of Kirchhoff’s law gives agood approximation to the emissivity, e, of that surface: e = 1 – RT. Usinga Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS) and a commercial-off-the-shelf
integrating sphere with a matte gold coating we have begun to construct aquantitative database of total and diffuse reflectance spectra covering the
wavelength range 1.3 to 16.7 microns for materials relevant to remote andstandoff sensing for security scenarios. Protocols for measuring total anddiffuse reflectance of surfaces using the FTS and sphere are provided andestimates for systematic and random error in the measurements are given.

57+1 360 676 3290

Stephen D. Roberson, EOIR Technologies (United States); Paul M.
Pellegrino, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
There is a need for rapid and accurate detection and identification ofcomplex aerosol particles in a number of fields for countless applications
including an on-the-fly bio-aerosol hazard warning system pursued by
the chemical and biological defense community. Prior works has explorednumerous methodologies to classifiy or identify possible aerosol hazards
using elastic scattering, polarimetric elastic scattering and fluorescence withlimited success at full identification. Full identification has been hamperedby the inability to use information-rich spectroscopic methods such as
Raman scattering in a flowing aerosol environment. Recently, multiplex·

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV
coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (MCARS) has been shown togenerate a complete Raman spectrum from the material of interest thatcan be detected in milliseconds, effectively allowing for real time Raman
detection. MCARS creates this vast improvement on signal strength byusing a single ultrabroadband pulse to coherently drive multiple molecularvibrations simultaneously, creating a complete Raman spectrum from single
laser pulse. The use of MCARS to create a real time Raman spectrum would
be a significant step forward in the continuing effort to assess aerosolsized threats in real time without sacrificing the much-needed molecular
information. The effort to perform in situ real time detection of a single
droplet of an aerosol-sized material of interest (e.g., nerve agent simulant,
explosive precursors) using MCARS will be reported. Additionally, theeffect of varying aerosol droplet diameter on the efficacy of detection andidentification will also be discussed.

includes quantum cascade laser (QCL)-based microelectromechanicalsystems (MEMS)-scale photoacoustic sensors that provide detection limits
at parts-per-billion (ppb) levels for chemical targets. Current gas sensing
research utilizes an ultra compact QCL, SpriteIR, in combination with a
MEMS-scale photoacoustic cell for trace gas detection. At approximately
one tenth the size of a standard commercially available QCL, SpriteIR isan essential element in the development of an integrated sensor package.
We will discuss these results as well as the envisioned sensor prototype.
Finally, expanding on our previously reported photoacoustic detection ofcondensed phase samples, we are investigating standoff photoacoustic
chemical detection of these materials and will discuss preliminary results.

9073-7, Session 1

Multispectral imaging of CBRNE threats using
micro-optics

9073-5, Session 1

The application of adhesive coatings for tracesampling, chemical detection, and forensics

Michele Hinnrichs, Pacific Advanced Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates); James O. Jensen, U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical BiologicalCtr. (United States)

Jessica Staymates, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
Several uses of a high-temperature resistant silicone adhesive material
for trace chemical sampling and detection are presented. In many tracesampling applications, surface wipe sampling is the primary method used
to collect contraband contamination from a surface or object. The abilityof the wipe material to effectively collect this contamination has been thefocus of many studies in the past, and results suggest that improvements
in collection efficiency are needed [1,2]. In this work, a unique adhesivematerial is applied directly to the surface of a wipe collection material andallowed to cure, resulting in a wipe that has a factor of ten improvement inparticle collection efficiencies compared to regular wipe materials. Chemical
analysis via ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), particle collection efficiency
experiments via fluorescent microscopy, and high-speed videography ofparticle collection were used to confirm the results. This presentation will
describe the results of many experiments conducted to fully examine theusefulness of these adhesive swabs. Results, feasibility, and potential issues
with using this method will be discussed, and videos and images used forcharacterization of the method will be presented.
Also, a new methodology using this concept of adhesive coatings has beendeveloped and evaluated for biometric-related applications, specificallylifting latent fingerprints, and combined with trace chemical analysis. A
collection swab coated with a high-temperature adhesive is used to collecta developed latent fingerprint from a surface, and the swab is directly
inserted into an IMS for quick and immediate chemical analysis. Afterthe IMS analysis, the lifted print remains intact for subsequent biometricscanning and matching algorithms. The ability to collect a latent print andheat it for chemical analysis while keeping the print intact may be useful forlaw enforcement and military operations, and could potentially reduce thecost and delay of sending fingerprint samples to a lab for chemical analysis.
Topics such as sample preparation and collection and usefulness of the lifted
fingerprints will be presented.
[1] Verkouteren, et al., Meas. Sci Technol. 2008 19 115101.
[2] Staymates et al., Anal.Methods 2011 3(9) 2056-2060.

9073-6, Session 1

Photoacoustic chemical sensing: ultracompact
sources and standoff detection
Logan S. Marcus, Ellen L. Holthoff, John F. Schill, Paul M. Pellegrino,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

This paper is a follow-on paper to one presented at SPIE in 2012 describing
a design for a snapshot multi-spectral camera that can be used for CBRNE
applications. An update on the development effort and preliminary testing
will be given. Under support by the US Army SBIR program a multi-spectral
SWIR/MWIR snapshot camera was developed. The snapshot camera uses
a 1280 x 1024, 12 micron pixel pitch InSb focal plane array (FPA) which is
divided into 16 spectral images consisting of 256 x 256 pixels each. Eachof the sixteen different spectral images has a bandpass of 0.04 microns.
The micro-optic array (lenslet array) is fabricated on ZnSe with each lenslet
measuring 3 mm in diameter and a nominal focal length of 7 mm or f/2.33.
To expand the 16 multi-spectral snapshot images to a hyperspectral camera
the lenslet array is translated along the optical axis with piezoelectric
actuation in synchronization with the camera frame rate to perform
band fill-in. By multiplexing 16 simultaneous spectral images an entire
hyperspectral data cube can be collected rapidly. The simultaneous
detection of multiple spectral images in a single frame also enhances theimage processing capability by eliminating temporal differences between
colors and reduces motion sensitivity.

9073-8, Session 2

A neural network structure for prediction ofchemical agent fate
Homayun K. Navaz, Kettering Univ. (United States); Nasser
Kehtarnavaz, University of Texas at Dallas (United States); Zoran
Jovic, Kettering University (United States)
This work presents the development of a multi-input, multi-output neuralnetwork structure to predict the time dependent concentration of chemical
agents as they participate in chemical reaction with environmental
substrates or moisture content within these substrates. The neural network
prediction is based on a computationally or experimentally produced
database that includes the concentration of all chemicals presents(reactants and products) as a function of the chemical agent droplet size,
wind speed, temperature, and turbulence. The utilization of this prediction
structure is made user-friendly via an easy-to-use graphical user interface.
Furthermore, upon the knowledge of the time-varying environmental
parameters (wind speed and temperature that are usually recorded andavailable), the time varying concentration of all chemicals can be predicted
almost instantaneously by recalling the previously trained network. The
network prediction was compared with actual open air test data and theresults were found to match.

Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) is a useful monitoring technique that iswell suited for trace detection of gaseous and condensed media. We havepreviously demonstrated favorable PAS gas detection characteristics when
the system dimensions are scaled to a micro-system design. This design

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
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9073-9, Session 2

with a short standoff distance around 1 meter.
The overall energy of the detected Raman signal from pure dropletsof these substances is generally found to reach a peak within this laser
excitation band. The Raman signal increase with decreasing laser excitation
wavelength until the absorption band of the substances is reached and thesignal strength starts to fall. The optimum excitation wavelength differs
between the chemicals studied and is found to be dependent on the amountof substance being irradiated by the laser. A clear indication of resonanceenhancement was not observed for any of the main peaks in the detected
Raman spectra, possibly due to insufficient detector performance. The
inherent fluorescence from these substances is gradually shifted out fromthe Raman detection band with decreasing laser excitation wavelength andis generally getting negligible around 250 nm. The results will be analysedto establish system requirements and detection limits. The experimental
setup can also be used in material science of CB protection garments inthe future. Our next major development will be to remodel the setup to an
imaging system, to enable faster detection of contaminations.

Fate of sessile chemical agent droplet on porous
environmental substrates in the presence ofphysiochemical processes
Homayun K. Navaz, Anthony Dang, Theresa Atkinson, Ali Zand,
Albert Nowakowski, Kristina Kamensky, Kettering Univ. (UnitedStates)
The time dependent multi-phase and multi-component mass andmomentum equations in a capillary domain are solved to address theenvironmental spread and fate of chemical agents, or in general, any
chemical, upon their participation in simultaneous physiochemical
processes. These processes include, transport through capillary substrates,
evaporation, chemical reaction, and adsorption. The model is based on finite
difference with Runge-Kutta fourth order integration in time. An extensive
validation of the model with laboratory and open air data is performed todemonstrate the robustness and accuracy of the model.

9073-12, Session 2

Application of a Fourier-transform infrared
imaging system to deciphering obliterated
writings for forensic purposes

9073-10, Session 2

Modeling the long-wave infrared reflectancesignatures from contaminated surfaces

Shigeru Sugawara, National Research Institute of Police Science(Japan)Travis R. Myers, Anish Goyal, William Herzog, Matthew Aernecke,
MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)

The decipherment of obliterated writing is important in forensic science.
Generally, obliterated writings are deciphered using a spectroscopic imageof visible and near-infrared light of 0.4–1 μm wavelength. However, there
are certain obliterated writings that cannot be detected using conventional
methods. The possibility of deciphering writings depends on the opticalcharacteristic of the ink used to write the characters and that of the ink used
to obliterate the writing. A method for deciphering such obliterated writings
was developed in this study. Middle infrared light with a wavelength of
2.5–14 μm was used in an attempt to decipher obliterated writings; that is, a
Fourier-transform infrared imaging system (Spectrum Spotlight 300, Perkin
Elmer Co.) was used the first time for deciphering obliterated writings. The
sample of obliterated writings was created by stamping concealing ink on
a character written using black water dye ballpoint pens. The size of thesample was 5 mm x 5 mm. It was confirmed that the sample could not be
detected using conventional methods. One pixel of the infrared image was
25 µm x 25 µm, and the wavenumber resolution was 16cm-1; One pixel of theinfrared image was 25 µm x 25 µm.The concealed characters were revealed
when the image was created from the peak area of the absorption peak at
1594 cm-1.

Active long-wave-infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral imaging is a promisingtechnique for the standoff detection and mapping of chemicals on surfaces.
However, the success of this technique depends on our ability to predict
the shape of the reflectance spectra of the target chemicals in various
environments. In this work, we present models for the reflectance spectraof liquids and solid particles on surfaces. We investigate the reflectance of
diethyl phthalate (DEP) on diffuse gold and concrete surfaces and describe
the observed changes in the reflectance spectra as a function of time andvolume of DEP using a model that accounts for both the specular anddiffuse components of the reflectance. We also investigate the reflectanceof solid particles composed of sodium chlorate, potassium chlorate, andalumina on a variety of surfaces including gold, silica, and painted car
panels. We use models and concepts derived from Mie Theory to explain
how the shape of the reflectance spectra changes at various viewing
geometries and with various particle size distributions. For our experiments,
we used wavelength-tunable quantum cascade lasers with wavelengths thatspan 9.1 to 10.8 microns to illuminate the samples. The reflected radiation
was collected by a HgCdTe focal-plane array (FPA) and the resulting
hyperspectral image was analyzed at each wavelength to produce thereflectance spectra.

Obliterated writings that could not be deciphered with the conventional
method could be deciphered using an image of infrared light with awavelength of “2.5–14 µm”. Therefore, the infrared imaging system isuseful for deciphering obliterated writings. The novel method can decipher
concealed characters written using black materials with absorption peaks
at 1594 cm-1. The number of such materials was 12 out of the 73 of myavailable black-writing materials. Moreover, the concealing ink must nothave a peak at 1594 cm-1. All my 14 concealing inks satisfied this condition.

9073-11, Session 2

Measurements of Raman scattering in the middle
ultraviolet band from persistent chemical warfare
agents9073-13, Session 2

Fredrik Kullander, Lars Landström, Hampus Lundén, Abdesalam
Mohammed, Göran Olofsson, Pär Wästerby, Swedish Defence
Research Agency (Sweden)

Xerogel-based molecularly imprinted polymers
for biorecognition and chemical sensing

A low Raman scattering cross section often in combination with a strong
fluorescence background limits the measuring range of Raman based
instruments operating in the visible or infrared band. We are exploring if
laser excitation in the middle ultraviolet (UV) band between 200 and 300
nm is advantageous for detection of persistent chemical warfare agents(CWA) using a tunable pulsed laser. UV Raman scattering from tabun (GA),mustard gas (HD), VX and relevant simulants in the form of liquid surface
contaminations has been measured using a laboratory experimental setup

59+1 360 676 3290

Ellen L. Holthoff, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Kimberly
L. Turner, Lily Li, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara (United States)
Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) can be utilized as artificial
recognition elements for target chemical and biological analytes of interest.
Molecular imprinting involves arranging polymerizable functional monomers
around a template followed by polymerization and template removal.
The selectivity for the target analyte is based on the spatial orientation·

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVof the binding site and covalent or non-covalent interactions between
the functional monomer and the analyte. The objective of the present
work is to demonstrate the usefulness of MIPs for chemical recognition
and as substitutes for biorecognition elements. The polymer materials ofparticular interest are sol-gel-derived xerogels. To allow for increased target
recognition, the xerogel has specific functional groups, which allow forpolymer interactions with the template molecule (and target analyte). The
results will demonstrate the effectiveness of MIPs for a variety of sensing
applications, including fluorescence and microcantilever mass sensors.

(UV) excitation brings to improvements in the detection of the Raman signal
because a lower interference from luminescence is experienced and thescattering cross section of substances increases [2].
RADEX is able to detect trace amounts of energetic materials on fabrics at a
distance of 6-7 meters using a single pulse of an eye-safe UV laser.
References[1] Wallin, S., Pettersoon, A., Östmark, H., Hobro, A., Anal. Bioanal. Chem.,259-274, 395, 2009.
[2] Jander, P., Noll, R., Appl. Spectrosc., 559-563, 63, 2009.

9073-15, Session 29073-18, Session 3

Acoustic resonance in MEMS scale cylindricaltubes with side branches
John F. Schill, Ellen L. Holthoff, Paul M. Pellegrino, Logan S. Marcus,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) is a useful monitoring technique that iswell suited for trace gas detection. This method routinely exhibits detection
limits at the parts-per-million (ppm) or parts-per-billion (ppb) level forgaseous samples. PAS also possesses favorable detection characteristics
when the system dimensions are scaled to a microelectromechanical system(MEMS) design. One of the central issues related to sensor miniaturization is
optimization of the photoacoustic cell geometry, especially in relationship tohigh acoustical amplification and reduced system noise. Previous work relied
on a multiphysics approach to analyze the resonance structures of the MEMS
scale photo acoustic cell. This technique was unable to provide an accurate
model of the acoustic structure. In this paper we describe a methodthat relies on techniques developed from musical instrument theory andelectronic transmission line matrix methods to describe cylindrical acoustic
resonant cells with side branches of various configurations. An acoustic
wave traveling in a duct can be modeled using electrical transmission line
theory. Branches off the duct appear as impedances along the line. Much
work has been done to describe tone holes in various wind instruments thatcan be directly applied to our MEMS scales photoacoustic cells. In this paper
we develop a method to determine the resonance frequency of photacoustic
cells with side branches of several different configurations that might beencountered when developing a cell. Testing was done with three different
cells in different configurations, and the results matched those predicted by
the theory within 2% in the worst case.

Stand-off imaging Raman spectroscopy
for forensic analysis of post-blast scenes:
trace detection of ammonium nitrate and2,4,6-trinitrotoluene
Ema Ceco, Hans Oennerud, Dennis Menning, FOI (Sweden); John L.
Gilljam, Stockholm Univ. (Sweden); Henric Östmark, FOI (Sweden)
The following proceeding presents a realistic forensic capability test of animaging Raman spectroscopy based demonstrator system, developed at
FOI, the Swedish Defence Research Institute. The system uses a 532 nm
laser to irradiate a surface of 25x25mm. The backscattered radiation fromthe surface is collected by an 8” telescope with subsequent optical system,
and is finally imaged onto an ICCD camera. We present here an explosives
trace analysis study of samples collected from a realistic scenario after adetonation. A left-behind 5 kg IED, based on ammonium nitrate with a TNT(2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) booster, was detonated in a plastic garbage bin.
Aluminum sample plates were mounted vertically on a holder approximately
6 m from the point of detonation. Minutes after the detonation, the samples
were analyzed with stand-off imaging Raman spectroscopy from a distanceof 10 m. Trace amounts of both the secondary explosive (ammonium nitrate)
and the booster (TNT) were detected. The analysis time was 1 min. The
sample plates were subsequently swabbed and analyzed with HPLC and
GC-MS to confirm the results from the stand-off imaging Raman system.
The presented findings indicate that it is possible to determine the type of
explosive used in an IED from a distance, within minutes after the attack,and without tampering with physical evidence at the crime scene.

9073-16, Session 39073-19, Session 3

Proximal detection of energetic materials on
fabrics by UV-Raman spectroscopy

High-sensitivity explosives detection using
dual-excitation-wavelength resonance-Raman
detector

Roberto Chirico, Salvatore Almaviva, Francesco Colao, Luca Fiorani,Marcello Nuvoli, ENEA (Italy); Wenka Schweikert, Frank Schnuerer,
Fraunhofer ICT (Germany); Luigi Cassioli, Silvana Grossi, Leonardo
Mariani, Aeronautica Militare (Italy); Federico Angelini, Ivano
Menicucci, Antonio Palucci, ENEA (Italy)

Balakishore Yellampalle, William B. McCormick, Hai-Shan Wu,
Mikhail Sluch, Robert B. Martin, Robert V. Ice, Brian E. Lemoff, West
Virginia High Technology Consortium Foundation (United States)

A prototype of a new instrumentation (RADEX, RAman Detection of
EXplosives) was developed at the Diagnostics and Metrology Laboratory(ENEA, Frascati) in the frame of the special NATO Science for Peace project
STANDEX (STANd-off Detection of Explosives). The STANDEX program
was defined to develop a stand-off explosive warning system, including
fusion of explosives detection sensors, designed to work in mass transit
infrastructures for homeland security applications. The RADEX project
aimed at developing a new UV Raman-based apparatus in the field of theremote detection of energetic materials. The expected scenario was themonitoring of dispersed explosive compounds on the surface of clothes ofpeople. The RADEX system was built to detect residues of explosives taking
in consideration of the constraint of a maximum permissible laser exposure
at the human cornea.
Raman-based spectroscopy has recently gained consents as potential tool
for the detection of explosives due to technical improvements [1]. Ultraviolet

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A key challenge for standoff explosive sensors is to distinguish explosives,with high confidence, from a myriad of unknown background materials
that may have interfering spectral peaks. To meet this challenge a sensor
needs to exhibit high specificity and high sensitivity in detection at low
signal-to-noise ratio levels. We had proposed a Dual-Excitation-Wavelength
Resonance-Raman Detector (DEWRRED) to address this need. In ourprevious work, we discussed various components designed at WVHTCF
for a DEWRRED sensor. In this work, we show a completely assembled
laboratory prototype of a DEWRRED sensor and utilize it to detect
explosives from several standoff distances. The sensor system includes two
novel, compact CW DUV lasers, a compact dual-band high throughput DUVspectrometer, and a highly-sensitive detection algorithm. We choose DUV
excitation because Raman intensities from explosive traces are enhanced
and fluorescence and solar background are not present. The DEWRRED
technique exploits the excitation wavelength dependence of Raman signal
strength, arising from complex interplay of resonant enhancement, self-

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVfrom a sample area of 50x50 mm was imaged on the 1024x1024 pixels of
an ICCD camera. For the conducted experiments an ICCD gate time of 5 ns
was selected and 70 µJ-laser pulses, were accumulated during 1 s for eachwavelength.

absorption and laser penetration depth. We show measurements from >10
explosives/pre-cursor materials at different standoff distances. The sensor
showed high sensitivity in explosive detection even when the signal-tonoise ratio was close to one (~1.6). We measured receiver-operatingcharacteristics, which show a clear benefit in using the dual excitation
wavelength technique as compared to a single-excitation-wavelength
technique. Our measurements also show improved specificity using theamplitude variation information in the dual-excitation spectra.

9073-22, Session 3

Improving sensitivity and source attribution ofhomemade explosives with low-frequency/THzRaman

9073-20, Session 3

Improved sensing using simultaneous deep-UV
Raman and fluorescence detection-II

James T. A. Carriere, Frank Havermeyer, Randy A. Heyler, Ondax,
Inc. (United States)

William F. Hug, Photon Systems, Inc. (United States); Rohit Bhartia,
Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Kripa Sijapati, Ray D. Reid,
Photon Systems, Inc. (United States)

Rapid identification and source attribution of homemade explosives (HMEs)
is vital to national defense and homeland security efforts. Since HMEs canbe prepared in a variety of methods with different component ingredients,
telltale traces can be left behind in the final structural form of the material.
These differences manifest as polymorphs, isomers, conformers or evencontaminants that can all impact the low energy vibrational modes ofthe molecule. Conventional Raman spectroscopy systems confine theirmeasurements to the “chemical fingerprint” region and are unable todetect low frequency Raman signals (<200cm-1) where these low energy
modes are found. This gap in sensitivity limits the conclusions that can be
drawn from a single Raman measurement and creates the need for multiple
measurement techniques to confirm any results.

This paper addresses the need to increase sensitivity and specificity forhand-held real-time sensors for trace levels of biological, chemical, andexplosives materials. The method discussed uses simultaneous detection ofRaman and fluorescence emissions excited in the deep UV between.
There are four main advantages of excitation in the deep UV compared tonear-UV, visible or near-IR counterparts. 1) Excited in the deep UV below
250 nm, Raman emission occur within a fluorescence-free region of thespectrum, eliminating obscuration of weak Raman signals by fluorescencefrom target or surrounding materials. 2) Because Raman and fluorescenceoccupy separate spectral regions, detection can be done simultaneously,
providing a much wider set of information about a target. 3) Rayleighlaw and resonance effects increase Raman signal strength and sensitivityof detection. 4) Penetration depth into target in the deep UV is short,providing separation of a target material from it background or substrate.

We present results from a new rugged, portable approach that is capableof extending the range of Raman to include these low frequency signals
down to ~5cm-1, with measurement times on the order of seconds. We
demonstrate the diversity of signals that lie in this region that directly
correlate to the molecular structure of the material, resulting in a new
Raman “structural fingerprint” region. By correlating the measured resultswith known samples from a spectral library, rapid identification of thespecific method of manufacture can be made.

The evolving sensor method can discriminate CBE from backgroundmaterials using a combination of deep UV excited Raman and fluorescenceemissions. Raman spectroscopy is a method that provides information aboutmolecular bonds, while fluorescence spectroscopy is a much more sensitive
method that provides information regarding the electronic configurationof target molecules. Photon Systems, in collaboration with JPL, has beendeveloping combined Raman and fluorescence methods for over 12 years,
focused on the advantages of excitation in the deep UV below 250nm.

Armed with this additional information about the methods and materials
used to manufacture HMEs, officials can use this approach to rapidly
respond to threats.

9073-23, Session 4

Hyperspectral imaging using novel LWIR OPO for
hazardous material detection and identification

9073-21, Session 3

Spatially offset hyperspectral stand-off Raman
imaging for explosive detection inside containers

Keith Ruxton, Gordon Robertson, Bill Miller, Graeme P. A. Malcolm,
Gareth T. Maker, M Squared Lasers (United Kingdom)

Bernhard Zachhuber, Henric Östmark, Swedish Defence Research
Agency (Sweden)

Current stand-off hyperspectral imaging detection solutions that operate in
the mid wave infrared (MWIR), nominally 2.5 – 5 µm region, are limited by
the number of absorption bands that can be addressed. This issue is mostapparent when evaluating a scene with multiple absorbers with overlapping
spectral features making accurate identification challenging. This limitation
can be overcome by moving to the long wave IR (LWIR) region, whichis spectral rich in unique absorption features, which can provide ample
molecular information in order to perform material identification with a highdegree of confidence. This work utilises an instrument platform to perform
negative contrast imaging using a novel LWIR optical parametric oscillator(OPO) as the source. The OPO offers continuous tuning in the region 5.5 –9.5 µm, which includes a number of molecular vibrations associated withthe target material compositions. Scanning the scene of interest whilst
sweeping the wavelength of the OPO emission, will highlight the presenceof a suspect material and by analysing the resulting absorption spectrum
identification will be possible. This work presents a selection of initial results
using the LWIR hyperspectral imaging platform on a range of hazardous,
confusion and simulant materials to highlight the benefit operating in the
LWIR region compared to the MWIR.

A stand-off Raman imaging system for the identification of explosives was
modified to allow for the analysis of substances in containers which are
non-transparent to the human eye. The adaptation of this detection system
extends its field of application from trace detection of threat materials on
various background surfaces to the investigation of suspicious container
content. Despite its limitation to container material that is opaque tothe facilitated 532 nm laser, the combination of Spatial Offset Raman
Spectroscopy (SORS) with stand-off Raman imaging allows to collectspectral data from a broad range of different spatial offsets simultaneously.
This is a significant advantage over SORS with predefined offset, since
the ideal offset is unknown prior to the measurement and depends on thecontainer material as well as the sample content. Here the detection of
sodium chlorate in a white plastic bottle is shown.
A 532 nm laser (pulse length 5 ns, repetition rate 50 kHz) was focused
to a spot diameter of 10 mm on the sample surface at 10 m. A 1500 mm
Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope with a diameter of 152.4 mm collected thescattered light. After the telescope an edge filter removed the inelasticallyscattered laser light and a liquid crystal tunable filter was used to select0.25 nm broad wavelength ranges between 480 and 720 nm. The light61+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV

9073-24, Session 4

defense and security fields. A portable platform that is robust and userfriendly increases the effectiveness of locating and identifying threats while
reducing risks to personnel.

The challenge of changing signatures in infrared
stand-off detection of trace explosives
Robert Furstenberg, Christopher A. Kendziora, Michael R.
Papantonakis, Viet Nguyen, R. Andrew McGill, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States)
Analytical chemists have long known that careful sample preparation isneeded to obtain consistent or reliable FTIR spectra. Grinding the sample toa fine (sub-micron) powder along with a KBr matrix and pressing a pellet isthe prescribed technique. However, in stand-off detection, IR spectra need
to be collected in-situ, without any sample preparation. In addition, thedominant fraction of explosives particle sizes found in latent fingerprints istypically in the range of 5-20 μm, which is within one order of magnitudeof the IR wavelengths in the molecular “fingerprint” region. As a result, theanalyte particle size and general morphology of the particle and substrate
play an important role in shaping its IR signature. We report our preliminary
results on numerical modeling and empirical measurements of IR backscattering (reflectivity) and absorption (photo-thermal) IR signatures of
micron-size, irregularly shaped particulates. We start with simple models
that use the equivalent sphere approximation, such as the Mie theory oflight scattering and continue with techniques that capture both the size andshape of the particles. The modeling results will be compared to empiricallymeasured IR signatures of individual particles using our custom-built photothermal microscope. The effect of substrate optical properties on the overall
IR signature will be studied as well. We discuss the conditions under which
IR spectral signatures deviate the most from bulk values and also when thiseffect is less pronounced.

In 2013 ChemImage Sensor Systems (CISS) introduced Aperio™, a handheld
sensor using real time HSI for wide area surveillance and standoff detectionof explosives, chemical threats, and narcotics. This HSI system employs aliquid-crystal tunable filter that allows real-time automated detection anddisplay of threats. We report on the next generation Aperio using improved
optics for longer standoff distances and ChemImage’s next generation
Multi-Conjugate Filter (MCF) to increase sensitivity and detection speed. An
optional tripod mounting with a motorized head is available for longerrange standoff applications such as hasty checkpoint or vehicle inspection.
Basic software is extended to include additional features including a
multi-target display function, automatic threshold determination, and an
automated detection recipe capability for expanding threat library.
CISS will discuss application of the sensing technology to Homeland
Security and Law Enforcement for standoff detection of homemade
explosives and illicit drugs and their precursors in vehicle and personnel
checkpoints. Additionally, Aperio may assist in revealing illicit drug
manufacturing by detecting the presence of drugs and/or their precursors.
Data will be presented that support the use of Aperio for explosive anddrug screening at vehicle and personnel checkpoints as well as screening for
explosives and drugs at suspected clandestine manufacturing facilities.

9073-27, Session 5

Bottled liquid explosives scanning by nearinfrared
Hideo Itozaki, Hideo Sato-Akaba, Osaka Univ. (Japan)

9073-25, Session 4

Airport security still limits for the passengers to bring their own bottled
liquid in the airport, because no liquid scanner has been authorized to be
used at the security in the airport. However, there are some demand to relax
this limitation by using a bottle scanner from the passengers and security
officers.

STARR: shortwave-infrared targeted agile Raman
robot for the identification and confirmation of
emplaced explosives

There are some bottle scanners that have been developed by using
technologies of X-ray, IMS, Raman scattering, so on.

Nathaniel R. Gomer, Charles W. Gardner, ChemImage Corp. (UnitedStates)Here we have developed it by using near infrared. Absorption of wateris quite high at more than one micro of light wave length. Absorption ofcolor in the bottle and liquid is located in less than 0.5 micron of light wave
length. So that we used near infrared with 0.5 to 1 micron of wave length.
Not only clear liquid such as water but also dark one such as coke, coffee,
and red wines can be identified easily even in dark black bottles. No safety
regulation limits to instate this device in the airport, because of no using
harmful X-ray or laser.

In order to combat the threat of emplaced explosives (land mines,etc.), ChemImage Sensor Systems (CISS) has developed a fusion based,
robot mounted sensor capable of identification and confirmation ofpotential threats. The system, known as STARR (Shortwave-infrared
Targeted Agile Raman Robot), utilizes shortwave infrared spectroscopy
for the identification of potential threats, combined with a visible shortrange standoff Raman hyperspectral imaging (HSI) system for material
confirmation. The entire system is mounted onto a Talon UGV (Unmanned
Ground Vehicle), giving the sensor an increased area search rate andreducing the risk of injury to the operator. The Raman HSI system utilizes
a fiber array spectral translator (FAST) for the acquisition of high quality
Raman chemical images, allowing for increased sensitivity and improved
specificity. This paper will present an overview of the design and operationof the system and discuss initial detection results.

This has quite high detection rate and low alarm rate because it has
numerous liquid data and can identified the liquid in the bottles clearly. It
need less than a second to check a bottle and its size is so compact andeasy handling and low financial loading to be introduced. It must be one of
the strongest candidates for bottled liquid scanner in the airport.

9073-28, Session 5

Detecting explosive substances by the IR
spectrography9073-26, Session 4

Continued development of a portable widefield
hyperspectral imaging (HSI) sensor for standoff
detection of explosive, chemical, and narcotic
residues

Jaana R. Kuula, Heikki J. Rinta, Ilkka Pölönen, Hannu-Heikki
Puupponen, Univ. of Jyväskylä (Finland); Tuomas Teravainen,
Finnish Police (Finland); Marko Haukkamaki, Finnish Air Force(Finland)
There is a wide need for fast and safe detection methods of explosive
substances both before and after actualized explosions. This article
describes the detection of some selected explosive substances by the
ATR FTIR spectrometer and by IR hyperspectral imaging devices. The IR
spectrometers give accurate analyzing results, whereas hyperspectral

Oksana Klueva, Matthew P. Nelson, Charles W. Gardner, Patrick J.
Treado, ChemImage Corp. (United States)
The value of Hyper Spectral Imaging (HSI) passive chemical detection
employing widefield, standoff imaging continues to gain acceptance in

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV
imagers can detect and analyze desired samples without touching thesuspected target at all. In the controlled tests TNT, dynamite, PENO andsome nitrates were at first analyzed as pure substances with the ATR FTIR
spectrometer and with SWIR and MWIR cameras. After three controlled
explosions also the residues of TNT, dynamite and PENO were analyzed withthe same IR devices. The experiments were performed in arctic outdoor
conditions and the residues were collected on ten different surfaces. The
test results indicate that the IR spectrography is a promising detection
method for explosive subjects.

available explosives and narcotics vapor samplers by making them “sniff”
instead of just inhale.
GS Settles, et.al. The External Aerodynamics of Canine Olfaction. A chapter
in Sensors and Sensing in Biology and Engineering, ed. F.G. Barth, J.A.C.
Humphrey, and T.W. Secomb, Springer, Vienna & NY, 2002.
BA Craven, et.al. The fluid dynamics of canine olfaction: unique nasal airflow
patterns as an explanation of macrosmia. J.R. Soc. Interface, 7, 2010

9073-31, Session 69073-29, Session 6

Observation of atomic carbon during
photodissociation of nitrotoluenes in the vapor
phase

Fate and effects of trace particulate explosives
Viet Nguyen, Robert Furstenberg, Nora C. Carr, Rachel C. McGill,
Michael R. Papantonakis, Christopher A. Kendziora, R. Andrew
McGill, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Hergen Eilers, Helena Diez-y-Riega, Washington State Univ. (UnitedStates)When handling explosives, explosive devices, or related surfaces, the hands
become contaminated with particles of explosives. Subsequent contact
actions result in particle depositions and crushing on a surface within afingerprint. The physicochemical characteristics of these particles are ofparticular importance to trace detection applications in DOD or DHS arenas.
The longevity or stability of explosives particles on a substrate is a functionof particle geometry, ambient temperature, airflow, relative humidity,
condensation, inclusion chemicals, incident light and, in some instances,
the substrate itself. In this work we deposit particles of explosives at tracelevels by different techniques including sieving, inkjetting and pipetting,and monitor their sublimation by photo/video-microscopy. We compareand contrast the effect of deposition technique on particle fabrication andsubsequent sublimation or related effects influencing particle lifetime.
Various hypotheses will be presented to explain observed differences withsupporting data. Analysis of 2D microscopic images is used to computeand track particle size and geometrical characteristics as functions of timeand experimental test conditions. 3D particle imaging, GCMS or UV-visible
spectrophotometry are used to provide supporting confirmation to the 2D
image analysis. In this preliminary work a limited set of test conditions wereused including variable airflow rates and fixed humidity, temperature andsubstrate type.

When solid nitro-containing explosive materials are photodissociated,vibrationally-excited NO molecules are formed. Laser-induced fluorescence
spectroscopy has been used by several groups to detect these moleculesand proposed to use them as indicators for the presence of explosives.
However, energy transfer from laser-excited nitrogen can potentiallyinterfere with this particular detection process. Besides the emission
from NO molecules, we have recently observed emission from atomic
carbon during the photodissociation of mononitrotoluenes (MNTs) anddinitrotoluenes (DNTs) in the vapor phase. Comparing the intensities of
distinct emission peaks with intensities expected from the Franck-Condon
factors allows us to identify the presence of atomic carbon. Time-resolved
fluorescence spectroscopy of the atomic carbon emission allows us todifferentiate between MNTs and DNTs. The emission from atomic carbon
in MNTs is observed for gate delays up to about 500 ns. The DNTs show
emission from atomic carbon for gate delays of up to at least 1500 ns. The
presence of carbon is also confirmed by carbon deposits inside the sample
chamber. EDS and Raman spectroscopy of these deposits clearly show thepresence of carbon. The spectroscopic signal from atomic carbon in thevapor phase is observed at concentrations as low as 10 ppt. Based upon
the observed S/N, detection at even lower concentrations appears feasible.
Several non-nitrotoluene molecules including nitrobenzene, benzene,
toluene, and CO2, have been tested under identical conditions, but do notshow any carbon emission. Energy transfer from laser-excited nitrogen and/or delayed photodissociation may be responsible for the observation of
atomic carbon at long gate delays.

9073-30, Session 6

The external aerodynamics of canine olfaction
and implications for improved vapor samplingand detection

9073-32, Session 6

Analysis of nonstandard and home-madeexplosives and post-blast residues in forensic
practice

Matthew Staymates, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
An investigation of the external aerodynamics of canine olfaction ispresented. Extending previous work done by Settles (2002) and Craven(2010), we have developed an anatomically-correct artificial dog nose,modeled from a female Labrador Retriever and fabricated using a 3D printer,that sniffs with realistic flow rates and frequencies. Flow visualization
experiments using schlieren imaging enable real-time examination of thedogs remarkable ability to sample vapors from extended distances. During
exhale, a turbulent air jet emanates from each nostril and entrains fluid fromahead of the nose, sometimes at a distance of many tens of centimeters.
This vapor is now readily available for inhalation, during which the nose
now acts as a potential flow inlet. This exhale/inhale cycle is repeatedduring active sniffing at a frequency of around 5Hz. We have learned thatthe dog is an active aerodynamic sampling system, utilizing fluid dynamics
to increase its aerodynamic reach and sample vapors at increasingly large
distances.

Marek Kotrl?, Institute of Criminalistics Prague (Czech Republic) andCharles Univ. in Prague (Czech Republic); Ivana Turková, Institute of
Criminalistics Prague (Czech Republic)
Nonstandard and home-made explosives can constitute a considerable
threat as well as potential material for terrorist activities. Number ofcases capturing the substances is not negligible and a substantial amountof brisant explosives is often seized. Chemicals are also found during
investigation of other types of criminality - for example drug related crimes(clandestine /home-made/ drug labs, in-door growing rooms, etc.). Findings
covering these substances pose a considerable risk to police officers
involved because a type and characteristics of compounds seized are notclear, not excluding even organic peroxides, and the like. Mobile analyticaldevices, particularly Raman, or also FTIR spectrometers are used for initialdetection.

As a form of biomimicry, we are now utilizing bio-inspired design principles
from the dog and applying them to current- and next-generation vapor
sampling technology. This presentation will show many flow visualization
examples of canine olfaction, and results from the biomimicry experimentsthat demonstrate improvements in vapor sampling of commercially-63+1 360 676 3290

Various sorts of moderants (deterrents, phlegmatizers) aiming to decrease
sensitivity of explosives were tested, some kinds of low viscosity lubricants
yielded very good results. If the character of the substance allows further·

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVexamination, phlegmatizated samples are taken, in the amount of approx.
0.3 g for laboratory analysis. TLC has still proved itself for laboratory
screening; next, combinations of FTIR, Raman spectrometry, LC MS, GC MS
and others are used. XRD techniques capable of a direct phase identificationof a crystalline matter, also in mixtures, have greatly proved themselves forinorganic and organic phases. SEM-EDS/WDS, XRF, micro XRF methods
are standardly utilized for inorganic phase. In analysing post-blast residues,
techniques allowing analysis at the level of separate partials, not the overallcomposition in a mixed sample, are of key importance.

9073-33, Session 6

Design and validation of inert homemade
explosive simulants for x-ray-based inspection
systems
Anthony A. Faust, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Suffield (Canada); Sabatino Nacson, VisionTec Systems (Canada);
Bruce Koffler, VisionTec Systems Ltd. (Canada); Eric Bourbeau,
Optosecurity Inc. (Canada); Louis Gagné, Robin Laing, John
Anderson, Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield(Canada)9073-35, Session 7

Transport Canada (TC), the Canadian Armed Forces, and other public
security agencies have an interest in the assessment of the potential utilityof advanced explosives detection technologies to aid in the detection
and interdiction of commercial grade, military grade, and homemade
or improvised explosives (HME or IE). The availability of suitable, nonhazardous, non-toxic, explosive simulants is of concern when assessing
the potential utility of such detection systems; lack of simulants limits thetraining opportunities, and ultimately the detection probability, of security
personnel using systems in the field. While simulants for commercial andmilitary grade explosives are available for a wide variety of detection
technologies, the design and production of materials to simulate improvised
explosives has not kept pace with this emerging threat.
With the support of TC, Defence Research and Development Canada(DRDC), VisionTec Systems, and Optosecurity engaged in an effort todevelop inert, non-toxic X-ray-relevant simulants for IE materials such as
ammonium nitrate (AN), potassium chlorate (PC), and triacetone triperoxide(TATP).
These simulants were designed to mimic key X-ray interrogation-relevantmaterial properties of real improvised explosives, principally their bulk
density and effective atomic number.
Different forms of the simulants were produced and tested, simulating thedifferent explosive threat formulations that could be encountered by frontline security workers. These simulants complied with safety and stability
requirements, and as best as possible matched form and homogeneity.
Comparative evaluations of both simulants and real explosives wereconducted both by VisonTec, on a Voti X-ray system, and by Optosecurity
on data collected by DRDC on a Smith’s HS6046si X-ray Interrogation
System .
This paper outlines the research program, simulant design, and validation.

Steven C. Hill, Chatt C. Williamson, Yongle Pan, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States); Joshua L. Santarpia, Sandia National Labs.
(United States)
The development fluorescence-based instruments for monitoringbioaerosols (bacteria, pollens, fungal spores, etc.), and the use of these
instruments in monitoring and studying bioaerosols have been reported inmany journal articles. However, there have been few reports of mathematicalmodeling of fluorescence of bioaerosols, and much of this modelingreported has been overly simplistic, for example, including tryptophan as
the only fluorescing and the only absorbing molecule. A recent paper (Hill,et al., “Fluorescence of bioaerosols: mathematical model including primary
fluorescing and absorbing molecules in bacteria,” Opt. Express, 21, 2228522313 (2013)) describes a mathematical model for calculating bioaerosol
fluorescence. It includes concentrations, absorptivities and fluorescencequantum efficiencies of relevant absorbing (e.g., RNA) and fluorescing(e.g., tryptophan) molecules that are in the range of those in bioaerosols
composed of bacteria or proteins. The bioparticles are treated ashomogeneous spheres. Here we use that mathematical model to calculate of
the size dependence of the UV-excited fluorescence from model bioaerosols
composed of bacteria and of pure proteins. The variation of the particle’s
fluorescence with particle size is typically needed in fluorescence-based
bioaerosol detectors and in calibrating such detectors. We also present new
calculations illustrating how the water content of a model bioaerosol particle
affects the dependence of the fluorescence on particle size.

Atmospheric aerosol sensing using rotating drum
impactor-dual wavelength UV laser-induced
fluorescence spectra

Discriminating bacterial spores from inert
airborne particulate matter by classification of
optical scattering patterns

Chuji Wang, Mississippi State Univ. (United States); Yongle Pan,
Deryck James, Alan Wetmore, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Brandon Redding, Yale Univ. (United States)

Giovanni Franco Crosta, Univ. degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca (Italy);
Yongle Pan, Gorden Videen, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Atmospheric aerosols pose significant concerns for global climate, air
quality, and human health. Chemical compositions in atmospheric aerosols
also changes with time, size, and geological and meteorological situations. It
remains a challenge to indentify aerosol compositions and monitor changes
with time. We report on size- and time-resolved atmospheric aerosol

The discrimination of aerosolized biological threat, represented by bacterial
spores, from harmless, respirable particles is a basic need in environmental

SPIE DSS 2014

Modeling fluorescence of bioaerosols using
improved estimates of concentrations and opticalproperties of the relevant molecules9073-36, Session 7

9073-34, Session 7

64

monitoring. A by now well-known experimental method, TAOS (Twodimension Angle-resolved Optical Scattering), is capable of detecting single,
airborne material particles and collecting the corresponding scattering
pattern. The pattern covers a wide solid angle and is produced with theillumination of a single monochromatic laser pulse. TAOS patterns frommicrospheres of known materials, from single bacterial spores, sootaggregates and outdoor sampling have been collected and stored by
the thousands. Although the recognition of TAOS patterns remains achallenge, recently developed algorithms based on machine intelligencehave discriminated bacterial spores from all other materials within thelimits of 20% false negatives and less than 11% false positives. Ongoingwork is aimed at reducing false alarms on either side. Two issues arebeing addressed. 1) Quantitative assessment of the interfering (a.k.a.
“confounding”) role which diesel soot aggregates play: the classifier in thecurrent version is applied and a pattern rejection threshold is varied within
limits suggested by detector noise statistics. 2) Simultaneous processing of
two regions of interest in the TAOS pattern: this amounts to complexifying
the data structures in the algorithm and relying on pattern symmetries. The
corresponding results will be compared with previous ones and possibly
justified.

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV
analysis using dual wavelength UV laser induced fluorescence (LIF) spectra
combined with an 8-stage rotating drum impactor (RDI) for continuous
collection of aerosol particles over a 3-week period from Djibouti. Off-line
LIF measurements were achieved by directly shining a laser beam onto
the particles impacted on a RDI strip with a spatial resolution of 1.2 mm,corresponding to a time resolution in the aerosol sampling of 3.6 hrs.
Excited by a 263 nm or 351 nm laser, more than 2000 pairs of LIF spectra
within a 3-week aerosol collection time period were obtained from the eightindividual RDI strips that collected particles in eight different sizes ranging
from 0.09 to 10 µm. Based on the known aerosol UV fluorescence cluster
database in the US, the Djibouti LIF spectra were found to be dominatedby Clusters 2, 5, and 8 (peaked at 330, 369, and 475 nm) when excited at
263 nm and by Clusters 1, 2, 5, and 6 (peaked at 390 and 458 nm) when
excited at 351 nm. The possible chemical compositions contributed to these
fluorescence clusters will be discussed. Some of the LIF spectra show clear
size- and time-dependent behavior. Advantages, limitations, and future
developments of this new aerosol sensing technique will also be discussed.

using National Security as the denominator for the common good. C-CEEP
is a living Biological Surveillance program ideology that would include
detection measures using Thermal Imagining currently in use in South
Korea, Turkey, Greece, and Saudi. The ultimate goal is to detect human
carriers acting as Suicidal Warfare Agents upon entry into United Statesusing maritime ports of entry. The final concept of the program is to beadaptable at any port of entry via land, air, or sea.
Primary goals are the identification of individuals; data capture of key
indicators of Host Agents using current or developing software that can beincorporated into existing information sharing systems located throughout
the United States for both Public Health and Law Enforcement tracking andsurveillance. This paper defines the problem, addresses hardened Complex
Systems; identifies critical stakeholders via power/ influence methodology,
along with transformational and adaptive leadership applications required
for success.

9073-39, Session 7
9073-37, Session 7

A microfluidic platform with integrated arraysfor immunologic assays for biological pathogen
detection

Standoff detection: classification of biologicalaerosols using laser-induced fluorescence (LIF)
technique

Richard Klemm, Claudia Gärtner, Sebastian Schattschneider, Holger
Becker, Nadine Hlawatsch, microfluidic ChipShop GmbH (Germany);
Sandra Julich, Herbert Tomaso, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut(Germany)

Anita Hausmann, Frank Duschek, Thomas Fischbach, Carsten
Pargmann, Jürgen Handke, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany); Sergey Babichenko, Laser Diagnostic
Instruments AS (Estonia)

The ability to integrate complete assays on a microfluidic chip helps togreatly simplify instrument requirements and allows the use of lab-on-a-chip
technology in the field. A core application for such field-portable systems
is the detection of pathogens in a CBRN scenario such as permanentmonitoring of airborne pathogens, e.g. in metro stations or hospitals etc.

The challenges of detecting hazardous biological materials are manifold:
Such material has to be discriminated from other substances in various
natural surroundings. The detection sensitivity should be extremely high.
As living material may reproduce itself, already one single bacterium may
represent a high risk. Of course, identification should be quite fast witha low false alarm rate. Up to now, there is no single technique to solve
this problem. Point sensors may collect material and identify it, but the
problems of fast identification and especially of appropriate positioning of
local collectors are sophisticated. On the other hand, laser based standoff
detection may instantaneously provide the information of some accidental
spillage of material by detecting the generated thin cloud. LIF technique
may classify but hardly identify the substance. A solution can be the useof LIF technique in a first step to collect primary data and – if necessaryfollowed by utilizing these data for an optimized positioning of point
sensors.

An immunological assay was chosen as technology for the pathogen
detection. The core of the overall approach was the realization as lab-ona-chip system enabling an easy handling of the sample in an automatedmanner. The immunological detection takes place on an antibody arraydirectly implemented in the microfluidic network. Different immobilization
strategies will be presented showing the performance of the system. Central
elements of the consumable microfluidic device like fluidic interface, turning
valves, liquid introduction and waste storage, as well as the architecture ofmeasurement and control fluidic network will be introduced.
Detection limits in the upper pM range within less than 30 minutes wereachieved and assays for the detection of Francisella tularensis and Yersinia
pestis will be presented.

We perform studies on an open air laser test range at distances between
20m and 135m applying LIF technique to detect and classify aerosols.
In order to employ LIF capability, we use a laser source emitting two
wavelengths alternatively, 280nm and 355nm, respectively. Moreover, thetime dependence of fluorescence spectra is recorded by a gated intensified
CCD camera. Signal processing is performed by dedicated software forspectral pattern recognition. The direct comparison of all results leads to abasic classification of the various compounds.

An important feature of the integrated lab-on-a-chip approach is that all
waste liquids remain on chip and contamination risks can be avoided.

9073-40, Session 7

Detection and monitoring of CWA and BWA using
LIBS

9073-38, Session 7

Lars Landström, Anders Larsson, Per-Åke Gradmark, LillermorÖrebrand, Per O. Andersson, Pär Wästerby, Torbjörn Tjärnhage, FOI(Sweden)Consumer of concern early entry program(C-CEEP) biological surveillance: protecting
against the suicidal biological warfare hostResults related to laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) as ananalytical tool in applications for CWA and BWA detection/monitoring
will be presented and discussed. A real-time aerosol analysis set-up using
LIBS on single µm-sized particles (sampled from ambient air to a particle
stream) has been developed and evaluated. Here, a two-stage triggering
unit ensures a high hit-rate of the sampled aerosol particles and theoptical emission from the laser induced plasma is collected and coupled
into an echelle spectrometer equipped with an intensified CCD detector.
Each CCD image (echellogram), optimally originating from a single µmsized particle, is then analyzed and the result can be treated by an alarm
algorithm using database matching via multivariate statistics. The system

Janet Fish, Capella Univ. (United States)
The ability to detect both entry into the United States of a Suicidal
Biological Warfare Host Agent during the initial stages of the incubation
period is critical for effective National Security containment. Preventing,containing, or eliminating disease threats are impossible if public authorities
cannot recognize and act against threats in a timely manner. The C-CEEP{Consumer of Concern Early Entry Program} represents another attempt atbringing together the two independent worlds of public health and security

65+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV
has been tested both in controlled atmospheres (aerosol chamber/windtunnel) as well as in real-life settings using different simulant agents andinterferents. Furthermore, different surfaces have been analyzed by LIBS
to obtain information about residues of organophosphates on (or within)these surfaces. Depth analysis has been performed to monitor diffusion andpenetration behavior of neat CWAs and simulant chemicals by following
the intensity of phosphorous emission lines in single shot LIBS spectra
as function of number of laser pulses. In addition, LIBS analysis was also
performed after decontamination procedures, and elution from, certain
paint systems. For some paint systems, P emission lines were still observed
after the chemical treatment. Possibilities and challenges associated withthe different set-ups and applications will be discussed in connection withthe presented results.

To mitigate these risks, we have developed a robust portable diagnostic
device for detection of bacteria in ultra-low resource environments thatis low cost (<$5/assay), requires no power, instrumentation or equipment
to operate, no cold chain to maintain efficacy, and can be operated byindividuals with little to no technical training.
The self-contained credit-card sized device employs micro-culture methods
to amplify bacteria prior to downstream lateral flow assay, improving
detection limit by 4+ orders of magnitude (positive detection from 100
spore initial inoculum, Ames strain). Additionally, the device utilizes
chemical and biological means to sterilize the contents following assay. Selfdecontamination minimizes the potential for malicious use of the bacterial
sample following assay and reduces the need for experienced staff to isolate
the organism in the laboratory.
Finally, this platform is readily adaptable for detection of other bacterial
agents including Burholderia pseudomallie, food borne pathogens, and drug
resistant Staphylococcal and Streptococcal organisms.

9073-41, Session 7

Silver nanorods modified filters for rapid on-chip
pre-concentration and SERS sensing of bacterial
whole cells

9073-43, Session 7

Jing Chen, Xiaomeng Wu, Yaowen Huang, Yiping Zhao, The Univ. ofGeorgia (United States)
Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has been increasingly
explored in whole cell sensing including pathogenic bacteria. The labelfree SERS detection schemes are particularly attractive for their simplicity,
low cost, and ability to reveal intrinsic spectral fingerprints on the cells.
Unfortunately, their applicability has been limited by the low detection
sensitivity. In this study, we have successfully deposited silver nanorod(AgNR) arrays onto cellulose- and anodized aluminum-based filter
membranes with proper pore sizes (0.2 µm) using oblique angle deposition(OAD). The novel AgNR filter substrates allow continuous filtration ofliquid contents and accumulation of bacterial cells on the SERS-active
sensing surface. Utilizing such a platform, we have obtained reproducible
SERS spectra from Eschericia coli, whose intensity increases as the cells
accumulate on the AgNR filters. Under continuous filtration, the lower limit
of detection (LOD) is reduced from 10^8-10^9 CFU/mL to 10^5-10^6 CFU/mL
within 10-15 min, when the sampling volume increases from 10 µL to 10 mL.
Meanwhile, the sample drying time is shortened from 1-2 h under laminar
air flow on non-porous AgNR substrates to less than 1 min on filter AgNRs
thanks to vacuum filtration. The on-chip cell pre-concentration circumvents
prolonged cell culturing steps, and in conjunction with shortened sample
drying time, the new AgNR filter substrates can significantly reduce total
assay time while improving the detection sensitivity. In addition, the AgNR
filters show great potential as a core element for facile, automated sampling,
pre-processing, pre-concentration, and direct sensing devices for whole cell
SERS detection.

9073-42, Session 7

Portable diagnostic kit for the detectionof Bacillus anthracis in ultra-low resource
environments

Anthrax poses a significant threat to US National Security as demonstrated
by the 2001 terrorist attacks targeting the US Postal Service and Hart
Building. The causative agent, Bacillus anthracis, is ubiquitous worldwide.
More importantly, it is found in countries harboring terrorists.
Anthrax outbreaks commonly occur in livestock. Consequently, the agent isroutinely isolated, propagated, and maintained in laboratories by indigenous
populations to diagnose the disease. This practice drastically increases
laboratories’ repositories of B. anthracis, and escalates the risk that theagent can be stolen for nefarious purposes. Moreover, it enhances thecapabilities of laboratory personnel to produce pure isolates.

SPIE DSS 2014

Stuart R. Farquharson, Chetan S. Shende, Wayne W. Smith, RealTime Analyzers, Inc. (United States); Jason A. Guicheteau, U.S.
Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Ctr. (United States)
The 2013 use of sarin gas in Syria is a reminder that chemical and biological
warfare is an ever present danger. While there has been substantial
effort since the anthrax attack of 2001 to develop analyzers to detect
this and other biological warfare agents, the analyzers remain either
too slow, produce high false-positive rates, lack sensitivity, or cannot befielded. In an effort to develop an analyzer that has the required speed,
selectivity, sensitivity, and field robustness, we have been developing asurface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy system. Here we describe the useof silver nanoparticles functionalized with a short peptide to selectively
capture Bacillus anthracis spores and produce SER scattering. Specifically,measurements of 100 B. anthracis spores in less than 15 minutes performedat the US Army’s Edgewood Chemical Biological Center will be presented.
The measurements provide a basis for the development of systems that can
detect spores collected from the air or water supplies with the potential ofsaving lives during a biological warfare attack.

9073-44, Session 8

Utilization of advanced clutter suppression
algorithms for improved standoff detection ofradionuclide threats
Bogdan R. Cosofret, Kirill Shokhirev, Phillip Mulhall, PhysicalSciences Inc. (United States); David Payne, Raytheon Integrated
Defense Systems (United States); Bernard Harris, Raytheon Co.
(United States)

Jason C. Harper, Melissa Finley, Bryan Carson, George D. Bachand,
Thayne L. Edwards, William Arndt, Sandia National Labs. (UnitedStates); Julie Lovchik, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States)

66

Measurement of 100 B. anthracis Ames spores
within 15 minutes by SERS at the US Army
Edgewood Chemical Biological Center·

Technology development efforts seek to increase the capability of detection
systems in low Signal-to-Noise regimes encountered in both portal andurban detection applications. We have recently demonstrated significant
performance enhancement from existing Advanced Spectroscopic Portal(ASP) and Standoff Radiological Detection (SORDS) systems through theuse of new advanced detection and identification algorithms. The Poisson
Clutter Split algorithm, developed under DNDO sponsorship, has been
integrated with ASP and SORDS units and evaluated in field trials. PCS is a
novel approach for radiological background estimation that improves thedetection and discrimination capability of medium resolution detectors.
The algorithm processes energy spectra and performs clutter suppression,
yielding de-noised gamma-ray spectra that enable significant enhancements
in detection and identification of low activity threats with spectral target

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV
partially limited in zenith angle coverage by detector acceptance. Image
quality were compared for the complete dataset and various subsets ofincoming zenith angles. In both simulation and measurement studies,
image resolution was better in the vertical direction for subsets with higher
zenith angles, and better in the horizontal plane for more vertical muons.
The image from the overall data could be recovered from recombination ofsubset images.

recognition algorithms. The performance is achievable at the short
integration times (~0.5sec) necessary for operation in a high throughput
and dynamic environment. We present a quantitative analysis of algorithm
performance against data collected in several environments with embedded
check sources. We show that the algorithm achieves a high probability ofdetection/identification with low false alarm rates under low SNR regimes.
For example, utilizing only 4 out of 12 NaI detectors currently available
within an ASP unit, PCS processing demonstrated P_d,ID > 90% at a CFAR
= 1 in 1000 occupancies against weak activity (<8µCi) and shielded sources
traveling through the portal at 30 mph. This vehicle speed is a factor of ~6
higher than was previously possible and results in significant increase insystem throughput.

Results show that the acquired data can be grouped into different limited
angle data sets for optimized image resolution in desired directions. Useof multiple images with resolution optimized in different directions canimprove overall imaging fidelity.

9073-47, Session 89073-45, Session 8

Improved nuclear material detection using joint
neutron and gamma ray analysis

Image characterization metrics for large field ofview muon tomography

Amanda C. Madden, The Univ. of New Hampshire (United States)

Michael J. Sossong, Decision Sciences International Corp. (UnitedStates); Weidong Luo, Joel Kindem, Matt Steiger, Gemini Design,
LLC (United States)

We present the test results of a neutron/gamma-ray imaging spectrometerfor the identification and location of radioactive and special nuclear
materials. Radioactive materials that could be fashioned into a radiation
dispersal device typically emit gamma rays, while fissile materials suchas uranium and plutonium emit both neutrons and gamma rays via
spontaneous or induced fission. The simultaneous detection of neutrons
and gamma rays is a clear indication of the presence of fissile material.
The instrument works as a double-scatter telescope, requiring a neutron or
gamma ray to undergo an interaction in two detectors to be considered avalid event. While this requirement reduces the detector efficiency, it yields
information about the direction and energy of the incident particle, whichis then used to reconstruct an image of the emitting source. Because ofthis imaging capability background events can be subtracted, decreasing
the number of events required for high confidence detection and thereby
greatly improving its sensitivity. The instrument is optimized for thedetection of neutrons with energies from 1-20 MeV and gamma rays from
0.4 to 10 MeV. Images and energy spectra for neutron and gamma rays arereported for several sources including depleted uranium and plutonium.
The Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve helps to characterize
an instruments ability to differentiate between particles detected fromradioactive and nuclear materials, and that from natural backgroundradiation. The ROC curve gives the relationship between a certain number ofdetected events being a true indication of a source, and the probability that
this number of events constitutes a false alarm. The superior backgroundrejection of the NSPECT instrument significantly improves the ROC curve
within the detection of a single species. The ROC curve improves evenfurther when analyzing the neutron and gamma ray data in tandem, ina two dimensional data space. This paper will show the response of the
NSPECT instrument to common neutron and gamma ray sources as well as
projections of the instrument’s response to samples of weapons grade andreactor grade plutonium.

Muon tomography uses naturally occurring cosmic rays to detect nuclear
threat in containers. Currently there is no systematic metrics for large fieldof view muon tomography. We propose a set of image characterization
metrics to quantify the imaging performance of large field of view muon
tomography. These include tests of spatial resolution, uniformity, contrast,
signal to noise ratio (SNR) and spillover.
Simulation phantoms and analysis methods were developed to evaluate
metric applicability. Spatial resolution was determined as the FWHM of
the point spread function in X, Y and Z axis for 2.5cm tungsten cubes.
Uniformity was measured by drawing a volume of interest (VOI) withina large water phantom. VOI size was 160cm x 240cm x 40cm and voxel
size was 40cm x 40cm x 40cm. Uniformity was defined as the standard
deviation of voxel values divided by the mean voxel value. Contrast was
defined as the peak signals a set of tungsten cubes (widths range from50cm, 25cm, and 10cm to 5cm) divided by the mean water background.
SNR was defined as the peak signals of cubes divided by the standard
deviation of the water background. Spillover described thickness increases
for a set of 2 cm thick tungsten plates (widths range from 50cm, 25cm, and10cm to 5cm) horizontally placed. It was defined as the FWHM of verticalspread function for the plate.
These image metrics provided a useful tool to quantify the basic image
physics properties for muon tomography. Final results will be reported in theconference.

9073-46, Session 8

Muon tomography imaging improvement using
optimized limited angle data

9073-48, Session 8

Michael J. Sossong, Decision Sciences International Corp. (UnitedStates); Joel Kindem, Weidong Luo, Matt Steiger, Gemini Design,
LLC (United States)

Operator-based integration of information in
multimodal radiological search mission withapplications to anomaly detection

Image resolution of Muon Tomography is limited by the range of zenith
angles of muons and the flux rate at sea level. Low flux rate limits the useof advanced data rebinning and processing techniques to improve image
quality. By optimizing the limited angle data, however, the image resolution
can be improved.

John J. Benedetto, Alexander Cloninger, Wojciech Czaja, Timothy
Doster, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States); Kevin
Kochersberger, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (UnitedStates); Thomas L. McCullough, Lance K. McLean, National Security
Technologies, LLC (United States)

GEANT simulated data and data acquired on a commercial system weregrouped to subsets using the zenith angle, and the total muon tracks in eachzenith angle group were counted. For each subset, a volume image wasreconstructed from scattering angle data.

Successful performance of the radiological search mission, which isdependent on a mixture of signals from a heterogeneous sensor network, isstrongly correlated with the reliability and efficiency of anomaly detection.
Examples of modalities in use include EO imagery and gamma radiation
data arising from aerial overflights. In addition, further information, such

The simulation data had muons distributed with a cosine-squared
distribution off zenith, the expected natural flux of muons. The zenith angle
distribution of the muons of the acquired data was the natural distribution,

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV

9073-50, Session 8

as, e.g., elevation data or spatial proximity may be used to enhance theperformance of autonomous multimodal acquisition systems. This createsa complex information structure, which requires new tools and methods toanalyze and extract the relevant information.
State of the art techniques in processing and exploitation of complex
information manifolds rely on diffusion kernels and their corresponding
operators, which give rise to effective schemes for data organization,
classification, and anomaly detection. Such techniques raised to prominencein recent years, with several methods relying on the properties of Laplacian
on data-dependent graphs.
We propose to redefine the approach to data organization derived froma single diffusion process. In place of a single process, we propose toconsider families of data-dependent Laplace and Schroedinger operators
on joint data graphs, which shall be integrated by means of appropriately
designed fusion metrics, fusion graphs, and fusion operators. The added
computational complexity, which is inherent to the resulting integrated
network, is dealt with by utilizing novel ideas from machine learning andharmonic analysis: compressed sensing and random projections, landmarks
and Nystroem extensions, dimensionality reduction and fast approximate
neighborhood constructions. We exploit linear mixing and endmember
extraction in this new representation of joint data, for target and anomaly
detection.

9073-49, Session 8

Wavelet-assisted variance reduction anomaly
detectionThomas L. McCullough, National Security Technologies, LLC (UnitedStates) and Univ. of Maryland (United States); Matthew R. Kiser,
National Security Technologies, LLC (United States); Lance K.
McLean, National Security Technologies, LLC (United States) andUniv. of Maryland (United States)

Spectral clustering for aerial radiological surveys
via nonlinear dimension reduction
Thomas L. McCullough, Lance K. McLean, National Security
Technologies, LLC (United States) and Univ. of Maryland (UnitedStates)Due to the number of spectra that comprise a typical data set, the analysis
of aerial radiological survey data has traditionally relied on relatively coarse
spectral processing methods. For emerging problems in consequence
management, non-proliferation and nuclear forensics, however, theanalysis of very large aerial data sets that exhibit a high degree of spectral
complexity is desired. Furthermore, the recent experience of the DOE/NNSA
Aerial Measuring Systems team during the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear
Power Plant incident underscored the urgent need for more powerful dataprocessing schemes. Although it is possible to adapt and apply standard
dimension reduction methods such as Principle Component Analysis or,equivalently, Singular Value Decomposition to the aerial data, classifications
arising from these methods remain relatively crude. Additionally, theidiosyncracies of the gamma-ray spectra collected from aerial platforms
confound modern clustering methods such as k-means. We have developed
an algorithm that applies the method of Laplacian Eigenmaps to spectral
ensembles that allow for clustering of the data via standard techniques.
The method we have devised is entirely data-driven and unsupervised. Thismethod reveals far more subtle features in the data and allows for muchgreater insights in the analysis. The re-casting of the aerial gamma ray
spectra as data graphs also opens the door for true data fusion applications.
Several relevant examples of the clsutering results, and their interpretations
will be provided.
These examples include data from the Fukushima response and the nuclear
weapon debris fields at the Nevada National Security Site (formerly the
Nevada Test Site).

Radiological search depends on the successful recognition of radiologicalanomalies in the dynamic background.

9073-51, Session 8

Anomaly detection may then trigger the effort of identification of the sourceof the radiological anomaly, for determination of the threat potential andcharacteristics. Often radiological search operations must be carried out inchallenging environments that lead to unavoidable decline in the spectral
quality due to gain instabilities and resolution degradation. Furthermore,
applications in the stand-off and aerial regimes often exhibit poor statistics
which can present challenges to established anomaly detection schemes.
Fortunately, the recognition of radiological anomalies is a much simpler
problem than isotope identification, and the two processes are not not
intrinsically linked. Thus anomaly detection may in principle proceed
effectively even when when the spectral quality is less than ideal. We
provide a general approach for real time anomaly detection, that is resistant
to search system detector imperfections and avoids the limitations of any
source or template library. The result is a method that provides immediate,
easily interpreted and actionable user feedback. The algorithm uses anidea based on the continuous wavelet transform for variance reduction andthe formation of an expectation vector from recent measurements to drive
an evaluation of the deviation between the current measurement and the
expectation using methods from linear algebra. The generality and simplicityof these ideas yield an algorithm which is flexible and easily applied, while
being quite effective. To demonstrate the efficacy of the algorithm, resultsfrom the application of the algorithm to real world data collected outside of
the controlled laboratory environment are presented.

Algorithms for directional ionizing radiation
detection systems

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Lance K. McLean, National Security Technologies, LLC (UnitedStates) and Univ. of Maryland (United States); Matthew R. Kiser,Thomas L. McCullough, National Security Technologies, LLC (UnitedStates)Directional ionizing radiation detection systems based upon the selfocclusion concept represent an attractive option for radiological search andmonitoring systems due to their relative simplcity, potential durability andeconomy. The current generation of these sensors use relatively simplistic
geometric decompositions of the count rate profile to determine the source
azimuth in the detection plane. A multiplet of such systems can also be
used to locate a source in two dimensions in as little as one data acquisition
cycle in an uncomplicated way. However, the differential attenuation of
the source flux by the specific geometry of a self-occluding system gives
rise to new and usable signatures. We have several novel approaches toleveraging both the gross count profile and unique spectral information
provided by the multi-element system. Importantly, the high dimensionalityof the data provides a wider feature space than is present in a sigle element
system. This fact can, for example, significantly enhance the ability of such
systems to perform anomaly detection. We proceed from a review of themost basic source localization algorithms to multi-sensor system methods
to include those for heterogeneous sensor arrays. We then show examples
from both simulated and real data of how occluding detection systems canbe used to drive numerous analyses. Illustrations are given of how evensystems with relatively poor resolution can be used to perform such things
as source classification and multiple source tracking. We also show, using
simulated detector responses how the choice of detector composition andconfiguration affects the algorithmic approach. Finally, opportunities fordata fusion are highlighted as part of our ongoing efforts.

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Conference 9073: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XV

9073-52, Session 8

Nuclear detection and monitoring using plants
electricity
Mohammad M. Islam, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Wenze Xi, Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility(United States); David J. Y. Feng, National Univ. of Kaohsiung(Taiwan); Fow-Sen Choa, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)
Plant electricity was discovered about 100 years ago. Until recent two
decades, researchers started to notice that the electricity play a key rolefor plant’s communications and defense. Recently, we have demonstrated
a wound-generated electrical signal, up to a few hundred mV, can beproduced and propagate through the whole plant. As plants defense
reactions the wound signal will activate genes and induce subsequentmolecular biology responses. In this study, we further investigate theelectrical response of plants when they are under nuclear radiation. We
discovered nuclear radiation could produce internal voltage gradient inliving trees, resulting in measureable voltage and current signals. The
results was measured by attaching one of electrodes to a lower branch,close to the roots and attaching the other one to an upper branch. During
irradiating, trees were set up at 1-meter far from a NIST-certified 241AmBe
neutron source (30 mCi). It will produce a neutron field of about 13 mrem/h,corresponding to an actual absorbed dose of ~ 1 mrad/h by assuming thetissue is primarily water content. Once the radioactive source is pulled up
from a shielded container below the tree, the system potential starts to drop
and in about 6-7 hours it drops down to -220mV, eventually stabilizing ataround -250mV after 10 hours of radiation. We further have observed plantelectricity changes caused by x-ray, gamma-ray, and beta-ray radiations.
After the sources were removed, the terminal voltage recovered andeventually returned to the original value.

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Conference 9074: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security and Homeland Defense XIII
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9074 Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies
for Homeland Security and Homeland Defense XIII

9074-1, Session 1

9074-3, Session 1

Inverse synthetic aperture radar imaging forconcealed object detection on a naturally walking
personA key to success: optimizing the planning process

Andrey Zhuravlev, Sergey I. Ivashov, Vladimir Razevig, Igor Vasiliev,
Bauman Moscow State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation)

By adopting The NATO Strategic Concept Document in 2010, some
important changes in the perception of threat and management of crisis
were introduced. This new concept, named ‘’Comprehensive Approach’’,includes the precautions of pre-crisis management, applications of crisisduration management and reconstruction phase of post-intervention
management. NATO will be interested in not only the military options , butalso political, social, economical and informational aspects of crisis. NATOwill take place in all phases of conflict. Terrorism and the conflictions which
occur outside the borders of NATO’s nations are perceived as threat sources
for peace and stability. In addition to conventional threats, cyber attacks
which threaten network-supported communication systems, preventing
applications for accessing to space that will be used in different fields oflife, electronic warfare capabilities which can effect negatively are added tothreat list as new threats. In the process in which is thought about military
option, a harder planning phase is waiting for the decision makers of theNATO who struggle for keeping peace and security. Campaign planning
process which depends on comprehensive approach, contains these steps:
Situation awareness of battlefield, evaluation of the military intervention
options, orientation, developing campaign plan, reviewing the plan andtransition phases.1 To be successful in theater which is always changing withthe technological advances, there has to be an accurate and timely planningon the table. So that, spending time for planning can be shown as one of
the biggest problem. In addition, sustaining situational awareness which isimportant for the whole campaign planning process, technical commandand control hitches, human factor, unable to determine the center of gravityof opponent in asymmetrical threat situations can be described as some ofthe difficulties in campaign planning. In this study, a possible air campaign
planning process was analyzed according to comprehensive approach.
The difficulties of planning were identified. Consequently, for optimizing adecision-making process of an air campaign, an optimized planning process
was identified in a fictive command and control structure.

The problem of detection concealed threats under clothes on groundtransport hubs and other places of mass gathering remains actual as suchplaces remain targets of terror attacks. Unlike airports where thoroughinspection involving body scanners and manual search is possible, bringing
the same level of security to other transport systems remains a challenge.
The paper addresses the issue of transport and infrastructure security byconsidering the concept of inverse aperture synthesis to such target likea naturally walking person. The vertical resolution in such ISAR system isachieved by a microwave antenna array while horizontal resolution obtained
due to person’s natural walking in perpendicular direction. The coherent
processing of acquired radio signal and obtaining a synthetic radio image
from not stationary target is possible by processing synchronous video thatgives required trajectories of subject’s parts, both limbs and clothes. The
radio image can be obtained for an arbitrary moment by processing theaccumulated radio signal and video sequence. The outlined concept wasdemonstrated on experimental data obtained with a system consisting ofa vertical scanner with movable continuous wave radar and a stationary
camera. Signal acquisition was performed by stop motion technique when
the object of interest was moved in small steps, photographed and verticallyscanned each time. The resulting radio images obtained for objects withsimple geometric shapes with concealed inclusions are presented. The
influence of positioning errors and integration time on resulting image wascomputationally assessed in typical geometry of sounding. Adaptation of
the technique for passive sensors is also proposed in context of blur andnoise mitigation.

9074-2, Session 1

Infrared polarimetric sensor for infrastructure
protection

9074-4, Session 1

David B. Chenault, Joseph L. Pezzaniti, Polaris Sensor Technologies,
Inc. (United States)
Measurement of the polarization content of a scene frequently offers
additional contrast that is not readily apparent or is not measured at all withthe conventional imager. An infrared imaging polarimeter measures one
or more parameters of the polarization ellipse and also the conventional
intensity. Such polarimetric imaging systems, particularly in the infrared,
have shown significant promise for detection of otherwise hard to findobjects. Polarization contrast often remains high during periods of zerothermal contrast and can successfully detect manmade targets in natural
clutter, long after thermal equilibrium of the target with the background has
been established. A number of potential applications for port and harbor
security, fixed site protection, border control and other homeland security
scenarios have been demonstrated using scientific polarimetric systems.
Polarimetric imaging has seen significant advancement over the last decadeand now small, real-time infrared polarimetric cameras are now available.
In this paper, we describe such imaging polarimeter systems, show somepreliminary results that demonstrate the enhanced contrast possible withsuch systems, and discuss ways in which this system could be integrated
with existing infrastructure.

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Hüseyin Türk, Kamil Karakaya, Harp Akademileri Komutanligi(Turkey)·

Fly eye radar or micro-radar sensor technology
Pavlo A. Molchanov, Compass Systems, Inc. (United States); Olha V.
Asmolova, AETHER Inc. (United States)
To compensate for its eye’s inability to point its eye at a target, the fly’s eye
consists of multiple angularly spaced sensors giving the fly the wide-areavisual coverage it needs to detect and avoid the threats around him. Basedon a similar concept a revolutionary new micro-radar sensor technology is
proposed for detecting and tracking ground and/or airborne low profile low
altitude targets in harsh urban environments. Distributed along a border or
around a protected location (military facility and buildings, camp, stadium)small size, low power unattended radar sensors can be used for target
detection and tracking, threat warning, pre-shot sniper protection andprovides effective support for homeland security. In addition it can provide
3D recognition and targets classification due to its use of five orders more
pulses than any scanning radar to each space point, by using few points ofview, diversity signals and intelligent processing.
The application of an array of directional antennas eliminates the need fora mechanical scanning antenna or phase processor. It radically decreases
radar size and increases bearing accuracy several folds. The proposed microradar sensors can be easy connected to one or several operators by pointto-point invisible protected communication. The directional antennas havewww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9074: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security and Homeland Defense XIII
higher gain, can be multi-frequency and connected to a multi-functional
network. Fly eye micro-radars are inexpensive, can be expendable and will
reduce cost of defense.

nanosecond in advance to reaching the surge pulse. Due to moving energy
pulse in main line almost close to light speed (96% to 97% of light speed), it
is possible to use an optical fiber to drive the main arrester.

9074-5, Session 1

9074-7, Session 1

Unattended real-time re-establishment ofvisibility in high dynamic range video and stills

What are the advantages and disadvantages ofcentralized control of air power at the operational
level?

Besma R. Abidi, Phelps2020, Inc. (United States)Uğur Arisoy, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)

We describe an unattended persistent surveillance system that correctsfor harsh illumination conditions, where bright sun light creates mixed
contrast effects of heavy shadows and highlights. These effects result inhigh dynamic range scenes, where illuminance can vary from few luxes
to a 6 figure value. When using regular monitors and cameras, such wide
span of illuminations can only be visualized if the actual range of values iscompressed, leading to the creation of saturated and/or dark noisy areas
and a loss of information in these areas. Images containing extreme mixed
contrast cannot be fully enhanced based on customary image enhancement
techniques from a single image, simply because information is not present
in the original data. The active intervention in the acquisition process itself
is required.

“The successes of the air campaign in the gulf rested almost as much onorganizational innovations as on technology. To speak of a revolution in
warfare as a purely technological affair is to miss half the significance of thewar... The centralized control of air power made for a much more coherent
campaign than would otherwise have occurred.”
Eliot Cohen in Foreign Affairs
SUMMARY: People do not want to see and hear the war. In today’s world,
if war is inevitable, the use of Air Power is seen as the preferable means to
conduct operations instead of financially burdensome land battles those are
more likely to cause heavy loss of life.

A software package, capable of integrating multiple types of COTS cameras,
from miniature to DSLRs is described. Hardware and software are integrated
via a novel smart data acquisition algorithm, which communicates tothe camera the parameters that would maximize the visibility in the final
processed scene. A fusion mechanism is then applied to the smartly
acquired data, resulting into an enhanced scene where information in bothdark and bright areas is revealed. Multi-threading and parallel processing
are exploited to produce automatic real time full motion corrected video. A
novel enhancement algorithm was also devised to process data from legacy,
non-controllable, cameras, as well as accept and process pre-recorded
sequences and stills. The software enhances visible and Infrared data andwas successfully applied to night time and dark scenes. A User-friendly
Graphical Interface integrates the various functions of the application into
an intuitive and easy to use screen window.

The use of Air Power has gained importance in NATO operations in the PostCold War era. For example, Air Power has been undertaken a decisive rolefrom beginning to the end of the operation in Libya, 2011.
From this point of view, the most important issue to consider is how to
direct the Air Power more effectively at the Operational Level. In thiscontext, NATO’s Core JFAC (Joint Force Air Command) was established in2012. Joint Air Power is directed from a single center at the Operational
Level by the means of JFAC. The most important feature of JFAC is highreadiness capability for any possible task. JFAC structure requires trained
and specialized personnel.
JFAC aproach provides complex planning progress of Air Power to be
overcome faster in a single center. An Air Power with a large number ofaircraft, long range missiles of cutting-edge technology may have difficulties
in achieving results unless directed effectively. Automation systems areneeded for planning process in order to adapt quickly to the changing
operational environment and for the proper allocation of resources to thetargets.

The ensuing increase in visibility in surveillance video and intelligence
imagery will expand the performances and timely decision making of thehuman analyst, as well as that of unmanned systems performing automatic
data exploitation, such as target detection and identification.

Directing Air Campaign from a single center similar to JFAC-like structureis helping to attain desired objectives at the end of the operation. Beyond
the classical approach, it is possible to blend more functions in coordination
within an operation center like JFAC. For this purpose, opportunities intechnology should be utilized more and automation systems should be
developed. Because there are no coincidences in the use of Air Power.

9074-6, Session 1

Improving performance of EMP surge arrester
response time, clamping voltage and joules
rating by implementation of primary sensor and adelay line

In this article, Directing Air Power more effectively at the Operational Levelhas been studied in the framework of several scenarios based on SWOT
analysis technique. “Directing Air Power at the Operational Level from asingle center similar to JFAC-like structure” is compared with “Directing
Air Power at the Operational Level from two centers similar to ACC (AirComponent Command) + CAOC (Combined Air Operations Center)structure”

Akbar Rahmani-Nejad, Independent Researcher (Iran, Islamic
Republic of)
We designed and developed a new kind of surge arresters in which three
above mentioned factors is improved considerably such that to protect
systems even at the range to be efficient against high altitude EMP bombs
while remaining production cost as low as ordinary MOV arresters. This
arrester is comprised of two sections that are separated by two parallel lines
both initiating from first section and terminating to the second section, firstline has the length of magnitude in the range of micrometers-millimetersand second line has the length of about several centimeters-meters. A small
portion of surge current is coupled to the first line which acts as driving line
for the main arrester. second part, which is an ordinary arrester and arrests
surge current of the main line. By consideration of delay time introducedby length difference of two lines which can be about a few nanoseconds
to a fraction of a microsecond that is enough time for the main arrester
to arrest surge current. By coupling of a small portion of surge current todriving line of arrester most of current passes through the main line. The
length-difference of two lines makes the main arrester to act hundreds of71+1 360 676 3290

As the result of the study, “Directing Air Power at the Operational Level
from a single center similar to JFAC-like structure” although having somedisadvantages proved to be more effective than the other structure.
The study examined directing Air Power at the Operational Level.
Developments at the Political, Strategic and Tactical Levels have been
ignored.

9074-8, Session 1

Analysis of a developed analog trilateration
system of impulsive sounds
Juan M. López R., Jose I. Marulanda, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)·

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A characterization study is made from a trilateration system for impulsive
sounds, in which theoretical analysis are compared with experimental
results. This system uses an analog trilateration method, avoiding to
implement high frequency ADC conversion elements. It also presents the
optimization of the chosen array of microphones, thus allowing for a better
trilateration algorithm behavior.

in practice this can be very difficult as superhydrophobicity and opticaltransparency are competitive. We have developed a simple, spray-on
coating based on functionalized SiO2 nanoparticles that can easily beapplied to surfaces whose application requires high transparency including,but not limited to, optical sensors, photovoltaics, sights, and lenses. In
addition, these coatings exhibit practical mechanical and environmental
durability that allow prolonged use of the coatings in harsh environments.

9074-9, Session 29074-12, Session 2

Technology of uncooled fast polycrystalline PbSe
focal plane arrays in systems for muzzle flash
detection

Long-range optical projectile tracking
Slobodan Rajic, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)

Mariusz Kastek, Tadeusz Piatkowski, Henryk Polakowski, Jaroslaw
Barela, Krzysztof Firmanty, Piotr Trzaskawka, Military Univ. ofTechnology (Poland); German Vergara, Rodrigo Linares Herrero,
Raul Gutierrez Alvarez, Carlos Fernandez-Montojo, Maria Teresa
Montojo Supervielle, New Infrared Technologies, S.L. (Spain)

The small arms community has recently seen the introduction of various
laser, fiber-optic, and micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) based
shooting aids aimed at improving performance. Various commercial
sensor approaches exist for measuring variables such as air temperature,
weapon inclination angles, target range, etc. There is no question thatthe presently available sensor portfolio can substantially improve firstround hit probability, however, all parameters affecting the projectile flight
dynamics, are seldom all quantifiable in advance of the first shot. Thus
knowing precisely where a round impacts can be invaluable information
to an operator or a mini-fire control computer. The true exterior ballistic
information can effectively be used to calculate a new aim point. We haveboth theoretical and range data to effectively describe our approach.

The paper presents some aspects of muzzle flash detection using low
resolution polycrystalline PbSe 32?32 and 80?80 detectors FPA operating
at room temperature (uncooled performance). These sensors, which
detect in MWIR (3 - 5 microns region) and are manufactured using
proprietary technology from New Infrared Technologies (VPD PbSe –Vapor Phase Deposition of polycrystalline PbSe), can be applied to muzzle
flash detection. The system based in the uncooled 80x80 staring FPA
monolithically integrated with the CMOS readout circuitry has allowed
image recording with frame rates over 2000 Hz (true snapshot acquisition),whereas the lower density, uncooled 32?32 FPA is suitable for being usedin low cost infrared imagers sensitive in the MWIR band with frame rates
above 1000 Hz.

9074-13, Session 2

Low-cost localization system of impulsive sounds
for urban environments

The FPA detector, read-out electronics and processing electronics (allows
the implementation of some algorithms for muzzle flash detection) of both
systems are presented. The systems have been tested at field test ground.
Results of detection range measurement with two types of optical systems(wide and narrow field of view) have been shown. The theoretical analysisof possibility detection of muzzle flash and initial results of testing of somealgorithms for muzzle flash detection have been presented too.

Juan M. López R., Jose I. Marulanda, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
A low-cost acoustic localization system is presented, in which a video
camera is directed towards the source of impulsive sounds like such as
a gunshots. An analog filter is implemented at the first stage, in order toreduce the range of frequencies to analyze, hence narrowing and improving
the localization of gunshots. The system is known for the integration ofopen source consumer electronics and processing devices, which makes
large-scale deployment possible even in developing countries. Furthermore,
results are also obtained with a prototype that shows a high percentage ofsuccesses.

9074-10, Session 2

Gunshot identification system by integration ofopen source consumer electronics

9074-14, Session 3

Juan M. López R., Jose I. Marulanda, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Cyber threat detection and analysis mechanism

This work presents a prototype of low-cost gunshots identification systemthat uses consumer electronics in order to ensure the existence of gunshots
and then classify it according to a previously established database. The
implementation of this tool in the urban areas is to set records that support
the forensics, hence improving law enforcement also on developing
countries. An analysis of its effectiveness is presented in comparison withtheoretical results obtained with numerical simulations.

Alexander Milovanov, Leonid Bukshpun, Ranjit D. Pradhan, Physical
Optics Corp. (United States)
A new non-signature-based dynamic mechanism has been developed toprovide the detection of advanced persistent cyber threats with improvedtrue positive (TP) and false positive (FP) rates acceptable for operational
deployment. This mechanism integrates rule-based intrusion detection
approach with policy-based intrusion detection and violation weighting
approaches. This combination of three approaches allows non-signaturedetection of currently undetectable new generation cyber threats, such as
stealth network reconnaissance, highly distributed and coordinated attacks,
low frequency attacks, etc., with deployable TP and FP rates. The presented
mechanism can be incorporated into wireless or wired networks that require
protection against known and the new generation of cyber attacks.

9074-11, Session 2

Spray-on antisoiling coatings that exhibit hightransparency and mechanical durability
Daniel Schaeffer, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
A superhydrophobic (SH) surface has many characteristics, one of which isits self-cleaning, anti-soiling functionality, that are desirable across various
industries. A transparent, self-cleaning surface utilizes the right combinationof surface chemistry and roughness that force water droplets to form highwater contact angles (CA). This in turn allows droplets to easily roll off
and pick up dirt and debris across the surface. In theory this is simple but

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Conference 9074: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security and Homeland Defense XIII

9074-15, Session 3

the sum of squared errors, with a constraint on the L1 norm of the parameter
vector, which is used to push some parameters to zero. The main idea
involves incorporating the Lasso constraint in an iterative solution approachsuch as Gauss-Newton algorithm. This method reduces the variance of theparameter estimates, and simplifies the interpretation of the model.

Securing wireless networks: distributed network
intrusion detection

To evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm, the parametersof an induction motor are estimated. Estimation is performed both forsimulated and experimental data.

David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
A distributable implementation of a network intrusion detection system
is very useful for securing wireless networks that have multiple pointsof entry. We report on a distributable system that operates on top of an
existing intrusion detection system (IDS) and uses it as an oracle. The
system builds a faster, less resource intensive normalcy classifier as a frontend to a traditional network IDS. This system is more highly scalable anddistributable than the signature-based IDS it is based upon. The new design
allows distributed updates and retraining of the normalcy classifier to stay
up-to-date with current threats, but operates as a distributable front-end fora traditional network IDS.

The results of the proposed approach are compared to those of a method
based on sensitivity analysis.

9074-18, Session 4

A data-delivery system using sensor technology
and wireless devices for port security
Manuel R. Saldaña, Vidya B. Manian, Javier R. Rivera, Univ. dePuerto Rico Mayagüez (United States)

9074-16, Session 4

Sensor technologies such as infrared sensors and hyperspectral imaging,video camera surveillance are proven to be viable in port security. Drawing
from sources such as infrared sensor data, digital camera images andprocessed hyperspectral images, this article explores the implementationof a real-time data delivery system. In an effort to improve the mannerin which anomaly detection data is delivered to interested parties in port
security, this system explores how a client-server architecture can provide
protected access to data, reports, and device status. Sensor data andhyperspectral image data will be kept in a monitored directory, where thesystem will link it to existing users in the database. Since this system willrender processed hyperspectral images that are dynamically added to theserver- which often occupy a large amount of space - the resolution ofthese images is trimmed down to around 1024X768 pixels. Changes that
occur in any image or data modification that originates from any sensor will
trigger a message to all users that have a relation with the aforementioned.
These messages will be sent to the corresponding applications using
Google Cloud Messaging for Android, the mobile platform in which
this system is being tested. Moreover, this paper presents the complete
architecture for data reception from the sensors, processing, storage anddiscusses how users of this system such as port security personnel can use
handheld devices to receive notifications if their designated sensors havedetected anomalies and/or have remote access to results from processed
hyperspectral imagery relevant to their assigned posts.

A survey on electromagnetic interferences onaircraft avionics systems and a GSM on board
system overview
Peppino Fazio, Natale Vinto, Mauro Tropea, Univ. della Calabria(Italy); Miroslav Voznak, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech
Republic)
Recent years have been characterized by an increase in the air traffic. Moreattention over micro-economic and macro-economic indexes would be
strategic to gather and enhance the safety of a flight and customer needing,for communicating by wireless handhelds on-board aircrafts. Thus, European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) proposed a GSM On Board(GSMOBA) system as a possible solution, allowing mobile terminals tocommunicate through GSM system on aircraft, avoiding electromagnetic
interferences with radio components aboard. The main issues are directly
related with interferences that could spring-out when mobile terminals
attempt to connect to ground BTS, from the airplane. This kind of system isable to resolve the problem in terms of conformance of Effective Isotropic
Radiated Power (EIRP) limits, defined outside the aircraft, by using an On
board BTS (OBTS) and modeling the relevant key RF parameters on the air.
The main purpose of this work is to illustrate the state-of-the-art ofliterature and previous studies about the problem, giving also a good detailof technical and normative references.

9074-19, Session 4

Smart army helmet: A glitch in what soldier
helmets can become in the near future byintegrating present technologies

9074-17, Session 4

Term selection for an induction motor via
nonlinear Lasso

Gilberto Osorio, Alejandro Mejía, J. Alejandro Betancur, Univ. EAFIT(Colombia)

Mohammad Rasouli, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College (UnitedStates)Considering the advance stages of technologies like Head-Up Display
systems, sensors and intercommunications, in industries like Automobile
and Aerospace, just to mention a few; being defense an security where
the best improvements had been made technology wise, the need for a
low cost alternative keeps growing, and so in this work, it is planned toshow the early design stages of an intelligent army helmet that combines
this three composite systems in a light shell in order to provide soldierswith information that can give them strategic advantages over the field of
combat and most important safe their lives if possible, all of this focusing in
low cost production since early stages of design.

Modeling of the induction motor has been studied extensively due to its
increasing application in various areas such as drives, wind turbines, anddynamic component of load models. In this paper, a commonly used thirdorder model of an induction motor with eight parameters is analyzed inorder to classify the model parameters based on their degree of significancein the model behavior. Using the results of this classification, only thesignificant parameters of an induction motor need to be estimated fromthe measurements. The remainder of the parameters can be replaced bytheir typical values, which results in an optimization problem with a reduced
dimension. The reduced parameter model needs less computation time
and thus is better suited for real-time applications. The significance of thisapproach is greater when many induction motors or dynamic inductive
loads in the system need to be identified.
A nonlinear Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso) term
selection method is employed for this study. The Lasso method minimizes73+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9074: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security and Homeland Defense XIII

9074-20, Session 4such as probabilities of detection, false positives, false alarms, false
negatives, and PPV. Two basic examples are analyzed: terrorism-related
events such as terrorism-related networks and Homeland Security related
ones.

Data storage management in a distributed
database with deterministic limited
communications windows between data storage
nodes

9074-22, Session 5

Systems integration for an automated checkedbaggage inspection system augmented withrobotsJeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
An orbital service model has been proposed which proposes to distributetasks between a collection of spacecraft with heterogeneous or additive
capabilities. It allows data to be collected, stored and used on different
nodes comprising an ad-hoc system where provider craft supply services
to consumer craft. Ad-hoc networks and provider-consumer relationships
are commonly used in various applications on Earth. The deterministic
movement of spacecraft, however, allows the ad-hoc network and service
providing model to operate in a different way than would be typical in mostterrestrial ad-hoc networks. While long periods of no direct node-to-nodeconnectivity may exist, the periods of connectivity are pre-known basedon orbital parameters. Additionally, paths for indirect connectivity can be
identified and evaluated for cost effectiveness.

Taskin Padir, Matthew P. DeDonato, Velin Dimitrov, Worcester
Polytechnic Institute (United States)
We posit that despite the significant automation currently employed by
the TSA in the Checked Baggage Inspection Systems (CBIS), the additionof innovative robotic technologies in the baggage screening process cansignificantly reduce the labor-intensive tasks required to manually inspectsome bags. Technologies enabling robots to work in close collaboration withhumans can address issues in implementing Electronic Baggage Screening
Program (EBSP) strategic plan goals. For example, the labor-intensive
explosives trace detection (ETD), where a piece of fabric is swabbed
across a suspicious bag and placed inside the trace detection machine,
can be accomplished with a robot working in collaboration with a humansupervisor.

Using the orbital service model, missions can deploy the specialized
equipment required to meet unique mission characteristics and utilize
a common set of infrastructure spacecraft for many other aspects ofmission performance. These infrastructure spacecraft may provide power,
computational capabilities, sensing capabilities, communications between
spacecraft or between a spacecraft and ground-based operators or othercapabilities.

Baxter, developed by Rethink Robotics, enables humans to intuitively
interact with robots in close proximity.
Because one of Baxter’s target markets is production floors, the robot isdesigned with work on a conveyor line in mind. Baxter is able to: (1) worksafely alongside people, without the need for protective cages; (2) operatecollaboratively through a unique, user-friendly UI; (3) be trained manually byline workers, with no programming required; and (4) respond adaptively tochanges in its environment.

While various ad hoc communications techniques have been previously
proposed, they fail to take advantage of the (a) high reliability and (b)deterministic movement characteristics of orbital craft. A method for trafficrouting that considered these unique characteristics was proposed. This
paper considers how to manage data in an orbital environment. Specifically,
it considers where data should be stored and when and how it should be
moved or copied to maximize system performance. A data management
approach for an orbital computing ad-hoc system is proposed. Algorithms
for determining where data should be stored (identification of most usefulpoint of storage, whether multiple copies are justified) and how movement
should be affected (transfer scheduling, replication, etc.) are presented andevaluated.

The automated testbed presented here is comprised of a Baxter researchrobot for luggage and object manipulation, and a down-looking overhead
RGB-D sensor for inspection and detection. By looking at the TSA prohibited
items list, one item in particular is relatively common and likely to be left inbags accidentally: the lighter. Lighters pose a risk to aircraft because they
are pressurized, and if the fuel disperses as a mist in the cargo hold, due tofailure of the pressure vessel, it could cause a serious fire. In addition, due totheir generally small physical size, they can be difficult to detect reliably.

9074-21, Session 5

The aim of this case study is to create a software framework to demonstrate
robotics enabled bag inspection.

Bayesian truthing and experimental validation inhomeland security and defense
Tomasz P. Jannson, Thomas C. Forrester, Andrew A. Kostrzewski,
Wenjian Wang, Physical Optics Corp. (United States)
A broad variety of C3I technologies require some experimental validation(or truthing, using radar terms), in order to validate system performanceby using some general objective metrics. The subject of this paper is toshow that such general metrics do exist, called by us Bayesian Truthing.
In contrast to classical statistical inference, Bayesian Inference is based on
conditional probabilities, in general, and on inverse conditional probabilities,
in particular, the latter, including such a basic Figure of Merit as Positive
Predictive Value (PPV). The PPV is high only when the probability oftarget priors is higher than the probability of false positives. Therefore,
by regulating the population of priors, we can obtain higher or lower PPV
values. This is the essence of Bayesian Truthing, which is the basic subjectof this paper. The Bayesian Truthing metrics include: sampling space;
population of anomalous events, called targets, or signals, embedded in notargets, false targets, or noise; and, two binary target readouts: alarm or no
alarm. The binary Bayesian statistics include four probabilities: two absoluteones and two conditional (direct) ones. By using these simple binary
statistics, we can analyze, classify, and evaluate a broad variety of events
including: natural disasters, terrorism-related, GIS-related, law enforcementrelated, and other C3I events.

The general structure of the software architecture is described as follows.
We use the point cloud library (PCL) to implement plane segmentation,
allowing us to remove the tabletop and other extra surfaces from the image
data. We then create a masked image focused on the detection area. The
image data is then processed using OpenCV’s template matching algorithm
which has been trained apriori on synthetically generated distorted imagesof a lighter. When a lighter is detected, its 3D position with respect to thesensor is calculated. This is translated into robot-centric coordinates throughROS’s TF tool. The path controller generates waypoints to the pickup of thelighter and this information is forwarded into the MoveIt tool which handles
motion planning using OMPL. Finally, the generated trajectory is sent to
Baxter through the API and Baxter picks up the lighter. The same processusing MoveIt is then repeated to place the placard in the bag. Overall,
the paper will demonstrate the effectiveness of the developed softwarearchitecture in a proof of concept system showing how Baxter or a similar
robot could be used in a security inspection scenario.

In this paper, we discuss the Bayesian Truthing key performance parameters

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Conference 9074: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security and Homeland Defense XIII

9074-23, Session 59074-26, Session 5

Decision generation tools and Bayesian inference

Modern air and space power and political goals at
warTomasz P. Jannson, Wenjian Wang, Thomas C. Forrester, Andrew
A. Kostrzewski, Christian Veeris, Thomasz Nielsen, Physical Optics
Corp. (United States)

Gungor Ozer, Turkish Air Force (Turkey)
Modern Air/Space power in today’s modern World is increasingly becominga political tool. Speed, global range, stealth, flexibility, precision, lethality,
global/theater situational awareness, and strategic perspective are the mostobvious features and advantages of Air/Space power.

Digital Decision Generation (DDG) tools are important software sub-systemsof Command and Control Systems and technologies. In this paper, we
present a special type of the DDGs based on Bayesian Inference, in general,and on the Bayesian Truthing Theorem (and Bayesian Paradox), in particular.
In this paper, we discuss two important applications related to diverse(hostile) networks, namely, terrorism-related networks and organized crime
ones. The basic aim of this paper is to show that so-called Bayesian Binary
Sensors can operate in cyberspace, in the form of structured cyber-clouds(or databases) reduced here to professional clouds (or, pro-clouds). The
proposed DDG architecture is in the form of a chain structure enhanced bycybercloud coherency. This DDG chain structure consists of (about) twenty
modules, organized around two main software engines. The intra-cloudengine is in the form of a module set with Bayesian Binary Sensors that
detect anomalous behavior. As a result of this network member search, theyellow alarm is produced. Then, as a result of cybercloud coherency andcorrelation between two DDG engines, a red alarm is produced.

In this article Air/Space power as a political tool will be discussed. The
primary purpose of this study is to search how Air/Space power can provide
contributions to security of a nation and determine if it may reach thepolitical goals at war. Key variables that affect whether Air/Space power
can succeed as a political tool will be examined by analysing the limits andsuperiority of Air/Space power throughout war history.
General thinking on whether Air&Space power can achieve political goals
may not help to come to a conclusion since the criteria may vary fromone country to another. Therefore, case studies (not only the historicalexperimentations from the past but also the new scenarios) are examinedby making use of the limits & advantages of Air/Space power through SWOT
Analysis. The scenarios are compared by Spider Web Analysis Method.
Evidence resulting from the comparative analysis of the case studies
supports the conclusion that it is difficult to declare that Air/Space poweris sufficient to win the political goals by itself. However it may reach thepolitical aims partially by itself depending upon the cases. But it can firmly
be declared that Air/Space power alone can persuade states to alter their
behavior(s) in war and is a deterrent tool in peace time.

In this paper, the critical DDG components such as Network Synthesizer
Systems (NSSs), graphitis, and IED social networks are discussed.

9074-25, Session 5

Comprehensive approachOğuz Sayin, Bilal Seymen, Münir Gedikli, Turkish Air War College(Turkey)
The new battlefield, which has been changed by the technologicaldevelopments, forced countries and organizations to change their concepts.
Especially the asymmetric war as a new emerging concept and parallel tothis concept 9/11 attack caused a paradigm shift and the nature of the war
which had been kept for centuries started to change. After World War II,
conventional war left its place to new concepts, which world have not everseen before like regional conflicts, crisis management and peace support
operations. In addition to that, by the technological capabilities operations
started to be watched live by the advanced media devices. There are manytechnological weapons used in operation area such as platforms, munitions,electronic and communication systems and these are all indispensable for
us but they are also very expensive and they all increase the cost of war
fairly. Considering all these things, in order to decrease the cost of war andprevent the loss and meet the new requirements that come by the paradigm
shift, new approaches have arisen.
This study analyzes the Comprehensive Approach concept which has been
implemented recently through these specified improvements. We havemade a scientific definition of this really new approach, and mentioned
the comprehensive approach applications in recent operations. We havediscussed Turkey’s comprehensive approach applications before even theidea of comprehensive approach such as cooperating with civil institutions
and foundations and meeting the needs of the people in the areas ofoperations. As a result the study emphasizes the importance of this new
approach which has not been fully integrated to the structure of armed
forces and presents the required conditions for a sound integration.

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Conference 9075: Biometric and Surveillance Technology
for Human and Activity Identification XI
Thursday 8 –8 May 2014

Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9075 Biometric and Surveillance Technology for Human and Activity
Identification XI
9075-1, Session 1

In this paper, we propose a new on the fly finger knuckle print
authentication system using a general web camera. In our proposed
authentication system, users can input their finger knuckle print without
needing their hand to remain motionless during image capture. We also
evaluated the performance of the proposed system, achieving an EER of 2%
under best conditions.

Video understanding (Keynote Presentation)
Larry S. Davis, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States)
More than two years ago Google announced that the video upload rate toits sharing site, Youtube, was 60 hours of video every minute. By now, theupload rate is certainly much higher. Searching for videos on Youtube is
supported through the text that accompanies the video, user comments,
etc., but not on the visual or audio content of the video. This talk will coverrecent research at the University of Maryland on methods for analyzing
the visual content of video to support video retrieval based on natural
language queries to video databases. In the jargon of computer visionresearch, this requires developing so-called zero shot learning algorithms
for video classes. That is, users do not provide video search algorithms with
examples of videos of interest, just descriptions of the class of interest.
Zero shot learning is really a bootstrapping method for obtaining a small
set of positive sample from a database so that conventional learningalgorithms can be applied to build more powerful recognition models. I
will first describe an approach to video classification based on what wecall clauselets – small temporal conjunctions of localized activities that are
discriminative with respect to classes. Clauselets require extensive training,
but a simplification of the model allows us to learn them using novel zero
shot techniques. I will present experimental results on the TRECVID MED13
EKO dataset.

To be more specific, we propose a new segmentation technique for finger
knuckle prints from a movie by using Gabor feature. In addition, we look into
a quality measurement for finger knuckle print based on GLCM analysis. We
also evaluated the EER of the proposed system, then we could achieve EER
is 2% at the best condition.

9075-4, Session 2

Interpretation of fingerprint image quality
features extracted by self-organizing maps
Ivan Danov, Technical Univ. of Denmark (Denmark) and Ctr. for
Advanced Security Research Darmstadt (Germany); Martin A.
Olsen, Ctr. for Advanced Security Research Darmstadt (Germany);
Christoph Busch, Gjøvik Univ. College (Norway)

9075-2, Session 2

Finger image quality based on singular point
localization
Jinghua Wang, Technical Univ. of Denmark (Denmark); Martin A.
Olsen, Ctr. for Advanced Security Research Darmstadt (Germany);
Christoph Busch, Gjøvik Univ. College (Norway)
Singular point is an important global feature of fingerprints so that singularpoint localization is a crucial step in biometric recognition. Moreover thepresence and position of the core point in a captured fingerprint sample
can reflect whether the finger is placed properly on the sensor. Therefore,
the displacement given by detected core points is investigated. We propose
pattern-based filters to eliminate the false detection given by state of theart approaches. The experimental results show remarkable improvement
using different databases. Based on the improved singular point localization
algorithm, we explored and analyzed the importance of singular points
on biometric systems accuracy. The experiment is based on large scale
databases and conducted by relating the measured quality of a fingerprintsample, given by the positions of core points, to the biometric performance.
The experimental results show the positions of core points do have influenceon the comparison algorithms, but are not as relevant as other benchmarked
quality metrics.

9075-3, Session 2

On the fly finger knuckle print authentication
Narishige Abe, Takashi Shinzaki, Fujitsu Labs., Ltd. (Japan)
Finger knuckle print authentication has been researched not only asa supplemental authentication modality to fingerprinting and facialrecognition, among other things, but also as a method for logging into a PC
or entering a building. However, in previous works, some specific devices
were necessary to capture a finger knuckle print and users had to keep theirfingers perfectly still in order to capture their finger knuckle.

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SPIE DSS 2014·

Accurate prediction of fingerprint quality is of significant importance to any
fingerprint-based biometric system. Ensuring high quality samples for bothprobe and reference can improve substantially the system’s performance bylowering false non-matches, thus allowing finer adjustment of the decisionthreshold of the biometric system. Furthermore, the increasing usageof biometrics in mobile contexts demands development of lightweight
methods for operational environment. A novel two-tier computationallyefficient approach was recently proposed based on modeling block-wise
fingerprint image data using Self-Organizing Map (SOM) to extract specificridge pattern features, which are then used as an input to a Random Forests(RF) trained to predict the quality score of a propagated sample. This paper
conducts an investigative comparative analysis on a publicly available
dataset for the improvement of the two-tier approach by proposing
additionally three feature interpretation methods, based respectively on
SOM, Generative Topographic Mapping (GTM) and Random Forests. The
analysis shows that two of the newly proposed methods produce promising
results on the given dataset.

9075-5, Session 3

Multimodal biometrics system based on face
profile and ear
Iman S. Youssef, Cairo Univ. (Egypt); Ayman A. Abaza, West Virginia
High Technology Consortium Foundation (United States) and Cairo
Univ. (Egypt); Mohamed E. Rasmy, Ahmed M. Badawi, Cairo Univ.
(Egypt)Face recognition from side profile view, has recently received significant
attention in the literature. Even though current face recognition systems
have reached a certain level of maturity at angles up to 30 degrees, theirsuccess is still limited with side profile angles. This paper presents anefficient technique for the fusion of face profile and ear biometrics. We
propose to use Block-based Local Binary Pattern (LBP) to generate thefeatures for recognition from face profile and ear images. These feature
distributions are then fused at the score level using weighted sum rule.
Experimental results show that the proposed system can achieve about(97.98%) recognition performance, compared to unimodal biometrics offace profile (96.76%), and unimodal biometrics of ear (96.95%). Detailed
comparisons with other multimodal systems used in the literature, likewww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9075: Biometric and Surveillance Technology
for Human and Activity Identification XI

9075-9, Session 5

Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Full-space Linear Discriminant Analysis(FSLDA) and Kernel Fisher discriminant analysis (KFDA), are presented.

Template aging in eye movement-driven
biometrics

9075-6, Session 3

Oleg V. Komogortsev, Corey D. Holland, Alex Karpov, Texas State
Univ. (United States)

3D face recognition based on the hierarchicalscore-level fusion classifiersThis paper presents a template aging study of eye movement biometrics,
considering three distinct biometric techniques on multiple stimuli and eye
tracking systems. Short-to-midterm aging effects are examined over twoweeks, on a high- resolution eye tracking system, and seven-months, on a
low-resolution eye tracking system. We find that, in all cases, aging effects
are evident as early as two weeks after initial template collection, with anaverage 28% (±19%) increase in equal error rates and 34% (±12%) reduction
in rank-1 identification rates. At seven months, we observe an average 18%(±8%) increase in equal error rates and 44% (±20%) reduction in rank-1
identification rates. The comparative results at two-weeks and sevenmonths suggests that there is little difference in aging effects between thetwo intervals; however, whether the rate of decay increases more drasticallyin the long-term remains to be seen.

?t?pán Mrá?ek, Jan Vána, Karolína Lanka?ová, Martin Drahansk?,
Michal Dole?el, Brno Univ. of Technology (Czech Republic)
This paper describes the 3D face recognition algorithm that is basedon the cascade of score-level fusion classifiers. In a simple (unimodal)
biometric pipeline, the feature vector is extracted from the input data andsubsequently compared with the template stored in the database. Our
approach is the involvement of several feature extraction algorithms. We
use 6 different image representations of the input 3D face data (range
image, Gaussian curvature, mean curvature, shape index, eigencurvature,and texture). Moreover, we are using Gabor and Gauss-Laguerre filter banks
applied on the input image data that yield to 12 resulting feature vectors.
Each representation is compared with corresponding counterpart from thebiometric database. We also add the recognition based on the iso-geodesic
curves. The final score-level fusion is performed on 13 comparison scores
using the Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier. Additionally to the plainscore-level fusion, the hill-climbing selection of fused units is added: atinitial state, only the best unit providing the lowest EER is selected. In every
iteration, the unit that lowers EER the most is added. We have evaluated our
results on the FRGC database. The achieved EER is 1.1% and verification rate
at FAR = 0.1% is 93%.

9075-10, Session 5

Human thermal modeling to augment MWIR
image analysis in surveillance applications
Renee L. Woodyard, Julie A. Skipper, Wright State Univ. (UnitedStates)
The interpretation of thermal imagery can be augmented with information
derived from human thermal modeling to better infer human activity
during, or prior to, data capture. This additional insight into human activity
could prove useful in security and surveillance applications. We have
implemented Tanabe’s 65 NM thermocomfort model to predict skin surface
temperature under a wide variety of environmental, activity and bodyparameters. Here, humans are modeled as sixteen segments (head, chest,
upper leg, etc.), wherein spherical geometry is assumed for the head andcylindrical geometry is assumed for all other segments. Each segment iscomprised of four layers: core, muscle, fat, and skin. Clothing is modeled as
an additional layer (or layers) of resistance. Users supply input parameters
via our custom MATLAB graphical user interface that includes a robust
clothing database based on McCullough’s A Database for Determining the
Evaporative Resistance of Clothing, and then Tanabe’s bioheat equations
are solved to predict skin temperatures of each body segment. As an initial
step of model validation, we compared our computed thermal resistanceswith literature values. Our evaporative and dry resistance on a per segment
basis agreed with literature values. Model validation will be extended tocompare the results of our human subject trials (known body parameters,
clothing, environmental factors and activity levels) to model outputs.
Agreement would further substantiate the propagation of model- predictedskin temperatures through the thermal imager’s transfer function to predict
human heat signatures in thermal imagery.

9075-7, Session 3

A statistical investigation into the stability of irisrecognition in diverse population sets
John Howard, Delores M. Etter, Southern Methodist Univ. (UnitedStates)Iris recognition is increasingly being deployed on population wide scales forimportant applications such as border security, social service administration,
criminal identification and general population management. The error rates
for this incredibly accurate form of biometric identification are establishedusing well known, laboratory quality datasets. However, it is has long been
established in biometric theory that not all individuals have the same
likelihood of being correctly serviced by a biometric system. Typically,
techniques for identifying clients that are likely to experience a false nonmatch or a false match error are carried out on a per-subject basis. This
research makes the novel hypothesis that certain ethnical denominations
are more or less likely to experience a biometric error. Through establishedstatistical techniques, we demonstrate this hypothesis to be true anddocument the very notable effect that the ethnicity of the client has on irissimilarity scores. Understanding the expected impact of ethnical diversity on
iris recognition accuracy is crucial to the future success of this technology
as it is deployed in areas where the target population consists of clientele
from a range of geographic backgrounds, such as border crossings andimmigration check points.

9075-11, Session 6

Scrambling faces for privacy protection using
background self-similarities

9075-8, Session 4

Andrea Melle, Jean-Luc Dugelay, EURECOM (France)

Keynote Presentation (Keynote Presentation)

The pervasive adoption of video surveillance systems demands tools forprotecting the privacy of the subjects being monitored. Current solutions
are either naive or they lack of important characteristics, such as reversibility
or visual quality preservation. In this paper, we propose a novel scramblingprocedure for protecting privacy sensitive image regions, which encodes thesensitive data in a parametric form, exploiting the visual information in theremaining part of the image. The encoded data is encrypted with a secretkey. Partial knowledge of encryption key gives a protected version of theRoss Michaels, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
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Conference 9075: Biometric and Surveillance Technology
for Human and Activity Identification XI
original image at variable levels of scrambling, while the knowledge of thefull key allows decryption to a quality level suitable for subject identification.
To evaluate the proposed approach, we apply our scrambling filter tothe AT&T face recognition dataset and we measure the resulting quality
with an objective metric. Furthermore, we evaluate the robustness of ourprivacy protection filter to state-of-art face recognition algorithms and, as
an additional contribution, we show that our method offers robustness tofurther JPEG compression of the image prior to decryption.

9075-12, Session 6

ability of about 3 micrometers. We display the results obtained using these
two setups for fingerprints examination.

9075-14, Session Posters-Thursday

Exploiting quality and texture-based
characteristics to predict age and gender throughfingerprint images
Emanuela Marasco, Luca Lugini, Bojan Cukic, West Virginia Univ.
(United States)

Secure fingerprint hashes using subsets of local
structures

Age and gender provide ancillary information about an individual, which is
not discriminative and permanent enough to differentiate two individuals.
However, they can contribute to the evidence provided by primary
biometric identifiers such as fingerprints and help to enhance the matching
performance in adverse acquisition conditions (e.g., low quality images).
We observed that distributions of match scores and quality measures vary
based on gender and age. In particular, genuine match scores are higher
for males and for subjects of an age below 55; also, fingerprint images ofsubjects between the age of 36 and 55 have higher average quality thanthose of older users. We propose a system which infers such soft biometrics
directly from the fingerprint image. In existing approaches fingerprints areclassified based on gender / age using statistics such as white lines countand ridge count that are manually extracted as proposed by Acree. Recently,
a method based on both discrete wavelet transform DWT and singular value
decomposition SVD has been proposed for gender and age estimation; thedecomposed sub-bands images are four. This method achieves low accuracy
for subjects of age 36 and above. Our model exploits image quality-based
features such as the ridge strength computed as the energy concentrationin the power spectrum considering forty different sub-bands in orderto capture more details about small changes in the image; local image
texture properties such as those captured by LPQ and LBP descriptors with
optimized division of the whole image in sub-regions; and, characteristics
related to the extractability of features (e.g., minutiae count, contrast, etc.).
The evaluation is carried out on data collected at West Virginia University
from 500 users with 4 optical fingerprint devices. By the proposed method,
fingerprints are classified accurately for both female and male of age
ranging between 18 and 75 years old.

Tom Effland, Mariel Schneggenburger, Jim Schuler, Univ. at Buffalo(United States); Bingsheng Zhang, National and Kapodistrian
Univ. of Athens (Greece) and Univ. at Buffalo (United States);
Jesse L. Hartloff, James Dobler, Sergey Tulyakov, Atri Rudra, Venu
Govindaraju, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)n order to fulfill the potential of fingerprint templates as the basis
for authentication schemes, one needs to design a hash function forfingerprints that achieves acceptable matching accuracy while at the sametime has provable security guarantees especially for parameter regimesthat are needed for matching of fingerprints in practice. Existing matchingalgorithms while achieving impressive matching accuracy have no security
guarantees. On the other hand provably secure hash functions have badmatching accuracy and/or have no security guarantees for practical settingof parameters.
In this work we present a secure hash function that has the best known
tradeoff between security guarantees and matching accuracy. At a highlevel, our hash function is simple: we apply an off-the shelf hash function
on certain collection of minutia points (in particular, triplet of minutia“triangles”). However, to realize the potential of this scheme we have toovercome certain theoretical and practical hurdles. In addition to the novelidea of combining clustering ideas from matching algorithms with ideas
from provable security of hash functions, we also apply an intermediatetranslation invariant but rotation variant map to the minutia points before
applying the hash function. This latter idea helps up tradeoff between
matching accuracy and matching efficiency.

9075-15, Session Posters-Thursday
9075-13, Session 6

Robust human facial feature detection on mobile
platform for human-robot interaction

En-face full-field optical coherence tomography
for fast and efficient fingerprints acquisition

Chang-Woo Park, Korea Electronics Technology Institute (Korea,
Republic of)Claude Boccara, Institut Langevin (France); Eugénie Dalimier,
Fabrice Harms, LLTECH SAS (France)

For the vision based human-robot interaction of the mobile service robots,
the first step of any human face analysis techniques such as face recognition
or facial expression recognition is to detect locations in image where
faces are present and to estimate their facial features’ locations. Basically,
general face detection algorithms of previous researches use the fixedbase camera system. However, in moving platform of the mobile robot, it ishard to reliably detect face and facial features with these algorithms. Main
reason is the mobility of robot platform; a mobile robot may move at indoor
environment and thus, it makes a difficult situation that detection algorithms
have to deal with facial pose variation, dynamic background change, andillumination change. Many researches in finding the eye and mouth regions
or locating facial region in an image have been proposed. In general, thesefacial feature detection methods can be classified into three categories:
geometrical-based approach, appearance-based approach, and featureinvariant approach. However, geometrical-based approach requires many
templates to correctly locate the eyes and brings about a computationalburden to handle shape variation globally for pose variations. In a classicalexample of appearance-based methods, eigenspace representation for
individual features, i.e. eyes and mouth was utilized. But, this method was
also affected by rotations and illumination variations and required to train
many sample images for applicability to these variations. Therefore, for

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has been recently proposed by anumber of laboratories as a promising tool for fingerprints acquisitions andfor fakes discrimination. Indeed OCT being a non-contact, non-destructive
optical method that virtually sections the volume of biological tissues
that strongly scatter light it appears obvious to use it for fingerprints.
Nevertheless most of the OCT setups have to go through the longacquisition of a full 3D image to isolate an “en-face” image suitable forfingerprint analysis. A few “en-face” OCT approaches have been proposedthat use either a complex 2D scanning setup and image processing, or afull-field illumination using a camera and a spatially coherent source thatinduces crosstalks and degrades the image quality.
We show here that Full Field OCT (FFOCT) using a spatially incoherent
source is able to provide “en-face” high quality optical sectioning of thefingers skin. Indeed such approach shows a unique spatial resolution able
to reveal a number of morphological details of fingerprints that are notseen with competing OCT setups. In particular the cellular structure of thestratum corneum and the epidermis-dermis interface appear clearly. We
describe our high-resolution (1 micrometer, isotropic) setup and show our
first design to get a large field of view while keeping a good sectioning

78

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Conference 9075: Biometric and Surveillance Technology
for Human and Activity Identification XI
achieving robust feature detection, both geometrical and appearancebased methods require many templates to accommodate varying poseand lighting conditions. Another approach is feature invariant methods.
These algorithms are related to find consistent features that they hold their
distinctions even when the pose, viewpoint, or illumination conditions vary.
In many researches related to invariant-based method for facial features,
two typical invariants are facial color and edge property. However, it has
several problems to use color as a feature clue. The color representation is
influenced by ambient light and background, and different cameras may
produce significantly different color value; the chromatic distribution of
pixels in each facial feature can vary from person to person. Also if camera
shows low quality of color chrominance, it is difficult to distinguish eyeor mouth clearly from each chromatic map. Moreover, if facial area is tinyor the eye (mouth) features in face are small, features can be concealedin facial color region and cannot be found easily. On the other hand, evenwhen facial features are seen to be unclear, detail shape of features can beeffectively presented as the form of edge image created by two dimensional
differential mask operations. However, these edge maps are created on
the bases of frontal face edge figures and also their similarity measures
are computed from these frontal normal maps. Therefore, in the case ofpose variant or unknown viewpoint facial images, correct detection rate isconsiderably decreased.

explores the technology method of obtaining the image set of Near-Infrared
spectrometer and image acquisition system, and extensive access to the
Near-Infrared spectrum information of latent blood, stamp and smear
fingerprints on common objects, and study the characteristics of the NearInfrared spectrum.
In this paper, the experimental Near-Infrared spectral imaging method for
the Near-Infrared spectral imaging technology provides a reference pathto practical experience for future experiments. Near-Infrared spectroscopic
imaging experiments explores a wide variety of Near-Infrared reflectancespectra of the object material curve and its Near-Infrared spectrum of
imaging modalities, can not only gives a reference for choosing NearInfrared wavelength to show the object surface potential traces ofsubstances, but also gives important data for the Near-Infrared spectrum of
imaging technology development.

9075-17, Session Posters-Thursday

Designing low-cost prosthetic arm
Samira Rezaei, Portland State Univ. (United States); Frank Fields,
Portland State Univ. (United States) and Mt. Tabor Middle School(United States); Tamara DePue, Marek A. Perkowski, Portland State
Univ. (United States)

In this paper, in order to overcome such difficult problems, we suggest a
new and efficient approach for detecting face and facial features, which
is based on local image region and direct pixel-intensity distributions.
Compared with the previous approaches such as appearance based method
and eigen-face representation, the proposed method use only local image
region, which is similar to the component-based approach. Therefore, ourmethod can compensate for pose-change effects by allowing a flexible
geometrical relation between local regions. Unlike the previous featurebased methods such as edges, contour and skin-tone color are generally
affected by different lighting conditions and complex backgrounds, theproposed method utilizes direct pixel-intensity distributions without
extracting any visual features as low level processing; the detection resultsin feature-level are more reliable under above conditions. For this, wefirst suggest a new directional template for effective estimation of thelocations of major facial features, i.e., two eyes and a mouth. Next, thistemplate is applied to the input image for creating a new edge-like blob
map with multiple intensity strengths. This blob map is based on theintensity distributions of neighborhood pixels around facial features’ region.
For multiple directions, only relative intensity differences are taken into
account. Various experiments are carried out using many images, especiallyappropriate to mobile robot applications; the well-known gray-level face
databases and it shows good results in detecting facial features in moderatechanges of pose and lighting condition.

The goal of the project is to build a functional low-cost prosthetic arm thatis easily maintained. The focus is on prostheses that attach to the forearm.
This design must perform daily life tasks such as picking up, holding
and carrying objects while playing and working. To begin the design,
a mechanical finger was built with wooden tongue depressors as bonematerial; rubber bands, string, and drinking straws as muscle material; andmasking tape as ligament and tendon material. The length of each joint
was set to the golden ratio. Using this method, a basic “hand” was createdthat could be used to grip objects. The second step was to determine theamount of surface area needed to impart appropriate pressure for gripping
objects without causing damaging. This was measured using an olive asa model. The pressure required to puncture the skin of an olive with anobject of known surface area was determined. Newton’s first law was used
to derive the graph of Force vs. Area of the finger tip. Each fingertip shouldhave a surface area of at least 3.67 mm2 to prevent damage to objects
encountered in daily life. The significance of the project is to develop an
effective low-cost, easily maintained prosthetic arm that could benefit
people with disabilities in developing nations or who are living below thepoverty line.

9075-16, Session Posters-Thursday

9075-18, Session Posters-Thursday

Detection of latent fingerprints by near-infrared
spectral imaging

Facial biometrics based on 2D vector geometry
Obaidul Malek, Anastasios Venetsanopoulos, Dimitrios Androutsos,
Ryerson Univ. (Canada)

Wei Huang, Xiaojing Xu, Guiqiang Wang, Institute of Forensic
Science (China)

Biometrics is an automated method of authenticating an individual basedon their measurable physiological and behavioural characteristics. The
common biometric traits in this characterization process are fingerprint,
face, iris, hand geometry, gait, voice, signature and keystrokes. Fingerprint,
face and iris traits are widely used in the field of biometric technology.
More importantly, government and law enforcement organizations
including military, civil aviation and secret service often need to track andauthenticate dynamic targets under surveillance. Organizations are also
required to ensure that an individual in a room or crowd is the same person
who had entered it. As a result, a step in the direction of facial biometrics
is regarded as a conclusive solution in this area. This is because they
can facilitate the extraction of unique and undeniable physiological andbehavioural characteristics without having the target?s (subject) intrusion or
knowledge. There are many different methodologies that have been studied
for biometric authentication systems, including shape of the facial features,
skin color and appearance. Among them, the feature-based method is
the most efficient due to its measurability, universality, uniqueness andaccuracy. This approach is becoming the foundation of an extensive array

Spectral imaging technology research is becoming more extensive in thefield of examination of material evidence. Near-Infrared spectral imaging
technology is an important part of the full spectrum of imaging technology.
Due to the limitations of previous devices, most research has focused ontechnology of the visible light. The study of Near-Infrared spectral imaging
technology is much fewer. This paper summarizes the application of theresults of Near-Infrared imaging technology in the field of forensic science,
explores the common object of latent fingerprints of Near-Infrared spectra
characteristic for the research objectives, which shows the potential tracesof criminal using the Near-Infrared spectrum imaging method.
This paper finished the experiment contents of the Near-Infrared spectrum
imaging method and image acquisition system Near-Infrared spectral
imaging technology. The experiment of Near-Infrared spectral imaging
method obtains the image set of the Near-Infrared spectrum, and formats a
pseudo-color images to show the potential traces successfully by processing
the set of spectral images; Near-Infrared spectral imaging technology

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Conference 9075: Biometric and Surveillance Technology
for Human and Activity Identification XIof highly secure identification and personal verification solutions. The mostcommonly used facial features are the nose, eyes, lips, chin, eyebrowsand ears. The performance and robustness of the authentication system
are largely dependent on the features localization and extraction process.
Furthermore, the feature extraction process can be defined as the processof selecting and extracting relevant and useful information which uniquely
identify a subject of interest. The overall processing of the system mustalso be computationally efficient. However, the human face is a dynamic
object with a high degree of variability in its position orientation andexpression. On the other hand, noncooperative behaviour of the userand environmental factors including illumination effects also play anunfavourable role in the facial feature extraction process. Consequently,
extracted features are contaminated due to the underlying challenges.
Therefore, a vital issue of facial biometrics is to develop an efficientalgorithm for biometric authentication method in order to overcome theaforementioned challenges. Many facial biometric authentication methods
have been studied based on the geometrical features extraction andselection process. In most studies, biometric authentication algorithms
have been developed under the assumption that the candidate geometricalfeatures to be extracted in the authentication process are fixed. However,scopes for the accessibility of the same facial geometrical features accept
challenges due to facial orientation in the time domain. In addition, even if
the facial features can be accessible, their quality is contaminated by facial
expression and illumination due to the dynamic properties of the humanface and environmental factors, respectively. Some of studies have also been
conducted based on variabilities in the features extraction and selection
process. But, these variabilities were introduced at the cost of processing
time, storage and memory. This paper addresses the predominant deficiency
in this regard. Afterward, it system- atically investigates the facial biometricsystems under the assumption that facial geometry is influenced by position
orientations, facial expressions and illuminations. In the proposed method,a new facial authentication algorithm is being developed to address theunderlying challenges due to position orientation, facial expression andillumination. In this method, biometric feature selection, extraction andauthentication systems have been processed in 2D geometrical space. Eachof the candidate facial features is considered as a collection of geometrical coordinates in the Euclidean domain. Euclidean distance between
the candidate feature coordinates is estimated and stored as a vector tocreate the biometric template. Moreover, this template is compared withthe stored template to authenticate the legitimacy of the subject of interest.
The motivation of this method is its ability to select the biometric features
based on their quality and accessibility, and then extract them to create
the biometric template. Importantly, the variabilities of feature selectionand extraction are processed without sacrificing efficiency in terms ofcomputing time and memory usage. For the experimental evaluation of
the proposed method, the facial images of the public “Put Face Database”
are used. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated basedon correct recognition (CRR), false acceptance (FAR) and false rejection(FRR) rates. FAR of 0.87% at the cost of 5.8% FRR has been achieved by the
proposed method. The experimental results demonstrate the superiority ofthe proposed method in comparison with its counterparts.

For identity verification, a user creates a new feature vector from afingerprint. This feature vector is matched against each block, allowing
the user to identify, with high probability, the “real” block in each pair, andsubsequently the full bitstring. Triangle matching is imperfect. We improvematching rates by using approximate matching on the feature vectors,
grouping several feature vectors together, and correcting errors on the final
bit string.
We present data on optimal threshold for approximate matching, accuracyof triangle matching, the distinguishability of a user’s and a chaff triangle,
and the accuracy of the vaulted fingerprint verification system.

9075-22, Session Posters-Thursday

Mobile user identity sensing using the motion
sensorXi Zhao, Tao Feng, Weidong Shi, Univ. of Houston (United States)
Employing mobile sensor data to recognize user behavioral activities has
been well studied in recent years. However, to adopt the data as a biometricmodality has rarely been explored. Existing methods either used the data
to recognize gait, which is considered as a distinguished identity feature;or segmented a specific kind of motion for user recognition, such as phone
picking-up motion. Since the identity and the motion gesture jointly affectmotion data, to fix the gesture (walking or phone picking-up) definitively
simplify the identity sensing problem. However, it meanwhile introduces
the complexity from gesture detection or requirement on a higher sample
rate from motion sensor readings, which may draw the battery fast andaffect the usability of the phone. In general, it is still under investigationthat motion based user authentication in a large scale satisfies theaccuracy requirement as a stand-alone biometrics modality. In this paper,
we propose a novel approach to use the motion sensor readings for user
identity sensing. Instead of decoupling the user identity from a gesture,
we reasonably assume users have their own distinguishing phone usage
habits and extract the identity from fuzzy activity patterns, represented by
a combination of body movements whose signals in chains span in relative
low frequency spectrum and hand movements whose signals span in relative
high frequency spectrum. Then Bayesian Rules are applied to analyze thedependency of different frequency components in the signals. During
testing, a posterior probability of user identity given the observed chains
can be computed for authentication. Tested on an accelerometer datasetwith 347 users, our approach has demonstrated the promising results.

9075-23, Session Posters-Thursday

Biometric recognition via fixation density maps
Ioannis Rigas, Oleg V. Komogortsev, Texas State Univ. (UnitedStates)9075-21, Session Posters-Thursday

Remote authentication using vaulted fingerprint
verification
Hamdan A. Alzahrani, Terrance E. Boult, Univ. of Colorado atColorado Springs (United States)
We present a novel approach to remotely authenticating a user using avaulted fingerprint verification (VFV) protocol. We adapt the concept ofVaulted Verification to the fingerprint modality using a minutiae triangle
representation.
Triangle-features have been in used in multiple fingerprint algorithms.
Triangles are constructed from three fingerprint minutiae, resulting in afeature vector that is translation and rotation invariant. In VFV, the user’s
minutiae triangles are arranged into blocks. Each block of triangles is pairedwith a chaff block. Each real/chaff block is encrypted with a key known
only to the users. These encrypted block pairs can be used to generate80

a challenge by swapping blocks according to a random bit string, andchallenging the remote user to reproduce that string.

SPIE DSS 2014·

This work introduces and evaluates a novel eye movement-driven biometricapproach that employs eye fixation density maps for person identification.
The proposed method is inspired from the research that is conducted in
the field of low-level visual saliency and it suggests the formation of ananalogous conspicuity structure by using directly the fixation samples
coming from different subjects during the observation of visual stimuli andthe utilization of it as a biometrical template. The suggested feature offers
a dynamic representation of the biometric identity, storing rich information
regarding the behavioral and physical eye movement characteristics of
the individuals. Furthermore, the innate ability of fixation density maps
to capture the spatial layout of the eye movements in conjunction with
their probabilistic nature makes them a particularly suitable option as
an eye movement biometrical trait in cases when free-viewing stimuli ispresented. For the comparison of the extracted features two different
measures are evaluated, that have been previously employed during
similarity assessment of low-level visual saliency maps. The first one is
Similarity Score, which is a measure that shows how similar two density

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Conference 9075: Biometric and Surveillance Technology
for Human and Activity Identification XI
maps are by evaluating their activation coherence at every spatial location.
The second measure is Kullback-Leibler divergence, which expresses theoverall dissimilarity between two distributions by calculating the relative
entropies of their probability density functions (here the fixation densitymaps). The effectiveness of the proposed approach is evaluated on threedatasets containing eye movements in response to stimuli of various types(face images, video sequences and text). The first one (faces images) isa dataset that has been already used in the past for the evaluation of agraph-based technique inspecting eye movement biometrics. The othertwo (video sequences and text) are originally used in the current work andthey were recorded with the use of a high speed eye tracking device (1000Hz) and with a large pool of 100 subjects. During the evaluation part, an
experimental analysis is conducted exploring the influence of the algorithm
parameters for the two comparison measures that were tested (Similarity
Score and KL-divergence). The obtained results indicate a minimum Equal
Error Rate (EER) of 18.3%, revealing the perspectives on the utilization of
fixation density maps as a soft biometric cue during identification scenariosin dynamic visual environments.

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Conference 9076: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9076 Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI

9076-1, Session 1

exploited. A task involving the assessment of changes, e.g. the appearance
or disappearance of an object of interest at a certain location can typicallynot be accomplished without spatial location information associated with
the imagery. Often, such georeferenced imagery is stored in an archive
enabling the user to query for the data with respect to its spatial location
to enable the user to effectively find spatially corresponding imagery to be
used for change detection tasks.

Nonlinear sampling for efficient implementationof the projection-slice synthetic discriminantfunction filter
Vahid R. Riasati, Raytheon Space and Airborne Systems (UnitedStates)In the field of exploitation of video taken from unmanned aerial systems(UAS), spatial location data is usually aquired using a GPS receiver together
with an INS device providing the sensor orientation both integrated in the
UAS. If during a flight valid GPS data becomes unavailable for a period oftime, e.g. due to transmission problems, the imagery gathered during thattime is not applicable for change detection tasks. Furthermore, GPS and INS
inaccuracy together with a potentially poor knowledge of ground elevation
can also render location information inapplicable.

The Projection-Slice Synthetic Discriminant Function Filter has been
generated using a sparse sampling technique that utilizes the inherent
sprsity of the Projection-Slice theorem. The l1-norm has been utilized to
optimize the information contents extracted from the representative classobjects. In this work, the results of the usual PSDF without the benefit ofconvex optimization is compared with the results of the PSDF filter after
utilization of convex optimization to assess the merits of the utilization ofefficient information reconstruction within the construct of the PSDF.

In this paper, we present a search method based on the content of
the images to find imagery spatially corresponding to given imagery
independent from georeference quality. Using methods from contentbased image retrieval (CBIR), we build an image database which allows forquerying even large imagery archives very efficiently. We further evaluate
the benefits of this method in the context of a video exploitation workflow
on the basis of its integration into our video archive system.

9076-2, Session 1

High-performance electronic image stabilisation
for shift and rotation correction
Duncan L. Hickman, Moira I. Smith, Tektonex Ltd. (United Kingdom);
Steve J. Parker, Fan Wu, RFEL Ltd. (United Kingdom)
A new processing concept has been developed that provides highperformance electronic image stabilisation for daylight and infrared
cameras. The algorithmic design approach provides an accurate correctionof both shift and rotation by means of adaptively sized windows acrossthe sensor’s field of view. Additionally, the design allows for movementin the position of the centre of rotation which is important for manydifferent military systems including UAV platforms. Furthermore, underlying(true) platform motion is retained by means of temporal-based filtersthat can support adaptive learning. The stabilisation algorithm has been
implemented using a hybrid firmware and software framework that enables
the stabilisation of HD video and infrared cameras at frame-rates of up to
100Hz. The design has been extensively stressed-tested and can achieve astabilisation accuracy of better than 2 pixels when subjected to a random
frame-to-frame movement of ± 70 pixels (averaged over the field).

9076-3, Session 1

Identification of spatially corresponding imagery
using content-based image retrieval in thecontext of UAS video exploitation
Stefan T. Bruestle, Daniel Manger, Klaus Mueck, Norbert F. Heinze,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung(Germany)
For many tasks in the fields of reconnaissance and surveillance it isimportant to know the spatial location represented by the imagery to be

SPIE DSS 2014

Meta-image navigation augmenters for GPS
denied mountain navigation of small UAS
Koray Celik, Teng Wang, Iowa State Univ. (United States); Bernard
A. Schnaufer, Patrick Y. Hwang, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (UnitedStates); Arun K. Somani, Iowa State Univ. (United States); Gary A.
McGraw, Jeremy E. Nadke, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States)

Within this paper, the design approach will be described and the solution
illustrated with results from the development stress-testing programme.
The achieved performance is compared directly with that using otherapproaches that are widely used in security and defence systems. This
comparison will include results from both laboratory measurements andfield trials. Finally, potential applications are described where the electronic
image stabilisation is used as either a stand-alone function (such as direct
operator image interpretation) or as part of an integrated processing suitefor applications that involve assisted and automated alerting, cueing andrecognition systems.

829076-4, Session 1·

GPS is a critical sensor for Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs) due to its
accuracy, global coverage and small footprint. However, it is subject todenial due to blockage or interference. When GPS is unavailable, position,
velocity and attitude (PVA) performance from other inertial and air data
sensors is insufficient to maintain a sustainable PVA solution. This problem
is especially true for SWaP challenged UASs. Terrain further aggravatesthe challenge, because its inherent randomness makes image navigation
via conventional correlation/correspondence based approaches highly
unreliable, computationally intractable, and usually impossible. In thiswork of novel we present a real-time monocular image navigation system
to address GPS outages for SWaP Challenged UASs; an autonomous
synergy of machine-vision and machine-learning for true map aided
navigation. Our design uses publicly available, open source geo-referenced
radar returns (GRRR) in conjunction with real-time monocular imagery.
We obtain GRRR data from NASA SRTM database. Innovating on ourprevious work addressing a similar problem (Celik et al., “Meta-image
navigation augmenters for unmanned aircraft systems (MINA for UAS)”,ISR Systems and Applications X, 5/2013), we present a novel strategy for
GPS denied UAS navigation which allows flight not only in urban areas, but
over challenging terrain with no human-made structures. In GPS denied
state we use GRRR data in conjunction with state of the art 3D graphics
algorithms to recreate expected camera-appearance of any terrain undercurrent flight conditions, time of day, weather, and season. Rock type andaltitude based vegetative state are considered probabilistically. This realistic
mountain replica is injected into UAS video signal as if sourced from aphysical camera, with all appropriate lens and sensor modeling. We thenperform medical arteriogram image-processing with wavelet transforms on
both the real and replica terrain to “fingerprint” drainage patterns of any
terrain and match to GRRR via spline transforms. Our experimental results
indicate robust performance even over most challenging mountain areas,and smooth transition into urban areas due to backwards compatibility
with MINA. Since GRRR requires large storage, we also present a newmolecular data structure that organizes UAS mission maps as collections

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Conference 9076: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI

9076-6, Session 2of discrete atoms, linked by aircraft dynamics using OpenStreetMap
backbone. This data structure applies spectral graph theory, rigidity
matrices, and compressed sensing to geo-registered map systems such as
GRRR, OpenStreetMap, and similar, resulting sparse but high quality maps.
We illustrate how such a map as itself can be used as a navigational aid
to augment the PVA state of the UAS when both GPS and imager are notavailable.

Effect of video decoder errors on videointerpretability
Darrell L. Young, Raytheon Intelligence & Information Systems(United States)
The advancement in video compression technology can result in moresensitivity to bit errors. Bit errors can propagate causing sustained lossof interpretability. In the worst case, the decoder “freezes” until it can resynchronize with the stream. When the video errors are better controlled
they do not significantly impact interpretability. The video error can be
categorized according to their severity. Mitigation of bit error throughtechniques such as forward error correction, flexible macro blocks, or
redundant slices, costs bandwidth which decreased the overall qualityof the video by introducing additional blockiness and other compression
artifacts which also cause loss of interpretability. Comparison of these twocomponents of video interpretability loss are presented.

9076-5, Session 1

Parallax visualization of full motion video using
the Pursuer GUI
Christopher A. Mayhew, Mark B. Forgus, Vision III Imaging, Inc.
(United States)
Using the Pursuer graphical user interface (GUI), the authors developed aparallax visualization (PV) plug-in toolset for wide area motion imaging(WAMI) data. In addition to PV of WAMI data, the Phase 1 plug-in toolset
also featured a limited ability to visualize FMV data. The ability of an electric
light table (ELT) toolset that can visualize both WAMI and FMV data ishighly advantageous if rapid analysis is desired. This paper reports on the
Phase 2 development and addition of a full featured FMV capability to the
Pursuer WAMI PV Plug-in.

9076-7, Session 2

Multiframe image processing with panningcameras and moving subjects

Pursuer is a Persistent Viewer, graphical user interface that was designed
to assimilate WAMI, ground-based sensor data, and narrow-field-of-view(aka FMV) sensor overlays for review in a single composite display. Pursuer
contains infrastructure that allows for the creation of Plug-in Module NBM
files that introduce new tools and features. One such module is the Parallax
Visualization Plug-in toolset, which has been developed for use with Pursuer
released versions 2.3.3 to 2.3.8 and future 2.3.10.

Aaron L. Paolini, Petersen F. Curt, John R. Humphrey Jr., Eric J.
Kelmelis, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States)
A common practice in image enhancement algorithms is to aggregate
information from a number of temporally or spatially-related frames inorder to reconstruct a higher-quality composite output. These multi-frame
processing methods are used in techniques such as the computational
enhancement of image resolution (known as “super resolution”) and themitigation of atmospheric turbulence in long-range imagery. However,realistic use cases may involve erratic, unpredictable camera behavior or a
subject that is prone to movement, which can severely degrade the qualityof the results these algorithms produce. In addition, the subject and location
during continuous, extended operation may evolve substantially over time,
especially in airborne or mobile platforms. In order to deploy multi-frame
image enhancement technologies in these operational scenarios, it is criticalto handle such circumstances while simultaneously minimizing the need for
operator interaction.

PV allows for the exploitation of spatial and temporal differences in image
sequences in order to enhance depth, size, and spatial relationships ofobjects in areas of interest. Any two images in a dataset that containdifferent angles of view can be visualized in a manner that will render object
shapes and ambiguous surface features obvious. PV toolsets can process
existing or newly captured sensor data to identify and isolate targets fromtheir surroundings.
PV Plug-in Phase 1 ended 12/31/12, during which a limited FMV capability
was added to the WAMI toolset. Subsequent testing of the Plug-in’s FMV
component proved the capability to be very effective. However, the PV
Plug-in FMV capability did not have the same full functionality of the WAMI
toolset, only allowing two frames to be manually captured and visualized at
one time.

In previous research, we have presented such multi-frame algorithms
implemented using embedded systems for turbulence mitigation [1] andgraphics processing units (GPUs) for super-resolution [2]. Field-testingof these platforms and algorithms has highlighted the need for special
techniques, which we developed and presented at SPIE in 2011 [3]. However,these techniques have since proven to be too burdensome for real-timeenhancement of HD video, especially in the case of embedded systems.

Phase 2 expanded the FMV toolset PV capability to have an additional fullfeature toolset similar to the WAMI capability. The expansion is:
1. Multi frame capture capability
2. Automatic Frame capture capability

In this paper we present our latest research into handling arbitrarily panningviews and continuously moving subjects in a multi-frame image processing
algorithm used for turbulence mitigation. Algorithm efficacy is significantly
improved in common scenarios, expanding its operational scope. Unlike
our prior research, these methods introduce little computational burden,
enabling their use in real-time and low-power solutions, and are appropriate
for long observation periods. In addition to our case study focused on
imaging through turbulence, we also discuss the generic application ofthese methods to other multi-frame methods.

3. Random frame pattern assembly
4. Frame Stabilization
5. Scaling adjustment of frames
6. Frame Rectification
In addition, a rough mensuration capability was added a part of the Phase 2
effort. This feature allows a user to quickly and closely estimate the heightof structures and other objects like trees as part of the PV process.
The addition of a full FMV feature set to the PV Plug-in expands Pursuer’s
ISR capabilities significantly to allow for multiple data inputs. Subsequenttesting indicates that the PV Plug-in produces new intelligence from existing
WAMI and FMV data. No other ELT software provides this capability.

We present results of a field study designed to test the efficacy of thesetechniques under expanded use cases.
[1] P. F. Curt, M. R. Bodnar, F. E. Ortiz, C. J. Carrano, and E.J. Kelmelis “Realtime embedded atmospheric compensation for long-range imaging using
the average bispectrum speckle method.” Proc. SPIE 7244, (2009).

The primary purpose of geospatial products has always been to visualize
operational spaces and activity patterns of all sizes and scales, ranging fromglobal levels to cities and even individual buildings. If a picture is simply thefastest way to communicate spatial information to a customer, then the PV
Plug-in succeeds by providing three-dimensional information immediately.

[2] A. L. Paolini, F. E. Ortiz, D. K. Price, K. E. Spagnoli, “Development of
a GPU-accelerated super-resolution solver,” Proc. Defense Security andSensing, April 2009.
[3] A. L. Paolini, M. R. Bodnar, F. E. Ortiz, D. K. Price, “Multi-frame
atmospheric compensation under moving camera conditions.” Proc. Defense
Security and Sensing, May 2011.

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Conference 9076: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI

9076-8, Session 2

Marine object detection in UAV full-motion video
Shibin Parameswaran, Corey Lane, Bryan Bagnall, Heidi L. Buck,
Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)
Recent years have seen an increased use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)with video-recording capability for Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA)
and other surveillance operations. In order for these efforts to be effective,
there is a need to develop automated algorithms to process the full motion
videos (FMV) captured by UAVs in an efficient and timely manner to extract
meaningful information that can assist human analysts and decision makers.
This paper presents a generalizable marine object detection system that is
specifically designed to process raw video footage streaming from UAVs
in real-time. Our approach does not make any assumptions about theobject and/or background characteristics because, in the MDA domain,
we encounter varying background and foreground characteristics suchas boats, bouys and ships of varying sizes and shapes, wakes, white caps
on water, glint from the sun, to name but a few. Our efforts rely on basic
signal processing and machine learning approaches to develop a genericobject detection system that maintains a high level of performance without
making prior assumptions about foreground-background characteristics
and does not experience abrupt performance degradation when subjected
to variations in lighting, background characteristics, video quality, abruptchanges in video perspective, size, appearance and number of the targets.
In the following report, we provide a description of the workflow of thecurrent implementation of marine object detection system with an emphasis
on its anomaly detection module. In addition to the overview of our marine
object detection system, we also present representative object detection
results on some real-world UAV full-motion video data.

9076-9, Session 2

A comparison of moving object detection
methods for real-time moving object detection
Aditya Roshan, Yun Zhang, Univ. of New Brunswick (Canada)
Moving object detection has a wide variety of applications from trafficmonitoring, site monitoring, automatic theft identification, face detection tomilitary surveillance. Many methods have been developed across the globe
for moving object detection but it’s very difficult to find one which can work
globally in all situations and with different types of videos. The purpose ofthis paper is to evaluate existing moving object detection methods which
can be implemented in software on a desktop or laptop, for real time object
detection. There are several moving object detection methods noted in
the literature, but few of them are suitable for real time moving object
detection. Most of the methods which provide for real time movement are
further limited by the number of objects and the scene complexity. This
paper evaluates the four most commonly used moving object detection
methods as background subtraction technique, Gaussian mixture model,
wavelet based and optical flow based methods. The work is based on
evaluation of these four moving object detection methods using two (2)different sets of cameras and two (2) different scenes. The moving object
detection methods have been implemented using MatLab and results arecompared based on completeness of detected objects, noise, light changesensitivity, processing time etc. After comparison, it is observed that opticalflow based method took least processing time and successfully detectedboundary of moving objects which also implies that it can be implemented
for real-time moving object detection.

Improved frame differencing based moving
object detection using feet-step sound
Aditya Roshan, Yun Zhang, Univ. of New Brunswick (Canada)
Moving objects have been detected using various object detection

SPIE DSS 2014

9076-11, Session 3

The trap on the process of modern
reconnaissance: reconnaissance gap
Bekir Arapsun, Adem Bora, Turkish Air Force (Turkey)
Military reconnaissance (recce) systems are made of three level as strategic,
operational and tactical,related to the mission altitude and divided into twogroups as manned and unmanned platforms. The main purpose is to make“image intelligence” of the targets in the operational area to realize the“full-coverage concept.” The recce architecture of Turkish Air Force (TurAF)is only consist of tactical level with manned,RF-4E, and Unmanned Aerial
Vechiles. In the next year, the wet-based classical system,RF-4E, will be outof service and net-based modern recce system, DB-110 pods entegrated with
F-16, will be in service. These pods will mainly be used in high altitude andstand-off distannce and has very limited capacity in low altitude. RF-4E isespecially used in low level missions. Briefly, all component of RF-4E will be
replaced completely with modern pods. There can be a trap in this transition
process.When all targets are under the clouds in the theatre or some ofthem are located behind the mountains, low level flight is one way to takephotos. Otherwise, the recce gaps emerges in the concept of full-coverages
due to the low level deficiency of the pods So, the question “Only digital
DB-110 is enough for TurAF to cover all targets?” is defined as the main
objective of this paper.
In this study, present and future recce architecture of TurAF is analyzed andclassical/modern and manned/unmanned structures are compared with fishbone methods. As a result, stand-off systems should be supported with lowlevel capability for full-coverage.

9076-12, Session 3

Near-space airships against terrorist activities
Ceylan Kesenek, Harp Akademileri Komutanligi (Turkey)
Near-space is a region of atmosphere which is too dense for a satellite to fly
also too thin for air breathing vehicles to fly. The Near-space region which
is located between 65,000 and 325,000 feet is really underutilized despite
its unique potential. Unmanned Lighter Than Air (LTA) systems can be used
to exploit the potential of near space. Such a system can supply not only
a great deal of information using ISR sensors on board but also serve as
a communication relay increasing the range of communications . Airships
used in this region can cover a very wide footprint area for surveillance
missions. Free of orbital mechanics these near-space assets can continue
its mission for long period of time with a persistence of days and months.

9076-10, Session 2

84

techniques in real-time as well as post-processing. Two categories formoving object detection techniques are frame differencing based andbackground subtraction based. Further, these techniques are limited bycamera scene complexity, lightning conditions, video type etc. Frame
differencing based techniques process videos faster compared tobackground subtraction based techniques and these can be used forreal-time moving object detection. Frame differencing based techniques
detects only boundary of moving object compared to backgroundsubtraction based techniques and there are possibilities of failure for slow
moving objects. This can be improved by fusing it with sound data as mostvideo recording cameras comes with a microphone. Some of them comeswith mono microphone and some with stereo-microphone. Sounds fromhuman feet steps is recorded with video and fused with frame differencing
techniques to detect and track the slow/fast moving object in scene. Stereo
microphone data is also used to track the position of object present scene
with respect to camera position. An object entering and leaving the scene
has been identified using audio data from mono and stereo microphones.
The microphones record background noise with other verbal data. This noisy
sound data has been filtered out using Fourier transform. Later, presence ofmultiple objects in scene is also verified from frequency analysis of sounddata. The improvement in frame differencing moving object detection
technique using audio data allows more accurate real-time moving object
detection for slow as well as fast moving objects.

·

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Conference 9076: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI

9076-15, Session 4

These assets can provide persistent intelligence for fight against terrorist
activities.

Line-of-sight kinematics and corrections for faststeering mirrors used in precision pointing andtracking systems

Terrorism is a non-state threat and doesn’t have a static hierarchicalstructure. To fight against such an adversary an overwhelming intelligence
activity must be applied. So, Intelligence collection and surveillance missions
play a vital role in counter terrorism. Terrorists use asymmetric means of
threat that require information superiority . In this study exploitation of nearspace by LTA airships is analyzed for fight against terrorism. Near-space
airships are analyzed according to the operational effectiveness, logistic
structure and cost. Advantages and disadvantages of airships are arguedin comparison with satellites and airplanes. As a result, by bridging the gap
between the air and space, near-space airships are considered to be mostimportant asset of warfighter with its especially operational effectiveness.

James M. Hilkert, Univ. of Texas at Dallas (United States) and AlphaTheta Technologies (United States); Gavin Kanga, Kevin Kinnear,
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control (United States)
The equations describing the line-of-sight (LOS) kinematics of fast-steering
mirrors derive entirely from the simple plane-mirror law of reflection.
However, when the LOS is pointed about both axes simultaneously, thekinematics are non-linear and axis-coupled and these effects increaseas the FSM angular displacement increases. If not properly corrected or
accounted for, these inherent effects can contribute to pointing errors. The
relevant kinematic equations presented in this paper can be used to assess
the magnitude of the errors for a given application and make corrections
as necessary. Measurements, using an electronic auto-collimator, weremade that are compared against the analytical results for verification of theequations.

9076-13, Session 3

IITET and shadow TT: an innovative approach totraining at the point of need
Andy W. Gross, Trideum Corp. (United States); Susan Harkrider,
Christopher M. May, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States); Favio Lopez, Trideum Corp. (UnitedStates); Stephen Berglie, KINEX (United States); James Dirkse,Darran Anderson, Trideum Corp. (United States)

9076-16, Session 4

Application of phase matching autofocus inairborne long-range oblique photography camera

The Image Intensification and Thermal Equipment Training (IITET) is a joint
effort between Night Vision and Electronics Sensors Directorate (NVESD)
Modeling and Simulation Division (MSD) and the Army Research Institute(ARI) Fort Benning Research Unit. The IITET effort develops a reusable andextensible training architecture that supports the Army Learning Modeland trains Manned-Unmanned Teaming (MUM-T) concepts to Shadow
Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) payload operators. The training challenge
of MUM-T during aviation operations is that UAS payload operators
traditionally learn few of the scout-reconnaissance skills and coordination
appropriate to MUM-T at the schoolhouse.

Vladimir Petrushevsky, Asaf Guberman, Elbit Systems ElectroOptics El-Op Ltd. (Israel)
The Condor2 long-range oblique photography (LOROP) camera is mounted
in an aerodynamically shaped pod carried by a fast jet aircraft. Large
aperture, dual-band (EO/MWIR) camera is equipped with TDI focal planearrays and provides high-resolution imagery of extended areas at longstand-off ranges, at day and night.

The IITET effort leveraged the simulation experience and capabilities at
NVESD and ARI’s research to develop a novel payload operator training
approach consistent with the Army Learning Model. Based on the training
and system requirements, the team researched and identified candidate
capabilities in several distinct technology areas. The training capability will
support a variety of training missions as well as a full campaign. Data fromthese missions will be captured in a fully integrated AAR capability, which
will provide objective feedback to the user in near-real-time. IITET will bedelivered via a combination of browser and video streaming technologies,
eliminating the requirement for a client download and reducing user
computer system requirements. The result is a novel UAS Payload Operator
training capability nested within an architecture capable of supporting awide variety of training needs for air and ground tactical platforms andsensors and potentially several other areas requiring vignette-based serious
games training.

The Ritchey-Chretien optical objective is made of highly stable materials.
However, in-flight temperature variation still causes some small but
significant change of the camera’s infinity focus setpoint. Gradual
dehumidification of the composite-material structure in dry nitrogen
atmosphere inside the pod is an additional factor affecting the focus. To
realize the optics’ resolution potential, the optimal focus must be constantly
maintained. In-flight best focus calibration and temperature-based openloop focus control give mostly satisfactory performance. To get even betterfocusing precision, a closed-loop phase-matching (PM) autofocus (AF)method was developed for the camera.
The autofocus makes use of an existing beamsharer prism FPA arrangement,
where aperture partition exists inherently in an area of overlap between theadjacent CCD detectors. The defocus is proportional to an image phase shift
in the area of overlap. Low-pass filtering of raw defocus estimate reduces
random errors related to rapid variation of the scene’s spatial content.
Closed-loop control loop converges robustly to precise focus position. The
algorithm uses the temperature- and range-based focus prediction as an
initial guess for the closed-loop PM control.

9076-14, Session 4

Line-of-sight pointing and stabilization using
gimbaled mirror systems

The AF algorithm achieves excellent results and works robustly in wide
range of in-flight imaging conditions.

Satyam Satyarthi, IJK Controls LLC (United States)

9076-17, Session 5

As the resolution and throughput of optical sensors increase, they require
higher line-of-sight slew rates and more precise stabilization. Furthermore,
smaller and lighter sensor systems are also preferred because on-vehicle
space is always at a premium. Consequently, mirror based line-of-sightcontrol and stabilization systems have become more attractive as they are
generally lighter and more compact than other systems. A general strategy
for deriving the kinematic equations for mirror based imaging systems isestablished in this paper. Some of the most common mirror configurations
and their basic kinematic equations are also presented. Some practicalchallenges of mirror stabilization systems are also discussed.

85+1 360 676 3290

Automated multi-INT fusion for tacticalreconnaissanceThomas J. Walls, Michael L. Wilson, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Jonathan R. Haws, Troy Johnson, Brad Petersen,Space Dynamics Lab. (United States)
The capabilities of tactical intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance(ISR) payloads continue to expand from single sensor imagers to integrated·

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Conference 9076: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI
systems of systems architectures. We describe here flight test results of theSensor Management System (SMS) designed to provide a flexible central
coordination component capable of managing multiple collaborative sensor
systems onboard an aircraft or unmanned autonomous vehicle (UAV). The
SMS architecture is designed to be sensor and data agnostic and provide
flexible networked access for both data providers and data consumers. It
supports pre-planned and ad-hoc missions, with provisions for on-demandtasking and updates from users connected via data links. The SMS system
is STANAG 4575 compliant as a removable memory module (RMM) and can
act as a vehicle specific module (VSM) to provide STANAG 4586 compliance(level-3 interoperability) to a non-compliant sensor system. The SMS
architecture will be described and results from several flight tests including
several sensor combinations and live data link updates will be shown.

9076-18, Session 5

NV-CMOS HD camera for day/night imaging
Thomas L. Vogelsong, John R. Tower, Thomas Sudol, Thomas Senko,
David Chodelka, SRI International Sarnoff (United States)
SRI has developed a new day/night camera with low light imaging
performance comparable to an image intensifier, while offering the size,
weight, ruggedness, and cost advantages enabled by the use of SRI’s
NV-CMOS HD digital image sensor chip. SRI’s new NV-CMOS HD camera
captures images over the full range of illumination from bright sunlightto starlight. The digital video output is ideal for image enhancement,
sharing with others through networking, or fusion with thermal cameras.
The camera provides Camera Link output with HD/WUXGA resolution of1920 x 1200 pixels operating at 60 Hz. Windowing to smaller sizes enables
operation at higher frame rates. High sensitivity is achieved through use ofbackside illumination, providing high quantum efficiency across the visible
and near infrared (NIR) bands (peak QE >90%), as well as low noise (<2e-)readout. Power consumption is minimized in the camera, which operates
from a single 5V supply. The NV-CMOS HD camera provides a substantial
reduction in weight, power and size, ideal for SWaP-constrained day/night
imaging platforms such as UAVs, ground vehicles, fixed mount surveillance,and may be reconfigured for mobile soldier operations such as night vision
goggles and weapon sights. The camera comes with an array of lens mounts
including C-mount and F-mount. The latest test data from the NV-CMOS HD
camera will be presented.

9076-19, Session 5

UAV control for obstacle avoidance in the nearEarth space through use of electric and magnetic
field sensors
Harris L. Edge, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Army Research Laboratory is exploring means to develop autonomous
flight capability in the near Earth space. This paper describes a componentof that research which is to provide autopilot control algorithms for aircraft
employing electric and magnetic field sensors. Electric and magnetic fieldsensors may be employed to augment other sensors to provide a capabilityof autonomous flight navigation in the near Earth space. The research builds
upon the work performed by Physical Optics Corporation under an SBIR
entitled Electric and Magnetic Photonic Sensor System for Small UAVs.
Under the SBIR, Physical Optics will develop a small lightweight electric andmagnetic sensor capable of providing the information necessary to detectand avoid or engage sources of electric and magnetic fields suitable forunmanned aircraft. The first control algorithms developed would be for the
purpose of obstacle avoidance of power lines. In the future, these algorithms
may be extended to use the electric and magnetic fields emanating frompower lines and other sources as navigational aids. The paper will discussdevelopment of flight control algorithms compatible with the Physical
Optics sensors within a flight simulation environment. The paper should
provide information about the interface between the electric and magnetic
field sensors and the autopilot. The flight simulation will be performed in a
hardware in the loop simulation with an autopilot.

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SPIE DSS 2014·

9076-20, Session 5

Visulaized remote automatic aiming systemthrough cooperative dual-field imaging
Yuqing He, Kun Huang, Shan Wei, Siyuan Wang, Jing Pan, Beijing
Institute of Technology (China)
The traditional light weapon’s working procedure is completed by manual
operation. Each step, such as, searching, aiming and firing must be doneby experienced sniper. Though advances in the firearms manufacturinglevel, the effect and precision of firing are not very stable due to a numberof factors, especially the human factor. As the human heart beat, as well
as vibrations caused when shooting, these factors will make the gun bodyquiver. And the quiver will cause large errors when the distance between thetarget and sniper rifle is far. Thus, a stable platform is very important. On theother hand, long hours work makes sniper produce fatigue, so that deviation
occurs when sniper predict the target position. So a visualized remote
automatic aiming and controling system is import. This paper proposed an
automatic targeting system based on dual-field imaging.
The system consists of wide field of view (WFOV) camera and narrow fieldof view (NFOV) camera. With the expansion of the monitored area, WFOV
camera is used to meet the requirements. Since it will produce different
degrees of distortion, it has limited accuracy. And large FOV decreases
the resolution of target. So we adopts the NFOV camera to do the precise
aiming. Based on the above, a cooperative dual-field remote aiming system
is designed. To grasp the overall situation, WFOV camera module is a static
camera used for the observation of the sceneray information and give thetarget’s coarse position; NFOV field camera module is a PTZ (Pan / Tilt /Zoom) camera for clear imaging and precise aiming for distant targets andtracking the target.
The two cameras are put together with the light weapon. Both cameras’video output will be send through a cable to the main processing unit
which is far behind the imaging and firing system. The cable also works
as communication and control signal feedback link. Through the working
condition, we can design the specific parameters of the dual-field cameras
and the structure of the control unit. User observe the dual field information
through the monitor. If suspicious target appears, through the video of
WFOV camera, we can do the automatic target detection. The location
information is passed to the NFOV camera system through the control unit
at the same time. Then it will control the PTZ camera will automaticallymove to the nearest node, which has calibrated, from the target. And then,
NFOV camera module will track the target in real-time, and detect the facearea of target.
Besides the hardware platform, the tracking algorithm is also a key issue
in the whole system. In any case, the accuracy of targeting suspicious,
depending on effectively track the target in real time, as well as the
key parts of target location and detection. The TLD (tracking-learningdetection) algorithm, which was recently attracted widespread attention
as an effective video tracking algorithm, has been improved to use in thissystem. Adaboost classifiers based on haar features is used to classify thetarget scene that find the human target in narrow-field, which replaces
manually mark targets in conventional manner. Kalman filter is integrated
in the TLD detector, estimate the target area, reduce the detection rangeof the detector, and increase the processing speed of the detector.
Integrate particle filter algorithm into target detection, a method whichbased weighted observation model is proposed, i.e. weighted express theobservation model with object detection result which base the improved
TLD and the object color model. This method improves the detector’s ability
to identify and make better handle occlusion. Then, in the target area, theface detected by the Adaboost classifier, thereby real-time PID control via
the main processing unit on the PTZ camera’s rotation, tilt angle, so thatthe objectives in the field of view the central and sniper can accurately
determine the firing zone.
Experiment result of testing the proposed system and algorithm prove thiswhole system has robust target tracking performance. It also proved that
this system solves the contradiction between monitored field size and clarityof vision, it can be used in environments with poor outdoor places, with
better robustness.

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Conference 9076: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI

9076-21, Session 6

Inc. (United States)

Polarimetric sensor systems for airborne ISR

Short wave infrared (SWIR) sensors are becoming more common in DoD
imaging systems because of their haze penetration capabilities and spectral
properties of materials in this waveband. Typical SWIR systems haveprovided full motion video (FMV) with framing panchromatic systems andspectral imagery with line-scanning multi-spectral (MS) and hyperspectral
systems. The system described here bridges these modalities, providing
FMV with nine discrete spectral bands. Nine pixel sized SWIR filters arearranged in a repeating 3x3 pattern and mounted on top of a COTS, 2D
staring focal plane array (FPA). We report on the filter construction andplacement for the system and show laboratory measurements of the spatialand spectral response. Analysis of data collected with this camera using
narrow band sources reveals subtle details of the FPA optical response.
Field testing of the system was performed to allow for verification of thelaboratory measurements and comparison to other sensors. Field test
results from the nine-band system are compared with synthetic imagery
constructed from data collected with a line-scanning hyperspectral imaging(HSI) system. Synthetic imagery constructed from HSI data using measured
system component characteristics matches well with the nine-band data.

David B. Chenault, Joseph L. Pezzaniti, John S. Harchanko, Polaris
Sensor Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Polarimetric sensors measure not only the conventional intensity but also
one or more parameters of the polarization ellipse. Measurement of thepolarization content of a scene frequently offers additional contrast thatis not readily apparent or is not measured at all with the conventional
imager. Such polarimetric imaging systems, particularly in the infrared, haveshown significant promise for detection of otherwise hard to find objects.
Nearly two decades of data collection with scientific instruments has
shown improved detection of ground vehicles, camouflaged and concealed
targets, and maritime vessels from both ground and airborne platforms.
These scientific instruments however have been large, not real-time, andfrequently required static scenes and stable platforms.
Polarimetric imaging has seen significant advancement over the last decadeand small, real-time infrared polarimetric cameras are now available thatcan be applied to airborne ISR missions. In this paper, we describe such an
imaging polarimeter system, show some preliminary results (both still andvideo) that demonstrate the enhanced contrast possible with such systems,
and discuss ways in which this system could be integrated with existingmanned and unmanned platforms.

9076-24, Session 6

Compact LWIR hyperspectral system design andmanufacturing considerations
Richard L. Wiggins, Lovell E. Comstock, Patrick Woodman, Corning
Specialty Materials, Inc. (United States)

9076-22, Session 6

Real-time aerial multispectral imaging solutions
using dichroic filter arrays

The scale of LWIR hyperspectral imaging systems is driven by the large
LWIR camera. As microbolometer FPAs become more sensitive, and as
cryo-cooling for MCT LWIR FPAs becomes compact, the desired size of the
LWIR spectrograph will shrink. Corning Advanced Optics has anticipated therequirements of a high-throughput, tiny, LWIR spectrograph and has applied
its monolithic manufacturing techniques to meeting this need.

Dave Fish, John Dougherty, Pixelteq, Inc. (United States)
The next generation of multispectral sensors and cameras needs todeliver significant improvements in size, weight, portability, and spectral
band customization to support widespread deployment for a variety of
purpose-built aerial, unmanned, and scientific applications. The benefitsof multispectral imaging are well established for applications including
machine vision, biomedical, authentication, and aerial remote sensing
environments – but many solutions require more compact, robust, andcost-effective production cameras to realize these benefits. A novel
implementation uses micro-patterning of dichroic filters into Bayer andcustom mosaics, enabling true real-time multispectral imaging withsimultaneous multi-band image acquisition. Consistent with color camera
image processing, individual spectral channels are de-mosaiced with eachchannel providing an image of the field of view. The additional spectral
content provides additional data for scenarios like tracking, stand off
chemical detection, and improved target acquisition. The applicationspecific dichroic filter array approach also reduces payloads and increase
range for unmanned systems, with the capability to support both handheld
and autonomous systems. We demonstrate recent results of 4-9 band
dichroic filter arrays in multispectral cameras using a variety of sensors
including linear, area, silicon, and InGaAs. Specific implementations range
from hybrid RGB + NIR sensors to custom sensors with application-specific
VIS, NIR, and SWIR spectral bands. Benefits and tradeoffs of multispectral
sensors using dichroic filter arrays are compared with alternative
approaches – including their passivity, spectral range, customization options,and development path. Finally, we report on the wafer-level fabricationof dichroic filter arrays on imaging sensors for scalable production ofmultispectral sensors and cameras.

This paper will discuss the dimensions, potential system performance andmanufacturing milestones of an f/0.9, 7.3-14.5 [um], all reflective, Offner
type, monolithic spectrograph. System tradeoffs, optical design, and optical
performance will be examined.

9076-25, Session Posters-Thursday

Robust real-time horizon detection in full-motion
video
Grace B. Young, La Jolla High School (United States); Bryan Bagnall,
Corey Lane, Shibin Parameswaran, Space and Naval Warfare
Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)
The ability to detect the horizon on a real-time basis in full-motion video
is an important capability to aid and facilitate real-time processing of fullmotion videos for the purposes such as object detection, recognition andother video/image segmentation applications. In this paper, we propose
a method for real-time horizon detection that is designed to be used as afront-end processing unit for a real-time marine object detection systemthat carries out object detection and tracking on full-motion videos
captured by ship/harbor-mounted cameras, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs) or any other methods surveillance for Maritime Domain Awareness(MDA). Unlike existing horizon detection work, we cannot assume a priori
the angle or nature (straight line) of the horizon, due to the nature of
the application domain and the data. Therefore, the proposed real-timealgorithm is designed to identify the horizon at any angle and irrespective ofobjects appearing close to and/or occluding the horizon line (for e.g. trees,
vehicles at a distance) by accounting for its non-linear nature. We use a
simple two-stage hierarchical methodology, leveraging color-based features,to quickly isolate the region of the image containing the horizon and thenperform a more fine-grained horizon detection operation. In this paper, we
present our real-time horizon detection results using our algorithm on realworld full-motion video data from a variety of surveillance sensors like UAVs

9076-23, Session 6

9-band SWIR multispectral sensor providing fullmotion video
Mary R. Kutteruf, Michael K. Yetzbacher, Andrey V. Kanaev, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Michael J. DePrenger, Tekla
Research, Inc. (United States); Larry Vair, Jeffrey J. Pool, Pixelteq,

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Conference 9076: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XI
and ship mounted cameras confirming the real-time applicability of thismethod and its ability to detect horizon with no a priori assumptions.

9076-26, Session Posters-Thursday

Fusion of thermal infrared and visible spectrum
for robust pedestrian tracking
Moulay A. Akhloufi, Ctr. of Robotics and Vision (Canada) and Laval
Univ. (Canada); Abdelhakim Bendada, Xavier P. V. Maldague, Univ.
Laval (Canada)
Tracking pedestrians is an area of computer vision that has attracted a lotof interest in recent years. Many of these work was conducted in the visible
spectrum. Some work was also conducted in thermal infrared spectrum. The
majority of the research work used one spectrum at a time. In this work, we
present a fusion framework using thermal infrared and visible spectrums
in order to robustly track the detected moving objects. The detected
objects are then processed using HOG features in order to classify themas a pedestrian or a non-pedestrian using SVM. The tests were conductedin outdoor scenarios. The obtained results are promising and the show theefficiency of the proposed framework.

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII
Monday - Wednesday 5 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9077 Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-1, Session 1

transmission passing through the filter. The FFFR technique achieves –90
dBc harmonic distortion, at 4 W output power, at transmit frequencies
between 800 MHz and 1 GHz. This degree of linearity is comparable to thecancellation achieved using iterative, automated feed-forward techniques.
Implementation of FFFR is most appropriate when attenuation of aparticular undesired harmonic is necessary and attenuation of the desiredtransmission by additional filtering is unacceptable.

FPGA architectures for electronically scanned
wideband RF beams using 3D FIR/IIR digital
filters for rectangular array aperture receivers
Sewwandi Wijayaratna, Brandon D. Beall, Arjuna Madanayake,
The Univ. of Akron (United States); Len Bruton, Univ. of Calgary(Canada)9077-3, Session 1

The paper discusses three-dimensional (3-D) digital filtering algorithms
and FPGA based hardware prototype circuits for achieving electronicallysteerable ultra-wideband RF beams for rectangular-array aperture receivers.
The proposed 3-D FIR/IIR filters are of significantly lower computational
complexity compared to traditional phased-array realizations. Rapidly
steerable RF beams are important in electromagnetic sensing and imaging
systems which receive signals from fast moving targets having low radarcross section (RCS) under severe jamming. Digital 3-D FIR cone filters arehighly steerable in any required direction while maintaining guaranteedstability and linear phase response over an ultra-wideband of RF
frequencies. Digital 3-D IIR cone filters achieve highly selective cone shaped
RF beams at an order of magnitude lower multiplier complexity comparedto FIR filters at the cost of non-linear phase response. The paper provides
an overview of the design, simulation, and FPGA based rapid prototypingof both FIR and IIR 3-D digital cone filters which are based on partiallyseparable 2-D FIR/IIR spatio-temporal fan/beam filter building blocks. The
2-D FIR/IIR fan/beam filter building blocks have filter coefficients which
are defined using algebraic closed-form expressions that are functions ofdesired beam personalities including the look-direction of the aperture, thebandwidth and sampling frequency of interest, inter antenna spacing in
the aperture array, and beam size. Application specific computing units for
rapidly calculating the filter coefficients in nanoseconds allows fast real-timetracking of low RCS objects at close range. FPGA based designs and on-chip
hardware co-simulations are provided to show the potential for real-world
application of the fully digital 3-D RF beamformers.

Characterization of carbon fiber composite
materials for RF applications

9077-2, Session 1

The work in this paper deals with probing the conductivity characteristicsof CFC materials. Multiple styles of carbon fiber are investigated. The DC
conductivity was measured by applying a conductive epoxy and using amilliohm meter. The response of CFC materials to electromagnetic waves
was explored using radar cross section measurements, free space reflection
measurements, and by using experimental microstrip lines.

Elliot J. Riley, Erik H. Lenzing, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States)
Carbon Fiber Composite (CFC) materials have been used for decades in
the aerospace, automotive, and naval industries. They have often beenused because of their mechanical advantages. These advantageous
characteristics have typically included low weight and high strength. It isalso beneficial for structural requirements that CFC materials can be madeinto many shapes and sizes.
With the abundant use of CFC materials, it has been the focus of more
recent research to investigate the electrical characteristics of thesematerials. CFC materials consist of a non-conductive resin or epoxy andof course conductive carbon fibers. The carbon fibers can be oriented
and layered in many different configurations. The specific orientationand layering of the carbon fibers has a direct impact on the electricalcharacteristics.
One specific characteristic of interest is the conductivity of CFC materials.
Conductivity can be assed in a static DC sense and in response to anelectromagnetic wave. Knowledge of the conductivity of different CFC
materials can potentially lead to using CFC materials for RF applications.
These applications may include but are not limited to antenna designs,
shielding enclosures, radar reflectors, radar absorbers, or even microstrip
circuits.

Linearization of a harmonic radar transmitter by
feed-forward filter reflection
Kyle A. Gallagher, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States);
Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel (United States); Kelly D. Sherbondy,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

Keywords: carbon fiber composite (CFC) materials, conductivity
characterization, radar applications of CFC materials

9077-4, Session 1

Harmonic radar exploits the difference in frequency between radar waves
that illuminate electromagnetically nonlinear targets, such as radiofrequency (RF) electronics, and the waves that reflect from those targets.
The advantage of harmonic radar over traditional linear radar is high clutter
rejection, as most naturally-occurring (clutter) materials do not exhibit anonlinear electromagnetic response under illumination by RF energy. The
disadvantage of harmonic radar is that the transmit power required todetect a nonlinear target is relatively high, and care must be taken to ensurethat the transmission of such high power does not generate distortion thatmight mask the target response.

Tapered slot array antenna design for vehicular
GPR applications
Korkut Yegin, Yeditepe Univ. (Turkey); Emrullah Bicak, Hakkı Nazlı,
Mahmut Dağ, TÜBITAK BILGEM (Turkey)
Vehicular applications of UWB GPR demand multiple GPR sensors operating
in a harsh environment. One of the key elements of in the sensor is its
UWB antenna which has minimal inter-element coupling, low group delay,
high directivity and less prone to environmental conditions. Tapered slot
antennas (TSA’s) provide good impedance match, but they need to bemodified for GPR specifications. Parasitic slot loaded TSA with balanced
feed is proposed and a multi-channel antenna array structure is formed.
Structural parameters are numerically analyzed and a prototype is built.
Measurements show good performance for UWB GPR applications.

A high-power, linearized harmonic radar tailored to a set of RF electronic
responses would help law enforcement agents to locate devices whose
emissions exceed those permitted by law, allow security personnel to detect
unauthorized radio electronics in restricted areas, or enable first-responders
to pinpoint personal electronics during emergencies such as immediately
after an avalanche or earthquake.
A novel method for simultaneously achieving high power and high linearity
for a harmonic radar transmitter is presented; it is called feed-forward
filter reflection (FFFR). Reduction of a particular system-generated
harmonic is accomplished by combining a phase-shifted version of theundesired harmonic reflected from a low pass filter with the desired89+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-5, Session 2

Multi-mission, autonomous, synthetic apertureradar
Thomas J. Walls, Michael L. Wilson, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); David Madsen, Mark D. Jensen, Stephanie W.
Sullivan, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States)
Unmanned aerial systems (UAS) systems have become a critical asset incurrent battlespaces, and continue to play an increasing for intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) missions. With the developmentof medium-to-low altitude, rapidly deployable aircraft platforms, theISR community has seen an increasing push to develop ISR sensors andsystems with real-time mission support capabilities. This paper describes
recent flight demonstrations and test results of the RASAR (Real-time,
Autonomous, Synthetic Aperture Radar) sensor system. RASAR is a
modular, multi-band (L and X) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging
sensor designed for self-contained, autonomous, real-time operation withmission flexibility to support a wide range of ISR needs within the size,
weight and power constraints of Group III UASs. The sensor commandand control and real-time image formation processing are designed for
integration of RASAR into larger, multi-intelligence system of systems. The
multi-intelligence architecture and a demonstration of real-time autonomous
cross-cueing of a separate optical sensor will be presented.

9077-6, Session 2

Multi-polarization foliage penetration
classification results from a SWaP limited
multifrequency SAR
Evan C. Zaugg, Joshua P. Bradley, Matthew C. Edwards, ARTEMIS,
Inc. (United States)

9077-7, Session 2

A wideband holographic radar system for multidimensional high-resolution imaging

Design and performance of an ultra-wideband
stepped-frequency radar with precise frequency
control for landmine and IED detection
Brian R. Phelan, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Kelly
D. Sherbondy, Kenneth I. Ranney, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates)The Army Research Laboratory (ARL) has developed an impulse-based
vehicle-mounted forward-looking ultra-wideband (UWB) radar for imaging
mines and providing through-the-wall sensing. As part of ARL’s Partnerships
in Research Transition (PIRT) program, there is a new effort to address
deficiencies of the impulse radar system with a Stepped-Frequency Radar(SFR) which allows for precise control over the radiated spectrum, while still
maintaining an effective ultra-wide bandwidth. The SFR utilizes a frequency
synthesizer which can be configured to excise prohibited and interfering
frequency bands and also implement frequency-hopping capabilities. The
SFR is designed to be a forward-looking ground-penetrating (FLGPR) Radarutilizing a uniform linear array of 16 Vivaldi receive antennas and two (2)Quad-ridge horn transmit antennas. The SFR has an operating frequency
band which ranges from 300–2000 MHz, and a minimum frequency stepsize of 1 MHz. The radar system is capable of illuminating range swaths thathave maximum extents of 30 to 75 meters (programmable). The transmitter
has the ability to produce approximately -6 dBm/MHz average power overthe entire operating frequency range. The SFR will be used to determine thepracticality of detecting and classifying buried and concealed landmines andimprovised explosive devices (IEDs) from safe stand-off distances.
This paper discusses the current status and expected performance of the
SFR, as derived from laboratory testing. Key to spectrum management
is the precise control of selected frequencies across the UWB spectrum.
Specifically, frequency notching is needed to be permitted to operate atvarious test sites for system design & evaluation purposes for developmental

Scott A. Wilson, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)

SPIE DSS 2014

Compared to optical imaging systems, advantages to the wideband
holographic radar include the ability to penetrate common materials
and structures, retain phase and amplitude information of scatteredfields, as well as being able to measure and numerically reconstructtarget information in multiple dimensions. For these reasons, a simple
wideband holographic radar system has been developed for measuring thebackscattered fields from an illuminated target scene. Measurements are
made over an 80 cm x 80 cm rectilinear planar aperture using a quasimonostatic antenna pair for transmit and receive. Wideband measurements
are made over step-frequencies between 10-20 GHz for a theoretical range
resolution of 15 mm. The FFT-based reconstruction algorithm has been
demonstrated on a basic simulation model, as well as on experimental
data. Future work in this research may include polarimetric hologram
reconstruction, as well as super-resolution imaging techniques.

9077-8, Session 2

Radar polarimetry has proven very useful for classification of targets,terrains, and land-cover. It is extensively used with satellite based SAR
systems, and with a few airborne SAR systems. Typically an airborne SAR
system with multiple frequencies and polarizations is a very expensive, oneof-a-kind, experimental development. Traditionally, a SAR system like this isflown on a large aircraft which can handle the large size, weight, and power(SWaP) specifications of the radar system, especially if the SAR employs
the low-frequencies used for foliage penetration applications. Recently, highperformance, inexpensive SAR systems with diverse capabilities and small
SWaP requirements, such as the ARTEMIS SlimSAR, have been developed.
The SlimSAR has been flown on a variety of small manned and unmanned
aircraft and has demonstrated great versatility in meeting the needs ofa variety of imaging scenarios. Exploiting the new capabilities offeredby these new radars shows the potential for expanding the use of SAR
polarimetry into applications and areas previously prohibited by high-costs
and/or dangerous flight conditions. This paper presents the SlimSAR system,with imagery from both multiple polarizations and frequencies, including
foliage penetration at P-band. We also discuss the issues involved inapplying polarimetric classification techniques to this type of radar. Included
are discussions and demonstrations of different methods of polarization
calibration of the SlimSAR, as well as different image classification methods
that exploit scattering mechanisms through polarimetric decomposition
based on the alpha-entropy plane. When used in conjunction with thecomplex Wishart classifier, we show that terrain classification helps toreduce false alarm rates for sub-foliage target detection.

90

Over the last 50 years, principles established in optical holography
have been demonstrated in the microwave regime. In the early stagesof development, microwave holograms were recorded on film or othertypes of analog media and image reconstitution could be performed
only by physically illuminating the hologram with a coherent opticalsource. Advancements in data acquisition systems and signal processing
algorithms have made it possible to numerically reconstruct a target scenefrom a digitally-recorded hologram. Most recently, fast Fourier transform(FFT) methods have been able to demonstrate high-resolution image
reconstruction of a digitally-recorded hologram in nearly real-time. Usinga coherent microwave radar system, interference patterns produced by ascattering target can be measured and recorded as a digital hologram, after
which the original target scene may be reconstructed using an FFT-based
reconstruction algorithm. For systems operating at single-frequency, thereconstruction algorithm provides the ability to re-focus a two-dimensional
image to any single focal depth. Wideband systems yield an additional
dimension for range resolution, thereby extending the focal depth to where
scattering fields produced by three-dimensional geometries can be resolved
into a well-focused surface volume.

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

systems. However, on the battlefield with so many other spectrum users, theSFR will need to co-exist and to do so will need to omit transmitting as to
not interfere with other critical battlefield systems. Thus, a technical issued
to be addressed in this paper is the problem of omitting frequencies which
manifests as artifacts in the range profile which appear as undesired range
sidelobes. A study of this effect is presented, which discusses pre- and postprocessing of the data which can limit these confounding perturbations.
In addition, the paper will discuss mitigation of self-generated harmonics,
integration of GPS/IMU for geo-spatial target detection and electronic
marking, and other technical upgrades.

performance comparison between the two post-KF processing methods will
be provided in the full paper.

9077-12, Session 3

Identification of maritime target objects fromhigh resolution TerraSAR-X data using SAR
simulation
Harald Anglberger, Helmut Suess, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany)

9077-10, Session 3

Design of a synthetic aperture radar synthetic
scene generator

In general, interpretation of signatures from synthetic aperture radar(SAR) data is a challenging task even for the expert image analyst. For
the most part, this is caused by radar specific imaging effects, e.g. layover,multi-path propagation or speckle noise. Specifically for the application in
maritime security, ship signatures exhibit additional defocusing effects dueto the ship’s movement even when they are anchored. Focusing on object
recognition, the detection of target signatures can be done with a pretty
good chance of success, but the identification is often impossible.

Cameron Musgrove, Richard M. Naething, John Schilling, Sandia
National Labs. (United States)
For airborne synthetic aperture radars a flight test is required to completely
characterize its system-level performance. However, flight testing canbe expensive especially when problems arise and the flight testing timeincreases costs. It would be beneficial to complete as much system testing
as possible in the laboratory environment. Several tests exist for testing
subsystems and components, however it is very important that the entire
system is tested as it would operate in flight. Typical laboratory tests
use a delay line to create a single point target. This is a very important
test, however to produce a clean IPR requires modifications to the image
formation or data collection algorithms because the delay line does not
behave as a real point target. We desire to create a complete system test
where an arbitrary number of point targets and clutter patterns combine to
mimic radar responses from a real scene. This would enable a complete testof the radar system in the laboratory environment according to prescribed
terrain/scene characteristics.

To assist image analysts in their recognition tasks, a SAR simulation tool
has been developed recently. It is very simple to operate, by simulating
available 3D model data of ships and test the resulting simulated signatureswith their real counterpart from SAR images. This is a very robust way toidentify larger vessels out of current one meter resolution space borne SAR
data like from TerraSAR-X. Nevertheless, for smaller vessels this can be still
very challenging, because the resolution is too coarse. Recently, TerraSAR-X
initiated a new staring spotlight imaging mode that enhances cross-range
resolution significantly and therefore also improves the chance for theidentification of smaller vessels.
This paper demonstrates the capabilities of the developed simulation tool in
assisted target recognition specifically on ship signatures. The improvementof recognizability will be studied by comparing identification performance
for TerraSAR-X sliding spotlight mode and staring spotlight mode data.

This paper presents an overview of the system requirements for a synthetic
scene generator. The analysis is limited to synthetic aperture radar systems
utilizing chirp waveforms and stretch processing. Relationships between IF
bandwidth, target position, and the phase history model are calculated. A
technique to properly compensate for motion pulse to pulse is presented.
The concept is demonstrated with simulation data.

9077-13, Session 3

A complete ensemble empirical mode
decomposition for GPR signal time-frequency
analysis9077-11, Session 3

Jing Li, Fengshan Liu, Delaware State Univ. (United States)

Improving target position and velocity estimation
for air-to-air radar

Time-frequency analysis plays a significant role in GPR data processing
and interpretation. Due to the mixing frequency problem in GPR signal,
the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) method can not separate andextract the weak target information effectively. In this paper, an algorithm
based on the complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition (CEEMD)
is presented. The key idea on the CEEMD relies on averaging the modes
obtained by EMD applied to several realizations of Gaussian white noise
added to the original signal. The resulting decomposition solves the EMD
mode mixing problem. Analysis on GPR synthetic and real data show that
the CEEMD can effectively eliminate the mode mixing problem in EMD,
which means different frequency scales in GPR signals are decomposedin different Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMF). Furthermore, this method can
restrain the noise in the original signal and more detail information canbe seen clearly in the time-frequency spectrum. It demonstrates that thismethod promises higher spectral-spatial resolution than the ensemble
empirical mode decomposition (EEMD). Application this method on GPR
signals, such as through wall GPR and surface GPR thin layer detection, thus
offers the potential of highlighting data processing and signal analysis.

Guoqing Liu, Naiel K. Askar, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems,
Inc. (United States)
General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (GA-ASI) has designed andprototyped an air-to-air radar to provide Due Regard and Sense and Avoid
capabilities for Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA). This radar employs a Search
While Track (SWT) mode to perform target detection, acquisition, andtracking in a search volume. SWT utilizes a set of Kalman filters (KFs) for
implementing multi-target tracking. The track on target is declared as the
track accuracy (quantified in terms of estimated target position and velocity
accuracies) satisfies a certain criterion which is derived from the RPA safety
requirement.
Since the KFs are designed to handle tracking of maneuvering targets,a large amount of updates may be needed to achieve the required track
accuracy if there is any mismatch in the target maneuvering model. Post-KF
processing is therefore needed to improve the track accuracy in order toachieve a reliable track declaration efficiently. In this study, a Weighted Least
Square (WLS) estimator and an alpha-beta filter are used as the post-KF
processing methods to refine the KF outputs. Computational requirement
and structural complexity and expandability are analyzed and comparedfor practical implementations of both methods. Monte Carlo simulations
are conducted to demonstrate their effectiveness. Simulation results and91+1 360 676 3290

Submitted to Special Session on Radar Micro-Doppler Signatures-the Radar
Sensor Technology XVIII Conferences·

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-66, Session 3

matrices (GLCMs) to aid in discriminating the true targets from multipath
ghosts and clutter that closely mimic the target in size and intensity. A
GLCM is the spatial-dependence probability-distribution matrix of pairsof pixels separated by a given offset in a particular direction [2]. Texture
information extracted from GLCMs exposes the local variations of the image,thereby enabling the spatial inter-relations of neighboring patterns of pixel
values within the target and the ghost/clutter images to be captured. In
this paper, we address the task of feature selection to identify the relevant
subset of features in the GLCM domain, while discarding those that areeither redundant or confusing, thereby improving the performance offeature-based scheme to distinguish between targets and ghosts/clutter.
We apply a Decision Tree algorithm to find the optimal combination ofco-occurrence based textural features for the problem at hand. We employ
a K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) classifier [3] to evaluate the performanceof the optimal textural feature based scheme in terms of its target andghost/clutter discrimination capability and use real-data collected with theMulti-channel TWSAR, which is the vehicle-borne through-the-wall radar
imaging system by Defence Research and Development Canada (DRDC).
The dataset corresponds to through-the-wall measurements of multiple
humans of different heights, standing or sitting at different downranges ina small room. For the specific data analyzed, it is shown that the identified
dominant features yield a higher classification accuracy, with lower numberof false alarms and missed detections, compared to the full co-occurrence
based feature set.

Spectrum sensing techniques for nonlinear radar
Anthony F. Martone, Kenneth I. Ranney, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel (United States);David McNamara, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The phenomenon of inducing a nonlinear response in metallic objects andelectronics has been investigated extensively throughout the years. In
many applications the nonlinear response manifests itself as interference inelectronic systems and is typically disruptive. In other applications radars
have been specially designed to exploit and detect nonlinear responsesof targets. These radars are known as nonlinear radars. Nonlinear radar
requires more power-on-target for a signal to noise ratio (SNR) equivalent
to that of traditional linear radar. Nonlinear radar is further challenged
by the cluttered electromagnetic environment (EME) since the signal-tointerference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) decreases due to interfering signals.
This problem is becoming significant as the available frequency spectrum
shrinks due to growing wireless communication device usage and changing
regulations. A possible solution to these challenges is spectrum sensing,a technique employed by cognitive radio to monitor the RF spectrum
for channel availability and the activity of the primary (i.e. the licensed)
user. In this paper, spectrum sensing techniques and their complexity are
investigated for nonlinear radar. It will be shown how these techniques areused to identify transmit and receive frequencies of interest based on amultiband energy detection framework.

References[1] A. Sengur, M. G. Amin, F. Ahmad, P. Sevigny, D. DiFilippo, “Texturalfeature based target detection in through-the-wall radar imagery,” in Proc.
SPIE Radar Sensor Technology XVII Conference, Baltimore, MD, April 2013.
[2] R. M. Harlick, K. Shanmugam, Itshak Dinstein, “Textural Features for
Image Classification,” IEEE Trans. Systems, Man, Cybernetics, vol. SMC-3, no.
6, pp. 610-Nov. 1973.

9077-15, Session 4

Indoor clutter spectral characteristics and radar
waveform design[3] B.V. Dasarathy (Ed.), Nearest Neighbor NN Norms: NN Pattern
Classification Techniques, IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA,
1991.

Travis D. Bufler, Ram M. Narayanan, Erik H. Lenzing, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Traian V. Dogaru, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)

9077-17, Session 4This paper investigates the use of the spectral properties of stationary
human targets and indoor clutter for waveform design. The paper focuseson analysis and comparison between stationary human targets and thatof common indoor clutter by comparing modeling results using Finite
Difference Time Domain (FDTD). Using FDTD techniques allows us to
examine the radar cross section (RCS) of humans and indoor clutter
objects by using different types of computer models. FDTD allows for the
spectral characteristics to be acquired over a wide range of frequencies,
polarizations, aspect angles, and materials.

High-order approximation compact schemes forforward subspace scattering problems
Yury A. Gryazin, Idaho State Univ. (United States)

The acquired RCS characteristics are then applied to the optimizationof radar waveforms for target emphasis. Based upon variables such as
frequency, polarization, and aspect angle, the separation between targets
and clutter are used in a water filling approach to utilize the information
between targets and clutter. The optimized waveform is then applied toexperimental scenarios to compare and contrast target emphasis and clutter
suppression.

9077-16, Session 4

Textural feature selection for enhanced detectionof stationary humans in through-the-wall radar
imagery
Ahmad Chaddad, Fauzia Ahmad, Moeness G. Amin, Villanova
Univ. (United States); Pascale Sevigny, David J. DiFilippo, Defence
Research and Development Canada (Canada)

In this paper, we develop an efficient iterative approach to the solution of
the discrete three-dimensional Helmholtz equation with variable coefficientsand PML boundary conditions based on compact forth and sixth orderapproximation schemes. The coefficient matrices of the resulting systems
are not Hermitian and possess positive as well as negative eigenvalues so
represent a significant challenge for constructing an efficient iterative solver.
In our approach these systems are solved by a combination of a Krylov
subspace-type method with a matching high order approximation direct
preconditioner with coefficients depending only on one spatial variable. In
the algorithms considered, the exact solution of high order preconditioning
systems is based on a combination of the separation of variables techniqueand Fast Fourier Transform type methods. The resulting numerical methods
allow for efficient implementation on parallel computers. Numericaltests confirm the high efficiency of the proposed iterative algorithms.
The developed method is used to compute the scattered electricalfield originated by Ground Penetrating Radar in the forward subsurface
scattering problem. Numerical results for realistic ranges of parameters
in soil and mine-like targets are presented. The impact of the order ofapproximation of the finite difference scheme and parameters of the PML
layer on the accuracy of the approximate solution are considered.

Feature-based methods have been recently considered in the literature fordetection of stationary human targets in through-the-wall radar imagery [1].
Specifically, textural features, such as contrast, correlation, energy, entropy,
and homogeneity, have been extracted from gray-level co-occurrence

92

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-18, Session 59077-20, Session 5

GNSS-based passive airborne radar: Hybridaperture sensing and airborne test plans

Ultra-wideband noise radar imaging of acylindrical PEC object using diffraction
tomography

Yan Zhang, Hernan Suarez, Randall Silver, Yih-Ru Huang, The Univ.
of Oklahoma (United States)

Hee Jung Shin, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States); Muralidhar Rangaswamy, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)

Airborne ISR sensing using reflected GNSS signals as signal of opportunity
is one of the promising solutions to LPI radar sensing, spectrum sharing,and multi-functional integration. A hybrid-aperture radar system consistingof an electronic scanning array at GPS frequency band and synthetic arrayprocessing is being developed by the Intelligent Aerospace Radar Team
(IART) at the University of Oklahoma. In addition to the covertness of ISR
operation and reduced SWaP, the advantages of the hybrid-aperture system
include reduced computational complexity of onboard processor, goodphase coherency, integration with GNSS navigation system and potential
multiple functionalities. During the recent laboratory prototyping andground tests, a real aperture, scanning array contains 32 active elements
and scan in azimuth direction with about 3 degree beam resolution has been
demonstrated, and initial images of ground building targets are obtained.
The images show clear consistency of target signatures for different
satellite positions, while the detailed information observed from the images
are greatly affected by the selection of satellite vehicles and real-time
constellations. The current imaging formation algorithms used standard
carrier phase tracking together with the non-coherent energy integration.
The planned flight test will continue to use both downward looking andside-looking modes. Based on current EM simulations, a low-cost, left-handpolarized (LHP) conformal array will replace the bulky right-hand-polarized(RHP) array for ground experiments. The software-defined backend isbeing designed to be better air-worthy. The image formation algorithms arebeing improved to include more accurate real-time satellite constellation
information as well as coherent back-projection.

Imaging technique has been used for a long time in many applications,and advances in signal and imaging processing technique of radar systems
have progressed so that the multi-dimensional images of the target
object are successfully reconstructed using various input waveforms.
Transmitting ultra-wideband (UWB) random noise waveform guarantees theimmunity from jamming and interference, low probability of detection andinterception; however, not many tomographic imaging literatures using UWB
random noise waveforms in frequency domain have been published yet. This
paper presents the theoretical analysis of Fourier diffraction tomography
based on multiple transmissions of independent and identical distribution(iid) of UWB noise waveforms for a given two dimensional geometry. A
stationary PEC cylindrical object is illuminated by multiple iid UWB noise
waveforms, and a receiver array is positioned at one side of the imaging
geometry to collect the backward scattered field.
In the paper, we show that a single transmission of a random noise
waveform may not sufficient to obtain a successful object image for thedesired frequency ranges. In order to bypass a shortcoming of the single
transmission of the random noise waveform, multiple iid random noise
waveforms with a frequency range from 8 GHz to 10 GHz are transmitted
to reconstruct a final image of the object. Diffraction tomography theorem
is applied for each noise waveform transmission so that the image of theobject is reconstructed based on the backward scattered field at the endof each noise waveform transmission case. When all iid noise waveforms
are transmitted, the final tomographic image of the target is reconstructedby averaging all obtained images from multiple transmissions. Several
numerical simulations in spatial frequency domain are performed, and thesuccessful tomographic image of the cylindrical PEC object is achieved after
transmission of multiple iid UWB random noise waveforms.

9077-19, Session 5

A universal hardware-based adaptive correlation
receiver architecture
Hernan Suarez, Zaidi Zhu, Yan Zhang, The Univ. of Oklahoma(United States)

9077-21, Session 5

SAR image reconstruction using advanced pulse
compression noise (APCN)In this study, we investigated a hardware-implementation of closed-loop,
adaptive radar transceiver architecture especially designed for lowprobability of intercept (LPI) radar employing diversified waveforms.
At the transmitter side, adaptive pre-distortion is implemented throughmemory polynomial models, in order to improve the linearity of solidstate transmitter responses. At the receiver side, similar processing isincorporated for post-distortion through kernel-LMS, which effectively
reduces the sidelobe distortions from target signatures. These transmitter
optimization techniques can be extended to a fully adaptive transmission
scheme with targets presenting in the loop. Furthermore, real-time FPGA
implementation of adaptive pulse compression (APC) is demonstrated, andthe detailed performance data are obtained. It is envisioned that all theseelements can be built into an embedded and reconfigurable module to beinserted into an existing radar transceiver, and transform it to fully-adaptive
operations. A Ku-band testbed system with arbitrary waveform processing
functionality is implemented, together with a low-cost RF channel emulator,
which can function as both point-target emulator and a variable delay-line
in receivers. The new receiver architecture concept is being tested anddemonstrated on this testbed for real-time operations.

Mark A. Govoni, Ryan A. Elwell, U.S. Army Research, Development
and Engineering Command (United States)
This work demonstrates the feasibility of using the advanced pulse
compression noise (APCN) radar waveform for RF secure, synthetic apertureradar (SAR) applications. Using a simple image reconstruction technique,
we are able to form simulated images and compare the range point spreadfunction (PSF) for a nominal point target with that of a conventional pulse
linear-FM (LFM) chirp signal. We show that the desired resolution for the
APCN case is only marginally affected by high correlation sidelobes, andthat the sidelobe levels are sufficient for most synthetic aperture imaging
applications. For thoroughness, different carrier frequencies and sidelobe
weighting schemes will be evaluated based on what impact they may haveon SAR image quality.

9077-22, Session 5

Influence of signal parameters in noise radar
sensor technologies used for sensing throughdispersive media
Ana V. Alejos, Muhammad Dawood, New Mexico State Univ. (UnitedStates)93+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-24, Session 6

The frequency dispersive behavior of natural media such as soil, vegetation,water, and atmosphere, can lead noise radar techniques and sensors to
unexpected inaccuracies in their performance due to the likely appearanceof the precursor electromagnetic signals. The formation of these precursor
fields is related to the chosen frequency spectrum window, the desired
frequency signal bandwidth, and the selected shape of the transmitted
signal.

A combined STAP/DPCA algorithm for enhanced
endoclutter target detection

For frequency-dependent media, the propagated signal then, becomes a
critical part of the system and the final performance depends on its proper
configuration because this latter can decide the formation or absence of the
precursor field which appears as an additional component superimposed tothe propagated signal.
In case of a precursor arising out, the distortion undergone by the signaltransmitted through or reflected on a dispersive medium basically consistsof amplitude level modification and spreading of the pulse width duration.
These alterations introduce uncertainty in the received signal making theinformation retrieval difficult and inaccurate.
However, the formation of the precursor fields can improve the propagation
by offering significantly better signal-to-noise ratio to achieve an enhanced
sensing capability.

Thomas E. Medl, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc.
(United States)
Displaced Phase Center Antenna (DPCA) and Space-Time Adaptive
Processing (STAP) are two general methods to cancel clutter in orderto detect small, slowly moving targets such as dismounts that may be
obscured by clutter. To detect these targets, the radar detection thresholdneeds to be as low as possible to ensure some minimum probability ofdetection (Pd). Unfortunately, lowering the radar threshold naturally results
in a higher false alarm rate. There are a number of false alarm mitigation
techniques available to lower the false alarm rate. Although there arestandard methods such as M of N to reduce the false alarms, new techniques
can potentially drive the false alarm rate down even further.
Many “theoretical” papers have shown that STAP can be designed tooutperform DPCA because of its potential additional “degrees-of-freedom.”
However, in “practice,” this isn’t always the case. For example, it is wellknown that STAP can have training issues in heterogeneous clutter. Typically,a radar signal processor will implement one method or the other to detect
these small endoclutter targets. The technique being explored here is a
two-fold approach in which the existing STAP code first processes the datain order to find a list of candidate targets. Next, a DPCA technique is also
used to find a separate list of candidate detections from the same data.
Although the algorithms are working on the same data, the processing is“independent” between them so the target lists are different. After bothtechniques have finished processing, the modified radar signal processing
code “intelligently” combines the two detection lists into a single detection
list. It will be shown that the combined list of detections from the two
methods results in better detection performance than either method byitself.

Experimentally for a random noise signal in the THz band, we haveestimated that precursors can occur in a different way according to the
input pulse setting.
We examine the theoretical evolution of various waveform shapes throughwater, soil and vegetation. Measurements carried out in the THZ bandprovide an experimental verification of the precursor formation throughwater for random noise signals.

9077-23, Session 5

Superresolution processing for multifunctional
LPI waveforms
Zhengzheng Li, Shang Wang, Jingxiao Cai, Yan Zhang, The Univ. of
Oklahoma (United States)

9077-26, Session 6

Image reconstruction and compressed sensing in
MIMO radar

Low-probability-of-intercept (LPI) waveforms can be used in multifunctional radar operations and provides specific features for specificmissions. This study focuses on the adaptive pulse compression (APC)–based super-resolution processing on different LPI waveforms andevaluates the performance tradeoffs from mainly the algorithm perspective.
In practice, there are tradeoffs among the length of the adaptive filter,
waveform characteristics, signal-to-noise ratio, and receiver samplingstrategies, and a combination of these factors have significant effect on theachievable resolution and SNR. The underlying mechanisms of algorithms
and statistics resulting in these tradeoffs are explored. It is possible totune the processing algorithms to achieve the optimal results for specificwaveforms. Examples are mainly given for random phase coded waveforms(such as PPM/PM waveforms used in ADS-B radar), LFM and random noise
waveforms. Performance for complex impulse response estimation (forboth amplitude and Doppler) for different types of target and clutter will
be analyzed. Traditional matched-filter and mismatched-filter suffer fromthe waveform-dependency. The robustness of APC with respect to the
waveform variation will be demonstrated (e.g. APC has high tolerance to
PPM/PM modulation).

Jacob Banda, Fernando Cavazos, Qitong Li, Alejandro F. Martinez,
Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan American (United States)

The adaptive super-resolution processing is also extended to twodimensional real-beam imaging processing. Examples based on GroundBased Sense and Avoid (GBSAA) radar experiments are provided anddiscussed. An adaptive radar scheme that achieves the “super-resolution
on-demand” is introduced. With the solid-state GBSAA radar, wedemonstrated that 2D image resolution can be adjusted based on the target
region of interest, and optimal performance of SNR can be obtained for theselected resolution.

MIMO radar utilizes the transmission and reflection of multiple
independent waveforms to construct an image approximating a target
scene. Compressed sensing (CS) techniques such as total variation (TV)minimization and greedy algorithms can permit accurate reconstructionsof the target scenes from undersampled data. The success of these CS
techniques is largely dependent on the structure of the measurement
matrix. A discretized inverse scattering model is used to examine theimaging problem, and in this context the measurement matrix consists ofarray parameters regarding the geometry of the transmitting and receiving
arrays, signal type, and sampling rate. We derive some conditions onthese parameters that guarantee the success of these CS reconstruction
algorithms. The effect of scene sparsity on reconstruction accuracy is also
addressed. Numerical simulations illustrate the success of reconstruction
when the array and sampling conditions are satisfied, and we also illustrateerroneous reconstructions when the conditions are not satisfied.

9077-27, Session 6

Optimal waveform design under employment ofgeneralized detector in MIMO radar systems
Vyacheslav P. Tuzlukov, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republicof)In this paper, we derive the optimal generalized detector (GD) and its

94

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

determining snow depth using Ku-band multi-pass (monostatic) airborne
interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). A perturbation methodthat isolated and compared high frequency terrain phase to elevation wasused to generate Snow-Off and Snow-On DEMs from the InSAR phasedata. Differencing the InSAR DEMs determined elevation change causedby accumulated snow. Comparison of InSAR snow depths to manual snow
depth measurements indicated average InSAR snow depth errors of -8cm,
95cm, -49cm, 176cm, 87cm, and 42cm for six SAR pairs. The source of
these errors appears to be mostly related to uncorrected slope and tilt infitted low frequency planes. Results show that this technique has promise
but accuracy could be substantially improved by the use of bistatic SAR
systems, which would allow for more stable and measurable interferometricbaselines.

performance, and then present a methodology for the design of thetransmit signal for a multistatic or MIMO radar receiver. The GD assumesa Swerling I extended target model as well as signal-dependent noise, i.e.,
clutter. It is shown that the GD detection performance does not immediately
lead to an obvious signal design criterion so that as an alternative, adivergence criterion is proposed for signal design. A simple method for
maximizing the divergence, termed the maximum marginal allocation
algorithm, is presented and applied to find the global maximum. The overall
approach is a generalization of previous work that determined the optimal
GD and transmit signal for a monostatic radar systems.

9077-28, Session 6

Indoor facility for airborne synthetic apertureradar (SAR) explosive hazard experimentation:
rail-SAR

9077-29, Session 7

Superpixel segmentation using multiple SAR
image products

Getachew A. Kirose, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Brian R. Phelan, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Kelly
D. Sherbondy, Kenneth I. Ranney, Francois J. Koenig, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States)

Mary M. Moya, Mark W. Koch, Roger D. West, David N. Perkins,
Sandia National Labs. (United States)
To categorize terrains and structures in SAR imagery, we first segment theSAR image into homogeneous regions. We compare two segmentation/
superpixel algorithms using multiple high-resolution single-polarization
SAR products. Speckle produced in coherent SAR image formation cancomplicate superpixel extraction. Other researchers [Xia13] have introduceda modified pixel similarity measure to discount SAR speckle. In contrast,
we exploit SAR image products preprocessed to reduce speckle, whichreadily facilitate superpixel extraction. These products include sub-aperture
multilook (ML) and a smoothed version of interferometric height (IFH). We have applied the superpixel algorithms, Quickshift [Ved08] andSimple Linear Iterative Clustering [Ach10], to these SAR image products.
We compare performance for segmentations derived from both single
and dual SAR product inputs using two research-standard segmentation
quality measures, undersegmentation error and boundary recall [Lev09],on the match between superpixels and hand-segmented ground truth. We
also introduce superpixel purity as a new segmentation quality measure.
We discuss issues with scaling intensity values for both single- and dualinput segmentation. Results of this quality analysis determine the best
input/algorithm/parameter set for SAR imagery. Applying superpixel
segmentation to ML and IF-H images yields superpixels tailored to SAR
regions-of-interest, which can reduce image complexity, enhance estimationof statistical features and improve categorization of structures and terrain.
These superpixel segmentation algorithms are also applicable to multiplepolarization SAR imagery.

The Army Research Laboratory (ARL) is developing an indoor experimental
facility to evaluate and assess airborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
based detection capabilities against explosive hazards. The rail-SAR facility
is a multi-use facility that also provides a basis for robotic autonomy andnavigational developmental research. Radar explosive hazard detection is
one key sensor developmental area to be exploited at this indoor facility.
In particular, the mostly all wooden multi-story building houses a two (2)story housing façade structure and an open area built over a large sandbox.
The housing façade structure includes reconfigurable indoor walls which
will provide for multiple See-Through-The-Wall (STTW) experimentation
scenarios. Whereas, the open sandbox will allow for surface and buried
explosive hazard experimentation deployment scenarios. The indoor facility
is not rated for true explosive hazard materials so all targets will need to beinert and filled with surrogate dielectric explosive fills.
This paper discusses the current status and data collection efforts against
canonical targets across ultra-wideband (UWB) airborne SAR frequencies ofinterest. A near-monostatic antenna configuration will be used to investigate
airborne SAR parameters such as angles of depression, frequencies &bandwidths of interest, SAR-integration angles, and target burial depths,
orientations, and type. Canonical targets will initially be used to evaluate
overall facility capabilities and limitations. These aspects will be analyzed
and summarized for future explosive hazard target deployments andassociated assessments. This paper will also describe the processing
techniques developed and applied to address RF multi-path, platform
interference and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) from indoor facility
operations. Discussion of this facility and its capabilities and limitations will
provide a context for future explosive hazard airborne SAR assessments.

References:[Ach10] Achanta, R., Shaji, A., Smith, K., Lucci, A., Fua, P., Susstrunk, S.: SLICSuperpixels. EPFL Technical Report (2010)[Lev09] Levinshtein, A., Stere, A., Kutulakos, K., Fleet, D., Dickinson, S.,
Siddiqi, K.: Turbopixels: Fast superpixels using geometric flows. PAMI (2009)[Ved08] Vedaldi, A., Soatto, S.: Quick shift and kernel methods for modeseeking. ECCV (2008)

9077-25, Session 7[Xia13] Xiang, D., Tang, T., Zhao, L., Su, Y.: Superpixel generating algorithm
based on pixel intensity and location similarity for SAR image classification.
(2013)

Determining snow depth using Ku-band
interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR)*Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a
Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy’s
National Nuclear Security Administration under Contract DE-AC0494AL85000.

Jack R. Evans, Fred A. Kruse, Naval Postgraduate School (UnitedStates); Douglas L. Bickel, Sandia National Labs. (United States);
Ralf Dunkel, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates)9077-30, Session 7

Monitoring seasonal snow accumulation is important for evaluation of snow
models, for short- and long-term snow cover monitoring, and for bothmilitary and civilian activities in cold climates. Improved spatial analysis ofsnow depth and volume can help decision makers plan for future eventsand mitigate risk. Current snow depth measurement methods fall shortof operational requirements. This research explored a new approach for95+1 360 676 3290

Detection and tracking of personnel using a highspeed 94 GHz surveillance radar
David G. Macfarlane, Duncan A. Robertson, Univ. of St. Andrews·

help@spie.org

Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII(United Kingdom); Ben Jones, Anthony S. Clark, Home Office Ctr.
for Applied Science and Technology (United Kingdom)
Security screening in crowded places, with the aim of identifying individuals
likely to be carrying threat items, is an active area of research. Such a
non-compliant scenario requires a stand-off sensor with wide total field of
regard in order to cover a usefully large area, high spatial resolution in orderto resolve individual people, and high temporal update rate in order to beable to cope with the rapidly changing dynamics of crowds.
We will report on work undertaken by the University of St Andrews in
conjunction with the UK Home Office to assess the capability of a highspeed 94 GHz surveillance radar with respect to this requirement. The
NIRAD radar has a low phase noise, heterodyne FMCW architecture andscans a pencil beam through 360° of azimuth at frame rates of up to 10 Hz.
The sub-degree beamwidth and 25 cm range bins yield high resolution plan
position indicator (PPI) images of scenes over ranges from tens to hundredsof metres.
The radar imagery is acquired at sufficiently high frame rate to be able
to follow people walking or running around the scene. We will present
details of how people are detected and tracked in the scene so that theirradar cross section images can be analysed to reveal signatures which may
indicate the presence of a carried threat item.

9077-31, Session 7

Design considerations for quantum radar
implementation
Matthew J. Bradsema, Ram M. Narayanan, Erik H. Lenzing, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Marco Lanzagorta, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)

One technology that is capable of separating RF electronic targets fromnaturally-occurring clutter is nonlinear radar. For electromagneticallynonlinear electronics, some of the radar waves that reflect from the target
oscillate at frequencies different from those transmitted to the target.
Reception of frequencies that are not part of the original transmission
distinguishes the received signal from a linear return produced by clutter
and indicates the presence of electronics.
Presented in this paper is a combination of the stepped-frequency UWB
concept with nonlinear detection: nonlinear stepped-frequency radar. Itstransmitter, like traditional linear SFR, steps through frequencies one at atime to achieve high range resolution. Its receiver, unlike traditional linear
SFR, captures a harmonic of each transmitted frequency to achieve highclutter rejection. By stepping the transmit frequency with known amplitude
and phase across an ultra-wide bandwidth and recording the amplitude
and phase of the harmonic return signal, a nonlinear frequency responseof the radar environment is constructed. An inverse Fourier Transform of
this nonlinear frequency response reveals the range to the nonlinear target
within that environment. The nonlinear stepped-frequency radar concept
is validated in simulation and demonstrated experimentally using a logperiodic antenna and a consumer-electronic target.

9077-33, Session 8

Medical radar considerations for detecting
Crohn’s disease

Quantum Radar provides a means to drastically increase the sensitivity ofstandard, “classical” radar systems. Targets that would be invisible using
standard radar technology, such as stealth aircrafts and weaponry, arerendered completely visible when they are viewed using a quantum radar.

Sonny Smith, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States); Evangelos Messaris, Penn State Milton S. Hershey
Medical Ctr. (United States)

A fully robust quantum radar will utilize many quantum effects to ascertain
information about the target. Single photon transmission and detection
is a core component in its fundamental design. The radar system will
incorporate entangled photons and classical electromagnetic waves atmultiple frequencies. The system will also be able to measure multiple
properties of the return photons such as momentum and polarization to
obtain information about the target in question.
Using single photon beams instead of a full out classical electromagnetic
wave changes the radar cross section of the target in question. The radarcross section concept itself must be redefined to fit the quantum naturethat it utilizes. Using these quantum phenomena, the radar can theoreticallyapproach the Heisenberg limit under ideal conditions.
The radar itself will be electronically controlled. The computer must beable to change frequencies, and number of photons on the fly for a variety
of different targets. Using entangled beams with different number ofphotons changes the resolution of the radar at different ranges. Different
frequencies also change the resolution at different ranges. The proposed
implementation must be able to dynamically aggregate and fuse classicaland quantum radar information to produce the most reliable localization of
the target.
The paper will discuss several considerations required to design andimplement a quantum radar system.

According to the National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse(NDDIC), Crohn’s disease is a disorder that causes inflammation andassociated complications along any portion of the digestive tract. Over theyears, numerous radiological and endoscopic methods as well as the useof ultrasound has been developed to examine and diagnose inflammatory
bowel diseases such as Crohn’s disease. While such techniques have much
merit, a novel medical solution that is robust, non-invasive and inexpensive
is proffered. Reflections from electromagnetic signals transmitted by a radar
allow for not only range (or extent) information but also spectral analysis ofa given target of interest. In particular, the radar cross-section (RCS) of an
object measures how detectable the electromagnetic return energy of suchan object is to the radar. In this paper, we investigate how disparities in the
dielectric properties (e.g. relative permittivity) of diseased and non-diseased
sections of the intestines can aid in the detection of Crohn’s disease thatis often characterized by a distinct pattern of inflammation. Additionally,frequency content-related information and RCS measurements from XFDTD
simulations using a simple 3D model of the intestines are discussed. Finally,
an ultra-wide band radar system architecture using diverse waveforms
is proposed to detect and monitor Crohn’s disease. This radar design isevaluated and compared to similar existing medical monitoring devices.

9077-34, Session 89077-32, Session 7

Development of wearable microwave bladdermonitor for the management and treatment ofurinary incontinence

Stepped-frequency nonlinear radar simulation
Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel (United States); Kyle A. Gallagher,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Anthony F. Martone,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

96

The U.S. Army Research Laboratory is evaluating stepped-frequency radar(SFR) for the detection of RF electronics. This form of ultra-wideband(UWB) radar simultaneously provides high range resolution for low
instantaneous bandwidth, at the cost of relatively long computation time.
Unfortunately, even if computation time is virtually unlimited, RF electronic
targets, such as man-portable electronics, cannot be detected by traditional
linear SFR because the radar cross section is much smaller than that ofnearby clutter.

SPIE DSS 2014

Finn P. Krewer, Fearghal Morgan, Edward Jones, Martin Glavin,
Martin O’Halloran, National Univ. of Ireland, Galway (Ireland)·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-36, Session 8

Urinary incontinence is defined as the inability to stop the flow of urine
from the bladder. In the US alone, the annual societal cost of incontinencerelated care is estimated at 12.6 billion dollars. Clinicians agree that those
suffering from urinary incontinence would greatly benefit from a wearable
system that could continually monitor the bladder, providing feedback to
the patient on the volume of urine in the bladder. While existing ultrasoundbased solutions are highly accurate, they are severely limited by form factor,
battery size, cost and ease of use. In this study the authors propose analternative bladder-state sensing system, based on Ultra Wideband (UWB)
radar.

Estimation of respiratory rhythm during night
sleep using a bio-radar
Alexander Tataraidze, Lesya Anishchenko, Maksim Alekhin, Bauman
Moscow State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation); Lyudmila
Korostovtseva, Yurii Sviryaev, Almazov Federal Heart, Blood &Endocrinology Ctr. (Russian Federation)

As part of an initial proof-of-concept, the authors developed one of thefirst dielectrically and anatomically-representative Finite Difference Time
Domain pelvis models. These models (one male and one female) are derived
from Magnetic Resonance Images provided by the IT’IS Foundation. These
IT’IS models provide the foundation upon which an anatomically plausible
bladder growth model is built. The authors employ accurate multi-pole
Debye models to simulate the dielectric properties for each of the pelvic
tissues. Two-dimensional FDTD simulations are completed for a range of
bladder volumes.

One of the most challenging fields of biomedical engineering isdevelopment of devices for long-term home vital signs monitoring. In
particular, non-contact bio-radiolocation (BRL) monitoring of respiratory
rhythm during sleep is of high interest.
BRL is a modern remote sensing technique that allows performing noncontact living objects vital signs monitoring (even behind optically opaqueobstacles) on the base of analysis of specific biometric modulation of thereflected radar signal due to oscillatory movements of human limbs andorgans (heart beats, respiration movements, etc.).

Relevant features are extracted from the FDTD-derived signals using
Principle Component Analysis and then classified using a K-NearestNeighbor and Support Vector Machine algorithms (incorporating the Leaveone-out cross-validation approach). Additionally the authors investigate theeffects of signal fidelity, noise and antenna movement relative to the target
as sources of error. The results of this initial study provide strong motivation
for further research into this timely application, in the context of an ageing
population.

The experimental data are collected in the Sleep Laboratory of AlmazovFederal Heart, Blood and Endocrinology Centre. In total 5 subjects undergo
the study up to the moment. The full-night simultaneous respiratory
inductance plethysmography (RIP) and BRL records were collected. Theinternal clock of BRL and RIP systems were synchronized for further
verification. A multi-frequency bio-radar with step frequency modulation
designed at the Remote Sensing Laboratory (Bauman Moscow State
Technical University) was applied. It has 8 operating frequencies ranging
from 3.6 to 4.0 GHz.

9077-35, Session 8

Obtained data were used for the evaluation of correlation between BRL and
RIP respiration rate estimates. Calculated Pearson’s correlation coefficient of
0.88 indicates a strong correlation for the data rows. This study shows that
BRL method can be used for estimation of respiratory rhythm during fullnight.

Development of anatomically and dielectricallyaccurate breast phantoms for microwave breast
imaging applications
Martin O’Halloran, Stefan Lohfeld, National Univ. of Ireland, Galway(Ireland); Giuseppe Ruvio, Univ. de Lisboa (Portugal); Finn P.
Krewer, C. O. Ribeiro, V. C. Inácio Pita, National Univ. of Ireland,
Galway (Ireland); Raquel C. Conceicao, Univ. de Lisboa (Portugal);
Edward Jones, Martin Glavin, National Univ. of Ireland, Galway(Ireland)9077-37, Session 8

FDTD modelling of holographic radar applicationin detection of breast tumors
Irina Alborova, Lesya Anishchenko, Bauman Moscow State Technical
Univ. (Russian Federation)

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in women. In the UnitedStates alone, it accounts for 31% of new cancer cases, and is second only
to lung cancer as the leading cause of deaths in American women. Morethan 184,000 new cases of breast cancer are diagnosed each year resulting
in approximately 41,000 deaths. Early detection and intervention is oneof the most significant factors in improving the survival rates and qualityof life experienced by breast cancer sufferers, since this is the time whentreatment is most effective.

The aim of the study is to determine the possibilities for the use ofholographic radar for imaging of breast tumors. In the work the softwareXFDTD was used, which is designed for the numerical solution ofelectromagnetic problems using the Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method.
The simulation was performed using three probing frequencies 4, 7 and
15 GHz. The fragment of a breast was modeled as a parallelepiped withdimensions 200x200x100mm. It is mimicking the normal tissue of thebreast, with the inclusion of a ball - malignant neoplasm of breast tissue.
The size and height of the inclusion has been varied. Frequency dispersion
of normal and malignant tissues dielectric properties (conductivity andpermittivity) was taken into account.

One of the most promising breast imaging modalities is microwave imaging.
The physical basis of active microwave imaging is the dielectric contrast
between normal and malignant breast tissue that exists at microwave
frequencies. The dielectric contrast is due to the increased water content
present in the cancerous tissue. Microwave imaging is non-ionizing, does not
require breast compression, is less invasive than X-ray mammography, and ispotentially lower cost.

By using the results obtained with the help of FDTD modeling following
conclusions could be made. As expected from theoretical considerations it
is preferred to use lower-frequency probing signal, namely, 4GHz, which candetect the inclusion of 5 mm diameter up to a depth of 10 mm. While usingof probing signals of 7 and 15 GHz the depth limit of detection inclusion is
not more than 8 mm, which is caused by the high attenuation in a medium.
However, their usage is preferred because of higher resolution. In thefurther it is planned to develop an algorithm that allows subtracting fromthe received signal the signal reflected from the surface layer of the model,
which would increase the depth limit for inclusion detecting.

While several prototype microwave breast imaging systems are currently invarious stages of development, the design and fabrication of anatomicallyand dielectrically representative breast phantoms to evaluate these systems
is often problematic. While some existing phantoms are composed ofdielectrically representative materials, they rarely accurately represent theshape and size of a typical breast. Conversely, several phantoms have beendeveloped to accurately model the shape of the human breast, but haveinappropriate dielectric properties. This study will briefly review existing
phantoms before describing the development of a more accurate andpractical breast phantom for the evaluation of microwave breast imaging
systems.

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-38, Session 8

when viewed by spectrograms. In this case, features extracted in the timefrequency domain may not be sufficient to detect and properly classify thedifferent types of falls or distinguish their signatures from those associatedwith sitting, standing, or picking an item from the floor. In this paper,
motivated by the aperiodic transient nature of fall signals, we perform
detection and classification using time-scale features. Further, we combine
features in both time-frequency spectrograms and time-scale scalogramsfor improved detection and classifications performance.

Comparison between UWB and CW radar sensors
for breath activity monitoring
Stefano Pisa, Paolo Bernardi, Renato Cicchetti, Roberto Giusto,
Erika Pittella, Emanuele Piuzzi, Orlandino Testa, Univ. degli Studi diRoma La Sapienza (Italy)
Remote monitoring of breath activity can be performed by using both
ultra wideband (UWB) and continuous wave (CW) radar sensors. UWB
radars have been initially developed in hybrid technology [1], while recently
some integrated realizations have been proposed [2]. CW radars can be
implemented both with hardware and software solutions [3]. In this paper
three radar sensors will be compared in order to evaluate their ability indetecting breath activity of a subject placed at various distances from theradar antenna. In particular, a CMOS technology UWB radar developed at
the University of Oslo (Uni-Oslo UWB, based on the swept threshold coding
technique [2], a hybrid UWB radar developed at the University of Rome
(Uni-Rome UWB, based on the range gating technique [4], and a CW radar
based on the synchronous detection technique developed at the same
University (Uni-Rome CW) have been tested. The radar ability in resolving
small target movements has been evaluated by using a copper plate (30 cm? 45 cm) oscillating forward and backward between two posts. In a series ofexperiments the distance between the two posts has been varied between
1 mm and 20 mm and the distance between the posts and the antenna
between 10 and 300 cm. The Uni-Oslo UWB radar was able to detect a 10mm oscillation up to a distance of 3 m, the Uni-Rome UWB revealed a 1 mm
oscillation up to a distance of 1 m, and the Uni-Rome CW detected a 1 mmmovement up to 2 m.
References[1] S.G. Azevedo, and T.E. McEwan, “Micropower impulse radar,” Science andTechnology Review, pp. 17-29, 1996.
[2] H.A. Hjortland, D.T Wisland,. T.S. Lande, C. Limbodal, and K. Meisal,“CMOS Impulse Radar,” Norchip Conference, 2006, pp. 75-79.
[3] L. Scalise, V. Mariani Primiani, P. Russo, A. De Leo, D. Shahu, and G.
Cerri, “Wireless Sensing for the Respiratory Activity of Human Beings:
Measurements and Wide-band Numerical Analysis,” Int. J. Ant. and Propag.,vol. 2013.

Armin W. Doerry, Douglas L. Bickel, Ann M. Raynal, Sandia National
Labs. (United States)
In recent years, a new class of Moving Target Indicator (MTI) radars has
emerged, namely those whose mission included detecting moving people,
or “dismounts.” This new mode is frequently termed Dismount-MTI, or
DMTI. Obviously, detecting people is a harder problem than detecting
moving vehicles, necessitating different specifications for performance andhardware quality. Herein we discuss some performance requirements typicalof successful DMTI radar modes and systems.

9077-56, Session Posters-Tuesday

Backprojection for GMTI processing
Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
Backprojection has long been applied to SAR image formation. It has
equal utility in forming the range-velocity maps for Ground Moving Target
Indicator (GMTI) radar processing. In particular, it overcomes the problem oftargets migrating through range resolution cells.

Correcting radar range measurements foratmospheric propagation effects
Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States)

9077-39, Session 8

Fall detection and classifications based on timescale radar signal characteristics
Ajay Gadde, Moeness G. Amin, Yimin D. Zhang, Fauzia Ahmad,
Villanova Univ. (United States)
Falls represent the leading cause of fatal and nonfatal injuries among older
adults and yield high medical costs. The importance of fall detection is evenincreasing as the old-age dependency ratio, which is defined as the ratio of
population aged 65 and above to the population aged between 20 and 64,
is expect to further increase significantly in the next a few decades. Timely
and accurate fall detection enables immediate response and renders propercare to be possible. Among a number of techniques that are considered forthis purpose, radar is particularly effective because it is non-intrusive andcan detect human motions in all types of environments, penetrate walls
and fabrics, preserve privacy, and is insensitive to lighting conditions. In
this paper, we use the micro-Doppler features of narrowband radar signals
corresponding to human body motions and gait to detect falls. Unlike
human gait, which is rich in resolvable micro-Doppler components, the fall
Doppler radar signature shows power concentrations over extended regionsin the time-frequency domain. That is, the motions of the torso and different
limbs during the fall appear intertwined and form contiguous clusters

SPIE DSS 2014

Some comments on performance requirements
for DMTI radar

9077-57, Session Posters-Tuesday[4] P. Bernardi, R. Cicchetti, S. Pisa, E. Pittella, E. Piuzzi, and O. Testa,“Design and Realization of a UWB Radar for Breath Activity Monitoring”, in
Proc. Int. Symp.on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Rome, Italy, September
2012.

98

9077-55, Session Posters-Tuesday·

A fundamental relationship that is the foundation for all radar is that atarget’s range is proportional to an echo delay time. The actual relationshiprequires knowledge of the velocity of propagation of the signal whose
echo delay time is measured. A typical assumption for radar ranging is touse free-space velocity of propagation. However, atmospheric dielectric
properties yield a measurably slower velocity of propagation that is afunction of temperature, atmospheric pressure, and especially humidity. This
results in range measurement errors. A simplified model is developed toestimate the error in range measurements for airborne ground-surveillance
radars.

9077-58, Session Posters-Tuesday

Digital synthesis of linear-FM chirp waveforms:
comments on performance and enhancements
Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States); John
M. Andrews, Stephen M. Buskirk, General Atomics Aeronautical
Systems, Inc. (United States)
The advent of high-speed, large, gate-count Field Programmable Gate Array(FPGA) components facilitates the implementation of high-performanceparametric digital waveform generators for radar applications. One such
waveform is the popular Linear-FM chirp. The state-of-the-art allows us towww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

generate high-fidelity, precision, wideband Linear-FM chirp waveforms withrelative ease, and furthermore enhance these waveforms with a number offeatures, including spectral notches, phase equalization, compound pulses,
and more. Design equations are presented, as well as a number of featureenhancements.

is based on the reflected signal modulation by movement of the bodysurface and internals. Objects in the human’s body, subjected to periodic
fluctuations are cardiac muscle and lungs. Patient’s physical activity andmedical state determines the values of these fluctuations. Bioradiolocation
may find application in different areas of medicine. At Bauman Moscow
State Technical University (BMSTU) method of bioradiolocation has beenstudied since 2002. Two bioradars with stepped frequency modulated
probing signals of ranges 3.6-4.0 and 13.6-14.0 GHz were designed. A studyof their usage effectiveness in different medical applications (somnology,
zoo-psychology) was carried out. With the help of the bioradars designed
at BMSTU wide variety of experiments was carried out. The bioradar
operating on 3.6-4.0 GHz was used for crewmembers sleep monitoring
during the international experiment MARS-500 (simulation of prolonged
isolation during a manned flight to Mars), which was conducted in Institutefor Biomedical Problems of Russian Academy of Sciences during 2010-2011.
The processing of experimental data revealed the individual characteristics
of sleep latency and sleeping of crew members. Some of them has longer
period of falling asleep and more restless sleep, others on the contrary fallasleep faster and have more calm and regular breathing pattern during
sleep time. For none of the crewmembers any clinically significant sleep
disordered breathing episodes were registered, however single episodesof obstructive apnea and hypopnea patterns in bioradar signals weredetected, which is normal for practically healthy people. At present on thebase of Almazov Federal Heart, Blood and Endocrinology Centre bioradar
assisted experiments are conducted, during which bioradar data recorded
simultaneously with full-night polysomnograms. These experimental data
are planed to be used for studying the possibility to distinguish REM andnon-REM sleep only by breathing pattern recorded by bioradar without
applying any additional contact sensors.

9077-59, Session Posters-Tuesday

A novel approach in automatic estimation of rats
loco-motor activity
Lesya Anishchenko, Sergey I. Ivashov, Igor Vasiliev, Bauman Moscow
State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation)
Laboratory rats are now one of the most common types of animal models
in pharmacology and zoo-psychology. At present, the estimation of animal
loco-motor activity during the tests is usually made by using speciallydesigned video tracking systems, e.g. Ethovision. The main disadvantagesof such systems are the large volume of recorded information and highcomplexity of the image processing algorithms, which are used.
There are other devices for automated estimation of loco-motor activity
parameters of laboratory animals. Some of them contain pressure sensors,
optical sensors, receiving and transmitting antennas, mounted in the flooror walls of the cage, which allow estimating the movement of the animal.
The main drawback of all these devices is the complexity of manufacturing
cells in which the animal is placed during the experiment, and the fact thatthe devices are designed for a certain kind of animal. That is why quite often
loco-motor activity of animals is estimated by the researcher visually.
Bioradars, which is radars for remote estimation of biological objects vital
signs, may also be applied for monitoring animals movements. The main
advantage of radar usage in this area of application is that a speciallydesigned cell is not needed; it is the possible to do integral evaluation of
rat loco-motor activity automatically during prolonged time period (daysor weeks). The method can be used with a plastic container, in which theanimals usually are housed in laboratories. However, special algorithms forcorrect distinguishing of different types of movements are still needed.
There is another problem: power flux density of reflected signal near radar
receiving antenna is inversely proportional to a range to the object ofdegree four. That is why power of the signal, reflected from an animal andreceived by bio-radar, depends greatly on the distance between antennas
block and animal. Because of this fact correct estimation of rat movement
activity becomes challenging task. To make power of the received signal
indifferent to location of an animal inside the box it was proposed touse corner reflector, which can be formed by covering two walls and theflour of the box with metal coat. A feasibility study of such approach wasmade by the experiments, during which bio-radar BioRASCAN-14 wasused. It operates at frequency range of 13-14 GHz and uses step-frequency
modulated signal. The experimental results showed that usage of a cornerreflector eliminates the dependence of received bio-radar signal power
level from the distance between animal and antennas block. Furthermore
algorithm proposed in was applied for processing of the same experimental
data set. In this algorithm the amplitude of the received signal spectrum isused for different types of animal movements distinguishing. It was foundthat usage of a corner reflector significantly increases the accuracy of thealgorithm in recognition of movement types.

9077-61, Session Posters-Tuesday

Distortion effects in a switch array UWB radar fortime-lapse imaging of human heartbeats
Sverre Brovoll, Tor Berger, Øyvind Aardal, Forsvarets Forsknings
Institute (Norway); Tor S. Lande, Univ. I Oslo (Norway); Svein-Erik
Hamran, Forsvarets Forsknings Institute (Norway) and Univ. I Oslo
(Norway)
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a major cause of deaths all over
the world. Microwave radar can be a new sensor for heart diagnostics
and monitoring in modern healthcare that aids early detection of CVD
symptoms.
In this paper, measurements from a switch array radar system are presented.
This is an UWB system working below 3 GHz that does time-lapse imagingof the beating heart inside the human body. The antenna is an array of eightfat dipole elements. With a RF switch system, every possible sequence oftransmit/receive element pairs can be selected to build a radar image fromthe recordings. To make the radar waves penetrate the human tissue theantenna array is placed in contact with the body. Removal of direct signal
leakage through the antennas and body surface are done by high-passfiltering of the data prior to image processing. To analyze the results,
measurements of moving spheres in air and simulations are carried out.
We see that removal of direct signal introduces amplitude distortion of theimages. In addition the effect of small target motion between the collectionsof data from the individual elements is analyzed. With low PRF this motion
will distort the image. By using data from real measurements of heart
motion as in the simulations, we analyze how PRF and antenna geometry
influence this distortion for heartbeat measurements. Finally the results fromthe simulations are compared to real measurements of the heart, and means
to limit the distortion effects are suggested.

9077-60, Session Posters-Tuesday

Application of step-frequency radars in medicine
Lesya Anishchenko, Maksim Alekhin, Alexander Tataraidze,
Sergey I. Ivashov, Bauman Moscow State Technical Univ. (RussianFederation); Francesco Soldovieri, Istituto per il Rilevamento
Elettromagnetico dell’Ambiente (Italy); Alexander S. Bugaev,
Bauman Moscow State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation)
Bioradiolocation is a method for detection and diagnostic of biologicalobjects, even behind optically opaque obstacles, by means of radar. It

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-62, Session Posters-Tuesday

seen as detection tracks.

Regularized Burg algorithm for small sample-size
space-time adaptive processing
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada); Alexis Decurninge, Frederic Barbaresco, Thales Air
Systems S.A. (France)

The results are promising with low false alarm rates. Future work willaddress positioning and micro-Doppler analysis of the measurements.

Space-time adaptive processing is an essential component of modern
airborne radars with ground-moving target indication capability. An
essential requirement for STAP is to estimate the clairvoyant covariancematrix. The standard approach is to use the sample covariance matrix, whichis also the maximum-likelihood estimator. The resulting inversion basedalgorithm is the well-known sample matrix inversion (SMI) algorithm.
However, the SMI algorithm performance is far from optimal. In particular,
the loaded sample matrix inversion (LSMI) algorithm, obtained by an ad-hoc
addition of a load, is well-known to perform significantly better than the
SMI, especially for larger spatio-temporal arrays. An improved performanceis also obtained using the projection class of algorithms. This leads one toconsider if even better algorithms are possible, and the source of improved
algorithms.
The fundamental reason that the SMI is not optimal is that the natural
mathematical object for studying covariance matrices is the Riemannian
geometry of symmetric cones. The symmetric cone is not a vector space.
The flat metric defined geodesic used ubiquitously in signal processing
preserves the symmetric positive-definite (SPD) character, i.e., the set of
SPD matrices is convex. However, the vector space assumption results in adegraded algorithm. Moreover, the set of SPD matrices with flat metric is
not a geodesically complete space.
In previous work it was shown that the Riemannian mean computed using
the Karcher barycenter led to a vastly improved performance when thenumber of clutter samples was small. However, it still had some ad-hoc
component, in that it started the iterative Karcher barycenter algorithm with
the LSMI estimate.
In this paper, the regularized Burg algorithm , which is based on Bayesian
spectral analysis with a frequency domain prior constraint, is used instead.
Unlike the previous algorithms, it is completely self-contained in that it does
not use the LSMI estimate as the initial condition for the Karcher barycenter
algorithm for estimating the covariance matrix. The algorithm is tested withhomogeneous and heterogeneous data. Substantial gains over SMI and LSMI
are observed when the sample size is small.

9077-63, Session Posters-Tuesday

Tommy Johansson, Anders Örbom, Ain Sume, Jonas Rahm,
Stefan L. Nilsson, Magnus Herberthson, Magnus Gustafsson, ÅsaAndersson, Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
In urban warfare or for surveillance purposes, having a stand-off radarsystem with the capability of seeing behind corners would be of great
importance. The possibility of detecting moving people and objects inthe shadow region of a street corner using diffraction and multipath
propagation of radar waves has previously been demonstrated inexperimental set-ups. In this study we investigate detection of movements
in a realistic scene.

Investigations of probabilistic data association
class of multiple target tracking algorithms for
airborne ground moving target indication radars
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada); Kai Wang, MDA Systems Ltd. (Canada)
The problem of automatic track formation and maintenance in the presenceof clutter and false alarms is a particularly challenging problem for airborne
ground moving target indication (GMTI) radars, due to the spread in clutter
Doppler caused by platform motion. In order to be able to detect and track
slow ground moving targets, it is essential to cancel clutter adaptively using
techniques such as space-time adaptive processing (STAP). This is basedon combining the received signals from multiples apertures and pulses, andperforming an adaptive estimation of the clutter covariance matrix. STAP
enables cancellation of clutter down to the noise level, enabling detection ofslow ground-moving targets.
The outputs from STAP include parameter estimates, that are the inputs
of a multi-target tracker (MTT). The problem of MTT is to automaticallyform and maintain tracks of multiple, time-varying number of targets.
While the extended Kalman filter (and variants) is often adequate for thefiltering component for GMTI applications, the MTT is made challenging
due to measurement origin uncertainty. The contributing factors to the dataassociation problem include low SNR, false alarms due to inadequate clutter
cancellations, as well as the presence of multiple targets in the vicinity ofthe target of interest.
There are several approaches to tackling this, that have been investigatedin the literature. A particularly popular class of algorithms is based on theprobabilistic data association (PDA), which approximates the conditional
probability density by a uni-modal Gaussian probability density function, by
virtue of its simplicity and ease of implementation. As a result, it is found inseveral operational systems.

9077-65, Session Posters-Tuesday

Power-line characterization from an airborne
data collection with a millimeter-wave radar

The measurements were made using a radar operating at X-band (9,9510,05 GHz) in a stepped-frequency mode. The moving objects in themeasurements are a person walking (at different speeds), riding a bicycleand driving a car, two persons walking and driving two cars. In theseexperiments a semi-monostatic single receiver-transmitter radar system
was used as a data collector. All detections were made after Doppler
filtering, using coherent subtraction between different frequency sweeps.
An adaptive detection threshold has been applied and the detections can beshown in range vs. time plots, where the movement of the object can been

SPIE DSS 2014

9077-64, Session Posters-Tuesday

In this paper, we will investigate a few variants of the PDA. In particular, we
will start by considering the independent PDA, where the initiated tracks are
evolved independently. In contrast, the joint probabilistic data association(JPDA) algorithm better tackles the problem of persistent interference--where measurements from one target can fall in the validation region ofa neighbouring target. A further variation is to include target existence
probability for each track, and the PDA and JPDA variants are termed theintegrated PDA (IPDA) and joint integrated PDA (JIPDA) respectively. We
compare the performance of these algorithms with simulated as real data.

Radar measurements of moving objects aroundcorners in a realistic scene

100

Detections of movements are made fairly easily. We can identify target
returns after one and two wall reflections. We did not try to exploit
diffraction in these measurements. The background is generally well
suppressed. Two persons moving in the scene can be separated in a range
vs. time plot, when allowed by the range resolution.

·

Darren S. Goshi, Long Bui, Honeywell International Inc. (UnitedStates)Enhancing the operational safety of small, maneuverable rotorcraft has beena critical consideration in the development of next generation situationalawareness sensor suites. From landing assistance to target detection andobstacle avoidance, millimeter wave radars have become the leading
candidate in this area due to their ability to operate in degraded visualenvironments, whether it be weather, induced debris, or night conditions

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

that must be dealt with. Power lines pose arguably the largest safety risk
due to their difficulty in detection and proper identification to support
avoidance maneuvering, where even under perfect conditions they can benearly invisible to the naked eye. The backscatter phenomenology frombraided power lines has been well-studied and formulated in previous
literature, albeit mainly in well controlled laboratory settings. Subsequently,
the ability to simply detect power lines at operational distances up
to around 2 km has been demonstrated. In this work, an analysis isperformed on the measureable characteristics of power lines captured ina representative operational environment for helicopters. The test location
included a diverse set of power line configurations with surrounding groundand tower clutter, representing a true scenario. A radiometrically calibrated
w-band real-beam FMCW sensor allows the study and estimation of target
RCS, and evaluation of results against the developed theory. All analysis isperformed on dynamically captured data from a helicopter, where platform
dynamics and system stability also play a significant role in a processed
result. Results from this work will aid the effective development of next
generation situational awareness systems.

A typical wind turbine is composed of stationary parts (foundation andtower), slow moving parts (nacelle, hub and nose cone) and fast moving
parts (rotor blades). Due to its large size, the speed at the tip of the blade
can reach 80 m/s, beyond the aliasing velocity of most ground-based
operational radars. As a result, extremely complicated mico-Doppler spectra
have been observed. And conventional ground clutter filter techniques havefailed to mitigate the non-stationary components in the frequency domain.
Rotation of the blades is a micro-motion as the overall wind turbine
structure stays at the same location. The time-evolving spectrum associatedwith the blade rotation is important in characterizing radar WTC. This paper
will present some latest findings from our studies for characterizing theMicro-Doppler radar signatures of wind turbine through radar measurement,
scaled model measurement and electromagnetic propagation and scatteringmodeling. These characterizations can be potentially useful in detection andidentification of wind turbine interference, as well as further mitigation of
the clutter impacts.

9077-42, Session 99077-40, Session 9

Micro-Doppler classification of rider and riderless
horsesPerformance bounds on micro-Doppler
estimation and adaptive waveform design using
OFDM signals

David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Micro-range Micro-Doppler can be used to isolate particular parts of theradar signature, and in this case we demonstrate the differences in thesignature between a walking horse versus a walking horse with a rider.

Satyabrata Sen, Jacob Barhen, Charles W. Glover, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States)
We analyze the performance of a wideband orthogonal frequency divisionmultiplexing (OFDM) signal in estimating the micro-Doppler frequency of atarget having multiple rotating scatterers (e.g., rotor blades of a helicopter,
propellers of a submarine). The presence of rotating scatterers introduces
Doppler frequency modulation in the received signal by generating
sidebands about the transmitted frequencies. This is called the microDoppler Effect (mDE). The use of a frequency-diverse OFDM signal inthis context enables us to independently analyze the mDE characteristics
with respect to a set of orthogonal subcarrier frequencies. Therefore, tocharacterize the accuracy of micro-Doppler frequency estimation, we
compute the Cramer-Rao Bound (CRB) on the angular-velocity estimate of
the target while considering the scatterer responses as deterministic but
unknown nuisance parameters. Additionally, to improve the accuracy ofthe estimation procedure, we formulate and solve an optimization problem
by minimizing the CRB on the angular-velocity estimate with respect tothe transmitting OFDM spectral coefficients. We present several numericalexamples to demonstrate the CRB variations at different values of thesignal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the number of OFDM subcarriers. The CRB
values not only decrease with the increase in the SNR values, but also
reduce as we increase the number of subcarriers implying the significanceof frequency-diverse OFDM waveforms. The improvement in estimation
accuracy due to the adaptive waveform design is also numerically analyzed.
Interestingly, we find that the relative decrease in the CRBs on the
angular-velocity estimate is more pronounced for larger number of OFDM
subcarriers.

9077-43, Session 9

Effect of wind turbine micro-Doppler on SAR and
GMTI signatures
Rajan Bhalla, Leidos (United States); Hao Ling, The Univ. of Texas atAustin (United States)
In this work, we perform a modeling study to examine the interference
effect of microDopplers caused by offshore wind farms on airborne sensors
operating in the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) or ground moving target
indicator (GMTI) mode. The modeling is carried out in two steps. In thefirst step, the dynamic signature of an individual wind turbine is simulatedusing the high-frequency electromagnetic software Xpatch. This entails
generating snapshot CAD models capturing the turbine blade rotation.
These models are then used to carry out the radar signature computationand form range profiles for the various CAD instantiations. In the second
step, the sensor motion is used in conjunction with the wind turbine
signature to form a time history. The radar data from an entire wind farmis obtained by neglecting interactions between turbines and summing the
responses from individual turbines. The simulated radar data are then postprocessed to form SAR images or GMTI range-Doppler chips. A wind farmcomprising 4 x 4 turbines is modeled at X-band. The SAR simulations showthat the dynamic signatures from rotating turbine blades cause cross-range
artifacts in the resulting SAR images. These artifacts extend along the crossrange dimension and can be seen beyond the physical location of the wind
farm. The GMTI simulations show that the dynamic signatures from rotating
turbine blades cause Doppler artifacts in the resulting range-Doppler
chips. The corruption in the range-Doppler chips is limited to the Doppler
extent from the turbine blades, and is bursty in time. These artifacts canpotentially interfere with tracking of boats in coastal waters. Some signal
filtering algorithms are tried to reduce the dynamic turbine clutter in both
SAR images and GMTI displays. Depending on the filtering parameters, theyshow varying degree of effectiveness in filtering out the turbine clutter.

9077-41, Session 9

Characterization of micro-Doppler radar
signature of commercial wind turbines
Fanxing Kong, Yan Zhang, Robert Palmer, The Univ. of Oklahoma(United States)
With the rapid growth of wind power industry, many large commercial
wind turbines have been built. These extremely large man-made structures
are reported to have negative impact on nearby radars due to complex
scattering mechanisms. This phenomenon is usually referred to as theradar Wind Turbine Clutter (WTC), which is a general description of various
effects wind turbines may have on radar sensing process, including theisolated clutter, multi-path clutter and partial beam blockage, etc.

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-44, Session 9

low phase noise and rapid, contiguous chirps, necessary for Doppler studies
and other coherent processing techniques.

Detection of small UAV helicopters using microDoppler
David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The detection of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) using radar can bechallenging due to the small radar cross section and the presence of false
targets such as birds. We present the initial results of micro-Doppler radar
data collected on a small helicopter at G-band and compare the results topreviously measured birds. The resulting signature differences can be used
to help discriminate small UAVs from naturally occurring moving clutter suchas birds.

9077-45, Session 10

Software-defined radar and waveforms forstudying micro-Doppler signatures
Baokun Liu, Rachel Chen, Ancortek Inc. (United States)
We have implemented a software defined radar using the open-source
GNU Radio toolkit and the Universal software Radio Peripheral (USRP) forstudying micro-Doppler signatures of human gaiting and helicopter rotating
rotor blades.
In this paper, we first introduce the state of the art of software definedradar: design concepts, advantages, and special consideration for radar
micro-Doppler signature studies. Then, we discuss the GNU radio toolkit
implemented on a host computer and its various GNU building blocks
including waveform generators, modulations, demodulations, mixers,
filters, and other signal processing functions. In the software defined
micro-Doppler radar, we used the USRP N210 motherboard (including D/Aconverter, A/D converter, the field programmable gate array, and highspeed Ethernet interfacing) connected to a RF front-end daughterboard toserve as the interface between the RF and the baseband processing. We
implemented CW, sawtooth FMCW, triangular FMCW, and other waveforms
for studying micro-Doppler, micro-range, and range-Doppler signatures.
Using this software defined micro-Doppler radar, we collected radar
data from human gaiting and helicopter rotating rotor blades. Finally, we
analyzed our experimental results using CW and FMCW signal waveforms
for studying micro-Doppler signatures combined with micro-range
signatures and range-Doppler images for characterizing human gaiting androtor blades rotating.

Comparative of signal processing techniques
for micro-Doppler signature extraction with
automotive radar systems
Berta Rodriguez Hervas, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (UnitedStates) and Mercedes-Benz Research & Development North
America, Inc. (United States); Michael Maile, Mercedes-Benz
Research & Development North America, Inc. (United States);
Benjamin C. Flores, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States)
During the last years, the automotive industry has experienced an evolution
towards more powerful driver assistance systems, leading to enhanced
vehicle safety. Those systems include sensors such as cameras and radars,
and have demonstrated high efficiency on collision and risk avoidance.
Radar systems are particularly relevant, due to their operational robustness
under adverse weather or illumination conditions. Our objective is to
study different signal processing techniques suitable for extraction of
accurate Micro-Doppler signatures of slow moving objects in dense urban
environments. For this purpose, we carry out a set of simulations of typicalradar detection response on common driving situations, and perform theanalysis with several signal processing algorithms, such as Short Time
Fourier Transform, Continuous Wavelet Analysis or Kernel based Analysis
Methods. To obtain valid results, we take account of factors such as therelative movement between the ego vehicle and target, and the nonstationary nature of the movement. As conclusion, a comparison between
the different results obtained is presented. Selection of the appropriate
signal processing technique is crucial for the extraction of accurate MicroDoppler signatures that will lead to the correct result based on the Radar
Classifier system.

Stationary and moving target shadow
characteristics in synthetic aperture radar

Very low-phase noise, coherent 94 GHz radar for
micro-Doppler and vibrometry studies

Ann M. Raynal, Douglas L. Bickel, Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National
Labs. (United States)

Duncan A. Robertson, Univ. of St. Andrews (United Kingdom);
Graham M. Brooker, The Univ. of Sydney (Australia); Patrick D. L.
Beasley, QinetiQ Ltd. (United Kingdom)
To reveal target signatures using micro-Doppler and vibrometry techniques
requires radars which operate coherently and possess very low phase noise.
Performing these measurements at millimetre or sub-millimetre wave
frequencies offers higher Doppler sensitivity than microwave radars but
presents technological challenges to meet the required level of performance.
Building on work published at DSS 2013 we wish to report on thedevelopment and characterisation of a new 94 GHz radar which offers fully
coherent operation with very low phase noise. The radar, dubbed T-220,
uses separate transmit and receive antennas with fan beam profiles toensure low transmit-receive leakage and modest elevation coverage whilst
maintaining fine azimuth resolution. The signal generation scheme exploits acommercially available direct digital synthesis (DDS) chirp generator which
is upconverted onto a microwave stable local oscillator (STALO) prior tofrequency multiplication to the carrier frequency. This scheme yields very

SPIE DSS 2014

9077-47, Session 109077-48, Session 109077-46, Session 10

102

We will present results which highlight the effects of the superior phasenoise afforded by this system compared with previous work, including
micro-Doppler measurements of people and vibrometry measurements ofvarious targets. Additionally, we will present very high dynamic range plan
position indicator (PPI) images of scenes which exploit the low phase noise
to yield imagery with great fidelity, suitable for many applications including
surveillance.

·

Shadows in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery are created when atarget with height blocks incident radar energy from illuminating the area
immediately behind it. Shadows depend on the physical dimensions andmobility of a target, platform and radar imaging parameters, and scene
clutter. Target shadows can be important for target detection, location, andtracking or even identification. However, SAR shadows prove difficult tocapture as a target or platform moves, since the no-return area may quickly
degrade. In this paper, we provide a general formulation of SAR shadow
dimensions and intensity for targets with an arbitrary motion.

9077-49, Session 10

Extremely high-frequency micro-Doppler
measurements of humans
Charles R. Dietlein, Abigail S. Hedden, U.S. Army Research Lab.

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

9077-51, Session 11(United States); Jeremy A. Green, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States); Jerry L. Silvious, David A. Wikner, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

Lidar compressive sensing using chaotic
waveform

Operation in the EHF portion of the spectrum—specifically, near the
220 GHz atmospheric window—introduces simultaneous advantages
and challenges for radar systems. The advantages include (1) the highavailable bandwidth, resulting in improved range resolution, (2) the ability
to generate video-rate synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery from anairborne platform, and (3) the ability to penetrate common atmosphericobscurants such as clouds and dust. The latter two advantages imply
that next-generation SAR systems in the EHF band have the potential tosupplant existing optical and infrared imaging systems, providing improved
safety during landing, and situational awareness in general, for airborne
systems operating in poor atmospheric conditions. On the other hand, thepresent challenges at these frequencies include (1) a lack of compact andreliable high-power transmitters, (2) a gap in knowledge of the scattering
properties of natural and artificial surfaces, (3) incomplete understandingof the fully-polarimetric backscatter of rain, and (4) the unknowns of radarcross section (RCS) and micro-Doppler signatures of humans.

Berenice Verdin, Ricardo von Borries, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso
(United States)
Full waveform lidar systems are designed to acquire the complete signal
reflected from an illuminated target and they can provide more detailed
information about the target than conventional lidar. They demand theacquisition of high volumes of data, but by using a compressive sensing
approach it is possible to reduce the data acquisition sampling rate andstill recover the full response from the target. The sampling rate reduction
can be incorporated in the acquisition hardware to perform sensing of thesignal with compression. In this paper, we propose to use a deterministic
compressive sensing approach by using a chaotic signal as the sensing
matrix. The proposed approach gives the range profile information without
the requirement of further processing techniques. For comparison, we used
two different types of transmitted signals: chaotic and linear frequency
modulated (LFM) signals. Simulations demonstrate that chaotic signals give
better results than the LFM signals. By using a chaotic signal we can obtain
the impulse response of the target by using less than 20 percent of thesamples used with LFM signals.

We are developing a fully-polarimetric frequency-modulated
continuous-wave instrumentation radar to explore the latter three ofthe aforementioned topics, as part of DARPA’s Video-rate SAR (ViSAR)
program. The radar is comprised of commercial off-the-shelf components,
with the exception of the high-performance orthomode transducers thatare custom-built to provide the isolation necessary for measuring the weakcross-polarized return from rain. In this presentation we will describe theradar system and our progress so far, including RCS and micro-Doppler
measurements of humans (and a phenomenological description of
the results), and monostatic backscatter from surfaces such as asphalt
and building materials. Additionally, we will present the experimentconfiguration we are developing to characterize in situ rain.

9077-52, Session 11

Off-grid compressive sensing ultra-wideband
radar imaging
Shugao Xia, Delaware State Univ. (United States)
Compressive sensing (CS) schemes have been widely proposed for spatial
sparsity of the target space in radar imaging applications to decrease thedata acquisition load in practical systems, while also generating highresolution images. These schemes mainly discretize the continuous target
space into grid points and generate a dictionary of model data to form an
optimization problem for radar image reconstruction. The choice of the gridfor generating the sparsity inducing basis or dictionary is a central point of
CS and sparse approximation. However, good sparse recovery performanceis based on the assumption that the targets are positioned at the prediscretized grid locations; otherwise, the performance would significantly
degrade. This phenomenon is known as the off-grid problem. This paper
investigates ultra-wideband (UWB) radar imaging which incorporates
error caused by the off-grid targets. The joint sparse recovery method is
proposed for reducing the effect of the grid to locate the off-grid target.
Numerical examples demonstrate the robust results with much smaller
reconstruction errors using the joint sparse recovery method are obtainedfor off-grid targets compared to standard sparse reconstruction techniques.

9077-50, Session 11

SAR moving target imaging in complex scenes
using sparse and low-rank decomposition
Kang-Yu Ni, Shankar R. Rao, HRL Labs., LLC (United States)
We propose a method to image a complex scene with spotlight synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) despite the presence of multiple moving targets. Many
recent methods use sparsity-based reconstruction coupled with phase error
corrections of moving targets to reconstruct stationary scenes. However,these methods rely on the assumption that the scene itself is sparse andthus unfortunately cannot handle realistic SAR scenarios with complex
backgrounds consisting of more than just a few point targets.
Our method makes use of sparse and low-rank (SLR) matrix decomposition,an efficient method for decomposing a low-rank matrix and sparse matrix
from their sum. For detecting the moving targets and reconstructing
the stationary background, SLR uses a convex optimization model thatpenalizes the nuclear norm of the low rank background structure and the L1
norm of the sparse moving targets.

9077-53, Session 11

Wideband aperture array using RF channelizers
and massively-parallel digital 2D IIR filterbank

We propose an L1-norm regularization reconstruction method to form
the input data matrix, which is grossly corrupted by the moving targets.
Each column of the input matrix is a reconstructed SAR image withmeasurements from a small number of azimuth angles. The use of the L1norm regularization and a sparse transform permits us to reconstruct thescene with significantly fewer measurements so that moving targets areapproximately stationary.

Arindam Sengupta, Arjuna Madanayake, The Univ. of Akron (UnitedStates); Roberto Gómez-García, Univ. de Alcalá (Spain); Erik
Engeberg, The Univ. of Akron (United States)
Wideband receive-mode beamforming applications in wireless location,
electronically-scanned antennas for radar, RF sensing, microwave imaging
and wireless communications require digital aperture arrays that offer arelatively constant far-field beam over several octaves of bandwidth. Several
beamforming schemes including the well-known true time-delay and thephased array beamformers have been realized using either finite impulse
response (FIR) or fast Fourier transform (FFT) digital filter-sum based
techniques. These beamforming algorithms offer the desired selectivity
at the cost of a high computational complexity and frequency-dependantfar-field array patterns. A novel approach to receiver beamforming is the

We demonstrate our SLR-based approach using simulations adapted fromthe GOTCHA Volumetric SAR data set. These simulations show that SLR canaccurately image multiple moving targets with different individual motions
in complex scenes where methods that assume a sparse scene would fail.

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Conference 9077: Radar Sensor Technology XVIII

use of massively parallel 2-D infinite impulse response (IIR) fan filterbanks
for the synthesis of relatively frequency independent RF beams at anorder of magnitude lower multiplier complexity compared to FFT or FIR
filter based conventional algorithms. The 2-D IIR filterbanks demand fast
digital processing that can support several octaves of RF bandwidth, fast
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) for RF-to-bits type direct conversion of
wideband antenna element signals. Fast digital implementation platforms
that can realize high-precision recursive filter structures necessary for realtime beamforming, at RF radio bandwidths, are also desired. We propose
a novel technique that combines a passive RF channelizer, multi-channel
ADC technology, and single-phase massively parallel 2-D IIR digital fan
filterbanks, realized at low complexity using FPGA and/or ASIC technology.
There exists native support for a larger bandwidth than the maximum
clock frequency of the digital implementation technology. We also strive
to achieve More-than-Moore throughput by processing a wideband RF
signal having content with N-fold (B=N.Fc/2) bandwidth compared tothe maximum clock frequency Fc Hz of the digital VLSI platform underconsideration. Such increase in bandwidth is achieved without use ofpolyphase signal processing or time-interleaved ADC methods. That is, alldigital processors operate at the same Fc clock frequency without phasing,while wideband operation is achieved by sub-sampling of narrower subbands at the the RF channelizer outputs. FPGA based co-simulations and
ASIC synthesis results provide compelling evidence of high throughput, andthe maximum clock frequency demanded by the design.

9077-54, Session 11

Signal processing techniques for steppedfrequency ultra-wideband radar
Lam H. Nguyen, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The Army Research Laboratory has developed the ground vehicle-based
forward-looking Ultra-Wideband (UWB), synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for
the detection of concealed targets. Although the impulse-based architectureoffers its own advantages, one of the important challenges is that whenusing this architecture it is very difficult to transmit radar signal with
arbitrary bandwidth and shape. This feature is crucial in order for the radar
to be compliant with the local frequency authority. In addition, the ability totransmit an arbitrary waveform is an important step for the next generationof smart (cognitive) radar. Therefore, we have decided to design the next
generation prototype radar to take advantage of the stepped frequency
architecture. The design and building of the radar hardware is underway.
In this paper, we study the radar transmit and acquisition scheme, the tradeoffs between SAR image performance and various key radar parameters,
and the data reconstruction techniques for radar signals with arbitrary
spectrum. This study is conducted to demonstrate performance, provide
guidelines for radar design, and serve as a foundation of the signal andimage processing stage. The results will be shown using simulated data.

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Conference 9078:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII
Thursday - Friday 8 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9078 Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII

9078-1, Session 1

by suitable experiments. Conventional load as it is available on transfer
stations of freight companies has been used in order to estimate the sensor
performances with respect to the intended tasks. It points out that bothradar and radiometer approaches have benefits for the intended application.
The different ideas and some representative experimental imaging results ofboth systems are presented.

TeraSCREEN: multi-frequency multi-mode
Terahertz screening for border checks
Naomi E. Alexander, Alfa Imaging S.A. (Spain); Byron Alderman,
Teratech Components Ltd. (United Kingdom); Fernando Allona
Alberich, Alfa Imaging S.A. (Spain); Peter M. Frijlink, OMMIC(France); Ramon Gonzalo, Univ. Pública de Navarra (Spain);
Manfred Hägelen, Fraunhofer FHR (Germany); Asier Ibáñez,Anteral S.L. (Spain); Viktor Krozer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Univ.
Frankfurt am Main (Germany); Marian L. Langford, ICTS (UK) Ltd.
(United Kingdom); Ernesto Limiti, Univ. degli Studi di Roma Tor
Vergata (Italy); Duncan Platt, Acreo AB (Sweden); Marek Schikora,
Fraunhofer FKIE (Germany); Hui Wang, Rutherford Appleton Lab.
(United Kingdom); Marc Andree Weber, Albert-Ludwigs-Univ.
Freiburg (Germany)

9078-3, Session 1

Standoff passive video imaging at 350 GHz with
251 superconducting detectors
Daniel T. Becker, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States); Cale Gentry, Univ. of Colorado (United States);Ilya Smirnov, Univ. of Maryland (United States); James A. Beall,
Hsiao-Mei Cho, William D. Duncan, Dale Li, Gene C. Hilton, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States); Kent D.
Irwin, Stanford Univ. (United States); Nicholas G. Paulter Jr., Carl D.
Reintsema, Robert E. Schwall, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Peter A. Ade, Carole E. Tucker, Cardiff
Univ. (United Kingdom); Simon R. Dicker, Univ. of Pennsylvania(United States); Mark Halpern, The Univ. of British Columbia(Canada)The challenge for any security screening system is to identify potentiallyharmful objects such as weapons and explosives concealed under clothing.
Classical border and security checkpoints are no longer capable of fulfillingthe demands of today’s ever growing security requirements, especiallywith respect to the high throughput generally required which entails a highdetection rate of threat material and a low false alarm rate. TeraSCREEN
proposes to develop an innovative concept of multi-frequency multi-mode
Terahertz and millimeter-wave detection with new automatic detection andclassification functionalities. The system developed will demonstrate, at alive control point, the safe automatic detection and classification of objects
concealed under clothing, whilst respecting privacy and increasing current
throughput rates. This innovative screening system will combine multifrequency, multi-mode images taken by passive and active subsystems
which will scan the subjects and obtain complementary spatial and spectral
information, thus allowing for automatic threat recognition.

Millimeter wavelength radiation holds promise for detection of security
threats at a distance, including suicide bomb belts and maritime threatsin poor weather. The high sensitivity of superconducting Transition-EdgeSensor (TES) bolometers makes them ideal for passive imaging of thermal
signals at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths. We have built a 350
GHz video-rate imaging system using large-format arrays of feedhorncoupled TES bolometers. The system operates at a standoff distance of
16-28 m with a spatial resolution of 1 cm (at 16 m). It currently contains one
251-detector sub-array, and will be expanded to contain four sub-arrays
for a total of 1004 detectors. The system has been used to take video
images which reveal the presence of weapons concealed beneath a shirt
in an indoor setting. We will present analysis of these videos, the results ofbeam mapping and optical efficiency measurements, and progress towards
installation of the second 251-detector sub-array.

The TeraSCREEN project, which will run from 2013 to 2016, has received
funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme
under the Security Call.

9078-2, Session 1

Determination of truckload by microwave andmillimeter-wave imaging
Markus Peichl, Stephan Dill, Timo M. Kempf, Deutsches Zentrum für
Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany)
The freight transportation service by truck is an extremely growing market
all over the world. On the other hand the road traffic infrastructure in mostcountries is overloaded and is not or could not grow in an appropriatemanner. Hence there is a strong demand to optimize the capacity utilizationof trucks in order to reduce the volume of truck traffic on the roads. Freighttransportation companies are loading their trucks in the daily business notalways with the focus on efficient volume utilization. Mostly the loading
is done by experience of the forklift operator. Hence there is an interest
to estimate the volume distribution of truckload with a fast and standoff monitoring sensor under common driving conditions. MW or MMW
sensors like radars and radiometers can provide a significant benefit tothis task due to the penetration capabilities of these wavelengths throughthin dielectric walls for example like plastic truck covers. As a very usefulside effect such a system can deliver valuable information for security
applications, e.g. about illegal transportation attempts, when installed onsuitable locations. This paper describes the problem oriented applicationof DLR’s experimental MW radar and MMW radiometer sensors for theestimation of truckload under controlled slow driving conditions of a test
truck. Various measurement geometries have been identified and tested

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Conference 9078:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII

9078-5, Session 1

9078-7, Session 2

Improvements to the design process for a realtime passive millimetre-wave imager to be used
for base security and helicopter navigation indegraded visual environments

Progress in passive submillimeter-wave video
imaging

Rupert N. Anderton, Colin D. Cameron, James G. Burnett, QinetiQ
Ltd. (United Kingdom); Jeff J. Guell, The Boeing Co. (United States);
Jack Sanders-Reed, Boeing-SVS, Inc. (United States)
This paper discusses the design of an improved passive millimetre wave
imaging system intended to be used for base security in degraded visualenvironments. The discussion starts with the selection of the optimum
frequency band. The trade-offs between requirements on detection,
recognition and identification ranges and optical aperture are discussedwith reference to the Johnson Criteria. It is shown that these requirements
also affect image sampling, receiver numbers and noise temperature, frame
rate, field of view, focussing requirements and mechanisms, and tolerance
budgets. The effect of image quality degradation is evaluated and a single
testable metric is derived that best describes the effects of degradation
on meeting the requirements. The discussion is extended to tolerance
budgeting constraints if significant degradation is to be avoided, including
surface roughness, receiver position errors and scan conversion errors.

Passive submillimeter-wave scanning has been in the focus of interest
as a promising technology for personal security screening for a numberof years. In contradiction to established portal-based millimeter-wave
scanning techniques it uses quasi-optical imaging and therefore is suitable
for stand-off or stealth operation. Possible application scenarios demandsensitive, fast, and flexible high-quality imaging techniques. Considering the
low radiometric contrast of indoor scenes in the submillimeter range, thisobjective calls for a high detector sensitivity that can only be achieved using
cooled detectors.
Our approach to this task is a series of passive standoff video cameras forthe 350 GHz band using arrays of superconducting transition-edge sensors(TES), reflector optics, and opto-mechanical scanners. These cameras
represent an evolving concept and a continuous development since 2007.
The TES are operated at temperatures below 1 K, cooled by a closed-cycle
cooling system, and coupled to superconducting readout electronics. By thismeans, background limited photometry (BLIP) mode is achieved providing
the maximum possible signal to noise ratio. At video rates, this leads to a
pixel NETD well below 1 K.

Although the reflective twist-polarisation imager design proposed ispotentially relatively low cost and high performance, there is a significant
problem with obscuration of the beam by the receiver array. Methods ofmodelling this accurately and thus designing for best performance are
given.

9078-6, Session 1

The latest product of this camera development features a linear array of 128
detectors and a linear scanner capable of 25 Hz frame rate. Using different
types of reflector optics, a field of view of 1x2 m2 and a spatial resolutionof 1-2 cm is provided at object distances of about 5-25 m. We present theconcept of this camera and give details on system design and performance.
Demonstration videos show it’s capability for hidden threat detection andillustrate possible application scenarios.

Reflectarray design and its element
characterization at millimeter wavelengths
Aleksi A. Tamminen, Juha Ala-Laurinaho, Tom F. Gallacher, Antti V.
Räisänen, Aalto Univ. School of Science and Technology (Finland)
We present design and simulations of a reconfigurable reflectarray suitablefor use as a sub-reflector in a confocal millimeter-wave imaging system.
In such an imaging system, the required steering range of the reflectarrayis rather limited and high steering resolution is needed. We evaluate
the performance of different kind of reflectarray configurations, i.e.,phase quantization and feeding field, for the confocal imaging system. A
quantized-particle-swarm optimization is applied in order to mitigate theeffects of the periodic phase error across the reflectarray. Also, the grating
lobes due to discontinuities, e.g. bonding wires, can be suppressed withthe optimization algorithm. The reflectarray element is based on microstrip
structures, and the reconfigurability is achieved with MEMS-based phaseshifters. Both 1- and 2-bit phase quantization is considered.

9078-8, Session 2

Passive 670 GHz imaging with uncooled lownoise HEMT amplifiers coupled to zero-bias
diodesErich N. Grossman, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States); Xiaobing Mei, Kevin M. Leong, Northrop Grumman
Corp. (United States); William R. Deal, Northrop Grumman
Aerospace Systems (United States)

A reflectarray is characterized in a near-field measurement range. There,
the reflection from the individual reflectarray elements is imaged at a
distance of the order of a wavelength. Both the realized reflection phaseand magnitude of the specular reflection are determined – giving more
information on the reflectarray element performance than a beam patternmeasurement is capable of. A near-field measurement system is set up
and tested at 120 GHz. The lateral resolution and phase measurement
accuracy are 0.56l and ±4°, respectively. A static reflectarray is tested in
the measurement system, and the reflection coefficient of the individual
elements of it is measured.

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SPIE DSS 2014

Erik Heinz, Supracon AG (Germany) and Institut für Photonische
Technologien e.V. (Germany); Torsten May, Detlef Born, Gabriel
Zieger, Katja Peiselt, Institut für Photonische Technologien e.V.
(Germany); Vyacheslav Zakosarenko, Supracon AG (Germany)and Institut für Photonische Technologien e.V. (Germany); Torsten
Krause, André Krüger, Marco Schulz, Frank Bauer, Hans-Georg
Meyer, Institut für Photonische Technologien e.V. (Germany)

We discuss the application of recently developed 670 GHz low-noise
amplifiers based on InP HEMTs to passive indoor imaging. Packaged
LNAs were integrated with commercial zero-bias diodes, and accurate
measurements of system noise-equivalent temperature difference (NETD)
made, using blackbody sources. The NETD values are compared withindependent prior measurements (Deal et al. 2011) of LNA gain, noise figure,and bandwidth, and with cryogenic bolometer measurements made in thesame test conditions. Currently, the LNA gain is not sufficient to render
the ZBD noise negligible; measurements are presented that separate thetwo components. Low-frequency noise measurements are also presented
that display the effects of 1/f noise in the ZBD and gain variations in the
LNA. The implications of the low-frequency noise are discussed in termsof scanning or beam-steering strategies for an imager based on the LNAs.
Raster-scanned, single-pixel images of indoor scenes are presented. They
are quantitatively interpreted in terms of NETD, and angular resolution andcoupling efficiency of the optics.

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Conference 9078:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII

9078-9, Session 2

implement for the above applications.A 3D MMW imaging system basedon chirp radar was studied previously using a scanning imaging system ofa single detector. The system presented here proposes toemploy a chirpradar method with Glow Discharge Detector (GDD) Focal Plane Array (FPAof plasma based detectors) using heterodyne detection. The intensity ateach pixel in the GDD FPA yields the usual 2D image. The value of the I-F
frequency yields the range information at each pixel. This will enable 3D
MMW imaging. In this work we experimentally demonstrate the feasibilityof implementing an imaging system based on radar principles and FPAof inexpensive detectors. This imaging system is shown to be capable ofimaging objects from distances of at least 10 meters.

Surface and volumetric backscattering at
millimeter-wave and terahertz frequencies
David A. DiGiovanni, Andrew J. Gatesman, Robert H. Giles, Univ. ofMassachusetts Lowell (United States); William E. Nixon, National
Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)
Successful development of remote sensing and communication systems
in the terahertz band requires a better understanding of the scattering
behavior of various structures. Materials that could be consideredhomogeneous and smooth at microwave frequencies may begin to display
diffuse and volumetric scattering behavior in the terahertz band. The
copolarization and cross-polarization backscattering coefficient of several
types of metal and dielectric structures were measured in indoor compact
radar ranges operating between 0.10 THz and 1.56 THz. These structuresconsisted of roughened Aluminum plates, homogeneous dielectric surfaces,
and inhomogeneous dielectric surfaces. The roughness and inclusions of
the measured samples were tailored in order to systematically investigate
various scattering effects. Polarimetric backscattering measurements ofthese materials were collected at incident angles from 15 to 85 degrees.
Analysis of the backscatter data supports a better understanding of surface
and volumetric scattering behavior of materials in the 0.10 – 1.56 THz region.

9078-12, Session 3

Spatially selective mirror for compressive sensing
imaging system
Steven T. Griffin, The Univ. of Memphis (United States)
Compressive sensing has been identified as a significant technique toreduce the volume of data collected in sensing applications to a minimum.
This is required to ease the power, mass and physical requirements ofmany systems including imaging applications. Prior art has empiricallydemonstrated the effectiveness of a spinning disk for reconstruction of
TeraHertZ (THZ) images. In these systems, the rotating disk is perforated
with transmitting holes slightly larger than the wavelength. Modeling of
this system suggests a description based on the non-linear combination of
pin-hole lens slightly larger than the THZ wavelength used. Prior empirical
data has demonstrated reconstruction artifacts that are associated, in part,with the statistical Probability Density Function (PDF) of the randomly
distributed transmission holes in the rotating plate. Empirical demonstration
at other wavelengths such as the InfRared (IR) has also been suggested. In
this later implementation, the holes will typically be significantly larger thana single wavelength. This document summarizes the statistical requirements
for artifact minimization for the previously reported spinning disk system.
Particular emphasis is placed on the impact of a wavelength change from
TeraHertZ (THZ) to InfRared (IR) wavelengths where the hole’s diameter is
no longer on the order of the incident wavelength. Analysis indicates thatthe placement of the rotating axis with respect to the optical axis impacts
the non-linearity and preferred statistical distribution.

9078-10, Session 2

650 GHz bistatic scattering measurements onhuman skinRichard A. Chamberlin, Erich N. Grossman, Natalie Mujica-Schwahn,
National Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
Many groups are developing submillimeter cameras that may be used
to screen human subjects for improvised explosive devices (IEDs) andother threat items hidden beneath their clothing. In order to interpret
submillimeter camera images the scattering properties, specifically thebidirectional reflectance distribution of (BDRF) must be known. This
problem is not trivial because surfaces of manmade objects and human skinhave features comparable to the wavelength of submillimeter radiation –thus simple, theoretical scattering approximations do not apply. To tackle
this problem we built a goniometer instrument to measure the BDRF fromskin surfaces of live human subjects illuminated with a 650GHz beam. Skin
areas sampled are from the hand, interior of the forearm, abdomen, andback. The beam power density is less than 0.1 mW/cm^2. The 650GHz beam
has an approximately Gaussian profile with a FWHM of approximately 1
cm. Instrument characteristics: angular resolution 6deg; noise floor 35dB/
sr; dynamic range > 50dB; either S or P polarization; 30deg < bidirectional
scattering angle <= 180deg; and, the human scattering target skin area
is placed exactly on the goniometer center of rotation. Our results arecompared to prior measurements on random, rough surfaces. This new work
enables optically (radiometrically) correct models of humans.

9078-13, Session 3

Rapid beam steering at mmw and submmw
frequencies using an optoelectronic photoinjected Fresnel zone plate
Tom F. Gallacher, Aalto Univ. School of Science and Technology(Finland) and Univ. of St. Andrews (United Kingdom); Rune
Søndenå, Institute for Energy Technology (Norway); Duncan
A. Robertson, Graham M. Smith, Univ. of St. Andrews (United
Kingdom)

9078-11, Session 2

Optoelectronic beam steering provides an alternative method for rapid
and highly flexible beam steering, with support for applications ranging
from microwave through to terahertz frequencies. In particular, the photoinjected Fresnel zone plate antenna (piFZPA) method, wherein a photoexcited Fresnel zone plate plasma creates a dynamic binary lens, offers
highly accurate, symmetric, directive and rapid beam control which has thepotential to yield low-cost, video rate imagery using no moving parts.

Large distance 3D imaging of hidden objects
Daniel Rozban, Ariel Univ. (Israel); Natan S. Kopeika, Ben-Gurion
Univ. of the Negev (Israel); Amir Abramovich III, Ariel Univ. (Israel);
Avihai Aharon Akram, Assaf Levanon, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the
Negev (Israel)

We will present the latest results obtained using our novel piFZPA
architecture. In our approach we integrate an OEM digital light projection(DLP) system that enables rapid beam steering up to 32,000 beams per
second, when twinned with a suitable semiconductor substrate.

Imaging systems in millimeter waves are required for applications inmedicine, communications, homeland security, and space technology.
This is because there is no known ionization hazard for biologicaltissue, and atmospheric attenuation in this range of the spectrum is low
compared to that of infrared and optical rays. The lack of an inexpensive
room temperature detector makes it difficult to give a suitable real time107

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We will discuss the diverse design challenges involved in realizing thisapproach, which synergises various aspects of optics, semiconductor
and terahertz science in a single platform. We will present rapid beamsteering results, which will demonstrate highly flexible, symmetrical and·help@spie.org

Conference 9078:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII
accurate beam steering characteristics of our optically controlled lensantenna. The latest measurements demonstrate a wide field-of-view andhighlight a 3-order-of-magnitude increase in beam rates to those presented
previously. Demonstrations will include both 94 and 188 GHz variants in bothtransmission and reflection piFZPA configurations, highlighting the relativeadvantages and trade-offs in both architectures.

9078-17, Session 39078-14, Session 3

Design and operation of ACTPol: a millimeter
wavelength polarization sensitive receiver for the
Atacama Cosmology Telescope

A millimeter-wave lithographic imaging
spectrometer
Justus A. Brevik, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)

Benjamin L. Schmitt, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States) and for
the ACTPol Collaboration (United States)

We present the results on the development of a novel on-chip millimeterwave imaging spectrometer. Conventional millimeter-wave imaging
spectrometers rely on interference or spatial dispersion of light to measure
power in narrow frequency bands across a broad spectrum. In this novel
approach, light coupled to a broadband antenna is channelized into several
hundred adjacent, narrow bands using high quality factor superconducting
microwave resonators. The power in each channel is measured using asensitive superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) bolometer. Due tothe compact nature of this technique, hundreds of pixels can be packed into
a focal plane to create an imaging spectrometer.

9078-15, Session 3

Polarization effects on heterodyne detection
and imaging using glow discharge detector at
millimeter wavelengths
Avihai Aharon Akram, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel) andAriel Univ. (Israel); Daniel Rozban, Assaf Levanon, Ben-Gurion Univ.
of the Negev (Israel); Amir Abramovich III, Ariel Univ. (Israel); NatanS. Kopeika, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel)
A miniature neon indicator lamp, also known as a Glow Discharge Detector(GDD), costing about 50 cents, was found to be an excellent room
temperature THz radiation detector. Polarization effects on heterodyne
detection were investigated in this work. In heterodyne detection, becauseof the dot product relationship between signal electric field (ES) andlocal oscillator (LO) electric field (Elo), optimal operation of heterodyne
detection is obtained when ES and Elo are of the same polarization.
Preliminary results at 300 GHz showed better sensitivity by a factor of 20
with only 56 microwatt local oscillator power using heterodyne compared
to direct detection. Further improvement of the detection sensitivity canbe achieved if the LO power (Plo) is increased. In this work investigationof polarization effects in heterodyne detection using neon indicator lamp
GDD was carried-out. Experimental results of heterodyne detection at 300
GHz showed that an intermediate frequency (IF) signal was obtained fororthogonal polarization of the LO and signal, in contradiction to the theory.
Also, our latest imaging results using Glow Discharge Detector at millimeter
wavelengths will be shown in this work.

We highlight considerations for the design and operation of ACTPol, a
new receiver for the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT), capable ofmaking polarization-sensitive, millimeter-wavelength observations of theCosmic Microwave Background (CMB) at arcminute angular scales. ACT isa six-meter telescope located in northern Chile, dedicated to enhancing
our understanding of the structure and evolution of the early Universe bydirect measurement of the CMB. We describe the design of the ACTPol
focal plane at full-deployment, consisting of dual 150 GHz array package
modules and a multichroic array package with simultaneous 90 GHz and 150
GHz sensitivity. Each of these detector array packages reside behind a setof custom-designed, high-purity silicon reimaging optics with a novel antireflective coating geometry, the characteristics of which will be detailed.
Each array package module consists of ~1000 transition-edge sensor (TES)
bolometers used to measure the response of ~500 feedhorn-coupledpolarimeters, enabling characterization of the linear orthogonal polarizationof incident CMB radiation. The polarimeters are arranged in three hexagonal
and three semi-hexagonal silicon wafer stacks, mechanically coupled to an
octakaidecagonal, monolithic corrugated silicon feedhorn array (~140 mm
diameter). Readout of the TES polarimeters is achieved using time-division
SQUID multiplexing. Each array package is cooled using a custom-designed
dilution refrigerator providing a 100 mK bath temperature to the detectors,
which have a target Tc of 150 mK. Given the unique cryomechanicalconstraints associated with this large-scale monolithic superconducting
focal plane, we address the design considerations necessary for integration
with the optical and cryogenic elements of the ACTPol receiver. With firstlight achieved in July 2013, details of the ACTPol receiver deployment
and early results will be highlighted. Finally, specific consideration will begiven to the context of these associated technologies and their synergistic
application supporting allied field applications, including interests in national
security, counterterrorism, and nuclear nonproliferation. The NIST 350 GHz
Imager will be highlighted as an example of a standoff imaging system thathas successfully leveraged integrated technologies originally developed
for millimeter-wavelength cosmology applications, within systems such as
ACTPol, for use in the security and defense sectors.

Reconstruction techniques for sparse multistatic
linear array microwave imaging
David M. Sheen, Thomas E. Hall, Pacific Northwest National Lab.
(United States)

Sensor for the microwave imaging system basedon Josephson Junction

Sequentially-switched linear arrays are an enabling technology for a numberof near-field microwave imaging applications. Electronically sequencing
along the array axis followed by mechanical scanning along an orthogonal
axis allows dense sampling of a two-dimensional aperture in near real-time.
The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has developed thistechnology for several applications including concealed weapon detection,
ground-penetrating radar, and non-destructive inspection and evaluation.
These techniques form three-dimensional images by scanning a diverging
beam swept frequency transceiver over a two-dimensional aperture andLijia Chen, Jiaran Qi, Nannan Wan, Jinghui Qiu, Alexander Denisov,
Harbin Institute of Technology (China)
There exists big interest to develop the principal technology for theconstruction focal plane matrix for the passive Millimeter Wave Imaging
systems. Integration of plurality of the receivers or the radiometers as
an individual pixel into a matrix receiving systems seems efficient for

SPIE DSS 2014

B. L. Schmitt, for the ACTPol Collaboration

9078-18, Session 49078-16, Session 3

108

the realization of “radio-vision” or imaging systems without scanning if
small-sized sensors with good operating parameters are available. Without
doubt various current technical realization which have place in this field ofknowledge depend on the concrete principal trends of the scientific worldlevel teams which move forward their principal achievements.

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Conference 9078:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII
modes. In particular, the coupling among resonance modes provides areasonable molecular level interpretation of spectral features associatedwith THz excitation of molecular clusters. THz excitation is associated withfrequencies that are characteristically perturbative to molecular electronic
states, in contrast to frequencies that can induce appreciable electronic
state transition. Owing to this characteristic of THz excitation, one is able
to make a direct association between local oscillations about ground-state
minima of molecules comprising a cluster and THz excitation spectra.
The DFT software GAUSSIAN was used for the calculations of vibrational
resonance structure presented here.

mathematically focusing or reconstructing the data into three-dimensional
images. Recently, a sparse multi-static array technology has been developedthat reduces the number of antennas required to densely sample the linear
array axis of the spatial aperture. This allows a significant reduction in costand complexity of the linear-array-based imaging system. The sparse arrayhas been specifically designed to be compatible with Fourier-Transformbased image reconstruction techniques; however, there are limitations tothe use of these techniques, especially for extreme near-field operation.
In the extreme near-field of the array, back-projection techniques havebeen developed that account for the exact location of each transmitterand receiver in the linear array and the 3-D image location. In this paper,
the sparse array technique will be described along with associatedFourier-Transform-based and back-projection-based image reconstruction
algorithms. Simulated and measured imaging results are presented thatshow the effectiveness of the sparse array technique along with the merits
and weaknesses of each image reconstruction approach.

9078-22, Session 4

Temperature resolution enhancing ofcommercially available THz passive cameras due
to computer processing of images

9078-19, Session 4

Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Vladislav V. Trofimov, Igor E. Kuchik,Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (Russian Federation)

Investigation of radio astronomy image
processing techniques for use in the passive
millimetre-wave security screening environment

Using the original approaches for computer processing of images
captured by THz passive cameras, manufactured by various companies,
we demonstrate new opportunities for the detection of concealed objects.
Computer processing of images results in a temperature resolution
enhancing of cameras. Therefore, in particular, we demonstrate new
possibilities for seeing the clothes details, which raw images, producedby the THz cameras, do not allow to see. We achieve good quality of theimage due to applying various spatial filters to show independence ofprocessed images on math operations. This result demonstrates a validity ofobservable objects.

Christopher T. Taylor, The Univ. of Manchester (United Kingdom);
Simon J. Hutchinson, Neil A. Salmon, Manchester Metropolitan Univ.
(United Kingdom); Peter N. Wilkinson, The Univ. of Manchester(United Kingdom); Colin D. Cameron, QinetiQ Ltd. (United
Kingdom)
Image processing techniques can be used to improve the cost-effectivenessof future interferometric Passive MilliMetre Wave (PMMW) imagers. The
implementation of such techniques will allow for a reduction in the numberof collecting elements whilst ensuring adequate image fidelity is maintained.
Various techniques have been developed by the radio astronomy
community to enhance the imaging capability of sparse interferometric
arrays. The most prominent are Multi-Frequency Synthesis (MFS) andnon-linear deconvolution algorithms, such as the Maximum Entropy
Method (MEM) and variations of the CLEAN algorithm. This investigation
focuses on the implementation of these methods in the de-facto standard
for radio astronomy image processing, the Common Astronomy Software
Applications (CASA) package, building upon the discussion presented
in Taylor et. al, SPIE 8362. Starting from the development of software toconvert target image data into a format suitable for CASA we describea series of simulations that exploit the highlighted deconvolution and
MFS algorithms. The primary target application used for our investigation
is an outdoor security scanner for soft-sided Heavy Goods Vehicles. A
quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of the aforementioned image
processing techniques is presented, with thoughts on the potential costsavings such an approach could yield. Consideration is also given to how
the implementation of these techniques in CASA might be adapted tooperate in a near-field environment. This may enable a much wider usabilityby the imaging community outside of radio astronomy and thus would bedirectly relevant to portal screening security systems in the microwave andmillimetre wave bands.

We consider images produced by THz passive cameras manufactured byMicrosemi Corp. and ThruVision Corp

9078-25, Session Posters-Thursday

Passive millimeter-wave image analysis forconcealed object detection and classification
Seokwon Yeom, Dong-Su Lee, Daegu Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Millimeter wave (MMW) imaging has wide applications in security andsurveillance. Although a passive MMW imaging system can scan people inboth indoors and outdoors as a stand-off type sensor, the image quality
is often degraded by the diffraction limit and the low signal level. This
paper addresses concealed-object detection and classification based ongeometric features. Concealed object region is extracted by the multi-levelsegmentation. Principal component analysis regularizes the extracted regionin terms of translation and rotation. A geometric-based feature vector iscomposed of shape descriptors, which can achieve scale and orientationinvariant and distortion-tolerant property. Euclidean distance is measured
between the normalized feature vectors of input and reference objects.
Experiments is performed for five man-made objects such as gun, axe, knife,water pack, and lotion bottle showing the reliable classification results of theconcealed object.

9078-21, Session 49078-23, Session 6

DFT calculated THz absorption spectra of water
clusters

Plasmonic terahertz optoelectronics for higher
performance terahertz imaging systems (Invited
Paper)

Lulu Huang, Samuel G. Lambrakos, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Andrew Shabaev, George Mason Univ. (United States);
Noam Bernstein, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Lou
Massa, Hunter College (United States)

Christopher W. Berry, Ning Wang, Mohammad R. Hashemi, Mona
Jarrahi, Univ. of Michigan (United States)

Calculations are presented of vibrational resonance structure at THz
frequencies for a 38 molecule cluster of H2O using density functional theory(DFT). This resonance structure is due to coupling of molecular vibrational

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We introduce new designs of high performance terahertz imaging
systems based on plasmonic terahertz optoelectronics. We haverecently demonstrated that the use of plasmonic contact electrodes in a·

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Conference 9078:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVII
photoconductive terahertz source and detector manipulates the spatial
distribution of photocarriers in the device active area and enhances thenumber of photocarriers in nanoscale distances from contact electrodes
significantly, enabling efficient collection of the majority of carriers in a subpicosecond time scale. It also allows increasing photoconductor active area
without a considerable impact on device parasitics, boosting the maximum
terahertz radiation power and detection sensitivity by preventing the carrier
screening effect and thermal breakdown at high optical pump powers.
We have experimentally demonstrated two orders of magnitude higher
terahertz powers and more than one order of magnitude higher terahertz
detection sensitivities from our first generation plasmonic photoconductive
sources and detectors in comparison with similar photoconductive terahertz
sources and detectors with non-plasmonic contact electrodes. As a result,use of plasmonic photoconductive terahertz sources and detectors in aterahertz imaging setup offers more than three orders of magnitude higher
signal-to-noise ratio levels compared to existing terahertz imaging systems.
This could offer numerous opportunities for e.g., medical diagnostics,
biological sensing, pharmaceutical quality control, and security screening.

9078-24, Session 6

Resonant-tunneling-enhanced plasmonic
terahertz devices (Invited Paper)
Berardi Sensale Rodriguez, Univ. of Utah (United States); Huili G.
Xing, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States)
This talk discusses active terahertz devices based on the interplay between
resonant tunneling and electron plasma waves in semiconductor heterostructures. At high frequency, two dimensional electron gases in HEMTlike structures can allow for collective motion of electrons, the so-called
electron-plasma waves, whose group velocity might be more than one
order of magnitude larger than the electron-drift velocity therefore enablingtransit times associated with terahertz frequencies. Devices relying inelectron plasma waves have been recently demonstrated to be capable ofachieving very sensitive THz detection at room temperatures. As recently
proposed, addition of an element enabling resonant tunneling, such as a
double potential barrier as the gate-stack in a HEMT, can further improve
the THz performance of these devices. Distributed negative differential
conductance in this case provides a gain medium for the plasma waves
excited in the semiconductor 2DEG; i.e. the device behaves as an “active
transmission-line”. Based on this phenomena, device configurations
enabling very sensitive THz detection or power gain at THz frequencies will
be discussed in several material systems.

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Conference 9079: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR V
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9079 Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability, Integration, andNetworking for Persistent ISR V

9079-1, Session 1

the social/cognitive, information, and communication network genres.
Researchers at ARL and the Network Science Collaborative Technology
Alliance (NS CTA), a collaborative research alliance funded by the ARL,
conducted experimentation to determine if automated network monitoring
tools and task-aware agents deployed within an emulated tactical wirelessnetwork could potentially increase the retrieval of relevant data fromheterogeneous distributed information nodes. ARL and NS-CTA required thecapability to perform this experimentation over clusters of heterogeneous
nodes with emulated wireless tactical networks where each node could
contain different operating systems, application sets, and physical hardware
attributes. Researchers utilized the Dynamically Allocated Virtual Clustering
management system (DAVC) to address each of the infrastructure support
requirements necessary in conducting their experiment. The DAVC is anexperimentation infrastructure that provides the means to dynamicallycreate, deploy, and manage virtual clusters of heterogeneous nodes within
a cloud computing environment based upon resource utilization such
as CPU load, available RAM and hard disk space. The DAVC uses 802.1Q
Virtual LANs (VLANs) to prevent experimentation crosstalk and to allow
for complex private networks. Clusters created by the DAVC system can beutilized for software development, experimentation, and integration withexisting hardware and software. The goal of this paper is to explore how
ARL and the NS-CTA leveraged the DAVC to create, deploy and manage
multiple experimentation clusters to support their experimentation goals.

The Warfighter Associate: decision-support
software agent for the management ofintelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance(ISR) assets
Norbou Buchler, Laura R. Marusich, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Stacey Sokoloff, VELOXITI (United States)
A unique and promising intelligent agent plug-in technology for Mission
Command Systems— the Warfighter Associate (WA)— is described thatenables individuals and teams to respond more effectively to the cognitive
challenges of Mission Command, such as managing limited intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) assets and information sharing ina networked environment. The WA uses a doctrinally-based knowledge
representation to model role-specific workflows and continuously monitors
the state of the operational environment to enable decision-support,delivering the right information to the right person at the right time.
Capabilities include: (1) analyzing combat events reported in chat rooms
and other sources for relevance based on role, order-of-battle, time, andgeographic location, (2) combining seemingly disparate pieces of data
into meaningful information, (3) driving displays to provide users withmap based and textual descriptions of the current tactical situation,and (4) recommending courses of action with respect to necessary
staff collaborations, execution of battle-drills, re-tasking of ISR assets,
and required reporting. The results of a scenario-based human-in-theloop experiment are reported. The underlying WA knowledge-graphrepresentation serves as state traces, measuring aspects of Soldier decisionmaking performance (e.g. improved efficiency in allocating limited ISR
assets) across runtime as dynamic events unfold on a simulated battlefield.

9079-4, Session 1

Agile sensor tasking for COIST using natural
language knowledge representation andreasoning
David Braines, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom); Geethde Mel, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States);
Christopher Gwilliams, Christos Parizas, Diego Pizzocaro, Alun D.
Preece, Cardiff Univ. (United Kingdom)9079-2, Session 1

Summary of level 5 metrics for multi-intelligence
fusionWe describe a system architecture aimed at supporting Intelligence,
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) activities in a Company Intelligence
Support Team (COIST) using natural language-based knowledge
representation and reasoning, and semantic matching of mission tasks to
ISR assets. We illustrate an application of the architecture using a High Value
Target (HVT) surveillance scenario which demonstrates semi-automatedmatching and assignment of appropriate ISR assets based on information
coming in from existing sensors and human patrols operating in an area ofinterest and encountering a potential HVT vehicle. We highlight a number ofkey components of the system including (i) Soldiers on the field providing
input in natural language via spoken voice to a mobile device, which is thenprocessed to machine-processable Controlled Natural Language (CNL) andconfirmed with the Soldier; (ii) COIST analysts obtaining real-time situation
awareness on the unfolding events through fused CNL information – withassociated explanatory rationale – via tools available at the Command andControl (C2); and (iii) being supported by the system in tasking available
assets (subject to management and security policies, also expressed in
CNL) to localize and track the HVT. The system demonstrates various modesof operation including: automatic task assignment following inference of
new high-importance information, as well as semi-automatic processing,providing the COIST analyst with options and associated rationale in orderfor them to make a reasoned asset-allocation decision in the context of their
mission.

Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Over the last decade, there has been interest in presenting information
fusion solutions to the user and ways to incorporate visualization,interaction, and command and control. However, there is still a need toinvestigate which and what metrics (e.g., measures of performance andmeasures of effectiveness) are important to users (i.e., operators, analysts,
and engineers). Using the measures of merit (or figures of merit), we seek
to organize and discuss various metrics for user understanding of machine
fusion solutions for situation awareness. As an example, we present asystems solution example for multi-intelligence information fusion that
demonstrates the many issues surrounding the useful of metrics in Level 5
fusion such as interoperability standards, integration of man and machines,
and efficient networking for distribution user situation understanding.

9079-3, Session 1

Application of distributed virtual cluster
management to emulated tactical network
experimentation
Kelvin M. Marcus, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The U.S Army Research Laboratory (ARL) has built a “Network Science
Research Lab” to support research that aims to improve their ability toanalyze, predict, design, and govern complex systems that interweave

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Conference 9079: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR V

9079-5, Session 1

9079-8, Session 2

Evaluation and prioritization of scientific data
based on its level of support or refutation of anexperimental thesis

Multisensor data fusion for the northern border
low-flying aircraft detection and surveillanceDavid L. Masters, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security (United States);
Weiqun Shi, The MITRE Corp. (United States)

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
Missions over contested territory, space missions (particularly those
operating beyond Earth-orbit) and many other mission types are generally
are constrained by their communications capabilities. These spacecraft havethe capability of collecting far more data than they can ever send back to
Earth. For this reason, data must be selected to maximize performance
relative to science and other objectives. Many missions achieve this bysending back low-quality representations of data to allow controllers todetermine what data should be prioritized for transmission and in whatorder. For example, ‘thumbnail’ images are sent back to allow controllers
to determine what images they may wish to download in full resolution.
This low granularity data is not a panacea, however, as it can overlook
effects that may make the higher quality data unusable (e.g., image
blurring may not be noticeable in a low-resolution version of an image). It
may also miss important (perhaps, unanticipated) phenomena present in
the high-resolution data but smoothed over in the lower-resolution data.
The transmission of this low-resolution data for selection purposes also
consumes transmission capability that could be used to transfer additional
high-resolution files.
For this reason, onboard analysis of data to determine whether it should betransmitted back to Earth and, if so, at what level of priority is thus highly
desirable. This paper presents an algorithm for analyzing image data withregards to several hypotheses about the presence of various objects. This
example demonstrates how data can be prioritized based on its relevance insupporting or refuting a scientific thesis. Extrapolation from the image data
to other data types is also discussed.

9079-9, Session 2

9079-6, Session 1

Secure complex event processing in aheterogeneous and dynamic network
Thilina M. Buddhika, Indrakshi Ray, Colorado State Univ. (UnitedStates); Mark H. Linderman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Anura Jayasumana, Colorado State Univ. (United States)
Battlefield monitoring involves collecting streaming data from different
sources, transmitting the data over a heterogeneous network, andprocessing queries in real-time in order to respond to events in a timely
manner.
Nodes in these networks differ with respect to their trustworthiness,processing, storage, and communication capabilities. Links in the network
differ with respect to their communication bandwidth. The topology of the
network itself is subject to change, as the nodes and links may become
unavailable. Continuous queries executed in such environments must also
meet some quality of service (QoS) requirements, such as, response time
and throughput. Data streams generated from the various nodes in the
network belong to different security levels; consequently, these must beprocessed in a secure manner without causing unauthorized leakage ormodification. We demonstrate how to process queries and events in asecure manner in such a dynamic and heterogeneous environment.

Practical use of a framework for network science
experimentation
Andrew Toth, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Flavio
Bergamaschi, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom)
No Abstract Available

SPIE DSS 2014

Architecture for persistent surveillance using
mast and UAS-based autonomous sensing with
bio-inspired technologies
Jerry A. Burman, Intelligent Recognition Systems (United States)
Sensor networks are required to provide timely and accurate information
about events on the ground to dismounts and upper echelons in supportof DoD operations. Current unattended ground sensor (UGS) networks arecomprised of sparse heterogeneous sensors that provide temporal detectionof events. Persistent surveillance may also include the use of ground based
mast sensor systems for detecting and tracking personnel and vehicles.
The classification of disparate sensor data can be realized by fusing datafrom multiple sensors. Examples of disparate data include time of arrival,time difference of arrival, angle of arrival data and imagery. The DoD isseeking to enhance the performance of sensor networks through persistentsurveillance that leverages aerial and terrestrial platforms to disseminate
relevant information. A key Army requirement is to rapidly exfiltrate data
to enhance event detection/time of occurrence, source localization, eventclassification, direction of movement of adversarial activities and theverification of spatial events from sparsely distributed disparate sensors thatcomprise heterogeneous sensor networks.
A sophisticated real time architecture and network for capturing relevant
battlefield information of personnel and terrestrial events from a networkof mast based imaging and unmanned aerial systems (UAS) with target
detection, tracking, classification and visualization in support of command
post operations is presented. Applications like persistent surveillance ofwide area borders of personnel and vehicles is achieved using a uniquespatially and temporally invariant motion detection and tracking algorithm
for mast based cameras in combination with aerial remote sensing toautonomously monitor heterogeneous unattended ground based sensor
networks. UAS autonomous routing is achieved using bio-inspired
algorithms that mimic how bacteria locate nutrients in their environment.
Results include field test data, performance and lessons learned.

9079-7, Session 1

112

Criminal and drug trafficking organizations use small aircraft such as
small private planes, helicopters, and ultra-light aircraft to deliver illicit
cargo and contraband across remote sections of the Northern US border.
These organizations utilize aircraft with small signatures and operate at
low altitudes across remote and rugged sections of the border to takeadvantage of terrain masking to avoid detection. To address the challenges
and the asymmetric threat they present, the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) is presently
leading the development of a multi-sensor prototype system for field use
for the detection, tracking and classification of low flying / low observable
aircraft along the difficult terrain of the northwest border. The system
is an integrated suite of field sensors including a bistatic radar, acoustic
arrays, visual and thermal imagers, communications, remote power,
computational processing, data storage, air picture data manipulationand visualization. This paper describes the sensor fusion process and theenhancement. The fusion tracker combines measurements from a bistaticradar system and an acoustic sensor system into a uniform air surveillance
picture of the coverage region. Measurements from both systems consistof latitude, longitude, and sometimes altitude along with estimates of error
covariance. Tracks are filtered using a Kalman filter, and the measurements
are associated with existing tracks using a Munkres nearest-neighboralgorithm. The output of the tracker cues optical and infrared cameras topoint and zoom on a potential target of interest. Additionally, tracker output
is transmitted to a remote database for later review. Results from the recentLong Duration Field Test will be presented.

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Conference 9079: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR V

9079-10, Session 2

many targets that are tracked. Our approach can project tracks from one
camera to another camera with a different perspective viewing angle toobtain additional biometric features from different perspective angles,
and to continue tracking the same person from the 2nd camera eventhough the person moved out of the FOV of the 1st camera - ‘Tracking
Relay’. Preliminary tests of our algorithms indicate than high probabilityof detection can be achieved for both moving and stationary human. Ouralgorithms can simultaneously track up to 100 human targets with averaged
tracking period (time length) longer than the performance of the current
state-of-the-art.

Real-time movement detection and analysis forvideo surveillance applications
Nicolas Hueber, Christophe Hennequin, Pierre Raymond, Jean-Pierre
Moeglin, Institut Franco-Allemand de Recherches de Saint-Louis(France)
Pedestrian’s flow along critical infrastructures like pipes, train or vehicle
tracks, etc. as well as his behaviour in urban environment is of major interestin surveillance activities. The goal is to anticipate illicit, suspicious anddangerous actions. For this, we developed an all-in-one small autonomous
system which delivers high level statistics and, in some specific cases, alerts.

9079-12, Session 2

Advanced MicroObserver(R) UGS integration
with and cueing of the BattleHawk(TM) squadlevel loitering munition and UAVThis situational awareness project led us to manage efficiently the scene
and to perform movement analysis. Many dynamic background extraction
algorithms have been compared to reach the degree of robustness against
natural and urban environment perturbations and also to match theembedded implementation constraints.

Robert L. Steadman, John Finklea, Dean Frost, Sean Deller, James
Kershaw, Textron Systems Corp. (United States)

When one movement is detected in the scene, split in contiguous
elementary regions, a specific pedestrian pattern is applied to detect anddetermine its direction. Numerous high level information is also locallyextracted which does not require a high bandwidth media to be transmitted.
A set of more than ten prototypes, still in place, has been deployed overwide city centre for reaching macroscopic level of analysis. The results
demonstrate the relevance of the delivered information and how they canbe usefully fused to help the supervisor making a decision.

Textron’s Advanced MicroObserver® is a next generation remote
unattended ground sensor system (UGS) for border security, infrastructure
protection, and small combat unit security. The original MicroObsever® is asophisticated seismic sensor system with multi-node fusion that supports
target tracking. This system has been deployed in combat theaters. The
system’s seismic sensor nodes are uniquely able to be completely buried(including antennas) for optimal covertness. The advanced version adds awireless day/night IR camera, cued by seismic tracking, with sophisticatedtarget discrimination and automatic frame capture features. Also new isa field deployable Gateway configurable with a variety of radio systems
and flexible networking, an important upgrade that enabled this research.
BattleHawk™ is a small tube launched Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) with amunition designed to transmit video so that an operator can search for andacquire a target day or night, select a target for attack, and execute terminal
dive to destroy the target. It is designed as a lightweight squad level asset
carried by an individual infantryman.

Among them, the flow density map highlights pedestrian trajectory
deviations along streets.
Furthermore, a tracking algorithm has been realised to be coupled with thisfirst system in order to extend its capacity to surveillance applications innatural scene. The overall proposed algorithm steps have been describedand discussed in terms of efficiency and computational costs.

9079-11, Session 2

Although BattleHawk has the best loiter time in its class, it’s still relatively
short compared to large UAVs, also it’s a one-shot asset in its munition
configuration. Therefore Textron conducted research to determine if there
was military utility in having the highly persistent MicroObserver systemcue BattleHawk’s launch and vector it to beyond visual range targets forengagement. This paper describes that research; the system configuration
implemented, and the results of field testing that was performed ona government range early in 2013. On the integrated system that was
implemented, MicroObserver seismic detections activated that system’s
camera which then automatically captured images of the target. The georeferenced and time-tagged MicroObserver target reports and images werethen automatically forwarded to the BattleHawk Android-based controller.
This allowed the operator to see the intruder (classified and geo-located) on
the map based display, assess the intruder as likely hostile (via the image),and launch BattleHawk with the pre-loaded target coordinates. The operator
was thus able to quickly acquire the intended target (without a search)and initiate target engagement immediately. System latencies were a major
concern addressed during the research.

Robust human detection, tracking, andrecognition in crowded urban areas
Hai-Wen Chen, Mike McGurr, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (UnitedStates)Security surveillance cameras play an important role in protecting our daily
life as well as in helping the law enforcement to hunt down the criminals
and terrorists when crimes and terror attacks occurred – the recent Boston
Marathon Terror Attack case is such an example. However, excessive video
data from a crowded urban area post a huge load for the human analysts totimely trace down the persons accountable. An automated human detection,
tracking, and recognition system is urgently needed.
In this paper, we present algorithms we recently developed to support
an automated security surveillance system for very crowded urban areas.
There are several technical challenges for human (vs. vehicles) detection
and tracking: 1) The non-rigid shape and form of human bodies make it
difficult to apply matched filter techniques, and 2) Human motion has
much more complicated moving kinematic patterns than vehicles. It is
more difficult for human tracking to predict the forward (future) positions
as well as the tracking gate size. In our approach for human detection, thecolor features are obtained by taking difference of R, G, B spectrum andby converting R, G, B to HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) space. Morphologicalpatch filtering and regional minimum and maximum segmentation on theextracted features are applied for target detection. The human tracking
process approach include 1) color and intensity feature matching tracking
candidate selection, 2) adaptive track gate size selection for reducing false
tracking probability, and 3) forward position prediction based on previous
moving speed and direction for continuing tracking even when detections
are missed from frame to frame. The Human target recognition is improved
with a Super-Resolution Image Enhancement (SRIE) process. The process
can improve target resolution by 3-5 times and can simultaneously process

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9079-13, Session 3

Anomaly determination system architecure
Michael A. Kolodny, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available·

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Conference 9079: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR V

9079-14, Session 39079-16, Session 4

An algorithm for monitoring the traffic on a lesstravelled road using multi-modal sensor suite

Interoperability and coalition operations:coalition C2 and its implications for ISR (Invited
Paper)

Thyagaraju Damarla, Hao Vu, Gary Chatters, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States); James M. Sabatier, Univ. of Mississippi (UnitedStates)Matthew J. Martin, U.S. Air Force (United States)

As a part of an anomaly detection project, an unattended ground sensor(UGS) system, consisting of multi-model suite of acoustic, seismic, passive
infrared (PIR), and ultrasonic sensors, is deployed alongside a road withintermittent traffic. The goal of the project is to observe the traffic patternsof the vehicles and people, and determine if there are any outliers in thepatterns. As a part of the anomaly detection project, one goal is to correlate
outliers (anomalies) in information obtained on social media. The general
travel patterns on the road include vehicles travelling during the morningand evening hours going to work and people walking during their lunch
break. The sensors suite selected mainly consists of sensors that require low
power for operation and last a long time.
The output of each sensor is analyzed to classify the targets as groundvehicles, humans and airborne vehicles. The algorithm is also used to countthe number of targets belonging to each type and store the information
for anomaly detection. In this paper, we describe the classifier algorithms
used for acoustic, seismic, and PIR sensor data. The acoustic data are
analyzed for specific features pertaining to vehicles and human voices.
Cepstral coefficients of seismic signatures are used to classify the targets.
The seismic data are also analyzed for cadence of a person walking and the
PIR data are used to estimate approximate size of a target to determine
the type of target. We provide the results on each classifier as well as theconfusion matrices. We also describe the UGS data collection system used.

U.S. Unified Vision 2014 contributions (Invited
Paper)
Lebert Powell, Secretary of the Air Force/Acquisition (UnitedStates)Discussion on Unified Vision 2014

Interoperability as a design construct during
the development of quick-reaction capability
systems
Kevin L. Priddy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9079-19, Session 4

Actively learning to distinguish suspicious frominnocuous anomalies in a batch of vehicle tracks

ITA Scenario 2.0: technology impact in futurecoalition operations

Zhicong Qiu, David J. Miller, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Brian Stieber, Tim Fair, Toyon Research Corp. (UnitedStates)We investigate the problem of actively learning to distinguish “suspicious/interesting” anomalous vehicle tracks from “innocuous/uninteresting” ones,
starting from scratch, i.e. with no initially known suspicious examples nor
any prior knowledge of what an operator would deem to be “suspicious”.
This two-class problem is challenging both because it is unknown a priori
which features may characterize the suspicious (unknown unknown) classand because of huge labeled set class imbalance, even after some suspicious
examples have been identified. We present a comprehensive solution, bywhich a classifier learns to discriminate suspicious from innocuous, and in
so doing learns the subset of features on which to accurately base suchdecisions. Our solution encompasses: i) judicious choice of (p-value based)features that condition on the road segment/spatial cell, as well as featuresthat capture particular maneuvers (e.g. U-turns); ii) semi-supervised
learning, which exploits information in the unlabeled (test batch) tracks,
and iii) evaluation of several classifier models (SVMs, logistic regression).
We find that two active labeling streams are necessary in practice, in orderto have most efficient classifier learning while also forwarding the mostactionable tracks. Experiments on wide-area motion video tracks, extracted
via a system developed in-house at Toyon Corporation, demonstrate thestrong ROC AUC performance achievable by our system with sparing use ofoperator-based active labeling.

SPIE DSS 2014

9079-17, Session 49079-18, Session 49079-15, Session 3

114

No Abstract Available·

Paul Sullivan, Intelpoint Inc. (United States); Geeth de Mel, IBM
Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States); Tien Pham, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Seraphin Calo, IBM Thomas
J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States); David Braines, IBM United
Kingdom Ltd. (United States); Thomas La Porta, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States); Alun D. Preece, Cardiff Univ. (United
Kingdom); Alice Toniolo, Univ. of Aberdeen (United Kingdom); Ting
He, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States); Timothy J.
Norman, Univ. of Aberdeen (United Kingdom)Commanders never have the luxury of having to deal with only one crisis at
a time due to the dynamism in the environments they operate in; to function
effectively in such settings, they need to employ various Intelligence
Surveillance Reconnaissance (ISR) assets, be they traditional or nontraditional such as “Human as a Sensor”. These assets provide commanders
with better situational awareness, thus allowing them to make informed
decisions in time critical situations. Motivated by this, in this document
we will provide an overarching scenario for the International Technology
Alliance (ITA) program so that the technologies developed in the program
can come together cohesively to solve a set of identified challenges. The
scenario is based on a collection of vignettes that highlight an evolving
situation in a notional country- Sincor- after a campaign to liberate it froma dictatorial regime. The Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF) commander is
entrusted with maintaining the fragile peace and to ensure the stability. In
order to achieve this goal the commander must be able to understand all
facets of his Area of Responsibility (AOR) and remain aware of all on-going
activities that may affect his mission. The coalition itself adds another layerof complexity to his challenge as different members have varying degrees ofcapabilities and different reporting procedures which need to be discovered
and combined to make informed decisions. Through this scenario we

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Conference 9079: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR V
identify a set of challenges and discuss how the technology developed in
the ITA can assist in a complex military environment.

deployment for such a SoS as the data providers are not synchronized andthe data exchange paths can not be known at design or deployment time.
As the individual sensor nodes are not synchronized temporally (as there isno central authority to provide synchronization) the temporal coherence ofdata becomes an issue.

9079-21, Session 4

In addition to temporal issues also the locations of the individual nodes are
not known at design time, for which reason the spatial properties of data
must be determined, specified and validated to make use of the data incomputation.

Power-managed Terra Harvest controller for longlife missions
Matthew J. Rohrer, Richard D. Porter, Robert Fish, McQ, Inc. (UnitedStates)

The sensor systems perform classification and tracking both locally but
also in a distributed manner, including both locally acquired information as
well as combining data from several sensor nodes. The theoretical conceptof mediated interactions is employed to ensure correct exchange of data
between individual systems is crucial.

The Defense Intelligence Agency’s Terra Harvest program, launched in
2009, is developing an open, integrated battlefield unattended groundsensors (UGS) architecture that ensures interoperability among disparate
UGS components and systems. The Terra Harvest controller provides
management, monitoring, and control functions; acquires data from sensor
assets; and disseminates data to other controllers or to domain-specificsoftware components. Assets are system components that can be tasked
or reconfigured to produce a payload (data, information, knowledge,command) for processing and dissemination. Data is disseminated via
industry-standard communication services or vendor-provided, domainspecific communication service that is registered within the Terra Harvest
framework, e.g., Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN), Common Sensor
Radio, Iridium, or Security Equipment Integration Working Group (SEIWG)
radio. [1]We have showed that it is realistic to employ these principles in a ISR
SoS setting in simulations in our previous work [1]. The work describedin the current paper applies these principles on a SoS consisting ofphysical systems. The sensor systems employed are microphone arrays,
magnetometers, seismic sensor and also a UAV.
One novelty of the approach is that the individual sensor systems can taskother systems, in case information is inferred from the incoming data andit is determined that additional data could be needed to complement thesituational information.
In the current paper we present intermediary results from the European
Defence Agency project IN-4-STARS, where the SoS ISR design principles
described above are applied to an experimental ISR system design anddevelopment.

McQ Inc. is developing a second generation Terra Harvest controller withpower management features and USB connected assets. These capabilities
will improve the operational utility and extend mission durations of the Terra
Harvest Controller.

The sensor nodes in question are both mobile and static nodes, having
various sensor modalities. the sensors used in the project are microphones,
microphone arrays, seismic sensors and UAV with an optical sensor.
[1] Preden, J; Llinas, J.; Rogova, G.; Pahtma, R.; Motus, L. (2013). On-line
data validation in distributed data fusion. In: Ground/Air Multisensor
Interoperability, Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV: (edit) T.
Pham; M. A. Kolodny; K. L. Priddy. SPIE, 2013.

9079-22, Session 5

Distributed fusion and automated sensor tasking
in ISR systems
Jurgo Preden, Raido Pahtma, Sergei Astapov, Andri Riid, Leo Motus,
Johannes Ehala, Erki Suurjaak, Tallinn Univ. of Technology (Estonia)

9079-23, Session 5

Exploiting vibration-based signatures for aided
target recognition

Modern Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) systems are
increasingly being assembled from autonomous systems, so the resulting
ISR system is a System of Systems (SoS). In order to take full advantageof the capabilities of the ISR SoS, the architecture and the design of these
SoS should be different from the approaches currently used in design of ISR
systems.

Scott J. Kangas, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Lauren
Crider, Arizona State Univ. (United States)
Understanding and organizing data is the first step toward exploiting laser
vibrometry sensor phenomenology for target classification. A fundamental
challenge in robust vehicle classification using vibrometry signature data is
the determination of salient signal features and the fusion of appropriate
measurements. . A particular technique, Diffusion Maps, has demonstrated
the potential to extract intuitively meaningful features [1]. We want todevelop an understanding of this technique by validating existing results
using vibrometry data. This paper briefly describes the Diffusion Map
technique, its application to dimension reduction of vibrometry data, anddescribes interesting problems to be further explored.

The tasks performed by ISR SoS can well go beyond basic data acquisition,
conditioning and communication. One of the tasks that can be performedby the ISR SoS is data fusion, classification and tracking (and conditional
sensor tasking for additional data acquisition), which is an extremely
challenging task in this context, especially if the fusion is performed in a
distributed manner.
Our premise for the ISR SoS design and deployment is that the system is
not designed as a complete system, where the capabilities of individual
data providers are considered and the interaction paths, including
communication channel capabilities, are specified at design time. Instead,
we assume a loosely coupled SoS, where the data needs for a specific fusion
task are described at a high level and data providers (i.e., sensor systems)
required for a specific fusion task are discovered dynamically, the selection
criteria for the data providers being the type and properties of data that canbe provided by the specific data provider.

9079-24, Session 5

Stability analyis of laser vibrometry for vechicle
classification

The data exchange in the SoS follows a subscription based model, where
information with specific properties is requested from the ISR system andthe individual systems start performing data acquisition and fusion tasks
once a request has been received. Based on the requests received frominformation consumers the sensor nodes are able to task other sensor nodes(mobile or static) to provide data needed for providing complete situational
information to the information consumer.

Ashley Smith, Wright State Univ. (United States); Scott J. Kangas,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Arnab Shaw, Wright State
Univ. (United States); Matthew P. Dierking, Olga Mendoza-Schrock,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Understanding and organizing the stability of data is the first step toward
exploiting laser vibrometry sensor phenomenology for target classification.

There are many challenges involved in the design, development and115+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9079: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR V
A fundamental challenge in robust vehicle classification using vibrometry
signature data is the determination of salient signal features and the fusionof appropriate measurements. . A particular technique, Diffusion Maps, hasdemonstrated the potential to extract intuitively meaningful features [1]. We
want to develop an understanding of this technique by validating existing
results using vibrometry data. This paper briefly describes the Diffusion Map
technique, its application to dimension reduction of vibrometry data, anddescribes interesting problems to be further explored including the stabilityof signals.

9079-25, Session 5

Long-range dismount activity classification:
LODAC
Denis Garagic, Bradley J. Rhodes, Fang Liu, Robert Haslinger,
Manuel Cuevas, BAE Systems (United States); Andrew Freeman,
Olga Mendoza-Schrock, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource(CAESAR) database containing over 40 anthropometric measurements onover 4000 humans has been extensively explored for pattern recognitionand classification purposes using the raw, original data [1-4]. However,some of the anthropometric variables would be impossible to collect inan uncontrolled environment. Here, we explore the use of dimensionality
reduction methods in concert with a variety of classification algorithms
for gender classification using only those variables that are readily
observable in an uncontrolled environment. Several dimensionality reduction
techniques are employed to learn the underlining structure of the data.
These techniques include linear projections such as the classical Principal
Components Analysis (PCA) and non-linear (manifold learning) techniques,
such as Diffusion Maps and the Isomap technique. This paper briefly
describes all three techniques, and compares three different classifiers,NaÃive Bayes, Adaboost, and Support Vector Machines (SVM), for genderclassification in conjunction with each of these three dimensionality
reduction approaches

9079-26, Session 5

Olga Mendoza-Schrock, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Guozhu Dong, Wright State Univ. (United States)
This paper describes the process used to collect the Seasonal Weather And
Gender (SWAG) dataset; an electro-optical dataset of human subjects thatcan be used to develop advanced gender classification algorithms. Several
novel features characterize this ongoing effort (1) the human subjects selflabel their gender by performing a specific action during the data collectionand (2) the data collection will span months and even years resulting in adataset containing realistic levels and types of clothing corresponding to
the various seasons and weather conditions. It is envisioned that this typeof data will support the development and evaluation of more robust genderclassification systems that are capable of accurate gender recognition under
extended operating conditions.

9079-28, Session 5

Deep learning applied to SWAG
Ryan R. McCoppin, Howard N. Rude, Mateen M. Rizki, Louis A.
Tamburino, Wright State Univ. (United States); Olga MendozaSchrock, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
This paper describes the process used to collect the Seasonal Weather And
Gender (SWAG) dataset and the application of Deep learning to the data.
SWAG is an electro-optical dataset of human subjects that can be used todevelop advanced gender classification algorithms. Several novel featurescharacterize this ongoing effort (1) the human subjects self-label theirgender by performing a specific action during the data collection and (2)the data collection will span months and even years resulting in a dataset
containing realistic levels and types of clothing corresponding to the various
operating conditions.

Laser vibrometry exploitation for vehicle
identification

Howard N. Rude, Ryan R. McCoppin, Nathan Koester, Louis A.
Tamburino, Mateen M. Rizki, Wright State Univ. (United States);Andrew Freeman, Olga Mendoza-Schrock, Todd V. Rovito, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

Adam R. Nolan, Andrew J. Lingg, George S. Goley, Etegent
Technologies, Ltd. (United States); Scott J. Kangas, Olga MendozaSchrock, Andrew Freeman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Gender classification is a critical component of a robust image security
system. Many techniques exist to perform gender classification using facial
features. In contrast, this paper explores gender classification using bodyfeatures extracted from clothed subjects. Several of the most effective typesof features for gender classification identified in literature were implemented
and applied to the newly developed Seasonal Weather And Gender (SWAG)
dataset. SWAG contains video clips of approximately 2000 samples ofhuman subjects captured over a period of several months. The subjects
are wearing casual business attire and outer garments appropriate for the
specific weather conditions observed in Midwest. The results from a seriesof experiments are presented that compare the classification accuracy ofsystems that incorporate various types and combinations of features applied
to multiple looks at subjects at different image resolutions to determine abaseline performance for gender classification.

SPIE DSS 2014

Exploiting the SWAG database for genderclassification using data mining techniques

9079-29, Session 5

Gender classification under extended operation
conditions

116

9079-27, Session 5·

Vibration signatures sensed from distant vehicles using laser vibrometry
systems provide valuable information that may be used to help identify key
vehicle features such as engine type, engine speed, and number of cylinders.
While developing algorithms to blindly extract the aforementioned featuresfrom a vehicle’s vibration signature, it was shown that detection of engine
speed and number of cylinders was more successful when utilizing apriori knowledge of the engine type (gas or diesel piston) and optimizing
algorithms for each engine type. In practice, implementing different
algorithms based on engine type first requires an algorithm to determine
whether a vibration signature was produced by a gas piston or diesel piston
engine. This paper provides a general overview of the observed differences
between datasets from gas and diesel piston engines, and proceeds to detailthe current method of differentiating between the two. To date, research has
shown that basic signal processing techniques can be used to distinguishbetween gas and diesel vibration datasets with reasonable accuracy forpiston engines of different configurations running at various speeds.

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Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX
Tuesday - Wednesday 6 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9080 Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX; and Atmospheric Propagation XI

9080-1, Session 1

a polarimetric scanning LADAR which is capable of acquiring polarization
signature of the target in addition to acquiring reflectance and geometric
information from the target. This system can potentially provide a more
powerful mechanism for target classification, particularly while the target isbeing imaged through various obscuring phenomena such as rain, dust, fog
or hidden behind reflective surfaces.

Multi-dimensional laser radars (Invited Paper)
Vasyl Molebny, Academy of Technological Sciences of Ukraine(Ukraine); Ove Steinvall, Swedish Defence Research Agency(Sweden)In this presentation, we will discuss the design and operation of a scanning
LADAR (scan-LADAR) system developed using a nanosecond pulsed laser,
two-dimensional beam-scanning and single linear-mode photodetector.
We will present our recent results obtained by conducting the performance
analysis and field tests of our scan-LADAR system. Furthermore, we will
discuss a polarimetric LADAR system which we have developed explicitly byincorporating automated polarization imaging system (PIS) in the receiving
arm of the scan-LADAR system. The PIS architecture uses a combinationof two voltage-controlled liquid crystal retarders (LCRs) to perform in-line
Stokes polarization imaging of the target. We will present results illustratingtarget recognition and discrimination in our polarimetric scan-LADAR
system using Stokes polarization imaging mechanism.

Despite the term restrictions of “laser detection and ranging”, ladars(laser radars) acquire information not only on range. Any other physicalparameter measured by laser radar can have its own dimensionality,
which can be that of velocity, temperature, humidity, etc. Some of theseparameters are single-dimensional, like temperature. Some can haveseveral dimensions, like temperature distribution in space or temperaturedependence on time. Another type of examples yields combinations ofseveral parameters distributed in space and time, like 3D velocity of an
object having its 3D position in space, both changing in time. It is similar
to human professional activities, where binocular vision is often amplified
with instrumental sources of information. For example, car driver has at his
disposal a speedometer and a parking radar to get the information on car
velocity when driving and on distances to obstacles when parking. Similarly,
rendezvous and docking missions, autonomous planetary landing, alongwith laser ranging, laser altimetry, laser Doppler velocimetry, are thought
to have aboard also the 3D ladar imaging. Operating in combinations, they
provide more accurate and safer navigation, docking or landing, hazard
avoidance capabilities. Critically vital is the information identifying thesnipers in a 3D battle-field scene, especially under the urban conditions- detection and identification based on the intensity of the retroreflected
illumination in combination with polarization and fluctuation parameters,
as well as the data from other sources. Combining thermal imaging with
3D ladar can enrich the information on the functionality of the detected
targets: operating engines will give higher thermal contrast. Hyperspectral
probing with laser reveals even more parameters of the detected objects,
it has sense, for example, for mine detection. Combination with Dopplerbased measurements provides more accurate navigation for both spaceand cruise missile applications. Adding vibrometry creates instrumentationfor 3D-based engine diagnostics. Involving velocity and time allows higher
dimensionality of information presentation like 4D and even higher. Different
algorithms and architectures of lidar-based target acquisition, further
reconstruction of 3D images, information fusion and presentation is being
discussed with special attention to the technologies of simultaneous singleand multi-beam flash illumination of a scene and including a single-photon
focal-plane-array detection.

9080-4, Session 1

A long-distance laser altimeter for terrain relative
navigation and spacecraft landing
Diego F. Pierrottet, Coherent Applications, Inc. (United States);Farzin Amzajerdian, Bruce W. Barnes, NASA Langley Research Ctr.
(United States)
A high precision laser altimeter was developed under the Autonomous
Landing and Hazard Avoidance (ALHAT) project at NASA Langley ResearchCenter. The objective of the laser altimeter is to provide real-time range
measurements from over 30 km, to support surface-relative state estimationand navigation during planetary descent for precision landing. The altimeteruses an advanced time-of-arrival receiver that can provide multiple signalreturn range measurements from tens of kilometers with 5 cm precision.
The transmitter is eye-safe, simplifying operations and testing on earth.
The prototype is fully autonomous, and able to withstand the thermal andmechanical stresses experienced during test flights conducted aboard
helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, and Morpheus, a terrestrial rocket-powered
vehicle developed by NASA Johnson Space Center. This paper provides an
overview of the sensor and presents results obtained during recent field
experiments including a helicopter flight test conducted in December 2012
and Morpheus flight test planned for January 2014.

9080-2, Session 1

Development of three-dimensional wind lidar for
space (Invited Paper)

9080-5, Session 1

Upendra N. Singh, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

Mary R. Kutteruf, Paul Lebow, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)1541nm GmAPD ladar system

No Abstract Available

The single photon sensitivity of Geiger-mode avalanche photo diodes(GmAPDs) has facilitated the development of LADAR systems that operate
at longer stand-off distances, require lower laser pulse powers and arecapable of imaging through a partial obscuration. In this paper, we describea LADAR system which unlike previous system operates at the eye-safe
wavelength of 1541 nm. This enhances system covertness and improves hazepenetration. The system is comprised of a COTS 1541 nm erbium fiber laser
producing 4 ns pulses at 100 kHz to 200 kHz and a COTS camera with a
focal plane of 32x32 InGaAs GmAPDs optimized for 1550 nm. Laboratory
characterization methodology and results are discussed. We show that
accurate modeling of the system response, allows us to achieve a depth
resolution which is limited by the width of the camera’s time bin (.25 ns or
1.5 inches) rather than by the duration of the laser pulse (4 ns or 2 ft). In thepresents of obscuration, the depth resolution is degraded to 6 inches but

9080-3, Session 1

A polarimetric scanning ladar: systemdevelopment, performance analysis, and field
tests
Renu Tripathi, Yury Markushin, Nicholas P. Calvano, Gour S. Pati,
Delaware State Univ. (United States)
Laser Detection and Ranging (LADAR) is a widely used optical sensing
technology for measuring three-dimensional surface of a target using theintensity and time-of-flight (TOF) information. We have recently developed

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Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX
is still significantly better than that dictated by the laser pulse duration. We
also show point cloud data generated by the system over an indoor range.

rate is better than 99.9% with 4 received photoelectrons and 0.7MHz system
noise on average.

9080-6, Session 1

9080-9, Session 2Mosaïc active imaging: Direct physical modelling,
image reconstruction, and experimental
assessment

16W average power 2µm Thulium fiber laser with
one stage MOPA

Emmanuelle Thouin, Marie-Thérèse Velluet, Laurent Hespel, Xavier
Briottet, Dominique Hamoir, ONERA (France); François Malgouyres,
Univ. de Toulouse (France)

The 2μm laser emitted is eye-safe and in the atmospheric window, which is
widely applied in the fields of laser surgery, space optical communication,
remote sensing and laser radar etc. Due to its wide gain spectrum from
1.8 to 2.1 µm and high quantum efficiency (the theoretical value is 200%),
Tm-doped fiber lasers have attracted increasing interests in recent years.
In this work, we will report our recent research on high average power
pulsed Tm-doped fiber lasers, which is a master oscillator (seed source) andpower amplifier system. The seed source is an acousto-optic Q-switchedlaser operating at 1.96μm made by ourselves, in which a fiber Brag gratingas cavity reflector and the laser material is a 0.6m long 25/250μm (core/cladding diameter) Tm-doped fiber, and the maximum output average
power is 2W. Seed laser coupled into power amplifier fiber through a groupof lens, the power amplifier consists of a ~3.2m long 25/400μm (core/cladding diameter?PM Tm-doped fiber and a 793nm laser diodes pumped.
Finally a nanosecond pulse 1.996μm laser with 16W average power isdemonstrated, the full width at half-maximum is about 0.2nm, the repetition
rate is 41kHz, and the pulse width is less than 200ns, the a polarization
extinction ratio >20 dB. The pulse trains remain stable and the spectrum has
no nonlinear effects and broadening, so we could get more output powerwith more powerful pump source. Such these high power Q-switched Tmdoped fiber lasers can be potential candidates for applications like LIDAR,
medicine.

Flash active imaging can be used for surveillance or target identification
at long range and low visibility conditions. Its principle is based on theillumination of a scene with a pulsed laser. The backscattered signal isthen acquired with a high-speed gated camera, sharply synchronized withthe emitted pulse. The photons coming back to the sensor are selectedaccording to their round-trip travel time to eliminate the photons backscattered by the foreground as well by the background. Signal to noise
ratio and contrast of the object over the background are then increased
in comparison with passive imaging. Even though, range and field of view(FOV) are limited for a given laser power. The new active imaging systempresented here aims at overcoming this limitation. It acquires the entire
scene with a high-speed scanning laser illumination focused on a limited
region, whereas at each scan the full frame active backscattered image isacquired. The whole image is then reconstructed by mosaicking a sequenceof all these successive images with various illuminated regions. A firstevaluation of the performance of this new system is conducted by using
a direct physical model of this so-called « mosaic active imaging ». This
End to End model, realistic in terms of turbulence effects (scintillation,
beam wandering …), gives us a sequence of images a synthetic scenes.
After describing the end to end model, the reconstruction method will
be described. It is based on a total-variation minimization scheme. The
performances of this new concept are then compared to those of aconventional flash active camera by using usual metrics (Johnston’s criteria,
SNR, RMSE, MTF …). For various mean laser powers, we quantify the gains
expected in terms of range and field of view of this new concept. Finally,
proofs of concept’s tests using an adaptation of an existing flash laser
system developed at Onera are presented.

9080-10, Session 2

Laser bathymetry in highly-turbid coastal waterusing multiply scattered returns
Anthony B. Davis, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)
There are compelling reasons, both military and civilian, to harness theability of drawing reliable bathymetry maps of coastal areas at reasonably
high spatial resolution using robust airborne instrumentation. Airborne laser
altimetry has revolutionized that field of paramount importance in defense
and national security. That highly successful technological development was
enabled by high-precision navigation as well as advances in eye-safe pulsed
laser technology. The method is simple: knowledge of platform position in
space and of orientation of the transmitted pulse—or, at least, of the angularorigin of the received pulse—is used to determine with high precision theposition in 3D space of the hard target that produced the echo. Even in
the presence of vegetation clutter, it is not hard to isolate the ground or
artifact’s return. Laser bathymetry is a straightforward extension of thistechnique that accounts for beam refraction at the air-water interface.

9080-8, Session 2

Design and performance of a fiber array coupledmulti-channel photon counting, 3D imaging,airborne lidar system
Genghua Huang, Rong Shu, Libing Hou, Yuxing Ding, Shanghai
Institute of Technical Physics (China)
Photon counting lidar has an ultra-high sensitivity which can be hundreds
even thousands of times higher than the linear detection lidar. It cansignificantly increase the system’s capability of detection rang and imaging
density, saving size and power consumings in airborne or space-borne
applications.
Based on Geiger-mode Si avalanche photodiodes (Si-APD), a prototype
photon counting lidar which used 8 APDs coupled with a 1?8-pixel fiber
array has been made in June, 2011. The experiments with static objects
showed that the photon counting lidar could operate in strong solar
background with 0.04 receiving photoelectrons on average. Limited byless counting times in moving platforms, the probability of detection andthe 3D imaging density would be lower than that in static platforms. In
this paper, a latest fiber array coupled multi-channel photon counting, 3D
imaging, airborne lidar system is introduced. The correlation range receiveralgorithm of photon counting 3D imaging is improved for airborne signal
photon events extraction and noise filter. The 3D imaging experiments in thehelicopter shows that the false alarm rate is less than 6x10-7, and the correct

118

SPIE DSS 2014

Wendi Wu, Ting Yu, Qijie Huang, Xiaojin Cheng, Weibiao Chen,
Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics (China)·

However, a fundamental assumption in the methodology is that there isindeed a detectable and distinctive return from the sea floor after the twoway transmission through air and water. It is not rare that coastal water isso turbid (high optical depth), particularly in estuaries, that the direct sea
floor echo is lost in noise, including multiply scattered and/or reflected
laser light. I will show that there is an alternative physics-based model forbathymetry signals resulting from highly scattered laser light. The model isused to demonstrate that there is a definite signature of sea floor depth in
the diffuse light field. Finally, it is proposed that a receiver adapted to thisnovel measurement is not hard to design.

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Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX

9080-11, Session 2

9080-13, Session 2

Development of scanning laser sensor forunderwater 3D measurement

Outward atmospheric scintillation effects
and inward atmospheric scintillation effects
comparisons for direct detection ladar
applications

Hideaki Ochimizu, Masaharu Imaki, Shumpei Kameyama, Takashi
Saitou, Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Japan); Shoujirou Ishibashi, Hiroshi
Yoshida, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology(Japan)Douglas G. Youmans, SPARTA, Inc. (United States)
Atmospheric scintillation affects laser radar imaging through atmosphericturbulence both on the outward path and on the return path. We expand
last year’s paper in deriving the outward scintillation index analyticallyin more detail and comparing to Monte Carlo propagation code results.
Likewise, we derive the inward scintillation index analytically in more detailand compare to plane-wave Monte Carlo propagation code results. The
magnitude of the two effects for various geometries and turbulence levels
will be examined.

We have developed laser sensors for underwater exploration, research ofocean-trench earthquake, and so on.
According to our past research, the attenuation coefficient at 532nm is
0.5dB/m in the area which is deeper than the depth of 150m in Sagami Bay,
Japan.
Based on this research, we developed the scanning laser sensor forunderwater 3D imaging which can detect targets in 20m range at the depthof about 150m.

Combining the two scintillation indices with laser hardbody-target speckle,
as measured on the focal plane array at the focus of a lens, will be briefly
reviewed following last year’s paper. Recent modeling advances in this area
will be discussed briefly.

The features of our system are the following two points.
The first is the coaxial optics. This realizes the wide scanning angleof 120deg (Horizontal) x30deg (Vertical) with the compact size off25cmx60cm. The size is capable of mounting on underwater vehicles.

9080-14, Session 2

The second is the function of the sensitivity time control (STC), in which thegain of the receiver is increased according to the time of flight. Because ofthis control, we can detect a small signal by suppressing unwanted signals
scattered by marine snows, and so on. Additionally, time slope of STC isvariable, therefore the system is able to adapt to underwater environmental
variation.

High-fidelity flash lidar model development
Glenn D. Hines, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States); Diego
F. Pierrottet, Coherent Applications, Inc. (United States); Farzin
Amzajerdian, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

We have demonstrated the system performance in underwater
environments with a step-by-step approach.

NASA’s Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technologies (ALHAT)
project is currently developing the critical technologies to safely andprecisely navigate and land crew, cargo and robotic spacecraft vehicles on
and around planetary bodies. One key element of this project is a highfidelity Flash lidar sensor that can generate three-dimensional (3-D) imagesof the planetary surface. These images are processed with hazard detection
and avoidance (HDA) and hazard relative navigation (HRN) algorithms,
and then subsequently ingested by the Guidance, Navigation and Control(GN&C) subsystem, which uses them to generate an optimal navigation
solution.

First, we tested basic performance in the pool, and confirmed ranging
targets at the distance of 20m with the accuracy of 3cm.
After that, we tested the system in the shallow sea area, and performed 3D
imaging of several objects.
In addition, the system is mounted on the autonomous underwater vehicle“Otohime” developed by JAMSTEC (Japan Agency for Marine-earth Scienceand TEChnology), and demonstrated seabed mapping in the deep sea area
(depth ~100m in Sagami Bay).
In this paper, we introduce our system concepts and the above mentioned
demonstrations.

A complex, high fidelity model of the Flash lidar was developed inorder to evaluate the performance of the sensor and its interaction with
the interfacing ALHAT components on space vehicles with different
configurations and under different flight trajectories. The model contains
a parameterized, general approach to Flash lidar detection and reflects
physical attributes such as range and electronic noise sources, and laser
pulse temporal and spatial profiles. It also provides the realistic interactionof the laser pulse with terrain features that may include varying albedo,
boulders, craters, slopes, and shadows. This paper gives a description of theFlash lidar model and presents some the results from the lidar operation
under different scenarios.

9080-12, Session 2

Coherent Doppler lidar backscattered signal
power validation against direct detection
Sameh Abdelazim, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. (United States); David
Santoro, Mark Arend, Fred Moshary, Samir Ahmed, The City Collegeof New York (United States)
Backscattered signal power of a coherent Doppler Lidar (CDL) system
for wind sensing was validated against that of a direct detection Lidar
system. In coherent detection, the received signal power depends on theoverlap integral between the backscattered and local oscillator fields. Thisoverlap is influenced by both the geometric optics considerations of theantenna system and the loss of coherence of the backscattered field caused
by propagation through atmospheric aerosol scattering and refractive
turbulence. In this study, we present the analysis of range correcting of CDL
backscattered signal power and report CDL wind measurements with signal
power validation against direct detection measurements.

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9080-16, Session 2

Doppler lidar system design via interdisciplinary
design concept at NASA Langley Research Center
Charles M. Boyer, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Trevor P. Jackson, Old Dominion Univ. (United States); Jeffrey Y.
Beyon, Larry B. Petway, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
Optimized designs of the Navigation Doppler Lidar (NDL) instrument
for Autonomous Landing Hazard Avoidance Technology (ALHAT) wereaccomplished via Interdisciplinary Design Concept (IDEC) at NASA LangleyResearch Center during the summer of 2013. Three branches in Engineering
Directorate and three students were involved in this joint task through theNASA Langley Aerospace Research Summer Scholars (LARSS) Program.

·

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Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX
Laser Remote Sensing Branch (LRSB), Mechanical Systems Branch (MSB),
and Structural and Thermal Systems Branch (STSB) were engaged toachieve optimal designs through iterative and interactive collaborative
design processes. A preliminary design iteration was able to reduce
the power consumption, mass, and footprint by removing redundantcomponents and replacing inefficient components with more efficientones. A second design iteration reduced volume and mass by replacing
bulky components with excessive performance with smaller components
custom-designed for the power system. Mechanical placement collaboration
reduced potential electromagnetic interference (EMI). Through applicationof newly selected electrical components and thermal analysis data, a
total electronic chassis redesign was accomplished. Use of an innovative
forced convection tunnel heat sink was employed to meet and exceed
project requirements for cooling, mass reduction, and volume reduction.
Functionality was a key concern to make efficient use of airflow, andaccessibility was also imperative to allow for servicing of chassis internals.
The collaborative process provided for accelerated design maturation with
substantiated function.

9080-17, Session 3

Improving waveform lidar processing: Towardrobust deconvolution of signals for improved
structural assessments

Range resolution improvement of eyesafe ladar
testbed (ELT) measurements using sparse signal
deconvolution
Scott E. Budge, Jacob H. Gunther, Utah State Univ. (United States)
The Eyesafe Ladar Test-bed (ELT) is a experimental ladar system withthe capability of digitizing return laser pulse waveforms at 2 GHz. These
waveforms can then be exploited off-line in the laboratory to develop signal
processing techniques for noise reduction, range resolution improvement,
and range discrimination between two surfaces of similar range interrogatedby a single laser pulse.

We exploit the sparsity of ladar returns and solve the deconvolution
problem in two steps. The first step is to estimate a point target responseusing a database of measured calibration data. This basic target response
is used to construct a dictionary of target responses with different delays/
ranges. Using this dictionary ladar returns from a wide variety of surface
configurations can be synthesized by taking linear combinations. A sparselinear combination matches the physical reality that ladar returns consist of
the overlapping of only a few pulses. The dictionary construction process isa pre-processing step that is performed only once.

In a typical waveform light detection and ranging (lidar) system, thereceived pulse is a convolution of the system impulse response, theoutgoing pulse, and the underlying signal representing actual target
interactions. Deconvolution is the process of removing the contribution of
the system impulse response and outgoing pulse from the received signal,so that the true interactions may be seen. In many examples, deconvolution
has been shown to expose fine structure within the waveform, which
may be used to improve accuracy when estimating the vertical locationof certain features. For instance, the exact location of the ground may be
more accurately determined by separating the response of the groundfrom that of understory vegetation or vegetative ground cover. However,in order for the deconvolution to be successful, the impulse response andoutgoing pulse must be known, and many deconvolution methods are
sensitive to small errors in the estimation of these inputs. In this study, we
propose a deconvolution method that uses a flat target response in placeof the impulse response and outgoing pulse. This method is validated
using waveform lidar data acquired by the National Ecological Observatory
Network (NEON) over Harvard Forest, MA in August 2012. During acoincidental collaborative fieldwork campaign, the heights of 69 trees
within a 100m x 100m site were recorded. These tree heights are used tovalidate the improvement in feature detection within the waveform after adeconvolution has been applied. Detailed results will be presented at theconference.

The deconvolution step is performed by minimizing the error between themeasured ladar return and the dictionary model while constraining thecoefficient vector to be sparse. Other constraints such as the non-negativityof the coefficients are also applied. The results of the proposed techniqueare presented in the paper and are shown to compare favorably with otherdeconvolution techniques. We report results on real and simulated datasets.

9080-21, Session 3

High-speed on-board data processing for science
instruments
Jeffrey Y. Beyon, Tak-Kwong Ng, Bing Lin, Yongxiang Hu, Wallace
Harrison, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

9080-18, Session 3

Online waveform processing versus full waveform
analysis for demanding target situations
Martin Pfennigbauer, Andreas Ullrich, RIEGL Laser Measurement
Systems GmbH (Austria)
RIEGL LIDAR instruments are based on echo digitization and provide
point cloud data by online waveform processing or full waveform data forexternal full waveform analysis or both. The advantages of online waveform
processing of being fast and highly accurate for most typical target situation
are made up by full waveform processing for demanding echo signal shapes

SPIE DSS 2014

9080-19, Session 3

This paper presents a method to improve the range discrimination of theladar system by deconvolution using sparse signal techniques. Ladar returns
from sloped surfaces or surfaces of similar ranges consist of a small numberof overlapping pulses. The exact number of overlapping pulses and thedelays and amplitudes of the pulses are unknown. Deconvolution aims toestimate these parameters.

Kerry Cawse-Nicholson, Jan van Aardt, Shea Hagstrom, Paul
Romanczyk, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States);
Crystal Schaaf, Univ. of Massachusetts Boston (United States); Alan
Strahler, Zhan Li, Boston Univ. (United States); Keith Krause, NEON,
Inc. (United States)120

when employing sophisticated algorithms. It is investigated how novel
advanced online waveform processing techniques can compete even with
optimized full waveform analysis and where the limitations are. Specificreal-life waveforms are analyzed concurrently and the results are comparedand evaluated.

·

A new development of on-board data processing platform has been inprogress at NASA Langley Research Center since April, 2012, and theoverall review of such work is presented in this paper. The project is called
High-Speed On-Board Data Processing for Science Instruments (HOPS) andfocuses on an air/space-borne high-speed scalable data processing platform
for three particular National Research Council’s Decadal Survey missions
such as Active Sensing of CO2 Emissions over Nights, Days, and Seasons(ASCENDS), Aerosol-Cloud-Ecosystems (ACE), and Doppler AerosolWind Lidar (DAWN) 3-D Winds. HOPS utilizes advanced general purpose
computing with Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) based algorithm
implementation techniques. The significance of HOPS is to enable highspeed on-board data processing for current and future science missions
with its reconfigurable and scalable data processing platform. A single
HOPS processing board is expected to provide approximately 66 times
faster data processing speed for ASCENDS, more than 70% reduction inboth power and weight, and about two orders of cost reduction comparedto the state-of-the-art (SOA) on-board data processing system. Such
benchmark predictions are based on the data when HOPS was originallywww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX
proposed in August, 2011. The details of these improvement measures arealso presented. The two facets of HOPS development are identifying themost computationally intensive algorithm segments of each mission andimplementing them in a FPGA-based data processing board. A general
introduction of such facets is also the purpose of this paper.

9080-24, Session 49080-22, Session 3

Scott E. Budge, Xuan Xie, Utah State Univ. (United States)

Incoherent pulse compression in laser range
finderThe creation of 3D imagery is an important topic in remote sensing. Several
methods have been developed to create 3D images from fused ladar anddigital images, known as texel images. These methods have the advantage
of using both the 3D ladar information and the 2D digital imagery directly,
since texel images are fused during data acquisition. A weakness ofthese methods is that they are dependent on correlating feature points
in the digital images. This can be difficult when image perspectives are
significantly different, leading to low correlation values between matching
feature points.

Improved registration for 3D image creation
using multiple texel images and incorporating
low-cost GPS/INS measurements

Daniel Grodensky, Daniel Kravitz, Bar-Ilan Univ. (Israel); Nadav
Levanon, Tel Aviv Univ. (Israel); Avinoam Zadok, Bar-Ilan Univ.
(Israel)The effective compression of encoded pulse sequences usuallyrequires phase coding, whereas intensity-based coding leads to inferior
performance. The measurement of phase in a photonic system, however,involves complicated coherent receivers. Here, a method for the effective
compression of a coded pulse sequence in an incoherent laser range
finder, employing simple direct detection, is proposed and demonstrated
experimentally [1, 2]. Binary phase sequences are converted to a unipolar
intensity modulation through a position-coding algorithm, and then used
to modulate the laser ranging source. The reflected echoes undergo simple
direct detection, followed by correlation with a bipolar reference sequencethat is digitally stored at the receiver. The received filtered sequence closely
replicates the effective sidelobe suppression of the original phase code.

This paper presents a method to improve the quality of 3D images
created using existing approaches that register multiple texel images. The
proposed method incorporates relatively low accuracy measurements ofthe position and attitude of the texel camera from a low-cost GPS/INS into
the registration process. This information can improve the accuracy androbustness of the registered texel images over methods based on pointcloud merging or image registration alone. In addition, the dependence on
feature point correlation is significantly decreased. Examples illustrate thevalue of this method for large image perspective differences.

9080-25, Session 4

The principle was experimentally implemented using a 1112 bits-longmaximum peak-to-sidelobe ratio (MPSL) sequence [2], and 832 bitslong complementary code pairs. A peak-to-sidelobe ratio of 46 dB wasexperimentally obtained following compression. Ranging resolution was 3
cm. The range to a target could be measured in the presence of additivenoise, at signal-to-noise ratios as low as -20 dB [2]. This noise tolerance canbe leveraged towards a longer measurement range, reduced probability ofinctercept, lower launch power and energy consumption, smaller aperturesand improved operation at unfavorable atmospheric conditions.

Estimating sampling completeness of lidar
datasets using voxel-based geometry
Shea Hagstrom, David Messinger, Katie N. Salvaggio, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)
Advances in LIDAR technology have made sub-meter resolutions fromairborne instruments possible, enabling quick capture of fine 3D details
over large areas. During collection, occluding objects may prevent a laser
pulse from reaching regions where overlapping geometry is present, suchas under tree canopies. This is particularly true given the near-nadir angles
typically used by airborne LIDAR, since the limited number of uniqueangles does not ensure that all surfaces can be sensed. These missed
surface detections decrease the overall quality of a dataset, but are notnormally quantified due to a lack of ground-truth. Using information thatis normally discarded about the LIDAR instrument position, we show how
these unsampled regions can be identified by tracing the path of eachlaser pulse. A voxel representation provides the framework for computing
the necessary statistics, and also allows for correct representations ofoverlapping geometry in complex environments. Based on this novel
unsampled information we show how the fraction of total surfaces sensed
and not sensed by the LIDAR can be estimated, giving a measurement of
how completely all surfaces are sampled. Results are demonstrated for
multiple real-world datasets, as well as the effects of voxel resolution anddata density on the sampling completeness metric.

References[1] N. Levanon, “Noncoherent pulse compression,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp.
Electron. Syst., vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 756– 765, Apr. 2006.
[2] D. Kravitz, D. Grodensky, N. Levanon, and A. Zadok, “High-Resolution
Low-Sidelobe Laser Ranging Based on Incoherent Pulse Compression,” IEEE
Photonics Technology Letters vol. 24 no. 23, 2119-2121, Dec. 2012.

9080-23, Session 4

Algorithm for detecting important changes in
LIDAR point clouds
Dmitriy Korchev, Yuri Owechko, HRL Labs., LLC (United States)
Protection of bases in hostile environments is a very critical part of militaryand civilian operations that requires a significant amount of security
personnel to be deployed around the clock. Any electronic change detection
system for detection of threats must have high probability of detection andlow false alarm rates to be useful in presence of natural motion of trees
and vegetation due to wind. We propose a 3D change detection system
based on a LIDAR sensor that can reliably and robustly detect threats andintrusions in different environments including surrounding trees, vegetation,and other natural landscape features. Our LIDAR processing algorithm finds
human activity and human-caused changes not only in open spaces but
also in heavy vegetated areas hidden from direct observation by 2D imaging
sensors. The algorithm processes a sequence of point clouds called frames.
Every 3D frame is mapped into a 2D horizontal rectangular grid. Each cellof this grid is processed to calculate the distribution of the points mapped
into it. The spatial differences are detected by analyzing the differences in
distributions of the corresponding cells that belong to different frames

121+1 360 676 3290

9080-26, Session 4

Graph segmentation and point-based features for
SVM bare earth alassification in lidar data
Nicholas S. Shorter, Anthony O. Smith, Philip Smith, Kristian
Damkjer, Mark D. Rahmes, Harris Corp. (United States)
A novel approach using a support vector machine (SVM) is proposed
to classify bare earth points in LiDAR point clouds. Using graph based
segmentation, the LiDAR point cloud is segmented into a set of topologicalcomponents. Several features establishing relationships from thosecomponents to their neighboring components are formulated. In addition·

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Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX
to the component features, several point based features based on theirrelationship to other points are also formulated. The SVM is then trained on
both the point based and segment based features to establish a model forclassification of bare earth and non bare earth points. Qualitative results
are presented for data collected from both Geiger mode and Linear mode
LiDAR sensors, data collected over a variety of different landscapes, anddata containing a plethora of different building structures. Quantitative
results are presented for the algorithm’s performance when evaluatedon the ISPRS data set. Despite the data being captured from different
sensors, and collected from scenes with different terrain types and building
structures, the results shown were processed with no parameter changes.
Furthermore, a confidence value is returned indicating how well theunforeseen data fits the SVM’s trained model for bare earth recognition.

point-to-point method outperforms the model-to-model method, while
the model-to-model method is less sensitive to differences in collection
geometries and differences between the sensors.

9080-30, Session 5

Correlation between lidar-derived intensity andpassive optical imagery
Jeremy P. Metcalf, Angela M. Kim, Fred A. Kruse, Naval
Postgraduate School (United States)

9080-28, Session 5

Uncertainty assessment and probabilistic change
detection using terrestrial and airborne lidar
Andre Jalobeanu, Angela M. Kim, Scott C. Runyon, Richard C. Olsen,
Fred A. Kruse, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)
Change detection using remote sensing has become increasingly importantfor characterization of natural disasters. Pre- and post-event LiDAR data canbe used to identify and quantify changes. The main challenge consists ofproducing reliable change maps that are robust to differences in collection
conditions, free of processing artifacts, and that take into account various
sources of uncertainty such as different point densities, different acquisition
geometries, georeferencing errors and geometric discrepancies. We present
a novel technique that accounts for these sources of uncertainty, andenables the creation of statistically significant change detection maps. The
technique makes use of Bayesian inference to estimate uncertainty maps
from LiDAR point clouds. Incorporation of uncertainties enables a change
detection that is robust to noise due to ranging, position and attitude errors,
as well as “roughness” in vegetation scans. Validation of the method wasdone by use of small-scale models scanned with a terrestrial LiDAR in alaboratory setting. The method was then applied to two airborne collectsof the Monterey Peninsula, California acquired in 2011 and 2012. These
data have significantly different point densities (8 vs. 40 pts/m2) andsome misregistration errors. A new point cloud registration technique wasdeveloped to correct systematic shifts due to GPS and INS errors. Sparsechanges were detected and interpreted mostly as construction and naturallandscape evolution.

9080-29, Session 5

Lidar change detection using small-scale building
modelsAngela M. Kim, Scott C. Runyon, Andre Jalobeanu, Chelsea H.
Esterline, Fred A. Kruse, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)
Terrestrial LiDAR scans of small-scale building models collected with a
Faro Focus 3D and a Riegl VZ-400 were used to investigate point-to-point
and model-to-model LiDAR change detection. LiDAR data were scaled,decimated, and georegistered to mimic real-world airborne collects. Twophysical building models were used to explore various aspects of thechange detection process. The first model was a small-scale representationof the Naval Postgraduate School campus in Monterey, CA, constructedfrom Lego blocks and scanned in a laboratory setting using both the Faro
and Riegl. The second model consisted of large cardboard boxes placed
outdoors and scanned from rooftops of adjacent buildings using the Riegl.
A point-to-point change detection scheme was applied directly to thepoint-cloud datasets. In the model-to-model change detection, changes
were compared between Digital Surface Models (DSMs). The use of physicalmodels allowed analysis of effects of changes in scanner and scanninggeometry; and performance of the change detection methods on different
types of changes, including building collapse or subsistence, construction,and shifts in location. Results indicate that at low false-alarm rates, the122

SPIE DSS 2014·

When LiDAR data are collected, the intensity information is recorded
for each return, and can be used to produce an image resembling thoseacquired by passive sensors. This research evaluated LiDAR intensity data to
determine its potential for use as baseline imagery where optical imagery
are otherwise unavailable. Two aerial LiDAR datasets collected at different
point densities and laser wavelengths were gridded and compared with
optical imagery. Optech Orion C200 laser data were compared with acorresponding 1500nm spectral band from the Airborne Visible/Infrared
Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS). Optech ALTM Gemini LiDAR data collected
at 1064 nm were compared to the WorldView-2 (WV-2) 949 – 1043 nm NIR2
band. Intensity images were georegistered and spatially resampled to matchthe optical data. The Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient wascalculated between datasets to determine similarity. Comparison for thefull LiDAR datasets yielded correlation coefficients of approximately 0.5.
Because LiDAR returns from vegetation are known to be highly variable,a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was calculated utilizing
the optical imagery, and intensity and optical imagery were separated
into vegetation and non-vegetation categories. Comparison of the LiDAR
intensity for non-vegetated areas to the optical imagery yielded coefficients
greater than 0.9. The effect of LiDAR point density on the results was also
examined by decimating the LiDAR returns by 50 and 75%. The lower point
density LiDAR data respectively exhibited correlation coefficients of 0.7737
and 0.7786. These results demonstrate that LiDAR intensity data may be
useful in simulating optical imagery where only LiDAR is available.

9080-31, Session 5

A calibration method of the multi-channel
imaging lidar
Weiming Xu, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (China); Jun
Liu, Information Engineering Univ. (China); Rong Shu, Shanghai
Institute of Technical Physics (China)
We design a kind of imaging LiDAR with sixteen channels, which consistsof a fiber laser source, dual scanning galvanometers, range measurement
circuits and information processing circuits etc. The image LiDAR provides
sixteen range measurements for one laser shot and the distance accuracyof each channel is about 4cm. This paper provides a calibrate method
to correct point cloud images captured with the multi-channel LiDAR.
The method needs to construct different slanted planes to cover theimaging field, and establish precise plane equations in the known groundcoordinates, then fit planes with point clouds data and calculate correction
parameters of all channels through the error model. The image accuracy isbetter than 5cm processed by this calibration method.

9080-32, Session 6

Using an eyesafe military laser range finder foratmospheric sensing
Ove Steinvall, Rolf Persson, Folke Berglund, Ove K. S. Gustafsson,
Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
Laser Rangefinders are well established components in various electro-

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Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX
Inc. (United States); Sangwoo Lee, Mikhail Yakshin, Alexander
Achey, In Heon Hwang, Nikhil Mehta, Geary K. Schwemmer, Coorg
R. Prasad, Science and Engineering Services, Inc. (United States);
Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

optical fire control systems. Recent range finders are often operating at
eye safe wavelengths around 1.5 µm which extend their utility. One suchextension is the use of the sensor for atmospheric sensing based on themeasured backscatter signal.
The present paper investigates the use of a eye-safe laser rangefinder at
1.5 µm to obtain information on atmospheric attenuation at various pathsin the atmosphere. This knowledge can in turn be used in combination withatmospheric and target/background models to estimate the performance ofother EO sensors like TV and thermal imagers beside the laser range finder
itself. Such information can be of great value both for estimating own sensor
capabilities at a given moment as well as estimating the threat capability.
One obvious example is ship defense where it is difficult to obtain visibility
along a variable atmosphere especially in darkness.

In this paper, we describe the development of a multi-beam elastic lidarthat utilizes aerosol backscatter correlation to generate three-component
wind profiles used for detecting and tracking aircraft wake vortices;turbulence intensity and wind shear profiles. High-resolution time-resolved
wind information can currently be obtained with ultrasonic or hot-wireanemometers suitable for local point measurements, or with Doppler windlidars that only measure line-of-sight wind speeds and have to be scannedover large measurement cone angles for obtaining three-component winds.
By tracking the motion of aerosol structures along and between three nearparallel laser beams, our lidar obtains three-component wind speed profiles
along the field of view (FOV) of the lidar beams. Our prototype lidar windprofiler (LWP) has three 8-inch transceiver modules placed in a near-parallel
configuration on a two-axis pan-tilt scanner to provide winds up to 2km.
Passively q-switched near-infrared (1030nm) Yb:YAG lasers generate 12 18ns wide pulses at high repetition rate (about 10KHz) that are expanded
and attenuated to eye-safe levels. Sensitive low noise detection is achieved
even in daytime using a narrow FOV receiver, together with narrowband
interference filters and single photon-counting Geiger-mode Si detectors. A
multi-channel scaler retrieves the lidar return with 7.8ns bins (~1.2m spatial
resolution) and stores accumulated counts once every 50ms (20 profiles/
sec). We adapted optical flow algorithms to obtain the movement of aerosol
structures between the beams. We validated the LWP prototype using
sonic anemometer measurements for comparison. A higher-resolution,short-range version of this instrument suitable for helicopter downwash
measurement is under development.

The paper will describe the experimental equipment and the results frommeasurements of atmospheric backscatter along various atmospheric paths.
The backscatter curve is used to evaluate the extinction. This extinction
values are compared with those deduced from a point visibility meter andfrom echo measurements against two similar nets positioned at 2 ranges
from the sensor. The results indicated a good correspondence between
these results. Finally the results are illustrated in a system perspective by
estimating the performance for thermal IR and other EO sensors.

9080-33, Session 6

Development of a fluorescence lidar formeasurement of atmospheric formaldehyde
Anand Radhakrishnan Mylapore, MassTech Inc. (United States);
Mikhail Yakshin, Alexander Achey, In Heon Hwang, Sangwoo Lee,
Nikhil Mehta, Geary K. Schwemmer, Coorg R. Prasad, Science andEngineering Services, Inc. (United States); Thomas F. Hanisco, NASA
Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States)

9080-35, Session 6

Laser remote sensing of species concentrations
and dynamical processes

Formaldehyde (H2CO) is an important trace species that plays a key role inatmospheric chemistry, which affects the climate and atmospheric pollution.
Its importance is well recognized and several spaceborne instruments/ missions such as the OMI (Aura Ozone Monitoring Instrument),
TEMPO (Tropospheric Emissions Monitoring of Pollution), GEO-CAPE(GEOstationary Coastal and Air Pollution Events), and GACM (Global
Atmospheric Composition Mission) for measuring H2CO are in various
stages of implementation. We are developing a fluorescence lidar fortropospheric H2CO concentration profiling that complements spaceborne
measurements. H2CO has a strong absorption band in the 352 - 357nm
region and fluoresces strongly in the 390 – 500nm region. Earlier, we had
demonstrated range-resolved, nighttime, ppb-level H2CO measurements
at 1km range, with a breadboard differential fluorescence lidar using acommercial frequency-tripled Nd:YAG laser (354.7 nm) whose spectral
linewidth (0.02nm) covered multiple absorption lines. Here, we describe
a prototype lidar system for providing more than an order of magnitude
higher sensitivity (~0.1ppb) for H2CO profiles throughout the troposphere.
Higher sensitivity is achieved by: 1. injection seeding the Nd:YAG laser witha single longitudinal mode 1064nm diode laser to reduce its linewidth
below the absorption linewidth (0.07cm-1 at 150torr pressure) and tuning
its wavelength to the center of a strong absorption line; and 2. increasing
the fluorescence signal using a multi-linepass filter whose pass-bands arealigned to the multiple fluorescence peaks of H2CO. A photo-acoustic
absorption cell that measures the 355nm H2CO absorption is utilized fortuning and locking the seeder wavelength to the center of absorption line.
We present the spectral characteristics of the laser when its wavelength istoggled between line center and line wing and the measurements of H2CO
by the lidar.

C. Russell Philbrick, Hans D. Hallen, North Carolina State Univ.
(United States)
A review of recently developed lidar techniques shows present capabilities
can: (1) measure atmospheric concentrations of most major and several
minor molecular species using Raman scattering and DIAL techniques,(2) detect and measure concentrations of certain trace level species, (3)characterize active dynamical processes in the troposphere based upon theredistribution of water vapor, and (4) describe interesting thermodynamic
properties based upon rotational Raman temperature profiles, multiwavelength aerosol distributions, and changes in the phase states of water.
Advances in lasers and detectors have extended the range of wavelengths
available thru the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared spectrum by using
tunable OPO techniques and supercontinuum broad spectrum lasers.
While reviewing these prior studies, several applications for the technology
are suggested and extensions of the techniques proposed for future
investigations. In particular, the extension of OPO tunable laser sources into
the ultraviolet region has opened opportunities to use resonance Raman
techniques to provide increased selectivity and signal for certain molecularspecies, such as ring-hydrocarbons. The developments in supercontinuum
lasers and infrared detectors enable concentration measurements that useof all of the lines in a band-head to improve the measurement statisticalaccuracy and separate any confounding and interfering species.

9080-36, Session 6

Tunable laser remote sensing for aerosol species
identification

9080-34, Session 6

A three-beam aerosol backscatter correlation
lidar for 3-component wind profiling

Shupeng Niu, C. Russell Philbrick, Hans D. Hallen, North Carolina
State Univ. (United States)

Anand Radhakrishnan Mylapore, Konstantin Novoselov, MassTech

123+1 360 676 3290

Laser based techniques that observe the scattering profile from an aerosol·

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Conference 9080A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX
distribution can be used to measure the particle size distribution, andin some cases the index of refraction. It is of great interest to be able
to identify the species that makes up the aerosol using remote sensing.
This provides rapid feedback and much higher temporal response thancollection of particles followed by later chemical analysis. We show thatmeasurements of the light scattered by the aerosols at a single angle in
the aureole region provide a signature for the species as the wavelength of
the incident laser is tuned across an absorption feature of the material. The
choice of angle eliminates particle size and shape dependent effects such as
the particle scattering resonances often observed in Mie calculations. These
resonances depend upon measurement angle, incident wavelength, and theparticle size. They occur at angles larger than those of the aureole region.
The aureole is also largely independent of particle shape for eccentricity
up to ~2. Advances in lasers and detectors have extended the range of
wavelengths available thru the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared spectrum byusing tunable OPO techniques and supercontinuum broad spectrum lasers.
These systems permit multiple wavelength operation in spectral regions ofinterest for many compounds, making the proposed technique practical.

9080-37, Session 6

Offshore wind measurements using Doppler
aerosol wind lidar (DAWN) at NASA LangleyResearch Center
Jeffrey Y. Beyon, Grady J. Koch, Michael J. Kavaya, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States)

9080-38, Session 6

Tail clipping of TE-CO2 laser pulse using gas
breakdown technique for high-resolution
chemical plume detection
Taieb Gasmi, Saint Louis Univ.- Madrid Campus (Spain)
High stability and energy-efficient TE–CO2 laser pulse clipper using
gas breakdown techniques for high spatial resolution chemical plumedetection is presented. The most dominant time constant, attributed
to TE–CO2 unclipped laser pulses, is its nitrogen tail which extends forseveral microseconds beyond the gain-switched spike. Near-field scatteredsignal, produced by unclipped laser pulses, interferes with the weak signal
backscattered from the long range and far field atmospheric aerosols which
ultimately degrades the range resolution of LIDARS to some hundreds ofmeters. Short laser pulses can be obtained by various techniques suchas mode locking, free induction decay, pulse slicing with electro-optic
switched. However, output pulses from those devices require further
amplification for any useful application due to their very low energy content.
This problem is circumvented in this work by the use of a plasma clipper
that achieves high range-resolved remote sensing in the atmosphere.
Complete extinction of the nitrogen tail is obtained at pressures extending
from 375 up to 1500 Torr for nitrogen and argon gases and approximately
five orders of magnitudes for helium. Optimum pressures for helium, argon,
and nitrogen, that provide the best stability of the transmitted energy andcomplete extinction of the nitrogen tail, are identified. Excellent range
resolutions can be achieved with TE–CO2 laser-based LIDAR systems.
Clipped laser pulses are also field tested.

The latest flight demonstration of Doppler Aerosol Wind Lidar (DAWN)
at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) is presented. The goal of thecampaign was to demonstrate the improvement of DAWN system since
the previous flight campaign in 2012 and the capabilities of DAWN and thelatest airborne wind profiling algorithm APOLO (Airborne Wind Profiling
Algorithm for Doppler Wind Lidar) developed at LaRC. The comparisons of
APOLO and another algorithm are discussed utilizing two and five line-ofsights (LOSs), respectively. Wind parameters from DAWN were comparedwith ground-based radar measurements for validation purposes. The
campaign period was June – July in 2013 and the flight altitude was 8 km in
inland toward Charlotte, NC, and offshores in Virginia Beach, VA and Ocean
City, MD. The DAWN system was integrated into a UC12B with two operators
onboard during the campaign.

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Conference 9080B: Atmospheric Propagation XI
Tuesday - Wednesday 6 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9080 Laser Radar Technology and Applications XIX; and Atmospheric Propagation XI

9080-53, Session Posters-Tuesday

9080-40, Session 7

Detecting binary non-return-to-zero data infree-space optical communication systems using
FPGAs

Internal anisotropy of the turbulent scintillations

Vy Bui, Lan Tran, Esam El-Araby, Nader Namazi, The Catholic Univ.
of America (United States)

We introduce a new concept of the Internal Anisotropy (IA) for the
homogeneous and isotropic random fields. IA reflects the hidden structuresthat can exist in the samples of the random field, and are not revealed by
the simplest, single and two-point statistical moments. There is presently noestablished theory of the IA, and no quantitative metrics of IA are available.
It is understood, however, that IA cannot be present in any stationary
isotropic Gaussian random field, or any single-point transformations of it.
We start with illustrating the IA concept on a simple toy model of twodimensional random field, and show that IA can affect the third and higherorder multipoint statistical moments. We proceed to generate samples of
the random irradiance distributions for the plane wave passed through aphase screen with the quasi-Kolmogorov statistics. Visual evaluation of
the samples suggests the presence of the IA in the irradiance samples. The
statistical analysis reveals that the three-point third moment of irradianceexhibit the features consistent with the IA, especially in the focusing
conditions. We also present the asymptotic analytical calculations of thethird moment of the plane wave irradiance that indicate the presence of theIA, which is more pronounced under focusing conditions. IA of scintillationsin the focusing regime can be explained by the higher probability of theappearance of astigmatic lenses than the spherical ones as a portion of
the random phase screen, causing the random point spread function to beelongated in one direction.

Mikhail I. Charnotskii, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States)

A new method was presented in [1] and [2] to perform bit synchronizationand detection of binary Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) data from a free-space
optical (FSO) communication link. It was shown that the Haar wavelet isan excellent choice for this purpose. The center frequency of this filter isa function of the scale and could be adjusted to adapt to the variation of
the channel. The output of the filter is zero-mean and is closely related tothe derivative of the binary data. The filter has a linear phase; therefore, its
output is used for synchronization and detection of the data.
In this paper, we leverage our previous work [1] in which we investigatedthe effects of atmospheric turbulence on an FSO that uses binary NRZ
data with no modulation. We propose to provide a hardware prototype
to the concepts introduced in [1]. The applicability of these concepts will
be demonstrated through providing a real-time prototype using one of
the state-of-the-art reconfigurable hardware, namely FPGA, and highly
productive high-level design tools such as System Generator for DSP from
Xilinx.
References[1] N. M. Namazi, R. Burris, C. Conner, G. Gilbreath, “Synchronization and
Detection of Binary Data in Free-Space Optical Communication Systems
using Haar Wavelet Transformation”, Optical Engineering, Vol. 45, No. 1,
January 2006.

9080-41, Session 7[2] N. M. Namazi, R. Burris, G. Gilbreath, “Analytical Approach to Calculationof Probability of Bit Error and Optimum Thresholds in Free-Space OpticalCommunication”, Optical Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 2, February 2007.

Simulation of partially spatially coherent laser
beam and comparison with field test for bothterrestrial and maritime environments

9080-39, Session 7

Nelofar Mosavi, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (UnitedStates); Curtis R. Menyuk, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States); Brian S. Marks, Bradley G. Boone, Johns Hopkins
Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States); Charles Nelson, U.S.
Naval Academy (United States)

Scintillation fluctuations of laser beam
propagation in strong atmospheric turbulence
Joseph T. Coffaro, Michael G. Panich, Larry Andrews, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States); Ronald Phillips, CREOL, The College of
Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

Free-space optical communication links support both commercial andmilitary applications due to their high-bandwidth and high directivity, whichmakes them hard to detect, intercept, and jam.

The purpose of this research is to experimentally verify mathematicalmodels developed by Dr. Larry Andrews for scintillation fluctuations fromweak to strong atmospheric turbulence regions. Propagation range lengths
were varied to confirm the generated mathematical scintillation curves. In
order to confirm the range dependent scintillation curve, measurements fortransmitted beam size, received beam size, cross wind, and the refractive
index structure parameter (Cn2) data were taken at various ranges. A Laser
was propagated an assortment of distances along the 1 kilometer range at
the TISTEF facility located on Kennedy Space Center. Data was taken andanalyzed using a quantity of 1,2,3 and 4 detectors. The material presented
in this paper outlines the verification and validation of the theoreticalscintillation curve, and steps to improve the scintillation fluctuation effects
on the laser beam through additional detectors. Experimental data waspost processed and analyzed for scintillation and fading effects. These
research results demonstrated the benefit of additional detectors andvalidated a mathematical model that can be scaled for uses in a verityof communications or defense applications. Scintillation is a problem
faced by every free space laser system and the verification of an accurate
mathematical model to simulate these effects has strong implication acrossthe industry.

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These links however, have some drawbacks as well. A laser beam
propagating in free space can undergo significant random intensity
fluctuations due to turbulence along the propagation path. A coherent
beam (CB) becomes partially coherent when it propagates in atmosphericturbulence, especially in strong turbulence. The theory developed by
Banach and recently by Ricklin and Davidson on the use of a spatiallypartially coherent source beam as applied to atmospheric turbulence for thecommunication channel shows that it is possible to decrease the receiverscintillations in some cases by reducing the spatial coherence of the beam
and in that way improve the bit error ratio (BER).
In this paper, we present simulations of partially spatially coherent infra-red
and visible laser beams (PCB) with different degrees of spatial coherence
through a turbulent atmosphere. The results have been compared to both
maritime and terrestrial field test data that was collected near the US Naval
Academy. We study the effect on the receiver scintillation as the spatial
coherence varies, since optimization reduction of the scintillations throughcontrol of the degree of spatial coherence can lead to improvements of the
BER. Additionally, we compare the probability density function (PDF) of
the intensity for simulation in the simulation to what is observed in the fieldtest data, since the PDF of the intensity for a given detector is critical for
estimation of the fade statistics of an optical signal.

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Conference 9080B:
Atmospheric Propagation XI

9080-42, Session 7

Adaptive laser beam focusing through turbulencein conditions of reciprocity violation
Anatoliy Khizhnyak, Vladimir B. Markov, Advanced Systems &Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Degradation of the laser beam quality at its propagation in turbulent regime
remains a major problem for many applications. Mitigation of turbulent
effects is achieved typically by using adaptive optics systems with theirperformance based on the reciprocity principle. The latter one statesthat two counter-propagating waves are reciprocal when their complex
amplitudes are identical in each cross-section along the range. When
propagating in the linear inhomogeneous medium, parity of these complex
amplitudes in a single cross-section of the range means they are reciprocal.
For a practical realization of this principle the adaptive optics systemshould guaranty the coincidence of these two waves at the pupil planeof the receiving/transmitting aperture. However in various propagation
scenarios a complete satisfaction of reciprocal conditions for the beaconand outgoing waves is difficult to satisfy, and in certain practical conditions
it is essentially impossible. This report discusses typical scenarios of laser
beam propagation through atmospheric turbulence, provides an estimatedefficiency of the beam delivery on a remote target, and the performance
optimization required for adaptive optics applications with various type of
beacon, including the beaconless scenarios. The report will review data ofcomputer simulation for laser beam propagation in a relevant environment
and the results of the laboratory tests.

9080-43, Session 8

Atmospheric turbulence effects on a monostaticand bistatic retroreflecting link
Rita Mahon, Mike S. Ferraro, Peter G. Goetz, Christopher I. Moore,
James L. Murphy, William S. Rabinovich, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)

9080-45, Session 8

Implementation and performance of stochastic
parallel gradient descent algorithm foratmospheric turbulence compensation
Greg A. Finney, Christopher M. Persons, Stephan Henning, IERUS
Technologies, Inc. (United States); Jessie Hazen, Daniel Whitley, The
Univ. of Alabama in Huntsville (United States)
IERUS Technologies, Inc. and the University of Alabama in Huntsville havepartnered to perform characterization and development of algorithms
and hardware for adaptive optics. To date the algorithm work has focusedon implementation of the stochastic parallel gradient descent (SPGD)
algorithm. SPGD is a metric based approach in which a scalar metricis optimized by taking random perturbative steps for many actuators
simultaneously. This approach scales to systems with a larger numberof actuators while maintaining bandwidth, while conventional methods
are negatively impacted by the very large matrix multiplications that are
required. The metric approach enables the use of higher speed sensors
with fewer (or even a single) sensing element(s), enabling a higher control
bandwidth. Furthermore, the SPGD algorithm is model-free, and thus is
not strongly impacted by the presence of non-linearities which degrade
the performance of conventional phase reconstruction methods. By
implementing a high- and a low-speed deformable mirror (woofer-tweeter
arrangement), large, low frequency and small, high frequency phasechanges can be corrected. Results from laboratory experiments using phase
plates as atmosphere surrogates will be presented, showing the impact
of non-linear actuator response using the conventional and model-free
approaches. The potential for high speed compensation using a woofertweeter configuration will be demonstrated.

9080-46, Session 8

No Abstract Available

Analysis of scintillation fluctuations of laser
propagation through video data processing

9080-44, Session 8

Sara Belichki, Landon Splitter, CREOL, The College of Optics andPhotonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Larry Andrews,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Ronald Phillips, CREOL, The
College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates)Demonstrating capacity-approaching FSO
communications
Thomas R. Halford, Michael P. Fitz, Cenk Kose, Jonathan Cromwell,
Steven Gordon, TrellisWare Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Atmosphere turbulence causes time variation in the receive signal intensity
on free space optical (FSO) communication links. Indeed, scintillation
fades can stymie connectivity for milliseconds at a time. To approach
the information-theoretic limits of communication in such time-varying
channels, it necessary to either code across extremely long blocks of data –thereby inducing unacceptable delays – or to vary the code rate according
to the instantaneous channel conditions.
In this paper, we describe the design, hardware implementation, and system
performance of an FSO modem that employs low-density parity-check(LDPC) coding in an incremental redundancy (IR) hybrid automatic repeat
request (H-ARQ) protocol. Our protocol effectively adapts the LDPC code
rate to match the instantaneous channel capacity. For links with fixed
throughput, this translates to the longest possible range in the presence of
optical scintillation; for links with fixed range, this translates to the highest
possible average throughput. By leveraging an LDPC that is amenable tolow-complexity, high-throughput implementation in hardware, our modem
is able to provide throughputs in excess of 850 Mbps on links with ranges
greater than 15 kilometers.

126

Pending Government approval, we will also report on the results of recent
system testing that was performed by researchers at the Naval ResearchLaboratory.

SPIE DSS 2014·

We seek to better understand laser propagation through the analysis of
the fluctuations in scintillation data gathered from a 30 frame per second
monochrome camera. Scintillation is the effect of atmospheric turbulence
which is known to disrupt and alter the intensity and formation of a laser
signal as it propagates through the atmosphere. To model and understandthis phenomenon, we have inspected recorded video output of a laser
upon a target screen to determine how much of an effect the atmosphericturbulence has disrupted the laser signal as it has been propagated upon aset distance. The techniques of data processing outlined in this paper moves
us toward a more software-based approach to determining the effects ofpropagation and detection of a laser based on the visual fluctuations causedby the scintillation effect. With the aid of such visual models, this paper
examines the idea of implementing mathematical models via software thatis then validated by the gathered video data. Using the information yieldedby the pixel values distributed within each individual frame, we are given
the ability to extract data that is useful in understanding how atmosphericturbulence effects laser wave propagation. Examples outlined within thispaper consist of plotting statistical results such as pixel correlation andmean laser signal fades, representing signal fluctuations of specified image
pixels through audio, and modelling laser intensity from a retro-reflector
with the issue of beam wander taken into account. Using these various

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Conference 9080B:
Atmospheric Propagation XI
software-based techniques has rendered vast reconfigurability in how laser
data may be processed to research the issue of atmospheric turbulence
upon a laser system.

receivers. This work presents a large area, five element concentric avalanche
photodiode array rated for bandwidths beyond 1GHz with a measured
carrier ionization ratio of approximately 0.2 at moderate APD gains. We
discuss the integration of this array in a bi-static optical interrogator where
it acts as a data receiver and provides position information for pointing andstabilization. In addition to front-end and digital electronics design, we also
describe the optical assembly design and the development of a pointing
and stabilization algorithm.

9080-47, Session 9

Diversity effects in modulating retroreflector
links

9080-50, Session 10

William S. Rabinovich, Rita Mahon, Mike S. Ferraro, Peter G. Goetz,
James L. Murphy, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

The integrated atmospheric characterization
system (IACS)

No Abstract Available

David W. Roberts, Gary G. Gimmestad, John M. Stewart, Georgia
Tech Research Institute (United States)

9080-48, Session 9

Experimental performance comparison ofreceiver architectures for airborne FSO systems

The Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) is delivering a transportable
multi-lidar instrument known as the Integrated AtmosphericCharacterization System (IACS) in 2014. The system will be housed in two
standard shipping containers that will be transported to remote sites on a
low-boy trailer. IACS will comprise three lidars: a 355 nm imaging lidar for
profiling refractive turbulence, a 355 nm Raman lidar for profiling water
vapor, and an aerosol lidar operating at both 1.06 and 1.625 microns. All of
the lidar transmit/receive optics will be co-aligned on a common mount,pointable at any elevation angle from horizontal to vertical. The entire
system will be computer controlled to facilitate pointing and automatic
data acquisition. The purpose of IACS is to characterize optical propagation
paths during outdoor tests of electro-optical systems. The tests are
anticipated to include ground-to-ground, air-to-ground, and ground-to-air
scenarios, so the system must accommodate arbitrary slant paths throughthe atmosphere with maximum measurement ranges of 5-10 km. Elevation
angle scans will be used to determine atmospheric extinction profiles at the
infrared wavelengths, and data from the three wavelengths will be used todetermine the aerosol Angstrom coefficient, enabling Interpolation of results
to other wavelengths in the 355 nm to 1.6 micron region.

David W. Young, Juan C. Juarez, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States); Brian Stadler, David F. Orth, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
Over the past 5 years there have been multiple flight tests performed
testing the performance of free space optical communications systems at
ranges exceeding 100 km. There were significant differences in the systems
architectures tested, the major difference being whether the systems
utilized multi-mode or single-mode fiber to collect received light at the
optical aperture focal point.
This paper describes the fundamental differences between the performance
single-mode and multi-mode fiber coupled FSO systems from a receiversensitivity standpoint. An analysis will be described that compares andcontrasts the difference in fielded performance of two system architectures;the first being a tip/tilt based system coupled to a multi-mode optical fiber,
the second being a curvature mode adaptive optics system coupled to asingle mode fiber. The data used for this system analysis was taken during
flight-testing performed during the AFRL FALCON and DARPA ORCA
programs. The analysis will include the impact of the receiver architecture
selected on link ranges, data rates, and overall link robustness.

9080-51, Session 10

9080-49, Session 9

Non-intrusive supersonic boundary layer
characterization using wavelength modulation
spectroscopy

Integration of a concentric five element InAIAs/
InGaAs avalanche photodiode array in astabilizing bi-static optical assemblyJose O. Negrette-Fernandez, Air Force Institute of Technology(United States); Michael S. Brown, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Michael R. Hawks, Air Force Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Mike S. Ferraro, Rita Mahon, William S. Rabinovich, James L.
Murphy, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Wade T. Freeman,
Smart Logic, Inc. (United States); Steve Frawley, Smart Logic,
Inc. (United States) and U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);Peter G. Goetz, Harris R. Burris, Linda M. Thomas, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); William R. Clark, William D. Waters,
OptoGration Inc. (United States); Barry M. Mathieu, Barry Design,
LLC (United States); Kenneth Vaccaro, Brian Krejca, OptoGration
Inc. (United States)

Experimental results on the use of wavelength modulation spectroscopy(WMS) to characterize the temperature, axial velocity, pressure, and density
gradient of the boundary layer in a supersonic flow will be presented.
Theoretical predictions will be compared to actual data from a rectangular
flowpath scramjet research facility, measured with a tunable diode laser
scanning 759 nm - 762 nm about the molecular Oxygen rQ13 and rR13
absorption lines. The presentation will include a general formulation of adigital (Matlab-based) lock-in amplifier used to process the WMS data.
Finally, there will be a discussion on the potential leading indicators of
upstream movement of the isolator shock train that are present in the data,
which may be useful predictors of scramjet unstart conditions.

In free space optical communication, photodetectors serve not only as
communications receivers but as position sensitive detectors (PSD) for
pointing, tracking, and stabilization. Typically, two separate detectors
are utilized to perform these tasks but recent advances in the fabricationand development of large area, low noise avalanche photodiode (APD)
arrays have enabled these devices to be used both as PSDs and as data
communication receivers. This combined functionality allows for more
flexibility and simplicity in optical assembly design without sacrificing thesensitivity and bandwidth performance of smaller, single element data127

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9080-52, Session 10

Control of a small robot using a hybrid opticalmodulating retro-reflector/RF link
James L. Murphy, Mike S. Ferraro, William S. Rabinovich, Peter G.

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Conference 9080B:
Atmospheric Propagation XI

Goetz, Michele R. Suite, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Stanley H. Uecke, NovaSol (United States)
Tele-operated robots used for Explosive Ordinance Disposal (EOD) are
ordinarily controlled using a radio frequency (RF) link. Use of RF links on thebattlefield presents several challenges including spectrum allocation andjamming effects (both by the enemy and friendly forces). Several solutions
have been attempted including electrical or fiber optic umbilicals andspread spectrum radios with varying degrees of success. Modulating Retroreflector Free Space Optical (MRR-FSO) communications links avoid theseeffects entirely but are limited to line of sight operation. We have developeda system consisting of an MRR-FSO link with a tracking optical terminal, aconventional RF link and a deployable pod to provide a relay node bridging
the FSO link to the operator and the RF link to the robot. The MRR-FSO linkprovides the capability to operate the robot in the presence of jamming
while the RF link allows short range non line of sight operation. The
operator uses the MRR-FSO link to drive the robot to a position downrange
outside the influence of the jammer or other interference. Once the robot
is positioned downrange near the area of operation the pod is deployed.
This allows the robot to maneuver freely including venturing beyond line ofsight using the short range RF link to maintain communications between thevehicle and pod while the FSO link maintains connectivity between the pod
and the operator.

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Conference 9081:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security X
Tuesday - Wednesday 6 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9081 Laser Technology for Defense and Security X

9081-1, Session 1

absorption cross section which is of major importance for compact laser
designs. An efficient, resonantly-pumped Er3+:LuVO4 laser emitting at
1610 nm (pi-polarization) or 1597.5 nm (sigma-polarization) has been
demonstrated. For CW pumping by a narrowband Er-fiber laser at 1532
nm the maximum output power of 5.9 W was achieved at 1610 nm withthe slope efficiency of 54.4%. This is believed to be the first reported laser
operation based on Er3+:LuVO4 single crystal.

Comparative analysis of holmium-doped lasermaterials
Steve Bowman, Joseph E. Friebele, Woohong R. Kim, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Christopher G. Brown, Sotera
Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States)

9081-4, Session 1

Host intrinsic properties of rare earth laser materials play a crucial role in
the operation of longer wavelength laser systems. This paper examines theproperties of the 2.1µm transition in trivalent holmium. The holmium 2.1µm
laser system has demonstrated an important role in defense and medical
applications. The optical properties of resonant optical pumping of the
5I7  5I8 Ho3+ transition have been examined in a broad range of hostmaterials. Spectral and projected laser parameters are reported in a-SiO2,
Y3Al5O12, Lu2O3, YLiF4, ZBLAN, and KPb2Cl5. These hosts were selected
to cover the full range of crystal fields and phonon energies. The magnitudeof the Stark splitting is crucial in resonantly pumped quasi-three level lasers.
Electron-phonon coupling plays a key role in this mid-ir wavelength laser.
Background absorption from hydroxyl impurity can pose impediments
to power scaling. Optimal 2µm laser performances for these diverse hostmaterials are contrasted.

Holmium-doped laser materials for eye-safe solidstate laser application
Woohong R. Kim, Steve Bowman, Colin C. Baker, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Catalin Florea, Sotera Defense
Solutions, Inc. (United States); Guillermo Villalobos, Brandon
Shaw, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Bryan Sadowski,
Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States); Michael Hunt, Univ.
Research Foundation (United States); Ishwar D. Aggarwal, Sotera
Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States); Jas S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
Trivalent holmium has 14 laser channels from 0.55 to 3.9 µm. The laser
emission of most interest is the transition 5I7?5I8 near 2 µm because of its
potential for use in eye-safe systems and medical applications. Currently
Ho3+doped single crystal yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), is the mostextensively studied and widely used material. However, YAG is not the best
host material for high-power laser systems due to its relatively low thermal
conductivity. Here we report our recent result on the spectroscopic andcalorimetric study of non-radiative losses in various holmium doped laser
host materials. [1-2] It is found that the Lu2O3 is an excellent host material
for holmium. In this paper, we present our recent results in the developmentof Ho3+ doped sesquioxides for eye-safe solid state lasers. The synthesisof high purity nano-powder and the optical, spectral and morphologicalproperties as well as the lasing performance from highly transparent
ceramics are presented.

9081-2, Session 1

Processing and characterization of polycrystalline
YAG core-clad fibers
Hyun Jun Kim, Air Force Research Lab. (United States) and UES, Inc.
(United States); Geoff E. Fair, Santeri A. Potticary, Matthew O’Malley,
Nicholas G. Usechak, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
As a fiber-laser gain media, YAG has attracted considerable attention due
to its large surface-to-volume ratio and its high thermal conductivity, which
is superior to that of silica-glass fibers. As a consequence, techniques
which enable the fabrication of poly- and single-crystalline YAG fibers
have improved significantly in order to leverage the advantages YAGbased devices should offer. In this work we have endeavored to reduce
the scattering loss of polycrystalline-YAG-core fibers by enhancing ourprocessing techniques using feedback from mechanical testing and throughthe development of a technique to encase doped YAG-core fibers with
undoped YAG claddings using robust ceramic processing techniques. As aresult, we have recently fabricated fibers with both core and claddings madeup of polycrystalline YAG and subsequently confirmed that they indeed
guide light. In this presentation, the processes leading to the fabrication andcharacterization results obtained on these fibers will be discussed.

1. R. S. Quimby, N. J. Condon, S. P. O’Connor, and S. R. Bowman, “Excitedstate dynamics in Ho:KPb2Cl5,” Optical Materials Vol. 34, Issue 9, pp. 15011622 (2012).
2. S.R. Bowman, Shawn O’Connor, Nicholas J. Condon, E. Joseph Friebele,
Woohong Kim, B. Shaw, and R. S. Quimby, “Non-radiative decay of holmiumdoped laser materials,” Proceeding of SPIE Photonic West 8638-2, (2013).

9081-5, Session 1

Growth, spectroscopy, and laser performanceof rare-earth doped vanadate family crystals(Invited Paper)

9081-3, Session 1

Crystal growth, spectroscopy, and laser
performance of resonantly pumped eye-safe
Er3+:LuVO4 laser

Jiyang Wang, Haohai Yu, Huaijin Zhang, Shandong Univ. (China)
Efficient all-solid state lasers have been developed since successful
production of laser diodes in last two decades. The most popular laser
crystals are Nd:YAG, Nd:YVO4 and Ti:Al2O3. Among these, Nd:YVO4 is
widely used in mid- and low- power output all-solid lasers, includingcommercial. Since 1990’s, a series of rare-earth vanadate crystals havebeen grown including Nd-, Yb-, Tm-, and Cr-doped and Cr,Nd- codoped
orthovanadates, including ordered as well as disordered (mixed)
orthovanadate single crystals. In this family of crystals, Nd:YVO4 and thelasers based on it, were the most developed. GdVO4, LuVO4 and mixed
GdxLu(1-x)VO4 , GdxY(1-x)VO4 and YxLu(1-x)VO4 crystals with different
dopants were also grown. It was found that Nd and Yb doped GdVO4 has
the highest thermal conductivity which is most promising for high-power

Nikolay E. Ter-Gabrielyan, Viktor Fromzel, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Z. Yan, Shandong Univ. (China); X. Yan, Lasence Inc.
(China); Huaijin Zhang, Jiyang Wang, Shandong Univ. (China); Mark
Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
High optical quality Er3+:LuVO4 single crystals have been developedby Czochralski growth process. Absorption and emission spectra for the
4I15/2 x 4I13/2 transitions relevant to eye-safe laser operation have been
investigated. It was found that Er3+ ion in LuVO4 exhibits unusually high129

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Conference 9081:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security X
laser applications. Nd and Yb doped LuVO4 was found to have the largest
emission cross section and good thermal conductivity, which is promisingfor good laser performance in most compact laser architectures. The mixed
vanadate crystals possess large inhomogeneous spectral broadening
favorable for ultrashort-pulse laser applications.
This presentation will discuss the growth, spectroscopic and other basic
properties of these crystals. CW and passively Q-switched laser operation ofthese crystals will be comprehensively described.
A series of orthovanadate crystals of different Erbium doped LuxGd1-xVO4
have also been successfully grown and their spectroscopic properties havebeen determined.

Nanoparticle (NP) doping is a new technique for making EDFs where theEr ions are surrounded by a cage of aluminum and oxygen ions, thereby
substantially reducing ion-ion energy exchange and its deleterious effects
on laser performance. Er-doped boehmite, hydrous aluminum oxide
AlO(OH) NPs, are formed by mixing ErCl3 and Al(NO3)3 in a high pH
solution; the pH controls their size. After washing, the NPs are dispersed
in a solvent and then doped in-situ into the silica soot core of the preform.
Calcination of the boehmite by thermal treatment removes the OH andconverts AlO(OH) to -Al2O3.

9081-6, Session 2

Calibrated measurements of Er and Yb co-doped
glasses for laser properties
Simi A. George, Joseph S. Hayden, SCHOTT North America, Inc.
(United States)
Erbium-doped bulk glasses are of high interest to many applications in
the defense and medical fields. The Er3+ laser performance in materials,
especially in glass, can be enhanced by co-doping with large amountsof Yb3+, thus enabling laser diode pumping of Yb3+near 980 nm. Here,absorption by the Yb 2F5/2 state transfers energy to the 4I11/2 state of Er3+,
giving rise to sensitized emission with significant reduction in the absorption
length of the gain medium. Aside from Yb, Cr and Ce doping is also usedin glasses in order to enhance laser performance. For the developmentof future eye-safe laser products, SCHOTT initiated an internal program
focused on examining the complex interactions between Cr, Ce, Yb and Er.
A number of glasses were manufactured with varying levels of theaforementioned active dopants. During the course of this study, it became
apparent that the measurement conditions for absorption and emission
have a significant impact on the calculated laser properties. The main
contributor to such dramatic changes in the measured data is the Yb3+ inthese glasses. Yb is typically incorporated in large amounts (10’s of wt%)
in glass, where it is known to absorb its own light. Thus, for an accurate
analysis of laser properties with the variations in active ion concentrations, itis necessary to standardize these measurements.
In this report, our efforts in calibrating spectrophotometric and fluorescenceemission measurements are detailed for general consumption. Instrument
related contributions to the collected data are tediously analyzed andisolated until stable measurement conditions for accurate results are
identified. Sample thickness ffects on lifetime is determined by extrapolating
to zero concentration lifetimes for both Er and Yb. A method for achieving
wavelength calibration of the fluorescence unit to be better than 0.2nm is
also detailed. Finally, a comparison of the calculated laser properties for thedifferent glasses in the study is outlined with any observable correlations toactive ion concentrations.

9081-7, Session 2

Nanoparticle doping for improved power scalingof resonantly-pumped, Yb-free Er-doped fiber
lasersJoseph E. Friebele, Charles G. Askins, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); John R. Peele, Soltera Defense Systems (UnitedStates); Barbara M. Wright, Colin C. Baker, Woohong R. Kim, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Jun Zhang, Radha K. Pattnaik,
Mark Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Erbium-doped fiber lasers (EDFLs) are attractive for directed energy
weapons applications because they operate in a wavelength region that isboth eye-safer and a window of high atmospheric transmission. Typical fiber
structures for cladding-pumped high energy lasers are either solid glasslarge mode area (LMA) step index (SI) or photonic crystal fibers (PCFs).

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In both cases it is necessary to have a relatively high Er core absorption
because of the areal dilution of the pump intensity in the large pumpcladding. However, it is well-known that Er ions tend to cluster in silica glass,and Al, which is effective in increasing Er solubility and reducing clustering,is typically co-doped in the fiber core at a much higher concentration thanEr. The common solution-doping technique for making EDFs provides nomechanism for controlling the atomic environment of the Er, and in spite of
the presence of Al, clustering still occurs. Lifetime quenching and crossrelaxation upconversion typically increase with increasing Er concentration.

·

Whereas solution doping requires in the incorporation of significant
amounts of Al in the fiber core for sufficient [Er], producing an unavoidable
increase in the refractive index (RI), we have found that for comparable
concentrations of Er, there is only a minimal RI increase with NP doping.
This is a particularly important result for PCFs where the core delta n must
be 0. Furthermore, the lifetime of the Er luminescence has been measured
to be ~11.5 ms for a wide range of [Er] in the NP doped fibers vs. < 10.5 ms
for solution doping, indicating an absence of Er clustering and quenching.
A comparison of the performances of Er solution and NP doped fiber lasers
will be presented.

9081-8, Session 2

Compositional tuning of glass for the suppressionof nonlinear and parasitic fiber laser phenomenaPeter D. Dragic, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates); John Ballato, Thomas W. Hawkins, Clemson Univ. (UnitedStates)Fiber lasers are susceptible to a number of nonlinear and parasitic effects
that can significantly inhibit performance. From a system perspective,
requirements of a fiber laser may cover average or peak power, amplitude
stability, and spectral content of the source. Nonlinear and parasitic
phenomena, including Brillouin scattering, Raman scattering, mode stability,
self-phase modulation, four-wave mixing in multi-wavelength lasers,
etc. can each influence one or all of these performance characteristics.
Conventionally, these system-limiting undesirables have been addressedwith complex waveguide designs. However, each of these light-medium
interactions can be described by material coefficients that lead to estimatesof ‘threshold’ values where these phenomena become significant. For
example, this may be the Brillouin gain coefficient for Brillouin scattering,
the nonlinear refractive index, n2, for self-phase modulation, or the thermooptic coefficient, dn/dT, for mode stability. Furthermore, these coefficientstend to be strong functions of the material, and surprisingly wide rangesof values exist between known material systems. For example, both the
Pockels’ photoelastic constant, p12, and thermo-optic coefficient may beeither positive or negative for a material. It follows logically that mixturesof materials with coefficients of opposing signs would then give rise tocompositions where these coefficients may be zero. Examples of such effectnegation may include the barium aluminosilicate system for p12 and thephosphosilicate or titanosilicate system for dn/dT. Compositional tailoringof the optical fiber is therefore suggested as an alternative means tosuppressing these parasitics and methods to do so will be discussed.

9081-9, Session 3

Smart filters: protect from laser threats
Ariela Donval, Tali Fisher, Ofir Lipman, Moshe Oron, KiloLambda

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Conference 9081:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security X
Technologies, Ltd. (Israel)from the vapor phase is free from such severe segregation effects, buttraditional vapor growth techniques used for III-V semiconductors suchas molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and metal organic chemical vapor
deposition (MOCVD) are characterized by extremely slow growth rates (~1μm/hour) which are impractical for producing the very thick layers (10001500μm) required for producing bulk optical components. Low-pressure
hydride vapor phase epitaxy (LP-HVPE) offers all of the advantages ofvapor growth (no segregation effects, ultra high purity, superior processcontrol, in-situ diagnostics, low native defect concentrations, etc.) but at
growth rates over 100X higher than those typical of MBE or MOCVD: in fact
the 100-200 µm/hour rates achieved by HVPE are approaching those used
for bulk semiconductor growth from the melt. Here we report the use of
LP-HVPE to produce In1-xGaxAs devices with compositions up to 20% Ga
and thicknesses (after substrate removal) approaching 1 mm. Typical growthparameters are as follows: substrate temperature of 600-700°C; reactor
pressure of 20 mbar; HCl flow rates of 8 and 32 sccm over Ga and In; AsH3
flow rate of 120 sccm. Growth results on InAs, GaAs, and InP substrates arereported.

With the development of more powerful lasers and their implementationin various devices used worldwide, more intention should be drawn tolaser threats to optics as well as to the human eye. In some scenarios, laser
radiation may seriously interrupt the signal, from transient saturation andcan lead to permanent damage. The problem exists in imaging sensors
comprising of CCDs and other matrix detectors, human eyes or otherimaging and non-imaging sensors in the visible and the IR range. One
option is to use a notch filter to remove a narrow band of wavelengths.
However, versatility of available wavelength agile lasers makes this strategy
useless. Smart protection is therefore needed, that is transparent for low
laser intensities and limit or block the high laser intensities, and is effective
over a wide band of wavelengths.
KiloLambda developed Optical Power Control (OPC) devices that reduce
laser power threat to a safe level for various optical systems. We introduce
into optical systems, susceptible to be interrupted or damaged from laser,
novel passive solid-state threshold-triggered Wideband Protection Filter(WPF) that blocks the transmission only if the power exceeds a certain
threshold. KiloLambda’s Wideband Protection Filter (WPF) product is
a wideband, angle of impingement independent, solid-state filter that
protects sensors, cameras and the human eye from over power laser threats.
We propose, based on our proven technologies, a novel technology forprotection of any imaging system, sensors and the human eye against laser
threats from the visible and up to the IR.

9081-12, Session 3

Quantitative laser safety analysis for applicationof high-energy lasers in a field test
Dietmar Böker, Christine Schwarz-Hemmert, Dirk Netzler, IABG mbH(Germany)

9081-10, Session 3

There is a variety of national and international standards for laser safety
analysis that use the implicit assumption that radiation can be held
below certain Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) levels anywhere in
the unmonitored surrounding, i.e. that a Nominal Hazard Zone (NHZ) is
restricted to definable localities. Obviously, this is impracticable when highenergy lasers are applied in outdoor environments. New approaches aspresented in IEC TR 60825-14, the UK MOD JSP 390 Laser Safety and also
briefly touched in STANAG 3606 are based on methods for risk assessmentthat provide assistance for the use of high energy lasers under acceptablerisk.

Characterization of a new nonlinear opticalmaterial for Army laser eye protection
applications
Timothy M. Pritchett, Michael J. Ferry, William M. Shensky III,
Andrew G. Mott, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Broadband nonlinear optical (NLO) materials can be used to protect
eyes from the threat of damage from lasers operating across the visible
spectrum. Based on its efficacy in absorbing 532-nm, nanosecond
laser pulses and its unusually broad excited-state absorption spectrum,
researchers at the Army Research Laboratory (ARL) several years ago
identified one such material, a novel NLO absorbing dye in a polar organic
solvent, as a promising candidate for this application. In the interim, thematerial has undergone a number of dramatic improvements: The solubilityof the dye has been increased almost 600-fold, and the solvent has been
carefully optimized to enable the active chromophore molecule to provide
maximum protection under battlefield operating conditions. Successful
optical design and engineering require reliable modeling results for the laser
protection performance of the dye/solvent system(s) employed, but theseresults are only as accurate as the inputs to the models: in particular, to thevarious photophysical parameters characterizing the optical nonlinearity.
Until recently, values of the parameters characterizing the NLO propertiesof the improved dye/solvent system had not been measured experimentally,
previous work having instead relied upon reported parameter values forthe original system. Recent work at ARL has corrected this deficiency. In
this paper, we describe a complete NLO characterization of the improveddye/solvent system, and we report values of all relevant photophysicalparameters.

In the study reported here, we conduct a quantitative risk analysis focusedon an application of high energy laser radiation in outdoor field tests.
Thus we identify hazards within a particular field test environment andestimate the risks associated to them using a probabilistic approach. The
risks are assessed for being acceptable by probability of occurrence andseverity. General risk management processes then demand that risks thatexceed an acceptable level need to be reduced through appropriate risk
reduction measure that either reduce the probability of occurrence or theconsequences of an accident associated to that hazard. Thus, after having
verified that all our recommended measures are implemented to a sufficient
extend, field tests may be conducted.
Even if the environment and particular risks vary, our proceeding and therisks identified provide valuable advice for further risk analysis to allow for
laser applications with acceptable risk in outdoor environments.

9081-13, Session 3

A laser-based FAIMS detector for detection ofultra-low concentrations of explosives
Alexander A. Chistyakov, Artem E. Akmalov, National Research
Nuclear Univ. MEPhI (Russian Federation); Artem S. Bogdanov,Moscow State Institute of Radiotechnics, Electronics andAutomation (Russian Federation); Gennadiy E. Kotkovskiy, National
Research Nuclear Univ. MEPhI (Russian Federation); Eugene M.
Spitsyn, POLYUS Research and Development Institute (RussianFederation); Alexey V. Sychev, National Research Nuclear Univ.
MEPhI (Russian Federation); Anatoly N. Perederii, Moscow State
Institute of Radiotechnics, Electronics and Automation (Russian9081-11, Session 3

HVPE of bulk In1-xGaxAs for sensor protectionPeter G. Schunemann, BAE Systems (United States)
Bulk ternary semiconductors with a compositionally-tunable band gap areneeded for sensor protection in infrared optical systems. Melt growth ofsemiconductors from mixed binary melts is plagued by severe segregationthat results in compositional nonuniformity, constitutional supercooling,
and ultimately interface breakdown and polycrystallinity. Crystal growth131+1 360 676 3290·

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Federation); Anton V. Tugaenko, Inkram (Russian Federation)

9081-15, Session 4

A method for detecting and analyzing of small concentrations of explosives
in air based on the laser ionization and the field asymmetric ion mobility
spectrometry (FAIMS) was developed. The method includes a highly
efficient multipass optical scheme of the intracavity fourth-harmonic
generation of pulsed GSGG : cr3+ : Nd3+ laser radiation (l = 266 nm) andthe FAIMS spectrometer disposed within the resonator. The ions formationand detection proceed inside the resonant cavity. The laser ion source basedon the multi-passage of radiation at l = 266 nm through the ionization
region was elaborated. On the basis of the method the laser FAIMS
analyzer has been created. The analyzer provides efficient detection of low
concentrations of nitro-compounds in air and guarantees a detection limitof 5 10–15 g/cm3 for cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) and 3 10–15 g/cm3
for trinitrotoluene (TNT).

Highly reliable and efficient 1.5um-fiber-MOPAbased, high-power laser transmitter for spacecommunication

A non-contact method for analyzing of explosives traces from surfaces
was developed. The method is based on the laser desorption of analyzed
molecules from the surveyed surfaces followed by the laser ionization of
air sample combined with the FAIMS. The pulsed radiation of the fourthharmonic of a portable (2.6 kg) GSGG : Cr3+ :Nd3+ laser (l = 266 nm)
is used. The laser desorption FAIMS analyzer have been developed. The
detection limit of the analyzer equals 40 pg for TNT. The results of detectionof TNT, RDX and HMX (octogene) are presented. It is shown that laser
desorption of nitro-compounds from metals is accompanied by their surface
decomposition.

9081-14, Session 450µm-core Yb-doped leakage channel fiber withflattened mode
Fanting Kong, Guanchen Gu, Thomas W. Hawkins, Joshua Parsons,Maxwell Jones, Clemson Univ. Research Foundation (United States);
Christopher D. Dunn, Clemson Univ. (United States); Monica T.
Kalichevsky-Dong, Clemson Univ. Research Foundation (UnitedStates); Kanxian Wei, Bryce N. Samson, Nufern (United States);
Liang Dong, Clemson Univ. Research Foundation (United States)
There is great interest in power scaling in fiber lasers for use in a wide range
of applications such as manufacturing, medical, scientific research anddefense. Power scaling of fiber lasers is mainly limited by nonlinear effects.
Large-mode-area fibers have been used to mitigate this limit, such as theleakage channel fiber (LCF). Typically, the mode intensity profile in thesefibers exhibits Gaussian-like structure with higher intensity at the center offiber core. As a result, the effective mode-area is much reduced comparedto the physical fiber core area. Thus, a flat-top mode with a uniform intensity
distribution is more suitable for larger effective mode-area without having
to increase core size. These flat-top beams are also of benefit in marking
and material processing applications.
In this work, we demonstrate the first flat-top mode generated in a 50µmcore Yb-doped LCF fiber. The mode flattening from Gaussian beam to aflat-top one is achieved by using a 30µm uniform Yb-doped area in the corecenter with a refractive index very slightly below that of the backgroundsilica glass by 2x10-4. The resulting flat-top mode has a significantly
increased effective mode area of ~1880um2, which is ~50% larger than thatof a conventional uniform core. The flat-top mode in this work is the largest
even demonstrated, with ~6 times the effective mode area of the flat-top
mode record demonstrated previously. A 6m-long fiber is also tested in alaser configuration with a measured pump-laser transfer efficiency of ~93%
at 1026nm with respect to the absorbed pump power at 975nm.

Doruk Engin, Frank Kimpel, Kent Puffenberger, Slava Litvinovitch,
Xung Dang, He Cao, Bruce McIntosh, Mark Storm, Rich Utano,
Shantanu Gupta, Fibertek, Inc. (United States)
Laser based optical communication links for space provides more than anorder of magnitude higher data rates than corresponding RF communication
links. In addition, this is achieved with much smaller size, weight andpower (SWaP) burden to spacecraft payloads, thereby making spacecraft
resources available for enhancing or extending science missions and themission productivity. Key to the success of space laser communication
links has been the maturity and high-reliability of pump laser, fiber-optic
components, single-photon counting detector technology, and maturityof pointing, acquisition and tracking (PAT) requirements. This has led
to the demonstration of 5.6 Gbps optical communication links using<1W average power, between two spacecrafts in low-Earth-orbit (LEO),
thereby facilitating high-data rate transfers with very low bit-error-rates(BER). However, asteroid, lunar and planetary (i.e. deep-space) opticalcommunication links operate over much larger distances compared to LEO/
GEO links, and high optical powers (>4 Watts), narrow linewidth (<6.5GHz)
and diffraction-limited beam quality are needed.
Fibertek has developed a space qualify-able, highly efficient, high power,
fiber based 1.5um laser optical module (LOM). System achieves 6W averageand >1kW peak power with 8nsec pulses and <6Ghz linewidth. Stimulated
Brillion scattering is managed by use of LMA fiber in final stage and precise
linewidth control while maintaining the required diffraction limited, andhighly polarized (PER>20dB) output. Total gain of 48dB is achieved with
two stages minimizing size and component count of the system. The LOM
is optimized for athermal, conductive cooling and reliable operation with
low SWaP (8”x10”x2.375”, 6.74 lbs). We have developed improvements inmodulation scheme and component specs and expected LOM wall plug
efficiency over 16.0%. Highly efficient operation is sustained for a wide
range of pulse-position-modulation (16 to 128-ary PPM) formats with pulse
widths varying from 8nsec to 0.5nsec. The LOM maintains the required
high extinction ratio (>33dB) operation for all the pulse formats. Pressure
stress analysis, random vibration analysis and thermal analysis of thedesigned LOM predicts compliance with most NASA General Environmental
Verification Standard (GEVS) levels for vibration and thermal cycling in
vacuum environment. Preliminary environmental test results for vibrationand thermal cycling in a vacuum environment will be presented.

9081-16, Session 4

Thulium fiber laser and application development
Lawrence Shah, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ.
of Central Florida (United States); Christian Gaida, Martin Gebhardt,
Friedrich-Schiller-Univ. Jena (Germany); Alex M. Sincore, Joshua
D. Bradford, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States); Nils Gehlich, Fraunhofer-Institut
für Lasertechnik (Germany); Ilya Mingareev, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)and Fraunhofer-Institut für Lasertechnik (Germany); Martin C.
Richardson, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States)
Within the past 10 years, Tm:fiber lasers have emerged as a flexible platform
offering high average power as well as high peak power. Many of thebenefits and limitations of Tm:fiber lasers are similar to those for Yb:fiber
lasers, however the ~2 μm emission wavelength posses unique challenges
in terms of laser development as well as several benefits for applications.
In this presentation, we will review the progress of laser development in
CW, nanosecond, picosecond, and femtosecond regimes. As a review of our

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efforts in the development of power amplifiers, we will compare large modearea (LMA) step-index and photonic crystal fiber (PCF) architectures. In our
research, we have found Tm-doped step index LMA fibers to offer relatively
high efficiency and average powers at the expense of fundamental mode
quality. By comparison, Tm-doped PCFs provide the largest mode area andquasi diffraction-limited beam quality however they are approximately half
as efficient as step-index fibers and have therefore been limited to ~50 W
maximum average power.

to power scaling of Er3+-doped fiber lasers with ~980-nm pumping
assumes Yb3+ co-doping to make up for insufficiently strong 4I15/2 - 4I11/2
absorption of Er3+ itself, limited by low Er3+ concentration in silica-based
fibers. This co-doping helps in solving the absorption problem, but (i)introduces additional loss and heat deposition due to less than perfect
Yb->Er energy transfer efficiency, and (ii) ultimately limits power scaling at
eyesafe wavelengths by engaging parasitic Yb lasing at high pumping power
levels. Presented here are the results of our comprehensive comparative
study of resonant and non-resonant clad-pumping of fiber lasers basedon Yb-free, Er-doped fibers, which can be of great interest for fiber laser
development utilizing fibers with high 4I15/2 - 4I11/2 absorption of Er3+.

We will also review the development of applications based upon Tm:fiber
lasers. In terms of defense related applications, the most prominent use
of Tm:fiber lasers is to pump nonlinear conversion to the mid-IR such as
supercontinuum generation and optical parametric oscillators/amplifiers(OPO/A). We have recently demonstrated Tm:fiber pumped OPOs which
generate ~28 kW peak power in the mid-IR. In addition, we will showthat Tm:fiber lasers also offer interesting capabilities in the processing ofsemiconductors and polymers.

9081-19, Session 4

Diode clad-pumped, CW Raman fiber laser for asingle-aperture power scaling (Invited Paper)

9081-17, Session 4

Mark Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Benjamin
G Ward, U.S. Air Force Academy (United States); Jay W. Dawson,
Michael J. Messerly, Paul H. Pax, John E. Heebner, Derrek R.
Drachenberg, Lawrence Livermore National Lab. (United States);
Jun Zhang, Viktor Fromzel, Nikolay E. Ter-Gabrielyan, Radha K.
Pattnaik, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Resonant tandem pumping of Tm-doped fiber
lasers and amplifiers
Daniel Creeden, Benjamin R. Johnson, Glen A. Rines, Scott D.
Setzler, BAE Systems (United States)

We have demonstrated and assessed power scaling potential and efficiency
of a new type of single-aperture fiber laser directly scalable to DEWrelevant power: a low quantum defect clad-pumped CW Raman fiber
power oscillator. The Raman fiber laser was pumped by fiber-coupled laser
diode modules at 1532 nm to produce an eye-safe output at the first Stokes
wavelength of 1641 nm (a quantum defect of ~7%). The first successful
demonstration of a diode-clad-pumped CW Raman laser is based on a
specially designed and fabricated Photonic Bandgap (PBG) silica fiber.
Parasitic higher-order Stokes amplification, the key challenge for thisapproach, is prevented by implementation of a PGB design with low loss
at the 1st Stokes wavelength but high loss at 2nd Stokes. Presented are thetheoretical PBG fiber design, fiber fabrication and passive testing details,
along with the first experimental laser results.

We have demonstrated efficient lasing of a Tm-doped fiber when pumped
with another Tm-doped fiber. We believe this is the first experimental
demonstration of resonant tandem pumping for Tm-doped fibers. In theseexperiments, we use a 1908 nm Tm-doped fiber laser as a pump source foranother Tm-doped fiber laser, operating at a slightly longer wavelength(~2000 nm). Pumping in the 1900 nm region allows for very high optical
efficiencies, low heat generation, and significant power scaling potential
due to the use of fiber laser pumping. The trade-off is that the ground-statepump absorption at 1908 nm is ~37 times lower than at 795nm. However, theabsorption cross-section is still sufficiently high enough to achieve effective
pump absorption without exceedingly long fiber lengths. This may also be
advantageous for distributing the thermal load in higher power applications.
In a core-pumped oscillator configuration, we have generated 2.55 Wof output power at 2005 nm with 75% optical efficiency and 90% slope
efficiency, with respect to launched pump power. This pumping approachhas been tested on five different fibers, each with different doping
concentrations and/or geometries, with similar results. We have also
demonstrated this pumping method in an amplifier configuration, resulting
in 9.8W of extracted power, with a 91.6% slope efficiency and 79% optical
efficiency. We present these results in detail and show a path toward highefficiency power scaling using this resonant tandem pumping approach.

Support of this work by the High Energy Laser Joint Technology Office(HEL-JTO) is gratefully acknowledged.

9081-36, Session Posters-Tuesday

Highly-efficient, high-energy pulse-burst Ybdoped fiber laser with transform limited linewidth
Doruk Engin, Frank Kimpel, John Burton, Ibraheem Darab, BrianMathason, Shantanu Gupta, Mark Storm, Fibertek, Inc. (UnitedStates)9081-18, Session 4

Comparative study of resonant and non-resonant
clad-pumping of fiber lasers based on Yb-free,
Er-doped fibers

A Yb-doped, 1um fiber laser, outputting high energy (>1mJ) pulse-burstwith high peak powers (>10kW) and narrow linewidth (<300MHz), is an
attractive pump source for tunable periodically poled (PPx) crystal based
optical parametric amplifiers (OPA). Fiber laser pumped PPx based OPA’s
are well suited for sensing, imaging and communication applications. For
example NASA Goddard Space Flight Center has developed a versatilenanosecond-pulsed MgO:PPLN based OPA for gas (CH4, CO2, H2O, CO)detection. The OPA has sufficient wavelength tuning range for gas detection
and can simultaneously output at both near-infrared (1.5-1.6um) and midinfrared (3-5um) wavelengths. The pulse burst format allows for >40 foldenergy scaling of the necessary micro pulse energy (~30-60uJ) to ~2mJ
while maintaining linewidth and peak power for individual micro pulses.
Furthermore, fiber laser based pumps can generate more sophisticatedpulse formats such as pulse position modulation (PPM) for communication
applications.

Jun Zhang, Radha K. Pattnaik, Viktor Fromzel, Mark Dubinskii, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
We have recently demonstrated significant scaling potential of resonantly
cladding-pumped Yb-free, Er3+-doped fiber lasers. With resonant pumping(4I15/2 - 4I13/2) at ~1530 nm, when heat deposition can be limited by merely
very small quantum defect, significant power scaling can be achieved
without elaborate thermal management of fibers. In turn, non-resonant
pumping to the second excited state of Er3+ (4I15/2 - 4I11/2) has a great
advantage of utilizing the most efficient and best developed commerciallyavailable InGaAs/AlGaAs ~980-nm fiber-coupled diode laser modules, sothat greater overall laser efficiency can be achieved in this case. In fact, due
to limited availability of advanced fiber-coupled InGaAsP/InP diode laser
modules at ~1530 nm, this pumping can be more practical if application
allows for more involved thermal management. The conventional approach133+1 360 676 3290

Here a turn-key 1064nm PM Yb-doped fiber amplifier generating >1mJ pulse
burst energy (consisting of >40x3nsec pulses separated by 30nsec) withtransform limited linewidth (<500MHz) is presented. The ~20W laser, based·

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on COTS Yb doped LMA PM-fibers is optimized for high energy (0.5-2mJ)and high peak power (>10kW) operation at low duty cycles (~0.1%). The
laser operates at >10x the saturation energy level of the final stage gain fiberand achieves a high level of pulse-to-pulse peak power uniformity within
the pulse-burst. High wall plug efficiency (>20%) for the FPGA controlled
system is achieved by temporal and spectral ASE suppression and by
spreading the necessary pulse pre-shaping losses (~12dB) in three different
amplitude modulation points in the amplifier chain. Sub nanosecond FPGA
control allows for amplitude pre-shaping of individual micro pulses and iscapable of generating PPM pulse formats with minimal pattern dependent
pulse to pulse energy variation. The VBG locked power amplifier stage
pumps can be pulsed (>50usec pulse width) allowing for efficient operation
in lower macro pulse repetition rates (<5kHz).

9081-21, Session 5

Growth of bulk orientation-patterned gallium
phosphide (OP-GaP) for mid-IR laser applicationsPeter G. Schunemann, Alice Vera, Lee Mohnkern, Xiaoping S. Yang,
BAE Systems (United States)

Widely tunable infrared source for molecularfingerprint spectroscopy based on OP-GaAsdifference-frequency generation with asynchronized programmable fiber laser

Orientation patterned gallium phosphide (OPGaP) is an exciting newengineered nonlinear optical crystal for efficiently shifting widely available
1-micron laser sources deep into the mid-infrared for applications ranging
from IRCM to imaging lidar. OPGaP templates were grown by MBE in a
dedicated Varian Gen II MOD system modified by the addition of a small
auxiliary chamber equipped with a hi-temperature thermal silicon cell for
growing the lattice-matched, non-polar Si inversion layer. The system wasalso equipped with a two-zone phosphorus cracker for improved controlof the P flux compared to prior work based on a GaP solid source. Afterloading and baking (300°C) a 3-inch GaP vicinal (100) substrate (4° off
cut toward ) in the system, a 200-nm-thick buffer was grown at a rateof 200 nm /h under a P pressure of 1.6x10-6 torr (~ 10 times higher thanreference 5) at a substrate temperature of 545°C, followed by growth of
5 nm of Si at a rate of 4 nm/h while ramping the substrate temperaturefrom 350°C to 495°C. A 2.7-nm-thick AlGaP smoothing layer and then a
100-nm-thick inverted GaP layer were grown at 200 nm/hr at P pressuresof 8.5 x 10-7 torr and 1.14 x 10-6 torr respectively. The GaP inverted layer
was then photolithographically patterned with grating periods ranging from
14.5 to 95.9 microns, then etched by reactive ion etching in BCl3 at ratesof ~ 2 nm/s (0.4 nm/s for Si) down to the surface of the original substrate.
After removing the photoresist the wafer was cleaned with a brief wet etchand reloaded into the MBE chamber for 200 nm of regrowth under thesame conditions as the initial GaP buffer layer. Atomic Force Microscopy
revealed that the inverted layer growth was free of anti-phase domains, andthat the patterned grating structure exhibited good vertical propagation.
The resulting 3-inch MBE-grown OPGaP templates were loaded into acommercial low-pressure hydride vapor phase epitaxy (LP-HVPE) reactor
and thick quasi-phasematched layers (>600 microns) were grown attemperatures between 720°C and 800°C, 20 mbar reactor pressure, and
V/III ratios between 2 and 10. Excellent vertical domain propagation wasachieved for grating periods as low as 14.5 microns and thicknesses up to
185 microns at growth rates of ~ 110 microns/hr. Bulk device crystals werecut, polished, and AR-coated for in-plane pumping by 1- and 2-micron solidstate lasers. Preliminary frequency conversion results will be reported.

Mathieu Giguère, Alain Villeneuve, Joseph Salhany, Youngjae Kim,
Alexandre Dupuis, Bryan Burgoyne, Genia Photonics Inc. (Canada);
Douglas Bamford, Physical Sciences Inc. (United States)

9081-22, Session 59081-37, Session Posters-Tuesday

A three wavelength erbium-doped fiber laser
source based on fiber Bragg grating reflectors
Siyanda Qhumayo, Univ. of Johannesburg (South Africa)
A three wavelengths erbium doped fiber laser source is developed. The
configuration is a ring cavity comprised of an erbium doped fiber as a gain
medium, an optical circulator, optical isolator for unidirectional operation
and a WDM optical coupler for coupling the laser diode pump source
and the optical feedback of the ring cavity laser source. The broadband
spontaneous emission generated in the gain medium is coupled out of thering cavity via port 1 through port 2 of the optical circulator. On this port,
the partial reflecting Bragg gratings are connected and their function is toselect the oscillation wavelengths and to serve as the output coupler. The
Laser source has emission at 1540nm, 1547nnm and 1555nm.

9081-20, Session 5

Considered as the fingerprint region of the molecules, the Mid-Infrared(Mid-IR) consists of absorption lines related to molecular vibrations. The
development of laser sources in this spectral region is then of great interest
since many applications are related to it such as remote sensing, pollutant
monitoring, laser-based infrared counter-measures and narcotic/explosive
detection. Genia Photonics recently developed a Widely Tunable Infrared
Source (WTIRS) based on Difference-Frequency Generation (DFG) of its
commercially available Synchronized Fiber Laser. We present here our latest
laser source development as well as the results of its integration as a key
component inside an explosive detection system.
The laser system is based upon a Programmable Laser (PL) whose emitted
wavelength can be tuned continuously and rapidly up to 80,000 times
per second onto which we synchronize electronically a Master-Oscillator
Power-Amplifier (MOPA). The two lasers are then mixed into a nonlinear
crystal, in particular Orientation-Patterned Gallium-Arsenide (OP-GaAs), in
order to generate DFG (6.25-10µm, 1000-1600cm-1). Since the number ofnonlinear crystals available in this spectral region is restrained, the choiceof OP-GaAs became obvious because of its high nonlinear coefficient aswell as its capability to obtain engineered structure in order to optimize thephase-matching bandwidth. From this system, mW DFG level tunable overthe full specified spectral range has been generated without any angular nor
temperature tuning.

Cascaded mid-IR Er:Y2O3 ceramic laser
Tigran Sanamyan, Mark Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)We report the first diode-pumped, continuous wave (CW), dual-wavelength
operation of an Er3+:Y2O3 ceramic laser taking advantage of the cascaded(4I11/2 -->4I13/2-->4I15/2) laser action at ~2.7 and 1.6 µm. The selection oflaser host was based on the low-phonon nature of the Y2O3 host, which
renders the 4I11/2-->4I13/2 transition to be highly radiative. A spectrallynarrowed fiber-coupled semiconductor laser module at ~980 nm was used
to directly pump the Er3+ upper laser level 4I11/2. The cascaded operation
results in an almost three-fold increase in the overall power and efficiency,with the added advantage of significantly decreasing heat deposition into
the laser medium. Detailed analysis of the output power, lasing wavelengthand slope efficiency for each individual laser transition is presented for the
CW regime. Also presented is the temporal behavior of each laser line asa function of pump pulse duration in the quasi-CW regime along with theanalysis of further laser power scaling at room and cryogenic temperatures.

This source has then been proven highly efficient to detect explosive traces.
Standoff detection of meter range has been tested and trace level RDX has
been detected on different substrates.

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9081-23, Session 59081-25, Session 6

Demonstration of a quick process to achieve
buried heterostructure QCL leading to highpower and wall plug efficiency

Holographic phasing of fiber lasers: simple,
scalable, broadband locking
Geoff P. Andersen, Ken R. MacDonald, Paul Gelsinger-Austin, Hua,
Inc. (United States)

Wondwosen T. Metaferia, KTH Royal Institute of Technology(Sweden); Bouzid Simozrag, III-V Lab. (France); Carl Junesand, KTH
Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden) and Epiclarus AB (Sweden);
Yan-Ting Sun, KTH Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden); Mathieu
Carras, III-V Lab. (France); Federico Capasso, Romain Blanchard,
Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (UnitedStates); Sebastian Lourdudoss, KTH Royal Institute of Technology(Sweden)We present a new method to lock an unlimited number of lasers using asimple, inexpensive hologram and photodiodes. Multiple fiber laser inputs
are sent through a fiber shifters and then onto two holographic opticalelements that split each beam in two and mix them in pairs. By taking theratio of intensities measured from photodiodes an error signal is generated
which can be used to control the phase shifters to ensure continuous phaselocking of pairs of lasers.
We have constructed an autonomous system that locks 8 lasers andoccupies a footprint no larger than a laptop. Locking is robust and can be
configured to work with lasers of any power and wavelength. Our current
system operates at bandwidths of up to 10kHz but has the potential of
100MHz or faster using a two-stage, woofer-tweeter approach.

High power, good beam quality, efficient thermal dissipation and highwall plug efficiency (WPE) are crucial in the specific application areasof quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). As these lasers have reached thecommercialisation stage, it is imperative that the fabrication processes arealso less time consuming and cost-effective. Together with the optimal basic
design, buried heterostructure QCL with semi-insulating regrowth offers
unique possibility to achieve an effective thermal dissipation and lateral
single mode. We demonstrate here buried heterostructure QCLs with asingle step regrowth of highly resistive (>1x108 ohm•cm) semi-insulating
InP:Fe in less than 45 minutes in a hydride vapour phase epitaxy reactor
for burying ridges etched down to 10-15 µm deep. This has to be comparedwith the normally used growth time of several hours, e.g., in a metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE) reactor. In addition, our process
is largely insensitive to ridge profile, mask overhang and does not lead to
rabbit-ear growth near the ridge. The as-cleaved lasers emitting at ~4.6 µm
were characterized. Very reproducible results were obtained on the 5 mmlong lasers of ridge widths varying from 6-14 µm. Besides being spatiallymonomode, TM00 all the characterized lasers exhibited WPE of ~8-9%with an output power of 1.5 – 2.5 W at room temperature and under CW
operation. The performance can be further improved by proper mounting
and facet coating. Thus, we demonstrate a simple, flexible, quick, stable andsingle-step regrowth process with extremely good planarization for realizing
buried QCLs leading to monomode, high power and high WPE.

9081-26, Session 6

Experimental demonstration of phase locking
of a 21-subaperture fiber-collimator array over a
7-km atmospheric propagation pathThomas Weyrauch, Univ. of Dayton (United States); Mikhail A.
Vorontsov, Univ. of Dayton (United States) and Optonicus (UnitedStates); Vladimir M. Ovchninnikov, Guimin Wu, Optonicus (UnitedStates)Coherent combining of beams generated in a multichannel fiber-opticalmaster oscillator/power amplifier system and transmitted through atiled array of fiber collimators is a promising technology for high-power
laser beam projection systems. In directed energy applications coherent
beam combining implies phasing of the outgoing beams at a remotely
located target by controlling their piston phases at the fiber collimator
sub-apertures. Thus, phase control needs to mitigate both random phaseshifts, which are introduced by the fiber laser and amplifier system, andphase distortions from refractive index fluctuations caused by atmosphereturbulence. In this paper, we report on the results from target-in-the-loop
coherent beam combining experiments of an array of 21 beams over a
7-km atmospheric propagation path. The light returning from the target – aretro-reflector considerably smaller than the diffraction-limited beam size,i.e., an unresolved target – was collected by an array of receiver apertures.
The combined power of the return light was used as performance metricfor adaptive control of the piston, tip and tilt wavefront phase at eachfiber collimator sub-aperture using an iterative stochastic parallel gradientdescent (SPGD) technique. At the target, a part of the light incident to
the retro-reflector was coupled out with a beam splitter and collected by
an optical power meter. The average power measured within the target
aperture with phase control working was up to 18 times higher than thevalues measured without phase control. This gain in power corresponds toabout 85% of the theoretical maximum.

9081-24, Session 5

High-performance mid-infrared GaSb laser
diodes for defence and sensing applications
Augustinas Vizbaras, Edgaras Dvinelis, Augustinas Trinkunas,
Ieva Šimonyte, Mindaugas Greibus, Ramunas Songaila, Kristijonas
Vizbaras, Brolis Semiconductors UAB (Lithuania)
Mid-infrared spectral region (2-4 µm) is gaining significant attention
recently due to the presence of numerous enabling applications in the fieldof gas sensing, medical, environmental and defense applications. Major
requirement for these applications is the availability of laser sources in thisspectral window. Type-I GaSb-based laser diodes are ideal candidates forthese applications being compact, electrically pumped, power efficientand able to operate at room temperature in continuous-wave. Moreover,due to the nature of type-I transition, these devices have a characteristic
low operation voltage, resulting in low power consumption, and hightemperature of operation.

9081-27, Session 6

32-channel coherent-beam combination via
LOCSET phase locking

In this work, we present recent progress of mid-infrared GaSb type-I laser
diode development for spectral range 1800 nm-3000 nm. CW Watt-level
output power with wall-plug efficiency >20% from multimode single-emitteris demonstrated as well as > 200 mW single TE00 mode emission.

Benjamin Pulford, Angel Flores, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Coherent beam combination (CBC) is widely recognized throughout the
Department of Defense (DoD) and its industrial partners as a necessary
technology for high power fiber based laser systems. Though fiber

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amplifiers typically exhibit desirable characteristics such as diffraction
limited beam quality, and excellent thermal management properties, theytend to be limited in total optical output power; especially when developing
narrow linewidth devices. In this case undesired nonlinear phenomena suchas stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS), brought on by optically induced
acoustic resonances in the fiber material, greatly limit the total output
power of a fiber amplifier. To sidestep this limitation CBC techniques havebeen developed and successfully demonstrated throughout the researchcommunity. In this paper we will describe the basic operation of the Locking
of Optical Coherence via Single-detector Electronic-frequency Tagging(LOCSET) technique developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory(AFRL) and report on the most recent CBC demonstration of 32 low power
beams with a combined RMS phase error of ?/71. This document will also
include a discussion on the optical heterodyne technique utilized to quantify
beam combination performance.

9081-28, Session 6

Picosecond-range (~100ps), high energy (>1nJ) optical pulses generated
by current pulse pumped semiconductor laser diodes are of interest in
applications like high-precision laser radar [1], three-dimensional (3-D) time
imaging, spectroscopy and lifetime studies. A well-established techniquewhich allows the generation of short optical pulses is called gain-switching[2]. However, the optical pulse energy produced by commercial laser
structures with this technique is moderate and relaxation oscillations arelikely to build up. Diverse laser diode structures and structure modifications
are described in literature [3-5] to achieve high optical energies and to
suppress relaxation oscillations but are accompanied with implementationdifficulties.
Our investigations are based on an edge-emitting semiconductor laser
structure with strongly asymmetric waveguide and very large active layer
thickness to optical confinement factor (da/?a) [6]. A laser with ~100 µm
wide stripe and 1.5 mm long cavity meets mentioned picosecond-range
and energy values under room temperature conditions when pumped withcurrent pulses (~1.5 ns FWHM, 5 A, 1 kHz) generated by a silicon avalanchetransistor based driver circuit [7].
Yet, at increased current pulse amplitudes in order to obtain increased
optical pulse energies, the clean single optical pulse shape is distorted byrelaxation oscillations which degrade the timing accuracy for example in use
with a single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detector.

Transient stimulated Brillouin scattering inkilowatt class fiber lasers seeded with phasemodulated light

The gain-switched pulse energy and width depend besides device
parameters on various input parameters such as drive current. The subjectof our experimental investigations is the current pulse length which inturn affects the dynamic lasing threshold current pulse amplitude to findan optimal structure specific pumping current pulse aiming at optimized
advanced gain-switched high peak-power picosecond pulses.

Iyad Dajani, Angel Flores, Benjamin Pulford, Ann Lanari, Timothy
Madden, Shadi A. Naderi, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Brian Anderson, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
No Abstract Available

References:[1] A. Kilpelä, R. Pennala, and J. Kostamovaara, “Precise pulsed time-of-flightlaser range finder for industrial distance measurements,” Rev. Sci. Instrum.
72, 2197-2202 (2001).

9081-29, Session 7

High-efficiency narrow linewidth diode laser
pump source at 780nm[2] K. Y. Lau, “Gain-switching in semiconductor injection lasers,” Appl. Phys.
Lett. 52, 257-259 (1988).

Zhigang Chen, Kevin Bruce, Keith Kennedy, Ling Bao, Shuang Li,
Mark DeFranza, Mitch Reynolds, Aaron Brown, Manoj Kanskar,
nLIGHT Corp. (United States)[3] E. L. Portnoi, G. B. Venus, A. A. Khazan, I. M. Gadjiev, A. Yu. Shmarcev,
J. Frahm, and D. Kuhl, “Superhigh-power picosecond optical pulses fromq-switched diode laser,” IEEE J. Sel. Topics Quantum Electron. 3, 256-260(1997).

There is a growing interest in the development of high-power and narrowlinewidth diode laser pump sources at 780-nm for pumping narrowabsorption lines of gain medium in diode-pumped lasers. Here we present
development of a high-brightness, high-efficiency, narrow-linewidth, andwavelength-tunable 780-nm fiber-coupled diode laser. The diode laser
module consists of multiple single-emitter diode lasers that are free-spacecoupled into the fiber, and is wavelength locked using wavelength-selective
feedback provided by means of an external volume Bragg grating (VBG).
The module delivers a maximum power of over 120 W and > 50% conversion
efficiency as measured from the output of a 200 µm, 0.22 NA fiber. To thebest of our knowledge, this is the highest conversion efficiency reported
for a fiber-coupled 100-W linewidth-narrowed diode laser at 780 nm.
The module is wavelength locked to <0.05 nm FWHM up to 60 W output
power and <0.1 nm up to 100 W output power, and integrated wavelength
tunability of > 0.6 nm is included to providing compatibility for closed-loop
control of the center wavelength. An excellent 98% power percentage in
the narrowband is measured for the spectrum, with broadband emission
suppressed by more than 22 dB. Broadening of the emission bandwidth at>60 W of power is constrained by self-heating of the VBG due to opticalabsorption in the VBG glass.

[4] S. N. Vainshtein and J. T. Kostamovaara, “Spectral filtering for time
isolation of intensive picosecond optical pulses from a Q-switched laser
diode,” J. Appl. Phys. 84, 1843-1847 (1998).
[5] S. Vainshtein, J. Kostamovaara, L. Shestak, M. Sverdlov, and V. Tretyakov,“Laser diode structure for the generation of high-power picosecond opticalpulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 4483-4485 (2002).
[6] B. Ryvkin, E. Avrutin, and J. Kostamovaara, “Asymmetric-waveguidelaser diode for high-power optical pulse generation by gain switching,” IEEE
J. Lightw. Technol. 27, 2125-2131 (2009).
[7] L. W. Hallman, B. Ryvkin, K. Haring, S. Ranta, T. Leinonen and J.
Kostamovaara, ”Asymmetric waveguide laser diode operated in gain
switching mode with high-power optical pulse generation,” Electron. Lett.
46, 65-66 (2010).

9081-31, Session 7

Antireflective surface structures on windows forhigh-energy lasers
Lynda E. Busse, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Catalin
Florea, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States); Jesse Frantz,
U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Menelaos K. Poutous,
Rajendra Joshi, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte (UnitedStates); Brandon Shaw, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Ishwar D. Aggarwal, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte (UnitedStates); Jas S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

9081-30, Session 7

Current pulse length investigation toward
optimal pumping of a gain-switched asymmetricwaveguide laser diode
Brigitte Lanz, Juha Kostamovaara, Univ. of Oulu (Finland)

The use of antireflective coatings on windows for high energy lasers

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operating in the near infrared is limited due to optical damage that occurs
under high power irradiation as well as delamination in the operational
environment. New methods have recently been developed for fabricationof antireflective surface structures (ARSS) on optics to reduce reflection
losses. The ARSS approach provides a more robust solution by using
sub-wavelength surface structures that are fabricated directly into theactual surface of the optics, without the need for applying a coating withextraneous materials. We will report on results for ARSS fabricated on
silica glass windows with applications for high-energy lasers. Recently wehave reported very low reflectance (< 0.03%) near 1 µm for 1” diametersilica glass samples with random AR surface structures that were produced
using reactive ion etching. These windows have shown remarkably highlaser damage thresholds of up to 100 J/cm2 using a 1.06 µm laser with
10 nsec pulsewidth, which is 5x the threshold observed for a sample withconventional AR coating. We will report on the latest results for ARSS on
large silica glass windows (up to 10 cm. diameter) and describe the progress
towards fabricating ARSS on larger sizes up to 30 cm diameter.

scaling the output power of diode lasers. In this work, the LSHB effect isconfirmed experimentally. The longitudinal photon density distribution,
carrier density distribution and gain distribution were calculated using afinite difference method to solve the spatially-varying rate equations in an
808 nm high-power diode laser. The experimental work was carried out by
direct observation of spontaneous emission from a window patterned into
the top contact of a 1.5 mm cavity length 808 nm diode laser. Because thespontaneous emission rate is proportional to the square of carrier density,
the carrier density distribution could be measured for the device. The nonuniformity observed in this device agrees with the calculated carrier density
profile, strongly supporting the existence of the LSHB effect in the device.

9081-33, Session 8

High-gain Yb:YAG amplifier for ultrashort pulse
laser at high-average power
John Vetrovec, Drew A. Copeland, Amardeep S. Litt, Aqwest, LLC(United States); Detao Du, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems,
Inc. (United States)

9081-32, Session 7

Transverse mode selection in laser resonators
using volume Bragg gratings

We report on a Yb:YAG laser amplifier for a kW-class average power
ultrashort pulse applications. The laser uses two large aperture, disk-type
gain elements fabricated from composite ceramic YAG material and a multipassing architecture to obtain high gain in a chirped-pulse amplification
system. The disks are edge-pumped [1, 2, 3], thus allowing for reduced
doping of crystals with laser ions, which translates to lower lasing thresholdand lower heat dissipation in Yb:YAG material. The latter makes it possible
to amplify near diffraction-limited seed without significant thermo-optical
distortions.

Brian Anderson, George B. Venus, Daniel Ott, Ivan B. Divliansky,
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States); Derrek R. Drachenberg, Lawrence Livermore
National Lab. (United States); Leonid B. Glebov, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States);
Jay W. Dawson, Michael J. Messerly, Paul H. Pax, John B. Tassano,
Lawrence Livermore National Lab. (United States)

This work presents results of testing the laser amplifier with relay optics
configured for energy extraction with up to 40 passes through the disks.
This work was in part supported by the US Army ARDEC Contract Number
W15QKN09C0156. Applications for the ultrashort pulse laser amplifier
include laser material processing with no heat affected zone and laser
acceleration of atomic particles.

Power scaling of high power laser resonators is limited due to several
nonlinear effects. Scaling to larger mode areas can offset these effects atthe cost of decreased beam quality. We present a new method of transverse
mode selection which uses volume Bragg gratings (VBG) as an angular filterin large mode area laser resonators allowing for high beam quality.

1. J. Vetrovec et al., “Ytterbium–based disk amplifier for an ultra–short pulse
laser,” SPIE vol. 7578 (2010)

VBGs recorded in photo-thermo refractive glass (PTR) have high stability,and high laser damage threshold, allowing for many applications to
the design of high power lasers. In particular, gratings recorded in thetransmitting geometry (TBG) have narrow angular selectivity. The narrow
angular selectivity allows for increased losses for higher order modes, andallows for the TBG to be used as a spatial filter in the resonator.

2. J. Vetrovec et al., “Initial Testing of Edge-Pumped Yb:YAG Disk Laser with
Multi-Passed Extraction,” SPIE vol. 8235 (2012)
3. J. Vetrovec et al., “Erbium-Based Edge-Pumped Disk Laser,” SPIE vol.
8599 (2013)

An overview of transverse mode selection using VBGs is given, withtheoretical models showing the effect of the angular selectivity of TBGs on
the resonator modes. Applications of this ideology to the design of laser
resonators, with cavity designs and experimental results presented for three
types of multimode solid state lasers. A Nd:YVO4 with 1 cm cavity lengthand 2 mm diameter beam is presented with an M2 of <1.1. Applications tofiber lasers are discussed with results presented on a 13 core ribbon fiberwith high far field beam qualitty. Finally, a multimode diode with diffraction
limited far field divergence in the slow axis is presented.

9081-34, Session 8

High-gain amplifier based on a hetero-composite
Nd:YVO4/SiC gain assemblyGeorge A. Newburgh, Mark Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
We have demonstrated a diode-pumped solid state thin disk amplifier using
the hetero-composite gain element, Nd:YVO4/SiC. The Thin Disk Prism
amplifier, designed for optimal thermal management with good optical gain
and low beam distortion characteristics, was shown to single-pass amplify a
50 W laser beam to a 140 W (gain greater than 3.5) over the 800 µm thick,
1% Nd:YVO4 layer. Multi-pass amplifier operation has also been evaluatedand shown great potential for compact and high efficiency designs. A
comparison of the beam quality before and after the amplifier, thermal
analysis and modeling of amplifier performance will be presented.

9081-38, Session 7

Experimental verification of longitudinal spatial
hole burning in high-power diode lasers
Ting Hao, Junyeob Song, Paul O. Leisher, Rose-Hulman Institute ofTechnology (United States)
For high-power diode lasers, asymmetric reflectivities of facets are
employed in order to improve slope efficiency. In recent years, the cavity
lengths of these laser diodes have been increased to better distribute heatin order to increase output power. However, these two methods result in
an inhomogeneous longitudinal profile of photon density, which leads to a
non-uniform gain profile and is typically referred to as longitudinal spatial
hole burning (LSHB). LSHB is believed to one of the limiting factors in

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9081-35, Session 8

Research on water-cooled lamp-pumped 8-radialslab solid state laser
Zhaoshuo Tian, Ping Xu, Ting Qu, Jieguang Miao, Shiyou Fu, Harbin
Institute of Technology in Weihai (China)
We reported in this paper on the successful demonstration of a watercooled lamp-pumped 8-radial slab solid-state laser. The 8-radial slab,
which consists of four crossing-slabs, was pumped by 8 Xe flash lamps
simultaneously. One of main advantages is that the center of gain medium
can be efficiently cooled, and the pump uniformity can also be improved.
Thus, the effect of thermal lens and thermal stress of gain medium could begreatly reduced.
A diffuse reflecting pump chamber was used in the laser. Eight Xeflashlamps were arranged around the radial slab to produce a relatively
homogeneous pumping profile. A plano-plano resonator was adopted in thislaser system. Both sides of the radial slab were coated with-antireflection
film. The output mirror, having a 10% transmission, was placed 0.4 m in frontof the radial slab.
The experimental results showed that the output energy increased linearlywith pump voltage. The threshold voltage for laser output is about 700V
and the maximum pulse output energy 724mJ was obtained at the lamp
voltage of 1000V.
The near-field pattern was observed 3 m from the output mirror by a
CCD. The laser includes eight beams around with one beam in the centre.
One compound laser beam was observed in the far field. Compared withnumerical simulation we had done for 8 radial slabs solid-state laser, theincoherent, coherent and partially coherent laser beams were obtained.
This type of laser gives a new research direction for high power, high beam
quality, and compact and scale power solid-state lasers. With a suitable
design, yielding ten or hundred thousands of Watt laser with high beam
quality is possible.

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Conference 9082: Active and Passive Signatures V
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9082 Active and Passive Signatures V

9082-1, Session 1

9082-3, Session 3

Extracting radar micro-Doppler signatures ofhelicopter rotating rotor blades using K-bandradarsIR polarimetric signatures

Rachel Chen, Baokun Liu, Ancortek Inc. (United States)

Infrared polarization relies on surface temperature, roughness, material
properties, aspect angle to the sensor, sky down-welling and backgroundradiance reflecting from the target. Often times, the polarization signatureof a manmade target is different than the surrounding background.
Furthermore, that difference is often present even when the thermal
signature of the same target blends into the background. This paper will
present maritime, airborne and ground data sets of polarization signaturesof several objects that allow detection when other methods fall short.

David B. Chenault, Joseph L. Pezzaniti, Polaris Sensor Technologies,
Inc. (United States)

Radar micro-Doppler signature is a distinctive characteristic of target’s
identity through its micro motions. Helicopter identification has been an
attractive topic to radar researches. To identify a helicopter type, besides
its shape and size, the number of blades, the length of the blade, andthe rotation rate of the rotor are important features for identifying thehelicopter. These parameters can be estimated from the micro-Doppler
signature of the helicopter.
In this paper, we introduce K-band at 24GHz CW/FMCW radars for studying
returned signals from scaled helicopters. In the first measurement, we used
RFbeam Microwave GmbH’s K-MC1 sensor as the RF front-end and theST200 Evaluation System as interface to host computer in CW mode. The
second measurement was performed with our own high resolution K-band
FMCW radar. We extracted radar micro-Doppler signatures from scaled
helicopters and measured the angular rotation rate and the length of blades,
the number of blades in the rotor, and other parameters of the helicopter
rotor blades for distinguishing helicopters from other targets and identifying
helicopter types.

9082-4, Session 3

Electric-field sensors for bullet detection systems
Stephen J. Vinci, David M. Hull, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Research and experimental trials have shown that electric-field sensors
are effective at detecting charged projectiles and can likely complement
traditional acoustic detection systems. The addition of electric-field sensors
can result in a more robust and effective solution for bullet detection andtracking. For example, one challenge of acoustic sensors is in determining
the bullet miss distance from the intended target. Electric-field sensors offera particular strength in the detection of the point of closet approach to thesensor, and thus, would enhance the detection information available fromthe acoustic modality alone. However, electric field sensors are a newer
technology that is relatively untested beyond basic experimental trials andhas not been deployed in fielded systems.

9082-2, Session 2

Determining human target orientation andclassifying human motion using bistatic radar
micro-Doppler signals
Dustin P. Fairchild, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)

The U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) has conducted numerous
live-fire experiments at Aberdeen Proving Grounds (APG) to collect datafrom electric-field sensors. Sensor types have included: electric potential
gradiometer manufactured by Quasar Federal Systems, “D-dot” sensors
designed and built by ARL and a varactor based E-field sensor prototype
designed by University of North Carolina-Charlotte. Sensors were placed instrategic locations along the bullets’ paths and their data were recorded.
We analyzed the performance of each sensor type in regard to small-arms
bullet detection capability. The most recent experiment in October 2013
allowed demonstration of second generation versions of the varactor andD-dot sensor types. Results of new real-time analysis hardware employing
detection algorithms were also analyzed. The algorithms were used toprocess the raw data streams to determine when bullet detections occurred
and to estimate bullet path.

Micro-Doppler radar signals can be used to separate moving humantargets from stationary clutter and also to identify and classify human
movements. Traditional micro-Doppler radar systems which use a single
sensor, monostatic system, suffer from the drawback that only the radial
component of the micro-Doppler signal will be observed by the radar
operator. This is because monostatic Doppler radars are capable ofresponding only to velocity components that are radially oriented towards
or away from the radar antenna. If the target movement direction oroscillatory axis is perpendicular to the line-of-sight, then there is no Doppler
signal available for processing. Thus, the sensitivity of human activity
recognition is reduced if the movements are not directly towards or awaywith respect to the line-of-sight to the radar antenna. If multiple sensors
are employed, additional information about the target can be inferred.
In this paper, we propose the use of two bistatic micro-Doppler sensors
to overcome this limitation. Of great interest in many applications is theorientation of an oscillating target with respect to the radar line-of-sight.
While radar ranging is only capable of detecting the location of an object, an
oscillating target’s orientation can be determined by using multiple Doppler
sensors. By using multiple sensors, the orientation of oscillating targets
with respect to the radar line-of-sight can be inferred, thereby providing
additional information to the radar operator. In addition, we conclude thatmultiple sensors can enhance the classification of micro-Doppler signatures.
Our classification results clearly show that high accuracies are possible even
if the target is not facing the radar line-of-sight and also for a bistatic radar
configuration. If human motions could be performed in perfectly straightpaths, the Doppler frequency for the scenario with a monostatic sensor anda target angle of 90 degrees should be zero. However, because a humantarget’s motion will have some components in other directions, the radar iscapable of detecting them.

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Performance among the sensor types and algorithm effectiveness werecompared to estimates from acoustics signatures and known ground truth.
Results, techniques and configurations that might work best for a given
sensor platform are discussed.

9082-6, Session 3

A collection and statistical analysis of skinreflectance signatures for inherent variability
over the 250nm to 2500 nm spectral range
Catherine C. Cooksey, Benjamin K. Tsai, David W. Allen, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
The spectral reflectance signature of human skin provides opportunities
to advance observations ranging from medical treatment to security
applications. In this study 100 volunteers participated in a skin reflectancemeasurement of the inside of the right forearm. The reflectancemeasurements were made over the 250 nm to 2500 nm spectral range. The·

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Conference 9082:
Active and Passive Signatures V
analysis included estimates of the variability attributed to the instrument,variability of the same subject, and between subjects. This allowed for
determining measures of similarity and differences that indicate the inherent
separability within the distribution. While this sample size may not fully
represent a full diverse-population it does provide a provisional reference
point for modeling and simulation.

9082-7, Session 3

mechanisms for signature measurements, with recent examples and discuss
the direction of capabilities expansion under development and planned

9082-9, Session 3

Investigation of atmospheric blasts by fast
radiometry
Yossi Bushlin, Ronen Ben-Dov, Adam D. Devir, Alexander B. Lessin,
Ilan Mendelewicz, Maria Shvebelman, IARD Sensing Solutions Ltd.
(Israel)Possibility of passive THz camera using for atemperature difference observing of objects
placed inside the human body

Blasts and detonations release large amount of energy in short time
duration. Some of this energy is released through radiation in thewhole optical spectrum. Measurement of the blast signature may serve
as a powerful approach for investigation of blast phenomena. A fastmultispectral radiometer that operates in the proper chosen spectral bands
provides extensive information on the physical processes that govern theblast. This information includes the time dependence of the temperature,area, composition of aerosols and gases in the blast flash, as well as minutechanges in the blast expansion. Analysis of the blast signature provides
indications on the order of the detonation, materials and masses of highexplosives and casing.

Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Vladislav V. Trofimov, Igor E. Kuchik,Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (Russian Federation)
We demonstrate the possibility of using of a passive THz camera for atemperature difference observing in the human skin if this difference iscaused by different temperatures inside the body. We discuss two physicalexperiments, in which a person drinks hot and cold water. After computer
processing of images captured by passive THz camera TS4 we may see thepronounced temperature trace on skin of the human body. We illustrate thisphenomenon by a series of images captured by passive THz camera in real
time.

This paper presents the methodology and instrumentation of fastmultispectral radiometry in application to the blast signature measurement
and analysis in a near-ground explosion test (NET). In NET the radiationof two high-explosive (HE) materials (TNT and composition B - CB) withwide range of mass and casing materials was investigated. Analysis of
the measured explosions demonstrates the power of fast radiometry
methodology and reveals the governing characteristics of atmospheric
blasts.

As we believe, these experiments allow to increase field of passive THz
camera using for the detection of objects concealed in the human body
because the difference in temperature between object and parts of humanbody will be reflected on the human skin. However, modern passive THz
cameras have not enough resolution in temperature to see this difference.
That is why, we use computer processing to enhancethe camera resolution
for this application.
We discuss also other modern problems of the THz passive camera using.

9082-10, Session 39082-8, Session 3

Passive signatures concealed objects recordedby multispectral and hyperspectral systems invisible, infrared, and terahertz range

NIST spectrophotometry support available for
infrared signature measurements

Mariusz Kastek, Marcin Kowalski, Henryk Polakowski, Norbert Palka,
Military Univ. of Technology (Poland); Philippe Lagueux, Vincent
Farley, Marc-André Gagnon, Telops (Canada)

Leonard M. Hanssen, Simon G. Kaplan, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States); Jinan Zeng, Space
Dynamics Lab. (United States); Sergey N. Mekhontsev, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
Over the past two decades, the Infrared Technology Group at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed comprehensive
capabilities for high accuracy spectral characterization of the opticalproperties of solid materials and components in the infrared (IR) region
from 1 um to 20 um and beyond. The primary goal of this effort has been
to serve the needs of the diverse IR measurements community, including
industry, academia, and government, by providing national scales for the
optical properties, and means to establish traceability to them. A special
focus in the development or our capabilities has been on DoD infrared
signature requirements, with intermittent funding for specific developments
provided by the Navy and Air Force.
For the IR community, NIST has provided calibration services, standard
reference materials, short courses, as well as conducting a nationwide intercomparison. The measured optical properties measurements
are performed at a pair of facilities: the Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectrophotometry (FTIS) laboratory, with measurements of transmittance,
reflectance, absorptance and emittance; and the Laser Infrared
Reflectometry (LIR) laboratory, with laser-based measurements of bidirectional distribution function (BRDF) and reflectance measurements ofvery low reflectance (very high emissivity) cavities. The optical properties
are made with control and variability of the critical parameters including
input angle, polarization, and temperature. A wide range of (primarilysolid) sample types and sizes can be characterized and accommodated,
including transparent, opaque, specular and diffuse. We will review support

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Detection of concealed dangerous objects is a very demanding problemof public safety. So far, the problem of detecting objects hidden underclothing was considered only in the case of airports but it is becoming more
and more important for public places like metro stations, and governmentbuildings. Multispectral imaging - detection systems operating in wide
spectral ranges from visible, through infrared, up to terahertz will increase
the ability to detect threats.
The measurement laboratory stand consists of multiple cameras: visible,
measurement thermal camera, passive imaging Fourier transform
spectroradiometer and a passive terahertz camera. During measurements,
various test objects were used - different types of guns, knives and imitationof home-made explosives. These objects were placed on the human bodycovered with different types of clothes in order to test the camera abilityof detection. The measurement setup allowed to measure signatures ofhidden objects in different measurement conditions. Application of various
data processing methods made it possible to identify these signatures anddevelop methods for image processing in order to detect objects hidden
under some types of clothes. The results of measurements as well as themeasurement methodology are presented in the article.

www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9082:
Active and Passive Signatures V

9082-11, Session 3

Effective criteria developing for the identificationof substance using the reflected THz signal
Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (RussianFederation)
We propose and discuss various criteria for the detection and identificationof dangerous substance using pulsed THz signal in a reflection mode. These
criteria are integral criteria in time. We develop various approaches forenhancement of features of a detecting substance in reflected THz signal
under investigation.
We take into account a humidity of air in a room and therefore, absorptionof THz radiation by water vapor. We apply these criteria for the detection of
explosive for various situations. Among them we consider the complicatedshape of the PWM C4 explosive and a mixture of explosives.

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI
Monday - Friday 5 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9083 Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors, Systems, and Applications VI

9083-1, Session 1

Two-dimensional atomic-layer research andengineering (2-DARE) beyond graphene (Keynote
Presentation)
Anupama B. Kaul, National Science Foundation (United States)
Carbon is truly a remarkable material, for not only sustaining life on earth,but for the promising materials properties it encompasses that emerge fromits diverse and rich physical structures. Carbon based nanomaterials, suchas graphene and carbon nanotubes, have been proposed for a wide variety
of applications including beyond Si-CMOS architectures, interconnects,
field-emission displays, photo-voltaics and nano-electro-mechanicalsystems (NEMS). In particular, although graphene has been shown to
exhibit remarkable electronic, thermal, mechanical and optical properties,
the absence of a band-gap poses concerns for its attractiveness in some
applications, particularly in digital electronics where high ON/OFF ratios
are desired. While a band-gap is induced in graphene through quantum
confinement by creating graphene nanoribbons, the band gaps nonethelessare small (few hundred meV) and it is challenging to maintain pristine edge
chirality due to defects that are induced during nanofabrication of theribbons. Recently, layered 2D crystals of other materials similar to graphene
have been realized which include insulating hexagonal-BN (band gap ~5.5eV) and transition metal di-chalcogenides which display properties ranging
from superconducting to semiconducting. The device applications of such
systems show promising characteristics where MoS2 transistors have been
formed on flexible and transparent substrates, and transistors derived from
2D monolayers of MoS2 show ON/OFF ratios many orders of magnitudelarger than the best graphene transistors. In this talk, I will provide an
overview of the Electronics, Photonics and Magnetic Devices (EPMD)
program in the ECCS division where graphene, as well as other layered
2D nanomaterials, are playing an important role for enabling innovative
device applications in electronics, photonics and sensing. I will also provide
an overview of the NSF 2-DARE initiative under the Emerging Frontiers in
Research and Innovation (EFRI) program.

all been demonstrated. The combination of these devices with the advanced
MoS2 circuits described above will allow a new generation of electronics
truly ubiquitous and with tremendous new opportunities.

9083-3, Session 1

Novel layered 2D semiconductors as the building
blocks for nano-electronic/photonic systems(Invited Paper)
Haibing Peng, Guoxiong Su, Debtanu De, Viktor G. Hadjiev, Univ. of
Houston (United States)
Layered two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors beyond graphene have been
emerging as potential building blocks for the next-generation electronic/
photonic applications. Representative metal chalcogenides, including thewidely studied MoS2, possess similar layered crystal structures with weakinteraction between adjacent layers, thus allowing the formation of stablethin-layer crystals with thickness down to a few or even single atomic layer.
Other important chalcogenides, involving earth-abundant and environmentfriendly materials desirable for sustainable applications, include SnS2
(band gap: 2.1 eV) and SnS (band gap: 1.1 eV). So far, commonly adopted
for research purpose are mechanical and liquid exfoliation methods forcreating thin layers of such 2D semiconductors. Most recently, chemical
vapor deposition (CVD) was attracting significant attention as a practicalmethod for producing thin films or crystal grains of MoS2. However, critical
yet still absent is an effective experimental approach for controlling thepositions of thin crystal grains of layered 2D semiconductors during the
CVD process. Here we discuss our research efforts in exploring various
layered materials as the building blocks for nano-electronic/photonic
applications, and demonstrate the controlled CVD production of thin crystal
arrays of representative layered semiconductors (including SnS2 andSnS) at designed locations on chip, promising large-scale optoelectronic
applications. Our work opens a window for future practical applications oflayered 2D semiconductors in integrated nano-electronic/photonic systems.

9083-2, Session 1

9083-4, Session 1

Recent progress on two-dimensional materials
for RF communications and sensing (Invited
Paper)

Graphene and beyond-graphene 2D crystals fornext-generation green electronics (Invited Paper)
Kaustav Banerjee, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara (United States)

Tomas Palacios, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Graphene – composed of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in ahexagonal pattern, is the basic material for the family of low-dimensional
allotropes of carbon known as carbon nanomaterials. These graphene
based nanomaterials have extraordinary physical properties that can be
exploited for their exciting prospects for a variety of applications. This
talk will highlight and discuss the unique prospects of graphene based
nanomaterials for designing next generation low-power, low-loss and ultra
energy-efficient active and passive devices targeted for designing nextgeneration “green electronics”.

Although there is no doubt that electronics has changed our world,
semiconductor devices and circuits are in a relatively small number ofplaces around us. For example, there are typically no semiconductors inneither the walls nor the floors of our houses, our cloth, or even the paper
cup that we get in the coffee shop. This is quickly going to change thanks
to the emergence of two-dimensional materials such as graphene andmolybdenum disulfide (MoS2). These semiconductors will enable truly
ubiquitous electronics. This talk will describe some of the recent progress
towards making this long term vision a reality.

The discovery of Graphene has also opened up a new era for a wide rangeof 2D nanomaterials including monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides(TMD) (such as MoS2 and WSe2) and their unprecedented electronic
applications. This talk will also provide an overview of such beyondgraphene 2D materials and highlight some applications uniquely enabledby these 2D crystals in the nanoelectronics domain and discuss related
challenges and opportunities.

MoS2 is a three atom thick semiconductor with a direct bandgap of 2.4 eV.
With an electron mobility in the 20 to 200 cm2/Vs range, it has orders ofmagnitude better transport properties than other materials competing for aplace in future large-area ubiquitous electronics. We will describe some of
the first digital and analog devices and circuits fabricated with this amazing
material.
At the same time than MoS2 is excellent for digital and analog electronics,
the one atom thickness of graphene, combined with its very high carrier
mobility, makes it ideal for all kind of chemical and biological sensors. For
example, strain sensors, glucose sensors, and neurological transducers have

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI

9083-5, Session 1[4] S. Islam, Z. Li, V.E. Dorgan, M.-H. Bae, E. Pop, “Role of Joule Heating on
Current Saturation and Transient Behavior of Graphene Transistors,” IEEE
Electron Device Lett. 34, 166-168 (2013).

2D materials: From catalysis to optoelectronics(Invited Paper)[5] V.E. Dorgan, A. Behnam, H. Conley, K. Bolotin, E. Pop, “High-Field
Electrical and Thermal Transport in Suspended Graphene,” Nano Letters, 13,4581-4998 (2013).

Linyou Cao, North Carolina State Univ. (United States)[6] M.-H. Bae, Z. Li, Z. Aksamija, P.N. Martin, F. Xiong, Z.-Y. Ong, I. Knezevic,
E. Pop, “Ballistic to Diffusive Crossover of Heat Flow in Graphene Ribbons,”
Nature Communications 4, 1734 (2013).

Two-dimensional (2D) transition metal chalcogenide (TMDC) materials witha monolayer or few-layer of atoms have been emerging as the cutting edgeof physical science. Unlike graphene, which is a semimetal with no bandgap
by nature or a trivial bandgap by engineering, the 2D TMDC materials havesubstantial bandgaps comparable to those of conventional group IV and
III-V semiconductor materials. As a result, the 2D TMDC materials promisea tantalizing prospect of scaling semiconductor technology down to a truly
atomic scale!

9083-7, Session 2

Where art and technology meet: Origami forthree-dimensional adaptive devices (Keynote
Presentation)

In this talk, I will first introduce a unique self-limiting chemical vapor
deposition process that we have recently developed for the growth of largearea (centimeter-scale), high quality, and uniform monolayer and fewlayer
MoS2 films. These films with well-defined physical features provide an ideal
platform for us to study the fundamentals in catalysis and exciton dynamics.
To illustrate this notion, I will show our recent results in the catalytic
activities and exciton dynamics of MoS2 films.

Richard Vaia, Michael F. Durstock, Timothy J. White, Loon-Seng Tan,
James J. Joo, Gregory W. Reich, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Origami, from ori meaning “folding” and kami meaning “paper”, is the
traditional Japanese art of paper folding with roots back to the 17th century
Edo era. Examples from the classic fold of a paper crane to the exquisite
pieces from conventional artists show engineers that simple planer shapes
can be transformed into complex architectures with unique combinationsof robustness and motion. Today origami-inspired technologies range fromair bags and medical stints, to travel maps and space-deployable solar
panel arrays. Combining these concepts with thin-film flexible devices, suchas displays, sensors, RF-IDs, and antennas, would enable the design andmanufacturing of never-before-realized three-dimensional components that
adapt, communicate and process during deployment and end-use. Key tothis vision is establishing the design framework that provides assessmentof the trades between crease patterns, material properties and local strain
fields around the flexible devices. We will discuss recent efforts to extend
current technical origami design tools to encompass rigid and compliant
concepts, to integrate material properties, to consider failure models ofactive printed devices, and to ultimately optimize crease patterns forfolding-sequence and distribution of actuation across the degrees-offreedom of the morphing structure. Employing these tools, we will highlightthe recent development of a deployable photovoltaic array based on theMiura fold that delivers up to an order-of-magnitude more solar power thancurrently deployed, wallet size, portable power systems.

9083-6, Session 1

High-field and thermal transport in 2D atomic
devices (Invited Paper)
Eric Pop, Stanford Univ. (United States); Vincent Dorgan, Ashkan
Behnam, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States);
Christopher D. English, Zuanyi Li, Stanford Univ. (United States);
Sharnali Islam, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States)
Two-dimensional (2D) materials like graphene and transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDs) are uniquely suited for nanoscale field-effecttransistors (FET) due to sub-nm channel thickness and lack of dangling
surface bonds. Thus, unlike three-dimensional (3D) materials such as Si,
FETs based on 2D materials would be more resilient to short-channel effects
and would suffer less mobility degradation from carrier-surface scattering.
Nevertheless, most existing studies of 2D materials have focused on large
devices and low-field transport. By contrast, highly scaled 2D-FETs will
require very good understanding of electric transport at high fields andthermal transport as relevant for large scale device integration.
In this talk we will describe our recent progress in optimizing transport at
2D-3D material contacts, examining high-field transport, FET scaling andthermal measurements at sub-100 nm device dimensions. For instance,
we have recently uncovered transport physics at TMD and 2D graphene
contacts with metal electrodes, including the roles of metal deposition
conditions during fabrication and that of thermoelectric (Peltier) effects
during transistor operation [1,2]. We will also describe our understandingof high-field transport in MoS2 and graphene, including the importanceof self-heating effects on various substrates such as SiO2, BN and HfO2
[3,4]. Finally, we will describe our thermal measurements in suspended
graphene [5] and in graphene devices with dimensions comparable tothe electron and phonon mean free paths (~100 nm) [6]; the former yield
the intrinsic behavior of this material, while the latter show quasi-ballistic
thermal transport near room temperature, as well as significant phononedge scattering in narrow devices. The results are of importance for bothelectronic and thermal applications of 2D materials.

9083-8, Session 2

Coherent phonons in carbon-based
nanostructures (Invited Paper)
Christopher J. Stanton, Univ. of Florida (United States)
We have developed a theory for the generation and detection of coherent
phonons in carbon based nanotstructures such as single walled nanotubes(SWNTs), graphene, and graphene nanoribbons. Coherent phonons are
generated via the deformation potential electron/hole-phonon interaction
with ultrafast photo-excited carriers. They modulate the reflectance orabsorption of an optical probe pules on a THz time scale and might beuseful for optical modulators. In our theory the electronic states are treatedin a third nearest neighbor extended tight binding formalism which gives
a good description of the states over the entire Brillouin zone while thephonon states are treated using valence force field models. We compare ourtheory to a variety of experiments for the low frequency radial breathingmode (RBM) in SWNTs. The systems include: 1) micelle suspended singlewalled nanotubes, and 2) highly aligned nanotube films. The analysis ofsuch data provides a wealth of information on the dynamics and interplay ofphotons, phonons and electrons in carbon based nanostructures.

References:[1] K.L. Grosse, M.-H. Bae, F. Lian, E. Pop, W.P. King, “Nanoscale Joule
heating, Peltier cooling and current crowding at graphene-metal contacts,”
Nature Nanotechnology 6, 287 (2011).
[2] C.D. English, V.E. Dorgan, G. Shine, K. Saraswat, E. Pop, “Improving
Contact Resistance in MoS2 Field Effect Transistors,” MRS Spring Meeting(2014).

This work was done in collaboration with the J. Kono group at Rice
University and the R. Saito group at Tohoku University.

[3] M.-H. Bae, S. Islam, V.E. Dorgan, E. Pop, “Scaling of High-Field Transportand Localized Heating in Graphene Transistors,” ACS Nano 5, 7936 (2011).

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI
This work was supported the the National Science Foundation throughDMR-1105437 and OISE-0968405.

interaction is calculated from the rigid-ion model using the electronic
structure, the atomic pseudopotential, and the full phonon dispersion andeigenvectors for both acoustic and optical modes. A complete anisotropic
model of polar-optical phonon scattering is included in the simulation,
where both LO-like and TO-like mode phonons interact with electrons, aswell as piezoelectric coupling. Various elastic processes are accounted forincluding ionized impurity, neutral defects, and dislocation scattering.

9083-9, Session 2

Double graphene-layer structures for adaptive
devices (Invited Paper)

We have applied the CMC method to the study of high field transport in
GaN and GaN/AlGaN heterostructures, where good agreement is obtained
between the simulated results, and experimental pulse I-V measurementsof transport. For device simulation, the CMC algorithm is coupled to an
efficient 2D/3D multi-grid Poisson solver. Results are presented of theapplication of this algorithm to several technological problems of interest
for THz device operation, including ultra-short channel AlGaN/GaN HEMTs,
and pseudomorphic InGaAs HEMTs. In particular, we are able to relate themaximum operation frequency of such devices to the non-stationary transit
time across the effective gate length of such devices, which is defined by
the region of electrostatic control under the gate electrode.

Vladimir Mitin, Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Victor Ryzhii, Taiichi
Otsuji, Tohoku Univ. (Japan); Maxim Ryzhii, Univ. of Aizu (Japan);
Michael S. Shur, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States)
Among different carbon materials (diamond, graphite, fullerene, carbon
nanotubes) graphene and more complex graphene-based structure
attracted a considerable attention. The gapless energy spectrum ofgraphene implies that graphene can absorb and emit photons with rather
low energies corresponding to terahertz (THz) and infrared (IR) ranges ofelectromagnetic spectrum. In this presentation, the discussion is focusedon double-graphene-layer (double-GL) structures. In such GL structures,GLs are separated by a barrier layer (Boron Nitride, Silicon Carbide, and soon). Applying voltage between GLs, one can realize the situation when one
GL is filled with electrons while the other is filled with holes. The variationof the applied voltage leads to the variations of the Fermi energies and,hence, to the change of the structure interband and intraband absorptionof electromagnetic radiation and the variation of the tunneling current.
The plasma oscillations in double-GL structures exhibit interesting features[1]. This is mainly because each GL serves as the gate for another GL. The
spectrum of the plasma oscillations in double-GL structures, which falls to
the terahertz range (THz) of frequencies, can be effectively controlled by
the bias voltage.

Finally, for quantum confined systems, we have extended the full-band
method to the calculation of confined states using k•p wavefunctions as well
as atomistic tight binding calculations using a sp3d5s* atomic orbitals. We
discuss this approach as applied to the modelling and simulation of InGaAs
HEMTs and III-V nanowire transistors.

9083-11, Session 3

Investigation of MEMS bi-material sensors withmetamaterial absorbers for THz imaging (Invited
Paper)In this presentation, we consider the effects of the excitation of the plasma
oscillations by incoming THz radiation and by optical radiation of two lasers
with close frequencies. These effects can be used in resonant THz detectors
and THz photomixers [3,4]. Special attention will be paid to terahertz laserthat would operate at room temperatures. We present the models of suchdevices, demonstrate their characteristics, and evaluate the device ultimate
performance.

Fabio Alves, Dragoslav Grbovic, Gamani Karunasiri, Naval
Postgraduate School (United States)

References
1. V. Ryzhii, M. Ryzhii, V. Mitin, et. al., “Terahertz photomixing using plasma
resonances in double-graphene layer structures,” J. Appl. Phys. 113, 174506,
2013.
2. V. Ryzhii, et. al., Dynamic effects in double graphene-layer structures withinter-layer resonant-tunneling negative conductivity,” J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
Vol. 46, 315107, 2013.

9083-10, Session 3

Terahertz devices and device modeling (Invited
Paper)
Stephen M. Goodnick, Marco Saraniti, Arizona State Univ. (UnitedStates)Research and development in the exploitation sub-millimeter waves (300
GHz to 10 THz) has undergone impressive growth during the last decade,due to the potential technological uses, and its unique location between
the microwave (i.e. electronic) domain and the optical one. This ‘THz gap’is being closed from both sides with long wavelength optical sources andthe advent of electronic devices capable of operation at frequencies above
1 THz. In the present talk, we discuss some of the present THz technologies
and their applications. We then discuss the physics and modeling of ultrahigh frequency high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) which haveachieved THz frequencies in terms of operating frequency. In particular,
we focus on the use of the Cellular Monte Carlo (CMC) method for fullband simulation of semiconductor transport and device modeling. The
electronic band structure and phonon spectra are used as direct inputs tothe program for both cubic, hexagonal, and strained crystal structures using
both empirical and ab initio methods. The full anisotropic electron-phonon

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There has been a continued interest in the terahertz (THz) imaging due
to its penetrating and non-ionizing characteristics. Real-time imaging inthis spectral range has been demonstrated using infrared microbolometer
technology with external illumination by quantum cascade lasers (QCLs).
However, to achieve high sensitivity, it is necessary to develop focal planearrays using enhanced THz-absorbing materials. One attractive option toachieve real time THz imaging is MEMS bi-material sensors with embedded
metamaterial absorbers, consisting of a periodic array of square metallic
elements separated from a homogeneous metallic ground plane by adielectric layer. We have demonstrated that the metamaterial films can be
designed using standard MEMS materials such as silicon oxide (SiOx), silicon
oxinitrate (SiOxNy) and aluminum (Al), to achieve nearly 100 % resonant
absorption matched to the frequency of the illumination source, desired
thermomechanical properties and access to external optical readout. The
metamaterial structure absorbs the incident THz radiation and transfers theheat to bi-material microcantilevers that are connected to the substrate,
which acts as a heat sink, via thermal insulation legs. The temperaturerises in the bi-material legs allowing the overall structure to deform
proportionally to the absorbed power. The amount of deformation can beprobed by measuring the displacement of a laser beam reflected from thesensor’s metallic ground plane. Several sensor configurations have been
designed, fabricated and characterized to optimize responsivity, speed ofoperation and minimize structural residual stress. Measured figures of meritindicate that the THz MEMS sensors have a great potential for real-time
imaging.

9083-12, Session 4

Growth of 2D heterostructures of graphene/bn(Invited Paper)
Michael G. Spencer, Cornell Univ. (United States)
Recent studies have shown that the performance of graphene can besignificantly improved with the use of h-Boron Nitride on/under it due towww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI
By using this technique, a 10-25% improvement in graphene mobility
and comparably small Dirac voltage shifts (HfO2=2V, Al2O3=0.1V) wereobserved, indicating the effectiveness of fluorine functionalization.

the atomically flat surface of h-BN, low interface charge trap density, andsmall lattice mismatch with graphene. All of these properties make h-BN
an ideal dielectric or substrate material for graphene. Hetero-junctiona ofgraphene and h-BN (both vertical and lateral) can be utilized in devices suchas tunneling transistor and atomically thin integrated circuits. In order torealize a 2D device technology it necessary to produce large area 2D films
and hetero-junctions. The heterojunction growth problem separates into twoelements; grow of graphene on BN and growth of BN on graphene. Several
groups have reported previous demonstrations of the growth of BN ongraphene. Growth of BN on graphene is facilitated due to the catalytic effectof graphene (cracking of the methane molecule), which is similar to thatof metals while the catalytic action of BN is significantly smaller than thatof graphene. A prerequisite for BN/graphene heterojunctions is large area
growth of BN. We have pursued investigation of the growth of BN on both
metal and insulating substrates and will present our current progress but todate film roughness (>5nm) is not low enough to allow CVD grown BN to be
used as a substrate for graphene. In parallel with our BN growth effort wehave studied the growth of graphene on single crystal BN without the use ofa metal catalyst. BN flakes were exfoliated onto a sapphire substrate, which
in turn was used in our growth reactor. Metal free direct growth of grapheneon h-BN using a high temperature (~1550°C) chemical vapor deposition
technique is was done under Ar environment. Growth temperature, methanepartial pressure, hydrogen/methane flow ratio, and growth time werevaried and optimized. Raman spectroscopy clearly showed the signatureof graphene with G- (~1580cm-1) and 2D-mode (~2700cm-1). The smallest
width of G- and 2D-peak was 30 and 55cm-1, respectively, and the Raman
I2D/IG ratio varied between 0.7 and 1.8. Raman D-peak (~1350cm-1) showsa strong dependence on growth temperature with the smallest ID/IG valueof 0.15 at 1550°C. In the case of long growth, nitrogen and boron doping
were detected by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy with a small Raman
D’-peak. A continuous graphene film with the rms roughness (1?1 μm2 area)of 0.32nm was shown by atomic force microscopy. Early stage of growth
revealed circular shaped nucleation islands, the density and heights ofwhich are ~15/μm2 and 1-2 graphene monolayer, respectively. The hydrogen/methane flow ratio was found to be a critical parameter to obtain smooth
2D growth. We have found many similarities between the growth ofgraphene on BN and the growth of graphene on sapphire, which we havepreviously reported [ACS nano 7 2012]. Based on these studies we are able
to expand our model of the graphene growth on BN and sapphire.

For some applications, it is more beneficial to use different functionalgroups to initiate ALD growth on graphene. Thin, conformal, pinhole-free
Al2O3 films were obtained on graphene surfaces modified with F, O, and N
moieties using LAPPS to show the versatility of this approach. Furthermore,a spatial distribution of functional groups can be achieved using physicalmasks during plasma processing, which may be useful for bottom-up device
approaches.
Both functionalization techniques explored here are not limited to ALD
oxide films and have been used to deposit 2-11 nm of uniform, conformal
ALD AlN, GaN, or InN directly on EG, which opens the possibility of such
heterostructures for more complex device applications.

9083-14, Session 4Interface engineered dry-transfer process forhigh-performance graphene transistor on flexible
substrates (Invited Paper)
Sang Y. Yang, Joong Gun Oh, Dae Yool Jung, Chan Hak Yu, ByungJin Cho, Sung-Yool Choi, KAIST (Korea, Republic of)
Recently, graphene has gained a lot of interest and been studied intensively
due to its unique and outstanding electrical, mechanical and opticalproperties. For the production of graphene, chemical vapor deposition(CVD) has become the most popular method to obtain large area, highquality graphene. To apply CVD-grown graphene to electronic devices,graphene itself should be transferred to insulating substrate such as SiO2,
and PMMA-assisted transfer of graphene in water environment (so called‘wet transfer process) has been widely used for transfer purpose. However,
because wet etching of metal growth substrate should be involved in wet
transfer process, ionic impurities from etchant and by-product of metal
etching are easily trapped at the interface between transferred grapheneand target substrate, resulting in the degradation of electrical properties
and the reliability issues of fabricated devices. In addition, hydrophilic
surface is generally preferred for effective transfer of graphene, limiting
the choice of target substrates. High temperature (over 300oC) annealing
process used for the effective removal of PMMA residues on graphenesurface provides another limitation of this method in realizing the flexible,
plastic-based graphene devices. Therefore, direct delamination of graphenefrom growth substrate and transfer to arbitrary substrates including flexible
and stretchable ones are being pursued these days to overcome several
drawbacks of wet transfer described above.

9083-13, Session 4

Recent advancements toward achieving
graphene-based heterostructures (Invited Paper)
Virginia Wheeler, Nelson Y. Garces, Luke O. Nyakiti, Rachael L.
Myers-Ward, Zachary R. Robinson, Neeraj Nepal, Sandra Hernandez,
Scott Walton, D. Kurt Gaskill, Charles R. Eddy Jr., U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)

In this talk, I will discuss novel method for graphene transfer on various
substrates with direct delamination of graphene. Simple treatment ofgraphene/metal substrate and application of carrier layer onto the treatedsubstrate enable the direct delamination and transfer of continuous
graphene film. This method has capabilities of the large area transfer andthe deterministic multi-layer stacking of graphene. Graphene transistor
with top gate structure fabricated on SiO2 using our transfer method
shows narrower distribution of Dirac voltages and comparable device
performances, compared to that from conventional PMMA-assisted
wet transfer, indicating the advantage of our metal-etching-free, direct
delamination process. High performance flexible graphene transistor on
plastic substrate can be also realized by this method. In addition to thedemonstration of flexible graphene transistor, the related issues for transfer
and device fabrication on flexible substrate will be discussed.

Graphene has attracted considerable attention as a material with excellent
potential in a variety of applications including sensing, high frequency
transistors, and energy storage. To realize such technologies, integration ofscalable thin films onto graphene is required. Atomic layer deposition (ALD)
is the preferred method to conformally coat planar as well as complex,
high surface area nanostructures with abrupt interfaces and angstromscale control of thickness. However, the inert nature of graphene inhibits
direct application of ALD films. We developed two novel dry chemicalfunctionalization approaches using: (1) XeF2 and (2) a large-area plasma
processing system (F, O, or N ions) which renders the graphene surface
more amenable to precursor bonding without significant structural orelectrical deterioration in the underlying graphene. Here, we will present
the details of our functionalization approaches and ALD process, discuss its
advantages and limitations with respect to other methods used to enhancegraphene reactivity for ALD, and provide future directions for this field ofstudy.

9083-15, Session 4

Piezoresitive graphene NEMS sensors (Invited
Paper)We have developed a novel dry chemical functionalization approach using
XeF2 that results in thin, conformal, high-k ALD oxide films, such as HfO2
(eHfO2=18.5) and Al2O3 (eAl2O3=8.9), on graphene, without degradingtransport properties desired for low power, high frequency applications.

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Max C. Lemme, Univ. Siegen (Germany); Anderson D. Smith, Sam
Vaziri, KTH Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden); Stefan Wagner,·

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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Univ. Siegen (Germany); Frank Niklaus, Mikael Östling, KTH RoyalInstitute of Technology (Sweden)
We will discuss graphene-based pressure sensors, which utilize bothgraphene’s extraordinary mechanical properties as well as the fact that it is
only one monolayer in thickness. This extraordinary thinness of graphene
gives it an excellent sensitivity. The device design consists of a monolayer
sheet of graphene, suspended over a cavity, with air at atmospheric pressure
trapped inside the cavity. When the device is subjected to a vacuum
pressure, the air under the cavity will press against the membrane applying
a strain to it. Our sensor design shows high sensitivity when compared withconventional silicon based pressure sensors without the need of a strain
gauge. Our devices also have the added advantage of aggressive scalability
while maintaining a high degree of sensitivity. The graphene based sensors
work due to the piezoresistive effect, which we have demonstrated boththeoretically and experimentally. Our theoretical predictions using Tight
Binding Molecular Dynamics (TBMD) models suggest piezoresistive
influences due to changes in the band structure of the graphene and areverified by experimental data. The device in its present form can potentiallybe fabricated with CMOS-compatible processes steps to allow cointegrating More than Moore functionalities with silicon technology.

9083-16, Session 4

Graphene micro- and nanoplasmonics: physics
and applications (Invited Paper)
Farhan Rana, Cornell Univ. (United States)
Graphene supports plasmons that have frequencies in the terahertz to
IR range at moderate carrier densities. These plasmons can be confinedin patterned graphene micro and nanostructures which act as plasmon
resonators. The high mobility of carriers in graphene, and the extreme
tunability of the frequencies of the confined plasmons offer unique
opportunities for device applications in areas such as, hyperspectral
terahertz/IR imaging, terahertz/IR coherent sources and modulators,
and chemical and biological sensing. Plasmons in graphene are strongly
coupled to the interband electronic transitions. Electrons in the conduction
band can spontaneously emit a plasmon and relax into the valence band.
Conversely, a plasmon can get absorbed by exiting an electron from thevalence band into the conduction band. In graphene plasmon oscillators,
confined plasmon modes in graphene microstructures are amplified throughstimulated emission in population inverted graphene to achieve a laser-likeoscillation. In hyperspectral plasmon detectors, radiation absorption occurs
predominantly near the plasmon resonance which can be tuned over almost
three octaves. In this talk, the basic physics of graphene plasmons will be
discussed and several device applications will be presented.

and passive circuit elements. Along the first track we have demonstrated
antennas made from nanowire films capable of an optical transparency of
72% and sheet resistance of 4-5 Ohm/sq. Along the second track, we have inso far demonstrated graphene on glass field effect transistors with an fmax
of 7 GHz, varactors with 1.4:1 tuning range, resistors with 3-70 kOhm, andcapacitors from 13-860 pF. This is just the start; our plans are to increase
the frequency and tuning ranges of the active and passive devices. Sincegraphene is inherently transparent at visible wavelengths, we ultimately
would like to merge these two tracks to integrate active and passive RF
circuitry with the antenna either directly on glass or as an applique put onglass.

9083-18, Session 5

Nanowires: Building blocks for nanocomputing to
nanobioelectronics (Keynote Presentation)Charles M. Lieber, Harvard Univ. (United States)
Nanowires: Building Blocks for Nanocomputing to Nano-Bioelectronics
Nanoscience offers the promise of revolutionary advances in many areasof science and technology, ranging from electronics and computing tobiology and medicine, yet the realization of this promise depends criticallyon the rational synthesis of unique functional nanoscale structures and theirorganization into well-defined circuits and systems. Here we highlight thepower of semiconductor nanowires as a platform material for exploring newscience and technology. First, a brief review of the ‘chemical’ synthesis ofcomplex modulated nanowires will be highlighted as a central material innanoscience for enabling the bottom-up paradigm. Second, we describe
novel deterministic assembly methods that involve one initial patterning
step with all subsequent steps registered to this initial pattern, including
the assembly and interconnection of individual nanowire elements into
complex circuits. Third, we will exploit these advances together with a novel
architecture, to address the concept of assembling a nanocomputer, first
introduced by Feynman in 1959, with the realization of a programmablenanoprocessor of unprecedented complexity. Last, we will describe exciting
complementary advances at the frontier between nanoelectronics andbiology – “nano-bioelectronics” – including nanowire probes capable ofintracellular recording and stimulation at scales heretofore not possible
with existing passive electrical measurements, and an ‘out-of-the-box’ lookat what the future might hold in terms of merging nanoelectronic circuitswith cell networks in three-dimensions to ‘synthesize’ cyborg tissues andcyborg organisms. The prospects for blurring the distinction between
nanoelectronic circuitry, computation and living systems in the future will behighlighted.

9083-19, Session 59083-17, Session 4

Group IV nanotube transistors for nextgeneration ubiquitous computing (Invited Paper)

Graphene-based active and passive component
development on transparent substrates (Invited
Paper)

Hossain M. Fahad, Aftab M. Hussain, Galo A. Torres Sevilla, King
Abdullah Univ. of Science and Technology (Saudi Arabia); Sanjay K.
Banerjee, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (United States); Muhammad
M. Hussain, King Abdullah Univ. of Science and Technology (Saudi
Arabia)James H. Schaffner, Kyung-Ah Son, Hyok J. Song, Jeong S. Moon,
Andrey A. Kiselev, Hwa-Chang Seo, Baohua Yang, Danny Wong,
HRL Labs., LLC (United States)

Evolution in transistor technology from leaky single gate planar devices
to energy efficient multiple gate non-planar ultra-narrow (< 20 nm) finshas enhanced the scaling trend of doubling performance. However, thisperformance gain has happened at the expense of arraying multiple devices(fins) per operation bit, due to their ultra-narrow dimensions (width).
Additionally arraying degrades device off-state leakage and increases shortchannel characteristics, resulting in reduced chip level energy-efficiency.
Therefore, I will focus on our novel nanotube device (NTFET) topology
based on conventional group IV (Si, SiGe) channel materials [1-7]. This
device utilizes a core/shell dual gate strategy to capitalize on the volumeinversion properties of an ultra-thin (< 10 nm) group IV nanotube channel to

In order to collect radio waves, radio frequency (RF) antennas and circuits
must intercept the radio frequency signals from which information canbe demodulated and decoded. Glass, the most common portal between
outside and inside in visible optics, is also transparent to a large portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum useful for radio wave communications. Since
glass is everywhere, it would make sense to use glass as the substrate uponwhich to mount the antennas and electronics, but only if these structures
can remain visibly transparent.
In this paper, we present our development to date of glass RF circuits
along two tracks: 1) transparent antennas and 2) graphene based active

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9083-21, Session 5

minimize leakage and short channel effects while maximizing performancein an area-efficient manner. I will also show that the NTFET is capable ofproviding a higher output drive performance per unit chip area than anarray of gate-all-around nanowires, while maintaining the leakage and shortchannel characteristics similar to that of a single gate-all-around nanowire,
the latter being the most superior in terms of electrostatic gate control. We
believe for big data management our device will provide maximum benefits
from performance-energy efficiency-functionality perspective.

En route toward high-performance electronics
based on carbon nanotubes (Invited Paper)
Qing Cao, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States)
Si based complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology
will most likely continue to scale and dominate electronics for the next ten
years or so with Si nanowire field effect transistors (FETs) as final product.
III/V based tunnel FET and nanotube transistors are most promising
candidates for the incoming post-Si era while nanotube devices are
more suitable for high-performance electronics according to simulations.
However, it is still a daunting challenge to realize practical devices andsystems based on nanotubes, mainly limited by material issues. Here we will
review some most significant recent advances, with focus on assemblinghigh purity semiconducting SWNTs into well aligned arrays and improving
contacts between SWNT and metal electrodes. We demonstrate that 99%
semiconducting nanotubes can be assembled into well aligned ordered
arrays with controllable and uniform pitch separation. Contact properties,
especially methods to improve the contact length scaling behavior of
SWNTs, are also discussed as they are critical for the performance of ultrascaled FETs. These results show great promise for nanotube based highperformance electronics. Further optimization of the nanotube electronic
type and diameter separation techniques, reduction of interface traps forbetter device consistency, together with CMOS compatible circuit andsystem level implementation, represent some most important directions
for future work, where major challenges come from the requirement of
extreme engineering control rather than intrinsic limitations of the material
or processes.

References: [1] H. M. Fahad et al., Nano Letters, 11(10), 4393 (2011). [2] H. M.
Fahad, M. M. Hussain, Nature Sci. Rep. 2, 475 (2012). [3] H. M. Fahad, M. M.
Hussain, IEEE Trans. on Elect. Dev., 2, 60(3), 1034 (2013). [4] M. M. Hussain
et al., Phys. Stat. Sol. A, 209(10), 1954 (2012), Invited. [5] H. M. Fahad, M.
M. Hussain, IEEE NMDC, Taiwan (2013). [6] H. Fahad, M. Hussain, MRS Fall
Meeting, Boston, MA (2012). [7] H. Fahad, M. Hussain, MRS Fall Meeting,
Boston, MA (2013).

9083-20, Session 5

Piezotronics and piezo-phototronics (Keynote
Presentation)
Zhong Lin Wang, Georgia Institute of Technology (United States)
Piezoelectricity, a phenomenon known for centuries, is an effect that isabout the production of electrical potential in a substance as the pressure
on it changes. Wurtzite structures such as ZnO, GaN, InN and ZnS, due
to the polarization of ions in a crystal that has non-central symmetry, apiezoelectric potential (piezopotential) is created in the crystal by applying
a stress. The effect of piezopotential to the transport behavior of charge
carriers is significant due to their multiple functionalities of piezoelectricity,
semiconductor and photon excitation. By utilizing the advantages offered bythese properties, a few new fields have been created. Electronics fabricatedby using inner-crystal piezopotential as a “gate” voltage to tune/control
the charge transport behavior is named piezotronics, with applications instrain/force/pressure triggered/controlled electronic devices, sensors andlogic units. Piezo-phototronic effect is a result of three-way coupling among
piezoelectricity, photonic excitation and semiconductor transport, whichallows tuning and controlling of electro-optical processes by strain induced
piezopotential. The objective of this talk is to introduce the fundamentalsof piezotronics and piezo-phototronics and to give an updated progress
about their applications in energy science (LED, solar) and sensors (photon
detector and human-CMOS interfacing).

9083-22, Session 6

Adaptive Optics Center of Excellence for National
Security (Keynote Presentation)
Brij N. Agrawal, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)
This paper provides an overview of the research focus at Adaptive Optics
Center of Excellence for National Security (AOCoE). The Center was
established in May 2011 at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) with thesponsorship of the Office of Naval Research, National Reconnaissance
Office, and Air Force Research Laboratory. The objectives of the Center are
to conduct research in adaptive optics and related technologies focused onnational security applications, and establish and operate the Segmented
Mirror Telescope (SMT) and High Energy Laser Beam Control Research
Testbed (HBCRT) as national users facility.

[1] W. Wu, X. Wen, Z.L. Wang “Pixel-addressable matrix of vertical-nanowire
piezotronic transistors for active/adaptive tactile imaging”, Science, 340(2013) 952-957.
[2] Z.L. Wang, Piezotronics and Piezo-phototronics, Springer, 2013.
[3] Z.L. Wang “Piezopotential Gated Nanowire Devices: Piezotronics andPiezo-phototronics”, Nano Today, 5 (2010) 540-552.

SMT is a 3 meter diameter telescope with six segments. Each segment has
actuators for surface control and fine and coarse actuators for segmentalignment. Shack-Hartman wave front sensor is used for surface control,
phase diversity sensor for segment alignment, and fast steering mirror forjitter control. Testing of the primary mirror has been performed to evaluate
closed surface control techniques using face sheet actuators and a 4 D
interferometer. Tuned mass dampers are added to reduce relative vibrationof segments by 80%.

[3] Y.F. Hu, Y.L. Chang, P. Fei, R.L. Snyder and Z.L. Wang “Designing theelectric transport characteristics of ZnO micro/nanowire devices by coupling
piezoelectric and photoexcitation effects”, ACS Nano, 4 (2010) 1234–1240.
[4] Y.F. Hu, Y. Zhang, Y.L. Chang, R.L. Snyder and Z.L. Wang “Optimizing thePower Output of a ZnO Photocell by Piezopotential”, ACS Nano. 4 (2010)
4220-4224.; Corrections: 4 (2010) 4962 - 4962.

The main objective of research in HBCRT area is to reduce risk in thedevelopment and operation of DoD HEL beam control systems. The focus ofbasic research is to develop adaptive optics techniques to correct for laser
beam aberration due to deep turbulence. A low power beam control testbed
for laboratory tests is developed. A 10 kW capable HEL Beam Control
Testbed is under development for field tests.

[5] Q. Yang, W.H. Wang, S. Xu and Z.L. Wang* “Enhancing light emission ofZnO microwire-based diodes by piezo-phototronic effect”, Nano Letters, 11(2011) 4012–4017.
[6] Q. Yang, X. Guo, W.H. Wang, Y. Zhang, S. Xu, D.H. Lien, Z.L. Wang*“Enhancing sensitivity of a single ZnO micro/nanowire photodetector by
piezo-phototronic effect”, ACS Nano, 4 (2010) 6285 – 6291.
[5] W.Z. Wu, Y.G. Wei and Zhong Lin Wang , Adv. Materials, “Strain-gatedpiezotronic logic nanodevices “, Adv. Materials, 22 (2010) 4711.

9083-23, Session 6[7] Wenzhuo Wu and Zhong Lin Wang* “Piezotronic nanowire based
resistive switches as programmable electromechanical memories”, Nano
Letters, 11 (2011) 2779-2885.

Advanced deformable mirrors for high-power
lasers (Invited Paper)
Justin D. Mansell, Jesse Jameson, Brian G. Henderson, MZA

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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Associates Corp. (United States)
Efficient propagation of light through the atmosphere requires thecompensation of phase distortions induced by the atmosphere, thermal
lensing, thermal blooming, or aero-optics. We have developed a deformablemirror engineered to compensate these aberrations while reflecting highpower radiation with minimal heating and thermally induced distortion. We
present the results of a multi-year effort to address many of the challenges
with the existing state of the art while reducing cost, complexity, andmanufacturing time.

9083-24, Session 6

Exploration of self-phasing in coherentlycombined fiber lasers (Invited Paper)
James R. Leger, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities (United States)
Fiber lasers offer an attractive path to high radiance sources due to theirhigh optical conversion efficiency, excellent mode purity, and their effective
management of thermal loading. Single spatial mode sources are now
capable of multi-kilowatts of cw power. However at increased power levels,
nonlinear effects start to degrade fiber laser performance. It is therefore
important to explore optical systems that can combine the power ofmultiple fibers coherently. In many such systems, the phase control of thefibers is performed in a conventional manner using a feedback system
consisting of a sensor and an optical actuator. In this paper, we explore
other more exotic forms of fiber laser phase control. In particular, we reporton observations of the Kramers-Kronig phase shift in fibers, and show how
this effect can be used to control fiber arrays. Experimental results areshown quantifying this effect and illustrating how it could be used as aneffective automatic control mechanism in future coherent beam combining
systems. In particular, we show that the Kramers-Kronig effect is able tocorrect for all phase errors in a robust and effective manner at a variety ofoutput power levels.

Adaptive optics correction of a laser beam
propagating underwater (Invited Paper)
Sergio R. Restaino, Weilin Hou, Andrey Kanaev, Silvia C. Matt, Carlos
Omar Font, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
The use of Adaptive Optics (AO) to correct for aberrations in a wavefrontof propagating light has become customary for Astronomical applications
and is now expanding to many other areas going from medical imaging toindustrial applications. However, the propagation of light underwater has
remained out of the main stream AO community for a variety of reasons, notleast the shear difficulty of the situation. Our group has become a programthat attempts to define under which circumstances such a correction could
be envisioned. We take advantage of the NRL laboratory facility in Stennis,
MO, where a large Plexiglas tank of water is equipped with heating andcooling plates that allow for a well measured thermal gradient that in turngenerates different degrees of turbulence that can distort a propagating
laser beam. In this paper we report on the preliminary findings of thisongoing program. The paper will describe the facility and the AO test-bed,
the measurements made and some of the preliminary result.

Beam control in multiphoton microscopy using a
MEMS spatial light modulator (Invited Paper)
Thomas G. Bifano, Hari P. Paudel, Boston Univ. (United States)
In nonlinear imaging applications such as two photon microscopy, acoherent illumination beam is used to generate a nonlinear excitation signal
at a point of focus. Because the excitation signal scales supra linearly withlocal intensity, such nonlinear imaging can produce adequate signal fromthe focal region even if the illumination beam is strongly scattered by themedium. This approach breaks down when the ballistic light intensity falls
below the level of the background scattered light. In this work, we extend
the range of multi photon microcopy by coherently combining modes of
the illumination light through direct feedback to a fast micro machined
spatial light modulator with 1020 mirror segments. The result is a substantial
increase in imaging depth in strongly scattering media. In this paper
we describe the technique, the control algorithms used, and the results
obtained in imaging through tissue phantoms and mouse skull samples.

9083-26, Session 6

Scintillation field measurements for horizontal
path atmospheric turbulence, image stabilization,and beam control (Invited Paper)
Christopher C. Wilcox, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Freddie Santiago, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Ty
Martinez, Sergio R. Restaino, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United

SPIE DSS 2014

The turbulent effects from the Earth’s atmosphere degrade the performanceof any optical system within it. There have been numerous studies in theeffects of atmospheric turbulence on an imaging system that is pointed
vertically and we are investigating atmospheric turbulence characterizationand correction for horizontally pointed systems. In collaboration with
Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, NM, an outdoor test facility
has been instituted with various data collecting capabilities. Scintillation
measurements are being performed 24 hours a day on a data collecting
campaign for atmospheric turbulence site characterization and modeling.
Along with the scintillation data, weather data is being collected andcorrelation of this data is being investigated. With proper modeling, an
adaptive optical system can be designed, built, and utilized to correct forthe often-extreme image degradation that can result from the horizontal
atmospheric turbulence. In this paper, we present the data collection
capabilities and initial data analysis from the field site.

9083-117, Session 69083-25, Session 6

148

States); Brett E. Bagwell, Junji Urayama, Sandia National Labs.
(United States)·

9083-27, Session 7

Development and application of fiber optic
sensors for power and energy systems (Keynote
Presentation)
Susan M. Maley, U.S. Dept. of Energy (United States); Robie Lewis,
National Energy Technology Lab. (United States)
The National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) under the Departmentof Energy (DOE) Office of Fossil Energy (FE) is leading efforts to develop
highly efficient and environmentally benign power generation systems
utilizing domestic fuel resources. Emerging advanced energy systems haveextreme conditions of high temperature, high pressure, and corrosivity
that require monitoring beyond what is currently available in today’s
marketplace. Sensing in these harsh environments provide key informationthat impacts process control, performance, and reliability of the powersystem. Instrumentation and sensing technologies designed for harshconditions will be outlined with specific focus on fiber optic based sensor
designs for harsh environments to measure temperature, pressure, and gas
composition.
In addition to the harsh environment monitoring needs, large central powersystems are complex requiring a high level of system integration. To manage
complexity and support the targets of high efficiency and environmental
performance, low cost distributed sensing is needed throughout a plant.
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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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distributed sensor network will also be reviewed. Challenges associatedwith applying novel sensing concepts will be introduced along with theopportunities that process modeling and control introduce to support novel
sensor systems.

requirements, gas sampling techniques, and possible control strategies ofindustrial significance.

9083-28, Session 7

Optical fiber Fabry-Perot interferometry for harshenvironment sensing (Invited Paper)

9083-30, Session 7

Laser-absorption sensing of gas composition of
products of coal gasification (Invited Paper)

Anbo Wang, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (UnitedStates)Jay B. Jeffries, Ritobrata Sur, Kai Sun, Ronald K. Hanson, Stanford
Univ. (United States)

Fiber Fabry-Perot (FP) interferometry is one of the most important tools
for harsh environment sensing because of its great flexibility of sensor
material selection, superior long-term stability, and nature of remotepassive operation. Virginia Tech’s Center for Photonics Technology has been
involved in the research of this field for many years. After a quick review of
the typical methods for the construction of F-P sensors, emphasis will beplaced on the whitelight interferometry which is perhaps the most robust
sensor demodulation technique today. The recent discovery of an additional
phase will be presented and its significance to the sensor demodulation will
be discussed. Finally, author’s opinions about the future trends of fiber FP
interferometric sensing will be shared.

A real-time, in-situ monitor of the composition (CO, CH4, H2O and CO2)of the synthesis gas products of coal gasification (called here syngas) has
been demonstrated during field-measurement campaigns in a pilot-scale
entrained flow gasifier at the University of Utah and in an engineeringscale, fluidized-bed Transport Gasifier at the National Carbon Capture
Center (NCCC). Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS)
sensors have a long history for real-time, non-intrusive, in-situ monitoringof combustion systems with sensitive species-specific detection capability.
However, efficient gasifiers operate at elevated pressures (10-50atm) whereabsorption transitions are collision broadened and absorption transitions
that are isolated at 1 atm become blended into complex features. In addition,
syngas product streams can contain significant particulate, producing
significant non-absorption scattering losses of the transmission of laser
light. Thus, laser-absorption measurements are problematic in syngas
flows Stanford has pioneered a new wavelength-modulation spectroscopy
strategy with 2f-detection and 1f-normalization (WMS-2f/1f) that can
provide sensitive absorption measurements of species with spectra blended
by collision broadening even in the presence of large non-absorption lasertransmission losses (e.g., particulate scattering, beam steering, etc.). The
design of a laser-absorption sensor for the detection of CO, CH4, H2O and
CO2 was optimized for the specific application of syngas monitoring at theoutput of large-scale gasifiers. Results and lessons learned from these fieldmeasurement campaigns will be presented.

9083-31, Session 7

Effective design and fabrication of harshenvironment gas sensors (Invited Paper)
Prabir K. Dutta, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)
Solid-state electrochemical devices composed of stabilized zirconia
electrolytes (YSZ), e,g, oxygen sensor is used extensively for sensing in
combustion environments. However, sensors for detecting other gases
have not been as forthcoming. We will present our work in the area of
total NOx sensors based on YSZ and catalysis research. In the presenceof oxygen, the heterogeneous catalytic reactions occurring on the surfaceof metal-oxide electrodes and electrolytes compete with electrochemical
reactions. We find that the heterogeneous catalytic activity of WO3, yttriastabilized zirconia (YSZ), and Pt containing zeolite Y (PtY) have a significant
influence on the performance of solid-state potentiometric gas sensors.
Pt electrodes covered with PtY and WO3 are used as the reference andworking electrodes because of the significant reactivity difference, with
WO3 being largely inactive toward catalytic NOx equilibration. Using highly
catalytic active PtY to filter incoming gas mixtures can effectively remove
interferences from 2000ppm CO, 800ppm propane, 10ppm NH3, as well
as minimize effects of 1~13% O2, CO2, and H2O. New ways of deposition ofelectrodes as well as increasing sensitivity to ppb levels will be presented.
The improvement in sensitivity has led to new applications, particularly
monitoring human breath for diagnosis of asthma and upper airway
inflammation. We will present MEMS-based strategies for manufacture ofminiaturized sensors.

9083-29, Session 7

Industrial Raman gas sensing for real-time system
control (Invited Paper)
Michael P. Buric, Jessica C. Mullen, Steven D. Woodruff, Benjamin T.
Chorpening, National Energy Technology Lab. (United States)
Gas composition has not been utilized extensively as a possible input toprocess-control systems running at any appreciable rate due to the slow
response of most gas sensors. In general, there is a need to replace slower
gas chromatographs or electrochemical sensors with fast, non-destructive
methods with less stringent calibration and operational needs. Here, we
demonstrate a Raman sensing system which is capable of reporting theconcentrations of numerous species simultaneously with sub-percent
accuracy and sampling times below one-second for process control
applications in energy or chemical production. The sensor is based upona hollow-core capillary waveguide with a small, micro-sized bore withreflective thin-film metal and dielectric linings. The effect of using such a
waveguide in a Raman process is to integrate Raman photons along thelength of the sample-filled waveguide, thus permitting the acquisition ofvery large Raman signals for low-density gases in a short time. The resultant
integrated Raman signals can then be used for quick and accurate analysis
of a gaseous mixture. The sensor is currently being tested for energy
applications such as coal gasification, turbine control, well-head monitoringfor exploration or production, and non-conventional gas utilization. In
conjunction with an ongoing commercialization effort, the researchers
have recently completed 2 field-prototype sensors suitable for hazardous
area operation and testing. Here, we report pre-commercialization testingof those field prototypes for control applications in gasification or similar
processes. Results will be discussed with respect to accuracy, calibration

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9083-33, Session 7

Metal oxide gas sensors on nanoscale (Invited
Paper)
Andrej Plecenik, Ali A. Haidry, Tomas Plecenik, Pavol Durina, Martin
Truchly, Comenius Univ. in Bratislava (Slovakia); Martin Mosko,
Institute of Electrical Engineering (Slovakia); Branislav Grancic,
Maros Gregor, Tomas Roch, Leonid Satrapinskyy, Comenius Univ.
in Bratislava (Slovakia); Antonia Moskova, Institute of ElectricalEngineering (Slovakia); Marian Mikula, Peter Kus, Comenius Univ. in
Bratislava (Slovakia)
In this work we present a solid-state hydrogen gas sensor based on titanium
dioxide thin films with novel electrode geometry. The TiO2 films were·

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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prepared by reactive magnetron sputtering in Ar + O2 atmosphere followedby ex-situ annealing in air at temperature of 600 oC for 1 hour. Platinum
electrodes were prepared by dc magnetron sputtering and optical andelectron lithography. The gas sensing measurements were done at closed
chamber in air flow regime. Sensitivity to hydrogen gas has been tested forH2 concentrations up to 10 000 ppm at operating temperatures ranging
from room temperature to 150 oC. It is shown that in electrode geometry
used in our sensors, for all tested operating temperatures both sensitivity
and speed of such sensors is gradually increasing when size of theelectrodes decreases below 1 µm and particularly below 100 nm. Moreover,dependence of the sensitivity and speed of such sensors on the operating
temperature decreases at the same time and disappears for electrode size
below 100 nm.

Finally, tip clearance results will be presented from the microwave sensor
when used with a thermally-based active clearance control system.

9083-100, Session Posters-Tuesday

Digital level microfabrication for advanced
optical structures
Drew J. Boudreau, Marc Christophersen, Michael K. Yetzbacher, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Hyperspectral instruments with physical sizes comparable to that of a baresensing array are now possible. Compact Fabry-Perot (FP) etalon arrays
allow for different spectral sensitivities to be assigned to the different pixels
of a sensing array. Such arrays for hyperspectral imaging are commerciallyavailable (Proc. of SPIE v.8266, no. 82660Q), but underutilized due to costand performance tradeoffs. FP arrays were first made possible by binary
or logarithmic fabrication, which reduces the number of lithography steps
to log2(N) where N is the number of distinct levels of material required
for the integrated optical element. However, significant yield loss resultsfrom the several lithography steps required in this process. We introduce
a new binary etching technique that allows for the creation of an arbitrary
number of distinct levels with a single greyscale lithography technique.
Our technique has been used for the fabrication of distinct levels of 1 nm
rms flatness with a controlled 10 nm resolution. This technique has beenused to fabricate a staircase structure with greater than 120 distinct steps
directly on a COTS optical imager. Details of the fabrication technique andcharacteristics of the optical element will be presented.

9083-34, Session 7

Use of nanostructured oxides for selective gas
sensing (Invited Paper)
Bilge Saruhan-Brings, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrte.V. (Germany); Yakup Goenuellue, Univ. zu Köln (Germany)In this work, the focus is given to the NO2 sensing with nanostructured aswell as Cr-doped TiO2. Titania nanotubular layers (TiO2-NTs) are better
known with their use in dye-synthesized solar cells. In the field of gas
sensors, the best known application of TiO2-NT layers is given with H2
sensing. TiO2–NT structures are commonly synthesized from pure titanium
by anodic oxidation method. As literature indicates, gas sensing with titania
can be modified by doping to obtain p- or n-type semiconductor behaviour.
As undoped titania is widely used for CO and H2-sensing, Al- and Cr-doped
titania is reported to be effective for NO2-sensing. Nanostructuring of TiO2
yields faster and more stable response toward CO and NO2 with almost no
drift in sensor signal. By means of wet-chemistry method, we introduced
Cr3+ to TiO2 NT-layers and tested for NO2 sensing at temperatures up
to 500°C in the presence of CO. The characteristics of Cr-doping areinvestigated by XRD, EDX-TEM methods. Cr-doping of nano-tubular TiO2
sensors increased the NO2-selectivity considerably, indicating that p-typesemiconductor behaviour and Cr-incorporation into the titania lattice.
Effect of doping and layer thickness on sensing is investigated by means ofimpedance spectroscopic measurements and equivalent circuit modeling inorder to optimize the sensors for real-time measurements.

9083-102, Session Posters-Tuesday

Wavelength-selective visible-light detector
based on integrated graphene transistor andsurface plasmon coupler
Christian W. Smith, Douglas Maukonen, Robert E. Peale, Masahiro
Ishigami, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Justin W. Cleary,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

9083-35, Session 7

Novel sensors to enable closed-loop active
clearance control in power generating gas turbine
engines (Invited Paper)
Jonathan L. Geisheimer, Meggitt Sensing Systems (United States);
Tom Holst, Meggitt Defense Systems, Inc. (United States)
Blade tip clearance is a key design parameter for gas turbine designers to
optimize engine efficiency. Closed loop active clearance control of blade
tip clearance to improve engine efficiency during operation has been
investigated for a number of years, but technical challenges in providing an
accurate and survivable sensor within the first stage turbine environment
has slowed the adoption of a full closed loop system. This paper summarizes
the current state of the art in blade tip clearance sensors and details more
specifically the work of the authors in using microwave probes for thismeasurement including a summary or recent results in demonstratingclosed loop clearance control. The paper will review the different methods
and sensors used to measure tip clearance including mechanical, eddy
current, capacitance, microwave, and optical techniques. The paper will
also summarize in detail the operation of the author’s microwave approach
to measurements. In addition, the various factors that influence sensor
accuracy and the strategy to obtain accurate measurements in-situ andwithin high temperature environments is discussed. Application specificneeds also need to be considered, such as case asymmetry need to beconsidered in order for closed loop clearance control strategies to succeed.

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Novel photodetectors based on graphene field effect transistors (FETs) that
operate in the visible spectrum have been created. Graphene is producedby chemical vapor deposition on copper and transferred on appropriate
device substrates. The produced graphene devices are gated by the strong
AC electric field associated with surface plasmon polaritons (SPP). The
transistors are built on thin PMMA/oxide dielectric applied to the thin metal
layer on Kretschmann SPP prism couplers. Measurement of photoresponse
is done using a p-polarized visible laser diode and a goniometer to sweep
the angle of incidence. SPP excitation resonance is observed as a strong
decrease in specularly-reflected optical power at the resonance angle. The
graphene-based phototransistors exhibit up to 40% change in channel
conductance that closely follows the plasmon resonance line shape as theincidence angle is changed. The resonance angle depends on wavelength
giving a means of wavelength selective detection with potential applications
to wavelength multiplexing and spectral sensing.

9083-103, Session Posters-Tuesday

Analysis of flapping mechanism for acousticallyactuated microrobotics
Christopher B. House, Samara L. Firebaugh, Jenelle Piepmeier, John
Burkhardt, U.S. Naval Academy (United States)
With the end goal of medical applications such as non-invasive surgery andtargeted drug delivery, an acoustically driven resonant structure is proposed
for microrobotic propulsion. At the proposed scale, the low Reynolds
number environment propulsion requires non-reciprocal motion from thewww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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9083-105, Session Posters-Tuesday

robotic structure; thus, a “flapper” with multiple, flexible joints, has been
designed to produce excitation modes that involve the necessary flagellalike bending for non-reciprocal motion.

Imaging quality comparison of two typicalmethods for imaging through turbid media

The key design aspect of the flapper structure involves a very thin joint thatallows bending in one (vertical) direction, but not the opposing direction.
This allows for the second mass and joint to bend in a manner similar to awhale or dolphin’s “kick” at the bottom of their stroke, resulting in forwardthrust for the entire structure.

Xiaopeng Shao, Tengfei Wu, Changmei Gong, Xidian Univ. (China)
Due to the multiple scattering of light in turbid media such as biologicaltissues, the image of target becomes highly deteriorated and evendisappears entirely. Only speckle patterns, which result from multiple
scattering and interference in turbid media and contain disordered objectsinformation, can be acquired. Two typical methods to recover the image oftarget behind a turbid medium are described and simulated in this paper.
The first approach is based on image correlation and wavefront shaping
technique, in which the Pearson correlation coefficient is applied as a costfunction for the optimization and genetic algorithm (GA) is employed tocontrol a spatial light modulator to generate the optimal wavefront tomaximize the cost function. For the second approach, the target images
can be reconstructed from the speckle patterns with total variation
minimization by augmented Lagrangian and alternating direction algorithms(TVAL3). Circular Gaussian distribution model and Rayleigh-Sommerfeld
diffraction theory are exploited in our simulations to describe turbid media
and light propagation between optical devices, respectively. Both GA andTVAL3 possess excellent anti-noise capability, while noise suppression
always brings some negative impacts on image quality, thus the balance
between noise suppression and imaging quality is also of great importance.
Accordingly, we compare and analyze the imaging quality in different levelsof noisy environments of the above two methods in detail so as to choose asuitable approach to obtain the optimal imaging quality in certain imaging
conditions. This work will be beneficial to the fields of microscopic imaging
and biomedical imaging in micro/nano scale.

The proposed flapping structure was initially modeled with a lumped
parameters model of three masses and two springs (functioning as flexible
joints). A 3-D model was developed and implemented in COMSOL, andanalyzed to determine the structure’s natural frequencies and mode shapes.
The model can be modified in order to achieve desired eigenfrequencies andto allow for parametric studies.
The milliscale flapper has been fabricated out of acrylic using a laser cutter.
Initial testing has led to confirmation that the proposed flapper design
matches COMSOL predictions of natural frequencies. Further testing will
be conducted within a fluidic environment in order to study the effecton the structure’s natural frequencies as well as determine whether theeffectiveness of the flapper’s motion in producing forward thrust.

9083-104, Session Posters-Tuesday

Nanoimprint-assisted directed self-assemblyof low-molecular weight block copolymers foradvanced lithographic applications
Claudia Delgado Simão, Nikolaos Kehagias, Institut Català deNanotecnologia (Spain); Michael A. Morris, Univ. College Cork
(Ireland); Clivia Sotomayor Torres, Institut Català de Nanotecnologia(Spain)9083-106, Session Posters-Tuesday

Sensing systems using chip-based spectrometers

Block-copolymers (BCP) are playing an important role in alternative
lithographies to obtain sub-22 nm nanostructures on surfaces.[1] They
are employed by a bottom-up approach based on BCPs microphasesegregation on its constituent blocks originating cylinders or lamellas at themolecular scale. Top-down nanoimprint lithography (NIL)[2] and has been
explored as a tool to direct the self-assembly (DSA) of the BCPs approachpermits to subdivide the nanopatterns of the NIL stamp by 10 times, plus
adding tunable molecular properties to the nanostructured surfaces. [3]To achieve BCP DSA using NIL methodologies, the stamp features haveto be commensurable with the BCPs periodicity (L0). Generally, BCP DSA
is guided by higher values of blocks interaction parameter (?n) which is
known to give more ordered microphase domains, where ?n is inversely
proportional to the temperature.[4] Here we use solvent vapors assisted
nanoimprint lithography (SAIL) to combine bottom-up and NILup to 4”
wafers .[3] Different molecular weights of BCPs PS-b-PEO and PS-PDMS
were employed replicating the NIL stamp with high resolution. Moreover,microphase segregation was observed with features in the sub-20 nm sizethat exhibited different feature alignment as a function of the height of themesas. Thus, our methodology permitted us to combine in one production
step the NIL and the BCP DSA, using only milibar pressures and reducing to
one third the nanofabrication time, when comparing BCPs with conventional
annealing.

Arthur Nitkowski, Kyle J. Preston, Nicolás Sherwood-Droz, Tornado
Spectral Systems (United States); Jeffrey T. Meade, Yusuf Bismilla,
Brandon DesRoches, Andrew T. Cenko, Elizabeth A. Munro, Jared
Slaa, Tornado Spectral Systems (Canada); Bradford B. Behr, Tornado
Spectral Systems (United States); Arsen R. Hajian, Tornado Spectral
Systems (Canada)
Tornado Spectral Systems has developed a new chip-based spectrometer
called OCTANE, the Optical Coherence Tomography Advanced
Nanophotonic Engine, built using a planar lightwave circuit with integrated
waveguides fabricated on a silicon wafer. While designed for spectral
domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) systems, the same
miniaturized technology can be applied to many other spectroscopic
applications.

2. S. Zankovych et al , Nanotechnol., 12 (2001) 91.

The field of integrated optics enables the design of complex optical systems
which are monolithically integrated on silicon chips. The form factors ofthese systems can be significantly smaller, more robust and less expensive
than their equivalent free-space counterparts. Fabrication techniques andmaterial systems developed for microelectronics have previously been
adapted for integrated optics in the telecom industry, where millions ofchip-based components are used to power the optical backbone of theinternet. We have further adapted the photonic technology platform forspectroscopy applications, allowing unheard-of economies of scale for thesetypes of optical devices. Instead of changing lenses and aligning systems,
these devices are accurately designed programmatically and are easily
customized for specific applications. Spectrometers using integrated optics
have large advantages in systems where size, robustness and cost matter:field-deployable devices, UAVs, UUVs, satellites, handheld scanning andmore.

3. a) M. Salaun et al, J. Mat. Chem. C (2013), 1, 3544–3550; D. Borah et al,Eur. Polym. J. 49 (2013), 3512–3521; b)S.M. Park et al, ACS Nano, 5 (2011)8523; c) C. Simão, et al J. Photopol. Sci. Technol. 25 (2012) 239

We will discuss the performance characteristics of our chip-based
spectrometers and the type of spectral sensing applications enabled by thistechnology.

The research leading to these results has received funding from theEuropean Union Seventh Framework Program ([FP7/2007-2013] project
LAMAND under grant agreement n° [245565]) and by the Spanish Ministryof Economics and Competitiveness under contract no. MAT2012-31392 (PlanNacional de I + D + I (2008-2011) The contents of this work are the sole
responsibility of the authors.
References
1. Ouk Kim et al, Nature (2003), 424, 411-414.

4. F.S. Bates, Science, 251 (1991) 898.

151

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9083-107, Session Posters-Tuesday

9083-109, Session Posters-Tuesday

Modeling and simulation of multilayered thinfilms for terahertz detection

Bi-alkali photocathodes based on molecularbeam epitaxy for next-generation sensors

Fabio Alves, Naval Postgraduate School (United States); Michael
F. Martin, U.S. Naval Academy (United States); Ricardo Augusto T.
Santos, Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica (Brazil); Dragoslav
Grbovic, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)

Junqi Xie, Marcel Demarteau, Robert G. Wagner, Argonne National
Lab. (United States); Xing Wang, Xi’an Institute of Optics andPrecision Mechanics (China)

In this article we demonstrate a method based on Transfer Matrix (TMM)
that cam be used to analyze optical properties of multilayered thin films
and planar metamaterials for terahertz (THz) detection. Producing andtesting such films require host substrates that can be up to 4 orders ofmagnitude thicker than the THz sensitive films. Therefore, the ability toefficiently model, simulate and accurately predict the optical properties ofmultilayered structures with significant differences in thickness is crucial
to designing sensors with maximized absorption. This method, which
provides an analytical tool, less computationally intensive then finite
element modeling, can be used for films composed of any number of layerswith arbitrary thicknesses, aspect ratios and arbitrary angles of incidence.
Homogeneous or patterned (metamaterials) films can be modeled enabling
accurate analysis of positive and negative index materials indistinctly.
Reflection, transmission and absorption of metallic/dielectric nanolaminates,
metallic thin films and planar metamaterial films are analyzed and comparedwith experimental measurements and FE simulations. Results show good
agreement for a wide range of structures, materials and frequencies andindicate that the method has a great potential for design and optimizationof sophisticated multilayered structures for THz detection and beyond.

9083-108, Session Posters-Tuesday

Next generation sensors such as photomultipliers call for high-performance
photocathodes. Traditionally, bi-alkali photocathodes were grownthrough diffusion methods, making it hard to control the composition andcrystallinity. Here, photocathode growth through molecular beam epitaxy(MBE) is introduced as a promising technique to obtain robust, highly
efficient alkali-antimonide based photocathodes.

9083-110, Session Posters-Tuesday

Novel graphene FETs with field-controllingelectrodes to improve RF performance
Chowdhury G. Al-Amin, Raju Sinha, Nezih Pala, Florida International
Univ. (United States); Wonbong Choi, Univ. of North Texas (UnitedStates)We propose a novel Graphene FET (GFET) with two capacitively coupledField-controlling Electrodes (FCE) at the access regions. The FCEs could be
independently biased to modulate sheet carrier concentration and thereby
the resistance in the ungated regions. The reduction of source/drain access
resistance results in increased fT compared to those of conventional GFETs
with the same geometry.
The baseline conventional GFET in this study consists of Lg=3.0 µm and
Lgs/Lgd=1.5 µm with SiO2 as substrate. We simulated the DC and RF
characteristics of the baseline GFET using physics based numerical device
simulation tool. The simulated DC and RF characteristics were in good
agreement with the reported characteristics which validate our simulation
method.

Novel remote sensor systems: design,
prototyping, and characterization
Stephen E. Gibbons, James E. Lamb III, Brewer Science, Inc. (UnitedStates); Ryan E. Giedd, Missouri State Univ. (United States)
We are developing a TRL4 radio-frequency (RF) sensing platform composedof a transmitter/receiver and a Bluetooth® device. The novelty of thetransmitter design will ultimately enable deep penetration into the groundor metal structures to excite a sensing element. The receiver will pick up thesignal from the sensing element and parse out stimulus data. The Bluetooth®
device can integrate the sensor information into the existing sensor
networks or other networks.
Sensing elements made of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) based on all-organic
materials were printed on flexible poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)/
Kapton® substrates. Resonance at very high frequency (VHF) was identified.
The proposed novel sensing elements can take on different form factors,
and the outputs of the sensing elements could be modulated by humidity,
temperature, pressure, strain, or vibration stimulus. In this presentation, we
will report results of our continued effort to develop a transmitter/receiverwith a flexible and conformally mounted sensing element made of CNTs or
copper materials on polyimide substrates over a broad range of frequencies.
The overall performance of the sensing system with different sensing
elements will be compared.
The novel remote sensing system can be integrated with passive and active
sensing elements. It offers unique characteristics suitable for variety ofsensing applications.
Bluetooth® is a registered trademark of Bluetooth SIG, Inc.
Kapton® is a registered trademark of DuPont.

In the proposed device, two capacitively coupled FCEs are placed at theungated access regions. We considered two devices for our analysis: (i)GFET-1; the long channel device with Lg=3.0 µm, Lacs=1.5 µm, µh=530
cm2/V.s and µe=336 cm2/V.s and (ii) GFET-2; the short channel device with
Lg=0.5 µm, Lacs=1.5 µm, µe=4900 cm2/V.s and µh=3100 cm2/V.s.
The Id-Vds characteristics of both GFET-1 and GFET-2 in hole regime
at different FCE bias depicted the decrement of Rs and Rd due to thedecrement of access resistance, Racs. Analytical calculations also showedthat for GFETs with a typical residual carrier (hole) concentration of 4.8 1012
cm-2, two 1.3 µm long FCEs each biased at -3 V can lower the Racs of GFET1 with an initial value of 36.8 W down to 20 W.
We estimated RF improvement in both hole and electron regime ofoperation. For hole regime, the improvement of RF characteristics with FCE
bias was estimated using both analytical technique and simulation. It wasreported that low carrier mobility of Graphene did not show significant
dependence on carrier concentration. Therefore, the hole mobility value
for GFET-1 was kept constant at 530 cm2/V.s throughout the entire rangeof FCE bias, VFCE in both analytical and numerical analyses. On the other
hand, Graphene hole mobility was considered to be significantly dependent
on carrier concentration for the GFET-2, and its values at different VFCE
were estimated using reported values for all analyses. The analyticaltechnique resulted slightly higher cutoff frequency compared to thatobtained from numerical simulations because of the limitations to take theadditional parasitic capacitances introduced due to the FCE contacts into
account.
Expected similar improvement of fT for GFETs in electron transport regime
is also estimated using the simulation tool considering electron mobility to
be concentration independent for GFET-1 and concentration dependent for
GFET-2 as before.
In conclusion, Simulations supported by analytical calculations showed that,in hole regime of operation, FCE bias of -3V can increase the fT of both152

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI
short channel and long channel GFET by 24% whereas for electron regime,
it becomes 34% and 38% respectively. The proposed Graphene FETs withimproved RF characteristics can be used for high frequency applications.

technology developed at NIST/Gaithersburg. The microdevice sensors are
based on microhotplate platforms and array structures populated withnanostructured materials (primarily oxides) to achieve sufficient sensitivity
and selectivity. Temperature programming has been utilized to enhance
selectivity, and lets the microsensor array be tuned for applications ranging
from environmental monitoring to medical diagnosis. In this work, we
focused our attention on specialized operational and analysis schemes
to significantly reduce the time required for detection, recognition, andquantification of gas-phase chemical analytes. Specifically, we employed amicrohotplate-based gas sensor with a thin, nanostructured chemo-sensing
film of In2O3 exposed to a series of short pulses, ‘bursts’, of chemical
analytes at different concentrations while its operating temperature wasmodulated by a rapidly-pulsed periodic temperature sequence with distinct
systematically-varied semi-cycle period values, w e {20, 30, … 100 ms}.
Utilizing an aggregate of thermally-enhanced transient responses—a setof ‘perturbed’ optimally accelerated isotherms portraying an optimally
accelerated version (relative to its un-perturbed isothermal response
counterpart) of the response of the sensor during analyte exposure—generated with our approach above, we demonstrated the recognitionand quantification of individual analytes at nearly real time. Our findings
demonstrate high (up to 95% success rate) discrimination and quantification
performances are still preserved while attaining a dramatically reduced
response time of the sensing element from the typical 60 s (or more)
down to only 3 s. Finally, we explored complex background environments
and alternative solutions for further performance enhancement, including
analogies between biological olfaction and our approach, both requiring
multiple ‘sniffs’ from the same odor stimulus, as well as dynamic sensing
conditioning with alternative operating parameters (UV illumination).

9083-111, Session Posters-Tuesday

Graphene shield-enhancement of photosensitive
surfaces and devices
Nathan A. Moody, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States)
We investigate the utility of graphene to serve as a monolayer
shield membrane to protect and ruggedize high quantum efficiency
photocathodes and photodetectors in a number of applications requiringhigh reliability. As the strongest and thinnest material ever observed,
graphene has become the rising star in nanoscience, exhibiting new physics
and realistically accessible engineering properties that in many cases areorders of magnitude beyond that of conventional materials. Examples
include: ultra-high electrical and thermal conductivity, optical transparency,
impermeability to all molecular gases, high charge mobility, and ability
to sustain extreme current densities. We seek new ways to overcome
engineering challenges in the design of accelerator-based next-generation
light sources, high power rf sources, x-ray tubes, and photon detectors.
We use graphene as a protective membrane for photosensitive surfaces,
predicting and evaluating the efficacy of the monolayer protection as wellas the effect of this coating on the opto-electrical properties of a sample
material. A targeted application area is extending lifetime of a photocathodeand a photodetector. We report on preliminary results detailing the growth,
integration, and characterization of graphene with photosensitive surfaces.

9083-114, Session Posters-Tuesday

Bi-material cantilever sensing technique formeasurement of thermal properties of single
nanostructures

9083-112, Session Posters-Tuesday

An optically resonant position read-out system
for microcantilever gas sensors

Carlo Canetta, Arvind Narayanaswamy, Columbia Univ. (UnitedStates)Gino Putrino, Adrian Keating, Mariusz Martyniuk, Lorenzo Faraone,
John M. Dell, The Univ. of Western Australia (Australia)

Bi-material microcantilevers, with their high sensitivity to thermal stimuli,
are ideally suited sensors for investigating nanoscale heat transfer. We
have designed and fabricated low thermal conductance bi-material
microcantilevers by minimizing their width and thickness. The cantilevers
have a pad area near the free end to accommodate a focused laser spot,
keeping them suitable for detection with an optical deflection technique.
Using such cantilevers, we have demonstrated heat flux resolution of lessthan 1 picowatt. A pair of such cantilevers is proposed as a configuration
for measuring thermal conductance of a nanostructure suspended between
the two. The configuration mimics that of the suspended microdevice
measurement designed by Philip Kim and Li Shi, in which a nanostructure
is suspended between two thermal reservoirs. In our cantilever technique,two lasers are focused, one on each cantilever. One laser is modulated tovary the temperature at the end of one cantilever, while the second laser
senses variation in heat flow through the second cantilever due to thermal
conduction along the nanowire. We have determined the resolution ofsuch a device by measuring the background conductance between the twocantilevers in the absence of a nanostructure suspended between them.
The background conductance is due to other pathways for heat transfer
between the cantilevers besides nanostructure conductance. We havemeasured the background conductance to be as low as 0.05 nW/K. We
show that this background conductance is primarily due to optical coupling– that is, the effect of light from the heating laser scattered from the edgesof one cantilever and absorbed and sensed by the second cantilever. By
measuring the background conductance for cantilevers varying the sizeof the pad on which the lasers are focused, we show that the background
conductance decreases with increasing pad size. The larger pad size
minimizes scattering from the cantilever edges. Further improvements in
conductance resolution beyond 0.05 nW/K require reducing the background
conductance due to optical coupling.

This presentation describes a novel optical readout system for
microcantilever gas sensors. A deflection noise density of 1 pm/sqrt(Hz)is demonstrated using low power infra-red lasers, giving rise to the ability
to sense the thermally stimulated Brownian motion of microcantilevers atroom temperature and pressure. This provides the ability to determine theresonant frequency of a cantilever without providing electrostatic actuation,
which in turn gives rise to the ability to create remote sensing solutions
using fiber-fed, passive MEMS sensors.
The optical readout system uses silicon photonics concepts, and isfabricated by patterning the epitaxial silicon layer of SOI wafer to form
waveguides and diffraction gratings. The MEMS components are fabricatedfrom SiN and Au using surface micromachining techniques.
By placing reflective microcantilevers above a diffraction grating which
redirects light travelling through an input waveguide out-of-plane up
towards the microcantilever, an optically resonant cavity is formed. The
diffraction grating then couples the light back into an output waveguide.
The intensity of the light in the output waveguide is modulated based on
the position of the microcantilever, giving an extremely sensitive measure ofthat position.

9083-113, Session Posters-Tuesday

Methods for rapid chemical sensing withchemiresistive microsensing technology
Alexander Vergara, Kurt D. Benkstein, Stephen Semancik, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
This study deals with pushing the limits of performance of microsensing

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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9083-115, Session Posters-Tuesday

Multiplexed optical operation of
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) arraysfor sensing and signal processing applications
Ashwin Sampathkumar, Riverside Research Institute (United States)
NEMS are rapidly being developed for a variety of sensing applications
as well as for exploring interesting regimes in fundamental physics. In
most of these endeavors, operation of a NEMS device involves actuating
the device harmonically around its fundamental resonance and detecting
the subsequent motion, while the device interacts with its environment.
Even though a single NEMS resonator is exceptionally sensitive, a typicalapplication, be it sensing or signal processing, requires the detectionof signals from many resonators distributed over the surface of a chip.
Therefore, one of the key technological challenges in the field of NEMS is
the development of multiplexed measurement techniques to simultaneously
detect the motion of a large number of NEMS resonators. In this work,
the important and difficult problem of interfacing with a large numberof NEMS devices and facilitating the use of such arrays in, for example,
sensing and signal processing applications is addressed. We report a
versatile all-optical technique to excite and read-out a distributed NEMS
array. The NEMS array is driven by a distributed, intensity modulated
optical pump through the photothermal effect. The ensuing vibrational
response of the array is multiplexed onto a single probe beam in the formof a high frequency phase modulation. The phase modulation is opticallydown converted to a low frequency intensity modulation using an adaptive
full-field interferometer, and subsequently detected using a CCD array.
Rapid and single step mechanical characterization of 44 nominally identicalhigh-frequency resonators is demonstrated. The technique may enablesensitivity improvements over single NEMS resonators by averaging signals
coming from a multitude of devices in the array. In addition, the diffraction
limited spatial resolution may allow for position-dependent read-out of
NEMS sensor chips for sensing multiple analytes or spatially inhomogeneous
forces.

9083-116, Session Posters-Tuesday

A low-power CMOS flash ADC converter for
temperature sensor
Md. Mamum, Md Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz, Mohammad T. Islam, Univ.
Kebangsaan Malaysia (Malaysia)
This paper proposes a simple design of a flash analog-to-digital converter(ADC) in 0.18 µm CMOS technology. This ADC is expected to be used withina temperature sensor, which provides analog data output having a rangeof 360 mV to 560 mV. This system consisting of three main blocks is thethreshold inverter quantization (TIQ)-comparator, encoder and parallel input
serial output (PISO) register. The design goal is to get a flash ADC with low
power dissipation, small size and compatible with the temperature sensors.
The method is proposed to set each of the transistor channel length, forfinding out the threshold voltage difference of the inverter each on the TIQ
comparator. The design has an input range of 285 to 600 mV and 6-bit
resolution output. The chip area of the designed ADC is 844.48 x 764.77µm2 and the power dissipation is 0.162 µW with 1.6 V supply voltage.

9083-118, Session Posters-Tuesday

Spin-on organic polymer dopants for silicon
Bhooshan C. Popere, Megan L. Hoarfrost, Univ. of California,
Berkeley (United States); Andrew T. Heitsch, Dow Corning Corp.
(United States); Peter Trefonas III, Dow Electronic Materials (UnitedStates); Rachel A. Segalman, Univ. of California, Berkeley (UnitedStates)154

SPIE DSS 2014

Conventional doping of crystalline Si via ion implantation results in astochastic distribution of doped regions in the x-y plane along withrelatively poor control over penetration depth of dopant atoms. As thegate dimensions get to 10 nm, the related device parameters also need tobe scaled down to maintain electrical activity. Thus, highly doped abrupt,
ultra-shallow junctions are imperative for source-drain contacts to realize
sub-10 nm transistors. Uniform ultra-shallow junctions can be achieved via
monolayer doping, wherein thermal diffusion of a self-limiting monolayerof dopant atom-containing organic on Si surface yields sub-5 nm junctions.
We have extended the use of organic dopant molecules in the monolayer
doping technique to introduce a new class of spin-on polymer dopants. In
effect, these new spin-on dopants offer a hybrid between the monolayer
doping technique and traditional inorganic spin-on dopants. We have beenable to uniformly introduce p- and n-type dopants with doping efficiencies
comparable to the monolayer doping technique. Control over junction depth
can be easily achieved via optimizing annealing temperature and time.

9083-36, Session 8

Novel solar cells using II-VI semiconductors(Keynote Presentation)
Sivalingam Sivananthan, James W. Garland, Christoph H. Grein,
Robert F. Klie, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago (United States); Ramesh G.
Dhere, Episolar Inc. (United States)
Different semiconductors have been investigated for use in polycrystalline
thin-film solar cells. However, only CdTe/CdS cells have been successful
enough to justify large-scale industrial production. First Solar (FS) began
production in 2003-2004, reduced the production cost below $0.7/Wp andrapidly became the largest PV manufacturer. Cd emission is not an issue
because Cd emission from the manufacture, use and recycling of CdTe/CdS
compares with that from Si and is far less than that from other sources ofelectric power. However, to achieve grid parity, and remain economicallycompetitive with Si modules, the price of which has dropped sharply, CdTe/
CdS module performance must be improved to remain competitive. In
particular, the open-circuit voltage, which is far below the theoretical limit
for CdTe, must be substantially improved. UIC and Episolar are pursuingthat goal in three novel ways: (1) using MBE to investigate the fundamental
effects on device performance of controllably introducing grain boundaries
and impurities found in poly-CdTe/CdS into single-crystal CdTe, (2) using
CSS to perform substrate growth, rather than superstrate growth, toimprove poly-CdTe material properties and (3) investigating polycrystalline
CdS/CdTe/CdZnTe two-junction modules, which cannot be fabricatedsuccessfully using superstrate growth. In parallel, we are investigating ways
to eliminate the fundamental causes of the previous poor performance of
single-crystal CdTe solar cells, and plan to develop Si solar cells enhanced by
growing an epitaxial II-VI junction on the Si junction to create a two-junction
solar cell. The prospects for developing novel radically lower-cost and more
efficient solar cells are discussed.

9083-37, Session 8

Flexible, lightweight CdTe solar cells on thin glass(Invited Paper)
Teresa M. Barnes, Matthew O. Reese, James Burst, William L. Rance,
Timothy A. Gessert, Wyatt K. Metzger, National Renewable Energy
Lab. (United States); Daniel Meysing, Colin A. Wolden, Colorado
School of Mines (United States); Xinghua Li, Pat Cimo, Sean Garner,
Corning Incorporated (United States)
Flat-panel CdTe photovoltaic modules are a commercially competitive solar
technology due to the low cost of CdTe manufacturing. Until recently, therecord efficiency of CdTe cells has lagged behind that of thin-film CIGS, but
recent results have demonstrated efficiencies approaching 20%. CdTe will
become increasingly more competitive with silicon solar and fossil fueledenergy production as the efficiency increases.

·

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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9083-39, Session 8

CdTe modules and most high-efficiency research devices are made using a“superstrate” configuration. Superstrate devices must be made on a highly
transparent material, usually glass, that can withstand high temperatures.
This has limited the opportunities for flexible and roll-to-roll production of
CdTe because most flexible polymers have low optical transmission andlimited thermal stability. New, thin, flexible glasses, such as Corning® Willow®
Glass, combine flexibility and amenability with roll-to-roll processing andhigh optical transmission, high thermal and chemical stability, high electricalresistivity, and the hermeticity of glass. We have made CdTe devices withefficiencies greater than 14% on Willow Glass.

Nanoscale optimization of quantum dot media
for effective photovoltaic conversion (Invited
Paper)
Kimberly A. Sablon, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
To increase the efficiency beyond the Shockley-Queisser limit, the radiationof photons should be matched to the electron transitions and electron
processes should be optimized to effectively collect photocarriers incontacts. There are many approaches for nano-engineering of photon
and electron states and interaction processes. Possibilities of photovoltaic
conversion via impurity bandgap states were studied for more than forty
years. Last decade achievements in nanotechnology strongly encourage
research aimed towards the development of high efficiency nanomaterials.
The main problem of nanostructured materials is enhanced recombinationof photocarriers. To address this problem, we proposed a nanoscaleengineering of potential profile by quantum dots with built-in charge(Q-BIC). Dot charging is realized by selective doping of the interdot space.
Potential barriers around negatively charged dots separate quantum dots
(QDs) from the conducting channels along which photoelectrons moveto the contacts. These barriers exponentially suppress the capture ofphotoelectron by QDs. Charging of QD by electrons significantly enhances
the multistep electron transitions and hot-electron induced subband
transitions. Reduction of the wetting layer suppresses photoelectron
capture and decreases corresponding recombination losses. Having beenplaced in 3 µm base of the single junction, the 1 µm medium of QDs with
RWL and electron population of ~3 electron per dot increases the shortcircuit current by 6.1 mA/cm2 and improves the photovoltaic efficiency
by 2.5% compared with the reference cell. In absolute units, the deviceshows the short-circuit current of 28.1 mA/cm2 and photovoltaic efficiencyof 18%. The reduction of the wetting layer, which otherwise accumulates
electrons, increases extraction of electrons from QDs due to interaction withhot electrons created by high energy photons. Nanoscale optimization ofelectron processes by charging of QDs provides wide possibilities for further
suppression of recombination and thermalization losses in QD photovoltaic
devices.

Here, we will discuss device fabrication and performance on this flexible
glass. We have made high-efficiency devices using several different front
and back contact stacks. These device structures are all processed at hightemperatures (550oC – 600oC) using sputtering, evaporation, close-spaced
sublimation, and chemical vapor deposition. The devices demonstrate proof
of concept for high-efficiency flexible photovoltaics made with high-rateand low-cost deposition processes for applications that require higher
specific power or a unique form factor.

9083-38, Session 8

Fundamentals and recent results of super-highefficiency solar cells (Invited Paper)
Masafumi Yamaguchi, Kazuma Ikeda, Yoshio Ohshita, Toyota
Technological Institute (Japan)
The photovoltaic (PV) solar energy conversion is expected to become
the major clean energy source because further installation of nuclear
energy in the world is presumed to be very difficult as a result of the mostrecent crisis of the Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan. Really, solar
electricity including solar PV is expected to contribute as the main energy
with a share of about 20% and 70% in 2050 and 2010, respectively in totalenergy of the world, according to the World Energy Vision 2100 [1]. To
this end, further development of PV science and technology and further
deployment of PV power generation systems are very important in addition
to international, national and regional government dissemination programs.
Especially, very large-scale installation of PV power systems is needed andthus development of ultra-high performance, low cost and highly reliable
solar cells is very important as well as development of low cost and long
lifetime batteries, highly reliable and intelligent system technologies such as
smart grids. The concentrator PV have great potential for very large-scale
integration of PV as well as high performance crystalline Si PV.

9083-40, Session 8

Using soft x-rays to look into (buried) interfacesof energy conversion devices (Invited Paper)This paper summarizes fundamental physics of high-efficiency III-V
compound semiconductor and multi-junction (MJ) solar cells and their
key technologies for realizing higher efficiency. This paper also reviews
Japanese research activities for III-V MJ and concentrator solar cells.
Concentrator 4-junction or 5-junction solar cells have great potential for
realizing super high efficiencies of over 50 %. Lattice-mismatched and
III-V-N are thought to be promising materials for realizing more than 50%
efficiency. Improvement in the 1-sun efficiency of triple-junction solar cells
is also possible. Most recently, new world-record efficiency (37.9%) at
1-sun (AM1.5G) has been realized with inverted epitaxially-grown InGaP/
GaAs/InGaAs 3-junction cells by Sharp. 44.4% efficiency has also been
demonstrated with InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs 3-junction solar cells by Sharp
under the Europe-Japan Collaborative Project on Concentrator PV. It isclear that Japanese group has greatly contributed to development of highefficiency cells.

Clemens Heske, Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas (United States) andKarlsruher Institut für Technologie (Germany)
The electronic and chemical structure of interfaces is of central importancefor understanding and tailoring of materials, chemical processes, andelectronic devices. Thus, over the past few decades, enormous experimental(and theoretical) insights into electronic and chemical structures of welldefined model surfaces have been sought and gained by a variety of
approaches.
But what if the area of interest is buried, e.g., at an interface? What if nosuitable, well-defined, and clean model surfaces are available? And how
much do we know about the electronic and chemical structure of liquids orat liquid-solid interfaces?
The purpose of this talk is to demonstrate how a tool chest of soft x-ray
spectroscopies (including lab-based techniques and approaches using
high-brilliance synchrotron radiation) is uniquely suited to address suchquestions. The talk will focus on compound semiconductors for thin film
solar cells and photoelectrochemical water splitting, and it will be shown
how soft x-rays can be utilized to shed light on their electronic and chemical
properties.

Concentrator 4-junction or 5-junction solar cells have great potential for
realizing super high-efficiency of over 50%. Concentrator PV is expected tocontribute as one of major PV as well as the first crystalline Si PV and thesecond thin-film PV.

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI

9083-41, Session 9

lasers, in an effort to identify the fundamental noise limitations of Brillouinoscillators as RF sources.

Coherent feedback and photonic engineering(Invited Paper)

9083-44, Session 9

Hideo Mabuchi, Stanford Univ. (United States)

Coherent signal transduction between photons,
microwaves, and spin waves (Invited Paper)

We will describe recent progress in several research projects aimed
at demonstrating the utility of coherent feedback in quantum-limited
photonic signal processing. We will discuss a cavity QED experiment
aimed at demonstrating coherent feedback control of optical bistability, an
experiment on coherent feedback control of squeezed light generation in a
network of optical parametric oscillators, computational modeling studiesof photonic logic components suitable for large-scale fabrication, andtheoretical research on circuit architectures for robust optical computationin the quantum noise-limited regime.

Xufeng Zhang, Hong Tang, Yale Univ. (United States)
We demonstrate coherent information transduction between optical,
microwave and magnonic carrier in hybrid photonic / magnonic waveguides.
Very low loss photonic circuits are patterned from magneto-optic yttrium
iron garnet (YIG). The co-localization of spin wave and lightwave leads
to very efficient interconversion of light to spin wave and vice versa. The
underlying physics responsible for this interconversion will be discussed.
We also show electrical field control of spin wave propagation in waveguidestructures via spin-obit coupling.

9083-42, Session 9

Low-power nonlinear nanophotonic circuits forclassical information processing (Invited Paper)

9083-45, Session 10

Raymond G. Beausoleil, Hewlett-Packard Labs. (United States)
Over the next decade, computers based on CMOS transistors will reachfundamental physical limits that will halt the exponential performance
improvements implied by “Moore’s Law.” In particular, the energy required
to change the state of an electronic charge-based silicon bit is unlikely
to improve significantly as the computer industry reaches the end of
the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors. Any future
information processing technology designed to operate with significantly
less power than that of current chips will necessarily rely on a relatively
small number of fundamental particles to encode information. In thiscase, the intrinsic quantum properties of these particles will be difficult
to suppress, increasing noise levels and therefore bit error rates. New
methods will be needed to harness these quantum properties to allow
reliable classical computing and communication. We have begun abasic research project - funded by DARPA under the MesoDynamical
Architectures Program - that relies on nonlinear optical effects in complex
nanophotonic circuits to help us understand the fundamental physicalprinciples underlying post-Moore’s-Law IT. While it is unlikely that opticalcomputation will be practical for consumer IT applications in the near future,
the investigation of coherence in all-optical data processing will enable us
to understand the role of feedback-based error correction strategies when
computing using a small number (10 to 100) of quantum objects.

Traveling-wave photon-phonon coupling as thebasis for new signal processing technologies(Invited Paper)

There is a disciplinary convergence upon us, one that spans from the nanoscale to the human-scale. We are now able to program nearly everythingfrom bits to DNA, proteins, cells, proto-cells, even products, architecture andinfrastructure. Programmability and computing are becoming ubiquitous
across scales and disciplines. We need to translate these phenomena into
solutions for large-scale applications rather than focus only on increasingly
smaller-scale technologies At the Self-Assembly Lab, we aim towards thebuilt-environment, from manufacturing, construction, infrastructure andproducts to develop more adaptive and highly resilient systems. The key toapplying this programmability and computational intelligence is humanscale self-assembly and programmable materials. We have demonstrated
that self-assembly is scale-independent and have produced prototypes
ranging from 1D, 2D, 3D and even 4D Printing aimed at inventing a future of
programmable built environments.

9083-46, Session 10

Lee Cronin, Univ. of Glasgow (United Kingdom)Peter T. Rakich, Yale Univ. (United States); Jonathan A. Cox, Sandia
National Labs. (United States); Heedeuk Shin, Yale Univ. (UnitedStates); Zheng Wang, S. Hossein Mousavi, Hui Dong, The Univ. of
Texas at Austin (United States); Rob Jarecki, Aleem Siddiqui, Sandia
National Labs. (United States); Robert C. Potter, Rockwell Collins,
Inc. (United States)
We present progress towards the development of novel hybrid photonicphononic oscillator technologies in both nanoscale silicon photonics and infiber optic systems. These systems utilize traveling-wave photon-phonon
couplings involving both forward- and backward- stimulated Brillouinscattering processes (SBS). We explore numerous geometries that haveenabled large forward-SBS processes in nanoscale silicon waveguides forthe first time, and examine new approaches to achieving integrated Brillouinlasers. Through complementary efforts, we also examine systems based
approaches to the control and implementation of fiber based Brillouin

SPIE DSS 2014

Skylar Tibbits, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Programmable synthesis and integrated chemical
discovery enabled by 3D-printed reactionware(Invited Paper)

9083-43, Session 9

156

Self-assembly and programmable materials(Invited Paper)·

3D-printing is an emerging technology promising to revolutionize
manufacturing processes, transforming the relationship between design
and manufacture of functional devices. 3D-printing technologies havebeen used for the assembly of large scale prototyping, tissue growthscaffolds, biomimetic microvascular systems, and the manufacture of highly
specialized electronic devices. One area of science and technology where
3D-printing has so far failed to make a significant impact is in the field ofchemical synthesis, despite the vast potential that bespoke, 3D-printed
chemical reactors could display for parallel optimisation of reaction
sequences, automated synthesis and interrogation of complex interlinked
chemical equilibria. Also 3D-printing raises the possibility of liberatingchemical syntheses from the expert, exploiting robotic operations for selfcontained chemical reactors where the starting materials of a synthetic path
are included in the production of the device.
Recent work in our group has developed the concept 3D printing inchemistry with the invention of ‘reactionware’, i.e. reaction vessels thatcombine reactor and reagents, allowing both chemical and architectural

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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9083-48, Session 10

control of the reaction outcome. This approach could have great benefits
in making chemical synthesis more accessible, both to those with noformal training in synthesis, in other laboratory settings such as in a tissue
engineering lab, and also in situations where laboratory infrastructure islacking (such as the developing world). The concept of reactionware, allied
to the rapidity and versatility of 3D-printing techniques allows the chemist
to seek out entirely new methods of interacting with chemical processes
and brings a new dimension to their design. In this talk I will present
the application of reactionware to the development of ‘digital’ synthesis
techniques using both batch, flow, mill and microfluidic systems including
the realisation of plug and play reactor systems allowing the integrationof advanced ‘fluidic programming’ and also explore the possibility of
discovering new classes of molecules, reactions, and developing hybrid
biological-synthetic devices for medical applications.

Moving toward multifunctional additive
manufacturing (Invited Paper)
Christopher J. Tuck, The Univ. of Nottingham (United Kingdom)This paper discusses the current activities of the EPSRC Centre forInnovative Manufacturing in Additive Manufacturing (AM) and the efforts
towards making multi-material Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printinga reality for the development of novel sensing and material systems.
The paper will introduce the concepts of 3D Printing for multi-functional
components that attempts to produce “active” systems rather than thecurrent state of the art of “passive components”. The paper will specifically
discuss the current capabilities of inkjet and higher resolution AM systems
under development at the EPSRC Centre and the challenges of developing
new and more applicable materials for these manufacturing techniques withparticular regard to developing electronic, optical and biological materials
that can be integrated into structural systems.

1. M. D. Symes, P. J. Kitson, J. Yan, C. J. Richmond, G. J. T. Cooper, R. W.
Bowman, T. Vilbrandt, L. Cronin, ‘Integrated 3D-printed reactionware forchemical synthesis and analysis’, Nature Chemistry, 2012, 4, 349-354.
2. P. Kitson, M. Rosnes, V. Sans, V. Dragone, L. Cronin, ‘Configurable
3D-Printed millifluidic and microfluidic ‘lab on a chip’ reactionware devices’,
Lab on a chip, 2012, 12, 3267-71.

This paper will highlight the current efforts of developing multi-material 3D
Printing systems with both micro (3D jetting) and nano-scale resolutions(multi-photon polymerisation) and the requirements to preferentiallydeposit and convert different material types in order to tailor a systems
response to external perturbations. The paper will provide a detailed
examination of the problems with current “active” inks for multi-material 3D
printing, i.e. nano-flake inks and provide alternatives for future research andincreased performance.

3. P. J. Kitson, M. D. Symes, V. Dragone, L. Cronin, Combining 3D printing andliquid handling to produce user-friendly reactionware for chemical synthesis
and purification, Chem Sci , 2013 , 255 , 3099-3103.
4. V. Dragone, V. Sans, M. H. Rosnes, P. J. Kitson, L. Cronin, 3D-printed
devices for continuous Flow organic chemistry, Beilstein Journal of Organic
Chemistry , 2013 , 252 , 951-959.
For latest updates see: www.croninlab.com

9083-49, Session 109083-47, Session 10

3D printing of liquid metals for stretchable andflexible conductors (Invited Paper)

3D printed bionic ears (Invited Paper)
Manu Sebastian Mannoor, Ziwen Jiang, Princeton Univ. (UnitedStates); Teena James, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States); Yong
Lin Kong, Karen Malatesta, Winston W. O. Soboyejo, Naveen Verma,
Princeton Univ. (United States); David H. Gracias, Johns Hopkins
Univ. (United States); Michael C. McAlpine, Princeton Univ. (UnitedStates)Michael Dickey, Collin Ladd, John F. Muth, Ju-Hee So, North Carolina
State Univ. (United States)
The ability to 3D print metal is important for rapid prototyping of functional
electronic devices using additive manufacturing techniques. Metal parts
may be 3D printed by selectively sintering layers of metal dust one layer at
a time, though such a method requires expensive laser writers or electronbeam systems to induce high local temperature excursions to fuse themetallic powder, which is not compatible with polymers, organics, andbiological species. This talk will discuss new methods to directly print a
micromoldable liquid metal into 3D structures at room temperature andembed it in functional polymers to create conductors that are soft, selfhealing, and ultra-stretchable. The metal is a gallium-based metal alloy thatis a low-viscosity liquid at room temperature with low toxicity and negligible
volatility. Despite the large surface tension of the metal, it can be molded
into non-spherical shapes due to the presence of an ultra-thin oxide skinthat forms on its surface. The metal can be patterned by injection into
microchannels or by direct-write techniques. We will discuss three different,
yet complimentary methods to direct-write the method including extrusion,
stacking of droplets, and the use of pressure to create stable fibers of theliquid metal. Because it is a liquid, the metal is extremely soft and flows in
response to stress to retain electrical continuity under extreme deformation.
By embedding the metal into elastomeric substrates, it is possible to form
soft electrodes and optical components, stretchable antennas, and ultrastretchable wires that maintain metallic conductivity up to ~800% strain.

The ability to three-dimensionally interweave biological tissue withfunctional electronics could enable the creation of bionic organs possessing
enhanced functionalities over their human counterparts. Conventional
electronic devices are inherently two-dimensional, preventing seamless
multidimensional integration with synthetic biology, as the processes
and materials are very different. Here, we present a novel strategy forovercoming these difficulties via additive manufacturing of biological cellswith structural and nanoparticle derived electronic elements. Specifically,
our approach attains three dimensional integration of electronics withbiological tissues via simultaneous 3D printing of functional electronic
components with biological cells in the precise anatomic geometry ofhuman organs, and thus enables the creation of true bionic organs in theirform and function. As a demonstrative system, we generated a bionicear via 3D printing of a cell-seeded hydrogel matrix in the anatomic
geometry of a human ear, along with an intertwined conducting polymer
consisting of infused silver nanoparticles. This allowed for in vitro culturingof cartilaginous tissue around an inductive coil antenna in the ear, which
subsequently enables readout of inductively-coupled signals from cochleashaped electrodes. The printed ear exhibits enhanced auditory sensing forradio frequency reception, and complementary left and right ears can listen
to stereo audio music. Overall, our approach suggests a means to intricately
merge biologic and nanoelectronic functionalities via 3D printing.

9083-50, Session 11

Some recent developments in stretchable andflexible electronics (Keynote Presentation)
John A. Rogers, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates)Biology is soft, curvilinear and transient; modern silicon technology
is rigid, planar and everlasting. Electronic systems that eliminate this157

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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profound mismatch in properties will lead to new types of devices,
capable of integrating non-invasively with the body, providing function
over some useful period of time, and then dissolving into surrounding
biofluids. Recent work establishes a complete set of materials, mechanics
designs and manufacturing approaches that enable these features in aclass of electronics with performance comparable to that of conventional
wafer-based technologies. This talk summarizes the key ideas throughdemonstrations in skin-mounted ‘epidermal’ monitors, advanced surgicaltools and bioresorbable electronic bacteriocides.

will be shown that CST not only enables flexible electronic circuits with
unprecedented level of complexity but also allows re-use of substrates fromwhich flexible electronic products have been removed.
References
1. S. W. Bedell, D. Shahrjerdi, et al: IEEE J. Photovoltaics 2, 141 (2012)
2. D. Shahrjerdi, S.W. Bedell, et al: IEDM, pp 5.1.1 – 5.1.4 (2012)
3. S.W. Bedell, C. Bayram et al, Appl Phys Express, 6, 112301p (2013),

9083-53, Session 119083-51, Session 11

High performance Bio-integrated Devices (Invited
Paper)

Adapting MEMS technology to soft,
bioelectronics interfaces (Invited Paper)

Dae-Hyeong Kim, Jongha Lee, Minjoon Park, Seoul National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of)Stephanie P. Lacour, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne(Switzerland)

Research in nanomaterials and microelectronics technologies have driven
important advances in healthcare in recent years. However, the mechanicaland geometrical constraints inherent in all standard forms of rigid
electronics impose unique integration and therapeutic delivery challenges
for wearable medical devices. Here, we describe novel materials anddesign constructs for multifunctional wearable electronic devices, which
incorporate arrays of single crystal silicon and inorganic solid-state sensors(e.g. strain gauges, temperature sensors) and actuators (e.g. resistive
heaters), coupled with important new approaches for integrating nonvolatilememory with uniform-sized nanoparticles (for portable data storage withlow power consumption) and nanoparticle-based drug release mechanisms(for transdermal drug delivery). Quantitative analyses of heat-transfer, drugdiffusion, and electronic performances of these systems during mechanicaldeformations and under moisturized circumstances validate the individualcomponents, thereby enabling system-level functions. These systems
combine advances in sensing, data storage, and drug-based feedback
therapy to create new opportunities and directions in translational medicine.

Soft, bioelectronics interfaces are broadly defined as microfabricateddevices with mechanical properties suited to comply with biological tissues.
There are many challenges associated with the development of suchtechnology platforms. Simultaneously one must achieve reliable electronic
performance, thermal and environmental stability, mechanical compliance,and biocompatibility. Materials and system architecture must be designed
such that mechanical integrity and electrical functionality is preserved
during fabrication, implementation and use of the interface.
Depositing and patterning conventional device materials, ranging frominorganic to organic thin films as well as nanomaterials, directly onto
soft elastomeric substrates enable electronic devices with enhanced
mechanical flexibility. Success in fabrication also relies on a careful designof the mechanical architecture of the soft interface to minimize mechanicalstresses in the most fragile materials.
Using examples from our work on soft, implantable neural electrodes aswell as prosthetic sensory skin, we will illustrate how well-establishedmicrofabrication technology can be adapted to polymeric, elastic materials
to produce sensors, thin film transistors and electrode arrays, which canreliably sustain cyclic macroscopic deformations, and this in a wet, in vivo
environment.

9083-54, Session 11

Transformational electronics: A powerful way
to revolutionize our information world (Invited
Paper)

9083-52, Session 11

Advanced flexible electronics: challenges andopportunities (Invited Paper)
Stephen W. Bedell, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (UnitedStates)This presentation will give an overview of various techniques in pursuit
presently to enable flexible electronics applications. Some examples ofcurrently practiced techniques include Smartcut, Epitaxial lift-off, laser
ablation, and grind and etch-back. Although successful implementationof these techniques for flexible electronics has been demonstrated, theirapplication space is not extendable to a wide spectrum of products due toa number of reasons: (i) varying thickness requirements of the flexible layer,(ii) low thermal budget (preferably room temperature) of the flexible layer
process, (iii) manufacturability, and (iv) cost of ownership. We have reported
previously on a layer transfer technique referred to as controlled spalling
technique (CST) which overcomes the limitations described above [1]. The
overview will focus on the following enabling attributes of CST for flexible
electronics: (i) low cost of ownership, (ii) its applicability at any process stepduring device fabrication from starting substrates to completed devices,(iii) thickness control in the range of angstroms to tens of microns, (iv) no
dependence on any substrate size or shape (v) applicability to any brittle
material whether crystalline or amorphous. Successful implementation of
CST in fabricating high-efficiency flexible GaAs-based solar cells, as well
as release of 22 nm CMOS Si circuits will be described [2]. Finally, more
recent application of CST in fabricating functional flexible multi-quantum
well (MQW) based InGaN/GaN epitaxial LED will be discussed [3]. It

158

SPIE DSS 2014·

Muhammad M. Hussain, Jhonathan P. Rojas, Galo A. Torres Sevilla,
Mohamed T. Ghoneim, Aftab M. Hussain, Sally M. Ahmed, Joanna
M. Nassar, Rabab R. Bahabry, Maha Nour, Arwa T. Kutbee, Amal
M. AlAmri, King Abdullah Univ. of Science and Technology (Saudi
Arabia); John A. Rogers, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign(United States)
With the emergence of cloud computation, we are facing the rising wavesof big data. It is our time to leverage such opportunity by increasing data
usage both by man and machine. For us we need ultra-mobile computation
with high data processing speed, ultra-large memory, energy efficiency
and multi-functionality. Additionally, we have to deploy energy-efficient
multi-functional 3D ICs for robust cyber-physical system establishment. To
achieve such lofty goal we have to mimic human brain which is inarguably
the world’s most powerful and energy efficient computers. Brain’s cortex
has folded architecture to increase surface area in an ultra-compact
space to contain its neuron and synapses. Therefore, it is imperative toovercome two integration challenges: (i) finding out a low-cost 3D IC
fabrication process and (ii) foldable substrates creation with ultra-largescale-integration of high performance energy efficient electronics. Hence,
we show a low-cost generic batch process based on trench-protect-peelrecycle to fabricate rigid and flexible 3D ICs as well as high performanceflexible electronics. As of today we have made every single component tomake a fully flexible computer including non-planar state-of-the-art FinFETs.
Additionally we have demonstrated various solid-state memory, movable
MEMS devices, energy harvesting and storage components. To show the

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI

9083-57, Session 11

versatility of our process, we have extended our process towards otherinorganic semiconductor substrates such as silicon germanium and III-V
materials. Finally, we report first ever fully flexible programmable silicon
based microprocessor towards foldable brain computation and wirelessly
programmable stretchable and flexible thermal patch for pain management
for smart bionics.

High-performance flexible microwave passives onplastic (Invited Paper)
Zhenqiang Ma, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States);
Weidong Zhou, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)

9083-55, Session 11

Microwave circuits have been traditionally fabricated on rigid substrates,
either on rigid semiconductor wafers or on circuit boards. These
circuits lack mechanical flexibility and thus limit their use under certain
circumstances. Very low-cost plastics are suitable substrates for flexible
microwave application for their mechanical flexibility and acceptable radiofrequency (RF) loss at fairly high frequencies. In this talk we present the RF
characterizations of flexible plastic substrates and the design and fabricationof high-performance microwave passives, including flexible inductors andflexible capacitors, that are fabricated on plastic substrates. Relevant active
RF devices and circuits fabrication technologies will also be presented

Mechanics of flexible electronics and photonics
based on inorganic micro- and nanomaterials(Invited Paper)
Nanshu Lu, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (United States)
Flexible electronics and photonics are providing revolutionary solutions
for communication, energy, and health care. While some of the organic
electronic and photonic materials are intrinsically deformable and low costto manufacture, their performance and chemical stabilities are yet to match
well-established inorganic materials. Strategies for high performance flexible
electronics and photonics must overcome challenges associated with the
intrinsic stiffness and brittleness of inorganic functional materials. The
fundamental understandings of the mechanical interactions between the
stiff functional materials and the compliant supporting substrates have led
to largely enhanced deformability and functionalities of the device systems.
This talk discusses the recent development of the mechanics and fabrication
strategies toward a wide variety of flexible electronics and photonics. Three
examples of flexible devices involving three types of inorganic materials
will be presented to manifest the ubiquitous power of such mechanistic
understandings. First, silicon-based ultra-thin, ultra-soft electronic tattoos
are created to achieve conformal contact and compatible deformation withbio-tissues for sensing and stimulation. Second, flexible transistors basedon few layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) will demonstrate combined highelectronic performance and large bendability. Bendable photonic devices
based on high-refractive index chalcogenide glass will be employed toillustrate the optoelastic coupling during bending.

9083-58, Session 11

Arthropod eye-inspired digital camera withunique imaging characteristics (Invited Paper)
Jianliang Xiao, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (United States); Young
Min Song, Yizhu Xie, Viktor Malyarchuk, Univ. of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign (United States); Inhwa Jung, Kyung Hee Univ. (Korea,
Republic of); Zhuangjian Liu, A*STAR Institute of High Performance
Computing (Singapore); Chaofeng Lu, Zhejiang Univ. (China); Rak
Hwan Kim, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States);
Rui Li, Dalian Univ. of Technology (China); Kenneth B. Crozier,
Harvard Univ. (United States); Yonggang Huang, Northwestern
Univ. (United States); John A. Rogers, Univ. of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign (United States)
In nature, arthropods have a remarkably sophisticated class of imaging
systems, with a hemispherical geometry, a wide-angle field of view, lowaberrations, high acuity to motion and an infinite depth of field. There are
great interests in building systems with similar geometries and properties
due to numerous potential applications. However, the establishedsemiconductor sensor technologies and optics are essentially planar, which
experience great challenges in building such systems with hemispherical,
compound apposition layouts. With the recent advancement of stretchable
optoelectronics, we have successfully developed strategies to build a fully
functional artificial apposition compound eye camera by combining optics,
materials and mechanics principles. The strategies start with fabricating
stretchable arrays of thin silicon photodetectors and elastomeric opticalelements in planar geometries, which are then precisely aligned andintegrated, and elastically transformed to hemispherical shapes. Thisimaging device demonstrates nearly full hemispherical shape (about
160 degrees), with densely packed artificial ommatidia. The number ofommatidia (180) is comparable to those of the eyes of fire ants and barkbeetles. We have illustrated key features of operation of compound eyes
through experimental imaging results and quantitative ray-tracing-based
simulations. The general strategies shown in this development could beapplicable to other compound eye devices, such as those inspired by moths
and lacewings (refracting superposition eyes), lobster and shrimp (reflecting
superposition eyes), and houseflies (neural superposition eyes).

9083-56, Session 11

Two-dimensional atomic sheets forheterogeneous flexible high-frequency and lowpower nanoelectronics (Invited Paper)Deji Akinwande, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (United States)
Two-dimensional atomic sheets have emerged as near ideal nanomaterials
to overcome the long running challenge of achieving Si CMOS like
performance on soft substrates at scales that can be suitable for large
integration. For instance, the high mobility and velocity accessible inmonolayer graphene affords GHz analog transistor devices while thelarge bandgap of graphene’s semiconducting analogues (MoS2 andsimilar dichalcogenides) naturally lead to near ideal digital transistors
with high on/off current ratio and low subthreshold slope while sustaining
mobilities much larger than organic semiconductors or amourphous bulk
semiconductors. Together, these physically similar atomic layers with vastlydifferent electronic properties can serve as the electronic platform for
low-power digital, high-speed mixed-signal, and high-frequency analog
transistor building blocks for flexible nanoelectronic systems.
In this work, we present the latest findings on the coupled device mechanics
and device physics of 2D semiconducting sheets. The device mechanics
on plastic substrate as a function of tensile strain reveal that dielectric
cracking is responsible for off-current degradation while buckling is largely
responsible for on-current degradation. Optimized dielectric patterningfor strain relaxation was found to improve device reliability at low bending
radius. In addition, we report the highest mobilities and cut-off frequencies
in state-of-the-art graphene transistors based on inductively-heatedchemical vapor synthesized graphene. Our results collectively indicatethat graphene is the most suitable material for flexible radio-frequency
transistors while MoS2 is ideal for low-power flexible transistors.

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9083-59, Session 11

Soft, stretchable bio-integrated systems forcontinuous health monitoring (Invited Paper)
Roozbeh Ghaffari, Yung-Yu Hsu, Xianyan Wang, Pinghung H. Wei,
Milan Raj, Mitul Dalal, Briana Morey, Bryan Keen, MC10, Inc. (United·

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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States)implementation of classical closed loop control and a static estimate of thenonlinearity. Finally, an adaptive controller is designed that permits a modelof the unknown, memoryless nonlinear function to be dynamically identified
and accounted for.

Mechanically invisible wearable devices that monitor physiological activity
and deliver actuation represent the next frontier in personalized medicine.
However, fundamental technical challenges exist in achieving intimate
mechanical coupling between existing classes of rigid electronics with soft
biological substrates. This gap in mechanics leads to signal degradation
due to poor physical contact and potential discomfort for the subject. Here
we describe new materials, mechanics and design strategies for wearable
devices with mechanical properties comparable to biological tissue. Thesesystems exploit stretchable networks of conformal sensors (electrodes,
temperature sensors, and accelerometers) and associated circuitry (baredie microcontroller, memory, voltage regulators, wireless communication
modules) embedded in ultrathin, elastomeric substrates. Quantitative
analyses of sensor performance and mechanics under stress illustrate theability to mechanically couple with soft tissues in a way that is invisible tothe user. Representative examples of these soft biointegrated systems canbe applied for continuous sensing of cardiac and muscle activity in hospitalsettings, and for low-cost transient data capture for ambulatory care.

9083-62, Session 12

Power and weight considerations in small, agile
quadrotors (Invited Paper)
Yash Mulgaonkar, Michael Whitzer, Univ. of Pennsylvania (UnitedStates); Brian Morgan, Christopher M. Kroninger, Aaron M.
Harrington, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Vijay Kumar,
Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States)

9083-60, Session 12

From wakes to wings: Using a multi-fidelity
approach to design flapping wings (Invited Paper)David J. Willis, Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States)
The biologically-inspired flight design space is large due to the significant
number of design parameters that can be tuned to achieve efficient results.
In this paper a multi-fidelity approach for narrowing the efficient flight
design space is presented. Lower-fidelity methods based on aerodynamics
wakes and coupled, efficient inviscid-viscous flow are used to understandthe design space. These methods include the author’s wake-only energetics
method which is based on a wake-only aerodynamics analysis (Hall etal., AIAA Journal 2001) to predict the overall kinematics of efficient flight(Salehipour & Willis, Journal of Theoretical Biology, 2013). The optimal
vorticity wake distributions can then be used as a basis or target distribution
for the inverse design of wings to achieve efficient flight. We will present
an in-house, quasi-inverse doublet lattice method that is being used for thewing inverse shape design process (Willis & Persson, Submitted to AIAA
Journal). The results of this analysis are a time dependent optimal wing
shape. Higher fidelity methods are subsequently used to confirm thesepredictions (Persson, Willis, 2012, IJNME). Examples of computationallydesigned, optimal energetics flapping wings will be presented.

9083-61, Session 12

Joseph K. Conroy, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Andrew
Kehlenbeck, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States); JamesS. Humbert, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States)
Micro-scale motors are a ubiquitous method of actuation within small-scalerobotic systems. In particular, flying vehicles typically employ several ofthese motors for propulsion that require reliable operation over the fullrange of achievable speeds. In addition to time-dependent linear dynamics,
these motors exhibit a nonlinear relationship between the steady state
input current, usually taken as an average, and the steady state output
rotational speed. These motors can often be well modeled in practice as a
Hammerstein type system, comprised of the cascade of a static memorylessnonlinearity followed by a linear dynamic model. Without accounting forthis nonlinearity, the ultimate closed loop performance of the robotic vehicle
can be impacted by actuation that is not within a small linearized range.
Despite this drawback, these motors are typically used directly within smallscale applications without any closed loop control. This research examines
the open loop characteristics that typify small scale motor response andevaluates the extent to which response can be improved via practical

SPIE DSS 2014

In this paper, we first explore scaling arguments for mass, inertia, lift,and drag as the characteristic length (e.g. the largest linear dimension) is
decreased. We show experimental results that suggest that the Froude
scaling paradigm, which says that the rotor speeds scale inversely with thesquare root of the characteristic length, is valid for quad rotors between 0.1
m to 0.75 m in diameter. This in turn suggests that the angular acceleration
scales inversely with length.
Second, we study the effects of the length scale on masses and inertias
associated with the different components: frame, motors, control boards,
sensors and batteries. This allows us to formulate design guidelines tominimize inertia which in turn allows us to maximize accelerations for agiven set of motors.
Third, we report studies on a range of Lithium Polymer batteries, the idealenergy source for MAVs, showing candidate batteries and their performancein terms of specific power and specific energy.
Finally, we describe the power and energy consumption for different
quadrotors and explore the dependence on size and mass, and on thecandidate maneuvers chosen for the study.

9083-63, Session 12

Characterization and enhancement of microbrushless DC motor response (Invited Paper)

160

Small aerial vehicles (under 1 meter and 5 kilos) are more agile andmaneuverable than human scale flying vehicles. However, the size, weightand power constraints in developing autonomous Micro Aerial Vehicles(MAVs) are significant. Our main interest in this paper is in MAVs thatcan easily enter buildings and navigate indoor environments. Quadrotors(and other multi-rotor vehicles) are particularly attractive because of thesimplicity in design (rigid frame with four motors, with light weight, rigid
blades) and the low fabrication cost. Accordingly, we focus on design
considerations and scaling arguments for small quadrotors with an eye
toward autonomous operation.

·

Endurance bounds of aerial systems (Invited
Paper)
Aaron M. Harrington, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Handheld aerial systems are of interest for various defense, law enforcement,
and commercial applications. At the scale of a hand held system, questions
exist about the relative merits of various traditional (fixed and rotary wing)
and biological (insect and avian-like flapping) configurations. Currently,
there is no clear method for determining the applicability of a particularconfiguration to optimally achieve a specified mission scenario. Therefore,
the current study explores the bounds of endurance for each of thevarious traditional and biological vehicle configurations. The performance
space of vehicle size, weight and speed for hover and non-hover capableconfigurations is modeled. Classically developed solutions capture theminimum induced power. A scaling law is proposed which captures
the minimum profile power required for force generation. The various
subsystems are modeled and the impact of their efficiency with scale, andrequirements for integration are incorporated in the endurance predictions.
Results indicate that the same aerodynamic endurance bounds likely apply
to the biological and traditional configurations, but from a full systems
perspective, traditional configurations are preferred above insect size scales.

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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Alternative desirable design objectives beyond maximizing endurance drive
other trade-off considerations, in particular, a need for high aircraft agility,
which is an area for future study.

high voltage isolation, and low electromagnetic noise—will be discussed.
Such MEMS piezoelectric transformers have resulted in performance
characteristics of 6:1 open-circuit voltage gain, 60% peak efficiency, anddevice power densities as high as 10 W/mm3 at 50 MHz. Furthermore,progress in the area of CMOS switched-capacitor bi-directional converters
and their successful powering of mm-scale robotic wings will also bepresented. This fully integrated converter was implemented in a 0.13μm
1.2V/3.3V triple-well CMOS process and provided a peak output voltage of~10V. In addition, the integration of the high performance passives in a single
monolithic process, as well as the heterogeneous integration of the active
components with electrical passives, will also be highlighted.

9083-64, Session 12

Autonomous charging to enable long-endurance
missions for small aerial robots (Invited Paper)
Yash Mulgaonkar, Vijay Kumar, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States)
The past decade has seen an increased interest in Autonomous Micro Aerial
Vehicles (MAVs). MAVs are agile, capable of maneuvering in constrained
three-dimensional environments and able to perform tasks too difficult or
dangerous for humans and able to navigate and perform missions which
ground robots cannot. Rotary wing MAVs such as quadrotors, can operate
in confined spaces, hover at a given point in space and perch or land on aflat surface. This makes the quadrotor a very attractive aerial platform withtremendous potential.

9083-66, Session 13

Power management for small scale systems(Invited Paper)
Christopher D. Meyer, Sarah S. Bedair, Brian Morgan, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); David Arnold, Univ. of Florida(United States); Nathan Lazarus, Iain Kierzewski, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

The potential of these MAVs is severely limited by the constraints on theflight time due to limited battery capacity. Current battery technology islimited in terms of the available energy density. Moreover, quadrotors havea disadvantage, that they consume several hundred watts of power per kilo.
Thus, small MAVs (0.1 - 0.5 m in diameter) are unable to operate for morethan 10-15 minutes.

Contemporary electronic systems often contain multiple power circuits
to support the unique power conversion or conditioning needs of various
sources and loads, and each of these power circuits is implemented witha handful of parts soldered onto the printed circuit board. As greaterlevels of functionality are demanded within diminishing size and weightallowances, power management will increasingly be required throughhighly miniaturized power converters that are more tightly integrated
into single-package solutions or even directly integrated onto the points
of source and load. Experimental converters have demonstrated great
potential in switching at very high frequencies (100+ MHz) to reduce thesize of the requisite passive storage elements (inductors, transformers,
and capacitors) to values that may be suitable for in-package or on-chip
integration. However, integrating the passives into the same package as theactive switching and control circuitry remains a significant challenge due tomaterial incompatibility and inadequate performance of the passives.

Our solution to this problem consists of automating the battery recharging
process, creating autonomous MAVs that can recharge their on-board
batteries without any human intervention and by employing a team of MAVs
to substantially increase the overall mission time.
In this paper, we describe the hardware necessary for automated charging,and provide experimental results that demonstrate how we successfully
addressed and solved the challenges of contact oxidation and sparking.
We develop an algorithm for persistent surveillance in which each robot
monitors its battery level, automatically navigates to an available charging
station when necessary, and is immediately replaced by a fully charged
robot to continue the surveillance task. The scalability of this algorithm isdemonstrated by simulating a persistence surveillance task for 10 MAVs andcharging stations. Finally, we show experimental results in which, this system
was used to perform a 9.5 hour persistent surveillance mission. We also
demonstrate applications to a construction task in which cubic structures
are assembled, showing a three-fold increase in effective mission time.

This paper presents the application of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems(MEMS) fabrication processes to create high density passive components.
The components are optimized for high performance at hundreds of MHz
through the use of thick copper traces, intricate three-dimensional designs,
and the ability to integrate dielectric and ferromagnetic nanoparticle
materials. The capability of detaching the passives from the fabrication
wafer is demonstrated to enable the MEMS passives substrate to further
serve directly as a routing platform for full integration of all powercomponents into a single-package solution.

9083-65, Session 13

MEMS-based approaches for miniature power
supply applications (Invited Paper)

9083-67, Session 13

Sarah S. Bedair, Christopher D. Meyer, Jeffrey S. Pulskamp, Brian
Morgan, Ronald G. Polcawich, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Christopher Dougherty, Xue Lin, David Arnold, Rizwan
Bashirullah, Univ. of Florida (United States); Iain Kierzewski, Nathan
Lazarus, Joel Martin, Brian Power, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)High-specific energy and specific power
aluminum/air primary battery for micro-airvehicles (Invited Paper)
Andrew Kindler, Lawrence Matthies, Jet Propulsion Lab. (UnitedStates)There are a number of applications motivating the need for ultra-compact
and efficient power supplies. These applications include distributed sensors,
portable electronics, and future mobile microsystems, which are envisioned
to range in size from the centimeter scale down to the millimeter scale. Suchfuture systems have extreme weight and power constraints, and motivatecomplete mm-scale power supplies. High switching frequencies in the 10’s
to 100’s MHz range enable the scaling down of the electrical passive size,
which dominates the power converter system size. This paper will highlightprogress and provide an overview of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory’s
research in the area of chip-scale power converters. The high-performance,
chip-scale passives are enabled by MEMS-based devices, including thin-film
piezoelectric transformers, inductors, and capacitors. Specifically, the utilityof MEMS electromechanical transformers—which offer high power densities,

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Micro air vehicles require an energy source with extremely high specificenergy (watt-hrs/kg) and extremely high specific power (watts/kg) inorder to achieve a flying time of about 1 hour. For most micro air vehicle
applications, this means 300 – 550 watt-hrs/kg and 300 -550 watts/kg. At
present, no existing cell chemistry can meet this dual requirement. Amongcommercial cells the Li-Ion cell, is currently the closest match to the above
requirements. Like all batteries, the usable energy in a Li-Ion battery isdependent on the discharge rate, however a reasonable point of referenceis about 150-200 watt-hrs/kg at the cell level, with a specific power up to
200 watts/kg. Somewhat better performance is available from Li/S cells,
but this technology is semi-commercial and is known to have poor shelflife. An alternative technology, not currently commercial, is the Al/Air cell.

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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This cell can be shown to be capable of about 500 watt-hrs/kg and 500
watts/kg. Because the air electrode extracts oxygen from the ambient air,
one of the two cell reactants does not have to be carried on board. Thisaccounts in part for the superior performance. The Al/air cell has somewell known shortcomings, but these can be addressed by the applicationof suitable technology to modify both the air and aluminum electrode, as
wellas an adaptation of the cell to take advantage of the unique operating
environment. In this talk, the design of an Al/Air is presented with a
discussion of how the technical issues can be overcome.

large substrate areas.

9083-68, Session 13a) Developing effective coating methods for complex shapes.

In this talk we will detail the use of these to create antimicrobial surfaces,
sensor structures, surfaces for heat transfer, chromatography media andfor bioengineered substrates. We will illustrate several examples of theseapplications and describe, in detail, how these can be used to create smart
food packaging, processing and storage materials and describe results of
antimicrobial tests as well as shelf-life improvements. The nanotoxicology ofthese materials will also be discussed.
Finally, we will outline the challenges in delivering potential technologies tomarket. These challenges include:b) Effective, rapid, scale-intensive process methods that avoid e.g. complex
plasma etching, pre-patterning, process regularity over very large areas andcomplex shapes.

Thermophotovoltaic and thermoelectric portable
power generators (Invited Paper)c) Extension of feature size range from nanometre to micron.

Walker Chan, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Christopher M. Waits, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Marin Soljacic, Massachusetts Institute of Technology(United States); John D. Joannopoulos, MIT Institute for Soldier
Nanotechnologies (United States); Ivan Celanovic, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (United States)d) Generation of non-simple shapes, novel material compositions andsubstrate types.

9083-70, Session 14

The quest for developing clean, quiet, and portable high-energy-density,and ultra-compact power sources continues. Although batteries offer awell-known solution, limits on the chemistry developed to date constrain
the energy density to 0.2 kWh/kg, whereas many hydrocarbon fuels haveenergy densities closer to 12 kWh/kg. The fundamental challenge remains:
How efficiently and robustly can these widely available chemical fuels be
converted into electricity in a millimeter to centimeter scale systems? Here
we explore two promising technologies for high-energy density power
generators, based on statically converting heat into electricity, namely
thermophotovoltaics (TPV) and thermoelectrics (TE). TPVs present an
extremely appealing approach for small-scale power sources due to the
combination of high power density limited ultimately by Planck blackbody
emission, multifuel operation due to the ease of generating heat, and afully static conversion. We will present preliminary experimental resultsa proof of concept microthermovoltaic (?TPV) system, that validates thetheoretical foundation and paves the way toward a new breed of ultra-highenergy-density, high efficiency, power sources. TEs on the other hand arevery promising candidate for very-high energy density and extremely robust
power generator at small scales. This combined with large fundamental
research to improve thermoelectric materials warrants serious considerationof TE generators. We will present some previous work done in the TE field.
In addition we will outline the common technological barriers facing both
approaches, as well as outline the main differences. Performance for stateof-the-art research generators will be compared as well as projections for
future practically achievable systems.

Atikur Rahman, Antonio Checco, Matthew Eisaman, Charles T. Black,
Brookhaven National Lab. (United States)
Block copolymer thin films provide a robust method for generating
patterns at 10 nanometer length scales over arbitrarily large areas. A
significant advantage of such block copolymer-based patterning is its easeof integration with all other aspects of traditional thin-film processing,including plasma-based etching and metallization. Because of the dearthof other high resolution patterning options, block copolymers are underintense scrutiny by the semiconductor electronics industry for lithographyenhancement – an application with extreme demands on pattern uniformity.
However, such process compatibility ensures a host of other application
opportunities in designing material properties through control of theirnanostructure. For example, we will describe our recent use of block
copolymer self assembly in engineering broadband omnidirectionalanti-reflecting surfaces for solar device applications. Precisely controllingsurface texture through block copolymer-based patterning can also rendera material superhydrophobic, and able to remain water-repellent during
droplet impacts at speeds in excess of 10 meters per second.

9083-71, Session 14

Patterning of magnetic nanostructures using Sicontaining block copolymers (Invited Paper)

9083-69, Session 14

Caroline A. Ross, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Self-assembled nanostructures as templates forpatterned surfaces with non-microelectronic
applications (Keynote Presentation)

The microphase separation of block copolymer films produces periodic
nanoscale patterns with feature sizes of a few nm and above, and has been
proposed as a method for extending microelectronic fabrication beyond
the limits of optical lithography. To control the long range order of the
microphase separation, and to produce patterns with designed aperiodic
features, templating strategies based on substrate topography have beendeveloped in combination with modeling using self consistent field theory.
The structures formed by self-assembly are governed by commensurability
between the template and the equilibrium period of the block copolymer.
The templating of complex patterns such as 3D cross-point structuresfrom bilayer films of a diblock copolymer, and arrays of rings, squaresymmetry posts and Archimidean tiling patterns from linear or star triblock
terpolymers will be described. Examples of pattern transfer and applications
to nanoscale magnetic device fabrication will be discussed.

Michael A. Morris, Univ. College Cork (Ireland)This presentation will commence with a brief overview of block copolymer
microphase separation summarizing progress to date. In particular, the talkwill focus on how the patterns formed can be transferred to a surface toform a chemical or engineering pattern. This to surface engineering using
methods such as: pattern transfer through the use of the polymer material
as on-chip etch match, templating and selected area deposition will be
described. These techniques have direct relevance to integrated circuit
manufacture as a possible alternative to UV photolithography and muchwork has focussed in areas such as ultra-low defect densities and pitch/feature sizes. However, block copolymer approaches to surface patterning
might have relevance in many other application areas since the afford thepromise of delivering low cost, practical solutions to nanopatterning over162

Engineering material properties using block
copolymer self-assembly (Invited Paper)

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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9083-72, Session 14

rectification have been demonstrated on 300mm wafers and can be further
integrated into low-cost, high-volume manufacturing process.

Soft matter design principles for inorganic
photonic nanoarchitectures in photovoltaics,
colorimetric sensing, and self-cleaning
antireflective coatings (Invited Paper)

In this paper, we will discuss the DSA materials, DSA processes, andintegration of DSA into standard lithography as well as the extendibility of
DSA. To achieve good DSA performance, co-optimization of DSA materials,
processes and directing prepatterns is required. Desired DSA patterns canbe generated using well-designed directing prepatterns based on DSA
model and design rules. Examples for complex and designable DSA patterns
and extension into sub-10nm half-pitch DSA will be demonstrated.

Stefan Guldin, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne(Switzerland)9083-74, Session 15

The self-assembly of soft matter, such as block copolymers or colloids,
allows fine tuning of structure formation on the 10 - 500 nm length scale
and therefore enables to design materials with tunable optical response.
In my talk I want to present strategies on how to exploit these formation
principles to assemble inorganic nanoarchitectures with distinct opticalproperties.

The era of nanomedicine: perspectives andpotential applications in oncology (Keynote
Presentation)

Control over sub-wavelength properties, such as pore dimensions, porevolume and film thickness of the resulting inorganic films enables thestacking of individual mesoporous layers into a multilayer lattice ofalternating high and low refractive index - a mesoporous Bragg reflector[1]. Spontaneous micellisation of an adequate block copolymer system
and assembly into a regular lattice-type represents effectively the densest
packing of pores, yielding refractive indices as low as 1.13. Loading of theinverse-opal type network with TiO2 nanocrystals results in an opticalcoating that meets phase and amplitude conditions for interference-based
antireflectivity on glass or plastic substrates and maintains its functionality
by photocatalytic self-cleaning [2]. The combination of block copolymer
and colloidal self-assembly allows to design an TiO2 electrode architecture,
where a high surface area mesoporous underlayer is coupled to an opticallyand electronically active three dimensional photonic crystal with strong
effects on light harvesting of the overall photovoltaic construct [3]. Finally
I want to outline further efforts of the group towards self-assembled
photonic materials, such as the possibilities of using highly ordered BCP
morphologies with chiral symmetry for novel optical metamaterials [4].

Samuel Achilefu, Washington Univ. School of Medicine in St. Louis(United States)
Nanomedicine is a branch of nanotechnology that deals with theuse of nano-sized materials and systems for biosensing, monitoring,
diagnosing, and treating diseases. Nanotechnology facilitates thedevelopment of miniature medical devices with improved reporting
and treatment capabilities, seamless integration in surgical suites withminimal interference, and potential to fully achieve the promise ofindividualized medicine. A unique feature of these materials is the ability
to incorporate multidimensional imaging and treatment strategies into
nanomaterials. Depending on the intended application, the nanomaterials
could be administered topically or intravenously and non-invasive or
minimally invasive procedures could be used to monitor the treatment
response. Paradigm-shifting areas of nanomedicine in oncology include
the development of highly sensitive and multifunctional diagnostic kits,biomarker-targeted therapies, multimodal reporting strategies, in vivo
biosensors and monitoring devices, and controlled drug release approaches.
An overview of these aspects of nanomedicine in cancer imaging andtreatment will be reviewed, including the challenges of using nanomedicine
in clinical settings.

[1] “Tunable mesoporous Bragg reflectors based on block-copolymer selfassembly” - S. Guldin, M. Kolle, M. Stefik, R. Langford, U.Wiesner, U. Steiner,
Advanced Materials, vol. 23, no. 32, pp. 3664-3668, 2011.
[2] “Self-cleaning antireflective optical coatings” - S. Guldin, P. Kohn, M.
Stefik, J. Song, G. Divitini, C. Ducati, U. Wiesner, U. Steiner, submitted.

9083-75, Session 15[3] “Dye-sensitised solar cell based on a 3D photonic crystal” - S. Guldin, S.
Hüttner, M. Kolle, M. Welland, P. Müller-Buschbaum, R. Friend, U. Steiner, N.
Tetreault, Nano Letters, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 2303-2309, 2010.

Clinically-translated ultra-small silica
nanoparticles for cancer-targeted imaging(Invited Paper)[4] “A 3D optical metamaterial made by chiral self-assembly” - S. Vignolini,
N.A. Yufa, P.S. Cunha, S. Guldin, I. Rushkin, M. Stefik, K. Hur, U. Wiesner, J.J.
Baumberg, U. Steiner, Advanced Materials, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. OP23-OP27,
2012.

Michelle S. Bradbury, Pat B. Zanzonico, Snehal Patel, Richard
Carvajal, Steven M. Larson, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Ctr.
(United States); Ulrich B. Wiesner, Cornell Univ. (United States)

9083-73, Session 14

Despite recent advances in imaging probe development for biomedicine,
the translation of targeted diagnostic platforms remains challenging.
Nanomaterials platforms currently under evaluation in oncology clinical
trials are largely non-targeted drug delivery vehicles or devices to thermallytreat tissue; these are not typically surface-modified for direct detection
by clinical imaging tools. New tumor-selective platforms need to satisfy
critical safety benchmarks, in addition to assaying targeted interactions withthe microenvironment and their effects on biological systems. Metabolic
imaging, such as positron emission tomography, and post-processing
analysis tools, are essential for providing quantitatively accurate data ofwhole-body distributions, targeting kinetics, and clearance profiles of newagents transitioning into early-phase clinical trials. The application of thesemethods to a new class of renally-cleared, fluorescent inorganic (silica)
particle probes, Cornell dots (C dots), surface-modified with radioiodine
and integrin-binding ligands, has led to a clinically-translatable product forcancer detection, staging, and targeted therapeutics. A first-in-human PET
study showed no adverse events in melanoma subjects. Pharmacokinetic
behavior and mean organ absorbed doses were comparable to thosefound for other commonly used diagnostic radiotracers. Average effective
absorbed doses in human subjects were equivalent to those measured

Directed self-assembly for extending patterning
capability (Invited Paper)
Joy Y. Cheng, IBM Research - Almaden (United States)
High-volume and high-resolution patterning capability are desirable
for many novel devices. Conventional lithography technologies is either
limited by resolution (such as 193nm immersion lithography) or bythroughput (such as electron-bean lithography). Directed self-assembly(DSA) of polymers, which combines self-assembled polymers andlithographically-defined directing prepatterns, provides a cost-efficient
resolution enhancement technique to extend the patterning capability of
conventional lithography. The phase-separated polymers offers feature
dimension and uniformity which is difficult to achieve at the resolution
limit or throughput limit of lithography. As a materials-based resolution
enhancement technique, DSA has been used to augment the patterning
capability of conventional lithography. Recently, DSA has been transitioned
from experiments in the research labs to the feasibility evaluation at various
pilot lines. Many DSA schemes such as frequency multiplications and pattern163+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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in our preclinical melanoma models. Particles demonstrated bulk renal
clearance; no appreciable whole-body activity was seen by 72-hour postinjection. Further, by exploiting the enhanced photophysical properties ofthe encapsulated dye, this dual-modality platform has enabled real-time
optical imaging of lymphatic drainage patterns when injected locally about
the tumor site, which can improve visualization of the surgical field andsimplify SLN mapping procedures for surgeons. Sentinel lymph nodes
have been localized in spontaneous melanoma miniswine models using an
intraoperative handheld fluorescence camera system, with pre-operative
PET and histologic correlation. Using these state-of-the art technologies,
improved detection sensitivity and discrimination of metastatic tumor
burden within PET-positive neck nodes was found relative to standard-ofcare tracers for cancer staging. The possibility of visualizing nodal disease
spread and tumor extent in relation to critical structures, while performing
extended real-time intraoperative mapping procedures, has important
implications for disease staging, prognosis, and treatment planning.

monitoring targeted therapies are currently based on metabolism, which
are not ideal for certain cancers. The lack of targeted imaging agents ismore apparent in the management of a number of cancers such as breast,
prostate and small cell lung cancers (SCLC). Identification, development andclinical translation of targeted imaging agents for prostate cancer and SCLC,
including multimodality agents, will be discussed.

9083-79, Session 15

18F-PET/fluorescent multimodality imaging
and an 18F-analogue to the 99mTc generator
for solid-phase 18F-PET/fluorescent antibody
generation (Invited Paper)
Richard Ting, Univ. of California, San Diego (United States)

9083-76, Session 15

Bimodal imaging probes: design and applications(Invited Paper)Peter Caravan, Massachusetts General Hospital (United States)
Bimodal imaging probes are molecules that contain two reporter functions
that make the molecule detectable using two distinct imaging modalities,
e.g. PET and MRI. While it may be synthetically feasible to incorporate
different imaging reporters, the application of a bimodal probe is notnecessarily apparent. For instance, what is the benefit of using a bimodal
probe versus using two modality specific probes? This is especially true forsmall molecules where incorporation of a second imaging reporter moiety
may alter the affinity of the probe for its target and may lead to unfavorable
pharmacokinetics. Here we describe our work in synthesizing bimodal
probes that maintain their intended biological properties. We also describe
probes and applications where having a bimodal probe is key to answering a
specific biological question.

9083-77, Session 15

Quantitative simultaneous PET-MR imaging(Invited Paper)

9083-80, Session 15

Georges El Fakhri, Massachusetts General Hospital (United States)
Simultaneous PET-MR is a novel and promising imaging modality that is
generating substantial interest in the medical imaging community, while
offering many challenges and opportunities. Unlike sequentially-acquired
WB PET-CT scans, the simultaneous acquisition of MR and PET data canbe used to incorporate tagged MR motion information and anatomical
MR priors within the PET reconstruction mode as well as combining
physiological information from PET and MR measurements. In this talk, we
present a framework for simultaneous PET-MR and present several examples
in oncology and neuroscience where simultaneous PET-MR has great
potential for dramatically improving diagnostic accuracy.

9083-78, Session 15

Translational molecular imaging in oncology(Invited Paper)
Sridhar Nimmagadda, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)
Molecular imaging allows for the non-invasive detection and monitoringof malignant phenotypes using specific probes, methods and modalities
at high resolution. Over the last decade, targeted therapeutics havesignificantly altered patient stratification and treatment, resulting in
improved survival rates and therapeutic outcomes. Paradoxically, clinicalimaging agents used for diagnosing, staging and more importantly

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PET and NIRF are two of our most sensitive imaging modalities. They areuseful in tracer quantities and, in a multimodality imaging combination,
they are highly synergistic. We demonstrate this using tilmanocept, aradio-pharmaceutical that very recently cleared phase III clinical trials asa [99mTc] SPECT agent. When labeled as a [18F]-PET/NIRF analogue,
we show that tilmanocept can be imaged at superior resolution in all its
facets: depth penetration, magnification, and temporal resolution. Having
demonstrated the superior potential of this PET/NIRF multimodality imaging
combination over stand-alone PET, NIRF, or SPECT imaging modalities, wewere emboldened to apply some advanced synthetic chemistry to constructa solid-phase system for generating PET/NIRF labeled compounds. The
new system is analogous to the [99Mo/99mTc] SPECT generator used
to generate our most clinically utilized radiotracer, [99mTc]-sestamibi.
We apply this advanced technology to label an equally advanced target:
the full length anti-EpCAM antibody. Using an aqueous [18F]-sodium
fluoride we simultaneously [18F]-fluoride label our antibodies and trigger
their solid-phase release. We demonstrate that the generated [18F]-PET/NIRF antibody retains its antigen specific affinity and antigen specificendocytosis. This system promises to be competitive with 68Ga generators,
and we expect that the solid-phase PET/NIRF labeling technology describedhere can be extrapolated to most other antibodies and all other classesof molecules that are chemically more stable including peptides, proteins,oligonucleotides, and especially, small molecules.

·

Ultrasound-switchable fluorescence at nearinfrared wavelength for deep-tissue highresolution imaging (Invited Paper)
Baohong Yuan, Mingyuan Wei, Yanbo Pei, Yuan Liu, Zhiwei Xie,
Bingbing Cheng, Kytai T. Nguyen, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington(United States)
Ultrasound-switchable fluorescence (USF) imaging has been recently
demonstrated for high-resolution deep-tissue fluorescence imaging. The
promising results of the USF technique highly rely on excellent and unique
USF contrast agents. For in vivo applications, red or near infrared (NIR)
USF contrast agents are needed for avoiding significant tissue absorption
and autofluorescence. We herein report NIR-dye-encapsulated poly
(N-isopropylacrylamide) nanoparticles (PNIPAM NPs) and demonstrate theirfeasibility of high resolution USF imaging in deep tissue. To quantitatively
compare the performance among different contrast agents, five primaryparameters are defined, which include 1) peak excitation and emission
wavelengths; 2) fluorescence intensity on-to-off ratio; 3) the fluorescence
lifetime of the switch-on fluorophore and fluorescence lifetime on-to-off
ratio; 4) threshold to switch on fluorescence; and 5) off-to-on transition
bandwidth. Based on these parameters, we found that indocyanine green(ICG) encapsulated NPs have NIR excitation and emission peaks, a large
intensity switching ratio, a narrow switching transition bandwidth, and an
adjustable temperature switching threshold. These properties make themvery promising agents for future in vivo USF imaging work. The USF imagewww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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results show that these NPs can be used for high-resolution deep-tissue
imaging.

of heuristics to determine test feasibility versus cost benefit, will guide theefforts in reducing the cost of manufacturing multiple space based products.
We conclude with a discussion on implementation plans and the newparadigms for community and international cooperation enabled by small
satellite constellations.

9083-81, Session 16

NASA ESTO’s strategic investments in spacebased radiometer technology and flightvalidation (Keynote Presentation)

9083-83, Session 16

RAVAN: A pathfinder for accurate Earth radiationbudget measurements (Invited Paper)Charles D. Norton, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)

Dong L. Wu, Warren J. Wiscombe, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr.
(United States); William H. Swartz, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States); Lars P. Dyrud, Draper Lab. (UnitedStates); Steven R. Lorentz, L-1 Standards and Technology, Inc.
(United States); Stergios J. Papadakis, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States)

NASA’s Earth Science Technology Office (ESTO) performs strategic
investments in instrument subsystems, information systems, and mostrecently CubeSats platforms to raise the technology readiness level (TRL)of relevant Earth Science Decadal Survey technologies to reduce andretire risk before infusion into flight missions. Since 1998, ESTO has madenumerous investments spanning all aspects of radiometer developmentfrom hardware components and instrument subsystems that have beendeveloped and tested in both the laboratory and airborne environment, torelated modeling, data processing, and analysis technologies that impact
the products that can be produced in atmospheric science. Nevertheless,with the growing interest in using CubeSats as platforms for rapid accessto space, radiometers have been identified as a compelling technology
to initiate new approaches to spaceborne observations in the microwave
spectrum. In particular, due to their inherent size, weight, and power many
new observation concepts have been proposed to fly radiometers in space
using CubeSats, both as stand alone platforms, and constellations, to usher
in new techniques to advance weather and climate science. In this talk, wewill introduce the ESTO office, our programmatic strategy and approach tostrategic investment in Earth science technologies, our history specificallyin the area of space-based radiometer technology development, and ourcurrent approach to validating these systems using CubeSats as a platform
for technology maturation.

A constellation in low Earth orbit can overcome the limited sampling thatis the hallmark challenge of all current Earth Radiation Budget (ERB)
measurements. Radiometer Assessment using Vertically Aligned Nanotubes(RAVAN) is a CubeSat mission, funded by NASA’s Earth Science Technology
Office (ESTO), to pioneer a new way for solving the ERB problem withcompact and low cost radiometers on distributed low-Earth-orbit platforms.
The RAVAN concept is a space version of the Argo ocean-buoy arraythat fundamentally changed our view of ocean heat content. The Earthradiation imbalance (ERI), the difference between incoming and outgoingradiation at the top of the atmosphere, is the single most importantnumber for predicting the course of climate change over the next century.
If ERI is negative, global warming will slow down and eventually reverse.
If ERI is 2 W/m2, global warming will accelerate since this dumps a hugeamount of extra heat into the Earth system. There is strong evidence that
ERI is positive, ranging between 0.1 and 0.9 W/m2. Yet, the current ERB
measurements from space are not accurate enough to determine ERI.
They are tuned to agree with climate model calculations and ocean heat
content observations. To a large extent, this inaccuracy is due to poor
temporal coverage and insufficient treatment of anisotropic radiation.
The conventional ERB observing concept has reached a technological
asymptote and requires massive injections of money for small incremental
improvement. A new approach for ERB observation is needed. The primary
goal of RAVAN is to measure the outgoing radiation flux to an accuracy of
0.3 W/m2, which is sufficient to quantitatively evaluate the course of futureclimate change once a RAVAN constellation is implemented.

9083-82, Session 16

The power of inexpensive satellite constellations(Invited Paper)
Lars P. Dyrud, Draper Lab. (United States)
Two thematic drivers are motivating the science community towards
constellations of small satellites, the revelation that many next generation
system science questions are uniquely addressed with sufficient numbersof simultaneous space based measurements, and the realization that spaceis historically expensive, and in an environment of constrained costs, wemust innovate to “do more with less”. We present analysis that answers
many of the key questions surrounding constellations of scientific satellites,
including research that resulted from the GEOScan community based
effort originally intended as hosted payloads on Iridium NEXT. We present
analysis that answers the question how many satellites does global systemscience require? Perhaps serendipitously, the analyses show that many of
the key science questions independently converge towards similar results,
i.e. that approximately 60+ satellites are needed for transformative, as
opposed to incremental capability in system science. The current challenge
is how to effectively transition products from design to mass production
for space based instruments and vehicles. Ideally, the lesson learned
from past designs and builds of various space products should pave theway toward a better manufacturing plan that utilizes just a fraction of
the prototype’s cost. Using the electronics industry implementations ofmass customization as an example, we will discuss about the benefits ofstandardization in design requirements for space instruments and vehicles.
For example, the instruments (payloads) are designed to have standardized
elements, components, or modules that interchangeably work together
within a linkage system. Following the 80/20 rule, identification of cost
distribution early on and application of learning curve will be critical forkeeping manufacturing cost . These findings combined with designing
manufacturability into the product, setting up intelligent integration and test
plan, application of spiral development and feedback loops, and application

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9083-84, Session 16

High-accuracy radiometer and calibrator design
for an ESTO CubeSat Mission: RAVAN (Invited
Paper)
Steven R. Lorentz, Allan W. Smith, L-1 Standards and Technology,
Inc. (United States); William H. Swartz, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States); Lars P. Dyrud, Draper Lab. (UnitedStates); Warren J. Wiscombe, Dong L. Wu, NASA Goddard Space
Flight Ctr. (United States); Stergios J. Papadakis, Johns Hopkins
Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)
A new approach is being pursued to address the critical question of the
global energy balance of the Earth. NASA’s Earth Science Technology Office(ESTO) recently funded a mission to demonstrate technologies needed
to improve measurements of the Earth’s global outgoing radiation. The
objective of the Radiometer Assessment using Vertically Aligned Nanotubes(RAVAN) mission is to demonstrate a compact, low cost radiometer with
an absolute uncertainty sufficiently small to resolve the Earth radiation
imbalance (ERI) between incoming and outgoing radiation.
This mission will serve as the initial proof-of-technology demonstration thatwill lead to the development of a radiometer constellation distributed in low·

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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earth orbit to collectively provide near simultaneous global measurement of
the ERI. The earth radiation budget can vary largely in a time scale between
a few hours and 1 month, thereby providing a data set that will enablestudies of short time scale dynamical processes as well as uncertainty
reduction in the monthly mean.
The radiometer suite is composed of four wide-field-of -view bolometricdetectors. The absorbing element in one pair is based on a thinned siliconwafer coated with vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNT) and second
pair consists of cavity based detectors. Each pair is composed of a total(broadband) channel and a shortwave channel to differentiate between
solar reflected energy and thermally emitted long wave energy. A sapphire
domed filter is used in the shortwave channel to define a 0.2 µm to 5 µm
pass band. The radiometer suite is housed in a 1-U CubeSat volume.

9083-85, Session 16

Carbon nanotubes as a photon filter for energetic
particle detectors (Invited Paper)David M. Deglau, Donald G. Mitchell, Andrew H. Monica, G. Bruce
Andrews, John E. Mattson, Stergios J. Papadakis, Johns Hopkins
Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)
Detecting energetic particles is a useful approach in studying spaceplasmas. Of specific interest are energetic neutral atoms (ENA) because
their trajectories are unaffected by electric or magnetic fields. Imaging the
ENA flux allows for the mapping of remote plasmas. In order to detect suchparticles, solid-state detectors are advantageous due to their lightweight
and low power. However in the sensing environment the photon flux is
usually several orders of magnitude higher than the ENA flux. Thus, inorder to detect the energetic particles the photon flux must be blocked.
Therefore, thin metal or carbon film filters that allow the transmission of
ENAs while attenuating the photon signal are used. Our goal was to improve
the performance of these filters by using carbon nanotubes (CNTs) a filter
medium due to their low density and highly effective light absorption
attributes. For a given mass per unit area (the parameter which sets theparticle transmission energy threshold), CNTs are expected to absorb
photons significantly better. The CNTs were grown by a water assisted
chemical vapor deposition technique and pulled from their substrate to
generate a CNT sheet covering an aperture. In order to test the performanceof the CNT sheet as a filter, the transmissions of light and alpha particles
were measured. We were able to achieve filter performance that resulted inalpha particle attenuation of 5 keV with an optical density of 3.12x10-1.

Terahertz electronics for sensing applications(Keynote Presentation)
Michael S. Shur, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States)
Terahertz sensing is enabling technology for detection of biological andchemical hazardous agents, cancer detection, detection of mines andexplosives, providing security in buildings, airports, and other public space,short-range covert communications (in THz and sub-THz windows), andapplications in radioastronomy and space research. I will review the-stateof-the-art of existing THz sources, detectors, and sensing systems andprospects for novel emerging devices enabling terahertz electronics forsensing applications. Two-terminal semiconductor devices are capable ofoperating at the low bound of the THz range, with the frequencies up to a
few terahertz achieved using Schottky diode frequency multipliers. Highspeed three terminal electronic devices (FETs and HBTs) are approaching
the THz range (with cutoff frequencies and maximum frequencies ofoperation above 1 THz and close to 0.5 GHz for InGaAs and Si technologies,
respectively). sA new approach called plasma wave electronics recently
demonstrated terahertz emission and detection in GaAs-based and GaNbased HEMTs and in Si MOS and SOI, including the resonant THz detection.
Graphene and 2D materials “beyond graphene” have also emerged as
candidates for plasmonic THz detectors, modulators, and emitters. THz

SPIE DSS 2014

9083-87, Session 17

Analysis of sub-THz atmospheric data fromtransmissometer and radar sensors (Invited
Paper)
Lawrence Scally, Jason Fritz, Colorado Engineering, Inc. (UnitedStates); Albin J. Gasiewski, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (UnitedStates)Colorado Engineering, Inc. (CEI) and the University of Colorado, Boulder(CU) are collaborating on two projects to investigate active sensor systems
at ~100 to 1000 GHz. The overall goal of the Terahertz Atmospheric andIonospheric Propagation, Absorption and Scattering (TAIPAS) projectis to develop a model relevant for atmospheric propagation and remotesensing in the range of ~1-3000 GHz, along with designing and developinga THz propagation range suitable for evaluation of several critical aspectsof THz propagation that have heretofore never been studied in the field.
Specifically, TAIPAS focuses on: 1) the design of a baseline 325-340 GHz
phase-coherent transmissometer to extend the measurements performed
during the 1983 Flatville (100-300 GHz) field studies to higher frequencies(~300-1000 GHz) in open path conditions, and 2) the integration andvalidation of existing propagation models for absorption, refraction, andbeam scintillation into a common modeling framework useful for image
generation and link analysis from ~1 to 1000 GHz. The transmitter is being
located on the CU Center for Environmental Technology (CET) rooftop
observatory on the main Boulder campus. Two phase coherent receivers,
spaced up to ~8 m apart enable measurement of the mutual coherencefunction. These receivers are located at the NIST/NTIA Green Mesa site
approximately 1.78 km from the transmitter along a nearly level path. Timing
for coherency is achieved through a line-of-site C-band radar link. Initial
results of the TAIPAS experiment will be presented.
In addition, a second CEI/CU project focusses on the development
and demonstration of an imaging radar operating in the 205-220 GHz
transmission window. This system uses dual receivers spaced about 1020 cm apart in height to provide surface topography estimation using
interferometry by measuring the phase difference between the tworeceivers. Given the short wavelength and baseline, theory suggests that
there will be enough coherence for quality height map estimation. Data frominitial experiments will be presented focusing on the phase of the reflectedsignals at ranges of tens of meters.

9083-86, Session 17

166

radiation couples to a field effect transistor via contact pads and/or
bonding wires (even in the absence of any antenna structures) and induces
voltages at the THz radiation frequency between the gate and source andthe gate and drain. These THz voltages launch plasma waves propagating
into the channel. In a collision-dominated regime, the channel acts aslossy capacitive-resistive transmission line, and the plasma wave decays
propagating into the channel. At high intensities of THz radiation, plasma
shock waves (i.e. shock waves of the electron density) propagate in the
FET channels. Using synchronized THz plasmonic transistor arrays insteadof single devices is predicted to improve performance by several orders ofmagnitude.

9083-88, Session 17mmW staring focal plane arrays for security
applications (Invited Paper)
Michael A. Gritz, Leonard P. Chen, Borys Kolasa, Robert Burkholder,
Sean F. Harris, Raytheon Co. (United States); Brian A. Lail, Florida
Institute of Technology (United States)
Millimeter-wave (mmW)/sub-mmW/THz region of the electro-magnetic
spectrum enables imaging thru clothing and other obscurants such as fog,
clouds, smoke, sand, and dust. Therefore considerable interest exists indeveloping low-cost passive millimeter-wave imaging (PMMWI) systems.
Previous PMMWI systems have evolved from crude mechanically scanned,·

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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9083-91, Session 19

single element receiver systems into very complex multiple receiver camera
systems. Initial systems required many expensive mmW integrated-circuit
low-noise amplifiers. In order to reduce the cost and complexity of theexisting systems, attempts have been made to develop new mmW imaging
sensors employing direct detection arrays. In this presentation, we reporton Raytheon’s recent development of a unique focal plane array technology,
which operates broadly from the mmW through the sub-mmW/THz region.
Raytheon’s innovative nano-antenna based detector enables low-cost
production of 2D staring mmW focal plane arrays (mmW FPA), which
not only have equivalent sensitivity and performance to existing PMMWI
systems, but require no mechanical scanning. We also present recently
generated images of objects obscured under clothing using our 2D mmW
staring FPA.

Ultrafast laser bleaching technique for standoff characterization and augmentation (Invited
Paper)
Inna Zakharova, Univ. of Alberta (Canada) and Volyn State Univ.
(Ukraine)
Photonic bleaching is a common effect that has been used in laser Q-switch
techniques for years. Bleaching may occur when continuum of valence band
electrons with energies available for transition is depleted to the level whenabsorption and photon energy transitions practically stops and material
becomes transparent for a period of time. That period of time of materialtransparency is not equal to electron excitation time: quite opposite,when excitation lasts femtoseconds, the opposite process-relaxation, thateventually returns the material back in its original non-transparent state maylast much longer. At the time of relaxation the material stays transparent for
specific spectral band radiation. Due to the changes in material electronic
and optical structures the magnetic structure of material is changing
as well leading to complete temporal transition of the material physicalproperties. The more complex is material electronic structure the longer
relaxation process is lasting. It may last from nano-seconds up to microseconds in commonly used semiconductors, and up to milliseconds – incomplex organic molecules. It may have two obvious applications: one incontinues remote manipulations of material properties, another in standoff
characterization that takes into account relaxation time that is specific formaterial of interest. Paper is focused at the specifics of ultra-fast lasers thatallows in bleaching applications to extend light-induced material properties
and as well as at power balance analysis that allows using ultrafast-lasers
for standoff characterization, remote control and material properties
manipulations.

9083-89, Session 18

Case study of concealed weapons detection atstand-off distances using a compact, large fieldof-view THz camera (Invited Paper)
Linda Marchese, Marc Terroux, Denis G. Dufour, Martin Bolduc,
Claude Chevalier, Francis Genereux, Hubert Jerominek, Alain
Bergeron, INO (Canada)
The detection of concealed weapons in crowd situations is a critical needand solutions are being sought after by security agencies at the federal,state and municipal levels. Millimeter waves have been evaluated for thesekinds of applications, but the currently available technologies are typically
too large and bulky to allow for widespread deployment. Alternatively soft
X-rays have been considered but safety issues hinder their acceptance.
Terahertz technology is ideally suited for such an application as it has theability to see through clothing, and offers higher resolution than in the
millimeter band, also being more compact. THz photons have lower energy
than infrared and do not show the ionizing properties of X-ray radiations.
The longer Terahertz waves penetrate deeper into various materials then
their visible and infrared counterparts. Though the wavelength is longer it
has been shown that high resolution in a small form factor can be obtainedin the THz wavebands thanks to the use of small pixel pitch detectors.

9083-92, Session 19

Approaches to generation of tunable mid-IR
ultrafast pulses with fiber sources (Invited Paper)
Igor Pastirk, TOPTICA Photonics Inc. (United States); Andreas
Brodschelm, Alexander Sell, TOPTICA Photonics AG (Germany)In this paper, a case study for the use of a compact THz camera for
active see-through imaging at standoff distances is presented. Morespecifically, the case of seeing through clothing is analyzed in theperspective of concealed weapons detection. The paper starts with areview of the characteristics of a high resolution THz camera exhibiting
small subwavelength pixel size and large field-of-view. Some laboratory
results of concealed object imaging along with details of a concept for live
surveillance using a compact see-through imaging system are reviewed.

Mid- infrared ultrafast pulses are of interest in different applications ranging
from vibrational spectroscopy, strong field physics (stable CEP) to detectionof trace quantities of compounds. Traditional approach using solid statelasers is mature but sensitive technology that is restricted to laboratory
use due to its complexity. In real-world applications, ultrashort fiber lasers
offer a more rugged, portable and scalable platform for the generation oftunable, brilliant mid-IR femtosecond pulses. This paper will cover several
recent approaches to generation of high spectral intensity femtosecond
pulses in MID-IR region including DFG, OPO and OPCPA.

9083-90, Session 19

Re-engineering defense and homeland security
applications using MWIR and LWIR QCLs
(Keynote Presentation)

9083-93, Session 20

Ultrafast fiber lasers: practical applications(Invited Paper)

C. Kumar N. Patel, Pranalytica, Inc. (United States)
Quantum cascade lasers are revolutionizing the defense and homeland
security applications because these are the only primary lasers, converting
electrical power directly into laser radiation, that provide continuous wave
laser radiation at room temperature in the 3.5 μm to >12 μm region. QCLs
are rapidly displacing other sources of radiation in these spectral regions,
including OPO’s, optically pumped semiconductor lasers and low power
CO2 lasers. Applications that are being revolutionized include infrared
counter measures to protect aircraft from MANPADS, MWIR/LWIR target
illuminators/designators, IFF beacons, and in-situ and stand-off sensors forthe detection of chemical warfare agents and explosives.

Igor Pastirk, TOPTICA Photonics Inc. (United States)
Over past three decades ultrafast lasers have come a long way from thebulky, demanding and very sensitive scientific research projects to widely
available commercial products. For the majority of this period the titaniumsapphire-based ultrafast systems were the workhorse for scientific andemerging industrial and biomedical applications. However the complexity
and intrinsic bulkiness of solid state lasers have prevented even larger
penetration into wider array of practical applications. With emergence offemtosecond fiber lasers, based primarily on Er-doped and Yb-doped fibersthat provide compact, inexpensive and dependable fs and ps pulses, newpractical applications have become a reality. The overview of current state

In this Keynote Paper, I will review the advances in QCL technology as well
as applications.

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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of the art ultrafast fiber sources, their basic principles and most prominent
applications will be presented, including micromachining and biomedical
implementations (ophthalmology) on one end of the pulse energy spectrum
and 3D lithography and THz applications on the other. Due to scalability
and new dopants like thulium, big potential lies in MID-IR region that opens
possibilities in sensing, and spectroscopy applications. With developmentof new PCF fibers the high power ultrafast laser are new available. Current
state of the technology allows man-portable systems of mid-range powers
suitable for field use.

9083-94, Session 20

References: R. Furstenberg et al. Applied Physics Letters 93, 224103 (2008),
C. A. Kendziora et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8373 83732H-1 (2012). C. Kendziora
et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8709, 87090O-1 (2013); R. A. McGill et al.; US Patent#8,101,915 B2 (2012). This research is sponsored by ONR/NRL and the U.S.
Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate.

9083-96, Session 20

Point and standoff detection of trace explosives
using quantum cascade lasers (Invited Paper)
Seonghwan Kim, Univ. of Calgary (Canada); Dongkyu Lee, Xunchen
Liu, Charles W. Van Neste, Thomas G. Thundat, Univ. of Alberta(Canada)Standoff laser photoacoustic spectroscopicbased sensor for remote sensing (Invited Paper)
Ramesh C. Sharma, Anil K. Maini, Laser Science and Technology Ctr.
(India)An active spectral sensor for chlorophyll detection based on quartz crystal
tuning fork detector. The sensors use modulated diode laser radiations thatcan be differentiated from ambient background radia- tions by the detector.
Experimentally, electrical and optical parameters of quartz crystal tuning
fork detec-tor (QCTF) were studied. Quartz Enhanced Laser Photoacoustic
signal of chlorophyll traces dissolved in water and adsorbed on surfaces,
using 532 nm and 635 nm wavelength lasers from a standoff distance ofup to 25 m. With the availability of high-power tunable diode laser, thetechnique offers a wide range of applicability for point and standoff sensing.
Standoff Quartz Enhanced Laser Photoacoustic Spectroscopy(QE-LPAS)
technique is emerging as a Powerful technique for detection of hazardous
chemicals,. Experimen-tally, recorded standoff photoacoustic spectrumof hazardous molecules adsorbed at diffused Surfaces from a distance of
upto 20m.Tunable mid infrared quantum cascade lasers(MIR-QCL)in the
wavelength range 7.0-12.0 micron are being used as optical source. Samples
of Dinitrotoluene(DNT), were Penta erythritol tetra nitrate (PETN) having
adsorbed concentration of approximately 5.0microgram g/cm detected.
Acetone and nitrobenzene sample sinliquid having concentration 200nl
approximately sealed in polythene sachet were detected from a standoff
distance of upto 20m.

9083-95, Session 20

Chemical sensors based on micro/nanoelectromechanical systems(MEMS/NEMS) offer many advantages. However, obtaining chemical
selectivity in MEMS/NEMS sensors using chemoselective interfaces has
been a longstanding challenge. Despite their many advantages, MEMS/
NEMS devices relying on chemoselective interfaces do not have sufficientchemical selectivity. Therefore, highly sensitive and selective detection
and quantification of chemical molecules using real-time, miniature sensor
platforms still remains as a crucial challenge. Incorporating photothermal/
photoacoustic spectroscopic techniques with MEMS/NEMS using quantum
cascade lasers can provide the chemical selectivity without sacrificing thesensitivity of the miniaturized sensing system. Point sensing is defined
as sensing that require collection and delivery of the target molecules
to the sensor or sensor surface for detection and analysis. For example,
photothermal cantilever deflection spectroscopy, which combines the highthermal sensitivity of a bimetallic microcantilever with high selectivityof the mid infrared (IR) spectroscopy, is capable of obtaining molecularsignatures of extremely small quantities of adsorbed explosive molecules.
On the other hand, standoff sensing is defined as sensing where the sensor
and the operator are at distance from the target samples. Therefore, thestandoff sensing is a non-contact method of obtaining molecular signatures
without sample collection or processing. The distance of detection depends
on the power of IR source, the albedo of the targeted surface, the sensitivityof a detector, and the efficiency of the collecting optics. By employing
broadly tunable, high power quantum cascade lasers and a boxcar averager,molecular recognition of trace explosive compounds on real-world surfaces
has been achieved at a distance of five meters.

A mobile platform for infrared photothermal
imaging of trace explosives (Invited Paper)
Christopher A. Kendziora, Robert Furstenberg, Michael R.
Papantonakis, Viet Nguyen, Jeff M. Byers, R. Andrew McGill, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
We are developing a technique for the stand-off detection of trace
explosives on relevant substrate surfaces using photo-thermal infrared(IR) imaging spectroscopy (PT-IRIS). This approach leverages one or more
micro-fabricated IR quantum cascade lasers, tuned to strong absorption
bands in the analytes and directed to illuminate an area on a surface ofinterest. An IR focal plane array is used to image the surface thermal
emission upon laser illumination. The PT-IRIS signal is processed as a
hyperspectral image cube comprised of spatial, spectral and temporaldimensions as vectors within a detection algorithm. Increased sensitivity to
explosives and selectivity between different analyte types is achieved bynarrow bandpass IR filters in the collection path. We have demonstrated
the technique at several meters of stand-off distance indoors and in fieldtests, while operating the lasers below the eye-safe intensity limit (100 mW/
cm2). Sensitivity to explosive traces as small as a single grain (~1 ng) has
been demonstrated. This talk will include an overview of the approach andrecent experimental results using a cart-based mobile platform to detect
explosives and possible interferents on relevant substrates including metal,
plastic, glass and painted car panels.

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Conference 9083: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications VI

9083-97, Session 20

Recent advances in quantum cascade external
cavity laser systems for sensing applications(Invited Paper)
Leigh J. Bromley, David B. Arnone, David B. Caffey, William
B. Chapman, Sam Crivello, Timothy Day, Allen Priest, Michael
Pushkarsky, Daylight Solutions Inc. (United States); Charles C. Harb,
The Univ. of New South Wales (Australia)
Mid-infrared laser spectroscopy is highly promising for a variety of sensing
applications, given the presence of strong molecular absorption features—
and atmospheric transmission windows—in the well-known mid-IR spectral‘fingerprint’ region. Further, the high brightness, narrow linewidth and broad
tuning ranges of which External Cavity quantum cascade lasers (ECqcLs™)
are capable make them ideally suited to meeting sensing requirements for:high chemical sensitivity and specificity; identifying a range of substances
unambiguously with one instrument, and practical standoff distance.
Commercial ECqcLs have also demonstrated that these platforms canprovide the ruggedness, compact size, efficiency and turn-key operation for
deployable sensing systems.
In this paper we survey recent advances in ECqcLs. We report recent
advances in broadly tunable ECqcL systems, including tuning ranges of>300 cm-1 for single-ECqcL CW devices and >800 cm-1 for a novel multiECqcL device. By way of contrast, we also discuss recent advances in robustmode-hop-free, narrow linewidth performance from a commercial ECqcLbased system. Typical performance data showing linewidths of <5 MHz,
low noise, and phase-continuous tuning ranges >50 cm-1 will be presented.
We also discuss sensing applications that benefit from these advances in
mid-IR laser source capabilities. These include recent advancements inthe development of real-time cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CRDS) overa wide bandwidth using quantum cascade laser systems, with the goal of
making headspace measurements of molecules at trace levels. We reportresults of two systems ideally suited to making headspace measurements ofmolecules at trace levels that measure nitromethane, acetonitrile, acetone,
and nitroglycerin, where the spectra containing at least 150,000 spectral
data points are obtained in less than four seconds.

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Conference 9084: Unmanned Systems Technology XVI
Tuesday - Thursday 6 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9084 Unmanned Systems Technology XVI

9084-1, Session 1

9084-2, Session 1

Neurobiomimetic constructs for intelligent
unmanned systems and robotics

Intermittent communications modeling andsimulation for autonomous unmanned maritime
vehicles using an integrated APM and FSMC
framework

Jerome J. Braun, Danelle C. Shah, Marianne A. DeAngelus, MIT
Lincoln Lab. (United States)
Decision-making is of paramount importance for robots, unmanned systems
and autonomous systems. Such machines must perceive and interpretavailable information and make correct decisions despite incomplete sensor
data, uncertainties, dynamics of the situation, and various unexpectedconditions or events, in order to deal with the complexity of typical real-lifesituations. When the problem, including the task and its application, issufficiently constrained, current algorithmic paradigms can perform very
well. However, in real-life situations the expected constraints, and deviations
from what is conceivably expected a priori, are frequently exceeded. Suchsituations challenge the current algorithmic paradigms, including even thestate-of-the-art machine-learning and machine-reasoning approaches. In
contrast, various biological species exhibit remarkable robustness in termsof decision-making, adaptability and resourcefulness.
This paper discusses a paradigm we refer to as ‘neurobiomimetic’, which
involves emulations of brain neuroanatomy and neurobiology aspects
and processes. Neurobiomimetic constructs include rudimentary anddown-scaled computational representations of brain regions, sub-regions,and synaptic connectivity. Many different instances of neurobiomimetic
constructs are possible, depending on various aspects such as the initialconditions of synaptic connectivity, number of neuron elements inregions, connectivity specifics, and more, and we refer to these instancesas ‘animats’. The animats implemented in this work, contain over 47,000
neuron elements and over 720,000 synaptic connections.
Implementing such large and complicated structures poses anoverwhelming developmental challenge. To address that challenge, in
the initial part of our neurobiomimetic effort we developed an enabling
technology we refer to as Neurobiomimetic Cognitive Architecture
Foundation Framework (NCAFF), which encapsulates complex details that
underlie aspects such as representation of neuroanatomical structures andsynaptic connectivity patterns. That part of our neurobiomimetic work also
included an initial implementation of animat, construction of a virtual-reality
environment for computational experiments and studies, and initial animat
experiments. The cognitive task setting has been spatial memory andlearning.
This paper focuses largely on the more recent part of our neurobiomimetic
effort which, beyond NCAFF improvements, was concentrated primarilyon significant enhancements to and experiments with the animats. Thoseenhancements, extensions, and experiments spanned several interrelatedareas, including achieving stability and oscillatory patterns of neuralactivity, and a number of learning modes motivated by effects that occur
in biological brains, specifically those akin to memory replay, learning bydemonstration and operant conditioning. We conducted experiments andefficacy studies across learning modes in the context of spatial learningand navigation by landmarks, in a virtual-reality environment. The resultsof these experiments indicate learning for self-development of spatialawareness.

ACF-UV, using an Advanced Propagation Model (APM), calculates maritime
signal propagation loss using atmospheric and environmental conditions(temperature, humidity, pressure, etc) and phenomena (evaporation ducts)
to predict signal transmission channel quality. Developed at the Space andNaval Warfare Systems Center San Diego, APM uses hybrid ray-optic andparabolic equation models to compute EM propagation over various sea
and/or terrain paths, and is the only EM propagation model accredited foruse in Navy systems by the Chief of Naval Operations. The propagation
loss profile computed by APM represents a snap shot in time, to generate
an iterative propagation loss profile, a Finite State Markov Channel (FSMC)
scheme is used to model the APM-characterized physical fading channel.
Based on the Gilbert-Elliot channel model, and demonstrated to be effectivein the modeling of fading channels, FSMC is a probabilistic state transition
model implemented in ACF-UV by partitioning the range of the received
signal-to-noise ratio into a finite number of intervals, for which each stateis represented as an application-defined communications channel quality[6]. The APM and FSMC models are integrated within ACF-UV to create
communications awareness picture; analogous to a communication aide foreach maritime UxV.

Also presented in this work is the approach taken to integrate thesecommunications modeling elements with a set of mission models to
implement a robust ACF-UV tool that enables users the ability to better
predict and account for the impacts of intermittent communications in UxVmission planning and operations.

This work was sponsored by Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research& Engineering under Air Force Contract #FA8721-05-C-0002. Opinions,interpretations, recommendations and conclusions are those of the authors
and are not necessarily endorsed by the United States Government.

SPIE DSS 2014

In this work a framework is presented for addressing the issue ofintermittent communications faced by autonomous unmanned maritime
vehicles operating at sea. The Adaptive Communications Framework for
Unmanned Vehicles (ACF-UV) is being developed to provide predictive
estimations of future states of intermittent communication links between
two or more autonomous platforms as well as their respective commandand control stations. The purpose of such a framework is to allow systemdesigners, performance engineers and System of Systems designers theability to make improved design choices that lead to better connectivity
between unmanned vehicles (UxVs). Using ACF-UV mission planners
will also acquire the requisite information needed for path planning andoperational placement of assets to ensure optimized and sustained network
connectivity.

In order to assess the impact of UxV requirements and communications
quality on an overall mission, a developmental simulator was also integrated
into ACF-UV. Inputs for the simulation environment include: atmosphericenvironment characteristics (refractivity profile), radio signal specifications,UxV performance and capabilities, UxV initial locations, UxV paths andagent based behavior, and stopping criterion (time or a set goal). An Agent
Based Modeling and Emergent Behavior approach is also being developed
to enable UxVs to autonomously position themselves to optimize area
coverage while maintaining constant communication between teams of
UxVs. Outputs of the simulation are measures of performance with emphasison the communication network which include: enemies detected, enemy
radars detected, communication links lost, successful relay links, and overall
mission awareness.

More broadly, computational mimicking of mechanisms of biologicalbrains such as the effort discussed in this work are particularly promisingfor intelligent unmanned systems and robotics. Spanning the domains ofcomputer science, cognitive science and neuroscience, they can lead to
artificial cognition and enable unmanned systems with multi-functionality
and adaptability closer to those seen in biological species.

170

Ayodeji Coker, Logan Straatemeier, SPAWARSYSCEN Pacific:
San Diego (United States); Kelly Griendling, Pierre Valdez,
Georgia Institute of Technology (United States); Ted Rogers,
SPAWARSYSCEN Pacific: San Diego (United States); Daniel
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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVI

9084-3, Session 1energy conversion solutions for a given mission. A simulation comparisonof different energy use models will be presented. Plans for experimental
validation will be summarized, including hardware-in-the-loop tests using
a fuel cell and a battery in combination with a programmable load bank tosimulate UGV power use.

The impact of autonomy on robotic groundvehicle communications
Charles M. Shoemaker, U.S. Army Communications-Electronics
Research Development and Engineering Command (United States)

9084-6, Session 1

No Abstract Available

Mobility as a game of timing with terrain: avariant of the rocket car control problem

9084-4, Session 1

Paul L. Muench, David Bednarz, Amandeep Singh, Jeremy
Mange, U.S. Army Tank Automotive Research, Development andEngineering Ctr. (United States)

Automating software design and configuration
for a small spacecraft

Traditionally, we have defined mobility by looking at a list of metrics such as:
gap crossing, step obstacles, terramechanics, etc. just to name a few. These
discrete metrics capture some of what we mean by mobility, but there is
not a standard way to quantify the relative value of one metric vs. the other.
Also, these metrics are based on how wide wheel-based vehicles perform,
and they do not capture the novel capabilities of, say, a legged robot, which
is designed for load carriage through narrow passageways and mountainous
trails. Rather than enumerating an even longer list of metrics to capture
these novel capabilities, we seek a general framework for mobility which
compares the relative value of legged, wheeled, and tracked mobility.

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A small satellite can serve as a platform for science and engineering
activities. In this role, the spacecraft’s software delivers on meeting mission
objectives and, to this end, it commands and controls the hardware
platform. For both hardware and software, resource limitations pose asignificant constraint.
In this highly constrained environment, a software expert system can serve
to help spacecraft designers maximize performance without violating
mission or form factor constraints. The OpenEdge system is currently
being developed to do just this. OpenEdge will allow users to choose parts
to integrate from a standard collection of pre-developed boards that arepart of the Open Prototype for Educational NanoSats (OPEN), an effort todevelop the designs and other documents required to build and test a 1-U
CubeSat, or user-developed boards. It will test compatibility between theboard designs and the spacecraft bus, other boards and structure. These
tests will cover both electrical and mechanical compatibility.

We seek to model the interaction between a vehicle and its operating
environment as a strategic game between two players. In this paper, we will
describe the mobility of a rocket car under resistance from the terrain asa zero sum differential game between the mobility player and the terrain
player. We will bound the force that each player is able to exert so that thegame will terminate within a given time and energy cost. The mobility player
seeks to minimize and the terrain player seeks to maximize this cost.

This paper discusses an addition to this software that will assist mission
software team members with the design and development of software
for both core and custom-developed modules. This software will provide
configuration assistance for core modules including identifying whatsoftware modules are required for each core module and providing stubs
for areas where custom software must be created to perform mission
specific (e.g., command) functionality. It will also provide stubs for custom
developed modules and the connective code to enable integrated system
operations.

9084-8, Session 1

Autonomous self-righting using recursive
Bayesian estimation to determine unknown
ground angle
Jason Collins, Engility Corp. (United States); Chad Kessens, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)

This paper provides an overview of the OPEN platform, its softwarearchitecture model and the OpenEdge system. It then describes thesoftware development and configuration augmentation for the OpenEdge
system and provides a qualitative of it.

As robots are deployed to dynamic, uncertain environments, their ability todiscern key aspects of their environment and recover from errors becomesparamount. In particular, tip-over events can potentially end or substantiallydisrupt mission performance and jeopardize asset recovery. To facilitate
recovery from tip-over events (i.e. self-righting), the robot should be able todiscern the ground angle on which it lies, even when it is not in its preferred
upright orientation. In this paper, we present a methodology for accurately
determining ground angle using recursive Bayesian estimation which isrobust to robot orientation. First, we briefly review our previous framework
for autonomous self-righting, which we use to generate conformation spacemaps correlating robot configuration and orientation to ground angle. Using
these maps, we compare predicted orientation to sensor orientation for the
robot configuration given by the sensors on various ground angles. We thenassign a probability to each possible ground angle based on the stability
margin generated by our conformation space map. We show groundangle prediction error as a function of time using this method, as well as asensitivity analysis comparing accuracy as a function of the discretizationof the ground angle dimension of the conformation space map. Finally, wedemonstrate a physical robot’s ability to self-right on unknown ground using
this methodology.

9084-5, Session 1

Modeling and simulation of an unmanned groundvehicle power system
John A. Broderick, Dawn M. Tilbury, Ella M. Atkins, Univ. of Michigan(United States)
Long-duration missions challenge ground robot systems with respect toenergy storage and efficient conversion to power on demand. Groundrobot systems can contain multiple power sources (e.g. fuel cell, battery,ultra capacitor). This paper presents a framework for collectively modelingthe dynamics and switching between these different power components
using a hybrid systems framework. The hybrid systems framework allows
devices to switch on/off or between different regimes of operation, whilestill modeling continuous parameters such as state of charge, temperature,and power output. We apply this modeling framework to a fuel cell/battery
power system that could be used on a Packbot or Talon. These models
can be used to plan and optimize energy management for a ground robot
during operation. We present an energy use optimization model basedon timed automata, a subset of hybrid automata representing energy
dynamics with linearized models to promote rapid identification of optimal

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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVI

9084-9, Session 1

9084-11, Session 1

Multi-arm multilateral haptics-based immersive
tele-tobotic system (HITS) for improvised
explosive device disposal

Speech and gesture interfaces for squad level
human robot teaming
Jonathan T. Harris, Daniel Barber, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates)David Erickson, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Suffield (Canada); Hervé Lacheray, Gilbert Lai, Amir Haddadi,
Quanser Inc. (Canada)
Of great interest to industry, academia, and military is the developmentof effective improvised explosive device (IED) disposal technology tominimize risk to personnel in activities such as explosive ordnance disposal
and mine field clearing. This paper presents the latest advancements in thedevelopment of the Haptics-based Immersive Tele-robotic System (HITS),a next generation mobile IED disposal robotic platform. In particular, thepaper describes an immersive telepresence environment for a remotelycontrolled three-articulated-robotic-arm system, tailored to be mounted onan unmanned ground vehicle. While the haptic feedback provided by thedual-arm tele-operated manipulator enhances the operator’s perceptionof the remote environment, a third tele-operated dexterous arm, equippedwith an RGB-D sensor and two high-definition cameras, is used to provide
3D vision, augmented reality, and a 3D photo-realistic model of thepotential IED. This decentralized system incorporates elements of real-timestereoscopic vision with augmented reality, head-tracking, live and dynamic
IED 3D vision modeling and inspection, multilateral tele-operation withhigh-transparency haptic feedback, real-time active collision detection andavoidance, and a remote operator control station with immersive interfaces(e.g., haptics, visual, auditory). Experimental results and validation of thecurrent system are presented. Demonstrated performance and capabilities
include IED disposal, tool handling (e.g., probe, spade), and duffel bag
inspection. Moving forward, HITS provides many avenues for evaluation andexpansion. The aim of this multi-year project is to provide remote operators
an intuitive interface with expanded sensory input to perform complex tasks
to defeat IED’s successfully.

9084-10, Session 1

As the adoption of semi-autonomous unmanned systems increases inmilitary use, utilizing redundant and intuitive interfaces for communication
between Soldiers and robots is vital to mission success. Currently, Soldiers
use a common lexicon to communicate maneuvers between themselves withspeech and visual signals. In order for robots to seamlessly integrate within
mixed-initiative teams, they must be able to understand this lexicon. Recent
innovations in gaming platforms have led to advancements in speech andgesture recognition technologies, but the reliability of these technologies
for enabling communication in human robot teaming is unclear. The purpose
for the present study is to investigate the performance of CommercialOff-The-Shelf (COTS) speech and gesture recognition tools in classifying a
Squad Level Vocabulary (SLV) for a spatial navigation reconnaissance andsurveillance task. The SLV for this study was based on findings from a survey
conducted with Soldiers at Fort Benning, GA. During the survey, Soldiersanswered questions regarding how they would instruct a robot to executereconnaissance and surveillance tasks using speech. Resulting commands
taken from survey finds were then converted to equivalent arm and hand
gestures leveraging existing signals (e.g. U.S. Army Field Manual for VisualSignaling). A commercially available speech recognition engine and a
gesture recognition glove classified these commands given by participants.
This paper presents classification accuracy of these devices for both speechand gesture modalities independently and combined.

9084-12, Session 1

New generation of human machine interfaces forcontrolling UAV through depth-based gesturerecognition
Tomás Mantecón, Carlos Roberto del Blanco, Fernando Jaureguizar,
Narciso García, Univ. Politécnica de Madrid (Spain)

Investigating operator aids for autonomous
unmanned ground vehicles

New forms of natural interactions between human operators and UAVs
(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) are demanded by the military industry to achievea better balance of the UAV control and the burden of the human operator[1]. In this work, a human machine interface (HMI) based on a novel gesturerecognition system using depth imagery is proposed for the control of UAVs.
Hand gesture recognition based on depth imagery is a promising approachfor HMIs because it is more intuitive, natural, and non-intrusive than otheralternatives using complex controllers [2]. The proposed system is basedon a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier that uses spatio-temporal
depth descriptors as input features. The designed descriptor is based on avariation of the Local Binary Pattern (LBP) technique to efficiently work withdepth video sequences. Other major consideration is the especial hand sign
language used for the UAV control. A tradeoff between the use of natural
hand signs and the minimization of the inter-sign interference has been
established. This has led to an efficient hand-sign vocabulary that on the
one hand maximizes the recognition task, and on the other hand minimizes
the difficulty and stress of the human operator in its execution. Promising
results have been achieved in a depth based dataset of hand gestures
especially developed for the validation of the proposed system.

Arthur W. Evans III, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The research described here investigated the ability of operator knowledge
management aids to help increase operator performance and reduce
perceived workload, providing the potential for increased mission
effectiveness. Specifically, the operator aids provided gave information
about what an autonomous robotic asset perceived in the environment
and the robotic asset’s intended actions based on that information. Twenty
subjects completed a total of 7 experimental missions, using a simulated
operator control station called the WMI (Warfighter Machine Interface). The
missions included various configurations using 3 different operator aids.
The operator aids included a long term planner, a short term planner, andan obstacle map. During the simulated missions, participants managed
the autonomous robotic asset while completing a reconnaissance task. In
addition, participants were expected to identify when the robotic asset
had deviated from its intended course and determine why it had doneso. Results of this study showed that the use of operator aids had little
effect on operator performance, but significantly reduced both cognitive
and temporal workload. This reduction in workload, especially with theinformation presented in the overlays, could let operators take a proactive
approach to supervision, rather than simply responding to errors andtrouble.

[1] Valiallah Mani Monajjemi, Jens Wawerla, Richard T Vaughan, and Greg
Mori. Hri in the sky: Creating and commanding teams of uavs with avision mediated gestural interface. IEEE Proc. International Conference onIntelligent Robots and Systems, 2013.
[2] Jennifer Piane, Daniela Raicu, and Jacob Furst. Training industrial robots
with gesture recognition techniques. SPIE Proc. Intelligent Robots andComputer Vision XXX: Algorithms and Techniques, 8662:86620I–86620I–9,
2013.

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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVI

9084-35, Session Posters-Tuesday

9084-37, Session Posters-Tuesday

A practical approach to considering uncertainties
in the creation of autonomous behaviors inunmanned surface vehicles

Use of eternal flight unmanned aircraft inoperations
Zafer Kok, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)

Zi Jing Bay, Yip Fatt Lee, Kwok Wai Yue, Ai Peng New, Hao Yi Gan,DSO National Laboratories (Singapore)

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), are planed to use solar energy, are being
more common and interesting gradually. Today, these systems are very
promising while fossil fuels are diminishing rapidly. Development studies
on unmanned aerial systems to use the energy, stored daytime, during
the night are being conducted by the academic circles. Development of
unmanned aerial systems which have eternal flight or very long loiter
periods, can be possible by such an energy management. An UAS which can
fly very long time can provide many advantages that can not be obtainedby conventional aircrafts and satellites. Such systems can be operated as
fixed satellites on missions with very low cost in circumstances that requirecontinuous intelligence. By improving automation systems these vehicles
can be settled on operation area of automously and can be grounded easily
for case of necessities and maintenance. In this paper, the effect of solar
powered UAS on operation area has been done as literature review whileused in surveillance and reconnaissance missions.

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USV) have been proposed for use in several
mission critical operations such as Harbor Defense, Force Protection, Mine
Counter Measures (MCM) and Terrorism Deterrence. Despite the varieties of
USV systems available in the market, many are still tele-operated systems.
Such systems face limitations in operational range due to restrictions of theassociated communication technologies. It also increases the workload of
the operators during operation as full attention is required while navigating
the USV. USV systems with autonomous behaviors can possibly alleviate theoperational range and operator’s workload constraints by allowing the USV
to navigate or achieve specific tasks autonomously. Today, though many
autonomous behaviors have been developed in the research community,
most face difficulties in showing full functionality in USV systems due
to limitations imposed by imperfect perception of the environment anduncertainties in platform control. This paper presents a practical approachin considering these issues during the creation of simple autonomous
behaviors such as Obstacle Avoidance (OA) and Target Following (TF)
behaviors.

9084-38, Session Posters-Tuesday

Roll angle measurement using a polarization
scanning reference sourceThis approach has been successfully demonstrated on a 9-meter USV.
Obstacle Avoidance (OA) and Target Following (TF) behaviors were
designed and developed using this approach and results have shown that
this approach allows the autonomous behaviors to consider imperfectsensor information and control actions during planning.

Harbans S. Dhadwal, Jahangir Rastegar, Varun Kankipati, Omnitek
Partners, LLC (United States)

In this paper, a brief overview of the USV software and hardware systemarchitecture will be presented. Algorithms used to design the USV behaviors
and test results will also be explained. Existing problems and future possible
developments will be discussed as well.

Determination of the roll angle of a projectile, relative to the earth oranother mobile platform, is an ongoing topic of interest for guidance and/or steering. Currently available sensors, which include optical line of sight,
inertial, RF antennas painted on the projectile, and magnetometers, do notprovide an acceptable on-board solution. We present a viable solution,
which recovers the instantaneous roll position of an unmanned vehicle byprocessing the temporal signature produced at the on-board receiver by
a polarization scanning reference source. Traditional, polarization based
sensors utilize the sinusoidal power fluctuation as the angle between thelinear polarization states of the transmitter and receiver are varied. However,these sensors require an independent measurement of the reference powerand do not provide a unique solution as the power fluctuations can arise
from a number of other sources. By using a polarization scanning reference
source, together with a priori knowledge of the temporal signature, the rollangle measurements are robust and independent of power fluctuations at
the receiver, which may be due intentional jamming.

9084-36, Session Posters-Tuesday

HALOS: fast compact, autonomous adaptive
optics for UAVs
Geoff P. Andersen, Paul Gelsinger-Austin, Phani Gaddipati, Ravi
Gaddipati, Fassil Ghebremichael, Hua, Inc. (United States)
We present an adaptive optics system which uses a multiplexed hologram
to deconvolve the phase aberrations in an input beam. The wavefront
characterization is extremely fast as it is based on simple measurements of
the intensity of focal spots and does not require any complex calculations.
Furthermore, the system does not require a computer in the loop and is thus
much cheaper, less complex and more robust as well.

Experimental trials, performed in a busy parking lot over a distance of 0.15
miles using a transmitter power of 30 dBm, confirm the efficacy of thetechnique for both line of sight and non-line of sight scenarios. In this initialstudy, the state of polarization of the transmitted microwave signal at 10
GHz is defined by the E-plane of a 10-dB horn, which was mounted on ascanning platform, driven by a stepper motor. A full-scan (-90o to 90o) of
the linearly polarized carrier is completed in 0.3 s. The receiver comprisedof a 10-dB horn, fixed to the projectile and looking backward toward
the source, and a logarithm RF detector. The voltage output provides
the instantaneous measurement of the carrier power, which contains
synchronizing temporal markers for unambiguous roll angle recovery, evenin the presence of high background noise.

A fully functional, closed-loop prototype incorporating a 32-element MEMS
mirror has been constructed. The unit has a footprint no larger than a laptop
but runs at a bandwidth of 100kHz – over an order of magnitude faster thancomparable, conventional systems occupying a significantly larger volume.
Additionally, since the sensing is based on parallel, all-optical processing,
the speed is independent of actuator number – running at the same
bandwidth for one actuator as for a million.
We are developing the HALOS technology with a view towards nextgeneration surveillance systems for extreme adaptive optics applications.
These include imaging, lidar and free-space optical communications forunmanned aerial vehicles and SSA. The small volume is ideal for UAVs, while
the high speed and high resolution will be of great benefit to the groundbased observation of space-based objects.

9084-39, Session Posters-Tuesday

Tiered approach to autonomous radiation searchJohn S. Clemmensen, Remote Sensing Lab. (United States)
The use of autonomous vehicles in the search and reconnaissance mission
space in recent years has shown many benefits to include the ability
to search a large area with minimal human footprint, reducing the risk

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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVI
to humans by removing them from the equation, and improving the
success potential of the mission by utilizing modern pre-planned searchalgorithms. These facts made autonomous vehicles, specifically Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) ideal forincorporation into the radiation search operation. A current concept ofoperations for a radiation search mission implements a tiered approach
where a small group of specialists integrate into a larger force that can thensearch/survey an area much quicker than the small group of specialists.
The lead specialist directs the search by having the larger force, with basic
equipment, execute a preplanned set of sweeps (derived from modern
search algorithms) in the search area, which ensures maximum coverage.
Then, when an area of interest is discovered, the lead specialist deploys
specialized operators with precision equipment to adjudicate the area. The
specialized units move within the search area in a more intelligent manner,prioritizing areas of interest based on asset location and outside intelligence.
This paper proposes the incorporation of UAVs and UGVs into the radiation
search mission as the larger force and more specialized force respectively.
UAVs have the ability to sweep large areas while UGVs have the precision
required to adjudicate specific targets identified in the larger sweeps.
Specifically discussed is the concept of connecting both UAVs and UGVs
through a common communications network to a central operation planning
node to ensure cohesiveness throughout the mission execution. A central
node can compile the data from multiple UAVs and build a prioritized list
to deploy Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs). Using autonomous vehicles
in this way during a radiation search allows for the most efficient use ofresources and optimizes detection probability.

9084-40, Session Posters-Tuesday

The control of armed unmanned air vehicleby joint terminal attack controller in close air
support missions
Ahmet Emre Kumas̆, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)
With advancing technology, capabilities of UAV(Unmanned Air Vehicle)s are increasing rapidly. Especially the evolution of sensor, data link andcontrol systems creates new concepts of deploying this capable machines.
Also they have precision guided munitions. This rapid development provides
new using areas and options in the theatre. One of this area is CAS (Close
Air Support). The control of these armed aircrafts from thousands ofnautical miles by satellite, causes some tactical and ethical problems. Yet
CAS missions requires a high level of situational awareness, good Air-Land
Integration and precision. In fact, unlike the other UAV tasks, there is afriendly element who has a high level of situational awareness in the target
area, in CAS missions. He is an Air Force personel: JTAC (Joint Terminal
Attack Controller). He has two sided view (surface level and camera) andreal feelings. On the other hand, UAV operator is too far away from the area
and the camera provides him a limited visibility. In this study JTAC’s andUAV operators situational awarenesses was compared and an answer was
tried to be find to the question of who should use the weapons. A literature
review about UAVs and CAS missions was made. Last air operations was
examined. NATO and national Air Force and Army personel were consulted
during the research phase. A SWOT analysis was made to expose theadvantages and disadvantages of both options. As a result, both options
can be used in different conditions with given rules of angagement.

9084-41, Session Posters-Tuesday

Yansheng Li, Hanxu Sun, Yanheng Zhang, Beijing Univ. of Posts andTelecommunications (China); Ming Chu, Beijing Univ. of Posts andTelecommunications School of Automation (China); Qingxuan Jia,
Beijing Univ. of Posts and Telecommunications (China); Xiaojuan
Lan, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications School ofAutomation (China)
At present, exploring the vast unknown fields (including space and ocean)
has become a hot spot in the various agencies, As a moving carrier?the
mobile intelligent robot plays an important role, such as communicationbase stations and observation platform. In order to adapt to a variety ofworking conditions?a new type of robot was proposed, which can movefreely on land or in water with a circular shell, a single propeller and a pairof heavy pendulum. The pendulum inside the robot is used to adjust theattitude, which makes the robot move flexibly, and the circular shell has
the excellent compression capability. In order to analyze the kinematics
and dynamics characteristics in water, the hydrodynamic forces are studied
before the manufacture by CFD simulation, which is a feasible method.
It shortens the test cycle, and reduces the cost of the test. The new typeof spherical robot is simplified into two kinds of finite element models.
The experiments of robot for straight shipping and oblique shipping
were simulated, in which the drag forces related with the line speed were
determined; The experiments of robot for swaying and yawing were
simulated, in which the added mass coefficients related with acceleration
were determined. The experiments of robot for cantilevered pool were
simulated, in which the rotational coefficients related with angularspeed were determined. Through the above calculation and contrast,
the comprehensive hydrodynamic results can be analyzed, which saved
time for the initial design of robots and also proved that the robot has an
outstanding ability underwater.

9084-44, Session Posters-Tuesday

The auxiliary navigation unit and working
mechanism for UAVs
Adem Çakir, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)
In the future lots of countries thinking highly of their defense and security
programs. Because of their population and probability of losing highly
professional personnel makes the countries depending on unmanned
vehicles. In the future most of the threats will come from cyber space.
Besides having latest software and hardware, ISR systems, self protection
systems, integrated weapon systems, also C4 systems will be on theunmanned platforms. For aircraft systems its vital for having minimum one
or two subsidiary system. Because of depending highly of cyber space
based systems the UAVs should have a secondary system or systems madeby fully mechanic not by another cyber space based system or systems.
Thus if any cyber attack come from the enemy/enemies the UAVs maychange the working system to mechanical one. Lots of the past examples
shows us it is possible to create a fully mechanic auxiliary system for UAVs.

Current and future possibilities of V2V andI2V technologies: an analysis directed towardaugmented reality systems

Tom Freund, Dig.y.SoL™ (United States)

J. Alejandro Betancur, Andrés Yarce, Aida K. Arnedo, Gilberto
Osorio, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

A distributed collaboration paradigm enables continuous active oversightof equipment operating within a networked environment. This paradigm
enables, wherever possible, remedial control actions that mitigate theeffects of degraded behavior in line replaceable units (LRU’).

SPIE DSS 2014

Calculation and simulation of hydrodynamic
forces for a novel detecting spherical robot

9084-45, Session Posters-Tuesday

A distributed equipment monitoring andremedial control system based on a collaboration
paradigm

1749084-42, Session Posters-Tuesday

Nowadays, It is very important to explore the qualitative characteristics
of autonomous mobility systems in automobiles, specially disruptive·

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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVItechnology like Vehicle2Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle2Infrastructure (V2I),
this, in order to comprehend how it will be developed the next generationof automobiles. This paper covers a general review about active safety in
automobiles where V2V and V2I systems has been implemented. The goalof this work is to identify the more realistic systems related to V2V and V2I
technology, analyzing the current applications, some systems in developing
process and some future conceptual proposals. In this way, it is notorious
the developing potential of mixing V2I and V2V systems with proposals
related to increase the visibility of driver’s attention; therefore, it is proposed
a combined configuration between this two technologies and an augmented
reality system for automobiles like HUD (Head-Up Display), been projected
for this kind of configuration an huge potential of implementation once thenormative and the roadmap for its development can be established.

get great successes but do they have adversaries who use SAM’s and airintercept aircrafts. We see that at beginning of the war in Unified Protector,
Strike aircrafts clear SAM threats and then UCAV’s are used. What can they
do with engaged SAM’s? How about their maneuvers and self protection
capabilities? And the problem begins here. The Iraq operation shows thatthey don’t have enough capabilities.
Because of not enough capabilities, how do we integrate UCAV’s withmanned system to the National Air Space (NAS)? At the future (long term),
UCAV’s are expected fully autonomous. They are managed by artificial
intelligence, their decision may be asked. Also they must work together withmanned systems.

9084-7, Session 39084-46, Session Posters-Tuesday

Tip-over prevention through heuristic reactive
behaviors for unmanned ground vehicles

A 10 GHz polarization scanning reference source

Kurt A. Talke, SPAWARSYSCEN Pacific: San Diego (United States);
Leah Kelley, SPAWARSYSCEN Pacific: San Diego (United States)and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States); Patrick
Longhini, Garret Catron, SPAWARSYSCEN Pacific: San Diego(United States)

Harbans S. Dhadwal, Jahangir Rastegar, Omnitek Partners, LLC(United States)
Real-time roll angle measurement of an unmanned vehicle, relative to theearth or another mobile platform, is critical for flight control and guidance.
We present a viable solution, which recovers the instantaneous roll position
by processing the temporal signature produced at the on-board receiverby a polarization scanning reference source. By using a polarization
scanning reference source, together with a priori knowledge of the system
response, the roll angle measurements are robust and independent of
power fluctuations at the receiver, which may be due intentional jamming.
Any arbitrary state of linear polarization decomposes into two orthogonalcomponents having dissimilar amplitudes but in phase unison. Thus, atransmitter comprising of two linear polarizations, fed with amplitude,
modulated excitation, can generate a linearly polarized reference source.
The scan range and rate is a function of the instantaneous amplitudes andfrequency of the modulating signal. This approach is distinctly different
from techniques based on Faraday rotators or mechanical rotation of halfwave retarders. Measurement of the state of polarization of a RF signal iscritical for interpretation of received signals, in other areas of measurement,such as, weather systems, noncontact vibration transducer systems andin general, all measurement systems based on polarimetry; all these will
benefit from a polarization scanning reference source.

Skid-steer teleoperated robots are commonly used by military and civiliancrews to perform high-risk, dangerous and critical tasks such as bomb
disposal. Their missions are often performed in unstructured environmentswith irregular terrain, such as inside collapsed buildings or on roughterrain covered with a variety of media, such as sand, brush, mud, rocks
and debris. During such missions, it is often impractical if not impossible
to send another robot or a human operator to right a toppled robot. As aconsequence, robot tip-over results in mission failure.
To make matters more complicated, such robots are often equipped withheavy payloads that raise their centers of mass and hence increase theirinstability. Should the robot be equipped with a manipulator arm or flippers,
it may have a way to self-right. The majority of manipulator arms are notdesigned for, and are likely to be damaged during self-righting procedures,
however, which typically have a low success rate. Some robots are notequipped with manipulator arms or flippers and thus have no self-righting
capabilities. Additionally, due to the on-board camera frame of reference,the video feed may cause the robot to appear to be on at level ground,when it actually may be on a slope nearing tip-over. Finally, robot operators
are often so focused on the mission at hand they are oblivious to theirsurroundings, similar to a kid playing a video game. While this may not
be an issue in the living room, it is not a good scenario to experience on
the battlefield. Our research seeks to remove tip-over monitoring from thealready large list of tasks an operator must perform.

A proof of concept system comprising discrete components, which include
a 10 GHz oscillator, a 3-dB splitter, two variable gain amplifiers, a voltage
controlled phase shifter generate a scanning polarized reference source.
A polarization scan range of 25o to 65o was possible. Measurements
performed in an anechoic chamber, using a 16 dB pyramidal dual
polarization horn transmitter antenna and a receiving 10 dB horn, coupled
to a RF envelope log-detector, confirm the utility of the proposed scheme.
Temporal data recorded using an ADC data acquisition system is processed
to recover the single scan data. In particular, data shows how the electronic
polarization scanning system can be adapted to measure the role angle ofa UAV. Synchronized polarization scanning offers a very robust deployment
for both line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight scenarios. The voltage output
provides the instantaneous measurement of the carrier power, whichcontains synchronizing temporal markers for unambiguous roll angle
recovery, even in the presence of high background noise.

An autonomous tip-over prevention behavior for a mobile robot with a static
payload has been developed, implemented and experimentally validatedon two different teleoperated robotic platforms. Suitable for use with bothteleoperated and autonomous robots, the prevention behavior uses theforce-angle stability measure, experimentally validated previously, to predictthe likelihood of robot tip-over and to trigger prevention behaviors.
A unique heuristic approach to tip-over avoidance was investigated, whereina set of evasive maneuvers an expert teleoperator might take are activatedwhen the tip-over-likelihood estimate passes a critical threshold. This control
approach was validated on an iRobot Packbot as well as on a Segway RMP
440. The heuristic laws demonstrated the advantage of alerting the operator
to a tip-over scenario and gave them more time to correct the situation, as
well as the ability to automatically correct the scenario “on the fly”.

9084-47, Session Posters-Tuesday

UCAV’s: What capabilities must be?

This research shows promise in preventing dangerous scenarios that could
damage a robot and/or compromise its mission, thus saving lives. It further
provides a good basis for follow-on research involving the expansion
and integration of the prevention-control algorithms, to include movable
payloads, environment manipulation, 2D or 3D look-ahead laser sensing andmapping, and adaptive path planning.

Ramazan Ekici, Harpak (Turkey)
UCAV (unmanned combat air vehicle) is very common nowadays. They are
expected future of aircrafts. Some countries are getting more attention to
the UCAV’s than the others because of the global war on terror.
We use UCAV’s at attacks in low threat environment, but in high risk area
can we do the same? What are the capabilities of the UCAV’s? I want to
explain self protection features of the UCAV’s. What can we add on thesefeatures in future? In Afghanistan, Iraq and Unified Protector, UCAV’s

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Conference 9084:
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9084-13, Session 3

Supporting task-oriented collaboration in humanrobot teams using semantic-based path planning
Daqing Yi, Michael Goodrich, Brigham Young Univ. (United States)
As robot sensing, perception and decision-making improves, the human’srole in human-robot interaction progressively shifts from teleoperator tosupervisor to teammate. This shift toward human-robot teaming means thatconcepts from human-human teaming become more important, particularly
the role of shared mental models to facilitate mutual understanding andground communication. Of particular importance is how shared mental
models enable a more collaborative approach to problem solving, facilitatedby communications that operate at a higher, more tactical or strategic levelof abstraction.
When human-robot teaming requires task-oriented collaboration in thereal world, it is often necessary for the robot to translate a human’s verbal
command into a sequence and schedule of robot motions. Task grammars
and semantic labels of objects in the world enable this translation andtherefore serve as the basis for how a robot builds a mental model tounderstand the human’s commands. For example, if a human tells a robot
to “carefully screen the back door”, this command defines the task as a“screen” task, defines “back door” as constraining the task to specific work
region, and defines “carefully” as objective functions that dictates how
the task is done (e.g., avoid collisions and move smoothly). We assume atask grammar that specifies a task, one or more constraints, and one ormore adverbs that specify how the task should be performed or how theconstraints should be managed.

9084-15, Session 3

An interdisciplinary taxonomy of social cuesand signals in the service of engineering roboticsocial intelligence
Travis J. Wiltshire, Emilio J. Lobato, Jonathan Velez, Florian Jentsch,
Stephen M. Fiore, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
Understanding intentions is a complex social-cognitive task for humans,
let alone machines. One promising approach working towards addressing
this need is the multidisciplinary field of Social Signal Processing because
it entails a useful distinction between social cues and social signals. In thispaper, we describe the development of a framework describing parameters
associated with social cues and social signals. This framework is based uponan interdisciplinary integration of theory and concepts from social cognition
research but adapted for development in human-robot interaction. The aimof this taxonomy is to further the development of robotic social intelligence
to better facilitate natural interactions between humans and robots. Thisis warranted given that a common problem facing researchers in this areais that the literature is presently limited in the degree in which it provides
a cohesive framework that specifies: (1) the sensors used for detecting
social cues, (2) the parameters for differentiating and classifying differinglevels of those cues, and (3) how sets of social cues indicate specific social
signals. This is necessarily an iterative process, as technologies improve andsocial science researchers better understand the complex interactions ofvast quantities of social cue combinations. As such, the goal of this paper isto advance a taxonomy of this nature to further stimulate interdisciplinary
collaboration in the development of advanced social intelligence thatmutually informs areas of robotic perception and intelligence.

More generally, a verbal command from a human contains multiple
objectives and constraints, which means that the robot’s path-planningproblem is a multiobjective optimization problem. Following related workon blending metric-based and topological approaches to path planning,
we propose a two-layer approach by which a robot interprets the human’scommand and translates this into a sequence of motions. A waypoint layer
generates a sequence of waypoints that satisfy the task objectives andconstraints. Given this coarse level of planning, the motion planning layer
generates the trajectories connecting two neighboring waypoints in a waythat satisfies the adverbial modifiers to the task or constraints.
Multiple objectives inherently exist in both layers of planning because
adverbial modifiers from the human do not “cleanly” map to uniquemetric-based performance objectives. We present an efficient frameworkof optimized path-planners that can be flexible and adaptive to new formsof objective definitions from new scenarios and new information sources.
Furthermore, we claim that the solutions generated by these planners
are Pareto optimal, which means no objective can be improved without
degrading other objectives. This property is important because it meansthat information communicated from the planners to the human can
represent the inherent tradeoffs in satisfying the adverbial modifier andallow the human to refine their intent by selecting among these tradeoffs.

9084-16, Session 3

Validation and verification of a high-fidelity
computational model for a bounding robot’s
parallel actuated elastic spine

9084-14, Session 3

Determinants of system transparency, and its
influence on trust in and reliance on unmanned
robotic systems

Jason L. Pusey, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Jeffrey
M. Duperret, Daniel E. Koditschek, Univ. of Pennsylvania (UnitedStates)Scott Ososky, Tracy Sanders, Florian Jentsch, Peter Hancock, Univ.
of Central Florida (United States); Jessie Chen, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)

We document the design and preliminary computer simulation of a highfidelity model of Canid, a recently introduced bounding robot. Canid isa free-standing, power-autonomous quadrupedal machine constructedfrom standard commercially available electromechanical and structuralelements, incorporating compliant C-shaped legs like those of the decade
old RHex design, but departing from that standard (and, to the best of ourknowledge, from any prior) robot platform in its parallel actuated elastic
spine. We have developed within a commercial modeling package a finiteelement model of the actuated, cable-driven, rigid-plate-reinforced harness
for the carbon-fiber spring that joins the robot’s fore- and hind-quarters.
We compare simulations of this parallel actuated elastic spine model with

Increasingly autonomous robotic systems are expected to play a vital rolein aiding humans in complex and dangerous environments. It is unlikely,
however, that such systems will be able to consistently operate with perfectreliability. Even less than 100% reliable systems can provide a significant
benefit to humans, but this benefit will depend on a human operator’sability to understand a robot’s behaviors and states. The notion of systemtransparency is presented as a vital aspect of robotic design, in maintaining
humans’ trust in, and reliance on increasingly automated platforms. System

176

SPIE DSS 2014transparency is described as the degree to which a system’s action, or theintention of an action, is apparent to human operators and/or observers.
While the physical designs of robotic systems have been demonstrated
to greatly influence humans’ impressions of robots, determinants oftransparency are not solely system-centric. In this paper, we present insightsfrom our interdisciplinary approach to improving system transparency forthe specific application of futuristic human–robot teams. These are teams inwhich robot agents will autonomously collaborate with humans to achievetask goals. This paper will demonstrate how factors such as human mental
models regarding robots, and human–robot communication modality can
positively or negatively impact a human’s ability to recognize the actions orstates of an automated system, even when those systems are highly reliable,
yet still imperfect. Furthermore, we will discuss the implications of systemtransparency on other critical HRI factors such as perceptions of trust,situation awareness and operator workload.

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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVI
empirical data from a series of increasingly dynamic Canid experiments.
We first compare the predictions of the carbon-fiber spring model withdata taken from the physical spine flexed in isolation from the actuatedharness. We next compare the full model with experimental data fromthe robot in which its rear quarters are locked to ground and the actuatedspine assembly is used to exercise the robot’s fore-quarters in a quasi-static
condition. We finally offer preliminary comparison of the computationalmodel output with data from the rear-locked robot under progressively
more dynamical operation. We speculate on what improvements to thissimulation model will be required to achieve empirical fidelity sufficient toserve as a design guide for robot control algorithms and further iterations of
the platform’s redesign.

basic single-frame over-segmentation based on normalized cuts, where
the edge weights in the adjacency graph are calculated from the proximityand differences between point normals. Given the data stream from apotentially mobile sensor, we solve for the camera transformation between
consecutive frames using a joint optimization over point correspondences
and image appearance. The aligned point cloud may then be integrated into
a consistent model coordinate frame. Previous point labels are propagatedforward to corresponding points as the new frame is integrated, while new
points not determined to belong to existing segments are assigned newlabels. We evaluate our algorithm on existing as well as newly-generated
RGB-D datasets with dense segmentation ground truth.

9084-19, Session 39084-17, Session 3

Common world model for unmanned systems:
phase 2

Validation and verification of a high-fidelity
computational model for a RHex-class robot
C-shaped leg

Robert M. Dean, General Dynamics Land Systems (United States)
The Robotics Collaborative Technology Alliance (RCTA) seeks to provide
adaptive robot capabilities which move beyond traditional metric algorithms
to include cognitive capabilities. Key to this effort is the Common World
Model, which moves beyond the state-of-the-art by representing theworld using semantic, symbolic as well as metric information. It joins theselayers of information to define objects in the world. These objects may
be reasoned upon jointly using traditional geometric, symbolic cognitivealgorithms and new computational nodes formed by the combinationof these disciplines to address Symbol Grounding and Uncertainty. The
Common World Model must understand how these objects relate to eachother. Our world model includes the concept of Self-Information about the
robot. By encoding current capability, component status, task execution
state, and their histories we track information which enables the robot
to reason and adapt its performance using Meta-Cognition and Machine
Learning principles. The world model also includes models of how entities
in the environment behave which enable prediction of future world states.
To manage complexity, we have adopted a phased implementation
approach. Phase 1, published in these proceedings in 2013, presented theapproach for linking metric with symbolic information and interfaces for
traditional planners and cognitive reasoning. Here we discuss the design of“Phase 2” of this world model, which extends the Phase 1 design with 3D
representations, Inter-visibility, Dynamic (moving) Objects, hypothesized
Semantic Objects, and additional outputs for Human Robot Interaction.

Raymond Von Wahlde, Jason L. Pusey, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Jeffrey M. Duperret, Daniel E. Koditschek, Univ. of
Pennsylvania (United States)
The XRHex robot, an updated version of RHex, obtains its mobility
characteristics in large part due to its compliant, epoxy-fiber, C-Shaped legs
(C-leg). Many RHex-inspired, C-leg simulation models have been proposedin the literature, but their fidelity to its empirical operational performance
has never been rigorously examined in the scientific literature. Here, we
document the design and preliminary numerical exercise of a high fidelity,
segmented, lumped-compliance model of the XRHex C-leg, developed
within a commercial modeling package. We compare simulations of thisC-leg model with empirical data from a series of increasingly dynamic
XRHex leg experiments. We compare the predictions of the model of theleg with data taken from the leg flexed in isolation from the motor drive
train. We also try to characterize the stiffness of the C-leg by spinning it ina horizontal plane and capturing, via high speed camera, its deflection due
to centrifugal force. We next compare the model with experimental datafrom the robot in which its body is immobilized above a slippery force-plate
across which a single leg is driven by the robot’s hip motor in a quasi-static
condition. Finally, we offer preliminary comparison of the model output withdata from the hip-locked leg under progressively more dynamical operation.
We speculate on what improvements to this simulation model will be
required to achieve empirical fidelity sufficient to serve as a design guide forrobot control algorithms and further iterations of the platform’s redesign.

9084-20, Session 3

Field demonstration of an autonomous small
ground robot using a MEMS-scanned ladar9084-18, Session 3

Temporally consistent segmentation of point
cloudsMichael A. Powers, General Dynamics Robotic Systems (UnitedStates); Barry L. Stann, Mark M. Giza, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)

Jason L. Owens, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); PhilipOsteen, Engility Corp. (United States); Kostas Daniilidis, Univ. of
Pennsylvania (United States)

LADAR is among the pre-eminent sensor modalities for autonomous vehicle
navigation. Size, weight, power and cost constraints impose significant
practical limitations on perception systems intended for small groundrobots. In recent years, ARL developed a LADAR architecture based on a
MEMS scanner that fundamentally improves the trade-offs between theselimitations and sensor capability. We describe how the characteristics ofa highly developed prototype correspond to and satisfy the requirementsof autonomous navigation and the experimental scenarios of the Robotics
Collaborative Technology Alliance (RCTA) program. In particular, the longmaximum and short minimum range capability of the ARL MEMS LADAR
makes it remarkably suitable for a wide variety of scenarios from building
mapping to the manipulation of objects at close range, including dexterous
manipulation with robotic arms. A prototype system was applied to a small(approximately 50 kg) unmanned robotic vehicle as the primary perception
sensor. We present the results of a field test where the perception
information supplied by the LADAR system successfully accomplished theexperimental objectives of an Integrated Research Assessment (IRA).

Generating a useful segmentation for a point cloud is an important
prerequisite for object recognition, grasping, and scene understanding.
Existing work has focused on single-frame segmentation in images or
RGB-D image pairs, or global segmentations in a finalized point cloud. In
robotics applications, however, we have dynamic control over the sensor
viewpoint within the environment and a constant stream of data fromsensors making the single-frame or finalized point cloud approach lessdesirable, especially during navigation or manipulation related tasks where
an up-to-date segmentation can be critical. While it may be possible tore-segment the entire cloud at every frame, it is not clear how to maintainconsistency between completely different segmentations. Therefore, we
consider the problem of generating temporally consistent point cloudsegmentations from streaming RGB-D data, where every incoming frame
extends existing labels to new points or contributes new labels while
maintaining the labels for pre-existing segments. Our approach uses a177+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9084:
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9084-21, Session 3

Autonomous whole-body locomotion via threedimensional visual sensing
Matthew Travers, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)
Autonomous robotic systems have demonstrated limited success until very
recently. One reason for the relatively slow pace of this development is that
autonomy requires many different subsystems to all work interdependently.
In reality each subsystem itself addresses a difficult problem, e.g., nonlinear
control, computer vision, cognition, etc. Subsequently combining thesesubsystems as a single machine has proven to be a very difficult problem.
This work presents an initial attempt to fuse an advanced vision system witha unique mobility platform. The vision system consists of a structured lightsensor composed of a laser line projector and a black and white camera. The
platform is a modular snake robot, a whole-body locomotor, that is capabletaking on three-dimensional shapes. The goal of combining these systems
is to make it possible for the platform to execute autonomous mobile
behaviors.
Snake robots have previously demonstrated measured success at semiautonomous behavior, but in each demonstration were heavily reliant on
operator intervention. The goal of this work is to show that by using a visionsystem, capable of mapping three-dimensional scenes, the operator can beremoved from the control loop. To demonstrate the efficacy of this hybrid
vision-mobility system we focus on two target behaviors: 1.) autonomously
finding and climbing a pole and 2.) autonomously navigating and mapping
a network of pipes. In both cases the snake robot will use its internal joint
angles to move the sensor and collect local data. Several algorithms that
efficiently process and interpret the returned point clouds will be discussed.

Object guided autonomous exploration formobile robots in indoor environments
Carlos P. Nieto-Granda, Siddarth Choudhary, Henrik I. Christensen,
Georgia Institute of Technology (United States)

Micro air vehicle autonomous obstacle avoidancefrom stereo-vision
Roland Brockers, Jet Propulsion Lab (United States); Stephan
Weiss, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Lawrence Matthies, Jet
Propulsion Lab (United States)
We introduce a new approach for on-board autonomous obstacle avoidance
for micro air vehicles that fly out-doors in close proximity to structure. Our
approach uses inverse-range, polar-perspective stereo-disparity maps for
obstacle detection and representation, and deploys a closed-loop RRTplanner that considers flight dynamics for flight trajectory generation.

We evaluate the robustness of our approach in a virtual simulation
environment, and demonstrate the capability of this method with real world
flights of a quadrotor system under tree canopy.

Nowadays, robot exploration strategies are decided for specific tasks likemapping or finding specific objects in an unknown environment. Our goal
is to provide semi-autonomous exploration strategies based on the objectsof interest, provided by a human operator, in order to identify a potential
hazardous device during a military or civilian surveillance operation.

9084-25, Session 6

In this paper the authors describe the results of the experiments on behalfof the MAST CTA. The semantic information available in objects provide
better model for the interaction between human operator and robots.
Objects integrate both shape and texture information into a coherent model.
The robot chose the best exploration strategy to produce the optimal
object model which provided more visual information to a human team.
The performance of our experiments were evaluated in different indoor
scenarios using two different mobile platforms.

9084-23, Session 6

Development and evaluation of the Stingray: anamphibious maritime interdiction operations
unmanned ground vehicle

Assisted autonomy of articulated snake robots
David S. Rollinson, Howie Choset, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (UnitedStates)Our lab has developed new capabilities for snake robots that allow themto successfully navigate pipe junctions. Up until now, snake robots have
only been able to navigate simple straight sections of pipe, or pipes withsmall bends. These capabilities have been demonstrated in both a lab
environment, as well as a real-world underground storm sewer. Recent
development in the control and state estimation of snake robots haveenabled these capabilities.
The development of a gait-based compliant controller enables us todevelop more complex motions without passing the complexity on tothe operator. Previously, the dimensionality of a gait or motion controller
was limited, since any parameter would need to be exposed operator anddirectly controlled. By formulating our low-dimensional controllers as astate estimation problem, we can now prescribe simple control laws that are
intuitive to the operator and allow many gait parameters to be controlledautonomously.

Hoa G. Nguyen, Mendel Baker, Space and Naval Warfare Systems
Ctr. Pacific (United States); Robin Castelli, Macro USA Corp. (UnitedStates)

New state estimation techniques that exploit the robot’s redundant sensing
allow accurate estimation even when significant amounts of feedback is
missing or corrupted. This has practical advantages in the field in that an
operator can have knowledge of the robot’s full shape and orientation, even
if multiple modules in the robot have failed.

The U.S. Navy conducts thousands of Maritime Interdiction Operations(MIOs) every year around the globe. Navy Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure(VBSS) teams regularly board suspect ships and perform search operations,
often in hostile environments. There is a need for a small tactical robotthat can be deployed ahead of the team to provide enhanced situational

SPIE DSS 2014

9084-24, Session 6

While the motion planner incorporates vehicle dynamics to generate
candidate trajectories in 3D, we perform collision checking directly indisparity space, which reduces obstacle expansion to a 2D operation andcollision checking itself to a fast z-buffer-like operation. The small memory
footprint of this image-based representation combined with the reduced
search space results in a significant performance improvement whencompared to traditional 3D methods, making our method feasible to run on
small platforms that fly at higher speeds.

9084-22, Session 6

178

awareness in these boarding, breaching, and clearing operations. In 2011,
the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific conducted user
evaluations on a number of small throwable robots and sensors, verified
the requirements, and developed the key performance parameters (KPPs)
for an MIO robot. A paper was presented at this conference (Unmanned
Systems Technology XIV) summarizing the study and resulting KPPs. A
contract was then issued to MacroUSA for the design and development of
two prototype systems, each consisting of one control/display unit and two
small amphibious robots, named Stingray. Technical challenges in the design
include the combination paddle wheel/shock-absorbing wheel, the tradeoff
between impact resistance and buoyancy, and achieving adequate traction
on wet surfaces. This paper describes the technical design of these robots
and the results of subsequent user evaluations by Navy, Coast Guard, andMarine VBSS teams.

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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVI

9084-26, Session 69084-28, Session 7

Counter tunnel exploration, mapping, andlocalization unmanned system

Using infrared cameras to generate range maps
for unmanned vehicle navigation

Jacoby Larson, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific(United States)

Todd Aycock, David B. Chenault, Polaris Sensor Technologies, Inc.
(United States)

Cross-border tunnels present a security vulnerability and creates methodsof entry for people and contraband to illegally enter the United States.
This paper addresses some of the platforms, sensors, and methods used to
explore, map, and localize an unmanned system inside a tunnel environment
for the purposes of characterizing a tunnel and locating the points of egress.

Navigation is a critical subsystem for autonomous and unmanned vehicles,
and a key component to this subsystem is perception. Through the use ofenvironmental sensing, a vehicle must make decisions which can greatly
impact the survivability of the vehicle and success of its overall mission.
Of particular importance for perception are the functions of path finding,obstacle detection and avoidance, and localization. In this paper, the authors
investigate the use of stereo infrared cameras and real-time range mapping
algorithms to augment other sensing techniques in order to enhance thesefunctions in unmanned vehicle applications.

9084-27, Session 6

On the consistency analysis of A-SLAM for UAV
navigation

9084-29, Session 7

Ersan A. Oguz, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey); Hakan
Temeltas, Istanbul Technical Univ. (Turkey)

Infrared stereo calibration for unmanned groundvehicle navigation

UAVs are expected to perform all or part of its mission as autonomous inaccordance with predefined manufacture objectives and pre-request of safe
autonomous navigation. A successful autonomous navigation is based on
detection of the UAV’s location precisely and simultaneous mapping of theenvironment. Nowadays the most common method for location detectionis the use of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). However, it isstill a challenge for researchers to determine the location in GNSS denied
environments. Although new methods are emerging continuously, the mostnotable one is Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), which is agood choice when both UAV’s position and region map are not known.

Josh Harguess, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific(United States); Shawn J. Strange, SAIC (United States)
The problem of calibrating two color cameras as a stereo pair has beenheavily researched and many off-the-shelf software packages, such as
Robot Operating System (ROS), include calibration routines that work inmost cases. However, the problem of calibrating two infrared (IR) cameras
for the purposes of sensor fusion and point cloud generation is relatively
new and many challenges exist. We present an in-depth comparison ofcolor camera and IR camera stereo calibration using ROS and data froman unmanned ground vehicle. We present the following challenges for IR
stereo calibration; calibration patterns, border and pattern detection, image
pre-processing and feature matching for point cloud generation. Finally, we
present our solution and algorithm for IR stereo camera calibration alongwith results and reconstruction errors.

SLAM has been a popular research topic in the field of robotics formany years. Moreover, its applications on land vehicles are still going on
intensively. SLAM is relatively easy to implement in robotics compared toair vehicles. Since robots and land vehicles move at lower speeds in a 2D
area, necessary mathematical model is developed in two dimensions only.
In contrast, UAVs which move much faster than robots or land vehicles
need more complex mathematical models in a 3D environment. This further
complicates the application of SLAM technique on UAVs, which is known as
Airborne SLAM (A-SLAM). Moreover, kinematic model of a UAV results in aset of nonlinear equations which brings additional complexity. Due to thisnonlinearity, Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and Unscented Kalman Filter(UKF) which are available for nonlinear systems are frequently employed.

9084-30, Session 7

A robust method for online stereo camera selfcalibration in unmanned vehicle system

In this study, EKF and UKF based A-SLAM concepts are discussed in details
by presenting the formulations and MATLAB Simulink model with simulation
results. The UAV kinematic model and state-observation models for EKF
and UKF based A-SLAM methods are developed to analyze the filters’
consistencies. Consistency is defined as the correlation between calculated
filter covariance and error. The error is calculated as the difference
between UAVs actual and estimated positions. For a consistent filter, it
is expected that the error decreases as the calculated filter covariancedecreases. However, it is observed that as the iteration goes on, thecalculated filter covariance value diminishes as expected while the error
does not decrease due to the inconsistency of EKF and UKF based A-SLAM
structures. In order to find the root causes of inconsistency, necessary
conditions for consistency of the EKF and UKF based A-SLAM structures
are described and consistencies of the the methods are consequently
investigated by considering these conditions and using simulation results.
The analysis during landmark observation exhibits an inconsistency in theform of a jagged UAV trajectory. It is well known that one of the cause ofinconsistencies is the accumulation of error due structure of Kalman filter.
In addition, in this study it has been found that unobservable subspaces
and jacobien matrices used for linearization are two major sources of theinconsistency observed. Moreover, UKF performs better in terms of filter
consistency since it does not require jacobien matrix linearization. As afuture work, the methods which can be used to increase the consistencies
of EKF and UKF based A-SLAM are proposed for better autonomous UAV
navigation performance.

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Yu Zhao, Hitachi, Ltd. (Japan)
Self-calibration technology of stereo camera system is important for lots ofapplications in particular the unmanned system, where calibration system
is a fundamental technology used to estimate the relative posture of thecameras for environment recognition.
We focused on the issue of recognition accuracy decrease caused by
the vibration of platform. Accordingly, we conducted this research toachieve the on-line self-calibration using feature point’s registration
and robust estimation of fundamental matrix. In conventional method,some registration algorithms such as SIFT, SURF are used to search thecorresponding feature points and RANSAC algorithm is used to estimate theparameter. However three key factors in this respect are still needed to be
improved. Firstly, the feature points detection and registration play a central
role in the self-calibration procedure. However, in the case of utilizing SURF
descriptor registration which is considered as one of the most accurate
descriptor registration methods, the mismatching even exists resulting in
the decrease of estimation accuracy of relative posture. The second, anotherkey factor in this respect is the estimation method for calculating theFundamental Matrix which shows the relative posture of stereo camera. The
conventional estimation method cannot satisfy both the estimation speed
and calibration accuracy at the same tame. The third, it cannot be ignored
that there might be some system intrinsic noises caused by the setup of
stereo camera system as well as other situations. These noises also leadgreatly to the deviation of estimation results.

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Conference 9084:
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In order to improve the calibration accuracy, estimation speed and systemrobustness for the practical implementation, we discuss and analyze thealgorithms to make improvements on the stereo camera system to achieve
on-line self-calibration. Based on the epipolar geometry and 3D images
parallax, two geometry constraints are proposed to make the corresponding
feature points search performed in a small search-range resulting in
the improvement of matching accuracy and searching speed. Then,
two conventional estimation algorithms are analyzed and evaluated for
estimation accuracy and robustness. The third, Rigorous posture calculation
method is proposed with consideration of the relative posture deviation ofeach separated parts in the stereo camera system.
Validation experiments were performed with the stereo camera mounted on
the Pen-Tilt Unit for accurate rotation control and the evaluation shows thatour proposed method is fast and of high accuracy with high robustness foron-line self-calibration algorithm. The posture estimation accuracy is 0.0538
degree in rotation deviation evaluation and 0.46 pixels in epipolar distanceevaluation which has about 4 times higher accuracy than the results of
conventional methods, moreover our estimation is able to perform in nearreal-time. Thus, as the main contribution, we proposed method to solve
the on-line self-calibration fast and accurately, envision the possibility forpractical implementation on unmanned system as well as other environment
recognition systems.

determines the rotation and translation vector required to align bothdatasets. The final alignment is used to calculate the absolute location of
the vehicle. The localization algorithm has been tested with real-world dataand has been able to estimate vehicle geoposition with an average error of
approximately 1.5 m. It is noted that the algorithm’s accuracy performance iscurrently limited by the accuracy and resolution of the aerial orthoimagery
used.
This method can be used in real-time as a complement to the Global
Positioning System (GPS) and Simultaneous Localization and Mapping(SLAM) in areas where signal coverage is inadequate due to attenuation by
the forest canopy, or due to intentional denied access. The method has two
key properties that are significant: i) It does not require a priori knowledgeof the area surrounding the robot. ii) Based on estimated vehicle state,
it uses the geometry of detected tree stems as the only other input todetermine horizontal geoposition.

9084-33, Session 7

Occluded human recognition for a following
leader using 3D range and image data in forest
environment
Kuk Cho, Univ. of Science & Technology (Korea, Republic of);
SeungHo Baeg, Sangdeok Park, Korea Institute of Industrial
Technology (Korea, Republic of)9084-31, Session 7

Investigating clutter reduction for unmannedsystems applications using imaging polarimetry

This paper describes an occluded target recognition method for a leaderfollowing system using 3D range and image data of an autonomous vehicle
in forest environment. 3D range data shows remarkable performance forreal-time object detection in a complex environment. Unfortunately, 3D
range data has a difficulty in segmenting close encounters with multiple
objects. It is one of key problems to easily lose a target, a leader, in a leaderfollowing system for an autonomous vehicle in forest environment. In a casewith an occlusion scenario, we show how to efficiently handle splitting andmerging objects. In our approach, the ROI (region of interest) of object
candidates are extracted from LIDAR sensor and then the two synchronized
data, one from LIDAR and the other from camera, are classified into humanand tree objects according to features and classifiers. There are two targetassociation situations in forest environment; tree-human and human-human.
In tree-human association, 3D LIDAR information is able to deal withidentification of human and tree objects. On the other hand, in humanhuman association, this ability of LIDAR sensor is not enough performance.
The local features of image data give information to cover data association
to the same objects. The classification method of LIDAR is working with the
combination of NPR (the number of points in a rectangle) and Adaboost,
our previous research. The time sequence object matching uses a SIFT
(scale invariant feature transform) algorithm in previous extracted ROI. The
fusion of each processing results is integrated by Bayesian estimation forrecognizing human and tree objects as well as the multi-class classification
mechanism is introduced. The propose method is evaluated by forest
environment dataset for a leader-following system. Based on the processing,
we get each object likelihood of both LIDAR and camera for the further
processing of human and tree recognition.

Jonathan Hanks, Todd Aycock, David B. Chenault, Polaris Sensor
Technologies, Inc. (United States)
The proliferation of unmanned systems in recent years has sparked
increased interest in multiple areas of research for on-board image
processing including autonomous navigation, surveillance, detection, andtracking to name a few. For these applications, techniques for reducing
scene clutter provide an increased level of robustness for autonomous
systems and reduced operator burden for teleoperated systems. Because
imaging polarimetry frequently provides complementary information to
the standard radiometric image, it is anticipated that this technology iswell suited to provide a significant reduction in scene clutter. In this paper,
the authors investigate the use of imaging polarimetry under a numberof representative scenarios to assess the utility of this technology for
unmanned system applications.

9084-32, Session 7

Absolute localization of ground robots bymatching lidar and image data in dense forested
environments
Marwan Hussein, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Matthew Renner, U.S. Army Engineer Research andDevelopment Ctr. (United States); Karl Iagnemma, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (United States)
A vision-based method for the autonomous geolocation of ground vehicles
in forested environments is presented. The method provides an estimateof the global horizontal position of a vehicle strictly based on finding ageometric match between a map of observed tree stems, scanned in 3D
by Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensors onboard the vehicle, toanother stem map generated from the structure of tree crowns analyzed
from high resolution aerial orthoimagery of the forest canopy. Estimationof stems from 3D data is achieved by using Support Vector Machine (SVM)
classifiers and height above ground filters that separate ground points
from vertical stem features. Estimation of stems from overhead imagery
is achieved by calculating the centroids of tree crowns extracted using
a watershed segmentation algorithm. Matching of the two stem maps isachieved by using a robust Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm that180

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Conference 9084:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVI

9084-34, Session 7

A fast and robust plane detection method from
3D-lidar data
Hakan Temeltas, Istanbul Technical Univ. (Turkey); Cihan Ulas,
TUBITAK UME (Turkey)
In this paper, we introduce a fast and robust plane detection method thatcombines the Multi-Layered Normal Distributions Transform (ML-NDT) anda feature extraction algorithm into a single framework. This is achieved
by first applying the conventional Normal Distributions Transform (NDT)
generation process to the reference scan to divide the point cloud into
regular cells. This step is also known as discretization or splitting process.
After the discretization process, planar segments of each cell are detectedby first finding the inliers of a plane via RANSAC algorithm. In our study,
performance of RANSAC method is also increased by integrating a Least
Entropy Like (LAL) Estimators. Therefore the RANSAC method gains
robustness for outliers that severely influence the method. After finding
the infinite plane parameters, the convex hull or the minimum rectangularbounding box of the planes are computed. Both convex hull and minimum
bounding box computation is based on the projection of the inlier plane
points into a plane. After finding the correct transformation, the planesegments are merged by using dynamic region growing algorithm to getlarge planes as landmarks. Detected planes are merged with respect tosatisfaction of orientation, translation and closeness tests. During the plane
detection process several useful properties such as plane normal vector,
center of gravity, convex hull points, covariance matrix, number of inliers in
the plane and plane area can be computed.
Thus, the proposed method provides three significant advantages withrespect to conventional methods. The first one is that the proposed method
is more robust to outliers since it is based on the matching of certain
geometric structures. The second one is that the registration step is much
faster because the number of points to be matched is very less with respect
to all scanned points. Therefore, this process can be considered as a special
sampling strategy. Finally, it is showed that the extracted planes can also
be used in feature based probabilistic 3D-SLAM methods. Since the planesegments are already registered, the data association problem can be easily
solved even without any odometer measurement. This can be considered as
the most powerful part of the algorithm because data association problem
in three dimensions is quite difficult problem. As a result, on the one hand, it
is obtained a robust and fast scan matching; on the other hand, it is possible
to extend the method for feature extraction algorithm in SLAM problems
with a little extra computation. The method has been experimentally applied
to 3D images acquired by a 3D-Lidar and it is shown that the results arequite satisfied.

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Conference 9085:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9085 Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII

9085-1, Session 1

9085-3, Session 1

Effects of star crossings on the detection of dim
objects in orbit and mitigation strategies for
improving detection

FalconSAT-7: a membrane space telescope

Stephen C. Cain, Air Force Institute of Technology (United States)

The USAF Academy Department of Physics is building FalconSAT-7, amembrane solar telescope to be deployed from a 3U CubeSat in LEO. The
primary optic is a 0.2m photon sieve – a diffractive element consisting ofbillions of tiny holes in an otherwise opaque polymer sheet. The membrane,
its support structure, secondary optics, two imaging cameras and associatedcontrol/recording electronics are all packaged within half the CubeSat
volume. Once in space the supporting pantograph structure is deployed,
pulling the membrane flat under tension. The telescope will then be steered
towards the Sun to gather images at H-alpha for transmission to the ground.

Geoff P. Andersen, Olha V. Asmolova, Thomas Dickinson, U.S. Air
Force Academy (United States)

The detection of dim objects in and around the Earth is an important space
situational awareness function, in that these objects might be uncataloged
space debris, micro-satellites or even small asteroids that could be a threat
to our national infrastructure. Detection of dim objects is a challenging task,
but the presence of brighter objects in the vicinity makes their detection
even more challenging. In this paper the effect of nearby stars on simple
point detection algorithms is demonstrated. This analysis shows how
bright objects degrade the performance of simple space object detection
algorithms that rely on calculations of the local background statistics aroundthe pixel being tested.
The paper also shows how normality tests can be employed for mitigating
the effects of star crossings on the detection of dim objects in space bydetecting outliers from the background and removing them from the local
background statistics calculation. Although the data itself does not possessa Gaussian distribution, the joint log-likelihood of the data should possessa near normal distribution. By computing the joint log-likelihood of the
background data pixels, outlier data points can be determined as those thatmake the log-likelihood non-Gaussian. In this way outliers in the backgroundcan be identified and removed from the estimate of the local noise variance.
The new outlier rejection scheme is tested in simulation and with measured
astronomical data to determine the degree to which it enhances thedetection of dimly lit space objects.

9085-2, Session 1

Using ATCOM to enhance long-range imagery
collected by NASA’s flight test tracking cameras
at Dryden Flight Research CenterPetersen F. Curt, Aaron L. Paolini, EM Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates); David Tow, NASA Dryden Flight Research Ctr. (UnitedStates); Eric J. Kelmelis, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Located at Edwards Air Force Base, Dryden Flight Research Center (DFRC)
is NASA’s premier site for aeronautical research and operates some of themost advanced aircraft in the world. As such, flight tests for advancedmanned and unmanned aircraft are regularly performed there. All such tests
are tracked through advanced electro-optic imaging systems to monitor
the flight status in real-time and to archive the data for later analysis. This
necessitates the collection of imagery from long-range camera systemsof fast moving targets from a significant distance away. Such imagery is
severely degraded due to the atmospheric turbulence between the camera
and the object of interest. The result is imagery that becomes blurred andsuffers a substantial reduction in contrast, causing significant detail in thevideo to be lost.
ATCOM technology developed by EM Photonics has shown the ability to
mitigate the effects of such turbulence on imagery. Working with NASA,
we have developed a demonstration device capable of processing datacollected by DFRC’s flight tracking cameras and enhancing it in order toregain image quality to effectively reach the theoretical diffraction limit of
the imaging system. In this paper, we will describe the challenges of imaging
in these conditions, how we were able to enhance collected video throughimage processing, and the design of a system capable of performing thisprocessing in real time.

Due for launch in 2015, FalconSAT-7 will serve as a pathfinder for future
surveillance missions. We are currently investigating two possible options
optimized for Earth observing and SSA, with a preliminary design consistingof a 0.3m aperture deployed from a 12U satellite. Such a telescope would becapable of providing sub-meter resolution of ground or space-based objects
depending on the orbital characteristics.

9085-4, Session 1

Integrated RF/optical space surveillance sensor
Claudia Knez, David Copeland, David Patrone, Norman Adams,
Joseph Hennawy, Eric Melin, William Dove, Johns Hopkins Univ.
Applied Physics Lab. (United States)
At present, space surveillance relies on telescope and active RF (radar)sensors for object identification, tracking, and characterization. While
successful at tracking any manner of objects accurately, radar installations
for space surveillance are large and complex installations. Telescopes
are also very successful at tracking, but rely on additional information tofind the orbit solution, and provide limited information on the target’s
operational behavior. Passive RF sensors can monitor targets that are
actively transmitting in order to provide information lacking in the optical
data. An antenna of modest size provides sufficient signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) for signal identification and Doppler tracking. The downlink
characteristics of a space object are a critical component to its behavior.
The detection and monitoring of these characteristics provide direct, uniqueobservables toward an object’s operation that are not available from atelescope or radar. The observables include the frequencies at which ittransmits, time(s) of transmission, and data-rate of downlink.
Current space surveillance systems do not tightly integrate RF and opticalsensors. Such integration would allow the two domains (RF and optical) tobenefit from the strengths of each:1) A target detected in either domain can quickly be tracked andcharacterized in both;2) For optically faint objects, the use of RF tracking allows the telescope to
use longer integration times without needing an accurate ephemeris;3) A continuous track can be maintained on a target that transmits
intermittently; the RF sensor could rely on the optical sensor for tracking
information during periods of no emission, allowing the RF sensor tocharacterize the intermittent behavior;
4) An RF sensor can track in adverse weather while an optical sensor canmaintain track during RF interference.
A modest sized RF antenna coupled with a small aperture telescope could
be deployed in the field as a distributed network of sensors. Current or
decommissioned telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) ground stations
could also be re-tasked as space surveillance sensors, in addition to theircommunications mission.
We explore and demonstrate the integration of passive RF and optical space

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Conference 9085:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII
surveillance sensor capability, using the ground station antennas of the
Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) Satellite Communication Facility (SCF)
and the APL 24-in optical telescope. The integrated sensor provides a multidimensional set of observables for transmitting space objects, enabling
intelligent analysis to determine a target’s mission and intent. We havetracked objects with both the telescope and an SCF antenna using closedloop tracking on the SCF antenna. We have observed multiple satellites in aconstellation to determine their pattern of life of each of the targets.

obtained for both coherent sources (TE/TM plane wave illumination) and
incoherent sources (thermal excitation). Directional and hemispherical
spectral emittances were calculated from light and dark field spectroscopy,
while bulk optical properties were extracted from ellipsometry and x-ray
diffraction. Benefits and barriers to application for spacecraft thermal
control are discussed.

9085-5, Session 1

Chalcogenide glass thin-film optics for infraredapplications in space

9085-7, Session 2

SUCHI: the space ultra-compact hyperspectral
imager for a small satellite

Janardan Nath, Deep Panjwani, Douglas Maukonen, Robert E. Peale,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States); J. David Musgraves, Peter F.
Wachtel, Jennifer M. McKinley, IRradiance Glass, Inc. (United States)

Sarah T. Crites, Paul G. Lucey, Robert Wright, Univ. of Hawai’i(United States); Jason T. Akagi, Spectrum Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Jeremy Chan, Harold Garbeil, Keith Horton, Amber Imai,Mark Wood, Lance Yoneshige, Univ. of Hawai’i (United States)

Chalcogenide glasses are increasingly used in infrared systems for space
applications due to their relatively low density (compared to Ge or ZnSe),
tunable spectral and thermo-mechanical properties, and molding capability.
Remaining challenges include their application to thin-film optics andcoatings and their potential susceptibility to radiation damage in thespace environment. The high refractive indices of chalcogenide glasses (n> 2.7) suggest the possibility for high reflecting (HR) coatings based on
few periods of alternating layers with high index contrast. For instance,
a quarter wave Bragg stack with 98% reflection in the wavelength range
4.3 - 5.3 microns requires just 5 periods of AsSe glass alternating with
Al2O3. Investigation of thin film deposition by thermal or electron-beam
evaporation and rf-sputtering, and the measured properties of the resulting
HR films, will be discussed. Compositional design of chalcogenide glass
substrates for space optics will be presented, together with results of
exposure to radiation in near-space at an altitude of 30 km.

The primary payload on the University of Hawaii-built ‘HiakaSat’ microsatellite will be the Space Ultra Compact Hyperspectral Imager (SUCHI).
SUCHI is a low-mass (<9kg), low-volume (10x10x36 cm3) long wave
infrared hyperspectral imager designed and built at the University of
Hawaii. SUCHI is based on a variable-gap Fabry-Perot interferometer
employed as a Fourier transform spectrometer with images collected by acommercial 320x256 microbolometer array. The microbolometer cameraand vacuum-sensitive electronics are contained within a sealed vessel at
1 atm. SUCHI will collect spectral radiance data from 8 to 14 microns anddemonstrate the potential of this instrument for geological studies fromorbit (e.g. mapping of major rock-forming minerals) and volcanic hazard
observation and assessment (e.g. quantification of volcanic sulfur dioxide
pollution and lava flow cooling rates). The sensor has been integrated withthe satellite which will launch on the Office of Responsive Space ORS-4
mission scheduled for 2014. The primary mission will last 6 months, withextended operations anticipated for approximately 2 years. A follow-on
mission has been proposed to perform imaging of Earth’s surface in the 3-5
micron range with a field of view of 5 km with 5.25 m sampling (from a 350
km orbit). The 19-kg proposed instrument will be a prototype sensor for aconstellation of small satellites for Earth imaging. The integrated satellite
properties will be incorporated into the Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory’s
constellation maintenance software environment COSMOS (Comprehensive
Open-architecture Space Mission Operations System) to ease future
implementation of the instrument as part of a constellation.

9085-8, Session 2

AE9/AP9/SPM: new models for radiation belt andspace plasma specification
W. Robert Johnston, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); T.
Paul O’Brien, The Aerospace Corp. (United States); Stuart L. Huston,
Atmospheric and Environmental Research, Inc. (United States);
Gregory P. Ginet, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Timothy B. Guild,
The Aerospace Corp. (United States); Judy Fennelly, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

9085-6, Session 2

A new set of models for the flux of particles in the Earth’s innermagnetosphere has been developed for use in space system design andother applications requiring a climatological specification. Denoted AE9,
AP9, and SPM for energetic electrons, energetic protons and space plasma,
respectively, the models comprise 30 independent data sets measured bysatellite on-board sensors. These data sets have been processed in a manner
to create maps of the particle fluxes together with estimates of uncertainties
due to both imperfect measurements and space weather variability.
Furthermore, the model architecture permits the Monte-Carlo estimationof the time evolution of fluxes and derived quantities, e.g. the median and95th percentile, along an arbitrary orbit. An overview of the model will bepresented, addressing in particular the latest AE9/AP9 version release.

Morphological analysis and characterization of
directional emission structures for spacecraft
thermal control
Bryan Adomanis, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Sub-wavelength plasmonic structures have recently shown great promise
for absorption of energy in the infrared regime due to their high field
localization around the plasmonic inclusion. The resulting emission canbe dictated through the morphology of the structure. In this work, several
plasmonic structure architectures were simulated and characterized in
the thermal infrared band for their ability to achieve “by design” controlof the spatial component of the emittance pattern. This control produces
nulls in the pattern which would prevent unwanted thermal loading fromthe environment and surrounding spacecraft structures while enablingheat rejection to desirable regions, such as deep space. Represented
architectures are metallized gratings, layered thin films, and 2-D and 3-Darrays of absorbers with metallic or dielectric substrates. Morphologicalconsiderations, such as the inclusion and host geometries, structure
dimension and array periodicity, were analyzed for how they influenced
the overall shape of the emittance pattern. The structures were simulatedusing finite-element and finite-difference time domain methods, with results

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9085-9, Session 3

A space dual-sensor for Earth flux measurements
Irbah Abdanour, Mustapha Meftah, LATMOS (France)
The Earth’s radiation budget was one of the earliest space scientificmissions of Earth-orbiting satellites. Since 1960, several space missions weredeveloped for global measurements of the Earth’s thermal emission, thesolar radiation reflected from Earth and the energy incoming from the Sun.

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Conference 9085:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII
These space missions require however, significant investments. We havedeveloped a method to achieve Earth flux measurements analyzing the data
provided by a simple dual sensor placed on a satellite moving on a Low
Earth Sun-synchronous orbit. This sensor allows then the measurements of
the outgoing long-wave radiations and the short-wave radiations. This paper
presents this model and the results deduced from our analysis. This kind of
sensor may be in the future, embedded on nano-satellites taking advantageof this new promising technology.

are expensive and/or unreliable in a number of situations, and GPS can beeasily denied or spoofed using inexpensive hardware. Therefore, a different
sensing technique which utilizes information not susceptible to these same
vulnerabilities is desirable. In this paper, the authors investigate the use of asky polarization sensor to determine absolute heading in order to enhanceor augment navigation capabilities in unmanned vehicle applications.

9085-10, Session 3

Membrane based thermoelectric sensor array forspace debris detection

Development of a spherical aerial vehicle forlunar exploration
Kang Hou, Hanxu Sun, Qingxuan Jia, Yanheng Zhang, Beijing Univ.
of Posts and Telecommunications (China)
SAV (small aerial vehicle) is one of the hottest research fields in robotics
because of its low cost, operational environment, and small size. It is a kindof person-portable aircraft which has flexible movement in the relatively
small areas. Spherical aerial vehicle is a new and novel kind of small aerial
vehicles in the last few years. Compared to other small aerial vehicles,
spherical air vehicle has significant advantages due to its special structure.
It has a spherical hollow shell to protect the propeller, motor systems,
all control circuits, and power supply devices inside. And the sphericalshell should be made to result in little loss of rotor system aerodynamic
efficiency. Due to the characteristics of its structure, the spherical air vehicle
can effectively protect its inner parts with the spherical shell when thevehicle lands on the ground in any posture. In this paper, the spherical aerial
vehicle and its aerodynamics model is presented and studied. Firstly, theunique structure and features of spherical aerial vehicle are introduced indetail. And then the aerodynamics theory based on this vehicle’s structure
is analyzed, and the equations of force and moment acting on the sphericalaerial vehicle were deduced. Due to the above analysis, the aerodynamics
model based on the unique structure features of spherical aerial vehicle isestablished and derived to get the relationship between the aircraft physicalparameters and the aerodynamics parameters. At last, the simulations andexperimental results are provided to confirm the feasibility of the sphericalaerial vehicle’s aerodynamics theory and model.

9085-12, Session 3

Frank Hänschke, Ernst Kessler, Andreas Ihring, Hans-Georg
Meyer, Institut für Photonische Technologien e.V. (Germany);
Karl D. Bunte, Christian Herbst, etamax space GmbH (Germany);
Matthias Mohaupt, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Optik
und Feinmechanik (Germany); Torsten Fichna, Technische Univ.
Braunschweig (Germany); Daniel Hagedorn, Physikalisch-Technische
Bundesanstalt (Germany)In this paper we present a newly designed highly sensitive impact detector
array with 16 pixels for a space debris and micro-meteoroid detector.
The human made space debris in the low earth orbit becomes more andmore an increasing risk for space missions, which includes the total mission
loss. For risk analyses and for the development of highly effective shields it
is necessary to have a profound knowledge about the properties of theseparticles like the mass, the velocity and the trajectory.
The thermopile sensor array, which was developed in the project, consists of
16 miniaturized multijunction thermopile sensors made by modern thin-film
technology on Si wafers. Each thermopile sensor consists of 100 radiallyarranged junction pairs formed from evaporated antimony and bismuth thinfilms. The centrally located active (hot) junctions comprise the active areaof 1 mm?. The output e.m.f. of the sensor is proportional to the temperature
difference between the active and the reference junctions. The thermopile
requires no cooling and no bias voltage or current for operation. It generates
no 1/f noise but only the thermal resistance (Nyquist) noise. The sensor canbe used for DC and low frequency AC measurements.

In this paper, the dynamic models based on the unique structure featuresand control characteristics are derived, and the relative control methods forthis air vehicleare proposed. First, to complete the six degrees of freedomof movement for spherical aircraft in the air, the aircraft structure andsteering direction control system are designed; then, based on the theories
of rigid body dynamics and aerodynamics, the dynamics of the sphericalaircraft are analyzed, and the equations of force and moment acting on theaircraft were deduced and its dynamic model is established. Based on theabove kinetic model, the model of aircraft motion control is established andlinearized to get the relationship between the aircraft physical parameters
and the dynamic stability. Experiment result shows that the aerodynamic
models and control methods is available performance, to facilitate themovement of hovering for spherical aircraft.

The impact energy of micro sized particles is measured by a calorimetricprinciple. This means that the kinetic energy of the particle is converted
into heat by hitting the absorbing foil, which is glued on the surface of themembrane area.

9085-11, Session 3

Gerardo Martinez, Ravshan Rustamov, Armando Munoz, Ou Ma,
New Mexico State Univ. (United States)

This setup in combination with a preceded velocity detector allows
measuring the most interesting particle quantities mass, velocity andtrajectory.

9085-13, Session 3

Flight test of a flight-in-flight suborbital payload
concept

Using sky polarization to localize and navigate in
GPS-denied environments
Todd Aycock, Art Lompado, Polaris Sensor Technologies, Inc.
(United States)
Localization is critical to navigation functions of autonomous and unmanned
vehicles. For most vehicles, roll and pitch are measured accurately throughinertial measurement units (IMUs) and altitude is measured accurately withan altimeter. Compasses (or other heading measurement devices) and the
Global Positioning System (GPS) are necessary to accurately determine avehicle’s latitude, longitude, and heading. Incidentally, these localization
parameters are the most important in many vehicles, particularly landand sea-based platforms. However, accurate absolute heading sensors

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We have been developing new robotics-based technology for identifying
the inertia parameters (mass, mass center location, and moments of inertia)
of a spacecraft or satellite in orbit. Test of such technology requires anorbit-like full 3D or 6 DOFs (degrees of freedom), smooth microgravity
environment but such an environment is very difficult to obtain inlaboratory. The research team tried to test the technology using parabolic
flights provided by NASA but the results were not satisfactory because themicrogravity condition generated by the parabolic flight was not only too
short (about 15~20 seconds) but also non-smooth. Therefore, we proposed
to test the technology using suborbital flight which can provide smoothmicrogravity condition for 200 or more seconds. However, suborbital flightposes new challenges in comparison with the parabolic flight because
a suborbital flight experiment must be operated autonomously and theavailable experimental space within the vehicle is much smaller. To deal withwww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9085:
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the new challenges and maximize the mission success, the research teamproposed a two-flight approach. The first flight is to test a flight-in-flight
payload capability and the second flight is to test the robotics-based inertia
identification technology. Obviously, the second flight will be built on the
success and experience of the first flight. This paper reports test flight which
was just lunched with the Up Aerospace’s Spaceloft XL vehicle from theSpaceport America on November 12, 2013. It was a successful flight.

system, focal plane array (FPA), Read Out Integrated Circuit (ROIC), andcryogenic system. This paper will not only discuss the physics behind theperformance of the sensor, but it will also discuss the “art” of optimizing
the performance of the sensor given the top level performance parameters.
The balancing of these Seeker systems is key to their performance in thesehighly stressful missions. The top level performance requirements impact
the choice of lower level hardware and requirements. This paper will discuss
the flow down of requirements to the lower level hardware. This flow down
directly impact the FPA and careful selection of FPA is required. The flow
down influences FPA material choice and cooling requirements. This paper
will discuss the key physics behind the detector and cryogenic systeminteractions and the pit falls for system performance. Finally, the overallsystem balance and optimization will be discussed in the context of Missile
Defense Seekers and expected performance of the overall kill vehicle.

The flight-in-flight payload is a special payload which has a “flying unit”(mimicking a spacecraft or another orbital object) flying or floating within
a compartment space of the payload during the microgravity phase of
the suborbital flight. Due to the special way a suborbital launch and flight
operate, the flight-in-flight payload must have the following basic functions:
1) Secures the flying unit to its base during the launch phase2) Ejects the tethered flying unit to let it free flying within the compartmentof the payload when microgravity occurs

9085-16, Session 3

3) Pulls the flying unit back toward its base before the microgravity about
to finish;

Study of human arm motion strategy for a robotic
capture of a fast moving and/or tumbling object

4) Secure the flying unit to its base for landing5) Measure and record the motion state of the flying unit throughout theentire flight duration for post-launch analysis.

Lin Zhang, Zheng Wei, Ou Ma, Igor Dolgov, New Mexico State Univ.
(United States)

All of these functions must be performed automatically because no manual
operations are allowed in a suborbital flight. The paper will describe thedesign, the pre-launch tests, and the flight test result of these functions.

Many orbital objects such as malfunctioning satellites or orbital debris are
spinning or tumbling in their orbits. The most risky operation of a satellite
on-orbit service (OOS) mission would be the capture of a tumbling satellite.
For example, the original planned capture of the slowly spinning Intelsat
VI by one astronaut in the Space Shuttle’s STS-49 mission not only failed
but also caused the satellite to tumble (and thus more difficult to capture
thereafter). After a second attempt with two astronauts also failed, NASA
had to deploy a record-set 3-astronaut team and worked more than eight
hours to finally capture and de-tumble the satellite. Due to the limitationsof existing robotics technology, such a challenging task cannot be done bya robotic arm. On the other hand, most future OOS missions will have to
be done by robots simply because EVAs are unavailable in most missions,especially in GEO orbits or deep space environments. Therefore, we arehighly motivated to develop new technology for reliably capturing tumbling
objects in orbit.

9085-14, Session 3

Constrained orbital intercept evasion
Aleksandar Zatezalo, Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (United States);
Dusan M. Stipanovic, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates); Raman K. Mehra, Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (UnitedStates); Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
An effective characterization of intercept-evasion confrontations invarious space environments and a derivation of corresponding solutions
considering a variety of real-world constraints is a daunting theoreticaland practical challenge. Current and future space-based platforms haveto simultaneously operate as a part of satellite formations and/or systems
and at the same time, have a capability to evade potential collisions withother maneuver constrained space objects. In this article, we formulate andnumerically approximate solutions of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) interceptmaneuver problem in terms of game-theoretic capture-evasion guaranteed
strategies. The space intercept-evasion approach is based on Liapunov
methodology that is already demonstrated on a set of air and ground based
multi-player multi-goal game/control applications. The corresponding
numerical algorithms are derived using computationally efficient andorbital propagator independent methods that are previously developed
for Space Situational Awareness (SSA). This game theoretical but in thesame time robust and practical approach is demonstrated on a realistic LEO
scenario using existing Two Line Element Sets (TLEs) and Simplified General
Perturbation-4 (SGP-4) propagator.

When comes to capturing a fast moving and/or rotating object, a humantends to do much better than a robot arm unless the motion trajectory of
the object is known to the robot in advance. This inspired us to study humancapture behavior, hoping what we learned from human can be applied toa robot to improve its capture skills. We performed a set of human capturetasks and analyzed the 3D test data recorded by a 10-camera motion
capture system. The analysis revealed that humans, like many other animals,
used a strategy of controlling the time-to-contact (TTC) to approach themoving object for capture. Although different humans tended to havevery different arm-approach paths, everyone used the same TTC strategy
that was: closing the gap between the approaching hand and the object
following the same exponential time function. This is consistent with what
has been discovered by biologists from observing the approach-andcapture behavior of many animals, which is known as the Tau principle.
What we have found was that the original Tau model is a simplified linear
form of a more accurate nonlinear model. We are still performing further
experimental study to reveal the nonlinear nature of the Tau model. On theother hand, we are conducting a simulation study where our experimentally
generated Tau model is applied to a 6-joint manipulator as a guidance
strategy to control the robot to reach and catch a fast swing pendulum ball.
The dynamic simulation demonstrated that the robot can robustly reach andcapture the swing ball even when the swing motion varies from time to time(by changing the mass of the ball and the length of the pendulum string).
The paper will describes the study results and also explain how this newtechnology can be applied to a space robot for capturing a tumbling object
in orbit.

9085-15, Session 3

The art and science of missile defense seeker
designBrian K. McComas, Raytheon Missile Systems (United States)
A Missile Defense Seeker is a complex optical system which sits idle forlong periods of time and must work with little or no on-board calibration,
be used to find and discriminate targets, and guide the kill vehicle to thetarget within minutes of launch. This paper will provide a short overview
of the Missile Defense problem and will discuss the top level performance
drivers (like Noise Equivalent Irradiance (NEI), Acquisition Range, andDynamic Range) which influence the design of these systems. These
top level parameters influence the choice of optical system, mechanical185+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9085:
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9085-17, Session 3

Validation and comparison of two varying
subspace-based trajectory optimization methods
in a vision-based ground robot testbed
Ni Li, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Robert SiVilli, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); Yunjun Xu, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States); Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Trajectory planning is an important topic in the area of autonomous robot
research; however, finding an optimal trajectory considering dynamic
constraints is still challenging. A bio-inspired varying manifold method has
been investigated recently to solve this type of problem.

9085-19, Session 4

A resilient and secure software platform andarchitecture for distributed spacecraft

A vision-based robot testbed is recently designed, developed, and used
to test new optimal trajectory planning optimization. The positions ofobstacles and robots are located using a webcam hanging on the ceilingof the testbed. The test settings are random generated, including the initialand final position of robots, and the distribution of obstacles. The CPUcomputational times and arrival times are recorded and compared in eachcase. Two recently developed methods, based on the “local pursuit” and“motion camouflage” predator-prey relations are tested. It is shown that (1)both methods can generate feasible obstacle free trajectories with a highsuccess rate; and (2) the success rate in finding optimal solutions using the
local pursuit inspired method is relatively higher than that of the motion
camouflage inspired method.

Abhishek Dubey, Gabor Karsai, William Otte, Vanderbilt Univ.
(United States)
A fractionated spacecraft is a cluster of independent satellite modules
flying in formation that communicate via ad-hoc wireless networks. Thissystem in space is a ‘cloud platform’ that facilitates sharing sensors andother computing and communication resources across multiple applications,potentially developed and maintained by different organizations. Effectively,
such architecture can realize the functions of monolithic satellites at a
reduced cost and with improved adaptivity and robustness.
Such space-based sensor architectures pose unique challenges to softwaredevelopers because of the highly distributed nature of the applications,the resource constraints, and the dynamic network. These problems arecompounded if the goal is to provide an open, distributed computing
platform that runs applications from different security domains andorganizations, and where information flows have to be carefully managed
and compartmentalized. If the platform is used as a robust shared resource
its management, configuration, and resilience becomes a challenge in itself.

9085-18, Session 4

SecureCPS: preventing attacks on a nanosatellite
propulsion system
Lance A. Forbes, Global InfoTek, Inc. (United States); Bogdan
Udrea, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical Univ. (United States); Xenofon
Koutsoukos, Vanderbilt Univ. (United States); Hamilton Hagar,
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical Univ. (United States); Huy Vu, Global
InfoTek, Inc. (United States); Mark Yampolskiy, Peter Horvath,
Vanderbilt Univ. (United States)

To address these requirements, our team has designed and prototyped
a novel software platform. The core element of the platform is a new
operating system whose services were designed to restrict access tothe network and the file system, and to enforce resource management
constraints for all non-privileged processes. Mixed-criticality applications
operating at different security labels are deployed and controlled by aprivileged management process that is also pre-configuring all information
flows. Resource constraints are addressed by strict temporal and spatial
partitioning and a resource quota system, while access to physical resources,
including payload modules, is controlled by multi-level security policies.

Maneuvering thrusters have traditionally allowed large satellites todramatically increase the range of missions they can accomplish. Now,
inexpensive nanosatellite designs plan to employ maneuvering thrusters
for similar purposes. Unfortunately, if their command and control system
is compromised, even the smallest nanosatellite can become a threat tospace-based High-Value Assets (HVA). Securing nanosatellites which
require a maneuvering capability is challenging due to extreme cost, size,and power constraints inherent in a nanosatellite design. However, because
a nanosatellite can threaten an HVA, it must provide a level of security
typically reserved for an HVA, at least for the functionality of a nanosatellitethat might threaten an HVA.

9085-20, Session 4

Cyber threat impact assessment and analysis forspace vehicle architectures

Similar problems are prevalent in many other systems that combine
propulsion systems and computer control, such as automobiles, trains,
and aircraft. As a result, providing a low-cost architecture to secure ananosatellite propulsion system against cyber attack, would also benefit abroad class of cyber-physical systems (CPS).

Robert M. McGraw, RAM Labs. (United States)

For this research we focus on the ARAPAIMA nanosatellite architecture.
We also assume any off-the-shelf component used in ARAPAIMA could
be compromised (e.g., supply chain attack). Based on these assumptions,
we analyze how attacks can propagate in the ARAPAIMA architecture.
The systematic approach used for this analysis is presented along with the
Cyber-Physical Attack Description Language (CP-ADL) used to describe theattack scenarios.
The SecureCPS architecture we propose to secure ARAPAIMA is divided into
three main components. First, a low-cost radiation hardened trusted module
provides the “root of trust” from which all trusted operations derive theirapproval to operate. In this paper we describe the properties of this module.

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SPIE DSS 2014

Second, we extend security from the trusted module into the ARAPAIMA
architecture using Global InfoTek Inc.’s Automated Malware Analysis System(GAMAS). GAMAS validates each binary prior to execution using a low-level
driver and library of known-good checksums. GAMAS also provides lowlevel instrumentation to support our machine learning component. To ensure
GAMAS can be trusted, each instance is validated by the trusted module
on a recurring basis. Third, past history shows known good software canperform malicious actions, so we employ machine learning to learn models
of normal behavior on the ground, so we can identify abnormal behavior
in orbit. This paper describes the SecureCPS architecture, the individualcomponents of SecureCPS, and how CP-ADL will support scenario-based
testing of the entire SecureCPS system.

·

This paper covers research into an assessment of potential impacts andtechniques to detect and mitigate cyber attacks that affect the networks
and control systems of space vehicles. Such systems, if subverted bymalicious insiders, external hackers and/or supply chain threats, can becontrolled in a manner to cause physical damage to the space platforms.
Similar attacks on Earth-borne supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) or control systems include the Shamoon, Duqu, Flame and Stuxnet
viruses. These have been used to bring down foreign power generation andrefining systems. This paper will discuss the potential impacts of similar
cyber attacks on space-based platforms through the use of simulation
models, including custom models developed in Python using SimPy andcommercial SATCOM analysis tools such as STK/SOLIS.
The paper will discuss the architecture and fidelity of the simulation modelthat has been developed for performing the impact assessment. The

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Conference 9085:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII
prototype is further examined. This conceptual capability will potentially
support space situation monitoring and tracking, object identification,and threat assessment. Lastly, the benefits of a more granular and flexible
cloud computing resources allocation are illustrated for data processing
and implementation considerations within a representative SSA system
environment.

paper will go on to walk through the application of an attack vector at thesubsystem level and how it affects the control and orientation of the spacevehicle. SimPy will be used to model and extract raw impact data at thesubsystem sensor level, while STK/SOLIS will be used to visually display theeffect on the physical plant of the space vehicle.
The paper will go on to discuss mitigation methods, including a Cyber
Physical Sentry (CP Sentry) solution being developed by RAM Laboratories
and Auburn University. This solution continuously monitors and assesses
subsystem sensor and internal state metrics while detecting anomalous
behavior consistent with the execution of the attack vector.

9085-23, Session 4

Securing resource constraints embedded devices
using elliptic curve cryptography9085-21, Session 4

Mohammad Mozumdar, Tony Tam, Mohamed Alfasi, California State
Univ., Long Beach (United States)

Building space operations resiliency with a multitier mission architecture

The use of smart embedded device has been growing rapidly in recent time
because of miniaturization of sensors and platforms. Securing data fromthese embedded devices is now become one of the core challenges bothin industry and research community. Being embedded, these devices havetight constraints on resources such as power, computation, memory, etc.
Hence it is very difficult to implement traditional public key encryption into
these resource constraint embedded devices. Identity Based Encryption(IBE) is a form of asymmetric cryptography like RSA (Rivest-ShamirAdleman). However, unlike RSA which requires both public and private key
to be generated together, IBE allows a public key to be generated from anarbitrary string and that the private key is generated later on demand. While
IBE has been actively studied and widely applied in cryptography research,
conventional IBE primitives are also computationally demanding and cannot
be efficiently implemented on embedded device. Simplified version of
the identity based encryption (IBE-Lite) has proven its competence being
robust and also satisfying tight budget of the resources. In this paper, we
described the choice of several parameters in the IBE-Lite scheme, andthe implementation of the encryption in an embedded sensor node. Our
implementation of IBE-Lite is built upon elliptic curve cryptography (ECC), a
public key primitive suitable for resource constraint embedded system.

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A variety of naturally occurring (e.g., solar activity) and other (e.g.,deliberate attack, residual space object impact) risk factors exist for orbital
assets. While some risk sources are predictable (e.g., via solar activity
projection, object tracking) others can occur without notice (e.g., antisatellite attack, impact by piece of space junk below the tracking threshold).
Resiliency to these types of perils can be created via spacecraft hardening
or redundancy. While hardening can prevent certain levels and formsof some known risk sources, it is not a complete solution. Redundancy,
conversely, may result in additional cost from hardware that is not needed(or of limited additional value) until an event occurs. A “tier scalable”
exploration architecture has been proposed by Fink and previous expanded
upon. The utility of a multi-tier mission/operations architecture as aresiliency solution for a variety of sensing needs is now considered.
This paper provides an overview of multiple different risk sources tospacecraft. It then provides an overview of the multi-tier mission/operations
architecture. The various types of craft that can participate (both thoseconsidered by previous work and other possible types) are discussed as areprospective deployment patterns. Next, a mission plan for a high-resiliency
sensing mission is presented and evaluated. This plan focuses on a sensing
mission with a particular detection target, where aerial and ground craft
are deployed based on the identification of factors likely to mean that theobject of interest is present in the region. Finally, the paper concludes byconsidering next steps for testing this designed-for-resilience multi-tierarchitecture.

9085-24, Session 5

Toward QoS provisioning for layered network
communications
Wei Yu, Guobin Xu, Sixiao Wei, Towson Univ. (United States);
Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Khanh Pham, Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Chao Lu, Towson Univ. (United States)

9085-22, Session 4

An adaptive process-based cloud infrastructure
for space situational awareness applications

Layered network communications can not only provide a global coveragefor various mobile devices but also render multimedia and data services
for end users. In this paper, we develop a 3D space Mobile Ad Hoc Network(MANET) architecture that consists of mobile hosts, terrestrial base stations,manned fast movers, unmanned aerial vehicles, airborne relays, andspace vehicles, in which mobile nodes within each other’s radio range cancommunicate directly through wireless communication links. To achieve
QoS guarantee to various applications and operational needs, we present
an innovative software communications architecture, namely a ServiceOriented Architecture (SOA) that consists of three layers: service, control,and network layers and develop efficient and secure service-oriented
provisioning schemes. Through a combination of theoretical analysis
and simulation studies, we evaluate the effectiveness of our proposedarchitecture and service-oriented provisioning schemes for reconfigurability,easy-to-upgrade design, and so on.

Bingwei Liu, Yu Chen, Binghamton Univ. (United States); Dan Shen,
Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Khanh Pham, Erik Blasch, Bruce Rubin, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Space situational awareness (SSA) and defense space control capabilities
are top priorities for groups that own or operate man-made spacecraft.
Given the growing amount of space debris, there is an increase in demandfor contextual understanding that necessitates the capability of collecting
and processing a vast amount sensor data. Cloud computing, which features
scalable and flexible storage and computing services, has been recognized
as an ideal candidate that can meet the large data contextual challenges
as needed by SSA. Cloud computing consists of physical service providers
and middleware virtual machines together with infrastructure, platform,and software as service (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS) models. However, the typical
Virtual Machine (VM) abstraction is on a per operating systems basis,
which is at too low-level and limits the flexibility of the mission applicationarchitecture. In responding to this technical challenge, a novel adaptive
process based cloud infrastructure for SSA applications is proposed in thispaper. In addition, the design rationales are introduced in details and a

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Conference 9085:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII

9085-25, Session 59085-27, Session 5

Dynamic autonomous routing technology for IPbased satellite ad hoc networks

Crosstalk-immune fiber optic sensor based on
wavelength-division-multiplexing employing thefrequency spectral ratio method for disturbance
detection and location

Xiaofei Wang, Foresight Wireless, LLC (United States); Jing Deng,
Univ. of North Carolina at Greensboro (United States); Theresa
Kostas, Gowri S. Rajappan, Foresight Wireless, LLC (United States)

Yuan Wu, Pang Bian, Bo Jia, Qian Xiao, Fudan Univ. (China)

IP-based routing for military LEO/MEO satellite ad hoc networks is very
challenging due to network and traffic heterogeneity, network topology
and traffic dynamics. In this paper, we describe a traffic priority-awarerouting scheme for such networks, namely Dynamic Autonomous Routing
Technology (DART) for satellite ad hoc networks. DART has a cross-layer
design, and conducts routing and resource reservation concurrently for
optimal performance in the fluid but predictable satellite ad hoc networks.
DART ensures end-to-end data delivery with QoS assurances by only
choosing routing paths that have sufficient resources, supporting different
packet priority levels. In order to do so, DART incorporates several resource
management and innovative routing mechanisms, which dynamically
adapt to best fit the prevailing conditions. In particular, DART integrates aresource reservation mechanism to reserve network bandwidth resources;a proactive routing mechanism to set up non-overlapping spanning trees
to segregate high priority traffic flows from lower priority flows so thatthe high priority flows don’t face contention from low priority flows; areactive routing mechanism to arbitrate resources between various traffic
priorities when needed; a predictive routing mechanism to set up predictive
routes for scheduled missions and for anticipated topology changes for
QoS assurance. We present simulation results showing the performance of
DART. We have conducted these simulations using the Iridium constellationand trajectories as well as realistic military communications scenarios. The
simulation results demonstrate DART’s ability to discriminate between highpriority and low-priority traffic flows and ensure disparate QoS requirementsof these traffic flows.

A novel fiber optic sensor immune to the crosstalk of the wavelengthdivision-multiplexing employing frequency spectral ratio method for
distributed detection and location is proposed and demonstrated. The
sensor employs a hybrid configuration of Mach-Zahnder and Sagnac
interferometer as interfering unit. A broadband, low-coherence source isspectrally sliced into two wavelength bands using wavelength divisionmultiplexer. Therefore, the sensor consists of two interferometers,
multiplexed with a broadband light source, interfering unit and sensing
loop by wavelength division multiplexer. Two piezoelectric transducer (PZT)
phase modulators, modulated at frequencies , , are connected at the two
end of the sensing loop and hence four modulated desired signals with two
different wavelengths are obtained, whereas the baseband cross-talk lights
can be removed by the filters based on the frequency difference between
the desired signals and cross-talk lights. Hence four detected signals withtwo different wavelengths are obtained. After the demodulation scheme
based on 3?3 coupler, two phase shifts caused by the disturbance areachieved and fast Fourier transform are performed on the phased shifts, andhence the location of the disturbance gained by the frequency spectrum
ratio method enables the localization comparably accurate. Experimental
results show that the sensor is especially advantageous for low location
error to the application of intrusion detecting.

9085-28, Session 6

Quantum technology in aerospace applications

9085-26, Session 5

Bin Jia, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Khanh
Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Genshe Chen, Dan
Shen, Zhonghai Wang, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates)Toward effectiveness and agility of network
security situation awarenessWei Yu, Linqiang Ge, Towson Univ. (United States); Dan Shen,
Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Erik Blasch,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Chao Lu, Towson
Univ. (United States)
Defending against cyber threats calls for network security situation
awareness (SA) through distributed collaborative monitoring, detection, andmitigation. Specifically, effective allocation of defense resources to detectthreats while the adversary tries to learn the network and security polices
has been proven to be one of major R&D milestones for network resiliency.
In this direction, defense system deployment knowledge is critical. Here
we develop a modeling framework to investigate tradeoffs between threat
detectability, system risk, and defense deployment cost. In addition, we also
develop a moving target defense scheme that can effectively adapt systemcomponents based on security risk assessment to actively change thesystem and render attacks ineffective. Through a combination of theoreticalanalysis and performance studies, we validate our developed model tomitigate attacks through measures of effectiveness of our proposed
schemes.

The quantum technology will fundamentally change the world. In
this presentation, the quantum technology and its applications inaerospace, such as quantum computing, quantum control, and quantum
communication, are introduced. As expected, a cognitive measurement
method using information-theoretic learning criteria based on entropy
is proposed to facilitate feedback control synthesis of adaptive quantum
systems. Potential contributions to aerospace applications of quantum
technology, including quantum space communications with resiliency androbustness are also discussed.

9085-29, Session 6

Polarization tracking for quantum satellite
communications
Gang Wang, Dan Shen, Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology,
Inc. (United States); Khanh Pham, Erik Blasch, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States)
Satellite networks and quantum communications offer complementary
opportunities for enhanced operations. Quantum communications provide
security for the transmissions between satellites and ground stations;while the free-space link of satellite networks provide the potential of long
distance transmission of quantum bits (qubit) for space communications.
However, with the promising advantages, challenges remain to fully develop
quantum-based satellite communictans such as robust reliable information
detection which is difficult due to the movement of satellites. In this paper,a polarization tracking algorithm is proposed for polarization-encoded

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Conference 9085:
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quantum satellite communications. The polarization tracking is essential forthe decoding of a qubit and the quantum key distribution (QKD). A channel
model for free-space quantum communications is adopted and developedin this paper. With the estimated polarization, a novel dynamic polarizationcompensation scheme is also proposed. The results show that our methods
can accurately estimate the polarization, then providing much lower
quantum bit error rate (QBER) by compensation, as compared with thedirect qubit detection without polarization tracking and compensation.

(SSN) currently relies on ground-based radars, optical telescopes, andthe Space Based Space Surveillance (SBSS) System. The SBSS system
overcomes many of the pitfalls of optical ground-based systems like
limited observation times (e.g. weather and time of day) and measurement
uncertainty from atmospheric effects. However, the SBSS satellite is in a low
earth orbit (630 km, sun synchronous), and must look “up” for GEO objects.
This paper investigates the potential benefits of a GEO based optical sensor
deployed using a hosted payload path or low cost nanosat platform for
performing metric observations that can be combined with ground-based
data to further enhance the UCTs detection and tracking. Several different
scenarios are considered to quantify the reduction in orbit uncertainty
from these angle only observations (i.e., azimuth and elevation angles
measurements) using both angle only Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) andRandom Finite Set (RFS) Based Filter (e.g., Probability Hypothesis Density
Filter via Sequential Monte Carlos implementation). The primary objective of
this investigation is threefold: (1) relax the Initial Orbit Determination (IOD)
accuracy via the Gauss Based Approach for the EKF initialization to begin
its sequential processing; (2) leverage the front end measurement to track
association free step of the RFS based filter to efficiently determine a new
SSA processing scheme to benefit the UCTs resolution; and (3) Determine
the feasibility of using the 2-D (Azimuth-Elevation Angles Window) image
to benefit the 3-D Orbit Position and Velocity Reconstruction. Simulation
based evaluation will be conducted to complete the investigation.

9085-30, Session 6

Quantum-entanglement-based QKD security
guarantee over QoS-driven 3D satellite networks
Ping Wang, Xi Zhang, Texas A&M Univ. (United States); Genshe
Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)
Security guarantee is one of the most important requirements in militarycommunications. Quantum key distribution (QKD) is a methodology for
generating and distributing random encryption keys using the principles
of quantum physics, which enables two distant communications parties tosecurely communicate in a way that cannot be eavesdropped on without
being detected. In particular, QKD technologies seek to provide reliable,
efficient security for wireless links between the ground station and thesatellite employed in military communications under tactical and strategic
environments. We propose a Quantum-Entanglement based QKD security
scheme to obtain the absolute security while guaranteeing the QoS (qualityof service) of the transmission information, considering the link attenuation
including the effect of beam diffraction, attenuation, and turbulenceinduced beam spreading caused by the atmosphere, receive aperture
diameter, losses within the telescopes acting as antennas, as well as antenna
pointing loss. The simulation results show that our proposed QuantumEntanglement security scheme based on the QKD technologies offers many
advantages for secure data transmission between the satellites and groundstations, in terms of reliable and high-data-rate transmission requirements.

9085-33, Session 7

Space object surveillance using incidental
measurements from vehicle-board sensors
Sandip Roy, Washington State Univ. (United States)
As orbital space becomes increasingly cluttered and multi-playered, there isa growing need for surveillance of space objects. Based on this motivation,
numerous studies on space-object surveillance have been advanced inrecent years, which focus on such diverse tasks as target detection andtracking, anomaly detection, adversary pursuit, and mission-level sensor
scheduling for surveillance. Largely, these studies of space surveillance haveenvisioned technologies that are dedicated to sensing and surveillance.
However, future space vehicles will likely be tasked with increasingly diverseand multi-faceted missions including mixed civilian/military functionalities,
wherein sensing and surveillance goals are often secondary to otherrequirements (e.g., transfer of goods or passengers, data communication,commerce). If this paradigm change comes to fruition, space surveillance
may depend on incidental measurements from a large number of stochastic
mobile vehicles, rather than dedicated measurements from a small numberof schedulable sensors.

9085-31, Session 7

Resident space object tracking using aninteracting multiple model mixing scheme
Quang M. Lam, LexerdTek Corp. (United States)
A multiple model estimation scheme is proposed to enhance the robustnessof a resident space object (RSO) tracker subject to its maneuverability
uncertainties (unplanned or unknown jet firing activities) and other systemvariations. The concept is based on the Interacting Multiple Model (IMM)
estimation scheme. Within the IMM framework, two Extended Kalman
Filter (EKF) models: (i) a 6 State (Position and Velocity of a constantorbiting RSO) EKF and (ii) a 9 state (Position, Velocity, and Accelerationof a maneuvering RSO) EKF are designed and implemented to achieve
RSO maneuvering detection and enhanced tracking accuracy. The IMM
estimation scheme is capable of providing enhanced state vector estimation
accuracy and consistent prediction of the RSO maneuvering status, thus
offering an attractive design feature for future Space Situational Awareness(SSA) missions. The design concept is illustrated using the Matlab/Based
Simulation testing environment.

Here, we formulate and provide initial results on the problem of space
object surveillance from incidental measurements. Specifically, we consider
surveillance using sensor measurements from a mobile space vehicle,
whose stochastic mobility pattern is incidental to the surveillance task. We
frame the surveillance problem as an estimation or detection problem fora linear dynamical system with a stochastically-time-varying observation
matrix (which reflects the vehicle’s mobility). Under broad conditions on
the stochastic observation model, we are able to determine whether or
not estimation/detection is possible, and to characterize the estimation
or detection performance. In support of these analytical studies, we also
develop a simulation example on target tracking from an incidentally-mobile
vehicle. Broadly, our analyses and simulations demonstrate that incidental
measurements can permit surprising robust, though slower, surveillance of
space objects.

9085-32, Session 7

Orbit determination accuracy enhancement fromimage data using random finite set based filters

9085-34, Session 7

Quang M. Lam, LexerdTek Corp. (United States); Ba-Ngu B. Vo,
Curtin Univ. (Australia)

Mustapha Meftah, LATMOS (France)

A nanosatellite for study the Sun and the Earth
Since the launch of the first artificial satellite in 1957, more than 6,000
satellites have been sent into space. Despite technological advances, thespatial domain remains little accessible. However, with the miniaturization

Determining orbits of uncorrelated targets (UCTs) is a fundamental Space
Situational Awareness (SSA) activity. The U.S. Space Surveillance Network189+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9085:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII

9085-36, Session 7of electronic components, it has recently become possible to develop asmall satellite where scientific goals can be achieved. Micro-satellites havedemonstrated that these goals were achievable. However, completion times
remain long. Today, we hope through the use of nano-satellites to reduce
the size, the costs, and the time of development and we wish to increase
the accessibility into space for scientific objectives. Nano-satellites havebecome important tools for space development and utilization, which maylead to new ways of space exploration. This paper is intended to present
a future space mission enabled by the development of nano-satellites andthe underlying technologies they employ. Our future mission expands
observations of the Sun (total solar irradiance measurements) and of the
Earth (outgoing long-wave and short-wave radiation measurements).
Constellations of nano-satellites to provide simultaneous collection of dataover a wide area of geo-space could be built latter and presents a greatinterest in the context of the Sun-Earth relationships.

Low-complexity image compression with scalable
quality control
Bruce H. Pillman, Michael E. Napoli, Exelis Geospatial Systems(United States)
The RICE algorithm is a successful standard for numerically losslessimage compression, especially for space applications as described by theConsultative Committee for Space Data Systems in the recommended
standard CCSDS 121.0-B-2. It is remarkably simple and adaptable,
lightweight, and delivers effective compression for a wide range ofsignals. The present paper discusses work exploring several additions tothe standard RICE algorithm to support lossy compression. In particular,
the extended system allows compression to be scaled gracefully fromnumerically lossless to visually lossy while expanding the visually losslessdomain to lower bit rates than are achievable with simple linear quantization
approaches. The extended system is slightly more complex than the baseline
numerically lossless system, while supporting user adjustment of the quality
level to balance quality and bandwidth usage.

9085-35, Session 7

Dexterous and expedient approach strategies
considering non-zero eccentricity orbits and J2
perturbations

9085-37, Session 7

Charles Remeikas, Yunjun Xu, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates); Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Genshe Chen, Bin Jia, Dan Shen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc.
(United States)

Integrating modeling, test case generation andanalysis tools for critical software testing

Recently bio-inspired rendezvous strategies have been investigated for
applications in space situation awareness. Particularly, closed-loop solutions
were developed for the cases where the space object is in a circular orbit
without considering any orbital perturbations. In this paper, the dexterous
and expedient motions with minimum-fuel consumption considerations
are further studied. The case studies considering the J2 perturbation, thenon-zero eccentricities, and different boundary conditions are analyzed: (1)the space object is at the local vertical local horizontal coordinate origin; (2)the space object is moving in the local vertical local horizontal coordinate;(3) the rendezvous object approaches the space object from the R-bar,
V-bar, and Z-bar directions, respectively. Fast solutions can be obtained
for the rendezvous object to approach the space object with minimum
energy consumption. It is shown that (1) the fuel consumption is too highfor arbitrary orbit transfers from LEO to GEO using this type of dexterous
and expedient paths; (2) the dexterous, expedient and free-flying (i.e. no
propulsion) path cannot be achieved along the R-bar and V-bar direction;(3) the dexterous, expedient and free-flying path can be obtained along theZ-bar direction.

190

SPIE DSS 2014·

Nandamudi L. Vijaykumar, Érica F. Souza, Valdivino A. Santiago Jr.,
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (Brazil)
Activities of Software Testing becomes increasingly important in software
engineering , as they are essential activities in the software development toensure the quality . There is also a large increase in research on modelingtechniques for generating test cases . This work has two main objectives.
The first is through a case study to show the integration of a modeling
tool and test case generation tool. The modeling tool generates a statemachine (FSM) from the representation of the software specification inStatecharts. The test case generation tool generates test cases using the
Switch Cover from FSM. The second objective is to show the application ofa coverage tool to verify whether the test cases generated, in fact, cover
the FSM. The test cases were implemented in Java using JUnit testing tool.
Results showed that the proposed solution for the integration of tools with
JUnit and subsequent coverage analysis tool enables application of criticalsoftware. Modeling tool is PerformCharts, originally developed to specify
performance models in Statecharts and evaluate their performance using
Markov Chains. This tool has been adapted to also generate test cases whena software can be specified in Statecharts. The second tool implements
Switch Cover method to generate test cases from the resulting FSM fromthe previous tool. Finally, EMMA is the tool that is used to evaluate thecoverage of the obtained test suite.

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Conference 9086A: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VIII
Thursday 8 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9086 Display Technologies and Applications for Defense, Security, and Avionics VIII; andHead- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XIX

9086-1, Session 1

The use of this draft metric and measurement method is expected toincrease the probability that customers will receive display systems thatmeet their expectations, and to reduce the disruption to acquisitions causedby arguments over system luminance.

Night-vision goggle stimulation using LCoS andDLP projection technology, which is better?
Masoud H Ali, Paul Lyon, Sondre Fauskanger, Barco, Inc. (UnitedStates)

9086-3, Session 1

Focusing the research agenda for simulation
training visual requirements

High fidelity night-vision training has become important for many of thesimulation systems being procured today. The end-users of these simulation
training systems prefer using their actual night-vision goggle (NVG)
headsets. This requires that the visual display system stimulate the NVGs ina realistic way. Historically NVG stimulation was done with cathode-ray tube
(CRT) projectors. However this technology became obsolete and in recent
years training simulators do NVG stimulation with laser, LCoS and DLP
projectors. The LCoS and DLP projection technologies have emerged as thepreferred approach for stimulation NVGs.

Charles J. Lloyd, Visual Performance, LLC (United States)
Advances in the capabilities of the display-related technologies that
could be employed in simulation training devices continue to occur at a
rapid pace. Simultaneously, ongoing reductions in defense spending arestimulating the services to push a higher proportion of training into groundbased simulators in order to reduce their operational costs. These twotrends are causing customer expectations and desires for more capabletraining devices to increase while the money available for these devices
decreases. Thus, there is an increased need to improve the efficiency of theacquisition process and to increase the probability that users will get thetraining devices they need at the lowest practical cost. In support of thisneed the IDEAS program was initiated in 2010 with the goal of improving
those display system requirements that are associated with disrupted
acquisitions and unmet user needs and expectations. This paper describes a
process by which the display requirements associated with these challenges
are identified, described, and rated so that defensible recommendations
for future research can be prepared. Analyses of existing requirements
documents revealed that between 40 and 50 specific design parameters(i.e., resolution, contrast, luminance, field of view, frame rate, etc.) are
typically called out for the acquisition of a simulation training display
system. Clearly, no research effort can address the effects of this many
parameters, thus, a defensible strategy for focusing limited R&D resources
on a fraction of these parameters was developed. Six criteria are describedthat were used to identify the parameters most worthy of researchattention: Likelihood of disrupted acquisitions, Effect on task performance,
Effect on system cost, Measurement error, Measurement cost, and Costof study. The use of these selection criteria is illustrated by applying thecriteria to a dozen candidate design parameters that were recommended forconsideration by stakeholders.

Both LCoS and DLP technologies have advantages and disadvantages
for stimulating NVGs. LCoS projectors can have 5-10 times the contrast
capability of DLP projectors. The larger the difference between the
projected black level and the brightest object in a scene, the better the
NVG stimulation effects can be. This is an advantage of LCoS technology,
especially when the proper NVG wavelengths are used. Single-chip DLP
projectors, even though they have much reduced contrast compared
to LCoS projectors, can use LED illuminators in a sequential red-greenblue fashion to create a projected image. It is straight forward to add anextra infrared (NVG wavelength) LED into this sequential chain of LED
illumination. The content of this NVG channel can be independent of thevisible scene which allows effects to be added that can compensate for thelack of contrast inherent in a DLP device.
This paper will expand on the differences between LCoS and DLP projectors
for stimulating NVGs and summarize the benefits of both in night-vision
simulation training systems.

9086-2, Session 1

A display system luminance requirement thatmeets user expectations (Invited Paper)Charles J. Lloyd, Visual Performance, LLC (United States)

9086-4, Session 2

When digital projectors (i.e., LCD and DLP) began replacing CRT projectors
in the simulation training industry circa 2005, most suppliers proclaimed
enthusiastically that significantly higher display luminance levels would beobtained using these arc lamp-based devices. While the new technology isclearly capable of producing much higher display luminance levels, users
have often found that their systems cannot meet the luminance requirement
after only a few weeks or months of operation, and that they have to change
lamps more often than expected. This paper provides a quantitative analysisof the design factors that mediate this common failure mode for modern
multi-projector display systems. Results of the analysis indicate that primarychallenges to actualizing the luminance requirement include the failure toaccount for factors such as lamp lumen maintenance (lamp life), lamp-tolamp variation, and the effects of white point and uniformity corrections.
Examination of recent requirements documents for simulation trainers
revealed that system luminance requirements typically do not addressthese factors. Unfortunately, any supplier who would identify and accountfor these factors in their proposal would be disadvantaged relative to othersuppliers competing for the contract. This paper provides a simple remedy
to this challenge by providing a comprehensive and defensible system
luminance requirement and an explicit method of measuring multi-channel
display systems to determine conformance with the requirement. Thismethod overtly accounts for the fall off in luminance of arc lamps as theyage, thus, both customer and supplier expectations are more appropriately
determined at the proposal and acceptance testing phases of an acquisition.

191+1 360 676 3290

Subjective evaluations of multiple threedimensional displays by a stereo-deficient
viewer: an interesting case study (Invited Paper)John P. McIntire, Sharon A. Ellis, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Lawrence K. Harrington, Ball Aerospace & Technologies
Corp. (United States); Paul R. Havig II, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
A study was conducted with sixteen observers evaluating four different
three-dimensional (3D) displays for usability, quality, and physical comfort.
One volumetric display and three different stereoscopic displays were
tested. The observers completed several different types of questionnaires
before, during and after each test session. All observers were tested for
distance acuity, color vision, and stereoscopic acuity. One observer inparticular appeared to have either degraded or absent binocular visionon the stereo acuity test. During the subjective portions of the datacollection, this observer showed no obvious signs of depth perception
problems and finished the study with no issues reported. Upon further
post-hoc stereovision testing of this observer, we discovered that heessentially failed all tests requiring depth judgments of fine disparity and·help@spie.org

Conference 9086A: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VIII

9086-7, Session 3

had at best only gross levels of stereoscopic vision (failed all administeredstereoacuity threshold tests, testing up to about 800 arc sec of disparity).
When questioned about this, the stereo-deficiency was unknown to theobserver, who reported having seen several stereoscopic 3D movies (andenjoyed the 3D experiences). Interestingly, we had collected subjective
reports about the quality of three-dimensional imagery across multiple
stereoscopic displays from a person with deficient stereo-vision. We discuss
the participant’s unique pattern of results and compare and contrast theseresults with the other stereo-normal participants. The implications for
subjective measurements on stereoscopic three-dimensional displays andfor subjective display measurement in general are considered.

ARINC 818 specification revisions enable newavionics architectures (Invited Paper)
Tim Keller, Great River Technology, Inc. (United States)
ARINC 818, titled Avionics Digital Video Bus, is the standard for cockpit
video that has gained wide acceptance in both the commercial and military
cockpits including the Boeing 787, the A350XWB, the A400M, the KC-46A
and many other aircraft. The ARINC 818 specification that was initiallyrelease in 2006 has recently undergone a major update to address newavionics architectures and capabilities. Over the seven years since its release,projects have gone beyond the specification due to the complexity of newarchitectures and desired capabilities, such as video switching, bi-directional
communication, data-only paths and camera and sensor control provisions.
The ARINC 818 specification was revised in 2013 was ARINC 818-2 wasapproved in November 2013.

9086-5, Session 2

Recent developments in stereoscopic andholographic 3D display technologies
Kalluri R. Sarma, Honeywell Technology (United States)
Significant progress has been made in the stereoscopic and holographic
3D display technologies in recent times for application to defense as wellas civilian applications including medical, scientific visualization, industrial,
education, and entertainment. In this paper we will review the attributesof these display technologies and then discuss the recent developments inthese technologies towards realizing their full potential.

The revisions to the ARINC 818-2 specification include: switching, stereo
and 3-D provisions, color sequential implementations, regions of interest,
bi-directional communication, higher link rates, data-only transmission,synchronization signals and optical interface details. This paper discusses
each of the new capabilities and the impact on avionics and display
architectures, especially when integrating large area displays, stereoscopic
displays, multiple displays, and systems that include a large number of
sensors.

9086-6, Session 3

9086-8, Session 3

Light sources for enhanced vision (Invited Paper)

Mean performance of the human eye and its
implications for display systems

Gary W. Jones, NanoQuantum Sciences, Inc. (United States)
A new era of customized light spectra has been enabled by advances insolid state lighting (SSL). Previous methodologies for assessment of quality,
intensity, and suitability of specific light sources need to be reconsidered formany applications. Many light sources are still measured against black bodyradiation references, but this approach is inappropriate for non-blackbody
radiators like SSL, such as many types of LED luminaires.
“Lumens” is an intensity metric convolved with the weighted averageof an example human eye sensitivity. Most people can perceive light atwavelengths well outside of the established “visible light spectrum”, sonear-zero lumens may be recorded for light that is perfectly visible. A highcolor rendering index (CRI) is associated with good color reproduction, but
a high CRI does not insure suitability for many applications where probableobjects of interest primarily reflect violet or deep-red light. Reassessment ofthese and other metrics for many applications is essential.
Illumination using reference spectra such as “sunlight-spectrum” aregenerally useful for color printing comparisons, but a wide distribution ofindividual eye sensitivities to short and long wavelength light still exists.
SSL can be designed to mimic other common light sources, but is this thecorrect approach for all or even most situations?

How might example alternate lighting spectra integrate with typical digital
imagers and display systems?
Well-known specialty LED lighting examples include blood tracking lights
for hunters that make fresh blood is easier to identify relative to mostoutdoor backgrounds, and high red content lighting for enhanced retaildisplays of meat and bakery goods.
Is a soldier’s typical off-the-shelf tactical lighting really the most appropriate
for an intended operation? What are the appropriate portable lighting
parameters to consider?
Broad spectrum and customized light sources were used to experimentally
illuminate various objects to assess suitable lighting spectra for visual
detection and identification. Reflected and emitted spectral data obtainedby illumination of example objects will be compared, along with a discussionof the aptness of various metrics.

SPIE DSS 2014

This paper proposes to be a comprehensive review of earlier papers bygovernment, industry and university authors regarding performance of thehuman eye-brain system relative to image size, image resolution (spatial,
grayscale, color space, temporal), legibility (luminance and contrast in
specified ambient illumination), compatibility with night vision equipment,
etc. An understanding as to the background and conditions of these studies
shall be given. A summary of the ranges in mean performance for thevarious parameters shall be reported, with consequent implications as tomaximizing ultimate display system design.

9086-9, Session 4

Speckle-free diode laser illumination for the
display/projector applications in avionics (Invited
Paper)

What light spectra and intensity may be best suited for optimal visual acuity
and the direct-visual detection and identification of the widest range ofobjects of interest?

192

Daniel D. Desjardins, Northrop Grumman Corp. (United States)·

Andrei V Tchernook, NANOLIT GmbH (Germany)
Illumination solutions for avionics are driven by high luminosity, low massand small dimensions. Today many solutions are based on LEDs which
produce substantial excessive heat to achieve the luminosity levels requiredfor daylight displays. LED light is difficult to collimate and/or to shape which
results in light losses. Additionally a half of the light is wasted if a display(e.g. LCOS) uses a linearly polarized light.
Diode lasers can be used as an alternative to the LED illumination. Mass anddimensions of the diode lasers are comparable with those of LEDs. They
have a substantially higher efficiency compared to LEDs and intrinsically
produce polarized light. Output of the diode lasers is simple to shape. Taking
into account low requirements of the diode lasers for thermal management
they could be a solution of choice for high-end applications where design
is mainly driven by performance. The main drawback of the laser diodes forthe display/projector purposes is that their output shows a speckle pattern
reducing the image quality.
This drawback can be now eliminated through fast phase and/or spatial

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Conference 9086A: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VIII
Olivier Prache, eMagin Corp (United States)

modulation of the laser beam. Current and potential approaches areanalyzed.

eMagin has developed and manufactures OLED microdisplays with various
resolutions including SVGA+ (852x3x600), SXGA (1280x3x1024), WUXGA(1920x3x1200) and VGA (640x3x480) . A suite of display colors areavailable including color displays, monochrome white, yellow and green
microdisplays. The latter two are ultra-high brightness microdisplays thatare currently commercially available. Operational life time is one of the mostcritically important microdiplay performance parameters. Towards this end,eMagin has designed and built a fully automated life test system that allows
one to continuously monitor and measure several characteristics of thedisplays, including luminance versus time, spectrum and color coordinates
simultaneously on multiple microdisplays of various resolutions and driving
schemes, i.e. current and voltage driven devices. Various fit algorithms
are implemented in the system that allow one to obtain most accurate
operational life estimates. Additionally, measuring the life times at various
initial luminances allows the determination of acceleration factors for aging
the displays. The life test data on eMagin AMOLED microdisplays of various
resolutions will be presented. The salient features of the automated life timemeasurement system will also be presented. This should result in a better
understanding of the applicability of AMOLEDs in military and commercial
head mounted systems; where good fits are made, and where further
development might be desirable.

A very compact laser illumination concept for LCOS microdisplays is
proposed

9086-10, Session 4

Adding intelligence to direct view optical (DVO)
sights
Timothy Hogan, Timothy J. Edwards, Kopin Corp. (United States)
The integration of overlay displays into rifle scopes can transform precision
Direct View Optical (DVO) sights into intelligent interactive fire-control
systems. Overlay displays can provide ballistic solutions within the sight fordramatically improved targeting, can fuse sensor video to extend targeting
into nighttime or dirty battlefield conditions, and can overlay complex
situational awareness information over the real-world scene. High brightness
overlay solutions for dismounted soldier applications have previously been
hindered by excessive power consumption, weight and bulk making them
unsuitable for man-portable, battery powered applications. This paper
describes the advancements and capabilities of a high brightness, ultralow power text and graphics overlay display module developed specificallyfor integration into DVO weapon sight applications. Central to the overlay
display module was the development of a new general purpose low powergraphics controller and dual-path display driver electronics. The graphics
controller interface is a simple 2-wire RS-232 serial interface compatible
with existing weapon systems such as the IBEAM ballistic computer and the
RULR and STORM laser rangefinders. The module features include multiple
graphics layers, user configurable fonts and icons, and parameterized vector
rendering, making it suitable for general purpose DVO overlay applications.
The module is configured for graphics-only operation for daytime use andoverlays graphics with video for nighttime applications. The miniature
footprint and ultra-low power consumption of the module enables a newgeneration of intelligent DVO systems and has been implemented for
resolutions from VGA to SXGA, in monochrome and color, and in graphics
applications with and without sensor video.

9086-12, Session 5

Advances and trends of head-up displays systems
in land vehicles
J. Alejandro Betancur, Gilberto Osorio, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Currently, in the automotive industries the interaction between drivers andaugmented reality systems is a topic of analysis, specially the identificationof advantages and risks that this kind of interaction represents. This paper
attempts to put in evidence the potential of head-up displays systems
applied to automotive vehicles, pretending to show applications andtendencies that at the moment are being studied. In general, the automotive
advances related to augmented reality devices, suggests the partial
integration of the head-up displays in automotive vehicles; however, it is stilla matter of discussion how should be the right way to do it.

9086-11, Session 4

High-brightness displays in integrated weapon
sight systems

9086-13, Session 5

Approaches to the design of a low-cost head-up
display system

Timothy J. Edwards, Timothy Hogan, Kopin Corp (United States)
Technology advances over the past several years have resulted in ultrahigh brightness microdisplay solutions in VGA, SVGA, SXGA and 2k x 2k
display formats. These high brightness display solutions have demonstrated
luminance levels greater than 6000fL to the eye and dimming ranges
suitable for night viewing compatibility with night vision goggles (NVGs).
Highly efficient LED based backlights generate color-specific (white, green,amber, red) illumination providing high luminance levels at power levels
compatible with man-portable battery operated applications. This paper will
review various approaches for integrating high brightness overlay displayswith existing direct view rifle sights and augmenting their precision aiming
and targeting capability. Examples of overlay display systems solutions will
be presented and discussed. This paper will review significant capability
enhancements that are possible when augmenting the real-world as seen
through a rifle sight with other soldier system equipment including laser
range finders, ballistic computers and sensor systems.

Paul L. Wisely, HOLOEYE Systems Inc. (United Kingdom); Willaim P.
Bleha Jr., HOLOEYE Systems Inc. (United States)
Since their inception during the Second World War in the simple reflector
gun sights of combat aircraft, HUDs have been developed to achieve evergreater capability and performance, initially in military applications but inthe last quarter of the last century for civil applications.
With increased performance and capability came increased complexity andan attendant steady increase in cost such that HUDs in civil applications are
only to be found in some large passenger and high end business jets.
The physical volume of current solutions also has a significant impact
on where they may be fitted and this paper discusses techniques andapproaches to reduce the volume and costs associated with HUD
implementation thereby making the operational and safety benefits of HUD
available to a broader range of applications in lower value airframes.

9086-16, Session 4

AMOLED microdisplay automated life timemeasurement system
Amalkumar P. Ghosh, Ilyas I. Khayrullin, Tariq A. Ali, Ihor Wacyk,

193+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9086A: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VIII

9086-14, Session 6

Demosaicing combined video and graphics
images from legacy sensors
Ron Christian, Jerome Conway, L-3 Display Systems (United States)
Modern raster display technologies are typically arranged as a Red, Green,
Blue (RGB) triad or stripe. Many legacy video sensors, however, originate
video in a Red, Green, Green, Blue (RGGB) quadrature arrangement. Video
from such sensors may also have computer graphics overlaid before beingtransmitted to the display. This paper presents a method to demosaic the
RGGB combined video and graphics image to the RGB display in real timewith excellent reproduction and a minimum of visual artifacts.
Demosaicing algorithms are used to reconstruct a full color image from an
incomplete color sampled output, such as a CCD camera overlaid with aBayer quadrature color filter. Prior demosaicing algorithms are based on two
assumptions:• Spatial Correlation: Pixels within a small region of the image tend to be asimilar color, and,• Spectral Correlation: Red, Green, and Blue components of pixels tend torise and fall together within a small image region of the image.
These assumptions work well for camera or sensor video, since such video isa representation of the natural, physical environment. These assumptions donot, however, work well for computer-generated graphics overlaid upon thevideo prior to being received by the display.
The adaptive method presented in this paper demosaics the combined
RGGB video and graphics with excellent resolution of the underlying video
image, and without false colors or blurring of graphic elements, resulting in
the presentation of a higher quality display image to the operator.

9086-15, Session 6

Current state of OLED technology relative to
military avionics requirements
Joe Tchon, T. J. Barnidge, Bruce Hufnagel, Birendra Bahadur,Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States)
The paper will review optical and environmental performance thresholds
required for OLED technology to be used on various military platforms.
Life study results will be summarized to highlight trends while identifying
remaining performance gaps to make this technology viable for future
military avionics platforms.

194

SPIE DSS 2014·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9086B: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XIX:
Design and Applications
Wednesday 7 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9086 Display Technologies and Applications for Defense, Security, and Avionics VIII; andHead- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XIX

9086-16, Session 7

9086-20, Session 7

Is augmented reality ready for prime time: A
review of current state-of-the-art and what the
future holds

Effects of optical combiner in optical see-troughhead-mounted display on depth perception
Hong Hua, Jason Kuhn, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of
Arizona (United States)

Paul R. Havig II, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Simon
Su, Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. (United States); John P.
McIntire, Eric E. Geiselman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

A head-mounted-display with an optical combiner may introduce significant
amounts of depth distortion to the real world scene. The ability to accurately
model the effects of 3-dimensional distortion introduced by thick opticalelements has many uses in the development of head-mounted display
systems and applications. For instance, the computer rendering system
must be able to accurately model this distortion and provide accuratecompensation in the virtual path in order to provide a seamless overlay
between the virtual and real world scenes. In this paper, we present a ray
tracing method that determines the ray shifts and deviations introduced bya thick optical element giving us the ability to generate correct computation
models for rendering a virtual object in 3D space with the appropriate
amount of distortion. The effects and the needs for such compensation
are further demonstrated and validate through a user-centered depth
perception experiment using an optical see-through HMD system.

Augmented reality (AR) has been around for many decades. In fact for thehead-mounted display (HMD) community it has been the driving force for
implementation of HMDs. AR in an HMD allows one to monitor ownshipstatus while maintaining flight parameters. However, this is not the AR thatis most often seen if one searches the literature for AR. In this case AR isusually a see-through HMD with a portable computer giving augmented
information about the world to the user (e.g., it tells the user what is insidea building at which they are looking). Recently, Google has announced their
Google goggles in which they play on bringing the AR to the everyday user.
We discuss both the pros and cons of this potential occurrence and discuss
the important human factors considerations that go along with providing
such a capability.

9086-21, Session 8

9086-17, Session 7

Performance comparison between a head-worndisplay system and a head-up display for low
visibility commercial operations

A review of the visual systems of the animal
kingdom: Potential for new uses of headmounted displays

Jarvis J. Arthur III, Lawerence J. Prinzel III, NASA Langley Research
Ctr. (United States); James R. Barnes, Unisys Corp. (United States);
Steven P Williams, NASA Langley Research Ctr (United States);
Denise R. Jones, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Stephanie J. Harrison, Old Dominion Univ. (United States); Randall
E. Bailey, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

Paul R. Havig II, John P. McIntire, Eric E. Geiselman, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
Current uses of head-mounted displays (HMDs) are very human-centric.
We use them to either present attitude information (e.g., symbology for
maintaining flight parameters) or for enhancing our night vision (e.g., anight vision goggle). However, this is the limitation of how they have beenused. Current implementations rarely, if ever, present other wavelengths,
and they almost never do information fusion. This led us to think about
how the rest of the non-human animal kingdom uses the visual sense and if
there were any ideas that could be implemented in an HMD. In this paper we
review these visual systems and discuss if it is possible and even practical to
implement these “ways of seeing” and what benefit they may bring.

Research, development, test, and evaluation of flight deck interface
technologies is being conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) to proactively overcome aircraft safety barriers thatmight otherwise constrain the full realization of NextGen. Under the Vehicle
Systems Safety Technologies (VSST) project in the Aviation Safety Program,one specific area of research is the use of small Head-Worn Displays (HWDs)
as an equivalent display to a Head-Up Display (HUD). Title 14 of the US
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 91.175 describes a possible operational
credit which can be obtained with airplane equipage of a Head-Up Display(HUD) or an “equivalent” display combined with Enhanced Vision (EV). If
successful, a HWD may provide the safety and operational benefits thatcurrent HUD-equipped aircraft enjoy but for significantly more aircraftin which HUD installation is neither practical nor possible. A simulation
experiment - described in this proposed paper - was conducted to evaluate
if the HWD, coupled with a head-tracker, can provide an equivalent display
to a HUD. Comparative testing was performed in the Research Flight Deck
(RFD) Cockpit Motion Facility (CMF) at NASA Langley. Twelve airline crews
conducted approach and landing, taxi, and departure operations during low
visibility operations (1000’, 300’) at Memphis International Airport (FAA
identifier: KMEM). The paper will describe the subjective and objective datacollected from this research.

9086-18, Session 7

User evaluations of a dichoptic display system
Michael P. Browne, SA Photonics (United States)
No Abstract Available

9086-19, Session 7

The effect of HMD sensor height on platform
height estimation
Michael P. Browne, SA Photonics (United States)
No Abstract Available

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Conference 9086B: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XIX:
Design and Applications

9086-22, Session 8

Helmet-mounted display utility for unguided
precision airdrop application within non head-updisplay equipped aircraft.
Eric E. Geiselman, Paul R. Havig II, John P. McIntire, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

near real time or at a later date by a data analyst. The night vision system
includes a casing surrounding the image intensifier tube and the associatedcircuitry along with a port for accepting a power and/or signal cable forproviding power to the image intensifier tube and image signal to thesignal storage medium. The system may further include a daytime camera
and a switch for toggling the image signal data input to the digital storage
medium between the daytime camera and the image intensifier tube.
Basic components include a wide-angle lens, image intensifier tube coupled
to a CMOS sensor via relay lenses or fiber optics. This high definition image
is saved on an internal solid-state memory chip. One-step button controls
allow the user a positive on/off. Future development of compression
software will allow for real-time streaming of video able to be relayed via
personnel carried communication systems on the battlefield.

The Air Force Research Laboratory is executing a research program withthe objective of developing technologies and procedures to increase
the precision with which unguided cargo airdrop is accomplished.
Simultaneously, program objectives include significantly decreasing theownship threat exposure by affording higher-altitude single-pass drop
profiles. Application of a helmet-mounted display (HMD)-based transparent
display has the potential to aid this technology development in a number ofsignificant ways. This paper discusses the potential technology advantagesof HMD inclusion (visual release point appreciation, intensified vision, as
well as wind profiling/ownship status derived continuously computed
maneuvering guidance). Foreseeable technical challenges and potential
application disadvantages are also discussed.

9086-26, Session 9

Virtual reality 3D headset based on DMD light
modulators
Bruce E. Bernacki, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States);
Allan Evans, Edward Tang, Avegant Corp. (United States)

9086-23, Session 8

Augmented reality, and applications in educationand training in military schools
Isa Haskologlu, Mehmet Sisman, Kara Harp Okulu (Turkey)
In this study we have worked with 3-D computer engineers in order tosearch the applicable fields of Augmented Reality in Military Training and
Education in Military schools which needs give their students military tactics,
history, as well as other lessons. we have find out that especially in the fieldof history, and military tactics Augmented Reality makes the subjects more
understandable. We re now working on a project that can be used in history.

9086-24, Session 8

Evaluation of helmet-mounted display targeting
symbology based on eye tracking technology
Lijing Wang, Xiaodong Liu, BeiHang Univ. (China)
Laboratory and flight test evaluations have consistently demonstrated thepotential for helmet-mounted display (HMD) presented information toenhance air combat performance. One of our previous studies examining
the ownship status HMD symbology (distributed flight reference andnondistributed flight reference, DFR and NDFR) on ergonomics showed that
NDFR was more suitable for HMD than DFR. In this study, we compared two
opposing color-coding strategies and three target symbologies in an air-toair scenario with NDFR. The HMD was simulated by drawing the symbology
on the scene displays, so eye tracking technology could be used in thisresearch as a more objective and accurate method. The amount of timeit took operators to make correct decisions on a simplified targeting task,error rates and Scanning trajectory were recorded as performance measure.
The results of this study indicated that color-coded symbology and locatorline with reflected vector length proved to be the preferred. A detailed
description of experiment design and results of this study will be presented.

9086-25, Session 9

We present the design of an immersion-type 3D headset suitable forvirtual reality applications based upon digital micro-mirror devices (DMD).
Current methods for presenting information for virtual reality are focusedon either polarization-based modulators such as liquid crystal on silicon(LCoS) devices, or miniature LCD or LED displays often using lenses to place
the image at infinity. LCoS modulators are an area of active research anddevelopment, and reduce the amount of viewing light by 50% due to theuse of polarization. Viewable LCD or LED screens may suffer low resolution,
cause eye fatigue, and exhibit a “screen door” or pixelation effect due to thelow pixel fill factor. Our approach leverages a mature technology based on
silicon micro mirrors delivering 720p resolution displays in a small formfactor with high fill factor. Supporting chip sets allow rapid integration ofthese devices into wearable displays with high-definition resolution and low
power consumption, and many of the design methods developed for DMD
projector applications can be adapted to display use. Potential applications
include night driving with natural depth perception, piloting of UAVs, fusionof multiple sensors for pilots, training, vision diagnostics and consumer
gaming. Our design concept is described in which light from the DMD isimaged to infinity and the user’s own eye lens forms a real image on theuser’s retina realizing a virtual retinal display.

9086-27, Session 9

Head-up displays and head-down displays
integration in automobiles
J. Alejandro Betancur, Gilberto Osorio, Alejandro Mejía, Univ. EAFIT(Colombia)
In automotive industry, the dashboard has been ergonomically developed inorder to keep the driver focused on the horizon; the above is the principal
point of development of this work, which seeks through the integrationof Head-Up Displays and Head-Down Displays applied to automobiles,
to propose configurations that give to drivers the facility to driving
focused, without any necessity to manipulating the dashboard functions;consequently, it is presented some of the main ergonomic comments
about those configurations; on the other hand, the amount of technicalspecifications in a system as here described is too much, but some technicalcomments regarding the implemented arrangements are given.

Helmet-mounted nighttime camera system
Tammy Orourke, Dan Marshall, DevCar, LLC (United States)
The invention includes an image-intensifier tube and circuitry coupled toa digital storage medium that periodically samples a signal provided by
the image intensifier tube and stores the sampled image to be viewed in

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Conference 9086B: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XIX:
Design and Applications

9086-28, Session 10

DARPA-sponsored Manufacturable Gradient Index Optics (M-GRIN) may
yield new design degrees of freedom for eyepiece and HMD designers. New
plastic material systems that may be used to create achromatized singlets,
simplifying eyepiece design and shortening the eyepiece overall length,
pulling the entire HMD system closer to the observer’s head and improving
systems center of gravity. This paper will examine the possibility of usinglarge aperture GRIN optics to achromatize an eyepiece and examine theimpact on weight and volume. Assumptions about the material system(index of refraction (n) and delta n) and a candidate full color microdisplay
will be clearly stated and may not reflect any commercially available system.

Smart filters: Operational HMD even at brightsunlight conditions
Ariela Donval, Noam Gross, Eran Partouche, Ido E. Dotan, Ofir
Lipman, Moshe Oron, KiloLambda Technologies, Ltd. (Israel)
A typical Head Mounted Display (HMD) has either one or two small displayswith relevant optics embedded in a helmet, eye-glasses (also known asdata glasses) or visor. Some HMDs allow the computer generated image(CGI) to be superimposed on a real-world view. This method is often called
Optical See-Through. In see-through HMD the background illumination isa crucial factor influence the ability of viewing the display. When using the
HMD at a very bright day, the display image risks vanishing due to the sun
illumination. However, at a very cloudy day, one needs all the light to passthrough the display to the user eye. The need to control the amount ofsunlight passes through the HMD was the trigger for our effort in developing
Dynamic Sunlight Filter (DSF), which is a passive solution dedicated toregulate sunlight overpower events.

9086-32, Session 10

A versatile photogrammetric camera automatic
calibration suite for multispectral fusion andoptical helmet tracking
Jason P. de Villiers, Robert Jermy, Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (South Africa)

KiloLambda’s Dynamic Sunlight Filter (DSF), is a passive solution dedicatedfor sunlight controlling and regulating applications. The DSF is a passive(self-adaptive), solid-state, free-space filter, which attenuates visible lightvariably according to its intensity. The DSF’s transmittance is inversely
proportional to the amount of solar light impinging on it. When light levelis low, such as in the case of cloudy sky, the DSF remains transparent, withhigh transmission functionality.

This paper presents a system to determine the photogrammetric parametersof a camera[1]. The lens distortion, focal length and camera six degreeof freedom (DOF) position are calculated. The system caters for camerasof different sensitivity spectra and fields of view without any mechanicalmodifications.
The distortion characterisation [2], a variant of Brown’s classic plumb line
method [3], allows many radial and tangential distortion coefficients ands
find the optimal principle point. Typical values are 5 radial and 3 tangential
coefficients, these parameters are determined stably and demonstrably
produce superior results [2] to low order models despite popular andprevalent misconceptions to the contrary [4]. The system produces
coefficients to model both the distorted to undistorted direction (e.g. fortarget designation) and the undistorted to distorted direction (e.g. for image
stitching and fusion) allowing deterministic rates far exceeding real time[5,6].

As the light level is increased and gets more intense, such as in the case of
direct sun, the DSF transmission decreases, eventually reaching a darkened
state. This process is reversible and the filter returns to its transparent
state once the intensity of light decreases to its normal level. When placingsuch a DSF at the outer face of the HMD, it provides the benefit of keeping
background illumination at the desired level, regardless of the real weather
conditions, such as bright sun or clouds. We present at this talk the DSF
functionality including new capabilities as were developed within the lastyear to be adapted mostly for avionic applications. We discuss also thebenefits for avionic and non-avionic HMD applications.

The focal length is determined to minimise the error in absolute
photogrammetric positional measurement for both multi camera systems or
monocular (e.g. helmet tracker) systems.

9086-29, Session 10

The system determines the 6 DOF position of the camera in a chosencoordinate system. It can also determine of the 6 DOF offset of the camera
relative to its mechanical mount. This allows faulty cameras to be replacedwith out requiring a recalibration of the entire system (such as an aircraft
cockpit).

Scorpion hybrid optical-based inertial tracker(HObIT) test results
Robert Atac, Eric Foxlin, Tom Calloway, John Popoolapade, Thales
Visionix, Inc. (United States)

Results from two simple applications of the calibration results are presented:
stitching and fusion of the images from a dual-band visual/LWIR camera
array, and a simple laboratory optical helmet tracker.

Thales Visionix, Inc. presented a new helmet tracker based on a hybrid
inertial optical approach in 2013. The Hybrid Optical based Inertial Tracker(HObIT) uses the inside-out concept and InterSense NavChip precision
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). A unique feature of the tracker is that
there is no aircraft mounted equipment. A few circular bar code like fiducial
stickers are placed on the interior surface of the cockpit. The tracker allows
operation in both hybrid inertial/optical and inertial alone. HObIT has been
installed and successfully flown on a number of different platforms. This
paper will describe the different installations and the performance achievedby the HObIT.

[1] J. P. de Villiers and J. Cronje, “A method of calibrating a camera and asystem therefor,” International Patent PCT/IB2012/056 820, 11 30, 2012.
[2] J. de Villiers, F. Leuschner, and R. Geldenhuys, “Centi-pixel accurate realtime inverse distortion correction,” in Proceedings of the 2008 International
Symposium on OptomechatronicTechnologies, ser. ISOT2008, vol. 7266,2008, pp. 1-8[3] Brown, D., “Close range camera calibration,” PhotogrammetricEngineering 8 , 855–855 (1971)[4] Tsai, R., “A versatile camera calibration technique for high-accuracy 3D
machine vision metrology using off-the-shelf tv cameras and lenses,” IEEE
Journal of Robotics and Automation 3 , 323–344 (1987).

9086-30, Session 10[5] J. de Villiers, “Real-time photogrammetric stitching of high resolution
video on COTS hardware,” in Proceedings of the 2009 International
Symposium on Optomechatronic Technologies, ser. ISOT2009, vol 9, 2009,46-51.

Gradient index eyepiece technology for headmounted display applicationsPeter L. Marasco, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)[6] J.P. de Villiers, J. Cronje, “Improved real-time photogrammetric stitching”
in Proc. SPIE 8744, Automatic Target Recognition XXIII, 874406 (2013)

Eyepieces used in full color head-mounted displays require a high degree
achromatization to exhibit the level of performance required by observers.
Many times, this leads to the use of dense glass materials and multi-element
systems. The advent of new gradient index material systems as part of the197+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9087: Degraded Visual Environments (DVE):
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions(ESXVS) 2014
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9087 Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced, Synthetic, andExternal Vision Solutions 2014

9087-1, Session 1

predictions. A high-level overview of the OPAL sensor integration into such
system will be also presented.

3D surface imaging through visual obscurants
using a sub-terahertz radar

9087-3, Session 1

Jason Fritz, Colorado Engineering, Inc. (United States); Albin J.
Gasiewski, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (United States); Lawrence
Scally, Colorado Engineering, Inc. (United States); Kun Zhang, Univ.
of Colorado at Boulder (United States)

Low SWaP high-performance obscurant
penetrating 3D lidar for helicopter situationalawareness in DVEHigh resolution, 3D imaging of terrestrial surfaces is most easily achieved
using stereoscopic electro-optical (EO) sensors. However, passive EO
sensors require light and cannot penetrate clouds, smoke, dust and othervisual obscurants. 3D lidar has been used quite successfully to image in no/low light conditions and some obscurants. Millimeter wave (MMW) radar,even up to 94 GHz, can penetrate obscurants, but requires a much larger
antenna and significant bandwidth to achieve a similar resolution. Current
research activities are investigating whether or not sub-terahertz sensors,on the order of hundreds of gigahertz, can achieve high resolution 3D
imagery yet be relatively small. This spectral region has seen minimal sensor
development due to the combination of high water vapor absorption andlow power sources. Recently, sources have become available that provide
enough transmit power to overcome atmospheric absorption and scattering
through these obscurants at distances of 100-200 m, and the available
power will continue to increase while the device sizes will decrease. In orderto achieve the full 3D surface reconstruction, a radar fan beam is scannedin one direction with two offset receivers collecting reflected energy. Using
standard interferometry techniques, the phase difference between the tworeceivers is utilized to estimate the surface height at each pixel. Such assystem has been built and initial outdoor imaging results will be presented.
These results are preliminary and highlight the challenges at this frequency,
but provide indications that this band may provide a solution to the
problem.

9087-2, Session 1

Overview of the commercial OPAL lidar
optimized for rotorcraft platforms operating indegraded visual environments

Areté’s DUSPEN system captures full lidar waveforms and uses sophisticatedreal-time detection and filtering algorithms to discriminate hard target
returns from dust and other obscurants. Down-stream 3D image processing
methods are used to enhance visualization of threat objects (e.g. wires,
cables, poles, posts, foliage, obstacles, etc.) and ground features (e.g.
ditches, berms, rocks, boulders, sloping terrain, etc.). Areté has developed
sophisticated real-time sensor fusion algorithms to blend 2D and 3D
imagery onto the cockpit display. These advanced fusion techniques areused to aid pilots in visualizing threat objects or terrain features derived
from the see-through 3D lidar while viewing EO scene imagery derived froma high-definition visible, MWIR, or LWIR camera, or combination thereof.

DVE and the U.S. Army (Invited Paper)
Layne B. Merritt, U.S. Army Aviation & Missile Research,
Development & Engineering Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available

Neptec has developed a family of obscurant-penetrating 3D laser scanners
called OPAL 2.0 that are being adapted for rotorcraft platforms. Neptec
and Boeing have been working on an integrated system utilizing the OPAL
LiDAR to support operations in degraded visual environments. OPAL
scanners incorporate Neptec’s patented obscurant-penetrating LiDAR
technology which was extensively tested in controlled dust environments
and helicopters for brownout mitigation. The OPAL uses a scanningmechanism based on the Risley prism pair. Data acquisition rates can go as
high as 200kHz for ranges within 200m and 25kHz for ranges exceeding
200m. The scan patterns are created by the rotation of two prisms under
independent motor control. The geometry and material properties of theprisms will define the circular field-of-view of the sensor, which can be set
between 60 to 120 degrees. Through detailed simulation and analysis of
mission profiles, the system can be tailored for application to rotorcraft.
Examples of scan patterns and control schemes based on these simulations
will be provided along with data density predictions versus acquisition
time for applicable DVE scenarios. Preliminary 3D data acquired in clear
and obscurant conditions will be presented and compared to theoretical

SPIE DSS 2014

Imaging laser radar (ladar or lidar) is a promising DVE sensor technology
because it can provide wide field-or-regard, high-resolution, 3-dimensional
real-time imagery of the region surrounding a helicopter in severe DVE
conditions. Areté Associates has developed and flight tested nextgeneration low SWaP, real-time dust-penetrating (DUSPEN) lidar systemthat is packaged for integration into a turreted sensor assembly.

9087-4, Session 2

Philip M. Church, Neptec Technologies Corp. (Canada); Tim Paul,The Boeing Co. (United States); Kiatchai Borribanbunpotkat, Mike
Sekerka, Neptec Technologies Corp. (Canada)

198

James T. Murray, Jason Seely, Jeffrey J. Plath, William L. Ryder,
Gregory J. Fetzer, Neil R. Van Lieu, Kelly Hillman, Tyler J. Wagner,
Adam Knudson, Brian Lang, Kenneth Panici, John R. Engel, Andrea
Smith, Matt Graham, John Bantle, Veeder South IV, Tracy Wadleigh,Tom Lombardo, Anthony M. Mitchell, Arete Associates (UnitedStates)9087-5, Session 3

Imaging through obscurants with a heterodyne
detection-based ladar system
Randy R. Reibel, Peter A. Roos, Brant M. Kaylor, Trenton Berg,James Curry, Bridger Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Bridger Photonics has been researching and developing a ladar system
based on heterodyne detection for imaging through brownout and other
DVEs. There are several advantages that an FMCW ladar system provides
compared to direct detect pulsed time-of-flight systems including: 1)
Higher average powers, 2) Single photon sensitive while remaining tolerant
to strong return signals, 3) Doppler sensitivity for clutter removal, and 4)
More flexible system for sensing during various stages of flight. During this·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9087: Degraded Visual Environments (DVE):
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions(ESXVS) 2014

9087-8, Session 3talk, we will provide a review of our sensor, discuss lessons learned during
various DVE tests, and show our latest 3D imagery.

System modelling of a real-time passive
millimetre-wave imager to be used for basesecurity and helicopter navigation in degradedvisual environments

9087-6, Session 3

Three-dimensional landing zone (3D-LZ) joint
capability technology demonstration

Rupert N. Anderton, Colin D. Cameron, QinetiQ Ltd. (United
Kingdom); Jeff J. Guell, The Boeing Co. (United States); Jack
Sanders-Reed, Dennis J. Yelton, Boeing-SVS, Inc. (United States)

James C. Savage, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The Three-Dimensional Landing Zone (3D-LZ) Joint Capability Technology
Demonstration (JCTD) is a United States Central Command sponsored27-month technology development program to develop and demonstrate
an integrated Ladar and FLIR capability upgrade for the US Air Force
Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters througha retrofit of the current AN/AAQ-29 FLIR turret systems. The 3D-LZ JCTD
builds upon a history of LADAR technology development programs forbrownout. While preserving legacy FLIR capability, 3D-LZ will integrate ahigh-resolution, imaging LADAR to address helicopter approach and landing
in degraded visual environments with emphasis on brownout; cable warningand obstacle avoidance; and controlled flight into terrain via Helicopter
Terrain Awareness and Warning System (HTAWS). The LADAR subsystem
will provide real-time geo-referencing, dust rejection and penetration,
automatic cable and obstacle detection and warning, fusion of real-time
LADAR data with a terrain database, and visual/audible aircrew warnings
for terrain avoidance. This paper summarizes program progress to date,describes individual LADAR technologies within 3D-LZ, documents system
performance metrics in each of the capability areas, and outlines the JCTD
program plans which will culminate in a flight demonstration at Yuma
Proving Ground in 2014.

This paper discusses the design of an improved passive millimetre wave
imaging system intended to be used for base security in degraded visualenvironments.
A simple end-to-end model of such an imager is described, including asimple scene model based on transformations applied to visible and infrared
imagery, optical aberrations, focal plane sampling, scan conversion, receiver
performance and image processing algorithms. The use of such a model
as a design tool is discussed, especially with regard to optimising scanconversion and image processing algorithms. The expected performance
improvements over previous imager designs reported are predicted.

9087-9, Session 4

Factors affecting advanced processing forvisualisation of electro-optical distributed
aperture sensor data in dynamic degraded visualenvironments

9087-7, Session 3

Stephen Bennett, Mark C. Lupton, SELEX ES Ltd. (United Kingdom)

Flight testing results of rotary-wing and fixedwing millimeter-wave radar DVE solutions

There has long been a desire to operate rotorcraft as well in degraded visualenvironments, whether it is due to low light or to atmospheric obscurants,
as on a clear day. This places certain expectations on the capabilities of thesensors and displays within any enhanced vision system to deliver a similar
acuity, field of view, field of regard and dynamic response as the humanvision system. Central to this is the ability of the processing elements of any
such system to process high volumes of sensor data, with very low latency
and to present display imagery via head mounted displays accurately
registered to the outside world. Furthermore the ability to gracefully movefrom a good to a degraded visual environment and the augmentation of
the vision system with supporting situation awareness information must be
considered. This paper presents work undertaken to develop and assess,through aircraft flight trials, a real-time processing solution to provide
enhanced situational awareness in degraded visual environments through an
augmented vision system utilising distributed aperture sensors.

John Schneider, Jack Cross, Pete Cariani, Sierra Nevada Corp.
(United States)
This paper will summarize flight testing results of the Sierra Nevada
Corporation (SNC) rotary-wing and fixed-wing millimeter wave radarenhanced vision products. For over a decade, SNC has developed andevolved these products that utilize a fast-scanning 94 GHz radar to produce
three-dimensional measurement of the terrain within the radar field of view.
The three-dimensional data is rendered as terrain and obstacle imagery
on pilot and co-pilot displays with system and navigation state symbology
overlays. The radar terrain imagery is fused with synthetic imagery of thesurrounding terrain, derived from overhead EO imagery overlaid on DTED
topographic information, to form a long-range, wide field-of-view display
for pilot situational awareness. The rotary-wing system also includes brownout guidance and symbology overlays to aid the pilot in landing at specifictouch down locations input by the pilot or provided through a mission
planning interface. The most recent version of the rotary-wing system hascompleted development and undergone extensive environmental and EMI/
EMC testing in the past year for the US Army DVE ONS program. Multiship performance flight testing on the UH-60L platform will be completed
in 2Q2014. This several month long flight test will be the most exhaustive
test of a DVE system in operational flight conditions to date. Flight testing
results of terrain/obstacle detection and landing guidance performance
will be presented. The fixed-wing EFVS system, REVS, is being developed
to address commercial aviation DVE mitigation, and has also successfully
performed several developmental and demonstration flight tests. This paper
summarizes the results of the DVE ONS and REVS flight testing events andother ongoing developmental efforts.

9087-11, Session 4

Development of reconfigurable image
enhancement and multisensor fusion processor
Duncan L. Hickman, Moira I. Smith, Tektonex Ltd. (United Kingdom);
Steve J. Parker, Fan Wu, RFEL Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The design and development of a high performance vision enhancement
and processing system is reported which offers a highly flexible functional
and physical architecture that can accommodated multiple camera inputs
using a hybrid firmware and software processor. The architecture provides
an application-tailored capability for both operator-viewed displays andassisted / automated applications with multiple high-data camera inputs(HD and up to 100Hz). Emphasis is placed on the development of afunctional processing design that can provide significant operational gain incomplex and challenging scenarios with degraded visibility.
Within this paper, the design approach is presented in terms of a trade-off
discussion covering operational requirements, human-factors, algorithm

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Conference 9087: Degraded Visual Environments (DVE):
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions(ESXVS) 2014
design, software, processor configuration, and the need for a flexible
architecture. To deliver the required performance, a range of highperformance algorithms has been developed covering adaptive noise
suppression, image manipulation (rotation, zoom, distortion correction),
electronic stabilisation, contrast enhancement, registration, and fusion for
two and three camera inputs. These capabilities are described and theperformance illustrated using both laboratory and trials data. Key aspectsof algorithm reconfiguration will also be discussed in term of both thealgorithm and hardware designs including ‘plug-and-play’ interfacing. The
achieved performance of the system will be demonstrated under different
viewing conditions and the benefits to security and defence applications
highlighted. Ongoing developments in the areas of motion sensing,segmentation, detection and tracking will also be discussed both in terms of
implementation impact and user benefits. Finally, potential applications of
the system are described with an emphasis on operational flexibility.

9087-12, Session 4

DVE: ground and airborne visualization
functionalities

Carlo L. Tiana, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States); Weston J.
Lahr, Rockwell Collins Aerospace & Electronics Inc. (United States);
Brendan English, John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems
Ctr. (United States)
The development trajectory for vision systems for low-visibility operations
often places intense focus on the development of the sensing hardware.
The hardware may have many applications to different platforms andfor multiple purposes: vision through meteorological phenomena, vision
through particulates such as sand and smoke, and vision through smog
and haze from man-made emissions. The system will be deployed as acomponent of a complete platform that includes operational goals, display
systems and various possible roles for the flying (or ground) crew.

9087-16, Session 6External Vision Systems (XVS) Proof-of-Concept
Flight Test Evaluation

This paper describes functional blocks (hardware and software
functionalities) applicable to several forms of indirect vision enhancement
in DVE (Degraded Vision Environment for pilotage, Driver’s Vision
Enhancement for ground vehicle Situational Awareness). These
functionalities are the result of the increased processing power of General
Purpose Graphics Processing Units (GPGPUs) and improvements in mosaic
stitch processing, image fusion and analytics of both live and synthetic
imagery. We deploy GPUs into low-latency embedded systems withdecreased SWaP and high-bandwidth interconnectivity via RDMA (Remote
Direct Memory Access).

Kevin J. Shelton, Steven P. Williams, Lynda J. Kramer, Jarvis J.
Arthur III, Randall E. Bailey, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates)NASA’s Fundamental Aeronautics Program, High Speed project isperforming research, development, test and evaluation of flight deck andrelated technologies to support future low-boom, supersonic configurations(without forward-facing windows) by use of an eXternal Visibility System(XVS). The challenge of XVS is to determine a combination of sensor anddisplay technologies which can provide an equivalent level of safety andperformance to that provided by forward-facing windows in today’s aircraft.
This flight test was conducted with the goal of obtaining performance dataon see-and-avoid and see-to-follow traffic using a proof-of-concept XVS
design in actual flight conditions. Six data collection flights were flown in ten
traffic scenarios against two different sized participating traffic aircraft. This
test utilized a 3x1 array of High Definition (HD) cameras, with a fixed forward
field-of-view, mounted on NASA Langley’s UC-12 test aircraft. Test scenarios,with particpating NASA aircraft serving as traffic, were presented to two
evaluation pilots per flight – one using the proof-of-concept XVS and theother looking out the forward windows. The camera images are presented
on the XVS display in the aft cabin with HUD like flight symbology
overlaying the real-time imagery. The test generated XVS performance data,
including comparisons to natural vision, and post-run subjective, workload,
and acceptability data were also collected. The presentation will discuss
the flight test activities, its operational challenges, and summarize thepreliminary findings to date.

9087-13, Session 5

USAF/AFRL perspective on the challenges for
DVE solutions (Invited Paper)
James C. Savage, U.S. Air Force (United States) and AFRL/RWWS(United States)
No Abstract Available

9087-14, Session 6

Degraded visual environment video quality
metrics
Dustin D. Baumgartner, Bruce J. Schachter, Northrop Grumman
Electronic Systems (United States); Eddie L. Jacobs, Jeremy B.
Brown, Univ. of Memphis (United States)

9087-17, Session 6

A number of video quality metrics (VQMs) have been proposed for military
operations in degraded visual environments. Some require both pristine andcorrupted imagery. Others require patterned target boards in the scene.
None of these metrics relates well to the task of landing a helicopter inconditions such as a brownout dust cloud.
We have developed objective VQMs to quantify the pilot’s ability to detecthazards in the scene and to maintain situational awareness. The metrics areagnostic to sensor type. They have been validated with human perception
experiments. Not only are the metrics suitable for evaluating algorithm andsensor variation, they are also suitable for choosing the most cost effective
solution to improving operating conditions in degraded visual environments.

SPIE DSS 2014

Image quality evaluations for enhanced visionsystem intended function and display

Careful consideration must be given to the end to end integration of thevision system in the target platform and the selection of appropriate metrics
to use when optimizing the system’s performance. Tradeoffs and metrics areanalyzed for some typical conditions.

Dustin Franklin, GE Intelligent Platforms (United States); Andy
Preece, GE Intelligent Platforms (United Kingdom); Larry Schaffer,
GE Intelligent Platforms (United States); Nick Barrett, GE Intelligent
Platforms (United Kingdom)

2009087-15, Session 6·

Visual advantage of enhanced flight visionsystem during NextGen flight test evaluation
Lynda J. Kramer, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Stephanie J. Harrison, Old Dominion Univ. (United States); Randall
E. Bailey, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States); Kevin J.
Shelton, NASA Langley Research Ctr (United States); Kyle K. Ellis,
NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
Synthetic Vision Systems and Enhanced Flight Vision System (SVS/EFVS)

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Conference 9087: Degraded Visual Environments (DVE):
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions(ESXVS) 2014
technologies have the potential to provide additional margins of safety foraircrew performance and enable operational improvements for low visibility
operations in the terminal area environment. Simulation and flight tests
were jointly sponsored by NASA’s Aviation Safety Program, Vehicle Systems
Safety Technology project and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) toevaluate potential safety and operational benefits of SVS/EFVS technologies
in low visibility Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen)
operations. The flight tests were conducted by a team of Honeywell,Gulfstream Aerospace Corporation and NASA personnel with the goal of
obtaining pilot-in-the-loop test data for flight validation, verification, anddemonstration of selected SEVS operational and system-level performancecapabilities.

are a major challenge and bear the risk of potentially fatal accidents. DVE
generally encompasses all degradations to the visual perception of thepilot ranging from night conditions via rain and snowfall to fog and maybe
even blinding sunlight or unstructured outside scenery. Each of these
conditions reduces the pilots’ ability to perceive visual cues in the outside
world reducing his performance and finally increasing risk of mission failure
and accidents. The basis for the presented solution is a fusion of processedand classified high resolution ladar data with database information having
a potential to also include other sensor data like forward looking or 360°
radar data. This paper reports on a pilot assistance system aiming at
giving back the essential visual cues to the pilot by means of displaying
3D conformal cues and symbols in a head-tracked helmet mounted display(HMD) and a combination with synthetic view on a head-down MFD. Eachflight phase and each flight envelope requires different symbology sets
and different possibilities for the pilots to select specific support functions.
Several functionalities have been implemented and tested in a simulator aswell as in flight. The symbology ranges from obstacle warning symbology
via terrain enhancements through grids or ridge lines to different waypoint
symbols supporting navigation. While some adaptations can be automatedit emerged as essential that symbology characteristics and completenesscan be selected by the pilot to match the relevant flight envelope andoutside visual conditions.

Nine test flights were flown in Gulfstream’s G450 flight test aircraft outfittedwith the SEVS technology under low visibility instrument meteorologicalconditions. Evaluation pilots flew 108 approaches in low visibility weather
conditions (600 ft to 3600 ft reported visibility) under different obscurants(mist, fog, drizzle fog, frozen fog) and sky cover (broken, overcast).
Flight test video were evaluated at three different altitudes (decision
altitude, 100 ft radar altitude, and touchdown) to determine the visualadvantage afforded to the pilot using the EFVS/FLIR imagery comparedto natural vision. Results indicate the EFVS provided a visual advantage of
two to four times over that of the out-the-window (OTW) view. The EFVS
allowed pilots to view the runway environment, specifically runway lights,
before they would be able to OTW with natural vision.

9087-20, Session 7

Visual-conformal display format for helicopter
guidance

9087-18, Session 7

Honeywell synthetic vision avionics backbone(SVAB) program

Hans-Ullrich Doehler, Sven Schmerwitz, Thomas Lueken, Deutsches
Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany)

Howard W. Wiebold, Honeywell Automation & Control Solutions(United States); Patrick L. O’Brien, Honeywell, Inc. (United States)

Helicopter guidance in situations where natural vision is reduced is stilla challenging task. Beside new available sensors which are able to “see”
through darkness, fog and dust, display technology remains one of the key
issues of pilot assistance systems. As long as we have pilots within aircraft
cockpits, we have to keep them informed about the outside situation.
“Situational awareness” of humans is mainly powered by their visualchannel. Therefore display systems which are able to fadeover seamless
form natural vision to artificial computer vision and vice versa, are ofgreatest interest within this context. Helmet-mounted displays (HMD) havethis property when they apply a headtracker for measuring the pilot’s
head orientation relative to the aircraft reference frame. Together with theaircraft’s position and orientation relative to the world’s reference frame
the on?board graphics computer can generate images which are perfectlyaligned with the outside world. We call image elements which match theoutside world, “visual-conformal”. Published display formats for helicopter
guidance in degraded visual environment apply mostly 2D-symbologies
which stay far behind from what is possible. We propose a perspective
3D-symbology for a head-tracked HMD which shows as much as possible
visual-conformal elements. We implemented and tested our proposal withinout fixed based cockpit simulator as well as in our flying helicopter simulator(FHS).

Rotorcraft experience nearly ten times the accident rate of fixed wing
platforms, due in large part to the nature of their mission, requiring frequent
operations in close proximity to terrain and obstacles. Degraded visualenvironments (DVE), including brownout or whiteout conditions generated
by rotor downwash, result in loss of situational awareness during the mostcritical phases of flight, and are a significant contributor to the accident
rate. Considerable research into sensor and system solutions to address DVE
continues, however, the synthetic vision avionics backbone (SVAB) extends
far beyond this single issue and enables improved situational awarenessand mission effectiveness during all phases of flight and in all visibility
conditions.
Advantages of a “sensor impartial” SVAB allow platform and mission
diversity with an efficient upgrade path, even while research continues into
new and improved sensors for use in DVE conditions. Through the optimum
integration of multiple sources of information - sensor(s) data, terrain andobstacle databases, mission planning information, aircraft state information- enhancements to operations in all conditions and all phases of flight canbe achieved.
Honeywell has recently completed flight testing for the DARPA MultiFunction RF program utilizing the SVAB with a real time MMW sensor. The
system accurately detected obstacles, terrain and power lines, and displayedthem in a realistic 3-D view on the current cockpit displays. Results will beshared.

9087-21, Session 7

Synthetic vision meets ARINC 661: Feasibility
study of different integration concepts for terrain
visualization in ARINC 661 avionic displays

9087-19, Session 7

Erik Lipinski, Lars Ebrecht, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany)

Sensor-enhanced 3D conformal cueing for safeand reliable HC operation in DVE in all flightphases

The standard ARINC 661 Cockpit Display System Interfaces To User Systems
is now being used increasingly for cockpit display systems development,
e.g. in the Airbus A380, A350 or Boeing 787. The standard defines a clientserver architecture including user applications (UA) which control layers incertain windows of a cockpit display system. When creating display systems
for avionics, one can use a predefined set of simple and complex widgets.
Simple widgets, for example, are lines, triangles, rectangles, circles while

Thomas R. Muensterer, Tobias Schafhitzel, Michael Strobel,
Stephanus Klasen, AIRBUS Defence & Space (Germany)
Low level helicopter operations in degraded visual environment (DVE) still201+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9087: Degraded Visual Environments (DVE):
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions(ESXVS) 2014

9087-24, Session 9

the more complex widgets are the translation or rotation container, themap widget or certain interaction widgets, amongst others. These are very
useful when designing and programming a primary flight display (PFD) or
navigation display (ND).

Detection of helicopter landing sites in
unprepared terrain

However, a proper widget or concept enabling a synthetic vision (SV) for
terrain visualization has not yet been provided. Thus, the question is how
to create SV PFD with ARINC 661 for a real-time safety-critical industrial
environment. Accordingly, three different concepts, a standard, extended
and independent concept are defined and described in this contribution.
The standard concept tries to use the widgets provided by the ARINC 661
standard for terrain visualization. This approach is like a remote renderingof the terrain data outside the server. The extended concept includes
a new customized widget as an extension of the widgets provided by
the ARINC 661 standard. This widget adds terrain rendering features tothe server. Hence, the customer widget has to be included in the server
implementation. This extension is supported by the ARINC 661 standard but
can only be supported by a server that includes this customer widget. The
independent concept depicts an approach where the terrain visualization is
independently computed outside the server and is merged by the graphics
and video controller. The three concepts are qualitatively analyzed andweighed against each other.

Niklas Peinecke, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
(Germany)
The primary usefulness of helicopters shows in missions where regularaircraft cannot be used. This might be due to requirements for landing in
unprepared areas without dedicated runway structures, and an extended
flexibility to fly to more than one previously unprepared target. One
example of such missions are search and rescue operations. An importanttask of such a mission is to locate a proper landing spot near the mission
target. Usually, the pilot would have to evaluate possible landing sites byhimself, which can be time-intensive, fuel-costly, and generally impossible
when operating in degraded visual environments.
We present a method for pre-selecting a list of possible landing sites. After
specifying the intended size, orientation and geometry of the site, a choiceof possibilities is presented to the pilot that can be ordered by meansof wind direction, terrain constraints like maximal slope and roughness,and proximity to a mission target. The possible choices are calculated
automatically either from a pre-existing terrain data base, or from sensor
data collected during earlier missions, e.g., by collecting data with radaror laser sensors. Additional data like water-body maps and topologicalinformation can be taken into account to avoid landing in dangerous areas
under adverse view conditions. In case of an emergency turnaround the list
can be re-ordered to present alternative sites to the pilot.

On top of these results a hybrid concept is taken into consideration asprove-of-concept and for a detailed feasibility study. This hybrid concept
combines a customized widget with an external non-safe rendering
application, i.e. the terrain visualization will be controlled and integrated bya specific customer widget. The hybrid concept combining the advantagesof the extended and the independent concept is implemented using theopen source ARINC 661 tools called “j661” managed by Dassault Aviation.
The implementation of the hybrid concept includes the development of
a PFD using the j661 editor and the extension of the openGL functionsof the j661 server. The implementation furthermore includes an X-Plane
plugin enabling the use of X-Plane as rendering application for the terrain
visualization. The prototyped concept is evaluated against the amount ofdate exchange and frames per second as well as latencies.

We outline the principle algorithm for selecting possible landing sites, andwe present examples of calculated lists.

9087-25, Session 10

DVE: Beyond the landing problem (Invited Paper)

9087-22, Session 8

H. Bruce Wallace, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)

Long-range ISR systems in DVE (Invited Paper)

No Abstract Available

Ravi Athale, Office of Naval Research (United States)
No Abstract Available

9087-23, Session 9

Identifying opportune landing sites in degradedvisual environments with terrain and cultural
databases
Marc D. Moody, Robert Fisher, The Boeing Co. (United States)
A Degraded Visual Environment capability is presented that utilizes terrain
and cultural databases to present the air crew with opportune landing sites
and an approach vector with S-ILS cues to a designated landing zone. This
technology may be extended to incorporate DVE sensors for improved nearearth situational awareness.

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
Monday - Wednesday 5 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9088 Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX

9088-1, Session 1

a jointly defined energy function over all bands. Finally, to capture thenon-linear nature of decomposed hypercube, output-normalized nonlinear
manifold learning methods, such as Laplacian Eigenmaps, Diffusion Maps, orLocal Linear Embedding, will be employed. This theory, though applicable
to a wide range of datasets and applications, will be applied to theclassification of hyperspectral images.

Graph-based hyperspectral image segmentation
with improved affinity matrix
Lei Fan, David Messinger, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)9088-3, Session 1

Image segmentation and clustering is a method to extract a set ofcomponents whose members are similar in some way. Instead of focusing
on the consistencies of local image characteristics such as borders andregions in a perceptual way, the spectral graph theoretic approach is basedon the eigenvectors of an affinity matrix; therefore it captures perceptuallyimportant non-local properties of an image. A typical spectral graphsegmentation algorithm, normalized cuts incorporates both the dissimilarity
between groups and similarity within groups by capturing global
consistency making the segmentation process more balanced and stable.
For spectral graph partitioning, we create a graph-image representation
wherein each pixel is taken as a graph node, and two pixels are connectedby an edge based on certain similarity criteria. In most cases, nearby pixels
are likely to be in the same region, therefore each pixel is connected to its
spatial neighbors in the normalized cut algorithm. However, this ignores
the difference between distinct groups or the similarity within a group. A
hyperspectral image contains high spatial correlation among pixels, buteach pixel is better described by its high dimensional spectral feature vector
which provides more information when characterizing the similarities among
every pair of pixels. Also, to facilitate the underlying scheme of removing
edges between different groups, a penalization of the affinity matrix is alsopresented in this paper based on a derived edge-map, calculated using
the HySPADE algorithm. Results will be shown for airborne hyperspectral
imagery collected with the HyMAP sensor.

Schroedinger eigenmaps with nondiagonal
potentials for spatial-spectral clustering of
hyperspectral imagery
Nathan D. Cahill, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States);
Wojciech Czaja, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States);David Messinger, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
Schroedinger Eigenmaps (SE) has recently emerged as a powerful graphbased technique for semi-supervised manifold learning and recovery. By
extending the Laplacian of a graph constructed from hyperspectral imagery
to incorporate barrier or cluster “potentials,” SE enables machine learningtechniques that employ expert/labeled information provided at a subset ofpixels. In this paper, we show how different types of nondiagonal potentials
can be used within the SE framework in a way that allows for the integrationof spatial and spectral information in unsupervised manifold learning andrecovery.
In the proposed framework, nondiagonal potentials encoding spatial
proximity are added to the Laplacian of the original graph (which contains
spectral proximity information). After solving a generalized eigenvector
problem using the Schroedinger operator of the updated graph, the original
image data can be represented in a lower dimensional space spanned by thedominant generalized eigenvectors. The lower-dimensional data can then be
analyzed by state-of-the-art classification techniques.

9088-2, Session 1

Wavelet packets and nonlinear manifold learning
for analysis of hyperspectral data

To illustrate the practicality of the proposed SE framework, we performedexperiments on publicly available hyperspectral images (Pavia University
and Indian Pines). We used a subset of the ground-truth labels from theseimages to learn classifiers for predicting class labels from the reduceddimensional data after its representation in the generalized eigenvector
basis of the graph Schroedinger operator. When comparing our proposed
approach with state-of-the-art spectral/spatial fusion approaches based on1) combining eigenvectors from purely spatial and purely spectra Laplacian
operators, 2) using fused Laplacian operators, and 3) using modified metrics
in the graph construction, we found that SE is competitive/superior in nearly
all cases.

John J. Benedetto, Wojciech Czaja, Timothy Doster, Catherine
Schwartz, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States)
Hyperspectral geospatial data sets encode not only a wide range of thereflected electromagnetic spectrum in the form of radiance but also theintrinsic spatial information of the scene. To improve upon the results ofany common application of hyperspectral data, i.e. classification, anomaly/
target/change detection, both of these disparate sources of information,
spatial and spectral, must be leveraged. There is a wide range of literature in
the field of data fusion, specifically spatial-spectral fusion, for hyperspectral
imaging. For example, previous work has examined exploiting spatial
information via multilevel analysis, morphological profiles, operator fusion,
deep learning, or minimal spanning forests. Wavelets offer another approachto the spatial-spectral fusion problem. Wavelets, by design, are adapt at
capturing spatial correlations amongst data. For our methods we propose
to use Wavelet Packets, which unlike Wavelets, decompose both theapproximation and detail parts of the tree. By decomposing both parts ofthe tree, Wavelet Packets offer more than one basis per scale, and if the tree
is decomposed fully to N levels, 2^2^(N-1) different signal representations
are possible, thus offers additional flexibility over Wavelets. If an entropy
function is defined across the bands, spectral correlations can be preserved
during the best basis selection process. Thus Wavelet Packets are adapt at
finding an optimal representation highlighting both the spatial and spectral
components of the data. Wavelet Packets also offer the option of applying
different scaling filters at each level of the Wavelet Packet Tree which cangive further control to determining an optimal data representation.

9088-4, Session 1

Full-spectrum wavelet-based compression of
hyperspectral imagery
Michael E. Winter, Pacific Spectral Technology (United States)
Hyperspectral sensors produce large quantities of data when operating on
uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAV) that can overwhelm available data links.
Technical Research Associates, Inc. designed, developed, and implemented
a data compression approach that is capable of reducing this data volume
by a factor of 100 or more with no loss in the tactical utility of the data. Thisalgorithm, Full Spectrum Wavelet, combines efficient coding of the spectral
dimension with a wavelet transformation of the spatial dimension. The
approach has been tested on a wide variety of reflection band and thermalband hyperspectral data sets. In addition to such traditional measures as
the error introduced by the compression, the performance of the algorithm
was evaluated using application oriented measures such as Receiver

In our algorithm, we propose to separately decompose each of the spectral
bands by means of the Wavelet Packet Transform and then prune via

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
Operating Curves (ROC) and terrain categorization maps. Comparisons
between these products showed little or no degradation of performance out
to compression factors of 100. The evaluation procedure provided results
directly relevant to tactical users of the data.

9088-7, Session 2

The relationship of variable moisture levels incoastal sands to hyperspectral BRDF data
Katarina Z. Doctor, George Mason Univ. (United States) and U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Charles Bachmann, Marcos J.
Montes, Andrei Abelev, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
William Philpot, Cornell Univ. (United States); Rong-Rong Li, Robert
A. Fusina, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Roy J. Hughes,
Defence Science and Technology Organisation (Australia)

9088-5, Session 1

Effects of preprocessing applied to thecompression of ultraspectral images
Rolando Herrero, Martin Cadirola, Ecotronics Ventures, LLC (UnitedStates); Vinay K. Ingle, Northeastern Univ. (United States)
One common approach to the compression of ultraspectral data cubes isby means of schemes where linear prediction plays an important role infacilitating the removal of redundant information. In general, compression
algorithms can be seen as a sequence of stages where the output of one
stage is the input of the following one. A stage that implements linear
prediction relies heavily on a preprocessing stage that acts as a reversible
procedure that rearranges the data cube and maximizes its spectral
band correlation. In this paper we focus on AIRS (Atmospheric InfraredSounder) images, a type of ultraspectral data cube, that involve morethan two thousand bands and are excellent candidates to compression.
Specifically we take into consideration several elements that are part of the
preprocessing stage of an ultraspectral image. First, we explore the effectof Space Filling Curves (SFCs) as a way to provide a method to map an
m-dimensional space into a highly correlated unidimensional space. In orderto improve the overall mapping performance we propose a new scanning
procedure that provides a more efficient alternative to the use of traditional
state of the art curves. Second, we analyze, compare and introduce
modifications to different band ordering and correlation estimation methods
presented in the context of ultraspectral image preprocessing. Finally, weapply the techniques presented in this paper to a real AIRS compression
architecture to obtain rate-distortion curves as a function of preprocessing
parameters and determine the best scenario for a given linear prediction
stage.

The reflectance of soil moisture levels in coastal sands varies withwavelength and includes several well-known liquid water absorption
features. Reflectance also varies with angle of observation, however, current
radiative transfer (RT) models for soils typically include moisture as a bulk
extinction parameter (Lobell & Asner, 2002; Yang et al., 2011). In this study,
we consider whether more detailed models can be developed and validated
using our field observations of real coastal sands. We measured thebidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of sands with various
moisture levels on beaches in Queensland, Australia and in Virginia’s barrier
island coasts using the NRL Goniometer for Outdoor Portable Hyperspectral
Earth Reflectance (GOPHER). Analysis of variance of the BRDF over thehemispherical scan provides useful insight, especially since the wavelength
dependence is often ignored in current radiative transfer models, while
direct comparison with existing RT models provides a means of determining
how these can best be modified to match the observations of real coastal
sands. The BRDF shape in terms of the amount of forward-, backward-, andmultiple scattering depends on more than one condition of the sand. In
particular, the amount of surface water versus pore water plays an importantrole, as apparently does surface roughness.
References:
Lobell, D. B., & Asner, G. P. (2002). Moisture Effects on Soil Reflectance.
Soil Science Society of America Journal, 66(3), 722–727. doi:10.2136/
sssaj2002.0722

9088-6, Session 2

Yang, G.-J., Zhao, C.-J., Huang, W.-J., & Wang, J.-H. (2011). Extension of
the Hapke bidirectional reflectance model to retrieve soil water content.
Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 15(7), 2317–2326. doi:10.5194/hess-152317-2011

Retrieval of sand density from hyperspectral
BRDF

9088-8, Session 2

Charles Bachmann, Andrei Abelev, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); William Philpot, Cornell Univ. (United States); Katarina
Z. Doctor, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States) and George
Mason Univ. (United States); Marcos J. Montes, Robert A. Fusina,
Rong-Rong Li, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Elena van
Roggen, Marine Information Resources Corp. (United States)
In past work (Bachmann, Gray, Abelev, Philpot, et al, SPIE 2012), we haveshown that density effects in hyperspectral BRDF data are consistent inlaboratory goniometer data, field goniometer measurements with the NRL
Goniometer for Portable Hyperspectral Earth Reflectance (GOPHER), andairborne CASI-1500 hyperspectral imagery. Density effects in granularmaterials have been described in radiative transfer models (Hapke, 2012),
and are known, for example, to influence the size of the opposition effect.
However, in coastal sands the relative change in reflectance with density
depends on the composite nature of the sand (Bachmann, Philpot, Abelev,
Korwan, submitted to Rem. Sens. Envir.). This paper examines the use of
field hyperspectral goniometer data and its utility for retrieving sand densityfrom airborne hyperspectral imagery. Field observations with GOPHER andcoordinated airborne CASI data collected at the Virginia Coast Reserve LTER
site and in Queensland, Australia form the basis of the study.

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The influence of particle size on infrared
reflectance spectra
Tanya L. Myers, Carolyn S. Brauer, Yin-Fong Su, Thomas A. Blake,
Timothy J. Johnson, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
Reflectance spectra of solids are influenced by the absorption coefficient aswell as the particle size and morphology. In the infrared, spectral features
may be observed as either maxima or minima: in general, the upward-goingpeaks in the reflectance spectrum result from surface scattering, which
are rays that have reflected from the surface without penetration, whereas
downward-going peaks result from either absorption or volume scattering,i.e. rays that have penetrated or refracted into the sample interior and are
not reflected. The light signal reflected from solids usually encompasses
all these effects which includes dependencies on particle size, morphology
and sample density. This paper measures the reflectance spectra in the
1.3 – 16 micron range for various bulk materials that have a combination ofstrong and weak absorption bands in order to understand the effects on
the spectral features as a function of the mean grain size of the sample.
The bulk materials were ground with a mortar and pestle and then sievedto separate the samples into various size fractions: 0-45, 45-90, 90-180,
180-250, 250-500, and >500 microns. The hemispherical spectra wererecorded using a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer equipped with an
integrating sphere to measure both the total and diffuse reflectance for allof the particle-size fractions. These studies clearly show that particle size
has an enormous influence on the measured reflectance spectra for bulk

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
materials and that successful identification requires sufficient representativereflectance data to include the particle size of interest. Origins of the effects
will be discussed.

using scene-derived target spectra, laboratory-measured target spectra, andground truth target spectra.

9088-11, Session 3

9088-9, Session 2

Enough with the additive target model

Field collection of hyperspectral signatures

Alan P. Schaum, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Brian Curtiss, PANalytical (United States)

The detection algorithms used most widely in reflective spectral imaging
originated in hypothesis tests devised for communication and radar
signal processing problems. For some applications, this legacy has led tooperational algorithms that are a kluge of preprocessors based on faulty
signal models, followed by ad hoc statistical tests to distinguish targets
from confusers. We devise and solve an integrated detection model that
posits several target and confuser exemplars. Sensed targets can appear
in arbitrary mixtures with background pixels, and clutter can appear as
arbitrary mixtures of confusers with background pixels. All materials
are treated as opaque. Therefore, a replacement model must be used todescribe the mixing, rather than the standard additive target model.

Many forms of hyperspectral image exploitation rely on field collected
hyperspectral signatures during the image analysis process. Thesesignatures are typically collected from both targets of interest as wellof background materials. Field collection of hyperspectral signatures iscomplicated by both the complexity of measurement systems as well as
the requirement for stable atmospheric conditions. The complexity ofcurrent field portable spectrometer systems used to perform hyperspectral
signature collections require a high level of operator training in order toassure the quality of collected signatures. For materials whose hyperspectral
signature is not strongly dependent on illumination characteristics, it ispossible to utilize a system with an internal light source. This simplifies
collection for these materials since it eliminates the need for stable
atmospheric conditions. To address other issues related to measurement
system complexity, the workflow of the hyperspectral signature
measurement process was first described in detail. By automating much of
the repetitive portions of the workflow, the overall measurement process
was, from the perspective of the instrument operator, greatly simplified.
In addition to these improvements, system self-checks, such as automatic
wavelength calibration verification, have been incorporated. These selfchecks insure the proper operation of the system and provide a record ofsystem performance during the collection period. These improvements
combine to improve the productivity of field hyperspectral signaturecollection operations and to shorten the required training for instrument
operators.

9088-12, Session 3

Vector tunnel algorithm for hyperspectral target
detection
Suleyman Demirci, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey); I. Erer,
Istanbul Technical Univ. (Turkey); Okan K. Ersoy, Purdue Univ.
(United States)
The main objective of target detection is to search the pixels in a
hyperspectral data cube for the existence of a specific material. For thispurpose, the measured hyperspectral data is compared with the reflectancespectra of the material derived from field work or laboratory study [1-6].

9088-10, Session 3

Spectral signatures measured from samples of the same material are
not fixed due to the inherent and external factors. Therefore, detection
algorithms based on statistical analysis emerged by maximizing theprobability of detection and minimizing the probability of false alarm.
Although various detection algorithms using statistical information about
targets and background classes have been developed over the years,
insufficient training data and high dimensionality of spectra reduce theperformance and effectiveness of these detectors [7-14].

Hyperspectral target detection using graphtheory models and manifold geometry via
an adaptive implementation of locally linear
embeddingAmanda K. Ziemann, David Messinger, James A. Albano, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)

Another solution might be a kernel method. Kernel methods map the input
space nonlinearly into a higher dimensional space and thereafter utilize theunderlying linear algorithm in the feature space. In this way, the complicatedoriginal data with nonlinear statistical characteristics are converted into a
simpler data [15-17].

Hyperspectral images comprise, by design, high dimensional image data.
However, research has shown that for a d-dimensional hyperspectral image,it is typical for the data to inherently occupy an m-dimensional space, withm<< d. In the remote sensing community, this has led to a recent increasein the use of non-linear manifold learning, which aims to characterize
the embedded lower-dimensional, non-linear manifold upon which thehyperspectral data inherently lie. Classic hyperspectral data models include
statistical, linear subspace, and linear mixture models, but these can place
restrictive assumptions on the distribution of the data. With graph theory
and manifold learning based models, the only assumption is that the data
reside on an underlying manifold. In previous publications, we have shownthat manifold coordinate approximation using locally linear embedding(LLE) is a viable pre-processing step for target detection with the Adaptive
Cosine/Coherence Estimator (ACE) algorithm. Here, we improve uponthat methodology using a more rigorous, data-driven implementation of
LLE that incorporates spatially-adaptive windowing of the image. The LLE
algorithm, which holds that the data is locally linear, typically is governedby a user defined parameter k, indicating the number of nearest neighbors
to use in the initial graph model. We use an adaptive approach to building
the graph that is governed by the data itself and does not rely upon user
input. This implementation of LLE can yield greater separation between thetarget pixels and the background pixels in the manifold space. We present
an analysis of target detection performance in the manifold coordinates

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In this study, an efficient spectral similarity based hyperspectral target
detection method which is called vector tunnel algorithm (VTA) is
introduced. Targets and nontargets in a hyperspectral image arecharacterized in terms of their spectral features. Target detection problem
is considered as a two-class classification process. The vector tunnel ischaracterized only by the target class information. To obtain the training
data belonging to target class, the training regions are selected randomly.
After determination of the parameters of the algorithms with the training
set, decision procedures are accomplished at each pixel as target or
background. Consequently, detection results are displayed as thematic
maps. Then, the result of the method is compared with Euclidean Distance(ED), Spectral Angle Map (SAM), and Support Vector Machine (SVM)
algorithms.
The proposed method may be summarized as in the following:
Step 1: If a priori target class information does not exist, the reference
spectral signature from some hyperspectral data or spectral signaturelibraries is acquired for the initialization step.
Step 2: The target class vector tunnel parameters are defined according toshape of the spectral signature.
Step 3: By using tunnel parameters, n-dimensional target class vector tunnel·

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
ROC curves for the new algorithm show improvement with respect toformer versions.

around the reference spectra is formed.
Step 4: Whole pixels in the image are tested whether they lie in the tunnel.
Step 5: If the spectral signature of the test pixel lies in the tunnel, it islabeled as target.

9088-15, Session 4

Step 6: If the test pixel is out of the tunnel boundaries, it is assigned to thebackground category.

A comparison of real and simulated satellite/
airborne multisensor imagery

Step 7: If a priori class information exists, training data are used to produce
mean and standard deviation vectors for target class.

Kevin Bloechl, Chris De Angelis, Michael G. Gartley, John Kerekes,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States); C. Eric Nance,
Raytheon Intelligence & Information Systems (United States)

Step 8: By using the standard deviation vector as tunnel parameter, thevector tunnel is formed around the mean vector.
Step 9: Steps 4-6 are repeated to complete the detection process.
The proposed method is tested on AVIRIS Indiana’s Pine and HYDICE Urban
data. The algorithms are trained with the same training sets, and theircomparative performances are tested under various cases. During thesestudies, various levels of thresholds are evaluated based on the efficiency of
the algorithms by means of Receiver Operating Characteristic Curves (ROC)
as well as visually. Quantitative detection results for AVIRIS data and visualclassification results of HYDISE data will be given in the full paper.

9088-13, Session 3

Transductive and matched-pair machine learningfor difficult target detection problems
James Theiler, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States)
Machine learning (ML) algorithms are potentially very powerful because
they are flexible enough to model arbitrary distributions yet rigorous
enough that one can prove theorems about their performance. The useof traditional ML for classification of remote sensing imagery is relatively
straightforward and has already met with considerable success. The
target detection problem is superficially similar to classification (it aims to
distinguish target from non-target) but is in several important ways quite
different. For target detection, only a few on-target training samples are
typically available, the target strength can be variable, and the operation
may need to be performed in a very low false alarm rate regime. Althoughmany of the tools of ML -- kernels, regularization, cross-validation, etc.
-- have proven useful for a number of remote sensing tasks, the traditional
formulation of ML is not well suited to the target detection problem.
This paper will describe the application of two non-traditional kinds
of ML (transductive ML and the more recently proposed matched-pairML) to the target detection problem. The approach combines explicit
domain knowledge to model the target signal, with a more agnostic ML
to characterize (without explicitly modeling) the background clutter. The
concept is illustrated with experiments in the detection of gas-phasechemical plumes.

9088-16, Session 4

MODTRAN6: a major upgrade of the MODTRAN
radiative transfer code
Patrick Conforti, Alexander Berk, Rosemary Kennett, Timothy
Perkins, Frederick Hawes, Spectral Sciences, Inc. (United States);
Jeannette van den Bosch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

9088-14, Session 3

Gaussian/non-Gaussian subspace nonparametrictarget detector in inhomogeneous hyperspectral
data
Gil A. Tidhar, Stanley R. Rotman, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev(Israel)Following the introduction of target detection algorithm by means of
non-parametric density estimation in non-Gaussian subspace of measured
hyperspectral data, we report in this work a new algorithm, based on
information theory, to optimize Gaussian and non-Gaussian subspace
division of the measured data. The algorithm allows for dimensionality
reduction and topological simplification of the structure of the probability
density of the non-Gaussian subspace. The non-Gaussian subspace is further
divided into an independent-components non-Gaussian subspace and adependent-components non-Gaussian subspace. These lower dimensionality
subspaces are then treated differently in the target detection algorithm.

206

SPIE DSS 2014

This paper examines the characteristics of simulated imagery in comparison
to real imagery acquired with multiple sensors hosted on airborne andsatellite platforms. The data set includes satellite and aerial multi- andhyperspectral imagery, as well as airborne LiDAR data, all with spatial
resolutions of a few meters or less. The multispectral imagery includes
data from commercial satellites as well as an airborne sensor with threeband visible color and calibrated radiance imagery in the long-, mid-, andshort-wave infrared. The airborne hyperspectral imagery includes 360
bands of calibrated radiance and reflectance data spanning 400 to 2450
nm in wavelength. Collected in September 2012, the imagery is of a parkin Avon, NY, and includes a dirt track and areas of grass, gravel, forest, andagricultural fields. A number of artificial targets were deployed in the scene
prior to collection for purposes of target detection, subpixel detection,
spectral unmixing, and 3D object recognition. For purposes of comparison,a synthetic reconstruction of the collection site was created in DIRSIG, animage generation and modeling tool developed by RIT, based on groundmeasured reflectance data, ground photography, and previous airborne
imagery. Simulated satellite and airborne images were generated using thescene model, time of observation, atmospheric conditions, and knowledgeof the sensor characteristics. The paper provides an in-depth comparison
between the empirical and simulated images, including a discussion on
the statistical differences between like areas within the images and acomparison of achieved performance for classification, detection andunmixing applications.

·

The MODTRAN6 radiative transfer (RT) code is a major advancement
over earlier versions of the MODTRAN atmospheric transmittance andradiance model. This version of the code includes improving the speedof the code, adding an interface to the code, providing modern softwarearchitecture, and upgrading the physics, including the incorporation of aline-by-line algorithm. Improvements to the execution of the code are madeby introducing code parallelization to fully utilize multi-core and multiprocessor hardware. The MODTRAN input is being redesigned to be moreuser friendly both in terms of text-based input as well as providing a GUI(Graphical User Interface). Additionally, an API (Application Programming
Interface) is being developed for ease of integration into user applications.
The MODTRAN code has been restructured towards a modular, objectoriented architecture to simplify upgrades as well as facilitate integration
with other developers’ codes. MODTRAN now includes a line-by-line
algorithm for high resolution RT calculations as well as coupling to opticalscattering codes (for easy implementation of custom aerosol and clouds)
and customized atmosphere models.

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX

9088-17, Session 4Firstly, the CCD relative radiometric correction model is analyzed inconsideration of the inconsistent radiative response characteristics of
CCD array and the dispersion angle changing with viewing field position.
Secondly, the relative radiometric and spectral laboratory calibration of thedispersive imaging spectrometer is carried out and the relative radiometriccalibration data together with the actual central wavelength of eachdetector are obtained. Then, the interpolated approximation of relative
radiometric calibration data at actual central wavelength is taken into the
CCD relative radiometric correction model, and radiometric calibration
coefficients considered spectra distortion effect are obtained. Finally,
hyperspectral images are corrected by the relative radiometric correction
model and interpolation at the corrected central wavelength.

A spectral climatology for atmosphericcompensation
John H. Powell, Ronald G. Resmini, George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates)Most hyperspectral imagery (HSI) detection and identification algorithms
depend critically upon a robust atmospheric compensation capability tocorrect for the effects of the atmosphere on the Earth’s surface radiancesignal to derive the surface reflectance. Many methods have been developed
to perform atmospheric compensation. They can broadly be categorized aseither empirical methods, which derive the atmospheric coefficients fromin-scene spectral information, or physics-based methods, which rely on
explicit modeling of atmospheric propagation. Both approaches perform
optimally when ancillary ground truth data is available, e.g., high fidelity insitu radiometric observations or atmospheric profile measurements.

An actual image test for the proposed method is conducted. Hyperspectral
images are acquired from a UAV-borne Offner Spectral Imager which hasa spectral coverage of 0.395~1.028µm. The band of the corrected image at
760nm, i.e. the absorption peak of O2, has become consistent in tone whichindicates that the smile effect is effectively removed, and meanwhile therelative radiometric correction result is finely reserved.

When ground truth is incomplete or not available, additional assumptions
must be made to perform the compensation. In the case of physicsbased methods, meteorological climatologies are available to provide
climatological norms for input into the radiative transfer models. No
such climatologies exist for empirical methods, however. The success of
atmospheric compensation methods such as the Empirical Line Methodsuggests that remotely sensed HSI scenes contain comprehensive sets ofatmospheric state information within the spectral data. It is further argued
that large collections of empirically-derived atmospheric coefficientscollected over a range of climatic and atmospheric conditions comprise aresource that can be applied to future atmospheric compensation problems.

9088-19, Session 5

Multispectral, hyperspectral, and lidar remotesensing and geographic information fusion forimproved earthquake response
Fred A. Kruse, Scott C. Runyon, Angela M. Kim, Naval Postgraduate
School (United States); Christopher C. Clasen, National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (United States); Chelsea H. Esterline, Sarah C.
Carlisle, Andre Jalobeanu, Jeremy P. Metcalf, Paul L. Basgall, David
M. Trask, Richard C. Olsen, Naval Postgraduate School (UnitedStates)This paper introduces a new climatological approach to atmosphericcompensation in which empirically derived spectral information, rather
than sensible atmospheric state variables, is the fundamental datum. An
experimental archive of airborne HSI data is mined for representative
atmospheric compensation coefficients, which are assembled in a scientific
database of spectral and sensible atmospheric observations. We present theempirical techniques for extracting the coefficients, the modeling methods
used to normalize the coefficients across varying collection and illuminationgeometries, and the resulting derived climatological classes. Preliminary
results from applying the database to atmospheric compensation problems
are presented, along with a discussion of the potential benefits, shortfalls
and limits of applicability of the new technique.

The Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) Remote Sensing Center (RSC) andresearch partners have completed a remote sensing pilot project in supportof California post-earthquake-event emergency response. The project goals
were to dovetail emergency management requirements with remote sensing
capabilities to develop prototype map products for improved earthquake
response. NPS coordinated with emergency management services and first
responders to compile information about essential elements of information(EEI) requirements. A wide variety of remote sensing datasets including
multispectral imagery (MSI), hyperspectral imagery (HSI), and LiDAR wereassembled by NPS for the purpose of building imagery baseline data; and todemonstrate the use of remote sensing to derive ground surface information
for use in planning, conducting, and monitoring post-earthquake emergency
response. Worldview-2 data were converted to reflectance, orthorectified,and mosaicked for most of Monterey County; CA. Airborne Visible/Infrared
Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data acquired at two spatial resolutions
were atmospherically corrected and analyzed in conjunction with the MSI
data. LiDAR data at point densities from 1.4 pts/ m2 to over 40 points/ m2
were analyzed to determine digital surface models. The multimodal data
were then used to develop change detection approaches and products andother supporting information. Analysis results from these data along withother geographic information were used to identify and generate multitiered products tied to the level of post-event communications infrastructure(internet access + cell, cell only, no internet/cell). Technology transfer ofthese capabilities to local and state emergency response organizations gives
emergency responders new tools in support of post-disaster operational
scenarios.

9088-18, Session 4

A smile effect correction method for dispersive
imaging spectrometer based on relative
radiometric calibration
Chuanrong Li, Chuncheng Zhou, Lingling Ma, Jian Hu, Lingli Tang,
Academy of Opto-Electronics (China); Shi Qiu, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (UnitedStates) and Academy of Opto-Electronics (China); Jianjian
Li, Academy of Opto-Electronics (China) and NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (UnitedStates)
The hyperspectral images obtained from dispersive imaging spectrometer
often contain significant cross-track spectral curvature, known as thesmile/frown effect, which is due to the change of dispersion angle withfield position. The smile effect must be corrected because the across-track
wavelength shift from central wavelength alters the pixel spectra andreduces the application values on classification and target recognition.
There are several methods to correct the smile effect which don’t take into
account the fact that the smile effect is woven together with the sensor
radiation characteristics, and just processing spectra distortion to correct
the smile effect. These methods would renewably lead to radiometricdistortion of the radiometric correction image. This paper presents a new
method to deal with this problem.

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9088-20, Session 5

Estimating radiological background using
imaging spectroscopy
Bruce E. Bernacki, John E. Schweppe, Sean C. Stave, David V.
Jordan, Jonathan Kulisek, Trevor N. Stewart, Carolyn E. Seifert,
Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)·

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
Optical imaging spectroscopy is investigated as a method to estimate
radiological background by spectral identification of soils, sediments, rocks,
minerals and building materials derived from natural materials and assigning
tabulated radiological emission values to these materials. Radiologicalairborne surveys are undertaken by local, state and federal agencies to
identify the presence of radiological materials out of regulatory compliance.
Detection performance in such surveys is determined by (among otherfactors) the uncertainty in the radiation background; increased knowledgeof the expected radiation background will improve the ability to detect
low-activity radiological materials. Radiological background due to naturally
occurring radiological materials (NORM) can be estimated by reference
to previous survey results, use of global 40K, 238U, and 232Th (KUT)
values, reference to existing USGS radiation background maps, or by amoving average of the data as it is acquired. Each of these methods has
its drawbacks: previous survey results may not include recent changes inthe survey area, the global average provides only a zero-order estimate,
the USGS maps are coarse and are accurate only to 1 km – 5 km samplingintervals, and a moving average may essentially low pass filter the data
to obscure small changes in radiation counts. Imaging spectroscopy fromairborne or spaceborne platforms can offer higher resolution identificationof materials and estimated background, as well as provide imaging context
information. AVIRIS hyperspectral image data is analyzed using commercial
exploitation software to determine the usefulness of imaging spectroscopy
to identify qualitative radiological background emissions when compared toairborne radiological survey data.

9088-22, Session 5

Subsurface unmixing for benthic habitat mapping
using hyperspectral imagery and lidar-derived
bathymetry
Maria C. Torres-Madronero, Instituto Tecnológico Metropolitanode Medellin (Colombia); Miguel Velez-Reyes, The Univ. of Texas at
El Paso (United States); James A. Goodman, Univ. de Puerto Rico
Mayagüez (United States)
Mapping of benthic habitats from hyperspectral imagery can be achieved byintegrating bio-optical models with common techniques for hyperspectral
image processing, such as spectral unmixing. Several algorithms have been
described in the literature to compensate or remove the effects of the watercolumn and extract information about the benthic habitat characteristics
utilizing only measured hyperspectral imagery as input. More recently,
the increasing availability of lidar-derived bathymetry information offers
the possibility to incorporate this data into existing algorithms, thereby
reducing the number of unknowns in the problem, for the improved retrievalof benthic habitat properties. This study demonstrates how bathymetry
information improves the mapping of benthic habitats using twoalgorithms that combine bio-optical models with linear spectral unmixing.
Hyperspectral data, both simulated and measured, in-situ spectral data,
and lidar-derived bathymetry data are used for the analysis. The simulated
data is used to study the capabilities of the selected algorithm to improve
estimates of benthic habitat composition by combining bathymetry datawith the hyperspectral imagery. Hyperspectral images captured over
Enrique and Media Luna Reefs in Puerto Rico using an AISA Eagle sensor areused to further test the algorithms using real data. Results from analyzing
this imagery demonstrate increased agreement between algorithm output
and existing habitat maps and ground truth when bathymetry data is used
jointly with hyperspectral imagery.

Parallax mitigation for hyperspectral change
detection

9088-24, Session 6

First observations on the SPICE hyperspectral
datasetDalton S. Rosario, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Joao
M. Romano, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development andEngineering Ctr. (United States); Christoph C. Borel, Air ForceInstitute of Technology (United States)
The Spectral and Polarimetric Imagery Collection Experiment (SPICE) is
an ongoing collaborative effort between the Army Research Laboratory
and US Army ARDEC, focusing on the longwave and midwave infrared(LWIR and MWIR) hyperspectral and polarimetric sensing modalities. The
overall objective of SPICE is to collect a comprehensive database of bothmodalities spanning multiple years to capture sensor performance in awide variety of meteorological conditions, diurnal, and seasonal changes
inherent to a northern New Jersey location. From a tower at a hilltop(combined height: 0.15 km; slant range to target site: 5.7 km), the sensors
have been autonomously collecting the desired data around the clock of
three surrogate 2S3 Self-Propelled Howitzer targets posed at different
orientations in an open woodland field. A highly reflective aluminum plate isalso included in the scene to play the role of upwelling toward the sensors
the downwelling sky and environment radiance. Since 2010, the effort hascollected an unprecedented dataset of over 25,000 LWIR hyperspectral data
cubes, 15,000 LWIR polarimetric data cubes, and 3,000 MWIR hyperspectral
data cubes. This paper discusses results of our first observations on the
LWIR hyperspectral dataset for pattern recognition applications, as multiple
multivariate mathematical statistics and machine learning concepts are
employed. Emphases are placed on data quality; validation of expected
atmospheric spectral features; validation against another dataset of thesame site, but collected by a different LWIR hyperspectral sensor; andchallenges associated with using LWIR hyperspectral data for target
detection and identification applications.

9088-25, Session 6

Jason Kaufman, Mehmet Celenk, Ohio Univ. (United States); Andre
K. White, Alan D. Stocker, Space Computer Corp. (United States)

Karmon M. Vongsy, Michael T. Eismann, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States); Michael J. Mendenhall, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States); Vincent J. Velten, Air Force Research

SPIE DSS 2014

A pixel-level Generalized Likelihood Ratio Test (GLRT) statistic for
hyperspectral change detection is developed to mitigate false change
caused by image parallax. Change detection, in general, represents
the difficult problem of discriminating significant changes opposed toinsignificant changes caused by radiometric calibration, image registration
issues, and varying view geometries. We assume that the images have beenregistered, and each pixel pair provides a measurement from the same
spatial region in the scene. Although advanced image registration methods
exist that can reduce misregistration to subpixel levels; residual spatial
misregistration can still be incorrectly detected as significant changes.
Similarly, changes in sensor viewing geometry can lead to parallax error inan urban cluttered scene where height structures such as buildings appear
to move. Our algorithm looks to the inherent relationship between theimage views and the theory of stereo vision to perform parallax mitigation
leading to a search result in the assumed parallax direction. Validationof mitigating the parallax-induced false alarms is demonstrated using
hyperspectral data in the experimental analysis. The algorithm is examined
and compared to the existing chronochrome anomalous change detection
algorithm to assess performance.

Bobcat 2013: a hyperspectral data collection
supporting the development of spatial-spectral
algorithms

9088-23, Session 5

208

Lab. (United States)

The amount of hyperspectral imagery (HSI) data currently available isrelatively small compared to other imaging modalities, and what is suitable·

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
for developing, testing, and evaluating spatial-spectral algorithms is virtually
non-existent. In this work, a significant amount of coincident airborne
hyperspectral and high spatial resolution panchromatic imagery that
supports the advancement of spatial-spectral feature extraction algorithms
was collected to address this need in April 2013 by the Civil Air Patrol for
Ohio University with the Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced
Reconnaissance (ARCHER) sensor. The target materials, shapes, andmovements throughout the collection area were chosen such that evaluationof change detection algorithms, atmospheric compensation techniques,
image fusion methods, and material detection and identification algorithms
is possible. This paper describes the collection plan, data acquisition, andinitial analysis of the collected imagery.

9088-28, Session 6

9088-26, Session 6

ATHOS (Airborne Thermal Hyperspectral Observation System) is a longwave infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral imaging (HSI) system based on
Lawrence Livermore’s DS-3 spectrometer. Exelis has integrated the system
and its optics into 20” gimbal to facilitate multiple collection modes. It
is flown on a Cessna Caravan and collects LWIR hyperspectral data inboth nadir and off-nadir configurations. In addition, improvements to its
cryo-cooler have been implemented to facilitate temperature stability andimprove its long-term reliability. This paper provides an overview of thesensor, its collection modes, and improvements to its cryo-cooler. Results offlight testing from the fall of 2013 are also reviewed. The results include an
overview of sensor calibration and performance and examples of gas andsolid material detection and identification. Future plans for additional flighttest and the integration of VNIR and SWIR hyperspectral sensors into thegimbal will also be discussed.

ATHOS: airborne thermal hyperspectral
observation system: An introduction andoverview of a gimbaled airborne LWIR
hyperspectral imaging system
Mark Z. Salvador, Exelis Visual Information Solutions (UnitedStates); Michael Hayes, George S. Brown, Exelis Geospatial Systems(United States); Alan D. Stocker, Space Computer Corp. (UnitedStates); Angela M D’Orazio, Exelis (United States)

First results from the hyperspectral imager forclimate science (HySICS)
Greg A. Kopp, Chris Belting, Zach Castleman, Ginger A. Drake, R.
Joey Espejo, Karl F. Heuerman, Bret P. Lamprecht, Univ. of Colorado
at Boulder (United States); James Lanzi, NASA Goddard Space
Flight Ctr. (United States); Paul Smith, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder(United States); David W. Stuchlik, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr.
(United States); Bill Vermeer, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (UnitedStates)The 2007 National Research Council Decadal Survey for Earth Science
identified needed measurements to improve understanding of the Earth’s
climate system, recommending acquiring Earth spectral radiances withan unprecedented 0.2% absolute radiometric accuracy to track long-termclimate change and to improve climate models and predictions. Current
space-based imagers have radiometric uncertainties of ~2% or higher
limited by the high degradation uncertainties of onboard solar diffusers
or calibration lamps or by ground scenes viewed through the Earth’s
atmosphere.

9088-49, Session Posters-Tuesday

Local imaging from global measurements applied
to selective-spectral imaging
Johann Veras, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States); Robert R.
Muise, Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control (United States);David Twede, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)

The HyperSpectral Imager for Climate Science (HySICS) is a spatial/spectral
imaging spectrometer with an emphasis on radiometric accuracy for suchlong-term climate studies based on Earth-reflected visible and nearinfrared radiances. The HySICS’s accuracy is provided by direct views of theSun, which is more stable and better characterized than traditional flightcalibration sources. Two high-altitude balloon flights provided by NASA’s
Wallops Flight Facility and NASA’s Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility will
demonstrate the instrument’s intended 10? improvement in radiometricaccuracy over existing instruments. We present the results of the first ofthese flights, during which measurements of the Sun, Earth, and lunar
crescent were acquired from 37 km altitude.

In this paper we describe the algorithm for local image reconstructions fromglobal measurements on the Focal Plane Array. The global measurements
may come from a multiplexed imaging and/or convolution-based sampling
model. The algorithm consists of scanning a rectangular segment on the
FPA data and reconstructing the image on that segment using a Least
Square Estimator by adapting the measurements on the data via a linear
operator. This method is essential in the reconstruction of large format
images from large data samples. In particular, in this paper the method isapplied to multiplexed, multispectral imaging from a single measurement on
the FPA.

Covering the entire 350-2300 nm spectral region needed for shortwave
Earth remote sensing with the HySICS’s single, flight-heritage detector arraypromises mass, cost, and size advantages for eventual space- and air-borne
missions. A 6-nm spectral resolution with a 0.5-km spatial resolution fromlow Earth orbit helps in the determination of atmospheric composition, land
usage, vegetation, and ocean color.

9088-50, Session Posters-Tuesday

Proper spectral band adjustment for coloristicfeature-based recognition of safety signs
Christian Merfort, Daniel Schneider, Markus Böhm, Univ. Siegen(Germany)

9088-27, Session 6

Analysis of spaceborne hyperspectral applicative
land and ocean mission (SHALOM) with 10m
ground resolutuion

The development of multi and hyperspectral systems in the area of civil
security have created new opportunities with regard to mobile sampling
as well as rapid detection for on-site analysis. The latest developments
especially, in the area of optical detectors and the constant improvements
to microprocessor computing capacity, have had and continue to have anenormous influence on coloristic analysis methods. Ongoing optimizationof multispectral systems is leading to a vast quantity of new application
scenarios due to the measuring systems that have been simplified and theachieved independence of specialized lab environments. The objective isto adapt the algorithm developed during the applicant’s dissertation to aselection of suitable spectral bands, from monochrome powder specimens
to panchromatic safety signs.

Gil A. Tidhar, Tal Feingersh, Israel Aerospace Industries Ltd. (Israel)
The system technical parameters shall be described. Then - systematic
analysis of daily annual area coverage and throughput is provided. Finally- the quality of some typical L3 data products is demonstrated using
simulation.

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
In this paper we present a coloristic feature-based procedure to provide theopportunity to start where geometric pattern recognition does not produce
any clear results. The thrust of this research endeavor involves developing
further the implemented analytical procedure for a suitable selection ofspectral bands. To examine which bands provide a high information density,a virtual test environment is used. The photocurrent j = ∫ E(?)*Sabs(?)*R(?)
d? was calculated for different light sources E, spectral response curves
Sabs (bands), and the reflectance R of safety signs. Whether we cangain any knowledge from this the multivariate data set will have to be
determined. The employed factor analysis is a common method in thegroup of structure-discovering methods, and provides good results in the
discovery of connections between parameters. It is used particularly if
a variety of parameters must be reduced for a certain question. For theverification, a dimension of the external separation must be defined. For thisa n-dimensional vector P must be assigned to each measurement, that isregistered in the matrix M. To determine the volume V of this dot cloud, thedimension normalized volume is defined as ?CL = sqrt (4^n-3/5^4 * sqrt (V =det MT * det M )), where n is the quantity of employed bands.
The measuring system is intended to place only marginal demands on theenvironmental conditions to be practically independent of highly specialized
lab environments. The results are available within a few seconds, andcombination evidence are possible, i.e. usability in time-critical applications
should be able to be achieved where a high output is required. In this way,
demands made on the personnel (the human factor) are markedly reduced,
which becomes even more important when considering that optimum
environmental conditions cannot always be assumed when making anassessment.
As a result we adapt spectral systems or where this was impossible we
optimized the data processing to increase the rate of recognition. The aim isto achieve multivariate identification of the efficiency of complex measuringsystems in the context of complex safety chains.
The use of such optimized multispectral photodiodes would simplify andaccelerate the identification of safety signs for automotive, civil security anddefense applications.

9088-51, Session Posters-Tuesday

Retrieval of atmospheric CO2 using ground-based
hyperspectral observation
Liping Lei, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (China);
Masahiro Kawasaki, Nagoya Univ. (Japan); Xiuchun Qin, Institute ofRemote Sensing and Digital Earth (China)
Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration measures ground-based
hyper-spectral observations is one of the most important data sources
to validate and improve satellite hyper-spectral observations of CO2. In
this study, the ground-based CO2 concentrations observation experiment
was conducted in the sites of Grassland and Crop land in China. Based on
spectral absorption features of atmospheric CO2, we retrieved the columnaveraged CO2 dry-air mixing ratio (XCO2) using the hyperspectral dataobtained from this observation experiment. We made a detailed quantitative
analysis for evaluating the influence on XCO2 retrieval accuracy withwavelength shift in spectral observation and the meteorological parameters,
which are main factors affecting retrieval accuracy,. The results show thedeviation of XCO2 retrievals was more than 1 ppm, and the fitting residuals
exceed the setting threshold value of the fitting algorithm if the wavelength
shifts were larger than 0.042 nm. The spectral transmittance within thethree spectral ranges, 6357-6358cm-1, 6360-6361cm-1 and 6363-6364cm-1,
is sensitive to the change of meteorological parameter change. These results
are expected to provide references for the development and improvementof XCO2 retrieval algorithm based on ground-based hyperspectral.

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SPIE DSS 2014·

9088-52, Session Posters-Tuesday

A color calibration method for spectral image
based on radiative transfer mechanism
Chuanrong Li, Lingling Ma, Xinfang Yuan, Ning Wang, Lingli Tang,
Academy of Opto-Electronics (China); Shi Qiu, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (UnitedStates); Jianjian Li, Academy of Opto-Electronics (China) and NOAA
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States)
Acquisition of true-color image that conformed to the human vision frommulti/hyper-spectral images, will have great benefits to interpretation andanalysis of the remote sensing data. Up to now, the three channels locatedin the red, green and blue bands are arbitrarily selected, which would
cause significant difference with comparison to our a priori knowledge.
However, the degradation of the sensors will also reduce the effects of color
composition. Therefore, it becomes difficult to obtain the true color image
robustly and efficiently with multi/hyper-spectral images.
In this paper, a physical based color calibration method is proposed baseon spectral luminosity colorimetric theory. First, a true color image isconstructed by the weighted integration of the spectral images and thecolor matching functions. Then, combining the in situ measurements ofthe spectrum of artificial targets, the theoretical truth colors of the targets
are deduced with the radiative transfer model. At last, the color calibration
model is established between the constructed colors and the theoreticalcolors. And this calibration model will perform over the whole image.
The proposed method was applied to the aerial hyperspectral image. In theflight campaign, in situ measurement of reflectance spectrum of different
colored targets was simultaneously carried out, as well as the atmosphericparameters. After the color calibration, the corrected image appears muchbetter than the uncorrected one. Therefore, the proposed method canefficiently improve the effects, though there are still a bit difference between
the calibrated color and the theoretical color.

9088-53, Session Posters-Tuesday

Band selection in hyperspectral imagery using
sparse support vector machines
Sofya Chepushtanova, Colorado State Univ. (United States);
Christopher M. Gittins, UTC Aerospace Systems (United States);
Michael J. Kirby, Colorado State Univ. (United States)
In this paper we propose an l1-norm penalized sparse support vector
machine (SSVM) as an embedded approach to the hyperspectral imagery
band selection problem. SSVMs exhibit a model structure that includes aclearly identifiable gap between zero and non-zero weights that permits
important bands to be definitively selected in conjunction with theclassifation problem. The SSVM Algorithm is trained using bootstrap aggregating to obtain a sample of SSVM models to reduce variability in the band
selection process. This preliminary sample approach for band selection isfollowed by a secondary band selection which involves retraining the SSVM
to further reduce the set of bands retained. We propose and compare
three adaptations of the SSVM band selection algorithm for the multiclassproblem. Two extensions of the SSVM Algorithm are based on pairwise
band selection between classes. Their performance is validated by using
one-against-one (OAO) SSVMs. The third proposed method is a combinationof the filter band selection method WaLuMI in sequence with the (OAO)
SSVM embedded band selection algorithm. We illustrate the perfomance of
these methods on the AVIRIS Indian Pines and compare the results to othertechniques in the literature. Additionally we illustrate the SSVM Algorithm on
the Long-Wavelength Infrared (LWIR) data set consisting of hyperspectral
videos of chemical plumes.

www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX

9088-29, Session 7

Chamberland, Telops (Canada)Multisensor data fusion across time and space

Processing long-wave infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral imagery to surface
emissivity or reflectance units via atmospheric compensation andtemperature-emissivity separation (TES) affords the opportunity toremotely classify and identify solid materials with minimal interference
from atmospheric effects. This paper describes an automated atmosphericcompensation and TES method, called FLAASH-IR (Fast Line-of-sight
Atmospheric Analysis of Spectral Hypecubes – Infrared), and its application
to ground-to-ground imagery taken with the Telops Inc. Hyper-Cam
interferometric hyperspectral imager. The results demonstrate that clean,quantitative surface spectra can be obtained, even with highly reflective(low emissivity) objects such as bare metal and in the presence ofsome illumination from the surroundings. In particular, the atmosphericcompensation process suppresses the spectral features due to atmosphericwater vapor and ozone, which are especially prominent in reflected sky
radiance.

Pierre V. Villeneuve, Scott G. Beaven, Space Computer Corp. (UnitedStates); Robert A. Reed, Arnold Engineering Development Ctr.
(United States)
Field measurement campaigns typically deploy numerous sensors having
different sampling characteristics for spatial, temporal, and spectral
domains. Data analysis and exploitation is made more difficult and time
consuming as the sample data grids between sensors do not align.
This report summarizes our recent effort to demonstrate feasibility of aprocessing chain capable of “fusing” image data from multiple independentand asynchronous sensors into a form amenable to analysis and exploitation
using commercially-available tools.
Two important technical issues were addressed in this work: 1) Image spatial
registration onto a common pixel grid, 2) Image temporal interpolation onto
a common time base. The first step leverages existing image matching andregistration algorithms. The second step relies upon a new and innovativeuse of optical flow algorithms to perform accurate temporal up-samplingof slower frame rate imagery. Optical flow field vectors were first derived
from high-frame rate, high-resolution imagery, and then finally used as abasis for temporal up-sampling of the slower frame rate sensor’s imagery.
Optical flow field values are computed using a multi-scale image pyramid,
thus allowing for more extreme object motion. This involves pre-processing
imagery to varying resolution scales and initializing new vector flow
estimates using that from the previous coarser-resolution image.

9088-32, Session 7

Hyperspectral chemical plume quantification andtemperature estimation
Sidi Niu, Northeastern Univ. (United States); Steven E. Golowich,
MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Vinay K. Ingle, Northeastern Univ.
(United States); Dimitris G. Manolakis, MIT Lincoln Lab. (UnitedStates)Overall performance of this processing chain is demonstrated using sample
data involving complex motion observed by multiple sensors mounted
to the same base. Multiple sensors were included, including a high-speed
visible camera, up to a coarser resolution LWIR camera.

Most hyperspectral chemical gaseous plume quantification algorithms
assume a priori knowledge of the plume temperature either through direct
measurement or an auxiliary temperature estimation approach. Plumequantification performance is highly sensitive to the accuracy of the plumetemperature estimates, especially when the thermal contrast between
the plume and background is low. Therefore, accurate plume temperate
estimates are critical. However, existing approaches to plume temperature
estimation incur a loss in spatial resolution, which leads to performance loss
for these algorithms.

9088-30, Session 7

Simultaneous spectral analysis of multiple video
sequence data for LWIR gas plumes

In this paper, we propose a new quantification algorithm that cansimultaneously estimate the plume strength as well as its temperature. We
impose only a mild spatial assumption, that at least one nearby pixel shares
the same plume parameters as the target pixel. We believe this assumption
will be easily satisfied in practice, with candidate pixels lying in a direction
perpendicular to that of the ambient air flow. Simulations show that theperformance of this new algorithm is comparable to that when the plumetemperature is known exactly.

Justin Sunu, Jen-Mei Chang, California State Univ., Long Beach(United States); Andrea L. Bertozzi, Univ. of California, Los Angeles(United States)
We consider the challenge of detection of chemical plumes in hyperspectral
image data. Segmentation of gas is difficult due to the diffusive natureof the cloud. The use of hyperspectral imagery provides non-visual data
for this problem, allowing for the utilization of a richer array of sensing
information. We consider several videos of different gases taken with thesame background scene. One can simultaneously analyze frames frommultiple videos using efficient algorithms for high dimensional data suchas spectral clustering combined with linear algebra methods that leverage
either subsampling or sparsity in the data. We also explore manifold
denoising methods for such datasets, a method that solves an inverse
diffusion process. With manifold denoising, we are able to bring more
pertinent eigenvectors to the forefront. Analysis of multiple frames by the
Nyström extension shows the ability to differentiate between different
gasses while being able to group the similar items together, such as gasses
or background signatures. Nyström extension allows for fast computationsof the approximate eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the graph Laplacian.
Spectral clustering can also be used to compute the true eigenvectors andeigenvalues of the graph Laplacian, for more accurate results.

9088-33, Session 7

Hyperspectral image fusion using band reduction
and contourlets
Yoonsuk Choi, Ershad Sharifahmadian, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)
Hyperspectral (HS) images have relatively low spatial resolution, comparedto high-resolution single band panchromatic (PAN) images. Therefore,
fusing an HS image with a PAN image has been widely studied to produce ahigh-resolution HS image. However, raw HS images are too large to process
and contain redundant information that is not utilized in the fusion process.
In this study, we propose a novel fusion method that employs an HS band
reduction and contourlets.

9088-31, Session 7

The HS band reduction method divides a total number of spectral bands
into multiple subsets with a certain number of bands in each subset.
Each subset is compared to the next subset using a binary tree groupingalgorithm based on correlations of the adjacent spectral bands within eachsubset. The result is a group of subsets with the reduced number of bands
that has as less spectral distortion as possible.

Long-wave infrared surface reflectance spectra
retrieved from Telops Hyper-Cam imagery
Steven M. Adler-Golden, Patrick Conforti, Spectral Sciences, Inc.
(United States); Marc-André Gagnon, Pierre Tremblay, Martin

211+1 360 676 3290

We perform image fusion with two different original HS images. Each·help@spie.org

Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
original HS image is pre-processed by spectrally integrating over the entire
spectral range to obtain a PAN source image that is used in the fusion
process. This way, we can eliminate the step of image co-registration since
the obtained PAN image is already perfectly aligned to the HS image. Next,
we fuse the band-reduced HS image with the PAN image using contourletbased fusion framework. The resultant fusion image provides enhanced
spatial resolution while preserving the spectral information. In order toanalyze the band reduction performance, the original HS image is fused withthe same PAN image to serve as a reference image, which is then comparedto the band-reduced HS image fusion result using eight different quality
metrics.

the high dimensional error issue. We address this problem by an innovativeuse of the popular Mean -Shift algorithm in the PF framework. experiments
performed using this new algorithm demonstrate the utility of the said
approach as a new tool to solve the spectral unmixing problem.

9088-34, Session 7

Ronald G. Resmini, The MITRE Corp. (United States); Robert S.
Rand, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States);David W. Allen, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States); Christopher J. Deloye, The MITRE Corp. (UnitedStates)Determining optimum pixel size for classification
Shawn D. Hunt, Miguel A. Goenaga-Jimenez, Nicole Rodriguez, Univ.
de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States); Miguel Velez-Reyes, The
Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States)
This work describes a novel method of estimating statistically optimum
pixel sizes for classification. Several authors have investigated the relation
between pixel size and classification performance, mostly concentrating on
percentage of correct classification for the different pixel sizes. Historicallymore resolution, smaller pixel sizes, are considered better, but this can cause
other problems. In addition to the immediate problem of additional data
size, having smaller pixels can case difficulties in classification. If the pixel
size is too small, then the variation in pixels belonging to the same class
could be very large. For example, a grassy area would have very similar
pixels if the size is in the tens of centimeters, but would be very different
if the pixel size is in the millimeter range. This work studies the variance ofthe pixels for different pixel sizes to try and answer the question of how
small, (or how large) can the pixel size be and still have good algorithm
performance. Optimum pixel size is defined here as the size when pixels
from the same class statistically come from the same distribution. The
work first derives ideal results, then compares this to real data. The real
hyperspectral data is from three sources. This includes images from a
SOC-700 stand mounted hyperspectral camera, 2m airborne data from an
AISA sensor, and space based Hyperion. The results compare the theoreticalderivations to variances calculated with real data to estimate different
optimal pixel sizes, and show a good correlation between real and ideal
data. This work is a step in choosing good pixel sizes when collecting data
based on the objects to be classified.

9088-35, Session 8

Particle filter-based spectral unmixing andsignature characterization
Sumit Chakravarty, New York Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)9088-36, Session 8

An analysis of the nonlinear spectral mixingof Didymium and soda lime glass beads using
hyperspectral imagery (HSI) microscopy

Nonlinear spectral mixing occurs when materials are intimately mixed.
Intimate mixing is a common characteristic of granular materials such as
soils. A linear spectral unmixing inversion applied to a nonlinear mixture will
yield subpixel abundance estimates that do not equal the true values of the
mixture’s components. These aspects of spectral mixture analysis theory
are well documented. Several methods to invert (and model) nonlinear
spectral mixtures have been proposed. Examples include Hapke theory, theextended endmember matrix method, and kernel-based methods. Thereis, however, a relative paucity of real spectral image data sets that containwell characterized intimate mixtures. To address this, special materials
were custom fabricated, mechanically mixed to form intimate mixtures, andmeasured with a hyperspectral imagery (HSI) microscope. The results ofanalyses of visible/near-infrared (VNIR; 0.4 micrometers to 0.9 micrometers)
HSI microscopy image cubes (in reflectance) of intimate mixtures of thetwo materials are presented. The materials are spherical beads of didymium
glass and soda lime glass both ranging in particle size from 63 micrometers
to 125 micrometers. Mixtures are generated by volume and thoroughly
mixed mechanically. Three binary mixtures (and the two endmembers) areconstructed and emplaced in the wells of a 96-well sample tray: 0%/100%,25%/75%, 50%/50%, 75%/25%, and 100%/0% didymium/soda lime. Analysis
methods are linear spectral unmixing (LSU), LSU applied to reflectanceconverted to single-scattering albedo (SSA) using Hapke theory, and two
kernel-based methods. The first kernel method uses a generalized kernel
with a gamma parameter that gauges non-linearity, applying the well-known
kernel trick to the least squares formulation of the constrained linear model.
This method attempts to determine if each pixel in a scene is linear or nonlinear, and adapts to compute a mixture model at each pixel accordingly.
The second method uses “K-hype” with a polynomial kernel. LSU applied to
the reflectance spectra of the mixtures produced poor abundance estimates
regardless of the constraints applied in the inversion. The “K-hype” kernelbased method also produced poor fraction estimates. The best performers
were LSU applied to the reflectance spectra converted to SSA using Hapke
theory and the gamma parameter kernel-based method.

Spectral Unmixing is a challenging and absorbing problem. Many avenuesof spectral unmixing have been attempted with considerable success. One
such avenue is to frame the spectral unmixing problem as an EstimationMeasurement problem and avail the use of the well know Kalman Filter (KF)
technique. Two such recent work has been the KF based Linear Unmixing(KFLU) approach and the KF approach for Hyperspectral Signature
Estimation, Identification and Abundance Quantification (KFHSE/I/AQ).The
above techniques aim to address the spectral unmixing and the spectral
signature identification problems respectively.

9088-37, Session 8

This work extends the above formulation by the use of Particle Filter(PF)based filtering approach. The particle filter is a recent development int he
KF framework. It addresses two major improvements over the KF. It enables
use of nonlinearity in the estimation process and further allows fusion ofmultiple information sources. Additionally, by the use of distributed setup
using particles, measurement errors are more efficiently reduced. The above
enhancements are the primary motivation of the use of PF for Hyperspectral
signature analysis in this paper. A major disadvantage of the PF approach is

The evaluation of synthetic hyper-spectral images compared to theirreal optical counterparts is very beneficial. A definition of a concrete
discrimination rule is required to improve the generation of these synthetic
images. In this paper, we utilized three different metrics such as GaussianBlur, Differential Operator and singular value decomposition to contrast thesynthetic and real objects in overhead hyper-spectral images. The proposed
metrics are used to discriminate between pairs of real and synthetic objects
such as: cooling units, industrial buildings, houses, conveyors, stacks,

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SPIE DSS 2014·

Novel metrics to contrast synthetic and real
objects in overhead hyperspectral images
Prakash Duraisamy, Old Dominion Univ. (United States); Amr
H. Yousef, Alexandria Univ. (Egypt); Khan M. Iftekharuddin, Old
Dominion Univ. (United States)www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX
piles, rail lines and ponds. In our approach, we are able to successfully
discriminate between the real and synthetic without any apriori knowledge
or extra information (e.g., optical flow information) with only a pair ofdata set for evaluation. We ranked these metrics in their effectiveness indiscriminating between synthetic and real images.

the presence of pure pixes and lends itself to easy implementation for fully
unsupervised unmixing.

9088-40, Session 9

Denoising hyperspectral images for standoff
target detection

9088-38, Session 8

Feature extraction for hyperspectral data using
massively parallel graphical processing units

Steven A. Wilson, Ershad Sharifahmadian, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)

Stefan A. Robila, Montclair State Univ. (United States)

Hyperspectral image denoising methods aim to improve the spatialand spectral quality of the image to increase the effectiveness of target
detection algorithms. Comparing denoising methods is difficult, because
sometimes authors have compared their algorithms to simple methods suchas Wiener filter and wavelet thresholding. We would like to compare only
the most effective methods for standoff target detection using sampledtraining spectra. Our overall goal is to implement an HSI algorithm to detect
possible weapons and shielding materials in a scene, using a lab collected
library of materials spectra.

Spectral imaging continues to register an increase in spectral and spatial
resolution, as well as in the use of satellite, airborne and land-based
platforms, producing tremendous continuous amounts of high-dimensional
data that are creating new processing challenges. Most remote sensing
techniques suffer from high execution times. They are usually iterativealgorithms that have each step’s computational complexity dependent on
the size of the data. Given the continuous increase in data size, in order forsuch techniques to remain feasible, one must investigate approaches tospeed them up without compromising accuracy. Supported by technologicaladvances, high-performance computing has continuously increased its
usability for remote sensing applications.

Selection of a suitable method is based on PSNR, classification accuracy,
and time complexity. Since our goal is target detection, classification
accuracy is more emphasized; however, an algorithm that requires large
processing time would not be effective for the purpose of real-time
detection. Elapsed time between HSI data collection and its processing
could allow changes or movement in the scene, decreasing the validity of
results. Based on our study, the First Order Roughness Penalty algorithm
provides computation time of less than 2 seconds, but only provides anoverall accuracy of 88% for the Indian Pines dataset. The Spectral Spatial
Adaptive Total Variation method increases overall accuracy to almost 97%,
but requires a computation time of over 50 seconds. For standoff target
detection, Spectral Spatial Adaptive Total Variation is preferable, because
it increases the probability of classification. By increasing the percentage
of weapons materials that are correctly identified, further actions such as
inspection or interception can be determined with confidence.

In this paper we introduce a new group of parallel algorithms for linear
unmixing. The focus of the work is on the massive parallelization of recently
introduced techniques such as Nonnegative Matrix Factorization (NMF) and
implementation on Graphical Processing Units such as NVIDIA’s GPU. We
first present a theoretical classification of hyperspectral data processing
algorithms based on the impact their parallel counterparts have. To support
the goal for execution speedup, we focus on the design novel parallel
algorithms that maximize data sharing and reduce synchronization needs.
We provide an analysis of the newly developed algorithms and show
how they are equivalent to their sequential counterparts. Finally, throughexperimental results using real hyperspectral data and cluster computing
architecture we show how the parallel algorithms provide a significant
computational speedup compared to the sequential algorithms.

9088-41, Session 99088-39, Session 8

Assessment of Schrodinger eigenmaps for target
detection

Integrating spatial information in unmixing using
the nonnegative matrix factorization

Leidy P. Dorado-Munoz, David Messinger, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States); Wojciech Czaja, Univ. of Maryland,College Park (United States)

Miguel A. Goenaga-Jimenez, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (UnitedStates); Miguel Velez-Reyes, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (UnitedStates)Non-linear dimensionality reduction methods have been widely applied
to hyperspectral imagery due to its structure as the information could be
represented in a lower dimension without losing information, and because
the non-linear methods preserve the local geometry of the data while thedimension is reduced. One of these methods is Laplacian Eigenmaps (LE),which assumes that the data lies on a low dimensional manifold embedded
in a high dimensional space. LE builds a nearest neighbor graph, computes
its Laplacian and performs the eigendecomposition of the Laplacian. Theseeigenfunctions constitute a basis for the lower dimensional space in which
the geometry of the manifold is preserved. In addition to the reduction
problem, LE has been widely used in tasks such as segmentation, clustering,and classification. In this regard, a new Schrodinger Eigenmaps (SE) method
was developed and presented as a semi-supervised classification schemein order to improve the classification performance and take advantageof the labeled data. SE is an algorithm built upon LE, where the former
Laplacian operator is replaced by the Schrodinger operator. The Schrodinger
operator includes a potential term V, that taking advantage of the additional
information such as labeled data, allows clustering of similar points. In thispaper, we explore the idea of using SE in target detection. In this way, we
present a framework where the potential term V is defined in diverse forms
and the detection performance is evaluated by using different targets

An approach to incorporate spatial information in unmixing using thenonnegative matrix factorization is presented. The spatial information
is incorporated by partitioning hyperspectral images into spectrally
homogeneous regions using quadtree region partitioning. Endmembers foreach spatial region are extracted using the nonnegative matrix factorizationand then all extracted enmembers for the image are clustered in spectral
endmembers classes which better account for the variability of spectral
endmembers across the landscape. The paper presents results on the effectsof the spectral homogeneity criteria for defining spectrally homogeneous
regions. It is found experimentally, that the Shannon entropy produces thebest image partitioning when compared to a fine uniform partitioning of theimage. Experimental results using AVIRIS data from Indian Pines and Fort
AP Hill are used to demonstrate the potential of the proposed approach.
These two images were used because of the availability of ground truth
for the areas. Unmixing results were evaluated by comparing extracted
signatures with published data as well as how abundance maps comparewith classification maps for the areas. We also compare obtained resultswith other approaches published in the literature. Result show that theextracted endmembers signatures and their abundances agree well withpublished data and that the performance of the approaches is equally or
better than published methods. The proposed approach does not assume213+1 360 676 3290·

help@spie.org

Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX

9088-42, Session 9

Hyperspectral band selection using multiple
proximity measures and its aggregation forautomated target detection
John Ball, Derek T. Anderson, Mississippi State Univ. (United States)
Hyperspectral imagery contains significant spatial and spectral informationthat can be used to address challenging problems, such as target detection.
However, it is often the case that a good number of the bands are highly
correlated, which means they contain redundant information. It has beenshown that selection of individual bands or groups of bands can significantly
improve performance in areas such as target detection. A challenge isnumerous measures exist for analyzing the efficacy of hyperspectral
bands for similarity (or with simple modifications, dissimilarity) to a
known set of target signatures. Furthermore, each measure has particularproperties suitable for certain tasks. Examples of common measures
include correlation, spectral angle, Jeffreys-Matusita distance, KullbackLeibler divergence, etc. An important unsolved question is, can multiple
measures be combined to improve either the quality or robustness of theband selection, and if so, what combinations would provide an optimal
result? This paper examines an optimization strategy based on measuresand aggregation for supervised target detection in hyperspectral imagery.
Synthetic and real data sets are used, and the proposed method isquantitatively and qualitatively compared to current methods

cascade lasers in the mid-infrared, and their reflectance spectra analyzed.
A small, but persistent and unmistakable twofold effect of digging up thesoil was noted, consisting of (1) a general depression of the reflectance
amplitude across the entire spectrum and (2) a reduction in the point-topoint spatial variation of features related to the reflectance amplitude. The
first component of this effect confirms previous findings of others, andwe have found multiple ways to quantify it here in the form of secondary
metrics derived from the Christiansen and reststrahlen features of thesoil’s spectroscopic reflectance; these are straightforwardly related to thephysical properties of disturbed and undisturbed earth. Our findings in thisregard tend to support the hypothesis that the act of digging up quartz
soils throws up fine soil particles which blanket the area surrounding the
disturbance epicenter, and scatter incident light more strongly. The second
component of the observed twofold effect was quantified by a tertiary
metric: the spatial power spectral density (SPSD) of one or more secondary
metrics. To forestall confusion, a careful explanation of the SPSD is in orderhere because in this paper the word “spectrum” is used in two valid senses:
a spectroscopic sense and a spatial signal processing sense. The spatial
signal is compiled from the spectroscopic measurements, in which theindependent variable is the distance of an observed point along the groundfrom some origin and the dependent variable is the value of the secondary
metric at that point. The SPSD is the power spectral density of that spatial
signal, as commonly understood in the signal processing community. A
practical means (algorithm and device) of exploiting the SPSD, with readily
obtainable, completely off-the-shelf components, is proposed.

9088-45, Session 109088-43, Session 9

Effects of optical aberration on
chromotomographic reconstruction

Effective training set sampling strategy for SVDD
anomaly detection in hyperspectral imagery

Ryan Tervo, Michael R. Hawks, Glen Perram, Matthew Fickus, Air
Force Institute of Technology (United States)

Mustafa Ergül, Erman Okman, Nigar Sen, SDT Uzay & Savunma
Teknolojileri (Turkey)
Anomaly detection (AD) has recently become an important application fortarget detection in remotely sensed hyperspectral data. Therefore, variety
kinds of methods with different advantages and drawbacks have been
proposed for past two decades. Recently, the kernelized support vector data
description (SVDD) based anomaly detection approaches become popular
as these methods avoid prior assumptions about the distribution of data andprovides better generalization to characterize the background. The global
SVDD needs a training set for the background modeling; however, it issensitive to outliers in the data, and so the training set has to be generated
with pure background spectra. In general, the training data is selected byrandom selection of the pixels spectra in entire image. In this study, we
propose an approach for better selection of the training data based onprincipal component analysis (PCA). A valid assumption for remotely sensed
images is that the principal components (PCs) with higher variance include
substantial amount of background information. For this reason, a subspacecomposed of several of the highest variance PCs of cluttered data can be
defined as background subspace. Thus, with the proposed algorithm, theselection of background pixels is achieved by projecting all pixels in theimage into the background subspace and thresholding them with respect tothe relative energy on the background subspace. Experimental results verify
that the proposed algorithm has promising results in terms of accuracy andspeed during detection of anomalies.

9088-44, Session 9

Using mid-infrared reflectance spectra andspatial power spectral density to detect
disturbed-earth patches in quartz soils
Richard Fauconier, Precysix, LLC (United States)
A series of experiments was done in which patches of disturbed andundisturbed quartz soils were illuminated by widely tuned quantum

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SPIE DSS 2014·

Chromotomography is a form of hyperspectral imaging that utilizes aspinning diffractive element to resolve a rapidly evolving scene that captures
both spatial dimensions and the spectral dimension at the same time.
Advanced algorithms take the recorded dispersed images and use them toconstruct the data cube in which each reconstructed image is the recorded
scene at a specific wavelength. Varying amounts of optical aberration wereintroduced into a physics-based model of a chromotomographic imaging
system to produce simulated recorded data. Three different tomographyalgorithms were used to reconstruct the hypercube and the resulting image
quality and spectral resolution are compared. The simulated reconstructed
images are compared to the experimental results.

9088-46, Session 10

Experimental characterization of the quality ofimage reconstruction from a chromotomographic
systemKyle Dufaud, Michael R. Hawks, Ryan Tervo, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Chromotomography is a form of hyperspectral imaging that utilizes aspinning diffractive element to resolve a rapidly evolving scene that
captures both spatial dimensions and the spectral dimension at the sametime. This enables hyperspectral imaging of changing scenes and transient
events. Tomographic methods are then used to reconstruct a spectral image
cube from the raw data. A chromotomographic system with a spinning
direct-vision prism and a high speed camera was used to characterize thequality of the method to create the hyperspectral data cube. Many scenes
with varying degrees of spatial, spectral, and temporal complexity wereanalyzed, including a transient combustion fireball, to assess the degree towhich the scene content affects the quality and fidelity of the reconstruction
result. Experimental results are discussed, including an analysis of how
chromotomography results compare with hypercubes from traditional
hyperspectral imagers.

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Conference 9088: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XX

9088-47, Session 10

Characterization and calibration of a compact
6-band multifunctional camera based on
patterned spectral filters in the focal plane
Hans Erling Torkildsen, Thomas-Olsvik Opsahl, Trym V.
Haavardsholm, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment(Norway); Stephane Nicolas, Norwegian Defense Research
Establishment (Norway); Torbjorn Skauli, Norwegian Defence
Research Establishment (Norway)
In some applications of multi- or hyperspectral imaging, it is importantto have a compact sensor. The most compact spectral imaging sensors
are based on spectral filtering in the focal plane. For hyperspectral
imaging, it has been proposed to use a “linearly variable” bandpass filterin combination with scanning of the field of view. As the image of a given
object in the scene moves across the field of view, it is observed throughparts of the filter with varying center wavelength, so that a complete
spectrum can be assembled. However if the radiance received from theobject varies with viewing angle, or with time, then the reconstructed
spectrum will be distorted. We describe a novel camera design where this
hyperspectral functionality is traded for multispectral imaging with better
spectral integrity. Spectral distortion is minimized by using a patterned filter
with 6 bands arranged close together, so that a scene object is seen byeach spectral band in rapid succession and with minimal change in viewing
angle. The set of 6 bands is repeated 4 times so that the spectral data canbe checked for internal consistency. Still the total extent of the filter in thescan direction is small. Therefore the remainder of the image sensor canbe used for conventional imaging with potential for using motion tracking
and 3D reconstruction to support the spectral imaging function. We show
detailed characterization of the camera, including geometrical distortion,
point spread function and spectral responsivity. We also discuss strategies
for assembling output images with the best possible preservation of
information. Example results from 6-band imaging are shown.

9088-48, Session 10

Tower testing of a 64W SWIR supercontinuum
laser for use as an HSI illuminator
Joseph Meola, Air Force Research Lab (United States)
Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) systems are currently used for numerous
activities related to spectral identifcation of materials. These passive
imaging systems rely on naturally refected/emitted radiation as the sourceof the signal. Thermal infrared systems measure radiation emitted fromobjects in the scene. As such, they can operate at both day and night.
However, visible (VIS) through shortwave infrared (SWIR) systems measuresolar illumination refected from objects. As a result, their use is limited
to daytime applications. Omni Sciences has produced high powered
broadband SWIR super-continuum laser (SSCL) illuminators. A 64-wattbreadboard system was recently packaged and tested at Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base (WPAFB) to gauge beam quality and to serve as a proof-ofconcept for potential use as an illuminator for an HSI receiver. The SSCL wasplaced in a tower and directed along a 1.4km slant path to various target
materials draped over a tilted plywood stand on the ground. The results ofthis testing are discussed here.

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Conference 9089A:
Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9089 Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV; andMotion Imagery for ISR and Situational Awareness II

9089-1, Session 1

Robust background modeling for enhancing
object tracking in video
Richard J. Wood, John M. Irvine, David Reed, Janet Lepanto, Draper
Lab. (United States)
Automated event recognition in video data has numerous practicalapplications. The ability to recognize events in practice depends on accurate
tracking of objects in the video data. Scene complexity has a large effecton tracker performance. Background models can address this problem
by providing a good estimate of the image region surrounding the objectof interest. However, the utility of the background model depends on
accurately representing current imaging conditions. Changing imaging
conditions, such as lighting and weather, render the background model
inaccurate, degrading the tracker performance. As a preprocessing step,developing a set of robust background models can substantially improvesystem performance. We present an approach to robustly modeling thebackground as a function of the data acquisition conditions. We will
describe the formulation of these models and discuss model selection in thecontext of real-time processing. Using results from a recent experiment, wedemonstrate empirically the performance benefits from using the robust
background modeling.

9089-2, Session 1

Tracking nautical objects in real-time via layeredsaliency detection
Matthew Dawkins, Zhaohui H. Sun, Arslan Basharat, Amitha Perera,
Anthony J. Hoogs, Kitware, Inc. (United States)
Traditional motion-based trackers often fail in maritime environments
due to a lack of image features to help stabilize video. In this paper,
we describe a computationally efficient approach which automaticallydetects, tracks and classifies different objects within aerial full motion
video (FMV) sequences in the maritime domain. A multi-layered saliency
detector is utilized to first remove any image regions likely belonging tobackground categories (ie, calm water) followed-by progressively pruningout distractor categories such as wake, debris, and reflection. This pruning
stage combines features generated at the level of each individual pixel, with
2D descriptors formulated around the outputs of prior stages grouped into
connected components. Additional false positive reduction is performed
via aggregating detector outputs across multiple frames, by formulating
object tracks from these detections and, lastly, by classifying the resultant
tracks using machine learning techniques. As a by-product, our system
also produces image descriptors specific to each individual object, which
are useful in later pipeline elements for appearance-based indexing andmatching.

Feature fusion for texture object segmentation invideosSurya Prasath, Rengarajan V. Pelapur, Kannappan Palaniappan, Univ.
of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Gunasekaran Seetharaman,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
We study an efficient texture segmentation model for multichannel videos
using a local feature fitting based active contours scheme. We propose
a flexible motion segmentation approach using features computed fromSPIE DSS 2014

9089-4, Session 1

The effect of state dependent probability ofdetection in multitarget tracking applications
Amadou Gning, Univ. College London (United Kingdom); W. T.
Luke Teacy, Univ. of Southampton (United Kingdom); Rengarajan
V. Pelapur, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Hadi
Aliakbarpour, Univ. College London (United Kingdom); Kannappan
Palaniappan, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States);
Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Simon J. Julier, Univ. College London (United Kingdom)Multitarget tracking is a key problem in many applications, and as such,has received much attention in the existing literature. However, in general,
existing approaches make two basic assumptions: (1) the probabilityof detecting a target is constant, and (2) the probability of detection
is independent over multiple sensor measurements. However, theseassumptions are rarely true in practice, because real sensing systems
typically produce observations that are highly correlated, and dependent
on both the sensor state and other environmental factors. For example,
when using computer vision algorithms for detection, the projected sizeof a target becomes smaller as it moves further from the sensor, causing adecline in the detection probability. Moreover, even if a target is measured,its signature may not be recognised by the detection algorithm; and if therelative position of the target and platform are maintained, this signature
will not change and so the target will not become observable.
In this paper, we investigate the impact of these effects on performance,
using a PHD-based multi-target tracking algorithm in a simulated urban
environment. Specifically, we simulate the motion of an air vehicle sensing
the environment using a camera. We compare the performance of a naive
model, which assumes independence, to a state dependent model, which
has been informed by empirical models of actual sensor and detector
behaviour. Our results show that the state dependent model significantlyout performs the naïve model, highlighting the importance of modellingsuch dependencies in future target-tracking algorithms.

9089-5, Session 1

Vehicle change detection from aerial imagery
using detection response maps

9089-3, Session 1

216

texture, intensity components in a globally convex continuous optimizationand fusion framework. A fast numerical implementation is described using
an efficient dual minimization formulation and experimental results on
synthetic and real color videos indicate the superior performance of the
proposed method compared to related approaches. The novel contributions
include the use of local feature density functions in the context of aluminance-chromaticity decomposition combined with a globally convex
active contour variational method to capture texture variations for video
object segmentation.

Zhaohui H. Sun, Mathew Leotta, Kitware Inc. (United States);
Anthony J. Hoogs, Kitware, Inc. (United States); Rusty Blue, Kitware
Inc. (United States); Robert Neuroth, Juan Vasquez, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States); Amitha Perera, Matthew Turek,
Kitware Inc. (United States); Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Image change detection has long been used to detect significant eventsin aerial imagery, such as the arrival or departure of vehicles. Usually only
the underlying structural changes are of interest, particularly for movable·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9089A:
Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV
objects, and the challenge is to differentiate the changes of intelligencevalue (change detections) from incidental appearance changes (false
detections). However, existing methods for automated change detection
continue to be challenged by nuisance variations in operating conditions
such as sensor (camera exposure, camera viewpoints), targets (occlusions,type), and the environment (illumination, shadows, weather, seasons). To
overcome these problems, we propose a novel vehicle change detection
method based on the detection response maps (DRM). The detector
serves as an advanced filter that normalizes the images being comparedspecifically for object level change detection (OLCD). In contrast to current
methods that compare pixel intensities, the proposed technique is morerobust to nuisance changes as variations in image appearance are learned
while learning the features of the vehicle detector. We demonstrate the DRM
method for detecting vehicles in electro-optical (EO) visual and infrared (IR)imagery.

target track association. We first tried to take the most advantage of asimple linear motion model, with a Kalman filter-based prediction. Using
the prediction error covariance matrix, we are able to eliminate many
distractors and to avoid some physically irrelevant jumps in trajectories.
However, we also identified the limitations of this approach, in particular for
more complex situations such as turns. Therefore, we introduce a particle
filter-based non-linear motion model. In the first step of particle filter
prediction, we randomly sample small changes in velocity orientation andmagnitude. Then the probability map built from the appearance-based
features is directly used as a likelihood estimate to update particle weights.
After resampling the probability for a point to be chosen as a target location
becomes proportional to the initial number of particles on it as much as
the feature based similarity with the target template. Finally, we show theresults of experiments comparing Features-based only tracking, Kalmanfilter-based and Particle filter-based.

The proposed DRM approach should work under general collection
conditions, with no tasking requirements such as similar viewpoints ortimes of day. False responses by the detectors in each image are implicitly
ignored, as they appear in both images and therefore do not generatechange detection. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed DRM-OLCD method.
Two images of the same region are captured before and after an event,from the same or different sensors. After spatial registration, the input
images are filtered by the vehicle detector, generating response maps that
identify local regions with vehicle-like shape, scale, and texture. Object-levelchanges are detected on the response maps by differencing the likelihoodof object presence on the registered maps, followed by thresholding,non-maximum suppression, and post processing. Vehicle detection is not
performed explicitly, as thresholding in early stages of processing would
reduce sensitivity. Likewise correlation differencing to a terrain map would
aid in area selection that segments areas of known nuisances to aid in DRM
sensitivity-based refinement to aid users.

9089-9, Session 3

Optimal full motion video registration withrigorous error propagation
John T. Dolloff, Peter Doucette, Bryant Hottel, Henry J. Theiss, Glenn
Jocher, Integrity Applications, Inc. (United States) and Contractors
for The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)
No Abstract Available

9089-10, Session 3

Minimum separation vector mapping (MSVM)

9089-7, Session 2

Glenn Jocher, John T. Dolloff, Peter Doucette, Bryant Hottel, Henry
J. Theiss, Integrity Applications, Inc. (United States) and Contractors
for The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)

Overview of dynamic data driven applications
systems

This paper documents our attempts to solve the problem of geo-locating
observed image points in a pair of images with moderately well-known
camera positions and little else. We approach the problem from a newperspective and develop a robust method designed to work underconditions which traditional Structure From Motion (SFM) techniques tend
to fail at. We present our Minimum Separation Vector Mapping (MSVM)
approach, and establish the conditions under which it may outperform
SFM, as well as some possible failure modes. Lastly, we apply both MSVM
and SFM to a real world geo-tagged airborne video and validate the results
against surveyed ground truth data.

Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The concept of Dynamic Data-Driven Applications Systems (DDDAS)
has been applied to many systems from weather analysis, autonomousvehicles, and cyber networks. In the various applications in the last decade,
DDDAS has provided an intersection of modeling, control, measurements,and software for processing large amounts of data for scientific andengineering solutions. In this paper, we organize the various attributes of
DDDAS solutions to cover the wide variety of uses for systems designs. The
summary of the past and on-going projects demonstrates the applicabilityof the techniques and solutions that have supported systems designs. Key tothese developments are geospatial solutions (e.g., weather), robotics (e.g.,vision), and situation awareness that provide big data solution analytics

9089-11, Session 4

Surveillance of ground vehicles for airport
security

9089-8, Session 3

Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); ZhonghaiWang, Dan Shen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Haibin Ling, Temple Univ. (United States); Genshe Chen, Intelligent
Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)

Particle filter-based vehicle tracking using fused
spatial features and a nonlinear motion model
Raphael Viguier, Kannappan Palaniappan, Univ. of MissouriColumbia (United States)

Future digital avionics systems will work in complex and clutteredenvironments which require systems engineering solutions for suchapplications as airport ground surface management. In this paper, wehighlight the use of a L1 video tracker for monitoring activities at an airport.
We present methods of information fusion, entity detection, and activity
analysis using airport videos for runway detection and terminal events.
For coordinated airport security, automated ground surveillance enhances
efficient and safe maneuvers for unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) andunmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) operation at airport environments.

Tracking vehicles in aerial wide area imagery is extremely challenging
due to the low resolution of targets, the presence of clutter and a large
number of distractors, low frame rates of a few hertz (equivalently large
vehicle displacements), significant appearance change of the target during
tracking and complex backgrounds. Feature-based tracking techniques
generate multiple peaks and have difficulty in distinguishing the target
from distractors. Consequently, false detections can occur at any time. It
is therefore critical to use a motion model in order to eliminate spurious
matches, reduce the size of the search region, and at the same time estimate
an accurate probability density of the predicted position to improve the217+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9089A:
Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV

9089-12, Session 4

altitude at which the voids in the point clouds could theoretically be imaged,such that the new images can be included in the 3D reconstruction, withthe goal of reducing the voids in the point cloud that are a result of lack ofcoverage. This method has been tested on synthetic image data sets, as wellas high-frame-rate oblique aerial imagery captured over Rochester, NY.

Summary of methods in wide-area motion
imageryErik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Kannappan
Palaniappan, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States);
Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

9089-15, Session 5

In the last decade, there have been numerous developments in wide-area
motion imagery (WAMI) from the sensor design to data exploitation. In thispaper, we summarize the published literature on the topic in an effort tosummarize the techniques, organize the developments, and determine thestate-of-the-art. Using the organized summary of developments, we see
the variations in approaches and relations to the data sets available. The
summary of eth literature provides and anthology of many of the developers
in the last decade and their associated techniques. In our use case, we
demonstrate the current methods of a contemporary method of WAMI
exploitation.

9089-13, Session 5

Automatic georeferencing of imagery from highresolution, low-altitude, low-cost aerial platforms
Amanda M. Geniviva, Jason Faulring, Carl Salvaggio, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)
Existing nadir-viewing aerial image databases such as that available on
Google Earth contain data from a variety of sources at varying spatial
resolutions. Low-cost, low-altitude, high-resolution aerial systems such as
unmanned aerial vehicles and balloon-borne systems can provide ancillarydata sets providing higher resolution, oblique-looking data to enhance thedata available to the user. This imagery is difficult to georeference due tothe different projective geometry present in these data. Even if this datais accompanied by metadata from GPS and IMU sensors, the accuracy
obtained from low-cost versions of the sensors is limited. Combining
automatic image registration techniques with the information provided by
the IMU and onboard GPS, it is possible to improve the positioning accuracyof these oblique data sets on the ground plane using existing orthorectified
imagery available from sources such as Google Earth. Using both theaffine scale-invariant feature transform (ASIFT) and maximally stable
extremal regions (MSER) feature detectors aid in automatically detecting
correspondences between the obliquely collected images and the basemap. These correspondences are used to georeference the high-resolution,
oblique image data collected from these low-cost aerial platforms providing
the user with an enhanced visualization experience.

9089-14, Session 5

Katie N. Salvaggio, Carl Salvaggio, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
With recent advances in technologies, reconstructions of three-dimensional(3D) point clouds from multi-view aerial imagery are readily obtainable.
However, the fidelity of these point clouds has not been well studied, andvoids often exist within the point cloud. Voids in the point cloud are present
in texturally flat areas that failed to generate features during the initialstages of reconstruction, as well as areas where multiple views were notobtained during collection or a constant occlusion existed due to collection
angles or overlapping scene. A method is presented for identifying the typeof void present using a voxel-based approach to partition the 3D space. By
using collection geometry and information derived from the point cloud, it
is possible to detect unsampled voxels such that voids can be identified. A
similar line of sight analysis can then be used to pinpoint locations at aircraft

SPIE DSS 2014

Hai-Wen Chen, Mike McGurr, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (UnitedStates)Advanced wide area persistent surveillance (WAPS) sensor systems onmanned or unmanned airborne vehicles are critically required for widearea urban security monitoring to protect our people and warfighter fromterrorist attacks. Currently, human (imagery) analysts process huge datacollections from full motion video (FMV) for exploitation and analysis (realtime and forensic) providing slow and inaccurate results. An AutomatedData Exploitation System (ADES) is urgently needed.
In this paper, we present a recently developed ADES for airborne vehicles
under heavy urban background clutter conditions. This system includes
4 processes: (1) fast image registration, stabilization, and mosaicking; (2)advanced non-linear morphological moving target detection; (3) robust
multiple target (vehicles, dismounts, and human) tracking (up to 100
target tracks); and (4) moving or static target/object recognition (superresolution). In the image registration process, an advanced ground cornerconstellation matching method has been developed that outperforms
current-state-of-the-arts, such as SIFT, and Lukas-Kanade algorithm. The
multiple target tracking process includes several advanced sub-processes:
target size/shape discrimination, adaptive local correlation and search tofind undetected targets, and broken track (caused by target occlusion)
stitching and association, providing an averaging tracking duration that isabout 10 times longer than the current-state-of-the-art tracker. The target/
object recognition (super-resolution) process can improve multiple tracked
target resolution by 3-5 times without sacrificing large field of view (FOV)
coverage. We have also developed processes for robust EO to IR sensor
fusion, as well as 2D EO/IR to 3D LiDAR sensor fusion. These multiple sensor
fusion processes can significantly reduce false detection rate for improved
target recognition, and can also provide reliable geo-registration for the
FMV imagery with pin-point targeting capability.

9089-16, Session 5

Large-scale bundle adjustment for wide-area
motion imagery (WAMI)
Hadi Aliakbarpour, Univ. College London (United States); Surya
Prasath, Raphael Viguier, Rengarajan V. Pelapur, Mahdieh
Poostchi, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Gunasekaran
Seetharaman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Kanappan
Palaniappan, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States)

A voxel-based approach for imaging voids inthree-dimensional point clouds

218

An automated data exploitation system forairborne sensors·

Camera pose estimation has been explored for the past few decades but still
remains an active topic.
Among the existing pose estimation methods, Bundle Adjustment (BA)based approach is robust in terms of obtaining meaningful results evenwhen only partial information is available. BA refers to simultaneously
refining camera poses and structures subject to a set of projective
constraints.
Normally, in BA after extracting salient features and establishingcorrespondences, an estimation for rotation and translation, together known
as the camera pose, is obtained using either fundamental or homographymatrix estimation. Then these initial estimations are used in a triangulation
step where the corresponding features are geometrically fused to obtain an
initial estimate for the 3D points depicting the structure. Thus, the crucial

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Conference 9089A:
Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV
part of BA are the optimization and refinement of the initial estimates.
Unlike a general BA utilized in other imagery in which there is no metadata(from onboard sensors), in Wide Area Motion Imagery (WAMI) based BA,
the camera pose is available. Therefore one can bypass fundamental/
homography transformation estimate, however the imperfectness ofavailable metadata (due to noise in sensor measurements) must be taken
into the account. As one more difference, in WAMI acquisition the sequenceof images is known after they are captured, whereas in a general BA it is
not the case. In this work we analyze the effects of position (from GPS) androtation (from IMU) errors in BA results in terms of accuracy and robustness.
We also investigate how choosing a sequence of corresponding features toperform triangulation for obtaining a single 3D point can contribute to theresult’s precision. This has implications for obtaining robust large scale BA
for WAMI based 3D reconstructions.

namely horizontal, vertical, and diagonal images. We then focus on noisemeasuring the approximate images and blur-measuring the detailed images
to assess the image quality. We then compute noise mean and noise ratio
from the approximate images, and blur means and blur ratio from the detailco-efficient images. Furthermore, in order to assess the quality of an image
we propose a metric incorporating both the blur and noise measurementsthat is dependent upon unknown parameters estimated via a statisticalmodel that is fit to the training set. The proposed metric is compared toothers that have been considered in the literature and can be used in CBIR
assessment.

9089-19, Session 6

Efficient feature extraction from wide-area
motion imagery by MapReduce in Hadoop

9089-17, Session 6

Liya Ma, Erkang Cheng, Temple Univ. (United States); Erik Blasch,
Carolyn Sheaff, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Genshe
Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Haibin
Ling, Temple Univ. (United States)

Blind restoration of aerial imagery degraded byspatially varying motion blur
Abhijith Punnappurath, Rajagopalan Ambasamudram, Indian
Institute of Technology Madras (India); Gunasekaran Seetharaman,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

An increasing amount of large size video data requires a scalable andefficient computer vision framework to solve these problems. A single
computer solution is limited in processing power and storage. Current
options with the high-performance hardware devices emerge, such as
multi-core central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU)card. A typical example is to develop a distributed application using themessage passing interface (MPI). Although multi-core system is powerful, it
is complicated to develop Wide-Area Motion Imagery (WAMI) applications
using traditional parallel/distributed programming techniques.

This paper deals with the process of motion blurring in aerial imagery
and develops a methodology for blind restoration of spatially varying blur
induced by camera motion caused by instabilities of the moving platform.
This is a topic of signiﬁcant relevance with a potential impact on image
analysis, characterization and exploitation. A sharp image is beneﬁcial not
only from the perspective of visual appeal but also because it forms thebasis for applications such as moving object tracking, change detection,and robust feature extraction. The estimated camera motion itself can be
exploited as a valuable cue for stabilization. In the presence of generalcamera motion, the apparent motion of scene points in the image will varyat different locations resulting in space-variant blurring. However, due tothe large distances involved in aerial imaging, we show that the blurred
image of the ground plane can be expressed as a weighted average of
geometrically warped instances of the original focused but unknown image.
The weight corresponding to each warp denotes the fraction of the total
exposure duration the camera spent in that pose. Given a single motion
blurred aerial observation, we propose a scheme to estimate the original
focused image affected by arbitrarily-shaped blur kernels. The latent image
and its associated warps are estimated by optimizing suitably derived costfunctions with judiciously chosen priors within an alternating minimization
framework. Several results are given on the challenging VIRAT aerial data
set for validation.

Recently, MapReduce technology is popular in both academic and industry
community to handle large scale data. One of the main reasons is that there
is an open source implementation of Hadoop. MapReduce in Hadoop is a
distributed computing paradigm which provides a programming model
for analyzing large data sets. MapReduce is based on the observation thatlarge data processing tasks have the same basic structure: a computation
is applied over a large number of distributed records to generate partial
results, and then combines them to get the final outputs. More specially,
there are two important concepts in MapReduce: map and reduce, where amap function processes a key/value pair to generate a set of intermediate
key/value pairs; and reduce merges together all intermediate values
associated to a given key to yield the final result. In Hadoop framework, themaster distribute data into slave node by using map function. Then slavenodes process its own data associated with key value. The intermediate
results of each node is then reduced by master to get the final results.
In this paper, the objective is to investigate MapReduce in Hadoop for large
scale feature extraction tasks for WAMI. Our motivation is to divide a large
size image into several small tiles. The feature extraction of each tile can be
distributed to slave nodes in the Hadoop system. After feature extractionof each tile, the overall feature extraction of the large image is obtained by
combing these intermediate results of tiles. The input of map in MapReduce
is a pair < key, value>, where key is to denote the divided tile of the large
image and value is the divided small image. Map function computes thefeature extraction of the specified image tile. The reduce function combines
the intermediate results of all the map functions and procedures the feature
extraction of the large image. Experiments of feature extraction with/without MapReduce are conducted to illustrate the effectiveness of our
proposed approach.

9089-18, Session 6

Reference-free multiscale blur detection tool forcontent-based image retrievalSoundararajan Ezekiel, Kyle Harrity, Russell Stocker, Indiana Univ. of
Pennsylvania (United States); Mark Alford, David Ferris, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
Content Based Image Retrieval (CBIR) is a technical area focused on
analyzing visual media to answer queries such as “Who, What, and Where,”.
These images can be captured by common digital devices such as cell
phones, laptops, tablets, etc. Therefore, obtaining a metric of the images’
quality is an important step in further digital image analysis, semantic
assessment, and quality of color, texture, and shape processing. In many
existing image quality algorithms, the original image is required as areference. In this case, Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Peak Signal toNoise Ratio (PSNR) can be used to measure the image quality. However,these methods are not valid if there is no available reference image orthe image contains blur from motion, compression, or corruption. In our
approach, a discrete-wavelet transformation is applied to the blurred image,which decomposes into the approximate image and three detail sub-images,219+1 360 676 3290

9089-20, Session 6

Fast GPU adaptive 3D median filter for motion
estimation using background modeling
Mahdieh Poostchi, Kannappan Palaniappan, Univ. of MissouriColumbia (United States)
Motion detection is often a critical early stage of video object tracking. To·

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Conference 9089A:
Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV
meet the demands of real-time multi-target tracking applications in largehigh resolution imagery fast parallel algorithms for motion detection aredesirable. A common approach is to learn the stationary part of a video
sequence using background modeling and detect moving foregroundobjects using background subtraction.

better and informed data-driven decisions. Our work shows how the geotagged images collected through the general population can be used tocombat Malaria and Dengue by identifying localities that contain potential
breeding ground of mosquitoes.

In terms of background modeling, adaptive 3D spatio-temporal median filter
has the advantages in avoiding blending pixel values over other well-known
background modeling techniques such as mixture of Gaussians, Kalmanfilter or Wallflower. The output of the median corresponds to one of thevalues in the neighborhood and it does not create unrealistic pixel values
out of the image content. However, the median operation is computationallyexpensive which limits its application for real-time, large scale, highresolution imagery.
In our previous work, we have described a parallel 3D spatiotemporal
median filter algorithm using the integral histogram as a building block tosupport adaptive window sizes. The GPU implementation was 60 times
faster than the CPU version for a 1Kx1K image reaching 49 fr/sec.
In this paper we explore different techniques to efficiently compute
3D median filter utilizing many core Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)architectures using the CUDA programming model and propose a fast
implementation for background estimation model using 3D median filtering
for motion detection.

Each geo-tagged image received on the server is classified as positive if it ispredicted as a potential breeding site for mosquitoes with . We use machinelearning to detect whether the image contains either a small stagnant
water-body like puddle, or open containers and tyres, bushes etc. We learn
this by training an SVM classifier on a histogram-based feature vector
obtained after the vector quantization of SIFT features to discriminate theabove images from those that contain flowing water, manicured lawns, tyres
attached to a vehicle etc.
The geographical region is discretized into a rectangular array points at
an appropriate resolution. Each image’s probability of being a mosquito
breeding site is assigned to the discretized point nearest to its geo-tagged
location. A geographical heatmap is generated after convolving the above
array with a Gaussian kernel with an appropriate variance, providing the
likelihood of a location being tagged as a possible breeding ground of
mosquitoes. The heatmap thus generated can be used by concerned healthauthorities to take appropriate action and to promote civic awareness.
In this paper we shall explain in details the methodology adopted andresults of simulation studies over a large number of crowd sourced images.

9089-21, Session 6

9089-23, Session 6

Comparative analysis of fusion metrics acrossanomaly detection algorithms

Wavelet-based polarimetry analysis
Soundararajan Ezekiel, Kyle Harrity, Waleed Farag, Indiana Univ. of
Pennsylvania (United States); Mark Alford, David Ferris, Erik Blasch,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Soundararajan Ezekiel, Kyle Harrity, Indiana Univ. of Pennsylvania(United States); Erik Blasch, Mark Alford, David Ferris, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

Wavelet transformations have become a promising approach in the field ofimage and signal processing. A wavelet is a waveform of effectively limited
duration that has an average value of zero. Wavelet analysis is done bybreaking up the signal into shifted and scaled versions of the original signal.
The key advantage of wavelets is that they are capable of revealing smallerchanges, trends, and breakpoints that are missed by other techniquessuch as the common Fourier analysis. The phenomenon of polarization is a
useful for target detection and tracking. For example, Long Wave Infrared(LWIR) polarization is beneficial for detecting camouflaged objects and candistinguish between man-made objects from natural clutter. In addition,
the Stokes Polarization Parameters, which are calculated from 0°, 45°,90°, 135°, right circular, and left circular intensity measurements, provide
spatial orientations of target features and suppress natural features. In thispaper, we propose a wavelet based method to analyze Long Wave Infrared
Polarimetry Imagery to discriminate targets such as dismounts and vehicles
from background clutter. These parameters can be used for thresholding,segmentation, and material classification. Experimental results show thismethod is effective and can be used in a wide range of applications such aschange detection, shape extraction, target recognition, and feature-aided
tracking.

Detecting anomalies in non-stationary signals has valuable applications inmany fields including medicine and meteorology. These include uses suchas identifying possible heart conditions from an Electrocardiogram (ECG)
signal or predicting earthquakes via seismographic data. The importanceof the potential applications of anomaly detection algorithms precipitates
the need to compare methods. In this paper, we examine and then compare
fusion metrics and fractal/multi-fractal dimension measures over two
approaches to anomaly detection. The first approach involves using an
artificial neural network to detect anomalies in a wavelet de-noised signal.
The other method uses a neural network to analyze an arbitrary numberof “perspectives” or transformations of the observed signal for anomalies.
Possible perspectives may include wavelet de-noising, Fourier transform,
peak-filtering, etc. Fractal geometry and multi-fractal analysis techniques
provide a promising approach to analyzing and characterizing nonstationary signals such as seismic signals, ECG, stock prices, etc. Fractal
dimension is a measure of complexity as a ratio of change in detail tochange in scale and will be used to provide another metric of the anomaly
detection algorithms alongside the fusion metrics. The result will rank the
metrics based on performance with each anomaly detection method. The
paper also serves as a summary of available fusion metrics. The method
used in this study could be applied to compare other signal processing
algorithms.

9089-22, Session 6

Detection of potential breeding gournds formosquitoes based on community sourced geotagged images
Ankit Agarwal, Usashi Chaudhuri, Subhasis Chaudhuri, Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay (India); Gunasekaran Seetharaman,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Initiatives have been taken by various government authorities all over theworld to involve the citizens in the collection and reporting of data to make

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Conference 9089B:
Motion Imagery for ISR and Situational Awareness II
Monday 5 –5 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9089 Geospatial InfoFusion and Video Analytics IV; and Motion Imagery for ISR and
Situational Awareness II

9089-24, Session 7

platform was operating at a different frame rate, with the lowest and highest
at 6Hz and 60Hz respectively. Temporal registration was performing via aseries of blinking LEDs in view of all three-sensor platforms.

Computer vision-based technologies andcommercial best practices for the advancementof the motion imagery tradecraft9089-27, Session 7

Marja Phipps, 2d3 Inc. (United States); David Capel, 2D3 Ltd.
(United States); James R. Srinivasan, 2d3 Inc. (United Kingdom)

Full-motion video analysis for improved genderclassification using non-pathological gait
kinematics

Motion imagery capabilities within the Department of Defense/Intelligence
Community (DoD/IC) have advanced significantly over the last decade,attempting to meet continuously growing data collection, video processing
and analytical demands in operationally challenging environments. The
motion imagery tradecraft has evolved accordingly, enabling teams ofanalysts to effectively exploit data and generate intelligence reports
across multiple phases in structured Full Motion Video (FMV) Processing
Exploitation and Dissemination (PED) cells. Yet now the operational
requirements are drastically changing. The exponential growth in motion
imagery data continues but to this the community adds multi-INT data,interoperability with existing and emerging systems, expanded data access,non-traditional users, collaboration, automation, and support for ad hoc
configurations beyond the current FMV PED cells. To break from the legacy
system lifecycle, we look towards a technology application and commercial
adoption model course which will meet these future Intelligence,
Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) challenges. In this paper, we explore
the application of cutting edge computer vision technology to meet existing
FMV PED shortfalls and address future capability gaps. For example,
real-time georegistration services developed from computer-vision-based
feature tracking, multiple-view geometry, and statistical methods allow thefusion of motion imagery with other georeferenced information sources providing unparalleled situational awareness. We then describe how thesemotion imagery capabilities may be readily deployed in a dynamicallyintegrated analytical environment; employing an extensible framework,
leveraging scalable enterprise-wide infrastructure and following commercial
best practices.

Jeffrey B. Flora, Khan M. Iftekharuddin, Old Dominion Univ. (UnitedStates); Darrell F. Lochtefeld, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Gender classification using a human subject’s natural motion has
applications in human-computer interface, ergonomics, medical diagnosis
and rehabilitation, and surveillance. In this paper, we exploit significant bodyparts indicators obtained from analyzing non- pathological gait kinematics
to improve the gender classification for larger datasets with subjects moving
in a less controlled environment. Experimental testing with fifty subjects
reveals that human gender classification rates using leave-one-out crossvalidation are improved from 73% to 89%.

9089-28, Session 7

Standardized rendering from IR surveillance
motion imagery
Francine J. Prokoski, IRID, Inc. (United States)
Defense and law enforcement increasingly make use of video fromcommercial surveillance systems owned by non-government entities.
Making upgraded imaging technology available to commercial users at
cost-effective prices would benefit all parties. Thermal infrared imagers offer
substantial benefits over near-infrared capability. IR&D results are shared toencourage government support for commercial IR motion imagery.

9089-25, Session 7

Thermal IR structural analysis provides highly accurate and reliable
identification of human faces. Consistent vascular patterns are extracted
from different cameras in both MWIR and LWIR, as demonstrated byextensive testing under NIST sponsorship. Key to structural analysis is
the use of 3D modeling to achieve standardized poses. Key to integrating
thermal IR surveillance into established systems based on visible lightimagery is the use of composite IR/VL.

A multimodal, activity-based intelligenceexperiment using motion imagery sensors
Christian Lewis, David Messinger, Briana Neuberger, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)
The current development of sensor technology is leading to higher frame
rates and higher ground sampling distances. This inherently assumes that
greater temporal and spatial resolutions, respectively, will allow intelligence
analysts to better perceive activities in motion imagery. This experimentis designed to dispel said notion, by using a series of multimodal sensors
at varying frame rates to characterize activities of interest within a given
scene. The modalities include thermal, multispectral, polarimetric, andpanchromatic sensors. Our experiment took place at the Chester F. Carlson
Center for Imaging Science (CIS), Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT).
15 participants were asked to execute a series of directions on the ground,while being filmed from multiple cameras mounted on the roof. These
actions were designed to mimic common activities of interest, including:exchanging objects, entering/exiting vehicles, and engaging in group sports.
The entirety of the collection took approximately two minutes. Since thepremise of this research is to link technology development to an image
analyst’s ability to characterize activities in motion imagery, we pursued
multimodal augmentation as a substitute for increasing temporal/spatial
resolutions. We used a Go-Pro 3 as the basic sensing platform and plan
to use the thermal, multispectral, and polarimetric data to enhance anautomated activity recognition algorithm. The high number of modalities inthis experiment required the use of three separate sensing platforms. Each221

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Face renderings generated from composite imagery have the appearance ofdetailed artist sketches. The rendering process removes the impact of dim
lighting and increases distinction of persons with very dark skin.
Model standardization is based on orientations of structural components.
Frontal images are not required, nor are the appearance of both eyes.
Density and complexity of structural features facilitates model aggregation
over long image sequences, intermittent appearances, and changes in
distance and orientation. To the extent a model is complete, its rotation can
produce full or partial renderings from the perspective of an eyewitness,
2D reference image, or another surveillance camera. Rendering facilitatesrecognition by human observers, and enables integration with automatedsystems based upon visible light imagery.

9089-29, Session 7

Lambda vision
Michael F. Czajkowski, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)·

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Conference 9089B:
Motion Imagery for ISR and Situational Awareness II
There is an explosion in the quantity and quality of IMINT data being
captured in ISR today. While automated exploitation techniques involving
computer vision are arriving, only a few architectures can manage both thestorage and bandwidth of large volumes of IMINT data and also present
results to analysts quickly. At Lockheed Martin’s Advanced Technology
Laboratories we have been actively researching in the area of applying
computer vision to Big Data cloud computing. In this paper, we present
the results of our work in adopting a Lambda Architecture to process anddisseminate IMINT data using computer vision algorithms. Our approachembodies an end-to-end solution by processing IMINT data from sensors
to serving information products quickly to analysts, independent of thesize of the data. Our solution lies in dividing up the architecture into a
speed layer for low-latent processing and a batch layer for quality answers
at the expense of time, but in a robust and fault-tolerant way. We tested
our approach using a large corpus of IMINT data collected by a C-130
Shadow Harvest sensor over Afghanistan from 2010 through 2012. This
corpus included full motion video from both narrow and wide area field ofviews. We evaluated our work on a scaled-out cloud infrastructure that issimilar in composition to INSCOM’s Red Disk and NSA’s GHOSTMACHINE.
We show experimental results to prove the scalability of our architecture
and precision of its results using a computer vision algorithm designed to
identify man-made objects in sparse data terrain

processing units (GPU). Robust implies that the resulting output is not very
sensitive to detector problems such as non-responsive or “happy” pixels andimage clutter from pointing errors and/or scene changes such as moving
clouds. Several methods for detecting tracks were investigated, e.g. rangeinvariant anomaly detection, Reed-Xiaoli anomaly detection, and cumulative
pulse matching and statistical moments. Among them the third and fourth
moment method seemed to perform quite well. A literature search showedthat higher order moments are not commonly used as anomaly detectors
even though their interpretation would suggest such a use. Probability
distributions of noise in imaging systems tends to follow a Gaussian
distribution which results in zero values for the third and fourth moments.
An object moving through a pixel in a scene will momentarily perturb
the pixel intensity signal, introducing a change of both skewness (third
moment) and kurtosis (fourth moment) in the intensity histogram relative toan undisturbed pixel. The skewness (third moment) describes the symmetryof the probability distribution with positive values indicating a positively
skewed distribution which results when a pulse with positive amplitude isadded to noise. The kurtosis describes how fast the probability distribution
falls off and for the case that a target is present creates an outlier that will
increase the kurtosis.

9089-30, Session 7

Aerial video georegistration using terrain models
from dense and coherent stereo matching9089-32, Session 7

Improved target recognition using dedicatedvideo architecture: meet CHARM

Susana Ruano, Guillermo Gallego, Carlos Cuevas, Narciso García,
Univ. Politécnica de Madrid (Spain)

Gordon A. Cain, Vision4ce Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The CHARM is a new generation multi-function video processor and tracker,
which extends current state of the art performance in a size weight andpower optimized package. Traditional tracking systems are not designed
to process high definition video sensors. Many tracking solutions requirethat the video be windowed or subsampled down to standard definition
sizes and frames rates, losing any advantage the high definition video
provided. To fully exploit high definition video tracking potential, we havedeveloped a system with a dedicated video architecture that processes fullhigh definition video and tracks multiple targets in real time with minimal
latency. A wide range of high bandwidth digital video interfaces can beaccommodated including CameraLink and HD-SDI. In this paper, we discuss
our multi-core coherent software structured approach, which includes
several automatic configuration functions to reduce integration time andcomplexity with a consequential cost saving. We also discuss how theCHARM can be integrated effectively into a dynamic closed-loop control
application.

9089-31, Session 7

Statistical moments-based methods for detecting
sub-pixel target tracks in large-image sequences

In the context of aerial imagery, one of the first steps toward a
coherent processing of the information contained in multiple images isgeoregistration, which consists in assigning geographic 3D coordinates tothe pixels of the image. This enables accurate alignment and geopositioningof multiple images, detection of moving objects and fusion of data acquired
from multiple sensors. To solve this problem there are different approaches
that require, in addition to a precise characterization of the camera sensor,
high resolution referenced images or terrain elevation models, which areusually not publicly available or out of date. Building upon the idea ofdeveloping technology that does not need a reference terrain elevation
model (LaTourette and Pritt 2012), we propose a georegistration techniquethat applies variational methods to obtain a dense and coherent surface
elevation model that is used to replace the reference model. The surface
elevation model is built by interpolation of scattered 3D points, which are
obtained in a two-step process following a classical stereo pipeline: first,
coherent disparity maps between image pairs of a video sequence are
estimated and then image point correspondences are back-projected. The
proposed variational method enforces continuity of the disparity map not
only along epipolar lines (as done by previous georegistration techniques)but also across them, in the full 2D image domain. In the experiments, aerial
images from real video sequences have been used to validate the proposed
technique.

Christoph C. Borel, David J. Bunker, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States); Lori A. Mahoney, National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (United States)
This paper reviews and compares the performance of several methods todetect target tracks in image sequences. The targets are assumed to be
sub-pixel, i.e. is not resolved by the imaging system, and moving over a
static background. An electro-optical imaging system is modeled by an
optics and motion jitter time dependent point-spread-function. The focal
plane is assumed to contain of a large number detectors with non-uniform
gain and offsets, contain a fraction of dead and saturated pixels andGaussian noise. To process the resulting large amount of data requires
simple, fast and robust processing methods to quickly find and display
tracks of moving targets in a single image. Simple methods imply few and“cheap” operations that can easily be accomplished without using complex
numerical techniques or complex signal processing. Fast methods imply
that the algorithm can be performed in parallel, possibly using graphical

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Conference 9089B:
Motion Imagery for ISR and Situational Awareness II

9089-33, Session 7

Low-complexity multiplierless DCT/DST
approximations for low-power HEVC digital IP
cores
Sunera C. Kulasekera, Arjuna Madanayake, The Univ. of Akron(United States); Renato J. Cintra, Univ. Federal de Pernambuco(Brazil); Fabio M. Bayer, UFSM (Brazil)
Image and video compression plays a major role in multimedia transmission.
Speciﬁcally the discrete cosine transform (DCT) is the key tool employed
in a vast variety of compression standards such as H.265/HEVC due to
its remarkable energy compaction properties. Rapid growth in digital
imaging applications, such as multimedia and automatic surveillance that
operates with limited bandwidths has led to extensive development ofvideo processing systems. For defense applications including UAV andspace-based imaging systems, the use of low-complexity algorithms andlow-power circuits is of paramount importance due to constraints in weight
and available power. Algorithms that offer high video quality at highcompression while consuming minimal resources in terms of circuit realestate and power consumption are therefore desired for video imaging andremote sensing applications. For image and video compression, efficient
DCT approximations that have very low arithmetic complexity is a way torespond to such demands. From this standpoint, the main objective of the
proposed work is to introduce a new DCT approximation equipped with afast algorithm which requires only fourteen addition operations and zeromultipliers or bit-shifting operations leading to significant reductions in chiparea and power consumption compared to conventional DCT algorithms
such as the Arai/Chen algorithms. We provide complete design details forseveral k x k, k=4,8,16,32,64 blocked 2-D algorithms for multiplierless DCT/DST computation with video evaluation using HEVC real-time software
encoder. Custom digital architectures are proposed, simulated, implemented
on Xilinx FPGAs and verified in conjunction with software models.The paper
will include sections describing the proposed method, implementation
steps, and simulation results, insight into custom VLSI/FPGA trade-offs andthe trade-off between video quality, compression level, circuit complexity,
reconfigurability and power consumption. The proposed multiplierless DCT
approximation have important applications in a range of critical imaging
systems that can be based on the H.264/AVC, H.265/HEVC and similar
standards.

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help@spie.org

Conference 9090: Automatic Target Recognition XXIV
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9090 Automatic Target Recognition XXIV

9090-1, Session 1(SSC Pacific), provides automated ship detection in overhead satellite
imagery as well as in full-motion video from unmanned aerial systems
in support of image analysts. RAPIER returns ship detects in the form ofsmall images chipped out of a larger video or satellite image. Algorithms torecognize the ship class or type of each image chip are necessary to provide
increased functionality to RAPIER and greater benefit to the analyst.

Unification of automatic target tracking andautomatic target recognition
Bruce J. Schachter, Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems (UnitedStates)
The subject being addressed is how an automatic target tracker (ATT) andan automatic target recognizer (ATR) can be fused together so tightly
and so well that their distinctiveness becomes lost in the merger. This has
historically not been the case outside of biology and a few academic papers.
The biological model of ATT/ATR arises from dynamic patterns of activity
distributed across many neural circuits and structures (including retina).
The information that the brain receives from the eyes is “old news” at thetime that it receives it. The eyes and brain forecast a tracked object’s future
position, rather than relying on received retinal position. Anticipation of thenext moment – building up a consistent perception – is accomplished underdifficult conditions: motion (eyes, head, body, scene background, target)and processing limitations (neural noise, delays, eye jitter, distractions). Not
only does the human vision system surmount these problems, but it has
innate mechanisms to exploit motion in support of target detection andclassification.

Given the difficulties in acquiring sufficient maritime imagery to train
statistical recognition algorithms, it is important that classification methods
be able to function accurately on data even if it has been degraded or was
not collected under the same conditions as the training data. This new work
considers the effectiveness of a support vector machine (SVM) classifier andbag-of-visual-words image representations -- a method previously identified
to be successful on ship imagery -- on ship data that has been intentionallydegraded in one of the following ways: downsampled to a lower resolution;
corrupted with random noise; or partially occluded. These three methodsof data degradation are representative of challenges faced in real-world
applications; sensors collect at varying resolutions, images can become
noisy through transfer or due to the collection scenario, and targets are
frequently occluded by clouds or other objects.

Biological vision doesn’t normally operate on snapshots or frames ofimagery. Feature extraction, detection and recognition are spatiotemporal.
When vision is viewed as a spatiotemporal process, target detection,
recognition, tracking, event detection and activity recognition, do notseem as distinct as they are in current ATT and ATR designs. They appear
as similar mechanism taking place at varying time scales. A framework isprovided for unifying ATT and ATR.

In addition to testing on degraded data sets, this work will compare several
options for construction bag-of-visual-words descriptions of ship images
and test their effectiveness when fed into an SVM classifier. Bag-ofvisual-words is a method of combining local features into a single image
representation vector. The local feature types which will be compared
are the scale invariant feature transform (SIFT) and two variants on SIFT,
RootSIFT and PHOW. The relative merits of these methods will be evaluatedin the context of the ship data set and its degraded forms.

9090-2, Session 1

Optimized sparse presentation-basedclassification with position-weighted block
dictionary
Jun He, Bo Sun, Xuewen Wu, Beijing Normal Univ. (China); Chao
Chen, Naval Academy of Armament (China)

9090-4, Session 1*tosunbo@bnu.edu.cn
This paper is aiming at applying sparse representation based classification(SRC) on a certain scale. Having analyzed the characteristics of object
recognition, authors have proposed a position-weighted block dictionary(PWBD) and design a framework of SRC with it (PWBD-SRC). After
analyzing the characteristics of general object recognition and the principleof the classifier of SRC method further, authors optimize the method with
Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) and propose the optimized PWBDSRC method. Principle and implementation of the optimized PWBD-SRC
have been introduced in the article, and experiments on car model, Yale andAR face database have been given in the article. From experimental results,
it can be seen that optimized PWBD-SRC works well than the original
method.

9090-3, Session 1

Maritime vessel recognition in degraded satellite
imagery
Katie Rainey, Shibin Parameswaran, Josh Harguess, Space and Naval
Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)
Automated vessel classification algorithms are relevant to many militaryand security applications. The RAPid Image Exploitation Resource (RAPIER)
developed by Space and Naval Warfare (SPAWAR) Systems Center Pacific224

SPIE DSS 2014

Object recognition in a maritime setting poses challenges not faced byother recognition problems. While ships often stand out from the dark
ocean background, images may be cluttered or obscured by clouds, white
caps, wakes, piers, or land. There may also be significant visual variation
within ship classes, as ship type is determined by the ship’s function rather
than its physical appearance. Successful recognition algorithms in otherapplications often rely on the availability of sufficient training data -- i.e.,a face recognition system may require multiple training images of eachface appearing under multiple poses or lighting conditions. Collecting
comparable data sets of ocean vessels is practically impossible. Thus shipclassification algorithms must be robust to the variations present in ocean
imagery and must be flexible enough to be trainable with limited data.

·

Application of an image feature network-based
object recognition algorithm to aircraft detection
and classification
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A network created from the distance-values representing the spacing
between points identified by an image feature detection algorithm canbe utilized for object classification. This approach, which is both scale androtation agnostic, has applicability to many different application domains.
Those where it may be particularly effective have characteristics such as
object presence being unknown and applications where the object may
be presented at different distances (or captured with imaging hardware ofvarious resolutions) and where its orientation in the object is unknown, apriori. This algorithm scales the network, normalizing it to the pre-identified
patterns that will be used for comparison purposes and then compares the
networks, determining (first) the most likely match and (then) whether thecorrelation between the sensed and pre-identified patterns is sufficient tomake a classification assertion.
This paper presents work on the application of this algorithm to the problemof aircraft presence detection and classification. First, an overview of theoperation of the algorithm is presented. Then, modifications required for it
to work for aircraft classification are discussed. Performance under an ideal
case is characterized. Next, the paper considers algorithm performanceacross a variety of scenarios, including instances where the backgroundwww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9090: Automatic Target Recognition XXIV

9090-6, Session 2(sky) has different characteristics (e.g., cloud versus no clouds, different
lighting levels, different meteorological phenomena), detection andcharacterization from different levels of image resolution and detection
and characterization where multiple craft are present in a single frame.
An extension to the base algorithm, which determines the orientation of adetected aircraft is also presented.

Detection of moving targets in homogeneous
clutter by MIMO radar systems employing thegeneralized detector
Vyacheslav P. Tuzlukov, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republicof)9090-5, Session 1

In this paper, we consider a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radar
approach employing widely dispersed transmit and receive antennas
for the detection of moving targets based on implementation of thegeneralized detector. The MIMO radar transmits orthogonal waveforms
from the different transmit antennas so these waveforms can be separated
at each receive antenna. For a moving target in colored Gaussian noiseplus-clutter, we quantify the gains from having widely dispersed antennas
that allow the overall system to observe the target simultaneously fromseveral different directions. The MIMO radar performance is contrasted
with that of a traditional phased-array approach, which employs closely
spaced antennas for this purpose. The MIMO radar approach is well studied
to handle targets that have small radial velocities for scenarios in whichcollocated sensors cannot separate the target from the background clutter.
Both a centralized processing and a simple distributed processing from of
the MIMO radar approach are developed and studied, and the gains fromthe centralized version, which come at the price of additional complexity,
are clearly demonstrated and explained intuitively. The constant false
alarm rate (CFAR) property of an adaptive version of the MIMO moving
target generalized detector is also demonstrated for homogeneous clutter.
Comparative analysis of MIMO radar detection performance shows asuperiority of employment of the generalized detector in comparison withconventional ones.

Fusion-based approach for long-range night-timefacial recognition
Robert B. Martin, Mikhail Sluch, Kristopher M. Kafka, Andrew Dolby,
Robert V. Ice, Brian E. Lemoff, West Virginia High Technology
Consortium Foundation (United States)
Long range identification using facial recognition is being pursued as avaluable surveillance tool. The capability to perform this task covertly andin total darkness greatly enhances the operator’s ability to maintain a large
distance between themselves and a possible hostile target. An activeshort-wave-infrared (SWIR) video imaging system has been developed to
produce high-quality long-range night/day facial imagery for this purpose.
Most facial recognition techniques match a single input probe image against
a gallery of possible match candidates. When resolution, wavelength, anduncontrolled conditions reduce the accuracy of single-image matching,multiple probe images of the same subject can be matched to the watchlist and the results fused to increase accuracy. If multiple probe images
are acquired from video over a short period of time, the high correlation
between the images tends to produce similar matching results, reducing
the benefit of the fusion. In contrast, fusing matching results from multiple
images acquired over a longer period of time, where the images show
more variability, produces a more accurate result. Image variables include
pose angle, field-of-view, lighting condition, facial expression, target tosensor distance, contrast, and image background. Long-range SWIR video
was used to generate probe image datasets containing different levels ofvariability. Face matching results for each image in each dataset were fused,
and the results compared. Datasets containing higher levels of variability
resulted in more accurate fused match results.

9090-7, Session 2

Evolution of nonstationary noise in waveguides
Leon Cohen, Jonatan Ben-Benjaming, Hunter College (UnitedStates)The basic ideas of noise have been developed for the stationary noise case,where the statistical quantities do not change in time or in space. However,there exist many situations, where the noise changes in both space andtime (reverberation noise for example). Of particular importance is noise
in a waveguide with dispersion where noise may evolve significantly inspace and time. We discuss the mathematical characterization of nonstationary noise with particular emphases on explicit models such as thetwo-plate waveguide. We derive explicit formulas for the evolution of the
autocorrelation function and study under what conditions it evolves to astationary situation.

9090-30, Session 1

Demonstration of a 100 x 100 wide field of view
camera with integrated high-resolution, 25X
foveated zoom
Aaron L. Birkbeck, Eliseo Ranalli, Robert E. Saperstein, Patrick C.
Mock, Anis Husain, Ziva Corp. (United States)
Ziva Corporation’s FOveated VISion (FOVIS) camera is a uniquely
designed 100°x100° wide field of view (WFOV) camera that incorporates
adaptive wavefront correction which enables high resolution, real time
optical foveation and zoom on one or multiple targets in the WFOV
while simultaneously providing situational awareness of the entire scene.
Emulating the foveated vision capability of raptors, the dual imager
FOVIS camera design contains two optical paths, where one is dedicatedto a WFOV perspective and the other a high resolution, magnified zoom
capable of resolving and identifying targets located anywhere in the fieldof regard (FOR). Target selection in the FOR is accomplished with a custom
designed fast steering mirror (FSM) whose 2-D, ±10° angular scans spanthe entire 100°?100° WFOV. Immediately following the FSM is an integrated
deformable mirror (DM) that provides an adaptive correction surface thateliminates the aberrations inherent in the WFOV optics and enhances the
foveated zoom resolution. Furthermore, Ziva has adapted its proprietarycomputational imaging for aberrated optics (CIAO) software algorithm towork with the FOVIS camera prototype and effectively limit the necessary
wavefront correction provided by the DM to just focus (single element DM)
and thereby significantly reduce cost and complexity.

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9090-8, Session 2

Detection, characterization, and localization ofmultiple LFMCW LPI signals
Brandon Hamschin, John Clancy, Mike Grabbe, Matthew Fortier,Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States); Johns
Novak, ASD Space and Sensor Systems (United States)
In this paper a method for passive Detection, Characterization, andLocalization (DCL) of multiple LPI signals is described that meets this new
demand. In contrast to other detection and characterization approaches,such as those based on the Wigner-Ville Hough Transform (WVHT), ourapproach does not begin with a parametric model of the received signal,
specified directly in terms of its LFMCW constituents. Rather, we analyze thesignal over time intervals that are short, non-overlapping, and contiguousby modeling it within these intervals as a sum of sinusoids (i.e., harmonics)
with unknown frequencies, deterministic but unknown amplitudes,·

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Conference 9090: Automatic Target Recognition XXIV

unknown order (i.e., number of harmonic components), and unknown noise
autocorrelation function. Using this Short- Time Harmonic Model (STHM) of
the signal, we develop a detection statistic and associated threshold thatis a function of False Alarm Probability PFA and not a function of the noiseproperties. Doing so we reliably detect the presence of multiple LFMCW
signals in colored noise without the need for prewhitening, efficiently
estimate (i.e., characterize) their parameters, provide estimation error
variances for a subset of these parameters, and produce Time-of-Arrival(TOA) estimates that can be used to estimate the geographical location of(i.e., localize) each LFMCW source. Finally, by using the entire time-series
we refine these parameter estimates by using them as initial conditions
to the Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE), which was found to becomputationally infeasible for multiple LFMCW signals if accurate initialconditions were not available to limit the search space. We demonstrate
the performance of our approach via simulation, wherein we use a linkbudget analysis to determine Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) as a function of
the distance between the LPI transmitter and the passive ELINT receiver fortransmitter power levels on the order of 1 Watt and for reasonable receivercharacteristics.

Target recognition algorithms trained using finite sets of target and confuser
data result in classifiers limited by the training set. Algorithms trained
under closed set assumptions do not account for the infinite universe of
confusers found in practice. In contrast, classification algorithms developed
under open set assumptions label inputs not present in the training dataas unknown instead of assigning the most likely class. We present anapproach to open set recognition that utilizes class posterior estimates todetermine probability thresholds for classification. This is accomplished byfirst training a support vector machine (SVM) in a 1-vs-all configuration ona training dataset containing only target classes. A validation set containing
only class data belonging to the training set is used to iteratively determine
appropriate posterior probability thresholds for each target class. The
testing dataset, which contains targets present in the training data as well
as several confuser classes, is first classified by the 1-vs-all SVM. If theestimated posterior for an input falls below the threshold, the target islabeled as unknown; otherwise it is labeled with the class resulting from the
SVM decision. We apply our method to automatic target recognition (ATR)of ladar range images and compare its performance to current open set andclosed set recognition techniques.

To summarize, the most salient features of our work that are absent fromany single approach in the literature are:1) no calibration is necessary, either in-situ or in the laboratory, to determine
detection threshold settings as a function of Probability of False Alarm(PFA);
2) one does not need to assume the system noise present in the received
time-series is white or has a known autocorrelation function, thereby
eliminating the need for prewhitening;4) direct recognition of the number of signals in the environment is achieved
vice an iterative approach;5) in addition to estimates of the parameters that define the instantaneous
frequency of each LFMCW signal, our approach produces estimates of thevariance of a subset of these parameters directly from the data;
6) estimates of the Time-of-Arrival (TOA) of each LFMCW signal are
obtained, which can be used to localize each LFMCW source if three or morestationary ELINT receivers are present, or if two or more moving receivers
are available with synchronized clocks.

9090-10, Session 3

New experiments in inverse synthetic apertureradar image exploitation for maritime
surveillance
Firooz A. Sadjadi, Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Labs.
(United States)

Radar target identification using decision-theoretic nonparametric distancebased methods such as the nearest neighbor techniques have long beenused for classifying unknown non-cooperative radar targets using theirbackscatter Radar Cross Section (RCS) data. This study revisits this subject
using the recently developed Large Margin Nearest Neighbor (LMNN)
technique which was developed by Weinberger et al. LMNN have had
notable successes in recognizing large-vocabulary images in addition
to other significant applications. The radar target recognition problem(assuming coherent radar measurements) has been defined by two
performance limiting issues namely 1) azimuth ambiguity (and/or erroneous
estimation of target azimuth) and 2) presence of extraneous scatterers
along the target or within its range. Furthermore, distance based techniques
are optimal when additive noise is white Gaussian which is not often thecase. This study examines these different scenarios and highlights any ofthe benefits that LMNN may add to the radar target classification problem.
The distance-based method adopted here is tested using real radar target
models of commercial aircraft with backscatter recorded in a compact
range. The results are compared with the statistical optimal solution(Bayesian based) when it exists and with the traditional k-NN technique.
Scenarios such as various additive noise statistics, presence of extraneous
scatterers, azimuth ambiguity and azimuth misinformation are considered,and scenarios involving partial scatterer absence are considered.

9090-13, Session 3

This paper provides a summary of recent experimental study in using
signatures obtained via polarimetric inverse synthetic aperture radar(ISAR) for classification of small boats in littoral environments. First stepin discerning the intention of any small boat is to classify and fingerprint
it so it can be observed over an extended period of time. Currently, ISAR
techniques are used for large ship classification. Large ships tend to havea rich set of discernible features making classification straightforward.
However, small boats rarely have a rich set of discernible features, andare more vulnerable to motion-based range migration that leads tosevere signature blurring, thus making classification more challenging.
The emphasis of this paper is on the development and use of several
enhancement methods for polarimetric ISAR imagery of small boats.

Automatic detection of pulsed radiofrequency(RF) targets using sparse representations inunder-complete learned dictionaries
Daniela I. Moody, David A. Smith, Steven P. Brumby, Los Alamos
National Lab. (United States)
Automatic classification of transitory or pulsed radio frequency (RF)signals is of particular interest in persistent surveillance and remotesensing applications. Such transients are often acquired in noisy, clutteredenvironments, and may be characterized by complex or unknown analyticalmodels. Conventional representations using orthogonal bases, e.g., Short
Time Fourier and Wavelet Transforms, can be suboptimal for classificationof transients, as they provide a rigid tiling of the time-frequency space,and are not specifically designed for a particular target signal. They do
not usually lead to sparse decompositions, and require separate feature
selection algorithms, creating additional computational overhead. We

9090-11, Session 3

Ladar ATR via probabilistic open set techniques
Matthew Scherreik, Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ. (UnitedStates)SPIE DSS 2014

Radar target identification using various nearest
neighbor techniques
Ismail I. Jouny, Lafayette College (United States)

3) environments with multiple, simultaneous (a/k/a co-channel) signals canbe treated without adding a stifling computational burden;

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Conference 9090: Automatic Target Recognition XXIV

propose a fast, adaptive classification approach based on non-analytical
dictionaries learned from data. Our goal is to detect chirped pulses from amodel target emitter in poor signal-to-noise and varying levels of simulated
background clutter conditions. This paper builds on our previous RFclassification work, and extends it to more complex target and background
scenarios. We use a Hebbian rule to learn discriminative RF dictionaries
directly from data, without relying on analytic constraints or additional
knowledge about the signal characteristics. A pursuit search is used overthe learned dictionaries to generate sparse classification features in order
to identify time windows containing a target pulse. We demonstrate thatlearned dictionary techniques are highly suitable for pulsed RF analysis
and present results with varying background clutter and noise levels. The
target classification decision is obtained in almost real-time via a parallel,
vectorized implementation.

While the physical phenomenon was clear, a formal mathematicaldescription of instantaneous frequency was not, and there are manydifferent “instantaneous frequencies’’ that can be associated with the same
real signal. Gabor gave a procedure for obtaining a particular instantaneous
frequency by associating a specific complex signal, called the analytic
signal, to the given real signal, from which follows a unique definition for
the amplitude and phase (and hence the instantaneous frequency as thederivative of the phase). Gabor obtained the analytic signal by inverting theFourier spectrum of the real signal over the positive frequency range only,
resulting in a complex signal whose real and imaginary parts form a Hilberttransform pair. Many other different procedures have been developed
before and since, yet Gabor’s analytic signal representation and the Hilberttransform are ubiquitous today in many areas of science and engineering.
Given the prominent role that the Wigner distribution has played instudying signals with changing frequencies, we introduce a new transformand complex signal representation by applying Gabor’s idea to the
Wigner distribution. The real and imaginary parts of the resulting complex
representation are related by what we define as the Wigner-Hilberttransform. We show that the Wigner-Hilbert transform may be interpreted
as a signal-dependent Hilbert transform. We examine properties of theresulting complex signal, which we call the Wigner-Gabor signal, and give
examples and comparisons to the analytic signal. In general the WignerGabor complex signal is different from the analytic signal, except for thecase of a pure tone.

9090-14, Session 3

Autonomous underwater pipeline monitoringnavigation system
Nina Mahmoudian, Byrel Mitchell, Guy Meadows, Michigan Tech
(United States)
The big picture goal is to create an autonomous inspection system
to facilitate more efficient and frequent means to document pipeline
conditions. Enbridge Inc., operates a pair of 20-inch diameter, underwater
pipelines which cross the Straits of Mackinac, approximately half mile westof the bridge. The aim of this project is to develop autonomous motioncontrol and navigation algorithms for a UUV – The Ocean Server IVER3 – totrack long linear features such as underwater pipelines. As part of this work,
the Nonlinear and Autonomous Systems Laboratory (NAS lab) is developing
algorithms that utilize inputs from the vehicle’s state of the art sensor
package, which includes digital imaging, digital 3-D Side Scan Sonar, andAcoustic Doppler Current Profilers. The resulting algorithms should tolerate“real-world” waterway with episodic strong currents, low visibility, highsediment content, a variety of small and large vessel traffic.

9090-17, Session 4

Optimal power allocation and limited-feedback
strategies for distributed classification in wirelesssensor networks (Invited Paper)
Mohammad Fanaei, Natalia A. Schmid, Matthew C. Valenti, Marwan
M. Alkhweldi, West Virginia Univ. (United States)
This paper investigates the problem of distributed multi-hypothesis
classification in the context of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Spatiallydistributed sensors make noisy observations about an underlying hypothesis
to be classified. Each sensor will then make a (potentially faulty) binary
decision regarding the existence or absence of one of the possible
hypotheses. This local binary decision is sent to a central entity in the WSN,
known as the fusion center (FC), through parallel channels corrupted byfading and additive noise. The FC combines the set of received locallyprocessed signals to form a decision metric that is then used to classify
the underlying hypothesis. Two problems of finding optimal quantizationthresholds at local sensors and deriving an optimal power-allocation scheme
are considered in order to minimize the probability of misclassification at
the FC, given a constraint on the maximum total transmit power in the entire
network. As will be shown, the optimal local transmit power assigned toeach sensor depends on the individual channel gains. In order to alleviate
the requirement of feeding the instantaneous channel-fading gains fromthe FC back to local sensors, a limited- feedback scheme is proposed basedon the generalized Lloyd quantization algorithm. Numerical results show
the effectiveness of optimal binary quantizer design and optimal power
allocation on the global misclassification probability at the FC, and will also
demonstrate that the effect of limited feedback of channel-fading gains
on the global system performance is negligible, despite providing a drastic
bandwidth conservation.

9090-15, Session 4

Time-frequency filtering for classifying targets innonstationary clutter (Invited Paper)
Patrick J. Loughlin, Vikram T. Gomatam, Univ. of Pittsburgh (UnitedStates)Automatic target recognition in active sonar operations is adversely
impacted by induced noise, namely the reflections of the transmitted
sonar signal from non-target objects in the channel ( i.e., reverberation andclutter). While increased transmit energy will improve performance against
independent additive noise, it will not help with induced noise. Moreover, theinduced noise is inherently nonstationary. Accordingly, framing the problem
in the joint time-frequency domain may provide insights into detection andclassification of targets in clutter. We analyze a standard model of clutter
consisting of the sum of reflections from random point scatterers, to show
how the nonstationarities of clutter are manifest in the time-frequency andambiguity function domains. We also examine different time-frequency
based classification architectures and present simulation results forclassifying targets in clutter.

9090-9, Session 5A
9090-16, Session 4

Cross-spectral TDOA and FDOA estimation(Invited Paper)

The Wigner-Hilbert transform
Patrick J. Loughlin, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States)

Douglas J. Nelson, National Security Agency (United States)

The concept of “instantaneous frequency’’ arose from observations ofsounds that changed their pitch over time, vibrations of changing rate, andlight of changing color, among other natural and man-made situations.

We present methods for accurately estimating and tracking instantaneous
frequency of narrowband signal components and the relative time delay of asignal received by two receivers. These methods are applied to the problemof estimating the location of an emitter from the signal(s) received by one

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Conference 9090: Automatic Target Recognition XXIV

or more receivers. Both instantaneous frequency estimation and time delay
estimation are based on previously reported cross-spectral methods thathave been applied successfully to a variety of signal processing problems.
Frequency estimation is accomplished by differentiating the phase of theshort time Fourier transform (STFT) with respect to time to create a crossspectral (CS) surface. Frequency tracking is accomplished by applying
LaGrange interpolation to the signal frequency recovered from the phase of
the CS surface. Time delay estimation is accomplished by applying crossspectral-like methods to the the spectra of the received signals, resulting ina significant accuracy improvement over conventional correlation.
The methods presented may be used to accurately geolocate an emitterfrom as few as a single moving receiver. For the single receiver case,geolocation is accomplished by matching the Doppler characteristicsof the received signal to the Doppler characteristics computed frompotential emitter locations and the receiver motion. If the signal is received
simultaneously by two or more receivers, the methods presented may be
used to accurately estimate time difference of arrival (TDOA) and accurately
estimate and track the instantaneous frequency difference of arrival (FDOA)of the received signals. These methods improve TDOA and FDOA based
geolocation performance of conventional cross-ambiguity function (CAF)
geolocation processes.

9090-21, Session 5A

Matrix superposition structure with tree-based
principle (Invited Paper)
Andre U. Sokolnikov, Visual Solutions and Applications (UnitedStates)If we assume that a natural image can be modeled as a successionof a multilevel system, we can develop an optimal routine of a matrix
superposition. Each matrix separates the fundamental elements by a setof optimal criteria. The matrix superposition is then characterized by atree-based principle which is applied adaptively. We will also demonstrate
how the missing data constrains may be overcome by collecting additional
measurements.

Sparse representation for vehicle recognition
Nathan D. Monnig, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (United States);
Wesam A. Sakla, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The Sparse Representation for Classification (SRC) algorithm has been
demonstrated to be a state-of-the-art algorithm for facial recognition
applications. Wright et al demonstrate that under certain conditions, theSRC algorithm classification performance is agnostic to choice of linear
feature space, and highly resilient to image corruption. In this work, we
examined the SRC algorithm performance on the vehicle recognition
application, using images from the semi-synthetic vehicle databasegenerated by the Air Force Research Laboratory. To represent modern
operating conditions, vehicle images were corrupted with noise, blurring,and occlusion, with representation of varying pose and lighting conditions.
Experiments suggest that linear feature space selection is important,particularly in the cases involving corrupted images. Overall, the SRC
algorithm consistently outperforms a standard k nearest neighbor classifieron the vehicle identification task.

Adaptive compressive sensing for target
detection
Abhijit Mahalanobis, Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control(United States)

Classification-based target tracker using
convolutional neural networks with GPU
implementation
Serhat Ozdemir, ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey); Ozgur Yilmaz, Turgut Ozal
Univ. (Turkey)
We present the GPU implementation of a novel classification based target
tracking algorithm that uses convolutional neural networks with pre-training.
Single layer neural network algorithm learns receptive fields of hidden layer
neurons through clustering. The algorithm first extracts random patchesfrom unlabeled training images in an unsupervised manner, normalizes
and whitens them. K-means clustering is used to assign receptive fields
that can also be viewed as the members of a dictionary of visual “words”.
The receptive fields resemble Gabor filters which are widely used to model
simple neurons in the visual cortex. Linear combination of these visual
words uniquely and sparsely represents each patch. Image regions are
encoded by the Gabor filter-like representation of their patches throughspatial pooling. After spatial pooling, a feature vector is computed for theimage region of interest.
The target tracking algorithm utilizes the neural network for detecting thelocation of learned target in the image. The learning algorithm is initializedwith a database of images that belong to target-background binaryclasses. In order to enforce robustness, instead of single image, multiple(pixel shifted) target and background images are cropped and feature
vectors are extracted. A linear SVM classifier is trained using these target
and background feature vectors. The SVM classifier is used to detect andlocalize target images. The overall motion of the target is estimated by the

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228

motion of target images. The classifier is trained during tracking to adjust to
appearance changes in the target. There are also control mechanisms during
this online training that will abort in case of occlusions or clutter. In order toreduce drifts and jumps due to appearance similarities in the background,pixel clustering mechanisms are utilized and the pixel cluster that is closest
to the last known location of the target is accepted and the rest of thetarget detections are rejected. The algorithm is tested on publicly available
datasets and is shown to outperform existing algorithms in terms of tracking
error and robustness. Integral image implementation, feature extraction andclassification stages of the algorithm have been implemented on the GPU
and run in real-time.

In this paper, we discuss a compressive sensing techniques for target
detection that dramatically reduce the number of measurements that are
required to perform the task, as compared to the number of pixels in theconventional images.. Specifically, we discuss a two-stage approach that fist
adaptively searches a large area using shift-invariant masks to determine
the locations of potential targets (i.e. the regions of interest), and thenre-visits each location to discriminate between target and clutter using a
different set of specialized masks. We show that the overall process is not
only highly efficient (i.e dramatically reduces the number of measurements
as compared to the number of pixels), but does so without appreciable loss
in target detection performance.

9090-22, Session 5

Automatic target recognition using groupstructured sparse representation
Bo Sun, Xuewen Wu, Jun He, Xiaoming Zhu, Beijing Normal Univ.
(China); Chao Chen, Naval Academy of Armament (China)
Sparse representation theory has been increasingly used in the fields ofpattern analysis and machine learning, due to its robustness to corruption
and occlusion, and little dependence on the features etc. However, most of
the existing sparse classification methods intend to look for the sparsest
representation of a test sample y in the overcomplete dictionary D, y=Dx,
where x is a sparse vector whose non-zero entries identify the input y, which·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9090: Automatic Target Recognition XXIV

9090-25, Session 6

do not explicitly take the hidden structure in the dictionary into account.
The traditional sparse coding models are not efficient to classification task.
In a general classification task, the dictionary of the training data has agroup structure where a few groups of the dictionary elements correspondto the training data in each class. Thus, we cast the classification as agroup-structured sparse representation problem where our goal is to finda representation of a test sample that involves the minimum number ofgroups from dictionary. We formulate this problem using a non-convex
sparsity-inducing regularization optimization. Then, we relax the non-convex
optimization to a convex version which can be solved by group lasso. To
evaluate the proposed algorithms, we build an automatic target recognition
framework based on sparse representation which can perform automatictarget detection and recognition. We present several experiments on natural
vehicles and faces images database. The experimental results show thatthe proposed approach improves the recognition rate of standard sparsemodels, and our system can efficiently and effectively recognize targets
under a variety of realistic conditions, especially, where the desired featuresof the sparse representation based classification method are kept.

Estimation of human emotion using fusion ofvisual and thermal infrared imagery
Hung Nguyen, Kazunori Kotani, Fan Chen, Japan Advanced Instituteof Science and Technology (Japan); Bac Le, Univ. of Science, Ho Chi
Minh City (Viet Nam)
In recent years, automated estimation of human emotion has attracted theinterest of many researchers, because such systems will have numerous
applications in security, medicine, and especially human-robot interaction.
Many previous works proposed have been inclined towards developing
facial emotion estimation. Nevertheless, there is a lack of accurate androbust facial emotion estimation methods to be deployed in uncontrolledenvironments. When the lighting is dim or when it does not uniformly
illuminate the face, the accuracy decreases considerably. Moreover, humanemotion estimation based on only the visible spectrum has proved to bedifficult in cases where there are emotion changes that expressions do
not show. Using thermal infrared (IR) imagery is a new and innovative
way which is not sensitive to light conditions, to fill the gaps in the humanemotion estimation field. Besides, human emotions could be manifested
by changing temperature of face skin which is obtained by an IR camera.
Consequently, thermal infrared imagery gives us more information to help
us robustly estimate human emotions.

9090-23, Session 6

Automatic recognition of emotions from facial
expressions
Henry Xue, Izidor Gertner, The City College of New York (UnitedStates)Although there are many significant advantages when we use IR imagery,it has several drawbacks. Firstly, thermal data are subjected to change
together with body temperature caused by variable ambient temperatures.
Secondly, presence of eyeglasses may result in loss of useful information
around the eyes. Glass is opaque to IR, and object made of glass act as
temperature screen, completely occluding the parts located behind them.
Hence, the sensitivity of IR imagery is decreased by facial occlusions. Thirdly,
there are some facial regions not receptive to the emotion changes. To
eliminate the effects of the three challenging problems above, we propose
using fusion model from visible information and thermal information. Fromvisible information, we obtain the co-ordinates of eyes, mouth. Using theco-ordinates, based on thermal information, we extract the thermal regionof interest (t-ROI) around eye regions, check-bone regions, mouth regions,nose regions and forehead regions. The obtained regions will be inputs
for estimating human emotion. We will also reduce the impact of ambient
temperature by normalizing it between different frames. To estimate sevenemotions, we use three conventional methods Principal Component Analysis(PCA), Eigen-space Method based on class-features (EMC), Multiple
Discriminant Analysis (MDA) and PCA-EMC, PCA-MDA to extract feature
vectors and then find the similarity between the testing data and training
data. The Kotani Thermal Facial Emotion (KTFE) database will be used fortesting.

In the human-computer interaction (HCI) process it is desirable to havean artificial intelligent (AI) system that can identify and categorize humanemotions from facial expressions. Such systems can be used in security,
in entertainment industries, and also to study visual perception, social
interactions and disorders (e.g. schizophrenia and autism). In this work
we survey and compare the performance of different feature extraction
algorithms and classification schemes. We introduce a faster feature
extraction method that resizes and applies a set of filters to raw images. In
addition, we extend SVM to multiple dimensions while still maintaining highaccuracy rate of the classification. The algorithms were tested using theJapanese Female Facial Expression (JAFFE) Database, and The Database ofFaces (AT&T Faces).

9090-24, Session 6

Robust person and object tracking in LWIR andVIS based on a new template matching method
Thomas Müller, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik, Systemtechnik und
Bildauswertung (Germany)

9090-26, Session 6

Template matching is one of the oldest techniques in computer vision. It has
been applied in a variety of different applications using cross correlation as
distance measurement or derivates of it. But so far, the success of object
tracking is very limited despite the promising structural similarity searchthat is done thereby. Based on an analysis of the underlying reasons, a newkind of measurement is proposed therefore to open up far more of thepotential the structural search inherently offers. This new measurement does
not sum up differences in color space like the cross correlation but outputs
the number of matching pixels in percent. As a key feature, local color
variations are considered in order to properly handle the different characterof homogeneous and highly structured regions and to model the relations
between them. Furthermore, relevant differences between templates are
expatiated and stressed while irrelevant contributions to the measurement
function are widely suppressed in order to avoid unnecessary distortions
on the measurement and, therefore, on the search decision. The presented
results document the advantages in comparison to the measurements
known from the literature. Different objects

Military personnel recognition system using
texture, colour, and SURF features
Martins E. Irhebhude, Eran A. Edirisinghe, Loughborough Univ.
(United Kingdom)This paper presents an automatic, machine vision based, military personnel
identification and classification system. Classification is done using a
Support Vector Machine (SVM) on sets of Army, Air Force and Navy
camouflage uniform personnel datasets. In the proposed system, the armof service of personnel is recognised by the camouflage of a person’s
uniform, type of cap and the type of badge/logo. The detailed analysis done
include; camouflage cap and plain cap differentiation using gray level cooccurrence matrix (GLCM) texture feature; classification on Army, Air Forceand Navy camouflaged uniforms using GLCM texture and colour histogram
bin features; plain cap badge classification into Army, Air Force and Navyusing Speed Up Robust Feature (SURF). The proposed method recognised
camouflage personnel arm of service on sets of data retrieved from google
images and selected military websites. Correlation-based Feature Selection(CFS) was used to improve recognition and reduce dimensionality, thereby

and persons in LWIR and VIS image sequences are tracked to illustrate theperformance and the benefit in a broad field of applications.

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Conference 9090: Automatic Target Recognition XXIV

speeding the classification process. With this method success rates recorded
during the analysis include 91.9% for camouflage appearance category,
100%, 90% and 100% rates of plain cap and camouflage cap categories forArmy, Air Force and Navy categories, respectively. Accurate recognition wasrecorded using SURF for the plain cap badge category. Substantial analysis
has been carried out and results prove that the proposed method cancorrectly classify military personnel into various arms of service. We showthat the proposed method can be integrated into a face recognition system,
which will recognise personnel in addition to determining the arm of service
which the personnel belong. Such a system can be used to enhance thesecurity of a military base or facility.

9090-27, Session Posters-Tuesday

Image feature extraction based multiple antcolonies cooperation
Zhang Zhilong, Jicheng Li, Xinping Lu, National Univ. of Defense
Technology (China)
This paper presents a novel feature extraction method for remote sensing
imagery based on multi ant colony cooperation. Firstly, multi-resolution
expression of the input remote sensing imagery is created, and two different
ant colonies are spread on different resolution images. The ant colonyin the low resolution image uses phase congruency as their inspiration
information, the ant colony in the high resolution image use gradientmagnitude as their inspiration information. This two ant colonies cooperate
to find features in the image through sharing the same pheromone matrix.
At last, image features are extracted based on threshold the pheromone
matrix. As ant colony algorithm has the characteristic of parallelity, thecomputing efficiency of this method is very high. At the same time, sincemuch information of the input image are used as inspiration information of
the ants, the method shows higher intelligence and robustness in feature
extracting process than other simple edge detectors.

9090-28, Session Posters-Tuesday

Fast algorithm of infrared small target detection
in jitter background
Weiping Yang, Xinping Lu, Jicheng Li, National Univ. of Defense
Technology (China); Zhongliang Jiang, National Univ. of Defence
Technology (China)
In the high technical local battles, it is required that the weapon system
must have a fast reaction, a long detection distance, namely, the system
must detect the target at a long distance in the real-time warfare. The
target image is of a small size with only one or few pixel’s area while theinterferences of noise and clutter background remain strong. Therefore, thedetection of small low signal_ to_ noise targets becomes a hot and difficult
task. After analyzing infrared small targets, noise and clutter model, we use
a small window median filter to estimate the infrared background. Then
using background cancelling method, that is, subtracting the estimatedbackground from the source image, the resident image can be obtained.
Finally, an adaptive threshold is used to segment the resident image toobtain the potential targets. Considering the computational load, the twodimensional filter is simplified into a one-dimensional filter. Experimental
results show that the algorithm achieved good performance and satisfy therequirement of big size image’s real-time processing.

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9090-29, Session Posters-Tuesday

Polarization diversity sensor for enhanced
detection and tracking
David B. Chenault, Art Lompado, Jonathan Hanks, Richard
Edmondson, Polaris Sensor Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Polarization diversity results from differences in surface temperature,roughness, material properties, aspect angle to the sensor, sky downwelling and background radiance reflecting from the target. Often times,
the polarization signature resulting from this diversity enhances thedetection of manmade targets in a confounding background. Furthermore,that difference is often present even when the thermal signature of thesame target blends into the background. This paper will demonstrate
improvements in detection and tracking of of several target sets
representing ground and maritime target polarization signatures overconventional signatures.

9090-31, Session Posters-TuesdayLine fitting-based feature extraction for object
recognition
Bing Li, Lockheed Martin Systems Integration-Owego (UnitedStates)Image feature extraction plays a significant role in image based patternapplications. There are three types of features: global, local, and hierarchical.
Global features, such as Fourier descriptors and moment invariants, arecalculated from an entire image. They extract global characteristics andare usually robust to small changes of pixel values. However, they are
difficult to cover local characteristics and therefore only have limited use
in high performance systems. Local features, such as local moments andgradient features, are extracted by dividing an image into small regions andcalculating features in each region. Local features overcome the drawbackof global features and are able to capture local characteristics but, they
are not able to obtain global characteristics. Hierarchical features, such as
wavelet features, are extracted by representing an image as a pyramid andcomputing features in each layer. Features in high layers (low resolution)
represent global characteristics while those in low layers extract local
characteristics. However, in the wavelet approach different regions of theimage are treated with the same weight and divided equally into subregions regardless of the amount of information of in each region. This
causes inefficient feature representation since the features are wasted in thehomogeneous regions where no information exists.
In this paper, we propose a new approach to generate hierarchicalfeatures. This new approach applies line fitting to adaptively divide regions
based upon the amount of information and creates line fitting features
for each subsequent region. It overcomes the feature wasting drawbackof the wavelet based approach and demonstrates high performance inreal applications. For gray scale images, we propose a diffusion equation
approach to segment an image into positive energy, negative energy andzero-energy areas. The information of this image is mainly concentrated in
the non-zero energy area. From this segmentation we generate the positiveenergy and negative energy map images. After positive and negative map
images are generated, we propose a line fitting approach to divide regions
recursively and create features for each region simultaneously. This newfeature extraction approach is similar to wavelet based hierarchical feature
extraction in that high layer features represent global characteristics and low
layer features represent local characteristics. However, the new approach
uses line fitting to adaptively focus on information-rich regions so that we
avoid the feature waste problems of the wavelet approach in homogeneous
regions. In order to reduce the computational cost, we propose a moment
based method to extract features and demonstrate that the computational
cost of the new approach, O(N) with N pixels, is lower than wavelet
transform, O(NlogN). Finally, the experiments for handwriting word
recognition show that the new method provides higher performance thanour original handwriting word recognition approach.

·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
Monday - Thursday 5 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9091 Signal Processing, Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII

9091-1, Session 1

9091-3, Session 1

Determining sensor location from measured stateand covariance of tracked objects

Summary of tracking and identification methods
Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Chun Yang,
Sigtem Technology, Inc. (United States); Ivan Kadar, Interlink
Systems Sciences, Inc. (United States)

Lynn R. Purser, Georgia Tech Research Institute (United States)
Radars are designed to track objects in space and report those objects’
positions, velocities and measurement uncertainties. Sometimes due topolitical sensitivity radar locations are not made known to allies eventhough the entities may share track reports. The question arises can theseradar reports be viewed the other way around, that is, could the reports
be utilized to find the reporting radar’s location? Further suppose that
disparately located radars track a common object. These reports are fused inorder to gain a more robust scene of the tracked objects. Can fused reports
be utilized to discover the locations of the contributing radars? And last, if
the answers to these questions are true then can the positions of the radars
be obfuscated or even in order that their location(s) cannot be ascertained?

Over the last two decades, many solutions have arisen to combine
target tracking estimation with classification methods. Target tracking
includes developments from linear to non-linear and Gaussian to nonGaussian processing. Pattern recognition includes detection, recognition,
classification, and identification methods. Integrating tracking and patternrecognition has resulted in numerous approaches and this paper seeks toorganize the various approaches. In a use case, we provide a comparative
example of some of the methods for performance analysis.

9091-4, Session 1

Given a radar’s measurement state and the associated filter covariance of a
tracked object, a parameteric line is shown to exist that connects theFusing airborne video with RF location estimates
to locate moving emitters in dense moverenvironments

measured object track to the radar. From this line the reporting radar’s
latitude and longitude is easily determined. Fused track states from pairsof radars share a parametric plane that intersects the earth between thelocation of the contributing radars yielding a method to determine thelocation of both radar locations. By adjusting the direction cosines via theeigenvector of the minimum eigenvalue the radar’s location can be hidden
or even spoofed.

Robert Cole, Geoffrey Guisewite, Herbert G. Greene, Raytheon
Intelligence & Information Systems (United States)
Moving emitters in dense environments present challenges for conventionalsignal based location estimation. The emergence of wide field of view,high resolution, persistent EO imaging from airborne sensors introduces
the possibility of a multi-INT approach via video-RF data fusion. Video
based object extraction techniques can identify moving objects with very
high spatial precision; precision that can be leveraged to locate moving
emitters if a means of associating extracted movers to observed signaltransmissions can be demonstrated. To examine the feasibility of improving
emitter location estimates in this manner, we conducted a study in which
we correlated simulated video tracks with location estimates produced
from signal measurements.. To this end, we generated vehicle movement
over a known road network using varying levels of mover density. Signaltransmissions were generated using several different levels of ambient
noise and interference. These transmissions were associated to video
tracks using a fusion algorithm that employed a model derived from thephysical structure of the scene to re-interpret the signal observations underconstraints imposed by the video tracks and the RF pathways. Our results
suggest that with only a few signal observations from a given moving
emitter, the associated mover can be identified at a low error rate even at
low signal to noise ratios that normally produce extremely high levels of
location estimate uncertainty.

9091-2, Session 1

Study of data fusion algorithms applied tounattended ground sensor network
Benjamin Pannetier, Jean Dezert, Julien Moras, ONERA (France)
In this paper, data obtained from wireless unattended ground sensor
network are used for tracking multiple ground targets (vehicles,
pedestrians and animals) moving on and off the road network. The goalof the study is to evaluate several data fusion algorithms to select thebest approach to establish the tactical situational awareness. The groundsensor network is composed of heterogeneous sensors (optronic, radar,seismic, acoustic, magnetic sensors) and data fusion nodes. The fusion
nodes are small hardware platforms placed on the surveillance area that
communicate together. In order to satisfy operational needs and the limited
communication bandwidth between the nodes, we study several data fusion
algorithms to track and classify targets in real time. A multiple targets
tracking (MTT) algorithm is integrated in each data fusion node taking into
account embedded constraint. The choice of the MTT algorithm is motivatedby the limit of the chosen technology. In the fusion nodes, the distributed
MTT algorithm exploits the road network information in order to constrain
the multiple dynamic models. Then, a variable structure interacting multiple
model (VS-IMM) is adapted with the road network topology. This algorithm
is well-known in centralized architecture, but it implies a modificationof other data fusion algorithms to preserve the performances of the
tracking under constraint. Based on such VS-IMM MTT algorithm, we adapt
classical data fusion techniques to make it working in three architectures:
centralized, distributed and hierarchical. The sensors measurements are
considered asynchronous, but the fusion steps are synchronized on all
sensors. Performances of data fusion algorithms are evaluated using
simulated data and also validated on real data. The scenarios under analysis
contain multiple targets with close and crossing trajectories involving dataassociation uncertainties.

9091-5, Session 1

Optimal fusion of video and RF data for detection
and tracking with object occlusion
Benjamin Shapo, Christopher Kreucher, Integrity Applications, Inc.
(United States)
The image processing community has recently shown great interest inalgorithms for detecting and following objects in video. Investigators haveadopted many feature-based approaches to tracking in video data including
using primitive geometric shapes as features, segmenting objects into
individual features, and multi-timescale techniques for feature association.
An important problem in video surveillance is occlusion between theimaging source and the object, which can lead to missed detections,
dropped tracks, and mis-classification. Some investigators address this231

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
occlusion problem by fusing data from multiple sensors. This approach isadvantageous because it can provide more information than each individual
sensor alone. Traditionally, multisensor fusion performs tracking at eachsensor and then associates tracks across sensors. This track-before-fusemethod may be necessary in systems that have limited processing orcommunication capabilities. However, because hard tracking decisions occur
at each sensor, this approach may not achieve optimal performance.
In the image processing community, multisensor fusion has focused
almost exclusively on using multiple video cameras, or employed datafrom different spectral bands. However, the work described in this paper
is based on the premise that fusing data from heterogeneous sensors
can provide more robust detection and tracking performance than fusing
data from homogeneous sensors. For example, video may be severely
degraded at night or by rain, whereas RF is not affected by these conditions.
Furthermore, rather than an approach that performs the tracking function ateach sensor and then fuses the results, this paper advocates a fuse-beforetrack approach that performs data fusion before declaring tracks.
Our work differs from previous efforts in several ways, including our use of
RF to provide more sensing diversity and our fuse-before-track approachthat differs from commonly-used association-based approaches.

9091-7, Session 2

Recognition of ships for long-term tracking
Sebastiaan P. van den Broek, Henri Bouma, Henny Veerman, Koen
W. Benoist, Piet B. W. Schwering, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands)
Long-term tracking is important for maritime situational awareness to
identify currently observed ships as earlier encounters. In cases of, forexample, piracy and smuggling, past location and behavior analysis areuseful to determine whether a ship is of interest. Furthermore, it is beneficial
to make this assessment with sensors (such as cameras) at a distance, toavoid costs of bringing an own asset closer to the ship for verification. The
emphasis of the research presented in this paper, is on the use of several
feature extraction and matching methods for recognizing ships from electrooptical imagery within different categories of vessels. One of the usedfeatures is SIFT, which previously was shown to be useful in discriminating
between small ships, even at low resolution in infrared imagery. From anassessment on imagery of ships, an indication of discriminative power isobtained between and within different categories of ships. This is used
to assess the usefulness in persistent tracking, from short intervals (track
improvement) to larger intervals (re-identifying ships). The result of thisassessment on real data is used in a simulation environment to determine
how track continuity is improved. In this simulator observation of ships fromoperational navy assets is modeled, with the distinction probabilities used tomodel differences between ships.

9091-8, Session 2

Clutter heterogeneity and ground moving target
indication tracking

The ground moving target indication (GMTI) problem is the detection ofslow ground-moving targets from an airborne or spaceborne platform. This
necessitates adaptive multichannel signal processing techniques, such as
space-time adaptive processing (STAP) or synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
MTI. The signal processing outputs as well as probability of detection (Pd)and probability of false alarm (Pfa), are then the inputs to a tracker.
The performance of a GMTI tracker is a function of the parameter estimation
quality in the detection step, that can be bounded via Cramer-Rao bounds(CRBs) that can be calculated for single as well as multichannel radars.
Similarly, there exists extensive body of research on single receiver channel
analysis for computing the receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve (Pdvs Pfa). However, this is inadequate for GMTI applications that necessarily
requires a multichannel system.
In recent work, robust and relatively simple-to-implement analyticalformulas for computing the ROC curves for multichannel radars. Thesecan be computed for any GMTI radars under fairly general assumptions forthe interfering clutter and desired target signal statistics. The approach
expands the well-published single receiver channel analysis to multichannel
approaches, such as the displaced phase centre antenna (DPCA) or spacetime adaptive processing (STAP). The derivation comprises a flexible
modelling approach permitting solutions for a variety of target models
including deterministic targets and the fluctuating target Radar Cross
Section (RCS) Swerling target models. The approach additionally allows forthe averaging of multiple independent measurements (multi-looking).
In this paper, this novel ROC curve computation is used in assessing theimpact of multichannel system performance and clutter heterogeneity
on GMTI tracking. Specifically, clutter heterogeneity (e.g., for urban
environment) can be modelled in terms of a texture random variable leading
to the product or compound model for clutter, and this has been validated
in numerous examples. From the aforementioned results, the Pds and Pfas
for clutter with varying levels of heterogeneity are computed and used ingenerating more realistic simulated tracking scenarios. The performanceof the tracking algorithms, and performance of tracker compared to thatwithout this knowledge, and the improvement in tracker performance isquantified in terms of standard measures of performance.

9091-10, Session 2

Real-time target tracking for a 360-degree
panoramic IR imager

Magnetic dipole tracking and smoothing
Bhashyam Balaji, J. B. Nelson, Defence Research and Development
Canada (Canada)

Colin C. Olson, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States) and Sotera
Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States); Jonathan M. Nichols, JamesR. Waterman, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

The magnetic signature of a ferromagnet at large distances can bemodelled as a magnetic dipole. This induces an anomaly in the ambient
Earth magnetic field. By using magnetic sensors (magnetometers), it ispossible to measure some function of the magnetic signature as a functionof time. A scalar magnetometer measures the overall magnitude of the field,
including the contribution of the ambient Earth magnetic field. The vector

We introduce a tracking algorithm for high-clutter maritime applications
such as those found in harbors and riverine waterways. The algorithm
combines correlation- and model-based tracking in a manner that is robust
to occluding clutter without the need for a separate collision prediction

SPIE DSS 2014

9091-9, Session 2

Bhashyam Balaji, Christoph Gierull, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada (Canada)This paper presents two main contributions. First, we show how the fusebefore-track approach naturally admits heterogeneous sensors and supports
optimal Bayesian estimation. Second, we illustrate the approach with anexperiment using a combination of an imaging sensor and a multistiatic RF
array. The experiment includes severe sensor occlusion, generating a casewhere conventional track-and-then-fuse approaches fail.

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module. A movement model is used to center a weight distribution relative
to a larger correlation region which contains the last known target position—
algorithm characteristics which are robust to changes in direction andorientation. Occlusions are automatically handled by a memory model that
stores a long-term aggregation of previous target examples—an importantfeature in cluttered maritime scenes with many slow-moving targets.
Target queuing is based on the detection of persistent moving edges
using a wavelet model. Large data rates associated with the panoramic
imager necessitate the use of parallel computation on graphics processing
units. We discuss the queuing and tracking algorithms as well as practicalconsiderations required for real-time implementation.

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
magnetometer measures the three components of the magnetic field, while
the magnetic tensor gradiometer measure the spatial gradient of the fieldcomponents. Provided the SNR is large enough, it is possible to detect andlocalize the dipole using techniques such as the orthonormal basis function
decomposition method and the high-order crossing method.

9091-13, Session 3

The measured magnetic signatures are functions of the relative position,
velocity, and magnetic moment vector of the target. This leads one toconsider the problem in terms of the Bayesian state vector, assuming one
knows the function(s) that relate the measured magnetic signature to theunknowns. In prior work (Birsan), a Bayesian formulation was provided andsolutions using standard filtering techniques (such as unscented Kalmanfilter and particle filter) for the situation of stationary sensors and a moving
target.

Santosh Nannuru, Mark Coates, McGill Univ. (Canada)Hybrid multi-Bernoulli CPHD filter for
superpositional sensors
Several filters based on the random finite set framework have been recently
proposed for the problem of multi-target tracking using a superpositional
sensor observation model (in which the measurement effects caused
by individual targets combine in an additive manner). In this setting, themulti-Bernoulli filter is able to provide more accurate target location
estimates than the cardinalized probability hypothesis density (CPHD)
filter, but its cardinality estimates are less robust to the arrival of new
targets and the disappearance of existing targets. To address this issue,
we propose in this work a hybrid between the multi-Bernoulli filter andthe cardinalized probability hypothesis density (CPHD) filter. We use a
multi-Bernoulli random finite set (RFS) to model the existing targets and weuse an independent and identically distributed cluster (IIDC) RFS to model
newborn targets and targets with low probability of existence.

However, the targets were assumed to be non-manoeuvering and/or single
dynamical models, and it was assumed that there were no false alarms.
In this paper, we investigate the performance of the interacting multiple
model for a manoeuvering dipole target whose signature is measured
from a moving platform equipped with a scalar magnetometer. In this casemagnetic noise from platform motions or the underlying geology can add
false alarms. That is, these sources produce real magnetic anomalies that
may appear very much like the signal from the target of interest, but are notwell-fit by a magnetic dipole model.
In this work, the performance of a tracker is compared to that of thesmoother. In particular, the Rauch-Tung-Streibel and Fraser-Potter smootherwas applied using the extended Kalman filter and unscented Kalman filter
outputs. The performance of the filters were compared using the posterior
Cramer-Rao lower bound. In addition, the tracking performance in the pre

Our main contributions are deriving the update equations of the hybrid
filter and identifying computationally tractable approximations. We achieve
this by defining conditional probability hypothesis densities (PHDs), where
the conditioning is on one of the targets having a specified state. The filter
performs an approximate Bayes update of the conditional PHDs. In parallel,
we perform a cardinality update of the IIDC RFS component, conditioned on
the estimated cardinality of the multi-Bernoulli RFS component, in order toestimate the number of newborn targets.

9091-11, Session 3

We provide an auxiliary particle filter based implementation of the proposed
filter and compare it with PHD, CPHD and multi-Bernoulli filters in asimulated multi-target tracking application.

An improved CPHD filter for unknown clutter
backgrounds

9091-14, Session 3

Ronald P. Mahler, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States); Ba-Tuong
Vo, Curtin Univ. (Australia)

Multisensor dynamic cancellation method for
spurious data based on RFS theory

The “clutter-agnostic” CPHD filter was introduced at the 2010 SPIE Defense,
Security & Sensing Symposium in 2010, and has been investigated insubsequent papers. In its original form, this “kappa-CPHD filter” wascapable of multitarget detection and tracking in unknown, dynamicallychanging clutter backgrounds. It was also capable of estimating the entire
intensity function of the clutter process. The purpose of this paper is tointroduce a generalization of this filter. The generalized kappa-CPHD filter
has the following two major improvements: (1) a formula for the probability
distribution on the number of targets (target cardinality distribution);and (2) a formula for the probability distribution of the number of clutter
measurements (clutter cardinality distribution). As a consequence, the entire
clutter process can now be estimated (i.e., both the clutter intensity function
and the clutter cardinality distribution). We also provide simulation results
for the new filter.

Xin Chen, Ratnasingham Tharmarasa, McMaster Univ. (Canada);
Anne-Laure Jousselme, Defence Research and Development
Canada, Valcartier (Canada); Thiagalingam Kirubarajan, McMaster
Univ. (Canada)
In this paper, the problem of cancelling spurious data using multiple
information sources is studied under the framework of the random finite set(RFS) theory. It is common for real multisensor soft/hard fusion problem
to have little or no prior information on the distribution of spurious data.
For example, for many multisensor multitarget tracking systems, the priorinformation about the spurious data (i.e., clutter) is very limited. Furthermore, the distribution of spurious data of different sensors may behighly correlated, and dynamically evolve with time. Thus, in order to geta low false alarm rate, the sequences of information from different sources
need to be preprocessed and the correlated spurious data will be cancelled.
In this paper, a method that uses measurement sets from different sensors
and inputs from several operators to dynamically cancel the spurious data,
which are correlated between different information sources, are proposed.
Here, it is assumed that, due to the environment background, interference,and the error of human operators, there are spurious data that are
correlated between different information sources. Based on this assumption,a stochastic differential equation (SDE) driven by several jump processes isused to model the correlated spurious data. Then, the RFS theory is used toderive a dynamical cancellation method to reduce the expected number ofspurious detection reports.

9091-12, Session 3

CPHD filters for unknown clutter and target-birth
processes
Ronald P. Mahler, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)
The “background-agnostic” CPHD filter was introduced at the 2010 SPIE
Defense, Security & Sensing Symposium in 2010. It is a CPHD filter that is
capable of operation when both the clutter background and the targetdetection profile are unknown and dynamically changing. These CPHD
filters are also capable of on-the-fly estimation of the intensity function andcardinality distribution of the clutter process. Leveraging ideas of Ristic,
Clark, and Vo, this paper describes a generalization of the backgroundagnostic CPHD filter that is, in addition, capable of on-the-fly estimation of
the intensity function and cardinality distribution of the target-appearance
process.

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Finally, the spurious data cancellation preprocessor is integrated into theclassic fusion algorithms. Through simulations, it is shown that the proposed
spurious data cancellation method is able to improve the performance ofthe fusion algorithm when the distribution of spurious data is unknown.

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
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9091-15, Session 3

States); Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Simulation-based examination of performance
limits for decentralized multi-agent surveillance
and tracking of undersea targets

Mitigation of possible collision threats to current and future operations inspace environments is an important and challenging task considering highnonlinearity of orbital dynamics and discrete measurement updates. Suchdiscrete observations are relatively scarce with respect to space dynamics
including possible unintentional or intentional rocket propulsion based
maneuvers even in scenarios when measurement collections are focused
to a one single target of interest. In our paper, this problem is addressedin terms of multihypothesis and multimodel estimation in conjunction
with multi-agent multigoal game theoretic guaranteed evasion strategies.
Collision threat estimation is formulated using conditional probabilities oftime dependent hypotheses and spacecraft controls which are computed
using Liapunov-like approach. Based on this formulation, time dependentfunctional forms of multi-objective utility functions are derived given threat
collision risk levels. For demonstrating developed concepts, numericalmethods are developed using nonlinear filtering methodology for updating
hypothesis sets and corresponding conditional probabilities. Space platform
associated sensor resources are managed using previously developed anddemonstrated information-theoretic objective functions and optimization
methods. Consequently, estimation and numerical methods are evaluatedand demonstrated on a realistic Low Earth Orbit collision encounter.

Cameron K. Peterson, Andrew J. Newman, James C. Spall, Johns
Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)
This paper examines the limits of performance for an ensemble ofcooperating, mobile sensing agents executing an undersea surveillance
mission. The objective of the multi-agent ensemble is to minimize
uncertainty concerning the presence and location of targets as themulti-target system evolves over time. Each agent is capable of sensing,communicating with other agents, processing data to infer states of interest(fusion), and deciding on and executing motion commands. Each agent
continually executes a perception-action cycle in which it fuses information
to determine its best estimate of the multi-target system state and decides
on its next (and possibly future) motion action(s) to optimize a criterion
related to its entropic state (quantification of information gap).
Each agent’s perception of the states of interest is derived frommeasurements captured by its own sensor(s) and information
communicated by other agents. Each agent’s decisions are based on
its estimates of the multi-target system state, its entropic state, and its
predictions of peer agent actions. The multi-agent cooperative decision
making can be modeled as a cyclic optimization whereby the joint decision
vector is optimized by sequentially optimizing each individual agent’s
decision vector while holding the others fixed. Moreover, the problem is a
cyclic stochastic optimization (CSO) whereby only noisy measurements of
the objective function are available to each agent. Preliminary theoreticalresults have recently emerged regarding convergence conditions and suboptimality for CSO. This paper examines the implications and applicabilityof CSO convergence and sub-optimality via simulation-based experimentsin the context of a cooperating multi-agent ensemble of undersea sensing
agents searching a region for new targets and maintaining track on all
discovered targets. Simulation results indicate that the theoretical results
provide useful guidance on predicting the empirically observed limits ofperformance of the multi-agent ensemble.

9091-18, Session 4

Renormalization group flow and other ideas
inspired by physics for nonlinear filters, Bayesian
decisions, and transport
Frederick E. Daum, Jim Huang, Raytheon Co. (United States)

9091-16, Session 3

Fusion of imaging data and auxiliary signal fortarget classification
Aleksandar Zatezalo, Ssu-Hsin Yu, Scientific Systems Co., Inc.
(United States)
Fusion of imaging data with auxiliary signal such as EW data for multitarget
classification poses daunting theoretical and practical challenges. The
problem is exacerbated by issues such as asynchronous data flow, unevenfeature quality and object occlusion. In our approach, we assign priorprobabilities to image and signal feature elements to handle those practicalissues in a unified manner. Current state and class probability distributions
estimated from previous instances are fused with new outputs fromindividual classifiers immediate after the outputs become available toestablish updated state and class probability distributions in a Bayesianframework. Results are presented that demonstrate joint segmentation andtracking, target classification using imaging data, and fusion of imaging
data with noisy and asynchronous auxiliary EW information under realistic
simulation scenarios.

9091-17, Session 3

Space collision threat mitigation
Aleksandar Zatezalo, Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (United States);
Dusan M. Stipanovic, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates); Raman K. Mehra, Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (United

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SPIE DSS 2014·

We derive a new particle flow for nonlinear filters inspired by Grisha
Perelman’s magical use of Richard Hamilton’s Ricci flow to prove thePoincare conjecture. In particular, Perelman shows that Ricci flow is a
gradient flow on a manifold with the Fisher information matrix used todefine the action and entropy, and he shows that it is the solution of the
Fokker-Planck equation, which is exactly how we compute our particle flow
for nonlinear filters and for transport and Bayesian decisions. Moreover,both methods start with a homotopy. We also explain the fascinating
connections with renormalization group flow and Einstein’s use of Ricci
curvature for gravitation. There is also a connection between Ricci flow
and renormalization group flow in quantum field theory. Moreover, there
is a speculative connection with proving the Riemann hypothesis using
this viewpoint, suggested by Michel Lapidus. Our latest and best particle
flow (method #18) also uses the observed Fisher information matrix tocompute the flow. Also, our incompressible flow works in dimensions of d =2 or higher, whereas in d = 1 it suffers from singularities which the particles
cannot avoid by flowing around; this is analogous to Whitney’s trick in
topology, which works in higher dimensional spaces (where there is moreroom to maneuver) but not in low dimensional spaces, and which explains
why it was much easier for Steve Smale to prove the Poincare conjecture inspaces with dimension higher than d = 4, whereas the proof in d = 3 eluded
many attempts by many smart mathematicians for five decades.
We have invented a new nonlinear filter theory that is many orders ofmagnitude faster than standard particle filters for the same accuracy.
Moreover, our filter beats the extended Kalman filter accuracy by several
orders of magnitude for difficult nonlinear problems. This theory canbe applied to essentially any estimation or decision problem, including:
tracking, guidance and navigation, control, robotics, Bayesian decisions,predicting the weather and the stock market. We show many numericalresults for various nonlinearities, with both stable and unstable plants,
varying process noise, measurement noise, initial uncertainty of the statevector, and dimension of the state vector from d = 1 to 42. Our theory uses
particle flow (like physics) to compute Bayes’ rule, rather than a pointwise
multiply. We do not use resampling of particles or proposal densities orimportance sampling or any Markov chain Monte Carlo method. But rather,
we design the particle flow with the solution of a linear first order highly
underdetermined PDE, like the Gauss divergence law in electromagnetics.
The talk explains what a particle filter is, and why engineers like particle
filters, but we also explain the curse of dimensionality. We explain particle

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
consequence is that the Occam’s razor (i.e., a better fit to the data, but withas simple a model as possible), can be viewed as a competition between
decreasing the energy and increasing the entropy of the ensemble.

degeneracy and how we solve it with a simple cartoon. This talk is fornormal engineers who do not have nonlinear filters for breakfast.

In a recent provocative paper, Heckman noted some remarkable connections
between Bayesian inference and string theory. In particular, the above
analysis was generalized to consider a collective of agents that choose a
different statistical model to fit the data, so that a broader class of inference
strategies is is possible, and a different inference may be arrived at thanan individual agent. A physical requirement is that such an inference bestable against perturbations. In the large N limit, the collective’s plausibilityof the model given the data, can be shown to be a Feynman path integral
with the action given by a Euclidean non-linear sigma model with a metricprovided by the information metric on the d-dimensional space of statisticalparameters. Remarkably, the inference turns out to be stable and capable ofadjusting its inference only for d=2. The conformal invariance in the sigma
model arises from the requirement that the overall dependence on thenumber of agents drops out. Remarkably, Einstein’s general relativity follows
from the condition of stable statistical inference. String theory arises when
one sums over the possible arrrangements of the agents in the collective.

9091-19, Session 4

Supersymmetry and nonlinear filtering
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada)A fundamental consequence of relativistic quantum field theory (the spinstatistics theorem) is that the the fundamental particles are either integral
spin (bosons, such as photons) or half-integral spin (or fermions, such as
electrons). The quantum field theory describing the particles and theirinteraction observed is a specific gauge theory referred to as the standard
model of strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions.
Supersymmetry originally arose in particle theory in an attempt to provide
a unified description of all bosons and fermions. Apart from mathematicalelegance and beauty, it also promised a resolution of some unattractive
aspects of the standard model. A more lasting contribution of SUSY has
been the impact on development of novel conjectures in pure mathematics.
In particular, Witten and collaborators, have shown that SUSY can beused to shed light on (and provide a beautiful physical understanding of)deep mathematical results such as Morse theory, knot theory, topologicalinvariants in four-dimensional manifolds the Atiyah-Singer index theorem,
and most recently, the Langlands program in number theory.

In this paper, a more accessible discussion of the results are provided. The
conjectured mathematical equivalence provides a novel perspective toBayesian inference, which is discussed in greater detail. The challenges incarrying out a research program along the lines is also presented.

9091-21, Session 4User metrics for graphical information fusion

In an attempt to understand certain aspect of SUSY (spontaneous breakingof supersymmetry), Witten initiated the study of supersymmetry in thesimpler setting of quantum mechanics. Over the past three decades,
supersymmetric quantum mechanics (SQM) has led to deep insight into
several aspects of quantum mechanics, and is an active area of research.

Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Georgiy M.
Levchuk, Dustin Burke, Aptima, Inc. (United States)
Graphical fusion methods are popular to describe distributed sensor
applications such as target tracking and pattern recognition. Additionalgraphical methods include network analysis for social, communications, andsensor management. With the growth of graph methods for various data
modalities, recent research is seeking to do multi-model graphical fusion. To
better understand the usefulness of graph fusion approaches, we address
metrics of analysis for user appreciation. In a use case study that combinesgraphs from text reports and target tracks to associate events and activities
of interest we provide measures of performance (MOP) and measures ofeffectiveness (MOE) to determine usefulness of graphical fusion to a user.
The first analysis includes the presentation of the separate graphs andmethods for graph fusion visualization. To determine the MOE of usability,
we address the metrics of timeliness, accuracy, credibility, and reliability.

A particularly interesting consequence of SUSY (in QFT as well as QM)
is the extension of class of exactly solvable problems. For instance, froma superpotential, it is possible to construct a pair of rather different
supersymmetric partner potentials that have related spectra. In thequantum mechanical context, it is related to the method of factorization first
proposed by Schrodinger, and SQM has led to substantial advances in thefield of integrable systems.
In nonlinear filtering theory (and numerous other applications such as time
evolution of gene pool and the dynamical model of neural activity) one is
led to consider the Fokker-Planck and Kolmogorov equations. For a certainclass of Langevin equations, this is mathematically related to Euclidean
quantum mechanics. Some of the vast literature in this subject (as well as
supersymmetric Fokker-Planck equation) is reviewed and the relevance tononlinear filtering is noted. In particular, it is noted that SUSY allows theexact solution of fundamental solution of a larger class of nonlinear filtering
problems.

9091-22, Session 4

An objective multisensor fusion metric for target
detection

9091-20, Session 4

Jeffrey D. Clark, Stephen Sweetnich, Shane Fernandes, Air ForceInstitute of Technology (United States); Wesam A. Sakla, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

Bayesian inference and string theory
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada)Target detection from a single sensor is limited by the capabilities of that
sensor; however, the combination of multiple sensors could improve theconfidence of target detection. Confidence in the ability to detect, track
and identify a target in a multi-sensor environment is influenced by intrinsic
and extrinsic sensor qualities, i.e. target geo-location registration, andenvironmental conditions. Determination of the optimal number and typesof sensors required to assist in specific target detection applications haslargely been accomplished with empirical experimentation. Formulationof a multi-sensor effectiveness metric for sensor fusion is presented in thispaper. This metric is validated with sensors of differing phenomenologies,
including a ground-based VNIR/SWIR hyperspectral imager, a polarimetricinfrared imager, and aerial electro-optical (EO) imagers. Leveraging one or a
combination of these sensors may provide a higher confidence for a specifictarget detection application. A virtual 3D environment is used to model andanalyze this multi-sensor target detection scenario. This metric incorporates

String theory is a vast, multi-faceted subject, that arose in an attempt toarrive at a consistent quantum theory of gravity. While quantum field theory
views the fundamental objects as point particles, string theory views them
to be one-dimensional objects, or strings. A simplified view of string theory
is as a Feynman path integral with an action given by a two-dimensional
nonlinear sigma model. An important connection exists between
perturbative string theory and two-dimensional conformal quantum field
theories.
In prior work by Balasubramaniam it was shown that the plausibility of astatistical model given the data can be interpreted as the partition functionof a statistical mechanics problem, with the parameters of the statisticalmodel specifying the thermodynamic ensemble, proximity of guess fromthe true distribution and the number of events the inverse temperature. A

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIIIa Bayesian classification model combined with Dempster-Shafer decision
analysis. A robust decision tool for fuzzy multimodal data is modeled andtrained with empirical fused sensor detections. Multiple sensor-specificdetection algorithms are compared and fused to characterize sensor
detection models and likelihood functions of the models. Experiments
on data collected through the Air Force Research Lab (AFRL) Minor Area
Motion Imagery (MAMI) project show that this metric proves to be efficientand effective, providing a confidence of target detection based on fusion ofmultiple sensors.

the quality of the final information and thus, validating the proposed
methodology.

9091-24, Session 5

Activity recognition from multi-INT data
Hillary Holloway, Eric K. Jones, Systems & Technology Research(United States); Jorge Tierno, Barnstorm Research Corp. (UnitedStates)The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do notreflect the official policy or position of the United States Air Force,
Department of Defense, or the United States Government.

Multi-INT tools can aid intelligence analysts in discovering and distilling
pertinent, relevant, and novel data from noisy or operationally irrelevant
content. The Multi-INT Enhanced Exploitation and Analysis Tools (E2AT)
program aims to develop new technologies and tools for multi-INT fusion
to enhance analyst performance. In this paper, we discuss the Activity
Instance Recognition & Tracking (AIRT) component of E2AT, which infers
operationally meaningful activities by clustering time-sequenced multiINT intelligence data associated with a special operations mission. The
technology aims to help intelligence analysts in a supporting Processing,
Exploitation and Dissemination (PED) cell to make sense of multiple
streams of intelligence data in real time, and it assists them in generating
intelligence products, including after action reports. Our technical approachis inspired by solutions to the problem of organizing digital photo libraries.
Substantial research has been dedicated to developing simple, robust tools
to help automate the processing of organizing such libraries, typically interms of times, places, and activities. We apply and extend this work to theanalogous task of organizing multi-INT information.

9091-23, Session 5

Toward the quality evaluation of complex
information systems
Ion-George Todoran, Laurent Lecornu, Télécom Bretagne (France);
Ali Khenchaf, ENSTA Bretagne (France); Jean-Marc Le Caillec,
Télécom Bretagne (France)
Recent technological evolutions and developments allow gathering hugeamounts of data stemmed from different types of sensors, social networks,
intelligence reports, distributed databases, etc. The information systems
processing these heterogeneous data are composed of multiple modules.
The interactions between the modules are not simple, making difficult theperformance assessment of the entire information system. Unfortunately,
possessing large quantities of data and being able to implement complex
algorithms do not guarantee that the extracted information is of goodquality.

9091-25, Session 5

Detecting misinformation and knowledge
conflicts in relational data

The decision-makers need good quality information in the process ofdecision-making. We insist that for a decision-maker the information andits quality, viewed as a meta-information, are of great importance. A system
not proposing to its user the information quality is in danger of not being
correctly used or in more dramatic cases not to be used at all.

Georgiy M. Levchuk, Brian Riordan, Matthew Jackobsen, Aptima,
Inc. (United States)

In literature, especially in organisations management and in information
retrieval, are proposed different information quality evaluation
methodologies. Unfortunately, any of those does not allow evaluating theinformation quality in complex and changing environments. In this article,
we propose a new information quality evaluation methodology capable ofdynamically estimating the information quality with data changes and/orwith the information system’s inner changes. Compared with the existing
methodologies, we insist on the need to decompose the information
system in its elementary modules. We do not consider the information
system as a black box and we evaluate the quality after each module to
finally arrive to the quality of the entire system. Our methodology is able
to instantaneously update the system’s output quality. For capturing theinformation quality evolution through the system, we introduce the notionof quality transfer function. It is equivalent to the signal processing transfer
function but working on the quality level. The quality transfer function
describes the influence of a processing module over the information quality.
We also present two different views on the notion of information quality:
a global one, characterising the entire system and a local one, for eachprocessing module. The local information quality evaluation, at the output
of each processing module, is done using the quality transfer function.
Being able to locally evaluate the information quality allows propagating
the quality through the system to its output. Thus, the local information
quality changes, for example due as a result of a processing module
evolution or as new data become available, will be directly captured in the
global information quality. Thus, the global information quality estimation isrealised using this quality propagating principle.

Information fusion is required for many mission-critical intelligence analysis
tasks. Yet, information fusion solutions often fail because of noise in theprocessing pipeline. This noise can be the result of errors in data entry,
reporting errors (e.g., from unreliable sources), ambiguous wording of thesame concepts, deliberate misinformation, and or deceptive actions tomask the true hostile activities. Identifying these knowledge conflicts is an
important yet unresolved task.
In this paper we describe a model for Detecting Relation, Entity, andAttribute Misinformation (DREAM). DREAM will provide the users witha powerful analysis tool that (1) finds feasible probabilistic association
between entity and event mentions across different sources; (2) detect andremove conflicts in relational knowledge across different records; and (3)learn and detect normal, conflicting, and deceptive activity patterns among
multiple entities reported in different data sources.
DREAM’s process for misinformation detection produces probabilistic
inferences at multiple levels of data processing, effectively becoming an
integration of bottom-up and top-down reasoning. The main benefitsof DREAM are thus that it does not make “hard” decisions about entity
co-reference, knowledge conflict filtering, and complex activity patterndetection. These hard decisions often propagate large errors in the analysis
process. Multi-level probabilistic reasoning of DREAM approximates anoptimal joint co-reference, conflict detection, and activity detection, whileable to use efficient inference algorithms developed previously for eachanalysis level.

The validation of our methodology was carried out by simulating arecognition system. This system is based on multiple information extractors,
viewed as classifiers. Each of these information extractors delivers partial
information about the target. A fusion module gathers the information
extractors’ outputs and delivers the final information to the user. This simple
system permits to automatically capture the influence of the information
extractors’ performances (by degrading or by ameliorating them) over

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DREAM consists of three technical components. First, Entity association
model finds soft (probabilistic) associations between multiple mentionsof the same entities and events using their local semantic and temporal
information. This component will generate multiple possible co-reference
links and their confidence scores. Second, Relation resolution model
provides the first pass on cleaning the aggregated knowledge from therelations representing conflicting knowledge. Finally, Activity matchingwww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
products and material over the network to authorized end users andclients.

model finds normal, hostile, inconsistent, and deceptive activities in the
combined data. This model extends our algorithms for probabilistic multiattributed graph matching and consistent graph pattern learning.

ImiLite’s capabilities include collection and exploitation of E/O, IR, SAR,
GMTI and video data in various formats for both real-time and in-depth
analysis. The system further combines non-imager GIS data layers, suchas targets, threats, COMINT detection and mission status, within thesystem workflow to enhance the exploitation process. The system enables
multi-source data integration, shortened exploitation cycle, immediate
accessibility to relevant data, provides a variety of IMINT reports andproducts and incorporates unique image processing technology andalgorithms. The system resides on mobile or stationary system configuration
and requires Commercial Off-The-Shelf hardware and software.

9091-26, Session 5

Information fusion: Telling the story (or threat
narrative)
Laurie Fenstermacher, U.S. Air Force (United States)
Today’s operators face a “double whammy” – the need to process increasing
amounts of information, including “Twitter-INT” 1 (social information such as
Facebook, You-Tube videos, blogs, Twitter), as well as the need to discern
threat signatures in new security environments, including those in which
the airspace is contested. To do this will require the Air Force to “fuse andleverage its vast capabilities in new ways”.2 For starters, the integrationof quantitative and qualitative information must be done in a way that
preserves important contextual information since the goal increasingly
is to identify and mitigate violence before it occurs. To do so requires amore nuanced understanding of the environment being sensed, including
the human environment, ideally from the “emic” perspective; that is, fromthe perspective of that individual or group. This requires not only dataand information that informs the understanding of how the individuals
and/or groups see themselves and others (social identity) and how that
identity filters information in their environment which, in turn, shapes their
behaviors.3 The goal is to piece together the individual and/or collective
narratives regarding threat, the threat narrative, from various sources of
information: Is there a threat? If so, what is it? What is motivating thethreat? What is the intent of those who pose the threat and what are theircapabilities and their vulnerabilties?4 This paper will describe preliminary
investigations regarding the application of prototype hybrid information
fusion method based on a threat narrative framework.

9091-28, Session 5

Survey of techniques for crowd motion andactivity recognition through video streams
Abdalla Al-Salah, Amir Shirkhodaie, Tennessee State Univ. (UnitedStates)The usage of surveillance cameras for security has significantly increased inrecent years and this increase is, at large, recognized because of rich volume
of visual information that these systems can generate as well as their low
cost. However, automatic surveillance in dynamic urban environments
is a very challenging task. In this paper, we present a survey of recent
publications related to understanding of the crowd’s behavioral dynamics
for the purpose crowd control and monitoring as well as for predicting
spatiotemporal crowd trafficking, scatterness, and density population. This
paper primarily presents a survey of applicable techniques essential forcontext-based crowd motion and activity recognition and analysis. Next,
it presents a framework for understanding of crowd dynamic behaviors
under different task constraints taxonomy and ontology; and finally it
presents a summary of pertinent robust imagery processing techniques
for spatiotemporal characterization and tracking of multiple targets inurban environments. The applications of techniques such as: Multi-Camera
Multi-Target Tracking (MCMTT), and Crowd Motion Analysis (CMA), andSemantic Video Processing and Summarization are discussed. Generating
semantic annotation of video imagery is specifically deemed crucial forcomprehension of crowd dynamic interactions by human analysts. They
are also considered instrumental in fusion of soft and hard sensor data/
information since they may jointly reveal critical information. In this paper,
we further infer the application of soft and hard sensor data/informationfrom multi-camera surveillance systems and discuss their implication in thecontext of Intelligent Persistent Surveillance Systems (IPSS). Lastly, thispaper identifies areas where additional researches are required to further
develop and enhance this research field.

Keywords: fusion, information fusion, identity, narrative, threat narrative
REFERENCES[1] Schantz, M.V. (2013). “ISR After Afghanistan”, Air Force Magazine, 96(1),22-27.
[2] Ibid, 25.
[3] Archetti, C. (2013). “Narrative Wars: Understanding Terrorism in the Eraof Global Interconnectedness,” in A. Miskimmon, B. O’Loughlin and L. Roselle(eds) Forging the World Strategic Narratives and International Relations(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press).
[4] Moon, W. (2009). “Worldview – Subjective Reality – Threat Narrative:
The Macro View”. Working paper.

9091-27, Session 59091-29, Session 6

Multisource data integration from Rafael
Advanced Defense Systems, LTD

Group activity discovery and recognition throughmultilayered hidden Markov model

Gideon Weiss, Rafael USA, Inc. (United States); Zvi Yavin, Rafael
Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. (Israel)

Vinayak Elangovan, Amir Shirkhodaie, Tennessee State Univ. (UnitedStates)Reccilite ™ is an advanced digital EO/IR reconnaissance pod, designed tobe mounted on any type of combat aircraft, as well as on Unmanned Air
Systems. The system is operational with the IAF as well as with several
international air-forces.

Discovery and recognition of group activities based on imagery dataprocessing have significant applications in civilian and military domains.
The process is typically involved with tedious trail analysis of video imagery
with spatiotemporal implications. Discretion of video imagery requires
a proper inference model capable of discriminating and differentiatingcohesive observations and interlinking them to known ontologies. To
address this concern, a multi-layered Hidden Markov Model (HMM) is
proposed to recognize different levels of abstract group activities. The
multi-layered HMM consists of N layers of HMMs where each layer comprisesof M number of HMMs running in parallel. The number of layers depends
on the order of information to be extracted. At each layer, by matching
and correlating attributes of detected group events, the model attempts to
associate sensory observations to known ontology perceptions. This paper

Reccelite enables day/night real-time reconnaissance imagery collection anddata transfer via data link communications. The pod incorporates a four-axis
stabilized turret with IR and visual channels in simultaneous collection,
providing, Horizon to Horizon scan, Forward-Backward scan, Side Looking
and vertical scan. Physical characteristics: Length 220 cm / 87”, Diameter
40.6 cm / 16”, Weight 200 kg / 440 lbs.
ImiLite™ is a cost effective multi-source, multi-task imagery intelligence
exploitation system that receives, exploits and processes multiple imagery
and data in a unified manner, for enhanced situational awareness andmission control. The system disseminates relevant intelligence reports,

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
demonstrates and compares performance of three different implementationof HMM, namely, concatenated N-HMM, cascaded C-HMM and hybrid H-HMM
for building effective multi-layered HMM. In N-HMM, every nth consecutive
observation sequence is analyzed whereas in C-HMM, the inputs from theneighboring models are factored in the layered model. In H-HMM, layered
models are developed for each concept group. In this approach, three main
HMM layers are considered including: human-human, human-object andhuman-vehicle layers each of which responsible for handling respective
interactions for recognition of group activities involving humans, vehicles
and objects. A fusion strategy is also discussed for fusion of information
gathered through each layered HMM. To demonstrate the merit of theseapproaches, experimental results from three different models are presented
which verifies and validates the significance each multi-layered HMM for thesurveillance applications.

9091-30, Session 6

Assessing the threat of firearms: New threat
formula, resources, and ontological linking
algorithms

displays or pilot’s head up displays. Data points that could not be classified
also have to be visualized to the pilot.
In this paper we propose a dynamic DBSCAN-based method to cluster
and visualize unclassified and potentially dangerous obstacles in data
sets recorded by a LIDAR sensor. The sensor delivers data sets in a shorttime interval, so a spatial superposition of multiple data sets is created.
We use this superposition to create clusters incrementally. Knowledge
about the position and size of each cluster is used to reduce the amountof data points and allow clusters to be stable within multiple time frames.
This stability is a key feature to generate a smooth and un-distracting
visualization of the clusters to the pilot. Only a few lines are indicating theposition of threatening unclassified points, where a hazardous situation
for the helicopter could happen, if it comes too close. The clustering andvisualization form a part of an entire synthetic vision processing chain,
where the LIDAR points are used to support the generation of a real-time
synthetic view of the environment.

9091-32, Session 6

Multi-attributed tagged big data exploitation for
hidden concepts discovery

Christian F. Hempelmann, Abdullah N. Arslan, Salvatore Attardo,
Grady P. Blount, Nikolay M. Sirakov, Texas A&M Univ.-Commerce(United States)

Moath Obeidat, Amir Shirkhodaie, Tennessee State Univ. (UnitedStates)The present work is part of an ongoing larger project [1, 2, 3]. The goal ofthis project is to develop a system capable of automatic threat assessment
for instances of firearms use in public places. The main components of thesystem are: an ontology of firearms [1, 3]; algorithms to create the visual
footprint of the firearms [1, 3], to compare visual information [1, 2, 3], tofacilitate search in the ontology, and to generate the links between theconceptual and visual ontologies; as well as a formula to calculate the threatof individual firearms, firearms classes, and ammunition types in different
environments.
One part of the dual-level ontology for the properties of the firearms
captures key visual features used to identify their type or class in images,
while the other part captures their threat-relevant conceptual properties.
The visual ontology is the result of image segmentation and matching
methods, while the conceptual ontology is designed using knowledgeengineering principles and populated semi-automatically from Web
resources.
The focus of the present paper is two-fold. On the one hand, we will reporton a substantial update of the initial threat formula, based on the increased
population of the firearm ontology, including ammunition types andcomparisons to actual incidents, and allowing for an overall more accurate
assessment. On the other hand, the linking algorithms between the visualand conceptual ontologies are elaborated for faster transfer of information
leading to an improvement in accuracy of the threat assessment.

Analysts who are using visualization methods for big data concept
exploration increasingly expect to comprehend more distinct relationships
and prominent concepts in support of their hypotheses or decisions. To
expedite this knowledge discovery process, Vector Space Modeling (VSM)
in conjunction with probabilistic analysis enables rapid knowledge-based
relationship discovery while allowing for exploration of multi-embedded
concepts than otherwise it is difficult to perceive. In this paper, we present
a technique for intrinsic ontology concepts similarity matching basedon VSM for exploitation and knowledge discovery from multimodality
sensors metadata generated in Persistent Surveillance Systems (PSS).
To reduce data dimensionality, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and
Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is applied to arrive at more abstract
concepts. The proposed technique is able to reveal intrinsic concept
relationships from multi-dimensional metadata structures. Experimental
results demonstrate effectiveness of this approach for analytical ontologicalpatterns exploitation. In this paper, the expediency of this technique for
Visual Analytics application is demonstrated. The result indicates that the
newly developed system can significantly enhance situation awareness andexpedite actionable decision making.
In this paper, we present a technique for intrinsic ontology concepts
similarity matching based on VSM for exploitation and knowledge discovery
from multimodality sensors metadata generated in Persistent Surveillance
Systems (PSS). To reduce data dimensionality, Principal Component Analysis(PCA) and Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is applied to arrive at more
abstract concepts. The proposed technique is able to reveal intrinsic concept
relationships from multi-dimensional metadata structures. Experimental
results demonstrate effectiveness of this approach for analytical ontologicalpatterns exploitation. In this paper, the expediency of this technique for
Visual Analytics application is demonstrated. The result indicates that the
newly developed system can significantly enhance situation awareness andexpedite actionable decision making.

9091-31, Session 6

Clustering and visualization of non-classified
points from lidar data for helicopter navigation
Ferdinand Eisenkeil, Univ. Konstanz (Germany); Tobias Schafhitzel,
Cassidian - EADS Deutschland GmbH (Germany); Uwe Kühne, EADS
Deutschland GmbH (Germany); Oliver Deussen, Univ. Konstanz(Germany)

9091-33, Session 6

Helicopter pilots often have to deal with bad weather conditions anddegraded views. Such situations may decrease the pilots’ situationalawareness significantly. The worst-case scenario would be a complete lossof visual reference during an off-field landing due to brownout or white out.
In order to increase the pilots’ situational awareness, helicopters nowadays
are equipped with different sensors that are used to gather information
about the terrain ahead of the helicopter. Synthetic vision systems are used
to capture and classify sensor data and to visualize them on multifunctional

Joseph S. J. Peri, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (UnitedStates)238

SPIE DSS 2014

Dempster-Shafer theory and connections to
Choquet’s theory of capacities and information
theory (Invited Paper)

The axiomatic development of information theory, during the 1960’s, led tothe discovery of various composition laws. The Wiener-Shannon law is well·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII

9091-63, Session Posters-Tuesday

understood, but the Inf law holds particular interest because it creates aconnection with the Dempster-Shafer theory. Proceeding along these lines,
in a previous paper, I demonstrated the connection between the DempsterShafer theory and Information theory. In 1950, Gustave Choquet developed
the theory of capacities in connection with potential theory. The basic
concepts of Capacity theory arise from electrostatics, but a capacity is a
generalization of the concept of measure in Analysis. It is well known that
Belief and Plausibility in the Dempster-Shafer theory are Choquet capacities.
The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the connections among
the Dempster-Shafer theory, Information theory and Choquet’s theory ofcapacities.

Single-filter application of iterative
deconvolution and noise removal using
simultaneous-optimization-by-simulation results
Abolfazl M. Amini, Southern Univ. and A&M College (United States);
George E. Ioup, Juliette W. Ioup, Univ. of New Orleans (UnitedStates)This paper introduces a method by which one can use the optimum
iteration numbers for noise removal and deconvolution of sampled data
for single filter application of always-convergent iterative deconvolution.
The optimization, described in earlier work, is based on the minimizationof the mean squared error, which is the square of the difference between
the deconvolution result and the input. The always convergent method of
Ioup is used for the simultaneous-optimization-by-simulation results. The
optimization was done for two Gaussian impulse response functions, one
narrow (rapidly converging) and the other wide (slowly converging). The
input function used consisted of three narrow peaks selected to give someoverlap after convolution with the Gaussian impulse response function.
Normal distributed noise was added to the convolution of the input with
the impulse response function. A range of signal-to-noise ratio is used to
optimize the always convergent iterations for both of these Gaussians.
The optimum numbers found are used in an equivalent window in the
Fourier transform domain, although the non-negativity constraint can only
be applied in the function domain. The single filter application is much
more computationally efficient than the iterative approach. The results
are compared to the function domain iterative results. The applicationof constraints can be achieved by returning to the function domainintermittently between single filter applications.

9091-61, Session Posters-Tuesday

A model-based multisensor data fusion
knowledge management approach
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A variety of approaches exist for combining data from multiple sensors.
When a thesis pre-exists the collection of data and the true or false
condition of the thesis can be modeled, a model-based approach to data
fusion from multiple sensors can be utilized. The model-based approachcombines data based on its support for or refutation of elements of themodel which in turn can be used to evaluate the truth or falsity of theexperimental thesis. This model can (and in most cases will) have elements
which require the collection of data by multiple sensor types, potentiallyacross a wide area (necessitating the use of multiple concurrent craft
to eliminate or reduce delay). Data may also be collected at a variety ofresolutions and require various actuator capabilities (e.g., digging, scraping)for collection.
This paper presents a collection of inter-related algorithms for mapping
various types of sensor data onto a thesis-based model and evaluating
the truth or falsity of the model. Prior work has shown the efficacy of thisapproach for single-data type or limited data type combinations. This
paper focuses on models that are designed to span larger collections ofdata types. It also considers scenarios where both human and autonomous
collection may be used concurrently (which would be a typical scenario
for battle field / hostile territory surveillance applications). The use of thisapproach for autonomously arriving at findings and for prioritizing data is
considered. Techniques for updating the model (instead of arriving at an
all-or-nothing true/false assertion) are also presented.

9091-64, Session Posters-Tuesday

A joint algorithm of hopping period estimation
for frequency-hopping signals
Yusheng Fu, Univ. of Electronic Science and Technology of China(China) and Univ. of Delaware (United States); Li Feng, ChunhuiRen, Univ. of Electronic Science and Technology of China (China);
Kenneth E. Barner, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
Parameter estimation is an important component in the field of frequencyhopping communication. In particular, the accuracy and the efficiencyof the hopping-cycle estimation is significant for these applications. The
traditional time-frequency method, e.g., Short Time Fourier Transform,cannot work well with high resolution of both time and frequency, according
to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. In this paper we propose a novel
algorithm which is based on Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) andSparse Linear Regression (SLR). Firstly, the signal is preprocessed by
STFT and the information of peaks is extracted by a first-order differential
method. Secondly, the hopping segment data is processed with the SLR
according to the dual sparsity of time-frequency of the hopping signal.
Finally, combining the statistical transition moments, an accurate estimateof the jump cycle is achieved. Simulation results demonstrate that theestimation algorithm is more accurate and efficient in low SNR than the
traditional STFT.

9091-62, Session Posters-Tuesday

A novel algorithm for long pseudo-code
acquisition in spread spectrum communication
systemYusheng Fu, Univ. of Electronic Science and Technology of China(China) and Univ. of Delaware (United States); Zhongquan He,
Chunhui Ren, Univ. of Electronic Science and Technology of China(China); Kenneth E. Barner, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
The fast capture of spread spectrum code is one of the key technologies of
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) communication. There are several
traditional methods for the fast capture such as XFAST and AVERAGE.
In this paper we propose a new algorithm based on the time domain
samples and Binary search according the autocorrelation of the PN code.
Firstly, signal’s simple rate is reduced to a quarter of the chip rate with thereceived spread spectrum, and determined with a specific method, thenthe signal is divided into four parts by the local PN code and accumulated
to a new sequence. Finally, the synchronous pseudo-code is captured
with the correlation of the two new reference sequences. Experimental
results demonstrate that the proposed algorihtm significantly improves theefficiency in the capture of long Pseudo-Code code in DSSS, compared withtraditional methods.

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9091-65, Session Posters-Tuesday

Improved method for pulse sorting based on PRItransform
Chunhui Ren, Junqing Cao, Univ. of Electronic Science andTechnology of China (China); Yusheng Fu, Univ. of Electronic
Science and Technology of China (China) and Univ. of Delaware(United States); Kenneth E. Barner, Univ. of Delaware (United·

help@spie.org

Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIIIStates)To solve the problem of pulse sorting in complex electromagnetic
environment, we propose an improved method for pulse sorting through indepth analysis of the PRI transform algorithm principle and the advantages
and disadvantages this paper. The method is based on the traditional PRI
transform algorithm, using spectral analysis of PRI transform spectrum toestimate the PRI centre value of jitter signal. Simulation results indicate that,the improved sorting method overcome the shortcomings of the traditional
PRI jitter separation algorithm which cannot effectively sort jatter pulse
sequence, in addition to the advantages of simple and accurate.

9091-66, Session Posters-Tuesday

Bearing and frequency estimation for
nonstationary sources using cardiod sensors
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada)A cardiod sensor consists of two matched dipoles arranged orthogonallyin the horizontal plane as well as a colocated omnidirectional sensor. The
directional nature of the dipoles makes it possible to estimate the bearing toa source. The bearing and frequency estimates are then input to the tracker.
This is widely used in underwater acoustics applications.
Many standard solutions for target detection and bearing estimation
are based on spectral analysis and batch processing. For instance, thearctangent estimator utilizes the time-averaged products of the observation
data blocks to form the bearing estimate. Such techniques are adequate forhigh signal to noise ratio as well as stationary data collection scenarios.
The non-stationary case naturally leads one to consider a Bayesian statespace formulation of problem of estimating the nonstationary parameters.
This is particularly important when considering the problem of parameter
estimation of dim and highly manoeuvring targets. Furthermore, it
incorporates the correlation structure of the source signal. In recent work,
this has been investigated using the augmented complex extended Kalmanfilter. The measurement model is specified are given by the three observed
waveforms, in the presence of uncorrelated, zero-mean observation noises.
This work is further extended by considering non-stationary bearings as well
as frequency. The results using filters, such as the extended Kalman filterand unscented Kalman filter, are compared with the results obtained using
the standard estimators, such as the arctangent estimator as well as theposterior Cramer-Rao lower bound.

9091-67, Session Posters-Tuesday

THELMA: a mobile app for crowdsourcing
environmental data
Kenneth Hintz, Faris Almomen, Christian Adounvo, Michael D’
Amato, George Mason Univ. (United States); Christopher Hintz,
Savannah State Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available

methods together with score fusion to enhance a face recognition system.
We know that human binocular vision has many advantages such asstereopsis (3D vision), binocular summation, neural summation (binocularfacilitation), singleness of vision including fusion of binocular images(cyclopean image), and eye dominance. In face recognition with stereo
images, a 3D face is typically reconstructed from a pair of stereo images.
Then 3D facial features are extracted for face recognition. In human visual
processes, the binocular summation and singleness of vision are similar
with fusion processes. Thus, we propose a multispectral face recognition
system with stereo imaging capability, which is comprised of two 2-in-1
multispectral (visible & thermal) cameras and three recognition algorithms(circular Gaussian filter, face pattern byte, linear discriminant analysis). In
this paper, we will present the fusion of stereo images (from left camera& right camera) at three different levels: images, features, and scores; andwith two spectral images: visible and thermal. Image fusion techniques
include average, pyramid-based, and wavelet-based; feature fusion is donewith logical operations (AND, OR, XOR); and score fusion is achieved using
variant classifiers (k-nearest neighbor, support vector machine, artificial
neural network). The system performance is measured by accuracy rate andlow false accept rates (FAR). Our experiments validate the approach witha multispectral face dataset consisting of the stereo face images of two
spectral bands from 105 subjects.

9091-35, Session 7

A comparative study of DIGNET, average,
complete, single hierarchical and k-meansclustering algorithms in 2D face image
recognition
Konstantinos-George Thanos, NCSR “Demokritos” (Greece); Stelios
C. A. Thomopoulos, National Ctr. for Scientific Research Demokritos(Greece)
The study in this paper belongs to a more general research of discovering
facial sub-clusters in different ethnicity face databases. These new subclusters along with other metadata (such as race, sex, etc.) lead to a vector
for each face in the database where each vector component represents
the likelihood of participation of a given face to each cluster. This vector isthen used as a feature vector in a human identification and tracking system
based on face and other biometrics. The first stage in this system involves
a clustering method which evaluates and compares the clustering results offive different clustering algorithms (average, complete, single hierarchicalalgorithm, k-means and DIGNET), and selects the best strategy for eachdata collection. In this paper we present the comparative performanceof clustering results of DIGNET and four clustering algorithms (average,
complete, single hierarchical and k-means) on fabricated 2D and 3D
samples, and on actual face images from various databases, using four
different standard metrics. These metrics are the silhouette figure, the meansilhouette coefficient, the Hubert test ? coefficient, and the classification
accuracy for each clustering result. The results showed that, in general,
DIGNET gives more trustworthy results than the other algorithms when themetrics values are above a specific acceptance threshold. However when theevaluation results metrics have values lower than the acceptance threshold
but not too low (too low corresponds to ambiguous results or false results),
then it is necessary for the clustering results to be verified by the otheralgorithms.

9091-34, Session 7
9091-36, Session 7

The advantages of stereo vision in a facerecognition system

Thermal-to-visible face recognition using
multiple-kernel learning

Yufeng Zheng, Alcorn State Univ. (United States); Erik Blasch, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)

Shuowen Hu, Prudhvi Gurram, Heesung Kwon, Alex L. Chan, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)

Humans can recognize a face with binocular vision, while computer
solutions typically use a single image. It is known that the performance offace recognition (by a computer) can be improved using the score fusionof multimodal images and multiple algorithms. Thus, we seek stereo vision

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Recognizing faces acquired in the thermal spectrum from a gallery ofvisible face images is a desired capability for the military, intelligence, and·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
homeland security organizations, especially for nighttime surveillance.
However, thermal-to-visible face recognition is a challenging problem, due
to the wide modality gap between thermal and visible imaging. In thispaper, we propose a thermal-to-visible face recognition approach based on
multiple kernel learning (MKL) with support vector machines (SVMs). First,
we subdivide the face into non-overlapping spatial regions or blocks using
a method based on cooperative game theory. For comparison purposes,
we also investigate uniform spatial subdivisions. Following this subdivision,
histogram of oriented gradients features are extracted from each blockand utilized to compute a kernel for each region. We apply sparse kernel
ensemble learning (SKEL), which is a MKL-based approach that learns a
set of sparse kernel weights, as well as the decision function of a one-vs-all
SVM classifier for each of the subjects in the gallery. We also apply equal
kernel weights (non-sparse) and obtain one-vs-all SVM models for thesame subjects in the gallery. Only visible images of each subject are used
for MKL training, while thermal images are used as probe images during
testing. With subdivision generated by game theory, we achieved Rank-1
identification rate of 50.7% for SKEL and 93.6% for equal kernel weighting
using a multimodal dataset of 65 subjects. With uniform subdivisions, weachieved a Rank-1 identification rate of 88.3% for SKEL, but 92.7% for equal
kernel weighting.

cross-polarized (HV and VH) channels a more complete representation of
the object is possible and the distinct nature of the scattering features canbe fully revealed. The salient features derived from polarimetric data using
a decomposition method such as Cameron includes amplitude, multipath
odd or even bounce, scattering position relative to other scatters, andthe elementary scatterer types such as dipole, dihedral, trihedral, and flat
surface. These polarimetric techniques allow for the identification of nonrandom groups of elemental shapes and support distinguishing man-madeobjects from clutter. Using object decomposition techniques the authors
will show the unique scattering features for a small set of ground targets
extracted from polarimetric SAR data. Identification of robust salientfeatures is the first step in developing a fully polarimetric target recognition
algorithm.

9091-39, Session 7

Target recognition performance using limitedsalient features
Bart Kahler, Leidos (United States)
Most target recognition technology is based on pattern recognition
techniques which require a template database to match candidate
signatures against for a decision. To produce the templates the algorithm
must be trained on hundreds of target signatures to obtain a statisticalrepresentation for the template signature for a given geometry, frequency,
polarization, and other sensor parameters. If the database is fully populated
so that no coverage gaps exist for the templates, significant storage space
will be required and accessing a large database can take time to ensure thatthe proper target is selected. In this paper only a few features unique toeach target are examined in an effort to ensure quick robust discriminationand to reduce ATR database sizes for on board sensor platform target
identification. The author developed tools to extract a limited salient feature
set consisting of target length, target width, and radar cross section fora small number of ground vehicles found in publicly available synthetic
aperture radar data. A target recognition algorithm is then designed to
exploit these salient features. The recognition performance indicatesreasonable discrimination is achievable with a limited set of salient features
for a small target library.

9091-37, Session 7

Can the usage of human growth hormones affectfacial appearance and the accuracy of facerecognition systems?
Jake L. Rose, Thirimachos Bourlai, West Virginia Univ. (UnitedStates)In law enforcement and security applications, the acquisition of face images
is critical in producing key trace evidence for the successful identification ofpotential threats. The goal of the study is to demonstrate that steroid usage
significantly affects human facial appearance and hence, the performance ofcommercial and academic face recognition (FR) algorithms. In this work, weevaluate the performance of state-of-the-art FR algorithms on two uniqueface image datasets of subjects before (gallery set) and after (probe set)steroid (or human growth hormone) usage. For the purpose of this study,
our datasets of 73 subjects were created from multiple sources found on
the internet, containing images of men and women before and after steroid
usage. Next, we geometrically and photometrically pre-processed all imagesof both face datasets, and then, we applied FR techniques in order to match
the pre-processed face images of our two datasets. Experimental results
demonstrate that only a specific set of FR algorithms obtain the mostaccurate results (in terms of the rank-1 identification rate). This is because
there are several factors that influence the efficiency of face matchers
including (i) the time lapse between the before and after photos, (ii) theusage of different drugs (e.g. Dianabol, Winstrol, and Decabolan), (iii) theusage of different cameras to capture face images, and finally, (iv) the
variability of standoff distance, illumination and other noise factors. All of
the previously mentioned complications make matching these face images avery challenging problem and thus, further investigation is required.

9091-40, Session 8

Dynamic object masking for relevant component
scatterers
Bart Kahler, Leidos (United States)
Object recognition using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) chips frequently
uses binary target masking to eliminate clutter and segment out the target
scattering contributions. Segmentation performance should be enhancedby the use of dynamic object masking techniques to ensure that the mostrobust scattering features are the greatest contributors to the discrimination
process. Such an approach does not discount the contribution of lesspersistent or weak scattering contributions, but reduces the influence
to object recognition of such scatters across all target geometries. Two
dynamic masking techniques are examined. The first method applies aweighting to the target mask so that scattering returns which are persistentover all geometries are weighted greater than scattering returns which
are more aspect dependent. The second approach is more aggressive andweights specific target scattering returns based on aspect. For instance,
if the front of the target is illuminated by the radar, those returns should
be weighted greater than the weaker partially shadowed returns from the
middle or back of the target. The second dynamic masking technique isan attempt to weight salient features and preserve their relative position
and amplitude to one another. The author compares the results of a typicalbinary mask to the two dynamic masking approaches presented for a small
set of publicly available SAR target chips.

9091-38, Session 7

Salient feature extraction from polarimetric SAR
data
Bart Kahler, Frederick G. Harmon, Leidos (United States)
Although polarimetric radars are currently operational and have beenused in remote sensing applications, most synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
systems and algorithms designed and used to exploit the SAR data process
a single polarization. In addition, the analysis techniques tend to focus
on the amplitude of the scattered returns. Much of the information suchas phase contained in the SAR data is not fully analyzed. Scattering fromobjects will differ with polarization in amplitude and phase. By exploiting
the unique scattering contributions in the co-polarized (VV and HH) and241+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII

9091-41, Session 8

method we compare the number of iterations required for convergence,time per iteration, and final alignment error with existing Gauss-Newton
nonlinear minimization methods. While we use the Microsoft Kinect due toits fused depth and color capabilities, the alignment only requires depth andis applicable to current active fused lidar systems with VNIR, SWIR, MWIR or
LWIR sensors.

Fusing maps with photos from mobile devices
Mark J. Carlotto, General Dynamics Advanced Information Systems(United States)
Data sources like Google Earth provide near worldwide map coverage of
the Earth’s surface. This is a valuable source of geo-spatial context for ATR,
surveillance and other applications. In this paper we develop a real-timecamera model that is capable of registering photos and video from mobile
devices like smart phones and tablets with map data. The parameters of thecamera model are determined from information supplied by the device’s onboard sensors. All computation is performed within the mobile device.

9091-42, Session 8

A numerical study of sensory-guided multiple
views for improved object identification
Brigid A. Blakeslee, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States);
Edmund Zelnio, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Daniel E.
Koditschek, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States)
We explore the potential on-line adjustment of sensory controls for
improved object identification and discrimination in the context of asimulated high resolution camera system carried onboard a maneuverable
robotic platform that can actively choose its observational position andpose. Our early numerical studies suggest the significant efficacy andenhanced performance achieved by even very simple feedback-driven
iteration of the observer’s view in contrast to identification from a fixed
pose, uninformed by any active adaptation. Specifically, we contrast thediscriminative performance of the same conventional classification system
when informed by: a random “glance” at a vehicle; two random glances
at a vehicle; or a random glance followed by a guided second look. Aftereach glance, edge detection algorithms are used to isolate the most salientfeatures of the image and template matching is performed through the useof the Hausdorff Distance, comparing the simulated “sensed” images withreference images of the vehicles. We present initial simulation statistics
that overwhelmingly favor the third scenario. We conclude with a sketchof our near-future steps in this study that will entail: the incorporation of
more sophisticated image processing and template matching algorithms;
more complex discrimination tasks such as distinguishing between two
similar vehicles or vehicles in motion; more realistic models of the observer’s
mobility including platform dynamics and eventually environmental
constraints; and expanding the sensing task beyond the identification of a
specified object selected from a pre-defined library of alternatives.
This work is supported by the Air Force Office of Science Research underAward FA9550–10–1?0567.

Real-time 3D reconstruction of depth sequencesusing signed distance functions
Richard L. Tutwiler, John P. Morgan Jr., The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)
With the recent influx of inexpensive depth sensors such as the Microsoft
Kinect, systems for 3D reconstruction and visual odometry utilizing depth
have garnered new interest. Often these processes are highly parallel andcan be realized in real-time through parallel computing architectures for
the GPU. We represent fused depth maps as a Truncated Signed Distance
Function (TSDF) which is a grid of voxels that contain the distance to thenearest surface. Point clouds of subsequent captures are aligned to the
TSDF volume through error minimization, taking advantage of the fact that
surfaces are implicitly defined where the distance is zero. We present a new
method for minimizing the error based on absolute orientation that does
not require linearization or a weighting function. To evaluate the proposed

SPIE DSS 2014

Group activity recognition via fusion of depth
map and optical imaging techniques
Vinayak Elangovan, Amir Shirkhodaie, Tennessee State Univ. (UnitedStates)Kinect cameras offers low-cost depth-map video streams and can be very
complimentary to optical cameras employed in the surveillance systems.
Unlike the standard optical cameras that have long range field-of-view, astandard Kinect camera can produce reliable depth-map video imagery
data only for close-range observations limited to a few meters. The
sensitivity of the Kinect camera is limited and degrades with the longer
range observations. However, by combining range data from Kinect cameras
with standard surveillance optical camera unique opportunities is achievedthat could be used towards boosting detection and classification of certain
events in the environment. In this paper, a sensor data fusion process
for integration of observations from depth-map and optical cameras isdemonstrated. The technique is applied for detection and recognition ofgroup activities in two different environments: indoor and outdoor. This
paper presents apt image processing techniques for generation of feature
vectors from both optical and depth-map cameras and discusses a fusion
scheme for combining information from two classifiers operating basedon depth-map and optical imaging data. The proposed scheme is used for
detection, tracking, and characterization of spatiotemporal group activities
events. Lastly, we discuss the pros and cons of each sensor modality, andfusion benefit from integration of information from either sensor modalities
that leads to further improvement of situational awareness in surveillancesystems.

9091-45, Session 8

Acoustic events semantic detection,
classification, and annotation for persistentsurveillance applications
Amjad H. Alkilani, Amir Shirkhodaie, Tennessee State Univ. (UnitedStates)The detection of acoustic events is a key technology for various arraysof surveillance applications, and acoustic sensors are one of the mostpromising sensing modalities, not only because of the rich amount of
information they can capture from the environment, but also because they
can be rapidly deployed, have low cost, and compact. The hearing ability ofhumans to recognize different sounds is remarkably robust and mimicking
such abilities through acoustic sound processing is a real challenging. In
the past, significant efforts have been devoted to detect and recognize
the human and object acoustic sound signatures. However, the issue ofcomprehension of activity based on analysis of spatiotemporally correlated
acoustic sound events has received a minimum attention and hence is
not well understood. Identification of such activities (e.g., Human-Vehicle
Interactions (HVI), Human-Object Interactions (HOI), and Human-Human
Interactions (HHI)) can significantly improve situational awareness in
Persistent Surveillance Systems. In this paper, salient sound events are
preliminary identified and segmented via a sound energy tracking method.
Upon this segmentation, frequency spectral pattern of each sound event isclustered using an optimal Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) whose features
are employed as feature vector for training of the system. In this method,
the discrimination and classification of detected sound waves associatedwith different group activities, namely, HVI, HHI, and HOI, is achieved by
an Adaptive Correlation Based Template Matching classifier. To interlinked

9091-43, Session 8242

9091-44, Session 8·

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIIIin the same frequency range.

salient events representing an ontology-based hypothesis, a Hidden Markov
Model (HMM) is employed to recognize spatiotemporally correlated events.
Once such a connection is established, then, the system generates anannotation of perceived sound events or an activity by fusion. This paper
discusses the technical aspects of this new development and presents theexperimental results for several outdoor group activities monitored by anarray of acoustic sensors.

The experiment is performed using WB technology at different frequency
ranges (250MHz-2.2GHz) and different powers to identify a target. In
conclusion, using time-frequency analysis of collected wideband data (i.e.
analysis in wavelet domain), the overall accuracy to identify the unknown
object can be improved.

9091-48, Session 99091-46, Session 9

rScene: A revolutionary low-cost microradar fortarget classification and tracking

An RFID-based luggage and passenger tracking
system for airport security control applications

Thomas Plummer, Richard D. Porter, Robert Raines, McQ, Inc.
(United States)

George E. Vastianos, Dimitris M. Kyriazanos, Vassilios I.
Kountouriotis, Stelios C. A. Thomopoulos, National Ctr. for Scientific
Research Demokritos (Greece)

A small form factor, low cost, radar named rScene® has been designedby McQ Inc. for the unattended detection, classification, tracking,and speed estimation of people and vehicles. This paper will present
recent performance results relative to detection range and false alarms.
Additionally, an extra-low power (<1W) processing scheme is describedthat allows the rScene® to be deployed for longer duration, while stilldetecting all desired target scenarios. Using the rScene® to detect othertargets of interest like boats over water will also be addressed. Lastly, thelack of performance degradation due to hiding the rScene® in various typesof concealed scenarios like behind walls, doors, foliage and camouflage
material will be illustrated. rScene® provides a wide variety of options
to integrate the device into both wired and wireless communication
infrastructures. Based on its sophisticated signal processing algorithms toclassify targets and reject clutter, it allows for operation in challenging urban
environments in which traditional unattended ground sensor modalities areless effective.

Market analysis studies of recent years have shown a steady and significant
increase in the usage of RFID technology. Key factors for this growth were
the decreased costs of passive RFIDs and their improved performancecompared to the other identification technologies. Besides the benefits of
RFID technologies into the supply chains, warehousing, traditional inventory
and asset management applications, RFID has proven itself worth exploiting
on experimental, as well as on commercial level in other sectors, such as
healthcare, transport and security. In security sector, airport security is
one of the biggest challenges. Airports are extremely busy public places
and thus prime targets for terrorism, with aircraft, passengers, crew andairport infrastructure all subject to terrorist attacks. Inside this labyrinthof security challenges, the long range detection capability of the UHFpassive RFID technology can be turned into a very important tracking toolthat may outperform all the limitations of the barcode tracking inside thecurrent airport security control chain. The Integrated Systems Lab of NCSR
Demokritos has developed an RFID based Luggage & Passenger tracking
system within the TASS FP7-SEC-2010-241905 project. This paper describes
application scenarios of the system categorized according to the structured
nature of the environment (under specified rules and/or in a confinedmanner or not), the system architecture and presents evaluation results
extracted from measurements with a group of different massive production
GEN2 UHF RFID tags that are widely available in world market.

9091-49, Session 9

Optimal fusion of detectors through joint
posterior ratio estimation
Brandon Smock, Joseph Wilson, Taylor Glenn, Univ. of Florida(United States)

9091-47, Session 9

In this paper, we consider the problem of the optimal discrimination oftargets using multiple detectors simultaneously. A detector is considered to
be proper, meaning it optimally uses the information available to it, when its
ROC curve is strictly convex. This is equivalent to saying its decision statistic,or confidence, is monotonically related to the likelihood ratio. While the useof a decision statistic that is merely monotonically related to the likelihood
ratio is sufficient in the case of an isolated detector, optimally comparing theoutputs of multiple detectors run simultaneously requires the estimation ofa posterior ratio. However, a problem arises when multiple detectors detect
the same object and assign different posterior probabilities. To remedy this,we consider each element of the power set of detectors to be an individual
detector, and estimate that set’s joint posterior ratio. Thus each object hasa unique posterior probability assigned to it, each individual detector isproper, and their combination yields a convex ROC curve, which is optimal.

Wavelet-based identification of objects from a
distance
Ershad Sharifahmadian, Yoonsuk Choi, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)
In remote sensing, accurate identification of concealed far objects isdifficult. Here, to detect concealed objects from a distance, wideband(WB) technology is utilized. As the WB data includes a broad range of
frequencies, it can reveal information about both the surface of the object
and its content.
First, WB antenna radiates tuned WB signals toward a concealed object,
and reflected signals from the target in the scene are collected by receiverantenna. To improve the identification accuracy and to provide more
information about the target, the collected WB data is processed in the
wavelet domain.

9091-50, Session 9

Distributed detection by generalized receiver inmacrodiversity cellular communication systems

Using wavelet transform, the collected wideband signals are simultaneously
analyzed in both time and frequency domains. As the radiated and received
frequencies, time, and reflected power are the only available parameters
to identify the target, time-frequency analysis of the collected wideband
data are crucial. In fact, information about target is spread over different
wavelet subbands. More precisely, higher frequency wavelet subbands
include information about exterior layers of both the target object and thebackground, and lower frequency wavelet subbands provide information
about inner layers of the object. Therefore, it is possible to better
discriminate among objects for which their frequency information is placed243+1 360 676 3290

Vyacheslav P. Tuzlukov, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republicof)In this paper, we consider the design of soft decision distributed detection
schemes for achieving macrodiversity in uplink cellular communication
systems employing the generalized receiver (GR) with and without channel
knowledge at the fusion center. Distributed detection macrodiversity·

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
techniques are proposed where the quantizer thresholds of local GR
at base stations (radio access points) are optimized using a numericalglobal optimization algorithm called adaptive simulated annealing. The
performance of such distributed detection macrodiversity GR schemes isstudied for cellular systems with and without channel coding, where thebase stations employ multiple receive antennas over quasi-static Rayleighfading channels. It is shown that properly designed quantizers for the local
GR, with a few resolution bits can make the detection performance very
close to optimal macrodiversity that requires a much larger bandwidth fromthe connection links to the fusion center.

Fast methods for fusing visible/IR images withnatural color appearance under different typicalscenes9091-68, Session 10

Timothy S. Khuon, Charles M. Kershner, Arnel Alverio, Enrico Mattei,
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)

Lingxue Wang, Wei Zhang, Zhen Jin, Yuan Luo, Yi Cai, Beijing
Institute of Technology (China)
Color transfer is an effective way to render black and white visible andinfrared images (called source images) with natural color appearance
according to the brightness and color distribution of a day-time color visible
image (called reference image). The rendered results rely heavily on thereference image. But till now, no quantified method has been proposed
to select a most optimal reference image for source images with different
contents. At the same time, researchers have developed various methods
to accurately transfer color from the reference image to the source images,
such as local transfer based on image segmentation, non-linear transfer
based on hot target enhancement. However, we are aiming at simplifying
the complicated computation. Firstly, a large amount of reference images
are categorized as several typical scenes: sea-sky scene, land-plantscene, desert-sky scene, and snow-sky scene. Secondly, fast computation
algorithms are developed to obtain robust color appearances rather thanvery accurately transferred colors between the source image and thereference image. In this paper, fast methods for fusing and colorizing visible/
IR images with natural color appearance under different typical scenes
are mainly presented. Subjective observing experiments are conducted
to determine that rendering hot targets in IR image light orange underland-plant scene and white under sea-sky scene will obtain good thermal
contrast. Three channels of YUV color space have been modulated by thegrey value of hot targets. In addition, this method is modified to colorize
single band IR image and still obtain good color appearance.

9091-52, Session 10

Vision-based target detection in marine searchand rescue
Shining Wang, Xiujuan Yu, China Water Transport Research Institute(China)With today’s wide applications of optical sensor in aerial aircrafts, the direct
vision-based object detections from optical images are relatively adequate
and popular. However, in marine search and rescue, the object detection
is known as one challenging problem due to the surface fluctuations andthe illumination changes on sea. In this paper, we propose a vision-basedtarget detection scheme based on video saliency to find the rescue targets
automatically.
The proposed method aims to carry out the prompt search of potential
rescue object from aerial images. The main advantage of our method lies in
the analysis of video features to assign saliency for different regions. Hence,a new definition of video saliency is first proposed to comprehend the target
properties based on structure similarity among adjacent video frames. Then,a cascaded target detection is devised with the local image feature andregional video saliency. Considering the primary goal of target detection inmarine search is to capture all potential information and decrease the false
negatives, we treat the salient objects in aerial images as a basic feature to

SPIE DSS 2014

The proposed method achieves robust performances in three aspects: highdetection accuracy, good true detections, and low false detections. We
believe that the propose method can improve the search and rescue oftargets, and reduce the economical losses in marine accidents.

Invariant-feature-based adaptive automatictarget recognition in obscured 3D point clouds

9091-51, Session 10

244

explore general search candidates in the beginning. To further pick out theaccurate regions occupied by required rescue objects, we filter the false
candidates based on the region-based video saliency.

·

Target recognition and classification in a 3D point cloud is a non-trivial
process due to the nature of the data collected from a sensor system where
the signal can be corrupted by noise from the environment, electronicsystem, A/D converter, etc… Therefore, an adaptive system with a desired
tolerance is required to perform classification and recognition optimally. The
feature-based pattern recognition algorithm described below, is generalized
for solving a particular global problem with minimal change. Since for the
given class set, a feature set must be extracted accordingly. For instance,man-made target classification and human organ classification would
require different feature sets.

9091-53, Session 11

An improved ground vehicle tracking algorithm
by integrating Bayesian tracking framework with
an auxiliary particle filter (Invited Paper)
Miao Yu, Cunjia Liu, Wenhua Chen, Jonathon Chambers,
Loughborough Univ. (United Kingdom)This paper addresses the problem of ground vehicle tracking with Ground
Moving Target Indicator (GMTI) radar by the aid of domain knowledge.
In the ground vehicle tracking scenario, a vehicle may perform different
kinds of manoeuvres (e.g. acceleration, constant velocity, or stop) during
the tracking, however the movement of the vehicle is also constrained byroad and its operational environment. A number of multiple state models
and Monte-Carlo sampling based ground vehicle tracking algorithms
have been proposed such as interacting multiple model particle filters(IMMPF) and bootstrap multiple model particle filters (BS-MMPF). In thesealgorithms, multiple state models are used to represent the different modesof ground vehicle movement. Monte-Carlo sampling based algorithms
are able to incorporate non-linearity in both the state and measurement
models in the GMTI radar based ground vehicle tracking and exploit domain
knowledge such as road and terrain information. This paper presents an
improved ground vehicle tracking algorithm by incorporating the more
efficient auxiliary particle filter (APF) into a Bayesian tracking framework.
It follows an exact Bayesian derivation of the posterior probabilities on
observations and the auxiliary particle filter is able to incorporate the latest
measurements into the particle updating procedure to reduce outliers.
Simulations are presented to show the advantages of the improved
algorithm over the existing ones. It is also shown that incorporating roadinformation and other domain knowledge into tracking could significantly
improve tracking performance.

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
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9091-54, Session 11

at Chapel Hill (United States); Tahmid Latif, Ali Dirafzoon, Eric
Whitmire, Alexander Verderber, North Carolina State Univ. (UnitedStates); Juan Marin, Middle Creek High School (United States)

Fall risks assessment among community dwellingelderly using wearable wireless sensors (Invited
Paper)The potential benefits of distributed robotics systems in applications
requiring situational awareness, such as search-and-rescue in emergency
situations, are indisputable. The efficiency of such systems requires robotic
agents capable of coping with uncertain and dynamic environmental
conditions. For example, after an earthquake, a tremendous effort isspent for days to reach to surviving victims where robotic swarms orother distributed robotic systems might play a great role to achieve thisfaster. However, current technology falls short in offering centimeter scale
mobile agents that can function effectively under such conditions. Insects,
the inspiration of many robotic swarms, exhibit an unmatched ability
to navigate through such environments while successfully maintaining
control and stability. We have benefitted from recent developments inneural engineering and neuromuscular stimulation research to fuse thelocomotory advantages of insects with the latest developments in wirelessnetworking technologies to enable biobotic insect agents to function as
search-and-rescue agents. Our research efforts towards this goal include
development of biobot electronic backpack technologies, establishmentof biobot tracking testbeds to evaluate locomotion control efficiency,
investigation of biobotic control strategies with Gromphadorhina portentosa
cockroaches and Manduca sexta moths, establishment of a localization andcommunication infrastructure, modeling and controlling collective motion
by learning deterministic and stochastic motion models, topological motion
modeling based on these models, and the development of a swarm robotic
platform to be used as a testbed for our algorithms.

Thurmon E. Lockhart, Rahul Soangra, Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State Univ. (United States)
Although modern medicine and new medical technologies offer enormous
potential to improve diagnosis and treatment of many diseases, mortalities
from fall accidents are steadily on the rise for the elderly. In this study,
we evaluated community dwelling elderly individuals’ postural stability
utilizing a wireless inertial sensor to unobtrusively assess fall risks thatmaybe amendable to predicting fallers and non-fallers. In all a total of
100 community dwelling elderly individuals (66 non-fallers and 34 fallers)participated in the experiment. All participants were asked to stand-still witheyes open (EO) and eyes closed (EC) for 60 seconds each on forceplatewith one wireless inertial sensor affixed at sternum level. Several linear andnonlinear postural stability parameters were extracted from this data. It isseen that some linear measures of center of pressure (COP) such as mean
radius, circular area and elliptical area of COP excursion are significantly
different for fallers and non-fallers (p<0.05). It was also found that inertial
sensors could distinct faller and non-faller participants through non- linear
measures of medio-lateral sway such as sample entropy. These results
indicated several key variables of postural characteristics that are relevant
for fall risk assessment using an inertial sensor. This study opens newprospects of simple clinical testing using a portable wireless inertial sensor
by measuring postural variables that may be relevant for assessing older
adults’ fall risks at home and clinical environment.

9091-57, Session 11

A social-based cyber-physical system for
distributed message transmission (Invited Paper)9091-55, Session 11

A cyber-physical system for senior collapse
detection (Invited Paper)

Haiying Shen, Kang Chen, Clemson Univ. (United States)
The explosive increase of the availability of personal mobile devices hasbrought about a significant amount of peer-to-peer communication
opportunities upon their encountering, which can be exploited to realize
distributed message transmission among mobile devices. However, theopportunistic encountering among mobile devices, which is determined by
the mobility of their holders, has introduced great difficulties on efficiently
transmitting a message to its designated destination. Actually, people
usually present a certain pattern on daily mobility. Further, device holders
often belong to a certain social network community. Therefore, in thispaper, we propose a social-based cyber-physical system for distributed
message transmission, namely SocMessaging, by integrating both themobility pattern and the social network of device holders. When selecting
an encountered node for message relay, in addition to the node’s historicalencountering records with the destination node, SocMessaging also
considers its social closeness with the destination node. Then, the message
is always transmitted to the node that is most likely to meet its destination.
As a result, SocMessaging closely connects the cyber world (i.e., network),
physical world (i.e., people) and social network (i.e., social connection).
Finally, our experimental results demonstrate the efficiency of the proposedsystem in message transmission between device holders.

Lynne L. Grewe, Steven Magana-Zook, California State Univ., East
Bay (United States)
Senior Collapse Detection (SCD) is a system that uses cyber-physicaltechniques to create a “smart home” system to predict and detect thefalling of senior/geriatric participants in home environments. This software
application addresses the needs of millions of senior citizens who live athome by themselves and can find themselves in situations where they havefallen and need assistance. We discuss how SCD uses imagery and depth
to fuse and interact in a system that will not require the senior to wear
any devices allowing them to be more autonomous. The Microsoft Kinect
Sensor is used to collect imagery, depth and audio input. We will begin
by discussing the physical attributes of the “collapse detection problem”.
Next, we will discuss the task of feature extraction resulting in skeleton
and joint tracking. Improvements in error detection of joint tracking will behighlighted. Next, we discuss the main module of “fall detection” using our
mid-level skeleton features. Attributes including acceleration, position androom environment factor into the SCD fall detection decision. Finally, howa detected fall and the resultant emergency response are handled will bepresented. Results in a home environment will be given. The U.S. is entering
a time in history when the number of seniors is far larger than before with
the now retiring “Baby Boomers”. These individuals are looking to stay intheir own home environment often living alone for longer times and thissystem could be on solution to the ensuing problems of senior collapse.

9091-58, Session 11

TrustQ: A category reputation based Q&A system(Invited Paper)9091-56, Session 11

Yuhua Lin, Haiying Shen, Clemson Univ. (United States)

Biobotic insect swarm-based sensor networks forsearch and rescue (Invited Paper)

Question and Answering (Q&A) systems aggregate the collected intelligenceof all users to provide satisfying answers for questions from users. A welldeveloped Q&A system should provide high question response rate, low
response delay and good answer quality. Previous works use reputation
systems to achieve the goals. However, these reputation systems evaluate a

Alper Bozkurt, Edgar Lobaton, Mihail Sichitiu, North Carolina State
Univ. (United States); Tyson Hedrick, The Univ. of North Carolina

245+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9091: Signal Processing, Sensor/
Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIII
user with an overall rating for all questions the user has answered regardlessof the question categories, thus the reputation score cannot accuratelyreflect the user’s ability to answer a question in a specific category. In
this paper, we propose TrustQ, a category reputation based Q&A System.
TrustQ evaluates the reputations of users’ willingness and capability toanswer questions in different categories. Considering a user has different
willingness to answer questions from different users, TrustQ lets each nodeevaluate the reputation of other nodes answering its own questions. User a
calculates user b’s final reputation by considering both user a’s direct rating
and the indirect ratings on user b from other nodes. The reputation values
facilitate forwarding a question to potential answerers, which improves thequestion response rate, response delay and answer quality. Our trace-driven
simulation on PeerSim demonstrates the effectiveness of TrustQ in providing
good user experience in terms of response rate and latency, and the answer
quality.

9091-59, Session 11

High-assurance SPIRAL (Invited Paper)
Franz Franchetti, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)
In this paper we introduce “High Assurance SPIRAL” to solve the “last mile”
problem for the synthesis of high assurance implementations of controllers
for vehicular systems that are executed in todays and future embedded andhigh performance embedded system processors. High Assurance SPIRAL
is a scalable methodology to translate a high level specification of a highassurance controller into a highly resource-efficient, platform-adapted,
verified control software implementation for a given platform in a language
like C or C++. High Assurance SPIRAL proves that the implementation isequivalent to the specification written in the control engineer’s domain
language. Our approach scales to problems involving floating-point
calculations and provides highly optimized synthesized code. It is possible
to estimate the available headroom to enable assurance/performancetrade-offs under real-time constraints, and enables the synthesis of multiple
implementation variants to make attacks harder. At the core of High
Assurance SPIRAL is the Hybrid Control Operator Language (HCOL) thatleverages advanced mathematical constructs expressing the controller
specification to provide high quality translation capabilities. Combinedwith a verified/certified compiler, High Assurance SPIRAL provides acomprehensive complete solution to the efficient synthesis of verifiable highassurance controllers. We demonstrate High Assurance SPIRAL’s capability
by co-synthesizing proofs and implementations for attack detection andsensor spoofing algorithms and deploy the code as ROS nodes on theLandshark unmanned ground vehicle and on a “Synthetic Car” in a real-time
simulator.

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9091-60, Session 11

Deceiving entropy-based DoS detection (Invited
Paper)
Ilker Ozcelik, Richard R. Brooks, Clemson Univ. (United States)
Denial of Service (DoS) attacks disable network services for legitimate
users. Although World Wide Web (WWW) is the first thing comes into mind
when discussing about DoS, networks used for critical infrastructures; suchas smart grid and public utilities; suffer from these attacks. A McAfee reportshows that eight out of ten Critical Infrastructure Providers (CIPs) surveyed
had faced a significant Distributed DoS (DDoS) attack in 2010. Researchers
have proposed many approaches for detecting these attacks in the past
decade. Anomaly based DoS detection is the most common approach. In
this approach, the detector uses network traffic statistical features; suchas the entropy of incoming packet header fields like source IP addressesor protocol type. It continuously calculates the observed statistical featureand triggers an alarm if an extreme deviation occurs. However, intrusion
detection systems (IDS) using entropy based detection approaches can bea victim of spoofing attacks. An attacker can sniff the network and calculate
background traffic entropy value of the observed feature before a (D)DoS
attack starts. Then he can spoof attack packets to keep the entropy value inthe expected range during the attack. In this study, we discuss how we candeceive entropy based detection approaches. We present a proof of concept
entropy spoofing attack. Our preliminary results show that our spoofing
attack can deceive entropy based DoS attack detection approaches andcause a significant detection performance degradation.

www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9092:
Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9092 Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014

9092-1, Session 1

algorithm’s performance is presented and it efficacy for this applicationassessed.

Application of rich feature descriptors to small
target detection in wide-area persistent ISR
systems

9092-3, Session 1

Advancement and results in hostile fire indication
using potassium-line missile warning sensors

Christopher W. Miller, Jason A. Edelberg, Michael L. Wilson, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Joel B. Montgomery, Marjorie Montgomery, M&M Aviation (UnitedStates)One of the desired capabilities for wide-area persistent ISR systems is toreliably track the movement of targets within the associated large camera
field of view. Current wide-area persistent ISR systems are characterized
by very large pixel count images (often exceeding 100 Mpixels/frame) but,due to the associated large ground area covered, still provide relatively few
pixels associated with the desired target classes (typically vehicles and/or
dismounts). Large overall pixel counts lead to large computational burdens
on all image processing tasks yet there remains a strong desire to use image
structure to assist in the association of small targets among successiveframes. Both of these factors make detection and tracking of targets
difficult. Most object-recognition and object-classification techniques rely ona large number of pixels on target and a large set of training data. Neitherof these necessary inputs are typically available in wide-area persistent
ISR applications. To address this need, we have applied several rich image
feature descriptors to sample wide-area persistent ISR image series. Despite
the limited numbers of pixels on target available, we will demonstrate robustfeature-based object-detection. These results will also be compared to thoseresulting from a conventional change-based target detection/association
algorithm. Finally, we will discuss the computational costs associated withthese techniques and mechanisms for management of computational load
against the large image sizes needed.

M&M Aviation has been developing and conducting Hostile Fire Indication(HFI) tests using potassium line emission sensors for the Air Force Visible
Missile Warning System (VMWS) to advance both algorithm and sensor
technologies for UAV and other airborne systems for self protection andintelligence purposes. Work began in 2008 as an outgrowth of detecting
and classifying false alarm sources for the VMWS using the same K-line
spectral discrimination region but soon became a focus of research dueto the high interest in both machine-gun fire and sniper geo-location via
airborne systems. Several initial tests were accomplished in 2009 using
small and medium caliber weapons including rifles. Based on these results,
the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) funded the Falcon Sentinel
program in 2010 to provide for additional development of both the sensor
concept, algorithm suite changes and verification of basic phenomenology
including variance based on ammunition type for given weapons platform.
Results from testing over the past 3 years have showed that the system
would be able to detect and declare a sniper rifle at upwards of 3km,
medium machine gun at 5km, and explosive events like hand-grenades atgreater than 5km. This paper will outline the development of the sensor
systems, algorithms used for detection and classification, and test resultsfrom VMWS prototypes as well as outline algorithms used for the VMWS.
It will also cover basic signal to noise ratios and spatial-spectral-temporalfeatures used for extraction purposes with a comparison against larger
artillery pieces done for space-based detection and location. Finally, thepaper will show the future work for ATD and transition efforts after the
Falcon Sentinel program completed.

9092-2, Session 1

Detection of small targets and theircharacterization based on their formation
using an image feature network-based object
recognition algorithm9092-4, Session 1

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Plot enchaining algorithm: A novel approach forclustering flocks of birds

Small target detection and classification (particularly in the case of point
targets) is problematic. Characteristics other than visual image-based
identification (i.e., metadata) can be utilized in an attempt to make aclassification decision; however, this may not always be available (or evencollectable) or its collection may impair classification decisions in a timecritical environment. In some cases, these small targets operate as part of acluster, where classification can be performed based on the characteristicsof the cluster’s operations, instead of trying to identify an individual clustermember directly. Cluster-based identification, however, relies on formation
identification and/or movement analysis. These characteristics can bearbitrarily manipulated (particularly prior to and after task performance) byan adversary attempting to obfuscate their intent.

Gulay Buyukaksoy Kaplan, Adnan Lana, TUBITAK UME (Turkey)
Migrating birds in airport vicinity are a potential risk of serious hazard. To
reduce the risk, flocks of birds should be detected and identified in the radarmeasurements before they reach the aircraft route and become dangerous.
For group of targets such as flock of birds, there is no need to track eachtarget individually. Instead a cluster can be used to represent closely spaced
tracks of a possible group. Considering a group of targets as a single target
for tracking provides significant performance improvement with almost no
loss of information.
In this study, we proposed a novel clustering approach specialized forgrouping radar plots which are assumed to be originating from flocks ofbirds and is named as Plot Enchaining (PE) algorithm due to the way itworks. To evaluate its performance, the results are compared to the resultsof well-known Simple Cluster-Seeking (SCS) algorithm for real radarobservations.

This paper presents an algorithm for object identification based oncomparing networks of point-to-point distances between features identified
by an image feature detection algorithm. This algorithm is both scale andorientation agnostic. Once the network has been normalized, it is thencompared to other networks of known objects to (prospectively) makea classification assertion (if one is a strong enough match). Once thebasic version of the algorithm has been presented, the paper discusses
the alterations required to make the algorithm suitable for performing
cluster-formation based characterization of small targets from point or
near-point source data. The advantages and drawbacks of this approach
are discussed. The possibility of both inadvertent and intentionally-createdfalse positives and false negative matches is discussed. The possibility of
miss-identification is also considered and discussed. An analysis of the247+1 360 676 3290

PE algorithm uses distance between plot borders in radar video signal,
instead of distance between centers of the plots as in most of the clustering
algorithms. The other distinctive feature of the algorithm is to make use of
the distance between migrating birds.
Input data for comparing the algorithms were acquired in TUBITAK Gebze
campus with horizontal scanning pulse radar (FURUNO) during autumn
migration of storks. Recorded data has a length of 500 scans with a period·

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Conference 9092:
Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014of 2.7 seconds.

non-blind beamforming algorithms and direction of arrival (DOA)
estimation, which is implemented by MIMO wireless communication
systems. Three non-blind beamforming algorithms, namely, the least meansquare (LMS), the recursive least square (RLS), and the sample matrix
inverse (SMI) are compared under employment by GR. DOA techniques
are applied based on multiple signal classification (MUSIC) and estimationof signal parameters via rotational invariance technique (ESPRIT). We
suppose several GR structures employing the above mentioned non-blind
beamforming algorithms jointly with DOA estimation. Comparative analysis
of simulation results allows us to make a conclusion that the performance
curves of GR with considered non-blind beamforming algorithms are very
close to each other. Also, simulation results demonstrate superiority in the
output signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) under employment
of GR with the discussed non-blind beamforming algorithms and DOA
estimation in MIMO wireless communication systems in comparison with the
Neyman-Pearson detector.

The proposed PE algorithm outperform SCS algorithm in terms of
associating closely spaced plots. Every plot association decision of SCS
algorithm is also made by PE. Additional associations of PE algorithm resultin more comprehensive and meaningful grouping.

9092-5, Session 1

Polar synthetic aperture radar imaging based on
Maxwell’s equations
Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan American (United States);
Bing Sun, BeiHang Univ. (China) and The Univ. of Texas-Pan
American (United States); Jacob Banda, The Univ. of Texas-Pan
American (United States)

9092-8, Session 2

A general synthetic aperture radar (SAR) signal model based on theMaxwell’s equations is derived, and three approximations are discussed
for engineering applications. Based on this signal model, a novel operationof SAR, called polar synthetic aperture radar, is investigated for wide
observation. The polar SAR works similarly to the general circular SAR, but
the beam of the SAR antenna points at the outer of the circle instead of theinner. The signal model and imaging algorithm are presented for the polar
SAR, and furthermore, simulation is given to validate the signal model andimaging algorithm.

Particle filter for very long-range radar with highrange accuracy
Kevin Romeo, Peter K. Willett, Yaakov Bar-Shalom, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)
In this paper we present an approach for tracking with a high-bandwidth
active radar in very long range scenarios with 3-D measurements in
r-u-v coordinates. The 3-D low-process-noise scenarios considered aremuch more difficult than the ones we have previously investigated where
measurements were in polar coordinates. We show that in these 3-D
scenarios the extended Kalman filter and its variants are not desirable as
they suffer from either major consistency problems or degraded range
accuracy, and most flavors of particle filters suffer from a loss of diversity
among particles after resampling. This leads to sample impoverishment anddivergence of the filter. In the scenarios studied, this loss of diversity canbe attributed to the very low process noise. However, a regularized particle
filter is shown to avoid this diversity problem while producing consistent
results. The regularization is accomplished using a modified version of theEpanechnikov kernel.

9092-6, Session 1

Multiset singular-value decomposition for image
fusionDarren K. Emge, U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Ctr.
(United States)
In forensic analysis the increased use of multiple illumination sources is
producing a need to merge those images to more accurately delineate
targets of interest. The multi-set singular value decomposition (MSVD)
offers a solution to this complex problem. The MSVD extends thegeneralized singular value decomposition (GSVD) method from two data
matrices, or images, to N data matrices. This is accomplished by projecting
the data from all modalities into a pseudo dispersion space, defined as
the arithmetic mean of all pair-wise inter spatial projections. This pseudodispersion can be shown to share the eigen-values with all single mode
SVDs and the eigen-decomposition of this pseudo dispersion space canbe used to determine the common right side basis vectors. The resulting
eigen-values can be used to determine a common order for all modalities
and reduce the combine data set to reveal common targets. The MSVD
method will be demonstrated using a simulated target inserted into a setof standard images. The simulated data will show the properties of the
projections achieved using the MSVD factorization and to explore theircharacteristics. Additionally the MSVD method will be applied to fingerprint
imagery utilizing multiple illuminations sources. This application will show
the applicability of the MSVD method to improve the processing of forensic
data.

9092-9, Session 2

Tracking targets with low signal-to-noise ratiousing particle filtering with flow control
Nima Moshtagh, Paul M. Romberg, Steve G. Spray, Moses W. Chan,
Lockheed Martin Space Systems Co. (United States)
In this work we study the problem of detecting and tracking challenging
targets that exhibit a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of less than one. Traditional
approaches to improving SNR involve signal processing methods such asimage co-addition, which increases SNR by a factor of the square root of
number of images used. The main problem with this approach is that its
performance degrades drastically for moving targets. We have developeda recursive Bayesian track-before-detect (TBD) algorithm, implemented
using a particle filtering technique. This approach incorporates the latest
state estimate to control the particle flow accounting for target dynamics.
The flow control enables accumulation of signal information over time
to compensate for target motion. The performance of this approach isevaluated using a sensitivity analysis based on varying target speed and
SNR. This analysis was conducted using high-fidelity sensor and target
modeling in realistic scenarios. Our results show that this TBD algorithm iscapable of tracking targets in cluttered images with SNR values much lessthan one.

9092-7, Session 1

Non-blind beamforming and DOA estimation
by generalized receiver in MIMO wirelesscommunication systems
Vyacheslav P. Tuzlukov, Jin Gui Liu, Modar S. Shbat, Kyungpook
National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)In this paper, we investigate the generalized receiver (GR) constructedbased on the generalized approach to signal processing in noise employing

248

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Conference 9092:
Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014

9092-10, Session 2

tracking, guidance and navigation, control, robotics, Bayesian decisions,predicting the weather and the stock market. We show many numericalresults for various nonlinearities, with both stable and unstable plants,
varying process noise, measurement noise, initial uncertainty of the statevector, and dimension of the state vector from d = 1 to 42. Our theory uses
particle flow (like physics) to compute Bayes’ rule, rather than a pointwise
multiply. We do not use resampling of particles or proposal densities orimportance sampling or any Markov chain Monte Carlo method. But rather,
we design the particle flow with the solution of a linear first order highly
underdetermined PDE, like the Gauss divergence law in electromagnetics.
The talk explains what a particle filter is, and why engineers like particle
filters, but we also explain the curse of dimensionality. We explain particle
degeneracy and how we solve it with a simple cartoon. This talk is fornormal engineers who do not have nonlinear filters for breakfast.

How to avoid normalization of particle flow
for nonlinear filters, Bayesian decisions andtransport
Frederick E. Daum, Jim Huang, Raytheon Co. (United States)
We derive a new particle flow for nonlinear filters inspired byrenormalization group flow (RGF) in quantum field theory. The interesting
connection between our particle flow and renormalization group flow
(RGF) in quantum field theory (QFT), was suggested by Bashyam Balaji.
In particular, according to Professor Tony Zee RGF is “the most importantconceptual advance in quantum field theory over the last three or four
decades”. RGF is for a set of particles in d-dimensional space with anartificial parameter, µ, that is suspiciously like our homotopy parameter,and furthermore, one could consider RGF as “the trick of doing an integral
a little bit at a time” which sounds like the basic idea of our log-homotopy.
Moreover, there is a connection between RGF and RIcci flow in physics andtopology.

9092-12, Session 2

A comparison of multiple-IMM estimation
approaches using EKF, UKF, and PF for impact
point prediction

We have invented a new nonlinear filter theory that is many orders ofmagnitude faster than standard particle filters for the same accuracy.
Moreover, our filter beats the extended Kalman filter accuracy by several
orders of magnitude for difficult nonlinear problems. This theory canbe applied to essentially any estimation or decision problem, including:
tracking, guidance and navigation, control, robotics, Bayesian decisions,predicting the weather and the stock market. We show many numericalresults for various nonlinearities, with both stable and unstable plants,
varying process noise, measurement noise, initial uncertainty of the statevector, and dimension of the state vector from d = 1 to 42. Our theory uses
particle flow (like physics) to compute Bayes’ rule, rather than a pointwise
multiply. We do not use resampling of particles or proposal densities orimportance sampling or any Markov chain Monte Carlo method. But rather,
we design the particle flow with the solution of a linear first order highly
underdetermined PDE, like the Gauss divergence law in electromagnetics.
The talk explains what a particle filter is, and why engineers like particle
filters, but we also explain the curse of dimensionality. We explain particle
degeneracy and how we solve it with a simple cartoon. This talk is fornormal engineers who do not have nonlinear filters for breakfast.

Ting Yuan, Yaakov Bar-Shalom, Peter K. Willett, R. Ben-Dov, S.
Pollak, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
We discuss three procedures to estimate the state of thrusting/ballistic
endoatmospheric projectiles for the purpose of impact point prediction(IPP). The short observation time and the estimation ambiguity between
drag and thrust in the dynamic model motivate the development of amultiple interacting multiple model (MIMM) estimator with various dragcoefficient initializations. In each IMM estimator used, as the mode-matchedstate estimators for its thrusting mode and ballistics mode are of unequal
dimensions, an unbiased mixing (UM) is required. We explore the MIMMUM using extended Kalman filter (EKF), unscented Kalman filter (UKF) andparticle filter (PF). For $30$ real trajectories, the IPP based on the MIMM-UM
estimation approach is carried out with a set of tuning parameters selected
for the EKF, a set of tuning parameters selected for the UKF and a set oftuning parameters selected for the PF. The MIMM-UM-EKF, MIMM-UM-UKF
and MIMM-UM-PF are compared based on the resulting IPP performance,
estimator consistency and computational complexity.

9092-11, Session 2

9092-13, Session 2

Seven dubious methods to mitigate stiffness inparticle flow with non-zero diffusion for nonlinear
filters, Bayesian decisions and transport

Multiple-model filtering for particle tracking andclassification
Stefano P. Coraluppi, Craig A. Carthel, Compunetix, Inc. (UnitedStates); Samuel J. Dickerson, NanoPhoretics, LLC (United States);
Donald M. Chiarulli, Steven P. Levitan, Univ. of Pittsburgh (UnitedStates)Frederick E. Daum, Jim Huang, Raytheon Co. (United States)
We derive a new particle flow for nonlinear filters using the Yang-Mills
equations. Our PDE for particle flow is the d-dimensional version of theGauss divergence law, which is the first of Maxwell’s equations. Yang-Mills
is a nonlinear generalization of Maxwell’s equations. Moreover, gaugetransformations are standard in exact fixed finite dimensional nonlinear filter
theory (Mitter 1979). The nonlinear PDE for exact fixed finite dimensional
filters in the exponential family derived by Daum (1986) is roughly
analogous to the Yang-Mills equations. We also explain the connection
with renormalization group flow, which is what makes Yang-Mills workfor quantum field theory. These interesting connections were inspired bydiscussions with Bashyam Balaji about nonlinear filters and quantum field
theory. One can derive all of Maxwell’s equations from the Gauss divergencelaw and Lorentz invariance; we find it extremely interesting that we had to
impose a speed limit on particles for our Coulomb’s law flow, analogous
to the limit on the speed of light that is evident in the real world, whichcorresponds to Lorentz invariance.

Dielectrophoresis is the use of non-uniform AC electric fields to control the
motion of particles in a fluid [1-2]. We are developing dielectrophoresisbased technology for the classification of bacteriological pathogens. Thisrequires high-quality detection, tracking and classification of biologicalcells from microscope imagery. Our multi-target tracking (MTT) is basedon mature track-oriented multiple-hypothesis tracking (MHT) technologythat has evolved over many years of research [3]. Performance metrics ofinterest include track-level optimal sub-pattern assignment (OSPA) andintegrated squared distance (ISD) as discussed in [4]; the former is a naturalgeneralization of the detection-level OSPA that has received much attention
since its introduction [5]. Ultimately, what is of interest is classification
performance: for this, sensitivity and specificity are the established metrics[6].

We have invented a new nonlinear filter theory that is many orders ofmagnitude faster than standard particle filters for the same accuracy.
Moreover, our filter beats the extended Kalman filter accuracy by several
orders of magnitude for difficult nonlinear problems. This theory canbe applied to essentially any estimation or decision problem, including:249+1 360 676 3290

Unlike many traditional target-tracking settings, we have significant control
of scenario and sensor parameters. This control includes the selection of
the density and motion of particles via the choice of excitation frequencies.
The frequency vs. terminal velocity profile for particles of interest is known,
and may be exploited for high-performance filtering. In practice, we step·

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Conference 9092:
Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014
proper characterization of the state PDF. Under weak assumptions, this new
uncertainty consistency metric is a chi-squared random variable. Analogous
tests for covariance consistency (both in offline simulations with multiple
Monte-Carlo trials and online with real data) can be extended to use theuncertainty consistency metric, some of which are reviewed in this paper,
such as Pearson’s chi-squared goodness-of-fit test.

through a sequence of frequencies, each for a fixed time duration.
Our baseline approach to particle classification employs a nearly-constantvelocity (NCV) motion model and decoupled tracking and classification
modules. On the other hand, since the frequency-excitation transition times
are known, this information may be exploited for improved performance.
A minor modification is to employ time-varying process noise statistics in
the NCV filter. A more complex modification is to model particle motion via
a generalization to the Integrated Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (IOU) process [7].
Correspondingly, this approach requires a multiple-model filtering solution,and provides a coupled particle tracking and classification solution. While
this approach holds the promise of improved performance, there are somerobustness concerns.

In addition, we propose a new class of “track accuracy” metrics that
accounts for the uncertainty in the position estimate of an object. Rather
than making uninformative statements such as “the position error is x
meters,” the proposed metric allows one to assert a level of confidence inthe error by stating, for example, “the position error is at most x meterswith probability y.” Application of this metric could, for example, allow theoperator to make more informed decisions based on the confidence in theposition estimate.

We illustrated the results of baseline and enhanced processing withsynthetic and laboratory data for live and dead yeast cells. We discuss aswell our plans for further analysis and testing with biological pathogens ofinterest.

9092-16, Session 3[1] Pohl, Herbert A. The Motion and Precipitation of Suspensoids in
Divergent Electric Fields, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 22(7), 1951.

IMM filtering on parametric data for multisensor
fusion[2] S. Dickerson, D. Chiarulli, and S. Levitan, 3D Integrated Circuits for Labon-Chip Applications, in Proceedings of the IEEE International 3D Systems
Integration Conference, San Francisco CA, September 2009.

Scott Shafer, Mark W. Owen, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr.
Pacific (United States)[3] S. Coraluppi and C. Carthel, Modified Scoring in Multiple-Hypothesis
Tracking, ISIF Journal of Advances in Information Fusion, vol. 7(2), pp. 153164, December 2012.
[4] S. Coraluppi, C. Carthel, and M. Guerriero, Hypothesis Structure in
Enhanced Multiple-Hypothesis Tracking, in Proceedings of the IEEE Asilomar
Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove CA, USA,
November 2013.
[5] D. Schuhmacher, B.-T. Vo, and B.-N. Vo, A consistent metric for
performance evaluation of multi-object filters, IEEE Transactions on Signal
Processing, vol. 56(8), August 2008.
[6] D. Altman and J. Bland, Diagnostic tests 1: sensitivity and specificity,
British Medical Journal, vol. 308, June 1994.
[7] L. Stone, C. Barlow, and T. Corwin, Bayesian Multiple Target Tracking,
Artech House, 1999.

Conference overview

In this paper we investigate the accuracy of the interacting multiple
model (IMM) filter at estimating the first and second moments of radar
parametrics. This application is then combined into a complete kinematicand feature space correlator/tracker for the purpose of real-time sensor
fusion. The algorithm is assessed by Monte Carlo simulation and comparedagainst a running sample mean/variance technique. We find that the
IMM approach yields a better result due to its ability to quickly adapt todynamical systems with the proper model and tuning.

Oliver Drummond, CyberRnD, Inc. (United States)
This conference overview addresses the types of targets and the major
characteristics of the data encountered in processing sensor data of thesetargets. The presentation summarizes why tracking these targets make theprocessing of this data so complex and challenging. The discussion includes
a view of the algorithm state of the art, the current drivers in algorithm
development, and the critical open issues. Future direction of this series ofconferences is discussed and audience suggestions are invited.

9092-17, Session 3

A comparative study of new nonlinear uncertainty
propagation methods for space surveillance9092-15, Session 3

Beyond covariance consistency: A new metric for
uncertainty consistency

Joshua T. Horwood, Jeffrey M. Aristoff, Navraj Singh, Aubrey B.
Poore, Numerica Corp. (United States)

Joshua T. Horwood, Jeffrey M. Aristoff, Navraj Singh, Aubrey B.
Poore, Numerica Corp. (United States)
A common requirement in many tracking systems is that of covarianceconsistency which requires the proper characterization of the covariance(statistical uncertainty) in the state of each object. In the space surveillance
tracking domain, one sometimes needs to represent the full state probability
density function (PDF) of certain space objects, especially in applications
requiring nonlinear uncertainty propagation such as conjunction analysis.
Thus, there is a need to assess uncertainty consistency; i.e., whether amodeled state PDF is consistent or realistic. We propose a new tracking
metric (applicable to any tracking domain) that generalizes the covarianceconsistency metric based on the Mahalanobis distance to one that tests the250

SPIE DSS 2014

In tracking, many types of sensor data can be obtained and utilized to
distinguish a particular target. Commonly, kinematic information is used
for tracking, but this can be combined with identification attributes andparametric information passively collected from the target’s emitters. Alongwith the standard tracking process (predict, associate, score, update, andinitiate) that operates in all kinematic trackers, parametric data can also
be utilized to perform these steps and provide a means for feature fusion.
Feature fusion, utilizing parametrics from multiple sources, yields a rich data
set providing many degrees of freedom to separate and correlate data into
appropriate tracks. Parametric radar data can take on many dynamics toinclude: stable, agile, jitter, and others. By utilizing a running sample meanand sample variance a good estimate of radar parametrics is achieved.
However, when dynamics are involved, a severe lag can occur and a nonoptimal estimate is achieved. This estimate can yield incorrect associations
in feature space and cause track fragmentation or miscorrelation.

·

Accurate and precise characterization of state uncertainty (i.e., covarianceconsistency or uncertainty consistency) is needed in many fields including
aeronautics and aviation, air and missile defense, and space situationalawareness. The effectiveness of nonlinear filters and uncertainty
propagation algorithms can be significantly enhanced through the use of
appropriate coordinate systems tailored to the underlying dynamics.
We have developed an innovative approach to uncertainty representation
wherein state uncertainty is represented in a newly-derived set of (nonsingular) mean orbital elements that essentially absorb the so-called
J2 zonal correction. As a result, uncertainty propagation becomes lessnonlinear, and covariance/uncertainty consistency can be maintained formuch longer periods of time (and at no additional computational cost). A
method for preserving information through the nonlinear transforms of thewww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9092:
Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014
uncertainty to and from Cartesian space is also described.

candidate solution, eliminating the need for a K-best solution method or
MCMC sampling. We also show an implementation of our method that does
not require explicitly enumerating the clusters, improving computation
time even if association probabilities for many different arcs are required.
We present simulation results showing that on several test problems, ourmethod can generate far more accurate probability estimates in less timethan can traditional methods.

Our new approach is compared to existing methods for uncertainty
representation (that utilize either Cartesian or osculating orbital elements)
within the prediction step of (i) the extended Kalman filter, (ii) the
unscented Kalman filter, and (iii) the newly-developed Gauss von Mises(GVM) filter. A Mahalanobis-distance-based covariance consistency
metric and its generalization to the GVM distribution is used to assess
the performance of the different combinations of nonlinear filters andcoordinate systems, and quantifies the benefit of using the new set of mean
orbital elements for representing uncertainty.

9092-20, Session 3

The advancement of an algorithm9092-18, Session 3

Darin T. Dunham, Vectraxx, Inc. (United States); Peter K. Willett,Univ. of Connecticut (United States); Terry L. Ogle, Vectraxx, Inc.
(United States); Balakumar Balasingam, Univ. of Connecticut(United States)

A method for reconstructing track error
covariance from track quality index (TQI)
William D. Blair, Yanhua Ruan, Jason Kramer, Georgia Tech ResearchInstitute (United States)

The Probabilistic Multi-Hypothesis Tracker (PMHT) was developed in theearly 1990s by Roy Streit and Tod Luginbuhl. Since that time many advances
and improvements have been made to this elegant algorithm that is linearly
efficient in processing as the number of targets, sensors, and clutter
increases. This paper documents the many advances to the PMHT by several
different contributors over the past two decades. The history continues
and looks as promising as ever for this algorithm as we present the latest
advancement—the Maximum Likelihood, Histogram Probabilistic MultiHypothesis Tracker (ML-HPMHT)—and the exciting results of this potential
game-changer in tracking unresolved, dim targets in highly clutteredenvironments. This new algorithm detects and tracks with high accuracy
targets that are unresolved in pixels or range bins.

Many modern multi-sensor tracking systems rely on some form of track
fusion, in which local track estimates and their associated covariances areshared among sensors. Considering the number of elements that need
to be shared, bandwidth is a significant concern. To mitigate this issue indata links, a Track Quality Index (TQI) is often provided as a scalar measureof track quality. For example, TQI provides a direct means of choosing
the better of two tracks for reporting. However, for challenging trackcorrelation problems and other uses of the track data by the recipient, TQI
is not sufficient to support reliable track correlation and a track covarianceis needed for correlation and other applications like fire control. Whena track covariance cannot be obtained from the platform with reporting
responsibility (R2), generating a track covariance from the TQI becomes
critical. Historically, methods for track covariance reconstruction fromTQI have focused on matching the positional uncertainty. However, trackcorrelation and other uses of track covariance need the covariance of thevelocity estimates and this is where these techniques breakdown. In thispaper, a novel method for reconstructing track covariance from TQI is
proposed which includes velocity information and exploits the sensor target
geometry information in the track history. The track covariance is formulated
in the sensor coordinates prior to matching the TQI and covariance in orderto achieve an estimate of the covariance for velocity. Simulation studies
indicate that the proposed covariance reconstruction method exhibits
superior performance compared to the traditional methods.

9092-21, Session 3

Approximate calculation of marginal association
probabilities using a hybrid data association
model
Marcus Baum, Peter K. Willett, Yaakov Bar-Shalom, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States); Ing Uwe D. Hanebeck, Karlsruher
Institut für Technologie (Germany)
The calculation of marginal association probabilities is the major
computational bottleneck in the Joint Probabilistic Data Association
Filter (JPDAF). In this context, a variety of approximate methods havebeen proposed, ranging from simple ad-hoc formulas to sophisticatedrandomized algorithms. Recently, in [1], the so-called Bakhtiar and Alavi
algorithm [2] turned out to give the most precise approximation among
several state-of-the-art methods.

9092-19, Session 3

A new computational method for ambiguity
assessment of solutions to assignment problems
arising in target tracking

In this paper, we investigate improvements of the Bakhtiar and Alavi
Algorithm [2]. First, we point out that the Bakhtiar and Alavi Algorithm [2]assumes the Probabilistic Multi-Hypothesis Tracker (PMHT) measurement
model for the associations to be marginalized out. Second, we propose anovel systematic approximation that further exploits combinations of the
JPDAF measurement model with the PMHT measurement model (a socalled hybrid association model, see [3]).

Alexander D. Mont, Aubrey B. Poore, Numerica Corp. (UnitedStates)Many applications in target tracking involve solving an assignment problem
based on likelihood ratios (such as that discussed in the work of Reid) todetermine the maximum-likelihood association between two frames of dataand estimating the probability that each node-to-node association (arc) iscorrect. The most common traditional methods for computing association
probabilities, such as Murty’s K-best and MCMC, are based on sampling thesolution space. However, these methods do not scale well to large problems
due to the exponential growth in the size of the solution space. To address
this issue, we have developed a new sampling method based on cluster
sampling. Given a “target arc” to compute the association probability of,our method divides the solution space into clusters of similar hypotheses,
each containing one hypothesis with that arc and several without it. Our
method converts a sample of the hypotheses (which can be taken througha traditional method) into a sample of the clusters, reducing the variance ofthe estimate. Our method can compute reasonably accurate probabilities
of association even based on a “sample” consisting of the single best251

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The novel method allows for a flexible adjustment between accuracy andcomputational complexity. In its least accurate but most efficient setting,the novel method coincides with the Bakhtiar and Alavi Algorithm [2],whose time complexity is linear in the number of measurements. Hence,with the price of a slightly higher runtime complexity, the new method canbe adjusted to significantly outperform [2]. The new method is evaluatedwith respect to related methods in scenarios with up to 20 closely spaced
objects.
REFERENCES:[1] K. Romeo, D. F. Crouse, Y. Bar-Shalom, and P. Willett, The JPDAF inpractical systems: approximations. Proceedings of SPIE: Signal and Data
Processing of Small Targets 2010, vol. 76981, 2010·

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Conference 9092:
Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014[2] B. Bakhtiar and H. Alavi, Efficient algorithm for computing dataassociation probabilities for multitarget tracking, Proceedings of SPIE:
Automatic Object Recognition IV, vol. 2756, 1996

provide answers to the question of, in a realistic environment, can a target
be tracked?

[3] M. Baum and P. Willett, A hybrid data association model for efficient
multi-target maximum likelihood estimation, submitted to ICASSP 2014.

9092-25, Session 49092-22, Session 4

Bias estimation for space-based optical sensors
with targets of opportunity

Range-only tracking to assist in SAR moving
target processing

Djedjiga Belfadel, Richard W. Osborne III, Yaakov Bar-Shalom, Univ.
of Connecticut (United States)

Stephen C. Stubberud, Raytheon Co. (United States); Samuel S.
Blackman, Raytheon Space & Airborne Systems (United States);
Theagenis J. Abatzoglou, Ryan Song, Raytheon Co. (United States)

Integration of space based sensors into a Ballistic Missile Defense Systemallows for detection and tracking of threats over a larger area than groundbased sensors. This report examines the effect of sensor bias errors on
the tracking quality of a Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS)
for the highly non-linear problem of tracking a ballistic missile. The STSS
constellation consists of two or more satellites for tracking ballistic targets.
Each satellite is equipped with an IR sensor that provides azimuth andelevation to the target. The tracking problem is made more difficult due
to a constant or slowly varying bias error present in each sensor’s line ofsight measurements. It is important to correct for these bias errors so thatthe multiple sensor measurements and/or tracks can be referenced as
accurately as possible to a common coordinate system. The measurements
provided by these sensors are assumed time-coincident (synchronous) andperfectly associated. We evaluate the Cram´er-Rao Lower Bound (CRLB)
on the covariance of the bias estimates, which serves as a quantification of
the available information about the biases. Statistical tests on the resultsof simulations show that this method is statistically efficient, even forsmall sample sizes (as few as two sensors and six points on the (unknown)
trajectory of a single target of opportunity). We also show that the RMS
position error is significantly improved with bias estimation compared withthe target position estimation using the original biased measurements.

Targets that move during the data collection period of a SAR appear blurredin the resulting image. The return of a typical ground vehicle can appear
displaced by hundreds of meters in the cross-range (Doppler) direction fromits true location in the formed image. A Maximum Likelihood Estimation(MLE) technique to determine the range and range rate of a moving target
from SAR phase history data has been developed. A single set of theseestimates is not sufficient to uniquely solve for the location of the moving
target, but if they are fed into a tracking algorithm, the tracker can converge
to the correct location after multiple observations. The implementationof automated tracking solution that localizes the target using the SAR
observations is reported. Since the MLE algorithm only provides a range andrange rate estimates, the position and velocity state are in the unobservablespace. The developed approach compensates for the unobservability byusing the SAR platform’s motion relative to the target and by incorporating
multiple angle bins into the initial estimate of the target’s location. This is
the dual of the multiple range bin concept used for angle-only tracking.
The relative motion of the platform, in this case an aircraft, to that of theground target provides enough variation that the necessary one derivative
variation between platform and target to provide tracking is achieved.
The implemented approach also adds a second layer of refinement to the
localization. Once an initial estimate of the target is computed based on
the angle bins centered about the scene bin, the process is reinitializedwith a set of angle bins centered about the better estimate with a chipsized uncertainty. This allows for a superior localization result at thecomputational cost of ten to fifteen re-calculations of observations.

9092-23, Session 4

ML-PMHT threshold determination and target
trackability for K-distributed clutter
Steven Schoenecker, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States);Peter K. Willett, Yaakov Bar-Shalom, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)Recent work developed a novel method for determining clutter tracking
thresholds and target trackability mea- sures for the Maximum Likelihood
Probabilistic Multi-Hypothesis Tracker (ML-PMHT). Under certain “ideal”
conditions, probability density functions (PDFs) for the peak points in
the ML-PMHT log-likelihood ratio (LLR) could be calculated. Analyzing
the clutter-induced peak PDF allowed for the calculation of a tracking
thresh- old; analyzing both the target- and clutter-induced peak PDFs led
to answers to fundamental questions about target trackablity. However, thiswork was done for a very specific and somewhat unrealistic case. It was
assumed that received target amplitudes followed a Rayleigh distribution,and the target amplitude Rayleigh parameter was known and fixed. We
seek to expand the clutter and target analysis framework to more realistic
conditions. First, we will examine the case where the received target
amplitudes still follow a Rayleigh distribution but the Rayleigh parameter iseither not known or is not fixed. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly,
we will examine the case where the clutter amplitudes do not follow a
Rayleigh distribution at all, but instead follow a K-distribution, which has
been postulated to more accurately describe “realistic” clutter. This work will

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SPIE DSS 2014·

9092-26, Session 4

Intialization and tracking with Doppler-biased
multistatic time-of-arrival measurements
Wenbo Dou, Yaakov Bar-Shalom, Peter K. Willett, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)
We discuss the multistatic target tracking problem in which the target is
illuminated by Doppler tolerant waveforms (DTW). DTW introduce a bias
to the true time-of-arrival, as a result of which the corresponding range
measurement accuracy is degraded when this bias is ignored. An importantpart in the design of a tracking filter using nonlinear measurements is
the initialization: the initial state estimate should be unbiased and theassociated covariance should be consistent with the errors. This paper
presents a maximum likelihood based method as well as a simpler
iterative bias cancellation method to initialize a tracking filter from two
observation frames. The iterative method makes it possible to obtain
unbiased initial position and velocity estimates by canceling out the Doppler
bias. Simulation results show that the filter initialized by either method isstatistically consistent.

9092-27, Session WRKSP

Some fundamentals unique to multiple target
tracking
Oliver Drummond, Consulting Engineer (United States)
The task of estimation of the trajectories of multiple targets using sensor
measurements can exhibit fundamentals that are unique compared to othertypical estimation processing. A common cause is the misassociations
due to dense measurements relative to the sensor accuracy (such as thenumber of measurements in a three sigma measurement gate) but there
can be other important causes too. The possibility of misassociations can

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Conference 9092:
Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 2014
greatly complicate the design and development process and cause them tobe uniquely complex and challenging. To simplify the discussion of theseunique fundamental characteristics, much of the discussion is limited tomeasurements of targets that are generated by linear, Gaussian processes.
The discussion includes typical causes of the complexity, some strictly
optimal design criteria, some common constrained optimal design criteria
used to reduce the process complexity, and related functional performance
metrics.

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Conference 9093:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9093 Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI

9093-1, Session 1

9093-2, Session 1

Phenomenology of low probability of intercept
synthetic aperture radar via frank codes

Autofocus and analysis of geometrical errors
within the framework of fast factorized backprojection

David A. Garren, Phillip E. Pace, Ric N. Romero, Naval Postgraduate
School (United States)
This paper investigates techniques for using low probability of intercept(LPI) modulation methods for synthetic aperture radar (SAR). This analysis
considers a specific waveform type based upon Frank codes in providing
a phase shift keying (PSK) modulation. A matched correlation receiver isutilized to generate a set of SAR data corresponding to the transmitted
Frank-modulated waveforms. The resulting two-dimensional impulse
response within the SAR image is analyzed in terms of the radar parameters.
The objective of this investigation is to analyze the properties of SAR
images formed using a particular LPI modulation based upon the Frankcode. This analysis demonstrates the ability to form SAR images based uponsimulated radar measurements collected by a notional radar sensor with a
LPI-SAR capability. The SAR image formation quality and LPI performancecorresponding to this PSK waveform is compared with the use of pulse
waveforms and that of frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW)
waveforms. The recent work of Giusti and Martorella [1] for generating ISAR
images based upon the transmission and reception of FMCW waveforms
provides a useful basis of comparison with the generation of SAR images
based upon Frank-coded waveforms.
For the initial part of the simulation activity, it is necessary to generate theidealized impulse response of the scene corresponding to the radar sensor
aspect and elevation angles for each radar waveform that is transmitted.
The result of the ideal correlation processing is obtained by taking theconvolution of the complex conjugate of the transmitted waveform withthe received radar echo from the scene location where the gain of the radartransmission beam is steered for that particular waveform. These idealized
radar responses give the effective impulse response of the scene at theparticular aspect and depression angles of the radar sensor relative to thescene of interest.
In order to obtain an accurate model of the receiver processing, theidealized radar echo that is simulated for the interrogated scene at someparticular set of aspect and elevation angles is convolved with the selected
Frank-coded radar waveform used for this particular set of measurements
angles. The result of this correlation receiver processing is obtained bycomputing the convolution of the received waveform with the complex
conjugate of the transmission waveform at the set of measurement angles
under interrogation. This correlation processing yields the range profile ofthe scene corresponding to each transmitted Frank-coded waveform along
the synthetic aperture. This correlation processing effectively dispreads theradar echoes that enter the receiver, so that range profiles are extracted
from the scene consistent with the sidelobe properties of Frank waveforms.
The resulting complex-valued range profiles enable the generation of
conventional spotlight-mode SAR images of the scene of interest. The
properties of the SAR image obtained from the use of Frank-coded
waveforms are analyzed and discussed.

Jan Torgrimsson, Chalmers Univ. of Technology (Sweden); Patrik
Dammert, Hans Hellsten, Saab AB (Sweden); Lars M. H. Ulander,
Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
This paper describes a Fast Factorized Back-Projection (FFBP) formulationthat includes an integrated autofocus algorithm, i.e. the Factorized
Geometrical Autofocus (FGA) algorithm. The base-two factorization is
executed in a horizontal plane, using a Merging (M) and a Range History
Preserving (RHP) transform. Six parameters are adopted for each subaperture pair, i.e. to establish the geometry stage-by-stage via triangles in
3-dimensional space. If the parameters are derived from navigation data,
the algorithm is used as a conventional processing chain. If the parameterson the other hand are varied from a certain factorization stage and forward,
the algorithm is used as a joint image formation and autofocus strategy.
By regulating the geometry at multiple resolution levels, challenging
defocusing effects, e.g. space-variant Range Cell Migration (RCM), can becorrected. The new formulation also serves another important purpose, i.e.
as a parameter characterization scheme. By using the M and RHP transformand its inverse, relations between two arbitrary geometries can be studied;in consequence this makes it feasible to analyze how errors in navigation
data, and topography, affect image focus. The versatility of the factorization
procedure is demonstrated successfully on simulated Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR) data. This is achieved by introducing typical GPS-/IMU errors
prior to processing. The characterization scheme is then employed toevaluate the sensitivity, to determine at what stage the autofocus function
should be activated, and to decide the number of necessary parametersat each stage. A resulting FGA image is also compared to a reference
image (processed without errors and autofocus) and to a defocused image(processed without autofocus), to validate the novel approach further.

9093-3, Session 1

A three-dimensional fractional Fouriertransformation methodology for volumetriclinear, circular, and orbital synthetic apertureradar image formation
Matthew P. Pepin, U.S. Air Force (United States)[1] E. Giusti and M Martorella, “Range Doppler and Image Autofocusing for
FMCW Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar” IEEE Transactions on Aerospaceand Electronic Systems, Volume 47, Issue 4, October 2011, pages 2807-2823.
[DoD Distribution Statement A: Unlimited Distribution.
The views expressed in this document are those of the author and do notreflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the
U.S. Government.]

The 3-D Fractional Fourier Transformation (FRFT) has unique applicability
to multi-pass and multiple receiver Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
scenarios which can collect radar returns to create volumetric reflectivity
data. The 3-D FRFT can independently compress and image radar data ineach dimension for a broad set of parameters. The 3-D FRFT can be applied
at closer ranges and over more aperture sampling conditions than otherimaging algorithms. The FRFT provides optimal processing matched to thequadratic signal content in SAR (i.e. the pulse chirp and the spherical wavefront across the aperture). The different parameters for 3-D linear, circular,
and orbital SAR case are derived and specific considerations such as squint
and scene extent for each scenario are addressed. Example imaged volumes
are presented for linear, circular and orbital cases. The imaged volume issampled in the radar coordinate system and can be transformed to a target
based coordinate system.
Advantages of the FRFT which extend to the 3-D FRFT include its
applicability to a wide variety of imaging condition (standoff range andaperture sub-sampling) as well as inherent phase preservation in the images
formed. The FRFT closely matches the imaging process and thus is able
to focus SAR images over a large variation in standoff ranges specificallyat close range. The FRFT is based on the relationship between time and254

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Conference 9093:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI
frequency and thus can create an image from an under-sampled wave-front.
This ability allows the length of the synthetic aperture to be increased for a
fixed number of aperture samples.

trajectory information to form focused SAR images. Erroneous trajectory
information results in blurred and degraded reconstructed images. The
effect of the antenna trajectory error has been analyzed in a number of
papers [2-8]. However, the effect of antenna trajectory errors for general
BP-based SAR image formation has not been studied before, although anumber of autofocusing methods has been proposed for BP-based SAR
image formation [9, 10]. Additionally, majority of the existing studies [3-8]
qualitatively describe the degradations in reconstructed SAR images; andthe ones that provide quantitative analysis [2, 5], are only applicable tospecific trajectory error models.

9093-4, Session 1

Doppler synthetic aperture radar interferometry
H. Cagri Yanik, Birsen Yazici, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute(United States)

In this paper, we present a theory to analyze the positioning errors in
BP-based SAR images. The theory is developed using microlocal analysis[11]. Our theory provides an explicit quantitative relationship between
the trajectory error and the positioning error in BP-based SAR images.
The theory is applicable to arbitrary trajectory errors in transmitting andreceiving antennas, arbitrary imaging geometries, and monostatic andbistatic configurations. In the final paper, we will outline the theory in detailand present numerical simulations to demonstrate our analysis.

In this work, we consider a single-pass interferometric synthetic apertureradar (IFSAR) system. There are two mono-static antennas that are
moving in tandem with a cross-track separation which we refer to as thebaseline vector. Moreover, each antenna uses ultra-narrowband continuous
waveforms (CW) as an illumination source. By using ultra-narrowband CWs,
our system takes advantage of i) relatively simple-to-operate, easy-to-use,
low-cost and low-power transmitters; ii) high Doppler resolution and iii)
suffers less from distortion due to atmospheric effects. Our objective is toestimate the ground topography and reconstruct the ground reflectivity
function. We correlate the received signal with a scaled version of thetransmitted signal over a finite time window. Next, we form images for eachantenna from the correlated received signals and multiply the first image
with the complex conjugate of the second image to form an interferogram.
This results in a novel model that relates the phase of the interferogram to
the ground topography, look directions of the antennas and the baseline
vector. Finally, from the phase of the interferogram, we will recover the
ground topography. In the final version of the manuscript, we will present
numerical experiments to demonstrate the performance of our method.

[1] Cumming, I. G. and Wong, F. H., [Digital Processing Of Synthetic Aperture
Radar Data: Algorithms And Implementation], Boston: Artech House(2005).
[2] Shao, Y., Wang, R., Deng, Y., Liu, Y., Chen, R., Liu, G., Balz, T., and Loffeld,O., “Error analysis of bistatic sar imaging and stereoscopy bistatic SAR,”
IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 51, 4518-4543(August 2013).
[3] Borcea, L., Callaghan, T., and Papanicolauou, G., “Synthetic apertureradar imaging with motion estimation and autofocus,” Inverse Problems
28(4), 045006 (2012).
[4] Rigling, B. D. and Moses, R. L., “Motion measurement errors andautofocus in bistatic SAR,” IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 15, 10081016 (April 2006).

9093-5, Session 1[5] Fornaro, G., Franceschetti, G., and Perna, S., “Motion compensation
errors: effects on the accuracy of airborne SAR images,” IEEE Transactions
on Aerospace and Electronic Systems 41, 1338{1352 (October 2005).

Polar format algorithm for SAR imaging with
Matlab[6] Carrara, W. C., Goodman, R. G., and Majewski, R. M., [Spotlight Synthetic
Aperture Radar: Signal Processing Algorithms], Artech House, Boston(1995).

Ross W. Deming, Solid State Scientific Corp. (United States)
Due to its computational efficiency, the polar format algorithm (PFA) is
considered by many to be the workhorse for synthetic aperture radar(SAR) imaging. Furthermore, PFA is mainly implemented in spatial Fourier
space (a.k.a “K-space”), which is a nice domain for understanding SAR
performance metrics, sampling requirements, etc. In this paper, we describe
the mathematics behind PFA as clearly and simply as possible, and we
provide computed examples using publically released AFRL data sets. In the
appendix, we include Matlab code for implementing PFA in a format whichis compatible with the input/output structures used by Leroy Gorham and
Linda Moore in their 2010 SPIE paper “SAR image formation toolbox for
MATLAB”.

[7] Fornaro, G., “Trajectory deviations in airborne SAR: Analysis andcompensation,” IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems 35,
998{1009 (July 1999).
[8] Blacknell, D., Freeman, A., Quegan, S., Ward, I. A., Finley, I. P., Oliver,
C. J., White, R. G., and Wood, J. W., “Geometric accuracy in airborne SAR
images,” IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems AES-25, 241-258(March 1989).
[9] Jakowatz, C. V. and Wahl, D. E., “Considerations for autofocus of
spotlight-mode SAR imagery created using a beamforming algorithm,” in[Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 7337 (Conference on Algorithms for Synthetic
Aperture Radar Imagery XVI)], 73370A-1-73370A-9 (April 2009).
[10] Ash, J. N., “An autofocus method for backprojection imagery insynthetic aperture radar,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote
Sensing 9, 104{107 (January 2012).

9093-6, Session 1

Antenna trajectory error analysis inbackprojection-based SAR Images[11] “Microlocal analysis in imaging: A tutorial,” http://www.ecse.rpi.
edu/~yazici/ICASPTutorial/microlocal_ICASSP10.html.

Ling Wang, Nanjing Univ. of Aeronautics and Astronautics (China);
H. Cagri Yanik, Birsen Yazici, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute(United States)

9093-7, Session 1

Model-based 3D reconstruction

SAR image formation methods can be categorized into two classes: thefrequency-domain or fast Fourier transform (FFT)-based image formation
methods, such as the range Doppler algorithm, the chirp-scaling algorithm,
etc. [1] and the time-domain Back Projection (BP) based methods. The
BP-based methods have shown several advantages over the FFT-based
image formation methods, including the computational efficiency, the ability
to accommodate arbitrary imaging geometries, the ability to handle large
aperture data, straightforward adaptation of algorithms to different SAR
configurations, etc.

Chad Knight, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States); Jacob H.
Gunther, Utah State Univ. (United States)
Model based processing holds many potential advantages. Several
advantages of model-based processing are its natural ability to incorporate
prior information into the image formation process. This capability allows forenhancing desired target features and suppressing non-desirable features.
And model based processing can naturally support nontraditional sampling
patterns, diverse waveforms, and geometric variations.

Both BP- and FFT-based image formation methods require accurate antenna255+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9093:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI
Examination of the rank of the forward model allows for theoretical insight
into how parameter changes (like motion, waveforms, etc.) effect the rank.
The rank directly corresponds to scene resolvability when the forward model
is generated in the spatial domain. This leads to a natural way to examine
theoretical advantages of diverse system configurations. For example
changing geometries, transmit waveforms, etc. can often improve rank.
And often traditional approaches like windowing in range and azimuth candegrade rank for model based processing.
Model based processing has several practical considerations that need
resolved in order for wide-spread application. First the utility needs to be
demonstrated on actual SAR data. Second, the problem dimension needs tobe reduced to be tractable for scenes of interest, especially 3D scenes. And
lastly robust models need developed that can handle model-mismatch.
This paper focuses on the GOTCHA data set and applies model based
processing to actual 3D scenes and demonstrates results that show
improved interpretability. Some solutions emphasize spatial smoothness,sparsity on others, and aspect smoothness to contrast results.
This problem is formulated as a convex optimization problem particularly
as a second order cone program. This naturally allows for prior target
information about the pixel RCS magnitude to be incorporated spatially andin aspect.
Simulated results are also demonstrated for promising potential
configurations.

9093-8, Session 1

Bayesian autofocus for interrupted SAR using
approximate message passing
Joshua N. Ash, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)
We consider the problem of generating focused synthetic aperture radar
imagery in scenarios where the phase history data suffers from gaps inthe coherent collection. In practice, such gapped collections may arise
from multi-mode radars where the coherent collection over a synthesized
aperture is interrupted by other services, or from wide-band collections
subject to jamming or transmission constraints over sub-bands. Additionally,
we consider collections suffering from motion-induced phase errors in themeasurement acquisition model. Such model discrepancies in uninterrupted
data generally result in defocused imagery, and correction falls to a postprocessing autofocus routine. In this paper we adopt a Bayesian approachto image generation from interrupted and phase-corrupted data. The
Bayesian approach maintains tractability through the use of approximate
message passing and combats ill-posedness through a priori models of thescene and corrupting phase, which is modeled as von Mises Markov chain
across the synthetic aperture. This approach provides posterior confidence
on the output imagery and generalizes recent results in the phase retrieval
literature to include partial phase information. Examples demonstrate theapproach on measured and synthetic imagery.

9093-9, Session 1

Applying stereo SAR to remove heightdependent layover effects from video SAR
imageryThis paper describes a correction technique using stereo Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR) that improves the image quality of VideoSAR. The VideoSAR
mode provides a persistent view of a scene centered at the Motion
Compensation Point (MCP). The radar platform follows a circular flightpath. The effect of height-dependent layover in VideoSAR imagery is that
objects higher than the image plane appear translated towards the alongtrack direction in the image plane. A Digital Elevation Map (DEM) provides

SPIE DSS 2014

9093-10, Session 1

The Born approximation, multiple scattering, andthe butterfly algorithm
Alejandro F. Martinez, The Univ. of Texas-Pan American (UnitedStates)Many imaging algorithms have been designed for the linearized scatteringmodel. In the absence of multiple scattering they are efficient, and fairly
accurate. In order to have a more robust imaging scheme, one needs toaccount for multiple scattering effects. In SAR imaging, one is typicallyinterested in the position and motion of several targets that are somedistance from our antenna. The closer the targets lie to each other, themore likely multi scattering effects become apparent in image formation.
On the other hand, when one wants to test a reconstruction algorithm, theymight use synthetic data. Data that does not contain multiple scattering
effects will not accurately model real world scenarios. We previously
discussed an algorithm for removing high order scattering components
from collected data. The main failure in this work was the lack of efficient
image and data creation methods. Our goal is to continue this work. First
we survey the current state of multiple scattering in SAR. Then we revise
our method and test it. The point is to have an algorithm that will makethe approximation more valid rather than try and replace other algorithms
which were designed with the Born approximation in mind. The idea is tocreate a coarse estimate of the target reflectivity and use it to estimate
high order scattering at the point of data collection. We use the scalar wave
model as the setting for electromagnetic propagation. In order to generatedata, one must evaluate the scattering operator many times. Not only that,
we must evaluate this operator near our targets, so far field estimates fail.
This operator takes the form of a Fourier Integral Operator (FIO). Recent
work has applied the butterfly algorithm to efficiently evaluate a general
FIO. In more recent papers, this has been applied to SAR under the Born
approximation. We apply this work to estimate high order scattering felt at
the receiver. Given an estimate of our target reflectivity, we use a factored
form of the Neumann series for multiple scattering combined with thebutterfly algorithm to efficiently compute the multi scattering effects in
our target region for various frequencies. We then propagate this energy
through free space towards our antenna. A discussion of the convergence ofthe scattering series will be given, along with experimental evaluation of thestability of the series with respect to reflectivity function.

9093-11, Session 2

John Miller, Edward Bishop, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems,
Inc. (United States); Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (UnitedStates)256

the height of the MCP. A height error in the MCP results in a SAR image
that is not centered at the MCP. An objective is to form a sequence of SAR
images centering the MCP for each image. This paper details a correlation
method performed on a pair of SAR images in order to estimate the layover.
Using multiple pairs of images taken from VideoSAR imagery improves thereliability of the layover estimate. Synthetic target imagery with targets at
non-zero heights demonstrates the method. The paper presents 2011-2013
flight data collected by General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (GA-ASI)
implementing the VideoSAR mode with correction for layover. The flightdata demonstrates good video quality with the MCP centered in each video
frame.

·

Estimation of information measures on target
manifolds
Emre Ertin, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available

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Conference 9093:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI

9093-12, Session 2

9093-17, Session 2

Geometric separability analysis for radar
exploitation

Model-based expoitation, uncertainty, andinterpretation

Adam R. Nolan, Andrew J. Lingg, George S. Goley, Etegent
Technologies, Ltd. (United States)

Eric R. Keydel, Leidos (United States)
No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9093-18, Session 2

9093-13, Session 2

Feature selection using sparse Bayesian inference

Recent Improvements to the Radier Tracer
Scattering Prediction Tool

James R. Baxter, T. Scott Brandes, Signal Innovations Group, Inc.
(United States)

Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ. (United States); Austin Mackey,
The Ohio State Univ. (United States)

No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9093-14, Session 2

9093-19, Session 3

Geometrical prediction of SAR templates

Estimating moving target information using
single-channel SAR

Christopher Paulson, Edmund Zelnio, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)

Jacob H. Gunther, Josh Hunsaker, Utah State Univ. (United States);
Hyrum Anderson, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Todd
Moon, Utah State Univ. (United States)

No Abstract Available

This paper addresses the problem of estimating the position and velocity ofmoving targets using only phase history data from single-channel SAR (SCSAR) system. For the case of rectilinear motion of target and SAR platform,
Chapman, Hawes and Nord (2010) showed that many motion profiles leadto the same phase history measurement for an SC-SAR system. Therefore,
uniquely identifying both the (x,y)-position and the (vx,vy)-velocity is
impossible. Furthermore, many moving targets are indistinguishable fromstationary targets.

9093-15, Session 2

Ship detection in SAR images using efficient landmasking methods
Ahmed S. Mashaly, Ezz Farouk, Tarek Mahmoud, Military TechnicalCollege (Egypt)

In the present paper, we define equivalence classes of moving targets andshow that the geometric structure of this set of equivalence classes is thecone of 2-by-2 positive semidefinite (PSD) matrices, which is parameterized
by three variables. We show that the set of equivalence classes containing
stationary targets is a two-dimensional sub-manifold, which is a set having
measure zero. Thus, while there do exist moving target trajectories thatyield the same phase histories as stationary targets, most moving targets
are distinguishable from stationary targets. These findings enable us to give
clarifying definitions for endo- and exo-clutter targets.

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) has an important contribution in monitoring
ships in the littoral regions. This stems from the substantial informationthat SAR images have which can facilitate the ships detection operation.
Coastline images produced by SAR suffer from many deficiencies whicharise from the presence of speckles and strong signals returned from land
and rough sea. The first step in many ship detection systems is to mark andreject the land in SAR images (land masking). This is performed to reduce
the number of false alarms that might be introduced if the land is processedby ship detector. In this paper, two powerful methods for land masking are
introduced. One is based on mathematical morphology while the other isbased on Lee-Jurkevich coastline detection and mean estimator algorithm.
From experimental results, the proposed methods give promising results
for both strongly marking the land area in SAR images and efficiently
preserving the details of coastlines as well.

The paper goes on to study the practical application of these findings
to estimating target motion. By sampling over the space of equivalenceclasses, we develop a linear model for the measurements that includes boththe static scene and the moving targets. We formulate an optimization
problem for simultaneously estimating both static and movers. Conveniently,
the static scene can be estimated analytically, leaving only the moving
targets to be estimated. We assume that there are a small number ofmoving targets (relative to the size of the scene). The sparsity of the movers
is used to develop an estimation algorithm, which is evaluated on simulated
data. Targets are identified up to membership in an equivalence class.
Thus, while targets are not precisely localized in position and velocity, thepresence of moving targets is detected. Prior information about the scene
may be used to resolve the ambiguity.

9093-16, Session 2

Novel approach for assessing uncertainty
propagation via information-theoretic
divergence metrics and multivariate Gaussian
Copula modeling
Brian J. Thelen, Joseph W. Burns, Michigan Tech Research Institute(United States)
No Abstract Available

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Conference 9093:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI

9093-20, Session 39093-24, Session 3

CRB analysis of multichannel SAR with
nonstationary noise

Circular SAR GMTI
Douglas Page, BAE Systems (United States)

Gregory E. Newstadt, Alfred O. Hero III, Univ. of Michigan (UnitedStates); Edmund Zelnio, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9093-25, Session 3

Subband processing for grating lobe
disambiguation in sparse arrays9093-21, Session 3

Detection of moving humans in UHF wideband
SAR

Ryan K. Hersey, Georgia Institute of Technology (United States)
No Abstract Available

Thomas K. Sjögren, Lars M. H. Ulander, Per-Olov Frölind, Anders
Gustavsson, Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
This paper addresses detection of moving and stationary humans in SAR
images, more specifically very high resolution UHF SAR images. The main
problem for detection and imaging of moving targets such as position shift
and target signal smearing also applies to humans. The target smearing
leads to peak signal loss, while the position shift leads to localization
error. The amount of smearing depends on the speed, acceleration andmovement direction of the target during the integration time. The longer
the integration time, the more smearing the target will have and the moredifficult the detection problem will be. Also, for longer integration times,
the movement model for target eventually will be invalid. Prior experimentswith truck and boats on VHF and UHF band has shown that for such targets,a movement model of a straight target track with constant speed are valid
for relatively long integration times. In this paper, experimental results withstationary and moving humans in UHF wideband SAR images are presented.
The experiment included humans in forest to test foliage penetration(FOPEN) ability for detecting humans. The images were generated by
the UWB UHF SAR system LORA. LORA is a wideband array antenna SAR
system developed at the Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI) that isable to operate between 200MHz and 800MHz. Earlier work has shown theability to detect stationary humans in LORA images. The early results of
the new experiment indicate the ability to see moving humans in the UHF
SAR images. The moving human detection performance will depend on
integration time, integration angle and target dynamics. The experimentand the results with regard to the potential of moving and stationary humandetection will be explained and presented in the final paper.

9093-26, Session 3

Extracting target shape invariants from pulsed
radar data
Matthew A. Ferrara, Gregory Arnold, Matrix Research Inc. (UnitedStates); Mark Stuff, Michigan Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates); Jason T. Parker, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9093-27, Session 3

ISAR image-aided measurement-level radar/AIS
fusion for maritime surveillance
Bhashyam Balaji, Michael K. McDonald, Anthony Damini,
Christopher M. Parry, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada)No Abstract Available

9093-28, Session 3

An FFT-based along track interferometry (ATI)
approach to SAR-based GMTI

9093-22, Session 3

Ground vehicle ISAR for feature-aided tracking

Daniel Thomas, SRC Inc. (United States)

Stephen J. Hershkowitz, Brian Lamb, Electromagnetic Systems, Inc.
(United States)

No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9093-29, Session 39093-23, Session 3

Simultaneous SAR and GMTI using ATI/DPCA

Blind phase calibration for along-track
interferometry: application to gotcha data set

Matthew Best, Air Force Lifecycle Management Ctr. (United States);
Ross Deming, Solid State Scientific Corp. (United States); Sean
Farrell, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Faruk Uysal, Vinay Murthy, C&P Technologies, Inc. (United States);
Steven Scarborough, Air Force Research Laboratory, WPAFB(United States)

At the 2013 SPIE meeting, we presented GMTI detection and geo-location
results from the Gotcha 2006 data set using our algorithm, which is a hybridof along-track interferometry (ATI) and the displaced phase center antenna(DPCA) technique. These results were compared against GPS truth for the
scripted vehicle target. Our presentation this year expands the use of ATI/DPCA in order to detect and geo-locate all observable moving targets in the
Gotcha data, including both the scripted movers and targets of opportunity.
In addition, we present a computationally efficient SAR imaging techniquefor computing an image of the scene of interest using the same pulses

No Abstract Available

258

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Conference 9093:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXI
of data we used for the GMTI processing. The GMTI detections are thenoverlaid on the SAR image to produce a simultaneous SAR/GMTI map.

9093-30, Session 3

Multiresolution spatio-temporal modeling ofvideo using Kronecker PCA
Kristjan Greenewald, Univ. of Michigan (United States); Edmund
Zelnio, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Alfred O. Hero III,
Univ. of Michigan (United States)
We propose a new multiway multiresolution dimension reduction method,
called Kronecker PCA, for performing dimension reduction in video imagery.
The method simultaneously exploits spatial and temporal information
about objects in the video. Kronecker PCA performs a special type ofdimensionality reduction that is adapted to spatio-temporal data and ischaracterized by the $T$ frame multiframe mean $mu$ and covariance$Sigma$ of $N$ spatial features, e.g. pixel values. After applying Kronecker
PCA standard learning methods can be reliably applied, e.g. to perform
object classification over a few frames, despite small sample size. Our focus
is on EO video imaging, but our methods easily generalize to other spacetime modalities, e.g. thermal and radar imaging.
We use the space vs. time Kronecker PCA in the estimation of $Sigma$ asin (Greenewald et al. 2013, Tsiligkaridis et al. 2013). This approach imposes
structure by modeling $Sigma$ as a sum of a few ($r$ = separationrank) space vs. time Kronecker products. Further structure is imposedby forcing $Sigma$ to be block Toeplitz for stationarity and using themultivariate AR model to force the inverse covariance to be block banded.
This imposed structure on the estimated covariance matrix significantly
reduces the number of samples required for estimation. For large $N$ andscarce training samples, we replace the arbitrary spatial covariance witha sparse multiresolution model, with the temporal dimension represented
using Kronecker PCA. Our multiresolution covariance model is based onthat of (Choi et al. 2010), modified for space-time data and improved
computational efficiency.
The learned covariance is used to obtain spatio-temporal features which
are then used for classification. Methods for the localization in space and/ortime of the discriminatory values are also considered.
We apply our methods to classification tasks using a dismount video dataset
and compare the results to those of existing methods.

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Conference 9094: Optical Pattern Recognition XXV
Tuesday - Wednesday 6 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9094 Optical Pattern Recognition XXV

9094-20, Session Posters-Tuesday

9094-2, Session 1

MINACE filter: variants of realization in 4-f
correlator

A midwave compressive imaging system designfor high throughput (Invited Paper)

Dmitry V. Shaulskiy, Nikolay Evtikhiev, Rostislav S. Starikov, Sergey
N. Starikov, Evgeny Y. Zlokazov, National Research Nuclear Univ.
MEPhI (Russian Federation)

Richard Shilling, Robert R. Muise, Abhijit Mahalanobis, Lockheed
Martin Missiles and Fire Control (United States)
We describe the design and evaluate the performance of a compressive
imaging system comprised of a 256x320 detector array sensitive to midwave infrared, DMD, objective & relay lenses. The irradiance of each detector
element is characterized that allows a system of measurements to be madeseparable from other detectors. The FOV is divided into smaller areas basedon the support of each detector, allowing for tractable high throughput
reconstructions. Based on our previous work, we apply optimal codes
subject to device constraints and give favorable results. We also include
feasibility experiments for tracking using point detection codes on thecompressive imaging system.

Minimum Noise And Correlation Energy (MINACE) filters application
provides good ability to recognize in the case of gray-scale input imagesof object with background noises. For fast correlation matching MINACE
filters can be used in 4-f correlators as computer generated hologram(holographic filters). In this paper different variants of holographic filters
realization were discussed. The results of correlation recognition with
holographic MINACE filters are presented.

9094-21, Session Posters-Tuesday
9094-3, Session 1

Invariant correlation filters comparison for
multiclass recognition of scaled objects

Recent advances in correlation filter theory andapplication (Invited Paper)

Petr A. Ivanov, Yaroslavl State Univ. (Russian Federation)
One of the most interesting problems in optical data processing is the
problem of recognition of images with geometrical distortions at the input
of image recognition system. There are several approaches to the solutionof this problem; one of the most popular (especially for large size images
received from satellites or airplanes) is to use an optoelectronic correlatorof images. In such devices the input image is recognized by the size andlocation of output correlation peak. In the paper there are presented resultsof scaled image recognition modeling with the help of optical correlator
with invariant correlation filters like MACE,GMACE,MINACE and DCCF.
There was created a database that contains grayscale images with different
resolution with change of scale with step of 1% and 2% in range of 50% to150% of original image size. The image database for testing include imagesof true and false classes.There are presented qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of output correlation peaks. Also there is provided an analysisof positive and negative side of each filter’s type as for single class only
scaled images recognition so for multiclass one. Also there are shown results
for modeling of images with more complex distortions recognition using
all mentioned types of filters.The results of modeling give a chance to use
these filters successfully in such kind of recognition problems.

High-speed optical processing using digital
micromirror device (Invited Paper)
Tien-Hsin Chao, Thomas T. Lu, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States);
Brian P. Walker, Georgia Institute of Technology (United States);
George F. Reyes, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)
We have designed optical processing architecture and algorithms utilizing
the DMD as the input and filter Spatial Light Modulators (SLM). Detailed
system analysis will be depicted. Experimental demonstration, for the firsttime, will also be provided. The high-resolution, high-bandwidth provided
by the DMD and its potential low cost due to mass production will enable its
vast defense and civil applications.

SPIE DSS 2014

This talk will review recent correlation filter developments including
maximum margin correlation filters (MMCFs), zero-aliasing correlation
filters (ZACFs) and multi-peak correlation filters. The paper will also discuss
applications of correlation filters for biometric image matching and for key
binding.

9094-4, Session 1

Performance comparison of photorefractive twobream coupling correlator with optimal fiberbased correlators (Invited Paper)
Jed Khoury, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Mohammad S.
Alam, Univ. of South Alabama (United States); Partha P. Banerjee,
Georges T. Nehmetallah, Univ. of Dayton (United States); Daniel M.
Martin, William M. Durrant, Univ. of South Alabama (United States)

9094-1, Session 1

260

B. V. K. Vijaya Kumar, Joseph A Fernandez, Carnegie Mellon
Univ. (United States); Andres Rodriguez, US Air Force ResearchLaboratory (United States); Vishnu Naresh Boddeti, Carnegie Mellon
Univ. (United States)·

The photorefractive (PR) joint transform correlator (JTC) combines two
features. The first is embedded semi-adaptive optimality which weighs
the correlation against clutter and noise in the input and the second is theintrinsic dynamic range compression nonlinearity which improves several
metrics simultaneously without metric tradeoff. The performance of thisTBC JTC scheme is evaluated against several other well-known correlation
filters that have been developed in the last three decades. The result showsthat this TBC JTC is a very robust correlator in standard evaluation metrics
for different sets of data.

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Conference 9094: Optical Pattern Recognition XXV

9094-5, Session 1

9094-8, Session 2

Data science and analytics measurement andbenchmarking (Invited Paper)

Performance evaluation of photorefractive twobeam coupling joint transform correlator

Ashit Talukder, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)

Georges T. Nehmetallah, Partha P. Banerjee, Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates); Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South Alabama (UnitedStates); Jed Khoury, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

No Abstract Available

In this paper, we present a method for reducing the computation time ofAutonomous Target Recognition (ATR) algorithms through the utilization of
a GPU based cluster. A selected ATR algorithm is refounded to encourage
efficient communication and execution on a GPU based cluster. Suchrefounding includes reimplementations of Preprocessing, Feature Extraction,
Classification and Correlation using NVIDIA’s CUDA programming model.
Dynamic workload distribution architecture ensures constant node activity
for maximal throughput. This method is shown to reduce computation timeof the selected ATR algorithm allowing the potential for further complexity
and real-time applications.

Photorefractive (PR) materials have been extensively used for numerous
applications such as dynamic holography, two-beam coupling (TBC), phaseconjugation, optical correlation, edge enhancement and edge enhanced
correlation, etc. PR polymers offer the advantage of a low cost high gain PR
medium where the gain coefficient and its direction can be changed with anapplied voltage. Here, we analyze the performance of a novel optical joint
transform correlator (JTC) based on TBC in a PR polymer first demonstrated
by Khoury et al., JOSA B 11 2167 (1994). In PR TBC, energy exchange ispossible from a strong pump beam to a weak probe beam. In TBCJTC, thespatial Fourier transform of the reference and signal images to be correlated
constitutes the pump. A weak probe beam, which interacts with the pumpin a PR polymer placed on the common Fourier plane in a novel 4f setup, isthereafter spatially Fourier transformed and contains the JTC of the images.
The advantages of this technique over the conventional JTC (CJTC) are:enhancement of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) through dynamic range
compression, intrinsic high pass filtering or enhancement of higher spatial
frequencies, and sharpening of the correlation peak due to saturation
nonlinearity for appropriate values of the PR gain and pump-probe beamratio. Through extensive simulations of different sets of reference andsignal images, we calculate relevant figures of merit such as discrimination
ratio, peak-to-correlation plane energy ratio and peak-to-noise ratio, anddemonstrate their dependence on the PR gain coefficient and pump-probe
beam ratios.

9094-7, Session 2

9094-9, Session 3

Local binary patterns preprocessing for face
identification/verification using the VanderLugt
correlator

A novel multitracking system for the evaluation ofhigh-level swimmers performances

9094-6, Session 2

GPU processing for parallel image processing andreal-time object recognition
Kevin Vincent, California State University (United States); Damien
Nguyen, Saddleback College (United States); Brian P. Walker,
Georgia Institute of Technology (United States); Thomas T. Lu, TienHsin Chao, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)

D. Benara, Thibault Napoléon, Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest (France);
A. Verney, ACTRIS (France); P. Hellar, FFN (France)

Thibault Napoléon, Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest (France)

Swimmer tracking has specific difficulties compared to the other tracking
systems due to some complex problems such as occlusion (by anotherperson, a wall or splashing), variability of the target (in appearance,lighting or behavior). To overcome these issues, we developed several
mono-tracking systems based on some well-known pattern recognition
techniques such as Histogram based methods, LBP descriptors and opticalcorrelation. After several intensive tests, we noticed that this latter method
has shown good performances compared to the others but it still needs
an enhancement in terms of temporal coherence of the reference (thereference is not recent enough). As a solution to this problem, we proposethe 3D temporal concept which relies on updating the reference by the
one that gave the best correlation after a predefined time interval. Then,
we noticed that the tracking may dropout after several frames because
we lost the robust definition of the reference which is the first one. That iswhy; we propose to take advantage of the composite filter concept which
is a weighted summation of several images to ensure the reliability (thefirst reference) and the temporal coherence (the recent reference) of thereference image. Finally, we propose a novel multi-tracking system basedon the Non-Linear JTC (Joint Transform Correlator) optical correlation
technique to track several potential targets which increases the chances ofgetting a reliable tracking system.

The face recognition tasks can be divided into two categories: verification(i.e. compare two images in order to know if they represent the same
person) and identification (i.e. find the identity of a person into the database). Several powerful face recognition methods exist, in literature, forcontrolled environments: constrained illumination, frontal pose, neutral
expression... However, there are few reliable methods for the uncontrolledcase. Optical correlation has shown its interest through relevantarchitectures for controlled and uncontrolled environments. Based on thisarchitecture, we propose a novel method for verification and identification
tasks under illumination variation conditions. More specifically, we optimize
the performances of a correlation method against illumination changes byusing and adapting the Local Binary Patterns (LBP) description. This later iswidely used in the literature to describe the texture of an image. For both,target image and reference image, we begin by using a specific-Gaussians
function as first step of LBP-VLC correlator. This function describes theconsidered image texture with 8 bits words. Then we applied the adapted
LBP-VLC method. To validate our new approach, we used a simple POF
filter (others correlation filters can be used). The simulations are done using
the YaleB and YaleB Extended databases that contain respectively 10 and
38 identities with 64 illuminations. The results obtained reach more than
94% and 92% for the verification and 93% and 90% for the identification
case. These results show the good performances of our approach of LBPcorrelation methods against illumination changes.

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Conference 9094: Optical Pattern Recognition XXV

9094-10, Session 3vector U then represents the ID code to identify this object possessing
this particular boundary shape. Therefore, U may be used for tracking andtargeting on this particular object when this object is moving very fast in a
2D space and criss-crossing with other fast moving objects embedded in thesame field of view.

Target tracking using log-polar transformbased shifted phase-encoded joint transform
correlation
Mohammed N. Islam, Worku T Bitew, The State Univ. of New York
(United States)
Automatic target detection and tracking requires efficient recognitionof the target pattern in variable environmental conditions. Optical joint
transform correlation (JTC) has been observed to efficiently recognize atarget without requiring complex optical set up. However, the classical JTC
suffers from poor correlation performance, which can be improved throughusing different modified designs. A very successful scheme is developed
employing phase-shifted and phase-encoded fringe-adjusted JTC (SPFJTC),
which provides with a high discrimination between a target and non-target
objects in a given scene and better utilization of the space-bandwidth
resource. Further enhancement of the target detect performance can beachieved by incorporating log-polar transform in the SPFJTC technique.
Log-polar transformation applied to both the reference image and the
input scene can make the pattern recognition invariant to rotation and scalevariations. Peak-to-side lobe ratio is measured and a threshold operation is
employed to detect and track a target in an unknown input scene.

9094-11, Session 3

Performance evaluation of optimal filters fortarget detection and tracking using SAR imagery
Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South Alabama (United States); Jed
Khoury, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Partha P. Banerjee,
Univ. of Dayton (United States); William M. Durant, Daniel M. Martin,
Univ. of South Alabama (United States); Georges T. Nehmetallah,
Univ. of Dayton (United States)
Various matched filter based architectures have been proposed over the lasttwo decades to optimize the target detection and recognition performance.
While these techniques provide excellent performance with respect to one
or more parameters, a unified and synergistic approach to evaluate theperformance of these techniques under the same constraints is yet to be
done. Consequently, in this paper, we used a set of generalized performance
metrics for comparing the performance of the recently reported matchedfilter based techniques using various types of infrared and SAR datasets.
Test results obtained using the aforementioned datasets and performance
metrics provide excellent information with respect to the suitability ofexisting filter based techniques for various target detection and tracking
practical applications.

9094-13, Session 3

A proposed optical system for implementing thenovel super-fast image processing scheme: The
LPED method
Chialun John Hu, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (United States)
LPED method, or Local Polar Edge Detection method, is a novel method theauthor discovered and implemented in many image processing schemesin the last 3 years with 3 papers published in this and other SPIE national
conferences. It uses a special real-time boundary extraction method applied
to some binary images taken by an un-cooled IR camera on some hightemperature objects embedded in a cold environment background in the far
field.
The unique boundary shape of each high temperature object can then be
used to construct a 36D analog vector (a 36 “digit” number U, with each“digit” being a positive analog number of any magnitude). This 36D analog

262

SPIE DSS 2014·

The current paper will report a preliminary optical bench design of the
optical system that will use the above developed soft-ware to construct areal-time, instant-detect, instant track, and automatic targeting high power
laser gun system, for shooting down any spontaneously launched enemy
surface-to-air-missiles from the near-by battle ground. It uses the totalreflection phenomenon in the Wollastron beam combiner and real-timemonitor screen auto-targeting and firing system to implement this “instantdetect, instant-kill, SAM killer system”.

9094-14, Session 4

Addressing channel noise and bit rate in a multichannel free space optical communication system
Brian P. Walker, Georgia Institute of Technology (United States);Thomas T. Lu, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Colin Costello,
California State Polytechnic Univ., Pomona (United States); George
F. Reyes, Tien-Hsin Chao, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)
In this paper, we present a method to optimize Multi-Channel Free Space
Optical Communication for statically aligned transmitter-receiver pairs.
Pattern recognition algorithms are employed to minimize crosstalk between
pixels, and reducing the need for channel redundancy. Digitization isaccomplished through comparison with several look up tables that are
generated during alignment. A multi-stage encoding method is used
to reduce the effects of global and local noise sources. Simulation andexperimental verification of this method shows improved data rates andreduced bit error rates (BER) over previous algorithms.

9094-15, Session 4

A rotation-invariant pattern recognition
using spectral fringe-adjusted joint transform
correlator and histogram representation
Paheding Sidike, Theus Aspiras, Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton(United States); Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South Alabama(United States)
A new rotation-invariant pattern recognition technique, based on
spectral fringe-adjusted joint transform correlator (SFJTC) and histogram
representation, is proposed. Synthetic discriminant function (SDF) based
joint transform correlation (JTC) techniques have shown attractive
performance in rotation-invariant pattern recognition applications. However,when the targets present in a complex scene, SDF-based JTC techniques
may produce false detection due to inaccurate estimation of rotation angleof training images. Therefore, we herein propose an efficient rotationinvariant JTC scheme which does not require a priori rotation training of thereference image. In the proposed technique, we introduce a new modified
Gaussian ringlet intensity distribution (GRID) descriptor, which is employed
to obtain rotation-invariant features from the reference image. In this step,
we divide the reference image into multiple ringlets and extract histogram
distribution of each ringlet, and then concatenate them into a vector asa target signature. Similarly, an unknown input scene is also represented
by the GRID which produces a multidimensional input image. Finally, theconcept of the SFJTC is incorporated and utilized for target detection in
the input scene. The classical SFJTC was proposed for detecting very small
objects involving only few pixels in hyperspectral imagery. However, in our
proposed algorithm, the SFJTC is applied for a two-dimensional image
without limitation of the size of objects and most importantly it achieves
rotation-invariant target discriminability. Simulation results verify that the
proposed scheme performs satisfactorily in detecting targets in the input
scene irrespective of rotation of the object.

www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9094: Optical Pattern Recognition XXV

9094-16, Session 4

to achieve full lateral resolution. A novel quadrature processing method
is introduced to achieve the full lateral resolution coupled with a fully
automated and novel de-banding algorithm to achieve the 3D surface
reconstruction.

Local directional pattern of phase congruency
features for illumination invariant facerecognition

9094-18, Session 4

Almabrok Essa, Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton (United States)

Finding weak edges in imagery

Abstract:
An illumination-robust face recognition system using Local Directional
Pattern (LDP) descriptors in Phase Congruency (PC) space is proposed inthis paper. The proposed Directional Pattern of Phase Congruency (DPPC)
is an oriented and multi-scale local descriptor that is able to encode various
patterns of face images under different lighting conditions. It is constructedby applying LDP on the oriented PC images. A LDP feature is obtainedby computing the edge response values in eight directions at each pixel
position and encoding them into an eight bit binary number using therelative strength magnitude of these edge responses. Phase congruency
and local directional pattern have been independently used in the field offace recognition and facial expression recognition, since they are robust toillumination changes and has computational simplicity. When PC extracts
the discontinuities in the image such as edges and corners, the LDP
computes the edge response values in different directions and uses theseto encode the image texture. The local directional pattern descriptor on
the phase congruency image is subjected to principal component analysis(PCA) for dimensionality reduction for fast and effective face recognition
application. The performance evaluation of the proposed DPPC algorithm isconducted on several publicly available databases and observed promising
recognition rates. Better classification accuracy shows the superiority of
LDP descriptor against other appearance-based feature descriptors such as
Local Binary Pattern (LBP). In other words, our result shows that by using
LDP descriptor the Euclidean distance between reference image and testing
images in the same class are much less than that between reference image
and testing images from the other classes. Research work is in progress toemploy 2D PCA of the DPPC descriptors for dimensionality reduction andfeature representation.

Prakash Duraisamy, Old Dominion Univ. (United States) and
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States); Stephen
Jackson, Xiaohui Yuan, Univ. of North Texas (United States);
Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South Alabama (United States)

Summary:

Recently, substantial efforts have been made to find an alternative
approach to the Shannon sampling theorem with a method that can deal
with large data sets, something for which the Shannon theorem is noteasily applicable. If applied, the above approach would have to surmountdifficult computational problems resulting from large data. In order to deal
with the large data sets, we avoid a universal image acquisition and use
wavelet matrices based on tree structures. The proposed approach allows
a calculation reduction that yields a better control over the compressed
image quality. The suggested technique also advocates a selective approachover the non-adaptive, random functions favored by the Shannon sampling
theorem.

Edge detection is an important process in many computer vision and image
processing applications. In specific, it is employed in feature detection andextraction for identifying changes in image gradient or discontinuities. The
traditional edge detection algorithms work well under sufficient contrast
and fail under poor illumination, in which case weak edges exist. This
paper focuses on extracting weak edges. Our proposed method detects
weak edges by using image registration. Images which depict different
views of weak edges are registered, which reinforces the weak edges.
Experiments on a number of 2D images show that our algorithm overcomes
the drawbacks of traditional edge detection algorithm and successfully findintriguing weak edges within an image.

9094-19, Session 4

Wavelet analysis for compressed image sensing
using matrices
Andre U Sokolnikov, Visual Solutions and Applications (UnitedStates)

An illumination-robust face recognition system using Local Directional
Pattern (LDP) descriptors in Phase Congruency (PC) space is proposedin this paper. When PC extracts the discontinuities in the image such asedges and corners, the LDP computes the edge response values in different
directions and uses these to encode the image texture. The local directional
pattern descriptor on the phase congruency image is subjected to principal
component analysis (PCA) for dimensionality reduction for fast and effective
face recognition application. Experimental results show that the proposed
DPPC model is a useful approach for facial feature representation that can
improve the reliability of face recognition system in natural settings.

9094-17, Session 4

A novel two-pattern full lateral resolution
structured light illumination method
Minghao Wang, Laurence G. Hassebrook, Univ. of Kentucky (UnitedStates)
Structured Light Illumination is a widely used 3D shape measurement
technique in non-contact surface scanning and can use one or morepatterns in implementation. Multi-pattern techniques achieve both nonambiguous and accurate measurements, but are limited to stationary
objects. The Composite Pattern was introduced as a single patterntechnique and modulates several Phase Measuring Profilometry patterns
into a single pattern. The Modified Composite Pattern was developed basedon Composite Pattern, but instead of modulation of whole patterns, it
modulates individual regions of a single pattern. This Modified Composite
Pattern is non-ambiguous and reduced the problem of contrast sensitivity.
However, there is still a limitation in lateral resolution. In this paper, we
introduce a novel two-pattern 3D depth measuring system that utilizes
a MCP pattern to achieve non-ambiguity and a single sinusoidal pattern263+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9095: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications IX
Tuesday 6 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9095 Modeling and Simulation for Defense Systems and Applications IX

9095-1, Session 1

Using artificial intelligence for automating testingof a resident space object collision avoidancesystem on an orbital spacecraft
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
Resident space objects (RSOs) pose a significant threat to orbital assets.
Due to the nature of orbital mechanics and astrodynamics, when objects
in orbits with different inclinations or other characteristics strike eachother, they do so with a significant differences in the direction (andpossibly magnitude) of their velocity vector. This makes collisions between
multiple spacecraft, spacecraft and RSOs and even between RSOs quite
problematic as the damage to the spacecraft is significant and the collision
will generally produce a significant amount of new RSOs with various orbital
characteristics which will further clutter the orbital space.
For this reason, many commercial and governmental spacecraft incorporate
collision avoidance systems. These systems may act autonomously or in
conjunction with ground controllers to implement maneuvers to remove
the spacecraft from the path of objects that might strike it. Each maneuverdraws from a limited supply of onboard fuel (the rate of consumption ofwhich is a key factor in the lifespan of the spacecraft) and thus maneuverswhich are triggered needlessly or which move the spacecraft too far out of
the way (beyond a designated margin for calculation and sensing error) arehighly undesirable.

9095-3, Session 1
Jeevake Attapattu, Ershad Sharifahmadian, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)

This paper presents initial work on the adaptation of a testing environment
previously used for validating human proximity safety in ground robots andaerial collision avoidance for use in verifying and validating the effective
and safe operations of RSO CASs. It reviews the need, presents the systemand qualitatively evaluates its utility. An overview of an autonomous
testing system for use in validating the performance of an orbital collision
avoidance system is provided. It characterizes the benefits of performing
testing using an autonomous testing system instead of performing thetesting manually. A qualitative evaluation of the benefits posed by both
approaches is presented.

Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) sensors supply image data with spatial andspectral resolution which can be utilized to detect and identify desired
objects in a scene. To better study the HSI sensors and remote sensing
system performance, different parts of the remote sensing system can bemodeled. Over the last decade, various modeling techniques have beenpresented in the literature. Generally, different modeling methods are
employed depending on their applications such as military, meteorology,
etc.
Modeling techniques which use the spatial-spectral information, have
evolved from only the usage of one type of sensors (e.g. multispectral
sensors), to more recent methods which utilize electro-optical and radar
sensors.
Here, a scientific overview of recent modeling techniques is presented
to come up with an appropriate approach for the application of target
detection. Unlike current modeling methods in the literature, this study
explains and assesses different aspects of modeling techniques fortarget detection comprehensively. In particular, this study focuses on thedevelopment in modeling of scene, sensors, and processing algorithms.
Moreover, the parallelization of the methods which speeds up the process ofthe target detection, is considered.
With consideration of remote sensing challenges for target detection in
real-world, an efficient approach for modeling of target detection is a hybrid
modeling method composed of hyperspectral sensors, radars, and local
sensors in which operations are done in parallel, where possible.

9095-2, Session 1

9095-4, Session 1

Portability scenarios for intelligent robotic
control agent software

Migrating EO/IR sensor simulations to cloudbased infrastructure as a service architectures

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Stephen Berglie, Steven Webster, KINEX (United States);
Christopher M. May, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

Portability scenarios are critical in designing simulation-based tests for
ensuring that a piece of AI control software will run effectively across aprospective collection of craft that it is (or may in the future) required tocontrol (for example in a multi-craft system). They are thus critical to theprocess of the development and testing of artificial intelligence control
software. They inform software design through assisting in the resolutionof tradeoffs between software capabilities, control capabilities and theprocessing requirements that they drive.

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release.
The Night Vision Image Generator (NVIG), a product of US Army RDECOMCERDEC NVESD, is a visualization tool used widely throughout Army
simulation environments to provide fully attributed synthesized full motion
video using physics-based sensor and environmental effects. The NVIG
relies heavily on contemporary hardware-based acceleration and GPU
processing techniques which push the envelope of both enterprise andcommodity-level hypervisor support for providing virtual machines withThis paper presents an overview of the portability scenarios that are
applicable to a piece of AI control software that will be required to control
multiple robots with heterogeneous movement and functional control

SPIE DSS 2014

The aforementioned portability scenarios define part of the requirements
for the agent control software for the multiple heterogeneous craft system.
These scenarios define the: (a) different parts of the system, (b) what theydo, (c) the actuators and sensors that they use to perform their mission,and (d) other key requirements and constraints of the particular craft type.
These scenarios and the performance criteria are high-level specifications
for assessing individual craft performance. This information is critical tosoftware development as well as understanding the system as a whole.

Modeling techniques for remote sensing

The emergence of numerous kinds of smaller spacecraft incorporating (or, insome cases, testing) numerous different forms of propulsion and possessing
different characteristics (e.g., location of center of mass) means thatnumerous different collision avoidance systems (or configurations) will beneeded. These lower-cost spacecraft will, in many cases, not have aroundthe-clock human controllers to rely on for commanding and reviewing
emergency maneuvers. They also have smaller budgets, driving a need forlower-cost techniques. Thus, there is a need for a high-reliability method forverifying and validating the performance of RSO collision avoidance systems(CASs) at minimum cost levels.

264

characteristics in a multi-tier architecture. For each prospective target-craft
type, its capabilities, mission function, location, communications capabilities
and power profile are presented and performance characteristics arereviewed. This work will inform future work related to decision making
related to software capabilities, hardware control capabilities and processing
requirements.

·

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Conference 9095: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications IX
direct access to hardware resources.

Initialization, running, and maintenance of motion tracking technologies
becomes a difficult challenge as more military training is done with MR, AR,
and VR technologies

The NVIG has successfully been integrated into fully virtual environments
where system architectures leverage cloud-based technologies to various
extents in order to streamline infrastructure and service management. This
paper details the challenges presented to engineers seeking to migrate
GPU-bound processes, such as the NVIG, to virtual machines and, ultimately,
Cloud-Based IIAS architectures. It further presents the path that led tosuccess for the NVIG.

Many tracking technologies exist, such as optical, inertial, ultrasonic, andmagnetic. Some systems even combine these technologies to complement
each other. However, there are no systems that provide a high-resolution,
flexible, wide-area solution that is resistant to occlusion. While frameworks
exist that simplify the use of tracking systems and other input devices, none
allow data from heterogeneous tracking hardware to be combined.

A brief overview of Cloud-Based infrastructure management tool sets isprovided, and several virtual desktop solutions are outlined. A discrimination
is made between general purpose virtual desktop technologies compared
to technologies that expose GPU-specific capabilities including direct
rendering and hardware-based video encoding. Candidate hypervisor/virtual
machine configurations that nominally satisfy the virtualized hardware-level
GPU requirements of the NVIG are presented, and each is subsequently
reviewed in light of its implications on higher-level Cloud management
techniques. Implementation details are included from the hardware level
through the operating system to the 3D graphics APIs required by the NVIG
and similar GPU-bound tools.

In this paper, a method, implemented in software, is introduced allowing
multiple pieces of tracking hardware to be combined into a single system.
The hardware can be from different vendors using different technologies(i.e. optical, inertial, etc.). Individual tracked objects are identified by name,and their data is provided to any simulation applications (e.g., supporting
MOUT or LVC training) through a central server program. This allows tracked
objects to transition seamlessly from the area of one tracking system toanother. Furthermore, it abstracts away the individual drivers, application
programming interfaces (APIs), and data formats for each system. Insteada single, simplified API is used to interact with data from any componentof the “unified” tracking system. In addition, single, homogenous tracking
systems within the unified system can themselves be tracked, allowing
for real-time adjustment of their trackable area. Tracked and non-tracked
areas for training simulations can be exchanged in real-time allowing
simulation operators to leverage limited resources in more effective ways,
and improving the quality of training. The paper will present full details on
development of the method as well as implementation into software. Results
will presented showing accuracy of the system as well as two formal user
studies conducted for military training that took advantage of the proposed
methods and software.

9095-5, Session 2

High-fidelity modeling and simulation forcompressive sensing-based receivers
Chen Wu, Sreeraman Rajan, Anne Young, Christina O’Regan,
Defence Research and Development Canada (Canada)
As part of a system engineering practice, modeling and simulation should
be carried out, before building and testing of systems. This engineering
practice often pre-identifies performance issues so that appropriate designmodifications and/or process changes can be adopted before systems are
introduced into the field. The High-Fidelity RF/microwave Modeling and
Simulation (RF-HFM&S) approach is one of the methods used in RF design
environment to capture the high-fidelity behavioural model (HFBM) of asystem to understand the system behaviour in the dynamic field conditions.
Such behavioural models and simulations allow for the development ofsystem specifications that can encompass various scenarios embedded withdifferent operating environments.

9095-7, Session 2

Integrated sensor architecture (ISA) for live
virtual constructive (LVC) environments
Christine L. Moulton, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States); John Harrell, Jared J. Hepp, Oakwood
Controls Corp. (United States)
The Integrated Sensor Architecture (ISA) is an interoperability solutionthat allows for the sharing of information between sensors and systems
in a dynamic tactical environment. The ISA created a Service Oriented
Architecture (SOA) that identifies common standards and protocols
which support a net-centric system of systems integration. Utilizing acommon language, these systems are able to connect, publish their needs
and capabilities, and interact with other systems even on disadvantaged
networks. Within the ISA project, three levels of interoperability were
defined and implemented and these levels were tested at many events.
Extensible data models and capabilities that are scalable across multiechelons are supported, as well as dynamic discovery of capabilities
and sensor management. The ISA has been tested and integrated withmultiple sensors, platforms, and over a variety of hardware architectures inoperational environments.

In a previous SPIE paper, we had introduced an RF-HFM&S approachthat uses System Tool Kit (STK®) with Matlab/Simulink® for wideband
digital receiver development. In this paper, we build on that approach andintroduce an RF-HFM&S method that adopts STK with Matlab in conjunction
with SystemVue®. Further, the RF-HFM&S is demonstrated by applying it todevelop the HFBM of a Compressive Sensing (CS)-based receiver.
Using the compressive sensing paradigm, a multi-channel receiving system
is modeled with different antenna array configurations. The modelled
multi-channel receiving system is installed on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV) platform, and configured to intercept a ground-based emitter signal
inside the simulation environment. The performance is evaluated through ascenario that is modelled in STK®.

Future ISA work will focus on improving the underlying mesh infrastructure
to maximize efficiency and quality of service to sensors and systems.
Additionally, more complex services will be implemented to enhance theinitial capabilities and better anticipate the needs of a component. The
computational overhead of ISA may also be further optimized to make it an
attractive solution for live virtual constructive environments (LVC) that canbe embedded directly into sensor hardware.

9095-6, Session 2

MetaTracker: Integration and abstraction of 3D
motion tracking data from multiple hardware
systems
Ken Kopecky, Eliot Winer, Iowa State Univ. (United States)
Motion tracking has long been one of the primary challenges in mixed
reality (MR), augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR). Military anddefense training can provide particularly difficult challenges for motion
tracking, such as in the case of Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT)
training, live, virtual and constructive (LVC) training and other dismounted,
close quarters training simulations. Advanced military training, done in thismanner, can take place across large spaces, with many fast-moving objects
that need to be tracked with a high degree of accuracy and low latency.

265+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9095: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications IX

9095-8, Session 2

al., 1999). In sum, the Integrated Family Center Model is design that may
enhance the overall effectiveness of the Aviation Disaster Family Assistance
Act from an emergency management and disaster management vantage.
Finally, several diagnostic tools are presented that may be employed at thepractitioner level. These tools are designed to assess the degree to which
the Integrated Family Assistance Center Model, along with its operational
components, can be implemented upon activation by a specific jurisdiction
through a set of knowledge fusion & remote, laser-driven, remote accesstechnologies for overall knowledge management purposes.

Mean square error performance evaluation of
a commercial speckle imaging system using
simulated imagery
Jeremy P. Bos, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States);Petersen F. Curt, Aryeh Kuller, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States);
Michael C. Roggemann, Michigan Technological Univ. (UnitedStates)Imagery acquired over long horizontal paths suffer from severe
anisoplanatic blurring due to volume turbulence. Compensating for the
non-uniform tip/tilt present in these images presents a challenge for mostimage reconstruction techniques. In previous works, [1][2] we evaluatedthe capability of speckle imaging algorithms applied to this task. Objective
evaluation of reconstruction performance was enabled via the developmentof a horizontal imaging simulation model [3] that introduces anisoplanatic
imaging distortions using phase screens with Kolmogorov statistics. We
found SI techniques were able to reduce MSE by around 45% over the entire
range of turbulence conditions evaluated compared to the uncompensatedimagery.
The purpose of this talk is to describe the performance of commercial
speckle imaging system [4] using the same process as in [1]. The simulated
image sets described in [3] have been supplied to EM Photonics-thedevelopers of the commercial system. EM Photonics will reconstruct
images from the data set using their production algorithm and the results
will be analyzed by the entire team. We feel that the performance of thesystem described and in particular the translation of research work to acommercially available product is of significant interest to the Intelligence,
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) community. This work is acollaborative effort among Dr. Jeremy Bos (formerly of Michigan Techcurrently NRC postdoc at AFRL), Mr. Petersen Curt (EM Photonics), Mr.
Aryeh Kuller, and Dr. Michael C. Roggemann.

9095-10, Session 3

Real aircrafts or flight simulators? What is the
optimum usage in flight training?
Mustafa Cevik, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)
Flight training especially training of a fighter jet pilot is one of the mostexpensive, long-lasting and risky training in the World. In fact, after
becoming jet pilots, training does not finish, because they are required tocontinue flying in order to keep their combat readiness.
Flight simulators emerged to decrease the high-costs and long time,
while also keeping more pilots alive. By applications of technologicaldevelopments in flight simulators, they become much more realistic andprovide high fidelity and uniformity with the real aircrafts. Even theseflight simulators with high fidelity can ensure better training opportunities
in many aspects such as emergency procedures, repetition frequency,
preparing difficult and risky conditions.
However, simulator flights can not completely supersede real flights
according to many pilots. Simulator flights can help decrease real flights
but there certainly has to be real flights in a specified frequency. In sometraining missions although simulator efficiency is far better than real flights,
all missions must include some real flights.
In other words, an equation like 3 x Simulator Flight = 1 x Real Flight will
never reflect the truth. There should be established an effective trade-off
between simulators and real aircrafts.

[1] J. P. Bos and M. C. Roggemann, “Robustness of Speckle Imaging
Techniques Applied to Horizontal Imaging Scenarios,” Optical Engineering
51(08), (2012)[3] J. P. Bos and M. C. Roggemann, “Technique for simulating anisoplanatic
image formation over long horizontal paths,” Optical Engineering 51(10),(2012).

This research explored the optimum usage of simulator flights and real
flights in order to maintain an acceptable combat-ready status for fighter
jet pilots. A questionnaire study has been applied to the end users to reachreasonable results. The participants are fighter jet pilots in Turkish Air Force.
Results show that optimum usage in fighter jet flights varies depending on
the category of the flown mission. Optimum usage ratios based on different
main mission categories in fighter jet flights are included in results.

[4] P. F. Curt, M. R. Bodnar, F. E. Ortiz, C. J. Carrano, and E.J. Kelmelis “Realtime embedded atmospheric compensation for long-range imaging using
the average bispectrum speckle method.” Proc. SPIE 7244, (2009).

9095-12, Session 4[2] J. P. Bos and M. C. Roggemann,“Blind image quality metrics for optimal
speckle image reconstruction in horizontal imaging scenarios,” OpticalEngineering 51(10), (2012)

Regional value analysis at threat evaluation

9095-9, Session 3

Knowledge fusion and continuity in disaster
response service delivery systems: The integrated
family assistance center model
Robert Wright, Capella Univ. (United States)
This paper examines the Aviation Disaster Family Assistance Act in terms of
its policy design prescriptions that seek to improve the scope of emotionalcare service provided to families whose loved one was involved in anaviation disaster. The Act calls for a Family Assistance Center (FAC) to beestablished so that family members may obtain information concerning
the status of their loved one and to receive the necessary emotional care.
As based upon the insights from several public administration theories,
an enhanced Model for the Act’s FAC is presented – the Integrated Family
Assistance Center Model. This Model is suggested as it promises to enhancethe emotional care service delivery system from a service continuity
perspective. Such service continuity has been found to be of value from a
Critical Incident Stress Management perspective (Flannery, 1999, Wright et

266

SPIE DSS 2014·

Metin M. Išcan, Aykut Coskun, Harp Akademileri Komutanligi(Turkey)
It is necessary to make threat evaluation effectively in order to assign
weapon at air defense management. The threat analysis which is madefor defensing assets more than one or a region and for only one asset
are different. Also in classical threat analysis in case of both two threats’
parameters being the same, the priority is the same. In the evaluation
importance of asset is ignored. When the importance of the asset isdetermined, it is necessary to determine the threat’s target. Although it ispossible to perform the target detection massive information is needed as
there are too many parameters and variables. Difficulties and possibilities
of providing this information makes it impossible to be more realistic target
identification. Also the reliability of the model in which the threat’s target
detected decreases. Consequently, target detection is needed rather thanany other consideration. Literature study on threat evaluation is made anda new model is put forth to eliminate the deficiency identified. At the firststage the importance degrees of targets are identified. Then regional value
analysis is made according to importance of assets. As a result of analysis
a regional value map is generated. The region value is given according towww.spie.org/dss

Conference 9095: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications IX
threat’s grid. Thus, the threats having the same parameters are provided
priority according to the value of their region’s value. The threat evaluation
made for weapon assignment is done more accurate and the possible
damage is minimized.

automatically tuning. Using a standard set of tuning parameters seen in theliterature for the NVIDIA Fermi architecture achieves a performance of 1.6
TFLOPS on an AMD 7970 device, while automatically tuning achieves a peakof 2.7 TFLOPS.

9095-13, Session 49095-15, Session 5

Optimized design of photonic crystal-based
infrared obscurants

Targeting multiple-hetergeneous hardware
platforms with OpenCL

William W. Maslin III, Univ. of Delaware (United States); Mathew J.
Zablocki, James Murray, Ahmed S. Sharkawy, Lumilant, Inc. (UnitedStates); Brendan G. DeLacy, James D. Shomo, U.S. Army Edgewood
Chemical Biological Ctr. (United States); Mark S. Mirotznik, Univ. of
Delaware (United States)

Paul A. Fox, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States); Stephen T. Kozacik,
Univ. of Delaware (United States); John R. Humphrey Jr., Eric J.
Kelmelis, Aryeh Kuller, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States)
The OpenCL API allows for the abstract expression of parallel,
heterogeneous computing, but hardware implementations have substantial
implementation differences. The abstractions provided by the OpenCL
API are often insufficiently high-level to conceal differences in hardware
architecture and implementations often do not take advantage of potential
performance gains due to hardware limitations and other factors. These
factors make it challenging to produce code that is portable in practice,
resulting in much OpenCL code being duplicated for each hardware
platform being targeted. This duplication of effort offsets the principal
advantage of OpenCL: portability.

Conventional approaches for creating effective IR obscurants have reliedprimarily on shaped metal particles with high aspect ratios (e.g. rods,
flakes). Exploiting surface plasmon resonant (SPR) effects these particles
have been shown highly effective at realizing high IR extinction coefficients
per unit mass deployed. However, a disadvantage to SPR based obscurants
is that they inherently scatter or absorb IR energy within a relatively narrow
bandwidth. As one attempts to increase the bandwidth by designing more
complicated SPR particles it always comes at the price of reducing theoverall strength of the resonant absorption. In this presentation we reporton an optimal design methodology for realizing all dielectric photonic
crystal (PhCs) based wideband obscurants in the infrared region of theelectromagnetic spectrum. The PhCs include periodic nanocavities which
result in a wideband IR reflectance and a defect layer that gives rise to anarrowband transmission window. We will present an iterative optimization
algorithm that integrates a rigorous electromagnetic solvers to design PhC
particles with desirable spectral responses.

The use of certain coding practices can mitigate this problem, allowing acommon code base to be adapted to perform well across a wide rangeof hardware platforms. To this end, we explore some general practices
for producing performant code that are effective across platforms.
Additionally, we explore some ways of modularizing code to enable optional
optimizations that take advantage of hardware-specific characteristics.
The minimum requirement for portability implies avoiding the use of
OpenCL features that are optional, not widely implemented, poorly
implemented, or missing in major implementations. Exposing multiple levelsof parallelism allows hardware to take advantage of the types of parallelism
it supports, from the task level down to explicit vector operations. Static
optimizations and branch elimination in device code help the platformcompiler to effectively optimize programs. Modularization of some codeis important to allow operations to be chosen for performance on target
hardware. Optional subroutines exploiting explicit memory locality allow fordifferent memory hierarchies to be exploited for maximum performance.
The C preprocessor and JIT compilation using the OpenCL runtime can beused to enable some of these techniques, as well as to factor in hardwarespecific optimizations as necessary.

9095-14, Session 5

Optimization techniques for OpenCL-based linear
algebra routines
Stephen T. Kozacik, Univ. of Delaware (United States); Paul A. Fox,
John R. Humphrey Jr., Aryeh Kuller, EM Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Dennis W. Prather, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
The OpenCL standard for general-purpose parallel programming allows adeveloper to target many GPUs, CPUs, co-processing devices, and FPGAs
from several vendors. The computationally intense domains of linear algebra
and image processing have shown significant speed-ups when implemented
in the OpenCL environment. A major benefit of OpenCL is that a routine
written for one device can be run across many different devices andarchitectures. However, a kernel optimized for one device may not exhibit
high performance when executed on a different device. For this reason
kernels must typically be hand-optimized for every target device family.

9095-16, Session 5

Accelerated openCV with CUDA or openCL using
ArrayFireJohn M. Melonakos, AccelerEyes LLC (United States)
OpenCV is the image processing library of choice for many defense andsecurity applications; however, it often performs too slowly for application
demands. ArrayFire now supports OpenCV functionality with CUDA and
OpenCL enabling GPU and OpenCL device acceleration of important
image processing functions. In this presentation, benchmarks of ArrayFire’s
OpenCV functions will be discussed along with demos showing the OpenCV
accelerated performance.

Due to the large number of parameters that can affect performance,
hand tuning for every possible device, is impractical and often produces
suboptimal results. For this work, we focused on optimizing the generalmatrix multiplication routine. General matrix multiplication is used as thebuilding block for many linear algebra routines and often comprises a large
portion of the run-time. Prior work has shown this routine to be a goodcandidate for high-performance implementation on OpenCL. We selected
several candidate algorithms from the literature that are suitable forparameterization. We then developed parametrized kernels implementing
these algorithms using only portable OpenCL features. Our implementation
queries device information supplied by the OpenCL runtime and utilizes thisas well as user input to generate a search space that satisfies device andalgorithmic constraints. In our work, an exhaustive search through the entire
space is used. However more advanced global optimization techniques may
yield faster convergence on performant results.

9095-17, Session Posters-Tuesday

IDS algorithm based on reinforcement learning
Jie Su, Harbin Univ. of Science and Technology (China)
In order to improve the quality of alerts in intrusion detection system (IDS),
reduce the large number of redundant alarms and improve the identificationand detection ability to variants of the virus, an IDS algorithm based on

Preliminary results from our work confirm that optimizations are
not portable from one device to the next, and show the benefits of267+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9095: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications IX

reinforcement learning was proposed. Deep feature representation of
intrusion action is acquired by using the method of reinforcement learning
to the original features of intrusion action. Then deep features generatemature detectors after tolerance exercise. Comparing with the traditional
IDS based on Artificial Immune System, by extracting deep feature it
overcome the arbitrariness caused by Crossover and mutation. The analysis
and experiment show that this algorithm can significantly reduce thenumber of alerts and improve its quality, and has a high detection rate andlow false detection rate.

9095-18, Session Posters-Tuesday

Distributed neural network learning algorithm
Peili Qiao, Harbin Univ. of Science and Technology (China)
This article solves the selection problem of the structural parameters,
learning rate and initial weights of BP neural network. Comparing the
traditional BP algorithm, this article introduces a distributed neuralnetwork learning algorithm. It improves that dynamically achieving theselection problem of input nodes, hidden layer nodes and learning rate,
reducing the human factors of intervention, improving the learning rate
and the adaptability of the network. The result of experiments proves that
distributed neural network learning algorithm shows the better consequencethan the traditional BP algorithm, with which the speed of the convergenceis faster and the detection rate is higher. It not only reduces the complexityof the segmentation algorithm, but also ensures the integrity of the result ofstudy. The trained neural network model concludes that it could accurately
fit the training value and the prediction of the future trend is more accurate
than the original one.

9095-19, Session Posters-Tuesday

An improved detection model for large-scale
distributed network based on P2P
Peili Qiao, Harbin Univ. of Science and Technology (China)
Because existing virus detection methods using signatures to detectmalicious cannot adapt to the development of virus technology, it cannot
detect effectively especially for virus variants and new kind of virus. Inspiredby natural immune, an improved detection model for large scale distributed
network on P2P based on artificial immune and code relevance of virus is
proposed. The function and realization method of each part such as featuredetection, feature extraction, information fusion of this system are describedin this paper. The code relevance of virus is used to extract the feature ofcomputer virus. We match the feature code of malicious automaticallyby Rabin fingerprint algorithm and then adopt a distributed information
fusion strategy based on computer immune and subsequence fingerprint.
Al last, we propose an improved malicious code detection algorithm under
distributed architecture. The method is applicable to the detection ofmalicious code under large scale network.

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Conference 9096: Open Architecture/Open Business Model
Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2014
Monday - Wednesday 5 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9096 Open Architecture/Open Business Model Net-Centric Systems and Defense
Transformation 2014

9096-1, Session 1

adjacent architectures in the unmanned system and air domains to support
data level integration within a family of systems. The UCS Architecture isalso being integrated with DoD unmanned system portfolio management
architectures.

Q-learning and p-persistent CSMA-based
rendezvous protocol for cognitive radio networks

Under the OBM, contracting language and contract vehicles are being
established to support acquisition of UCS services, service collaborations,and complete systems within the context of the U.S. Government Better
Buying Power Initiative.

Clifton L. Watson, Air Force Research Lab. (United States) andMichigan State Univ. (United States); Subir Biswas, Michigan State
Univ. (United States)
In recent years, cognitive radio (CR) networks have emerged as a viable
dynamic spectrum access (DSA) networking solution for dynamic andscarce spectrum environments. These networks are based on softwaredefined radio technology which equips them with the capability to sense,
learn, and adapt to the spectrum environment. Within the context of
DSA, CR nodes utilize this capability to opportunistically access licensed
spectrum as unlicensed secondary users on the condition that little to nointerference is caused to licensed primary users (PUs). To establish CR
networks and thus achieve this greater flexibility and access to spectrum
in a multi-channel DSA environment, CR nodes must be capable of finding
each other to establish a link on a common control channel in a process
known as rendezvous. We consider the blind rendezvous problem where
all potentially available channels can be used to exchange data and control
information without the aid of a single dedicated control channel. Several
blind rendezvous schemes have been proposed in literature where each CR
node is assigned a pre-defined channel hopping sequence. These sequences
are built with no knowledge of the PU activity nor is some method oflearning included in the rendezvous process. Consequently, the dynamics ofPU activity can have a severe adverse impact on rendezvous performance.
We propose a rendezvous protocol where each CR node applies bothQ-learning and p-persistent CSMA to learn and visit those channels thatmost likely guarantee rendezvous while also controlling interference caused
to PUs. Results show that the proposed protocol can enhance rendezvous
performance under various levels of PU activity.

9096-3, Session 1

Assessment of the integration capability ofsystem architectures from a complex anddistributed software systems perspective
Sandro Leuchter, Hochschule Rhein-Waal (Germany); Frank Reinert,
Wilmuth Müller, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik, Systemtechnik und
Bildauswertung (Germany)
Procurement and design of system architectures capable of network
centric operations demand for an assessment scheme in order to compare
different alternative realizations. In this contribution an assessment method
for system architectures targeted at the C4ISR domain is presented. The
method addresses the integration capability of software intensive systems
from a complex and distributed software system perspective focusing
communication, interfaces and software. The aim is to evaluate thecapability to integrate a system or its functions within a system-of-systems
network. This method uses approaches from software architecture quality
assessment and applies them on the system architecture level. It featuresa specific goal tree of several dimensions that are relevant for enterprise
integration. These dimensions have to be weighted against each otherand totalized using methods from the normative decision theory in orderto reflect the intention of the particular enterprise integration effort. The
indicators and measurements for many of the considered quality features
rely on a model based view on systems, networks, and the enterprise.
That means it is applicable to System-of-System specifications based onenterprise architectural frameworks relying on defined meta models or
domain ontologies for defining views and viewpoints. In the defense context
we use the NATO Architecture Framework to ground respective systemmodels. The proposed assessment method allows evaluating and comparing
competing system designs regarding their future integration potential. It is acontribution to the system-of-systems engineering methodology.

9096-2, Session 1

The UAS control segment ecosystem
Douglas A. Gregory, Neya Systems LLC (United States); Lisa K.
Yarbrough, IBM Corp. (United States)
The Office of the Secretary of Defense has developed an Open Architecture(OA) and Open Business Model (OBM) for the Unmanned Aircraft System(UAS) Control Segment (UCS). The OA is the UCS Architecture, which
provides service descriptions for currently 150 services and the rules of
construction for extending the architecture to satisfy additional use cases.
The OBM is the Ground Control Station (GCS) Open Business Model, whichtargets affordability and controls cost growth, incentivizes productivity andinnovation in industry, and promotes real competition in the acquisition of
GCS capabilities.

9096-4, Session 1

Proximity-based access control for contextsensitive information provision in SOA-based
systems

The OA and OBM will together contribute to the UCS Ecosystem: a
network of organizations – including suppliers, distributers, customers,
and government agencies – involved in the delivery of UCS products andservices through both competition and cooperation. Typically each businessin the ecosystem will affect and be affected by the others, creating a
constantly evolving relationship in which each business must be flexible andadaptable in order to succeed.

Gowri S. Rajappan, Xiaofei Wang, Foresight Wireless, LLC (UnitedStates); Robert C. Grant, Matthew Paulini, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) has enabled open architecture
integration of applications within an enterprise. For net-centric Command
and Control (C2), this elucidates information sharing between applications
and users, a critical requirement for mission success. But the Information
Technology (IT) access control schemes, which arbitrate who gets access towhat information, do not yet have the contextual knowledge to dynamicallyallow this information sharing to happen. The access control might prevent
legitimate users from accessing information relevant to the current mission
context, since this context may be very different from the context for which

For the UCS Ecosystem itself to be successful additional resources andinterventions are necessary. This paper will discuss these within the context
of the UCS Ecosystem and the broader family of net-centric systems.
Current activities include technical governance for service repositories,
conformance validation methodologies, model and script support fordifferent software development environments, and user training andhelpdesk resources. In addition, the UCS data model is being mapped to269+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9096: Open Architecture/Open Business Model
Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2014
the access privileges were configured. We evaluate a pair of data relevancemeasures – proximity and risk – and use these as the basis of dynamic
access control. Proximity is a measure of the strength of connection
between the user and the resource. But proximity is not sufficient, sincesome data might have a downside impact if leaked that far outweighs
importance to the subject’s mission. For this, we use a risk measure
to quantify the downside of data compromise. Given these contextual
measures of proximity and risk, we investigate extending Attribute-Based
Access Control (ABAC), which is used by the Department of Defense, andRole-Based Access Control (RBAC), which is widely used in the civilian
market, so that these standards-based access control models are given
contextual knowledge to enable dynamic information sharing. Furthermore,
we consider the use of such a contextual access control scheme in a SOAbased environment, in particular for net-centric C2.

9096-6, Session 1

This work was supported by the US Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)
under contract FA8750-13-C-0189. This abstract is approved for public
release dated 26 September 2013, case number 88ABW-2013-4212.

CBM requirements are dynamic and driven by policy. For example, different
platform create data needs based on how they are used in the field.
Potentially, many terabytes of data can be created that would exceed
the that would exceed available bandwidth of satellite link An enterprisearchitecture can support change by incorporating flexible rules that adapt
the behavior of the architecture so that data goes to the right place.

An end-to-end communications architecture forcondition-based maintenance applications
Joseph B. Kroculick, Winifred Associates (United States)
Condition-Based Maintenance Plus (CBM+) is a continuous improvement
initiative to improve the reliability and maintenance effectiveness of DoD
systems. Extensive prognostics data for decision making is being collected
at high-value platforms. Maintenance actions now generate data of interest
to many interested parties including mission commanders, lifecycle
management commands (LCMCs), operational data stores (ODSs) andenterprise data warehouses (EDWs).

9096-5, Session 1

On investigating social dynamics in tactical
opportunistic mobile networks
Wei Gao, Yong Li, The Univ. of Tennessee Knoxville (United States)
Opportunistic mobile networks consist of military mobile users who only
communicate in the battlespace when they opportunistically contact
each other through their short-range radios, e.g., Bluetooth or ZigBee.
Understanding about the interaction between mobile communication
networks and human social networks is vital to ensure efficient
communication and data availability in tactical opportunistic mobile
networks. This proposed work aims to foster such understanding throughdevelopment of analytical models investigating the social dynamics among
warfighters. Conventional wisdom considers that the social relationshipamong warfighters in opportunistic mobile networks is implicitly
represented by their opportunistic contacts, but inappropriately formulates
such relationship to be stationary over time. Ignorance of such dynamics,
however, may lead to incorrect aggregation of tactical information andsubsequent failure of military decisions. This proposed work aims to addressthese challenges, and to fundamentally transform the understanding aboutsocial relationship among warfighters from stationary and homogeneous to
dynamic and heterogeneous.
Our basic idea is to formulate the social dynamics among warfighters in
a probabilistic fashion, based on the experimentally validated skewnessof their transient contact distributions over time. Such transient contact
distributions are investigated within various network scales and time frames,
so as to adaptively balance between the investigation granularity andoverhead. The detailed contributions of this work are two-fold:
1) We develop quantitative models to formally depict the transientcharacteristics of users’ social contact patterns during different short time
periods. A soldier’s contacts with other peers at heterogeneous times
and locations are formulated based on stochastic analysis. The impact
of such transient contact patterns on multi-hop opportunistic mobile
communication is also analyzed.

SPIE DSS 2014

In a rule-driven architecture approach, the decisions on where and when
to send data can be configured into the networking equipment. System
rules capture the way that business is done in a specific enterprise anddecision points on where to send and receive data [1]. This traceability must
be maintained if business policies on maintenance change (for example,
through an advisory). The location where maintenance is performed and theasset on which it is performed impacts the data pipeline since these devices
are addressable [2]. The data pipeline specifies which data warehouse oroperational data store to send the maintenance data in order to make adecision on when to replace an asset. The forwarding and prioritization ofdata flows can be expressed using system rules, a business process or both.
The main contribution of this paper is the design of an architecturaldesign approach that connects the operational-level decisions inmaintenance processes to the particular configuration of a CBM+ network
communications architecture. An integrated architecture selects policybased management components and connects them to DoDAF viewpoints
for documenting rules. A data pipeline provides two-way communications
from platforms that are CBM+-enabled to the enterprise-level maintenancemanagement systems.
In this paper, we tailored the DoDAF views to support data flows and agile
QoS. With a controlled language, system rules can be defined to implement
data policies that then can be allocated to a traffic engineered flows in acore IP network. The integrated architecture approach that is adapted to
specifying network architectures whose operational requirements are highly
dynamic. Our approach uses business processes with decision points thatcan be constrained by system rules. The system rules then map to policies
and traffic classes to build a data pipeline.

2) We further develop various sociological metrics to formulate social
dynamics among warfighers, by exploring the correspondence ofsociological concepts in opportunistic mobile networks and aggregating
the transient characteristics of multiple opportunistic communication
links. These concepts include: i) centrality: the social importance of users’
facilitating communication among other users; ii) community: users areformed into groups according to their social relations. Social dynamics arethen investigated based on the variations of these metrics over time.

270

To perform analysis of reliability data, it is essential to establish a data
communications capability that moves the data from the platforms todata warehouses at the enterprise. The Army has transitioned to an Agile
Acquisition Policy, known as the Agile Process, to perform brigade network
modernization. Networking capabilities are developed and implemented
to provide a single integrated network. This paper explores challenges
in delivering an an end-to-end communications architecture for CBM+
that aligns with the Army’s Network Modernization Strategy. The CBM+
communications architecture is designed to provide transport of CBM
data flows from mission-critical platforms to data analysis systems and themaintenance management systems.

References:[1] Unified Profile for DoDAF and MODAF (UPDM), v1.1, OMG Std., May 2011.
[Online]. Available: http://www.omg.org/spec/UPDM/1.1[2] J. Mundy, W. Thornthwaite, and R. Kimball, The Microsoft Data
Warehouse Toolkit: With SQL Server 2008 R2 and the Microsoft BusinessIntelligence Toolset, Second Edition. Wiley Publishing, Inc, 2011.

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Conference 9096: Open Architecture/Open Business Model
Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2014

9096-7, Session 2

9096-14, Session 3

RF-FPGA program overview (Invited Paper)

Integration of avionics payloads: open
architecture approaches and technologies(Invited Paper)

William Chappell, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)
No Abstract Available

Robert A, Bond, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Vincent Sabio,
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (United States)

9096-8, Session 2

No Abstract Available

A scalable multi-input multi-output (MIMO)
software defined radio platform

9096-15, Session 3

Cross domaine open RF architecture (Invited
Paper)

Hossein Hashemi, The Univ. of Southern California (United States)
No Abstract Available

Betsy DeLong, Office of Naval Research (United States)

9096-9, Session 2

No Abstract Available

High-power sub-1 ohm phase-change RF
switching for reconfigurable RF front end

9096-16, Session 3

Manufacturing of affordable open systems for ISR(Invited Paper)

Jeong S. Moon, HRL Labs., LLC (United States)
No Abstract Available

Dan Turner, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9096-10, Session 2

Low-loss, non-volatile, phase-change RF
switching technology for system reconfigurability
and reliability

9096-17, Session 3

U.S. Navy Working Group Report: unmanned
maritime system reference architecture (Invited
Paper)

Mike Lee, Northrop Grumman Corp. (United States)
No Abstract Available

Christiane N. Duarte, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States)

9096-11, Session 2

No Abstract Available

MATRICs: Micrwave array technology forreconfigurable integrated circuits

9096-18, Session 3

Empowering open systems through crossplatform interoperability (Invited Paper)

Scott Sweetland, BAE Systems (United States)
No Abstract Available

James C. Lyke, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

9096-12, Session 2

No Abstract Available

Low-loss millimeter-waves switches based in
Vanadium dioxide metal-insulator-transition

9096-19, Session 4

Navy perspectives on open architecture
unmanned systems (Keynote Presentation)

Mark Field, Philip Stupar, Kang-Jin Lee, Teledyne Scientific Co.
(United States); Mark J. Rodwell, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara(United States)

Mathias W. Winter, Rear Admiral, NAVAIR (United States)

No Abstract Available

271

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Conference 9096: Open Architecture/Open Business Model
Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2014

9096-20, Session 4Open architecture applied to next-generation
weapons (Keynote Presentation)
Leo J. Rose, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9096-21, Session 4

General Dynamics journey in open architecture
systems (Keynote Presentation)
Michael A. Eagan, General Dynamics Advanced Information Systems(United States)
No Abstract Available

9096-22, Session 4

Robotic collaborative technology alliance:
an open architecture approach to integrated
research (Keynote Presentation)
Robert M. Dean, Charles A. Diberardino, General Dynamics Land
Systems (United States)
The Robotics Collaborative Technology Alliance (RCTA) seeks to provide
adaptive robot capabilities which move beyond traditional metricalgorithms to include cognitive capabilities. Research occurs in 5 main
Task Areas: Intelligence, Perception, Dexterous Manipulation and Unique
Mobility, Human Robot Interaction, and Integrated Research. This last taskof Integrated Research is especially critical and challenging. Individual
research components can only be fully assessed when integrated onto
a robot where they interact with other aspects of the system to createcross-Task capabilities which move beyond the State of the Art. Adding to
the complexity, the RCTA is comprised of 12+ independent organizations
across the United States. Each has its own constraints due to development
environments, ITAR, “lab” vs “real-time” implementations, and legacy
software investments from previous and ongoing programs. We havedeveloped three main components to manage the Integration Task. The firstis RFrame, a data-centric transport agnostic middleware which unifies thedisparate environments, protocols, and data collection mechanisms. Second
is the modular Intelligence Architecture built around the Common World
Model. The CWM instantiates a Common Data Model and provides accessservices. Third is RIVET, an ITAR free Hardware-In-The-Loop simulator basedon 3D game technology. RIVET provides each researcher a common testbed
for development prior to integration, and a regression test mechanism.
Once components are integrated and verified, they are released back to
the consortium to provide the RIVET baseline for further research. Thisapproach allows Integration of new and legacy systems built upon different
architectures, by application of Open Architecture principles.

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Conference 9097: Cyber Sensing 2014
Tuesday 6 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9097 Cyber Sensing 2014

9097-1, Session 1

abnormal behavior that may indicate malicious software.
Research Results: The tools and techniques are packaged to provide a costeffect method of malware detection for organizations with limited cybersecurity resources.

Applying hardware-based machine learning fordetecting cyber security virus attacks

Methods, techniques to detect, defend, respond against malware

Bruce McCormick, CogniMem Technologies, Inc. (United States);
Robinson E. Pino, ICF International (United States)

Automated Proof of Concept Methodology/workflow (lessons learned) for
future research initiatives

Cybersecurity increasingly is strategic for the protection of financial,personal, corporate, government and infrastructure data assets. Viruses
and malware methods and techniques are growing in sophistication anddemanding increasingly innovative solutions to detect and prevent cyberattacks. Growth in polymorphic and metamorphic virus approaches demandin situ learning and real time adaptation to address these threats. Machinelearning based hardware combines the best ideas from non-linear and fuzzyalgorithms powerful enough to address these threats with the performanceand power advantages of specialized, but general purpose hardware. This
presentation describes applying such neural based hardware trained on
network traffic attack data sets and our ongoing research to extend suchmethods to polymorphic and metamorphic virus detection.

9097-4, Session 1

On effectiveness of cryptographic mechanisms
for smart grid communications
Sriharsha Mallapuram, Paul Moulema, Wei Yu, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates)As opposed to the traditional power grid, the smart grid integrates
information and communication technologies infrastructures to achieve
real time control, and efficient energy source management. However, byleveraging modern communication technologies, the smart grid becomes
more vulnerable and susceptible to cyber threats. Securing the smart grid is
critical. For example, a successful attack can give the attacker total control
on meters allowing him to compromise the data or disrupt the load balanceof the system. To this end, cryptography mechanisms and key management
techniques need to be in place in order to prevent and eliminate cyberattacks. Nevertheless, the overhead introduce by cryptography mechanisms
in smart grid may have impact on system performance as the data fromsensors and meters need to collect in real time.

The technology being used is a digital based neural network utilizing Radial
Basis Functions (RBF) with Restricted Coulomb Energy (RCE) learningand k Nearest Neighbor (kNN) natively implemented non-linear classifiers.
Learning is done on chip at the same performance as recognition. 40,000
hardware based neurons will be used to train on network attack data andcode sequences for metamorphic virus detection. The hardware technique
is based on a component that accepts vector lengths up to 256 bytes andbroadcasts in parallel to 40,000 parallel distance calculating neurons. A
fuzzy threshold that is learned is applied to the outputs which are thensubmitted to a hardware search and sort for the closest result. The device
can output the closest match, anomalies detected or data with firing
neurons for further statistical analysis. The technology is highly scalable andcan be deployed in a heterogeneous facility with traditional approaches atthe server or even cost effectively at the client. Techniques for accelerating
intrusion detections beyond signature-based algorithms plus handlingpolymorphic and metamorphic viruses will be described with empiricalresults.

Due to the joint efforts of the NIST and the Smart Grid Interoperability Panel(SGIP) led to the publication of NIST IR 7628, a critical smart grid standard
deliverable that provides guidelines for utilities and their suppliers on smart
grid’s cyber security strategy, architecture, and high-level requirements.
Based on guidelines, functional and volumetric requirements provided forcommunication network technologies deployment in the smart grid, wedevelop a co-simulation model in the Matlab Simulink environment that
integrates both power grid and communication networks. Through thedeveloped co-simulation model, we conduct simulations using real data
based on use cases provided by SGIP. We systematically compare theeffectiveness of diverse cryptographic techniques in securing smart gridcommunications and investigate their impacts on power grid operation.

9097-3, Session 1

Proactive malware detection and prevention
Jonathan A. Gloster, David Dredden, Mark Olsen, The Van Dyke
Technology Group, Inc. (United States); Nischit Vaidya, The Van
Dyke Technology Group, Inc. (United States) and Capitol College(United States); Michael Diep, The Van Dyke Technology Group, Inc.
(United States) and Univ. of Maryland Univ. College (United States)

9097-5, Session 1

The impact of the council of EUROPE’S
convention on cyber crime on cyber security

Small - to - medium sized businesses lack resources to deploy and manage
high-end advanced solutions to deter sophisticated threats from wellfunded adversaries, but evidence had shown that these types of businessare becoming key targets. As malicious code and network attacks havebecome more sophisticated, classic signature-based virus and malware
detection method are less effective. To augment current malware detection
methods detection we have developed a proactive approach to detect
emerging malware threats using open source tools and intelligence todiscover patterns and behaviors of malicious attacks and adversaries.
Technical and analytical skills are combined to track adversary behavior,
methods and techniques.

Gökhan Bayraktar, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)

We established a controlled (separated domain) network to identify,
monitor, and track malware behavior to increase understanding of methods
and techniques used by cyber adversaries. We created a suite of tools thatwill observe the network and system performance looking for any anomalies
that may be caused by malware. The toolset collects information from opensource custom tools then provide meaningful indication that the system
was under or has been attacked. Where malware is discovered we analyzed
and reverse engineer to determine how it could be detected and prevented.
Results have shown the resources with minimum skills are able to detect9097-19, Session 1273+1 360 676 3290

It is emerged problematic issue that how to apply international law attackin particular those committed through the use of cyber space due tothe lack of discription which international actors agreed upon, of cyber
space and cyber crime. This study reveals hurdles in international laws by
examining crimes commited in cyberspace both in national and international
enviorement, and aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of the Convention
to facilitate cyber security by analyzing contribitions of the Council ofEurope Convention on Cybercrime.

Generation of an electromagnetic field via theelectro-kinetic effect and network effects
Igor V. Ternovskiy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Naum I.
Gershenzon, Gust Bambakidis, Wright State Univ. (United States)·

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Conference 9097: Cyber Sensing 2014

Here we present the results of a detailed calculation of the electric andmagnetic fields induced by a Rayleigh wave due to the electro-kinetic
effect. Several typical models of heterogeneity are considered, including
horizontally-stratified layers and fault-like heterogeneities. The polarizationand spatial distribution of the electric and magnetic fields arising from theelectrokinetic effect are very specific and distinguishable from the fields
generated by other sources. The results obtained could be used for theinterpretation of electric and magnetic disturbances observed during anearthquake and for the prospecting of the Earth’s upper crust from depths
of a few meters to a few kilometers.

representations from single-entity models (Geyik, Xie, and Szymanski, 2010)
to multi-actor behavior analysis.

9097-7, Session 2

The co-seismic electromagnetic field contains information about thestructure and physical parameters of the crust which complements thatwhich can be obtained by purely seismic or purely electromagnetic
methods. The magnitude, direction and polarization of the electromagnetic
field depend on the origin of the source (i.e. piezo-magnetic effect, etc.), thetype of seismic wave and the geometry of the crust.

9097-6, Session 2

Classification of group behaviors in social media
via social behavior grammars
Georgiy M. Levchuk, Aptima, Inc. (United States); Lise Getoor, Univ.
of California, Santa Cruz (United States); Mark Smith, Connected
Action (United States)
The use of social media in facilitating information sharing and online
collaboration has grown in recent years. The ease of virtual interactions has
also increased the amount of criminal and anti-social activities, including
social deception, cyber-attacks, industrial espionage, and riot coordination.
Such activities grow not only in number, but in complexity. In virtual spaces,
the criminals have more opportunities to recruit, coordinate, maintainanonymity and, hence, can easily hide their actions among a sea of normalsocial transactions.
The hardest to detect criminal actions are performed by groups of people
who individually do not exhibit distinguishing hostile signatures and do
not form normal social communities. Thus we must change the analysis
focus from single actor, action, or community, - to the dynamic andheterogeneous groups of actors.
In this paper we describe a model for parsing social media data to detectand classify coordinated behaviors of multiple individuals. We combine
theories of social roles and interactions with graph mining algorithms toconstruct social behavior grammars. These grammars capture constraints
on how people take on roles in virtual environments, form groups, andinteract over time, providing the building blocks for scalable and accurate
multi-entity interaction analysis and social behavior hypothesis testing. Ourmodel unified three key functions for social behavior analysis for which noadequate solutions currently exist: extraction and tracking of knowledge for
implicit feature and link detection, learning frequent and anomalous persongroup interaction patterns in unsupervised manner, and incorporation of
external context into behavior classification.
To enable modeling diverse normal and abnormal online behaviors, ourmodel has strong theoretic basis in the organizational structure and social
behavior theories. Representing the groups and their interactions using
dynamic multilayer attributed graphs enables us to model many forms oforganizational structures, from functional and divisional command andcontrol networks (Levchuk et al., 2007) to distributed resource assemblies(Levchuk et al., 2009). Multiple attributes can encode diverse dimensionsof organizations; it has been shown that skills, authority, and structural
stability are key variables that distinguish formal organizations (Hollenbeck,
Beersma, and Schouten, 2012).
Our model extends the theories of social roles (Biddle, 1979; Lerner, 2005;
Gleave et al., 2009) and person-to-person interactions to relations between
groups. This allows us to represent how the behaviors of a single person areaffected by other people and events, which is critical to detecting multiactor/event coordinated behaviors and complex social dynamics. We thenuse probabilistic graph mining algorithms (Levchuk, Roberts, and Freeman,2012) and group relation models to extent the grammar-based behavior

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SPIE DSS 2014

Challenges to inferring causality from viralinformation dispersion in dynamic social
networks
John Ternovski, Univ. of Oxford (United Kingdom)
Understanding the mechanism behind large-scale information dispersion
through complex networks has important implications for a variety
of industries ranging from cyber-security to public health. With theunprecedented availability of public data from online social networks(OSNs) and the low cost nature of most OSN outreach, randomized
controlled experiments, the “gold standard” of causal inference
methodologies, have been used with increasing regularity to study
viral information dispersion. And while these studies have dramaticallyfurthered our understanding of how information disseminates throughsocial networks by isolating causal mechanisms, there are still major
methodological concerns that need to be addressed in future research. This
paper delineates why modern OSNs are markedly different from traditionalsociological social networks and why these differences present uniquechallenges to experimentalists and data scientists. The dynamic nature of
OSNs is particularly troublesome for researchers implementing experimental
designs, so this paper identifies major sources of bias arising from network
mutability and suggests strategies to circumvent and adjust for these biases.
This paper also discusses the practical considerations of data quality andcollection, which may adversely impact the efficiency of the estimator.
The major experimental methodologies used in the current literature on
virality are assessed at length, and their strengths and limits identified.
Other, as-yet-unsolved threats to the efficiency and unbiasedness of causal
estimators--such as missing data--are also discussed. This paper integrates
methodologies and learnings from a variety of fields under an experimental
and data science framework in order to systematically consolidate andidentify current methodological limitations of randomized controlled
experiments conducted in OSNs.

9097-8, Session 2

The new requirement for the fifth-dimension of
the war: cyber intelligence
Gökhan Bayraktar, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)
The structure and operational domain of intelligence concept have been
evolving continuously in parallel to the change in threat perceptions since
it became a discipline more than half a century back. The difficulties
encountered in defining the Intelligence concept and its operational domain
is significant barrier to construct the intelligence theory despite the steadytransformation. It is observed that effective utilization of outer space andintelligence surveillance reconnaissance (ISR) functions such as electronicwar capabilities and remote detection are as important as command control
system and warfare weapons in present day military expeditions withrespect to comparing military operational excellence and power. Moreover,
it is also noticed that nations make use of invisible attacks and cyber space
as a defense system during pre-war, crisis and low intensity collisions period
without employing conventional arms in addition to countries efforts toobtain new capabilities. All these developments brought a new approach to
the war area. Indeed, specific intelligence started to dominate the field incomparison to conventional intelligence due to the quick progress in cyber
space.
Cyber attacks, which can be classified as an asymmetric war, are not onlyused as a support tool to conventional wars but also considered as anindependent war type on its own so that it brings a new dimension to themilitary operations. It is predicted that attacks in cyber space will be moredangerous than conventional assault because the usage of information
technology spreads out quickly as well. Cyber attacks that usually target·

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Conference 9097: Cyber Sensing 2014

the information systems of the governments` critical departments, aregreat threat especially for the nations, those are heavily dependent to cyber
space. The importance of cyber attacks rise day by day because most of
the time to detect the source of the attack is a challenging difficult task thatmight be initiated through a wide spectrum profiles ranging from simple
individuals to complex organizations. Moreover, these attacks make a great
impact despite their low cost. Furthermore, they are initiated throughinvisible methods where conventional weapons are not even utilized. Hence,the concept of cyber intelligence looms large against this threat.

traditional wireless network, but there is less opportunity for defense. The
target in the network is unable to validate its return signal, and is often
uncooperative. This leads to ample opportunities for spoofing and man-inthe-middle attacks.

9097-11, Session 3

Designing resiliency

This paper strives to explain that cyber attacks can be classified as a new
type of war, because it threatens national securities and happens in cyber
space that does not have any defined borders in international relations. In
addition to the above, this study defines cyber intelligence concept and its
operational domain as well as puts forth the methodology for considerationin order to gain the initiative in cyber attacks and to make analysis on thethreat.

Anurag Dwivedi, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (UnitedStates)The motivation for this work comes from the need to improve resiliencyof mission critical systems. Resiliency against adverse events, such as an
attack, can be defined as the ability of a system to maintain its performancedespite the occurrence of adverse events. Characterizing the resiliency of asystem requires definitions of the system performance of interest and of theadverse events of concern. System resiliency requirements can be includedin the design criteria.

9097-9, Session 2

Three tenets for secure cyber-physical systemdesign and assessment

This paper describes a methodology for designing resilient systems. The
components of the methodology includes resiliency characterization,requirements mapping, subsystem ranking based on criticality, andidentifying selective hardening methods to improve system resiliency to thedesired levels.

Jeff Hughes, Tenet 3, LLC (United States); George Cybenko, Thayer
School of Engineering at Dartmouth (United States)

Resiliency of a system can be characterized by estimating system
performance degradation as a function of threat intensity. Threat intensity isexpressed in terms of the number of compromised sub-systems, or the levelof effort required for the compromise. Resiliency conformance is determinedthrough an exhaustive characterization of performance degradation overall possible compromise combinations within the threat class of concern.
Generally, the resiliency is poor if a low effort to compromise sub-systems
can cause a significant performance degradation.

This paper presents a threat-driven quantitative methodology for secure
cyber-physical system design and assessment. Called The Three Tenets, thisoriginally empirical approach has been used by the US Air Force ResearchLaboratory (AFRL) Anti-Tamper Software Protection Initiative Office forsecure system research and development. The Tenets were first documented
in 2005 as a teachable methodology. This paper extends that empirical workand provides a mathematical framework.

Once the non-conformance of resiliency is established, the relative criticalityof a sub-system is determined based on sub-system’s contribution to theloss of system performance. Such an analysis allows the identification ofhigh criticality sub-systems, and implementation of differential hardening
techniques, along with redundant architectures, to enhance the overallsystem resiliency to a level that meets or exceeds the requirements.

The Tenets are motivated by a system threat model that has its roots
in Department of Defense Electronic Warfare Test and Evaluation (anadversarial environment with parallels to cyberspace). The threat model
itself consists of three elements that must exist for successful attacks tooccur:– a system susceptibility or inherent flaw;– a threat’s access to that flaw;

9097-12, Session 3– and a threat capability to exploit it.
The Three Tenets arise naturally by countering each threat element
individually. Specifically, the tenets are:Modeling vulnerability, risk, and resilience indistributed control systems

Tenet 1) Focus on What’s Critical- systems should include only essential functions (to reduce susceptibility);

Hasan Cam, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Tenet 2) Move Key Assets Out-of-Band

This paper presents modeling and dynamic analysis of vulnerability,
risk and resilience of cyber assets and operations in a distributed cybercontrol system by taking advantage of control theory, decision diagram,and time Petri net. Linear time-invariant systems are used to model thetarget system, attacks, assets influences, and an anomaly-based intrusion
detection system. Time Petri nets are used to model the impact and timing
relationships of attacks, recovery and resilience operations at every node,
where the transition events are triggered by alerts of intrusion detection
systems. In a dynamic network environment, the number and importanceof events often change, leading the criticality values of cyber assets to bechanged as well. One basic requirement for a distributed control system
to achieve mission success and mitigating the adverse impact of advanced
threats is to measure the defense and resilience effectiveness of individualand collective cyber assets. The controllability and observability concepts ofcontrol theory are used to steer a system with compromised assets towards
an uncompromised system after observing and recovering compromised
assets. By integrating advantages of control theory, decision diagram, andtime Petri net, this paper introduces novel approaches to modeling andassessing vulnerability, risk and resilience of cyber assets, operations andevents in a distributed control system.

- make mission essential elements and security controls difficult for
attackers to reach logically and physically (to reduce accessibility); andTenet) Detect, React, Adapt- confound the attacker by implementing sensing system elements withdynamic response technologies (to counteract the attackers’ capabilities).
As a design methodology, the Tenets mitigate reverse engineering andsubsequent attacks on complex systems. Quantified by a Bayesian analysis
and further justified by analytic properties of attack graph models, theTenets suggest concrete cyber security metrics for system assessment.

9097-10, Session 3

Radar susceptibility to cyber attack
David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Radar sensors can be viewed as a wireless network consisting of radar
sensors and targets. The radar transmitter sends a communication signal to
the target which then reflects it in a known pattern to the radar receivers.
This type of network is susceptible to the same types of cyber attacks as a275

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Conference 9097: Cyber Sensing 2014

9097-13, Session 3

volumetric processing and visualization. Quantification of the change
between pre/post tampering applied to the volumes is desired. We leveragetechnology from geospatial remote sensing applications. Modeling ofmodule features is very similar to modeling surface scenes from Light
Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) or Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar(IFSAR) aerial data collections.

New generations of war: active defence on cyber
space
Fatih Aksoy, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)
Weapon systems develop, armies change and countries need innovations on
attack and defense systems with the great development of technology. As
important factors, electronic and cyber battle systems are integrating withclassical battle instruments and devices by the day. It is being evaluatedthat international contestation will focus on cyber space and securityof information systems will be an important segment of national andinternational security.
Logistics activity and fire support of armies might be interrupted, target
detection systems and mission computers might be made nonfunctional andongoing orders might be changed with the cyber-attack to military systems.
In respect of a pessimistic scenery, forthcoming elements are supposed
enemy, locality control station are penetrated and satellites and drones are
made out of mission. A cyber-attack to communication system influence
all users of all levels. A country forces to surrender without any struggle
with cyber-attacks to critical substructure as SCADA (Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition) systems. Besides all these damages, cyber-attack
capability needs relatively low cost but this capability identifies countries’
virtual war provision and operational advantages.
Strong password breakers, frequency mixers, faster processors, highsensitivity image sensing systems and designing and producing highsecurity communications satellites defines cyber war capabilities andoperational advantages of countries. During the war, considering the costsof creating front-line and the loss of human, creating a virtual front-line withelectronic attack as the concept of self-defenses is a strategy that in many
respects superior. Physical response to the attacks of virtual armies is likefighting windmills so it needs to respond virtually to the virtual attack.

9097-2, Session 4

Robust volumetric change detection using mutual
information with 3D fractals
Mark D. Rahmes, Morris Akbari, Ronda R. Henning, John Pokorny III,
Harris Corp. (United States)
We discuss a robust method for quantifying change of multi-temporal
remote sensing point data in the presence of affine registration errors. Three
dimensional image processing algorithms can be used to extract and model
an electronic module, consisting of a self-contained assembly of electronic
components and circuitry, using an ultrasound scanning sensor. Mutual
information (MI) is an effective measure of change. We propose a multiresolution 3D fractal algorithm which is a novel extension to MI or regional
mutual information (RMI). Our method is called fractal mutual information(FMI). This extension efficiently accounts for neighborhood fractal patternsof corresponding voxels (3D pixels).
In this paper we discuss a robust method for quantifying change without
requiring affine registration, consisting of six degrees of freedom, threetranslations and three rotations. We consider mutual information in thefractal domain as the change detection method since it takes advantage ofthe fact that the entropy of a discrete distribution is invariant to rotation andtranslation. Our process uses an ultrasound scanner as the remote sensor tocollect the volumetric data for the multilayered circuit module samples. The
example is on a module but the technique is equally applicable to chips andIC’s provided appropriate images are available.
The key components of this process are remote sensing, data conversion,

SPIE DSS 2014

Main control computer (MCC) security model for
intranet protection against cyber attacks
Bilal Seymen, Münir Gedikli, O?uz Sayin, Turkish Air War College(Turkey)
Controlling data input/output to provide system’s maintenance safely inintranet, it’s a controlling data flow model via Main Control Computer (MCC)for controlling network traffic against cyber attacks. Thanks to designed
system for providing input and output data safely to network system for
network users, centralized network aims to minimize security disadvantages.
Besides, via storage units which are assigned to each user, data input/
output register can be recorded and if it is requested, history tracing can be
done. Owing to the fact that cyber security for each computer in network
requires high cost, with MCC’s up-to-date hardware, this security model only
aims to provide cost-effective work environment.

9097-15, Session 4

Improvements of cyber space and affects to thebattlefield
Münir Gedikli, O?uz Sayin, Bilal Seymen, Turkish Air War College(Turkey)In this study, the development electronic environment, increasing
dependence on cyber space, information security and cost issues, definitionof cyber-security, critical infrastructures, tools and objectives of cyberthreats, viruses, SCADA systems, state-sponsored cyber-attacks, cybersecurity policies implemented in the world and active defense issue
considered as a solution for cyber defense and cyber defense policies areanalyzed.

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9097-14, Session 4·

Wars previously being executed at land and sea have also become
applicable in air and space due to the advancements of aircraft and satellite
systems. Rapid improvements in information technologies have triggered
the concept of Cyber space which is considered as the fifth dimensionof war. While transporting the information quickly from physical area toelectronic/digital area, Cyber space has caused to emerge a lot of threatsand methods like cyber attack, cyber crime, cyber war which are spreading
too rapidly. Individuals, institutions and establishments have begun to taketheir own cyber security precautions to cope with these threats.
This study gives information about the concepts and advances in cyberin order to raise comprehensive awareness. The study also focuses on theaffects of these improvements to the battlefield and analyzes them.

9097-16, Session 4

Defending against advanced targeted attacks in
the healthcare ecosystem
Stephen Bono, Independent Security Evaluators (United States)
No Abstract Available

9097-17, Session 4

Efficient non-resonant absorption ofelectromagnetic radiation in thin cylindricaltargets: experimental evidence
Andrey Akhmeteli, LTASolid Inc. (United States); Nikolay G. Kokodiy,
Boris Safronov, Valeriy Balkashin, Ivan Priz, V.N. Karazin Kharkiv
National Univ. (Ukraine); Alexander Tarasevitch, Univ. Duisburg-

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Conference 9097: Cyber Sensing 2014

Essen (Germany)

9097-22, Session 4

A theoretical possibility of non-resonant, fast, and efficient (up to 40
percent) heating of very thin conducting cylindrical targets by broad
electromagnetic beams was predicted in [Akhmeteli, arXiv:physics/0405091
and 0611169] based on rigorous solution of the diffraction problem. The
diameter of the cylinder can be orders of magnitude smaller than the
wavelength (for the transverse geometry) or the beam waist (for thelongitudinal geometry) of the electromagnetic radiation. This can be used
for numerous applications, such as pumping of active media of shortwavelength lasers, e.g., through efficient heating of nanotubes with laser
radiation. Experimental confirmation of the above results is presented[Akhmeteli, Kokodiy, Safronov, Balkashin, Priz, Tarasevitch, arXiv:1109.1626
and 1208.0066]. Significant (up to 6%) absorption of microwave power
focused on a thin fiber (the diameter is three orders of magnitude less than
the wavelength) by an ellipsoidal reflector is demonstrated experimentally.
For the longitudinal geometry, preliminary experiments provide a qualitative
confirmation of significant absorption of the power of a wide CO2 laser
beam propagating along a thin wire (the diameter of the wire can be ordersof magnitude less than the beam waist width).

No-hardware-signature cybersecurity-cryptomodule: a resilient cyber defense agent
Yasser A. Zaghloul, Consultant (United States); Abdel Rahman M.
Zaghloul, ITR Technologies, Inc. (United States)
We present an optical cybersecurity-crypto-module as a resilient
cyber defense agent. It has no hardware signature since it is bitstream
reconfigurable, where single hardware architecture functions as any
selected device of all possible ones of the same number of inputs. For a
two-input digital device, a 4-digit bitstream of 0s and 1s determines which
device, of a total of 16 devices, the hardware performs as. Accordingly, thehardware itself is not physically reconfigured, but its performance is. Sucha defense agent allows the attack to take place, rendering it harmless. On
the other hand, if the system is already infected with malware sending out
information, the defense agent allows the information to go out, rendering
it meaningless. The hardware architecture is immune to side attacks sincesuch an attack would reveal information on the attack itself and not on
the hardware. This cyber defense agent can be used to secure a pointto-point, point-to-multipoint, a whole network, and/or a single entity inthe cyberspace. Therefore, ensuring trust between cyber resources. It can
provide secure communication in an insecure network. We provide thehardware design and explain how it works. Scalability of the design is briefly
discussed.

9097-18, Session 4

Micromirror array simulation and far-field
diffraction analysis
Xiaohui Yuan, Siyuan Liu, Univ. of North Texas (United States);
Jason D. Schmidt, MZA Associates Corp. (United States); Igor
Anisimov, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9097-20, Session 4

Image reconstruction from sub-apertures ofcircular spotlight SAR
Xiaohui Yuan, Univ. of North Texas (United States); Igor V.
Ternovskiy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9097-21, Session 4

Classification for wireless covert timing channel
communications: a geometric approach
Dung N. Tran, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States); Peter Chin,
Draper Lab. (United States)
Geometric multi-resolution analysis (GMRA), recently introduced by Allard
et al. [1], aims to learn data-dependent dictionaries on general point clouddata. When the input data lies around a low dimensional manifold, GMRA
has guarantees on the dictionary size and the sparsity of the representations
for a given approximation error, on the computational complexity of theconstruction, and on the associated fast transforms mapping data points tosparse coefficients and vice versa. We propose an algorithm for classifying
the data which is assumed to lie around a low dimensional set M embedded
in a high dimensional ambient space R^D, based on GMRA construction on
the data set.

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Conference 9098: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI
Thursday - Friday 8 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9098 Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI

9098-1, Session Key

9098-3, Session 1

Development and application of fiber optic
sensors for power and energy systems (Keynote
Presentation)

Downhole fiber optic sensing: the oilfield service
provider’s perspective: from the cradle to thegrave

Susan M. Maley, U.S. Dept. of Energy (United States); Robie Lewis,
National Energy Technology Lab. (United States)

Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., Halliburton Energy Services(United States)

The power and energy sectors are large markets with significant pressure
to achieve high system and environmental performance. Monitoring key
parameters in these systems requires the use of instrumentation andsensors able to withstand harsh environments and provide the necessary
measurements for control and monitoring of a system’s performance. Fiber
optic sensors, specifically those fabricated with high temperature opticalmaterials and robust sensor designs, are well suited to provide accurate
measurements in a reliable and cost competitive manner when comparedwith existing instrumentation which has been shown to inadequate for harshconditions. In addition to harsh environment monitoring, novel designs
using optical fibers in concert with signal processing are enabling low cost
distributed sensing to be realized for a variety of process parameters. These
approaches enable a higher number of process points and parameters to
be monitored at qualitatively lower cost than traditional point sensors.
Distributed sensing also enables the longer term goal of 3-D reconstructionof a process based on a high number of monitoring points. The Sensors
and Controls Program, operating under the National Energy Technology
Laboratory and the Department of Energy’s Office of Fossil Energy, is
supporting research in these areas and is in collaboration with universities
and industry to develop such innovative technologies. The motivation
to develop fiber optic-based sensor technologies along with the various
research and development efforts currently underway in these areas will be
reviewed.

For almost three decades, there has been increasing interest in theapplication of fiber optic sensing techniques for the upstream oil and gas
industry. We review optical sensing technologies that have been and arebeing adopted in the oilfield and their drivers. We will briefly describe thelife of a well, from the cradle to the grave and the roles fiber optic sensing
can play in optimizing production, safety and protection of the environment.
We describe the performance expectations (accuracy, resolution, stability
and operational lifetime) that the oil companies and the oil service
companies have for fiber optic sensing systems. We also describe theenvironmental conditions (high hydrostatic pressures, high temperatures,shock, vibration, crush, and chemical exposure) that these systems musttolerate in order to provide reliable and economically attractive oilfield
monitoring solutions.

9098-4, Session 1

Get smart, go optical: example uses of opticalfibre sensing technology for production
optimisation and subsea asset monitoring
Chris Staveley, Smart Fibres Ltd. (United Kingdom)
Smart Fibres is a UK company developing fiber Bragg grating monitoring
systems for numerous harsh environment industries including Oil & Gas,
aerospace and renewable energy. The presentation will provide an overview
of the systems in development, and then focus on one particular Oil & Gas
application, that of a fibreoptic condition monitoring system (CMS) for a
multiphase deepwater twin screw pump and associated electrical motor
developed by Flowserve. Under a Shell contract, Smart Fibres designed,
manufactured and installed a multi-parameter CMS, which reported motor
stator temperatures, rotor bearing loads and accelerations, and lube oilpressures and temperatures. The presentation will show data collectedfrom the CMS during performance mapping of the pump and motor on a
Flowserve multiphase test loop. Analysis will be presented of the dynamic
data collected from the rotor bearings which, when processed by project
partner SKF, highlighted very early stage damage, which was undetectableusing conventional instrumentation. The implication of such a detection
capability to the oil & gas industry, and broader industry application will beconsidered.

9098-2, Session 1

Brief history of fiber optic sensing in the oil fieldindustry (Invited Paper)
Christopher S. Baldwin, Weatherford International Ltd. (UnitedStates)The use of fiber optic sensing in the oil and gas industry has greatly
expanded over the past two decades. Since the first optical fiberbased pressure sensor was installed in a well in 1993, the industry has
sought to use fiber sensing technology to monitor in-well parameters.
Through the years, optical fiber sensing has been used in an increasing
number of applications as technical advances have opened the door
for new measurements. Today, fiber optic sensors are routinely used tomeasure temperature throughout the wellbore. Optical fiber sensors also
provide pressure measurements at key locations within the well. These
measurements are used to verify the integrity of the well and to monitor
the production process. Other sensors, such as seismic monitors and flow
meters, use fiber sensing technology to make in-well measurements. Various
optical sensing techniques are used to make these measurements, including
Bragg grating, Raman scattering, and coherent Rayleigh scattering. These
measurements are made in harsh environments, which require rugged
designs for optical cable systems and instrumentation systems. Someof these applications have operating temperatures of 572°F (300°C),
and other applications can have pressures in excess of 20,000 psi (1,379
bar). This paper provides a historical perspective on the use of fiber optic
sensing in the oil and gas industry. Topics covering industry firsts to current
applications will be discussed.

Some unexpected early stage damage detected by the system will bepresented.

9098-5, Session 1

Design and performances of a high temperature/high pressure, Hydrogen tolerant, bend
insensitive single-mode fiber for downhole
seismic systems and applications
Andy M. Gillooly, Aurelien Bergonzo, Sudhendu Kashikar, Laurence
Cooper, Fibercore Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The oil & gas exploration and production industry is facing continuouspressure to become more efficient in well discovery and to improve recovery
rates. In order to meet these new requirements, sensors need to go deeper
into more inhospitable wells where high pressures, high temperatures, deep

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Conference 9098: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI

9098-8, Session 2

water and highly corrosive gasses can be expected. In order to tackle thesechallenges, advanced solutions based on optical fiber technologies havedemonstrated good results for applications such as Distributed Temperature
Sensing (DTS) down-hole sensors for 3D/4D seismic surveying.

Development of a long gauge vibration sensor
Peter Kung, QPS Photronics Inc. (Canada); Maria Cominici, McGill
Univ. (Canada)

Up until now, the market has been limited in fiber choice for the bend
insensitive fibers, typically requiring a germanosilicate core to offer the large
refractive index step suitable for coiled sensors. Whilst the germanosilicate
core gives very low bend losses, it is also prone to hydrogen ingress,
limiting lifetime in high temperature, high pressure, hydrogen rich wells andboreholes.

Recently, we found that by terminating a long length of fiber of up to
several kilometers with an in-fiber cavity structure, the entire structure candetect vibrations over a frequency range from 5 Hz to 100 Hz. We want todetermine whether the structure (including packaging) can be optimized todetect vibrations at even higher frequencies. The structure can be used asa distributed vibration sensor mounted on large motors and other rotatingmachines to capture the entire frequency spectrum of the associatedvibration signals, and therefore, replace the many accelerometers, which
add to the maintenance cost. This will replace the many accelerometers
used for maintenance. Similarly, it will help detect in-slot vibrations inside
an air cooled generator which causes intermittent contact leading tosparking under high voltages. However, that will require the sensor to detectfrequencies associated with vibration sparking, ranging from 6 kHz to 15
kHz. Then, at even higher frequencies, the structure can be useful to detect
acoustic vibrations (30 kHz to 150 kHz) associated with partial discharge(PD) in generators and transformers. Detecting lower frequencies in therange 2 Hz to 200 Hz makes the sensor suitable for Seismic studies andfalls well into the vibrations associated with rotating machines. Anotherapplication of interest is corrosion detection in large re-enforced concrete
structures by inserting the sensor along a long hole drilled around structures
showing signs of corrosion. The frequency response for the proposed longgage vibration sensor depends on packaging

In this paper, we will present the design and performance of an optical fiberwith a glass chemistry suitable for hydrogen rich environments, a coating
protection suitable for continuous operation at 300oC, with bend loss morethan 1500x lower than specified in G.657.A3 with excellent lifetime figures.
This new fiber offers dramatically lower hydrogen darkening for coiled
fiber optic seismic sensors than has been previously accessible. Thus giving
the opportunity of using these sensors in deeper and more inhospitableenvironments and getting physically closer to the location where the highquality data is required.

9098-6, Session 1

Real-time hydraulic fracture monitoring, a
distributed acoustic sensing solutionPeter Hayward, Alan Yau, Fotech Solutions Ltd. (United Kingdom)
Details are provided of the successful implementation of an optical-fibre
based distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) system, for the application ofreal-time monitoring of hydraulic fracturing operations in an unconventionalgas well.

9098-9, Session 2

Ultrahigh-speed fiber optic strain measurements
based on rapid edge-filter monitoring of fiber
grating spectra

A Rayleigh based DAS interrogator was connected to a standard singlemode optical fibre, deployed along the entirety of the wellbore casing.
Acoustic data was acquired for the whole well, for the duration ofoperations. A spatial sampling resolution of 0.67m was achieved with an
acoustic sampling rate of up to 20kHz.

Brian J. Soller, Todd C. Haber, Micron Optics, Inc. (United States)

Real-time and post processed results are presented for all aspects ofthe fracture operations, from deployment of the frac ball, through valve
operation, to fracture stage completion. Examples are provided for both
successful and unsuccessful stage operations. Evidence of unsuccessfulstage operation is provided by means of results identifying, incorrect valve
operation, ball failures, and cement washout. Each of which are shown
to exhibit a unique sequence of acoustic signals. Evidence of successfulstage operation is provided by way of results identifying the detection ofwave fronts associated with seismic signals propagating from the physicalfracturing of the localised formation. Effectiveness of fracture operations
can thereafter be ascertained as a result of assessing the relative distribution
and density of such detected wave clusters.

In this paper, we describe the results of ultra high-speed fiber optic strain
measurements based on 2MHz sampling of the center wavelength of a fiber
Bragg grating over 50nm of optical bandwidth. Steel on reinforced-concrete
impact measurements were conducted and showed the ability to measure
up to +/- 20,000 microstrain in as little as a few microseconds resulting in,
to our knowledge, the fastest fiber optic measurement of strain based on
Bragg grating technology reported to date. The instrumentation architecture
is based on using a linear analog edge filter to very rapidly monitor thecenter wavelength of a fiber Bragg grating. System architecture and data
analysis are described in detail. We also discuss the benefits of the fiber
optic measurement approach over electronic sensors specifically as it relates
to high-speed blast and impact measurements.

This paper thus highlights potential benefits of utilising a DAS solution
for real-time fracture monitoring. With real-time information provided
to an operator that potentially allows for the optimisation of fracturing
parameters on an ongoing basis, thus potentially minimising resources
required on each stage of operation.

9098-10, Session 2

High-speed fiber grating pressure sensors
Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge Research (United States); George
Rodriguez, Richard L. Sandberg, Los Alamos National Lab. (UnitedStates)9098-7, Session 2

High-speed structural sensing using fiber grating
sensors (Invited Paper)This paper summarizes work that has been performed in the 2007 to 2013
time frame to measure pressure and temperature with time resolution of afew nanoseconds and pressures that are greater than 1,000,000 psi.

Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge Research (United States)
This paper looks at very high speed monitoring using fiber optic grating
sensors with an emphasis on composite materials.

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Conference 9098: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI

9098-11, Session 3

overcome. Furthermore, a self-calibration procedure mitigates problems likeattenuation losses and long-term drift. Finally, measurement results of the
combined interrogation module and the FBG ?emulator are presented.

High-pressure sensing and dynamics using highspeed fiber Bragg grating interrogation systems

9098-13, Session 3

George Rodriguez, Richard L. Sandberg, Dana M. Dattelbaum, Los
Alamos National Lab. (United States); Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge
Research (United States); Brandon Lalone, National Security
Technologies, LLC (United States); Bruce Marshall, National Security
Technologies, LLC (United States) and Special Technologies Lab.
(United States)

High signal to noise acoustic sensor using phaseshift gratings interrogated by the Pound Drever
Hall techniquePeter Kung, QPS Photronics Inc. (Canada); Maria Cominici, McGill
Univ. (Canada)

Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are developing into useful sensing tools formeasuring high pressure dynamics in extreme environments under shockloading conditions. Approaches using traditional FBG interrogation systems
are often limited to readout speeds in the sub-MHz range. For shock wave
physics, required detection speeds approaching 100 MHz are desired. We
explore the use of two types of FBG sensing systems that are aimed atapplying this technology as embedded high pressure probes for transient
shock events. Both approaches measure time resolved spectral shifts inshort (<2 mm long) uniform FBGs at 1550 nm. In the first approach, we
use a fiber coupled spectrometer to demultiplex output spectral channels
into an array (up to 12) of single element InGaAs photoreceivers. By
monitoring the detectors during a shock impact event with transient
recording, we are able to track the pressure induced spectral shifting in FBG
down to a time resolution of 20 ns. Tests show that the gratings survive
to pressures approaching 50 kbar. In the second approach, a coherently
mode-locked fiber laser is used to illuminate the FBG sensor. After thesensor, wavelength-to-time mapping is accomplished with a chromatic
dispersive element, and entire spectra are sampled using a single detector
at the modelocked laser repetition rate of 80 MHz. By sampling with a
20 GHz InGaAs detector, direct wavelength mapping in time is recorded,
and the pressure induced FBG spectral shift is sampled at 80 MHz. In ourpresentation we describe these approaches and demonstrate their use inshock driven experiments.

Optical fiber is made of glass, an insulator, and thus it is immune to strong
electromagnetic interference. Therefore, fiber optics is a technology ideallysuitable for sensing of partial discharge (PD) in both transformers andgenerators. Extensive development efforts have been used to find a costeffective solution for detecting partial discharge, which generates acoustic
emission, with signals ranging from 30 kHz to 200 kHz. The requirement issimilar to fiber optics Hydro Phone, but requires higher frequencies. There
are several keys to success: there must be at least 60 dB signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) performance, which will ensure not only PD detection but lateron provide diagnostics and also the ability to locate the origin of the events.
Defects that are stationary would gradually degrade the insulation andresult in total breakdown. Transformers currently need urgent attention:
most of them are oil filled and are at least 30 to 50 years old, close to theend of life. In this context, an issue to be addressed is the safety of thepersonnel working close to the assets and collateral damage that could
be caused by a tank explosion (with fire spilling over the whole facility).
This paper will describe the latest achievement in fiber optics PD sensor
technology: the use of phase shifted fiber gratings with a very high speed
interrogation method that uses the Pound-Drever-Hall technique. More
importantly, this is based on a technology that could be automated, easy toinstall, and, eventually, available at affordable prices

9098-12, Session 3

9098-14, Session 3

Design and implementation of an FBG emulator
for a scanning laser based fiber optic interrogator

Study of interlaminar strain transfer of advanced
composites by fiber Bragg gratings
Ataman Deniz, Esat S. Kocaman, Mehmet Yıldız, Sabanci Univ.
(Turkey)

Nader Kuhenuri Chami, Philipp Putzer, Technische Univ. München(Germany); Andreas Hurni, Kayser-Threde GmbH (Germany);
Johannes Obermaier, Technische Univ. München (Germany);
Sebastian M. Schweyer, Kayser-Threde GmbH (Germany); Alexander
W. Koch, Technische Univ. München (Germany)

Due to nature of optical fiber, Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensing systems
have many advantages in monitoring composite structures compared toconventional strain sensing systems. One of the key advantages is that arrayof FBGs can be embedded into a laminated composite without endangering
the integrity of the local structure. Unlike patch sensors, embedded FBGs
show modified spectral response depending on the local structure of hostmedia. Moreover when non-uniform strain distributions exits in the local
structure surrounding the FBG, spectral response of the FBG may show
signal anomalies which in turn affect peak and full width half maximum(FWHM) tracking.

Hybrid Sensor Bus is a space-borne temperature monitoring system fortelecommunication satellites combining electrical and fiber-optical FBG(Fiber Bragg Grating) sensors. Currently there is no method available fortesting the functionality and robustness of the system without setting up an
actual sensor-network implying numerous FBG sensors in which each has tobe heated/cooled individually.

Although FBG embedded in unidirectional laminated composites under
bending or tensile loading configurations exhibit linear and predictable
spectral responses there exists limited data on FBG spectral behavior ofunidirectional interply hybrid composites. In this work spectral responseof FBGs embedded in various unidirectional hybrid thin composites will be
examined under tensile and bending loading configurations. A theoreticalmodel will be derived from spectral responses of FBGs embedded in parent
composites which will be later used in prediction/understanding of FBG
response of hybrid laminated composites made of parent composites. The
importance of hybrid composites is that nowadays variety of load bearing
materials are being used to create more advanced structures. Therefore it
is important to understand spectral behavior of FBG embedded in hybrid
composites.

As a verification method of the mentioned system, FBG reflection based
scanning laser interrogator, an FBG-emulator is implemented to emulate thenecessary FBG-sensors. It is capable of immediate emulation of any given
FBG spectrum, thus any temperature. The concept provides advantages like,emulating different kinds of FBGs with any peak shape, variable Braggwavelength lB, maximal-reflectivity Rmax, spectral-width and degradation
characteristics. Further it facilitates an efficient evaluation of different
interrogator peak-finding algorithms and the capability of emulating up to
10000 sample points per second is achieved.
In the present paper different concepts will be discussed and evaluatedyielding to the implementation of a Variable Optical Attenuator (VOA) as
the major actuator of the emulator. The actuator choice is further restricted
since the emulator has to work with light in unknown polarization state.
In order to implement a fast opto-ceramic VOA, issues like temperaturedependencies, up to 200V driving input and capacitive load have to be

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9098-15, Session 4

Ostrava (Czech Republic)

Using a multimode fiber as a high-resolution lowloss spectrometer (Invited Paper)

Today, the interferometric sensors belong to the one of the most accurate,
thanks to its great sensitivity. With their help we are able to measuretemperature, strain, level, flow, vibration, stress, etc. For its operation theMichelson interferometer consist of the two arms terminated by mirrors,
by which is possible to measure generated phase shift in the individualarms. Furthermore, were used polarization maintaining fibers. With thissetup we will examine the effects of vibration and also how is this sensor
influenced by the different setup arrangement and how it will manifest its
frequency response. It is important to isolate the reference arm to increase
the sensitivity of the measurement and the subsequent effect on the
maximum phase shift and maxium frequencies response. In this work, weshould describe various combinations of the arrangement of the measuring
and reference arm and their effect on the sensitivity of different measured
phenomena. Subsequently obtained frequency bands are evaluated forthese various configurations and materials.

Brandon Redding, Hui Cao, Yale Univ. (United States)
The development of optical fibers has revolutionized telecommunications byenabling long-distance broad-band transmission with minimal loss. In turn,the ubiquity of high-quality low-cost fibers enabled a number of additional
applications, including fiber sensors, fiber lasers, and imaging fiber bundles.
In this work, we show that a multimode optical fiber can also function asa spectrometer by measuring the wavelength-dependent speckle patternformed by interference between the guided modes. In practice, thewavelength-dependent speckle patterns are recorded in a transmission
matrix. After calibration an arbitrary input spectra can be reconstructedbased on the speckle pattern it produces. The spectral resolution is dictatedby the change in wavelength required to produce an uncorrelated speckle
pattern, which scales inversely with the length of the fiber. Using a 100
meter long multimode fiber, we were able to resolve two lines separated
by merely 1 pm at a wavelength of 1500 nm. Broad-band operation is also
possible by using a shorter fiber with lower resolution. We showed that a
4 cm fiber can provide 350 nm of bandwidth across the visible spectrumwith 1 nm resolution. The fiber spectrometer consists only of a multimodefiber and a monochrome camera used to record the speckle patterns. Since
the fiber can be coiled into a small volume, the entire spectrometer can becompact, lightweight, and low cost while providing ultrahigh resolution,broad bandwidth, and low loss.

9098-18, Session 4

Fast-light enhanced fiber sensing: experiments,
modeling, and practical design
Caleb A. Christensen, Anton Zavriyev, MagiQ Technologies, Inc.
(United States)
It has been proposed that fast-light optical phenomena can increase thesensitivity of a Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG) of a given size by several
orders of magnitude. MagiQ Technologies is developing a compact
fully-fibered fast light RLG using Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
in optical fibers with commercially mature technologies. We will discuss
recent experimental results and numerical modeling related to fast light
generation and implications for RLGs. We will present design considerations
and performance estimates for an RLG. By using photonic integrated
circuits and telecom-grade components along with specialty fibers, we
believe that our design is appropriate for mass production without further
advances in components. We avoid free-space optical elements (such as
atomic vapor cells), in order to enable a compact, high sensitivity RLG
stable against environmental disturbances. Results of this effort will havebenefits in existing applications of RLGs (such as inertial navigation units,
gyrocompasses, and stabilization techniques), and will allow wider use of
RLGs in spacecraft, unmanned aerial vehicles or sensors, where the current
size and weight of optical gyros are prohibitive.

9098-16, Session 4

Optical carrier based microwave interferometers
for sensing application
Jie Huang, Xinwei Lan, Hanzheng Wang, Hai Xiao, Lei Yuan,
Clemson Univ. (United States)
In an effort to bring together the strengths from both microwave andoptics, a research area known as the microwave-photonics has been
explored over the past 30 years. The combination of microwave and optics
has indeed found many unique applications in optical communication,broadband wireless access network, radar and satellite instrumentation.
Some successful examples include high-quality microwave sources, highperformance analog links, phased array antennas, frequency-tunable high-Q
microwave filters and high-speed analog-to-digital convertors.

9098-19, Session 4

The success of microwave-photonics in telecommunications intrigued us
to explore the possibility of combining microwave and optics for sensing
applications. Here we describe the concept and implementation of anew optical carrier-based microwave interferometer (OCMI) for sensing
application. The idea is to send the microwave-modulated optical signals
through an optical interferometer and read the microwave signals only. Highquality interference signal can thus be observed in the microwave domain
by properly controlling the coherence length of optical and microwave
source. The OCMI concept can be implemented on all types of opticalinterferometers such as Fabry-Perot, Fizeau, Michelson, Mach-Zehnder
and Sagnac. OCMI has many unique features that the conventional opticalinterferometry does not have. For example, it can be applied to different
types of optical fibers including multimode fibers, polymer fibers, photonics
crystal fibers, and signal crystal sapphire fibers.

Random drift modelling and noise compensation
algorithm for fiber optic gyroscope signal
Mundla M. Narasimhappa, Samrat L. Sabat, Univ. of Hyderabad(India); Jagannath Nayak, Research Ctr. Imarat (India)
The interferometric fiber optic gyroscope (IFOG) is a core component instrapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) for measuring the angular rateof an object. IFOGs have been used for military and defense applications,due to its significant advantages such as small size, low cost, light weight,
no moving parts, large dynamic range, low power consumption, possible
batch fabrication. The performance of SINS has been degrades due tothe uncertainty and IFOG errors of measurement. The output of IFOG
is suffers with random noise and drift error, which are affected by theenvironmental effects (like temperature, pressure and so on) and sensor
itself. In this paper, the IFOG random drift modeling and noise compensation
techniques are addressed. The adaptive Unscented Kalman filter (AUKF)
algorithm is proposed for denoised the IFOG signal. In this approach, theadaptive estimation of process, measurement noise covariance matrix
is estimated based on innovation sequence. The proposed algorithm isapplied for denoising IFOG signal under static and dynamic environment.
Allan variance is a time domain technique used to analyze and quantify thenoise characteristics of FOG sensor. Variance and standard deviation are the9098-17, Session 4

Optical vibration sensor based on Michelsoninterferometer arrangement with polarizationmaintaining fibers
Jakub Cubik, Stanislav Kepak, Andrej Liner, Martin Papes, Tomas
Kajnar, Ondrej Zboril, Vladimír Vašinek, VšB-Technical Univ. of281+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9098: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI

performance indicators of the proposed algorithm is static condition. The
proposed algorithm is also tested for rate 10 deg/hr of raw FOG signal. In
dynamic condition, the mean squared error (MSE) value is evaluated, which
is a carry out indicator of adaptive approach after denoising.

between the single mode fibers. A high sensitivity of 6.74nm/°C is achieved.
The proposed sensor would have potential application in multi-parameters
sensing area.

9098-40, Session Posters-Thursday

9098-20, Session 4

Study on pattern recognition technology basedon fiber perimeter security system

A novel adaptive mechanism for improving theaccuracy of fiber optic gyroscope

Haiyan Xu, Hohai Univ. (China)

Mundla M. Narasimhappa, Samrat L. Sabat, Univ. of Hyderabad(India); Jagannath Nayak, Research Ctr. Imarat (India)

Fiber perimeter security system is a kind of sensor system which uses
optical fiber as the sensing media.Based on describing the principle offiber perimeter security system, in order to recognize vibration signal fromdual Sagnac fiber-optic sensor,a pattern recognition method based on
endpoint detection technologies and wavelet energy entropy is introduced.
In the experiment system, the power of the light source of 220uW, which
working at a wavelength of 1 550 nm and the optical fiber length is 30 km.The experimental results show that the method we proposed can effectively
distinguish the intrusion signal , environment noise and human activities
caused by non-invasion, it can improve the recognition accuracy and reduce
the false alarm rate?

The interferometric fiber optic gyroscope (IFOG) is a core component instrapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) for measuring the angular rateof an object. IFOGs have been used for military and defense applications,due to its significant advantages such as small size, low cost, light weight,
no moving parts, large dynamic range, low power consumption, possible
batch fabrication. The performance of SINS has been degrades due tothe uncertainty and IFOG errors of measurement. The output of IFOG
is suffers with random noise and drift error, which are affected by theenvironmental effects (like temperature, pressure and so on) and sensor
itself. In this paper, the IFOG random drift modeling and noise compensation
techniques are addressed. The adaptive Unscented Kalman filter (AUKF)
algorithm is proposed for denoised the IFOG signal. In this approach, theadaptive estimation of process, measurement noise covariance matrix isestimated based on innovation sequence. The proposed algorithm is applied
for denoising IFOG signal under static and dynamic environment. Allan
variance is a time domain technique used to analyze and quantify the noisecharacteristics of FOG sensor. Variance and Standard deviation results revealthat the proposed algorithm is static condition. The proposed algorithm
is also applied for rate 10 deg/hr of raw FOG signal. In dynamic condition,
the mean squared error (MSE) value is evaluated, which is a performanceindicator of proposed approach after denoising.

9098-41, Session Posters-Thursday

Measurement of the microwave emitter’s
inhomogeneity using optical fiber DTS
Jakub Jaros, Andrej Liner, Martin Papes, V?B-Technical Univ. ofOstrava (Czech Republic); Pavel Smira, Andrea Nasswettrova,
Thermo Sanace s.r.o. (Czech Republic); Vladimír Va?inek, Jakub
Cubik, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
Researcher’s teams were dealing with the microwave emitter’s
inhomogeneity problem since the microwaves were used. One possible
way, how to measure electromagnetic field is the measurement of thetemperature distribution on the irradiated subject. Inhomogeneouselectromagnetic field causes on inhomogeneous temperature distribution
on the irradiated sample, which can cause problems as in other material
processing, so in the undesirable change of properties and even security.
Inhomogeneity of electromagnetic field is specific by creating spots withhigher or lower temperature called “hot spots”. This inhomogeneity strongly
affects the temperature distribution in the cross section of the material andits resultant heating. Given the impossibility of using classical electronic
devices with metal temperature sensors were various indirect methods
used in the past. This paper deals with experimental measurement of the
microwave emitter’s inhomogeneity (2.45~GHz) using the optical fiber DTS.
The greatest advantage of this sensor system is just in using of the opticalfiber (electromagnetic resistance, small size, safety using in inflammable andexplosive area, easy installation). Due to these properties of the optical fiber
sensor it’s possible to measure the temperature of the sample in real time.
These sensor are able to measure the temperature along the fiber, in somecases they use nonlinear effect in optical fiber (Raman nonlinear effect). The
verification of non-homogeneity consists in experimental measuring of thetemperature distribution within the wooden sample. The method is basedon heat exchange in an isolated system where wooden sample serves as anabsorber of the irradiated energy. To identify locations with different power
density was used DTS system, based on nonlinear phenomena in opticalfibers.

9098-21, Session 4

Highly sensitive and compact temperature sensor
based on the multimode interference in a liquidfilled photonic crystal fiber
Wei Lin, Nankai Univ. (China); Yinping Miao, Tianjin Univ. ofTechnology (China); Hao Zhang, Binbin Song, Bo Liu, Donglin Yan,
Yan-Ge Liu, Weiwei Liu, Shengjiang Chang, Nankai Univ. (China)
Recently, the fiber optic interferometric sensors are extensively investigatedowing to their outstanding advantages, such as portability, compactness,high geometric adaptability, anti-electromagnetic interference andresistance to high pressure and corrosion. The fiber interferometer can
be classified into three types: Fabry-Pérotcavity, Sagnac loop and inline modal interference. Among the in-line modal interferometer, themultimode interferometric sensors have attracted a growing interest in
recent years, owing to their capability of simultaneous multi-parametermeasurement. However, the applications of the multimode interferometricsensors are limited owing to the low sensitivity because the propagation
constant differences of the eigenmodes are hard to be influenced by thevariation of the surroundings, especially the temperature. To enhance thetemperature sensitivity, the photonic crystal fiber is introduced to fabricate
the interferometer, because of its capability of infiltrating the material totuning the average refractive index of the cladding. And it’s successful inthe enhancements of the sensitivity in the sensors based on sagnac loop
and Mach-Zehnder interferometer (a kind of in-line modal interference).
However, few works are focused on the liquid-filled-PCF-based multimodeinterferometer.
In this work, a highly sensitive and compact temperature sensor is proposed
based on the multimode interference in a liquid-filled photonic crystal
fiber. This sensor is fabricated by fully infiltrating the photonic crystal fiberwith a liquid which has the refractive index around the silica and splicing it

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9098-42, Session Posters-Thursday

noise-ratio was realized, which is meaningful to dynamic testing of largescale and complex rotating structure.

Laser line wavelength sensor by strain andtemperature variations based in a dualwavelength fiber laser with a Hi-Bi loop Sagnac
interferometer

9098-46, Session Posters-Thursday

Smartfiber: a strongly miniaturized embedded
interrogator for a FBG sensor network incomposite materials

Manuel Durán-Sánchez, Ricardo I. Álvarez-Tamayo, Univ.
Tecnológica de Puebla (Mexico); Olivier J. M. Pottiez, Ctr. de
Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. (Mexico); Evgeny A. Kuzin, Baldemar
Ibarra-Escamilla, Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica yElectrónica (Mexico); Antonio Barcelata-Pinzón, Univ. Tecnológica
de Puebla (Mexico)Andrea Trita, Univ. Ghent (Belgium); Tahira Ahmed, Airborn
Technology Ctr. B.V. (Netherlands); Geert Luyckx, Univ. Gent
(Belgium); Eli Voet, FBGS Technologies GmbH (Germany); Garrie
Vickers, Optocap Ltd. (United Kingdom); Iker Mayordomo,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Integrierte Schaltungen (Germany); Dries
Van Thourhout, Univ. Gent (Belgium); Jan P. Vermeiren, Xenics NV(Belgium)

A laser line wavelength by strain and temperature variations sensor basedin an Erbium doped dual wavelength fiber laser is presented. The all-fiber
linear laser cavity is based on a pair of fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) and a
Hi-Bi fiber optical loop mirror (Hi-Bi FOLM). The Hi-Bi FOLM acts as a wideband optical mirror with a periodical transmission spectrum. The FBGs areused as strain and temperature sensors modifying the laser wavelength andthe cavity loss adjustment to obtain single and dual wavelength operation.
It is possible to estimate the temperature/strain variations at the FBG by
the measuring of the optical power at the laser cavity output through aHi-Bi FOLM fiber loop temperature scanning that allow to obtain the laser
emission wavelength.

In the framework of the FP-7 program SMARTFIBER, a novel, very compact
interrogator for Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors is designed anddemonstrated based on an optimized Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG)
filter with 128 channels
The AWG response is tailored such to achieve large cross-talk between
the output channels, which allows simultaneous detection of multiple FBG
peaks, using centroid signal processing techniques, without constraints on
the minimum FBG peak spectral width.
The measured interrogator resolution is 2.5 pm and the total measurement
range is 50nm. The device is fabricated in Silicon on Insulator (SOI)
platform, and has a footprint of only 2.2 x 1.5 mm. The integration with 128
pixel InGaAs array is made by Au stud flip-chip bonding.

9098-43, Session Posters-Thursday

Fiber laser strain sensor based in themeasurement of Sagnac interferometer opticalpower spectrum

The spectrometer signals are further integrated and processed in a
Readout circuit (ROIC) based on an integrating transimpedance amplifer.
The external electronics are based on a small footprint CPLD for the ROIC
sequence, ADC operation and temperature control of the PIC and SLED.
the wireless part is controlled with a microcontroller taking care about thewireless communication and the wireless power management. The complete
embedded unit, including temperature controlled SLED, circulator and allfiber optic splices, is realised in 100 mm diameter 7 mm thick premold,which can be embedded together with the fiber chain.

Ricardo I. Álvarez-Tamayo, Manuel Durán-Sánchez, Univ.
Tecnológica de Puebla (Mexico); Olivier J. M. Pottiez, Ctr. de
Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. (Mexico); Evgeny A. Kuzin, Baldemar
Ibarra-Escamilla, Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica yElectrónica (Mexico); Antonio Barcelata-Pinzón, Univ. Tecnológica
de Puebla (Mexico)9098-22, Session 5

We report a fiber laser sensor based in a fiber Sagnac interferometer anda fiber Bragg grating (FBG). The linear laser cavity is formed with a Hi-Bi
loop Sagnac interferometer in one side and a FBG in the other side. The FBG
is used as a strain sensor within the laser cavity. The measurement of the
Sagnac interferometer periodical spectrum optical power by temperaturescanning in the Hi-Bi fiber loop is used to determine the laser line modified
by strain applied on the FBG. This technique can be useful to obtain thelaser line wavelength without expensive equipment due to the simple use of
a power meter and a temperature measurement system.

Lab-on-fiber optofluidic platform for in-situ
monitoring of drug release from therapeuticeluting polyelectrolyte films (Invited Paper)
Fei Tian, Stevens Institute of Technology (United States); Jouha Min,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States); Jiri Kanka,
Institute of Photonics and Electronics of the ASCR, v.v.i. (Czech
Republic); Xiangzhi Li, Stevens Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Paula T. Hammond, Massachusetts Institute of Technology(United States); Henry H. Du, Stevens Institute of Technology(United States)

9098-44, Session Posters-Thursday

Research on structural health monitoring of windturbine blade by FBG sensors and Lamb wave

Therapeutic-eluting polyelectrolyte polymer films deposited on implantable
medical devices and components via layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly forcontrolled release as part of the patient-care strategy are at the frontierof the ever-expanding field of LbL research. Efficiency of this treatment
strategy requires therapeutic release with dose profiles tailored to specificneeds. This invited talk focuses on our recent work on the design anddevelopment of a lab-on-fiber optofluidic platform for in-situ and timeresolved measurements of the release profiles of a model drug-eluting
system, [Poly/PAA/GS/PAA]n, under physiologically relevant conditions. At
the core of the optofluidic platform is a long-period grating (LPG) structure
inscribed in conventional single mode optical fiber housed in a capillary
tube to mimic physiologically relevant fluid flow in a microenvironment.

Yongkai Zhu, Nanjing Univ. of Aeronautics and Astronautics (China)
Structual health monitoring of wind turbine blade is a key technology issue
in equipment testing. Among the emerging new testing methods, Lambwave based non-destructive testing is getting more and more attention.
This paper proposes a method to acquire the Lamb-wave signal in windturbine blade based on FBG sensors. Methods to acquire Lamb-wave inwind turbine blade using FBG technology were analyzed. The testing systemof wind turbine blade was set up, to acquire weak signal from the surfaceof turbine blade. The technology of fast, large-area testing was proposed,to achieve precise location and complete destructive data acquisition. The
testing of turbine blade with features of high-precision and high signal-283+1 360 676 3290·

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9098-25, Session 5

The resonance wavelength of the higher order cladding mode of the LPG
is highly sensitive to molecular absorption/desorption events during LbL
deposition/dissolution, making it especially suitable as both a substrate andan in-situ sensor for LbL growth of the drug-eluting [Poly/PAA/GS/PAA]n and subsequent drug release. We show that the lab-on-fiber optofluidic
platform is robust and yields critical release information not readily available
using static flow condition in a macro release medium. Such information isof vital importance in the development and clinical insertion of therapeuticeluting polyelectrolyte films for patient care.

Fiber optic SERS diagnosis of kidney transplant
acute rejection using urine
Jingmao Chi, Hui Chen, Peter Tolias, Henry H. Du, Stevens Instituteof Technology (United States)
Clinically, renal biopsy is the ‘gold standard’ to distinguish the acuterejection (AC) of renal allograft. It is an invasive procedure, however, witha substantial risk of complications and contraindications. In this study,
we aim to establish a noninvasive, reliable, early diagnosis of renal acuterejection by evaluating urinary biomarkers using fiber-optic based surfaceenhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Unclad sapphire fiber, which has low
Raman background and high biocompatibility, immobilized with colloidal
Ag nanoparticles was used as sensing probe for SERS measurements on
untreated urine samples. Urine samples were collected from 56 kidneytransplant patients at 6 time points at Newark Beth Israel Medical Center(NBIMC) in New Jersey. 3 AC episodes were diagnosed in 16 biopsies. By
analyzing urine samples taken 1 day after kidney transplant surgery, we
discover that 14 (including all 3 AC episodes) out of 16 SERS spectra ofbiopsies show similar spectral features that are highly distinct from patients
without rejection. Based on the unique SERS bands, we propose that heme
could be the major urinary biomarker attributable to the specific SERS
features of biopsies. MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy was employed to
identify the urinary biomarkers.

9098-23, Session 5

Novel diaphragm micro fabrication techniques
for high-sensitivity biomedical fiber optic FabryPerot interferometric sensors
Sven Poeggel, Daniele Tosi, Dinesh Babu Duraibabu, James Kelly,
Maria Munroe, Gabriel Leen, Elfed Lewis, Univ. of Limerick (Ireland)
Extrinsic Fabry Perot Interferometer (EFPI) based optical fibre sensors canbe utilised in in-vivo medical applications which require pressure detection,
e.g.: cardiovascular diagnostics; intra-cranial pressure detection; androbotic surgery. In general, for such applications, the EFPI must have a highaccuracy (1mmHg), be stable over time, and measure pressures in the range
of approximately 0-180mmHg. Here we discuss recent experience relating
to the development and fabrication of an all-glass biocompatible fibre optic
based EFPI pressure sensor. The sensor is 200um in diameter and fabricatedusing only fibre splicing and a process to etch the EFPI diaphragm.

9098-26, Session 5

The pressure sensitivity of the EFPI is inversely proportional to the third
power of the diaphragm thickness; hence, high sensitivity (1-5nm/kPa) canonly be achieved by having a correspondingly low diaphragm thickness. In
order to help accomplish this, a real-time method has been developed tomonitor the diaphragm thickness during the etching process. Three different
etching techniques have been investigated: 1) polishing; 2) Hydrofluoric (HF)
acid; and 3) Focused Ion Beam milling (FIB).

Understanding the role of hemoglobin in altering
multilayered tissue intrinsic fluorescence in thevisible region using fiber optics
Bala K. Nivetha, Narayanan U. Sujatha, Indian Institute ofTechnology Madras (India)

By monitoring the diaphragm thickness during the etching process, it ispossible to achieve a diaphragm thickness of 2-3um, and produce sensors
with a 0.1mmHg resolution and <1 mmHg/hr drift rate. Here the on-line
monitoring method is reported upon and the three etching techniques arecompared in terms of stability, repeatability and efficiency. The sensors
have been tested in air and several liquids, ensuring high stability, andresilience to impurities. Furthermore, a test in a cardiovascular simulator was
successfully undertaken.

Extraction of intrinsic fluorescence in a solid turbid medium such as tissue
is a challenging problem due to the various interrelationships between
different constituents of tissue. Alterations in fluorescence intensity occur
during the transformation of tissue from normal to malignant. If thefluorescence happens to be in the visible region, predominant absorptionof hemoglobin can quench the emission making the intrinsic extraction andhence the actual measurement of the respective fluorophore concentration
erroneous. This work explores to understand the effect of hemoglobin
quenching on emitted fluorescence of FAD (Flavin Adinine Dinucleotide) inlayered skin tissue phantoms. The alteration in the concentration of tissue
FAD is a characteristic of tissue malignancy. Monte Carlo simulations onlayered phantoms were performed with varying concentrations of FAD andhemoglobin and the results are correlated with fluorescence measurements
obtained using a fiber optic probe based spectroscopic setup. The results
obtained are expected to open up ways of compensating the loss of FAD
emission due to the hemoglobin absorption to facilitate the determinationof true FAD content in the tissue and thus help in grading the level of tissue
malignancy.

9098-24, Session 5

Fiber loop ringdown glucose sensors: sensing
human diabetic urines
Malik Kaya, Chuji Wang, Mississippi State Univ. (United States)
Fiber loop ringdown technique has shown promise in biomedical
applications in recent studies. In the present work, fiber loop ringdown
sensors using the evanescent field as the sensing mechanism have been
fabricated and tested in actual human urines for the first time. In order toevaluate the sensors’ performance, the sensors were comparatively tested
in healthy human urines, synthetic urine solutions, and diabetic urines. Due
to different features or chemical compositions of each urine sample, thesensors experience different optical losses, equivalently, different ringdown
times. The comparative results show that evanescent field-fiber loop
ringdown glucose sensors can discriminate the three different urine samples
by displaying different ringdown times. The evanescent field-fiber loop
ringdown glucose sensors had fast response, good reproducibility, and highsensitivity. The promising results imply that the evanescent field-fiber loop
ringdown sensors have potential for near real-time detection of diabetic
urines.

9098-27, Session 6

Exploration of higher-order mode coupling in
long-period gratings for sensitive monitoring ofpolyelectrolyte self-assembly at the nanoscale
Fei Tian, Stevens Institute of Technology (United States); Jiri Kanka,
Institute of Photonics and Electronics of the ASCR, v.v.i. (Czech
Republic); Xiangzhi Li, Henry H. Du, Stevens Institute of Technology(United States)
Layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly via hydrogen bonding is one of the284

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Conference 9098: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI

primary mechanisms to achieve stimuli-responsive polyelectrolyte thinfilms for a variety of applications. The ability to monitor the individual LbL
steps in situ is of great significance in the development and understandingof hydrogen-bonded LbL systems of new design functions and properties.
Long-period gratings in single-mode fiber (SMF-LPG) has the potential
for such application by virtue of its high index sensitivity. We report atheoretical and experimental investigation to sort out the coupled cladding
mode that is most sensitive to molecular adsorption events during LbL
deposition. We demonstrate via numerical simulation and experiments thathigher order cladding modes in SMF-LPG have two orders of magnitudeadvantage over their lower order counterparts in resonance wavelength
response. The sensitivity of SMF-LPG to LbL deposition can be further
improved at turning around point in the phase matching curve of the LPG
structure, according to our simulation.

We show that Raman intensity increases with the coverage density of Ag
nanoparticles even in the high density region, contrary to reported studies
using single-mode optical fiber based on silica. We demonstrate that alimit of detection as low as 10-9 M could be achieved for R6G in aqueous
solutions. Due to the low Raman background of sapphire fiber, as opposed
to silica fiber, its development as a robust SERS probe is expected tosignificantly extend the realm of fiber optic-based chemical sensing anddetection.

9098-30, Session 6

Gas diffusion in micro-machined HC-PCF
methane sensors
Mohammad Amanzadeh, Saiied M. Aminossadati, The Univ. of
Queensland (Australia)

9098-28, Session 6

Fiber pigtailed thin wall capillary coupler for
excitation of microsphere WGM resonator inchemical/thermal sensing

This paper reports on development of a potential ultra-fast response anddistributed gas spectroscopy sensor heads for underground coal mining.
Multiple micro-channels were machined in hollow-core photonic crystal
fibres as gas sensor heads using focoused ion beam and laser milling. This
enables the gas mixture to access the holly core for interaction with laser
light. Gas diffusion to the holly core is modeled considering microscopy
measurements of drilled holes. The optimal length of sensor head anddrilling positions are accurately calculated to achieve required sensing
accuracy and response time. Engineering design of sensor heads was
highlighted.

Hanzheng Wang, Xinwei Lan, Jie Huang, Lei Yuan, Hai Xiao,
Clemson Univ. (United States)
Optical microresonators have been proven as an effective means forsensitive chemical and thermal sensors development. The changes inrefractive index near the resonator surface and the thermal optic effect on
the resonator lead to the effective refractive index change and thus a shift
at certain resonance wavelength. The high quality (Q) whispering gallery
modes (WGMs) contributed by the rotationally symmetric structures willinteract with the local circumstances through the evanescent field. The highsensitivity in detection was achieved by the long photon lifetime of thehigh-Q resonator (thus the long light-environment interaction path).

9098-31, Session 6

Multimaterial fibers: a new concept in infraredfiber optics

In this paper, we present our recent research on using fiber pigtailed
capillary coupler for WGM resonator excitation and its sensing applications.
Capillary tube with wall thickness of several microns was used as the
waveguide. The PMMA microsphere and porous glass microsphere (PGM)
were integrated with the etched capillary tube for different sensing
purposes. The Q-factors and free spectrum ranges (FSR) of different typesof microspheres were measured by coupling light into the microsphereusing novel fiber pigtailed capillary coupler. Chemical vapor at different
concentrations were tested using PGM microresonator. Temperature sensing
was tested based on PMMA microsphere resonator. This alignment freestructure provides a new sensing probe based on WGM resonator concept.

Guangming Tao, Ayman F. Abouraddy, CREOL, The College of
Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
Rapid progress in quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) that span mid-wave
and long-wave infrared wavelengths necessitate developing new infraredfibers capable of transmitting light in the 5?12 micron range. The mostsuitable material for IR fiber that could cover this range is glassy telluriumbased chalcogenide glass. We produce a novel infrared optical fiberwith tellurium-based chalcogenide core and cladding, provided with abuilt-in polymer jacket by multimaterial coextrusion. We characterize theoptical performance of the fiber in the 5 - 12 micron spectral window anddemonstrate the mechanical robustness of the fiber.

9098-29, Session 6
9098-32, Session 7

Sapphire fiber sensor based on evanescent-fieldsurface-enhanced Raman scattering

A multicore optical fiber for distributed sensing(Invited Paper)

Hui Chen, Fei Tian, Jingmao Chi, Stevens Institute of Technology(United States); Jiri Kanka, Institute of Photonics and Electronics of
the ASCR, v.v.i. (Czech Republic); Henry H. Du, Stevens Institute ofTechnology (United States)

Xiaoguang Sun, Jie Li, David T. Burgess, Mike Hines, OFS (UnitedStates)We deigned and manufactured a multicore optical fiber with three gradedindex (GI) multimode(MM) and one single mode (SM) cores. The GI cores
have diameter of 50um and numerical aperture of 0.2 to be compatible withexisting MM fiber in distributed Raman sensing. The SM fiber has a cutoff of
1280nm and a mode field diameter of 10um at 1550nm, which can be used
for distributed Brillouin sensing. The fiber was coated with Silicone coatingand ETFE buffer for high temperature applications. The fiber properties
such as geometry, crosstalk and attenuation etc. are described. Method forcoupling the signal from the individual cores to separate optical fiber is alsopresented.

Unclad sapphire optical fiber is inherently multi-mode, which requires
the excitation of higher order modes with strong mode-field overlap forevanescent-field based sensing and measurements, particularly using
surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) as the sensing modality.
We present a theoretical and experimental study that aims to realize
evanescent-field SERS sensing utilizing sapphire fiber. Beam Propagation
Method (BPM) was used to simulate excitation of high-order modes toenhance the evanescent overlap. Generalized Multi-particle Mie (GMM)
solution was employed to analyze the interactions between Ag plasmonic
nanoparticles and the higher-order modes for optimal Raman scatteringand signal coupling. With simulation as a guide, we immobilized colloidal Ag
nanoparticles on sapphire fiber along the fiber length at different coveragedensities for SERS measurements of Rhodamine 6G (R6G) model analyte.

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Conference 9098: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI

9098-33, Session 7

9098-35, Session 7

Analysis of the suitability of fiber optic cables
for illicit connections localization within sewers
using the fiber optic distributed temperaturesensing

Fast variable optical attenuator based opticalcurrent transformer
Pu Wei, Xiaohan Sun, Southeast Univ. (China)
The optical current transformer (OCT) based on Faraday rotation havebeen presented for many year which encountered practical and economic
challenges, due to the susceptibility of the polarization state of the light totemperature, vibration, external pressure, and material aging.

Martin Papes, Petr Koudelka, Andrej Liner, Petr Siska, Jakub Jaros,
Stanislav Kepak, Vladimír Va?inek, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava(Czech Republic)

In this paper, we propose a novel hybrid optical current transformer(H-OCT), which is more practical to be widely used and simpler, comparedwith OCTs based on Faraday rotation. The conventional current sensing
means such as low-power current transformer (LPCT) was utilized andoptical fiber was employed as the transmission medium only. The fastvariable optical attenuator (FVOA) is used to modulate the lightwave
according to the voltage from the low-power current transformer (LPCT),
which is proportional to the primary current.

At present, most of the populated areas are equipped with sewer network.
It is a complex system, which is usually very complicated and therefore
it’s very difficult to control and maintain. Nowadays, one of the biggest
problems of sewers are illicit connections. Waste water is discharged byillegal connections into the sewer system that is not designed for this typeof polluted water. This leads not only to aesthetic problems of surface
water, but also to dangerous environment pollution. Due to these reasonsare sewer companies trying to seek these illegal connections to prevent
environmental pollution and burdening of waste water treatment plants
with large amount of water. Various methods are used for searchingthese connections such as camera system/robot, paint test, smoke test,
visual surveys or hydrochemical surveys. New approach in this area isthe utilization of fiber-optic distributed sensing method using an opticalfiber as a sensor. This method uses nonlinear Raman Effect in opticalfibers and the measurements can be implemented to real time. Becauseof these advantageous properties of optical fibers, which are for example
electromagnetic resistance, small size, easy installation and in this casemainly low cost, are mentioned sensory systems beginning to deploy in theindustrial environments. The aim of this paper is to analyze the suitability offiber-optic cables for localization of illicit connections within sewers using
the fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing in terms of sensibility andmechanical resistance of the fiber-optic cables.

The transfer function of the FVOA is experimentally estimated by the step
response and an optic-electro feedback loop with the PID control algorithm
is designed to compensate the nonlinearity of the transformer. The
transformer is built with experimentally proved high linearity, the R-squarevalue of which is equal to unity. The accuracy of the transformer is also test
by a commercial calibrator. The results show that the ratio and phase errors
were under 0.7% and 5 minutes which meet the IEC 0.1 class. In addition, thecomplexity and the cost are effectively reduced compared with other OCTs.

9098-36, Session 7

A fiber optic voltage sensor based on intensity
modulation
Musa Ndiaye, Copperbelt Univ. (Zambia) and Northumbria Univ.
(United Kingdom)9098-34, Session 7

A fiber optic DC voltage sensor based on an intensity modulation scheme is
proposed. Fiber optic voltage sensors have the advantage over conventional
voltage sensors in that they offer voltage isolation and can easily beincorporated in telecommunication systems. The intensity modulation
approach to sensing is a less costly and simpler measurement systemcompared to other available fiber optic voltage sensor techniques. Intensity
modulation is achieved using a piezoelectric ceramic which produces adisplacement on application of a voltage varying the transmitted opticalpower in a fiber to fiber coupling system.

Balanced PIN-TIA photoreceiver with integrated
3 dB fiber coupler for distributed fiber optic
sensors
Shubhashish Datta, Sruti Rajagopalan, Shaun Lemke, Abhay M.
Joshi, Discovery Semiconductors, Inc. (United States)
Distributed fiber optic sensors based on optical scattering techniques
have been used to monitor several physical parameters, namely pressure,temperature, and mechanical stress, in remote locations with occasionallyharsh environments, such as oil and gas reservoirs, pipelines, dams, andpower transmission lines, to name a few. Coherent optical detection is often
employed to increase the sensitivity and dynamic range of these sensors.
The performance of such systems hinges on that of the balanced opticaldetector used to detect the weak scattered signals. For example, the length
resolution of the system improves with increasing detector bandwidth. Also,
detection of Brillouin scattering in silica fibers requires optical detector with
>11GHz bandwidth. The optical power handling of the detector determines
the maximum local oscillator power, and therefore the coherent gain of thesystem. High common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is needed to suppress
the laser’s relative intensity noise for shot noise limited operation.

A critical analysis was performed on the theory behind the intensity
modulation scheme for fiber voltage sensing. Simulations and experimental
investigations based on this concept showed good linearity between theapplied voltage and optical power in the fiber. The feasibility of obtaining asingle valued relationship for voltage sensing purposes was also observed.
The constructed voltage sensor produced useful results with the sensor
exhibiting good linearity in forward and reverse voltages over a DC voltage
of 0V to 100V but exhibited hysteresis. A linearity of 92% and 88.8% was
measured for the forward and reverse voltages respectively and a dynamic
range of approximately 0.3dB over the 100V range was achieved with aresolution of 1.9V. The hysteresis in the sensor was measured at 20%. Basedon the results obtained recommendations have been made on a more linear,lower hysteresis and stable sensor of this type.

We report a balanced PIN-TIA photoreceiver integrated with a 3dB fiber
coupler for distributed fiber optic sensors. This detector demonstrates 3dB
bandwidth >15GHz and coupled conversion gain >65V/W per photodiodethrough either input ports of the 3dB coupler, and can be operated at local
oscillator power of +17dBm. The combined common mode rejection of thebalanced photoreceiver and the integrated 3dB coupler is >20dB. We alsopresent measurement results with various optical stimuli, namely impulses,
sinusoids, and pseudo-random sequences, which are relevant for time
domain reflectometry, frequency domain reflectometry, and code correlation
sensors, respectively.

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Conference 9098: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XI

9098-37, Session 7

Intensity insensitive one-dimensional opticalfiber tilt sensor
Badrinath Vadakkapattu Canthadai, Vidya Jyothi Institute ofTechnology (India); Dipankar Sengupta, Univ. degli Studi di Padova(Italy); Kishore Putha, National Institute of Technology, Warangal(India)The paper presents a proximity sensor based on plastic optical fiber as tilt
sensor. The sensor is insensitive to source fluctuation and can detect tilt
angle up to 20deg and the achieved sensor sensitivity 0.256V/deg.
Introduction:In this paper a simple, low-cost and high-sensitivity fiber-optic
tilt sensor based on the change in angle of the cantilever with respect to thefiber probe is presented and the sensor works on proximity sensor principle.
Principle of operation:
The basic principle of this fiber optic reflection sensor includes two
multimode fibers with a step index profile, where one is transmitting fiber
and the other is receiving fiber. The light is launched into the transmitting
fiber and on emergence reflected by the reflector and is received by thereceiving fiber. The light intensity is sensed by a photo-detector to be
displayed as output power in volts. The incident light on the reflector forms
a cone of emittance from transmitting fiber. It is reflected back in the formof expanding cone of light. The reflected light intensity collected by thereceiving fiber depends on the separation between probe and reflector.

9098-38, Session 7

Development of a low cost tilt sensor using
plastic optical fiber
Dipankar Sengupta, Univ. degli Studi di Padova (Italy); Badrinath
Vadakkapattu Canthadai, Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology(India); Kishore Putha, National Institute of Technology, Warangal(India)In this paper we have presented the optical response of a fiber optic
proximity sensor that measures the tilt angle of a cantilever due to the
movement of a load attached to it at its edge. We have setup a simple
reflection based sensor head made of two plastic optic fiber of diameter
980/1000 µm. A reflector is fixed on a cantilever and is mounted normal to
the sensor head. Light from one of the two fibers is allowed to fall on thereflector and the reflected light from the reflector is collected by anotherfiber. The reflected light after passing through the fiber is measured by aphoto diode through an transimpedance amplifier. A small amount of load
is attached to the end of the cantilever in such a way that it can swing freely
parallel to the horizontal axis of the cantilever only. The deflection of thecantilever depends on the angular displacement of the load from its normal
position. The recorded change in intensity of light (in terms of voltage)
due to angular displacement of the load is found linear. The experimental
results show the sensitivity 0.256V/0 (degree) with respect to the angulardisplacement of the load. The experimental setup can be used for tilt
measurement in civil engineering applications.

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014

9099-1, Session 1

exposure.
We present the design of the Rochester Institute of Technology Polarization
Imaging Camera (RITPIC), a snapshot polarimeter for visible and nearinfrared remote sensing applications. RITPIC is a compact, light-weightand mechanically robust imaging polarimeter that is deployable onterrestrial, naval, airborne and space-based platforms. RITPIC is developed
using commercially available components and is capable of fast cadence
imaging polarimetry of a wide variety of scenes. We derive the expected
performance of RITPIC using the first high resolution 3D finite-differencetime-domain (FDTD) models of these hybrid focal planes and simulated
observations of synthetic scenes rendered with the Digital Imaging andRemote Sensing Image Generation (DIRSIG) model. Furthermore, we
explore applications in remote sensing for which RITPIC, and devices like it,provide unique advantages.

Underwater polarization camera for real-time andhigh definition imaging
Samuel B. Powell, Viktor Gruev, Washington Univ. in St. Louis(United States)
In this paper, we will describe our underwater polarimeter used for real-time
imaging of marine phenomena. The polarization imaging sensor is basedon a division of focal plane polarimeter and is implemented by integrating
pixelated aluminum nanowire filters with an array of CCD imaging elements.
The polarization imaging sensor is integrated with a PC104 computer using
a gigabit Ethernet interface, allowing for 40 frames per second of HD format
video. The underwater system allows for user control of focus, aperture,zoom, and integration time. Additionally, two integrated high definition
monitors display various processed data to the user such as the Stokes
parameters, degree of linear polarization, angle of polarization, and others.
We will discuss our efforts in calibrating the polarimeter for underwater
use and the algorithms for presenting calibrated data to the user in realtime. Detailed information on the quality of the calibration in terms ofreconstruction accuracy will be presented as well. Finally, we will present
field-test footage collected at the Lizard Island Research Station on the
Great Barrier Reef.

9099-4, Session 1

GP-grid image interpolation and denoising fordivision of focal plane sensors
Elad Gilboa, Arye Nehorai, Washington Univ. in St. Louis (UnitedStates); John P. Cunningham, Columbia Univ. (United States); Viktor
Gruev, Washington Univ. in St. Louis (United States)
Image interpolation and denoising are important techniques in image
processing. These methods are inherent to digital image acquisition as
most digital cameras are composed of a 2D grid of heterogeneous imaging
sensors such as division of focal plane polarization sensors. Because
each sensor only observes partial information, it is standard practice tointerpolate missing components across the sensors, and the interpolation
scheme has substantial bearing on image quality. Recently, there has beena growing interest in the use of Gaussian processes (GP) regression forinterpolation and denoising of image data. However, exact GP regression
suffers from O(N^3) runtime for data size N, making it intractable for image
data (which is often in the millions for basic images).

9099-2, Session 1

Snap-shot imaging polarimeter: performance andapplications
Neal Brock, Charles M. Crandall, James E. Millerd, 4D Technology
Corp. (United States)
A camera capable of obtaining single snap-shot, quantitative, polarimetricmeasurements is investigated to determine its performance characteristics.
The camera employs a micropolarizer array with linear wiregrid polarizers
oriented at 0, 45, 90, and, 135 degrees. The wiregrid polarizers achieve an
excellent spectral response from 300 - 3000nm which exceeds the 300– 1000nm spectral response of the scientific CCD camera used. Cameras
based on these micropolarizers have been built with individual polarizer
elements as small as 7.4 microns and with full array sizes as large 4 Megapixels. The pixelated polarization camera acquires the four polarization
orientations in a single video frame, which enables instantaneous
measurements of the linear stokes parameters. The spatial resolution
characteristics and limitations are discussed. Measurement guidelines
are given to minimize the effects of noise sources such as pixel crosstalk, pixel uniformity, and camera noise. The benefit of these calibration
methods as well as the benefit of averaging video frames on measurements
such as Angle of Linear Polarization and Degree of Linear Polarization isdemonstrated in a series of controlled experiments. A practical example ofmeasuring stress induced birefringence is demonstrated.

Here we focus specifically on GP for division of focal plane sensors. Our
GP-grid algorithm uses the multiplicative structure of most common kernels
to reduce runtime complexity from O(N^3) to O(N^3/2). Importantly, ourGP-grid algorithm is exact, requiring no approximations or sparsification
procedures to perform inference. We then generalize GP-grid to handle
incomplete grids and heteroscedastic noise, which importantly enables
GP-grid to naturally incorporate known statistical properties of image
capture. These advances lead to significant improvements over current
methods in both interpolation and denoising. We provide a comprehensive
mathematical model as well as experimental results of the GP interpolation
performance for division of focal plane polarimeter. The GP interpolation
accuracy of extracted polarization information outperforms previously
published interpolation methods for polarimeters.

9099-5, Session 1

Hardware and demosaicing algorithms for
improved microgrid polarimeters

9099-3, Session 1

Polarization in a snap: imaging polarimetry withmicrogrid polarizer arrays

Daniel A. LeMaster, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Keigo
Hirakawa, Univ. of Dayton (United States)

Dmitry Vorobiev, Michael G. Gartley, Zoran Ninkov, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)

We recently proposed a new approach for microgrid polarimetric imaging
with improved spatial resolution. Here, we expand this original work to
include additional aspects of hardware design and demosiacking algorithms.
Comparisons are made between conventional and improved microgrid
imaging polarimeters using synthetic imagery.

Polarization, flux, and the spectral energy distribution of light are thefundamental parameters that we measure in order to infer properties ofthe sources of electromagnetic radiation, such as intensity, temperature,chemical composition and shape. Recently, the fabrication of microgrid
polarizer arrays (MGPAs) facilitated the development of a new class ofdivision-of-focal plane polarimeters. These devices have inherent capability
to measure the degree and angle of polarization across a scene with a single

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI

9099-6, Session 2

States); Alexander A. Kokhanovsky, Univ. Bremen (Germany) and
EUMETSAT (Germany)

Effects of wildfire smoke on atmosphericpolarization

Characterization of the omnipresent atmospheric aerosol is key to many
applications of remote sensing. Beyond their obvious importance for climate
and air quality applications, aerosols matter in defense and national security
applications ranging from war fighter support to atmospheric corrections
in hyper-spectral monitoring for nonproliferation treaty verification. In
recent years, accurate observation of the state of polarization of photon
fluxes at optical sensors in visible and near-IR spectrum has been pursued
as a promising approach to aerosol remote sensing. Consequently, there
has been a flurry of activity in polarized or “vector” radiative transfer(vRT) model development. This covers the multiple scattering and groundreflection contributions to sensor signals and complements single-particle
scattering computation at the core of physics-based retrieval algorithms.

Joseph A. Shaw, Nathan J. Pust, Elizabeth Forbes, Montana State
Univ. (United States)
An all-sky polarization imager is operated continuously at Montana State
University in Bozeman, Montana. This system was used in August 2012,
along with a suite of in-situ and remote aerosol sensors, to characterize
the atmosphere before, during, and after the onset of a local wildfire. This
provided a rare opportunity to observe the onset and temporal evolutionof the smoke plume on skylight polarization. The spatially localized plumeat first created a spatially asymmetric reduction of skylight polarizationin the part of the sky nearest to the plume, and then evolved to provide aspatially uniform reduction of polarization when the plume filled the valley
with smoke by the 2nd day. Detailed measurements of the changing aerosol
properties will be shown and correlated with the changing polarization
pattern.

What level of model fidelity (representativeness of natural scenes) andnumerical accuracy should be targeted in view of the practical constraints
that apply? At a minimum, these constraints are: (1) desired accuracy forthe retrieved aerosol properties, (2) observational uncertainties, and (3)operational efficiency requirements. We offer a rational and balanced
approach to address this question, and illustrate it with an inter-comparisonof a diverse set of 1D vRT models using a small but representative set oftest cases. The benchmarking exercise splits naturally into two parts. First,
emphasis is on stratified atmospheres with a continuously varying mixtureof molecular and aerosol scattering and absorption over a black surface.
Then emphasis shifts to the variety of surfaces, both polarizing and not, thatcan be encountered and may confuse the aerosol retrieval algorithm if notproperly treated.

9099-7, Session 2

Increasing range and minimizing polarization
mixing with circularly polarized light throughscattering environments
John D. van der Laan, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of
Arizona (United States); David A. Scrymgeour, Shanalyn A. Kemme,
Sandia National Labs. (United States); Eustace L. Dereniak, College
of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona (United States)

9099-9, Session 2

Atmospheric aerosol characterization throughground-based SPEX and iSPEX multi-angle
spectropolarimetry

We present both simulation and experimental results showing thatcircularly polarized light maintains its degree of polarization better thanlinearly polarized light. This is specifically true in turbid environments
like fog and clouds, modeled here with polystyrene beads in water. In
contrast to previous studies that propagate single wavelengths throughbroad particle-size distributions, this work identifies regions where circularpolarization persists further than linear by systematically surveying different
wavelengths through monodisperse particle diameters. In monodisperse
polystyrene microspheres in water we show, for particle diameters of 1, 2,
and 3 microns and varying optical depths, that circular polarization’s ability
to persist through multiple scattering events is enhanced by as much as afactor of four, when compared to that of linear polarization. These particle
sizes correspond to size parameters found for infrared wavelengths andmarine and continental fog particle distributions. To further demonstratecircular polarization’s utility in realistic fog environments, laboratorygenerated fog experiments are conducted and results are analyzed. The
experimental results are compared to Monte Carlo simulations for all
scattering environments investigated. Finally, we propose that polarization
imaging techniques used to increase contrast and target discrimination canbe successfully applied for a broader range of scattering environments,
including fog and clouds.

Gerard van Harten, Frans Snik, Jos de Boer, Leiden Univ.
(Netherlands); Jeroen H. H. Rietjens, Job M. Smit, SRON
Netherlands Institute for Space Research (Netherlands); Hester
Volten, Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (Netherlands);
Arnoud Apituley, Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut(Netherlands); Bas Mijling, Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en
Milieu (Netherlands); Antonio di Noia, Otto P. Hasekamp, SRON
Netherlands Institute for Space Research (Netherlands); Christoph
U. Keller, Leiden Univ. (Netherlands)
We have designed, constructed, tested and calibrated several SPEX
instruments: multi-angle spectropolarimeters for atmospheric aerosol
measurements through the analysis of scattered sunlight. These instruments
are based on the spectral modulation principle for linear polarizationthat yields accurate polarization measurements in one shot, without
the use of any active optical components. We have carried out blue-sky
measurements with the prototype SPEX satellite instrument and a dedicated
SPEX instrument for implementation within a ground-based air quality
measurement network. We present the data reduction and calibration ofthese measurements, and show how aerosol properties are retrieved fromthe continuum polarization, as well as from the polarization inside the O2A
band, which can be separated/distinguished from the much broader spectral
modulation.

9099-8, Session 2

An assessment of forward 1D vector radiativetransfer modeling accuracy with aerosol remotesensing in mind

We have also developed a smartphone version of SPEX: iSPEX, which is
low-cost, mass-producible and yet relatively accurate owing to its spectral
polarization modulation. We present first results from the iSPEX citizen
science experiment to measure atmospheric aerosols with thousands ofparticipants throughout The Netherlands.

Anthony B. Davis, Olga V. Kalashnikova, David J. Diner, Michael J.
Garay, California Institute of Technology (United States); Alexei
I. Lyapustin, Sergey V. Korkin, NASA Goddard Space Flight
Ctr. (United States); John V. Martonchik, Vijay Natraj, Suniti
Sanghavi, Feng Xu, California Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Pengwang Zhai, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United289+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI

9099-10, Session 3

determine whether polarimetric tipping and cueing improved the end-toend process of activity recognition.

An overview of polarimetric sensing techniques
and technology within different research fields(Invited Paper)

9099-12, Session 3

Preliminary measurements of the polarimetricsignatures of human targets

Frans Snik, Leiden Univ. (Netherlands); Julia M. Craven-Jones,
Sandia National Labs. (United States); Antonello De Martino, Ecole
Polytechnique (France); Michael J. Escuti, North Carolina State Univ.
(United States); Silvano Fineschi, INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico
di Torino (Italy); David M. Harrington, Univ. of Hawai’i (UnitedStates); Dimitri P. Mawet, European Southern Observatory (Chile);
Jérôme Riedi, Univ. des Sciences et Technologies de Lille (France);
J. Scott Tyo, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona(United States)

Van A. Hodgkin, Dawne M. Deaver, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Daniel A. LeMaster,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The reflective bands in modern imaging, i.e., the visible through the shortwave infrared (SWIR), have become very attractive for use in both daytime
and low light target acquisition and surveillance. In addition, the natureof the target in modern conflict again includes the human body as aprinciple target. The spectral natures of the reflectivities of humans, theirclothing, what they may be carrying, and the environments in which they
are immersed, along with the spectral nature and strength of the lightsources that illuminate them, have been the essential components of thesignatures used in models that predict probabilities of target acquisitionand discrimination. What has been missing from these sets of signaturecomponents is the impact these target and background materials haveon the polarization of the light that is imaged. This paper documents apreliminary theoretical and experimental investigation into the active
and passive polarimetric signatures of human targets carrying lethal andnonlethal objects in the SWIR.

We report the main conclusions from an interactive, multidisciplinary
workshop on “polarimetric techniques and technologies”, held on March
24-28 2014 at the Lorentz Center in Leiden, the Netherlands. The workshop
brought together polarimetrists from different research fields: fromastronomy to biomedical research, from atmospheric remote sensing
to military target detection. Participants had backgrounds ranging fromacademia to industrial R&D.
Here we provide an overview of polarimetric instrumentation in the opticalregime geared towards a wide range of applications. We identify common
approaches and challenges. We list novel polarimetric techniques andpolarization technologies that enable promising new solutions. We conclude
with recommendations to the polarimetric community at large on joint
efforts for exchanging expertise.

9099-13, Session 3

A covariance-based anomaly detector forpolarimetric remote sensing applications

9099-11, Session 3

Activity-based intelligence tipping and cueing
using polarimetric sensors

Joao M. Romano, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development
and Engineering Ctr. (United States); Dalton S. Rosario, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

Christian Lewis, David Messinger, Michael G. Gartley, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)

The proposed paper recommends a new anomaly detection algorithm
for air-to-ground polarimetric remote sensing applications using a
multi-polarimetric data cube as input. By stacking the independentmeasurements, I0 and I90, captured by a polarimetric camera, one cangenerate a multipolarimetric cube where the x and y axis represent the
spatial information and the z-axis the polarimetric information. Using
this new format, it will be shown that one can take advantage of somekey features that lend themselves in discriminating manmade objects
from natural clutter backgrounds more effectively than using the wellknown Stokes parameters. The paper demonstrates that variability is key
in discriminating manmade objects from natural clutter when using thisnew multi-dimensional feature space which, as the paper will show, canbe successfully exploited using the M-Box covariance test. The paper
demonstrates: 1) how independent polarization measurements contains
information suitable for manmade object discrimination by taking
advantage of the variability difference between manmade objects andnatural clutter; 2) a detailed analysis and comparison between the variability
exhibited by manmade objects relative to natural clutter; 3) an in-depth
comparison between the M-Box covariance test algorithm with Stokes
parameters S0 and S1, DoLP, RX-Stokes, PCA RX-Stokes, and the LoGC, apreviously proposed algorithm by the authors as a covariance discriminator;and finally 4) the data used for the comparison spans 3 days 24-hourmeasurements over a variety of weather conditions, target states, anddiurnal cycle.

Activity-Based Intelligence (ABI) is a method of intelligence gathering
whose primary concern are the actions and interactions of people within agiven scene. Activities are determined by tracking the temporal movementof objects. Traditionally, movement is characterized by using a simply
change detection scheme known as frame differencing. If all movement iscorrectly detected, then the inherent assumption is that everything thatmoved is equally notable. Everyday life would indicate that premise to befalse. In order to assist in the detection process and identify interesting
objects, we implemented a technique known as tipping and cueing. By using
the polarimetric signature of an object to tip the polarimetric detection
algorithms, an adjacent sensor can be cued to keep track of said object. We
then monitor interactions between people in the scene and this object ofinterest. In this experiment we use multiple sensor platforms mounted ona roof, to observe a group of choreographed pedestrians below. A narrow
field of view (NFOV) polarimetric sensor is used to cue a wide FOV (WFOV)
Go-Pro 3. The polarimetric sensor uses a CCD camera in combination with aspinning filter wheel fitted with four polarimetric filters angled at 45 degreeintervals from zero to 135. The narrow FOV is a consequence of the depth of
the spinning filter wheel attachment. This limitation is address by focusing
the sensor on a well-traversed intersection within the scene. The frame rateof this system is 6Hz, whereas the Go-Pro 3 operates a RGB camera at 60Hz.
This difference in temporal fidelity requires that we evaluate each polarized
frame both individually and in combination, or experience large temporalintervals with no polarimetric data. Individually, each frame will be reviewed
for large contrast differences relative to the background. In combination,
the degree of linear polarization (DOLP) will be used to further distinguishobjects of interest. It is important to note, that the polarization data will only
be used to indicate the existence of an object, not the lack thereof. Thus
no objects will be removed if no signature is detected. Upon completion of
the experiment, the resulting data will be used in a comparative analysis to290

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI

9099-15, Session 3

9099-18, Session 4

High-speed birefringence mapping bypolarization camera and its application for filmorientation tracking

Spatial calibration of full stokes polarization
imaging camera
Mathieu Vedel, Sebastien Breugnot, Nicolas Lechocinski, Bossa
Nova Technologies (United States)

Takashi Onuma, Yukitoshi Otani, Utsunomiya Univ. (Japan)

Objective and background: We present a new method for the calibration of
Bossa Nova Technologies’ full Stokes, passive polarization imaging camera
SALSA. The SALSA camera is a Division of Time Imaging Polarimeter. It
uses custom made Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals mounted directly in frontof the camera’s CCD. Regular calibration process based on Data Reduction
Matrix calculation assumes a perfect spatial uniformity of the FLC. However,alignment of FLC molecules can be disturbed by external constraints likemechanical stress from fixture, temperature variations and humidity. This
disarray of the FLC molecules alignment appears as spatial non-uniformity.
With typical DRM condition numbers of 2 to 5, the influence on DOLP and
DOCP variations over the field of view can get up to 10%. Spatial nonuniformity of commercially available FLC products is the limiting factor forachieving reliable performances over the whole camera’s field of view. We
developed a field calibration technique based on mapping the CCD into
areas of interest, then applying the DRM calculations on those individual
areas.

A polarization camera with a sampling speed of over 1 kHz at full resolution
has been developed based on a CMOS sensor and a micropolarizer arraymade of a photonic crystal. A high-speed birefringence mapping is achieved
by applying a phase-shifting method after illuminating circularly polarized
light to a sample. In addition, it is applied for dynamic racking of optical filmorientation to analyze the volume change. We succeed to determine realbirefringence effect by compensating thickness change. The performance ofthe system is quantified by measuring the birefringence distribution in the
optical film. The image connection and synchronization techniques are also
proposed to record the birefringence of long optical films.

9099-16, Session 3

LWIR polarimetry for enhanced facial recognitionin thermal imagery

Results: First, we provide general background of the SALSA camera’s
technology, its performances and limitations. Detailed analysis ofcommercially available FLCs is described. Particularly, the spatial non
uniformity influence on the Stokes parameters. Then, the new calibration
technique is presented. Several configurations and parameters are tested:even division of the CCD into square-shaped regions, the number of regions,
adaptive regions. Finally, the spatial DRM “stitching” process is described,
especially for live calculation and display of Stokes parameters.

Kristan P. Gurton, Alex J. Yuffa, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)We report results and analysis for a series of LWIR polarimetric imagesof facial profiles in which identifiable features are greatly enhanced whencompared to conventional LWIR imagery. It was generally thought thatconventional thermal imagery (MidIR or LWIR) was ineffective for reliable
identification of particular individuals because of its inability to resolve
detailed facial features due to the so-called “ghosting-effect”. By utilizing
additional polarimetric information of the image forming radiance we areable to extract subtle surface features of the face, thus improving subject
identification. Polarimetric image sets considered include the conventional
intensity thermal image, S0, the two Stokes images, S1 and S2, and various
Stokes image products, e.g., degree-of-linear-polarization (DoLP), and theorientation image (ORT). Finally, Stokes imagery is combined with Fresnel
relations to extract additional 3D surface information.

9099-19, Session 4

Calibration methodology and performance
characterization of a polarimetric hyperspectral
imagerKevin C. Gross, Air Force Institute of Technology (United States)
and Polaris Sensor Technologies, Inc. (United States)

9099-17, Session 4

Polarimetric hyperspectral imaging (P-HSI) has the potential to improvetarget detection, material identification, and background characterization
over conventional hyperspectral imaging and single-band polarimetric
imaging. To fully exploit the spectro-polarimetric signatures captured bysuch an instrument, a careful calibration process is required to remove
the spectrally- and polarimetrically-dependent system response (gain).
Calibration of instruments operating in the long-wave infrared (LWIR,
8-12 μm) is further complicated by the polarized spectral radiation
generated within the instrument (offset). This paper presents a calibration
methodology developed for an LWIR Telops Hyper-Cam modified forpolarimetry by replacing the entrance window with a holographic wiregrid polarizer (4000 lines/mm, ZnSe substrate, 350:1 extinction ratio).
Specifically, a Mueller-matrix approach is developed and polarized
self-emission is accounted for at each optical interface. We demonstratethat under the ideal polarizer assumption, two distinct blackbody
measurements at polarizer angles of 0°, 45°, 90°, and 135° are sufficient
to calibrate the system for apparent degree-of-linear-polarization (DOLP)
measurements. Noise-equivalent S1, S2, and DOLP are quantified using awide-area blackbody. Spectro-polarimetric performance is characterized via
measurements of specularly-reflected blackbody radiation from an opticallypolished Silicon Carbide (SiC) wafer. SiC exhibits strong Reststrahlen
features in the LWIR, and our measurements are compared with theoreticalpredictions based on the complex index of refraction determined from
ellipsometry measurements of the same wafer.

Quantification of image registration error
Adoum H. Mahamat, Univ. of Arizona (United States); Eric A.
Shields, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
Image registration is a digital image processing technique that takes two or
more laterally displaced images of scene and transforms them into a single
coordinate system. Frequently, image registration is used in remote sensing
to fuse images from different satellites or multi-spectral image. For thatreason, image registration accuracy is very crucial. While image registration
is usually performed on intensity images, one can do the registration using
metric images as well. This paper will present registration methods and theiraccuracies for various noise levels for the case of pure translational image
motion. Registration techniques will be applied to intensity images, phase
congruency images, gradient images, and Canny edge-detected images.
Another thing that this study will investigate is the registration of low
resolution versions of the previous images; basically we will determine theregistration error of the under-sampled versions of those images. Noise-free
images are degraded by Gaussian noise as well as a fixed-pattern noise. The
registration error is quantified and compared to each method. In this study,
two registration techniques were used. The first one is a discrete Fouriertransform (DFT) registration technique and the second method is a fast
Fourier transform technique. The results of both methods were compared toeach other to determine their registration errors.

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI

9099-40, Session 4

States)Phase error in Fourier transform spectrometers
employing polarization interferometers

Fourier transform spectrometers are capable of higher spectral resolution
when compared to their dispersive counterparts. However, compared
to dispersive sensors, FTSs contain sampling limitations in that theirspectral resolving power can not be easily traded off against the system’s
spectral passband. Ultimately, spatial heterodyne interferometers (SHIs)
are able to circumvent this limitation. In this paper, a new birefringent
SHI is discussed which, for the first time, is capable of snapshot imaging
spatial heterodyne interferometry. The SHI is based on a previous
implementation of a Shapshot Hyperspectral Imaging Fourier Transform(SHIFT) spectrometer. As such, the spectrometer is compact and mountabledirectly to a focal plane array. Details of the instrument are provided, as wellas calibration procedures and apparati. Finally, the sensor’s performanceis also highlighted and the spatial heterodyning capability of the sensor isassessed. This sensing capability could be leveraged in future applications,
including Fraunhofer line discrimination and chemical detection.

Julia M. Craven-Jones, Sandia National Labs. (United States);
Michael W. Kudenov, North Carolina State Univ. (United States)
Fourier transform spectrometers exploit interferometric techniques andare widely used for obtaining spectral data products. Conventionally,
Fourier transform spectrometers employ a Michelson interferometer,
and recovery of the spectral data typically includes a phase correction
algorithm that compensates for phase errors in the collected interferogram.
Unfortunately, phase correction can be exacting and computationallyintensive, in particular if a single sided interferogram is acquired. However,polarization interferometers using Wollaston prisms and Savart plates
have been used recently to produce more compact and rugged Fouriertransform spectrometers. Because polarization interferometers lackthe components that typically produce the majority of phase errors inreflective interferometers, namely beam splitters and moving mirrors,
Fourier transform spectrometers that employ polarization interferometers
may be less susceptible to phase errors than those using Michelsoninterferometers. If polarization interferometers are subject to negligible
phase error, phase correction can potentially be omitted and a nearly
single sided interferogram can be collected. This paper examines the phaseerror artifacts produced by Fourier transform spectrometers that employ
polarization interferometers. Additionally, the three most commonly
implemented phase correction algorithms are implemented on polarizationinterferometer data, and the residual phase errors are compared.

9099-22, Session 5

Development of spectropolarimetric imagers
from 400 to 1700 nm
Neelam Gupta, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Development of two prototype hyperspectral imagers that also collectpolarization signatures is being carried out in the visible-near infrared(VNIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR) regions. Each of these imagers uses
a noncollinear acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) and two liquid crystal
variable retarders (LCVRs). The spectral region of operation for the firstimager is from 400 to 800 nm and the second one from 900 to 1700 nm.
We will present the optical design and analysis results.

9099-20, Session 5

Five-dimensional optical instrumentation:
combining polarimetry with time-resolved
integral-field spectroscopy

9099-23, Session 5

Exploring polarimetric hyperspectral imaging asa tool for improved material identification

Michiel Rodenhuis, Frans Snik, Gerard van Harten, Jens Hoeijmakers,
Ronniy Joseph, Christoph U. Keller, Leiden Univ. (Netherlands)

Kevin C. Gross, Air Force Institute of Technology (United States)

We present implementations of optical instrumentation that records fivedimensions of light: polarization as a function of wavelength, two spatial
dimensions, and time. We focus on the optimal integration of polarimetry
within microlens-based integral-field spectroscopy. The polarimetricanalyzer (or beam-splitter) and dispersing element could be implemented
separately, but also amalgamated in the form of a polarization grating. We
present optimizations for stacking the polarization-split spectra on a 2D
detector. The polarimetric modulation can be performed in the temporal
domain or the spectral domain. Temporal modulation could be set up
with achromatic optics conform the Stokes definition scheme, but a wide
wavelength range generally demands a “polychromatic” modulation
approach for which the modulation efficiency for all or some of the Stokes
parameters is optimized at every wavelength. Spectral modulation (fullStokes or optimized for linear polarization) yields instruments without any
moving parts, for which all polarization information is obtained in one shot.

A new research effot is underway to investigate the degree to whichpolarimetric hyperspectral imaging (P-HSI) improves material identifiation
over conventional hyperspectral imaging. To that end, the en-trance
window of a Telops LWIR (8-12 μm) hyperspectral camera was modified
to incorporate a holographic wire-grid polarizer (4000 lines/mm, ZnSe
substrate, 350:1 extinction ratio). To assess instrument performance and data
reduction methods, preliminary measurements of an uncoated glass (BK7)cylindrical lens and an uncoated quartz window were made. In the LWIR,
polarimetric measurements require careful two-point radiometric calibration
to remove the effects of polarized system response (gain) and polarized
instrument self-emission (offset). This was accomplished using on-board
wide-area blackbodies which precede and overfill the polarizing element.
Treating the polarizer as ideal, degree-of-linear-polarization (DOLP) spectra
are formed from the appropriate apparent spectral radiances measured
at polarizer angles of 0°, 45°, 90°, and 135°. Both unpolarized (S0) and
DOLP spectra are compared to theoretical predictions based on known
surface-normal angles and spectrally-resolved complex indices of refraction.
Implications for material identification are discussed.

We present first results from two polarimetric IFU instruments; ExPoIFU and LOUPE. The first is based on a rapid polychromatic modulator
consisting of two FLCs and two fixed retarders, while the latter is based on
spectral modulation for linear polarization. In addition to applications within
astronomy and planetary science, we discuss remote-sensing applications
for such instruments.

9099-24, Session 59099-21, Session 5

IR polarimetric camcorder

Birefringent snapshot imaging spatial heterodyne
spectrometerDavid B. Chenault, John S. Harchanko, Joseph L. Pezzaniti, BrianHyatt, Todd Aycock, Justin P. Vaden, Polaris Sensor Technologies,
Inc. (United States)

Michael W. Kudenov, Bryan Maione, David Luo, Matthew N.
Miskiewicz, Michael J. Escuti, North Carolina State Univ. (United

The instrumentation for measuring infrared polarization signatures has seen

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI
significant advancement over the last decade. Previous work has shown
the value of polarimetric imagery for a variety of target detection scenarios
including detection of manmade targets in clutter and detection of groundand maritime targets while recent work has shown improvements in contrast
for aircraft detection and biometric markers. These data collection activities
have generally used laboratory or prototype systems with limitations on
the allowable amount of target motion or the sensor platform and usuallyrequire an attached computer for data acquisition and processing. Still,
performance and sensitivity have been steadily getting better while size,
weight, and power requirements have been getting smaller enablingpolarimetric imaging for a greater or real world applications.

biology, chemistry, etc. In most of these fields the main optical effectunder study is the linear birefringence, but its determination is only semiquantitative because it is based on the visual analysis of the interference
polarization colors, and their comparison with the Michel-Levy interferencecolor chart. Mueller matrix microscopy is the natural generalization of
Polarized Light Microscopy because it brings quantitative results andallows the determination of linear birefringence, linear dichroim, circularbirefringence, circular dichroism and depolarization. In this work weshow some applications of the microscope, for example to study the
subpixel components of liquid crystal displays and to reveal the polarizing
characteristics of some insect wings.

In this paper, we describe the Polaris IR Polarimetric Camcorder, a handheld
infrared imaging polarimeter, that produces live polarimetric video forseveral polarization products. The system is immune to motion artifacts ofeither the sensor or the scene. The system is battery operated, rugged, andweighs about one pound and can be helmet mounted or handheld. The
operator views the polarization products in real time on either a helmet
mounted display or small external display integrated with a digital video
recorder. Polarization sensitive microbolometers are used to produce,
at a minimum, S0 and S1 polarization products. A top level descriptionof the camcorder is given followed by performance characteristics andrepresentative data.

9099-27, Session 6

Polarized standoff thermal hyperspectral imaging
of minerals and materials
Marc-André Gagnon, Vincent Farley, Pierre Tremblay, Simon Savary,
Martin Chamberland, Telops (Canada)
The capabilities of the Telops Hyper-Cam, a commercially available standoff
infrared hyperspectral imaging system, can now be extended using its new
motorized polarizer accessory. This additional implement, installed in the
instrument for-optics, allows easy investigation of scenes using a planepolarized filter. Polarization plane is user-selectable over a 360 degrees
range with an accuracy of 0.1 degree. In this paper, polarized thermal
hyperspectral imaging is used to investigate various scenes containing
minerals and man-made objects. In addition, the reflective character of ice
is highlighted in an experiment involving freshly made snow-tracks. The
unique properties of some materials to selectively absorb/emit or reflectplane-polarized infrared radiation as a function of wavelength are discussed.
The results illustrate how wavelength-selective infrared plane-polarization
brings additional information allowing discrimination of optically-active
materials from their background.

9099-25, Session 6

A novel IR polarization staring imaging systemdesigned by a four-camera-array
Xiaopeng Shao, Fei Liu, Pingli Han, Xidian Univ. (China)
A novel IR polarization staring imaging system employing a four-cameraarray is designed for target detection and recognition, especially manmade targets hidden in complex battle field. The design bases on theexistence of the difference in infrared radiation’s polarization characteristics,
which is particularly remarkable between artificial objects and the naturalenvironment. The system designed employs four cameras simultaneously tocapture the polarization difference to replace the commonly used systems
engaging only one camera. Since both types of systems have to obtain
intensity images in four different directions (I0 , I45 , I90 , I-45 ), the fourcamera design allows a better real-time capability and lower error without
the mechanical rotating parts which is essential to one-camera systems.
Information extraction and detailed analysis demonstrate that the caught
polarization images include valuable polarization information which caneffectively increase the images’ contrast and make it easier to segment thetarget even the hidden target from various scenes.

9099-28, Session 6

Integrated quantitative multispectral polarimetricimmunohistochemistry (IHC) of lung cancer
tissue microarrays
George C. Giakos, Tri Quang, Tannaz Farrahi, Chaya Narayan, Aditi
Deshpande, Suman Shrestha, Na Ying, The Univ. of Akron (UnitedStates)9099-26, Session 6

The purpose of this study is to develop efficient and reliable techniques forearly identification and discrimination of precancerous and cancerous lungcells that can lead to accurate diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer.

Beyond polarization microscopy: Mueller matrix
microscopy with frequency demodulation

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) plays an essential role in clinical laboratories.
In order to improve reliable reproduction and standardization of the results
outcomes, with high accuracy, quantification methods have been developed,
based in whole slide imaging or virtual microscopy. IHC is of paramountsignificance in the assessing in situ of protein expression, correlating
morphological and molecular signatures, while predicting the response totargeted therapies.

Oriol Arteaga, Ertan Kuntman, Marta Baldrís, Juan Antó i Roca,
Adolf Canillas Biosca, Enric Bertran Serra, Univ. de Barcelona(Spain)Mueller matrix microscopy provides images of the Mueller matrix of asample with micrometric resolution. In this work we describe a Mueller
matrix microscope that uses that uses the dual rotating compensator
technique to simultaneously determine all the elements of the Mueller
matrix. The two compensators continuously rotate at different frequencies
and every Mueller matrix element is determined using a digital synchronous
detection technique in which the time dependent intensity captured
at every pixel of the CCD detector is frequency-analyzed. A typicalmeasurement is completed in a little over a one minute and it can be doneat any wavelength of the visible range. The sensitivity is better than the
0.5% for all the elements of the Mueller matrix and the spacial resolution isaround 2 microns.

Cancer changes at cell level occur in the shape, size, and orientation of thenuclei, an increase in nucleus chromatin content, variations in the nucleuscytoplasmatic ratio and changes in the cytosolic content. Polarimetric
imaging can provide both quantitative morphological, biochemical andmetabolic information of the neoplastic changes.
In this study, the design principles of a multispectral polarimetric imaging
system for Immunohistochemistry (IHC) of Lung Cancer Tissue Microarrays
will be introduced and related to operating conditions and system
performance metrics. Preliminary results indicate that high contrast, highspecificity images can be obtained by integrating polarimetric principles
and artificial intelligence.

Polarized Light Microscopy has a vast number of applications in geology,

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI

9099-29, Session 7

parameters in the receiver plane for a point source, with given polarization
state, for a broad range of water parameters from clear to turbid coastal
waters.

Modeling of a polarization tag for hydrogen
fluoride gas monitoring

Since the polarized light field at the receiver plane is a combination of lightfrom the target and light scattered by suspended particles between thetarget and the camera, also known as veiling light, we analyze the impactof the veiling light on the image together with the light from the target forvarying reflectance and polarization properties. The knowledge acquired
from this forward process is expected to contribute to solutions of theinverse problem of the restoration of the target polarization characteristics
from its underwater image. Results of these simulations are compared with
the imaging of polarized targets with the full Stokes vector camera together
with measurements of water optical properties for varying water conditions.

Adoum H. Mahamat, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of
Arizona (United States); Julia M. Craven-Jones, Sandia National
Labs. (United States); J. Scott Tyo, College of Optical Sciences, The
Univ. of Arizona (United States)
Polarization imaging is a commonly implemented imaging technique forremote target identification. Frequently, polarization imaging exploits thenatural polarization signature of a target for identification. Alternatively, an
artificial polarization signature can be generated to provide for identificationof a target that does not inherently possess a polarization signature. A
polarization tag that experiences a change in its polarization properties
when exposed to hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas is under development at
Sandia National Laboratories. In this paper, we present the results ofmodeling the optical properties of the polarization tag element using arigorous coupled wave analysis. The tag is modeled as a periodic structureusing several materials in combination with a silicon substrate, and the
tag is analyzed to determine the change in the optical response - mainly
the diffraction efficiency for the cases when the tag is exposed andunexposed to HF gas. This analysis is used to determine the polarization
properties of the optical response of the tag as a function of its physical andelectromagnetic properties, the best optical pass-band for interrogating thetag, as well as the nominal polarization for the illumination source.

9099-32, Session 7

Analysis of the detectable range of infrared
polarization imaging system used in sea-surface
environment
Runqiu Xia, Xia Wang, Weiqi Jin, Jianan Liang, Beijing Institute ofTechnology (China)
Polarization imaging system has been used in a variety of applications,
including medical imaging, remote sensing, target detection, and so on. It
has been proved by experiment that the vector nature of optical radiance(visible and infrared) from sea surface is polarized. It is thus possible to use
the infrared polarization imaging system to detect target on the sea surface
by the differences between the polarization states of target and sea-surface
background. For evaluating this application, the detectable range of infrared
polarization imaging system used in sea-surface environment is analyzed inthis paper. An infrared radiative transfer model of the sea surface is created.
The classic infrared radiative transfer model of the sea surface is basedon numerical computation using sea surface slope probability density andquasi-specular method. A reversed ray trace method is used in this paper
to replace the numerical computation way. Elfouhaily’s omnidirectional
wave spectrum and Malcolm Heron’s spreading shape function is utilized
to reconstruct the sea surface in this model. The boundary of reversed raytransfer paths which are traced is the field of view of the imaging system.
The paths are original in the imaging system, reflected by the sea surface
and stop when reenter the sky. The incident radiation from the sky andspontaneous activity emission of the sea surface is combined with the Muller
matrix of reflection points to calculate the total radiation that leaves the sea
surface to the imaging system. Effect from the atmosphere on the radiancetransfer is taken into account. Considering of computing time, Monte-Carlo
method is not used to simulate the radiation transfer characteristics ofatmosphere (the depolarization effects of the atmosphere are ignore) in thispaper, only total radiation absorbed/transferred and radiation emitted byatmosphere are counted. According to the method mentioned above, theradiation reaching the polarization imaging system from sea surface andtarget on the sea surface are obtained. A polarization imaging system used
Pickering method (four channel including 0,45, 90, 135 degrees) is acting
as an example. Standard error propagation techniques are used to calculate
the noise characteristics of the component of Stokes vector imaging (I,Q, U). Because MRTD (Minimum resolvable temperature difference) of an
infrared intensity imaging system is directly proportional to its random time
spatial noise, we can obtain the new MRTD respectively for the components:
I, Q, U. Radiation differences in the I, Q, U images is converted to blackbody
equivalent temperature differences. When size and polarization state of
the target are set, the radiation difference of Stokes vector I, Q, U between
target and sea surface background is calculated with changing the distance
between polarization imaging system and sea surface, . By equalizing the
new MRTD and equivalent temperature differences of Stokes vector, themaximum detectable range is calculated at last.

9099-30, Session 7

On the accuracy of broadband circularpolarization signatures
Michael G. Gartley, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Circular polarization in the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) region of theelectromagnetic spectrum is often not considered worthy of measurement
based on the expected scarcity in passive remote sensing situations.
Additionally, common optical components (such as retarders) utilized todiscriminate circular polarization may be sensitive to wavelength making
broadband measurements challenging. Utilizing a single quarter-wave plate
retarder for discrimination of broadband circular polarization signatures can
produce errant results in many situations. With the recent growth of thesmart-phone and solar panel technologies, the thin-film surfaces of many
devices present a new class of targets that might be tagged and tracked
via circular polarization signatures. The presented research will describe
a new approach for estimating a level of confidence in measured circularpolarization signatures as a function of channel bandwidth.

9099-31, Session 7

Polarization analysis of target imaging in anunderwater environment
Yalong Gu, Alexander Gilerson, Carlos Carrizo, Amir Ibrahim, Samir
Ahmed, The City College of New York (United States)
Imaging of targets in underwater environments is a challenging task.
Traditional imaging instruments only record irradiance patterns. However,underwater light fields are usually partially polarized. Recently developed
full Stokes vector imaging cameras can record the polarization pattern ofa scene. As polarization contains more information than simple irradiance,such capabilities provide an advanced tool for underwater imaging, where
one of the basic problems in image formation is determination of a point
spread function. While so far, most studies have focused on scalar point
spread functions, in this work we use a Monte Carlo technique to simulate
the vector point spread function - namely the distribution of the four Stokes

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI

9099-33, Session 8

Mawet, European Southern Observatory (Chile); Serge Habraken,
Univ. de Liège (Belgium)

Multiband retardation control using multitwist
retarders

At this conference, we will present the first prototypes of vortex retarders
made of photo-orientable liquid crystals polymers recorded by polarization
holography and without mechanical action.

Kathryn J. Hornburg, Ravi K. Komanduri, Michael J. Escuti, North
Carolina State Univ. (United States)

Vortex retarders are birefringent plates characterized by a uniform phaseretard and a rotation of their fast axis along their center.

We introduce and demonstrate an approach to create highly chromatic
retardation spectra passively across various wavelengths. The design
approach is based on Multi-Twist Retarder (MTR) principle where multiple
liquid crystal polymer layers are coated on top of each other on a single
substrate. Several conventional approaches exist, such as Solc and Evansbirefringent waveplate assemblies. Each involve multiple elements thatare created individually and aligned precisely, which not only increases
challenges with alignment and designing but also decreases maximum
transmission performance. Using MTR filters removes these challenges, as all
the alignment is accomplished by the device itself with a single alignment
step.

Liquid crystals are anisotropic molecules possessing birefringent properties.
They are locally orientable and their orientation defines the fast axis
orientation of the retarder. Their alignment depends on the local orientationof the recording electric field.

Previously, MTRs have been applied to develop broadband achromatic
retarders. But here we show that MTRs are quite flexible, and theirretardation spectrum can be tuned to create arbitrary profiles. As arepresentative example, we show this tailorability by creating a retarderwhich produces zero retardation in visible (VIS, 500-900 nm) and half-wave
retardation in near-infared (NIR, 1-2.7 µm). This means this single optic
behaves as a retarder in NIR but appears transparent at VIS, a capability
that can be adapted for filters, beam combiners, and much beyond.
Experimentally, we have also patterned this birefringent layer so that its
optical axis varies linearly, to create a multiband Polarization Grating (PG)
that diffracts highly in NIR (>80%), while is highly transmissive in VIS(>80%). This may be important to several applications in defense, telecom,and spectroscopy systems where it is advantageous to have an opticalelement which affects only one band, but is largely transparent otherwise.

Finally, several applications of these retarders are discussed.

The superimposition of several polarized beams will be used to shape theelectric field to achieve the recording of vortex retarders. The mathematicalaspects of the superimposition process, as well as several numericalsimulations are exposed.
Then the first prototypes are presented, characterized and compared to thenumerical simulations.

9099-36, Session 8

Imaging with photoelastic modulators
John Freudenthal, Hinds Instruments, Inc. (United States); Shane
Nichols, New York Univ. (United States); Oriol Arteaga, Univ. deBarcelona (Spain); Bart Kahr, New York Univ. (United States)
Many polarimeters use photoelastic modulators (PEMs) that dynamicallyvary their retardance with time hence; they modulate the polarization stateof light. However, they do so at frequencies well above what can be sampled
by 2D imaging detectors. Thus, clever techniques are required to make PEMs
compatible with imaging polarimeters. Han and Chao introduced the firstsuch technique in 2006, stroboscopic illumination that combined a CCD
camera with a high frequency light source to synchronously deliver pulsesof light at particular phases of the PEM. By making the light pulses narrow
with respect the PEM modulation period, the temporally varying retardanceof the PEM was essentially frozen in time, and therefore the PEM could
be modeled as a static retarder. More recently, Vitkin et al. constructed apolarimeter with two PEMs that gated a detector rather than a light source.
The problem with the aforementioned methods is that they suffer from poor
light throughput. For multiple modulator instruments, the narrow pulses oflight must be delivered when the phases of multiple modulators coincide,thus the light is almost never on. The method is not suitable for applications
that require high light throughput (scattering, reflectivity, fluorescence, etc.),
and likely cannot be extended to polarimeters with more than two PEMs,
where the phases of several PEMs would need to coincide. We propose a
new imaging method that does not suffer from low light throughput, andcan be used with our four-modulator polarimeter.

9099-34, Session 8

Liquid crystals for polarization control in the
MWIR
Erika Petrak, Thomas G. Baur, Meadowlark Optics, Inc. (UnitedStates)Liquid crystal technology, an established key element in a diverse range of
optical components for visible wavelengths, has recently been adopted into
products for the mid-wave infrared (MWIR). Liquid crystal optics have long
been favored for their non-mechanical tunability, ease of use, and simple
streamlined design, but have been noticeably absent in tunable optics for
the MWIR. This void has crippled many applications in defense and remotesensing. Meadowlark Optics’ development of liquid crystal components
tunable over 3.6 to 5.7 um promises light-weight, mobile designs with low
power requirements and precise analog tunability. Liquid crystal variable
retarders are offered to fit in compact housings with no moving parts, doing
away with heavy, cumbersome set-ups and vibrational errors common
to the only other MWIR alternative, fixed waveplate assemblies. These
solutions provide continuous retardance ranging from 0.06l to 1l witha 0-10V control adjustment, despite the difficulty of achieving sufficientstroke at such long wavelengths. Germanium substrates minimize the
MWIR absorptions typically seen in liquid crystal devices. Product potential
extends into variable attenuators, polarization rotators, and tunablewavelength filters, making the benefits of liquid crystal devices readily
available for a broader range of MWIR applications.

9099-37, Session 8

A polarization-sensitive mid-infrared plasmonic
absorber for multiband resonance
Yongqian Li, Binbin Wang, Zili Zhou, Northwestern Polytechnical
Univ. (China)First prototypes of vortex retarders obtained bypolarization holography

Plasmonic Absorption metamaterials made from metallic nanoantenna
and dielectric nanostructures have gained tremendous interest during thelast decades. If resonantly excited by electromagnetic field, plasmonic
absorbers show a strong localized field enhancement in the vicinity of themetal surface and a distinct spectral response. Such optical properties offield enhancement and spectral selectivity promise great applications forincreasing the efficiency of photovoltaics, sensitive photodetection, lightemitting devices, and optical sensors1.

Pierre Piron, Pascal Blain, Univ. de Liège (Belgium); Dimitri P.

The multiple spectral responses of Plasmonic Absorption Metamaterials

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Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI

9099-41, Session Posters-Tuesday(PAMs) attract great attention due to their exciting scientific and practicalapplications. For realization of narrow multi-band absorption in desired
frequency regions, numerous nanostructures have been proposed andinvestigated. The narrow-band response and its tunability of PAMs havebeen achieved in frequency from terahertz wave, to infrared and even visible
light. Over entire mid-infrared range, PAMs have been investigated withsingle-band24, dual-band25, triple-band and broad-band absorptions.

How do sorghum plants polarize incident lightVern C. Vanderbilt, NASA Ames Research Ctr. (United States); Craig
S. T. Daughtry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (United States); Larry L.
Biehl, Purdue Univ. (United States)

In this paper, one dual-cross shaped PAMs was developed and investigatedto achieve triple-band responses in mid-infrared region for the purpose ofquantitative multiple spectral detection. This PAMs possess three distinct
resonance peaks standing independently, which are attributed to plasmonicresonant excitation of perpendicular polarization light. The opticalparameters retrieved by S-parameters method were investigated, which
provides a satisfactory qualitative description of the multiple-band spectra
responses. On the other hand, based upon the microscopic perspective,
the redistributions of near-field intensity within PAMs structure wereprobed theoretically and numerically, which also explained the multiband
absorption behavior of the PAMs ensemble. The proposed structure holds
promise for application of multi-bands sensitive photodetection in infrared
region.

We tested the hypothesis that the polarization of light incident on a plant
canopy is modified during a quasi specular reflection by the first surface thelight encounters - the leaf cuticle. We constructed a tower 5.9m tall in thecenter of a homogenous sorghum field in the flowering development stage.
We equipped two Barnes MMR radiometers with polarization analyzers at
0°, 45° and 90° on the blue, red and 2.08-2.35um Landsat TM wavelength
bands. The 0.76-0.90 µm TM wavelength band was left unpolarized. We
collected radiance data in 44 view directions - view zenith angles of 0, 15,30, 45, 60 and 65 degrees and view azimuth angles of 0, 45, 90, 135, 180,
225, 270, and 315 degrees – multiple times as the sun tracked across the sky
during two days of data collection. Our experimental results support our
hypothesis, showing that the angle of polarization in the red wavelength
region may be predicted based upon the solar direction during clear sky but
not overcast sky conditions; and that ratios of results for the red and blue
wavelength bands are close to 1.0 during overcast sky conditions but notduring clear sky conditions.

9099-38, Session 8

Polarimetric evaluation of commercial pellicles
and beamsplitter

9099-42, Session Posters-Tuesday

Dennis H. Goldstein, Jennifer L. Massman, David G. Edwards, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)

Design and calibration of a full-stokes
polarimeter with KD*P crystals

Three commercial beamsplitting elements, two pellicles and a beamsplitter,
have been evaluated in a spectropolarimeter. Evaluation was accomplishedfrom 0.4 to 14 micrometers. Mueller matrix results are presented.

Junfeng Hou, National Astronomical Observatories (China)
A new full-Stokes polarimeter with Deuterated Potassium Dihydrogen
Phosphate (KD*P) crystals was developed. This paper describes thedesign principle, optimization method, and high-precision calibrationof the polarimeter. The polarimeter consisting of two KD*Ps and a fixedretarder has four states, the minimum required to allow recovery of the
full-Stokes vector, and a flexible modulation frequency from 1 Hz to 1 kHz.
It is optimized by minimizing the demodulation matrix of polarimeter’s
instrument matrix, introduced by J.C. del Toro Iniesta and M.Collados[Applied Opitics, 39(10), 1637 (2000)], so that it has the best polarization
measurement efficiencies at the spectra range of 400-900 nm. We alsopresent and discuss here a new calibration method, the non-linear leastsquare fitting method, to calibrate the polarimeter’s instrument matrix. The
polarimeter and its calibration system were established in laboratory, andits instrument matrix was calibrated. The results showed that the measuring
accuracy of the full-stokes polarimeter is better than 0.025 over all the
spectra range 400-900 nm.

9099-39, Session Posters-Tuesday

A 250-frames-per-second 640 by 480 pixels
division of focal plane polarimeter for the visible
spectrum
Timothy York, Viktor Gruev, Radoslav Marinov, Washington Univ. in
St. Louis (United States)
The most common method of polarimetery involves imaging a scenethrough a polarization analyzer at multiple configurations. Switching among
these configurations requires capturing multiple images of the scene,
limiting the ability to capture real-time polarization data due to multiple
scene sampling and motion artifacts. Advances in fabrication technology
have allowed direct integration of polarization analyzers onto the sensor,
enabling the capture of multiple analyzer intensities from a single frame.
Using this technique, we have fabricated a high frame rate, VGA resolution,
division of focal plane polarization imager for the visible spectrum. The
imaging sensor is realized by monolithic integration of aluminum nanowires
with an array of CCD imaging elements. The pixelated nanowire polarization
filters are at four different orientations offset by 45 degrees. This allows
for recording of the first three Stokes parameters at every super pixel, andsubsequently the degree of linear polarization and angle of polarization
are computed at 250 frames per second at full VGA resolution and over1000 when limited to a subsection of the array. The imaging sensor also
employs a per pixel calibration scheme which mitigates the variations in
the aluminum nanowire sizes. We present a full optical characterization of
the sensor, analyzing the accuracy of the measured degree and angle ofpolarization, as well as providing complete spectral measurements overthe sensor’s operating range of 400 to 700 nanometers. Additionally, we
will utilize the increased frame rate to capture high speed polarization
phenomena that are only visible at high frame rates.

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9099-43, Session Posters-Tuesday

Polarized light imaging of the human brain: a new
approach to the data analysis of tilted sections
Hendrik Wiese, Melanie Dohmen, Julia Reckfort, David Graessel,
Uwe Pietrzyk, Katrin Amunts, Markus Axer, Forschungszentrum
Jülich GmbH (Germany)
3D-Polarized Light Imaging (3D-PLI) has been demonstrated to be an
excellent tool for mapping the nerve fiber architecture in postmortem
human brains at sub-millimeter resolution. 3D-PLI is applied to unstained
histological brain sections and enables to extract the predominant 3Dfiber orientation for each image pixel of a section by utilizing the intrinsic
tissue birefringence. The determination of the fiber orientation out of thesectioning plane (i.e. the fiber inclination) is particularly challenging due
to the dependency on the local fiber density. This becomes obvious at thewhite matter / gray matter border, where the fiber density, and thus thedegree of birefringence, change gradually. With the currently used 3D-PLI
data analysis, this change might lead to an over-estimation of the fiber·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9099:
Polarization: Measurement, Analysis, and Remote Sensing XI
inclination.
In this study, we introduce a new analysis method which accounts
for variances in the degree of birefringence by utilizing the in-housedeveloped polarimetric device equipped with a tiltable specimen stage.
It is demonstrated how the data obtained from tilting measurements is
processed by means of a Fourier analysis to reconstruct the fiber inclination
independently from varying fiber densities in the brain.
The developed algorithm was optimized for fast computation and showed
good noise stability when applied to simulated data sets. Subjecting
experimental data to the algorithm revealed significant improvements of
the reconstructed fiber orientations in the cerebral cortex. Thus fibers whichin the past were misinterpreted as being nearly orthogonal with respect tothe sectioning plane, are now demonstrated to be oriented in the lateral
direction.

9099-44, Session Posters-Tuesday

Polarization signatures: a sampling ofphenomenology and applications
David B. Chenault, J. Larry Pezzaniti, Polaris Sensor Technologies,
Inc. (United States)
Infrared polarization relies on surface temperature, roughness, material
properties, aspect angle to the sensor, sky down-welling and backgroundradiance reflecting from the target. Each of these factors can contributeto make thermal and / or polarization signatures strong or conspire tominimize both. We stress here situations in which the polarization signatureof a manmade target is significantly different than the surrounding
background. This paper will present maritime, airborne and ground data setsof polarization signatures of several objects that allow detection when othermethods fall short.

9099-45, Session Posters-Tuesday

A single-instrument multi-ellipsometer system:
single-element polarizer-ellipsometer (SEPellipsometer)
A. R. M. Zaghloul, M. Elshazly-Zaghloul, Univ. of Cairo (Egypt)
We present a collective, integrative view and a comprehensive, detailed
analysis of the Single-element Polarizer-ellipsometer (SEP Ellipsometer),where the ellipsometer is composed of only a polarizer in the incident beam.
A light detector receives the reflected beam from the sample, which is afilm-substrate system in general. Three modes of operation of this singleinstrument multi-ellipsometer system exist. First: the polarizer is rotated andthe angle of incidence is scanned for a specific condition of the detector
signal. That way, specific points on the ?-plane of the film-substrate sample
are detected. Second: the polarizer is rotated where the angle of incidence iskept un-changed, and the ac/dc ratio is detected, yielding the ellipsometricangle ? of the sample. Third: the angle of incidence is scanned, while thepolarizer is stationary, and a specific condition of the detector signal isdetected, indicating a related specific condition of the sample performance.
For all modes of operation, heuristic and/or mathematical inversion methods
exist to fully characterize the film-substrate system: determine the substrate
optical constant and that of the film, in addition to the film thickness, or asubset thereof. We present and discuss the available inversion methods with
examples as applied to the SiO2-Si film-substrate system.

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Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9100 Image Sensing Technologies: Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications

9100-1, Session 1

9100-2, Session 1

response (800-10000nm wavelengths) of the imaging sensor with NIR
LED or laser illuminators. Consequently, camera systems typically used for
purposes of long-range observation often require high-power lasers in orderto generate sufficient photons on targets in order to acquire detailed images
at night. While these systems may adequately identify targets at long-range,
the NIR illumination needed to achieve such functionality can easily bedetected and therefore may not be suitable for covert applications. In orderto reduce dependency on supplemental illumination in low-light conditions,the frame rate of the imaging sensors may be reduced so as to increase
the photon integration time and thus improve the signal to noise ratio of
the image. However, this may hinder the camera’s ability to image moving
objects with high fidelity. In order to address these particular drawbacks,
PHOTONIS has developed a CMOS imaging sensor (CIS) with a pixel
architecture and geometry designed specifically to overcome these issues in
low-light level imaging. By combining this CIS with field programmable gatearray (FPGA)-based image processing electronics, PHOTONIS has achieved
low-read noise imaging with enhanced signal-to-noise ratio at quarter moon
illumination, all at standard video frame rates. The performance of this CIS is
discussed herein and compared to other commercially available CMOS and
CCD for long-range observation applications.

Uncooled microbolometers at DRS in 2014
(Invited Paper)

9100-4, Session 1

Architectures for gigapixel video (Keynote
Presentation)David J. Brady, Duke Univ. (United States)
While multiscale optical designs allow the construction of digital cameras
scaling from 250 megapixels to 50 gigapixels, electronic sensing, processing
and communication requirements remain significant barriers to large camera
construction and operation. Air cooled operation of a gigapixel video
camera requires that less than 1 W of power be expended per gigapixel, a100x improvement over early camera prototypes. This talk reviews available
ASIC read-out and processing solutions and considers physical and digital
layer compression strategies to enable gigapixel video in persistent security
systems.

George D. Skidmore, Chien-Jih Han, DRS Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates); Chuan C. Li, N2 Imaging Systems, LLC (United States)

A 33-mpixel 120-fps CMOS image sensor using
0.11-μm CIS process (Invited Paper)

DRS history in microbolometer and uncooled focal plane array (UFPA)
development mimics that of the entire industry. The history extends overfifteen years as array pitches moved ever-smaller from 51um to 25um to17um, and now something smaller than 17um. The DRS microbolometeruses the well-known Vanadium Oxide as a transducer material. But the
DRS UFPAs use a unique and patented two-layer microbolometer design tomaximize fill-factor for high optical absorption. While the two-layer design
contributes to larger heat capacity, it absorbs more radiant flux and resultsin improved NETD.

Toshio Yasue, Tetsuya Hayashida, Jun Yonai, Kazuya Kitamura,
Japan Broadcasting Corp. (Japan); Toshihisa Watabe, NHK
Engineering System, Inc. (Japan) and Shizuoka Univ. (Japan);
Hiroshi Ootake, Hiroshi Shimamoto, NHK Japan Broadcasting Corp.
(Japan); Tomohiko Kosugi, Takashi Watanabe, Satoshi Aoyama,
Brookman Technology, Inc. (Japan); Shoji Kawahito, Shizuoka Univ.
(Japan) and Brookman Technology, Inc. (Japan)

DRS, along with the industry, has transitioned through smaller pitches about
every six years. This has been done while maintaining a noise equivalenttemperature difference (NETD) performance of 20-50mK, and maintaining athermal time constant (TTC) of 10-20mSec. Once a newer pitch is developed
to a performance level matching the previous pitch, development on thenext smaller pitch is already underway. In this manner, the industry has
progressed through smaller pitches without a fundamental performance
improvement when measured in NETD or in TTC, or more specifically in
NETD*TTC product. Hence, a more-encompassing metric for tracking
performance through time would involve the NETD, the TTC, and the array
pitch or microbolometers area. The paper will propose and discuss the
NETD*TTC*Area metric for the history of the uncooled microbolometer.

We have been researching and developing CMOS image sensor and camera
to realize “Super Hi-Vision” (8K UHDTV system). Our image sensor has
2.8 µm x 2.8 µm pixel, 33-megapixel resolution (7680 horizontal pixel by
4320 vertical pixel), 120-fps frame rate and 12-bit tone reproduction. These
parameters indicate that Super Hi-Vision image sensor has smaller pixel
area and shorter exposure time, therefore the sensitivity is lower than HD
image sensors used in broadcasting today. We tried to improve the sensor’s
sensitivity by using nanofabricated manufacturing process. It reduces thecapacitance of FDA (floating diffusion amplifier) in the pixel, which alsomeans the increase of the conversion gain of the FDA. As a result, thesensitivity of the sensor, which is proportional to the conversion gain, could
be improved. This time, we used 0.11 µm CMOS image sensor process.

The smaller pitch has enabled lower cost arrays, and therefore lower cost
infrared cameras for ever-increasing applications. The new applications arebeing enabled by both the lower cost and the smaller sized infrared cameras
enabled by smaller pitches. For example, the DRS Tamarisk product line wasenabled by the pitch reduction from 25um to 17um. For the future, DRS is
working on the Low-Cost-Thermal-Imager (LCTI) program sponsored by
DARPA for small form-factor infrared cameras using a pitch smaller than
17um.

Prototyped image sensor exhibits the conversion gain of 110 µV/e- andsensitivity of 2.4 V/lx/s. The conversion gain is 1.8 times, and the sensitivity
is 1.6 times higher than those of the conventional image sensor fabricatedby 0.18 µm process [1]. Furthermore, our new sensor demonstrates the input
referred random noise of 2.1 e-rms (measured at 120 fps and analog gain =15), lower than conventional image sensor of 4.1 e-rms (measured at 120 fps
and analog gain = 7.5)[1].

9100-3, Session 1[1] K. Kitamura et al., “A 33-Megapixel 120-Frames-Per Second 2.5-Watt
CMOS Image Sensor With Column-Parallel Two-Stage Cyclic Analog-toDigital Converters,” IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices, Vol. 59, no. 12, pp.34263433, Dec. 2012

Performance of PHOTONIS’ low light level CMOS
imaging sensors for long range observation

9100-5, Session 2

Loig E. Bourree, PHOTONIS USA (United States)

Low-cost high-performance multispectral camera
system for dual-use applications (Invited Paper)

Identification of potential threats in low-light conditions through imaging
is commonly achieved through closed-circuit television (CCTV) andsurveillance cameras by combining the extended near infrared (NIR)

298

SPIE DSS 2014

Patrick Oduor, Genki Mizuno, Robert Olah, Achyut K. Dutta, Banpil·

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Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications
Photonics, Inc. (United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (United States)order to modify their components in different ways to mate or “talk” withcomponents made by others. Still, the COTS approach holds great potential
for reducing costs in camera systems.

The extension of camera system sensitivity from the visible spectrum (VIS)
into the infrared (SWIR) region has the potential to bring tremendous
improvements and new capabilities to commercial and industrial imaging
systems that are already standard in defense imaging applications. However,existing infrared imaging technologies are very expensive. At costs in thetens of thousands of dollars per camera, it is difficult to penetrate highvolume civilian application markets, let alone equip every warfighter witha high-performance SWaP-C imaging unit. Because of their complexity,
cost, and low yield, SWIR cameras are confined primarily to selected
military markets, severely curtailing their total addressable market. Despite
continuing innovations in the quality and capabilities of SWIR cameras,
widespread adoption for both defense and civilian applications will requiresignificant cost reductions to become practical for both specialized andgeneral use in military and commercial imaging systems, and perhaps
even consumer applications in the future. Banpil Photonics has developed
a low-cost high-performance multispectral camera system for VIS to
SWIR imaging for the most demanding high-sensitivity and high-speed
military, commercial and industrial applications. The 640x512 - pixel InGaAs
15µm uncooled camera system is designed to provide a compact, smallform factor to within a cubic inch, high sensitivity needing less than 100
electrons, high dynamic range exceeding 190 dB, high-frame rates greaterthan 1000 FPS at full resolution, and low power consumption below
1W. This is practically all the feature benefits highly desirable in militaryimaging applications to expand deployment to every warfighter, while also
maintaining a low-cost structure demanded for scaling into commercial
markets. This paper begins with a description of the features of the ROIC, aninnovation integrating advanced digital electronics functionality, which has
made the confluence of high-performance capabilities on the same imaging
platform practical at low cost. It continues with a discussion of the strategies
employed including in-house innovations of the key components (e.g.
FPA) within our control while maintaining a fabless model, and strategic
collaboration with partners to attain additional gains on optics, electronics,
and packaging. We will highlight the challenges and potential opportunities
for further cost reductions to achieve a goal of a sub-$1000 uncooled
high-performance camera system. Finally, a brief overview of emerging
military, commercial and industrial applications that will benefit from thishigh performance imaging system and their forecast cost structure will bepresented.

Episensors, Inc. has been tasked by DARPA to create a COTS-based
approach to lowering the cost of short wavelength infrared (SWIR)
cameras. Collaborating with other companies, Episensors has developed
an approach to employ COTS-based components for, among other things,
optics, the camera core, cooling, packaging, and housing. Episensors has
made progress on all these fronts, though work remains to realize the fullpotential of the COTS-based approach. The purpose of this presentation
will be to explain Episensors’s unique approach; illuminate the challenges
that lay ahead with this approach; and discuss potential solutions to thesechallenges.

9100-7, Session 2

Advanced low cost uncooled thermal imaging
camera development at Raytheon (Invited Paper)
Paolo Masini, Matthew Kuiken, Mark J. Lamb, Donald D. Chi,
Matthew W. Brick, Raytheon Co. (United States)
Raytheon has been investigating methods for the reduction of Size, Weight,
Power and Cost for uncooled LWIR based systems.

9100-6, Session 2

In this paper we will discuss the development for the DARPA LCTI-M
program which is a major catalyst in providing a cost effective thermal
imaging system to every war fighter. In this paper we will report on the
progress to date in the development of a Low Cost thermal imaging camera
system. This paper will describe the confluence of various technologies
that enable a thermal imaging camera that has dramatically reduced cost,
power and weight. We will, also, discuss the various technology elements
for this thermal imaging system, including the developments of ultra small
pixel pitch micro-bolometer arrays utilizing a commercial foundry, wafer
scale packaging for an ultra small pixel pitch uncooled LWIR detector,
heterogeneous die level integration of an electronics camera core engine,and very low cost infrared optics development. We will demonstrate thisthermal imaging camera system comprised of the technology elements
above in a Smartphone streaming live Uncooled LWIR imagery across awireless network. An easy to use application running on the Smartphone will
be used to control the thermal imaging camera and to demonstrate various
image processing and image enhancement features useful for a variety ofend use products.

Cots-based approach for lowering costs in highperformance infrared cameras (Invited Paper)

Additionally, we will discuss the heart of the LCTI-M camera system, andhow this camera core can be utilized for various dual-use applications forlaw enforcement, first responders, firefighting, and security and surveillancein addition to military products.

S. Raja Krishnamoorthi, Christopher Anton, Episensors, Inc. (UnitedStates)

9100-8, Session 2

Among the challenges facing the military is finding ways to reduce thecost of high performance, infrared cameras. This has not been an easy task
because the components utilized in these cameras have been customized to
specific applications, and the technologies themselves are very expensive.
The result, however, is that such cameras are not deployed among
warfighters to the maximum extent possible, thus diminishing the potential
for the use of such technology.

High-density interconnect bonding for 3d
integrated imaging systems
Matthew Lueck, John M. Lannon Jr., Chris W. Gregory, Dean M.
Malta, Alan Huffman, Dorota S. Temple, RTI International (UnitedStates)Today, increasingly, private companies are being tasked with creating andimplementing new strategies to approach the complex problem of cost
reduction in such cameras. One strategy is to employ commercial off-theshelf (COTS) technologies to do so. COTS components usually are produced
en masse and are, therefore, more cost-effective than customized one-off
piece parts. They have also been tested and subjected to greater fieldusage; therefore, they have usually evolved and improved with changing
market demands. Thus, COTS components could enjoy greater innovation
over the long term. That said, the COTS approach is fraught with its own
unique challenges, and dealing with them is not always straightforward.
Some amount of customization is required, especially in the camera coreelectronics and software, as well as the cooling components of the camera.
In addition, collaboration is required with makers of these components in299+1 360 676 3290

3D integration of imaging arrays with readout integrated circuits has beenshown to increase imaging capability while simultaneously decreasing
device area and power consumption compared to analogous 2D designs. A
key enabling technology for 3D integration is the use of high density metalmetal bonding to form pixel-level interconnects between device layers.
In this paper we review recent progress in high density, sub-10 µm pitchinterconnect bonding for 3-D integration of imaging systems. Specifically,
we will present results from successful demonstrations of the use andreliability of Cu-based microbumps for fine pitch interconnection of 640 x
512 arrays. InP and Si die have been bonded to Si substrates using an area
array of Cu or alloyed Cu/Sn microbumps on 5 µm or 10 µm pitch. Afterbonding, the channel yield was used to estimate the operability of the 640·

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Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications
x 512 arrays to be greater than 99.99% for both InP-Si die pairs and Si-Si diepairs. We will also compare the reliability of as-bonded die pairs with diepairs that have been capillary underfilled.

9100-11, Session 3

9100-9, Session 2

Neelam Gupta, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Materials for imaging acousto-optic tunablefilters (Invited Paper)

In-plane carrier transport in InAs/InGaSb
superlattices for VLWIR detectors

Research and development of robust compact hyperspectral imagers that
can acquire both spectral and spatial features from a scene of interest isof utmost importance for standoff detection of targets as well as chemicaland biological agents and backgrounds. Hyperspectral imagers can acquire
images with narrow spectral bands and take advantage of the characteristic
spectral signatures of different materials making up the scene. At the Army
Research Laboratory (ARL), we are developing hyperspectral imagers
based on acousto-optic tunable filters (AOTFs) that can provide adaptive
no-moving-parts imagers from the UV to the long wave infrared (LWIR) to
acquire a two-dimensional spectral image and build up a two-dimensional
image cube as a function of time instead of using traditional gratings or
prisms based approach. Here, we will brief on the development of different
imaging AOTFs operating from the UV to the LWIR based on a variety ofbirefringent materials and present highlights of the spectral imaging results
obtained including those on broadband imaging. We will also discussdevelopment of mercurous halide crystals that can be used to develop
AOTFs operating over a wide spectral region.

Hemendra Kala, Gilberto A. Umana-Membreno, The Univ. of Western
Australia (Australia); Mikhail A. Patrashin, Iwao Hosako, Kouichi
Akahane, National Institute of Information and Communications
Technology (Japan); Jarek Antoszewski, Lorenzo Faraone, The Univ.
of Western Australia (Australia)
InAs/(In)GaSb Type-II superlattices (SL) are an important material system
for high-performance infrared radiation detectors, with performance levels
that are predicted to rival those of HgCdTe. For applications in the very longwavelength infrared (VLWIR) region, InAs/(In)GaSb Type-II SL offer flexible
tunability of their effective bandgap between 0-50meV, which is easier toachieve than in conventional HgCdTe-based detectors. There are however
few report on the electronic properties of InAs/(In)GaSb SL designed for
VLWIR radiation sensing.
In this work, we present results of a study of in-plane electronic transport
in strained-layer InAs/InGaSb Type-II SL designed for VLWIR detection.
The samples studied were grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaSb
substrates, and consisted of 500nm GaSb buffer layer, followed by 40 SL
periods (4.21nm InAs/ 2.51nm In0.35Ga0.65Sb), and terminated with a 20
nm InAs cap layer.

9100-12, Session 3

Silicon nitride microphotonics for mid-infraredsensing applications
Pao T. Lin, Vivek Singh, Lionel C. Kimerling, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (United States); Dawn Tan, Singapore
Univ. of Technology & Design (Singapore); Anuradha M. Agarwal,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States)

In order to unambiguously discriminate the transport parameters of the SL
region from those associated with the p-type GaSb substrate, magnetic fielddependent Hall-effect measurements and high resolution mobility spectrum
analysis were performed on the SL sample and on a representative GaSb
substrate. This allowed identification of two hole carrier peaks in the GaSb
substrate attributable to heavy and light holes with mobilities of 520cm2/
Vs and 2,500cm2/Vs at 300K. While the contribution from substrateholes dominated the SL sample conductivity (representing over 90%
of total conductivity at 300K), two electron species with mobilities of
15,600cm2/Vs and 8,200cm2/Vs were detected at 300K, which have beententatively attributed to the 269nm SL region and the 20nm InAs cap layer,
respectively.

Integrated mid-infrared waveguides and directional couplers aredemonstrated on silicon nitride (SiN) thin films by low-pressure chemical
vapor deposition. The prepared SiN film has a broad spectral transparency
from visible up to mid-infrared (mid-IR). The SiN waveguide shows adominant fundamental mode with an optical loss less than 0.2 dB/cm at =2.5 – 2.8 µm. In addition, we demonstrate an efficient SiN directional coupler
with an high extinction ratio upon wavelength sweep between l = 2.5 µm
to l = 2.7 µm. With the inherent advantage of complementary metal–oxide–
semiconductor (CMOS) compatibility, our SiN platform paves the way tocreate sophisticated photonic circuits that are desired for chip-scale mid-IR
biochemical sensors.

9100-10, Session 2

InAsSb detector and FPA data and analysis(Invited Paper)

9100-13, Session 3

Arvind I. D’Souza, DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates)Enhanced light-matter interaction using
plasmonic metamaterial structures for thin-film
photodetector elements

InAsSb material with a cutoff wavelength in the 5 μm range has been grown
on GaAs substrates. The MWIR InAsSb detector arrays were fabricatedand hybridized to fanouts and ROICs to permit measurement of theelectrical and optical properties of detectors. Variable temperature Jdark
vs Vd measurements have been made with the dark current density ~ 10-5
A/cm2 at 150 K. The external QE measured using a narrow band filter
centered at ~ 4 μm had values in the 65 – 70 % range. Since the detectors
were illuminated through a GaAs substrate which has a reflectance of
29%, the internal QE is greater than 90 %. Additional response and noise
measurements are being conducted and that data will also be presented.
The noise measurements include long time series data which when Fouriertransformed will provide detector noise as a function of frequency.

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Qiaoqiang Gan, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
It is generally believed that minimizing the volume of active material helps
to reduce the noise and thermal excess carriers in the diffusion-limited
operating mode. An ultra-thin active layer is promising to enhance thespeed performance of conventional photodetectors (PD) to surpass theircommonly available high frequency cutoff. Unfortunately, due to theinsufficient optical absorption of the ultra-thin active layers, the signal
will be sacrificed simultaneously when thinner active layers are used inconventional PDs. Consequently, compact/miniaturized super absorberstructures are highly desirable for future PDs for sensitive and high speed
sensing/imaging applications, which, if successful, is critical to address thelong-existing limitation between the speed and the responsivity for PDs
and cameras. In this invited talk, we will summarize recent progress ondeveloping thin-film improved PD devices, including nano-interdigitated·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications

9100-15, Session 3

electrode for high-speed UV metal-semiconductor-metal PDs [1] andrecently developed strong interference effect in highly absorbing media[2,3] for ultra-thin film PD elements. The design principle of spectral
tunability and optimization strategies of the absorption enhancement
will be explained. Particularly, the ultra-thin film interference effect will
be validated by preliminary experiment result using 2-3-nm-thick Ge film,
demonstrating the potential of minimizing the thickness of the active layers.
In addition, super absorptions using 10-20-nm-thick metal films will also bedemonstrated to develop all-metal Schottky barrier [4] or metal-insulatormetal junction PDs [5].

Physiologic cardiovascular strain and intrinsic
wave imaging (Invited Paper)
Elisa E. Konofagou, Columbia Univ. (United States)
Cardiovascular disease remains the primary killer worldwide. The heart,being essentially an electrically-driven mechanical pump, alters its
mechanical and electrical properties to compensate for loss of normal
mechanical and electrical function. The same adjustment is also performedin the vessels that constantly adapt their properties to accommodate
mechanical and geometrical changes related to aging or disease. Considera real-time, quantitative assessment of cardiac contractility, conduction
and vascular function before the specialist can visually detect it. This
new physiologic data could open up interactive therapy regimes that are
currently not considered. The eventual goal of this technology is to becomea specific method for estimating the position and severity of contraction
defects in cardiac infarcts or angina, improving care and outcomes aswell as detecting stiffness changes and overcoming the current global
measurement limitations in the progression of vascular disease, at little
more cost or risk than that of a clinical ultrasound.

[1] Plasmonics 8, 239 (2013).
[2] Nat. Mater. 12, 20 (2013).
[3] Nat. Mater. 12, 158 (2013).
[4] Science 332, 702 (2011).
[5] Adv. Mater. 25, 1301 (2013).

9100-14, Session 3

Miniaturized imaging spectrometer based on
Fabry-Perot MOEMS filters and HgCdTe infrared
focal plane arrays (Invited Paper)

9100-16, Session 4

Silviu Velicu, Jeremy D. Bergeson, Chris Buurma, EPIR Technologies,
Inc. (United States); Tae Sung Kim, EPIR Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates) and Univ. of California, Santa Cruz (United States); Joel
Kubby, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz (United States); Neelam
Gupta, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

A review on antimonide-based semiconductors
for high-performance optoelectronic devices
in center for quantum devices (Keynote
Presentation)

Imaging spectrometry can be utilized in the midwave infrared (MWIR)and long wave infrared (LWIR) bands to detect, identify and map complex
chemical agents based on rotational and vibrational emission spectra.
Hyperspectral datasets are typically obtained using grating or Fouriertransform spectrometers to separate the incoming light into spectral bands.
At present, these spectrometers are large, cumbersome, slow and expensive.
Their resolution is limited by bulky mechanical components such as mirrors
and gratings. Low-cost, miniaturized imaging spectrometers are of greatinterest. Microfabrication of micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS)based components opens the door for producing low-cost, reliable opticalsystems. We present here our work on developing a miniaturized IR imaging
spectrometer by coupling a mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe)-based
infrared focal plane array (FPA) with a MEMS-based Fabry-Perot filter (FPF).
The two membranes are fabricated from silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers
using bulk micromachining technology. The fixed membrane is a standard
silicon membrane, fabricated using back etching processes. The movable
membrane is implemented as an X-beam structure to improve mechanicalstability. The geometries of the distributed Bragg reflector (DBR)-based
tunable FPFs are modeled to achieve the desired spectral resolution andwavelength range. Additionally, acceptable fabrication tolerances are
determined by modeling the spectral performance of the FPFs as a functionof DBR surface roughness and membrane curvature. These fabrication nonidealities are then mitigated by developing an optimized DBR process flow
yielding high-performance FPF cavities. Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) and Germanium(Ge) are chosen as the low and the high index materials, respectively, andare deposited using an electron beam process. To ensure high and uniform
reflectance over the wavelength spectrum of interest (~ 8-11um), five stacksof Ge/ZnS layers are used to form the DBRs. Photoresist SU-8 is used todefine the optical cavity between the two mirrors. FPF tuning is achieved
with electrostatic actuation. The operation of the assembled filter device isdemonstrated at room temperature. Further, FPAs suitable for integration
with the MEMS filters have been fabricated on HgCdTe material. Imaging
and radiometric characterization data will be presented.

Manijeh Razeghi, Northwestern Univ. (United States)
In recent years, the narrow-bandgap antimonide-based semiconductors
are widely regarded as one of the strong candidate material systems forfabrication of the third generation of infrared imagers and integrated
circuits with ultra-high speed and ultralow power consumption. Antimonidebased semiconductors mainly refer to the binary, ternary, and quaternarycompound semiconductors, such as GaSb, InSb, AlSb,
InAsSb, InSbBi, InTlSb, and InTlAsSb. Furthermore, antimonide-based
semiconductors can be used to form artificial quantum structures such as
GaSb/InAs or InAs/AlSb/GaSb type-II superlattices.
Study of different antimonide-based semiconductors for infrared detectionand emission applications has been an active field of research at Center for
Quantum Devices (CQD) for more than two decades. These efforts coveralmost all members of antimonide-based semiconductors family from
simple binary compounds, such as InSb, to complicated quaternary ones
like InTlAsSb. In the other hand, antimonidebased type-II superlattices
have been subject of extensive studies at CQD. These studies resulted indemonstration of infrared photodetectors and imagers which can cover
infrared spectrum from 1.5 to longer than 32 µm.
We are going to present a review of two decade antimonide-based
semiconductors development for detection and imaging at different infrared
regimes at CQD.

9100-17, Session 4

Case for small pixels: system perspective and FPA
challenge (Invited Paper)
Jim Robinson, Michael A. Kinch, Michael J. Marquis, Duke Littlejohn,
Kristina Jeppson, DRS RSTA, Inc. (United States)
In imaging systems, whether visible or infrared, the pixel dimension plays acrucial role in determining critical system attributes such as size, weight, andpower (SWAP). Smaller pixels enhance the value proposition of the imager
through reduced cost Focal Plane Arrays (FPAs) and/or added system
functionality for a given spatial footprint. Ultimate pixel dimensions are301+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
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9100-20, Session 4

limited by diffraction effects from the aperture and are in turn wavelength
dependent. Limits to the reduction in pixel dimensions will be explored
and related to the historical trends in system design with accompanying
performance attributes. Key challenges in realizing ultimate pixel dimensions
in focal plane array design will be discussed. Progress toward these limits at
DRS will be reviewed for both LWIR and MWIR HgCdTe Focal Plane arrays
fabricated with 5 micron pixel dimensions. Possible system implications tied
to the success of these shrinking pixel FPAs will be postulated.

Enabling more capability within smaller pixels:
advanced wafer-level process technologies for
integration of FPAs with readout electronics(Invited Paper)
Dorota S. Temple, Erik Vick, Matthew Lueck, Dean M. Malta, John M.
Lannon Jr., RTI International (United States)

9100-18, Session 4

Two key trends in the development of infrared focal plane arrays (FPAs)
over the last decade are the decreasing pixel size and the increasing signal
processing capability at the device/component level. The former leads tothe increased information content within the same FPA die size. The latter
will ultimately result in the sensor behaving like a smart-system peripheral
rather than a passive component—with complex functions like calibration,compensation and self-testing being executed on, rather than off, thechip. This added flexibility could greatly enhance the sensor performance,increase its stability and reliability, and reduce the size, weight, power andcost of the overall system.

Performance benefits of sub-diffraction sized
pixels in imaging sensors (Invited Paper)John T. Caulfield, Cyan Systems (United States)
Cyan has been improving designs of imaging systems using smaller sub
diffraction sized pixels, and results show that smaller pixels result in a
number of related systems benefits such as compact size and weight,
smaller optics, improved IFOV and detection range, etc. Cyan has
demonstrated that spatial oversampling can improve aliasing, sensitivity,and drive reductions in False Alarms through oversampled correlated
processing. Oversampled IR sensors will also improve acuity in turbulent andhazy conditions over larger pixel IR focal plane array sensors.

Enabling more capability within smaller pixels requires the use of advanced
wafer-level processes for the integration of the FPAs with silicon readout
integrated circuits (ROICs). In this paper we will review the developmentof these technologies, starting with high density face-to-face integrationof FPAs with Si ROICs, and proceeding to approaches in which the infrared
sensor is integrated with three-dimensional ROIC stacks composed ofmultiple layers of Si circuitry interconnected using metal-filled throughsilicon vias. We will present examples from functional demonstrations ofthese technologies. We will also describe the roadmap for the continued
development of the integration technology for increasingly smaller andsmarter pixels, and identify development needs that have to be met totransition research results to system-level applications.

We will show quantitative data to illustrate the improvements in resolution,
NEP, detection range, and false alarm suppression of the oversampled IR
sensor as the temporal and spatial oversampling are increased. We will
explain the phenomena of reducing pixels size improving Noise EquivalentPower. We will show how smaller pixels have lower SNR, and how using
temporal and spatial oversampling can compensate and effectively increase
SNR lost with smaller pixels. We will quantify the limits of performanceof Oversampling based on theory, and also with simulated imagery using
realistic parameters such as shot noise and thermal noise using a Monte
Carlo type analysis. We will review in detail the results of the Monte Carlomodeling of Oversampling FPA. We will derive and demonstrate thetheoretical limits of both temporal and spatial oversampling using both On
and Off Focal Plane processing that is required to realize good performance.

9100-21, Session 4

Direct optimization and solution spacevisualization of wafer-level manufactured LWIR
systems for maximized detection range andminimized SWAP-C (Invited Paper)

9100-19, Session 4

Effect of dense planer focal plane array on device
performances

Kenneth S. Kubala, Robert M. Bates, FiveFocal LLC (United States)
The typical approach for the design of optical systems involves the largely
independent design of the components (lens, sensor, algorithms, display)with a system engineer providing the intermediary framework for trading
margin between the components. As the system has more and more
complexity, and as there are more system level metrics that go beyond
detection range metrics such as SWAP-C, the “manual” system level
optimization is very unlikely to yield optimal solutions.

Chieh-Ting Lin, Robert Olah, Achyut K. Dutta, Banpil Photonics, Inc.
(United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)
As the technologies in focal plane array (FPA) progresses, the industry is
pushing for smaller pixel size and spacing between the pixels. The reductionin pixel size and spacing will increase both the resolution and fill factor
which reduces the cost and increases the performance. However, as thedensity of the array elements increases, the crosstalk between the nearest
neighboring pixels become a significant issue. Here we examine the case fora planer FPA with epitaxially grown NIN+ structure and the planer junctions
are formed by diffusing P-type dopant into the N doped layer. We firstexamine the possible spacing by considering the lateral depletion region
width to set the upper boundary for the spacing. The depletion region widthis calculated by solving Poisson’s equation for Gaussian doping profile andthe isolation of adjacent pixel is dependent on the formation of the backto back diodes to block the current flowing towards the device. Therefore
overlap of the depletion regions indicates shorting and sets the minimum
possible spacing. The electrical and optical crosstalks are modeled by usinga DC resistive model to gauge the effect of current flow as the spacing
reduces. Series of device arrays with various device pitches and device sizes
ranging from 7 µm to 15 µm with device pitch from 7.5 μm to 18 μm are
fabricated and tested under both dark and illumination conditions for theirelectrical performances including the crosstalk. The simulated and measured
results will be presented.

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Through the development of system simulation and optimization softwarethat incorporates the optical lens model with the target, sensor, signal
processing, display, and observer models and their associated design
degrees of freedom, the end-to-end performance of the system can be
optimized directly according to the probability of task performance using
the standard targeting task performance (TTP) metric along with SWAP-C
metrics.
As an example of the process, an uncooled LWIR camera system is designusing a wafer-level optics architecture where the weighting and targets for
performance and SWAP-C are varied resulting in many solutions that map
out the solution space. The results are visualized in custom software thatallows the user to filter the solutions based on any of the system level orcomponent metrics allowing comparison of cost vs. performance vs. size vs.
weight vs. power vs. frame rate of an LWIR wafer level optical solution. The
presented visualization software provides a common framework for bothtechnical and non-technical users to explore the tradeoffs and ultimately
select the solution that is best for a specific application.

·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications

9100-22, Session 49100-24, Session Posters-Thursday

Nanostructured detector technologies for opticalsensing applications (Invited Paper)

Application of the Ornstein- Uhlebeck equations
for biomedical image processing

Ashok K. Sood, Magnolia Optical Technologies, Inc. (United States);
Roger E. Welser, Magnolia Solar, Inc. (United States); Nibir K. Dhar,
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (United States);
Dennis L. Polla, Univ. of Minnesota-Twin Cities (United States);
Madan Dubey, Priyalal S. Wijewarnasuriya, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)

Juan P. Mesa Lopez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the implementation of a newkind of image filter, in which the equations of the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck
process are used in image processing in order to detect the edges ofcomputerized images taken with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scanners, as a generalization of the standard Gaussian filter.
This new filter will be called Ornstein-Uhlenbeck filter (OUF). One of theresults obtained after applying the filter to the image, with the variation of
the parameter s is an effective differentiation of the various organs thatare next to each other in each one of the resulting images. In addition, theedges of the internal body parts and organs are highlighted efficiently anddifferentiated from their surroundings.

Optical sensing technology is critical for optical communication, defense
and security applications. Advances in optoelectronics materials in the UV,
Visible and Infrared, using nanostructures, and use of novel materials such as
CNT and Graphene have opened doors for new approaches to apply device
design methodology that are expected to offer enhanced performance andlow cost optical sensors in a wide range of applications.
This paper is intended to review recent advancements and present different
device architectures and analysis. The chapter will briefly introduce thebasics of UV, Visible and Infrared detection physics and various wave bands
of interest and their characteristics.

9100-25, Session Posters-Thursday

Improvements to quality of mass produced
sapphire

We will cover the UV band (200-400 nm) and address some of the recent
advances in nanostructures growth and characterization using GaN/AlGaN,
ZnO/MgZnO based technologies and their applications. We will also discussnanostructure based Si/SiGe technologies (400-1700 nm) that will covervarious bands of interest in visible-near infrared for detection and opticalcommunication applications. The chapter will also discuss some of thetheoretical and experimental results in these detector technologies.

John P. Ciraldo, Rubicon Technology Inc. (United States)
High quality sapphire demonstrates properties that are of great interest
to a wide range of industrial and academic applications. For example,
relatively flat transmission across a wide range of wavelengths makes
sapphire very useful in optical applications. As one of the hardest material
in nature, sapphire is also quite useful in applications where resistanceto chemical decomposition, radiation damage, and mechanical wear areimportant concerns. However, the limitations in material quality have
prevented adoption of sapphire material into some particularly sensitive
applications. In this talk I will demonstrate advances that Rubicon
Technology has made in sapphire quality that far exceed what is currently
available through other manufacturers. Improvements to growth process,as well as increased control over supply material have allowed Rubicon
to consistently grow sapphire demonstrating rocking curves with FWHM
values less than 9 arc-seconds, as verified by Argonne National Laboratory.
Etch pit density and x-ray topography results verify near defect freecrystals. Optical characterizations confirm transmission near or at maximum
theoretical values. Comparison to other industry leaders will provide
further confirmation that Rubicon is currently creating material that is ofsignificantly better quality that what is currently available elsewhere. The
dramatic improvements in crystal quality achieved by Rubicon are alreadyallowing sapphire produced by Rubicon to be used in sensor technologies
where sapphire was previously unusable due to high defects.

Recent advancements in design and development of CNT and Graphene
based detection technologies have shown promise for optical sensor
applications. We will present theoretical and experimental results on thesedevice and their potential applications in various bands of interest.

9100-23, Session Posters-Thursday

Applications of the Lambert W function to
analyze digital camera sensors
Daniel Villegas, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
The Lambert W function is applied via Maple to analyze the operation of
the modern digital camera sensors. The Lambert W function had been
applied previously to understand the functioning of diodes and solar
cells. The parallelism between the physics of solar cells and digital camera
sensors will be exploited. Digital camera sensors use p-n photodiodes
and such photodiodes can be studied using the Lambert W function. At
general, the bulk transformation of light into photocurrent is describedby an equivalent circuit which determines a dynamical equation to besolved using the Lambert W function. Specifically, in a camera senor, theprecise measurement of light intensity by filtering through color filters, isable to create a measurable photocurrent that is proportional to image
point intensity; and such photocurrent is given in terms of the Lambert W
function. It is claimed that the drift between neighboring photocells at longwavelengths affects the ability to resolve an image and such drift can be
represented effectively using the Lambert W function. Also is conjectured
that the recombination of charge carries in the digital sensors is connectedto the notion of “noise” in photography and such “noise” could be describedby certain combinations of Lambert W functions. Finally, it is suggested
that the notion of bias, and varying the width of the depletion zone, has arelationship to the ISO “sped· of the camera sensor; and such relationshipcould be described using Lambert W functions.

9100-26, Session Posters-Thursday

Geometric superresolution by using a twodimensional orthogonal encoding mask
Yangyang Liu, Bin Xiangli, Qunbo Lv, Min Huang, Jinsong Zhou,
Linlin Pei, Dandan Zhang, Academy of Opto-Electronics (China)
In many modern optical systems, the resolution is limited not only by thediffraction caused by physical dimensions of the optics lens, but by the
CCD’s nonzero pixel size,especially for the traditional incoherent illumination,
the restriction of CCD pixel is greater than that of optical diffraction. Here
we develop a novel approach to enhancing resolution beyond the limit set
by CCD’s pixels, in which a two-dimensional and orthogonal encoding mask
is attached before the imaging lens to modulate frequency on input target
spectrum.
Here we focus on the design about a 4-f optical imaging system,
considering the ability of Fourier transformation to achieve the equivalent
conversion between space and frequency domain. And to prevent the loss

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Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applicationsof frequency in the overlapping regions when sampled by a classical CCD,
there must be some proportion between the spatial range of object planeand corresponding frequency plane. Meanwhile, the wavefront aberrationof Fourier lens needs to be controlled to fulfill the mathematical features ofFourier transformation.

photon transmitted in the water and the particularity of underwater target
detecting, the characters of laser scattering on underwater target surface
and spatial and temporal characters of oceanic optical channel have beenstudied. Based on the Monte Carlo or time domain broadening simulation ,how the water quality and other systemic parameters affect the underwater
light transmission at spatial and temporal region has been studied, which
provides the theoretical sustentation of enhancing the SNR and operational
distance.

We apply to improving and revising the theoretical design for the encoding
mask based on the design limit of optical-mechanical engineering, and weanalyze the different orthogonal forms of encoding masks which can bring
the spectra diffraction to the imaging area. In this scheme, we calculate
and discuss the total dimension, formation and element dimension of theencoding mask, to ensure compliance with all the optical wavelengths ofproject indicator. Furthermore, we consider the spectrum message basedon the zero level to the second diffraction, and finally achieve the spectrum
data matched to the original input object after mathematical process.

9100-29, Session Posters-Thursday

Analysis and simulation of a new kind of noise at
the input stage of readout integrated circuit

According to the theoretical discussion, revision and algorithm simulation,
the results in the preliminary testing system show that the encoding mask
can be used to produce enhancement of resolution by a factor of 2 inexchange for decreasing the field of view by the same factor.

Zhangcheng Huang, Yu Chen, Songlei Huang, Jiaxiong Fang,
Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (China)
Noise is a primary characteristics of an infrared focal plane array (FPA)
that contribute to detection performance at low light level. In a capacitivefeedback trans-impedance amplifier (CTIA)-based readout integrated circuit(ROIC), reset noise can be removed by correlated double sampling (CDS).
There is an exotic experimental phenomenon that FPA noise will increase
greatly if the first sampling time of CDS is less than a specific value. A noisemodel at the input stage of ROIC is presented in this paper which explainsthat this new kind of noise is originated from incompletely settling of CTIA
preamplifier. As this noise is performed in time domains, we use transientnoise simulation technique to describe the dependence of this noise on
detector pixel capacitance, integration capacitor, and some other design
parameters. Based on the theoretical model analysis and simulation results,
an effective design effort is obtained to reduce this kind of noise.

9100-27, Session Posters-Thursday

Design of p-on-N+ HgCdTe heterojunction
photodiodes on Si substrate
Peng Zhang, Zhenhua Ye, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)
The application of HgCdTe-on-Si material is very attractive in IRFPA
technology, because of lower cost and consistent thermal coefficientof expansion with Si ROIC. However, interface recombination between
HgCdTe active region and buffer layer on Si substrate makes it difficult tomanufacture high quantum efficiency LW IRFPAs detectors.

9100-30, Session Posters-Thursday

In the application of the LW IRFPAs detectors, narrow-band of spectral
response is extensively utilized to improve the detectivity of desired
wavelength-band. Normally, p+-on-n or n+-on-p HgCdTe IRFPAs detectors
are adopted to acquire the narrow-band, using the optical filter. In thispaper, the Hg1-xCdxTe (x=0.21) LW IRFPAs detector adopts a new p-on-N+
structure grown by MBE on Si substrate. The bottom N-type window
layer with high composition and heavy doping concentration can reducethe influence of surface recombination on the performance of the device.
And compared with adding the optical filter, it is feasible to adjust thecomposition of the N-type layer to modify the cut-on wavelength of devices.
Furthermore, due to the high absorption coefficient of the HgCdTe material,
the incoming LW radiation is mainly absorbed within a thin absorption
region. In the device, the thin region locating on the p-N+ junction will leadto higher quantum efficiency. On the other hand, the smaller bulk resistanceof the heavily doped N-type layer ensures the uniformity of the pixel series
resistance in the large format IRFPAs.

Responsivity performance of extended
wavelength InGaAs shortwave infrared detector
arraysTao Li, Xue Li, Xiumei Shao, Heng-Jing Tang, Haimei Gong, Shanghai
Institute of Technical Physics (China)
InxGa1-xAs ternary compound is suitable for detector applications in the
shortwave infrared (1-3 µm) band. The alloy In0.53Ga0.47As is latticematched to InP substrate and has a wavelength response between 0.9 μm
to 1.7 µm. The increase of indium composition can extend the wavelength
response to 2.6 µm (x=0.83). Compared to the In0.53Ga0.47As detectors,
the dark current of In0.83Ga0.17As detectors is remarkably increased due tothe lattice mismatch between InGaAs layer with high indium content and the
InP substrate, and the responsivity of the In0.83Ga0.17As detectors drops
sharply. These degradations restrict its using in low level application. In thispaper, we reported on mesa type and planar type extended wavelength
InGaAs detector arrays. The mesa type detectors were fabricated by mesa
etching, side-wall and surface passivating processes based on p-i-n InAlAs/
In0.83Ga0.17As/InxAl1-xAs/InP epitaxial structure, while the planar typedetectors were fabricated by planar diffusion and surface passivatingprocesses based on n-i-n InAlAs/In0.83Ga0.17As/InxAl1-xAs/InP epitaxial
structure. The blackbody responsivities (Rbb) of these detectors at different
temperatures were measured. The results showed that the Rbb of planar
type detectors were much higher than the mesa type’s. The laser beam
induced current (LBIC) method was used to investigated the photoresponseof photo-sensitive area, and the sharply decreased photoresponse curveat the edge of the photo-sensitive area indicated a shorter hole diffusion
length of the mesa type detector. This was mostly because the surface
recombination reduced minority-carrier lifetime and the output photocurrent. When using an improved mesa-type process on the passivating
technique, the response performance of the mesa detector was highly
upgraded and comparable to the planar type’s.

The quantum efficiency and the current-voltage characteristics of devices
have been numerically simulated, using Crosslight TCAD software.
Simulation results indicate that in contrast to the n+-on-p IRFPAs detector,
the quantum efficiency of the p-on-N+ IRFPAs detector increased by 8.38%.

9100-28, Session Posters-Thursday

New approach for underwater imaging andprocessing
Yanan Wen, Weijian Tian, Bing Zheng, Guozun Zhou, Hui Dong,
Qiong Wu, Qingdao Academy for Opto-Electronics Engineering(China)In this paper, a new approach is presented to get a clear underwater image.
Firstly, an inhomogeneous illumination method is developed to get the clear
original image. Normal illumination system and inhomogeneous illumination
system are used to capture the image in same distance. The result showsthat the contrast and definition of processed image is greatly improvedby inhomogeneous illumination method. Secondly, based on the theory of304

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Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications

9100-31, Session Posters-Thursday

UNB Pan-sharp is a technique to produce high resolution color satellite
imagery or security camera video frame by fusing a high resolution
panchromatic image and a low resolution color image. Beside a competitive
quality in comparison with the original high resolution color images,
pan-sharpening can also decrease the lossless data rate to 50 percent of
the original high resolution color image. As the spatial and radiometricresolutions of the panchromatic image plays a key role in the quality of
pan-sharpened image, changes in the bit-rate and sampling pixel size ofthe low resolution color image frame will be a key for lossless compression.
Using a fixed high resolution panchromatic image and various low resolution
color images in different spatial and radiometric resolutions, in this paper,
the quality of derived UNB-pansharpened images have been assessed. This
study has been repeated for a few more sets of images in different lighting
conditions. The main purpose of this study was to find the lowest bit-rateand sampling size for low resolution color images which keeps the qualityof resulting pan-sharpened image. Original high resolution color images arealso used as a reference for the quality control.

A revolutionary solution for shipping container
identification and management
James Morrison, Jonathan Williams, Robert Fish, McQ, Inc. (UnitedStates)Shipping containers are used by the US government to transport a variety
goods throughout the world, yet there is no means to track them, which
results in detention fees levied to the government, and no practical way
to locate a given container. McQ has developed an automated system
to provide accountability of US government owned containers enteringor leaving a checkpoint, based on self powered, detection, and imaging
system. This system uses McQ’s rScene® micro radar to maintain a low
power state until an approaching truck or train carrying the container isdetected, which then enables video capture of the container. Once a video
clip has been captured, McQ performs sophisticated image processing to
optically locate the ISO identification code on the container, and perform
an extensive set of preprocessing steps to prepare the text to input intoa COTS optical character recognition (OCR) engine. The output of thesystem are automatically captured ISO codes, which are georeferenced
by the fielded system, which can be used by the US government totrack shipping containers in a variety of deployment scenarios including
permanent facilities and road side disaster relief temporary installations.
The system is easy to setup and operate. The system design as well as
system performance based on field testing with shipping containers will bepresented.

9100-34, Session Posters-Thursday

High-resolution unified touch screen for sensing
capacitive touches and reading fingerprints
Pranav N. Koundinya, Sandhya Theril, Tao Feng, Weidong Shi, Univ.
of Houston (United States)
With the increase in the number of smart devices such as smartphones
and tablets, the need to secure the information they carry has become
vitally important. Authentication is a vital part of security--it is not limited
to gaining access to a physical hardware, it is extended to identifying
and mapping the user to certain sensitive information (Pass codes forfinancial institutions, web portals and online services such as email andsocial networks). Traditional Password schemes such as number pass-code,
pattern unlocking, facial recognition and others are very complicated, time
consuming and requires users to pause their current activity to provide
authentication. An alternative technique that alleviates these problems
needs to be designed. Fingerprints have served in its fullest capacity inestablishing a unique user identify over the course of time. Both fingerprints
and touch sensing can be detected using the capacitive sensing technique.
This paper presents a unique single device that is capable of sensing touchgestures and fingerprint. A high resolution transparent touch sensitive
device and a novel read out circuit is discussed that drives the capacitive
sensor array for touch interactions in low resolution and for fingerprint
sensing in high resolution. Using circuit simulation and custom Verilog-A
model for a transparent thin-film transistor, we show that our device cansense fingerprint in 8.25ms and detect capacitive touches in 0.6ms with anefficient power consumption of 1mW. These results imply that such a device
is very much realizable and serve as an alternative means of authentication.
Utilizing such a device a user independent authentication can be establishedwhich potentially makes passwords irrelevant. Furthermore, from auser’s perspective, the introduced device is essential as it provides usertransparent authentication that does not require any additional effort fromthe user.

9100-32, Session Posters-Thursday

Quality assessment of pan-sharpened color
image in comparison with 1-chip Bayer filter
color and 3-chip color images in various lighting
conditions
Sina Adhamkhiabani, Yun Zhang, Univ. of New Brunswick (Canada)
UNB pan-sharp method demonstrated its ability in producing highresolution color images using a pair of high resolution panchromatic andlow resolution multispectral (Color) satellite imagery. Extensive researchon the security camera systems shows that the concept could be utilizedon the earth and for various kinds of imaging and monitoring cameras.
Nowadays, 1-chip (Bayer filter cameras) and 3-chip cameras are widely used
to produce color images and videos. These cameras have solid performancein high and normal lighting conditions. However in low lighting conditions,due to the received energy limitations in narrow spectral bands, the color
images turn noisy and less sensitive. Moreover, due to the characteristics ofthe Bayer filters (in 1-chip cameras) and splitters (in 3-chip cameras) color
distortions are obvious especially on the edges. Furthermore, the quality ofcolor rendering in these images decrease in lower lighting conditions. On
the other hand, the carried out research proved that by a pan-sharpening
strategy, high resolution color images could be produced with less noise,smoother edges and better color rendering in comparison with a 1-chip
camera system and under the same lighting conditions. In this paper,
different imaging instances were produced under various lighting conditions
will be demonstrated. Moreover, various assessments on the results will be
noted.

9100-35, Session Posters-Thursday

Technology and application trends in IR
photodetectors
Thierry Robin, TEMATYS (France)

9100-33, Session Posters-Thursday

The aim of our work is to identify the trends and challenges in the next
years for infrared imaging photodetectors with a focus on commerciallyavailable FPA technologies: HgCdTe, InSb, QWIP, InGaAs and T2 SLS(Type II Strained Layer Superlattice). Most of these detectors are cooled,especially in MWIR and LWIR bands, and the military market remains themain market for cooled IR sensors and cameras. But the continuing decline
in defense spending in many countries as well as the improved performanceof uncooled detectors require manufacturers of cooled sensors to intensify

Influence of pixel size and bit depth of the low
resolution color image on the quality of pansharpened imagery: a case study with security
video image frames
Sina Adhamkhiabani, Yun Zhang, Univ. of New Brunswick (Canada)305+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9100: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications

9100-57, Session Posters-Thursday

efforts: to improve performances while reducing cost and device size,
weight and power (SWaP), to expand IR imaging applications for users in
the military, homeland security as well as in commercial and industrial fields
and also to provide added functionalities for advanced applications suchas multiband, multicolor, active imaging and integrated optics. In-depth
analysis of applications is provided, along with a description of the main
players and the last market evolutions and future trends. We summarize
our final data and analysis: market application segments and opportunities
in SWIR, MWIR and LWIR, analysis of the trends and main challenges to beaddressed both on technology side and application side in the next years.
These data can be useful for scientists and manufacturers in the infrared
sector but can also provide cross-fertilization towards other areas.

Wide dynamic range and high-sensitivity CMOS
active pixel sensor using output voltage feedback
structure
Sung-Hyun Jo, Myunghan Bae, Jang-Kyoo Shin, Kyungpook
National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
Recent commercial CMOS image sensors (CISs) require the high-sensitivity
and wide dynamic range performance. Some equipments for high-sensitivity
applications use photomultiplier tubes or charge-coupled devices. However,these photodetectors consume a large amount of power and cannot be
integrated with CMOS circuits. Also, their sensors have narrow dynamic
range due to high-sensitivity. For this reason, several approaches to improve
both the sensitivity and dynamic range are being researched. This paper
presents a wide dynamic range and high-sensitivity complementary metaloxide semiconductor (CMOS) active pixel sensor (APS) using output voltage
feedback structure. The proposed APS has a high-sensitivity gate/body-tied(GBT) photodetector with an overlapping control gate that makes it possible
to control the sensitivity of the proposed APS. The floating gate of the GBT
photodetector is connected to the n-well and the overlapping control gate isplaced on top of the floating gate for varying the sensitivity of the proposed
APS. Dynamic range of the proposed APS is significantly increased due tothe output voltage feedback structure. Maximum sensitivity of the proposed
APS is 50 V/lux•s in the low illumination range and dynamic range is greaterthan 110 dB. The proposed sensor has been fabricated by using 0.35 μm
2-poly 4-metal standard CMOS process and its characteristics have been
evaluated.

9100-36, Session Posters-Thursday

Performance of near-infrared InGaAs focal planearray with different series resistances to p-InP
layer
Xiumei Shao, Xue Li, Tao Li, Zhangcheng Huang, Yu Chen, HengJing Tang, Haimei Gong, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)A planar-type InGaAs linear detector was designed and fabricated basedon n-i-nx type InP/In0.53Ga0.47As/InP epitaxial materials. The major
process of the detector contains planar diffusion, surface passivation, metal
contact and annealing. The I-V curves and the relative spectral response
were measured at room temperature. The relative spectral response is in
the range of 0.9m to 1.7m. The R0A of the detector is about 2x106 W·cm2
and the dark current density is 5~10nA/cm2 at -10mV bias voltage. The
linear detectors were wire-bonded with readout circuits (ROIC) to form
focal plane array (FPA). The input stage of the ROIC is based on capacitivefeedback transimpedance amplifier (CTIA) with a capacitor (Cint) to be
0.1pF. The FPAs were tested under different conditions. However, the signals
are vibrating especially when they are close to the saturation voltage of
the ROIC. The ohmic contact on p-InP region plays an important role in
the performance of detectors and FPAs. In this case, the series resistanceto p-InP layer of each pixel is up to 1x106W. The FPAs were simulated incase of InGaAs detectors with different series resistances. According to
the simulation results, the signals of the FPAs will vibrate when the series
resistances are beyond 4x104W. Then, the annealing temperature of thedetectors was studied and the series resistances were lower than 1x104W.
The optimized InGaAs linear detectors were wire-bonded with the same
ROIC. The vibration of the signals disappears and the FPA shows goodstability.

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Conference 9101:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VII
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9101 Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VII

9101-1, Session 1

test results illustrating the realized performance of the fully assembled andintegrated breadboard, thereby demonstrating the utility of the approach.

Development, characterization, and applicationof compact spectrometers based on MEMS
devices with in plane capacitive drives (Invited
Paper)

9101-3, Session 1

Multiple-order staircase etalon spectroscopy
Michael K. Yetzbacher, Christopher W. Miller, Drew J. Boudreau,
Marc Christophersen, Michael J. DePrenger, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)

Andreas Kenda, Martin Kraft, Werner Scherf, Carinthian Tech
Research AG (Austria); Thilo Sandner, Harald Schenk, FraunhoferInstitut für Photonische Mikrosysteme (Germany); Stephan
Luettjohann, Bruker Optik GmbH (Germany)

Traditional Fabry-Perot (FP) spectroscopy is bandwidth limited to avoid
mixing signals from different transmission orders of the interferometer.
Unlike Fourier transformation, the extraction of spectra from multiple-orderinterferograms resulting from multiplexed optical signals is in general an illposed problem. Using a Fourier transform approach, we derive a generalized
Nyquist limit appropriate to signal recovery from FP interferograms. This
result is used to derive a set of design rules giving the usable wavelength
range and spectral resolution of FP interferometers or etalon arrays given
a set of accessible physical parameters. Numerical simulations verify theutility of these design rules for moderate resolution spectroscopy withbandwidths limited by the detector spectral response. Stable and accurate
spectral recovery over more than one octave is accomplished by simple
matrix multiplication of the interferogram. In analogy to recently developed
single-order micro-etalon arrays (Proc. of SPIE v.8266, no. 82660Q), we
introduce Multiple-Order Staircase Etalon Spectroscopy (MOSES), in whichmicro-arrays of multiple order etalons can be bonded to or co-fabricatedwith a sensor array. MOSES enables broader bandwidth multispectral andhyperspectral instruments than single-order etalon arrays while keeping aphysical footprint insignificantly different from that of the detection array.

With a trend towards the use of spectroscopic systems in various fields
of science and industry, there is an increasing demand for compact
spectrometers. For UV/VIS to the shortwave near-infrared spectral range,
compact hand-held polychromator type devices are widely used and have
replaced larger conventional instruments in many applications. Still, forlonger wavelengths this type of compact spectrometers is lacking suitable
and affordable detector arrays. In perennial development CarinthianTech Research AG together with the Fraunhofer Institute for Photonic
Microsystems endeavor to close this gap by developing spectrometersystems based on photonic MEMS. Here, we review on two different
spectrometer developments, a scanning grating spectrometer working in
the NIR and a FT-spectrometer accessing the mid-IR range up to 14µm.
Both systems are using photonic MEMS devices actuated by in plane comb
drive structures. This principle allows for high mechanical amplitudes at
low driving voltages but results in gratings respectively mirrors oscillating
harmonically. Both systems feature special MEMS structures as well as
aspects in terms of system integration which shall tease out the best
possible overall performance on the basis of this technology. However,
the advantages of MEMS as enabling technology for high scanning speed,
miniaturization, energy efficiency, etc. are pointed out. Whereas thescanning grating spectrometer has already evolved to a product for the
point of sale analysis of traditional Chinese medicine products, the purposeof the FT-spectrometer as presented is to demonstrate what is achievablein terms of performance. Current developments topics address MEMS
packaging issues towards long term stability, further miniaturization andusability.

9101-4, Session 1

On-chip random spectrometer
Brandon Redding, Seng-Fatt Liew, Raktim Sarma, Hui Cao, Yale
Univ. (United States)
Spectrometers are widely used tools in chemical and biological sensing,material analysis, and light source characterization. The development of
a high-resolution on-chip spectrometer could enable compact, low-cost
spectroscopy for portable sensing as well as increasing lab-on-a-chipfunctionality. However, the spectral resolution of traditional grating-based
spectrometers scales with the optical pathlength, which translates to thelinear dimension or footprint of the system, which is limited on-chip. In
this work, we utilize multiple scattering in a random photonic structure
fabricated on a silicon chip to fold the optical path, making the effective
pathlength much longer than the linear dimension of the system andenabling high spectral resolution with a small footprint. Of course, therandom spectrometer also requires a different operating paradigm, sincedifferent wavelengths are not spatially separated by the random structure,as they would be by a grating. Instead, light transmitted through therandom structure produces a wavelength-dependent speckle pattern which
can be used as a fingerprint to identify the input spectra after calibration. In
practice, these wavelength-dependent speckle patterns are experimentallymeasured and stored in a transmission matrix, which describes the spectralto-spatial mapping of the spectrometer. After calibrating the transmission
matrix, an arbitrary input spectrum can be reconstructed from its speckle
pattern. We achieved sub-nm resolution with 25 nm bandwidth at awavelength of 1500 nm using a scattering medium with largest dimension of
merely 50 µm.

9101-2, Session 1

Fourier transform infrared phase shift cavity ring
down spectrometer
Elizabeth C. Schundler, James R. Engel, David J. Mansur, Robert
Vaillancourt, Ryan Benedict-Gill, Scott P. Newbry, OPTRA, Inc.
(United States)
OPTRA has developed a Fourier transform infrared phase shift cavity
ring down spectrometer (FTIR-PS-CRDS) system under a U.S. EPA SBIR
contract. This system uses the inherent wavelength-dependent modulation
imposed by the FTIR on a broadband thermal source for the phase shiftmeasurement. This spectrally-dependent phase shift is proportional to thespectrally-dependent ring down time. The spectral dependence of bothof these values is introduced by the losses of the cavity including thosedue to the molecular absorption of the sample. OPTRA’s approach allows
broadband detection of chemicals across the feature-rich fingerprint regionof the long-wave infrared. This represents a broadband and spectral range
enhancement to conventional CRDS which is typically done at a single
wavelength in the near IR; at the same time the approach is a sensitivity
enhancement to traditional FTIR, owing to the long effective path of theresonant cavity. In previous papers, OPTRA has presented a breadboard
system aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of the approach and a
prototype design implementing performance enhancements based on the
results of breadboard testing. In this final paper in the series, we will present

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Conference 9101:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VII

9101-5, Session 1

9101-7, Session 2

Overview of microplasmas-on-chips: fromfundamentals to applications

Recent developments towards MEMS based
spectrometers (Invited Paper)

Karthik Kommera, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo (Canada)

Dilusha K. K. M. B. Silva, John M. Dell, Lorenzo Faraone, The Univ. ofWestern Australia (Australia)

In recent years, low-power (e.g., ~10 Watt), atmospheric-pressure
microplasmas (e.g., those with one critical dimension <1000 μm) havebeen receiving increasing attention in conferences and in the scientificand engineering literature. Although a variety of geometric designs andelectrical powering schemes (e.g., dc, ac, rf, microwave, microplasmas
with one electrode in contact with a solution) have been described in theliterature, those developed on-chips will be the focus of this presentation.
Such hybrid chips have been either rapidly-prototyped or 3d-printed. To
provide a reference point for scale, 3d-printed microplasmas the size of asugar cube were developed and used.

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is finding increasing application in numerous
industries including, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, viticulture, remotesensing, and defense. Examples of the measurable quantities include, levelsof protein, starch, oil and moisture content of grains, and total carbon andmineralisable nitrogen in soils. The main limiting factors to widespread
deployment of this technology are presently, the capital and maintenancecosts of the spectroscopy equipment; sensitivity to vibration and shocks;
and calibration maintenance. Particularly for application in Agriculture andthe minerals industry, the need for low cost, small and rugged spectroscopy
instruments is immense.

Unlike their atmospheric-pressure, larger size siblings that are 6000-10000
K hot, microplasmas are cold plasmas (e.g., they feel warm to the touch).
Thus, they could be rapidly prototyped (e.g., by 3d-printing) on plastic
substrates. In this presentation, fundamentals and some applications of
microplasmas will be described and future research directions will beoutlined.

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) based microspectrometers
have the potential to address all of these issues. They can be low cost,
are intrinsically mechanically rugged, and are potentially self-calibrating.
The MEMS microspectrometer, developed at UWA is based on a MEMS
micromachined Fabry-Perot optical filter, integrated with a photodetector.
The optical filter consists of two mirrors separated by an air-gap, and an
actuation mechanism to vary the size of the air-gap. This filter allows only anarrow band of optical wavelengths to pass through onto the photodetector.
The photodetector is located directly below the bottom mirror of the filter.
A typical microspectrometer shows a wavelength-tuning range of roughly
900 nm, corresponding to 50% of the un-deflected mirror separation, and aspectral resolution in the order of 40 nm.

9101-6, Session 1

Infrared molecular binding spectroscopy realized
in sorbent coated microfabricated devices
R. Andrew McGill, Todd H. Stievater, Marcel W. Pruessner, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Scott A. Holmstrom, The Univ. of
Tulsa (United States); Rachel C. McGill, Viet Q. Nguyen, Doewon
Park, Christopher A. Kendziora, Robert Furstenberg, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)

In this talk, some of our latest work on the microspectrometer will bepresented, including the results of new mirror designs aimed at significantly
improving spectral resolution and wavelength tuning range.

Sorbent materials are utilized in a range of analytical applications including
preconcentrator coatings, chromatography stationary phases, and as
thin films coatings deposited on transducers to concentrate analytemolecules of interest for detection. In this work we emphasize the useof sorbent materials to target absorption of a solubility class of analyte
vapor and optically probe its interaction with infrared light. This allows us
to take advantage of spectral changes, during specific molecular bindingof a vapor to a target site in a sorbent, to aid in analyte detection. In
this work a custom hydrogen-bond (HB) acidic sorbent with pendanthexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP) groups, HCSFA2, was employed. HCSFA2
exhibits a high but reversible affinity for hazardous vapors with HB
basic properties such as the phosphonate ester G-nerve agents. Using
conventional benchtop ATR-FTIR spectroscopy the HFIP hydroxyl stretch for
HCSFA2 has been observed in this work to shift by up to 800 wavenumbers
when exposed to a strong HB base. The amount of shift is directly related
to the HB basicity of the vapor. To take advantage of this and related
spectral changes we have developed different types of microfabricatedtransducer structures suitable for sorbent coating and interrogation witha tunable IR light source to observe these molecular interactions. In one
device we use a sorbent coated microbridge structure and micromechanicalphotothermal spectroscopy to monitor spectral changes when a vapor
docks with HCSFA2. In a second device approach we utilize evanescentfield absorption spectroscopy in a silicon nitride (SiN) microring resonator,
coated with the HCSFA2 sorbent, to monitor vapor interactions. Example
ATR-FTIR and microfabricated transducer spectra with exposures todimethylmethylphosphonate (DMMP, G-nerve simulant and precursor) will
be shown to illustrate the potential of these technologies.

Optical design of MOEMS-based
micromechatronic modules for applications inspectroscopy

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SPIE DSS 2014

9101-8, Session 2

Andreas Tortschanoff, Matthias Kremer, Carinthian Tech Research
AG (Austria); Thilo Sandner, Fraunhofer-Institut für Photonische
Mikrosysteme (Germany); Andreas Kenda, Carinthian Tech Research
AG (Austria)
Electrostatically driven MOEMS (micro-opto-elctro-mechanicalsystems) scanner devices have many applications in the fields of optics,
telecommunications and spectroscopy. Besides flat scanner mirrors, also
more sophisticated MOEMS based optical elements (e.g. translational
devices or scanning gratings) have been realised, which enable compact,
fast and cost-effective spectroscopic devices.
One of the important challenges for widespread application of MOEMS
devices is to provide a modular interface, for easy handling and accurate
driving of the MOEMS elements, in order to enable seamless integration inlarger spectroscopic system solutions. In particular position feedback has tobe provided in order to assure stable, accurate, and fast scanner operation
with well controlled amplitude under varying environmental conditions.
Recently, we have developed compact modules comprising optical position
sensing, and driver electronics, with closed loop control, which can actively
control electrostatically driven 2D-micro-scanners.
In this contribution we present in much detail the optical design of the
MOEMS driver modules, which has to provide the optimal compromise
between the requirements for small size and simplicity on the one handand optical accuracy on the other. Furthermore we will present concepts
for compact spectroscopic devices, based on different MOEMS scannermodules with 1D and 2D optical elements. This includes MOEMS-based
monochromator-designs as well as variable focus scanner devices, which wehave realized recently.

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Conference 9101:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VII

9101-9, Session 2

identification as part of a suite of tools that can return the structural identityof the unknowns in the sample.

Compact multispectral photodiode arrays using
micropatterned dichroic filters

9101-10, Session 3

Dave Fish, Randel Mercer, Pixelteq, Inc. (United States)

Advances in miniature spectrometer and sensor
development (Invited Paper)

The next generation of multispectral instruments needs to deliver significant
improvements in both spectral band customization and portability tosupport the widespread deployment of application-specific opticalsensors. The benefits of spectroscopy are well established for numerous
applications including biomedical instrumentation, industrial sorting &sensing, chemical detection, and environmental monitoring. Spectroscopy,
hyperspectral, and multispectral measurements are considered – evaluating
the technology, tradeoffs and application fit of each. In the vast majorityof applications, monitoring 4-8 targeted spectral bands of optimized
wavelength and bandwidth provides the spectral contrast and correlation
required. An innovative approach integrates precision spectral filters at thephotodetector level to enable smaller sensors, simplify optical designs, andreduce device integration costs. This method supports user-defined spectral
bands to create application-specific sensors in a small footprint withscalable cost efficiencies.

Jouko O. Malinen, Anna Rissanen, Heikki K. Saari, Pentti Karioja, VTT
Technical Research Ctr. of Finland (Finland)
Miniaturization and cost reduction of spectrometer technologies has great
potential to open up new applications areas and business opportunities
for analytical technology in hand held, mobile and on-line applications.
There is a significant ongoing change in spectrometer technology,
powered partly by the business needs and partly by maturing of theenabling technologies. Advances in microfabrication have resulted in highperformance MEMS and MOEMS devices for spectrometer applications.
Many other enabling technologies are useful for miniature analyticalsolutions, such as microphotonics production, techniques for electronics andsensor integration, 3D printing, powerful embedded computing platforms,
networked solutions as well as advances in chemometrics modeling.

A range of design configurations, filter options and combinations arepresented together with typical applications – from basic multi-band
detection to stringent multi-channel fluorescence measurement. One
example implementation packages 8 narrowband photodiodes (VIS,NIR) into a 9x9mm LCC footprint for multispectral applications fromportable color monitors to purpose-built OEM industrial and scientificinstruments. Use of a multispectral photodiode array typically eliminates
10-20 components from the device BOM, streamlining the optical pathand shrinking the footprint 50% or more. A stepwise design approach formultispectral sensors is discussed - including spectral band definition,
optical design tradeoffs and constraints, and device integration fromprototype through scalable volume production. Additional customization
options are explored for application-specific OEM sensors using
multispectral photodiode arrays for portable devices.

This paper will summarize recent work on spectrometer miniaturization
at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. Fabry-Perot interferometer(FPI) tunable filter technology has been developed in two technicalversions: Piezo-actuated FPIs have been applied in miniature hyperspectral
imaging needs in light weight UAV and nanosatellite applications, chemical
imaging as well as medical applications. Microfabricated MOEMS FPIs havebeen developed as cost-effective sensor platforms for visible, NIR and IR
applications. Further examples of sensor miniaturization will be discussed,
including a MEMS-based photoacoustic gas sensor as well as roll-to-roll
printed Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) sensor technology
for pharmaceutical and environmental applications. Practical examples of
sensor integration will be discussed, supplemented by first results fromrecent application studies.

9101-24, Session 2

9101-11, Session 3

Pure rotational spectrometers for trace-level VOC
detection and chemical analysis

High-pressure mass spectrometry
Christopher D. Brown, 908 Devices Inc. (United States)

Justin L. Neill, Brent J. Harris, Robin L. Pulliam, Matt T. Muckle,
Roger Reynolds, David McDaniel, BrightSpec (United States);
Brooks H. Pate, BrightSpec (United States) and Univ. of Virginia(United States)

The last decade has witnessed a remarkable reduction in the size of somehigh performance analytical instruments. High resolution Raman and FTIR
systems are now available in 2-3 pound handhelds, completely automatedand purpose-built for applications such as unknown material identification,
pharmaceutical raw-material release, counterfeit drug detection, and street
testing for drug substances. Similar miniaturization of mass spectrometers
has long been discussed as imminent, and certainly progress has been
made to luggable form factors for safety and security applications, but
truly handheld form factors have thus far proven elusive. Novel micro-scale
ion-trap geometries have very recently been demonstrated operating atpressures 3-4 orders of magnitude higher than conventional ion trap mass
spectrometers. These pressure regimes fundamentally alter the required
volume of the ion traps, instrument vacuum pumping burden, and drive
electronics resulting in self-contained MS systems weighing 3-4 pounds with
continuous flow rates of >3 sccm. The theory and history of these microscale trap advances will be reviewed, along with recent engineering andperformance achievements leading to complete MS systems in the 3-4 lb
range. Tradeoffs in performance, size and automation will also be reviewed
in the context of results and examples from prominent multimode safety
and security detection applications.

Pure rotational spectroscopy in the centimeter, millimeter, and THz
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum is a powerful technique forthe characterization of polar molecules in the gas phase. Although
this technology has a long history in the research sector for structuralcharacterization, recent advances in digital electronics have only recently
made commercial instruments competitive with established chemical
analysis techniques. BrightSpec is introducing a platform of pure rotational
spectrometers in response to critical unmet needs in chemical analysis.
These instruments aim to deliver the operational simplicity of Fourier
Transform infrared spectrometers in conjunction with the chemical analysis
capabilities of mass spectrometers. In particular, the BrightSpec ONE
instrument is a broadband gas mixture analyzer with full capabilities forchemical analysis. This instrument implements Fourier transform millimeterwave emission spectroscopy, wherein a brief excitation pulse is applied tothe sample, followed by the measurement of the coherent free induction
decay (FID) responses of all molecular transitions within the excitation
bandwidth. After sample injection and characterization, the spectrometer
returns a list of all known species detected in the sample, along with theirconcentrations in the mixture. No prior knowledge about the sample
composition is required. The instrument can then perform double-resonancemeasurements (analogous to 2-D COSY NMR), direct mass determination
through the time profile of the molecular FID, and automated isotopic

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Conference 9101:
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9101-12, Session 3(DFB) laser devices based on this concept, with focus on devices thattarget specific, technologically and industrially relevant, wavelengths withlow energy consumption. Finally application-grade devices from 3 to 6 µm
are presented. CW operation above room temperature and tuning rangesof 11 nm with Side Mode Suppression Ratios (SMSR) greater 30 dB wereachieved.

Multivariate optical element platform forcompressed detection of fluorescence markers
Ryan J. Priore, CIRTEMO (United States)
The success of a commercial fluorescent diagnostic assay is dependent
on the selection of a fluorescent biomarker; due to the broad natureof fluorescence biomarker emission profiles, only a small number offluorescence biomarkers may be discriminated from each other as a functionof excitation source. Multivariate Optical Elements (MOEs) are thin-film
devices that encode a broad band, spectroscopic pattern allowing a simple
broadband detector to generate a highly sensitive and specific detection
for a target analyte. MOEs have historically been matched 1:1 to a discrete
analyte or class prediction; however, MOE filter sets are capable of sensing
projections of the original sparse spectroscopic space enabling a small
set of MOEs to discriminate a multitude of target analytes. This opticalregression can offer real-time measurements with relatively high signalto-noise ratio that realize the advantages of multiplexed detection andpattern recognition in a simple optical instrument. The specificity advantageof MOE-based sensors allows fluorescent biomarkers that were once
incapable of discrimination from one another via optical bandpass filters
to be employed in a common assay panel. A simplified MOE-based sensor
may ultimately reduce the requirement for highly trained operators as well
as move certain life science applications like disease prognostication fromthe laboratory to the point of care. This presentation will summarize thedesign and fabrication of compressed detection MOE filter sets for detecting
multiple fluorescent biomarkers simultaneously with strong spectroscopic
interference as well as comparing the detection performance of the MOE
sensor with traditional optical bandpass filter methodologies.

9101-15, Session 4

Current and emerging laser sensors forgreenhouse gas sensing and leak detection
Michael B. Frish, Physical Sciences Inc. (United States)
To reduce atmospheric accumulation of the greenhouse gases methaneand carbon dioxide, emissions from natural gas extraction, transmission,
distribution, and combustion processes should be controlled and minimized.
Currently, handheld and airborne laser sensors are accepted industry tools
for periodic surveys to detect leaks from the gas pipeline infrastructure.
However, to identify intermittent leak sources and better quantify
emissions, networks of permanent widely-deployed sensors are desirable tocontinuously monitor and map, spatially and temporally, sources of escaping
methane and carbon dioxide. Sensors for these networks must provide
sufficient sensitivity and resolution to distinguish local sources from ambient
background, and provide fast health and safety danger alerts. They must be
suitable for widespread cost-effective deployment, autonomous, accurate,
and reliable in compact packages.
This paper describes recent advances in laser-based leak detectors, focusingon permanently-installed, wireless, solar-powered open-path sensors that
overcome previous installation and maintenance difficulties while providing
autonomous real-time leak reporting without false alarms. During morethan six-months of field testing, aiming of the laser from a methane sensor’stransceiver to passive targets up to 600 ft distant was stable and required
no maintenance. Leak challenges originating up to 70 ft upwind of the laser
path demonstrated detection of methane emission rates as small as 0.5 scfh.

9101-13, Session 3

Low-cost photonic crystal spectral sensors madeby projection lithography

The paper concludes with some of the technical and economic challenges
that must be addressed to realize widespread sensor deployment for“ubiquitous monitoring”, including the emerging need for laser sources
designed with power and cost attributes specifically intended to fulfill thesesensor requirements.

Tanya C. Garza, James I. Scholtz, Michael J. Gazes, Chromation(United States); Ioannis Kymissis, Chromation (United States)
and Columbia Univ. (United States); Nadia K. Pervez, Chromation(United States)

9101-16, Session 4

Nanophotonic structures developed for spectral sensing include photonic
crystals, plasmonics, and other subwavelength structures. High-throughput
scalable fabrication techniques are critical for fabrication of low-cost
components. Fabrication of these structures typically requires expensive
and slow processes which produce high quality structures such as electron
beam lithography. Alternatively, projection lithography is a fast, inexpensive,
fabrication process which is standard in the fabrication industry for batch
fabricating features reproducibly. We have successfully pushed the limits ofprojection lithography produce a low-cost, high-throughput alternative toelectron beam lithography for our nanoscale, visible-wavelength photonic
crystal spectral sensors. This nanofabrication process allows for the
production of spectral sensors for an order of magnitude less cost and time.

The design and performance characterization ofa tunable external cavity quantum cascade laser
utilizing thermo-optically tuned thin film filters
Don Kuehl, Eugene Y. Ma, Chip Marshall, Jinhong Kim, Richard
Sharp, RedShift Systems Corp. (United States)
Quantum Cascade Lasers (QCLs) and Interband Cascade Lasers (ICLs) arepromising new mid-IR sources for spectroscopic applications. Desirable
characteristics include extremely high brightness, broad range emission,very high resolution, compact size, and modest power consumption. For
most spectroscopic applications, it is necessary to tune QCLs over a broad
emission wavelength range. The conventional approach for broad range
tuning is to use an external cavity (EC) which incorporates a mechanicallytuned diffraction grating within the laser cavity.

9101-14, Session 4

Mid-infrared distributed feedback interband
cascade lasers for spectroscopic applications

In this paper we will describe an alternative approach to EC-QCL tuning
which utilizes a pair of miniature, thermally tuned, MEMS fabricated etalon
filters. These filters are inserted in the laser cavity between a single lens andan output coupling mirror allowing for a very compact, simple, mechanicallystable package with no moving parts. The thermal mass of the transmission
filters is very small which allows for rapid tuning of the laser across the QCL
emission range. The optical properties of the paired filters allow for efficient
data collection across separated regions of continuous tuning, as well as theability to rapidly “hop” to arbitrary wavelengths and make discrete single
point measurements. If a short scan piezo actuator is used in the external

Lars Naehle, nanoplus GmbH (Germany)
In recent years the importance of lasers in optical gas sensing has been
continuously increasing. Tunable Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TLAS)
has proven to be a versatile tool in modern environmental analysis. In the
mid-infrared wavelength region between 3 and 6 µm, which is of highinterest for sensing applications, Interband Cascade Lasers (ICL) can provide
monomode continuous wave (CW) emission at room temperature. We
present the simulation, design and manufacturing of distributed feedback

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9101-19, Session 4cavity, high resolution mode-hop-free continuous wave scanning suitable formulti-line quantitative gas measurements can also be performed.

Approaching the PPB detection limits forcopper in water using laser induced breakdown
spectroscopy

9101-17, Session 4

A spectroscopic tool for identifying fragments
and sources of origin for materials of militaryinterest

Walid T. Mohamed, King Saud Univ. (Saudi Arabia) and Cairo Univ.
(Egypt); Sausan Sawaf, King Saud Univ. (Saudi Arabia)
Copper concentrations in drinking-water is very important to be monitored
which can cause cancer if it exceed about 10 mg/liter. In the present work,
we have developed a simple, low laser power method to improve thedetection limits of laser induced plasma spectroscopy LIBS for copper
in aqueous solutions with different concentrations. In this method a
medium-density fiberboard (MDF) wood have been used as a substratethat absorbs the liquid sample to transform laser liquid interaction to laser
solid interaction. Using the fundamental wavelength of Nd:YAG laser, theconstructed plasma emissions were monitored for elemental analysis. The
signal-to-noise ratio SNR was optimized using low laser fluence of 32 J
cm-2, and detector (CDD camera) gate delay of 0.5 ?s. Both the electron
temperature and density of the induced plasma were determined using
Boltzmann plot and the FWHM of the Cu at 324.7 nm, respectively. The
plasma temperature was found to be 1.197 eV, while the plasma density was
about 3 ? 10^16 cm^-3. The detection limits for Cu at 324.7 nm is found to be
131 ppb comparable to the results by others using complicated system.

Andrzej W. Miziolek, Frank C. De Lucia Jr., U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
There is a need to identify fragments of munitions that are associated withcasualties as well as the source of origin for various materials used in areasof conflict including explosives, their ingredients, and ammunition. Bothfieldable systems (man-portable or handheld) as well as benchtop systems
in field laboratories are desired for screening and attribution purposes. Laser
Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) has been demonstrated in recent
years as a promising new tool for materials identification, matching, andprovenance. With the use of the broadband, high resolution spectrometersystems, the LIBS devices not only track the elemental inventory of thesample, but also are capable of elemental fingerprinting to signify sources oforigin of various materials. This talk will present the results of recent studies
and will discuss the progress and practicality of the LIBS technology for fielduse.

9101-20, Session 49101-18, Session 4

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy andspectral analysis of improvised explosive
materials

Portable, real-time alloy identification of metallic
wear debris from machinery lubrication systems:
laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy versus
x-ray fluorescence

Amy J. R. Bauer, Applied Research Associates, Inc. (United States);
Andrzej W. Miziolek, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Pooja Suresh, GasTOPS Ltd. (Canada)

There exists an unmet need in the discovery and identification of certain
improvised explosive (IE) materials. IE contain a wide range of materials,
many of which are not well classified by available hand-held tools, especiallymetal powders and food products. Available measurement approaches are
based in the identification of specific sub-groups such as nitro/nitrate andchlorate/perchlorate, normally with Raman spectroscopy. The presenceof metal powders is not detected by these approaches, and further the
powders themselves scatter the laser radiation used in the excitation of thespectra, making other components more difficult to discern.

Alloy identification of oil-borne wear debris captured on chip detectors,
filters and magnetic plugs allows the machinery maintainer to assess thehealth of the engine or gearbox and identify specific component damage.
Today, such identification can be achieved in real time using portable / atline laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and X-ray fluorescence(XRF) instruments. Both techniques can be utilized in various industries
including aviation, marine, railways, heavy diesel and other industrial
machinery with, however, some substantial differences in application andinstrument performance. In this work, the performances of a LIBS andan XRF instrument (developed with author’s contribution) are comparedbased on measurements of a wide range of typical aerospace alloys
including steels, titanium, aluminum and nickel alloys. Measurement results
were analyzed with a staged parametric correlation technique specificallydeveloped for the purposes of this study - identifying the particle alloy
composition using a pre-recorded library of spectral signatures. The analysis
is performed in two stages: first, the base element of the alloy is determinedby correlation with the stored elemental spectra and then, the alloy isidentified by matching the particle’s spectral signature using parametriccorrelations against the stored spectra of all alloys that have the same baseelement. The correlation analysis has achieved excellent discrimination
between alloys with very similar composition. Portable LIBS demonstrates
higher detection accuracy and better quantitative identification of alloys
comprising lighter elements as compared to a portable XRF system, andreveals a significant reduction in the analysis time over XRF.

Preliminary work with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) showsthat metal powders are easily detected and differentiated. This early work
also suggests that chlorine in different anions can be distinguished. The
work presented in this talk will build on that previous work, expanded to
new compounds, and subjected to more rigorous analytical tools, including
principal components analysis.

9101-22, Session 5

Continuously sample, trap, and measure Raman
spectra of individual single airborne particles
Yongle Pan, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Chuji Wang,
Mississippi State Univ. (United States); Mark Coleman, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Joshua L. Santarpia, Sandia National
Labs. (United States)
To measure Raman spectra and observe other dynamic characteristics
of single particles trapped in air will be a powerful analytical method.
The capability of trapping absorbing particles using photophoretic force
has been successfully demonstrated recently [1]. The key problem fordeveloping this trapping technique into an on-line analytical tool that cancontinuously sample, trap, measure, and release the particle is the difficulty311+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9101:
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in drawing particles into the trap at a sufficient rate, while slowing enoughthe particles in the trapping volume so that they can be captured andtrapped. Here we present an innovative experimental setup to overcome thisproblem. A special aerodynamic co-axis double nozzle design is used forcontrolling the aerosol particles by adapting the virtual impaction principle
to reduce the particle speed to make trapping easier while maintaining
sufficient sampling rate. Aerosol is sampled at 0.5 L/min and passes througha 0.8 mm diameter interior nozzle, which focuses the aerosol into a <300
μm diameter stream moving around 10 m/sec. A second 1.2 mm diameter
exterior nozzle is employed to draw air backwards reversed from the usual
sheath nozzle approach. This carries away most of the airflow in a direction
opposite to the aerosol stream and greatly reduces the particle speed to
0.2 m/sec or less. Therefore, photophoretic forces are sufficient enough tostop and trap the particles in significantly reduced momentum. We havesuccessfully captured and trapped moving absorbing particles as long as we
required for long-time measurement and observation using our special trap
formed by a low-light-intensity biconical light region. Various Raman spectrafrom single trapped microsized particle have been obtained and analyzed.

is replaced with a 24mm2 lensfree imaging device. An x100 objective
remains to focalize laser light onto single bacteria by means of XYZ stages,
and to collect back-scattered Raman signal. At first a 5 µl droplet ofcontrolled optical density bacteria dispersed in water matrix, is deposited
on a quartz substrate placed on top of the lensfree imaging device. The
operator detects single bacteria over a large field of view 24mm2. He further
targets the laser onto the single bacteria of choice by monitoring the elastic
diffusion pattern resulting from the interaction of the laser probe (30mW
at 532nm) with the single bacterium. Once the alignment over the single
bacterium is optimized, we collect its comprehensive Raman spectrum.
This targeting method is fast (60 spectra per hour in manual operation),and accurate enough to provide a precise Raman chemical fingerprint
analysis of single bacteria in the range of 600-3300 cm-1. By combining
the morphological signature obtained from lensfree images, and the finebiochemical fingerprint yielded by the Raman spectra, we show thatpromising differentiation scores (>82%) are obtained for a particular strainof Bacillus among an initial bacteria database. This case study paves the way
to a new generation of portable spectrometers for rapid and marker-free
identification of bacterial pathogens in real samples.

1. Y. L. Pan et al, “Photophoretic trapping of absorbing particles in air andmeasurement of their single-particle Raman spectra,” Optics Express, 20(5), 5325 (2012)

9101-26, Session 5

Sensitive algorithm for multiple-excitationwavelength resonance Raman spectroscopy

9101-23, Session 5

Pocket-size near-infrared spectrometer fornarcotic materials identification

Balakishore Yellampalle, Hai-Shan Wu, William B. McCormick,Mikhail Sluch, Robert B. Martin, Robert V. Ice, Brian E. Lemoff, West
Virginia High Technology Consortium Foundation (United States)

Nada A. O’Brien, Christopher G. Pederson, Donald M. Friedrich,
Chang Hsiung, Marc von Gunten, JDSU (United States)

Raman spectroscopy is a widely used spectroscopic technique with anumber of applications. During the past few years, we explored the use ofsimultaneous multiple-excitation-wavelengths (MEW) in resonance Raman
spectroscopy. This approach takes advantage of Raman band intensity
variations across the Resonance Raman spectra obtained from two or more
excitation wavelengths. Amplitude variations occur between corresponding
Raman bands in Resonance Raman spectra due to complex interplay ofresonant enhancement, self-absorption and laser penetration depth. We
have developed a very sensitive algorithm to estimate concentration of ananalyte from spectra obtained using the MEW technique. The algorithm
uses correlations and least-square minimization approach to calculate an
estimate for the concentration. For two or more excitation wavelengths,
measured spectra were stacked in a two dimensional matrix. In a simple
realization of the algorithm, we approximated peaks in the ideal library
spectra as triangles. In this work, we present the performance of thealgorithm with measurements obtained from a dual-excitation-wavelength
Resonance Raman sensor. The novel sensor, developed at WVHTC, detects
explosives from a standoff distance. The algorithm was able to detect
explosives with very high sensitivity even at signal-to-noise ratios as low
as ~1.6. Receiver operating characteristics calculated using the algorithm
showed a clear benefit in using the dual-excitation-wavelength techniqueover single-excitation-wavelength techniques. Variants of the algorithm
that add more weight to amplitude variation information showed improved
specificity to closely resembling spectra. We also compare the performancewith results obtained from algorithms traditionally used in Raman
spectroscopy.

While significant progress has been made towards the miniaturizationof Raman, mid-infrared (IR), and near-infrared (NIR) spectrometers forhomeland security and law enforcement applications, there remains
continued interest in pushing the technology envelope for smaller, lower
cost, and easier to use analyzers. In this paper, we report on the use of an
ultra-compact, handheld near infrared (NIR) spectrometer, the MicroNIR
Spectrometer, that weighs less than 60 grams and measures<50mm indiameter for the classification of 138 different substances most of which
are controlled substances (such as cocaine, heroin, oxycodone, diazepam),as well as synthetic cathinones (also known as bath salts), and synthetic
cannabinoids. A library of the materials was created from a master MicroNIR
spectrometer, then a set of 25 unknown samples were identified with threeother MicroNIRs showing, 1) the ability to correctly identify the unknownwith a very low rate of misidentification, and 2) the ability to use the same
library with multiple instruments. In addition, we will show that throughthe use of innovative chemometric algorithms, we are able to identify theindividual compounds that make up an unknown mixture based on the
spectral library of the individual compounds only. The small size of thespectrometer is enabled through the use of high-performance linear variable
filter (LVF) technology [1]. The spectrometer is powered with a smart mobile
device leveraging ‘cloud’ computing.
1. N. O’Brien, et al, “Miniature Near-Infrared Spectrometer Engine For
Handheld Applications” Proc. SPIE, Ed. M. Druy, and R. Crocombe, 8374, p
837404-1-8 (2012).

9101-25, Session 59101-27, Session 5

A novel Raman microspectrometer architecture
for single bacteria identification

Advancements in the detection of explosives
using a Raman handheld instrument (ACE ID)

Samy Andrea Strola, Emmanuelle Schultz, Cédric P. Allier, CEALETI-Minatec (France); Anne-Catherine Simon, Isabelle Espagnon,
CEA LIST (France); Patricia Claustre, Dorothée Jary, Jean-Marc
Dinten, CEA-LETI-Minatec (France)

Josep Arnó, Michael Frunzi, Brian Sparano, Paul Hetherington,
David Valovich, David St. Pierre, Smiths Detection (United States)
Raman spectroscopy is the technology of choice to identify bulk solid andliquid phase unknown samples without the need to contact the substance.
Materials can be identified through translucent and semi-translucent
containers such as plastic and glass. ConOps in emergency response andmilitary field applications require the redesign of conventional desktop

The paper presents a novel compact Raman microspectrometer architecture
aimed at analyzing single bacteria. In this setup, the bulky microscope,commonly used in microspectrometers to detect and target single bacteria,

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9101-31, Session 6units for: field portability; shock, thermal, and chemical attack resistance;easy and intuitive use in restrictive gear; reduced size, weight, and power.
This article introduces a new handheld instrument (ACE-ID) designed totake Raman technology to the next level in terms of size, safety, speed, andanalytical performance. ACE-ID is ruggedized for use in severe climates
and terrains. It is lightweight and can be operated with just one hand. An
intuitive software interface guides users through the entire identification
process, making it easy-to-use by personnel of different skill levels including
military explosive ordinance disposal technicians, civilian bomb squads
and hazmat teams. Through the use of embedded advanced algorithms,
the instrument is capable of provide fluorescence correction and analysisof binary mixtures. Instrument calibration is performed automaticallyon startup without requiring user intervention. ACE ID incorporates anoptical rastering system that spreads out the laser energy over the sample.
This important innovation significantly reduces the heat induced in darksamples and the probability of ignition of susceptible explosive materials.
In this article, the performance of the instrument for the identification of
explosives will be provided in addition to a quantitative evaluation of thesafety improvements derived from the reduced ignition probabilities ofrepresentative explosives.

Detection of chemical warfare simulants using
Raman excitation at 1064 nm
Mark Mabry, Claire Dentinger, Claude Robotham, Rigaku Raman
Technologies (United States)
Raman spectroscopy is a powerful technique for material identification. The
technique is sensitive to primary and higher ordered molecular structure
and can be used to identify unknown materials by comparison with
spectral reference libraries. Additionally, miniaturization of opto-electronic
components has permitted development of portable Raman analyzers
that can be field deployed. Raman scattering is a relatively weak effectcompared to a competing phenomenon, fluorescence. Even a moderateamount of fluorescence background interference can easily prevent
identification of unknown materials. A long wavelength Raman system isless likely to induce fluorescence from a wider variety of materials than ahigher energy visible laser system.
Compounds such as methyl salicylate, diethyl malonate, and bis-(2ethylhexyl) phosphite are used as physical chemical warfare agent (CWA)
simulants for development of analytical detection strategies. Field detectionof these physical simulants however poses unique challenges because threat
identification must be made quickly without the turnaround time usuallyrequired for a laboratory based analysis. Fortunately, these CWA simulants
are good Raman scatterers and field based detection using portable
Raman instruments is promising. Measurements of the CWA simulants weredone using a 1064 nm based portable Raman spectrometer. The longer
wavelength excitation laser was chosen relative to a visible based laser
systems because the 1064 nm based spectrometer is less likely to induce
fluorescence and more suitable to a wider range of materials. Since thesematerials are physical simulants different sample presentations were also
investigated.

9101-29, Session 6

An FT-IR performance simulator to guide design
decisions for miniature FT-IR spectrometersDavid W. Schiering, John T. Stein, Michael Frunzi, Peng Zou, Smiths
Detection (United States)
In the last decade, portable and hand-held Fourier Transform infrared(FT-IR) spectrometers have become important tools for materials
characterization and identification outside of the laboratory, in hostileenvironments, while being used by persons without scientific training. The
performance, physical, and ergonomic demands placed on design havecreated a need for automated FT-IR spectroscopic performance simulation
to predict performance while pushing the boundaries of miniaturization,
rationalize error budgeting, and analyze system or component anomalies.
The present work relates to an automated simulator that allows thedesigner to alter various input parameters including geometric optics,
source brightness, optical materials and coatings efficiencies, detector
characteristics, noise sources, numerical processing, and to output
calculated interferograms and spectra. The performance of the simulator
will be evaluated for a few representative case studies – the optical design
footprint of a miniature FT-IR spectrometer, designing the frequency
response of the signal channel, and analog-to-digital converter quantization
sizing.

9101-48, Session 6

Combination of a spectrometer-on-chip andan array of Young’s interferometers for laser
spectrum monitoring
A. Koshelev, Nano-Optic Devices (United States); G. Calafiore,
C. Peroz, abeam Technologies, Inc. (United States); S. Dhuey,
S. Cabrini, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. (United States); P.
Sasorov, A. Goltsov, Nano-Optic Devices (United States)
Integrated optics allows for the development of a compact, robust andsuitable for mass production on-chip spectrometers. One of the main
applications of the spectrometer-on-chip is a monitoring of laser spectrum
since single mode devices benefit from the high brightness of the source. By
combining spectrometer-on-chip based on digital planar holopraphy (DPH)with an array of Young’s interferometers we are able to overcome a usual
tradeoff between spectral range and resolution for this specific application.
DPH measures a spectrum in a broad spectral range of ~100 nm with aresolution of ~0.15 nm while Young’s interferometers provide spectral widthand wavelength measurement with an accuracy of several pm.

9101-30, Session 6

A military grade field usable Raman analyzer:
measurement of captured fuels
Stuart R. Farquharson, Wayne W. Smith, Carl R. Brouillette, RealTime Analyzers, Inc. (United States)
Portable Raman analyzers have emerged during the first part of thiscentury as an important field tool for crime scene and forensic analysis,
primarily for their ability to identify unknown substances. This ability is also
important to the US military, which has been investigating such analyzers
for identification of explosive materials that may be used to produce
improvised explosive devices, chemicals that may be used to produce
chemical warfare agents, and fuels in storage tanks that may be used to
power US military vehicles. However, the use of such portable analyzers
requires that they meet stringent military standards (specifically MIL-STD
810G). These requirements include among others: 1) light weight and small
size (< 35 pounds, < 3 cu. ft.), 2) vibration and shock resistant (26 four footdrops), 3) operation from -4 to 110 oF, 4) operation in blowing dust, sandand rain, 5) battery operation, and of course 6) safe operation (no laser orshock hazards). This presentation will describe a portable Raman analyzer
that meets all of these requirements, and measurements of fuels.

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9101-32, Session 7

Remote gas sensing and imaging with NASA’s
hyperspectral thermal emission spectrometer(HYTES)
William R. Johnson, Glynn Hulley, Simon J. Hook, Jet Propulsion
Lab. (United States)
The hyperspectral thermal emission spectrometer was developed under the
instrument incubator program and has now completed three deployments.

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Conference 9101:
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9101-35, Session 7

The scan head uses a state-of-the-art Dyson spectrometer cooled to 100K
coupled to a quantum well infrared photodetector array held at 40K. The
combination allows for 256 spectral channels between 7.5μm and 12μm with
512 cross track spatial pixels. Spectral features for many interesting gases
fall within the instrument passband.

Dynamic 3D chemical agent cloud mapping
using a sensor constellation deployed on mobile
platforms

We show positive gas plume detection at ranges >1000m for various cases:
Ammonia gas detection from Salton Sea fumaroles, Methane detection fromstaged releases points in Wyoming and off the coast of Santa Barbara.

Bogdan R. Cosofret, Daisei Konno, David C. Rossi, William J.
Marinelli, Physical Sciences Inc. (United States); Peter R. Seem,
Physical Sciences Inc (United States)

9101-33, Session 7

High-end spectral imagers used in satellite, airborne or stand-off
reconnaissance and surveillance systems, although revolutionary, are still
expensive, bulky and complex to use. Bulky glass lenses and the mechanicalmovements to achieve focus and zoom are hampering the developmentof truly compact high-quality spectral imagers. A miniaturized spectral
imager is shown with the image sensor integrated at the level of the chip
itself, removing the need for expensive, bulky and complex optics thatare used as scientific instruments today. The result is a handheld spectral
imager weighing less than 0.5 lbs. (227 mg) including on-board computing,display and battery. Available with wide range of objective lenses for wide
angle to close-up views enabling real-time Hyperspectral imaging at video
rates. Suitable for installation on miniature UAV drones or conveyor belts
on production lines. Eventually, small handhelds could be adapted for use
in outpatient medical clinics for point of care diagnostics and other in-field
applications. The design of the hyperspectral imager, characterization
results and sample measurement results are presented.

The need for standoff detection technology to provide early CB threat
warning is well documented. Much of the information obtained by a single
passive sensor is limited to bearing and angular extent of the threat cloud. Inorder to obtain absolute geo-location, 3-D extent and detailed compositionof the chemical threat, fusion of information from multiple passive sensors
is needed. A capability that provides on-the-move and comprehensive
chemical cloud characterization is key to the development of real-timeBattlespace Awareness. We have developed, implemented and tested
algorithms and hardware to perform the fusion of information obtained
from two mobile LWIR passive hyperspectral sensors. The implementationof the capability is driven by current Nuclear, Biological and Chemical
Reconnaissance Vehicle operational tactics and represents a mission
focused alternative of the already demonstrated 5-sensor static Range
Test Validation System. The new capability consists of hardware for sensor
pointing and attitude information which is made available for streaming andaggregation as part of the data fusion process for threat characterization.
Cloud information is generated using 2-sensor data ingested into a suite oftriangulation and tomographic reconstruction algorithms that are amenable
to using a limited number of projections and unfavorable geometries
resulting from on-the-move operation. In this paper we describe the systemarchitecture and present an analysis of results and lessons learned during
testing of the system at Dugway Proving Ground, BioWeek 2013.

9101-34, Session 7

9101-36, Session 7

Spectral imaging and standoff sensing with HTVS
technology

LWIR hyperspectral micro-imager for detectionof trace explosive particles

Bradford B. Behr, Tornado Spectral Systems (United States); Yusuf
Bismilla, Andrew T. Cenko, Brandon DesRoches, Jeffrey T. Meade,Elizabeth A. Munro, Jared Slaa, Arsen R. Hajian, Tornado Spectral
Systems (Canada)

Adam L. Bingham, Spectrum Photonics, Inc. (United States); Paul
G. Lucey, Univ. of Hawai’i (United States); Jason T. Akagi, John
L. Hinrichs, Edward T. Knobbe, Spectrum Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates)Tornado Spectral Systems (TSS) has developed High Throughput Virtual
Slit (HTVS) technology that improves the performance of spectrometers
by factors of several while maintaining system size. In the simplest
configuration, the HTVS allows optical designers to remove the lossy
slit from a spectrometer, greatly increasing throughput without a loss ofresolution. This is especially useful in many standoff applications, where
every photon matters.

Chemical micro-imaging is a powerful tool for the detection andidentification of analytes of interest against a cluttered background (i.e.
trace explosive particles left behind in a fingerprint). While a variety ofgroups have demonstrated the efficacy of Raman instruments for theseapplications, Spectrum Photonics has developed and demonstrated a
prototype system utilizing long wave infrared hyperspectral microscopy(LWIR HSM), which enables the simultaneous collection of LWIR reflectancespectra from 8-14 µm for the entire field of view. Results showcasing thedetection of trace explosive particulates will be presented.

Miniaturized handheld hyperspectral imager
Huawen O. Wu, Eric A. Bergles, William Yang, Charlie Zhang,
BaySpec Inc. (United States)

TSS has tested multiple configurations of HTVS spectral sensing and spectral
imaging technology, including standoff sensing, point scan imaging, longslit pushbroom imaging and similar configurations. The HTVS throughputresolution advantage allows us to increase scanning speed, decrease systemsize, decrease aperture, decrease source intensity requirements or somecombination of all four. HTVS technology expands the realm of viable
spectral imaging applications.

9101-37, Session 7

A compact Fourier transform imaging
spectrometer employing a variable gap FabryPerot interferometer

We discuss the applicability of this technology to spectral imaging andstandoff sensing and present experimental results from several of prototype
and production spectrometers.

Paul G. Lucey, Univ. of Hawai’i (United States); Adam L. Bingham,John L. Hinrichs, Jason T. Akagi, Edward T. Knobbe, Spectrum
Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Fourier transform spectroscopy is a widely employed method for obtaining
visible and infrared spectral imagery, with applications ranging from thedesktop to remote sensing. Most fielded Fourier transform spectrometers(FTS) employ the Michelson interferometer and measure the spectrum

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Conference 9101:
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encoded in a time-varying signal imposed by the source spectrum
interaction with the interferometer. A second, less widely used form of FTS
is the spatial FTS, where the spectrum is encoded in a pattern sampled by adetector array.

image; each pixel in the upconverted image contains light from different
wavelength intervals. To resolve this phenomenon we scan continuously
or step-wise the phasematch condition so that a collection of images arerecorded. By post processing these images can be recombined to obtain a
new sequence of images only containing light from a narrow wavelengthband, effectively providing hyperspectral imaging. We discuss how the
spectral resolution is determined by the non-collinear phasematch conditionand how many spectral elements that can be obtained by this method. In
the present work we scan the phase match condition by translation of theobject with respect to upconversion unit. Scanning could as well be donewith a galvanometric scanner leading to higher frame rates than presented
here.

Recently we described using a Fabry-Perot interferometer, with adeliberately wedged gap geometry and engineered surface reflectivities,
to produce an imaging spatial FTS. The Fabry-Perot interferometer canbe much lighter and more compact than a conventional interferometer
configuration, thereby making them suitable for portable and handheld
applications. Both visible and long wave infrared (LWIR) spectral imagers
have been demonstrated.
The LWIR version of the miniaturized Fabry-Perot has been shown to beeffective for spectral imaging-based chemical detection applications.
The compact LWIR spectral imager employs uncooled optics and a
microbolometer camera; a handheld version is currently under development.
The authors will summarize recent advancements and spectral imaging
results associated with the spatial Fourier Transform imaging spectrometersystem.

9101-40, Session 8

Advancements in terahertz (THz) spectroscopy
and imaging
David A. Heaps, Eiji Kato, Edward King, Richard McKay, Mark
Sullivan, Xiao Hua Zhou, Akiyoshi Irisawa, Motoki Imamura,
Advantest America, Inc. (United States)

9101-38, Session 8

Adaptive hyperspectral imaging with a MEMSbased full-frame programmable spectral filter

Terahertz radiation has a high depth of penetration for many materials andcan provide information on bulk properties, constituent composition, as
well as, physical form and with the use of a pulse Terahertz source spatial
distribution of components and sample layers. Different methods fornarrowing the length of the Terahertz pulse have been investigated. The
Cherenkov-type radiation emitter is what is going to be discussed in thispresentation. A Cherenkov-type THz radiation emitter based on frequency
conversion from a nonlinear crystal overcomes the output limitations causedby strong self-absorption in photoconductive antennas (PCA). We report
here the development of a LiNbO3 Cherenkov source with an exceedingly
narrow pulse width of 146 fs and ultra-broadband THz spectral range of
0.5 to 7 THz (~16.7 to 233 cm-1). The Cherenkov THz wave generation has
efficiency improvements over the more commonly used PCA resulting in
improvements in spectroscopic data collection. The Cherenkov THz pulse isnarrower than the PCA pulse allowing for analysis of thinner layers in timeof-flight type measurements. A minimum of 10μm of silicon is measured in alayered silicon insulator chip with the Cherenkov source. In comparison, the
PCA source was able to measure only to a thickness of 30μm.

David L. Graff, Steven P. Love, Los Alamos National Lab. (UnitedStates)Rapidly programmable spatial light modulation devices based on MEMS
technology have opened an exciting new arena in spectral imaging: rapidly
reprogrammable, high spectral resolution, multi-band spectral filters thatenable hyperspectral processing directly in the optical hardware of animaging sensor. Implemented as a multiplexing spectral selector, a digital
micro-mirror device (DMD) can independently choose or reject dozens or
hundreds of spectral bands and present them simultaneously to an imaging
sensor, forming a complete 2D image. The result is a high-speed, highresolution, programmable spectral filter that gives the user complete control
over the spectral content of the image formed at the sensor. This technology
enables a wide variety of rapidly reprogrammable operational capabilities
within the same sensor including broadband, color, false color, multispectral,
hyperspectral and target specific, matched filter imaging. Of particularinterest is the ability to implement target-specific hyperspectral matchedfilters directly into the optical train of the sensor, producing an image
highlighting a target within a spectrally cluttered scene in real-time without
further processing. By performing the hyperspectral image processing at
the sensor, such a system can operate with little loss of performance, greatly
reduced data volume, and at a fraction of the cost of traditional push broom
hyperspectral instruments. Examples of color, false color and target-specificmatched-filter images recorded with our visible-spectrum prototype will be
displayed, and extensions to other spectral regions will be discussed.

9101-39, Session 8

Hyperspectral imaging by wavelength conversion
Nicolai H. Sanders, Jeppe S. Dam, Peter Tidemand-Lichtenberg,
Christian Pedersen, Technical Univ. of Denmark (Denmark)
Today hyperspectral imaging can be realized by a variety of methods. A
common need for these methods is highly sensitive infrared detectors.
In this work we present an alternative method hereto where wavelength
conversion is used to convert an image from the mid-infrared to near visible
wavelength region followed by sensitive silicon based camera technology.
Since wavelength conversion and silicon cameras are practically freefrom dark noise, even at room temperature, this combination provides
an uncooled alternative for hyperspectral imaging in the mid-infrared. In
practice, the infrared image is mixed with a 1064 nm intracavity continuous
wave laser inside a MgO:LN crystal to generate an upconverted image
at approximately 800 nm. However an important limitation is that the
wavelength of the upconverted image is not the same throughout the315+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9102: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9102 Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII: Advanced Applications in Industry and
Defense9102-1, Session 1

9102-3, Session 1

Image reconstruction method for nonsynchronous THz signals

Subterahertz active imaging in transmission andreflection modes based on uncooled rectifying or
bolometer type detectors

Naoki Oda, NEC Corp. (Japan); Syuichi Okubo, Nippon Avionics Co.,
Ltd. (Japan); Takayuki Sudou, NEC Corp. (Japan); Goro Isoyama,
Ryukou Kato, Akinori Irizawa, Keigo Kawase, Osaka Univ. (Japan)

Aleksandr G. Golenkov, Igor O. Lysiuk, Anya V. Shevchik-Shekera,
Fiodor F. Sizov, Zinovia F. Tsybrii, Vyacheslav V. Zabudsky, Vladimir
A. Petriakov, Svetlana G. Bunchuk, Maria V. Apatskaya, Mariya I.
Smoliy, Vladimir P. Reva, Sergei V. Korinets, V.E. Lashkaryov Instituteof Semiconductor Physics (Ukraine)

Image reconstruction method for non-synchronous THz signals wasdeveloped by combining THz Free Electron Laser (THz-FEL) developed by
Osaka University with THz imager. THz-FEL emits microsec order macropulses with repetition period of 100 msec, while THz imager has frame
time of 33.473 msec with thermal time constant of 10s msec. The method
employs a slight time-difference between the repetition period of THz
pulses and three frames of THz imager, which is calculated to 0.418 msec.
The ratio of the frame time to the time-difference, multiplied by a factor of
3, in other words, the number of consecutive frames, 240, corresponds to
2π phase shift. This means that maximum signal extracted for each pixelout of the consecutive frames reconstructs correct image. This method
was applied to obtain beam pattern of THz-FEL and found very effective.
It was also applied to other pulsed THz source, where repetition periodof THz pulse is 9.98 msec. The efficacy of the method was also proven.
This method was finally applied to evaluation of time constants for pixels
in 320x240 THz microbolometer array, using THz quantum cascadelaser (QCL) with illumination period of 100 msec. A series of signals forilluminated pixel, obtained with consecutive frames, show exponential
decay feature, from which time constants of 17-20 msec were obtainedfor five pixels. These values are consistent with the value obtained by arelation of microbolometer output to chopping frequency. Thus, the image
reconstruction method developed here is found very effective.

Sub-terahertz (THz) active imaging system (~ 150 GHz frequency range)
based on rectifying or hot electron bolometer types (HEB) uncooled
detectors operating in transmission and reflection modes is developed.
Using transmission and reflection modes one it can identify metallic partsof the objects. The images have shown well distinguishable boundaries
between substances (metal, plastic, paper, liquid gas, air) and appeared
due to its differences in absorption, reflection and optical thicknesses.
Spatial resolution of the system is enough to recognize samples cavities
with dimension of ~2 mm or more. The system consist of irradiation source(backward wave oscillator or Gunn diode with multiplication frequency),
aspherical teflon lenses, two-coordinate mechanical scanner and direct
detection terahertz detectors that were MCT (mercury cadmium telluride)
HEB or long-channel Si-FET (silicon field effect transistors). The NEP(noise equivalent power) of bolometer or FET detectors was ~10 10 W/Hz.
The spatial resolution of the images was ~1 mm, the dynamical range ofregistration system ~60 dB. The possible upper limits of responsivity and
NEP of these detectors are estimated and it is shown that they can be used
only in active regime in THz and sub-THz regions

9102-2, Session 1

9102-4, Session 1

Peculiarities of the detection and identification ofsubstance at long distance

Initial results of a real-time, quad-frequency
band, polarization-sensitive THz line camera

Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Vladislav V. Trofimov, Vasily V. Tikhomirov,
Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (Russian Federation)

Christoph A. Roedig, Don J. Burdette, Howard L. Mosbacker, Jeremy
Law, Traycer Systems, Inc. (United States); Kubilay Sertel, Georgios
Trichopoulos, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)

Nowadays, the detection and identification of dangerous substances at long
distance (several metres, for example) by using of THz pulse reflected fromthe object is an important problem. In this report we demonstrate possibilityof THz signal measuring reflected from a flat metallic mirror placed about
3.5 metres from the parabolic mirror. Investigated object is placed before
this mirror. Therefore, at present time our measurements contain featuresof both transmission and reflection modes. The reflecting mirror is usedbecause of weak average power of used femtosecond laser.

Many potential commercial applications to exploit the unique features ofTHz light still remains unfilled due to the lack of a cost-effective, realtime, large format THz camera capable of acquiring high-contrast images
using conventional low-power, continuous-wave THz sources. Our teamhas recently realized a prototype device to fill this market need. The newsensor is composed of four, narrowband linear arrays, each sensitive toa single THz band. The initial model is tailored for low-noise detection
at 220GHz, 320GHz, 420GHz, and 520GHz with better than 10 percent
frequency bandwidth. Respective frequency bands feature 80, 120, 120 and
160 pixels closely packed with near diffraction limited pitch. Alternating
antenna orientations allow the image to resolve the polarization of
the received signal. Each pixel is composed of a narrowband antennamonolithically integrated and impedance matched to an antimonide-based
heterostructure backward diode that is used to rectify the incident THz
light into a DC voltage. Subsequently, the received signal at each pixel isamplified and digitized using custom electronics delivering frame-rates up
to 60 kHz. Device performance metrics such as pixel responsivity and noise
equivalent power, along with imaging relevant metrics (spatial resolution,
image contrast, field-of-view, depth-of-field, etc.) will be presented for arepresentative non-destructive imaging application.

In this mode of measurements we took measurements for a bag made fromthick paperboard and contained various substances, many layers of thinpapers (paper napkin for computer monitor), various clothes, plywood,newspaper, purse, bag and other materials. Measurements were provided atroom temperature and humidity about 50%.
The aim of investigation was the detection of a substance in real condition.
We discuss new features of the detection of a substance covered undervarious ordinary materials and possible way for their influence deleting on
the detection using reflected THz pulse. In particular, it should be stressedthat a spectrum of the measured signal is highly sensitive to an angle
position of the flat mirror. Therefore, at long distance the position of object,that reflects the THz pulse, will influence essentially on the measured
spectrum. Other very important features of the measurements with themultilayer of paper are the strong modulation of the spectrum of thereflected signal.

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Conference 9102: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9102-5, Session 1

9102-7, Session 2

3D THz range finder of concealed objects

Tunable THz source based on nonlinear optical
micro-ring resonator (Invited Paper)

Aleksander Sešek, Janez Trontelj, Univ. of Ljubljana (Slovenia);
Andrej Švigelj, Letrika Lab. d.o.o. (Slovenia)

Raju Sinha, Mustafa Karabiyik, Chowdhury G. Al-Amin, Phani Kiran
Vabbina, Nezih Pala, Florida International Univ. (United States);
Michael S. Shur, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States)

Numerous applications require fast and accurate range measurement of
the concealed object. As THz waves penetrate through almost all materials
except metals, they are a candidate to perform this task. In this paper asystem consisting of an illumination THz source and a THz detector array ispresented.

We theoretically investigated and designed a tunable, compact THz emitterin 1-10 THz range based on a nonlinear optical micro-ring resonator. The
lack of tunable THz source operating at room temperature is still one of
the major impediments for the applications of THz radiation. According todifference frequency generation (DFG) phenomenon, two narrowband laser
beams of slightly different frequencies incident upon a noncentrosymmetricmaterial produces an electromagnetic wave with the frequency equal to thedifference between the two input frequencies.

A solid state 300GHz THz source signal is frequency modulated and guided
to a detector array using a beam splitter. The detector array consists of theultra sensitive bolometers with 1000V/W sensitivity and NEP of 5pW/√Hz.
Their square law sensitivity allows mixing the reflected wave with theillumination wave resulting in a mixed product with a difference frequency
of few kHz proportional to the target distance, the frequency modulation
span and its rate. Parallel signal processing of all 16 signals results in fast
range detection of the target. All 16 detectors provide 4 readings per second
for all X and Y positions of the image.

The proposed device on an insulated SiO2 substrate consists of a nonlinear
optical ring resonator on top of another ring waveguide capable ofsustaining THz modes. A pair of Si optical waveguides is coupled to thenonlinear micro-ring in order to carry the two input optical waves. Anotherpair of Si THz waveguides is placed beneath the input optical waveguides
to couple out the generated THz radiation from the ring to receiver antenna.
Both optical and THz waveguides are engineered optimally with necessary
effective mode indices in order to satisfy the phase matching condition.
We presented the simulation results of our proposed device using acommercial FDTD simulation tool. We defined the optical nonlinearity by
setting the X(2) value as 2.5x10^-17 F/V in the top ring. A distinguishedTHz peak coincident exactly with the theoretical calculations involving DFG
is observed in frequency spectrum of electric field in the ring. Our device
has the potential to enable tunable, compact THz emitters and on-chip
integrated spectrometers.

A compact and portable system with 40GHz frequency modulated source
provides Df/Dt = 160GHz/sec. This corresponds to 1kHz difference frequency
per one meter distance of the target. Resolution accuracy in the micrometer
range has been achieved using advanced signal processing.
In the paper the processing algorithms and the obtained results arepresented and discussed. The complete hardware structure of the system
is described together with the required signal processing procedures. The
advantage of the presented system is that it operates at room temperatureand is therefore cost effective and very robust.

9102-6, Session 1

Approaching real-time terahertz imaging using
photo-induced reconfigurable aperture arrays

9102-8, Session 2

10 aJ-level detection of ns pulse below 10 THz
by frequency upconversion via DAST-DFG: morethan a 4K bolometer

Md. Itrat Bin Shams, Zhenguo Jiang, Syed M. Rahman, Jubaid A.
Qayyum, Huili G. Xing, Patrick Fay, Lei Liu, Univ. of Notre Dame
(United States)

Feng Qi, Shuzhen Fan, Takashi Notake, Kouji Nawata, Takeshi
Matsukawa, Yuma Takida, Hiroaki Minamide, RIKEN (Japan)

The submillimeter-wave and terahertz (THz) region has become increasingly
more important to radio astronomy, chemical spectroscopy, bio-sensing,
medical imaging, and especially security screening and defense. THz
imaging devices and systems have been intensively studied and developed
for all the above applications. Compared to other THz imaging techniquessuch as mechanical scanning and focal-plane arrays, coded-aperture
imaging (CAI) offers the advantage of both high-performance (i.e., high
SNR) and high speed as well as the potential for realizing simple andlow-cost systems. We report room-temperature CAI approaching real-time
performance in the WR-1.5 band (with a WR-1.5 VNA) using photo-induced
reconfigurable aperture arrays. The coded aperture (based on Hadamard
coding) was implemented using programmable illumination (an area of 2
cm x 2 cm) on Si wafer by a commercially-available digital light processing
projector. Over the entire band of 500-750 GHz, each pixel can be opticallyturned on and off with an average modulation depth of ~15 dB and a
modulation rate of ~1.3 kHz. Prototype demonstration has shown that a 4
x 4 image can be obtained in the order of seconds and this speed can begreatly improved for real-time and video-rate THz imaging. It has been
demonstrated that a slowly moving object (~0.5 cm wide) was perfectly
tracked in a video with image frames consisting of 8 x 8 pixels (2 cm x 2
cm). This photo-induced CAI has been successfully applied to mapping
THz beams in a quasi-optical system, measuring THz zone-plates as well as
characterizing micromachined THz horn antennas.

317+1 360 676 3290

Frequency upconversion has been proved to be quite promising for THz
detection, which gains fast response, high sensitivity and ease of operation
without requiring cryogenic cooling.
Recently, by resorting to DAST-DFG mechanism, we have achieved
extremely sensitive THz detection via frequency upconversion. Pumped
by ns green light, a dual KTP-OPO is used to generate THz waves by DFG
mechanism via DAST crystal. For detection, a signal-KTP OPO supports
flexible frequency tuning. At 4.3 THz, direct comparison has been
implemented between 4K bolometer and upconversion detection. By using
a simple PIN diode, frequency upconversion detection is one-order moresensitive than 4K bolometer for ns THz pulse detection. When applying an
APD, it performs four-order better in terms of sensitivity. Power calibration
has been implemented by using both a 4K bolometer with known
responsivity and a calibrated pyrodetector (SPI-A-65 THz) with a set of THz
attenuators, resorting to the is-TPG source. Results from the two approaches
agree well and the minimum detectable pulse energy is in the order of 10
aJ, with a corresponding NEP of sub-pW/Hz1/2. By switching the two IR
detectors, six-order dynamic range has been realized in current setup.
To the best of our knowledge, the obtained minimum detectable pulse
energy and NEP implies the most sensitive detection of ns pulse above 1
THz by the frequency upconversion approach. However, improvement is still
possible since we have not resorted to advanced photon counting techniqueyet. Various imaging/sensing applications are feasible in such a system.

·

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Conference 9102: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9102-9, Session 2

Elzbieta Rurka, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland); Asaf Sahin,
Yildirim Beyazit Univ. (Turkey); Aleksander Sešek, Janez Trontelj,
Andrej Švigelj, Univ. of Ljubljana (Slovenia); Arthur D. van Rheenen,
Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (Norway); Michal
Walczakowski, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland)

Dynamic lithography of V-shaped antennas forbeam steering applications
Tamelia Ali, Ada-Simona Popescu, Igor Bendoym, The City Collegeof New York (United States); Alain Bergeron, Marc Terroux, Linda
Marchese, INO (Canada); Andrii B. Golovin, David T. Crouse, The
City College of New York (United States)

We present results on the comparison of different THz technologies for thedetection and identification for a variety of explosives from our laboratory
tests under the same controlled conditions. The laboratory tests werecarried out in the framework of NATO SET-193 “THz technology for standoff detection of explosives: from laboratory spectroscopy to detectionin the field”. The technologies we consider are THz spectroscopy basedon broadband pulsed, narrowband pulsed and cw THz systems as wellas electronic THz sources for 3D imaging applications. Experiments werecarried out both in transmission and reflection geometry applying various
barrier materials and include detection as well as identification of thesubstances under investigation. Aiming for a technological implementationof stand-off detection, we also make an assessment on the suitability of thevarious techniques for the field based on the results of our tests.

A new technique to create metasurface for THz radiation is developed.
The technique will be used to control propagation of the THz beam bymeans of non-mechanical beam steering. Within this technique, the Ti:Sa
ultra-fast pulse laser tuned at wavelength of 800 nm is used for a dynamic
lithography of metallic structures on a Si substrate. The dynamic lithographyon Si substrate is performed with a liquid crystal spatial light modulator.
The usage of spatial light modulator allows for imaging of sub-wavelength
sized v-shaped antennas to structure the metasurfaces on the Si substrate.
In the areas illuminated by images of v-shaped antennas on the siliconsurface, electron-hole pairs are created which allows for appearance of
metallic antennas of the metasurfase. Meanwhile, a THz beam is generated
and directed to refract on the metasurfaces. The angle of refraction of theTHz beam depends on the gradient of phase profile created by pattern ofv-shaped antennas. The dynamic change of patterns of v-shaped antenna
allows for beam steering. The THz beam is captured by a video camera
designed and manufactured by INO (Canada).

9102-12, Session 3

Terahertz properties YAG optical ceramics
S. K. Sundaram, Daniel W. Steere, New York State College ofCeramics at Alfred Univ. (United States); Romain Gaume, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States)

9102-10, Session 3

We report the optical and dielectric responses of fully dense opticalceramics of Y3Al5O12 (YAG) between 0.5 and 4THz. These are comparedto that of a single-crystal YAG sample. A set of twenty ceramic samples
was prepared by solid-state sintering of Y2O3 and Al2O3 mixtures withcompositions ranging from -0.62mol% to +0.96mol% of Y2O3 on each sideof the garnet composition. After sintering, all samples are highly translucent
in the visible region with attenuations better than 2 cm-1. We also preparedsamples covering the same compositional space following combustion
syntheis and solid state sintering that yielded opaque samples. The samples
were characterized using a time-domain spectroscopy system. All ceramic
samples exhibit multiple weak resonances below 3.6 THz with amplitudes
that depend on their composition. This is in contrast to the response fromthe single crystal samples. In addition, our experimental results showthat the static permittivity goes through a minimum at the stoichiometriccomposition (e=10.83) and varies by more than 1% in this composition range.
This trend is well reproduced by modeling. We will present these results andour interpretation.

THz plasmonic detection of high-intensity
terahertz radiation (Invited Paper)
Michael S. Shur, Alexey Gutin, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute(United States); Trond Ytterdal, Norwegian Institute of Technology(Norway); Sergey Rudin, Greg Rupper, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
We investigated the response of the terahertz plasmonic InGaAs
heterostructure field effect transistors (HFETs) to high intensity terahertz
radiation. The experimental data show that the response at high intensities(large signal response) deviates from a quadratic detector response (small
signal response) and is proportional to the square root of the terahertz
beam intensity. Our simulation results (in the frame of the completehydrodynamic model) link this transition from the small signal response to
the large signal response to the development of plasma shock waves in thedevice channel. We also implemented the compact model of the plasmonic
terahertz FETs in SPICE. The simulation results using the THz SPICE are inclose agreement with experimental data and numerical simulations. This
compact modeling approach allows us to investigate the effect of parasitic
and external device impedances and extend our analysis to silicon CMOS
and III-N HEMT plasmonic detectors.

9102-13, Session 3

High-resolution terahertz atmospheric water
vapor continuum measurements
David M. Slocum, Thomas M. Goyette, Robert H. Giles, Univ. ofMassachusetts Lowell (United States); Williams E. Nixon, National
Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)

9102-11, Session 3

Comparison of terahertz technologies for
detection and identification of explosives

The terahertz frequency regime is often used as the ‘chemical fingerprint’
region of the electromagnetic spectrum due to the many rotational andvibrational transitions of many molecules of interest. This region of thespectrum has particular utility for applications such as pollution monitoring
and the detection of energetic chemicals using remote sensing overlong path lengths through atmosphere. Although there has been muchattention to atmospheric effects over narrow frequency windows, accurate
measurements across a wide spectrum are lacking. The water vapor
continuum absorption is an excess absorption that is unaccounted for inresonant line spectrum simulations. Currently a semi-empirical model is
employed to account for this absorption, however more measurements arenecessary to properly describe the continuum absorption in this region.
Fourier Transform Spectroscopy measurements from previous work areRene Beigang, Technische Univ. Kaiserslautern (Germany); Sandra
G. Biedron, Colorado State Univ. (United States); Slawomir Dyjak,
Military Univ. of Technology (Poland); Frank Ellrich, FraunhoferInstitut für Physikalische Messtechnik (Germany); Magnus W.
Haakestad, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (Norway);
Daniel Hübsch, HÜBNER GmbH & Co. KG (Germany); Tolga
Kartaloglu, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey); Frank Ospald, Technische
Univ. Kaiserslautern (Germany); Norbert Palka, Military Univ. ofTechnology (Poland); Uros Puc, Jošef Stefan Institute (Slovenia);

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Conference 9102: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
enhanced with high-resolution broadband measurements in the atmospherictransmission window at 1.5THz. The transmission of broadband terahertz
radiation from 1.450-1.550THz through pure water vapor as well as air withvarying relative humidity levels was recorded for multiple path lengths. The
pure water vapor measurements provide accurate determination of theline broadening parameters. Also these measurements coupled with theatmospheric air measurements allow the water vapor continuum absorption
to be independently identified at 1.5THz. Simulations from an atmosphericabsorption model using parameters from the HITRAN database arecompared with the current and previous experimental results.

also fabricated to separate the two mixer branches. The HEB devices were
fabricated from 10 nm thick niobium film sputtered on semi-insulating
silicon substrates. Each HEB device has dimensions of 80 nm ? 240 nm (3squares) for approaching a resistance of 110 ? for impedance matching. In
order to eventually achieve multiband mixer operation, tunable THz antenna
elements with 50 GHz tuning range for reconfigurable mesh filters havebeen initially demonstrated in G-band. Mixer properties including antennaradiation patterns, broadband operation and polarization isolation havebeen characterized. Mixer performance including noise-temperature andconversion loss will soon be measured.

9102-14, Session 49102-16, Session 4

Characterisation of graphene-based devices for
THz Systems (Invited Paper)

Wideband 220-GHz solid state power amplifier
MMIC within minimal die size

Christos Themistos, Frederick Univ. (Cyprus); B. M. Azizur Rahman,
City Univ. London (United Kingdom); Christos Markides, Frederick
Univ. (Cyprus); Md. Uthman, A. Quadir, N. Kejalakshmy, City Univ.
London (United Kingdom)

Jerome Cheron, Erich N. Grossman, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States)
The emergence of new technologies suitable at millimeterwave frequencies
offers new opportunities for many wireless applications. Design of fully
integrated MMIC transceiver is now practical at 220 GHz. Significant output
power levels are necessary to overcome waveguide transition losses andattenuation due to the atmosphere. For this reason, a solid state power
amplifier MMIC has been fabricated from a 250 nm InP HBT technology.

The Terahertz (THz) frequency region of the electromagnetic spectrum
may be loosely defined between the 100GHz to the 30THz and offers asignificant scientific and technological potential in many fields. Waveguidingin this intermediate spectral region remains a major challenge. The rapid
growth in Terahertz technology has led to the development of a variety ofdevices such as photonic crystal fibers, quantum cascaded lasers, plasmonic
waveguides, power splitters and narrow-band filters. Surface plasmon
based research and recent studies have shown amongst the various THz
waveguides suggested, the metal-clad waveguides supporting surface
plasmon modes waves and specifically hollow core structures, coated withinsulating material are showing the greatest promise as low-loss waveguides
for their use in active components and as well as passive waveguides.
Moreover, graphene based devices have attracted considerable attention,
due to the unique optical properties of graphene at Terahertz frequencies.
The H-field finite element method (FEM) based full-vector formulation
is used to study the vectorial modal field properties and the complex
propagation characteristics of Surface Plasmon modes of a hollow-coredielectric coated rectangular waveguide structures, and graphene based
structures. Additionally, the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method
is used to estimate the dispersion parameters and the propagation loss ofsuch waveguides and devices.

In order to integrate this power amplifier in a transceiver module, initial
simulations showed that the width of the die must not exceed 300 μm to
avoid multimode propagations due to the MMIC to waveguide transition
up to 235 GHz. To respect this width, an 8-way power combiner and 4-way
power combiners were designed. Each way combines 2-finger commonbase (CB) HBTs. The size of the compact power amplifier is 275x1840 μm2,
including RF pads. From 213 GHz to 240 GHz, 14 dBm minimum output
power associated with 16 dB of power gain were simulated.
Initially, studies on 6 µm emitter length (le) common emitter (CE) cells
and 6 µm (le) (CB) cells were performed in order to select the appropriate
topology. Simulations and measurements of these different cells haveindicated the (CB) HBT provides significantly more gain. A 4 stages power
amplifier was designed using (CB) HBTs. The output stage utilizes 16-finger(CB) HBTs in order to reach up to 17 dBm of output power around 220 GHz.
Three driver stages, designed using 8-finger (CB) HBTs, are necessary toprovide 20 dB of small signal gain over 10% of relative bandwidth.

9102-17, Session 59102-15, Session 4

Giant terahertz gain by excitation of surface
plasmon polarities in optically pumped graphene(Invited Paper)

Multiband terahertz quasi-optical balanced
hot-electron mixers based on dual-polarization
sinuous antennas

Taiichi Otsuji, Tohoku Univ (Japan)

Zhenguo Jiang, Syed M. Rahman, Patrick Fay, Steven T. Ruggiero,Lei Liu, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States)

This paper reviews recent advances toward new types of terahertz (THz)lasers using active plasmonics in graphene. Optical gain enabled bygraphene ultrafast nonequilibrium carrier dynamics and phonon properties
in the broadband THz frequency range might open the way to create theTHz lasers, but has to compete against the strong losses in the THz range.
Graphene plasmons, quanta of the collective charge density waves excitedby two dimensional carriers in graphene, can dramatically enhance thelight (THz photons) and matter (graphene) interaction, leading to “giantTHz gain”. Recently, we have succeeded in observation of the giant THz
gain in monolayer graphene pumped by a femtosecond infrared laser. This
gain involves the following four processes: 1) graphene carrier population
inversion by optical pumping, 2) stimulated interband THz photon emission
by incident THz photons, 3) excitation of surface plasmon-polaritons (SPPs)
and producing giant amplification of the THz SPPs, and 4) conversionof the SPPs to the THz photons yielding strongly amplified stimulated
THz photon emission. The theoretical analysis predicted plasmonic THz
lasing and superradiance in a planar periodic array of graphene plasmonic
microcavities. This new mechanism is expected to enable new types ofplasmonic THz lasers operating at room temperature.

Receivers based on superconducting Hot-Electron Bolometers (HEBs)
are widely used for terahertz (THz) sensing because of the advantagesof high sensitivity, low noise, and low LO power requirement. Balanced
HEB mixers are superior to single-element HEB mixers since the thermal
noise and AM noise from the LO injection can be effectively suppressed.
Although a 1.3 THz balanced waveguide HEB mixer has been reported,
waveguide mixer configurations offer relatively narrow RF bandwidths.
We report on the development, fabrication and characterization of aTHz quasi-optical balanced superconducting HEB mixer utilizing a dualpolarization sinuous antenna that can potentially achieve both multiband
operation and ultra-high sensitivity. In the balanced mixer configuration, alens-coupled four-arm sinuous antenna was designed for operation from
0.2-1.0 THz with a nearly frequency-independent imbedding impedanceof ~110 W. Two identical superconducting niobium HEB devices have been
integrated at the antenna feedpoints, connecting each opposing pair ofantenna arms to form a balanced mixer configuration. An air-bridge was319+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9102: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9102-18, Session 59102-20, Session 5

Exploiting plasmonics for THz and infraredsensing (Invited Paper)

Coherent phenomena in terahertz 2D plasmonic
structures: strong coupling, plasmonic crystals,
and induced transparency by coupling of
localized modes (Invited Paper)

Stephen M. Hanham, Imperial College London (United Kingdom)
In the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum there are practical andaffordable technologies for spectroscopy applications which have been
available for decades. Meanwhile, at longer wavelengths such as terahertz
and mid-infrared, components and systems architectures are still emerging,offering new and complementary sensing modalities. Nevertheless, at
those longer wavelengths, there is a significant scale mismatch between
the interrogating wavelength and the targeted biological substance (e.g.
bioliquids, molecules, etc.), imposing a limitation in terms of the smallest
possible sample volume. We address this issue by exploiting the concepts ofdesigner surface plasmon polaritons and localized plasmons.

Gregory C. Dyer, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Gregory R.
Aizin, Kingsborough Community College (United States); S. James
Allen Jr., Univ. of California, Santa Barbara (United States); Albert
D. Grine, Don Bethke, John L. Reno, Eric A. Shaner, Sandia National
Labs. (United States)
The device applications of plasmonic systems such as graphene and two
dimensional electron gases (2DEGs) in III-V heterostructures include
terahertz detectors, mixers, oscillators and modulators. These twodimensional (2D) plasmonic systems are not only well-suited for device
integration, but also enable the broad tunability of underdamped plasma
excitations via an applied electric field. We present demonstrations of thecoherent coupling of multiple voltage tuned GaAs/AlGaAs 2D plasmonicresonators under terahertz irradiation. By utilizing a plasmonic homodyne
mixing mechanism to downconvert the near field of plasma waves to a
DC signal, we directly detect the spectrum of coupled plasmonic microresonator structures at cryogenic temperatures.

Surface plasmon polaritons on flat metal surfaces lead to poorly confinedZenneck waves at terahertz frequencies, hindering the developmentof highly sensitive sensors based on surface modes. This obstacle canbe overcome by texturizing the metal surface, e.g. corrugations orcomplementary split ring resonators. These engineered surface waves
display two features that make them attractive for sensing applications: (i)they are very slow waves, leading to a long interaction times between theinterrogating surface wave and the sample under test; (ii) they generatestrong evanescent fields with subwavelength extension.

The 2DEG in the studied devices can be interpreted as a plasmonic
waveguide where multiple gate terminals control the 2DEG kinetic
inductance. When the gate tuning of the 2DEG is spatially periodic, a onedimensional finite plasmonic crystal forms. This results in a subwavelength
structure, much like a metamaterial element, that nonetheless Bragg
scatters plasma waves from a repeated crystal unit cell. A 50% in situ
tuning of the plasmonic crystal band edges is observed. By introducing
gate-controlled defects or simply terminating the lattice, localized statesarise in the plasmonic crystal. Inherent asymmetries at the finite crystal
boundaries produce an induced transparency-like phenomenon due to thecoupling of defect modes and crystal surface states known as Tamm states.
The demonstrated active control of coupled plasmonic resonators opens
previously unexplored avenues for sensitive direct and heterodyne THz
detection, planar metamaterials, and slow-light devices.

Alternatively, we have also exploited designer localized plasmons basedon broadband gap micro-antennas and the lattice resonances that emerge
when dipole antennas are arranged in an array. The broadband nature of
the former approach allows multispectral surface-enhanced spectroscopy.
Specifically, we demonstrate a broadband nanoantenna surface suitablefor enhancing fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, and direct mid-infraredabsorption of biomolecules on the same chip.

9102-19, Session 5

Dispersion studies in THz plasmonic devices withcavities
Mustafa Karabiyik, Nezih Pala, Chowdhury G. Al-Amin, Raju Sinha,
Florida International Univ. (United States)

9102-21, Session Key

Terahertz signals for chemical and biologicalsensing and identification (Keynote Presentation)

Periodic structures are expected to yield plasmonic crystal modes withdefined dispersion relations. To investigate the dispersion relation, we
simulated the electric field distribution and absorption in HEMT devices withvarious geometries under THz radiation with varying incident momentum.

Kiki Ikossi, Defense Threat Reduction Agency (United States)

We simulated the dispersion relation for single channel multiple gate andmultiple channel single gate HEMT devices. A cavity in plasmonic crystal
is created by breaking the symmetry by changing the length of one of thegate width in grating gate devices in every n number of gates.

Terahertz signals correspond to wavelengths that lie between optical-IR
and mm-wavelengths offering an exceptional opportunity for sensing
applications. Early results suggest that rotational and vibrational modes
in molecules offer unique THz signals for spectroscopic identificationof chemicals and biological molecules. The most resent approaches in
THz spectroscopy have been made by extending the two ends of thespectrum, either from the optical systems or the electronic systems, into
the THz region. In order to move the technology forward, it is evident by
now, that new concepts and new methodologies need to be explored.
This presentation will review the major scientific hurtles that need to be
overcome and touch upon alternative scientific concepts that can be
explored for THz sensing and identification.

As the momentum increases toward the period of the unit cell, theasymmetrical modes are observed at different momentum and energy
levels and the plasmonic bandgaps are observed for grating gate devices.
Asymmetrical modes are the non-homogeneous charge distribution.
When the momentum of the propagating mode is the same with the half
momentum of the grating, a band gap opens up due to satisfaction of the
Bragg condition for grating gate devices. There is no band gap observed forlinearly integrated devices due to isolation of the cavities from each other.
Localized cavity modes are created for plasmonic crystals. Cavity modes areobserved with in the band gap of the plasmonic crystal.

9102-22, Session Key

Three-dimensional metamaterial devices
functioning at terahertz frequencies (Invited
Paper)
Weili Zhang, Oklahoma State Univ. (United States)

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Conference 9102: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
Quasi-three-dimensional invisibility cloaks, comprised of either
homogeneous or inhomogeneous media, are experimentally demonstrated
in the terahertz regime. Both the geometrical and spectroscopic signaturesof a rectangular absorber placed under such a cloak were completely
concealed. The inhomogeneous cloak was lithographically fabricated using ascalable Projection Microstereolithography process. The triangular cloaking
structure has a total thickness of 4.4 mm, comprised of 220 layers of 20µm thickness. The cloak operates at a broad frequency range between 0.3
and 0.6 THz, and is placed over an a-lactose monohydrate absorber withrectangular shape. Characterized using angular-resolved reflection terahertz
time-domain spectroscopy, the results indicate that the terahertz invisibility
cloak has successfully concealed both the geometrical and spectroscopic
signatures of the absorber, making it undetectable to the observer. The
homogeneous cloaking device made from birefringent crystalline sapphirefeatures a large concealed volume, low loss, and broad bandwidth. It iscapable of hiding objects with a dimension nearly an order of magnitudelarger than that of its lithographic counterpart, but without involving
complex and time-consuming cleanroom processing. The cloak device wasmade from two 20-mm-thick high-purity sapphire prisms. The cloaking
region has a maximum height 1.75 mm with a volume of approximately 5%of the whole sample. The reflected TM beam from the cloak shows nearly
the same profile as that reflected by a flat mirror.

and the use of MOSFETs as a detection mechanism. 2D electron gas activity
under terahertz radiation in the gate channel of a MOSFET can be related toplasmonic response waves which change the electron density and potential
across the channel. The 0.35 µm silicon CMOS array used contains various
MOSFET structures combined with differing antennae, providing a range
of detectors to analyze. The effects of different MOSFET and antennaconfigurations, coupled with various operating parameters and modes
are studied and results presented. A focus on single transistor-antenna
testing provides a path for discovering the most efficient combination
for coupling the 1.63 THz band energy. Test and evaluation results of afabricated terahertz band focal plane array including sensitivity analysis andresponsivity are described, in parallel with theoretical expectations of theplasmonic response in room temperature conditions.

9102-25, Session 6

THz imaging Si MOSFET device characterization
J. Daniel Newman, Paul P. K. Lee, Andrew P. Sacco, Kenneth D.
Fourspring, ITT Exelis (United States); Mark V. Bocko, Zeljko
Ignjatovic, Judith L. Pipher, Craig W. McMurtry, Xi-Cheng Zhang,
Univ. of Rochester (United States); Chao Zhang, Zoran Ninkov,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)

9102-23, Session 6

We present recent test and characterization results for a prototype, highpixel density, THz band Si MOSFET focal plane array (FPA). Our objective isto develop a best in class, low cost THz focal plane with on-chip correlated
double sampling, gain and dark reference subtraction that will achieve
BLIP limited imaging performance. The pathfinder THz chip is 24 x 24
element CMOS readout IC (ROIC) designed with 64 parametric variationsin the circuit topology of the Si MOSFET, antennae variations both fornarrow band bowtie and broad band spirals and the coupling impedance
between the micro antennae and MOSFETS. Test results will provide theoptimization of the final chip design. Detailed device modeling simulationsof the plasmonic detection process including the interaction with the microantennae’s with the MOSFET’s are presented. Each pixel unit cell contains
multiple individual THz band antennae that are coupled to independent
amplifiers. The amplified signals are summed to improve detection SNR. The
sensor is designed to operate at room temperature using passive or active
illumination. In addition to the THz detector, a secondary array of Visible
or SWIR context imaging pixels are inter-disposed in the same area matrix.
Multiple VIS/SWIR context pixels can be fabricated within the THz pixel
unit cell. This provides simultaneous, registered context imagery and “Pansharpening” MTF enhancement for the THz image.

Noncontact doping profile recognition inphotovoltaic cells using terahertz time domain
spectroscopy
Chih-Yu Jen, Christiaan Richter, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States)
We studied transmission mode terahertz time domain spectroscopy (THzTDS) to recognize doping profile discrepancies in silicon for semiconductor
and photovoltaic industry applications. The advantages of this techniqueare its fast measurement speed and the fact that it is non-destructive. The
initial concept is proven by the use of several boron and phosphorus doping
profiles on regular p-type semiconductor wafers. THz radiation, which has
a strong interaction with free carriers, is expected to get more attenuation
under higher implant dosages (more free carriers) corresponding tohigher surface concentrations. The experimental result reveals thatterahertz interactions with both electrons and holes are strong enoughto recognize both N and P type doping profile changes. A reproducibility
and repeatability test was done that indicates that the measurement
variation is about 1.1%. Any profile variation that induced a change in THz
radiation above this value can be detected. To prove the feasibility inphotovoltaic cells we tested doped wafers (with emitter) from a commercial
manufacturer and in-house fabricated wafers with comparable profiles. We
demonstrated that doped wafers (emitters) can have the same four pointprobe reading but different measured THz radiation when the subsurface
profiles differ. This suggests that THz technique has a superior ability todetect deviations compared to most commonly used metrology in the PV
industry. THz radiation changes at various stages of solar cell production
line are also investigated. We confirm that due to the long wavelength ofTHz radiation the typical texturing (scattering layer) do not impact the THz
measurement.

9102-26, Session 6

Radar cross section of frequency selective
terahertz retroreflectors
Richard J. Williams, Andrew J. Gatesman, Robert H. Giles, Univ. ofMassachusetts Lowell (United States); Williams E. Nixon, National
Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)
The radar cross section of novel structures at terahertz frequencies is a
rapidly advancing field with a growing list of applications and benefits.
The radar cross section of spherical retroreflectors operating in theterahertz regime is investigated. The retroreflectors, also known as cat’s eye
retroreflectors, consisted of small silica spheres capped with a hemisphericalreflective surface. Several retroreflectors with diameters ranging from
2mm to 8mm were fabricated and their RCS was experimentally measured
at 100GHz, 160GHz, 240GHz, 350GHz, and 1.56THz. The diameter andfrequency variation provided a comprehensive study of the backscatterphenomenology of this type of retroreflector at terahertz frequencies.
Structures consisting of a two-dimensional array of identical retroreflectors
were fabricated and similar RCS data collected. The RCS enhancement of
this array was compared to a single spherical retroreflector. A frequency
selective surface was applied to the retroreflector array demonstrating
narrow-band retroreflective performance.

9102-24, Session 6

T-ray detection in 0.35-um CMOS technology
Gregory J. Fertig, Chao Zhang, Zoran Ninkov, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States); Mark V. Bocko, Zeljko Ignjatovic, Judith
L. Pipher, Craig W. McMurtry, Xi-Cheng Zhang, Univ. of Rochester(United States); J. Daniel Newman, Paul P. K. Lee, Andrew P. Sacco,
Kenneth D. Fourspring, ITT Exelis (United States)
Interest in array imaging of terahertz energy (T-Rays) has gained traction
lately, specifically CMOS based arrays due to their ease of manufacturability

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Conference 9102: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VIII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9102-27, Session 6

9102-29, Session Posters-Tuesday

Broadband THz superlens grating

Advanced designs for non-imaging
submillimeter-wave Winston cone concentrators

Chen Wang, Cheng Sun, Northwestern Univ. (United States)

Andrew O. Nelson, Erich N. Grossman, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)

The detection of chemical and biological species is by far the mostpromising application of THz spectrum. However, there are still significant
challenges associated with extracting spectral information from target
samples due to the weak absorption of the chemical and biological
spectral signatures and strong dependence on the external environmental
conditions. Recent developments in THz imaging spectroscopy haveshown promise in addressing these issues. Specifically, an optimized
sub-wavelength periodic grating was used to strongly enhance the THzfrequency transmission and the field coupling to biological materials.
However, 1D grating with fixed width of the slot may only actively respondto excitation at certain wavelengths. In this work, a period trapezoidal arrayof InSb on flexible PDMS substrate is employed to achieve a broadband
response in frequency band from 0.3 to 1 THz. The geometry of the
trapezoid is optimized for an increased local electric field enhancement with
TM incidence by rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA). The trapezoid has
two bases 163µm and 326µm, respectively, periodicity 381µm, and thickness
4µm. This sub-wavelength trapezoidal grating shows a 10-20 fold increasein the electric field near the edges over the whole 0.3-1THz spectrum,indicating more than 100 times stronger radiation to the near field. The
enhancement of the field extends through the grating structure and reaches
peak values at the edges due to the discontinuity effect. The structure will
be fabricated and measured to construct the broadband THz spectroscopy
with superior detection sensitivity.

We describe the design and simulation of several non-imaging
concentrators designed to couple submillimeter wavelength radiation fromfree space into highly overmoded, rectangular, WR-10 waveguide. Previous
designs are altered to improve the uniformity of efficiency rather than theefficiency itself. The concentrators are intended for use as adapters between
instruments using overmoded WR-10 waveguide as input or output andsources propagating through free space. Simulation and measurement showthat the angular response is primarily determined by the Winston cone
and is well predicted by geometric optics theory while the efficiencies areprimarily determined by the transition section. Additionally, previous work
has shown insensitivity to polarization, orientation and beam size. Several
separate concentrator designs are studied, all of which use a Winston cone(also known as a compound parabolic concentrator) with an input diameter
ranging from 4 mm to 16 mm, and “throat” diameters of less than 0.5 mm to
4 mm as the initial interface. The use of various length adiabatic circularto-rectangular transition sections is investigated, along with the effect ofan additional, 25 mm waveguide section designed to model the internal
waveguide of the power meter. Adapters without a transition section anda rectangular Winston cone throat aperture are also studied. Adapters areanalyzed in simulation for consistent efficiency across the opening aperture.

9102-28, Session Posters-Tuesday

Multispectral concealed weapon detection invisible, infrared, and terahertz
Marcin Kowalski, Mariusz Kastek, Henryk Polakowski, Norbert
Palka, Marek Piszczek, Mieczyslaw Szustakowski, Military Univ. ofTechnology (Poland)
Detection of concealed dangerous objects is a very demanding problemof public safety. So far, the problem of detecting objects hidden underclothing was considered only in the case of airports but it is becoming more
and more important for public places like metro stations, and governmentbuildings.
The development of imaging devices and exploration of new spectral
bands is a chance to introduce new equipment for assuring public safety. It
has been proved that objects hidden under clothing can be detected andvisualized using terahertz (THz) cameras. However, passive THz cameras still
offer too low image resolution for objects recognition. On the other hand
new infrared cameras offer sufficient parameters to detect objects covered
with fabrics in some conditions, as well as high image quality and big pixel
resolutions.
The purpose of the studies is to investigate the possibilities of using various
cameras operating in different spectral ranges for detection of concealed
objects. In the article, we present the measurement setup consisting of
medium wavelength infrared (MWIR), long wavelength infrared (LWIR), THz
and visible cameras and the initial results of measurements with various
types of clothing and test objects.

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Conference 9103:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing IX
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9103 Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing IX

9103-1, Session 1

be a function of only the number of users, i.e., level of interference, andindependent of the number of transmit and/or receive antennas. Using ourtheoretical results, we show that the SNR loss from the single-user boundcan be well approximated by 10 log(I/2), where I is the level of multiuser
interference. GR implementation demonstrates superiority in comparison
with employment of conventional receivers in MIMO multiuser DS-CDMAwireless communication systems over Rayleigh fading channels.

Investigating the effects of digital filtering on
digital modulations
John W. Nieto, Harris Corp. (United States)
Digital filters are typically used in digital communication systems toconstrain the bandwidth of a transmitted signal on the transmit side andto remove unwanted noise at the receiving side. Filtering can have someunintended consequences on the performance of a communication systemand this paper will investigate these consequences in an effort to aid
waveform designers when selecting digital filters for their applications.

9103-4, Session 2

A cyber threat model for tactical radio networks
Michael T. Kurdziel, Harris Corp. (United States)
The shift to a full information-centric paradigm in the battlefield has
allowed ConOps to be developed that are only possible using modern
network communications systems. Securing these tactical networks
without impacting their capabilities has been a challenge. Tactical networks
with fixed infrastructure have similar vulnerabilities to their commercial
counterparts (although they need to be secure against adversaries withgreater capabilities, resources and motivation). However, networks withmobile infrastructure components and Mobile Adhoc networks (MANets)
have additional unique vulnerabilities that must be considered. It is useful to
examine tactical network based ConOps and use them to construct a threat
model and baseline cyber security requirements for tactical networks with
fixed infrastructure, mobile infrastructure and/or adhoc modes of operation.
This paper will present an introduction to threat model assessment. A
definition and detailed discussion of a tactical network threat model is alsopresented. Finally, the model is used to derive baseline requirements thatcan be used to design or evaluate a cyber security solution that can bescaled and adapted to the needs of specific deployments.

9103-2, Session 1

Demodulation improvement analysis of FEC
quasi-coherent CPM
James A. Norris, John W. Nieto, Harris Corp. (United States)
Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM) schemes are advantageous for lowpower radios. The constant envelope transmit signal is more efficient for
both linear and non-linear amplifier architectures. A standard, coherent CPM
receiver can take advantage of modulation memory and is more complex
than a coherent Phase Shift Keyed receiver. But the CPM signal can be
demodulated non-coherently and still take advantage of the trellis structure
inherent in the modulation. With this complexity reduction, the CPM
receiver is comparable in performance to a Phase Shift Keyed radio with thepower utilization of a Frequency Shift-Keyed design. Recent analysis has
discovered non-coherent demodulation techniques that can be applied to a
CPM modulation that has been strengthened with forward error correction
and that approach started to reach the performance of coherent CPM.
This paper will provide an outline of demodulation techniques that further
improve the bit error rate performance of coded CPM. Bit Error rate curves
for specific variations of forward error correction and CPM modulation types
will be presented. And some analysis of non-coherent soft decisions will be
provided.

9103-5, Session 2

Node localization via analyzing multi-path
signals in ultrasonic sensor networks
William J. Tomlinson Jr., Bo Dong, Stephan Lorenz, Subir Biswas,
Michigan State Univ. (United States)

9103-3, Session 1

This paper proposes a novel signal analysis based node localization strategy
for sensor networks used in structural health monitoring (SHM) applications.
The key idea is to analyze location-dependent multi-path signal patterns
in inter-node ultrasonic signals, and use machine-learning mechanisms todetect such patterns for accurate node localization on metal substrates
on target structures. Majority of the traditional mechanisms rely on radio
based Time Delay of Arrival (TDOA), coupled with multilateration, andmultiple reference nodes. The proposed mechanism attempts to solve thelocalization problem in an ultrasonic sensor network (USN), avoiding theuse of multiple reference beacon nodes. Instead, it relies on signal analysis
and multi-path signature classification from a single reference node that
periodically transmits ultrasonic localization beacons. The approach relies
on a key observation that the ultrasonic signal received at any point on the
structure from the reference node, is a superposition of the signals received
on the direct path and through all possible multi-paths. It is hypothesizedthat if the location of the reference node and the substrate properties are
known a-priori, it should be possible to train a receiver (source node), to
identify its own location by observing the exact signature of the received
signal. To validate this hypothesis, steps were taken to develop a TI MSP430 based module for implementing a run-time system from a proposedarchitecture. Through extensive experimentation within an USN on the 2024
Aluminum substrate, it was demonstrated that localization accuracies up to
92% were achieved in the presence of varying spatial resolutions.

Performance analysis of MIMO multiuser DSCDMA wireless communication systems undergeneralized receiver employment over Rayleighfading channels
Vyacheslav P. Tuzlukov, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republicof)In this paper, we carry out the performance analysis of MIMO multiuser
DS-CDMA wireless communication systems over Rayleigh fading channels
employing the generalized receiver (GR) constructed based on thegeneralized approach to signal processing in noise. The performanceof space-time transmit diversity is examined over fast- and slow fading
channels. The underlying space-time system employs N = 2 transmit
antennas and M receive antennas at the mobile user and receiver basestation, respectively. We consider the performance of the space-time
multiuser system when using the GR to combat the effect of multiuser
interference. In our analysis, we derive a closed-form expression for the
probability of bit error for both fast- and slow-fading channels. These
theoretical results are shown to be very accurate when compared tosystem simulations. Both simulations and theoretical results prove that,regardless of the system load, the full diversity order of 2NM for fast-fading
channels and NM for slow-fading channels is always maintained, and only
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) loss is incurred. This SNR loss is proved to323+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9103:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing IX

9103-6, Session 2

allocated frequencies not currently accessed by their primary users. Primaryusers own the rights to radiate at a specific frequency and geographic
location, secondary users opportunistically attempt to radiate at a specificfrequency when the primary user is not using it. We quantify optimal signal
detection in map based cognitive radio networks with multiple rapidly
varying phase changes and multiple orthogonal signals. Doppler shift
occurs due to reflection, scattering, and rapid vehicle movement. Pathpropagation as well as vehicle movement produces either constructive
or destructive interference with the incident wave. Our signal detection
algorithms can assist the Doppler spread compensation algorithm bydeciding how many phase changes in signals are present in a selected bandof interest. Additionally we can populate a spatial radio environment map(REM) database with known information that can be leveraged in an ad hoc
network to facilitate Dynamic Spectrum Access. We show how topography
can help predict the impact of multi-paths on phase change, as well as
about the prediction from dense traffic areas. Utilization of high resolution
geospatial data layers in RF propagation analysis is directly applicable.

Wireless sensors in complex networks: study andperformance evaluation of a new hybrid model
Peppino Fazio, Vincenzo Curia, Francesco Mirabelli, Univ. della
Calabria (Italy); Miroslav Voznak, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava(Czech Republic)
One approach for minimizing the digital divide in areas not covered by fiber
cabling or telephone lines, or allowing to optimize the communication ofany existing real network is modeling it in a kind of small-world network.
Therefore, in this paper we propose a new modeling technique applied
to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). The modeling has the purpose of
ensuring an improvement of the distributed communication, quantifying it interms of clustering coefficient and average diameter of the entire network.
The distributions of degree of individual nodes in the network will follow a
logarithmic trend, meaning that the most of the nodes are not necessarily
adjacent but, for each pair of them, there exists a path relatively short thatconnects them. The effectiveness of the proposed idea has been validated
thorough a deep campaign of simulations.

9103-9, Session 2

Data analysis and integration of environmental
sensors to meet human needs

9103-7, Session 2

Amilcare Francesco Santamaria, Domenico Barletta, Domenico
Falbo, Floriano De Rango, Alessandro Imbrogno, Univ. della Calabria(Italy)SmartHome: a domotic framework based on
smart sensing and actuator network to reduceenergy wastes

Nowadays one of the main task of technology is to make people’s life
simpler and easier. Ambient intelligence is an emerging discipline that brings
intelligence to our environments making them sensitive to us. This discipline
has developed following the spread of sensors devices, sensor networks,
pervasive computing and artificial intelligence. In this work we attempt toenhance the Internet of Thing with intelligence and awareness exploring
various interactions between humans beings and the environment they
are in. In particular, the core of the system is composed of an automation
system which is made up with a domotic control unit and several
sensors installed in the environment. The task of the sensors is to collectinformations around the environment sending them to the control unit. Oncethe informations are collected the core combines them with those comingfrom Internet in order to establish meaning and picking up informations
about human needs from them. The knowledge of the needs and the current
environments status compose the inputs of the intelligence block, which has
the main goals to find the right actions to satisfy human needs in a real timeway. Moreover, the system is able to learn dynamically human habits andto understand their needs by an accurate speech recognition. In particularin this paper we mainly focused on definition and implementation of thealgorithm that can deeply understand the distinctive characteristic of the
speaker (sex, age, emotional state, etc.), the context of the speech, theontology and the semantic of any conversation in the environment.

Amilcare Francesco Santamaria, Domenico Falbo, Domenico
Barletta, Floriano De Rango, Univ. della Calabria (Italy)
Domestic environment and human interaction with services supplied bydomotic devices is being to be a very interesting application field. Thisapplication environment make possible a great interaction between humans,
life environments and devices. The increasing of this interactions is themain goal of this work that can improve the classic concept of domotic
to a new step giving to the static sensing and actions framework theintelligence to learn users habits and behaviors in order to make smart
actions that can change dynamically in a real time way following insideand outside environments as well. This framework can be used for several
fields of application including lightening, heating, conditioning, managing
of water and energetic resources. The proposed system can optimize users
consuptions giving the possibility to save money and to reduce the impact
of energy consuptions to the earth environments matching the new “green”
motto requirements. In this way, the overall system going towards thecentral concept of “internet of thing” where there are an overall intelligencethat manage the objects making possible a more efficient way to produce,
follow and manage domotic policies. Proposed framework bases its
intelligence on several self-adapting algorithms that have the capacity tolearn users’ behaviors and to change their outputs according to historical
data and realtime happening as well. Each action is also driven by the evenmore key concepts of efficient energy use that mean economic bills saving.

9103-10, Session 3

A low complexity approach for spread OFDM
signal detection

9103-8, Session 2

Ali A. Elghariani, Michael D. Zoltowski, Purdue Univ. (United States)

Predicting impact of multi-paths on phasechange in map-based vehicular ad hoc networks

Spread OFDM is based on spreading data symbols across all OFDM
subcarriers prior to modulation such that each subcarrier contains a linear
combination of all data symbols. Thus, if several carriers are lost due tospectral null, it may still be possible to recover all the transmitted symbols[1] , [2]. This is in contrast to the traditional OFDM where the symbol is lost
if the carrier modulating it was nulled by the channel. This technique wasintroduced to improve the frequency diversity of the OFDM system which inturn leads to an improvement in the MIMO-OFDM system

Mark D. Rahmes, George Lemieux, Harris Corp. (United States);
Jerome Sonnenberg, Harris Corp. GCSD (United States); David B.
Chester, Harris Corp. (United States)
Dynamic Spectrum Access, which through its ability to adapt the operating
frequency of a radio, is widely believed to be a solution to the limited
spectrum problem. Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) can extend highcapacity mobile communications over large areas where fixed and tetheredmobile systems are not available. In one use case with high potential impact
cognitive radio employs spectrum sensing to facilitate identification of324

SPIE DSS 2014

In this paper, unique combination of signal processing procedures is
introduced to provide a low complexity receiver with improved performancecompared to linear Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) receiver. Soft
output MMSE is implemented first to identify the most and the least reliable·

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Conference 9103:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing IX
States)bit positions using approximated Log Likelihood Ratio (LLR) information.
The most reliable bits are deemed correctly received and the unreliable bits
undergo Branch and Bound (BB) detection process in a sequential manner.
Within this block of unreliable bits, BB starts with the most unreliable bits
and then the second most unreliable bits and so on. Simulation results
show that the proposed technique provides improved performance with asignificant reduction in the computational complexity.

Coprime array is an attractive structure to achieve sparse array
configurations due to its simplicity and effectiveness. A coprime arrayutilizes a coprime pair of uniform linear subarrays, in which the respective
interelement spacing is much larger than the unit spacing which is often
half wavelength. Alternatively, effective coprime array configurations can be
implemented using a uniform linear array (ULA) with two different sensing
frequencies that hold a coprime relationship. This enables the integration of
the coprime array and filter concepts, which were developed in the spectralor spatial domains. The joint spatio-spectral processing and representation
provided by this array structure with coprime frequencies achieves highcapabilities in meeting system performance and complexity constraints.
Such joint-variable approach provides great flexibility in system designand offers the capability of on-the-fly reconfiguration, depending on theapplication environments. This paper examines the performance of theextended ULA configuration with coprime sensing frequencies when it isapplied to direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation. In particular, we analyze
the number of detectable signals and the estimation accuracy as related tothe array configuration and sensing frequencies.

The advantage of this proposal is that it greatly reduces the complexity
compared to the previous work because it uses the optimum detector
only for the very noisy bits while the rest are detected using linear MMSE
detector. If these noisy bits are large then this optimal detector is done insequential steps to reduce the computations.

9103-12, Session 3

Improving BER in a MIMO free space opticalcommunication system in a turbulence channel
with spatial arrangement of the receiver array
Anjan K. Ghosh, Tripura Univ. (India); Digvijay Panchratna, Dhirubhai
Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology(India)9103-15, Session 4

Direction estimation, source location, andmodulation detection for RF sources using
steerable 3D IIR beam filters

Free space optical (FSO) communication offers a high speed, secure,unlicensed and low cost mode of communication and access. However, theefficacy of line-of-sight FSO communication in atmosphere is reduced byscintillation and scattering of the laser beam carrying the data signal. The
use of multiple laser sources and multiple optical detectors, i.e., the MIMO
technique, is popular for mitigating the adverse effects in a high data rate
FSO system in a turbulence atmospheric channel with attenuation andfading. MIMO configurations take benefit from the spatial diversity andreceive multiple independent copies of the same signal at the receiver,hence resulting in increased signal-to-noise ratio or BER.

Nilan Udayanga, Arjuna Madanayake, Chamith Wijenayake, The
Univ. of Akron (United States)
The exact location and direction of transmission of far-field RF sources
are important parameters in many decision making processes in defense
situations. Several application areas such as military wireless networks, radarand cognitive radio (CR) environments rely on source location in order toachieve desired performance. Multidimensional signal processing techniques
are a strong candidate to help accomplish such RF location/direction
requirements because of certain advantages, such as very low complexity,
compared to traditional phased arrays techniques.

In a MIMO FSO system the variation of the overall SNR and BER withparameters such as the number and the spatial arrangement of multiple
transmitters and receivers in the diversity system are difficult to determine.
In this paper we first consider a SIMO system with a single transmitter andmultiple receivers with small apertures. A statistical model is developed
for an OOK system considering atmospheric fading and misalignment
factors between the spatially distributed receivers. Using both deterministic
methods and Monte Carlo simulations we show that the number and thespatial arrangement of the receivers can be chosen so as to maximize theoverall performance of the diversity system. Then the results are extended
to a MIMO system to improve the overall performance even in the presenceof attenuation and scintillation in the atmosphere.

Objective of this paper is to propose a new, real time RF source locationand direction estimation system at the theoretical and simulation level. The
proposed method uses 3-D infinite impulse response (IIR) beam filters andaperture beam forming techniques to help locate RF sources in the presenceof high interference and jamming signals.
Several planar rectangular antenna arrays are required in the proposed
approach. The arrays are located at different geographic locations withknown separations. Each aperture can scan the 3-D space to resolve its
direction of arrivals (DOA) over a wide band of RF range. Estimated angles
of arrival in azimuthal and elevation planes together with known coordinatesof the aperture lead to the calculation of locations. We propose detection
methods such as cyclostationary feature detection for separating several
RF transmitters having closely matching frequency channels and physicallocation.

9103-13, Session 3

MIMO space-time codes with decoding algorithmof low dimensionality

The proposed RF location and waveform estimation method can eventually
be implemented in real time object tracking systems and can be used tovisualize the existing RF sources in realistic propagation environments.

Xinjia Chen, Ernest L. Walker, Southern Univ. and A&M College(United States)
We propose a new structure of Space-Time codes of which the decoding
problem can be decomposed into multiple one-dimensional closest-pointsearch. The search can be accomplished by a simple rounding method.
The new coding technique can be applied to data transmission of sensor
systems, where the decoding task is expected to be quickly accomplished
for the purpose of fast response.

9103-16, Session 4

Road safety alerting system with radar and GPS
cooperation in a VANET environment
Amilcare Francesco Santamaria, Cesare Sottile, Floriano De Rango,
Univ. della Calabria (Italy); Miroslav Voznak, V?B-Technical Univ. ofOstrava (Czech Republic)

9103-14, Session 4

DOA estimation exploiting coprime frequencies

New applications in wireless environments are increasing and keeping evenmore interests from the developer companies and researcher. In particular,
in these last few years the government and institutional organization

Si Qin, Yimin D. Zhang, Moeness G. Amin, Villanova Univ. (United325+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9103:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing IX
for road safety spent a lot of resources and moneys to promote VANET
technology, also car manufactories are giving a lot of contribution on thisfield as well. In our paper, we propose an innovative system to increase roadsafety matching the requests of the market to make possible a cooperation
between onboard devices. The vehicles are equipped with On Board Unit
(OBU) and with On Board Radar Unit (OBRU) which exploiting IEEE 802.11p
standard can spread alerting messages around the network regarding
warning and dangerous situations. Vehicles move along roads observing theenvironment, traffic and road conditions and vehicles parameters as well.
These information can be elaborated and shared between neighbors andRoad Side Unit (RSU) and, of course, with the Internet allowing inter-systemcommunications. Radar systems have the task of detecting the environmentthat vehicles are passing through, as for example obstacles, road accidents,
dangerous situations and so on. Once detected this information, throughthe use of the GPS receiver (equipped by the vehicles) will be recognized
the exact location of the caught event and after an elaboration of data theinformations is spread along the network. Once the drivers are advised
they can make some precautional actions such as decreasing of travelingspeed or modifing of current road path. In this work, the routing algorithm,
which has the main goal to rapidly disseminate information are also been
investigated.

sparsity thus resulting in closer conformance of the reconstruction
boundaries to the actual support of the signal source being reconstructed.
Both near-field and far-field situations are considered and experimental
results are provided.

9103-17, Session 49103-19, Session 5

Application of novel quasi-electrostatic sensor
arrays for time based data collection andprocessing of supersonic, subsonic, and transonic
revolving projectiles

Smart sensing to drive real-time loads schedulingalgorithm in a domotic architecture

9103-18, Session 5

Single source noise reduction of received HF
audio: experimental study
Eric Campbell, Carlos O. Alva, Harris Corp. (United States)
This paper visits the applications and effects of single source noise
reduction of clear voice audio on software defined radio transmissions.
The audio input is sampled by a CODEC and processed by a DSP. The
algorithm used is Harris patented technology currently used in vocoder
noise reduction. The algorithm is adapted and applied to the operation ofclear voice and analog voice security (AVS) to enhance the audio quality.
The application of such noise reduction to enhance received audio is also
investigated.

Amilcare Francesco Santamaria, Floriano De Rango, Andrea
Vaccaro, Pierfrancesco Raimondo, Univ. della Calabria (Italy)

Christopher J. Benfield, Wesley B. Williams, The Univ. of North
Carolina at Charlotte (United States)

Nowadays the focus on power consumption represent a very importantfactor regarding the reduction of power consumption with correlated
costs and the environmental sustainability problems. Automatic loadbased control on power consumption and life cycle represent the optimal
solution for keeping costs low. The purpose of these systems is to modulate
the power requests of electricity avoiding loads mismanagement byusing intelligent techniques to manage them that are based on real timescheduling algorithms. The goal is to coordinate a set of electrical loads tooptimize energy costs and consumptions based on the stipulated contract
terms. The proposed algorithm use two new main notions: priority driven
loads and smart scheduling loads. The priority driven loads can be turnedoff (stand by) according to a priority policy established by the user if theconsumption exceed a defined threshold, on the contrary smart schedulingloads are scheduled in a particular way in order to keep their lifecycle andto safeguard the devices functionalities or allowing user to freely use thedevices without the risk of exceeding the power threshold. The algorithm ,using these two kind of notions and taking into account user requirements,
manages loads activation and deactivation allowing the completion of theiroperation cycle without exceeding the consumption threshold in an off-peaktime range according to the electricity fare. This kind of logic is inspired byindustrial lean manufacturing which focus is to minimize any kind of power
waste and to optimize the available resources.

Sensors based on measuring the quasi-electrostatic field of travelingprojectiles have been developed to detect the passage of a bullet in flight.
These sensors provide an alternative to existing optical chronographtechnologies, which are sensitive to variations in environmental lighting, andmagnetic chronographs, which require close proximity to the bullet’s path.
In contrast these sensors are not sensitive to lighting changes and priortesting has demonstrated the ability to reliably detect bullets at ranges ofat least 3 meters. A linear array of these sensors has been used to measure
the time of flight between the sensors, which along with the known distance
between the sensors can be used to calculate the projectile’s velocity.
These velocity measurements are compared to established chronographtechnology as a measurement validation. By extending this array of sensors
along the projected path of the projectile, a profile of the projectiles positionand velocity through flight can be calculated. This expected utility of thisdata is in refining the calculations that are performed to determine a ballistic
solution, particularly in long range engagements, where there has been
limited availability of accurate projectile velocity measurements. This robust
sensor array that can easily be deployed represents an inexpensive way
to experimentally investigate numerous phenomenon related to ballistics
modeling.

9103-20, Session 5

9103-23, Session 4

A wireless time synchronized event control
systemEntropy formulations for signal reconstruction
from sensor arrays (Invited Paper)

Robert Klug, Peter Scheffel, Jonathan Williams, McQ, Inc. (UnitedStates)Raghuveer Rao, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Prudhvi
Gurram, MBO Partners Inc. (United States)

McQ has developed a wireless, time-synchronized, event control system tocontrol, monitor, and record events with precise timing over large test sites
for applications such as high speed rocket sled payload testing. Events ofinterest may include firing rocket motors and launch sleds, initiating flares,
ejecting bombs, ejecting seats, triggering high speed cameras, measuring
sled velocity, and triggering events based on a velocity window or othercriteria. The system consists of Event Controllers, a Launch Controller, anda wireless network. The Event Controllers can be easily deployed at areas

Correlative interferometric imaging from sensor arrays relies onreconstructing source intensity by using the cross-correlation acrossnear-field or far-field measurements from multiple sensors of the arrays.
Often the reconstruction problem is ill-posed resulting in unrealisticreconstructions of signals and images. This paper examines the role thatdifferent entropy metrics can play in achieving various outcomes in thereconstruction process, ranging from improved resolution to inducing

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Conference 9103:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing IX

9103-11,of interest within the test site and maintain sub-100nanosecond timing
accuracy for monitoring sensors, electronically triggering other equipment
and event, and providing timing signals to other test equipment. Recorded
data and status information is reported over the wireless network to a server
and user interface. Over the wireless network, the user interface configures
the system based on a user specified mission plan and provides real timecommand, control, and monitoring of the devices and data. An overview ofthe system, its features, performance, and potential uses is presented.

Features and range of the FSO by use of
the OFDM and QAM modulation in different
atmospheric conditions
Andrej Liner, Jakub Jaros, Martin Papes, Petr Koudelka, Jan Latal,
Jakub Cubik, Frantisek Perecar, Vladimír Vašinek, VŠB-Technical
Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)

9103-21, Session 5

The FSO (free space optics) communication uses the visible or infrared
light for transmission. As well as cable optics FSO also uses laser for thedata transmission, but the data flow is not transmitted in the fiber but inthe air. This technology does not require expensive fiber optic cables andor ensure the licensing zone as it is in the case of radio networks. As well as
in the cable transmissions are different modulations used. Nowadays, themost used modulations are QAM and OFDM. OFDM belongs to the bordergroup of modulations with more carrier waves, where the information’s
are transmitted via subcarrier waves with lower data flow and baud rate.
It is mainly used in broadband wire and wireless communications. OFDM
provides very high signal resistance against the interference, chromatic
dispersion and polarization mode dispersion. Modulation method involves
the use of several hundreds to thousands of subcarrier waves. QAM is acomposite modulation, which uses for symbol creation the combinationof ASK (amplitude shift keying) and PSK (phase shift keying). Each stateis represented by a specific value of the amplitude and phase. It’s actuallymultistate modulation, which is able to transmit n bits by m symbols. Thatmeans that more bits are transferred at one moment. This paper deals
with the modulations used in FSO. Most used modulations in FSO are
OFDM and QAM. The main task was to determine how much is the reach ofmodulations changing with the changes of density (visibility) of fog and theset transceiver power. As software environment for simulations has beenused Optisystem program. For the simulation of the atmosphere the FSO
component has been used. In this component were simulated attenuations,which are responding to varying densities of fog. At different intensities offog were changing the received power.

Distributive security mechanism for mobile
cellular users in GSM cellular networks
Suresh K. Vashist, Maharshi Dayanand Univ., Rohtak (India)
Cellular communication across the world has become synonym to essential
necessity in all walks of life globally. The cellular technology has also
progressed leaps and bounds in last few decades right from Analog Mobile
Personnel Services (AMPS) to 1G, 2G (GSM), 3G (UMTS) and 4G. Cellularsubscriber’s density has also increased in the similar ration. Various security
features have been suggested by the researchers and implemented by theservice providers of the cellular networks. However, with the use of cellular
network by users for various more important fields like banking, defense,
research and governance, it becomes pertinent to enhance the security
features in distributive manner so as to give freedom to the users to choose
the encryption key rather than keep dependence on service provider. The
past precedence have shown the reluctance of GSM cellular service provider
even to implement the A5/3 algorithm which is much rugged than A5/1
against eavesdropper and cloning, because it involves change in hardware
and software in the existing network elements.
In the present paper we shall focus on Distributive Security Mechanism(DSM) to be provided to the users in the mobile handset instrument. This
proposed mechanism will be seamless to the cellular network for theduration of the call. It will not put any extra financial burden on the service
provider for the core network elements. The Mobile Handset (MH) user
will have the privilege to choose the encryption key as per his/her choice.
However, the MH unit manufacturers need to implement the proposedmechanism and they can pass on the additional expenses to the users. The
methods of implementation of the mechanism and analysis of the effects
have been carried out in the present paper.

9103-22, Session 5

Sensing technologies for monitoring andconservation of cultural heritage: wirelessdetection of decay factors
M. I. Martínez-Garrido, R. Fort, Instituto de Geociencias (Spain) andCampus Moncloa (Spain)
We provide a complete monitoring system by involving different sensing
technologies as wireless sensor networks and other non destructive
techniques to be used for heritage conservation applications and the studyof decay phenomena. The implementation has been carried out in different
and exigent architectural, archeological and natural heritage deployments aswell as museums.
The communications quality of wireless sensor networks throughcharacterization of the received signal and links is evaluated, together
with reliability in measurement systems, sensor capabilities and energy
consumptions which are analyzed for a long-term and low energy
monitoring solution, taking into account processing data possibilities ofthese sensing techniques. The monitoring methodology via wireless sensing
is also evaluated depending on software and hardware aspects for an
appropriate validation and use in the heritage field.

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Conference 9104: Spectral Imaging Sensor Technologies:
Innovation Driving Advanced Application Capabilities
Thursday 8 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9104 Spectral Imaging Sensor Technologies: Innovation Driving Advanced Application
Capabilities

9104-1, Session 1

The solution of NASA’s HyspIRI is two large offner spectrometer withstaggered slits and FPAs. Spectrometer with long image plane in Bothfuture hyperspectral landsat mission of Raytheon and HyspIRI of NASA.
The dimension of spectrometer is approximately proportional to the lengthof slit, on condition that definite image quality is given. For grating-type
spectrometer, the lower groove density is needed in larger dimension
spectrometer. The grating is expensive when the groove density is too low.
Both single chip large format FPA and modular one are costly, especially for
infrared hyperspectral system.

Small satellite sensor payloads: hyperspectral
imaging implications for earth monitoring andremote sensing (Invited Paper)David G. Goodenough, Univ. of Victoria (Canada)
The utilization of space-based hyperspectral imaging combined with otherremote sensing techniques such as radar offer a unique and innovative
ability to extract critical information addressing the needs of researchersand practitioners in the areas of earth monitoring, climate change, littoralzone ecology, forestry applications, and mining and exploration. To utilize
this information and extract meaningful data products requires advanced
imagery analysis capabilities and computing capabilities to fuse sensor data
products.

A wide swath hyperspectral optics based on field splitter and modular
small offner spectrometer was presented in the paper. Parameters trade-off
are given,such as F-number, pixel size, length of slit etc. The advantage ofthe optical design is small and modular spectrometers, FPA with standard
format. The small dimension spectrometer for space application is low costand immune to thermal stress and zero-gravity. FPA with standard format
is also low cost and higher technology readiness level. The result of opticaldesign with telescope and spectrometers is showed.

9104-2, Session 1

9104-4, Session 1

SYSIPHE: focus on SIELETERS, the medium andlongwave infrared spectral imaging instrument

Development of co-boresighted Vis-NIR-SWIR
hyperspectral imaging systems

Yann Ferrec, Christophe Coudrain, Sophie Thétas, Jérôme Primot,
Laurent Rousset-Rouviere, Remi Gouyon, Marc Jacquart, Marcel
Caes, Michel Tauvy, Sylvie Bernhardt, Joel R. Deschamps, Didier
Henry, Alain P. Kattnig, Philippe Perrault, Gilles Le Coadou, Roland
Domel, Patricia Cymbalista, ONERA (France)

Kwok-Keung Wong, Headwall Photonics Inc (United States)
Hyperspectral Imaging is used in many applications to identify or analyzematerials in a scene based on the materials’ spectral signatures. Uniquefeatures in the spectral signatures can span beyond the spectral range ofthe hyperspectral imager. Additionally, lighting conditions and other factors
can adversely affect the quality of data. Expanding the spectral range ofhyperspectral imaging systems can therefore improve the accuracy ofobject/material recognition/analysis by allowing the system to “see” moreof the spectral signatures as well as expand the number of objects/materials
in a scene that can be identified/analyzed. This is particularly important
in applications where erroneous identification or analysis can result in
substantial risk or cost.

Sysiphe is an airborne hyperspectral imaging sensor, result of a cooperation
between France (Onera and DGA) and Norway (NEO and FFI). It is a uniquesystem by its spatial sampling -0.5m with a 500m swath at a ground heightof 2000m- combined with its wide spectral coverage -from 0.4µm to 11.5µm
in the atmospheric transmission bands. Its infrared component, named
Sieleters, consists of two high étendue imaging static Fourier transform
spectrometers, one for the midwave infrared and one for the longwave
infrared. These two imaging spectrometers have very close in design, sinceboth are made of a Michelson interferometer, a refractive imaging system,
and a large IRFPA (1016x440 pixels). Moreover, both are cooled at cryogenic
temperature and mounted on their own stabilization platform which allows
to both actively control and independently measure the line of sight. These
data are useful to reconstruct and georeference the spectral image from theraw interferometric images. Sysiphe first flight occurred in September, 2013,
and was fully successful. We will present the design of the Sieleters system,
its laboratory characterization, and airborne experimental results

More and more users are using two (or more) hyperspectral imagers
to obtain different spectral ranges for their applications. Very few are
effectively combining the data from the different hyperspectral imagers
because it would require the hyperspectral imagers to be operated undertightly controlled conditions and the process of pixel co-registration isa very tedious and problematic post-processing step. In addition, thispost-processing step prevents the use of the combined data in real-time
applications.
This paper describes a co-boresighted Vis-NIR and SWIR hyperspectral
imaging system which Headwall Photonics is currently developing. It
integrates two hyperspectral imagers, each optimized for its respective
spectral range, into a single system with real-time pixel co-registration
resulting in a system capable of producing wide-spectrum hyperspectral
images with high spectral resolution.

9104-3, Session 1

Optical design of wide swath hyperspectral
imagerAside from enabling real-time wide spectrum applications, such a systemsignificantly simplifies the data acquisition and analysis for the user.

Yueming Wang, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (China);
Jun-Wei Lang, Xizhong Xiao, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China) and Univ. of Chinese Academy of Sciences (China); Zhikang
Bao, Jianyu Wang, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (China)

9104-5, Session 1

Lightweight airborne imaging spectrometer
remote sensing system for mineral exploration in
China

Hyperspectral imaging technology was paid much attention for civil andmilitary application during the past decade. It’s very difficult to design
and manufacture a wide swath hyperspectral imager. Fast optics and large
format frame transfer detector are challenging in technology and costly
in finance. Large format imaging spectrometers for future hyperspectral
landsat mission was presented in 2011. The study is based on Raytheon’s
breadboard spectrometer technology and semi-modular FPA approach.

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SPIE DSS 2014

Taixia Wu, Lifu Zhang, Yi Cen, Jinnian Wang, Qingxi Tong, Instituteof Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (China)
Imaging spectrometers provide the unique combination of both spatially·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9104: Spectral Imaging Sensor Technologies:
Innovation Driving Advanced Application Capabilities
contiguous spectra and spectrally contiguous images of the Earth’s surface
that allows spatial mapping of these minerals. One of the successful
applications of imaging spectrometers remote sensing identified was
geological mapping and mineral exploration. A light weight airborne
imaging spectrometer system (LAISS) has been developed in China. The
hardware of the compact LAISS include a VNIR imaging spectrometer,
a SWIR imaging spectrometer, a high resolution camera and a position
and attitude device. The weight of the system is less than 20kg. The VNIR
imaging spectrometer measures incoming radiation in 344 contiguous
spectral channels in the 437–902 nm wavelength range with spectral
resolution of better than 5 nm and creates images of 464 pixels for a lineof targets with a nominal instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of ~1 mrad. The
SWIR imaging spectrometer measures incoming radiation in the 1000–2500
nm wavelength range with spectral resolution of better than 10 nm with anominal instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of ~2 mrad. The 400 to 2500nm
spectral range provides abundant information about many important
Earth-surface minerals. An UAV carried flying experiment has been donein Ma’anshan iron mine, Anhui Province, China. The experiment results
show the LAISS have achieved relative high performance levels in terms ofsignal to noise ratio and image quality. The potential applications for lightweight airborne imaging spectrometer system in mineral exploration are
tremendous.

truth’ for remote sensing applications.
The paper will feature an overview of application areas where airborne andground-truth meet, a discussion of the challenges users need to address,
and a view toward where the technology is going.

9104-8, Session 2

Integration of UAVs and manned aircraft for
future concept
Mustafa Özartan, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)
The success of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) used by US forces in Bosnia,
Afghanistan and Iraq signals a demand for wider use of these systems.
In addition U.S. has gained many experiences. These experiences havedetected advantages and disadvantages of the UAVs. Considering theadvantageous aspects of UAVs, it is certain that UAVs plays and will goon playing an indispensable role in the future operational environment.
However, eliminating and minimizing their disadvantages is very importantfor both users and humanity. In this work, the situational awareness in theprocess of decision making will be reassessed to decrease the faults of UAVs
by creating an operating plan of the UAVs supported with manned aircraft.

9104-6, Session 1
9104-9, Session 2

Demosaicking for full motion video 9-band SWIR
sensorMiniaturization of sub-meter resolution
hyperspectral imagers on unmanned aerial
systems

Andrey Kanaev, Mary R. Kutteruf, Michael K. Yetzbacher, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Michael J. DePrenger, Marjorie
Rawhouser, Tekla Research Inc. (United States)

Samuel Hill, Headwall Photonics Inc. (United States)

Short wave infrared (SWIR) spectral imaging systems are vital forIntelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) applications becauseof their abilities to autonomously detect targets and classify materials.
Typically the spectral imagers are incapable of providing Full Motion Video
because of their reliance on line scanning. We enable FMV capability for a
SWIR multi-spectral camera by creating a repeating pattern of 3x3 spectral
filters on a staring focal plane array (FPA). In this paper we present theimagery from FMV SWIR camera with nine discrete bands and discuss
image processing algorithms necessary for its performance. The maintask of image processing in this case is demosaicking of the spectral
bands i.e. reconstructing full spectral images with original FPA resolution
from spatially subsampled and incomplete spectral data acquired withthe choice of filter array pattern. To the best of author’s knowledge, thedemosaicking algorithms for nine or more equally sampled bands havenot been reported before. Moreover all existing algorithms developed fordemosaicking visible color filter arrays with less than nine colors assume
either certain relationship between the visible colors, which are not valid
for SWIR imaging, or presence of one color band with higher sampling ratecompared to the rest of the bands, which does not conforms to our spectral
filter pattern. We will discuss and present results for two novel approaches
to demosaicking: interpolation using multi-band edge information andapplication of multi-frame super-resolution to a single frame resolution
enhancement of multi-spectral spatially multiplexed images.

Traditional airborne environmental monitoring has frequently deployedhyperspectral imaging as a leading tool for characterizing and analyzing ascene’s critical spectrum-based signatures for applications in agriculture
genomics and crop health, vegetation and mineral monitoring, andhazardous material detection. As the acceptance of hyperspectral evaluation
grows in the airborne community, there has been a dramatic trend inmoving the technology from use on mid-size aircraft to Unmanned Aerial
Systems (UAS). The use of UAS accomplishes a number of goals including
the reduction in cost to run multiple seasonal evaluations over smaller but
highly valuable land-areas, the ability to use frequent data collections tomake rapid decisions on land management, and the improvement of spatial
resolution by flying at lower altitudes (<500 ft).
Despite this trend, there are several key parameters affecting the use of
traditional hyperspectral instruments in UAS with payloads less than 10 lbs.
where size, weight and power (SWAP) are critical to how high and how far agiven UAS can fly. Additionally, on many of the light-weight UAS, users are
frequently trying to capture data from one or more instruments to augment
the hyperspectral data collection, thus reducing the amount of SWAP
available to the hyperspectral instrumentation.
The following manuscript will provide an analysis on a newly-developed
miniaturized hyperspectral imaging platform that provides full hyperspectral
resolution and traditional hyperspectral capabilities without sacrificing
performance to accommodate the decreasing SWAP of smaller and smaller
UAS platforms.

9104-7, Session 2

Remote sensing: correlation of airborne
hyperspectral and ground-truthing data

9104-10, Session 2

Integration of spectral sensors onto multi-rotor
UAVs: from Hollywood to remote sensing

Brian Curtiss, Analytical Spectral Devices, Inc. (United States)
Spectral instrumentation for field, near-line, and on-line materials
measurements can be effectively combined with airborne hyperspectral
sensors to provide the scientific research community with a highly resolved,
highly accurate representation of geological formations, meteorology
conditions, and more. Correlating airborne hyperspectral data with groundsampled data is a particularly beneficial exercise within the realm of ‘ground329+1 360 676 3290

Jeff Jackson, Infinite Jib Inc. (Canada)
Before 2006, it was unclear who was involved in developing Multirotor
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV). In 2006, the German company
MikroKopter built the first commercially available multirotor kits. The
industry grew gradually and in 2012, started to expand worldwide. A year·

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Conference 9104: Spectral Imaging Sensor Technologies:
Innovation Driving Advanced Application Capabilities
real data that can be crunched. We will showcase some examples of spectral
imaging applied to cultural heritage and show how calibrated quantitative
spectral imaging provides important information for those responsible forthe world’s patrimony. In addition, we will lay out some future goals for
hardware and software to make these tools easily available to conservators.

later, the industry exploded, and a wide variety of craft, ranging from several
hundred to tens of thousands of dollars, were available.
Multirotor craft development would not be possible without advancements
in many areas of radio control (RC) and computerization. A remarkablefeature of multirotors is that signals from a variety of sensors can becollected into a computer system; the computer system uses these signals
to accurately control the power sent to propellers which keep the craft
stable in the air. Once this science was mastered, the multirotor communities
were quick to use this technology in cameras offering a unique point ofview.

9104-13, Session 3

Utility of hyperspectral imagers in the mining
industry: Italy’s gypsum reserves

Over the past few years, major advancements in different aspects of craft
design have made it possible for the multirotor craft to do a wide rangeof tasks and applications which would have been unheard of just a few
years ago. In the presentation, I will discuss the parts of the multirotor andhow they work in harmony to create a craft that can be balanced using thepower of propellers. In 2013, the explosive growth in amateur multirotor
development and Ready to Fly (RTF) hobby grade systems has brought theworld’s attention to these amazing craft.

Janette H. Wilson, Headwall Photonics, Inc. (United States)
As world population increases and countries strive to market their natural
resources for income, there is a need for the mining industry to adapt to theincreased demand for both finished and unfinished product. The additional
stress of safety concerns and negative environmental impacts involved withmining only adds to the complexity of the mining industry’s problems.

Everywhere you turn - from TV shows to TV commercials - the multirotor
is everywhere. Photographers and Cinematographers were the first to
realize how useful multirotors could be. Everything from feature movies
to your favorite Discovery Channel shows are now filmed using multirotor
crafts. In 2014, multirotors will be used for industrial purposes. Industrial
applications will grow significantly this year with numerous practicaluses such as Photogrammetry, Infrared Imaging, Aerial LIDAR scans, andHyper-spectral Imaging. Previously, Infinite Jib partnered with FLIR, a world
leader in Infrared Sensors to create the world’s first UAV to capture raw
radiometric data. This year, Infinite Jib has partnered with a leading providerof advanced, miniaturized spectral imaging sensors to create the world’s
first multispectral UAV system for applications in agriculture, mineralogy,
and physics.

Fortunately, hyperspectral technology as a means to facilitate solutions
to these problems is becoming more and more affordable to commercial
industry. Hyperspectral technology is applicable for mining in two key
areas: (1) the mine and (2) the processing factory. In the mine setting,hyperspectral imagers are well-suited to aid in identifying components
and their characteristics prior to mining as to increase efficiency andprioritization of material removal. Furthermore, in the case where material
has similar visual characteristics, a quick hyperspectral image scan will allow
the supervisors to determine the composition of the material to make on
the spot decisions as to the suitability of composition and if mining should
be started or stopped. Allowing for quick decision-making in the field has
the potential to cut down on waste and man hours in mining undesirable
material. In the factory setting, aside from the fact that the mined material
should be better sorted prior to entering the factory, hyperspectral imagers
can be used to further sort material based on its chemical signature, as wellas other physical characteristics. Information obtained by the hyperspectral
imager can be reduced to a signal that is sent to a mechanical sorter or
robot which tells the machine what to do with the material, cutting down on
the amount of in-line supervision required.

In 2014, we expect to see more advancement in the multirotor world, withcustomers looking to increase the amount of weight the crafts can carry andthe time that the craft can stay in the air. Infinite Jib is meeting those needs
by offering new and innovative designs to remain a world leader in the
production of ready-to-fly systems. Focus on parameters of Size, Weight,
and Power, known as SWaP, that drive UAV payload performance will be
addressed during this presentation.

Evaporite deposits can be particularly tricky to mine due to the numberof minerals present, varying hydration state, similarity in physicalcharacteristics between minerals, the extent to which each mineral ismixed within an outcrop, etc. For this reason, it is helpful to assess theapplicability of hyperspectral imaging in mining these types of deposits.
This work employs two Headwall Photonics, Inc. hyperspectral imagers inthe VNIR (400-1000 nm) and SWIR (950-2500 nm) spectral regions tocharacterize materials present for the production of sheetrock from a minein Castellina Marittina, Italy. The information gained from this study showsthat mineral samples thought to be gypsum, were misinterpreted. Throughhyperspectral imaging, we were able to determine the proper components
to be prioritized in the mining process.

9104-11, Session 3

Spectral imaging innovation: food safety andfood quality applications
Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service (United States)
No Abstract Available

9104-12, Session 3

9104-14, Session 3

Spectral imaging for cultural and historicalpreservation

Classification and identification of different levelof aflatoxin B1 on maize kernels surface using
infrared reflectance hyperspectral imaging

Gregory Bearman, ANE Image (United States)
Over the last 20 years, spectral imaging has found a variety of applications,
including cultural heritage. Broadly, this includes art, monuments, statues,
buildings, ancient texts and books and even excavation archeological sites
such as Angkor Watt or Caesarea. Spectral imaging has been used to read
obscured texts, identify pigments in paintings and examine the underdrawings of classic art. The decline in cost and increase in performance
has made this tool more accessible to conservators and others in cultural
heritage. Imaging beyond 1 micron creates an entirely new opportunity forchemical imaging, critical for this area. Recent work has focused on creating
quantitative imaging for monitoring changes in cultural heritage, a key
focus of conservators. Conservators cannot stop change and deterioration,
only manage it. At the moment, they are lacking means to measure theirobjects. It is important to move from visualization and “pretty pictures” to330

SPIE DSS 2014

Wei Wang, China Agricultural Univ. (China); Kurt C. Lawrence,
Seung-Chul Yoon, Gerald W. Heitschmidt, William R. Windham,
Peggy Feldner, Agricultural Research Service (United States); Xuan
Chu, China Agricultural Univ. (China)
A shortwave infrared (SWIR) hyperspectral imaging system with wavelength
range between 1000 and 2500 nm was used to assess the potential todetect low levels of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contaminants on the surface of
healthy maize kernels. Three varieties of 450 kernels with 150 kernels foreach variety were used to calibrate and validate the discrimination model,
and another 150 kernels of the fourth variety were used as the independent
test set samples. Four different AFB1 solutions were prepared and deposited·

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Conference 9104: Spectral Imaging Sensor Technologies:
Innovation Driving Advanced Application Capabilities
on clean kernel surfaces to achieve 120 samples of 10, 20, 100, and 500 ppb
concentration, respectively. And a drop of 20 % methanol was dipped on thesurface of 120 healthy kernels in the same way as AFB1 to get the control
samples. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to reduce thedimensionality of the spectral data, and then stepwise factorial discriminant
analysis (FDA) was performed on latent variables provided by the PCA’s,
a 90% classification accuracy was achieved. Furthermore, some important
wavelengths which represent the AFB1 were identified. The results indicatedthat hyperspectral imaging technology accompanied by a PCA-FDA
method, can detect AFB1 that is applied directly on the maize surface.

a wide bandwidth using quantum cascade laser systems, with the aim to
make headspace measurements of molecules at trace levels. We reportresults of two systems that measure nitromethane, acetonitrile, acetone, andnitroglycerin, where the spectra are obtained in less than four seconds andcontain at least 150,000 spectral data points.

9104-15, Session 3

We show that sensitive measurements can be made at atmosphericpressure and temperature as provided an adequate laser wavelength
range is selected. The systems can measure the headspace of a sample
located in close proximity to the unit, or up to a few meters from it, ideal
for measurement scenarios such as closed rooms or shipping containers.
We also show that hypertemporal data can be gathered in real time,allowing the possibility for creating composite instruments such as gas
chromatography combined with the real-time CRDS IR spectrometer toseparate the headspace chemicals while measuring spectrum.

We demonstrate that CRDS may be applied to explosives detection witha simple instrument that is able to scan rapidly across a large spectral
bandwidth. We are able to acquire orders of magnitude more spectral data
points than previous CRDS experiments aimed at explosives detection,and to analyze them in a fraction of the time. We achieve noise equivalentdetection limits on the order of ppb.

Active gated imaging for automotive safety
applications
Yoav Grauer, Ezri Sonn, BrightWay Vision Ltd. (Israel)
The paper presents Active Gated Imaging System (AGIS) in relation to
the automotive field. AGIS is based on a fast gated camera and a pulsed
Illuminator, synchronized in the time domain to record images of a certain
range of interest which are then processed by computer vision realtime algorithms. In recent years we have learned the system parameterswhich are most beneficial to night time driving in terms of; field of view,illumination profile, resolution and processing power. AGIS provides also
day-time imaging with additional capabilities which enhances computer
vision safety applications. AGIS provides a good candidate for camera based
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and the path for autonomous
driving in the coming future based on its outstanding low / high light level,
harsh weather conditions capabilities and 3D potential growth capabilities.

9104-18, Session 4

Discrete frequency infrared spectroscopic
imaging with guided Fano resonators
Jui-Nung Liu, Matthew V. Schulmerich, Rohit Bhargava, Brian T.
Cunningham, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States)
Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) imaging spectrometers are almost
universally used to record microspectroscopic imaging data in the
mid-infrared (mid-IR) spectral region. While the commercial standard,interferometry necessitates collection of large spectral regions, requiresa large data handling overhead for microscopic imaging and is slow. Here
we demonstrate an approach for mid-IR spectroscopic imaging at selecteddiscrete wavelengths using narrowband resonant filtering of a broadband
thermal source, enabled by high-efficiency guided-mode Fano resonancein a one-layer subwavelength structured dielectric thin film on a glass
substrate. The discrete frequency IR (DF-IR) approach is advantageous
for microspectroscopic imaging applications in which only a handful of
wavelengths are of interest for differentiation of image components, using amechanically robust instrument. To demonstrate the approach, we perform
DF-IR spectral imaging of a polymer USAF resolution target and humantissue in the C-H stretching region (2600-3300 cm-1). DF-IR spectroscopy
and imaging can be generalized to other IR spectral regions and can serveas an analytical tool for environmental and biomedical applications.

9104-16, Session 4

Correction of scene turbulence and scene jittersby use of a dual port imaging Fourier-transform
spectrometerLouis M. Moreau, Florent M. Prel, Stéphane M. Lantagne, Claude B.
Roy, ABB Analytical Measurement (Canada)
When the scene observed by an imaging Fourier-Transform Spectrometer is
not stable in amplitude or in position during the time it takes to acquire tospectrum, spectro-radiometric errors are generated. These artifacts reduce
the radiometric accuracy and may also damage the spectral line shape. The
displacements of the scene in the field of view can be due to air turbulence,
platform jitters or scene jitters.
We describe correction process based on the information provided by thesecond output port of a four-port imaging FTS. Corrected and uncorrected
data will be compared.

9104-17, Session 4

Pulsed quantum cascade laser based
hypertemporal real-time headspacemeasurements
Charles C. Harb, Toby K. Boyson, The Univ. of New South Wales(Australia); Thomas G. Spence, Loyola Univ. New Orleans (UnitedStates); David S. Moore, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States);David B. Arnone, David B. Caffey, Leigh J. Bromley, Daylight
Solutions Inc. (United States)
Optical cavity enhancement is a highly desirable process to make sensitive
direct-absorption spectroscopic measurements of unknown substances,such as explosives or illicit material. This paper reports advancements inthe development of real-time cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CRDS) over331

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Conference 9105:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVIMonday - Wednesday 5 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9105 Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVI

9105-1, Session 1

as the most useful spectral band for monitoring this type of industrial
processes. Infrared image information is a powerful tool to study the energy
distribution in the HAZ (Heat Affected Zone).

Infrared imaging of the e-beam melting
3D-printing process

The work presents some experimental results obtained with uncooled MWIR
imaging sensors, by monitoring several welding processes. These results
may be applied for real-time quality assurance of the process leading tobetter throughputs in industrial manufacturing. The high-speed capabilityof the sensors used helped also to characterize the dynamics of the welding
process.

Ralph B. Dinwiddie, Ryan R. Dehoff, Frederick A. List III, Larry E.
Lowe, Kevin D. Harper, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
This presentation will discuss how thermal imaging can be used to detectand characterize porosity in the e-beam based metallic 3D-printing process.
Mid-wave IR cameras are used to map the temperatures and temperature
gradients in the printed parts and powder bed during each build layer. The
IR camera is also used to measure the emissivity of the as-printed metals
and slightly sintered powder beds used in this research.

9105-5, Session 1

Infrared imaging of the polymer 3D-printing
process

9105-2, Session 1

Ralph B. Dinwiddie, Lonnie J. Love, John C. Rowe, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States)

NIST emittance metrology in support of advanced
manufacturing process control and modelingThis presentation will discuss how thermal imaging can improve the
3D-printing process. Both mid-wave and long-wave IR cameras are used
to measure temperature gradients in the thermoplastic filaments as there
are extruded from the printhead. The IR camera is also used to measure theemittance of the thermoplastic and transmission of IR windows used in thisresearch.

Sergey N. Mekhontsev, Weston L. Tew, Leonard M. Hanssen,
National Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
The Optical Properties and Infrared Technology Group at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has established acomprehensive program for infrared emittance determination of materials
at elevated temperatures. Two approaches, based on direct emittancemeasurements, as well as indirect determination via reflectometry, are usedand compared for mutual validation.

9105-30, Session 1

Method for improving visualization of infrared
imagesThere are several modern technologies in the Advanced Manufacturing,which can benefit from better understanding of emissive properties ofmaterials in solid, powder and liquid state. These involve directed energy
techniques to selectively melt or sinter materials, such as laser and e-beambased additive manufacturing (AM), direct metal deposition and lamination,
as well as laser drilling and welding.

Mario Cimbalista Jr., THERMOTRONICS (Brazil)
A coding process applicable to an original infrared image, generated fromany value matrix, to change the infrared image into negative or inverted
black and white and grey with the addition of specific split colors, causing
a substantial difference in the way the retina and the brain processes theresultant images. The result obtained is a much less exhaustive way to see,identify and interpret infrared images generated by any infrared camera thatuses this conversion process.

We present a conceptual design for a dedicated facility at NIST to provide
reliable data on radiative properties of metals, ceramics and polymers in
the near and thermal infrared at temperatures up to 2000 K in vacuum orhigh purity purge, for dynamic conditions of a moving melt pool. The goalof this project is to serve the AM community’s requirements via establishingmaterial properties, dissemination of calibrated artifacts, and establishinga test bed for testing new methods and equipment in fully controlled
conditions, close to manufacturing. The purpose of presentation is to informand invite feedback from potential user community and potentially increase
the impact on R&D in the advanced manufacturing domain.

9105-6, Session 2

A study to investigate the inflammation inside themuscle using infrared thermography
Nicolas P. Avdelidis, Univ. of Thessaly (Greece) and National
Technical Univ. of Athens (Greece); Chariklia K. Deli, Univ. ofThessaly (Greece); Panagiotis Theodorakeas, National Technical
Univ. of Athens (Greece); Giannis Giakas, Athanasios Tsiokanos,
Univ. of Thessaly (Greece); Maria Koui, National Technical Univ. ofAthens (Greece); Athanasios Jamurtas, Univ. of Thessaly (Greece)

9105-4, Session 1

Monitoring of industrial welding processes using
high-speed uncooled MWIR imaging sensors
Rodrigo Linares Herrero, German Vergara, Raul Gutierrez Alvarez,
Carlos Fernandez-Montojo, Maria Teresa Montojo Supervielle,
Arturo Baldasano-Ramirez, Victor Villamayor, Luis J. Gómez, Maria
Gonzalez, New Infrared Technologies, S.L. (Spain)

Unaccustomed eccentric exercise is associated with muscle damage,which is evidenced by a number of events that are manifested for several
days after the initial muscle injury. Inflammation occurs due to eccentric
exercise and plays a critical role in the degeneration and regeneration of thedamaged muscle by triggering the acute phase response of the immune
system and the removal of the damaged muscle tissue. The aim of thiswork was to investigate the potential of imprinting the intensity of the
produced inflammation inside the muscle using infrared thermography. For
this reason, four males and three females (20-30 year old) participated in
the study. Thermographic images of the rectus femoris muscle were taken
before, as well as 24, 48 and 72 hours immediately after an acute bout of

The paper is focused on the application of uncooled MWIR imaging sensors
for the monitoring of industrial welding processes: resistance spot welding,resistance seam welding and laser welding. During the last 40 years, there
has been little advancement in sensor systems for inline quality control
monitoring of the welding process. Most of the existing systems areoriented for current, voltage and welding force monitoring. However, thetemperatures reached during the majority of the welding processes leadto infrared sensing as a powerful tool, and to the MWIR band in particular

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Conference 9105:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVI
eccentric exercise (5 sets of 15 maximum repetitions). Eccentric exercise was
performed with the one lower extremity, whereas the other lower extremity
served as control.

9105-31, Session 2

9105-7, Session 2

Bob Berry, Thermal Vision (Ireland)

A combined approach for using thermography forthe detection of diabetes mellitus

Thermal camera used for the assessment of
metabolism and functions of the rat brain

This paper presents work done to develop an early diagnosis and monitoring
method-encompassing thermography for the detection of Diabetes
Mellitus. The early detection method involves fusion of images from infrared
cameras, ultrasound devices, a 3d camera and a dermatascope. The projectis to develop a novel system that could be easily used by physicians to allow
for early intervention, and the paper highlights the approach taken by the
Skindetector project.

Mariusz Kastek, Tadeusz Piatkowski, Henryk Polakowski, Military
Univ. of Technology (Poland); Zbigniew Czernicki, Ewa Kozniewska,
Katarzyna Kaczmarska, Lukasz Przykaza, Mossakowski Medical
Research Ctr. (Poland)
Motivation to undertake research on brain surface temperature in clinicalpractice is based on a strong conviction that the enormous progress inthermal imaging techniques and camera design has a great application
potential. Intraoperative imaging of pathological changes and functionally
important areas of the brain is not yet fully resolved in neurosurgery andremains a challenge. Extensive knowledge of the complex mechanisms
controlling homeostasis (thermodynamic status of an organism being a partof it ) and laws of physics (which are the foundations of thermography),make this method very good and a simple imaging tool in comparison
with other modern techniques, such as computed tomography, magnetic
resonance imaging and angiography.

9105-9, Session 3

Measurements of temperature distribution across the brain surface were
performed on four rats (Wistar strain) weighing approximately 300 g each.
Animals have remained under general anesthesia typically conductedusing isoflurane. The brain was unveiled (the dura mater remained
untouched) through the skin incision and removal of the bone cranial vault.
Cerebrocortical microflow was measured using laser-Doppler flow meter.
Arterial blood pressure was also measured in rat femoral artery. From theabove data the cerebrovascular resistance index was calculated. Cerebral
flow was modified by increasing the CO2 concentration in the inspired air
to 5% for the duration of 6 minutes. Another change in cerebral flow was
induced by periodic closing of right middle cerebral artery. Artery occlusion
was performed by introducing a filament for a period of 15 minutes, thenan artery was opened again. Measurements were carried out before, during
and after the artery occlusion. Paper presents results and methodology ofmeasurements.

Crack detection during continuous direct chill casting of aluminum is amatter of economics. Determining cracks during production process saves
money, energy and raw material. Of course, a non-destructive method isrequired for this evaluation. Because of temperature concerns conventional
ultrasound is not applicable. One non-contact alternative is laser ultrasonics.
In laser ultrasonics short laser pulses (in the region of picoseconds
to nanoseconds, in our case at a wavelength of 1064nm and 532nm)
illuminates the sample. The electromagnetic energy gets absorbed at thesurface of the sample and results in local heating followed by expansion.
Thereby broadband ultrasonic waves are launched which propagate throughthe sample and get back reflected or scattered at interfaces (cracks,
blowholes,…) like conventional ultrasonic waves. Therefore laser ultrasonics
is an alternative thermal infrared technology. By using an interferometer
also the detection of the ultrasonic waves at the sample surface is donein a remote manner. During preliminary examinations in the lab scanning
different aluminum studs we were able to distinguish between studs withand without any cracks. We were even able to predict the dimension of thecrack by evaluation the damping of the broadband ultrasonic waves. With
simple image reconstruction methods we could localize the crack and givean estimation of the extent of the crack. Subsequent first measurements
using this laser ultrasonic setup during the continuous casting of aluminum
were carried out and showed the proof of principle in an industrial
environment with elevated temperatures, dust, cooling water and vibrations.

Center crack detection during continuous castingof aluminum by laser ultrasonic measurements
Hubert Grün, Thomas Mitter, Jürgen Roither, RECENDT GmbH(Austria); Andreas Betz, Salar Bozorgi, AIT Austrian Institute ofTechnology GmbH (Austria); Peter Burgholzer, RECENDT GmbH(Austria)

9105-8, Session 2

Intraoperative application of thermal camera forthe assessment of during surgical resection or
biopsy of human’s brain tumors
Mariusz Kastek, Tadeusz Piatkowski, Henryk Polakowski, Military
Univ. of Technology (Poland); Zbigniew Czernicki, Jacek Bogucki,
Mossakowski Medical Research Ctr. (Poland); Marta Zebala, Medical
Univ. of Warsaw (Poland); Katarzyna Kaczmarska, Mossakowski
Medical Research Ctr. (Poland)

9105-10, Session 3

Infrared imaging analysis of ballistic impacts ofcomposite armor materials
Robert Furstenberg, Michael R. Papantonakis, Viet Nguyen,
Christopher A. Kendziora, R. Andrew McGill, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States)

A study of temperature changes across cerebral cortex was performed
for five patients with brain tumors (previously diagnosed using magnetic
resonance or computed tomography) during surgical resection or biopsyof tumors. Measurements have shown that the temperature on the surfaceof the cyst was on average 2.6 K below the temperature of surrounding
areas. It has been also observed that during devascularization of a tumor, i.e.
cutting off its blood vessels, the tumor temperature lowers significantly inspite of using bipolar coagulation, which causes additional heat emission in
the tissue. The results of the measurements are presented on the paper.

333+1 360 676 3290

We report results on infrared imaging of composite armor panels subject
to ballistic impacts from threats representative of shrapnel and rifle fire in
an attempt to better understand mechanisms of energy dissipation within
the panels. A liquid nitrogen-cooled long wave MCT infrared camera wasused to acquire images at varying frame rates from 1600 Hz to 30 Hz tocapture both the initial impact as well as the slow post-impact thermal
relaxation. The integration time for each imaging segment was adjusted
to match the dynamic range of the imaged scene with the well-capacityof the camera pixels to minimize noise equivalent temperature difference
without pixel saturation. We discuss the calibration procedure and the·help@spie.org

Conference 9105:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVI
López, Univ. Federal de Santa Catarina (Brazil); Xavier P. V.
Maldague, Univ. Laval (Canada)need for multi-point calibration for imaging the initial impact. The infrared
images are analyzed to estimate the thermal energy resulting fromthe projectile. Additionally, data from a high speed visible camera andpost-impact high resolution computed tomography scans was used toestimate other channels of energy dissipation, including delamination andplastic deformation. The suitability of infrared imaging for performance
characterization of armor panels is discussed.

Infrared thermography is a valuable tool for non-destructing evaluation ofancient artworks. Active thermographic techniques can be applied on-site
thanks to their contactless and non-invasive nature. On-site monitoring
could have some difficulties as the observed object could be difficult toreach and the properties of the analyzed materials are usually unknown.
Moreover the availability of a site is typically very short and limited in time.
For this reasons the acquired data are noisy or inhomogeneous and must be
reorganized and post-processed with dedicated algorithms to enhance theanalysis.

9105-11, Session 3

Thermal inspection of composite honeycomb
structures

The frescoes of the San Gottardo Church, located in north-east of Italy,
are showing multiple detachments due to the ageing process. More than
50 frescoed surfaces have been selected for the evaluation with an active
thermography procedure. Each area has been heated with handheld air
heaters and a sequence of infrared images of the cooling process has beenrecorded.

Joseph N. Zalameda, F. Raymond Parker, Jeffrey P. Seebo, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
Composite honeycomb structures continue to be used widely in aerospace
applications due to low weight and high strength requirements. Developing
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) inspection methods is essential for theirsafe performance. Pulsed thermography is a commonly used technique forcomposite honeycomb structure inspections due to its large area and rapid
inspection capability. Pulsed thermography is sensitive for detection of facesheet impact damage and skin to core disbond. Data processing techniques
using principle component analysis to improve the defect contrast arepresented. In addition, limitations to the thermal detection of the core areinvestigated. Other NDE techniques, such as ultrasound and computed
tomography X-ray, are used for comparison to the thermography results.

Several techniques are available for the post-processing of thermographic
sequences; in this work standard algorithms such as Correlation, Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) or modified algorithms based on sum andfiltering are proposed and compared. The images are treated also with
the Partial Least-Squares Thermography (PLST) method, a techniquewidely used in several science fields that has recently been introduced in
the thermographic analysis showing good potential. The obtained results
allowed to identify and locate the most important detachments on thesurfaces.

9105-14, Session 49105-12, Session 3

heatWave: the next generation of thermography
devicesFiber orientation assessment on surface andbeneath surface of carbon fiber reinforced
composites using active infrared thermography

Peyman Moghadam, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation (Australia); Stephen Vidas, Queensland Univ.
of Technology (Australia)

Henrique C. Fernandes, Xavier P. V. Maldague, Univ. Laval (Canada)
Composite materials are highly used in the industry. One of the reasons isbecause they have strength and stiffness comparable to metals with theadded advantage of significant weight reduction. The fiber orientation,
concentration and distribution have all a significant influence on thestrength and stiffness of fiber reinforced composites. Thus, one needs todevelop testing techniques to assess material’s fiber orientation. Destructive
methods can be employed to evaluate the fiber on a composite, e.g.
cutting a section of the material, polishing the area and evaluating it withmicroscopy. However, the destructive approach is not always an option
since the sample will be ‘damaged’ after the inspection and probably unfit
for use. Thus, Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation (NDT&E) techniquesmust be employed in some cases to assess the material’s fiber content.
In this paper Infrared Thermography (IT) is used in order to assess fiber
orientation of composite materials on the surface and beneath the surfaceof laminates made of carbon/PEEK (Polyether ether ketone) unidirectional
prepreg. Specially, a modulated infrared diode laser beam is used tothermal stimulate a spot on the laminate’s surface where the use different
modulation frequencies allows to access fiber orientation on different
depths. In the case of composite materials, which are thermal anisotropic,
the thermal pattern formed on the surface of the material due to thethermal stimulation is an ellipse where its major axis orientation is related
to the fiber orientation. During experiments the fiber orientation on the firstand second layers were accurately measured.

Energy sustainability is a major challenge of the 21st century. To reduce
environmental impact, changes are required not only on the supply side ofthe energy chain by introducing renewable energy sources but also on the
demand side by reducing energy usage and improving energy efficiency.
Currently, 2D thermal imaging is used for energy auditing, in which captures
the thermal radiation from the surfaces of objects and represents it as acolour-mapped images for energy efficiency monitoring. A limitation ofsuch energy auditing is that they lack information on the geometry, locationof objects with reference to each other, particularly across separate images.
Such limitation prevents any quantitative analysis to be done for example todetect any changes before and after retrofitting.
To address these limitations, we have developed the next generation ofthermography devices called HeatWave. HeatWave is a hand-held 3D
thermography device that consists of a thermal camera, a range sensor
and color camera to generate precise 3D model of objects with augmented
temperature and visible information. As an operator holding the devicesmoothly wave his hands around the objects, HeatWave can continuously
track its pose in space and integrate new information from the range andthermal and color cameras into a single, and precise 3D multispectral
model. Information from multiple viewpoints can be incorporated into asingle complete 3D multispectral model to improve accuracy, reliability androbustness of the global model. It is also possible to reduce any systematic
errors in the thermal imaging acquired information.

9105-13, Session 4

Comparison of image processing techniques forthe on-site evaluation of damaged frescoes
Paolo Bison, Alessandro Bortolin, Gianluca Cadelano, Giovanni
Ferrarini, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy); Fernando

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Conference 9105:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVI

9105-15, Session 6

9105-17, Session 8

Identification of soil erosion types in Nyaba Riverbasin of Enugu State Southern Nigeria using
remote sensing and geographical information
system techniques

Pattern extraction and tracking on fast-moving
objects in a binary IR thermal image
Chialun John Hu, SunnyFuture (United States)
If an uncooled IR camera is programmed to show the picture such that whenan object point temperature T is above a certain temperature T1, the output
image point is assigned color black. Otherwise if T is belowT1 the output
image point is assigned color white. Then the output IR image is a binary
image, in which, all high-temperature objects are displayed as black objects
and all low temperature background objects are displayed as pure whitebackground with all the background noises eliminated.

Virginia U. Okwu-Delunzu, Enugu State Univ. of Science andTechnology (Nigeria)
This study presents possible way of soil erosion identification on a tropicalwatershed of Nyaba river basin in Enugu State using remote sensing and
GIS techniques. The aim of this study is to identify and map out soil erosion
types in Nyaba river basin and its spatial distribution status in 2011. This
study identifies soil erosion types in Nyaba River Basin subcatchment units
in Enugu Urban of Enugu State, Nigeria, which is a mountainous region
with steep slope and an upland ecosystem. To achieve the aim of thisstudy, data were collected from LandSat satellite image of 2011, rainfall
data from NIMET for 2011, hydrological data and soil samples collected in
the entire subcatchment unit. The data collected were processed using
different methods; Erdas Imagine 9.1 was used in the Land use land coverimage classification while the soil type was determine using Soil Textural
Triangle by David Whiting, 2011 U.D.S.A , the hydrological data generated
was analyzed using rational method formula in Microsoft Excel and werecategorized into three classes: high, medium and low. The Spatial multicriteria evaluation operation in Arc GIS 10 was used to generate the soil
erosion map of the study area. The result showed that there were various
erosion types in the study area. Erosion types identified by the research
work are rill, sheet, and gully erosion. In conclusion, integrated Remote
Sensing, Geographical Information System and Spatial Multi-criteria
Evaluation Model tool used to identify soil erosion types in mountainous
regions will assist decision makers in environmental management.

The author has derived a novel, super-fast image processing software todetect the boundary points of all these black objects embedded in the whitebackground. Then the software will automatically calculate and assign a36-dimension analog ID vector for each object bearing its unique boundary
shape. This ID vector Vi for the i-th object can then be used as a tracking
ID code for following each object when it moves, such that its moving
path, moving speed and object orientation change can all be recorded
automatically and numerically.
This is a super fast grouping and tracking scheme on fast moving objects,
because the scanning on raw picture points is just a ONE-TIME linear
scanning, not a combinatorial scanning like in conventional “clusteringscanning.”
Preliminary live computer experiments will be demonstrated.

9105-18, Session 8

The effect of a pre-lens aperture on thetemperature range and image uniformity of
microbolometer infrared cameras

9105-16, Session 7

Ralph B. Dinwiddie, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States);
Jonathan Grimm, Farragut High School (United States)

Rapid rotation invariant face detection and pose
estimation in thermal infrared spectrum

Recently a large number of uncooled radiometric microbolometer IR
cameras have become available. These cameras are small, low cost, and lightweight, making them excellent tools for predictive maintenance, processmonitoring, building inspection, medical and veterinary applications.
However, one drawback of these cameras is their limited temperature range.
This paper explores the extension of the temperature range by placing anaperture in front of the lens. An aperture smaller than the lens will reduce
the radiance to the sensor, allowing the camera to image targets muchhotter than would normally be possible. These higher temperatures can be
accurately measured by developing a correction factor to adjust the built-in
temperature calibration. The effect of pre-lens apertures on the center-toedge and center-to-corner signal levels will also be discussed.

Fang Hua, Stephanie Schuckers, Clarkson Univ. (United States)
Face detection has achieved high accuracy and efficiency in many visible
spectral applications. Due to the differences of facial features between
visible images and thermal images, face detector trained from visible facial
features cannot achieve the expected performance in faces location inthermal images. In this paper, the problem of face detection in the thermal
infrared spectrum is studied in order to understand the advantages andlimitations of crucial steps for automatic and rapid facial analyzing system
operated in day and night time. This paper presents a rotation invariant
multi-view based face detection and pose estimation in thermal infrared
spectrum.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The main contributions of this work are three-fold: First, a Haar feature
based Multi-Level-Confidence (MLC) Adaboost classifier is proposed forproviding information about the location and scale of each detected facein thermal infrared spectrum. In order to improve the detection rate, weakclassifiers are built with a Multi-level Confidence strategy and boosted toconstruct the strong classifiers, avoiding the over-fitting problem by the
Look-Up-Table (LUT) classifier.

Research sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Advanced Manufacturing Office, undercontract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC.

9105-19, Session 9

Second, multi-view detectors of face images with pose angles between -90
degree and +90 degree are trained in sub-ranges and created separately inorder to achieve the rotation invariant ability. These view-based detectors
provide capabilities of face detection in 360-degree rotation-in-plane and180-degree rotation-off-plane angles.

IR thermographic characterization of low energy
impact damage in carbon/carbon composite by
applying optical and ultrasonic stimulation

Third, a method of pose estimation is developed based on multi-view
detectors and helped improving overall detection performances.

Vladimir P. Vavilov, Darya A. Derusova, Tomsk Polytechnic Univ.
(Russian Federation)

Experiments show our proposed method yields a high accuracy and rapid
speed of thermal imaging based face detection and pose estimation in 15
frames per second video sequences with the image size of 640 x 480 pixels.

335+1 360 676 3290

Severity of impact damage depends on impact energy and velocity. While
producing standard samples, a range of impact energy is typically from 10
to 400 J. The purpose of this study was to establish a relationship between·

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Conference 9105:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVI

9105-21, Session 9

low energy impact (from 2 to 24 J) and some decision-making parametersin the inspection of 2-5 mm-thick carbon/carbon composites by using
infrared (IR) thermography. Temperature acquisition was accomplished byusing NEC TH-9100 and FLIR SC 7700 IR imagers. Both optical heating andultrasonic stimulation techniques have been applied to excite samples under
test with a sequence of IR images being recorded for some seconds. In thecase of optical heating (Xenon and halogen lamps), temperature images
which are vulnerable to noise have been converted into images of diffusivity
based on the analysis of temperature evolution in time. An evident
advantage of this approach is that uneven heating that is a notorious
feature of Xenon flash tubes can be essentially suppressed due to the factthat time-domain parameters are less sensitive to both surface clutter andwhite noise than temperature-domain parameters. Besides, local values ofdiffusivity correlate well with energy of impact. Attempts to find a reliablecorrelation between impact energy and temperature patterns in the caseof ultrasonic magnetostrictive stimulation has not proven to be successful
because temperature signals strongly decay with growing distance from apoint of stimulation (ultrasonic wave frequency has been 22 kHz, indentor
electrical power ? up to 2 kW). However, this technique seems to bepromising due to the «dark field» principle that provides power generation
only within structural defects. Therefore, in general, the sensitivity ofultrasonic stimulation toward hidden defects seems to be the highest (to be
characterized by a limit of about 2 J), although possible material damage ina simulated point still represents a problem.

A hybrid frequency-spatial domain infrared
image enhancement approach evaluated by fuzzy
entropy
Qiong Zhang, Julien Fleuret, Xavier P. V. Maldague, Univ. Laval(Canada)Traditional homomorphic enhancement method is only attributed to thefrequency domain processing, which could not enhance the image outline
effectively. A better homomorphic algorithm could consider the dynamic
range of image to compress and expand gray levels of the target and thus
enhance image details. After the frequency domain enhancement, thedeployment of mathematical morphology could smooth the outline of theimage in spatial domain. This paper develops a comprehensive approachto optimize the contrast of infrared image, utilizing non-linear filtering infrequency domain and top-hat and black-hat transforms in spatial domain.
Besides, a fuzzy entropy function is defined to verify the proposed infrared
image processing effects. Experimental results indicate that, through theproposed method, the image details and contours can be better improved
comparing with other methods.

9105-22, Session 109105-20, Session 9

Pulse compression approach to digitizedfrequency modulated infrared imaging for
nondestructive testing of carbon fibre reinforced
polymers

Artificial neural network and active
thermography for prediction of nonmetallic
coating thickness
Hongjin Wang, Sheng-Jen Hsieh, Texas A&M Univ. (United States)

Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar (India);
Juned A. Siddiqui, Indian Institute of Information Technology(India); Vanita Arora, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar (India);
Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM IIITDM Jabalpur (India)

Non-destructive thickness measurement techniques, such as eddy current,
magnetic, and ultrasonic methods, have difficulty measuring non-metallic
coatings due to the properties of these materials. Current studies suggestthat thermography-based measurements may provide a feasible solution formeasuring the thickness of these types of coatings. The challenge in using
current active thermography techniques is to determine how to reliably
correlate a thermal profile obtained from an affordable IR camera withcoating thickness. Artificial neural networks (ANN) have been used to model
thermal profiles of a sample and then use this model to predict treatment
responses in an unseen sample with reasonable success. However, limited
work has found in using ANN models to predict treatment responses forsamples that have not previously been seen by the ANN model.

InfraRed Thermal Wave Imaging (IRTWI) is one of the promising
non-contact and full field inspection technique for non-destructive
characterization. This technique relies on the mapping of surface
temperature distribution to visualize the presence of surface and subsurface
anomalies in the test material. Due to its fast and quantitative evaluation
capabilities, IRTWI has gained significant importance in the characterizationof Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP). A CFRP specimen having flatbottom holes is considered for inspection using non-stationary Digitized
Frequency Modulated Thermal Wave Imaging (DFMTWI) technique. Further
depth scanning performance by using frequency domain based phaseapproach has been compared with recently proposed time domain phaseapproach.

The focus of this research is to build an ANN model to predict coating
thickness using active thermography and thickness samples that have notpreviously been seen by the model. We use three different parameters—
temperature over time, rate of temperature rise over time, and the derivativeof a temperature increment’s real part Laplace transform over the real
axis—as inputs to three different ANN models to estimate coating thickness.
The ANN model that uses the derivative of a temperature increment’s realpart Laplace transform over the real axis as the input yields 7.5% error. The
model that uses temperature value over time yields an 8.5% error, and themodel that uses rate of temperature rise yields 20% error rate. Six different
algorithms—batch training with weight & bias learning rules, Powell -Beale
conjugate gradient back-propagation, Bayesian regularization, gradientdescent with momentum back-propagation, Levenberg-Marquardt backpropagation and Resilient back-propagation—were used in training the
network. Results suggest that the gradient descent with momentum backpropagation algorithm yields a lower error rate than the other algorithms.
We also varied the number of hidden nodes within the range from 10 to
20. Results suggest that 20 hidden nodes yields the lowest error rate. Thisfinding suggests that having more hidden nodes in a model balances out
the inherent noise within the input node data.

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SPIE DSS 2014

9105-23, Session 10

On the application of a frequency identification
technique on thermal data to identify defects in amaterial
Galid Arroud, Univ. Antwerpen (Belgium); Patrick Guillaume, Vrije
Univ. Brussel (Belgium); Mahmoud El-Kafafy, Vrije Univ. Brussel(Belgium); Gunther Steenackers, Univ. Antwerpen (Belgium)
Using active InfraRed Thermography (IRT) as a detection technique toidentify defects or flaws in a structure is beneficial due to its non-invasive
character and the relatively large area detection. The post-processing of
the recorded data is a phase that can’t be underestimated, since interesting
information about the structural integrity can be extracted in this phase. In
most of the cases are the contrast images (proper to the classical approachof Pulse Thermography) or the phase images (peculiar to Pulse Phase
Thermography) analyzed to identify material properties or to detect defects·

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Conference 9105:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVIin the structure. However, we want to introduce a third way to handle thedata. That is creating a parameterized model for thermal data sets withthe aim to identify material discontinuities. In this study we simulate theheat conduction (transient state) through a two-dimensional plate and use
the simulation results as the thermal data set whereupon we will estimate
a parameterized model by applying a frequency identification technique.
This contribution describes the main concept of the approach and a clear
comparison between a sound plate and a plate with a material discontinuity
to illustrate the validity of the proposed approach.

the grand average cooling rates with maximum errors of 8.85% (one cover)and 13.36% (two covers). A parametric analysis was performed by varying
the number of covers, heat flux provided, and the amount of heating time.
Temperature and grand average cooling rate distances among contiguous
solder joint shapes, as well as solder joints discriminability, were determined
to be directly proportional to heat flux, and inversely proportional to thenumber of covers and heating time. Finally, a mathematical model wasdeveloped to determine the appropriate total amount of energy needed todiscriminate among hidden solder joints with a “good” discriminability for
one and two covers, and a “regular” discriminability for up to five covers.
The mathematical model was proven to predict the total amount of energy
to achieve a “good” discriminability for one cover within a 10% of error withrespect to the experimental active thermography model.

9105-24, Session 10

Computational reduction of specimen noise toenable improved thermography characterizationof flaws in graphite polymer composites

9105-27, Session 11

Nonstationary thermal wave imaging for
nondestructive testing and evaluation

William P. Winfree, Patricia A. Howell, Joseph N. Zalameda, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Vanita Arora, Indian Institute of Technology,
Ropar (India); Juned A. Siddiqui, Indian Institute of Information
Technology (India); Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM IIITDM Jabalpur(India)Flaw detection and characterization with thermographic techniques ingraphite polymer composites are often limited by localized variations in
the thermographic response. Variations in properties such as acceptable
porosity, fiber volume content and surface polymer thickness result invariations in the thermal response that in general cause significant variationsin the initial thermal response. These result in a “noise” floor that increases
the difficulty of detecting and characterizing deeper flaws. A method ispresented for computationally removing a significant amount of the “noise”
from near surface porosity by diffusing the early time response, thensubtracting it from subsequent responses. Composite thermal response
simulations are utilized in defining the limitations of the technique. Thismethod for reducing the data is shown to give considerable improvement
characterizing both the size and depth of damage. Examples are shownfor data acquired on specimens with fabricated delaminations and impact
damage.

Among various widely used thermal non-destructive testing methods,
non-stationary thermal non-destructive testing modalities have proved to
be an indispensable approach for the inspection and evaluation of various
materials. Growing concern of surface and subsurface defect detection
capabilities with moderate peak power heat sources than the widely usedconventional pulsed thermographic methods and in a reasonably lesstesting time compared to sinusoidal modulated lock-in thermography makesthese non-stationary thermal imaging techniques finds their importance inthis field. This present talk highlights a comparative study on different nonstationary thermographic techniques and their advantages and limitation.
Experiments results for various non-stationary thermal imaging techniques
are presented to find the defect detection ability of different excitation
schemes and comparisons have been made by taking signal to noise ratio(SNR) into consideration.

9105-25, Session 11

Survey of thermography in electronics inspection
Sheng-Jen Hsieh, Texas A&M Univ. (United States)

9105-28, Session 11

This paper reviews applications of infrared thermal signature techniques todetection of faults and defects on electronics boards. Issues essential to thesuccessful application of infrared techniques to electronics manufacturing
and circuit card maintenance are investigated. These issues include basic
know-how such as scanning time interval and screening variables; adescription of the types of defects and faults these methods have beenused to detect; and a comparison of infrared thermal imaging and otherdetection means such as X-ray and functional testers. The paper concludes
with a summary of potential problems and remedies. Future directions
include design for infrared diagnosis and development of integrated testing
techniques for detection and root-cause analysis.

Applications of infrared thermography for
nondestructive testing of fatigue cracks in steel
bridges
Takahide Sakagami, Kobe Univ. (Japan); Yui Izumi, Univ. of Shiga
Prefecture (Japan); Sunao Kawabata, Yoshiaki Mizokami, HonshuShikoku Bridge Expressway Company Ltd. (Japan)
Applications of infrared thermography for nondestructive testing of fatigue
cracks in steel bridges are presented. For screening detections of fatigue
cracks in weld bead, temperature gap method based on thermal insulation
at crack surfaces was effectively employed. Thermoelastic stress evaluation
was conducted after screening. Stress distribution around crack tip was
measured by infrared thermography, and structural integrity was evaluatedfrom measured stress distribution.

9105-26, Session 11

Modelling and predicting hidden solder joint
shape using parametric numerical analysis andactive thermography

9105-29, Session 11

Jose Giron-Palomares, Zhejiang Univ. (China); Sheng-Jen Hsieh,
Texas A&M Univ. (United States)

Numerical approach to binary complementary
Golay coded infrared thermal wave imaging

A methodology based on active infrared thermography to study andcharacterize hidden solder joint shapes on a multi cover PCB assembly
was investigated. A numerical model was developed to simulate the active
thermography methodology and was proven to determine the temperature
within maximum errors of 3.21% (one cover) and 4.73% (two covers) and337+1 360 676 3290

Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar (India);
Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM IIITDM Jabalpur (India); Juned A.
Siddiqui, Indian Institute of Information Technology (India); Vanita
Arora, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar (India)·

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Conference 9105:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVI
A novel binary complementary (Golay) coded infrared thermal
non destructive testing and evaluation approach is introduced forcharacterization of low carbon steel sample having flat bottom holes
as defects. The resultant correlation results of these individual Golay
complementary codes used to reconstruct a short duration high peak power
compressed pulse to extract the subsurface features hidden inside the test
sample. In this paper, a finite element method has been used to model alow carbon steel sample containing flat bottom holes as sub-surface defects
located at different depths. Results show the depth scanning capabilitiesof the proposed Golay complementary coded excitation scheme as apromising testing and evaluation method to detect the subsurface defects
with improved resolution and sensitivity.

338

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Conference 9106: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies XI
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9106 Advanced Environmental, Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies XI

9106-1, Session 1

9106-3, Session 1

Compact remote optical system for real timemeasurement of fugitive aerosol emissions

The Northwest Infrared (NWIR) gas-phase
spectral database of industrial and environmental
chemicals for in situ and remote sensing: recent
updates

Gregor A. Waldherr, Hai Lin, Michael T. V. Wylie, Hal Technology, LLC(United States)

Carolyn S. Brauer, Timothy J. Johnson, Thomas A. Blake, Steven
W. Sharpe, Robert L. Sams, Russell G. Tonkyn, Pacific Northwest
National Lab. (United States)

Demonstrating particle matter (PM) emissions compliance withenvironmental regulations is required for operation of any industrial,commercial or military facility. Emission sources are initially screened
based on the visible opacity via US EPA Method 9 standard. Nowadays,
it is rather surprising that opacity is still visually determined by humaneyes with smoke school training and annual certification. However, opacity
alone doesn’t reveal particle concentration and size distribution which is
crucial to determine PM values. It would be desirable to have an automated,calibratable device to make such a measurement with higher accuracy andreliability and is not available to date.

With continuing improvements in both point- and remote-sensing
techniques, there is an ongoing need for high-quality spectral databases.
The Northwest Infrared Database (NWIR) contains quantitative, gasphase infrared spectra of more than 500 pure chemical species that canbe used for a variety of applications such as atmospheric monitoring,biomass burning studies, threat detection, etc. The data, recorded at 0.1
cm-1 resolution, are pressure broadened to one atmosphere (N2) in orderto mimic atmospheric conditions. Each 296 K spectrum is a composite
composed of a minimum of ten individual measurements. Recent updates
to the database include over 60 molecules that are known or suspectedbiomass burning effluents. Examples from this set of measurements will bepresented and experimental details will be discussed in the context of theutility of NWIR for remote observation.

We are developing a compact, hand portable system capable ofquantitatively determining plume optical opacity in combination withpossible particle concentration and size distribution (and hence PM)
measurement for standoff distances up to 150 meters. The entire sensor
package is anticipated to weigh less than 25 lb, and is tripod mountable.
Our benchtop lidar-based system was built with a passively Q-switched
Nd:YAG laser and optical receiver. We have demonstrated the feasibility of aremote-capable optical sensor system for real-time continuous monitoringof visible emission plumes and its effectiveness for quantitative opacity andpossible PM measurement. We further report correlation and relationship ofmeasured opacity and PM values designated by EPA.

9106-4, Session 2

Effect of film thickness on localized surface
plasmon enhanced chemical sensor

The hand portable Remote Plume Particulate Matter (RPPM) meter that candetermine opacity and PM load from remote fugitive PM sources will provide
a regulatory compliance solution for visible emissions from fugitive sources
for environmental studies, industrial and military applications.

Aschalew Kassu, Carlton W. Farley III, Anup Sharma, Alabama A&M
Univ. (United States); Junpeng Guo, Wonkyu Kim, The Univ. of
Alabama in Huntsville (United States)

9106-2, Session 1

A highly-sensitive, reliable, simple and inexpensive chemical detection andidentification platform is demonstrated. The sensing technique is based on
localized surface plasmon enhanced Raman scattering measurements fromgold-coated highly-ordered symmetric nanoporous ceramic membranes
fabricated from anodic aluminum oxide. To investigate the effects of the
thickness of the sputter-coated gold films on the sensitivity of sensor,
and optimize the performance of the substrates, the geometry of thenanopores and the film thicknesses are varied in the range of 30 nm to 120
nm. To characterize the sensing technique and the detection limits, surface
enhanced Raman scatterings of low concentrations of a standard chemical
adsorbed on the gold coated substrates are collected and analyzed. The
morphology of the proposed substrates is characterized by atomic force
microscopy and the optical properties including transmittance, reflectanceand absorbance of each substrate are also investigated.

Lidar applications: detection of flame
Gold R. D. Hood, Kevin Kochersberger, Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State Univ. (United States)
In order to improve wildfire management, additional sensor informationis necessary. Real time collection and processing are essential to thisapplication. Based on disaster management personnel interviews, terrain
slope and flame height were most requested as benefiting from additional
information. Terrain slope can be measured well in advance via Laser
Infrared Detection and Ranging (Lidar). Flame height, on the other hand,needs real time collection and processing from a distant, as the height offlames and their ability to jump distances to ground crews is well correlated.
Although lidar is frequently used in forestry, its primary purpose related towild fire has been under the first aim: the collection of fuel package datain forested areas. In more adventurous cases, this active sensor has been
paired with a CO2 so that it may detect the smoke rising above a wild
fire and raise an appropriate alarm. More traditional applications include
measuring line distances. Combining some of these utilizes, this paper
shows that lidar can in fact be used to determine the presence of flame in
low noise areas or areas that are pre-screened for comparison. Specifically,lidar can detect flame as a major distortion over a background layer. This
also distortion provides clues about wind speed and flame region.

9106-5, Session 2

Comparison of plasmonic bioanalyticalsensing platforms based on thin metallic layer,
nanoparticles layer, or single nanoparticles
Jacqueline Jatschka, Ondrej Stranik, André Dathe, David Zopf,
Andrea Csaki, Wolfgang Fritzsche, Institut für Photonische
Technologien e.V. (Germany)
Noble metal nanoparticles are well known for their unique opticalproperties. By an external incident light beam, density oscillations of thenanoparticle’s conduction electrons are induced at a specific frequency,
which is known under the term Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance339+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9106: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies XI(LSPR). This occurring resonance band can be adjusted by shape, size
and material of the nanoparticle and influenced by changes of the local
refractive index of the surrounding medium. This fact gives the opportunity
to use noble metal nanoparticles as label-free bioanalytical sensors.
Biomolecules can be bound directly on the nanoparticle’s surface, whichleads to a change of the local refractive index and a shift of the maximum
peak detected by micro-spectroscopy.

9106-8, Session 3

A bioanalytical sensing platform for real-time measurements in-situ will bepresented. Noble metal nanoparticles are immobilized on a glass substrate
and implemented in a microfluidic chamber. Two different detection
setups are compared one on the basis of a nanoparticle layer (eLSPR)
and the other of single nanoparticles (sLSPR). The spectral information
is detected in real time, which leads to an observation of binding kinetics
of analytes. First, sensitivity determinations were carried out with ultrathin (few nm thick) polymer layers, which were sequentially adsorbedon the nanoparticles by layer-by-layer deposition technique. The surface
sensitivity and the volume sensitivity of different kind of nanoparticles e.g.
spheres or peanuts with eLSPR and sLSPR will be presented and comparedto simulations and the established SPR technique. Finally, the sensing of
bioanalytes in form of detection of DNA hybridization will be presented.

No Abstract Available

Hyperspectral domains and methods for chemical
detection in ambient environment (Invited Paper)George G. He, EOIR Technologies (United States)

9106-9, Session 3

Active (quantum cascade lasers) and passive(FTIR) infrared spectroscopy for detection ofenvironmental threats (Invited Paper)
Erik R. Deutsch, Petros Kotidis, Anish K. Goyal, Block Engineering,
Inc. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9106-6, Session 2

9106-10, Session 3

Large area broad-band resonant substrate forsurface-enhanced Raman scattering

Pigment identification in pictorial layers byhyperspectral imaging

Nan Zhang, Kai Liu, Haomin Song, Xie Zeng, Dengxin Ji, QiaoqiangGan, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)

Giuseppe Capobianco, Giuseppe Bonifazi, Univ. degli Studi diRoma La Sapienza (Italy); Fernanda Prestileo, Istituto per laConservazione e la Valorizzazione dei Beni Culturali (Italy); Silvia
Serranti, Univ. degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza (Italy)

SERS refers to a vibrational spectroscopy technique for the characterizationof low concentration analytes bound to or near plasmonic surfaces. It has
been widely used as a highly surface-sensitive and label-free analyticaltechnique for chemical and biological sensing applications down tosingle molecule level. Although this technique has been commercializedbased on microscopic Raman spectroscopy systems, substrates withlocalized enhanced electromagnetic field that can excite strong Raman
scattering are required. In recent years, extensive research efforts havebeen focused on the development of inexpensive and large area SERS
substrates with high enhancement factors, reproducible and uniform
responses. Current dominant fabrication techniques include electron
beam lithography, nanoimprint, self-assembled nanosphere, and hybrid
nanoporous lithography methods, which are still relatively expensive andcomplicated to fabricate high quality SERS substrates over large areas.
To overcome these limitations, we report a simple and cost-effective
method to manufacture large-scale three-layered super absorptive SERS
substrates using direct sputtering deposition. By controlling the depositionand post thermal treatment conditions, random metallic nanoparticles
can be formed simply on a diverse range of substrates to function as thenanoantennas supporting strongly enhanced localized plasmon modes. Dueto the randomly distributed dimension of these nanoantennas, a broadband
plasmonic absorption resonance can be obtained, which generates strong
enhancement of the excitation and Raman scattered signal simultaneously.
Using this substrate, we achieved a high area-average EF of 8.2 ? 10^6 andexcellent uniformity with only 14.5% variation simultaneously over the entire
sample area, which is better than many commercial SERS substrates.

The use of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) as a diagnostic tool in the fieldof cultural heritage is of great interest and it presents high potentialities,
being this analysis non-destructive, non-invasive and portable. Furthermore,
the possibility to couple hyperspectral data with chemometric techniques
allows to get qualitative and/or quantitative information on the nature andphysical-chemical characteristics of the investigated materials. A study was
carried out to explore the possibilities offered by this approach to identify
pigments in paintings when different wavelength ranges are investigated.
More in detail, six pigments have been selected, they have been thenmixed with four different binders and applied to two different supports:wood and canvas. The resulting reference samples were acquired by HSI
in the VIS-NIR (400-1000 nm) and SWIR (1000-2500 nm) wavelength
ranges. Data were processed adopting a chemometric approach based on
the PLS_Toolbox (Version 6.5.1, Eigenvector Research, Inc.) running inside
Matlab® (Version 7.11.1, The Mathworks, Inc.). The aim of the study was toverify, according to the information acquired in the two different wavelength
regions, the correlation existing between collected spectral signaturesand sample characteristics related to the different pigments, binders andsupports utilized. Results were very good showing as correlations exist. New
scenarios can thus be envisaged for analysis, characterization, conservation
and restoration of paintings, considering that the developed approachallows to obtain, just “in one shot”, information, not only on the type of
pigment, but also on the utilized binder and support.

9106-7, Session 2

9106-11, Session 3

Plasmonic chip for chemical and biologicalsensing (Invited Paper)

Combustion of materials and chemical using
standoff infrared hyperspectral imaging

Hoan Thanh Ngo, Andrew M. Fales, Tuan Vo-Dinh, Duke Univ.
(United States)

Marc-André Gagnon, Vincent Farley, Pierre Tremblay, Simon Savary,
Martin Chamberland, Telops (Canada)

No Abstract Available

340

Combustions of materials and chemicals are challenging systems tocharacterize due to the variability and the potential hazardous nature of theemission gases. Depending on the type of combustion and chemical natureof the combustible, a complex mixture of oxidation products, by-products,

SPIE DSS 2014·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9106: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies XI
as well as thermal decomposition products can be expected. Many of these
combustion gases are infrared-active species which possess a uniquespectral infrared signature. The combustion of sulfur-rich coal, sulfurdepleted coal, ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate was characterizedusing a longwave (LW, 8-12 μm) and midwave (MW, 3-5 μm) Telops
Hyper-Cam, commercially available standoff infrared hyperspectral imaging
sensors. The selectivity provided by high-resolution infrared hyperspectral
imaging allows time-resolve imaging of various gases like carbon monoxide(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
The relationship between the type of combustible and the combustion
gases illustrates the usefulness of standoff infrared hyperspectral imaging
for characterizing the combustion of materials and chemicals.

Similarly a combination of hygroscopic material(Gelatin & cobalt chloride)
was deposited onto ITO layer. Field emission scanning electron microscope(FESEM) has provided detailed evidence of attachment of the amalgamation
on LPG. Surface modification is evident in FESEM image. It is also clear thatthe technique used for the coating produce uniform and nicely adhered
thin film layer. The experiential set up comprises of a humidity chamber
to create precise and controlled level of %RH. A broadband light wasconnected to one end of the coated LPG and the other to an OSA withlevel resolution 0.01dBm and wavelength resolution of 0.1nm to monitor thetransmission spectrum of coated LPG sensor with respect to different levelsof applied %RH. The demonstrated sensor can be to measure RH variation
efficiently in the range of 40% to 95% RH with sensitivity of 0.12 nm/ % RH,
accuracy of 98.45% and stability error 0.031%. We have also investigatedhysteresis, repeatability the sensor exhibited a hysteresis error of ±0.12%RH,
repeatability of 98.7% and response time 24secs.

9106-12, Session 3

Automatic detection and classification of EOLconcrete and resulting recovered products byhyperspectral imaging

9106-14, Session 4

Polarization resolved angular optical scatteringof aerosol particles

Roberta Palmieri, Giuseppe Bonifazi, Silvia Serranti, Univ. degli Studidi Roma La Sapienza (Italy)

Brandon Redding, Yale Univ. (United States); Yongle Pan, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Hui Cao, Yale Univ. (United States)

The possibility to develop an efficient recovery and reuse of end-of-life(EOL) concrete represents one of the main targets applied to EOL buildings
and/or civil constructions dismantling/recycling. The need to recycle EOL
concrete materials dramatically increased in these last years. The reason
being linked to: i) the lower availability of steady supplies of natural
aggregates, ii) the need to secure ample supplies of concrete aggregates tothe construction industry and, finally, iii) the environmental constraints more
and more limiting the DW wastes disposal. EOL concrete recycling thus canrepresent a valid alternative to increase aggregates availability allowing
to reach, at the same time, other important benefits as: i) a reduced
exploitation of new resources, ii) the utilisation of recovered materials,
otherwise land filled, iii) a reduction of transport and energy costs and iv)
a lower overall environmental impact. To be this approach a real alternative
to classical natural resources exploitation, it is required that the entire
processing chain, from EOL concrete structure dismantling to EOL-concrete
processing, is handled minimising costs and maximising output products
values, that is producing “certified” materials able to really replace thenatural ones. The fulfilment of these goals passes through the definition andset up of innovative procedures finalised to collect and model informationon concrete characteristics before demolition and to define the compositionof particles as resulting from comminution/classification/separation
actions. This latter aspect being finalised to identify both recovered coarse
aggregates characteristics (i.e. particles composition: aggregate/cement
ratio and textural assessment), and presence of contaminants (i.e. bricks,
gypsum, steel, glass, plastics, wood, etc.). In this paper a new technology,
based on HyperSpectral Imaging (HSI) sensing devices, and related
detection architectures, is presented and discussed in order to define andapply simple to use, reliable, robust and low cost strategies finalised todefine and implement innovative smart detection engines for a preliminary
EOL-concrete characterisation/modelling and for a further recovered
aggregates flow stream quality control (i.e. aggregates liberation andcontaminants detection) finalised to recovered materials and/or products
certification. The proposed sensing architecture is fast, accurate, affordable
and it can strongly contribute to bring down the economic threshold above
which recycling is cost efficient.

Real-time detection and identification of bio-aerosol particles are crucial
for the protection against chemical and biological agents. The strong elastic
light scattering properties of airborne particles provides a natural means for
rapid, non-invasive aerosol characterization. Recent theoretical predictions
suggested that variations in the polarization dependent angular scatteringcross section could provide an efficient means of classifying different
airborne particles. In particular, the polarization dependent scattering crosssection of aggregate particles is expected to depend on the shape of the
primary particles. In order to experimentally validate this prediction, we built
a high throughput sampling system, capable of measuring the polarization
resolved angular scattering cross section of individual aerosol particles
flowing through an interrogating volume with a single shot laser pulse. We
calibrated the system by comparing the polarization dependent scatteringcross section of individual polystyrene spheres with that predicted by Mietheory. We then used the system to study five particles types: Polystyrene
aggregates composed of 1 µm and 500 nm spheres, Bacillus subtilis (BG,
Anthrax simulant) spores, Arizona road dust, and tryptophan molecules. We
found that the polarization resolved scattering cross section depends on the
shape of the constituent elements of the aggregates. This work indicatesthat the polarization resolved scattering cross section could be used for
rapid discrimination between different bio-aerosol particles.

9106-15, Session 4

Near-infrared spectroscopy and patternrecognition processing for classifying wines of
two Italian provinces
Anna G. Mignani, Leonardo Ciaccheri, Istituto di Fisica Applicata
Nello Carrara (Italy); Belén Gordillo, Univ. de Sevilla (Spain); Andrea
A. Mencaglia, Istituto di Fisica Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy);
Lourdes González Miret Martín, Francisco J. Heredia Mira, Univ.
de Sevilla (Spain); Angelo Cichelli, Univ. degli Studi G. d’Annunzio(Italy)9106-13, Session 4

LPG humidity sensor using double overlay

The promotion of wines with a unique geographical connotation isconsidered a strategic factor for protecting and boosting the European
share of the wine market. Labels bearing denomination of origin (PDO) andgeographical indication (PGI) trademarks are often used to highlight thepeculiarities of wines, for better visibility to consumers and differentiations
with respect to similar products with lower price.

R. S. Kaler, Thapar Univ. (India); Nidhi Chandel, Central Scientific
Instruments Organisation (India) and Thapar Univ. (India); Pawan
Kapur, Central Scientific Instruments Organisation (India)
In this paper, we have reported long period fiber grating sensor probe forrelative humidity monitoring using double overlay..Firstly, a thin overlay ofmetal oxide (ITO) was deposited on LPG by using dip coating methodology.

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Beside analytical techniques suitable for laboratory use only, optical
spectroscopy has emerged as a rapid and non-destructive tool for quick·

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9106-18, Session 5

measurements. In fact, the entire spectrum from the ultraviolet to the
mid-infrared is capable to highlighting even minimal differences between
wines. Spectroscopic data are usually processed by means of multivariate
data analysis, demonstrating that the combination of spectroscopy andchemometrics provides as a modern and straightforward tool for wineclassification and authentication.

Fabrication of D-type fiber optic sensors with along interaction length and studying effects ofcritical parameters on sensor response

This paper presents an experiment which was carried out in the nearinfrared band only for distinguishing the wines produced in two close
provinces of the Abruzzi region of Italy. A collection of 32 wines wasconsidered, 18 of which produced in the province of Chieti, while the other14 coming from the province of Teramo. They were red, rosè and whitewines of different varieties such as Sangiovese, Montepulciano, Chardonney,
Malvasia, Pecorino, Melot, and Cerasuolo.

Burcu Guleryuz, TÜBITAK Marmara Research Ctr. (Turkey) andMiddle East Technical Univ. (Turkey); Caner Durucan, Middle East
Technical Univ. (Turkey); Mustafa M. Aslan, TÜBITAK Marmara
Research Ctr. (Turkey)
Today Evanescent wave based fiber optic (F/O) platforms are in favorof the use for monitoring molecular interactions since they are practical,
economic and easy to operate which make them ideal turnkey systems
for clinical, pharmaceutical, environmental and security applications. Side
polishing is one of techniques for reshaping the geometry of the waveguideto make the F/O sensor more sensitive to refractive index (RI) changes inthe biolayer in Evanescent field. In this study D-type F/O sensors with a 25
mm-long interaction lengths are fabricated. In addition to that, effects ofthe critical parameters such as the polishing depth, the wavelength, and thetemperature on the sensor response are determined for the RI in the range
1.33 - 1.47. The developing key of these F/O sensors is reaching high strengthand penetration depth of Evanescent wave in varying RI of the surrounding
biolayer. Development steps of D-type F/O sensors are; fabrication of silicon
V channels, F/O cable preparation, adhesion, lapping and polishing, fusing
the connectors, construction of the optical system, and RI measurements.
Details of these steps are explained and the general characteristics of theD-type fiber optic sensor are presented. Results indicate that the sensor’s
responses in three different RI ranges can be improved by the polishing
depth. A maximum resolution of 5x10-6 RIU for the D-type F/O sensors isdemonstrated in the RI range from 1.44 and 1.46. The results will be used fordevelopment of plasmonic sensors with nanocomposite films consist of Al
and nanostructured alumina layers.

A conventional dual-beam spectrophotometer was used for measurementsin the 1200-1900 nm spectroscopic range, which showed the mostsignificant differences among the various samples. The Principal Component
Analysis (PCA), which is one of the most popular and powerful techniquefor data dimensionality reduction and quick object classification, wasused for patter-recognition processing. Classification maps in the PC1PC2 or PC2-PC3 spaces were obtained, both successfully grouping thewine samples in two distinct clusters, corresponding to Chieti and Teramo
provinces, respectively.

9106-16, Session 5

Microfluidics for analytical applications: from
etching to 3D printing
R. Shatford, S. Eshaque, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada)Microfluidics has been receiving significant attention in chemical analysis
applications. In terms of fabrication technology, microfluidic channels havebeen fabricated using technologies ranging from wet chemical etching todeep reactive ion etching. More recently, 3d-printing has been employed
to make microfluidic channels for applications ranging from microplasmachannels, to channels used for bio-analytical applications, to vacuum pumps
on a chip and from there on to chemical synthesis on chips and more
recently, to fabricate for chemical synthesis. In this presentation, fabrication
technology will be briefly reviewed and these applications will be evaluatedusing examples from the author’s research.

9106-19, Session 5

On-chip plasmonic interferometer array for
portable multiplexed biosensing system
Xie Zeng, Dengxin Ji, Nan Zhang, Haomin Song, Qiaoqiang Gan,
Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
High-throughput microarray multiplexed biosensing is important forearly detection of disease and drug screening, which currently rely on
fluorescent-labeling techniques. However, since fluorescent labels often
interfere with molecular binding interactions and lead to inaccurate
measurement, there is a significant need for label-free biosensing technique.
While prism-based surface plasmon resonance systems have become thearchetype for label-free biomolecular and chemical sensing, reductions
in size and instrumental complexity are desired for applications requiring
low-cost, compact, portable sensors, including routine point-of-care clinicalevaluation, real-time diagnosis of diseases in developing countries andfast genetic mapping for personalized care. Nanoplasmonic biosensors
employing novel topographies are an attractive miniaturized platform
to meet these requirements, which are mainly based on wavelengthinterrogation in most reports. However, high spatial density multiplexed
measurements are difficult to achieve in these designs in that broadband
wavelength analysis via spectrometer is required, which inevitably adds
the size and cost of the entire sensing system. In this work, we develop
a compact plasmonic interferometer biosensor platform constructed bynanogroove-slit pairs or nanogroove rings with a nanohole at their center.
Surface plasmon modes generated at the nanogrooves will propagate to thenanoslit or hole to interfere with the free space light transmitted through thenanoslit/hole and enable the surface refractive index sensing. Importantly,
this plasmonic interferometer can be fabricated in a large scale array andbe directly imaged by miniaturized microscope system coupled with CCD/CMOS imagers to realize low cost and portable sensitive multiplexedbiosensor systems.

9106-17, Session 5

Temperature-stable low-power ring oscillator
design for ASIC applications
Hossein Jafarian, Ali Daneshkhah, Sudhir Shrestha, Mangilal
Agarwal, Maher E. Rizkalla, Kody Varahramyan, Indiana Univ.Purdue Univ. Indianapolis (United States)
A temperature-stable, low-power ring oscillator design with a widetuning range implemented in an ASIC is presented. The design uses a newarrangement of chain delay elements which consists of a current-starved
inverter and a CMOS capacitor. The delay is controlled by changing thecurrent through the delay elements. The simulation results show that thefrequency of the presented oscillator is stable against ambient temperature
variations, with less than 0.5% deviation in frequency when the temperature
was changed from 0 to 50°C. However, the oscillation frequency was
highly sensitive to the control voltage (sensitivity ~10 mV) with a widetuning range of 200 MHz for 1 V increase in input voltage. The simulated
power consumption of the oscillator was 1.2 nW. The design and simulation
results of the ring oscillator with 180 nm technology will be presented anddiscussed. The presented oscillator, which is implemented in an ASIC, isapplicable in advanced sensing systems, including environmental, chemical,
and biological sensing.

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Conference 9106: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies XI

9106-20, Session 6

9106-22, Session 6

Remote sensing modeling framework written in
JavaScript language for interactive line-by-line
transmission and lidar calculations using the
HITRAN database

Path Optimization For Oil Probe
Anthony O. Smith, Mark D. Rahmes, Mark Blue, Harris Corp. (UnitedStates); Adrian Peter, Florida Institute of Technology (United States)
We discuss a robust method for optimal oil probe path planning inspired by
medical imaging. Horizontal wells require three-dimensional steering madepossible by the rotary steerable capabilities of the system, which allows
the hole to intersect multiple target shale gas zones. Horizontal “legs”
can be over a mile long; the longer the exposure length, the more oil andnatural gas is drained and the faster it can flow. More oil and natural gas
can be produced with fewer wells and less surface disturbance. Horizontal
drilling can help producers tap oil and natural gas deposits under surface
areas where a vertical well cannot be drilled, such as under developedor environmentally sensitive areas. Drilling creates well paths with havemultiple twists and turns to try to hit multiple accumulations from a single
well location. Our algorithm can be used to augment current state of the art
methods. Our goal is to obtain a 3D path with nodes describing the optimalroute to the destination. This algorithm works with BIG data and saves costin planning for probe insertion. Our solution may be able to help increase
the energy extracted vs. input energy.

Denis V. Pliutau, Consultant (United States)
Optical remote sensing is extensively employed in a wide range of space,environmental, military and industrial fields. Very often there is a need incarrying out estimates of expected spectroscopic or lidar performancefor instrument design, calibration and optimization purposes. Such
optimizations are often based on line-by-line calculations using the HITRAN
database. Current approaches for such line-by-line calculations rely on
desktop programs or server-type computational resources. The advances inmobile devices have enabled the possibility of executing relatively complex
and effective scientific codes using processing power of portable electronics
facilitating their wider application both in the lab and field environment.
We describe a line-by-line and lidar modeling framework developed tooperate within a web-browser written in the JavaScript language basedon the capabilities of the HTML5 specification. The newly implemented
approach relies upon the processing power of a client device and enables
easy user customizations of the modeling algorithms in addition to highportability. The employed alternative line-by-line calculation technique has
never been implemented in the past to our knowledge and is very relevantto the ongoing transition of the HITRAN database to the SQL query typeweb-based format. Additionally, the approach enables direct usage of NASA
Earth server data in simulations including vertical atmospheric profiles ofpressure, temperature and molecular composition from the Modern Era
Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) and otherdatasets thus significantly enhancing location and time specific modelingcapabilities. The approach may be combined with the use of geospatial
visualization frameworks such as OpenLayers.

9106-28, Session 6

Cloud droplet number concentration observed
over ocean from CALIOP/CALIPSO and MODIS/
AQUA
Shan Zeng, Oak Ridge Associated Universities (United States) andNASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States); Charles R. Trepte,
Yong-Xiang Hu, David M. Winker, Lusheng Liang, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States)

9106-21, Session 6

Cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) is an important microphysicalproperty of liquid clouds that impacts radiative forcing, precipitation andinteracts with aerosols. Remote sensing of this parameter at global scales
from satellites are still challenging, especially because retrieval algorithms
developed for passive sensors (i.e. MODIS/Aqua) have to rely on theassumption of cloud adiabatic growth. The active sensor CALIOP/CALIPSO
allows retrievals of CDNC from depolarization measurements at 532 nm.
For that case, the retrieval does not rely on the adiabatic assumption but
instead must use a priori information on effective radius (re), which canbe obtained from other passive sensors. In this paper, re values obtained
from MODIS/Aqua are used to constrain CDNC retrievals from CALIOP.
Intercomparison of CDNC products retrieved from MODIS and CALIOP
sensors is performed, and their differences are discussed. By analyzing thestrengths and weaknesses of different retrieval techniques, this study aims
to better understand global CDNC distribution, and eventually determine
cloud structure and atmospheric conditions in which they develop. The
improved understanding of CDNC would help for the future studies of global
cloud-aerosol-precipitation interactions and parameterizations of clouds inthe global climate models (GCMs).

Optical characterization of nanoporous anodic
alumina sensor substrate
Aschalew Kassu, Carlton W. Farley III, Anup Sharma, Alabama A&M
Univ. (United States)
Nanoporous anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) has been investigated as an
ideal and cost-effective chemical and biosensing platform. In this paper,
we report the optical properties of periodic 100 micron thick nanoporous
anodic alumina membranes with uniform and high density cylindrical pores
penetrating the entire thickness of the substrate, ranging in size from 18
nm to 150 nm in diameter and pore periods from 44 nm to 243 nm. The
geometry of the top and bottom surface of each membrane is studied using
atomic force microscopy. The optical properties including transmittance,
reflectance, and absorbance spectra on both sides of each substrate arestudied and found to be symmetrical. It is observed that, as the pore size
increases, the peak resonance intensity in transmittance and absorbanceincreases. The effects of the pore sizes on the optical properties of the barenanoporous membranes and the benefit of using arrays of nanohole arrayswith varying hole sizes and periodicity as a chemical sensing platform is also
discussed. To characterize the optical sensing technique, transmittance andreflectance measurements of various concentrations of chemicals adsorbedon the bare nanoporous substrates are investigated. The results presented
here show variation in transmittance and reflectance spectra with theconcentration of the chemical used or the amount of the material adsorbed
or the surface of the substrate.

9106-23, Session Posters-Tuesday

Optimal RS-measurements plan strengthening
lab-measured information in coherent modes ofnonlinear synergetic system
Galib G. Huseynov, Ivy Tech Community College (United States) andNorthern Virginia Community College (United States)
The spatial and spectral contrasts’ transformation with survey conditions(altitude, atmosphere condition and illumination) illustrates smoothing withan altitude and optical distance in approach of thetransmission equation.
Meanwhile there is an “oscillating” decrease tendency of a variation343+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9106: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies XI

9106-27, Session Posters-Tuesday

coefficient observed with steady spikes to be described by some non-linear
regression models based on synergy concepts. Usage of a spatial coherence
parameters determined as a result of an interaction of eigen-functions oftransmission equation with fluctuating component allows to develop thecalibration metrics with informative ranges of data processing selection

Analytical solution using computer algebra of abiosensor for detecting toxic substances in water
María Isabel Rua Taborda, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

9106-24, Session Posters-Tuesday

In a relatively recent paper an electrochemical biosensor for water toxicity
detection based on a bio-chip as a whole cell was proposed and numericallysolved and analyzed. In such paper the kinetic processes in a miniaturized
electrochemical biosensor system was described using the equations for
specific enzymatic reaction and the diffusion equation. The numericalsolution shown excellent agreement with the measured data but such
numerical solution is not enough to design efficiently the corresponding
bio-chip. For this reason an analytical solution is demanded. The objectof the present work is to provide such analytical solution and then to give
algebraic guides to design the bio-sensor. The analytical solution is obtainedusing computer algebra software, specifically Maple. The method of solution
is the Laplace transform, with Bromwich integral and residue theorem. The
final solution is given as a series of Bessel functions and the effective time
for the bio-sensor is computed. It is claimed that the analytical solutions
that were obtained will be very useful to predict further current variations
in similar systems with different geometries, materials and biologicalcomponents. Beside of this the analytical solution that we provide is very
useful to investigate the relationship between different chamber parameterssuch as cell radius and height; and electrode radius.

Humidity sensor based on zinc (II) oxide-titanium(II) oxide nanocomposite
Karunesh Tiwari, BBDNITM Lucknow (India); N. K. Pandey II,
Lucknow Univ. (India)
A new compact, durable, yet highly sensitive and reliable ceramic
humidity sensor based on the semiconducting metal oxide ZnO-TiO2 hasbeen prepared by using solid-state reaction method. The nanostructureand humidity sensitivity of Titanium Oxide (TiO2) doped ZnO has been
investigated. Highly pure ZnO (99.99 Qualizens) and TiO2 (99.99 Qualizen)
powder have been used. Samples have been prepared with compositionsof 2wt% (Sample S-2), 5wt% (Sample S-5) of TiO2 with ZnO and mixed
uniformly by using glaze mortar and pestle for half an hour. The resultant
powder with 10 wt% of glass powder binder added has been pressed into
pellets under pressure of 260 MPa for 3 hours. Pellets of these powders
has been annealed in electric muffle furnace at temperature 200°C, 300°C,
400ºC, and 500ºC for three hours and cooled to room temperature. After
sintering, these pellets have been exposed to humidity in a speciallydesigned humidity chamber at room temperature. It has been observedthat as relative humidity increases, resistance of the pellets decreases for
entire range of humidity i.e. 10% to 90%. Rutile and hexagonal structures of
ZnO-TiO2 and their nano meter grain sizes are responsible for formation of
nanometer sized pores, which ultimately adsorbs water. The adsorption ofwater (physisorbrd water) on hydroxalated surface cause electron injection.
The interaction of adsorbed oxygen with water molecules or possiblywith chemisorbed water causes energy level of adsorbed oxygen ions tofluctuate, so that electrons can be more easily injected. It has been observedthat the resistance of the pellet decreases as the relative humidity increases
from 10%-90%.

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Conference 9107:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XI
Wednesday - Friday 7 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9107 Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XI

9107-1, Session 1

9107-3, Session 1

Confocal laser method (CLM) for multiparameter
sensing and quantitative evaluation of opticalproperties of intraocular lens (IOL) implants

Modeling of irradiation by a collimated line
source in multilayer anisotropic media for abiomedical optical probe

Bennett N. Walker, Robert H. James, Don Calogero, Ilko K. Ilev, U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (United States)

Dagmar A. Wismeijer, Lieke G. E. Cox, Par Dunias, TNO Science andIndustry (Netherlands)

Intraocular lens (IOL) implantation is the most common surgical procedurein the United States, averaging over 3 million surgeries per year. To keep
up with the rapidly growing industry and evaluate the efficacy and safetyof IOL optical properties, a precise, accurate, and repeatable technique
is required. Recently, we have introduced a novel confocal laser method(CLM) for multiparameter sensing and effective evaluation of fundamental
IOL optical properties such as dioptric power, refractive index, thickness,and geometrical parameters. The CLM principle is based on a simple fiberoptic confocal laser design that integrates advanced properties of highresolution confocal microscopy and fiber-optic sensing. This IOL testing
approach enabled improved accuracy (<1 µm), improved repeatability (<0.01
D), and a broadened range of accessible dioptric powers (0 to ±36.0 D).
Here, we discuss the continued development of the optical CLM platform
through automation and introduced standard environmental control. The
automation of the CLM platform improves the precision, repeatability, andsimplicity for measuring dioptric powers of new IOL designs. In addition,
the IOL can be placed in an environmentally controlled chamber where
temperature, surrounding medium and optical properties can be monitored
and manipulated. Preliminary studies have measured the impact of changes
in experimental wavelength of light and laser beam profiles on spherical andcylinder powers for various IOL types (e.g. toric, monofocal, and multifocal).
These studies, and others, can significantly improve the proficiency ofevaluating the safety and efficacy of IOL optical properties and ultimately
the health of millions of Americans every year.

The development and applicability of a forward-looking optical probe in the
medical field, e.g. to detect tumors in breast tissue, can be greatly enhancedby the use of a predictive mathematical light-tissue interaction model. To
this end, we developed an analytical model that predicts irradiation of ananisotropic light source inside layered anisotropic scattering media of finite
thicknesses, as well as in semi-infinite media.
Most models to date either rely on the diffusion approximation-which is not
valid close to the source, or pertain to a (semi-)infinite turbid medium-which
is not always close to reality. The model we present here overcomes both
drawbacks for practical application, by taking into account the anisotropy ofthe media and the source.
Assuming an anisotropic line source inside an infinite anisotropic scattering
medium, we solved for the resulting radiative transport equation (RTE) inthe spatial frequency domain (SFD) and back-transformed our solution
into the spatial domain using the Hankel-transformation. Based on this,
we solved the semi-infinite, finite-sized slab and dual-layer media cases byapplying the corresponding boundary conditions (extrapolated BC) in the
SFD and solved the resulting RTE.
The spatial transmission profiles predicted by our model were in close
agreement with the profiles predicted by Monte Carlo simulations for agreat variety of optical parameters and layer configurations . In addition, thesemi-infinite model was verified by measuring with a hyper-spectral single
point optical probe in a semi-infinite medium, and in a next stage, the model
will be verified for a dual-layered medium.

9107-2, Session 1

9107-4, Session 1

Novel fiber optic Fourier transform infrared(FO-FTIR) spectroscopy platforms for label-free
remote sensing of biochemical contamination

High resolution optical fibre pressure andtemperature sensor for medical usage in
cardiovascular and in-vivo urodynamic
measurements

Moinuddin Hassan, Ilko K. Ilev, U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States)

Sven Poeggel, Daniele Tosi, Univ. of Limerick (Ireland); Simone
Sannino, Laura Lupoli, Univ. degli Studi di Napoli Federico II (Italy);
Dinesh Babu Duraibabu, Univ. of Limerick (Ireland); Fernando
Fusco, Juliet Ippolito, Vincenzo Mirone, Univ. degli Studi di Napoli
Federico II (Italy); Gabriel Leen, Elfed Lewis, Univ. of Limerick(Ireland)

Medical device contamination has become a critical and prevalent publichealth issue as devices are being extensively used in clinical practices
for diagnostics, therapeutics, and medical implants. In order to prevent
transmission of infection to patients and healthcare personnel caused by
medical device contamination, the development and implementation ofnovel test methods for quantitative, accurate, easy-to-use, and real-time
detection of contaminations is required. Conventional clinical methods
based on swab/wipe sampling are not sensitive enough and can be time
consuming. Here, we have developed an alternative fiber-optic Fouriertransform infrared (FO-FTIR) spectroscopy based sensing platforms(reflectance, transmission and grazing incident angle (GIA)) for label-free,remote, and rapid detection of medical device surface contaminations.
We demonstrated the sensitivity of the FO-FTIR reflection and GIA
measurement modality for non-contact, label-free identification ofendotoxin as well as protein samples such as bovine serum albumin (BSA).
In addition, we also investigated sensitivity of the FO-FTIR as compare tocolony forming units of different types of bacteria such as Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas. The novel sensing platforms
integrated with the signal recognition statistical approach can provide
a powerful optical tool for non-contact, real-time, in-situ detection andidentification of biochemical contaminants of medical device surface within
the FDA and CDC recognized threshold limits.

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Medical sensors, in general, are required to have a high accuracy and toprovide a high measurement resolution with a small drift. Measurements
need to be repeatable, i.e. the sensor has to be stable over long timeintervals. Furthermore the sensors need to be very compact, especiallywhen used in constricted areas e.g. blood vessels or the lung.
Since optical fibres are small in size (e.g.: diameter of 125-200um), they
are potentially suitable for medical usage. Compared to other state-ofthe-art in-situ sensing technologies, optical fibre sensors have useful
inherent advantages such as resistance to chemical degradation, immunity
to electromagnetic fields (as experienced in MRI or CT scanners) andfurthermore, all-glass fibre optic sensors are biocompatible.
The Optical Fibre Pressure and Temperature Sensor (OFPTS) present
here is able to measure pressure and temperature simultaneously. The
OFPTS combines an Extrinsic Fabry Perot Interferometer (EFPI) tomeasure pressure, with an internal Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) to measure·

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Conference 9107:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XI

9107-7, Session 2

temperature.
The OFPTS has been tested in a simulated cardiovascular environment andshowed a resolution of 0.1mmHg with an online frame-rate of 100Hz. The
sensor was also tested in the Polymer Core Center in the Cleveland Clinicand demonstrated a pressure drift of less than 1mmHg over a 1 hour period.
Furthermore, the sensor has also been tested in-vivo, in a urodynamics
application where 7 patients participated at the Urologic Clinic in Federico II
University of Naples, in Italy. The Analyses show a good correlation between
the used reference sensor (Pico-2000) and the OFPTS, present here.

Noninvasive label-free and real-time sensing ofhydrogen peroxide in human brain cancer cells
through Raman spectroscopy
Darrell B. Tata, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (United States)
Noninvasive optical diagnostics and therapeutics modalities provide noncontact, high-resolution, fast and painless tools for diagnostic sensing
and treatment of a variety of diseases. However, despite recent intensive
research efforts, there is a fundamental lack of understanding of theworking mechanisms of light-tissue interactions involved with various
optical therapeutic techniques and devices. These mechanisms need
to be understood at the cellular/intracellular level in order to optimize
effectiveness and ensure safety of photodynamic treatments which resultsin pain relief, and light-assisted cellular and tissue repair. One of the recently
investigated hypotheses of light-tissue interaction mechanism is thathydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as one of the laser-induced reactive oxygen
species (ROS) is likely to play a dominant role for light induced modulationsof biological responses. In an initial proof-of-concept study, we havedemonstrated recently the first direct noninvasive, real time monitoring andlabel-free sensing of H2O2 in human cancer cells using an innovative sensing
approach based on Raman spectroscopy. In the current study, we present
further quantitative experiments on optimizing critical laser parameters(such as spectral wavelength; continuous-wave vs. pulse; optical power/
energy; laser beam parameters and irradiation dose) for laser induced H2O2
in-vitro.

9107-5, Session 1

Multifunction medical endoscope system with
optical fiber temperature sensor
Zhengquan He, Yulin Li, Depeng Kong, Xi’an Institute of Optics andPrecision Mechanics (China)
Thermal therapy (e.g. RF treatment, RF ablation, microwave cutting etc.
) is one of the effective operations for tumor treating and curing. Since
tumor tissues are more susceptible to heat than normal tissues, in thermal
therapy operations, temperature is a crucial parameter. As the temperature
is too low, the tumor tissues cannot be killed; otherwise, the temperature
is too high, the operation may damage the normal tissues around tumors.
During thermal a therapy operation, the heating power is normally suppliedby high-frequency EM field, so traditional temperature sensors, such as
thermal couples, thermistors, cannot work stably due to EM interference.
We present a multi-function endoscope optical fiber temperature sensor
system. With this sensor setup based on principle of fluorescence life time,
the temperature on operation point is detected in real time. Furthermore, abuild-in endoscope centered in the fiber sensor, so the operation field canbe viewed or imaged directly in the operation. This design can navigate
the operation, particularly for in vivo operations. In the sensor system,
the temperature sensor measurement range is 30°C-150°C, the resolution
achieved 0.3°C, the imaging fiber buddle contains more than 50k fibers.
As the sensor probe is very thin (less than 2mm in diameter), it can beassembled in the RF operation knife. With the presented sensor system inclinic operation physicians can check the temperature in the operation point
and view the operation point at the same time.

9107-8, Session 2

Characterization of ultrathin oxide based
multilayer SERS nanoprobes for intracellularsensing
Pietro Strobbia, Adam Mayer, Charles Klutse, Brian Cullum, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
The intracellular study of chemical signaling play a key role in thedevelopment of medicine as well as fundamental understanding of
biological phenomena. Photonic nanosensors (e.g. PEBBLES, quantum
dots-based sensors, etc.) have begun to allow the study of these previously
inaccessible environments. Unfortunately, many current techniques sufferfrom biocompatibility issues, limited ability to monitor multiple species
simultaneously and/or complicated fabrication chemistries. Recently
SERS immuno-nanoprobes have demonstrated the capability to overcome
many of these limitations. Such intracellular SERS nanosensors require
an optimized substrate geometry to achieve the sensitivity necessary todetect the trace analyte concentrations present. To address this, we havedeveloped a novel multilayered SERS substrate nanoarchitecture that is
capable of enhancing SERS signals by over two orders of magnitude relative
to comparable single layer substrates. These structures are fabricated using
different deposition techniques (PVD, ALD, etc) in which multiple filmsof Ag (between 10-125 nm thick) are alternately deposited with ultrathin
dielectric layers (tens of Å). This geometry allows surface plasmons fromdifferent metal layers to be generated. The resulting multilayer enhancement
increases the sensitivity while also improving the robustness of thenanoprobes. In this paper, we investigate the sensitivity of SERS immunonanoprobes fabricated using this multilayered geometry and discuss theeffect of the dielectric spacer (Ag2O, TiO2, Ta2O5) work functions andconductive band offsets on the multilayer enhancement. In addition, further
enhancement associated with optical trapping of the nanoprobes during
analysis will also be discussed as well as the development of gold multilayer
nanoprobes.

9107-6, Session 2

Towards a portable ultrahigh resolution SERS
imaging system
Eric R. Languirand, John Kiser, Brian Cullum, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
Ultra-high resolution chemical imaging using Raman spectroscopy can aid in
the differentiation and identification of trace analytes for many applications,
including, but not limited to forensics, environmental, biological andbiomedical sciences. Unfortunately, spontaneous Raman spectroscopy is an
intrinsically weak phenomenon making trace detection inherently difficult.
To circumvent this and provide the sensitivity necessary for sub-diffraction
limited chemical imaging, we employ a specially designed surface enhanced
Raman spectroscopic (SERS) nanoprobe. Unlike tip enhanced Raman
spectroscopy (TERS), where a small tapered tip is raster scanned over asample surface for ultra-high resolution image acquisition, our nanoprobes
are fabricated from fiber optic imaging bundles that allow for an entire
image to be acquired in a single collection.
The SERS nanoprobes, which are central to this system, are fabricated using
coherent fiber-optic imaging bundles consisting of 30,000 fiber elements.
These probes are tapered via a micropipette puller to have individual fiber
element tip diameters of 50 nm and still retain total internal transmission.
Using a rapid 2-step dithering process, 20 µm diameter images can beobtained with 33-36 nm spatial resolution. The rapid dithering processcoupled with the simultaneous multilocation collection allows for ultrahigh resolution, dynamic imaging to be achieved. This talk will describe thedevelopment of a portable system for field applications.

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9107-9, Session 2

The tympanic membrane (ear drum) is a thin tissue film that is stretchedbetween the outer and middle ear. Sound waves travel from outside the ear,and strike the tympanic membrane resulting in its vibration. These vibrations
amplify the sound waves and transmit them to the ossicles (auditory bones).
The magnitude of amplification is directly proportional to vibrating area ofthe tympanic membrane. Hence a perforation in this membrane would resultin hearing loss.

Detection of illicit drugs in impaired driver saliva
using a field-usable SERS analyzer
Stuart R. Farquharson, Chetan S. Shende, Hermes Huang, Real-Time
Analyzers, Inc. (United States)

Pure-tone audiometry is the traditional procedure used to detect theamount of hearing loss in a patient. However, it is lengthy and less efficient,
as it largely depends on the response of the patient to sound intensity andfrequency of pure-tones.

One of the greatest dangers of drug use is in combination with driving.
More than 11% of drivers in a 2007 National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration’s (NHTSA) roadside survey tested positive for illicit
drugs, while 18% of drivers killed in accidents tested positive for illicit,
prescription or over-the-counter drugs according to a 2009 NHTSA survey.
Consequently, there is a need for a rapid, noninvasive, roadside drug testing
device, similar to the breathalyzers used by law enforcement officials toestimate blood alcohol levels of impaired drivers. In an effort to satisfy
this need we developed a portable analyzer that automatically extracts
the drugs from saliva and generates surface-enhanced Raman spectra(SERS). This presentation will describe the automated sampling system, thedevelopment of a 150 drug SERS library, and the analysis of 8 priority drugsin 1 mL saliva samples in ~ 10 minutes at 10-50 ng/mL (part-per-billion)
using a portable Raman analyzer.

We present a relatively more efficient approach to determine hearing loss
due to perforated tympanic membrane using image processing techniques.
We describe an algorithm that uses unsharp masking to sharpen images ofthe perforations as well as the tympanic membrane. Then, it converts theimage into a binary image using thresholding. A median filter is applied
to get rid of the noise component in the image. The ratio of the area of
perforation and total area of tympanic membrane will define the percentageof hearing loss. Our approach will eliminate the error introduced due topatient dependency as in the traditional method.

9107-12, Session 3
9107-10, Session 2

Quantitative analysis of low contrast detectability
in optical coherence tomography using spincoated phantoms

Rapid detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosabiomarkers in biological fluids using surfaceenhanced Raman scattering

Nicholas J. Woolsey, Hsing-Wen Wang, Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States) and U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States); Anant Agrawal, U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States); Jianting Wang, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States) and U.S. Food and Drug Administration (UnitedStates); Chia-Pin Liang, Yu Chen, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States); T. Joshua Pfefer, U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States)

Xiaomeng Wu, Jing Chen, The Univ. of Georgia (United States);
Susu M. Zughaier, Emory Univ. (United States); Yiping Zhao, The
Univ. of Georgia (United States)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is an opportunistic pathogen that causes
major infection not only in Cystic Fibrosis (CF) patients but also in chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease and in critically ill patients in intensive
care units, inducing ventilator associated infections. Successful antibiotic
treatment of the infection relies on accurate and rapid identification of theinfectious agents, but conventional detection methods usually take morethan 3 days to get accurate results. We have developed a rapid diagnostic
technique based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) to directly
identify PA from biological fluids. PA strains PAO1 and PA14 are cultured
in lysogeny broth, and the SERS spectra of such broth show the signature
Raman peaks from Pyocyanin (PYO) and pyoverdine (PVD), two major
biomarkers that PA secretes during its growth. This provides the evidence
that the presence of these biomarkers can be used to indicate PA infection.
A total of 22 clinical exhaled breath condensates (EBC) samples wereobtained from subjects with CF disease and from non-CF healthy donors.
SERS spectra of these EBC samples were obtained and further analyzed byusing both principle component analysis (PCA) and partial least squarediscriminant analysis (PLS-DA). PLS-DA can discriminate the samples with
PA infection and the ones without PA infection at 99.3% sensitivity and99.6% specificity. In addition, this technique can also discriminate samples
form subject with CF disease and healthy donor with 97.5% sensitivity
and 100%. These results demonstrate the potential of using SERS of EBC
samples as a rapid diagnostic tool to detect PA infection.

Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a high resolution imaging
technology that is rapidly being adopted as the standard of care for medical
applications such as ocular and intravascular imaging. However, clinicaltranslation has been hampered by the lack of standardized test methods for
performance evaluation as well as consensus standards analogous to thosethat have been developed for established medical imaging modalities (e.g.,
ultrasound). In this study, we address low contrast detectability, specifically,
the ability of systems to differentiate between regions exhibiting small
differences in scattering coefficient. Based on standard test methods forother medical imaging modalities, we have developed layered phantoms
with well-characterized scattering properties in a biologically relevant range.
The phantoms consisted of spin-coated layers of polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS) doped with varying concentrations of barium sulfate microparticles.
Two spectral domain OCT systems – a Fourier domain device at 830 nm anda swept-source device at 1310 nm – were then used to image the phantoms.
The low contrast detectability of each system was evaluated from thepixel intensity difference between layers. Confounding factors such as theinherent attenuation of the phantoms, signal intensity decay due to focusing
and system roll-off were also encountered and addressed. Significant
differences between systems were noted. The minimum differences inscattering coefficient that the Fourier domain and swept source systems
could differentiate was 1.83 and 0.40 mm-1 respectively. Overall, thisapproach to evaluating low contrast detectability represents a key step
towards the development of standard test methods to facilitate clinicaltranslation of novel OCT systems.

9107-11, Session 3

Determining hearing loss due to perforation in
the tympanic membrane using image processing
techniques
Neha R. Sardesai, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Ravindra B. Sardesai, Jehangir Hospital (India); Chein-I
Chang, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)

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9107-13, Session 3

9107-15, Session 3

Contrast-detail and penetration depth phantoms
for hyperspectral reflectance imaging

Use of high dynamic range technique for
hyperspectral imaging for surgical applications

Jianting Wang, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States);
James Coburn, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (United States);
Chia-Pin Liang, Nicholas J. Woolsey, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States); Jessica C. Ramella-Roman, The Catholic Univ. of
America (United States); Yu Chen, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States); T. Joshua Pfefer, U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States)

Maritoni Litorja, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
Multi or hyperspectral imaging has been used to measure reflectance ofvarious tissues in the surgical cavity. The objective of using hyperspectral
imaging is to bring spectroscopic technique for feature identification as
well as anomaly detection. The reflected light from surgical images canvary in magnitude far greater than the dynamic range of the imager. Thisposes a problem in spectroscopic analysis due to glare spots and dark
absorbent areas. High dynamic range technique has been routinely used inphotography to extend a digital camera’s range and capture the range ofillumination values in the original environment. In this paper we explore theuse of high dynamic range technique as a method to extend the dynamic
range of a hyperspectral imager.

Hyperspectral reflectance imaging (HRI) is an emerging technology
with a variety of clinical applications such as tissue oximetry and cancer
detection based on endogenous constituents or nanoparticles that enablemolecular imaging. Currently, there is a lack of standardized test methods
for objective, quantitative evaluation of HRI systems. Phantom-based
contrast-detail analysis is a well-defined method that has been applied
to many other medical imaging modalities such as mammography andultrasound imaging. Penetration depth is also typically determined forthese modalities using phantom-based approaches. Here we fabricated andimplemented two types of tissue-simulating phantoms for HRI: (1) thosefor contrast-detail analysis containing micro-fluidic channels of a rangeof sizes at the same depth and (2) those for penetration depth analysis
containing channels of the same diameter at a range of depths. Phantoms
were constructed using two novel approaches. Three-dimensional (3D)
printing was used to generate phantoms with rectangular channels having
lateral dimensions of 0.4 to 2 mm and a depth range of 0.3 to 2 mm. Molds
fabricated through photolithography were used to produce scatterer-doped
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) phantoms containing cylindrical channels of
0.15 to 0.5 mm diameter and 0.2 to 2 mm depth. Detectability of channels
in both phantoms were measured using various concentrations of gold
nanorods and gold nanoshells. Both phantoms demonstrated feasibility for
performing contrast-detail and penetration depth analyses. Although 3D
printing provides a faster, simpler and more flexible way to print phantoms
than photolithography, the latter technique produces smaller channels withmore ideal cylindrical geometry and matrix regions with readily tunableoptical properties.

9107-16, Session 4

Rapid biofluid analysis using paper-based
devices and mass spectrometry
Justin M. Wiseman, Prosolia, Inc. (United States); Nicholas E.
Manicke, Purdue Univ. (United States)
The rapid pace of innovation in mass spectrometry over the last decade has
resulted in higher performing instruments and unique sample introduction
methods that simplify analysis and enable in situ examination of a diverse
set of sample types. PaperSpray is a recent development that allows forquantitative analysis drugs in biological fluids (i.e. blood, plasma, urine)
without sample preparation prior to mass analysis. A few microliters of fluid
is deposited onto a paper-based substrate where the analytes are dissolvedin an elution solvent and are ionized via electrospray for introduction into
the mass spectrometer. This technique has been applied to the quantitationof immunosuppressants, antineoplastics, and drugs of abuse in whole bloodand urine, without sample preparation. Here we present this novel techniquewith emphasis on its performance and cross-validation with conventional
methods.

9107-14, Session 3

Effect of surface texture to the biofilm
attachment on medical device surfaces studied
by hyperspectral imaging

9107-17, Session 4

Transient flow with memory in a nanocapillar
Mateo Pineda Osorio, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Hanh N. D. Le, Victoria M. Hitchins, Ilko K. Ilev, Do-Hyun Kim, U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (United States)

A model of transient flow with memory in a nanocapillar is formulated andanallitically solved. Nanofluidics behavior is described by Navier-Stokes
Equation when viscosity is a radially modulated parameter and by a bordercondition corresponding with hysteretic sliding on the nanocapillar wall.
Solution is obtained using the Laplace Transform, and Bromwich Integral
and the Residue Theorem for the Inverse Laplace Transform; with the final
result being expressed as an infinite series of Bessel Functions. The analytic
solution for the case with material memory is compared with the analytic
solution for the case with no material memory and with constant viscosity.
A formula for the development of nanodynamic impedance is deduced.
Analytic results are shown to be relevant in the design of nanofluidics
devices with applications in general nanotechnologies and pharmaceuticalengineering in particular. Future lines of research are also suggested.

Biofilms cause serious risk of infection when present on medical device
surfaces, especially for implanted devices. Therefore, it is important
to monitor and prevent biofilm formation on these devices. Due to its
wideband and rapid detection potential, hyperspectral imaging was usedin this study to differentiate biofilm spectra on various device material
surfaces. Surfaces of interest included coupons of different stainless steel
textures: mirror-polished, un-polished and two intermediate degrees ofbrushed surfaces. Following the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosabacteria on coupons after 24, 48 and 72 hours at 37 oC, the coupons
containing biofilm were tilted at 10, 45 and 90 degree for 30 seconds
to induce shear stress. Adherence was tested using hyperspectral
imaging. Sample examination on several medical device materials andtextures not only revealed the amount of adhesion of biofilms, but also
the influence of biofilm production on different metallic and polymericmaterials. Further discussion of biofilm adhesion on other materials such as
polytetrafluoethylene, titanium, polycarbonate and glass will be presented.

9107-18, Session 4

Characteristic impedance of a micro-capillar with
two immiscible microfluids
Daniela Jaramillo Raquejo, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

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Conference 9107:
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into the field of non-single-phase fluids, so it might allow a further analysisof the electroosmosis within a more realistic fluid, in which properties
changes among the space inside a micro channel.

Consider the case of a microcapillary of radius R whit two microfluidic
immiscible. The micro-capillary region 0 < r < R [1] is occupied by the
microfluidic less dense and less viscous; while the microcapillary region R[1] <0 < R is occupied by the microfluidic more dense and more viscous.
Determine the characteristic impedance of the microcapillary in this casewhen both microfluidics are driven by the same pressure gradient as
the boundary condition at the wall of the microcapillary is of the nonNewtonian slip.The Navier Stokes equation is solved for both microfluidic
methods using the Laplace transform. The velocity profiles are expressedin terms of Bessel functions. Similarly, the characteristic impedance of the
microcapillary is expressed by a complex formula Bessel functions. Obtained
The analytical results are important for designing engineering microdevices
with applications in pharmaceutical, food engineering, nanotechnology andbiotechnology in General in particular. For future research it is interesting toconsider the case of boundary conditions with memory effects.

9107-21, Session 4

Nanofluidic structures for coupled sensing andremediation of toxins
Paul W. Bohn, Nicholas M. Contento, Kayla Shaw, Univ. of Notre
Dame (United States)
One foundational motivation for chemical sensing is that knowledgeof the presence and level of a chemical agent informs decisions about
treatment of the agent, for example by sequestration, separation, or
chemical conversion to a less harmful substance. Commonly the sensing
and treatment steps are separate. However, the disjoint detection/treatment
approach is neither optimal, nor required. Thus, we are investigating how
nanostructured architectures can be constructed so that molecular transport(analyte/reagent delivery), chemical sensing (optical or electrochemical)
and subsequent treatment can all be coupled in the same physical space
during the same translocation event. Chemical sensors that are uniquely
well-poised for integration into 3-D micro-/nanofluidic architectures
include those based on plasmonics and impedance. Following detection,
treatment can be substantially enhanced if mass transport limitations canbe overcome. In this context, in situ generation of reactive species within
confined geometries, such as nanopores or nanochannels is of significant
interest, because of its potential utility in overcoming mass transport
limitations in chemical reactivity. Solvent electrolysis in electrochemicallycoupled nanochannels supporting electrokinetic flow for the generationof reactive species, can produce arbitrarily tunable quantities of reagents,
such as H2, in situ in close proximity to the site of a hydrogenation catalyst,
for example. Semi-quantitative estimates of the local H2 concentration
are obtained by comparing the spatiotemporal fluorescence behavior
and current measurements with finite element simulations accounting forelectrolysis and subsequent convection and diffusion within the confinedgeometry. H2 saturation can easily be achieved at modest overpotentials.

9107-19, Session 4

Microfluidic preparation of radiopharmaceuticals
for use in imaging studies
Thomas L. Collier, Advion, Inc. (United States)
Microfluidics have revolutionized the field of radiopharmaceuticals inallowing for the rapid optimization of chemical processes and increased
productivity in the preparation of radiotracers used in the development ofimaging agents for clinicial research and the study of biological processes.
This presentation will include an overview of microfluidics advances overthe past 5 years in the field of radiochemistry and will including otherareas such as electrochemistry, separation methodolgies, photochemistry,gas trapping and high level radiotracer production. A number of advances
will be included as they relate more to the needs of microfluidics inthe field of radiotracer production for pre-clinicial and clinical drug
development. These include the rapid preparative purification of materials
using a pre-column and analytical column for high purity purification ofmaterials. The direct trapping of radioactive gases into a solution for use
in radiotracer production. There have been thoughts that multicurie levels
were not possible in the microfluidic environment due to the potential for
autoradiolysis. Radioactive concentrations of >370GBq/ml have been used
on a microfluidic platform and have been used to prepare clinically usefulamounts of radiotracers.

9107-22, Session 5

Thermal effects in microfluidics with thermal
conductivity spatially modulated

9107-20, Session 4

Agustín Vargas Toro, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Generalized electroosmosis transport with aspatially modulated electric permittivity inside acylindrical micro channel

A heat transfer model on a microfluidic is resolved analytically. The model
describes a fluid at rest between two parallel plates where each plate
is maintained at a differentially specified temperature and the thermic
conductivity of the microfluidic is spatially modulated. The heat transfer
model in such micro-hydrostatic configuration is analytically resolved using
the technique of the Laplace transform applying the Bromwich Integral
and the Residue theorem. The temperature outline in the microfluidic ispresented as an infinite series of Bessel functions. It is shown that theresult for the thermal conductivity spatially modulated has as a particularcase the solution when the thermal conductivity is spatially constant. All
computations were performed using the computer algebra software Maple.
It is claimed that the analytical obtained results are important for the designof nanoscale devices with applications in biotechnology. Furthermore, it issuggested some future research lines such as the study of the heat transfer
model in a microfluidic resting between coaxial cylinders with radiallymodulated thermal conductivity in order to achieve future developments inthis area.

Juan José Cadavid Muñoz, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
After analyzing the behavior of a fluid using an electroosmosis transportsystem, it was shown that the analysis of a constant electric permittivity
could also be extended to a medium in which its electrical properties arespace dependent.
Using the hydrodynamic analysis with the Navier-Stookes equation ina high symmetric stationary environment and by solving the Maxwell’sequations for only electrical charge sources within a micro channel, in thecase where the electrical properties of the fluid changed along the space. In
this case, it was considered a linear and a quadratic relation of the spatiallymodulated electric permittivity. For the first case, the solution was obtainedin the terms of the Heun functions and in the second case the solution wasgiven in terms of the Legendre polynomials. For both cases, the analyticalsolutions were obtained using the Maple software.
After evaluating these results with the solutions obtained with the Bessel’s
special functions, it provided a close approximation of the behavior of thefluid under the electroosmosis effect with constant permittivity.
With the development of this comparison between these solutions for thenon constant fluid’s electric characteristics, the analysis could be brought

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Conference 9107:
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9107-23, Session 5

microfluidic module (allowing 30 polymeric chain reaction cycles (PCR)
in 6 minutes) based on the oscillating fluid plug concept was previously
developed [1]. This system allows the amplification of native genomic DNA
from whole blood samples but still lacks some functionality compared tocommercial bench top systems. This abstract presents the actual statusof the renewed and advanced system, permitting the automated opticaldetection of not only the fluid plug position but also fluorescence detection.
The system uses light emitting diodes (LED) for illumination and a low cost
Charge-coupled Device (CCD) camera for optical detection. Image dataprocessing allows the automated process control of the overall systemcomponents. Therefore, the system enables the performance of rapid androbust nucleic acid amplifications together with the integration of real timemeasurement technology. This allows the amplification and simultaneousquantification of the targeted deoxyribonucleic acid molecules (DNA). The
possibility to integrate swift nucleic amplification and optical detection
into complex sample-to-answer analysis platforms opens up new pathways
towards fast and transportable point of care devices.

Using Lambert W function and error function tomodel phase change on microfluidsAnderson Bermudez García, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Solidification and melting modeling on microfluidic are solved using
Lambert W’s function and error’s functions. Models are formulated using
the heat’s diffusion equation. The generic posed case is the melting
of a slab with time dependent surface temperature, having a micro or
nano-fluidic liquid phase. At the beginning the solid slab is at melting
temperature. A slab’s face is put and maintained at temperature greaterthan the melting limit and varying in time. Lambert W function and error
function are applied via Maple to obtain the analytic solution Evolutionof the front of microfluidic-solid interface is analytically computed andslab’s corresponding melting time is determined. It is expected to haveanalytical results to be useful for food engineering, cooking engineering,
pharmaceutical engineering, nano-engineering and bio-medical engineering.

[1] Fast nucleic acid amplification for integration in point-of-careapplications, Electrophoresis 2012, 33, 3222–3228

9107-24, Session 5

9107-26, Session 5

Lab-on-a-chip PCR: real time PCR in miniaturized
format for HLA diagnostics

Microsystem integrated immunosensor for thedetection of the bioterrorist agent Francisellatularensis

Claudia Gärtner, Holger Becker, Nadine Hlawatsch, Richard Klemm,
René Sewart, Christian Moche, microfluidic ChipShop GmbH
(Germany); Rainer Frank, Andreas Willems, inno-train Diagnostik
GmbH (Germany)

Samuel Dulay, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain); Sandra Julich, Herbert
Tomasso, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Germany); SebastianSchattschneider, Claudia Gärtner, microfluidic ChipShop GmbH
(Germany); Rainer Gransee, Institut für Mikrotechnik Mainz GmbH
(Germany); Ciara K. O’Sullivan, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain)

In case of transplantation or the identification of special metabolic diseases
like coeliac disease, HLA typing has to be done. In particular in the eventof the decision of compatibility of donor and receptor for transplantation,
fast results combined with easy to handle devices are necessary. Usually alimited amount or even a single sample needs to be analyzed immediately.

A microsystem integrated electrochemical immunosensor was developed forthe detection of both the lipopolysaacharide (LPS) of Francisella tularensis,
as well as for whole cells (LVS). Antibody-horse radish peroxide andFab-horse radish conjugates conjugates were prepared in-house. Various
antibody combinations as capture and reporter antibodies were comparedusing ELISA and the optimum pair in terms of sensitivity and detection limit
were transferred to an electrochemical set-up, housed within microflduic
packaging. Antibody fragments (Fab) were generated and used both ascapture and reporter probes and compared to the use of whole antibodies.
Assay parameters (incubation time, temperature, pre-mixing of sample
with labelled antibody) were optimised and low detection limits of ca. 100
bacterial cells/mL were achieved. In an alternate immunosensor set-up,
detection of anti-Francisella tularensis antibodies was achieved. In this casethe use of LVS vs LPS was compared as coating agent in terms of binding
capacity. Protein A-HRP was used as a reporter molecule, and incubation
times and temperatures were optimised. The developed immunosensor wasapplied to the detection of real serum samples obtained from foxes andan excellent correlation with ELISA results was obtained. Functionalised
electrodes are being subjected to real-time and Accelerated Arrhenius
Thermal stability studies.

Provided this prerequisite a lab-on-a-chip device was realized, enabling afast HLA typing through miniaturized real-time PCR. Starting the analysis
with whole blood, two main process steps are involved, namely the
extraction of DNA from blood, followed by the amplification of the target
DNA by real time PCR combining amplification with direct measuring
leading to a semi-quantitative result.
For the implementation of this complete process on chip, a sample
preparation and a real time module were used. Sample preparation was
carried out by using magnetic beads that are stored together with lysis
reagents in dry format directly on chip. After clean up through applying
a special buffer regime the DNA was transferred in the PCR module for
amplification and detection through real time PCR. Coping with a massively
increased surface-to-volume ratio leading to a higher amount of unspecificbinding on the chip surface, special additives need to be integrated tocompensate for this effect.
Finally the overall procedure showed a sensitivity comparable to standard
real time PCR but cutting the complete analysis time to significantly lessthan one hour.
The presented work demonstrates that the combination of lab-on-a-chip
PCR with direct read out through optical means in a real time fashion is anextremely promising tool for molecular diagnostics.

9107-27, Session 5

Lab-on-a-chip modules for detection of highly
pathogenic bacteria: from sample preparation to
detection

9107-25, Session 5

Fluorescence detection in a lab-on-a-chip systemusing ultrafast nucleic acid amplification methods

Sandra Julich, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Germany); Rok Kopinc,
Institute of Microbial Sciences and Technologies (Slovenia); Nadine
Hlawatsch, Richard Klemm, Christian Moche, microfluidic ChipShop
GmbH (Germany); Ales Lapanje, Institute of Microbial Sciences andTechnologies (Slovenia); Claudia Gärtner, microfluidic ChipShop
GmbH (Germany); Herbert Tomaso, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut(Germany)

Rainer Gransee, Ralf Himmelreich, Julian Hoeth, Institut für
Mikrotechnik Mainz GmbH (Germany)
Today, nucleic amplification plays a key role in modern molecular biology
allowing fast and specific laboratory diagnostics testing. An ultrafast

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Gamboa, Stephanie L. Burrs, Eric S. McLamore, Univ. of Florida(United States)

Lab-on-a-chip systems are promising tools for the detection andidentification of microbial pathogens in human and veterinary medicine.
The major advantages are small sample volume and a compact designthat allows bed-side or pen-side diagnostics. Several fluidic modules havebeen developed to transform analytical procedures into miniaturized scale
including sampling, sample preparation, target enrichment, and detection
procedures.

Nanomaterial patterning can be achieved by self-assembly via specificmolecular interactions in combination with various lithographic techniques(e.g. electron beam lithography, soft lithography, and dip-pen lithography).
However, these techniques are expensive, time consuming, and require
special equipment stored in a clean room. Standard electroplating
techniques are capable of producing reliable thin films ≈ 0.5 to 5 µm thick.
However, diffusion limitations and buildup of gaseous by-products limit
the control of spatial patterning and therefore nanostructure performance.
To resolve this problem, we have developed a custom pulsed sonication/
electrodeposition system. During the sonication cycle, gaseous byproducts
formed at the surface of the working electrode are removed, and sonolysis
produces oxygen radicals near the surface of the electrode. Sonic energy
removes unstable nanostructures which lead to a much more ordered andconsistent deposition of nanostrcutures. A number of different cycling
times were tested for the electrodeposition of amorphous nanoplatinum
and gold nanoparticles on platinum/iridium electrodes. After deposition,
electrode surface area was analyzed using cyclic voltammetry and DC
potential amperometry. Nanoplatinum films formed using the pulsed
sonoelectrodeposition (pSED) technique were more uniform than traditional
plating alone, and electron transport was at least three times higher for
structures created using pSED. In addition to the increased sensitivity,
the nanomaterials demonstrated higher electroactive surface area andsensitivity toward hydrogen peroxide. The ability to control nanometal
deposition with a user-friendly interface (simple graphic user interface) is amajor advancement for improving control over nanostructure formation in
the development of electrochemical sensors and biosensors.

We present evaluation data for single modules that will be integrated in achip system for the detection of highly infectious, zoonotic pathogens thatare considered also as biological agents.
A microfluidic chip system for purification of nucleic acids was establishedthat combines cell lysis and target enrichment from several milliliters ofliquid samples using magnetic beads. This assay was applied with air andswab samples and tested using samples spiked with bacterial suspensions
and aerosols from the environment. Bacillus thuringiensis was used assimulant for Bacillus anthracis, which is closely related but non-pathogenic
for humans.
An on-chip PCR module was tested for specific detection of pathogens.
Two different technical approaches were investigated, a stationary PCR
and a flow-through PCR. For six pathogens and an internal amplification
control PCR assays could be transferred into chip scale using the same
temperature/time profile.
We could demonstrate that the microfluidic chip modules are suitable
for the respective purposes and are promising tools for the detection ofbacterial pathogens. Future developments focus on the integration of theseseparate modules to an entire lab-on-a-chip system realizing the complete
analytical process.

9107-28, Session 6

9107-30, Session 6

Multiplexed molecular detection of bioterrorist
agents using microsystem integrated
electrochemical genosensor array

Zinc oxide nanostructures for electrochemicalcortisol biosensing
Phani Kiran Vabbina, Ajeet Kaushik, Nezih Pala, Shekhar Bhansali,
Florida International Univ. (United States)

Samuel Dulay, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain); Sandra Julich, Herbert
Tomasso, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Germany); SebastianSchattschneider, Claudia Gärtner, microfluidic ChipShop GmbH
(Germany); Rainer Gransee, Institut für Mikrotechnik Mainz GmbH
(Germany); Ciara K. O’Sullivan, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain)

Cortisol “a steroid hormone” is known as a potential bio marker forpsychological stress estimation and abnormality is indicative of many
disorders. A simple, low-cost, label free sensor is required to detect Cortisol.
Electrochemical immunosensors due to increased range, rapid detection,and sensitivity have been developed to detect Cortisol. The sensing
performance is dependent on the functionality and electrical behavior ofimmobilizing matrix for high electron transport for signal amplification andloading of higher biomolecule.

A multi-electrode array composed of gold working electrodes surroundedby gold counter and reference electrodes was designed and fabricatedusing photolithography. Surface chemistry was optimised to be ratio of
1:100 thiolated DNA probe:bipodal alkanethiol in order to obtain optimal
spacing of the single stranded DNA probes to achieve maximum signal
and minimum steric hindrance. Reporter probes linking a short DNA
sequence to the enzyme horse radish peroxidase were prepared in house.
Capture and reporter probes for the 8 targets (Coxiella burnetti, Bacillus
anthracis, Bacteriophage lambda, Bacillus thuringiensis, Francisellatularensis holarctica, Burkholderia mallei, Brucella melitensis, Yersinia pestis)were designed to have minimal commanalities, and were evaluated bothcolorimetrically and electrochemically for cross reactivity. Functionalised
electrode arrays were housed within a microfluidic set-up and linked toan automated pumping system. Hybridisation conditions (incubation
duration and temperature) were optimised. The 8 different targets were
amplified with PCR using biotinylated primers and single-stranded DNA
was generated via streptavidin coated beads and thermal denaturation.
The genosensor array was capable of subnanomolar detection limits andsimultaneous detection of the 8 targets, with a total assay time of less than
10 minutes.

In this work, nanostructured ZnO due to bio compatibility, chemical stability,
high iso electric point, electrochemical activity, high electron mobility,ease of synthesis and high surface-to- volume ratio has been explored forelectrochemical Cortisol immunosensing. ZnO nanostructures synthesized
by Sonochemical method are used to immobilize Ant-Cortisol antibody(Anti-Cab). ZnO nanorods and nanoflakes are synthesized on Au/Si and ITO/
PET as flexible substrates at ambient conditions. The selected area electron
diffraction (SAED) and high resolution transmission electron microscopy(HRTEM) studies on the nanostructures showed that the nanostructures
grown are single crystalline with orientation along [0001].Electro chemical
detection is utilized for detection of Cortisol using anti- Cortisol antibodies(Anti-Cab) immobilized on ZnO nanostructures. The electrodes arecharacterized by using Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Atomic force
microscopy (AFM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV).
Electrochemical response studies of Anti-Cab/ZnO/Au immunoelectrodeshows a linear relationship between the obtained current response andCortisol concentration. The sensor exhibits a linearity from 1 pg/mL to 100
ng/mL, with a detection limit of 1 pg/mL and a sensitivity of 4µA/ (pg/mL)with a regression coefficient of 0.98. The obtained sensing performance isin physiological range. This developed sensor can be integrate with fluidic
system for the automated sensing at point-of-care application

9107-29, Session 6

A pulsed sonoelectrodeposition technique forcontrolling nanomaterial structure in biosensing
Masashige Taguchi, Nate Garland, Neil Schwalb, Diana C. Vanegas-351+1 360 676 3290·

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9107-31, Session 6

9107-33, Session 8

Real-time monitoring of food threats

Optical nanosystems for biomolecular
recognition and reaction kinetics studies (Invited
Paper)

Diana C. Vanegas-Gamboa, Univ. of Florida (United States) andUniv. del Valle (Colombia); Eric S. McLamore, Univ. of Florida(United States)

Jong Hyun Choi, Purdue Univ. (United States)

The ability to rapidly screen for food poisoning agents is a vital tool for
maintaining a safe supply of high quality foodstuffs. Sensors and biosensors
which target byproducts of key molecular interactions (e.g. toxins formed
during contamination of meat by foodborne microorganisms) are currently
one of the most successful approaches for meeting this need. Current
advances in the field of nanotechnology have expanded the opportunities
for the development of high fidelity sensing devices. Particularly, theunique properties of metal and carbon based nanocomposites such as vastsurface area per unit mass and enhanced electro-catalysis, are allowing thedevelopment of new and improved electrochemical sensors. In this study,
we have designed an electrochemical biosensor for real-time detection of
specific biomarkers of bacterial metabolism which relate to meat spoilage.
The biosensor was developed by assembling a ‘sandwich’ of nanomaterials
and enzymes on a platinum-iridium electrode (1.6 mm tip diameter).
The materials deposited on the sensor tip include amorphous platinum
nanoculsters (Pt black), reduced graphene oxide, and ceria nanoparticles.
Xanthine oxidase was encapsulated in laponite hydrogel and used for thebiorecognition of hypoxanthine and xanthine (two molecules involved in
the rotting of meat by spoilage microorganisms). The developed biosensor
demonstrated good electrochemical performance with normalized
sensitivity of 112.6 µA/mM cm2, response time of 5 sec, lower detection limitof 150 nM, and retained at least 88% of its activity after 7 days of continuous
use.

There have been significant efforts in recent years in developing novel
optical nanosystems for biomolecular detection and engineering. We havedesigned near-IR fluorescent single-wall carbon nanotubes with molecular
recognition domain by functionalizing them with nucleic acids. With
molecular recognition and self-assembly capabilities of oligonucleotides,
we have studied target-receptor interactions at the nanoscale. The
thermodynamics and kinetics of these interactions can be extracted byutilizing the signal transduction from the optical nanomaterials. Our system
is a powerful and unique optical platform that allows one to probe andanalyze biomolecular reactions both in ensemble and at single molecule
level.

9107-34, Session 8

DNA-based switching using fluorescenceresonance energy transfer (Invited Paper)
Susan Buckhout-White, Ellen R. Goldman, Jonathan C. Claussen,
Mario G. Ancona, Igor L. Medintz, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)
Structural DNA nanotechnology has developed profoundly in the last
several years from development of new shapes and building methodologies,
to truly employing these materials for molecular scaffolding towards theimplementation of functional devices. To this end, we have developeda three-arm DNA switch (TADS) where the linkage between each arm
can be physically detached and replaced using toehold mediated strand
displacement. The TADS is also designed such that different linker lengths
can be used independent of one another, such that the switch can take ona variety of characteristic shapes. Alone, the switch has little functionality
apart from demonstration of a large array of permutations, with just threevariables. However, when this system is coupled with a unique fluorescentdye attached to each arm that is FRET active in ensemble with all threedyes, as well as in individual pairs, the physical switch combines with thefunctionality of an optical switch to impart a great amount of versatility andfunction. As a logic based system, the TADS employs three potential uniquesensing areas. Depending on the lengths of the linkers used, the logic
characteristics of the TADS can change, permitting a variety of multiplexed
sensing modalities, within the same system. We describe here the range of
logic that can be produced from this three input system and how this may
be able to translate to a highly modular sensor design.

9107-32, Session 8

Sensing more with less: new strategies for assays
with quantum dots (Invited Paper)
W. Russ Algar, Eleonora Petryayeva, Miao Wu, Hyungki Kim, Cheryl
Y. W. Ng, Erin Conroy, Melissa Massey, The Univ. of British Columbia(Canada)The unique optical properties of semiconductor quantum dots (QDs)
combined with Foerster resonance energy transfer (FRET) haveattracted considerable interest for assay and biosensor development.
In this presentation, recent efforts by our group to develop QD-FRET
configurations for in vitro biosensing and point-of-care diagnostic platforms
will be reported. The design and characterization of concentric FRET
systems with multiple energy transfer pathways per QD will be describedalong with their applications for biosensing. Examples of concentric
FRET systems suitable for multiplexed detection of enzyme activity, orfor distinguishing between enzyme activity and concentration, will bepresented, as will preliminary results with a self-contained probe for thedetection of unlabeled nucleic acid targets. The importance of interfacialchemistry for engineering selectivity and sensitivity will be highlighted
in these contexts. In addition, we will describe how QDs and the CMOS
technology in cellphones and webcams can be utilized for simple,
quantitative readout of paper test strips or multiplexed homogeneous
assays for enzyme activity. In the former, cellulose paper substrates weremodified with QD donors and acceptor-labeled biomolecular probes.
Energy transfer rates between the QD and dye were enhanced within
the paper matrix and enabled detection of enzyme activity at nanomolar
concentrations through digital color imaging. This strategy can beextended to the simultaneous detection of the activity of three enzymes
in homogenous assays. Progress in optimizing such assay formats will be
discussed. Overall, the optical properties of QDs remain very promising fordeveloping multiplexed probes for in vitro sensing and low-cost point-ofcare assays.

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9107-35, Session 8

Biomolecular logic systems: applications tobiosensors and bioactuators (Invited Paper)
Evgeny Katz, Clarkson Univ. (United States)
The talk will outline the conceptual foundations of the novel approach tobiosensing and bioactuating based on multi-step processing of biochemicalsignals through biocatalytic/biorecognition processes, adapting ideas
recently developed in the field of bioelectronics and biocomputing(biomolecular logic). Biomolecular computing is an emerging field ofunconventional computing that attempts to process information withbiomolecules and biological objects using digital logic. Enzymatic systems
which involve biocatalytic reactions utilized for information processing will
be exemplified. Extensive ongoing research in biocomputing, mimicking
Boolean logic gates has been motivated by potential applications inbiotechnology and medicine. Novel biosensors digitally processing·

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Conference 9107:
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Research Lab. (United States)

multiple biomarker signals produce a final output in the form of YES/NO response through Boolean logic networks composed of biomolecularsystems. The biocomputing approach applied to biosensors leads to ahigh-fidelity biosensing compared to traditional single-analyte sensing
devices. By processing complex patterns of multiple physiologicalbiomarkers, such multi-signal digital biosensors should have a profound
impact on the rapid diagnosis and treatment of diseases, and particularly
can provide timely detection and alert of medical emergencies (along withimmediate therapeutic intervention). The novel biosensing concept has
been exemplified with the systems for logic analysis of various injuries,
including soft tissue injury, traumatic brain injury, liver injury, abdominal
trauma, hemorrhagic shock and oxidative stress. Overall, integration ofbioelectronics, biocomputing, materials science, and bionanotechnology
resulted in the novel “smart” bioelectronic systems for medical,
environmental and homeland security applications. The recent advances inthis rapidly developing research area will be discussed.

Current biodetection assays that employ monoclonal antibodies as primarycapture agents exhibit limited fieldability, shelf life, and performance due
to batch-to-batch production variability and restricted thermal stability. In
order to improve upon the detection of biological threats in fieldable assays
and systems for the Army, we are investigating protein catalyzed capture(PCC) agents as drop-in replacements for the existing antibody technology
through iterative in situ click chemistry. The PCC agent oligopeptides aredeveloped against known protein epitopes and can be mass produced
using robotic methods. In this work, a PCC agent under development will
be discussed. The performance, including affinity, selectivity, and stability of
the capture agent technology, is analyzed by immunoprecipitation, western
blotting, and ELISA experiments. The oligopeptide demonstrates superb
selectivity coupled with high affinity through multi-ligand design, andimproved thermal, chemical, and biochemical stability due to non-naturalamino acid PCC agent design.

9107-36, Session 8

9107-38, Session 9

Creating bionanophotonic logic devices andmonitoring enzyme kinetics with quantum dot
bioconjugates (Invited Paper)

PPy/PMMA/PEG-based sensor for lowconcentration acetone detection
Ali Daneshkhah, Sudhir Shrestha, Mangilal Agarwal, Kody
Varahramyan, Indiana Univ.-Purdue Univ. Indianapolis (UnitedStates)Jonathan C. Claussen, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Niko Hildebrandt, Institut d’Électronique Fondamentale (France);
Kimihiro Susumu, Mario G. Ancona, Igor L. Medintz, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)

A polymer pallet-based sensor device comprised of polypyrrole (PPy),
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG), its
fabrication methods, and the experimental results for low-concentrationacetone detection will be presented. The design consists of a double layer
pallet, where the top layer consists of PPy/PMMA and the bottom layer
is composed of PPy/PMMA/PEG. Both sets of material compositions aresynthesized by readily realizable chemical polymerization techniques. The
mechanism of the sensor operation is based on the change in resistance of
PPy and the swelling of PMMA when exposed to acetone, thereby changing
the resistance of the layers. The resistances measured on the two layers,
and across the pallet are taken as the three output signals of the sensor.
As the PPy/PMMA and PPy/PMMA/PEG layers respond differently toacetone, as well as to other volatile organic compounds and water, it will bedemonstrated that the three output signals can allow the presented sensor
to have a better sensitivity and selectivity than previously reported devices.
Preliminary experimental results with PPy/PMMA and PPy/PMMA/PEG
layers respectively show a 3.4% increase and a 3.9% decrease in resistance,
when 400 ppm of acetone is introduced in the test chamber. Additional
sensor results, as well as degradation analysis from ongoing experiments,
will be presented and discussed. The reported acetone sensor is applicablefor biomedical and other applications.

Luminescent semiconductor nanocrystals or quantum dots (QDs) holdtremendous promise for in vivo biosensing, cellular imaging, theranostics,
and smart molecular sensing probes due to their small size and favorable
photonic properties such as resistance to photobleaching, size-tunable PL,
and large effective Stokes shifts. Herein we demonstrate how QD-based
bioconjugates can be used for both complex molecular logic and mobile
enzyme carriers. First, we demonstrate how Boolean Logic gates (e.g.,
AND/OR gates) and more complex combinatorial and sequential logic
circuits (e.g., half-adder, half-substractor, 2:1 multiplexer, 1:2 demultiplexer,
and keypad lock) can be developed by precisely manipulating the ratioof immobilized fluorescent dye (Alexa Fluor A647) and long lifetime
luminescent terbium III complexes (Tb) around a central QD (625 nm) with
His6-labeled peptides. Multiple Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)
pathways occur as the QD acts as an acceptor and donor between the Tb
and A647 respectively at distinct time intervals—enabling rich, temporally
varying photoluminescence emission profiles that can be converted into
photonic logic gate/circuit signals. Second, we demonstrate how the
behavior of immobilized enzymes (i.e., alkaline phosphatase) behaveson distinctly sized QDs. Enzyme-substrate kinetics is analyzed bothexperimentally and computationally while the enzyme packing density andspatial arrangement is controlled. These two distinct studies highlight thepotential for QD-based bioconjugates in multiplexed in vivo biodetection
and biosensing for disease diagnostics and treatment as well as elucidate
the advantages of enzyme-nanoparticle immobilization for potential use inbatch chemical reactions and advanced “nanomotor” applications.

9107-39, Session 9

Design of LWIR crystal and AOTF forcompositional analysis of asteroid
Narsingh B. Singh, Bradley Arnold, L. D. Topoleski, Ronghui Ma,
Brian Cullum, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States);
Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Dennis Suhre, Milton Gottlieb, DRS Scientific Inc. (United States)

9107-37, Session 9

Peptide-based protein capture agents with highaffinity, selectivity, and stability as antibody
replacements in biodetection assays

Design of crystal and AOTF along with AOTF based chemical detection will
be described.

Matthew B. Coppock, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Blake Farrow, California Institute of Technology (United States);
Amethist S. Finch, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Bert
Lai, Indi Molecular (United States); Deborah A. Sarkes, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); James R. Heath, California Instituteof Technology (United States); Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, U.S. Army353

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9107-40, Session 9

experiment, an EEG measurement system was used to record and identify asubject’s control channels. After these channels were identified, the subject
was asked to do Stroop tests. Binaural beats was again used to produce
these control-channel frequencies on the subject’s brain when we recorded
the completion time of each test. We found that the high-beta signal indeed
speeded up the subject’s executive function performance and reduced thetime to complete incongruent tests, while the alpha signal didn’t seem to beable to slow down the executive function performance.

Physical vapor transport growth of lead tin
selenide for MWIR detectors
Narsingh B. Singh, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates); Philip DiPaula, Pietro Strobbia, Bradley Arnold, Lisa Kelly,
Brian Cullum, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)

9107-43, Session 10

There is a strong need for the high operating temperature (HOT) detectors
for the MWIR and LWIR regions. Lead salts are excellent candidates havegreat potential for their applications especially for space systems.

Rehabilitation and motor learning throughvibrotactile feedback
Roshan Panchanathan, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States);
Jacob Rosenthal, HeatSync Labs. (United States); Troy McDaniel,
Arizona State Univ. (United States)

9107-41, Session 10

Low-power MEMS acceleration sensors for mildTBI early warning

Until now, the norm for motor skill training has been through group
instruction, due to the fact that it is both cost and time effective for the
instructor. This applies even in rehabilitation, where groups of patients aretaken through general exercises to maximize the clientele. Then, when thestudent or patient goes home, they are unable to receive proper feedback
regarding the repetition of the desired exercises. This hinders eachindividual from achieving what they would if they were learning in a private
one-on-one setting. The proposed system is a wearable device that offers
real-time feedback for inputted goal movements. The instructor/therapist
inputs goal joint angles and movements for the user and adapts the values
over time for continued progress. Through a systematic evaluation, intuitive
placements for the vibration motors were determined to effectively deliver
feedback regarding joint angles and the speed of movements. This device,upon further testing, could be expanded to the whole body. We also
introduce a flexible haptic display using a commercial LED strip that has
been modified by attaching pancake style vibration motors along the strip
for feedback. The flexible display does not require external microcontrollers
to enable or disable motors, and may be expanded to the whole body.

Ryan R. Knight, David Lunking, Brian Isaacson, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States); Larry Thomas, TechniMagic, Inc. (UnitedStates); Christopher J. Morris, Luke J. Currano, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)
A novel three-axis acceleration threshold sensor has been developed as an
early warning system for potential mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) andtraumatic brain injury (TBI) events. The wearable sensor package fits the
earbud form factor (5mm diameter) and operates in an ultralow power state
until an impact acceleration event occurs. Eight normally open three-axis
acceleration threshold switches ranging in threshold sensitivity, nominally30-300g’s(1-g is Earth’s gravitational acceleration), detect impact throughswitch closure and the electronics process and transmits the data package
via Bluetooth. Post processing via handheld smartphone and or PC will
enable the end user to determine whether medical treatment is necessary.
The mTBI and TBI sensor pushes the state-of-the-art in both form factor
and battery life. Preliminary battery life shows that the sensors can detectand transmit up to five mTBI-like events over a month period of operationaltime before recharging. mTBI and TBI from blast or impact shocks is acontinuing problem of primary importance to the DoD. Continuous, easy touse monitoring will enable immediate medical attention after a potentially
mTBI or TBI inducing event, as well as reduce the risk for second-impact
syndrome (SIS).

9107-44, Session 11

Dynamic tissue phantoms and their use
in assessment of a non-invasive opticalplethysmography imaging device
Jeffrey E. Thatcher, Kevin D. Plant, Darlene King, Spectral MD™
(United States); Ken Block, Ken Block Consulting (United States);
Wensheng Fan, J. Michael DiMaio, Spectral MD™ (United States)

9107-42, Session 10

Control channels in the brain and their influence
on brain executive functions

Non-contact photoplethysmography (PPG) has been explored as a method
to provide low-cost and non-invasive medical imaging for a variety ofnear-surface pathologies. For pre-clinical evaluation of PPG imaging a tissue
phantom was developed consisting of an elastic vessel phantom combinedwith a gelatin soft-tissue phantom. First the stress-strain relationship ofthe vessel phantom was characterized to determine a fluid flow pressure
loop that mimicked the small change in blood vessel volume during theregular heart beat in the human body. To mimic blood, a motility standard
containing microspheres and an IR absorbent dye was selected. Complete
phantoms were synthesized by embedding the vessel phantom in a gelatinintralipid hydrogel and pumping the motility standard with a peristaltic
pump. Two imaging systems were evaluated using these phantoms
including a non-contact PPG imager, and a laser Doppler imager (LDI).
Results indicate there was agreement across these systems in detecting
the frequency of the phantom’s pulse wave. As the tissue-volume change
was increased the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) increased sinusoidally for the
PPG imager, while the increase was linear for LDI. When the vessel phantom
was buried 8.0 mm beneath the gelatin phantom material, the PPG imager
could detect fluid flow and produce images while the LDI system could
not despite both systems emitting a similar near-IR wavelength. These
results demonstrate the optical and dynamic fluid properties of the tissue

Qinglei Meng, Fow-Sen Choa, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States); Elliot Hong, Univ. of Maryland School of Medicine(United States); Zhiguang Wang, Mohammad Islam, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
In a computer network there are distinct data channels and control channels
where massive amount of visual information are transported throughdata channels but the information streams are routed and controlled byintelligent algorithm through “control channels”. Recent studies on cognitionand consciousness have shown that the brain control channels are closely
related to the brainwave beta (14-40 Hz) and alpha (7-13 Hz) oscillations.
The high-beta wave is used by brain to synchronize local neural activities
and the alpha oscillation is for desynchronization. When two sensory inputs
are simultaneously presented to a person, the high-beta is used to selectone of the inputs and the alpha is used to deselect the other so that only
one input will get the attention. In this work we demonstrated that we
can scan a person’s brain using binaural beats technique and identify theindividual’s preferred control channels. The identified control channels canthen be used to influence the subject’s brain executive functions. In the354

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Conference 9107:
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9107-47, Session 11

phantoms could be easily modulated and were effective for evaluating the
SNR, pulse frequency, and spatial resolution of two non-invasive bloodflow
imaging systems.

High-resolution all-optical photo acoustic
imaging system for remote interrogation of
biological specimens

9107-45, Session 11

Ashwin Sampathkumar, Riverside Research Institute (United States)

Characterization of tissue-simulating polymers
for photoacoustic vascular imaging

Conventional photoacoustic imaging (PAI) employs light pulses to produce
a photoacoustic (PA) effect and detects the resulting acoustic waves using
an ultrasound transducer acoustically coupled to the target tissue. The
resolution of conventional PAI is limited by the sensitivity and bandwidthof the ultrasound transducer. An all-optical versatile PAI system has beendeveloped for characterizing ex vivo and in vivo biological specimens. The
system employs non-contact interferometric detection of the acoustic
signals that overcomes limitations of conventional PAM. A 532-nm pumplaser with a pulse duration of 5 ns excited the PA effect in tissue. Resulting
acoustic waves produced surface displacements that were sensed using a
532-nm continuous-wave (CW) probe laser in a Michelson interferometerwith a GHz bandwidth. The pump and probe beams were coaxially focusedusing a 50X objective giving a diffraction-limited spot size of 0.48 µm.
The phase-encoded probe beam was demodulated using a homodyne
interferometer. The detected time-domain signal was time reversed using
k-space wave-propagation methods to produce a spatial distribution of PA
sources in the target tissue. Performance was assessed using 3D PA imagesof ex vivo porcine skin and retina specimens, human tooth samples and cellassays. A minimum peak surface displacement sensitivity of 0.19 pm wasmeasured. The all-optical PAI system is well suited for assessment of retinal
diseases skin burns, section less histology and pressure or friction ulcers.

William C. Vogt, T. Joshua Pfefer, U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States)
Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is a maturing imaging technique which
combines optical excitation and acoustic detection to enable deep
tissue sensing for biomedical applications. Optical absorption provides
biochemical specificity and high contrast while ultrasonic detection provides
high spatial resolution and penetration depth. These characteristics make
PAT highly suitable as an approach for vascular imaging and blood gas
measurements. However, standard testing methods are needed in orderto characterize and compare the performance of these systems. Tissuemimicking phantoms are commonly used as standard test samples forimaging system development and evaluation due to their repeatablefabrication and tunable properties. The multi-domain mechanism behind
PAT necessitates development of phantoms that accurately mimic bothacoustic and optical properties of tissues. While a wide variety of materials
have been used in prior studies, from gelatin and agar hydrogels to silicone,
published data indicates that poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) cryogels andpoly(vinyl chloride) plastisol (PVCP) most closely simulate tissue opticaland acoustic properties while also providing superior longevity and stability.
Critical acoustic properties of both PVA and PVCP phantoms, including
sound velocity and attenuation, were measured using acoustic transmission
measurements at multiple frequencies relevant to typical PAT systems.
Measurements of optical absorption and scattering coefficients of matrix
materials with and without biologically relevant scatterers and hemoglobinsimulating chromophores were performed over wavelengths from 600 to1100 nm. Both PVA and PVCP demonstrate strong potential as the basis ofhigh-fidelity polymer phantoms for developing and evaluating PAT systems
for vascular imaging.

9107-48, Session 12

Spherical drug delivery device with a radialmodulated difussivity with lateral discharge
through a thin ring
Natalia A. Gutierrez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
The diffusion rate of a spherical drug delivery device was analyzed using a
Laplace transform-based method. The three-dimensional model represented
a pharmaceutical agent distributed, not uniformly, in a polymeric matrix.
Molecules could only be transferred to the outside of the matrix througha thin spherical sector of the device. A closed-form solution was obtained
to help study the effects of difussivity parameters and geometries on the
cumulative amount of drug released. The latter variable increased with themass transfer and diffusion function and decreased with any incrementin the device’s length.The solution obtained was in terms of the Legendre
polynoms, and developed using the Maple software. It is expected that theresults presentend help to the future design of devices in pharmaceuticalengineering.

9107-46, Session 11

Characterization of endogenous species in tissues
using non-resonant multiphoton photoacoustic
spectroscopy
Sudhir Dahal, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
It has been shown that non-resonant multiphoton photoacoustic
spectroscopy (NMPPAS) is capable of differentiating between excised
flash-frozen brain tumor (grade III astrocytoma) and healthy tissue has withover 99% accuracy. This technique has the potential to be used as an opticalbiopsy technique for margining brain tumors during surgery.

9107-49, Session 12

Characterization of NMPPAS in terms of the depth at which excitation of
the sample can occur via two-photons, determination of spatial resolution,
and analyzing individual endogenous species responsible for resulting
NMPPAS spectra were studied. These characterization studies were carriedout using tissue phantoms that were made to mimic the light scattering
properties of real brain tissues. Depth characterization measurements
revealed that NMPPAS signals can be generated and detected from depths
of greater than 1.3 cm, which is sufficient for most brain tumor margining
applications. The lateral spatial resolution for such NMPPAS measurement
was shown to be approximately 50 µm. In addition, endogenous species
such as NAD+/NADH, flavins and hemoglobin were analyzed to understandtheir contribution to the NMPPAS spectra in the optical diagnostic window(700nm-1100nm), and to understand how the key endogenous species
affect NMPPAS signal. This will ultimately lead towards the deconvulation of
NMPPAS spectra of brain tumor tissues and healthy brain tissues.

355+1 360 676 3290

Analytical solution of a model for shrinking andexpanding drug-loaded microspheres
Daniela D. B. M. Bolaños Marin, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
The dynamics of shrinking and expanding drug-loaded microspheres
were studied using a diffusion equation in spherical coordinates andwith a radially modulated diffusivity. A movable boundary condition that
represents the shrinking or expanding was incorporated as a convection
term in the original diffusion equation. The resulting convective-diffusive
problem with radially modulated diffusivity was solved using Laplacetransform techniques with the Bromwich integral, the residue theorem andspecial functions. Analytical solutions in the form of infinity series of special
functions were derived for the general case of shrinking or expanding
microspheres and some particular kinetics expressions, namely linear·

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Conference 9107:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XI
growth, exponential swelling and exponential shrinking. All computations
were made using computer algebra, specifically Maple. Some simulations
were made in the case of microspheres with fastswelling kinetics released
their therapeutic cargo at a relatively slow rate in the first two cases. The
analytical results were used to analyze insulin transport through spherical
Ca-alginate beads. A good agreement was noted between predicted andexperimental data. As future line of investigation, it is proposed the analysis
of models with boundary condition that shows the memory effect. It is
expected that the obtained analytical results could be very important inpharmaceutical engineering.

9107-50, Session 12

Analytical solution for the diffusion model oftransdermal patches
Felipe Diaz Jaramillo, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Transdermal patches are used in medicine to deliver a specific amount of
medication through the skin and into the bloodstream, and then to theinjury that will be treated. The diffusion process involved in this method
was modeled using cartesian coordinates and cylindrical coordinates, andthey were solved using Laplace transformation, Bromwich integral and theresidue theorem. The solution obtained in cartesian coordinates was given interms of Fourier series, and the solution obtained in cylindrical coordinates
was given in terms of Bessel functions. The cumulative amounts of drug
released at time t were calculated for both models and are represented as
infinite series of decreasing exponentials. It’s expected that the analytic
results obtained will be useful for pharmaceutical engineering.

9107-51, Session 12

Drug diffusion in a stratum corneum withdiffusivity spatially modulated
Isabel Montoya Arroyave, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
A diffusion and injection model of a drug in a stratum corneum withdiffusivity spatially modulated is formulated and solved analyticallyusing computer algebra. The model is developed using one-dimensional
diffusion equation with a diffusivity which is a function of position in thestratum corneum and with a boundary condition at the base of the stratum
corneum which represents a sump exponentially activated. The model issolved analytically by the method of the Laplace transform, with Bromwich
integral and residue theorem. The concentration profile of the drug in thestratum corneum is expressed as an infinite series of Bessel functions. The
corresponding AUC is expressed as the sum of a Bessel function with an
infinite series of exponential decreasing. All computations were performed
using computer algebra software, specifically Maple. The analytical results
obtained are important for understanding and improving currents therapies
of transdermal drug application. For future research it is interesting toconsider more general models of spatial modulation of the diffusivity
and the possible application of other computer algebra software such as
Mathematica and Maxima.

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SPIE DSS 2014·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9108:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI
Tuesday - Wednesday 6 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9108 Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI

9108-8, Session 1

9108-10, Session 1

Effects of food surface topography on phagebased magnetoelastic biosensor detection

Pulsed excitation system to measure the resonant
frequency of magnetoelastic biosensors

Shin Horikawa, Yating Chai, Ruiting Zhao, Howard C. Wikle III, Bryan
A. Chin, Auburn Univ. (United States)

Hong Xie, Yating Chai, Shin Horikawa, Howard C. Wikle III, Bryan A.
Chin, Auburn Univ. (United States)

Phage-based magnetoelastic (ME) biosensors have recently proven usefulin rapidly and inexpensively detecting food surface contamination. These
biosensors are label-free, wireless, mass-sensitive biosensors and can beplaced directly on food surfaces to detect the presence of target pathogens.
Previously, millimeter-scale strip-shaped ME biosensors have been used todemonstrate direct detection of Salmonella Typhimurium on various fresh
produce surfaces, including tomatoes, shell eggs, watermelons, and spinach
leaves. Since the topography of these produce surfaces are different, andthe biosensor must come into direct contact with Salmonella bacteria, foodsurfaces with large roughness and curvatures (e.g., spinach leaf surfaces)
may allow the bacteria to avoid direct contact, thereby avoiding detection.
The primary objective of this paper is, hence, to investigate the effects offood surface topography on the detection capabilities of the biosensors.
Spinach leaf surfaces were selected as model surfaces, and detection
experiments were conducted with differently sized micron-scale biosensors.
Spinach leaf roughness and curvatures of both adaxial (top) and abaxial(underside) surfaces were measured using a laser confocal microscope. The
experimental results showed that in spinach as the sensor is made smaller,
the physical contact between the biosensors and bacteria are improved.
Smaller sensors thereby enhance detection capabilities. When proper
numbers of biosensors were used, micron-scale biosensors were found toyield improved limits of detection over previously investigated millimeterscale biosensors.

A pulsed excitation system was designed to excite resonance in micronscale magnetoelastic (ME) biosensors that are used detect foodborne
pathogens. The ME biosensor is a mass sensitive device whose resonant
frequency is inversely proportional to its mass and length. A biorecognition
probe coated onto the ME platform is used to capture and bind targeted
pathogens. A pulsed excitation system offers a simple method to excite
ME biosensors to resonate, eliminating the need for expensive laboratory
benchtop measurement equipment. With this system, a square-wave pulseof current is applied to a solenoid coil to generate a pulsed magnetic field,
exciting the ME biosensor to vibrate longitudinally with damped, ring-down
vibration behavior. A separate pick-up coil is used to sense the vibrationof the biosensor by converting its magnetic flux into an electrical current.
A signal conditioning circuit was designed and built to amplify the current
signal from the pickup coil so that the frequency change due to the bindingof pathogens can be easily determined. ME biosensors as small as 200µm long were used with this system exhibiting a resonant frequency ofapproximately 10.828 MHz. The effect of the excitation pulse current on
the biosensor’s vibration characteristics (resonant frequency, amplitude,
Q-factor) was studied. As a proof-in-concept experiment, the measurement
system was used in combination with micron-scale ME sensor platforms thatwere coated with JRB7 phage to detect different concentrations of Bacillus
anthracis spores. A statistically significant difference for all concentrations of
5 ? 102 spore/ml and higher was obtained.

9108-9, Session 1

9108-18, Session 1

Real-time bacteria detection on fresh foodsurfaces with a microfabricated coil detector andmagnetoelastic biosensors

Self-propelled, phage-based magnetoelastic
biosentinels for detection of pathogens in liquid
Ruiting Zhao, Yating Chai, Shin Horikawa, Howard C. Wikle III, Bryan
A. Chin, Auburn Univ. (United States)

Yating Chai, Shin Horikawa, Howard C. Wikle III, Ruiting Zhao, Bryan
A. Chin, Auburn Univ. (United States)

This paper investigates self-propelled, phage-based magnetoelastic (ME)biosentinels to detect pathogens in liquid. The ME biosentinels are designed
to mimic white blood cells in the human body. These nature-inspired
biosentinels are composed of an asymmetric ME resonator coated with alandscape phage that is specific for a pathogen of interest. When subjected
to an externally applied time-varying magnetic pulse, the ME biosentinels
are placed into mechanical resonance. The resultant resonating biosentinels
can then autonomously move in liquid due to the net acting force and fluidstructure interactions. As soon as the sentinels find and bind with the target
pathogen through the phage-based biomolecular recognition, a change
in the biosentinel’s resonant frequency occurs, and thereby the presenceof the target pathogen can be detected. Modal analysis using the threedimensional finite element method was performed to find the resonant
frequency of asymmetric-shaped ME biosentinels with different sizes. In
addition, the net force acting on the resonating biosentinels was calculated.
With the calculated net force, the motion of the biosentinels in liquid
was then simulated, and both dynamic simulation and experiment results
showed the biosentinels can move autonomously in liquid and actively
bind with the target pathogen. Proof-in-principle of the ME biosentinels
detection has been demonstrated.

As part of the ongoing efforts to secure the safety of our food supply,
the role of pathogen detection technologies has become vital. This
research demonstrates a newly developed microfabricated coil thatallows food surfaces to be scanned for real-time detection of surface
bacterial contamination. We have previously reported the possible use ofmagnetoelastic (ME) biosensors for the detection of pathogenic bacteria
on food surfaces. The ME biosensor is composed of a freestanding,
strip-shaped ME resonator coated with E2 phage, which is engineered to
specifically bind with Salmonella Typhimurium. When the ME biosensor
comes into contact with target bacteria cells, the bacteria are captured andbound to the biosensor’s surface. The bound bacteria cause the mass ofthe biosensor to increase, resulting in a decrease in the resonant frequency.
The frequency change is directly proportional to the additional mass ofthe bacteria attached to the biosensor surface. This new detection system
consists of a planar spiral coil that excites and measures the resonant
frequency of freestanding ME biosensors on the surface of fruits andvegetables. No longer do the ME biosensors need to be retrieved from the
fresh food surfaces and placed inside a solenoid coil for measurement.
In addition, this microfabricated coil can largely improve the detector’s
standoff distance, which enables the detector to evaluate fruits andvegetables with surfaces of large curvature and roughness. Furthermore,
the ability to simultaneously detect multiple sensors on surfaces has been
demonstrated.

357+1 360 676 3290·

help@spie.org

Conference 9108:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI

9108-1, Session Posters-Tuesday

9108-5, Session Posters-Tuesday

Analytical model of contamination during thedrying of cylinders of jamonable muscle

A model of freezing foods with liquid nitrogenusing special functions

Isabel Montoya Arroyave, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Martin Rodriguez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

For a cylinder of jamonable muscle of radius R and length much greaterthan R; considering that the internal resistance to the transfer of water ismuch greater than the external and that the internal resistance is one certain
function of the distance to the axis; the distribution of the punctual moisturein the jamonable cylinder is analytically computed in terms of the Bessel’sfunctions. During the process of drying and salted the jamonable cylinder
is sensitive to contaminate with bacterium and protozoa that come fromthe environment. An analytical model of contamination is presents using
the diffusion equation with sources and sinks, which is solve by the methodof the Laplace transform, the Bromwich integral, the residue theorem andsome special functions like Bessel and Heun. The critical times intervals ofdrying and salted are computed in order to obtain the minimum possible
contamination. It is assumed that both external moisture and contaminants
decrease exponentially with time. Contaminants profiles are plottedand discussed some possible techniques of contaminants detection. All
computations are executed using Computer Algebra, specifically Maple. It issaid that the results are important for the food industry and it is suggested
some future research lines.

A food freezing model is analyzed analytically. The model is based on theheat diffusion equation in the case of cylindrical shaped food freezed byliquid nitrogen; and assuming that the thermal conductivity of the cylindricalfood is radially modulated. The model is solved using the Laplace transform
method, the Bromwich theorem, and the residue theorem. The temperature
profile in the cylindrical food is presented as an infinite series of Bessel
functions. All the required computations are performed with computer
algebra software, specifically Maple. Using the numeric values of the thermal
and geometric parameters for the cylindrical food, as well as the thermal
parameters of the liquid nitrogen freezing system, the temporal evolutionof the temperature in different regions in the interior of the cylindrical foodis presented both analytically and graphically. The duration of the liquid
nitrogen freezing process to achieve the specified effect on the cylindricalfood is computed. The analytical results are expected to be of importancein food engineering and cooking engineering. As a future research line,
the formulation and solution of freezing models with thermal memory is
proposed.

9108-6, Session Posters-Tuesday

9108-4, Session Posters-Tuesday

An analytically resolved model of a potato’s
thermal processing using Heun functions

A hyperspectral imaging (HSI)-based approachfor bio-digestate real time monitoring

Agustín Vargas Toro, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Giuseppe Bonifazi, Silvia Serranti, Andrea Fabbri, Univ. degli Studi diRoma La Sapienza (Italy)

A potato’s thermal processing model is solved analytically. The model isformulated using the equation of heat diffusion in the case of a spherical
potato processed in a furnace, and assuming that the potato’s thermal
conductivity is radially modulated. The model is solved using the method of
the Laplace transform, applying Bromwich Integral and Residue Theorem.
The temperatures’ profile in the potato is presented as an infinite series ofHeun functions. All computations are performed with computer algebra
software, specifically Maple. Using the numerical values of the thermal
parameters of the potato and geometric and thermal parameters of theprocessing furnace, the time evolution of the temperatures in different
regions inside the potato are presented analytically and graphically. The
duration of thermal processing in order to achieve a specified effect on the
potato is computed. It is expected that the obtained analytical results will
be important in food engineering and cooking engineering. It is proposeda future line of research along with the formulation and solution of models
with thermal memory.

One of the key issues in developing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) isrepresented by the optimal utilisation of fertilisers and herbicidal to reducethe impact of Nitrates in soils and the environment.
In traditional agriculture practises, these substances were provided to thesoils through the use of chemical products (inorganic/organic fertilizers,
soil improvers/conditioners, etc..), usually associated to several major
environmental problems, such as: water pollution and contamination,
fertilizer dependency, soil acidification, trace mineral depletion, overfertilization, high energy consumption, contribution to climate change,
impacts on mycorrhizas, lack of long-term sustainability, etc.. For thisreason, the agricultural market is more and more interested in the utilisationof organic fertilisers and soil improvers. Among organic fertilizers, there’s anemerging interest for the digestate, a sub-product resulting from Anaerobic
Digestion (AD) processes. Several studies confirm the high propertiesof digestate if used as organic fertilizers and soil improver/conditioner.
Digestate, in fact, is somehow similar to compost: AD converts a major partof organic nitrogen to ammonia, which is then directly available to plants
as nitrogen. In this paper, new analytical tools, based on HyperSpectral
Imaging (HSI) sensing devices, and related detection architectures, ispresented and discussed in order to define and apply simple to use,reliable, robust and low cost strategies finalised to define and implement
innovative smart detection engines for digestate characterization andmonitoring. This approach being finalised to utilised this “waste product”
as a valuable organic fertilizer, and soil conditioner, in a reduced impact
and of an “ad hoc” soil fertilisation perspective. Furthermore, the possibility
to contemporary utilize the HSI approach to realise a real time physicalchemical characterisation of agricultural soils (i.e. nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.
detection) could allow to set up “real time” selective fertilization strategies
finalised to realise a safer culture production.

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SPIE DSS 2014

9108-7, Session Posters-Tuesday

Mathematical model for solar drying of potato
cylinders with thermal conductivity radiallymodulated
Mariana Trujillo Arredondo, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
A mathematical model for drying potato cylinders using solar radiation
is proposed and solved analytically. The model incorporates the energybalance for effects of the heat capacity of the potato, the radiation heattransfer from the potato toward the drying chamber and the solar radiation
absorbed by the potato during the drying process. Potato cylinders are
assumed to exhibit a thermal conductivity radially modulated. The methodof the Laplace transform, with integral Bromwich and remainder theorem isapplied and the analytic solution of the temperature profiles in the potato
cylinder is derived in the form of an infinite series of Bessel functions. All
computations are performed using computer algebra, Maple specifically. It
is expected that the analytical results obtained will be useful in engineeringand food industry. It suggests some future research lines as the adoption·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9108:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI

9108-13, Session Posters-Tuesdayof radial modulators broader thermal conductivity of potato cylinders andpossible free software application Maxima analytical model computations.

A portable device for rapid nondestructive
detection of meat quality attributes

9108-11, Session Posters-Tuesday

Wan Lin, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China); Caiping
Wang, Xinjiang Yurun Co. (China)

Rapid detection of chlorpyrifos pesticide residue
concentration in agro-product using Raman
spectroscopy

Quality attributes of fresh meat will influence nutritional value andconsumers’ purchasing power. For detecting quality attributes of freshmeat, VIS/NIR technology can be a very useful method because reflectancespectrum reveals potential information of the sample. Although some online
detection equipments have been developed, there still remains a need for
devices that can be handheld. In order to meet the demand of inspection
department for portable device, a rapid and nondestructive detection device
for fresh meat quality based on ARM (Advanced RISC Machines) processor
was designed. Working principal, hardware composition, software systemand functional test were introduced. Hardware system consisted of ARM(Advanced RISC Machines) processing unit, light source and detection unit,
spectral data acquisition unit, LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) touch screen
display unit and the cooling unit. Linux operating system and quality
parameters acquisition processing application were designed. This system
has realized collecting spectral signal, storing data, displaying results on
handheld device. The experimental result shows that this device can bea useful tool for detecting quality of meat and for helping processors todetermine potential safety risks of food.

Sagar Dhakal, Yongyu Li, Yankun Peng, Leilei Zhang, Tianfeng Xu,
China Agricultural Univ. (China)
Different chemicals are sprayed in fruits and vegetables before and after
harvest for better yield and longer shelf-life of crops free of diseases.
Cases of pesticide poisoning to human health are regularly reported due
to excessive application of such chemicals beyond the prescribed limit for
greater economic benefit. Different analytical technologies exist to detect
pesticides in fruits and vegetables to detectable trace amount, but are
expensive, sample destructive, and require longer processing time. This
study explores the application of Raman spectroscopy for rapid and nondestructive detection of pesticide residue in agricultural products. Raman
spectroscopy with laser module of 785 nm was used to collect Raman
spectral information from the surface of Galla apples contaminated withdifferent concentrations of commercially available organophosphorous(48% chlorpyrifos) pesticide. Apples within 15 days of harvest from sameorchard were used in this study. The Raman spectral signal was processedby Savitzky-Golay (SG) filter for noise removal, Multiplicative Scatter
Correction (MSC) for drift removal and finally polynomial fitting was used
to eliminate the fluorescence background. The Raman spectral peak at
677 cm-1 was recognized as Raman fingerprint of chlorpyrifos. Presence ofRaman peak at 677 cm-1 after fluorescence background removal was used todevelop classification model (presence and absence of pesticide). The peakintensity was correlated with actual pesticide concentration from 21 apples
tested with Gas Chromatography (GC) to develop pesticide concentration
prediction model. Linear relation between pesticide concentration and
Raman peak intensity was developed with correlation coefficient greaterthan 85%. Result shows that Raman spectroscopy is a promising tool for
rapid, real-time and non-destructive detection of pesticide residue in agroproducts.

9108-14, Session Posters-Tuesday

Nondestructive detection of fresh pork
comprehensive quality based on spectroscopy
and support vector machine
Yuanyuan Liu, Yankun Peng, Leilei Zhang, Sagar Dhakal, China
Agricultural Univ. (China)
Pork is one of the highly consumed meat item in the world. With growing
improvement of living standard, concerned stakeholders including
consumers and regulatory body pay more attention to comprehensive
quality of fresh pork. Different analytical-laboratory based technologies exist
to determine quality attributes of pork. However, none of the technologies
are able to meet industrial desire of rapid and non-destructive technologicaldevelopment. Current study used optical instrument as a rapid and nondestructive tool to classify 56 24h-aged pork longissimusdorsi samples
into two kinds of meat,normal meat (NM) and pale ,soft and exudative(PSE), on the basis of color, pH24 and water holding capacity. Opticalsystem based on Vis/NIR spectral acquisition system (350 to 2500 nm) was
self- developed in laboratory to acquire spectral signal of pork samples.
Median smoothing filter (M-filter) and multiplication scatter correction(MSC) was used to removal spectral noise and signal drift. Support vector
machine(SVM)prediction model was developed to classify the samples
based on their comprehensive qualities. The resultsshowed that theclassification model is highly correlated with the actual quality parameterswith classification accuracy more than 85%.The system developed in thisstudy being simple and easy to use, results being promising, the system canbe used in meat processing industry for real time, non-destructive and rapid
detection of pork qualities in future.

9108-12, Session Posters-Tuesday

A portable detection instrument based on DSP
for beef marbling
Tong Zhou, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China)
Beef marbling is one of the most important indexes to assess beef quality.
The grade of beef marbling is a measurement of the fat distribution
density in the rib-eye region. However quality grades of beef in most of
the beef slaughtering house and enterprise depend on trainees using
visual senses or comparing to the standard sample cards in China. Thismanual grading method demands not only great labor but also lacks theobjectivity and accuracy. Aiming at the necessity of beef slaughtering houseand enterprise, a beef marbling detection instrument was designed. The
instrument involves CCD imaging techniques, digital image processing,
DSP control and processing techniques and LCD screen display techniques.
The TMS320DM642 digital signal processor of TI is the core to make fulluse of its high-speed data processing capabilities and real-time processing
features. All process such as image acquisition, data transmission, image
processing algorithms and display were implemented on this instrumentfor quick and non-destructive detection of beef marbling. Structure of
the system, working principle, hardware device and software system wereintroduced in detail. Besides the characteristic of small bulk and being easy
to taken, the instrument can detect the level of beef marbling reliably andcorrectly on various occasions.

359+1 360 676 3290

9108-16, Session Posters-Tuesday

Development of UVA and violet LED excitation
lighting system for hyperspectral fluorescenceline-scan imaging
Hoyoung Lee, Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service (UnitedStates); Colm D. Everard, Univ. College Dublin (Ireland); Jong-Guk
Lim, National Academy of Agricultural Science (Korea, Republic of)·help@spie.org

Conference 9108:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI

9108-28, Session Posters-Tuesday

In this paper, the excitation system for fluorescence line-scan imaging isdeveloped to be equipped UVA and violet high power LED modules, which
is able to emit UVA(365nm) and violet(400nm) radiation simultaneously orsolely, and provides on/off control of a LED module via USB communicationand the control panel. That performs more fluorescence emission on the
fluorescence references than previous bulb-type UV lighting system by
about 10 times.

Online measurement of sugar content of cherry
tomato using VIS/NIR spectrometer
Hong-Suck Lee, Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of)
A VIS/NIR spectroscopic method with the spectral range of 470 – 1,150 nmwith a 1.5 nm spectral resolution was used for online prediction of sugar
content of cherry tomatoes. Spectra were acquired from a total of 300
samples of cherry tomatoes of two different varieties at 6 different maturity
stages moving on the conveyer belt. A partial least square regression (PLSR)
model with various preprocessing methods was developed to predict sugar
content of cherry tomatoes. The actual sugar content of cherry tomatoes
was measured by using a refractometer as a reference. The errors of thedeveloped model were 0.02 °Brix for calibration and 0.16 °Brix for validation.
Results show that the developed PLSR model has potential to predict sugar
content with the online sorting system for cherry tomatoes.

9108-23, Session Posters-Tuesday

Detection of the total viable counts in chicken
based on visible/near-infrared spectroscopy
Xiuying Tang, Yuan Long, Yankun Peng, Linlin Zhao, China
Agricultural Univ. (China)
The total viable counts (TVC) in chicken have significant effects on foodsafety, which will make negative influence to the public when exceeding
the standard seriously especially. The objective of this study was to detect
the total viable counts of chicken breast. Forty chicken breast fillets intotal used in the study were stored in a refrigerator at 4°C for 10 days.
Each day four samples were taken out to test their total viable counts andacquire their visible/near infrared spectrum. The original spectral data ofchicken breast fillet was processed by following four main steps: SavitzkyGolay smoothing method (S-G), standard normalized variate (SNV), model
calibration and model evaluation. Finally three prediction models based on
400-1700nm, 400-1100nm and 980-1700nm were established using partial
least squares regression (PLSR) method. Several statistical indicators suchas root mean squared errors and correlation coefficients were calculated for
determination of cross-validation, calibration and prediction respectively. As
a result, the Rc, Rp and Rcv of the best model was as high as 0.92, 0.89 and
0.90. The results showed that visible-near infrared spectra was a potential
technique to detect the total viable counts in chicken meat and the best
spectral range for the establishment of the prediction model was 4001100nm from which the best wavelengths would be chosen. This research
provides the basis for development of inspection equipment that can beused in commercial poultry processing industry to reduce food safety risks.

9108-31, Session Posters-Tuesday

Evaluation of food freshness by surface acoustic
wave sensor
Ki-Bok Kim, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science(Korea, Republic of); Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Byounggab Lim, Master Korea Co., Ltd (Korea,
Republic of)In this study, the freshness of chicken meat was evaluated by a surface
acoustic wave (SAW) sensor. Various gas components were analyzed during
the storage day of chicken meat by using GC-MS (Gas chromatographmass spectrometer). From the results of GC-MS analyses, as a freshness
factor of chicken meat, acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) was selected because of
its rapid increase after 5 days. As a sensitive layer of the SAW sensor forevaluating the freshness of chicken meat, PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane)
film was coated on the surface of SAW device between input and output
inter-digital transducers (IDTs). The IDTs were fabricated on the surface of
LiNbO3 piezoelectric wafer by the standard photolithographic techniques.
To analyze the performance of the fabricated SAW sensor with PDMS film,
N2 gas (carrier gas) and various concentrated CH3CHO gases were mixed
and fed into the SAW sensor with PDMS film. Since the phase shift of the
SAW sensor increased with the increase of concentration of CH3CHO, thedeveloped SAW sensor showed good sensitivity and stability. The SAW
sensor system for evaluating the freshness of chicken meat consisted of
the voltage controlled oscillator, frequency counter, voltage regulator, LCD
display, microprocessor, small chamber with SAW sensor and so on. Since
the distinct frequency change of the developed SAW sensor was foundduring storage of the packaged chicken, evaluation of the freshness of
packaged chicken will be possible.

9108-24, Session Posters-Tuesday

Lock-in phase imaging of near/mid infrared
signals for the detection of bruise on fruit
Ghiseok Kim, Geonhee Kim, Korea Basic Science Institute (Korea,
Republic of); Dae Yong Kim, Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam
National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
The feasibility of lock-in phase imaging was evaluated for the detection ofbruise on fruits such as persimmon and pear. Bruise is one of mechanicaldamage which is usually difficult to be detected in early stage after
harvested by conventional methods such as image process using CCD
camera or manual sorting by human. Lock-in phase imaging of photoluminescence and photo-thermal signals from fruits were achieved by highly
sensitive near/mid infrared cameras. Measured photo-luminescence andphoto-thermal signals were post-processed using a lock-in method which
employs a periodic input energy to the fruit by a broad band halogen lamp.
By applying the lock-in method to the photo-luminescence and photothermal signals from fruits, the detection sensitivity and signal to noise
ratio were enhanced because of the phase-sensitive narrow-band filtering
effects. The merits of lock-in phase imaging technique are the temperaturesensitivity which range within µK and the dynamic characteristics which
reduce a thermal blurring derived from the inhomogeneous infraredemissivity of material. In addition, the depth of bruise was estimatedby implementing a photo-thermal theory to investigate the behavior ofthermal waves on fruit under convective conditions. Results showed thatthe proposed lock-in phase imaging method of photo-luminescence andphoto-thermal signals from fruit and depth estimation technique has a goodpotential as one of NDE methodology in order to evaluate a mechanicaldamage of fruit, especially in the early stage of bruise.

360

SPIE DSS 2014

9108-19, Session 2

Development of algorithms for senescence andquality detection on fluorescence images of
peppers
Carlos Esquerre, Univ. College Dublin (Ireland) and Agricultural
Research Service (United States); John R. Stommel, Agricultural
Research Service (United States); Colm P. O’Donnell, Univ. College
Dublin (Ireland); Moon S. Kim, Stephen R. Delwiche, Agricultural
Research Service (United States)
Three replicates of green bell peppers and jalapeños peppers were sliced
and sealed in modified atmosphere packing and cool stored (5 ?C) for
different times (0, 7, 10, 14 and 21 days postharvest). Ultra violet (UV) and·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9108:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI

9108-29, Session 2

violet (VL) fluorescence images were acquired immediately after opening
the samples bags. Two high powered LED systems with excitation at 365
nm and 400 nm center wavelength for UV and VL images, respectively,
separately illuminated the slices while corresponding emission images wereacquired in the wavelength range of 464 – 799 nm. Chemometric algorithms(Principal Component Analysis and Partial Least Squares) and image
processing methods (masking, thresholding, and morphological operations)were developed for senescence and quality detection in hyperspectral
fluorescence images. Additionally, correlation analysis and scaled differenceof sample spectra were investigated and compared with the chemometricapproaches.

Calibrations transfer method for use with multiple
hyperspectral imaging systems (Invited Paper)
Kurt C. Lawrence, William R. Windham, Seung-Chul Yoon, Bosoon
Park, Agricultural Research Service (United States)
For any spectroscopic model to be used in a real-world situation, protocols
must be implemented to ensure that a chemometric model, developed on a
primary spectroscopic instrument,
will also be valid when used on data collected from a secondary
spectroscopic instrument. For standard spectroscopic instruments, these
protocols were developed years ago and are commonly implemented into
commercial instruments. However, for hyperspectral imaging systems, these
protocols are not yet fully developed. Thus, there is a need for an enhanced
calibration method that will allow prediction models to be transferred fromone system to another. This protocol will require that a specific calibration
panel with known absolute reflectance values at every wavelength be used
to calibrate each hyperspectral imaging system. Additionally, identical
data pretreatment methods will have to be applied to each system and thedata from secondary systems (not used to develop the original prediction
model) will have to be wavelength-resampled so that all data align acrossinstruments. In this research, a primary hyperspectral imaging system
was calibrated against a known 40% reflectance standard. Two different
calibration and model transfers methods were then compared. The first
method utilized a simple nominal-value calibration panel on both theprimary and secondary systems (i.e. 40% nominal for all wavelengths on
both systems). The second method utilized NIST-traceable values provided
with each calibration panel (one for primary and one for secondary) in
the calibration equation. Data were also wavelength resampled. Results
were evaluated by imaging an independent, standard gradient reference
panel on each system. To further test the protocol, several agar plates withpathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria growing were imaged on two
different hyperspectral imaging systems and the results were compared.
With the NIST-traceable method, the results were very similar for eachsystem with the primary system having an overall accuracy of 100% while
the secondary system had an overall accuracy of 99.6%. Thus, the feasibilityof a hyperspectral imaging calibration transfer protocol was confirmed.

9108-20, Session 2

Hyperspectral imaging for unified safety
inspection of poultry carcasses
Seung-Chul Yoon, Bosoon Park, Kurt C. Lawrence, William R.
Windham, Kuanglin Chao, Chun-Chieh Yang, Moon S. Kim,
Agricultural Research Service (United States)
This paper reports the development of a unified hyperspectral imaging
system that can be used as a real-time online poultry carcass inspection
instrument in poultry processing plants. In chicken processing plants in the
United States, on-line carcass inspection of chickens is done using a visual(organoleptic) method by FSIS inspectors. The USDA-ARS researchers havedeveloped hyperspectral/multispectral imaging methods and systems for
detecting chicken carcasses with surface fecal matters or systemic disease(septicemia and toxemia). Although the hyperspectral imaging systems fordisease or fecal detection were independently developed by two different
ARS groups, the fundamentals of each imaging system were the same.
The researchers adopted a line-scan hyperspectral image camera basedon a dispersive spectrograph (400 nm - 900 nm) and a detector suchas EMCCD and developed various hyperspectral and multispectral image
processing algorithms to solve their detection problems. In this paper, we
will report the development of a prototype of a common imaging platform
doing simultaneous inspections of fecal matters and systemic disease on
chicken carcasses. This common imaging platform acquires spectral images
from five discrete wavelengths centered at 517, 565, 580, 600 and 620
nm. An application software program, written in MS-Visual C++, processes
two different detection algorithms and makes a final decision about
wholesomeness of each chicken carcass. We will demonstrate the feasibilityof a high-speed hyperspectral machine vision system for inspecting
wholesomeness of poultry carcasses, which can be also expanded tosimultaneously inspect other quality characteristics such as bruises andfeathers.

9108-15, Session 3

Using NOAA/AVHRR based vegetation healthindices and principal component regression
method for estimation of Aman rice yield in
Bangladesh.

9108-27, Session 2

Mohammad Nizamuddin, Kawsar A. Akhand, Leonid Roytman,
The City College of New York (United States); Felix Kogan, Mitch
Goldberg, National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (United States)

Spectral imaging analysis for determination of
viability of vegetable seeds
Hyungjin Bae, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of);
Moon S. Kim, USDA Agricultural Research Service (United States);
Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Rice is the most important food crop in Bangladesh because the peopleof Bangladesh has its own tradition of foods and in the sense of food
habits rice is the main food in their daily life. To ensure food security, tofulfill the total demand of rice the government of Bangladesh always pay
utmost priority in rice yield and accordingly maintain a special allocation innational budget. Bangladesh is known to be the land of natural disasters it
suffers floods, cyclones, lack of rainfall and lot of natural calamities but due
to government subsidies in agricultural sectors rice production is almost
achieved the domestic demand. Aman is one of the main rice varieties
and second largest food crop in respect of the volume of production
in Bangladesh. In this paper we have tried to predict aman rice yield in
Bangladesh using official statistics of rice yield with real time acquired
satellite data from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)
sensor and Principal Component Regression (PCR) method was used toconstruct a model. We used co-located statistical and satellite data for thesame period for model development and validation. A strong correlation
was found between aman rice yield and vegetation health indices (VCI).

Conventional spectroscopic measurement for seed sample is single
seed basis, which has a limitation for the fast measurement for massive
amount of specimens. Hyperspectral imaging technique provides both
spatial and spectral information simultaneously could be an ideal tool
for the measurement of a massive number of seed samples. In this study,
hyperspectral short wave reflectance imaging technique was used todetermine viability of various vegetable seeds. Spectral images combinedwith chemometrics such as partial least square analysis showed goodpotential for the evaluation of viability of vegetable seeds.

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Conference 9108:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI

9108-25, Session 3

The predicted value from this model was compared to actual statistical rice
yield showed that the error of prediction is less than 10% and the prediction
is done at least two to three months before the aman rice harvested.
Therefore, this model can be considered as a potential tool for estimating
aman rice as satellite data are inexpensive and readily available that also
helps the government to take right decision and planning.

Bidirectional reflectance distribution function
features on different wheat geometry varieties
Wenjiang Huang, Juan Zhao, Institute of Remote Sensing andDigital Earth (China); Juhua Luo, Nanjing Institute of Geography
and Limnology (China)

9108-21, Session 3

Wheat geometry structure induces variations in spatial distribution of
the canopy and problems in the inversion process of biophysical andbiochemical variables. As a function of wavelength, illumination-viewing
geometries and canopy structure, canopy bidirectional reflectancecan characterize canopy anisotropy feature theoretically. In order todemonstrate the above theory this study explored Bidirectional ReflectanceDistribution Function (BRDF) features of erective variety Jing411 and loose
variety Zhongyou9507 by analyzing bidirectional NDVI?inversed BRDF
model parameters and six BRDF shape indictors in red band(680nm)and
NIR band(800nm) based on the semi-empirical BRDF kernel driven model.
The results showed the NDVI of both erective and loose variety show
explicit anisotropy and the bidirectional reflectance of two varieties behavesdifferently in two bands which are mainly ascribed to spatial distributionof wheat canopy, wavelengths, and illumination-viewing geometries andobserving noise. Finally it is concluded wheat canopy in red band exhibits
stronger surface scattering that is geometric effect and in NIR band shows
stronger volumetric scattering that is volumetric effect. Therefore multiangle observations are feasible and applicable enough to characterize wheat
canopy anisotropic features.

Hyperspectral fluorescence imaging coupledwith multivariate image analysis techniques forcontaminant screening of leafy greens
Colm D. Everard, Univ. College Dublin (Ireland); Moon S. Kim,
Hoyoung Lee, Agricultural Research Service (United States)
The production of contaminant free fresh fruit and vegetables is needed
to reduce foodborne illnesses and related costs. Leafy greens grown in thefield can be susceptible to fecal matter contamination from uncontrolled
livestock and wild animals entering the field. Pathogenic bacteria canbe transferred via fecal matter and several outbreaks of E.coli O157:H7
have been associated with the consumption of leafy greens. This study
examines the use of hyperspectral fluorescence imaging coupled withmultivariate image analysis to detect fecal contamination on Spinach leaves(Spinacia oleracea). Hyperspectral fluorescence images from 464 to 800
nm were captured; ultra violet excitation was supplied by two LED-basedline light sources at 370 nm. Key wavelengths and algorithms usefulfor a contaminant screening optical imaging device were identified anddeveloped, respectively. A non-invasive screening device has the potential
to reduce the harmful consequences of foodborne illnesses.

9108-17, Session 4

High-throughput Raman chemical imaging forevaluating food safety and quality

9108-22, Session 3

Differentiating glyphosate resistant andglyphosate sensitive Italian ryegrass using
hyperspectral imagery

Jianwei Qin, Kuanglin Chao, Moon S. Kim, Agricultural ResearchService (United States)
A line-scan hyperspectral system was developed to fulfill macro-scale
Raman chemical imaging for food safety and quality research, which
generally cannot be achieved by commercial Raman imaging instruments
due to their relatively small spatial coverage. The system utilizes a customdesigned 785 nm line laser to generate a 24 cm long excitation line, which isnormally incident on the sample surface. Raman signals along the laser line
are collected by a detection module consisting of a lens, a dispersive Raman
imaging spectrograph, and a CCD camera. A hypercube is accumulated line
by line as a motorized positioning table moves the samples transversely
through the laser line. System software was developed using LabVIEW tofulfill parameterization and data-transfer functions. Spectral and spatial
calibrations were conducted to determine the ranges and the resolutions in
the two domains. Example applications for evaluating food and agricultural
products were presented to demonstrate the performance of the developed
system. Raman chemical images were created to show identifications,spatial distributions, and morphological features of interested analytes
in the tested samples. The method and system developed in this study
for macro-scale Raman chemical imaging is promising to have more
applications in the area of food safety and quality evaluation.

Matthew A. Lee, Yanbo Huang, Agricultural Research Service(United States)
Standard weed control methods prefer glyphosate based herbicides. Italianryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) has developed resistance to glyphosate. The
identification of glyphosate resistant weeds is critical because different
techniques must be used to control their spread before they lower
agricultural yield. In this research, we investigate the use of high spatial
resolution hyperspectral imagery of individual plants to extract precise
spectral curves derived from the whole plant to determine if the plant isglyphosate resistant (GR) or glyphosate sensitive (GS). The data set consistsof about 200 plants (100 GR, 100 GS), which are imaged every week toobserve changes in the spectral curves as the plant ages. In preprocessing,
the spectral curves are normalized to remove lighting artifacts causedby height variation in the plants. A subset of hyperspectral bands ischosen using a forward selection algorithm to optimize Bhattacharyya
distance between GR and GS. Dimensionality is reduced using Linear
Discriminant Analysis. Maximum likelihood classification is used for plantdifferentiation. Previous research conducted by the authors has shown that
GS and GR Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) can be differentiatedusing maximum likelihood classifiers with high accuracy (90%) with datafrom plants the same age. We expect to see a similar result when the
Italian ryegrass plants are the same age, but when the ages are different,
classification accuracy should degrade due to less Gaussian conformity inthe data. If this pattern is observed, it will mean algorithms that assume
Gaussian distribution may not be suitable for classifying GR and GS.

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Conference 9108:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VI

9108-26, Session 4

Detection of pathogens in food using a SERSbased assay in just a few hours
Stuart R. Farquharson, Atanu Sengupta, Chetan S. Shende, Frank E.
Inscore, Real-Time Analyzers, Inc. (United States); Jay F. Sperry, The
Univ. of Rhode Island (United States)
In 2011 Escherichia, Listeria, and Salmonella species infected over 10 million
people in the United States, resulting in over 50,000 hospitalizations and1,300 deaths. In January 2013 President Obama signed into law the Foodand Drug Administration (FDA) Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA),
which requires constant microbial testing of food processing equipment
and food to minimize contamination and distribution of food tainted withpathogens. The challenge to preventing distribution and consumptionof contaminated foods lies in the fact that just a few bacterial cells canrapidly multiply to millions, reaching infectious doses within a few days.
Unfortunately, current methods used to detect these few cells rely on
similar growth steps to multiply the cells to the point of detection, which
also takes a few days. Consequently, there is a critical need for an analyzer
that can rapidly extract and detect foodborne pathogens at 1000 colony
forming units per gram of food in 1-2 hours (not days), and with a specificity
that differentiates from indigenous microflora, so that false alarms are
eliminated. In an effort to meet this need, we have been developing an assaythat extracts such pathogens from food, selectively binds these pathogens,and produces surface-enhanced Raman spectra (SERS) when read by a
Raman analyzer. Here we present SERS measurements of these pathogens
in actual food samples using this assay.

9108-30, Session 4

Temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy
Walter F. Schmidt, Moon S. Kim, Kuanglin Chao, Jianwei Qin,
Hoyoung Lee, Julie K. Nguyen, Agricultural Research Service(United States)
No Abstract Available

9108-32, Session 4

Raman and NIR imaging for food adulterant
detection
Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service (United States)
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Conference 9109: Compressive Sensing III
Wednesday - Friday 7 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9109 Compressive Sensing III

9109-1, Session 2

multipath. In the paper, we provide a sparsity-based ranging approach as
an alternative to the phase difference based technique for dual-frequency
measurements. Computer simulations are provided that illustrate thesuperior performance of the sparsity-based ranging technique over theconventional method.

Multi-static passive SAR imaging based on
Bayesian compressive sensing
Qisong Wu, Yimin D. Zhang, Moeness G. Amin, Villanova Univ.
(United States); Braham Himed, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)9109-4, Session 2

Experimental results concerning compressive
noise radar

In recent years, passive radar systems, which utilize broadcast andnavigation signals as sources of opportunity, have attracted significant
interests due to their low cost, covertness, and availability of rich illuminator
sources. In this paper, we propose a novel method for synthetic aperture
imaging in passive radar systems based on the modified Bayesiancompressive sensing (BCS) technique. The problem of imaging sparsetargets is formulated as a sparse signal reconstruction problem based on
an L1-norm optimization, which is solved using a modified BCS method
to achieve a high resolution. The proposed method significantly improves
the imaging resolution beyond the range resolution. Compared to theother sparse signal reconstruction methods, such as the orthogonalmatching pursuit (OMP) and Lasso, the modified BCS provides significant
performance improvement for the reconstruction of sparse targets in the
redundant dictionary with high coherence and is more robust to noise.
Simulations results demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed
method.

Mahesh C. Shastry, 3M Co. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Muralidhar Rangaswamy,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Noise radar, which refers to systems transmitting random noise-likewaveforms for radar imaging have been shown to be suitable forcompressive sensing. In the past, researchers have relied on theoreticalresults and numerical simulations to support this assertion. In real systems,
one often encounters deviations from idealized theoretical models due tothe effects of the devices and acquisition systems. The question of how wellcompressive noise radar imaging works in real systems remains open. The
important issue of characterizing the performance of practical compressive
noise radar imaging is addressed in this paper by analyzing results ofexperiments conducted with millimeter-wave and S-band radar systems. It
is seen that experimental results conform closely to theoretical guarantees
and numerical simulations. The experiments also help us characterize theeffect of common non-idealities such as the non-ideality of the spectra
and probability distributions of waveforms, on the recovery performanceof compressive noise radar imaging systems. The results suggest thatcompressive noise radar imaging is a viable technology in practice. Further,
given the low cost and simplicity of noise radar systems, the benefits ofcompressive sensing can be realized with few modifications to legacy noiseradar systems.

9109-2, Session 2

Multi-target compressive laser ranging
Pushkar P. Pandit, Zeb Barber, W. Randall Babbitt, Jason Dahl,
Montana State Univ. (United States)
Compressive laser ranging (CLR) is a method that exploits the sparsity
available in the range domain using compressive sensing methods todirectly obtain range domain information. Conventional ranging methods
are marred by requirements of high bandwidth analog detection which
includes the severe SNR fall off with bandwidth in analog-to-digitalconversion (ADC). Compressive laser ranging solves this problem byobtaining sub-centimeter resolution while using low bandwidth detection.
High rate digital pulse pattern generators and off the shelf photonic
devices are used to modulate the transmitted and received light from asuperluminescent diode source. CLR detection is demonstrated using low
bandwidth, high dynamic range detectors and using photon counting
techniques. The use of an incoherent source eliminates speckle issues
and enables simplified CLR methods to get multi-target range profiles
with a 3 cm resolution (5 GHz bandwidth) over a 6 m range window. With
compressive sensing methods, 30 measurements are used to reconstruct a
scene with 180 range bins demonstrating that the CLR method allows direct
range measurements in the sub-Nyquist regime while reducing system
resources, in particular the need for high bandwidth ADC.

9109-5, Session 2

Through-the-wall imaging using CS-MIMO radars
Yao Yu, Rutgers, The State Univ. of New Jersey (United States);Fauzia Ahmad, Villanova Univ. (United States); Athina P. Petropulu,
Rutgers, The State Univ. of New Jersey (United States); Moeness G.
Amin, Villanova Univ. (United States)
Through-the-wall radars (TWRs) are indispensable for situational awarenessin a wide range of civilian and military applications. Multi-input multi-output(MIMO) TWR
enjoys spatial diversity, thus achieving better target detection performancein indoor environments. MIMO TWR combined with compressive sensing(CS) permits target estimation with a reduced number of samples, thereby
leading to a reduction in the data acquisition time. In previous CS based
MIMO approaches, the TWR transmitters were used in a time-divisionaccess fashion, which allowed the same waveform to be employed for alltransmitters. In this paper, we present a CS-MIMO TWR approach, in which
the transmitters emit different waveforms simultaneously, thus allowing
for further reduction of acquisition time. Supporting simulation andexperimental results are provided.

9109-3, Session 2

Sparsity-based ranging for dual-frequency radars
Khodour Al Kadry, Moeness G. Amin, Fauzia Ahmad, Villanova Univ.
(United States)
Dual-frequency radars offer the benefit of reduced complexity, fastcomputation time, and real-time target tracking in through-the-wall andurban sensing applications. Compared to single-frequency (Doppler) radar,
the use of an additional frequency increases the maximum unambiguous
range of dual-frequency radars to acceptable values for indoor target range
estimation. Conventional dual-frequency technique uses phase comparisonof the transmitted and received continuous-wave signals to provide anestimate of the target range. However, the dual-frequency approach forrange estimation can be compromised due to the presence of noise and364

SPIE DSS 2014

9109-6, Session 3

Asynchronous sampling and reconstruction of
analog sparse signals
Azime Can-Cimino, Ervin Sejdic, Luis F. Chaparro, Univ. of
Pittsburgh (United States)·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9109: Compressive Sensing III

9109-9, Session 3

Analog sparse signals resulting from biomedical and sensing network
applications can be considered non--stationary with frequency--varying
spectra. By ignoring that the maximum frequency of their spectra ischanging with time sampling sparse signals unnecessarily collects samples
in quiescent segments of the signal. A more appropriate sampling approach
would be signal--dependent. Moreover, in many of these applications power
consumption and analog processing are issues of great importance thatneed to be considered. In this paper we present a signal dependent non-uniform sampler that uses an Asynchronous Sigma Modulator (ASDM) which
consumes low--power given its structure. By making the process depend on
the derivative of the signal, we obtain a non--uniform sampler that allows
the recovery of the sample values recursively. Using a Prolate Spheroidal
Wave Function (PSWF) interpolation the original signal is reconstructed.
Stable solutions are obtained by using baseband and modulated PSWFs
function in a Tikhonov regularized interpolation. The advantage of the
proposed asynchronous sampler is that range of frequencies of the sparse
signal is taken into account avoiding aliasing. Moreover, that it requires
saving only the zero--crossing times or their differences, and that thereconstruction can be done using their quantized values and a PSWF-based interpolation. The range of frequencies analyzed can be changed
and the sampler can be implemented as a bank of filters for unknown
range of frequencies. Theoretical results are illustrated with synthetic andphonocardiograph recordings of a heart sound containing the opening snap.

Compressive sensing of direct sequence spread
spectrum signals
Feng Liu, Michael W. Marcellin, The Univ. of Arizona (United States);Nathan A. Goodman, The Univ. of Oklahoma (United States); Ali
Bilgin, The Univ. of Arizona (United States)
In this paper, compressive sensing strategies for Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS) signals are introduced. DSSS signals avoid interception
by spreading the spectrum of the original signal into a much larger
bandwidth by modulating the signal with a Pseudo-Noise (PN) Sequence.
PN sequences used in modulation are known to cooperative receivers.
However, capturing the transmitted information is difficult for a noncooperative receiver which does not know the PN sequence. Furthermore,
the modulated spectrum covers a large frequency range and capturing thislarge bandwidth requires using conventional analog-to-digital converters(ADCs) at Nyquist sampling rates can become prohibitively expensive. In
2012, Liu et al. introduced compressive sensing approaches for Frequencyhopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) signals. Motivated by this work, wedevelop compressive sensing approaches for DSSS signals in this work.
In our proposed system, the input DSSS signals are mixed with wideband
measurement kernels and sampled at rates much lower than the Nyquist
rate. A compressive matched filtering method that operates directly on
the undersampled measurements is proposed to recover the transmitted
bits. Strategies for designing measurement kernels beyond random kernels
are also proposed. Finally, the proposed methods are evaluated using
DSSS signals generated using Maximum-length sequences (m-sequences)and Phase-Shift-Keying (PSK) modulation at varying signal-to noise andcompression ratios.

9109-7, Session 3

Multiple-window sparse reconstruction of FM
signals from random observations
Moeness G. Amin, Yimin D. Zhang, Branka Jokanovic, Villanova Univ.
(United States)
Motivated by multiple window spectrograms for enhanced time-frequency
distributions of nonstationary signals, we apply multiple windows of sparsereconstructions of FM signals from random observations. The combinationsof different spectrograms, corresponding to different windows, outperform
each spectrogram when considered alone. With random observations, thenominal local frequency signature, common to all windows, can be extractedusing multiple measurement vector sparse reconstruction techniques. The
multiple observation vectors include weighted data and the corresponding
sparse local frequencies have common support. The linear model, relating
the measurements matrix to sparse matrix with zero and no-zero rows, has
one Fourier basis dictionary. The windows can be chosen to satisfy desirable
properties when spectrograms of full data observations are formed. These
properties include fast computations, reduced interference, localizations,and maximizing information. In this paper, we consider windows of lowpass filter characteristics. We compare the reconstruction performance ofdifferent sets of employed windows and show improved time-frequency
signature reconstruction using multiple windows compared to single
window reconstruction.

9109-10, Session 3

Time-frequency kernel design for compressive
sensing
Branka Jokanovic, Moeness G. Amin, Yimin D. Zhang, Villanova Univ.
(United States)
The Fourier transform (FT) relationship between the Wigner distributions
and ambiguity function gives rise to a linear model relating the signal
power distributions in both domains. The same is true for Cohen’s class oftime-frequency distributions where the FT maps the weighted ambiguity
function to reduced interference distributions with highly attenuated crossterms. The latter are produced by the bilinear data products underlying
quadratic distribution. The time-frequency signatures for a large classof nonstationary signals, such as FM, occupy few time-frequency points,
whereas the large remaining regions of the time-frequency domain assume
small or zero values. This sparsity property enables sparse reconstructionof these signatures from few ambiguity domain observations. In thispaper, we consider the problem of auto-terms preservations and crossterms suppressions under the auspices of sparse signal reconstruction
and compressive sensing. Rather than selecting the ambiguity domain
observations manually to avoid cross-terms, we design a kernel which
both reduces cross-terms and leads to sparse signal representation. The
kernel considered is defined by few variables which are tuned to satisfy
both objectives. We deal with both cases of full data record and records ofrandomly missing samples.

9109-8, Session 3

Noise SAR image reconstruction based oncompressed sensing
Zhijun G. Qiao, Yufeng Cao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan American(United States); Huihuang Zhao, Hengyang Normal Univ. (China)
In this paper, a denoise approach is proposed to reduce the speckle
noise in SAR images based on compress sensing. Through the skill ofcompressed sensing, we divide the image into some blocks, and propose
an image reconstruction method based on block compressing sensing with
Orthogonal Matching Pursuit. By adding some simulated speckle noise in
the SAR image, the performance of the proposed approach is shown andcompared with a conventional algorithm. the result has been shown that our
method can get better result in terms of peak signal noise ratio (PSNR).

9109-11, Session 3

Using computer algebra to perform image
compression with wavelet transform and SVD
Felipe Diaz Jaramillo, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Computer Algebra Software, especially Maple and its ImageTools package,is used to develop image compression using Wavelet transform application365+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9109: Compressive Sensing III

and Singular Value Decomposition (SVD). For prototyping of the image
compression process, Maple packages, LinearAlgebra, ArrayTools andDiscreteTransform are used simultaneously with ImageTools image
processing package. The image compression process implies the realizationof matrix computing with high dimension matrices, and Maple softwaredevelops those operations easily and efficiently. Some image compression
experiments are done, and the matrix dimension for minimum informationneeded to store an image is shown clearly, also the matrix dimensionof redundant information. Implementation of algorithms for image
compression in other computer algebra systems such as Mathematica andMaxima is proposed as future investigation path. Also it is proposed the useof curvelet transform as a tool for image compression.

platforms is also investigated. Simulation and initial experimental results arepresented as part of this work.

9109-14, Session 4

A comparison between three compressive
hyperspectral sensing methods
Adrian Stern, Yitzhak August, Vladimir Farber, Yaniv Oiknine, BenGurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel)In this paper we overview some hyperspectral compressive imaging
methods that we have developed. The first method is an extension of aRadon-based compressive imaging technique to perform spectral sensing[1,2]. The second method is en efficient extension of the single-pixel camera
to include compressive spectrometry [3]. The third method is based on a
recently developed compressive spectrometry using liquid crystal devices[4]9109-12, Session 4

Compressive spectral polarization imaging
Chen Fu, Univ. of Delaware (United States); Henry Arguello, Univ.
Industrial de Santander (Colombia); Gonzalo R. Arce, Virginia O.
Lorenz, Univ. of Delaware (United States)

Refernces:
1. A. Stern, “Compressed imaging system with linear sensors,” Opt. Lett. 32,
3077-3079 (2007).

We present a compressive spectral polarization imager as the combinationof a coded aperture snapshot spectral imager (CASSI) and a micropolarizer
array. The proposed imaging system avoids moving or rotating opticalelements and achieves real-time measurements. The CASSI imager contains
a binary coded aperture and a prism which shears the scene along one
spatial axis according to its wavelength components. With 0 degree, 45
degree and 90 degree linear micropolarizers randomly distributed, themicropolarizer array matched to the detector pixels intrinsically senses thefirst three Stokes parameters of the scene. The four dimensional (4D) data
cube is thus projected onto the two dimensional (2D) focal plane array(FPA). Multiple snapshots are obtained for scenes with detailed spatial andspectral content. The 4D spectral-polarization data cube is reconstructedfrom the 2D measurements via nonlinear optimization with sparsity
constraints. Polarization state planes (degree of linear polarization andangle of polarization) for each spectral slice of the hypercube are presented.

2. S. Evladov, O. Levi, and A. Stern, “Progressive compressive imaging from
Radon projections,” Optics Express 20, 4260-4271 (2012).[
3. Y. August, C. Vachman, Y. Rivenson, and A. Stern, “Compressive
hyperspectral imaging by random separable projections in both the spatial
and the spectral domains,” Appl. Opt., Special issue on Computational
Optical Sensing And Imaging, 52, D46-D54 (2013).
4. Y. August, and A. Stern, “Compressive sensing spectrometry based on
liquid crystal devices” sibmitted

9109-15, Session 4

A panchromatic super-resolution camera forremote sensing

9109-13, Session 4

Justin C. Flake, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States); John
Greer, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States);
Gary Euliss, The MITRE Corp. (United States); Stephanie Shubert,
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)

3D imaging using compressive sensing active
serial imaging system
Bing Ouyang, Frank M. Caimi, Fraser R. Dalgleish, Gero Nootz,
Walter Britton, Anni K. Vuorenkoski, Harbor Branch Oceanographic
Institute (United States)

We present experiment results for a super-resolution imaging device thatmeasures projections onto a random basis. The imaging system follows
an architecture that has become familiar in compressed sensing. It uses
a digital micromirror array located at an intermediate image plane tointroduce binary matrices representing members of the basis set. We
developed the system model from experimentally acquired calibration
data which attempts to characterize the system output corresponding toeach individual mirror in the array. We reconstruct images at a resolution
limited by that of the micromirror array using the Split-Bregman approach
to solving L1 regularized optimization problems. We evaluate system
performance as a function of the size of the basis set, or equivalently, thenumber of projections applied in the reconstruction. Simulations show
sensitivity of the approach to fundamental physical parameters certain to be
encountered with real systems, including optical diffraction and noise.

Compressive Sensing (CS) based active serial imaging (CSASI) concept
has been developed to effectively acquire the scene intensity images in the
scattering medium. The feasibility of the technique has been demonstrated
via simulations and initial test tank experiments. Within this study, oneof the two CSASI configurations – compressive line sensing system that
adopts the whiskbroom imaging formation, more compatible with thetraditional survey platforms, is further extended to recover the 3D scene.
Even though the same distributed compressive sensing (DCS) theoreticalfoundation exploiting the both the intra-signal sparsity and highly correlated
nature of the adjacent areas in a natural scene is still valid, one significant
difference is that instead of a 1D spatial pattern, the measurement matrix
is now a more sophisticated temporal-spatial pattern integrating the
spatial pattern with modulated pulse. While the scattering mitigation
techniques adopted in CSASI intensity imaging system (i.e., multi-scaled
measurement matrix, model assisted reconstruction etc.) are still valid, thecomplications (and advantages) due to the introduction of the temporaldimension are investigated. The sensing model is developed. The impactof other system parameters such as platform motion, receiver noise is alsostudied. Notwithstanding the main focus so far has been image acquisitionin turbid ocean water; this concept will be extended to acquire images
through atmospheric scattering and attenuation (i.e., fog, mist etc.). The
implementation on different imaging system configurations, especiallythe distributed imaging system with illuminator and receiver on different

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SPIE DSS 2014

9109-16, Session 4Some results on adaptive sensing using partialcomplete Hadamard waveforms
Matthew A. Herman, InView Technology Corp. (United States)
We present new results on observing a scene of interest using PartialComplete Hadamard waveforms. The Partial-Complete schema partitions
the Hadamard spectrum into separate blocks. By subsampling each of theblocks (e.g., 1%, or less) we obtain a sufficient statistic that determines the·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9109: Compressive Sensing III

best blocks, thereby adapting the sensing strategy to use the waveforms
that are best matched to the scene. By minimizing the total variation of thereconstructed image, significant improvement is achieved as compared tosimply sensing with Hadamard waveforms that are randomly chosen, i.e.,
those that do not use any a priori knowledge of the scene.

seen that well known CS algorithms such as L1 or Orthogonal Matching
Pursuit (OMP) can be employed to recover the input estimates from themeasured output of the ADC subsystem.

9109-17, Session 5

Direction finding with L1-norm subspaces

Parallel and reconfigurable architectures for OMP
compressive sensing reconstruction algorithm

Panos P. Markopoulos, Nicholas Tsagkarakis, Dimitris A. Pados, Univ.
at Buffalo (United States); George N. Karystinos, Technical Univ. of
Crete (Greece)

9109-20, Session 5

Amey M. Kulkarni, Tinoosh Mohsenin, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore
County (United States)

Conventional subspace-based signal direction-of-arrival estimation
methods rely on the familiar L2-norm-derived principal components(singular vectors) of the observed sensor-array data matrix. In this paper,for the first time in the literature, we find the L1- norm maximum projection
components of the observed data and search in their subspace for signal
presence. We demonstrate that L1-subspace direction-of-arrival estimation
exhibits (i) similar performance to L2 (usual singular-value/eigen-vector
decomposition) direction-of-arrival estimation under normal nominal-datasystem operation and (ii) significant resistance to sporadic/occasional
directional jamming and/or faulty measurements.

Compressive Sensing (CS) is a novel scheme, in which a signal that is sparsein a known transform domain canbe reconstructed using fewer samples. The signal reconstruction techniques
are computationally intensive and power consuming, which makes
them impractical for embedded applications. The paper presents novel
architectures for Orthogonal Matching Pursuit algorithm, one of the popular
CS reconstruction algorithms.
We show the implementation results of proposed architectures on
FPGA, ASIC and on a custom many-core platform. For FPGA and ASIC
implementation, a novel thresholding method is used to reduce theprocessing time by at least 25%. Whereas, for the programmable custom
manycore platform, efficient parallelization techniques are applied, toreconstruct signals with variant signal lengths of N and sparsity of m.
The algorithm is divided into three kernels. Each kernel is parallelized toreduce execution time, whereas efficient reuse of the matrix operators
allows us to reduce area. Matrix operations are efficiently paralellizedby taking advantage of blocked algorithms. For demonstration purpose,
all architectures reconstruct a 256-length signal with maximum sparsityof 8 using 64 measurements. Implementation on Xilinx Virtex-5 FPGA,
requires 27.14µs to reconstruct the signal using basic OMP. Whereas, withthresholding method it requires 18 µs. ASIC implementation reconstructs thesignal in 13 µs and our custom many-core, operating at 1.18 GHz, takes 18.28µs to complete. Our results show that compared to the previous publishedwork of the same algorithm and matrix size, proposed architectures for OMP
are approximately 1.3 times to 3 orders of magnitude times faster.

9109-21, Session 5

Tomographic reconstruction of an unstable
flame with compressive sensing and double ART
algorithm: a comparison
Juan C. Aguilar, Luís R. Berriel-Valdos, Carlos Gerardo Trevino
Palacios, Jose Felix Aguilar, Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica
y Electrónica (Mexico)
Two classical approaches to recover the temperatures distribution in aflame are the Radial Abel Inversion and the Filtered Back Projection. The
first one is useful when the flame is considered as an object with cylindricalsymmetry and the second one is useful when the flame has not a particularsymmetry and the number of projections is high. In the case of having only
few projections, an algebraic reconstruction tomography (ART) algorithm
can be used. In this work, we use compressive sensing for recovering thetemperatures distribution in an unstable flame, using four projections andshown its performance comparing it with an improved ART version, which iscalled the Double Art Algorithm. Experimental results and reconstruction oftemperatures distribution are obtained with both approaches and shown.

9109-18, Session 5

A photonics hardware based wideband
compressive sensing analog to digitalarchitecture and signal recovery method

9109-39, Session 5

Mohiuddin Ahmed, HRL Labs., LLC (United States)

Groundwater monitoring using sparse recovery
algorithm

We present a compressed sensing (CS) approach for the sub-Nyquist,
non-uniform sampling (NUS) and reconstruction of wideband RF-signals.
The random sampling is accomplished via nonuniform time-stretching in aphotonic time-stretch (TS) ADC system that has been developed as part of
the DARPA RADER program.

Joon Young Lee, Tae-Woo Lee, Arizona State Univ. (United States)
Groundwater level estimation has been investigated in the southwestern
United States for a long time period. In this study, we introduce compressedsensing and apply it to the groundwater level estimation. First, we
describe that compressed sensing is applicable to the groundwater level
estimation. Relying on the US Geological Survey and the State Departmentof Water Resources for important data, we show in steps how to build thegroundwater level network data. The mathematical formulation is shownand the L1-optimization is formulated for the proposed method. By several
validity tests, we show that it meets the compressible requirements andL1-optimization enables groundwater level estimation to be effective inthat the total measurements of registered wells can be reduced down
by approximately 42%. We provide visualizations of groundwater level
estimation in the southwestern US and trends of groundwater level change
in cities of Arizona from 1942 to 2012.

We previously reported the photonic TS ADC system that utilizes
voltage-tunable dispersive elements capable of large stretch-ratio M~41
to accomplish randomized sampling of a time-stretched analog-input
modulated onto a chirped optical carrier (we demonstrated an effective
number of bits (ENOB)> 8 for an input signal frequency of 10 GHz).
However, while using a large stretch ratio (M) was key to our demonstrationof a high ENOB, a TS ADC system constructed with a stretch ratio of 41
would require a large number of parallel channels to accomplish continuous
time (CT) operation.
In this paper, we explore a novel CS-based approach utilizing nonuniform
randomized subsampling that will enable us to reduce the time-stretch ratio
M because the same backend ADC bank can cover (i.e., “sense”) a wider
signal spectrum, with minimal tradeoff in ENOB. Furthermore we discuss theresulting CS formalism for reconstructing the input-signal from measured
data collected via nonuniform sampling. Using the matrix formalism, it is367+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9109: Compressive Sensing III

9109-22, Session 6

spheroidal sequences [4].
REFERENCES

Compressive sensing optical coherence
tomography using randomly accessible tunable
lasers[1] J. A. Logemann, Evaluation and treatment of swallowing disorders, 2nded. Austin, Texas, USA: PRO-ED, 1998.
[2] A. J. Miller, The neuroscientific principles of swallowing and dysphagia.
San Diego, USA: Singular Publishing Group, 1999.

Mark Harfouche, California Institute of Technology (United States);
Naresh Satyan, California Institute of Technology (United States)
and Telaris, Inc. (United States); Amnon Yariv, California Institute ofTechnology (United States)[3] E. Sejdi?, C. M. Steele, T. Chau, “Classification of penetration-aspiration
versus healthy swallows using dual-axis swallowing accelerometry signals indysphagic subjects,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, vol. 60,
no. 7, pp. 1859-1866, July 2013.
[4] E. Sejdi?, A. Can, L. F. Chaparro, C. M. Steele, T. Chau, “Compressive
sampling of swallowing accelerometry signals using time-frequency
dictionaries based on modulated discrete prolate spheroidal sequences,”
EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing, vol. 2012, no. 1, pp. 1011-14, May 2012.

We propose and demonstrate a novel a compressive sensing swept source
optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) system that enables high speed
images to be taken while maintaining the high resolution offered by a large
bandwidth sweep.
Conventional SSOCT systems sweep the optical frequency of a laser tocharacterize the interference pattern at a given lateral location. A scatterer
located at delay T appears as a sinusoidal component cos (w(t)T ) at thephotodetector current. Limitations imposed by the finite optical chirp rate,
the speed of analog to digital and digital to analog converters, limit theacquisition rate of an axial scan. The proposed acquisition modality enables
much faster image acquisition rates by interrogating the beat signal at
randomly selected optical frequencies while preserving resolution and depthof field.

9109-24, Session 6

Highly accelerated 3D dynamic contrast
enhanced MRI from sparse spiral sampling using
integrated partial separability model and JSENSE
Jingyuan Lyu, Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Pascal Spincemaille,
Yi Wang, Weill Cornell Medical College (United States); Fuquan Ren,
Leslie Ying, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)

The system utilizes a randomly accessible laser, a modulated grating-Y
branch laser, to sample the interference pattern from a scene at randomly
selected optical frequencies over an optical bandwidth of 5 THz ,corresponding to a resolution of 30 um in air. The depth profile is thenreconstructed using l1 recovery algorithm with a LASSO constraint. Signal
dependent noise sources, shot noise and phase noise, are analyzed andtaken into consideration during the recovery. Redundant dictionaries areused to improve the reconstruction of the depth profile. A compression
by a factor of 10, for sparse targets, up to a depth of 15 mm in noisy
environments is shown.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI)
has been used clinically to provide a collection of sequential sets ofmorphological images. These MRI “movies” represent a potentially major
development in the management of a wide range of diseases and haveparticular applicability in oncology. It requires high spatial resolution formorphological information and high temporal resolution for contrast
pharmacokinetics. In the existing DCE-MRI methods, the spatial resolution
has to be compromised for the required temporal resolution. Its practical
impact is still limited by the relatively low spatiotemporal resolution.

9109-23, Session 6

A number of methods have been proposed to improve the spatiotemporal
resolution of dynamic imaging by highly undersampling the MRI data in(k,t) space and reconstructing the image using spatial, temporal or bothconstraints. When combined with other fast imaging techniques, such as
fast scanning and parallel imaging, these methods hold promise for evenhigher spatiotemporal resolution. Some recent works have investigatedcompressed sensing for fast dynamic imaging.

Understanding differences between healthy
swallows and penetration-aspiration via
compressive sensing of tri-axial swallowing
accelerometry signals
Ervin Sejdic, Joshua M. Dudik, Iva Jestrovic, Atsuko Kurosu, JamesL. Coyle, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States)

In this paper, we propose a novel method to effectively integrate spiralacquisition, parallel imaging, partial separable (PS) model, and sparse
constraints for highly accelerated dynamic contrast enhanced MRI. In
data acquisition, the proposed method exploits 3D spiral trajectories withgolden angle. In image reconstruction, the coil sensitivities, spatial andtemporal bases of the PS model are jointly estimated through alternating
optimization. The experimental results show that the proposed method isable to achieve high spatial and temporal resolutions at the same time.

Swallowing is a well-defined process of transporting food or liquidfrom the mouth to the stomach [1]. Patients suffering from dysphagia(swallowing difficulty), usually deviate from this well-defined pattern ofhealthy swallowing. Dysphagia is a common problem encountered in the
rehabilitation of stroke patients, head injured patients, and others withparalyzing neurological diseases [2]. Patients suffering from dysphagia areprone to choking or penetration/aspiration. Aspiration is defined as process
when any food or fluids enter into the airway below the true vocal folds [1].
A related phenomenon to aspiration, penetration is defined as the event
when material enters the space immediately above the true vocal folds (thesupraglottic space) but is not observed to fall below the vocal folds duringassessment [2].

9109-25, Session 6

Graphics processing units accelerated MIMO
tomographic image reconstruction using target
sparsenessIn recent years, swallowing accelerometry became a promising non-invasive
tool for the assessment of swallowing difficulties, including penetrationaspiration. Swallowing accelerometry refers to the employment of anaccelerometer as a sensor modality during cervical auscultation. A recent
contribution showed that penetration-aspiration swallows have different
time-frequency structures from healthy swallows [3]. In this paper, we
propose to examine whether the differences in the time-frequency structureof swallowing accelerometry signals will play a significant role in acquiringsuch signals using compressive sensing. In particular, we will examine
the compressive sensing approach based on modulated discrete prolate

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SPIE DSS 2014

Yuanwei Jin, Univ. of Maryland Eastern Shore (United States);
Pedro Bello-Maldonado, Florida International Univ. (United States);
Agustin Rivera-Longoria, Texas State Univ. San Marcos (UnitedStates); Mark Idleman, Ahmerst College (United States); Enyue Lu,
Salisbury Univ. (United States)
With progress in imaging systems and algorithms, the computational
complexity of image reconstruction has increased dramatically. Wave based·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9109: Compressive Sensing III

9109-27, Session 7

nonlinear imaging such as tomography for medical applications typically
employs iterative reconstruction approaches, which are computationallychallenging due to the increased sophistication of imaging algorithms
and the amount of data processed. Processing time is now limiting the
deployment of advanced imaging technologies. To address this challenge,
two approaches have been taken. The first approach is to develop new
algorithms that incorporate prior knowledge such as target sparsenessto accelerate image reconstruction. The second approach is to employ
powerful hardware to address computational aspects of real-time image
reconstruction. The graphics processing unit (GPU) has emerged as acompetitive platform for computing massively parallel problems.

A new class of masks and algorithms for efficientcoded aperture imaging and decoding
Michael J. DeWeert, BAE Systems (United States)
In certain applications, such as X-ray astronomical imaging, conventionallens technology is constrained by the lack of materials which can effectively
focus the radiation within reasonable weight and volume. One solution isto replace lenses with coded apertures –opaque plates perforated withmultiple pinhole-like apertures which create an overlapping jumble ofimages on the image plane of the camera. If the apertures are arranged
in an appropriate pattern, the images can be decoded, and a clear image
computed. Recently, interest in computational imaging and the search formeans of producing programmable software-specified optics has revived
interest in coded apertures. MURA (Modified Uniformly Redundant Array)masks have long been the state of the art for coded-aperture imaging.
While MURAs work well for compact objects against uniform backgrounds,
they have several drawbacks for extended scenes: 1) they present an
inherently ill-posed inversion problem that is unmanageable for large
images, and 2) they are susceptible to diffraction effects: a diffracted MURA
is no longer a MURA. This talk presents a new class of coded apertures
which are efficiently decodable, even for very large images –orders ofmagnitude faster than MURAs. The new mask class also remains decodable
when diffracted. We present the theory and experimental confirmationsof the effectiveness of the new method - images collected in natural lightof extended outdoor scenes are rendered clearly. We also demonstrate
software-defined optics using programmable Spatial-Light-Modulators. The
new class of masks is potentially a game-changed for future developmentsof efficient X-ray and gamma-ray imagers.

In this paper, we develop integrated approaches to accelerating nonlinear
tomographic image reconstruction. First, we study new imaging algorithms
for non-linear tomographic image reconstruction using target sparseness.
The iterative algorithm consists of the propagation step and the
backpropagation step under which the target characteristic function values
are updated and reconstructed. Using numerical examples, we demonstratethat incorporating prior knowledge about the imaging field such as target
sparseness accelerates significantly the convergence of the iterative imaging
method, which provides considerable benefits to real time tomographic
imaging applications. Next, we develop efficient implementation strategies
and methods using Graphics Processing Units to further reduce processing
time of the tomographic imaging algorithm. By exploiting the underlying
parallelism of the iterative image algorithm, we test different Compute
Unified Device Architecture (CUDA) kernel configurations offered by GPU inorder to measure the changes in the processing time of our algorithm. By
examining the imaging speed and the resulting image quality, optimal kernel
configurations are developed to maximize the throughput of the CUDA
implementation for the iterative imaging method. The implementation
results demonstrate that a combined approach, i.e., algorithm development
and GPU implementation, yields significant improvement for the iterative
method in terms of processing time and image quality.

9109-28, Session 7

9109-26, Session 6

Rate-distortion optimization for compressive
video sampling

Multimodal sparse reconstruction in Lamb wavebased nondestructive evaluation

Ying Liu, Joohee Kim, Illinois Institute of Technology (United States)

Andrew Golato, Sridhar Santhanam, Fauzia Ahmad, Moeness G.
Amin, Villanova Univ. (United States)

The recently introduced compressed sensing (CS) framework enables low
complexity video acquisition via sub-Nyquist rate sampling. In practice,
the resulting CS samples are quantized and indexed by finitely many bits
(bit-depth) for transmission. In applications where the bit-budget for video
transmission is constrained, a tradeoff exists between number of collected
CS samples and quantization bit-depth per CS sample. In this work, weestablish a video content-adaptive quantization scheme which maximizes
the reconstruction quality in a bit-budget constrained CS video transmission
system. In particular, the reconstruction peak-signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR)
is modeled as a quadratic function of quantization bit-depth with model
parameters adaptive to signal sparsity. The optimal bit-depth is obtainedby setting the first derivative of the function to zero. In the experimental
studies the model parameters are initialized with a small set of training
data, which are then updated with local information in the model testingstage. Simulation results presented herein show that the proposed adaptive
quantization scheme outperforms significantly fixed bit-depth quantization.

Lamb waves are utilized extensively for nondestructive evaluation (NDE)of thin structures, such as plates and shells. These guided ultrasonic waves
can travel long distances without significant attenuation and interact withdefects, thereby permitting quick examination of broad areas in structural
health monitoring and NDE applications. Normal practice involves fixing
a network of piezoelectric transducers to the structural plate member for
generating and receiving Lamb waves. Using the transducers in pitch-catchpairs, the scattered signals from defects in the plate can be recorded. While
several techniques exist for analyzing the scattered signals to detect thepresence of defects, very few exploit the sparseness of scattering sources ordefects in the plate.
In this paper, we propose an L1-norm minimization approach for localizing
defects in thin plates, which inverts a multi-modal Lamb wave basedmodel through exploitation of group sparsity. More specifically, we assume
the defects to be isotropic scatterers and consider both symmetric andasymmetric fundamental propagating Lamb modes. We construct modelbased dictionaries for each mode, taking into account the associateddispersion and attenuation through the medium. Reconstruction of the area
being interrogated is then performed jointly across the two modes using thegroup sparsity constraint. Performance validation of the proposed defectlocalization scheme is provided using both simulated data and experimental
data gathered from an aluminum plate, with damage in the form ofholes and added masses, at the Acoustics and Ultrasound Lab, Villanova
University.

369+1 360 676 3290

9109-29, Session 7

Image estimation from projective measurements
using low dimensional manifolds
Johann Veras, Robert R. Muise, Lockheed Martin Corp. (UnitedStates)
We look at the design of projective measurements based upon image priors.
If one assumes that image patches from natural imagery can be modeled asa low rank manifold, we develop an optimality criterion for a measurement
matrix based upon separating the canonical elements of the manifold prior.
Any sparse image reconstruction algorithm has improved performance·

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Conference 9109: Compressive Sensing III

using the developed measurement matrix over using random projections.
Some insights into the empirical estimation of the image patch manifold aredeveloped and several results are presented.

9109-30, Session 7

A fast target detection and imaging method forcompressive sensing Earth observation
Chuanrong Li, Academy of Opto-Electronics (China); Qi Wang,
Academy of Opto-Electronics (China) and Univ. of Chinese
Academy of Sciences (China); Changyong Cao, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (UnitedStates); Xi Shao, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States);
Lingling Ma, Yongsheng Zhou, Academy of Opto-Electronics(China); Shi Qiu, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States);
Jianjian Li, Academy of Opto-Electronics (China) and Univ.
of Chinese Academy of Sciences (China) and NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (UnitedStates)
The compressive sensing imaging technique, based on the realization of
measurement matrix via active or passive devices (e.g., DMD), has attracted
more and more attention. For imaging target of interest within large
sparse scene (e.g., ships in the sea), high-resolution image was usuallyreconstructed, however the process is time-consuming, and moreover
only part of the image consists of the targets of interest. In this paper, thenon-imaging fast target detection was realized first based on the detector
energy intensity, which includes the steps of rough target positioning by
successively opening DMD blocks and accurate positioning by adjusting
the rough areas via intelligent search algorithm. Further, multi-resolution
fast imaging method via combining different numbers of DMD mirrors was
explored, low resolution for larger area and high resolution for smaller area
containing the targets. Simulation experiments were carried out to compare
the proposed method with regular method. The calculation time is 2.93
seconds for the proposed method and 44.9 seconds for reconstructing
image of the whole scene in low resolution. The result shows the area ofthe ships are accurately positioned without reconstructing the image by
the proposed method and the multi-level scale imaging for suspect areas isrealized. Compared with traditional method from the reconstructed image,the proposed method highly enhances the measuring and reconstruction
efficiency for ships in the ocean.

9109-31, Session 7

A new approach to apply compressive sensing tolidar sensing
Richard C. Lau, T. K. Woodward, Applied Communication Sciences(United States)
In recent years, Compressive Sensing (CS) has been successfully applied tomultiple branches of science. However, most CS methods require capturing
a large amount of random projections of the data sequentially, which does
not directly apply to LIDAR systems where reduction of sampling of 3D
point cloud is desirable. In this paper, we propose a new method called
Re-sampling Compressive Sensing (RCS) that relaxes the sampling of
LIDAR point cloud to only once to capture 3 dimensional scenes at a given
performance. The proposed new CS method leads to a new data collection
paradigm that is general and is different from traditional CS sensing such as
the single-pixel camera architecture.

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SPIE DSS 2014·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9110 Dimensional Optical Metrology and Inspection for Practical Applications III

9110-1, Session 1

9110-3, Session 1

Active versus passive projector nonlinear gamma
compensation method for high-quality fringe
pattern generation (Invited Paper)

Comparing digital-light-processing (DLP) andliquid-crystal-on-silicon (LCOS) technologies forhigh-quality 3D shape measurement

Song Zhang, Iowa State Univ. (United States)

Chen Gong, Beiwen Li, Iowa State Univ. (United States); Kevin G.
Harding, GE Global Research (United States); Song Zhang, Iowa
State Univ. (United States)

Nonlinear gamma of the projector induces substantial measurement error
if it is not properly compensated. Over the years, numerous projector
nonlinear gamma compensation methods were proposed. Overall, thesemethods can be classified into two categories: actively modifying the fringe
patterns before their projection, or passively compensate the phase error
after the patterns are captured. Both methods have been proved successful
in substantially reducing the nonlinearity error caused by the projector.
However, to our knowledge, there is no study on comparing these two typesof error compensation methods for high-quality fringe patterns when thesystem is not operating under its calibrated optimal conditions, e.g., when
the projector is substantially out of focus. This paper thus presents a study
examining the influences of projector defocusing on the phase quality
while the projector nonlinearity is calibrated under an in-focus condition.
Our study finds that the active method tends to provides more consistenthigh-quality fringe patterns regardless the amount of defocusing; yetthe effectiveness of the passive method is sensitive to the measurement
conditions, albeit the passive method could provide slightly better quality
phase under the optimal calibration condition. This research finding
coincides with our prior study on binary defocusing study where the phaseerror varies with different amounts of defocusing, and thus compensating
the phase error passively in phase domain is more difficult than actively
modifying the fringe patterns before their projection.

This paper presents a thorough comparison between the projector using
the digital-light-processing (DLP) technology and liquid-crystal-on-silicon(LCOS) technology for high-quality 3D shape measurement. Our priorstudy indicated that there are significant differences between these twotechnologies depending upon the employed fringe generation method(i.e., focused sinusoidal or binary defocusing). Namely, the DLP technology
performs better using the binary defocusing technique since the resultant
fringe contrast is higher; and the LCOS technologies is better when thefocus sinusoidal method is used because the LCOS has less stringent timing
requirement for the systems. However, our prior study was investigatedon the inexpensive DLP and LCOS platforms, and only utilized one single
color for comparisons, and thus such a study might not be representative
since the inexpensive projectors might not take full advantage of eachindividual technologies. This study will utilize regular DLP and LCOS
projectors and thoroughly compare their differences on high-quality 3D
shape measurement. Specifically, we will not only study each individualcolor, we will also study the combinations of different colors. Again thebinary defocusing and focused sinusoidal fringe projection methods
will be evaluated under all these scenarios. Experimental data will bepresented and hopefully conclusions will be drawn on choosing one of thetwo technologies once the fringe generation method is determined for aparticular application.

9110-2, Session 1

Accurate projector calibration based on
improved accuracy of points in projector images
corresponding points in camera images

9110-4, Session 1

Influence of alpha factor on the stability limit of asemiconductor laser with optical feedback

Zhengrong Huang, Jiangtao Xi, Yanguang Yu, Qinghua Guo, Univ. of
Wollongong (Australia)

Yuanlong Fan, Yanguang Yu, Jiangtao Xi, Qinghua Guo, Univ. of
Wollongong (Australia)

As an important part of 3D fringe projection profilometry, projector
calibration is a complicated and time-consuming procedure. As the
projector cannot capture pictures directly, it is calibrated by establishingcorresponding relationship between a set of points on projector images
and camera images, that is, by mapping the points in camera images into
the projector images. The more precise the mapping, the more accurate
the calibration can be. The method of phase-shifting is used to map the
extracted points in camera images into projector images, where each pixel
on charge-the coupled device of camera corresponds to one pixel in thedigital micro-mirror device of projector. Although the points in camera
images can be located precisely, the accuracy will reduce when they aremapped onto the projector images. In this paper, we propose a new method
to improve the accuracy of the mapping. The key concept is to extract a setof pixels on the edge of a circle, from which the centre of the circle can be
determined by the least-square fitting. Meanwhile, the set of edge pixels are
mapped onto the projector images using the approach of phase-shifting.
After obtaining these edge pixels in the projector images, the least-square
fitting is used again to extract the centre of the circle, thus establishingcorresponding relationships between the circle centre on the camera image
and projector image. Compared to existing approaches based on direct
mapping of the circle centre on the camera image to the projector image,Our proposed method is characterized by higher accuracy in the mapping
the points and thus the projector calibration. The principle of the improved
method is described in this paper, and the effectiveness is demonstrated by
the results of experiments.

371+1 360 676 3290

A single mode semiconductor laser (SL) with external optical feedback(EOF) has been being attracted an extensive attention due to its wide
applications, such as optical chaos transmitters/receivers, self-mixing
sensing and instrumentations for the metrological quantities of an external
target. In the applications, the analysis on the stability of such SLs isdesired for achieving a reliable SL application system. A constant current
biased SL usually emits laser with a constant intensity under the conditionof stable operation. However, with the variance of system parameters, thelaser output transits into unstable behavior, such as periodic oscillation,
quasi-periodic oscillation, low frequency fluctuations (LFFs) or chaos. It
is important to figure out when the transition occurs with respect to thevalues of the parameters, or the range of the parameters within which the
SL is stable or unstable. Such a range is referred to as the stability limit. To
determine the stability limit, many relevant works have been conductedin the past decades. Alpha factor (also referred to as the linewidthenhancement factor or the Henry factor) is one of the fundamental
parameters for SLs. It was reported that value of alpha factor is very
important for describing many aspects of laser behavior, such as spectral
effects, injection locking, and the chirp. However, the influence of the alphafactor on the stability limit has not been fully investigated. In this paper,
starting from the L-K equations, two coupling equations for describing thestability limit of the system are derived. Based on the coupling equations,the stable region of an SL with EOF is obtained and described by alphafactor incorporating three other controllable external parameters associatedwith EOF. The computer simulations show the final stability limit in a·

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III

3-parameter space described by any three of the parameters, therefore
providing a complete and better way for designing a stable SL system with
EOF.

Due to the high temperatures and stresses present in the high-pressuresection of a gas turbine, the airfoils experience creep or radial stretching.
Nowadays manufacturers are putting in place condition-based maintenanceprograms in which the condition of individual components is assessed todetermine their remaining lives. To accurately track this creep effect andpredict the impact on part life, the ability to accurately assess creep has
become an important engineering challenge. One approach for measuringcreep is using moiré imaging. Using pad-print technology, a grating pattern
can be directly printed on a turbine bucket, and it compares against
a reference pattern built in the creep measurement system to create
moiré interference pattern. The authors assembled a creep measurement
prototype for this application. By measuring the frequency change of the
moiré fringes, it is then possible to determine the local creep distribution.
However, since the sensitivity requirement for the creep measurement isvery stringent (0.1 micron), the measurement result can be easily offset
due to optical system aberrations, tilts and magnification. In this paper,a mechanical specimen subjected to a tensile test to induce plastic
deformation up to 4% in the gage was used to evaluate the system. The
results show some offset compared to the readings from a strain gage andan extensometer. By using a new grating pattern with two subset patterns, it
was possible to correct these offset errors. The experimental results show agood agreement of the moiré based strain gage with extensometer readings
after correction.

9110-5, Session 1

Improved measurement dynamic range for point
triangulation probes
Kevin G. Harding, GE Global Research (United States); Mehdi
Daneshpanah, KLA Tencor (United States); Guangping Xie, Li Tao,
GE Global Research (China)
Point triangulation probes have been in use in industry for half a century. In
that time, there has not been any big changes in the mechanism by which
they operate A point laser triangulation gage bought today has about thesame ratio of standard deviation to measurement range, or measurement
dynamic range, as one bought 30+ years ago. A significant limiting factorof the measurement dynamic range of such sensors is the noise seen by thesensor, which consists of both classic speckle noise, but also just the effectsof surface texture on the reflected beam. This paper will discuss threedifferent methods, based upon advances applied in other optical metrology
systems, that improve the standard deviation to measurement range ratio
for point laser triangulation gage by a factor of 20 on average. We will
present the theory of how each of these methods provide this improved
measurement dynamic range as well as the results of laboratory tests madeon breadboard systems.

9110-8, Session 2

An improved phase unwrapping method using
two fringe patterns with selected frequencies
Pu Cao, Jiangtao Xi, Yanguang Yu, Qinghua Guo, Univ. of
Wollongong (Australia)

9110-6, Session 2

Experimental studies of the influence on object
surface characteristics on the fringe patterns

Fringe pattern profilometry (FPP) based on digital fringe projection (DFP) isa promising optical noncontact three-dimension (3D) profile measurement
technologies due to its accuracy and flexibility. A number of FPP approaches
have been introduced. The most widely used methods are on the basis ofphase difference estimation (PDE).

Jiangtao Xi, Yifan Wei, Yanguang Yu, Qinghua Guo, Univ. of
Wollongong (Australia)

Phase unwrapping problem is a major problem associated with PDEbased FPP approaches. This problem arises because the phase difference
can only be detected within the main value range of [-π, π], but thetrue phase difference can be arbitrary. In order to retrieve the actual
surface shape of the object, a phase unwrapping method using two fringe
patterns with selected frequencies was introduced by Ding. Compared toexisting temporal multiple-frequency algorithms, the two frequencies in
the proposed method can be high enough and thus enable efficient andaccurate recovery of absolute phase maps. However, a problem existed inthis method, that is, the arithmetic rounding operation has a high potential
to introduce errors. Once these errors occurred, the lookup table will returnwith wrong values, hence introducing a great phase error in retrieved
absolute phase map.

Fringe pattern profilometry(FPP) based on digital fringe projection has
been widely used to measure the 3-D shape of object . The denoising of thefringe patterns is one of the key tasks to be addressed.
There are already some existing methods for denoising the fringe patterns.
One widely used method is based on partial differential equations, whichis flexible and has stable results.Another method is based on Windowed
Fourier Filtering and an adaptive windowed Fourier filtering method enables
lossless reconstructed fringe patterns. There are also some other methods
with different advantages. Although all of these researches have provided
the algorithms to reduce noise from fringe pattern, there is not enough work
focusing on the influence of object surface characteristics on the fringe
patterns.
This paper presents a comparative study which focuses on thecharacteristics of object with different material. In order to getcomprehensive data, we do the experiment in different conditions
including different backgroundlight condition and different object surface
characteristics in terms of colour and reflectivity. From the experiment,
we can obtain not only the characteristics of the noise resulting fromdifferent object surface material in the same light condition, but also
the data of same material in different backgroundlight condition. The
noise properties obtained are employed for the development of effective
denoising algorithms to improve the measurement accuracy.Simulations andexperiments are presented to verify the results.

In this paper, we present an improved phase unwrapping method to solve
the above mentioned problem. We will firstly present analysis on the
problem existed in rounding operation and successfully retrieve the correct
values using the relationship of two absolute phase maps of the two fringes.
Theoretical analysis and experimental results are presented to confirm theeffectiveness of the proposed technique.

9110-9, Session 3

Development of in-plane and out-of-plane
deformation simultaneous measurement methodby using only two speckle patterns (Invited Paper)

9110-7, Session 2

Error correction for Moiré based creep
measurement system

Yasuhiko Arai, Kansai Univ. (Japan)
The deformation measurement method by using only two speckle patterns
has been proposed in ESPI by using Fourier transform. In this paper, a new
method which can measure an in-plane and out-of-plane deformation

Yi Liao, GE Global Research (United States)

372

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications IIIof the object with rough surfaces is developed for the measurement ofdynamic events. The in-plane deformation can be generally detected byusing the two-beams speckle interferometer. Then, the two-beams speckle
interferometer has been set up by two beams and a camera. However, theroles of the beams and the camera in the measurement are discussed. The
proposed optical system for the measurement of the simultaneous in-planeand out-of-plane deformation is constructed using two cameras and one
beam. And, the analyzing algorithm, which can separate each component ofin-plane and out-of-plane deformation, is also proposed. Speckle patterns
from each camera before and after the deformation are analyzed using
only two speckle patterns in order to detect the phase maps concerning
the deformation of each camera. Then, the optical path differences before
and after deformation are detected. Finally, the in-plane and out-of-plane
deformation can be measured by using a pair of the optical path difference
results based on the geometry of two cameras. From experimental results,
it is confirmed that the new method can analyze a pair of in-plane and outof-plane deformation simultaneously in a high resolution power. It is also
confirmed that the resolution power of the measurement of this method ishigher than 1/150 wavelength of the light source.

a Michelson interferometer configuration. A speckled image is acquired ateach laser frequency step creating a data hypercube. Interference between
the reference wavefront and light from the object causes the amplitudeof the speckles to cycle with laser tuning. Fourier transforming thehypercube in the frequency dimension reveals beat frequencies that mapheights of surface features. Height resolution is determined by the tuning
characteristics of the laser, which for our 16-nm tuning range provides
approximately 18 micron resolution without any efforts at interpolation.
The largest height without wraparound depends on the smallest tuning
steps, which for our laser is 15 cm for 0.002 nm (1 GHz) tuning steps. In
this way, objects with large discontinuous steps or holes can be imaged
without confusion. Also, due to the illumination beam being normal to thesurface under test, shadowing is eliminated. To inform our design and better
understand our system’s limitations, we have developed extensive numericalmodels based upon Monte Carlo ray tracing in which speckle patterns areproduced after scattering from model surfaces by coherent summing ofrays at the detector plane. Data acquired by the system as well as modeling
results will be shown.

9110-12, Session 3

9110-10, Session 3

Real-time and uniaxial measurement of 3D profile
by polarization camera

Low-coherence interferometer using a pulsation
laser diode (Invited Paper)

Shuhei Shibata, Fumio Kobayashi, Daisuke Barada, Yukitoshi Otani,
Utsunomiya Univ. (Japan)

Takamasa Suzuki, Yusuke Ueno, Samuel Choi, Osami Sasaki, Niigata
Univ. (Japan)

An optical three-dimensional surface measurement has an advantage fornon-contact, non-destructive and short measuring time. Many methodsof three-dimensional surface measurement have been proposed. A stereo
method of those is useful for many variations such as a moire and a grating
projection. However these methods can’t apply a deep hole or steep
hight. Because intensity of bottom isn’t captured with shadow portion.
To overcome this problem, a method of uniaxial measurement of threedimensional surface is introduced by polarization camera which is madepixel polarizers attached on CCD sensor. The directions of polarizer arrayare composed to 0°, 45°, 90° and 135°. A polarization grating is controlledin spatially using a quarter wave plate and a spatial light modulator which
is projected onto a sample. Intensity reflected from sample is detectedby polarization camera. A contrast of projected sinusoidal pattern onto
sample is approximated the Gauss distribution along depth direction. This
contrast fitting to the Gauss function is measured in advance. This method
can be measured the contrast distribution in real-time by 4 stepping phaseshifting technique using 4 pixels of different polarizer array. The threedimensional coordinate is calculated relationship Gauss distribution andmeasuring contrast. We propose real-time and uniaxial three-dimensionalsurface measurement using polarization grating controlled by spatial light
modulator.

In precision manufacturing, optical interferometry is commonly used
to perform various types of fine measurements. However, conventional
interferometer cannot be adapted to rough surfaces or step heights
greater than half of the optical wavelength. White-light or low-coherence
interferometry is one of the key technologies to overcome such problems.
Recently, optical coherence tomography (OCT) has been attracted massive
attention on biological measurements. This technology is very usefulalso for industrial inspections. In this paper, we propose low-coherence
interferometry based on spectral domain (SD-) OCT and demonstrate
two-dimensional step-height measurements. Usually, SD-OCT has certain
drawbacks; for example, it requires an invisible and expensive superluminescent diode (SLD) and a mechanical scanning system for realizing
full field measurements. We use a conventional laser diode (LD), whichemits light with multimode oscillation, as a light source instead of the SLD.
Although the spectral range of such a LD is not so wide compared with the
SLD, it is visible and economical. The visible light allows easy alignment
control and measurement. To overcome the second drawback, we use acylindrical lens and acousto-optic deflector (AOD) instead of a mechanicalscanning system. A linear light generated by the cylindrical lens makes it
possible to conduct one-dimensional measurement. Moreover, a full fieldor two-dimensional measurement can be implemented with the linear lightthat is scanned by the AOD. Because no mechanical elements are requiredin our proposed system, a fast and smooth scanning can be realized in themeasurement.

9110-13, Session 3

Digital fringe profilometry based on triangularfringe patterns and spatial shift estimation

9110-11, Session 3

Jiangtao Xi, Pu Cao, Yanguang Yu, Qinghua Guo, Univ. of
Wollongong (Australia)

Three-dimensional imaging with multiple
wavelength speckle interferometry

In recent years, optical noncontact three-dimension (3D) profile
measurement has attracted increasing research efforts due to manypotential applications. Among other approaches, the fringe patternprofilometry based on digital fringe projection has been proven to be oneof the most promising techniques due to the advantages of simple system
structure, flexible fringe pattern generation and high accuracy.

Bruce E. Bernacki, Bret D. Cannon, John T. Schiffern, Albert M.
Mendoza, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
We present the design, modeling, construction, and results of athree-dimensional imager based upon multiple-wavelength speckle
interferometry. Speckle imaging used in non-destructive evaluation iswell-known but requires a precisely acquired reference image and canmeasure excursions only within the two-pi ambiguity range determinedby the illumination wavelength. Our approach is based upon earlier efforts
pioneered by Takeda but with updated illumination, imaging, and processing
tools in which a surface under test is illuminated with tunable laser light in373+1 360 676 3290

A number of fringe pattern profilometry approaches have been introduced.
The most widely used methods are on the basis of phase difference
detection. However, phase difference detection approaches suffer from anumber of disadvantages. A major problem is the influence of nonlinear
distortions inherent to digital video projection. Such distortions makeit difficult for the original fringe patterns to be either sinusoidal or·

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III

ideal periodic, which are required by phase difference detection based
approaches.

properties of the measurement objects.
The sensor is realized using one camera and one projection unit. Highspeed recording and data processing can be achieved using epipolargeometry, six- or four-phase algorithm with Gray code omission, andparallel processing. In order to get a sharp projection tilt effect was used for
projection and perpendicular arrangement of the camera concerning themeasurement object reference plane.

In this paper, we present a new approach for the 3D measurement using
digital fringe projection. Instead of sinusoidal fringe patterns and the
traditional phase difference detection, the proposed technique makes useof triangular patterns and the spatial shift estimation for extract the 3D
shape. The proposed technique is advantageous not only by improved
immunization to nonlinear distortion associated with digital projections,but also reduced computational burden for its implementation. Theoreticalanalysis and experimental results are also presented to confirm theeffectiveness of the proposed technique.

The calibration of the sensor was realized using a new methodology which
will be briefly described.
Results of 3D measurements of different objects are presented anddiscussed.
The proposed sensor does not only suit for industrial inspection tasks but
e.g. also for the 3D digitization of flat technical objects.

9110-14, Session 4

Array-projected aperiodic sinusoidal fringes forhigh-speed 3D shape measurement

9110-16, Session 4

Full-field step profile measurement withsinusoidal wavelength scanning Interferometer

Stefan Heist, Andreas Mann, Peter Kühmstedt, Gunther Notni,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Optik und Feinmechanik(Germany)

Samuel Choi, Osami Sasaki, Takamasa Suzuki, Niigata Univ. (Japan)

In recent years, the demands on three-dimensional (3D) measurement
systems have been getting higher, especially concerning their speed: Incase of in-line quality control or medical sciences one has to deal with
fast-moving objects and/or the need of a short recording time. Due to theirbenefits like allowing full-field measurement and contactless operation,coded-light techniques are a well-established method for performing thesemeasurements. However, conventional systems are limited by the projection
speed which is typically in the range of a few 100 Hz.

A sinusoidal wavelength scanning interferometer for full-field surface
profile measurement was developed. The experimental setup consistedof a sinusoidal wavelength scanning laser with a Littman configuration,phase-shift interferometer, and 2-dimensional CCD image sensor. The
3-dimensional surface profile with a step height of 20 micrometer madeby two gauge blocks was measured. The interferometric sinusoidal phasechanges due to the wavelength shift were estimated by using the fourphase shifted interferogram, which contained the initial phase value andamplitude of the modulation. By extracting the initial phase from the Fouriertransform of the sinusoidal phase changes, the displacement smaller than
the wavelength of the sample surface was obtained with nano-meter
accuracy. Furthermore, by extracting the amplitude of the modulation, theoptical path difference (OPD) of the step height longer than the wavelength
was obtained. By comparing the value that the displacement and theintegral multiple of the wavelength were made to add with the OPD of stepheight, the most approximate integer value is adopted to make the accurate
OPD with nano-meter resolution. The synthesized OPD of step heights of asample with both micrometer scale and nano-meter scale provided a fullfield 3-dimensional profile of the sample with long measurement range andhigh accuracy.

The use of a so-called 3D array projector, as presented and suggested inprevious publications, enables much higher projection frame rates of up
to the 100 kHz range. In this contribution, we present a new purpose-built
prototype of such a 3D array projector. In contrast to previous setups, itdoes not project well-known phase-shifted sinusoidal fringes and Graycode patterns, but aperiodic sinusoidal fringes. This new technique, basedon sine-shaped fringes with spatially and temporally varying amplitude,frequency and/or phasing, allows accurate measurement of objects, evenwith sharp edges or varying surface properties, at high speed.
Our contribution explains the 3D measurement principle and the basic
design of a 3D array projector and describes the method how the desired
aperiodic sinusoidal fringes are generated. It verifies the consistency
between specified and projected patterns and points out the results of the
prototype’s characterization, e.g. of its high-speed capability. Furthermore,
first 3D shape measurements at a frame rate of 5 kHz are presented andevaluated.

9110-17, Session 5

Advanced roughness and defect metrology
solutions (Invited Paper)

9110-15, Session 4

Erik L. Novak, 4D Technology Corp. (United States)

High-speed 3D surface measurement with afringe projection based optical sensor

Cost, weight, performance, and lifetime requirements for precisioncomponents used throughout the aerospace and defense industries are
driving innovative mechanical designs, manufacturing processes and useof new materials. Additive manufacturing, new ceramics and allows, and In
turn, these advanced components typically require tighter dimensional andsurface tolerances to function as designed. Scratch testers, microscopebased systems, and other traditional metrology systems are often
inadequate for roughness, small-scale geometry, and defect determination
on many of these parts.

Christian Bräuer-Burchardt, Stefan Heist, Peter Kühmstedt, GuntherNotni, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Optik und Feinmechanik(Germany)
3D surface measurements become more and more important in industrial
quality evaluation and control. Flat objects like conductor boards or wavers
are sensitive objects which must fulfill certain quality conditions. We
developed an optical sensor based on fringe projection technique for theaccurate and fast measurement of the surface of flat objects with a depth
extension of ± 0.5 mm. High-speed fringe projection and image recordingwith 180 Hz allows 3D rates up to 45 Hz.

To meet the growing metrology demand, new technologies are being
employed for component qualification. Laser scanners, structured lightsystems, 3D microscopes, and new stylus products are being developed toaddress the growing need for robust, versatile, and sensitive measurementof precision components. Each technology has strengths and weaknesses,
and no single method is suitable for every metrology task. Determining
which product is appropriate to ensure quality and ongoing production
control is often difficult due to conflicting definitions and fundamental
differences in capabilities between systems.

The sensor realizes three different measurement fields between 22 x 22mm? and 40 x 40 mm? with lateral spatial solutions between 11 µm and20 µm with the same working distance. This is realized by a change of thelenses for projection and observation.
Height resolution between 1µm and 5µm can be achieved depending on the374

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III
vertical ranges and resolution, suitability to production environments, speed,
available analyses, and other critical specifications. Various applications will
be discussed and how each system can be evaluated to determine which
system or combination of systems is best suited to production control. In
addition, definitions of key terms and some common tests that can verify
performance will be highlighted so that users can compare disparate
systems.

fillets, fall of step surfaces, and surface parallelism will also be discussed
in this paper. With the assistance of image processing and geometricalgorithms, these features can be extracted with a reasonable performance.
Tailoring the feature extraction analysis to this specific gage offers thepotential for a wider application base beyond simple inner diametermeasurements. The paper will present experimental results that arecompared with standard gages to prove the performance and feasibility of
the analysis in real world field engineering. Potential accuracy improvement
methods and future work will be discussed at the end of this paper.

9110-18, Session 5

Development of a small size probe for innerprofile measurement of pipes and holes

9110-20, Session 5

A new approach to measure the profile ofmoving object using triangular fringe patternprofilometry

Toru Yoshizawa, NPO 3D Associates (Japan); Toshitaka Wakayama,
Saitama Medical Univ. (Japan); Masayuki Yamamoto, NPO 3D
Associates (Japan); Kizuku Machi, Saitama Medical Univ. (Japan)

Jiangtao Xi, Lei Lu, Yanguang Yu, Qinghua Guo, Univ. of
Wollongong (Australia)

We have been tryng to develop large and small probes for inner profile
meassuremnt of pipes, tubes. and holes. Request for inner profile
measurement of pipes and similar objects are becoming larger and larger,
and request for measuring smaller inner diameter is strong, that is, probeswith smaller oluter diameter are required to meet requirement from various
fields such as mechanicalengineering, automobile and aircraft industry andcivil engineering.

Fringe pattern profilometry (FPP) is widely used in the 3-D shapemeasurement of object. Multiple-shot algorithm of FPP needs more than
one of the fringe patterns to reconstruct the object. The object must be
static when the fringe patterns are projected and captured. Errors will be
introduced to the result if the object moves during the measurement. Zhang
and Yau used a modified two-plus-one phase shift algorithm to alleviate
the errors due to motion. Because the phase value only contains in the first
two fringe patterns, the measurement error due to motion is less. Wang andZhang et al. solved the phase unwrapping errors caused by rapidly moving
object. However they cannot reduce the inherent phase error caused bymotion. Based on triangular fringe pattern profilometry, this paper proposes
an algorithm to measure the object with two dimensional movement.
Through analyse the relationship between the movement and intensity
values of the fringe patterns, the fringe patterns of object before movement
can be recovered by the fringe patterns after movement. Then, thetraditional triangular fringe pattern profilometry is used to reconstruct theobject. This algorithm can eliminate the errors caused by two dimensional
movement of object. The effectiveness is verified by simulations andexperiments.

We have proposed measurement method that incorporates a ring beam
device with a laser diode (LD) and a cone mirror inside. Disk-like beamfrom the ring beam device gives an inner cross-section of the objective.
However, recent requst for meauring smaller and smaller inner diameteris vary large, and conventional probes consisting of glass or plastic tubes
with such devices as a CCD camera, a cone mirror and LD inside proved toolarge to realize such smaller diameter as smaller 5mm. Hence we we tried toutilize optical fibers. Up to now, a probe with the size of 5mm in diameter isunder trial. When we check the inner surfaces of smaller holes under 5mm indiameter, endoscopes and/or borescopes have been mainly used. Howeverthese are not available for capturing inner profiles numerically.
At this stage of development, we are applying the fiber ring beam device in
combination with a rigid borescope to attain 5mm-size probe. In adition, weare aiming to realize such a small size probe as 3mm in diameter.

9110-21, Session 5
9110-19, Session 5

Deformation kinetics of layered personal
protective material under ballistic impact via
terahertz reflectometry

Development of feature extraction analysis for a
multi-functional optical profiling device applied
to field engineering applications

Anis Rahman, Aunik K. Rahman, Applied Research & Photonics, Inc.
(United States); Mark A. Mentzer, Neuroscience Applications Group,
LLC (United States)

Guangping Xie, Xu Han, GE Global Research (China); Brandon
Laflen, Guiju Song, GE Global Research (United States); Ming Jia,
GE Global Research (China); Kevin G. Harding, GE Global Research(United States)

Terahertz dynamic scanning reflectometry (TDSR) was used forcharacterization of layered materials’ deformation kinetics. Multi-layeredmaterials are used for protective devices such as helmet and body armor.
An in-situ measurement of deformation and other dynamic characteristics
is important when such material is subjected to ballistic impact. Current
instrumentation are limited in their ability to provide sub-surface
information. A high sensitivity TDSR has been be used to measure dynamic
surface deformation characteristics in real-time (in-situ) and at post
deformation (ex-situ). Real-time ballistic deformation kinetics was captured
with a high speed measurement system. Once, the kinetics is measured,a number of crucial parameters such as deformation length, propagation
velocity, final relaxation position, and vibrational motion are extracted fromthe kinetics spectrum. In addition, layered materials undergo mass loss
due impact that needs to be quantified for accurate determination of thetrauma conditions. For non-metallic substrates, a transmitted beam wasused to calibrate mass loss of laminate layers due to impact. Deformation
kinetics information is then used to deduce and validate trauma conditions
from blunt hit produced by projectiles. For the present work the Sturdivan
criterion [1] was critically examined for helmet materials.

In the real application environment of field engineering, a large variety
of metrology tools are required by the technician to inspect part profile
features. However, some of these tools are burdensome and only addressa sole application or measurement. In other cases, standard tools lackthe capability of accessing irregular profile features. Customers of fieldengineering want the next generation metrology devices to have the ability
to replace the many current tools with one single device. This paper will
discuss the application of the ring optical gage concept to the measurementof numerous kinds of profile features useful for the field technician. The
ring optical system is composed of a collimated laser, a conical mirror and a
CCD camera. To be useful for a wide range of applications, the ring opticalsystem requires profile feature extraction algorithms and data manipulation
directed toward real world applications in field operation. The paper will
discuss such practical applications as measuring the non-ideal round holewith both off-centered and oblique axes. The algorithms needed to analyze
other features such as measuring the width of cracks, radius of transition375+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III[1]. Sturdivan, L., Viano, D., and Champion, H., “Analysis of injury criteria toassess chest and abdominal injury risks in blunt and ballistic impacts.” The
Journal of Trauma Injury, Infection, and Critical Care, 2005. 56(651–663).

common ground for improved instrument specifications going forward.

9110-22, Session 5

Metrology tool for fast measurement of patterned
sapphire structure used in LED manufacturing9110-24, Session 6

Ultra-broadband high-resolution photo acoustic/
photo thermal microscopy system for material
characterization

Joanna Schmit, Son Bui, Ohkyu Kwon, Bruker AXS, Inc. (UnitedStates)Increasing demand for high-brightness (HB) LEDs is prompting
manufacturers to refine production methods and improve performanceof LED light sources. Achieving either of these requires high precision
metrology tools that are also fast and non-destructive. In particular, there
is a need for the metrology for patterned sapphire substrates (PSS) used in
LED manufacturing to enhance light-extraction efficiency.

Ashwin Sampathkumar, Riverside Research Institute (United States)
A non-contact ultra-broadband photoacoustic (PA) / photothermal (PT)
microscopy system has been developed to characterize material propertiesof specimens using optical transduction techniques. PT microscopy
exploits optical changes induced by heat to highlight the presence of
inhomogeneties like defects, contaminants, inclusions, and impurities inmaterials. A monochromatic light source (pulsed and amplitude-modulatedCW) is generally used to create the photothermal effect. The heating of
the material consequently produces a stress distribution that launches abroadband ultrasonic emission (PA effect). Measurement of these acoustic
emissions can be used to compute the material properties like density,
elastic modulus, anisotropy, etc... Using time-reversal and back-propagation
techniques, sub-surfaces features in a material can also be detected. In
this work, the PT induced refractive index changes as well as the PA effectare detected optically in a Michelson interferometer configuration. The
microscopy system has a spatial resolution of ~600 nm with a detection
bandwidth of 1 GHz and a displacement sensitivity of 1 pm per root Hz.
Experimental results obtained from characterization of thin films, coatings,
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) and biological samples will bepresented to demonstrate the versatility of the system to function as anondestructive tool for material characterization.

This article describes a gauge-capable metrology tool that is currently
used for these purposes: the 3D optical microscope based on white-lightinterferometer (WLI) which with special algorithms for fringe analysis can
specifically quantify the height, width and pitch for each individual PSS
structure. We have measured a variety of structures and their dimensions
and compared them to SEM or AFM results. For very-high production
volumes, even AFMs designed specifically for PSS can be a testingbottleneck. The white-light interferometer (WLI) is a tool that better
meets the needs of these applications because of the ease of its full fieldmeasurement and for faster defects detection.
3D optical microscopes also provide excellent repeatability, especiallywhen employing the automated position calibration of the reference mirror
in the objective and continuous calibration of scanner motion, an option
available for production systems. This article will describe the approach toautomated reference mirror focusing and its influence on long term stabilityof measurements.

9110-23, Session 6

9110-25, Session 6

Progress in the specification of instruments forareal surface topography measurement (Invited
Paper)

Dimensional metrology on semiconductor
packaging process using the optical comb
Jonghan Jin, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science(Korea, Republic of) and Univ. of Science and Technology (Korea,
Republic of); Saerom Maeng, Korea Research Institute of Standards
and Science (Korea, Republic of) and Chungnam National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Jungjae Park, Korea Research Institute ofStandards and Science (Korea, Republic of)Peter J. de Groot, Zygo Corporation (United States)
We live in a world of confusing, contradictory and misleading productspecifications for metrology instruments that measure 3D surface form
and texture. Terms such as “accuracy” and “vertical resolution” populate
specification sheets, even though they have no standardized quantitative
meaning. Common-knowledge terms such as “lateral resolution” are thesubject of spirited debate, with interpretations that vary by a factor of fivefor the same instrument. Perhaps the worst offender is “repeatability,” thespecification for which can vary by as much as two orders of magnitudedepending on how it is interpreted and evaluated.

With the advent of smart devices which are high performance devices withcompact size, the semiconductor packaging process has been proposed
to realize that. Several silicon wafers were stacked vertically to be 3
dimensional devices for space efficiency. In this process, there are two
important parameters to be measured; one is thickness of silicon wafers
and the other is depth and diameter of through silicon vias (TSVs) which arevertical holes for electrical connection between stacked silicon wafers. To
avoid pattern distortion and failure during an optical lithography process,an absolute value of the thickness as well as its thickness uniformity shouldbe measured. The proposed method can extract geometrical thickness fromoptical thickness directly. Because shorter TSVs leads disconnection andsmaller TSVs may cause voids, both depth and diameter of TSVs are also
required to be measured accurately. For these purposes, we have proposed
two high-speed optical interferometers based on spectral domain analysis.
A light source in use is a femtosecond pulse laser which has advantagesof wide-spectral bandwidth, high peak power and long coherence length.
The measurement uncertainty of thickness was estimated to be 50 nm(k=1) in the range of 100 mm. The depth and the diameter of the TSVs were
measured at the same time with measurement resolution of 10 nm and
100 nm, respectively. It is expected that the proposed interferometers will
be used for on-line metrology and inspection as well as new metrologicalmethods for dimensional standards.

In 2005, the International Standards Organization initiated the 25178
document series for areal surface texture standards. Some of the mostrecent work has been in the development of standards for well-known
3D topography-measuring tools such as confocal, stylus, interference
microscopy and focus sensing, encompassing terminology, calibration,verification and good practice. Several of these standards have published,
while others are still in development.
Although ISO 25178 standards do not directly address the problem of
instrument specification, this paper argues that they can serve as afoundation for this effort. One path is to begin with what ISO identifies asbasic metrological characteristics common to all areal surface topographymeasurement systems, including noise, linearity, the scale factor for
determining surface heights, axis perpendicularity and the topographicallateral resolution. For those characteristics quantifiable in a meaningful way
on a specification sheet, the ISO standards implicitly provide guidance as totheir meaning and verification.
This paper provides an overview of this topic, which still enjoys lively
discussion. I present proposals and report progress towards charting a

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III

9110-26, Session 6

9110-28, Session 7

System implementation of self-mixing
interferometry technique-based measurement onmaterial parameters

Order and defectivity nanometrology by image
processing and analysis of sub-20 nm BCPs
features for lithographic applications

Yanguang Yu, Ke Lin, Jiangtao Xi, Huijun Li, Qinghua Guo, Univ. of
Wollongong (Australia)

Claudia Delgado Simão, Institut Català de Nanotecnologia (Spain);
Andreas Amann, Univ. College Cork (Ireland); Worawut Khunsin,
Institut Català de Nanotecnologia (Spain); Michael A. Morris, Univ.
College Cork (Ireland); Clivia Sotomayor Torres, Institut Català deNanotecnologia (Spain)

Material parameters such as Young’s modulus (denoted by E), shear
modulus (denoted by G) and so on, are intrinsic and valuable quantities
for appropriate estimation of material performance. The parameters E andG can be obtained from the resonant frequency from the vibration of thetested material sample excited by an external sweeping frequency source. In
this paper, we present a system design for determining the two parameters
by using an optical feedback self-mixing interferometry (OFSMI) system. An
OFSMI system consists of a laser diode (LD), a micro-lens and an external
target. The tested sample is used as the external target. The vibration of thesample causes the variation of the length of the external cavity, and cause
a modulated laser power of the LD. The modulation contains the vibration
information of the tested samples. The OFSMI system can achieve highmeasurement accuracy with an extremely simple and inexpensive set-up,
thus can be thought as a good candidate for the evaluation of material
properties. The system design in this work includes the mechanical partfor holding and exciting the tested samples, the optical part for picking up
the vibration information from the samples and the system modeling for
retrieving the two parameters. In order to accurately determinate E andG, higher vibration mode shapes in a sample are considered. The complex
waveform of the LD output power is studied and simulated by using
our proposed system model. The proposed method is verified by both
simulation and experiments.

Directed self-assembly (DSA) of block copolymers (BCP) with a highdegree of regularity on the 10-100 nm scale is promising a breakthroughto high performance microelectronics applications at dimensions anddensities inaccessible to traditional lithography methods. [1] Future successof the application of block copolymer lithography for nanofabrication
relies not only on the sub-lithographic dimensions, structure shapes,
coverage, etching requirements, but also will require a strict control of thefabricated structures.[2] The keys for success of a production compatible
nanometrology system is based on reliable, large-area, inline and robust
inspection tools to assure the quality of the fabricated nanostructures. In ourrecent work on colloidal crystal structures, a positive correlation between
the “opposite partner” concept and transmission spectroscopy that probes
three-dimensional ordering has been observed. [3] Here we extend thisconcept to self-assembled BCPs with feature size on the range of 20 nm
aiming to employ our technique in samples of phase-separated BCPs as an
inline technique. For the purpose, we applied the ‘opposite partner’ concept,that allows quantitative assessment of order as a function of distance, tothe high X BCP systems polystyrene-b-polyethylene oxide (PS-PEO) andpolystyrene-b-polydimethylsiloxane (PS-b-PDMS) and having different
molecular weights. The periodicity obtained for the films in different
annealing conditions and the calculated degree of order, p as a function of
the periodicity are studied.

9110-27, Session 7

Development of portable 3D optical measuringsystem using structured light projection method

The research leading to these results has received funding from theEuropean Union Seventh Framework Program ([FP7/2007-2013] project
LAMAND under grant agreement n° [245565]) and by the Spanish Ministryof Economics and Competitiveness under contract no. MAT2012-31392 (PlanNacional de I + D + I (2008-2011). The contents of this work are the sole
responsibility of the authors.

Hiroshi Aoki, Nikon Corp. (Japan)
Three-dimensional (3D) scanners are becoming increasingly common in
many industries. However most of these scanning technologies have somedrawbacks in practical use due to size, weight, accessibility, ease-of-use, andso on. Depending on the application - speed, flexibility and portability canoften be deemed more important than high accuracy. We have developed
to address this market requirement and overcome the aforementioned
limitations. To make up for such shortcomings as heavy weight and large
size, the optical sensor is used that mainly consists of a laser projector, acamera system, and a multi-touch screen.

References
1. M. Salaun et al, J. Mat. Chem. C 2013, 1, 3544–3550; D. Borah et al, Eur.
Polym. J. 49 (11), 3512–3521.
2. H.N. Hansen, et al, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 55 (2006)
721
3. W. Khunsin, et al, Adv. Funct. Mater., 22 (2012) 1812.

Structured laser light is projected on the measured object with a newly
designed laser projector employing a single MEMS mirror. The opticalsystem is optimized for the combination of LD, the MEMS mirror and thesize of measurement area to secure the contrast of structured light. Also,
we develop a new calibration algorithm for this sensor with MEMS laser
projector that makes use of simple optical camera model for point cloudcalculation.

9110-29, Session 7

A new fiber optic sensor for hard access area
surface roughness measurement
Zirong Zhai, Guangping Xie, GE Global Research (China); Paolo
Trallori, GE Oil & Gas (Italy); Ming Jia, GE Global Research (China);
Kevin G. Harding, GE Global Research (United States)

This technical progress makes the sensor very compact, saves energy
consumption, greatly reduces heat generation and be fast at calculation .
Due to the principle of the measurement, i.e. structured light triangulation
utilizing phase-shifting technology to improve resolution, resolution is
improved. To meet the requirements from practical applications, all the
optics, electronics, image processing, display and data management
capabilities have been integrated into a single compact unit.

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The accurate measurement of surface roughness is essential in ensuring
the desired quality of machined parts. Today the most common method
to check roughness is to use a contact stylus profiler. There are many
challenges for the application of a contact stylus for measuring the surface
roughness of machined parts especially for the hard to access areas suchas slots, deep holes and curved pockets. This study proposes a surface
roughness measurement technique for these hard to access areas that isbased on the measurement of scattered light and the statistical analysisof the light intensity distribution. In order to solve the accessibility issue,
a miniaturized fiber optical measurement system (~Ø3mm) was designed
using a dual laser emitting configuration. This dual laser approach makes·

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III

the system more durable and reliable for different materials and machining
processes such as polishing, lapping and precision grinding. This paper
will present initial research results that demonstrate the application of thisapproach to real industrial parts. Tests were performed to evaluate thesensitivity and feasibility of the proposed technique with various machined
surfaces and materials.

This article is focused on the inspection and visualization of fuel injection
behavior in a large combustion chamber designed to test nozzles of heavyduty diesel engines.
Measurement and analysis of fuel injection is very important because
optimizing the injection process allows us to reduce emissions and improvethe engine performance. As large combustors operate at high speeds ofthe injected fuel, this process is a high-speed phenomenon. Therefore, themeasurement of the ejection is difficult particularly in terms of correct
exposure. Using of laser-induced fluorescence presents safety risks, so thedesigned method of lighting is with light-emitting diode.

9110-30, Session 7

Optical design of a structured light phase shiftsystem with no moving parts

The test chamber which meets the requirements for evaluating the qualityof ejection (i.e. the analysis of velocity of particles in the fuel flow and theangle of ejection) enabled us to realize the optical measurement with ahigh- speed camera.

Kevin G. Harding, GE Global Research (United States)

Measurement results are subsequently evaluated by methods of flow
tracking and high-speed particle image velocimetry. Visualized results arecompared with theoretical expectations obtained by numerical modeling offuel ejection using the discrete elements method and the rules are designedof how to use these methods in high-speed inspection and visualization ofdiesel injection in large combustion chambers.

3D structured light system based upon phase shifting analysis is welldescribed in the literature. One of the challenges to obtaining high quality
data is the noise often associated with the mechanism to shift the projected
pattern accurately. The common methods of realizing a phase shift it toeither mechanical move a grating pattern that is then projected to the part,or to move the pattern in a programmable projector such as an LCD, LCOS
or other projector. These projectors, often made for office use, are limitedby the pixel resolution and the stability of the projectors. Mechanical shifts
can be very precise, but require time and the maintenance of a mechanicalmovement. Other systems using projected interference patterns that use
piezo shifters are faster and more reliable, but then can suffer from coherent
speckle noise. This paper will discuss a unique optical design using a lensmade telecentric in image space and an electro-optical image shifting
approach that provides very fast image shifts in a very repeatable andcontrolled manner.

9110-33, Session Posters-Tuesday

Three-dimensional shape measurement systemapplied to superficial inspection of non-metallic
pipings for the hydrocarbons transport
Carlos Ricardo Contreras Pico, Javier Ricardo Arciniegas, Univ.
Industrial de Santander (Colombia); Andrés L. González Gómez,Univ. Industrial de Santander (Colombia) and Univ. Autónoma de
Bucaramanga (Colombia); Jaime Enrique Meneses Fonseca, Luz
Amparo Quintero Ortíz, Univ. Industrial de Santander (Colombia)

9110-31, Session 7

Optical center alignment technique based on
inner profile measurement method

Three-dimensional shape measurement is a subject that consistently
produces high scientific interest and provides information for medical,
industrial and investigative applications, among others. In this paper, it
is proposed to implement a three-dimensional reconstruction system
for applications in superficial inspection of non-metallic piping for thehydrocarbons transport. The system is formed by a CCD camera, a videoprojector and a laptop and it is based on fringe projection technique. System
functionality is evidenced by evaluating the quality of three-dimensional
reconstructions obtained, which allow observing the failures and defects on
the study object surface.

Toshitaka Wakayama, Saitama Medical Univ. (Japan); Toru
Yoshizawa, NPO 3D Associates (Japan)
We have developed inner profile measurement instrumrnt using a ring
beam device since 2006. This inner profile measuring technology has
attracted great interests for evaluating validity of commercial productsin the fields of industry such as automobiles, air planes, heavy industries,
energy plants, civil engineering and constructions, and even in medical
applications. As our research works expand, there are requirements
concerning center alignment from several different fields of industry. For
example, this alignment technique is thought to be important to tune up thespindle of precision machines such as a CNC lathe and a machining center.
A traditional dial indicator has still been used to adjust the axis by manual
operation of engineers and technicians. However, it is not easy to control its
axis, precisely. To overcome this issue, we developed an optical centeringalignment technique based on our inner profile measurement tool using
a ring beam device which consists of a conical mirror and a laser diode.
The center position of the cylinder hole can be determined from opticallysectioned profiles gotten by the ring beam device. Moreover, we are able toevaluate the tilting angle of the cylinder holes from the ellipsoidal analysis
in ellipsometry in the field of polarization measurement. In our trials, theresolution of the center position is proved to be less than 2 micrometers.
This technique is available for practical applications in the fields of machine
tool industry.

9110-34, Session Posters-Tuesday

Facial topographic exploration through a three
dimensional reconstruction device with handheld calibration and multiple acquisitions
Andrés L. González, Carlos R. Contreras, Jaime E. Meneses, Univ.
Industrial de Santander (Colombia)
In this paper a novel calibration strategy that allowing the hand-heldcalibration of a three dimensional reconstruction (R3D) device is proposed,
and when it is calibrated then it is use to facial exploration applications.
The 3DR device works in base of Fringe Projection Profilometry techniques
and it is made up with a video beam and a CCD camera. The calibration
strategy was developed at the Universidad Industrial de Santander in
Bucaramanga-Colombia; and it is about capture images of a pseudoperiodic points pattern which has been projected over a reference plane.
The 3D images of the final reconstruction are the evidence of the calibration
strategy functionality, also they allow notice some characteristic details
from the human face that has being studied with high accurate. Several
reconstructions from different angles are done in order to avoid hidden
regions or without information caused by shadows; then they are unified
using a registration algorithm of 3D information.

9110-32, Session Posters-Tuesday

High-speed inspection and visualization of fuelinjection in the combustion chamber
Lubos Kotek, Martin Jonák, Lubomír Drápal, Václav Pištěk, Brno
Univ. of Technology (Czech Republic)

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Conference 9110: Dimensional Optical Metrology andInspection for Practical Applications III

9110-35, Session Posters-Tuesday

Study on the stitching interferometry for thesurface profile measurement of a large aperturecomponent
Weirui Zhao, Beijing Institute of Technology (China)
With the development of the optical technology in present world, the large
aperture components have been widely used in many fields. However,
it is very difficult to measure a large aperture component. Sub-aperture
stitching interferometry can expand longitudinal and lateral dynamic rangeof standard interferometer and effectively measure the large component
with a low cost and high resolution. The key technologies are the partition of
sub-aperture, the wave data acquisition of the sub-aperture and the methodof positioning and stitching the sub-aperture.
In this paper, the stitching interferometry for the surface profile
measurement of a large aperture component is studied. SIFT algorithm is
proposed to positioning the sub-aperture. Then the adjacent sub-apertures
stitching algorithm, the global error homogenization algorithm and the local
error of the equalization algorithm are researched. Furthermore, a principle
sub-aperture stitching phase shifting interference system is set up. SIFT
algorithm of sub-aperture positioning, interferogram processing, phaseunwrapping, Zernike polynomials wave fitting and sub-aperture’s wavefront stitching programs are written. The surface profile of a component ismeasured with the principle system. The results of comparing stitching andfull caliber testing have been given, the RMS deviation of these two methods
is less than 2nm. Thus positioning the sub-aperture with SIFT algorithm andrelevant programs written above are verified.

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI
Tuesday - Wednesday 6 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9111 Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

9111-1, Session 1

9111-3, Session 1

Observations of ocean diurnal variations from the
Korean geostationary ocean color imager (GOCI)

Impacts of the VIIRS processing procedures on
the retrievals of ocean color data products incoastal regions

Menghua Wang, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States); SeungHyun Son, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States); Lide Jiang, NOAA Ctr. for Weather
and Climate Prediction (United States); Wei Shi, National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (United States)

Soe M. Hlaing, Ahmed El-Habashi, Alexander Gilerson, The City
College of New York (United States); Alan Weidemann II, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Robert A. Arnone, The Univ. ofSouthern Mississippi (United States); Menghua Wang, NOAA Ctr. for
Weather and Climate Prediction (United States); Samir Ahmed, The
City College of New York (United States)

The first geostationary ocean color satellite sensor, Geostationary Ocean
Color Imager (GOCI) onboard the Korean Communication, Ocean, andMeteorological Satellite (COMS), which was launched in June of 2010and has eight spectral bands from the blue to the near-infrared (NIR)
wavelengths in 412–865 nm, can monitor and measure ocean phenomenonover a local area of the western Pacific region centered at 36°N and
130°E and covering ~2500 x 2500 km2. Hourly measurements during
daytime (i.e., eight images per day from local 9:00 to 16:00) are a uniquecapability of GOCI to be used for the short- and long-term regional ocean
environmental monitoring. In this paper, we show some more recent resultsof GOCI-measured ocean diurnal variations in various coastal regions of
the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, and East China Sea. With possibly eight-timemeasurements daily, GOCI provides a unique capability to monitor the ocean
environments in near real-time, and GOCI data can be used to address thediurnal variability in the ecosystem of the GOCI coverage region. In addition,
more in situ data measured around the Korean coastal regions are used tovalidate the GOCI ocean color data quality, including evaluation of ocean
diurnal variations in the region. The GOCI results demonstrate that GOCI
can effectively provide real-time monitoring of water optical, biological, andbiogeochemical variability of the ocean ecosystem in the region. Finally,
mission-long GOCI ocean color data are used to characterize seasonaland interannual variations in water optical, biological, and biogeochemical
properties in the western Pacific region.

As part of the Ocean Color (OC) component of the Aerosol Robotic
Network, the Long Island Sound Coastal Observatory (LISCO) near New
York City, and WaveCIS in the Gulf of Mexico, expand OC observational
capabilities with continuous monitoring, as well as (for the LISCO site)
additional assessment of the hyper-spectral properties of coastal waters. In
the investigations carried out over almost a two year period of VIIRS data
for the two coastal sites, it has been observed that the VIIRS normalized
water leaving radiance (nLw) data exhibits significant correlations with insitu data. Impacts of the different VIIRS vicarious and temporal calibration
procedures on the nLw data retrieval accuracies have been examined andthe performance of the atmospheric correction procedure in data processing
scrutinized. For the WaveCIS site, VIIRS nLw data retrievals are enhancedwith each incremental adjustment of vicarious and temporal calibration
procedures. However, that is not the case for the LISCO site which exhibits
more frequent occurrences of negative water-leaving radiances, while
underestimation is further exacerbated. Newly installed Water Quality
Monitoring (WQM) instrument at LISCO provides time series data of Colored
Dissolve Organic Matter, Chlorophyll concentration [Chl] and turbidity, andthus, together with comprehensive above water measurements, enhanced
capabilities in the validation of OC products as well as making assessmentsof the retrieval performances of OC processing algorithms are afforded.
The consequences of the uncertainties in nLw data on the VIIRS [Chl] datain coastal waters are also examined based on WQM and LISCO’s water andatmospheric measurements.

9111-2, Session 1

Calibration uncertainty in ocean color satellite
sensors and trends in long-term environmental
records

9111-4, Session 1

Sensitivity of calibration gains to ocean color
processing in coastal and open waters using
ensembles members for NPP-VIIRSKevin R. Turpie, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
and Joint Ctr. for Earth Systems Technology (United States); Robert
E. Eplee Jr., SAIC (United States); Bryan A. Franz, Carlos Del Castillo,
NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States)

Robert A. Arnone, Ryan A. Vandermeulen, The Univ. of Southern
Mississippi (United States); Sherwin D. Ladner, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Jennifer B. Bowers, Paul M. Martinolich,
Giuletta S. Fargion, Planning Systems Inc. (United States); Michael
E. Ondrusek, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction (UnitedStates)Launched in late 2011, the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS)
aboard the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) spacecraft isbeing evaluated by NASA to determine whether this sensor can continue
the ocean color data record establish through the Sea-Viewing Wide
Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) and the MODerate resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS). To this end, Goddard Space Flight Center
generated evaluation products using calibration techniques and algorithms
established by NASA during the SeaWiFS and MODIS missions. In particular,
the calibration trending was subjected to careful sensitivity and uncertainty
analyses. Here we present an assessment of how the NASA-produced timeseries of ocean color is influenced by uncertainty in trending instrument
response over time. The results help quantify the uncertainty in measuring
regional and global biospheric trends in the ocean using satellite remotesensing, which better define the roles of such records in climate research.

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The sensitivity of ocean color products to variations in vicarious calibration
gains at Top of Atmosphere (TOA) shows varying impacts in different
water types for Suomi- NPP VIIRS satellite . Blue water vicarious gains from
MOBY in situ data, which is used for global open waters, and green water
gains derived from complex coastal WaveCIS AERONET waters, have a
different impact on spectral normalized water leaving radiances and thederived ocean color products (inherent optical properties, chlorophyll).
We evaluated the influence of a linear interpolation of gains from open
and coastal waters by establishing a set of ensemble-processed products.
The TOA gains show a non-linear impact on derived ocean color products,
since gains affect multiple ocean color processing algorithms such asatmospheric correction, NIR iterations, etc. We show how the variations
within the ensemble TOA gain members spatially impact derived products
from different water types (high CDOM, high backscattering, etc). The
spatial distribution of the mean and variance of ensemble gain members·

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

is presented to characterize the product uncertainty in coastal and open
ocean water types. The results of the ensemble gain members are evaluatedwith in situ matchups. Results suggest the sensitivity of the ocean color
processing for open ocean verses coastal waters.

multiple looks per day for monitoring the temporal and spatial variabilityof coastal waters. Consistent processing methods and algorithms are usedin the Navy’s Automated Processing System (APS) for both sensors for thisevaluation. The inherent optical properties from both sensors are derived
using a coupled ocean-atmosphere NIR correction extending well into thebays and estuaries where high sediment and CDOM absorption dominate
the optical signature. Coastal optical properties are more complex and varyfrom chlorophyll-dominated waters offshore. The in-water optical properties
were derived using vicariously calibrated remote sensing reflectances for
multiple inherent optical product algorithms (Quasi Analytical Algorithm –QAA, Linear Matrix Inversion – LMI). The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)and the JPSS program have been actively engaged in calibration/validation
activities for Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) ocean color
products.

9111-5, Session 1

VIIRS reflective solar bands calibration changes
and potential impacts on ocean color applications
Slawomir Blonski, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States);
Changyong Cao, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States); Xi Shao, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates); Sirish Uprety, Colorado State Univ. (United States)

9111-7, Session 1

The VIIRS (Visible-Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) instrument onboard
the Suomi NPP (National Polar-orbiting Partnership) spacecraft started
acquiring Earth observations in November 2011. Since then, radiometriccalibration applied to the VIIRS RSB (Reflective Solar Band) measurements
for the SDR (Sensor Data Record) production has been improved several
times. Initially, radiometric calibration coefficients were updated once per
week to correct for the responsivity degradation that occurs for some ofthe sensor’s spectral bands due to contamination of the VIIRS telescope’s
mirrors. Despite the frequent updates, discontinuities in the radiometriccalibration could still affect ocean color time series. In August 2012,
magnitude of the radiometric coefficient changes was greatly reduced by
implementing a procedure that predicts (about a week ahead) values of thecalibration coefficients for each Earth scan until a subsequent update. The
updates have been continued with the weekly frequency, and coefficient
prediction errors were monitored and compared with uncertainties of
the initial invariant coefficients. The radiometric coefficient updates were
temporarily suspended during the partial shutdown of the US government
operations in October 2013. A potential increase in uncertainty of the VIIRSRSB radiometric calibration was monitored during the shutdown, and thepredicted coefficients were compared with the coefficients derived once
per orbit from the onboard solar diffuser measurements by an automatedprocedure, called RSBAutoCal, scheduled for the implementation in the
VIIRS SDR operational processing in November 2013. The paper evaluates
the changes in the VIIRS RSB coefficient updates and potential impacts on
ocean color applications. Preliminary comparisons between the calibration
coefficients generated by the RSBAutoCal and the current operationalversions are also presented.

Evaluation of in-situ radiometric data processing
for calibration and validation of satellite ocean
color remote sensing
Puneeta Naik, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States) and Cooperative Institute for Research in the
Atmosphere (United States); Menghua Wang, NOAA Ctr. for
Weather and Climate Prediction (United States)
In-situ data are essential for calibration, validation, and bio-optical algorithm
development of ocean color remote sensing, as well as for studying andunderstanding ocean optical, biological, and biogeochemical properties.
Especially, calibration and validation of ocean color satellite data relies
on high quality in-situ data. In addition, objective evaluation of satellite
ocean color products need well quality controlled in-situ data from various
bio-optical environments covering diverse aquatic waters. The goal ofocean color satellite sensors is to remotely derive accurate normalized
water-leaving radiance spectra (nLw(l)), so that other water biological andbiogeochemical property data can be obtained using satellite-measurednLw(l) spectra. In this presentation, we show results from analyzing in-situ
data processing procedure from the Marine Optical Buoy (MOBY) andNASA SeaWiFS Bio-optical Archive and Storage System (SeaBASS) used
for satellite ocean color calibration and validation purposes. Various issues
in determining final product of in-situ radiometric data processing suchas convolving nLw(l) with respect to satellite sensor spectral response
functions, sensor effective band wavelengths, and effects of Bi-directional
Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) are analyzed and discussed.
Performance of satellite-derived nLw(l) spectra taking into consideration
various issues in in-situ data processing is also assessed.

9111-6, Session 1

Inter-satellite comparison and evaluation of Navy
Suomi-NPP VIIRS and MODIS aqua ocean color
properties

9111-8, Session 1

Sea surface salinity in coastal waters of the Gulf
of Mexico using visible channels on Suomi-NPP

Sherwin D. Ladner, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Robert
A. Arnone, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States); Paul M.
Martinolich, Planning Systems Inc. (United States); Adam Lawson,
U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Ryan A. Vandermeulen,
The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States); Jennifer B.
Bowers, Planning Systems Inc. (United States); Michael E. Ondrusek,
NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction (United States);
Richard L. Crout, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Ryan A. Vandermeulen, Robert A. Arnone, The Univ. of Southern
Mississippi (United States); Sherwin D. Ladner, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Martín A. Montes-Hugo, Paul M. Martinolich,
Planning Systems Inc. (United States)
Sea surface salinity is determined using the visible channels from the Visual
Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) to derive regional algorithms
for the Gulf of Mexico, normalized to seasonal river discharge. The dilutionof river discharge with open ocean waters and the surface salinity is
estimated by tracking the surface spectral signature. The water leaving
radiances (nLw) derived from atmospherically-corrected and calibrated
750-m resolution visible M-bands (410, 443, 486, 551, 671 nm) are applied
to bio-optical algorithms and subsequent multivariate statistical methods
to derive regional empirical relationships between satellite radiances andsurface salinity measurements. Although radiance to salinity is linked to
CDOM dilution, we explored improved statistical relationships to accountNavy operational ocean color products of inherent optical properties andradiances are evaluated for the Suomi–NPP VIIRS and MODIS-Aqua sensors.
Statistical comparisons with shipboard measurements were determined ina wide variety of coastal, shelf and offshore locations in the Northern Gulf
of Mexico and U.S. East Coast. Product consistency between MODIS-Aqua,
nearing its end-of-life expectancy, and Suomi-NPP VIIRS is being evaluatedfor the Navy to retrieve accurate ocean color properties operationally fromVIIRS in a variety of water types. Currently, the existence, accuracy andconsistency of multiple ocean color sensors (VIIRS, MODIS-Aqua) provides

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

varied widely among the seven images. With the rapid imaging of thesequence of images other atmospheric and oceanic variable elements canbe assumed to be effectively constant making this dataset ideal for testing
glint reduction techniques. Glint reduction techniques are compared to
identify which technique results in the least variable image sequence of
remote sensing reflectances and greatest reduction of spatial glint-induced
variability within a glint contaminated image.

for starting conditions. In situ measurements are obtained from over 20
moorings spread across the Gulf of Mexico including coverage of theMississippi Sound, Mobile Bay, Galveston Bay, Louisiana Shelf, Tampa
Bay, and West Florida Shelf, with a salinity range of 0.1 - 35. In addition to
examining regional differences, data were collected over all seasons in theyear 2013 in order to assess inter-annual variability. The seasonal spectral
signatures at the river mouth were used to track the fresh water end
members and used to develop a seasonal slope and bias between salinity
and radiance. Although not as accurate as Aquarius Microwave salinity,
results show an increased spatial resolution for remote detection of coastal
sea surface salinity from space. Coastal surface salinity has significant
impact on the physical circulation which impacts the coastal ecosystems.
Results identify locations and dissipation of the river plumes and provide
improved data assimilation for physical circulation models.

9111-11, Session 1

Validating Landsat 8 for mapping aquatic
environments
Nima Pahlevan, Univ. of Massachusetts Boston (United States);
Jianwei Wei, Univ. of Massachusetts Boston (United States);
Zhongping Lee, Univ. of Massachusetts Boston (United States);
Crystal Schaaf, Boston Univ. (United States); John R. Schott,Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)

9111-9, Session 1

Relationship between sea surface salinity froml-band radiometer and optical features in the East
China Sea

The operational Land Imager (OLI) aboard Landsat 8 was launched in
February 2013 to continue the Landsat’s mission of monitoring earth
resources at relatively high spatial resolution. Comparing to the Landsat
heritage sensors, OLI has enhanced features, including the 12-bit radiometricresolution and the addition of a 443-nm band, which make it superior for
mapping aquatic environments. This study presents early evaluations ofLandsat 8 (OLI) radiometric performance over coastal waters. While its
top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance observations are compared with thoseof ocean color missions, the remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) products
are also examined using in-situ measurements. Early evaluations of OLI’s
applications for near-shore, bottom mapping are also presented.

Bumjun Kil, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States); Derek
M. Burrage, Joel Wesson, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Stephan D. Howden, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (UnitedStates)During the monsoon season, the East China Sea (ECS) is often obscured
from space in the visible and near-visible bands by cloud cover, which
prevents remote sensing retrieval of optical properties. However, clouds
are transparent to microwave and satellites with L-band radiometers haverecently been put into orbit to monitor sea surface salinity (SSS). The usual
relationship between Colored Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) and salinity
in fluvially impacted coastal regions has been used in previous studies
to obtain SSS from satellite retrieved CDOM (Ahn et al., 2008). In thisstudy, the relationship is used in the reverse sense to estimate CDOM fromremotely sensed SSS in the ECS. SSS data are obtained from the L-band
radiometers on the European Space Agency’s Soil Moisture and Ocean
Salinity satellite and on NASA’s Aquarius satellite. CDOM retrieved fromNASA Aqua satellite and from the L-band radiometers are compared during
absent cloud cover. Challenges in using this approach are that 1) L-band
SSS retrieval has coarse resolution (35-100 km), 2) the ECS is notorious forhaving anthropogenic sources of radiofrequency interference (ARGANS,
2012; JPL, 2012) which adds noise to the SSS retrievals, and 3) as the coast
is approached, land brightness begins to contaminate the side lobes of theantennae. Despite the limits imposed on the accuracy and spatial resolutionof remotely sensed SSS, qualitatively distributed CDOM in the ECS canbe obtained. Further research is required to fully understand the limits toquantitatively characterizing the CDOM distribution in the ECS from L-band
radiometry.

9111-12, Session 2

Sea-surface temperature from Suomi-NPP
VIIRS: algorithm development and uncertainty
estimation (Invited Paper)Peter J. Minnett, Robert H. Evans, Guillermo P. Podestá, Katherine A.
Kilpatrick, Univ. of Miami (United States)
The Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi
National Polar-orbiting Partnership satellite (Suomi-NPP), launchedon October 28, 2011, is the first in a new series of visible and infrared
radiometers to be flown on the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS). Four of
the infrared channels of VIIRS were designed to provide accurate retrievalsof skin SST. The infrared detectors were cooled down in early 2012 andthe data stream stabilized in early March. The objectives of the Miamigroup include refining the SST retrieval algorithms, both cloud screening
and atmospheric correction, in a way that provided continuity with theheritage instruments and deriving estimates of the skin SST retrieval
accuracies. These are facilitated by comparisons with other sources of SSTs,
including drifting buoys and microwave fields from WindSat. Also, infrared
radiometers have been deployed on commercial and research vessels toprovide skin temperature measurements, for independent assessment of the
SST retrieval uncertainties and to provide a path for VIIRS to contribute to
the SST Climate Data Record.

9111-10, Session 1

Reducing ocean surface specular reflection inworldview-2 images
Karen W. Patterson, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Exploitation of satellite and aircraft imagery for ocean color applications
is limited by the extent to which an accurate atmospheric correction canbe accomplished. Characterizing specular reflection off the sea surface is
one component of this correction. The WorldView-2 configuration with two
multi-spectral focal planes separated by the panchromatic focal plane anda 0.2 second offset in data collection between the two multi-spectral focal
planes creates a challenging specular reflection correction scenario. On June11, 2010 DigitalGlobe, Inc. imaged the Moreton Bay, Australia region seventimes between 00:26:07 and 00:27:55 GMT with the WorldView-2 sensor.
The atmosphere was exceptionally clear as confirmed by AERONET datacollected at the University of Queensland in Brisbane. Specular reflection

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SPIE DSS 2014

9111-14, Session 2

SST algorithms in ACSPO reanalysis of AVHRR
GAC data from 2002-2013
Boris Petrenko, Global Science & Technology, Inc. (United States)
and NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction (United States)
and National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States); Xinjia Zhou, Cooperative Institute for Research in·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

the Atmosphere (United States); Alexander Ignatov, NOAA Ctr. for
Weather and Climate Prediction (United States)

Discriminating clear ocean from cloud is challenging, especially atnight. Threshold in automated cloud detection algorithms are often set
conservatively and tend to underestimate the SST domain. Yet an expert
user can usually distinguish the cloud patterns from SST. In this study, we
explore an automated pattern recognition approach. We discuss available
methodologies to differentiate cloud and ocean patterns. Analyses are
performed with the SST retrieved from VIIRS sensor onboard S-NPP using
NOAA ACSPO system. Using hand-selected globally-representative ACSPOVIIRS SST images, we have identified low level spectral and spatial features
likely useful for discriminating cloud from clear ocean. These features
include spatial connectivity of SST deviation Reynolds SST, as well as somestatistics the gradient field. Using these features, a cluster based approachallows automatic segmentation into regions. These regions then form thebasis for additional cloud tests through training a statistical classifier using
expert labeled data. We will present the potentials and limitations of suchan approach and discuss various features that can be used to identify typical
patterns and textures.

4 km resolution GAC data from several AVHRR instruments flown on NOAA
and MetOp satellites from 2002-2013 have been reprocessed with Advanced
Clear-Sky Processor for Oceans (ACSPO) to create a consistent L2 SST
product, for the use in NOAA geo-polar blended SST and potentially otherL4 products. The SST retrieval algorithms for reprocessing were selected
and developed with specific emphasis on
1) minimizing spatial biases in retrieved SST;
2) closely reproducing magnitudes of true SST variations (i.e. ensure thatsensitivity of retrieved SST to true SST is close to 1);
3) maximizing temporal stability of biases
Two types of SST algorithms were explored: Conventional regression (CR),the mainstream operational algorithm, and recently developed Incremental
Regression (IncR), which correlates deviations of SST from reference L4 SST
field with deviations of observed brightness temperatures from radiativetransfer simulations.

9111-17, Session 2

The CR equations were adopted in the EUMETSAT OSI-SAF formulation,
which, according to the previous analyses, provide optimal combinationof minimal spatial/angular biases with high sensitivity, in its class. The
IncR equations were elaborated to specifically optimize the empirical bias
correction, and to satisfy the criteria 1) and 2). The criterion 3) was satisfied
by recalculation of both CR and IncR coefficients on a daily basis using a
3-months sliding window of daily matchups spanning ±45 days around thecurrent date. This presentation describes the SST algorithms adopted for
reprocessing and evaluates the resulting L2 SST product.

Reduction of striping for improved ACSPO SST
imagery derived from S-NPP VIIRS and terra/aqua MODIS clear-sky radiances
Marouan Bouali, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States) and Cooperative Institute for Research in the
Atmosphere (United States); Alexander Ignatov, NOAA Ctr. for
Weather and Climate Prediction (United States)

9111-15, Session 2

Residual scan line noise in level 1B clear-sky radiances derived frommultidetector imaging spectroradiometers like VIIRS and MODIS, although
within sensor pre-launch specifications, adversely affects the image qualityof level 2 SST products. The resulting striping reduces the geometricalhomogeneity of full sensor resolution SST and therefore degrades its
usefulness for the study of ocean dynamics.

Evaluation of ACSPO-reanalysis 2002-2013 timeseries for self- and cross-consistency
Xinjia Zhou, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction (UnitedStates); Prasanjit Dash, National Environmental Satellite, Data,and Information Service (United States); Alexander Ignatov, Boris
Petrenko, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction (UnitedStates)An adaptive destriping algorithm based on image processing techniques
was recently designed to improve the quality of NOAA’s Advanced ClearSky Processor for Ocean (ACSPO) SST products.
In this paper, we illustrate the long term performance of this algorithm interms of image quality enhancement and analyze its impact on the global
statistics of full sensor resolution SST. One month of level 1B data from
S-NPP VIIRS and Terra/Aqua MODIS have been processed for stripe noise
reduction prior to ingestion in the ACSPO system. Results indicate a stableand positive impact on the visual quality of SST imagery as well as on thedetection of thermal fronts and the global statistics of SST.

Long-term consistent time series of Level2/3 SST products are needed for
producing high-quality L4 SST products. Recently, 4 km resolution GAC
data from several AVHRR instruments flown on NOAA and MetOp satellites
from 2002-2013 have been reprocessed using NOAA Advanced Clear-Sky
Processor for Oceans (ACSPO) system. Work is underway to extend thesetime series, initially back 1994, and later back to 1981. ACSPO-RAN L2
data will be blended with geostationary SST data to produce the NOAA
geo-polar L4 SST product, for the use in the Coral Reef Watch monitoring.
This presentation evaluates ACSPO-RAN L2 product from 2002-2013 andcompares it with other existing long-term L2/L3 SST time series, such as the
PATHFINDER v5.2 L3 product from NOAA AVHRR GAC, and MOD28/MYD28
L2 product from AQUA and TERRA MODIS. The three SSTs are consistently
evaluated against several long-term L4 and in situ SSTs. Work is underway
to report the results of evaluation in the NOAA web-based SST Quality
Monitor (SQUAM, www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/squam/).

9111-18, Session 2

Effect of consistent CRTM coefficients on M-Obias and DDS in micros
XingMing Liang, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States) and Colorado State Univ. (United States) andCooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere (UnitedStates); Alexander Ignatov, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate
Prediction (United States); Yong Chen, Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States)

9111-16, Session 2

Exploring enhancements to ACSPO VIIRS cloudmask based on SST pattern analyses: potential
and limitations (Invited Paper)

Community Radiative Transfer Model (CRTM) minus observation (M-O)
biases, and corresponding double differences, DD=-[(M-O)-(M-O)ref],are calculated over clear-sky ocean @3.7, 11 and 12µm for several AVHRR,
MODIS and VIIRS sensors, and monitored in the Monitoring of IR ClearSky Radiances over Oceans for SST (www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/
micros) system. For the use of DDs to quantify cross-platform biases, the M
and Mref must be calculated accurately and consistently. The M terms aredefined by the “CRTM coefficients”, calculated by fitting the training set
of line-by-line (LBL) RTM calculations, set of training profiles, and gases.

Irina Gladkova, The City College of New York (United States); Fazlul
Shahriar, The Graduate Ctr., The City Univ. of New York (UnitedStates); Yury Kihai, Boris Petrenko, Alexander Ignatov, NOAA Ctr. for
Weather and Climate Prediction (United States)383+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

9111-45, Session 2

Two transmittance algorithms are employed, the Optical Depth in AbsorberSpace (ODAS) and the Optical Depth in Pressure Space (ODPS), alongwith two fit methods - the ordinary (ORD) and Planck Weighted (PW). The
ODPS-PW M-O biases and DDs appear more accurate. Some DDs (e.g.,
between AVHRRs and MODISs/VIIRS groups up to ~0.4K) may be due to the
M term, e.g. suboptimal parameterization of the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
absorption in LBL, whereas some others (e.g., in some bands of Metop-A
and –B, and Terra and Aqua up to ~0.3K) are likely to sensor inconsistencies.
Work between SST and CRTM Teams is underway to resolve these remaining
differences.

Analysis of the VIIRS cloud mask: comparison
with the NAVOCEANO cloud mask and how they
complement each other
Jean-François P. Cayula, QuinetiQ North America, Inc. (UnitedStates); Douglas A. May, Bruce D. McKenzie, Naval Oceanographic
Office (United States)
The Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Cloud Mask (VCM)
Intermediate Product has been developed for use with Suomi National
Polar-orbiting Partnership VIIRS Environmental Data Record (EDR)
products. In particular, the VIIRS Sea Surface Temperature (SST) EDR relies
on VCM to identify cloud-corrupted observations. Unfortunately, VCM
does not appear to perform as well as cloud detection algorithms for SST.
This may be due to the the closely related but not identical goals of thetwo algorithms: While the purpose of VCM is to detect clouds, that of the
SST cloud detection is to identify clear observations. The result is that inundetermined cases VCM defaults to “clear,” while the SST cloud detection
defaults to “cloud.” This problem is further compounded because classic
SST cloud detection often flags all types of corrupted data as “cloud,” thus
making a comparison with VCM difficult. The Naval Oceanographic Office(NAVOCEANO), which operationally produces a VIIRS SST product, relies
on cloud detection from the NAVOCEANO Cloud Mask (NCM), adaptedfrom cloud detection scheme designed for SST processing. To analyze VCM,
the NAVOCEANO SST process was modified to attach VCM flags to all SST
retrievals. Global statistics are computed for both day and night data. The
cases where NCM and/or VCM tag data as “cloud-corrupted” or “clear”
can then be investigated. By analyzing the VCM individual test flags inconjunction with the status of NCM, areas where VCM can complement NCM
are identified.

9111-19, Session 2

Polar SST and clear-sky radiance products andmonitoring at NOAA
Alexander Ignatov, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States); XingMing Liang, NOAA Ctr. for Weather andClimate Prediction (United States) and Colorado State Univ. (UnitedStates); Prasanjit Dash, National Environmental Satellite, Data,and Information Service (United States) and Colorado State Univ.
(United States); Boris Petrenko, Feng Xu, Yury Kihai, NOAA Ctr.
for Weather and Climate Prediction (United States) and Global
Science & Technology, Inc. (United States); John Stroup, NOAA
Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction (United States) and STG,
Inc. (United States); Xinjia Zhou, Marouan Bouali, NOAA Ctr. for
Weather and Climate Prediction (United States) and Colorado
State Univ. (United States); John Sapper, NOAA / NESDIS Office ofSatellite Operations (United States)
NOAA produces operational and experimental SST and ocean clear-sky
ocean radiances products from VIIRS, AVHRR and MODIS sensors using
heritage Advanced Clear-Sky Processor for Oceans (ACSPO) system. In 2011,
NOAA also assumed responsibility for the JPSS Interface Data Processing
Segment (IDPS) SST product. All SSTs are routinely monitored and validated
in the SST Quality Monitor (SQUAM; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/
squam/). Quality controlled n situ data come from the in situ SST Quality
Monitor (iQuam; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/iquam/). ACSPO clearsky radiances are monitored in the Monitoring of IR Clear-sky Radiances
over Oceans for SST (MICROS; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/micros/).
Current status is discussed.

9111-13, Session Posters-Tuesday

Comparison of VIIRS SST fields obtained fromdiffering SST equations applied to a region
covering the northern Gulf of Mexico and western
North Atlantic (Invited Paper)
Jean-François P. Cayula, QuinetiQ North America, Inc. (UnitedStates); Douglas A. May, Naval Oceanographic Office (UnitedStates); Ryan A. Vandermeulen, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi(United States)

9111-20, Session 2

Towards Cal/Val of Sentinel-3 SST in NOAA SST
quality monitor: initial evaluation of A(A)TSR
reprocessing for climate (ARC)

Several groups produce Sea Surface Temperature (SST) retrievals derived
from data acquired by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS)
sensor on board the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership satellite.
Because of varying requirements or past experience, the groups often use
differing SST equations to make their retrievals. Here, we compare anddiscuss the equations through an examination of the SST fields. In mostcases, the fields are created using the same program but with differing
equations, while in other cases, such as for the Interface Data Processing
Segment Environmental Data Records, SST fields are directly produced byother groups. Also discussed is how applying different coefficients for one
equation affects the SST retrievals, and, how different first guess SST fields
for the non-linear SST equations affect the SST retrievals in coastal and open
waters. This study focuses on a region covering the northern Gulf of Mexico
and part of the western North Atlantic. The evaluation tries to minimize theeffect of data contamination, such as clouds, on the results by matching thebest satellite-derived SST value in a neighborhood to the value from driftingor moored buoys. Results based on the region under study are linked backto global statistics computed daily at the Naval Oceanographic Office.

Prasanjit Dash, Alexander Ignatov, National Environmental Satellite,
Data, and Information Service (United States); Boris Petrenko,
Yury Kihai, National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (United States) and Global Science & Technology, Inc.
(United States)
European Sentinel3 satellite is planned for launch in 2014-15. It will carry
SLSTR radiometer, which builds upon A(A)TSRs flown onboard ERS/ENVISAT. NOAA supports Cal/Val of SLSTR SST in SST Quality Monitor(SQUAM: www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/squam), which currently
monitors several SST products from AVHRR, MODIS, and VIIRS. Towards
Sentinel3 readiness, A(A)TSR Reprocessing for Climate (ARC) dataset isbeing added in SQUAM. If A(A)TSR/SLSTR SST proves superior to the SST
derived from US sensors, it may be used to anchor global AVHRR, MODIS
and VIIRS SST products. Initial analyses of ARC SST and inter-comparisonswith AVHRR-MODIS-VIIRS SST products in SQUAM are presented.

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

9111-38, Session Posters-Tuesday

9111-40, Session Posters-Tuesday

Underwater pressure measurement using fibre
optic extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric (EFPI)
sensors

The impact of turbulent fluctuations on lightpropagation in a controlled environment
Silvia Matt, Weilin Hou, Wesley Goode, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)

Dinesh Babu Duraibabu, Sven Poeggel, Elfed Lewis, Thomas Newe,
Univ. of Limerick (Ireland)

Underwater temperature and salinity microstructure can lead to localizedchanges in the index of refraction and can be a limiting factor in oceanic
environments. This optical turbulence can affect electro-optical (EO) signaltransmissions that impact various applications, from diver visibility to active
and passive remote sensing. To quantify the scope of the impacts fromturbulent flows on EO signal transmission, and to examine and mitigate
turbulence effects, we perform experiments in a controlled turbulenceenvironment allowing the variation of turbulence intensity. This controlled
turbulence setup is implemented at the Naval Research Laboratory Stennis
Space Center. Convective turbulence is generated in a classical RayleighBénard tank and the turbulent flow is quantified using a state-of-the-art
suite of sensors that includes high-resolution Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter
profilers and fast thermistor probes. The measurements are complemented
by very high-resolution non-hydrostatic numerical simulations. These
computational fluid dynamics simulations allow for a more completecharacterization of the convective flow in the laboratory tank than would
be provided by measurements alone. Optical image degradation in thetank is assessed in relation to turbulence intensity. The results from thelaboratory experiments and numerical simulations are also put into thecontext of field observations of optical turbulence. The unique approachof integrating optical techniques, turbulence measurements and numericalsimulations helps advance our understanding of how to mitigate the effectsof turbulence impacts on underwater optical signal transmission, as well asof the use of optical techniques to probe oceanic processes.

Ocean has vital impact on our climate and weather. An in-situ sensor
which can be placed in Buoys, moorings and Remote operated underwater
vehicle (ROV’s) can be benefited along with the other emerging sensing
technologies. Optical fibres are immune to electromagnetic radiationand have a small loss compared to other state-of-the-art techniques(Maximum attenuation <0.2 dB/km), which makes them ideal for long
distance measurements like in deep ocean. A fibre optic extrinsic Fabry
Perot Interferometer (EFPI) sensor is developed for monitoring pressurein the underwater and sub-seabed under simulated conditions. The sensor
is robust in design and is fabricated entirely from Silica glass (i.e. no water
absorbing material was used). The EFPI is formed at the tip of the fibre,
where the single mode is spliced to a 200µm capillary, sealed by a 200µm
Multimode, which forms the diaphragm. The diaphragm thickness is reducedby polishing and etching with hydrofluoric (HF) acid to about 2-3µm for ahigh sensitivity. The thickness of the diaphragm is monitored online during
polishing and HF etching. The spectrum of the fibre optic sensor (FOS)
is interrogated using a broad band optical light source and an optical
spectrometer. The sensitivity of the sensor achieved is 1.5cmH2O, excellent
for small depth-changes. Experimental measurements with saturated salt
water and chlorophyll pigmentation of different standards were tested, tosimulate the sub-sea conditions where a stability of 2cmH2O/h was reachedwith a drift of less than 10% under the simulated conditions.

9111-39, Session Posters-Tuesday

9111-41, Session Posters-Tuesday

A model-based ELM for atmospheric correction
over Case 2 water with Landsat 8

Vicarious calibration and regional adjustment ofcoastal VIIRS

Javier A. Concha, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)

Jennifer B. Bowers, Planning Systems Inc. (United States); Robert
A. Arnone, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States);
Sherwin D. Ladner, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Paul
M. Martinolich, Planning Systems Inc. (United States); Giulietta S.
Fargion, San Diego State Univ. (United States); Adam Lawson, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Ryan A. Vandermeulen, The
Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States)

The Landsat-8 satellite, recently launched (February 2013), carries the next
generation of Landsat sensors and extends over 40 years of continuous
imaging acquisition. Landsat-8, with its improved spectral coverage andradiometric resolution, has the potential to dramatically improve our ability
to simultaneously retrieve the three primary coloring agents (chlorophyll,
colored dissolved organic material, and suspended material) from water
bodies and considering its 30-meter resolution should be especially usefulfor studying the nearshore environment.

As part of the JPSS Ocean Cal/Val Team, NRL-SSC has been working tofacilitate calibration and validation of VIIRS ocean color products. By
modifying the NASA Ocean Color Biology Group methodology for vicarious
calibration of ocean color satellites and utilizing the AERONET-OC system toprovide in situ data, we are able to investigate difference between remotelysensed water leaving radiance and the expected in situ response in coastal
areas and compare the results to traditional MOBY calibration/validation
activities.

In the Case 2 water problem, accurate atmospheric correction is essential
yet remains a significant source of water-constituent retrieval error
particularly since the sensor-reaching signal due to water is very small
compared to the signal from atmospheric effects and the black target
assumption is not valid due to water-leaving signal in the NIR in turbid
water. In this work, a modified version of the empirical line method (ELM)
has been developed, which utilizes reflectance from both an in-waterradiative transfer model (HydroLight) and a reflectance product (Landsat
surface reflectance product) to atmospherically correct Landsat-8 images.
This method employs pseudo-invariant feature (PIF) pixel extraction tomask urban landscape from the reflectance product for the bright pixel
determination. For the dark pixel, HydroLight is used to obtain the field
spectra that replace ground-truth measurements normally used in the ELM.
The radiance values for the dark and bright pixels are extracted from thecorresponding regions in the Landsat-8 image. Initial results of this method
are compared to results obtained from a traditional ELM and to groundtruth data as well.

385+1 360 676 3290

The results support arguments that the current satellite calibration methods,
utilizing in oligotrophic Case 1 waters leave room for improvement withrespect to satellite products in coastal Case 2 waters. The data also support
the concept of applying regional calibrations to improve coastal products
however; the significant challenge posed by regional adjustment lies inquantifying the uncertainty.

·

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

9111-42, Session Posters-Tuesday

9111-44, Session Posters-Tuesday

Development of an aerosol microphysicaland optical model in the marine and coastal
environments

VIIRS reflective solar bands on-orbit calibration
Junqiang Sun, Global Science & Technology, Inc. (United States);
Menghua Wang, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States)

Gennady A. Kaloshin, V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics(Russian Federation)

The Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) is one of five
instruments onboard the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP)satellite which was launched on Oct. 28, 2011. It has 22 spectral bands,
among which 14 are Reflective Solar Bands (RSBs). The RSBs are used togenerate the VIIRS ocean color data products, which requires the RSBs arecalibrated with high accuracy and long-term stability. The instrument wascharacterized and calibrated prelaunch. The on-orbit gain changes of the
RSBs are mainly tracked by on-board Solar Diffuser (SD) calibration every
orbit. The instrument is also scheduled to observe the Moon approximately
monthly, which is used to derive the on-orbit changes for the RSBs as well.
In this paper, the VIIRS SD and lunar calibrations are reviewed and thederived calibration coefficients, called F factors (inversely proportional to
the gains), for the RSBs are analyzed. The coefficients derived from thetwo calibrations are compared and the uncertainties of the calibrations are
discussed.

It is known, that changes in the concentration, and distribution of seasalt aerosol is important for predict the performance of EO systems, theprecipitation efficiency of clouds, change cloud amount, their properties
that influence on the radiative forcing of the climate system.
Their impact on clouds, being superimposed on the aerosol generated by
an open ocean, varies greatly with the meteorological parameters, such as
wind speed.
Based on the facts the presented investigation seeks to contribute to abetter understanding of cloud-active sea-salt aerosol and optical effects ofmarine aerosol eventually aiming for a development of a robust algorithm
for the aerosol extinction forecast.
In the study, we consider the coastal physical effects and ocean processes
as functions of the wind speed, its direction, fetch, relative humidity andaltitude above the sea level. While taking into account the variability ofmarine and coastal aerosols, the paper focuses on the detailed descriptionof the developed aerosol model and the optical properties of the aerosol.
We discuss the developed algorithm and the comparison of our results
calculated by the software product MaexPro (Marine Aerosol Extinction
Profile) with observational data.

9111-46, Session Posters-Tuesday

Algorithms for the remote estimation ofchlorophyll-a in the Chesapeake Bay
Ioannis Ioannou, The City Univ. of New York (United States);
Alexander Gilerson, The City College of New York (United States);
Michael E. Ondrusek, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States); Robert Foster, The City College of New York
(United States); Ahmed El-Habashi, Kaveh Bastani, The City Univ. of
New York (United States); Samir Ahmed, The City College of New
York (United States)

9111-43, Session Posters-Tuesday

Developing a universal classification tree model
for mapping aquatic vegetation in Taihu Lakeusing different phase HJ-CCD image
Juhua Luo, Ronghua Ma, Xianfeng Zhou, Nanjing Institute ofGeography and Limnology (China)

Remote estimation of chlorophyll-a concentration [Chl] in the Chesapeake
Bay from reflectance spectra is challenging because of the opticalcomplexity and variability of the water composition as well as atmosphericcorrections for this area. This work is focused on algorithms for nearsurface measurements. The performance of several well established global
inversion algorithms and ones that use the red/NIR part of the spectrum areanalyzed together with recently developed multiband inversion algorithms
that combine wavelengths in the blue, green and red and compared withfield data, which consisted of the NOMAD for Chesapeake Bay region as
well as results from our field campaigns in 2005 and 2013 with the fullrange of measurements of water optical properties as well as chlorophyll
concentrations and specific absorption spectra from in water samples.

Aquatic vegetation play an important role in maintaining the balance of thelake ecosystem thus classifying and mapping aquatic vegetation is a priorityof lake management. Remote sensing techniques can provide spatial andtemporal information about aquatic vegetation. Classification trees (CT)have been used successfully in the past to classify aquatic vegetation fromspectral indices obtained from remotely-sensed images. However, due tothe effects of extrinsic and intrinsic factors, application CT model developed
for certain date image to another date image can reduce the classification
accuracy. In this study, these spectral features (SFs) were derived byprincipal component (PC) transform, tasseled cap (PC) transform and band
combination and their potential in identifying emergent vegetation, floatingleaf vegetation and submerged vegetation were tested. Then three spectralfeatures (SFs) were selected out to develop CT model for identifying
aquatic vegetation in Taihu Lake. Three traditional CT models (TCT1, TCT2,
TCT3 model) with three SFs were developed using CT analysis based on
HJ images acquired on 11 July, 16 August and 26 September 2013 andcorresponding ground-truth samples, with overall accuracies are 82.14 % for
TCT1 model, 79.72 % for TCT2 model and 84.36 % for TCT3 model. Further,a new method was proposed to modify the thresholds of SFs in TCT modeland developed modified CT model (MCT) for applying to another date
image. The method for developing MCT model was assessed and validatedby accuracy relative to actual ground-truth samples and area agreement
between the classified maps created using MCT model and TCT model.
Our results suggested that the method was feasible and could be used todevelop MCT model for mapping aquatic vegetation in any date image otherthan the one for which the model was developed.

Algorithms were then developed, using neural networks, and trained on asimulated data generated through bio-optical models typical for a broad
range of coastal water parameters, and specifically for those known for the
Chesapeake Bay, as well on direct relationships between reflectance spectraand [Chl] acquired by the NOMAD contributors and from our own fieldmeasurements. Special attention was paid to the field data consistency inboth reflectance and [Chl] measurements to avoid undesirable biases andtrends. All algorithms were finally evaluated by several statistical indicators
to arrive at the best candidates for further applications to satellite data.

9111-47, Session Posters-Tuesday

Implications of a new phase function forautonomous underwater imaging
Charles C. Trees, Ctr. for Maritime Research & Experimentation(United States); Georges R. Fournier, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada, Valcartier (Canada); Violeta Sanjuan Calzado,

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

Ctr. for Maritime Research & Experimentation (Italy)different configurations were proposed – a frame based approach that is
advantageous for stationary platforms such as hover-capable autonomous
underwater vehicles (HAUV) and another technique that adopts thewhiskbroom image formation and is more compatible with tradition survey
platforms: the compressive line sensing technique. The compressive line
sensing exploits both the intra-signal sparsity and the correlation among
adjacent areas that is common for the natural underwater scenes throughthe theoretical foundation of distributed compressive sensing (DCS). The
initial simulations and the clear water experimental results demonstrated
the feasibility of the proposed concepts. This paper intends to gain more indepth understanding of the performance of CSASI in the turbid ocean water
through additional simulations and experimental study. System induced
interferences such as motion artifacts and receiver noise under different
conditions (i.e. turbidities) are studied. Sensing model that incorporates
such understanding and techniques to improve the system performanceby effectively alleviate such interference are investigated. Optical design
considerations that impact the performance of the prototype system usedin the test tank experiments are analyzed. Results from simulations andturbidity cycle in the HBOI test tank are presented.

Autonomous underwater vehicles do not have sufficient communications
bandwidth over long ranges to send back real time images even formonitoring purposes. Autonomous imaging from underwater vehicles will
therefore require real-time imaging system performance prediction in orderto ensure that the vehicle can position itself at a range that will allow it totake an image of the scene or target of interest at the required resolution
and contrast level. Ideally the inherent optical properties of the surrounding
waters should be measured on board. This may not be feasible or only a
restricted set may be measurable. In order to improve the prediction of
the imaging performance, a physics based analytic phase function that
could effectively exploit any a-priori or in-situ measured parameters would
be extremely helpful. Such a new physics based analytic phase function
has been derived and tested against exact scattering codes. Among otherfeatures it is sufficiently precise to allow an accurate determination of thebackscatter ratio based on an estimate of the mean index of refraction
which is by far the dominant parameter. The new formulation shows clearly
why the backscatter ratio, which is the dominant factor in determining
imaging range, is insensitive to the inverse power of the size distribution andalmost entirely controlled by the mean index of refection. Using a simple
formulation for the mean index the formula has been tested against datacollected in the Ligurian Sea.

9111-23, Session 3

Underwater imaging of polarized targets
9111-21, Session 3

Alexander Gilerson, Yalong Gu, Carlos Carrizo, Amir Ibrahim, Ahmed
El-Habashi, Robert Foster, Samir Ahmed, The City College of New
York (United States)

Multistatic optical imaging system
Derek M. Alley, Linda J. Mullen, Naval Air Systems Command(United States); Brandon Cochenour, Alan Laux, Naval Air Warfare
Ctr. Aircraft Div. (United States)

Attenuation of light in seawater by both water molecules and hydrosols
usually results in blurring and degradation of an image even over shortdistances. Some of both natural and manmade objects in sea water havepartially polarizing surfaces, whose properties can be exploited for the
purpose of camouflaging or, conversely, for facilitating detection andimaging of polarized targets. Restoration of targets’ optical characteristics
using underwater imaging technique in various aquatic environments isof a great interest for the scientific community. In this work, we present
the analysis of images of several underwater targets that exhibits different
polarization properties measured using an underwater camera in various
water conditions from clear ocean waters to highly turbid waters such as the
Chesapeake Bay.

Typical line-of-sight (LOS)/monostatic optical imaging systems include alaser source and receiver that are co-located on the same platform. The
performance of such systems is deteriorated in turbid ocean water due tothe large amount of light that is scattered on the path to and from an objectof interest. A bistatic architecture, which puts the laser and receiver on
separate, smaller platforms, has been developed to help extend the rangeof underwater optical imaging systems and to provide more operational
flexibility. Although the laser must be within 4 attenuation lengths of theobject to minimize forward-scattered light, the receiver can be locatedmany more attenuation lengths away since all the light scattered from theobject – even the multiply scattered light – carries ‘useable’ information
about the object. The laser is modulated with information concerning
how the laser scans the object, and the receiver decodes this information
to create the image. Therefore, the transmitter and receiver are entirely
autonomous and are linked only via a wireless communication signal thatis carried by the light scattered from the object and from the environment.
Recently, a multistatic configuration has been demonstrated where multiple
transmitters and receivers are used to provide backscatter suppression andtarget range information. The paper will review recent controlled laboratory
experiments conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the multistatic
underwater optical imaging system at producing higher quality 2D
images and supplementing 2D images with 3D range data to aid in object
identification.

The measurements using the full Stokes polarization imaging camera arecompared with an imaging model. The model combines vector radiativetransfer simulations using the RayXP program for the propagation of lightin the atmosphere-interface-ocean (AIO) system and the Monte Carlosimulations for the near horizontal imaging in the water. Modeling includes
analysis of the vector point spread function (PSF) from the target and thecontribution of the veiling light between the target and the camera. Results
are further used for more comprehensive analysis of the propagation ofpolarized light and imaging in water. Several algorithms for the retrieval of
the polarization characteristics of underwater targets from the image arealso evaluated.

9111-24, Session 3

Overview of a hybrid underwater camera system9111-22, Session 3

Philip M. Church, Neptec Technologies Corp. (Canada); Weilin
Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Fraser R. Dalgleish,
Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute (United States); Georges R.
Fournier, Defence Research and Development Canada, Valcartier(Canada)Compressive sensing active serial imaging system
for the underwater environment
Bing Ouyang, Frank M. Caimi, Fraser R. Dalgleish, Gero Nootz,
Walter Britton, Anni K. Vuorenkoski, Harbor Branch Oceanographic
Institute (United States)

The paper provides an overview of a Hybrid Underwater Camera (HUC)
system combining sonar with a range-gated laser camera system. The
sonar is the BlueView P900-45, operating at 900kHz with a field of view of
45 degrees and ranging capability of 60m. The range-gated laser camera
system is based on the third generation LUCIE (Laser Underwater Camera
Image Enhancer) sensor originally developed by the Canadian National
Defence. LUCIE uses an eye-safe laser generating 1ns pulses at a wavelength

In recent years, the OVOL lab at HBOI at FAU proposed the Compressive
Sensing (CS) based active serial imager (CSASI). One of the main focuses
was to develop this concept into an effective imaging system in the
scattering and absorbing medium such as the turbid ocean water. Two387+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

of 532nm and at the rate of 20kHz. An intensified CCD camera operates
with a gating mechanism synchronized with the laser pulse. The gate opens
to let the camera capture photons from a given range of interest and canbe set from a minimum of 5ns with increments of 200ps. The output of
the sensor is a 30Hz video signal. Automatic ranging is achieved using
a sonar altimeter. The sonar and LUCIE sensors are integrated with anunderwater computer that controls the sensors parameters and display thereal-time data for the sonar and the laser camera. As an initial step for data
integration, graphics overlays representing the laser camera field-of-view
and the width of the gate are overlaid on the sonar display. The HUC system
can be manually handled by a diver and can also be controlled from asurface vessel through an umbilical cord. Recent test data obtained from the
HUC system operated in a natural underwater environment will be presented
along with measured performance characteristics.

capable of real-time measurement of the water’s modulation response
function. The optical source used is a custom fiber-laser based 532 nm
chaotic lidar transmitter that delivers a noise-like wideband modulation
signal. Using this transmitter in conjunction with a digital adaptive filter,
the water channel’s effect on the lidar signal is modeled, and the frequency
response of the channel is determined. Individual backscatter and forward
scatter responses are measured, as well as the composite channel response
function with a target in a monostatic ranging/imaging arrangement.

9111-28, Session 4

Optical ranging techniques in turbid waters
David W. Illig, William D. Jemison, Clarkson Univ. (United States);
Robert W. Lee, NAVAIR Training Systems Division (United States);
Alan Laux, Linda J. Mullen, Naval Air Systems Command (UnitedStates)9111-25, Session 3

Waveform design considerations for modulated
pulse lidar

Laser-based range finders offer the possibility for high-precision range
accuracy in the underwater environment. These systems experienceexponential losses due to scattering and absorption of photons. Absorption
reduces received signal power, while scattering produces a “clutter” signal.

Shawn P. O’Connor, Linda J. Mullen, Naval Air Warfare Ctr. Aircraft
Div. (United States)

The performance of two ranging approaches in turbid waters will bepresented. The first approach uses a dual frequency modulation to reduce
ambiguity and achieve high range precision. The second approach uses
stepped frequency modulation to achieve long unambiguous range andsingle-tone modulation to achieve fine range precision. Results fromlaboratory experiments using each technique will be presented andcompared to model predictions.

Optical imaging and ranging of underwater objects is of special interest
to the Navy. This task is made difficult by the optical propagation
characteristics of water and environmental clutter. Techniques have beendeveloped to mitigate many of the issues associated with underwater
imaging in turbid environments but as targets get smaller and better
camouflaged new techniques are needed to keep pace. NAVAIR has
been developing several techniques that use RF modulation to suppress
background clutter and enhance target detection. One approach inparticular uses a modulation encoded pulse in a synchronous line scanconfiguration. Previous results have shown this technique to be effective
at both forward and backscatter suppression. Nearly a perfect analog
to modulated pulse radar, this technique can leverage additional signal
processing and pulse encoding schemes to further suppress backgroundclutter, pull signals out of noise, and improve image resolution. Additionally,using a software controlled transmitter, we can exploit this flexibility without
the need to change out expensive hardware. Various types of encoding
schemes were tested and compared. We report on their comparative
effectiveness over single frequency modulation to suppress backgroundclutter and improved target detection.

9111-29, Session 4

The impact of oceanic gravity waves on laser
propagation
Serdar Kizilkaya, Turkish Navy Research Ctr. (Turkey); Timothy Kane,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
The usage of lasers in ocean studies is widespread. Each step of laser
beam propagation through the ocean is a major topic to be analyzed,
often independently. The objective of this study is to specifically focus
on the interaction of the laser beam with the air-ocean interface and themodeling and analysis of the effects of a gravity wave perturbed ocean
surface on laser propagation. The directional energy spectrum of Neumannwith the Fourier series expansion is used in a Monte Carlo simulation of
the gravity wave perturbed ocean surface model. Beam tracing with the
ABCD matrix approach is used for the laser beam propagation analysis
rather than using the ray tracing like in many similar studies. Specificparameters are used in the model to output not only a qualitative model
but also numerical and realistic results. The main purposes of this study are
implementing a numerical model to see the effects of the ocean surface on
laser propagation and analyzing the feasibility of using the beam tracing
approach in such a model.

9111-27, Session 4

Underwater channel identification using a 532nm
chaotic lidar transmitter and adaptive filtering
Luke K. Rumbaugh, David W. Illig, Clarkson Univ. (United States);
Todd A. Wey, Lafayette College (United States); William D. Jemison,
Clarkson Univ. (United States)
The underwater channel presents a challenging operating environment
for modulated lidar systems, but understanding the channel’s effects
on the transmitted modulation signal can allow significant performance
improvements. Knowledge of the channel’s modulation response isespecially beneficial in scatter-limited operation. For example, backscatter
loses modulation depth at high frequencies (>100 MHz), and several
successful ranging and imaging systems have leveraged this fact to deliver
improved performance in turbid waters. However, the degradation of thesignal due to forward scatter also increases with increasing modulation
frequency. Thus for best performance, the operating modulation frequency
range must be high enough to allow suppression of backscatter, but not beso high that the target return is irreparably corrupted by forward scattering.
Since the modulation frequency response of the channel depends onthe ever-changing suspended particle distributions in the water, an
instantaneous measurement of the channel modulation response is desirable
to inform the choice of modulation used.

9111-30, Session 4

Optical remote sensing of sound in the ocean
James H. Churnside, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States); Konstantin Naugolnykh, Zel
Technologies, LLC (United States); Richard D. Marchbanks, Univ.
of Colorado at Boulder (United States) and National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (United States)
We are proposing a novel remote sensing technique to measure sound in
the upper ocean. The objective is system that can be flown on an aircraft.
Conventional acoustic sensors are ineffective in this application, because
almost none (~ 0.1 %) of the sound in the ocean is transmitted through the

In this paper we introduce an underwater channel identification system

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

9111-33, Session 5

water/air interface. The technique is based on the acoustic modulationof bubbles near the sea surface. It is clear from the ideal gas law thatthe volume of a bubble will decrease if the pressure is increased, as longas the number of gas molecules and temperature remain constant. The
pressure variations associated with the acoustic field will therefore induce
proportional volume fluctuations of the insonified bubbles. The lidar returnfrom a collection of bubbles has been shown to be proportional to the total
void fraction, independent of the bubble size distribution. This implies thatthe lidar return from a collection of insonified bubbles will be modulated
at the acoustic frequencies, independent of the bubble size distribution.
Moreover, that modulation is linearly related to the sound pressure. The
basic principles have been demonstrated in the laboratory, and theseresults will be presented. Estimates of signal-to-noise ratio suggest that thetechnique should work in the open ocean. Design considerations and signalto-noise ratios will also be presented.

The Chesapeake Bay interpretive buoy system: anestuarine observing partnership
William D. Wilson, Caribbean Wind LLC (United States)
The Chesapeake Bay Interpretive Buoy System (CBIBS; http://buoybay.noaa.
gov) is now a six-year-old operational observing system. Buoys are regularly
used, inter alia, for water quality monitoring, marine weather forecasting,remote sensing and model validation, tracking endangered Atlantic
Sturgeon, and as a basis for educational curricula. The NOAA Chesapeake
Bay Office (NCBO), which developed and implemented the CBIBS, hasrecently partnered with the Mid-Atlantic Regional Association Coastal
Ocean Observing System (MARACOOS) to support CBIBS operations andmaintenance and to expand the range and capability of the system. Throughthis partnership, a new buoy in the James River has recently extended theoriginal ten-buoy CBIBS system. Additional platforms are being tested andconsidered for the system: Low-cost Basic Observation Buoys, Nutrientsensor enhanced platforms for Chesapeake Bay tributaries, and Ocean
Acidification / Carbon monitoring buoys.

9111-31, Session 4

Beyond bathymetry: probing the oceansubsurface using ship-based lidars

The system has been conceived and designed with consideration for Global
Ocean Observing System (GOOS) principles; and it can be considered astarting point for the further development of the US Integrated Ocean
Observing System (IOOS) into the estuarine environment. In the process ofdescribing the System, its components, data, and products, we will show
how CBIBS follows three sets of concepts important to the IOOS: Core
Variables, Societal Benefit Areas, and Subsystem Structure. By maximizing
System alliance with these principles, CBIBS provides broad utility, robust
and flexible infrastructure, portability and expandability, and perhaps mostimportant, a diverse and enthusiastic user base.

Charles C. Trees, Ctr. for Maritime Research & Experimentation(United States)A ‘proof-of-concept’ for the maritime application of a ship-based LIDAR
system for measuring the optical and physical properties in the watercolumn is presented that includes documenting that there exists today theengineering, modeling and optical expertise to accomplish this task as well
as reasons why LIDAR has not become the powerful observational platformthat it should have been for horizontally and vertically monitoring opticalproperties. Previous research on this approach has been limited because
LIDAR systems have for most cases not been thoroughly calibrated, if at all,nor have LIDARs been focused on above–water ship-based measurements.
Efforts at developing derived product algorithms with uncertainties havebeen limited. This review concludes that there is a huge potential for the
successful application of LIDAR measurements in the marine environment
to estimate the vertical distribution of optical and that measurement
costs can be minimized by deployment of these automated systems on‘ships-of-opportunity’ and military vessels on a non-interfering basis.
Although LIDAR measurements and research have been around since the1960’s, this approach has not really been investigated by any civilian or
military agencies or laboratories even though providing ‘through-sensor
performance matrixes’ for existing bathymetry, target detection, undercommunication and underwater imaging should be high on their list.

9111-35, Session 5

Airborne remote sensing investigation of
shoaling internal waves, eddies, and rip currentson the inner shelf
Geoffrey Smith, George O. Marmorino, W. David Miller, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
Several recent field exercises undertaken by the Naval Research Laboratory
have provided a unique data set covering the boundary of the inner selfand surf zone near Huntington Beach, CA. The focus of the study was
to understand the behavior of surf zone eddies, their formation process,evolution, and contribution to other processes such as sediment transport.
However, in addition to the surf zone eddies internal waves and rip currents
were imaged. The spatial and temporal scales of these processes are
somewhat difficult to resolve; we present data captured from a small aircraftwith rapid revisit times to provide temporal information while still capturing
the synoptic scales. The data were captured via an airborne suite of remotesensing instruments including visible/near infrared hyperspectral imagery
and mid-wave infrared imagery. We attempt to shed some light on theoverall statistics of the features imaged, such as diameter, wavelength, anddrift velocity. Their role in sediment transport and interaction with internal
waves and rip currents will also be discussed.

9111-32, Session 5

Gliderpalooza 2013: so much more than gliders
Michael F. Crowley, Oscar Schofield, Scott M. Glenn, Rutgers Coastal
Ocean Observation Lab. (United States)
Gliderpalooza represents a grass-roots coordinated field demonstrationof ocean observing technologies spanning the eastern seaboard ofNorth America that grew out of the MARACOOS and Ocean Tracking
Networks science priorities. The goal was to coordinate disparate ocean
efforts, funded by a variety of agencies to demonstrate continental
scale coordination of various ocean observing technologies to sample
ecologically relevant scales. The integrated data was collected to serve a
range of science goals while also providing a regional data set for hindcast
studies that can be used to improve future physical, optical and ecologicalmodeling/sampling efforts. The coordinated data from satellites, HF-RADAR,
moorings, drifters, meteorological towers and models was focused aroundthe distributed deployment of 16 Slocum gliders deployed during the falltransition months of September and October. The timing was chosen tocoincide with the peak months of animal migrations, the fall transition
from the summer stratified ocean to well mixed winter conditions, the peakin tropical cyclone activity, and when undergraduates can utilize ocean
observing data using NSF OOI web-based learning tools to engage a newgeneration of oceanographers.

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9111-36, Session 5

The validation of ocean color sensors using a
profiling hyperspectral radiometer
Michael E. Ondrusek, NOAA Ctr. for Weather and Climate Prediction(United States); Eric Stengel, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States)
Validation measurements of ocean color sensors require in situ
measurements that are accurate, repeatable and traceable enough to·

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Conference 9111: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VI

distinguish variability between in situ measurements and variability in thesignal being observed. The utility of using a Satlantic Hyperpro II radiometerfor validating ocean color sensors is tested by analyzing the uncertainty inthe measurements and processing. This is done by comparing Hyperpro insitu measurements to other instruments and between different Hyperprosin a variety of water types. Calibration and characterization of the NOAA
Satlantic Hyperpro instrument is described and concurrent measurementsof water-leaving radiances conducted during cruises are presented between
this profiling instrument and other profiling, above-water and moored
instruments. The moored optical instruments are the US operated Marine
Optical BuoY (MOBY) and the French operated Boussole Buoy. In addition,
Satlantic processing versions are analyzed for accuracy and consistency. A
new multi-cast approach is compared to the most commonly used single
cast method. Analysis comparisons are conducted in turbid and blue waterconditions. Examples of validation matchups with VIIRS ocean color data arepresented. With careful data collection and analysis, the Satlantic Hyperpro
profiling radiometer has proven to be a reliable and consistent tool forsatellite ocean color validation.

9111-37, Session 5

Remote real-time sensing technology for gaseoushydrocarbon concentration measurement in deep
water layers from joint Russian-Ukraine R&D teamAndrey Bashchenko, GeoSpex (Russian Federation); SergiyBaschenko, Institute of Physics (Ukraine)
For the purpose of gaseous hydrocarbons dissolved trace concentrations
detection and measurement, one can use the fact, that hydrocarbons
molecules are Raman active. That means, while probing laser radiation
propagates through water media, hydrocarbon molecules will scatter the
probing radiation with a characteristic frequency shift, inherent for thisparticular hydrocarbon. Part of this Raman scattered radiation will inevitably
be emitted in the direction of probing system, where it can be collected,
filtered by frequency to get rid of background and noise radiation, andmeasured to estimate hydrocarbons concentration.
Implementation of remote method requires resolution of the following
problem. Sea water is also Raman active itself, and it’s Raman spectra
overlaps Raman spectra of methane. Methane concentration in seawater isrelatively low, thus Raman shifted radiation of water is much higher thanthose of methane molecules.
Authors are going to solve this task during research.
In a physical sense, the method researched is based on the combinationof Raman spectroscopy and methods of modulation spectroscopy(spectroscopy derivatives, etc.). It is assumed that a certain (well-founded
and correct) their combination will combine their advantages, such as:
remoteness and selectivity inherent to the method of Raman scatteringand high selective sensitivity with high noise immunity inherent for themodulation (but at the moment only due absorbance - i.e. with strictly
limited range) spectroscopy methods.
At the moment research is in progress, with first results being obtainedfor investigation of Raman spectra of water, and investigation of Raman
phenomena for methane dissolved in water.

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring IV
Monday - Wednesday 5 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9112 Sensing Technologies for Global Health, Military Medicine, andEnvironmental Monitoring IV

9112-1, Session 1

9112-8, Session 1

NIH/NIDCR perspective on non-invasive diseasediagnostics based on oral fluids (Invited Paper)

Saliva-based molecular test for malaria
Sungano Mharakurwa, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)

Isaac R. Rodriguez-Chavez, Penny W. Burgoon, National Institute of
Dental and Craniofacial Research (United States)

No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9112-69, Session 1

KS-detect: solar-thermal PCR for smartphone
assisted diagnosis of Kaposi’s sarcoma in limited
resource settings and its potential application tousing oral fluids

9112-5, Session 1

Rapid saliva test for HIV/AIDS screening andmonitoring
Sarka O. Southern, Gaia Medical Institute (United States)

David Erickson, Li Jiang, Matthew Mancuso, Zhengda Lu, Cornell
Univ. (United States); Gunkut Akar, Ethel Cesarman, Weill Cornell
Medical College (United States)

No Abstract Available

In this talk, I will describe a method that harnesses sunlight to drive
chemical amplification of viral DNA and demonstrate that this enables lowpower smartphone-based molecular diagnostics in resource-limited settings.
The high power requirements and complexities of current polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) devices severely restrict their availability in low-infrastructure
settings. Even with the development of isothermal PCR techniques,
reports of power consumption have not improved over the last decade.
We eliminate the energy burden of thermal cycling and the need for manyelectrical components by converting sunlight directly into heat to power
PCR. Our system reduces power consumption by 2 orders of magnitude
compared to commercial products, enabling 70 h of battery life when usedwith a standard iPhone. Finally, we combine this with low-power methods
for DNA extraction and detection to demonstrate a strategy for nucleic
acid testing that is completely powered by sunlight and a smartphone.
This work combines solar energy and smartphone technology to addresssignificant engineering challenges in global health. As the most abundant
energy sources on Earth, sunlight is utilized here for the novel applicationof DNA amplification. Similarly, smartphones have quickly become nearlyubiquitous in many parts of the world and are finding an increasing number
of applications in medical diagnostics. By developing a PCR technique thatutilizes sunlight and smartphones, we hope to provide nucleic acid-based
diagnostics to the most resource-limited and remote regions of the world.

9112-6, Session 1

Wireless, quantitative, and universal lateral flow
test reader
Sophie Gerrick, Ray C. Delcher, Onur Mudanyali, Neven Karlovac,
Holomic LLC (United States)
Responding to the disease (e.g., HIV) markers and chemical/biological (e.g.,anthrax) agents, color changes and variations on immuno-chromatographic
lateral flow tests (rapid diagnostic tests - RDTs) indicate the presence ofthe threats and epidemics. We recently introduced a novel cell-phone
based quantitative lateral flow test reader that utilizes a cordless hardware
attachment and an android application running on the same cell-phone.
Integrated into the cloud using GSM and/or other wireless networks,
this rugged cell-phone reader enables quantitative analysis of immunochromatographic tests with exceptional performance, providing coefficientof variation (CV) smaller than 1% and limit of detection (LOD) of ~0.8%
optical density (OD).
The snap-on hardware attachment can be repeatedly attached-detachedto the cell-phone device and fully encloses the custom-designed optomechanical interface that is used to acquire the enhanced images of
rapid tests via the cell-phone camera. Weighing less than 8 oz., thereader attachment is powered by an additional cell-phone battery that isembedded into the same attachment. It can accommodate and evaluate
more than five different test types (e.g., anthrax, HIV, bacterial, afla-toxins,and cardiac rapid tests) using its smart tray design without any need forexternal mechanical components or adaptors. Running custom-designed
image processing algorithms, the cell-phone application rapidly processes
the raw images and generates a quantitative analysis of the test results
which can be uploaded to the cloud. This universal and quantitative
platform may provide a highly-accurate and sensitive tool to screen
emerging epidemics and other threats and contribute to generate a realtime spatiotemporal surveillance system.

9112-71, Session 1

Rapid noninvasive tests for diagnostics ofinfectious disease
Daniel Malamud, New York Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-72, Session 1

Micro- and nano-scale medical technologies for
Global Health applications

9112-7, Session 1

Programmable bio-nano-chip system for noninvasive disease diagnostics

Utkan Demirci, Harvard Medical School (United States)
No Abstract Available

John McDevitt, Rice Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
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9112-73, Session 1

9112-14, Session 2

Next-gen microblotting for confirmatory diseasediagnostics

Salivary biomarkers for modeling breast cancer
progression (Invited Paper)

Amy Herr, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States)

Charles F. Streckfus, The Univ. of Texas Health Science Ctr. at
Houston (United States)

No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9112-9, Session 2

9112-15, Session 2

Nanosensor for saliva based glucose monitoring

The diagnostic potential of bacterial glycan
recognition in saliva

Jonathan C. Claussen, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

Stefan Ruhl, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-10, Session 2

Oral microbiome: a role in dynamic proteomics ofwhole saliva

9112-17, Session 2

Top down protein analysis for characterizing
health and disease

Eva J. Helmerhorst, Boston Univ. (United States)
Human saliva is a complex human body fluid due to the various
contributions from exocrine as well as non-exocrine sources. The exocrine
sources are the salivary glands which produce oral fluid containing thesecretory proteins. Non-exocrine constituents are desquamated epithelial
cells, PMNs, microorganisms, and a serum-like transudate called gingival
crevicular fluid. The non-sterile oral environment causes substantial
proteolytic processing of salivary proteins. LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis of the <10
kD fraction of mixed saliva showed that many of the proteolytic peptides
were formed through a post-glutamine cleavage event. In search of theorigin of the proteases we observed that glutamine endoprotease activities
were negligible in sterile glandular salivary secretions, but highly enrichedin dental plaque. The microbial glutamine endoproteases did not only target
salivary but also dietary proteins that are rich in glutamines called gluten.
Gluten proteins are implicated in celiac disease, which is an inflammatory
disorder of the small intestine. Gluten proteins are difficult to digest by
mammalian digestive enzymes. One of the therapeutic approaches forceliac disease that are currently being pursued is to achieve fragmentationand neutralization of immunotoxic gluten epitopes through enzymatic
digestion. The newly discovered gluten-degrading oral microorganisms andtheir glutamine-specific endoproteases are promising new candidates to be
explored as novel therapeutic agents in the treatment of celiac disease andgluten-sensitivity.

Julian Whitelegge, Univ. of California, Los Angeles (United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-18, Session 3

Rehabilitation technologies for traumatic brain
injury and stroke (Invited Paper)
Mary E. Michel, National Institutes of Health (United States)
Rehabilitation aimed at TBI or stroke must start with accurate diagnosis
based on evolving brain changes, but finding biomarkers of brain “disease”
is challenging. Research on assessing brain-specific markers in blood, CSF
or saliva could provide rapid diagnosis and prevent second injury. Recent
findings from patients with repeated brain trauma indicate an evolving
neurodegeneration, which requires changing rehabilitation strategies toovercome worsening cognitive and motor deficits. Reliable biomarkers,
either from fluids or advanced imaging techniques, need to be developed,
simplified, and brought into clinical practice. Successful rehabilitation
requires knowledge of patients’ chage over time: are approaches working, isthe patient achieving goals, are other systems deteriorating, are additional
services needed? Assessing “brain change” will require new IT approaches
to storing, accessing and sharing data. To move rehabilitation forward
for TBI (and stroke) research is needed on biomarkers, patient-centeredtreatment, and data sharing.

9112-11, Session 2

Human saliva proteome: an overview (Invited
Paper)
Timothy J. Griffin, Univ. of Minnesota (United States)

9112-20, Session 3

No Abstract Available

The military’s approach to TBI and PTSD (Invited
Paper)

9112-13, Session 2

Geoffrey Ling, Uniformed Services Univ. of the Health Sciences(United States)

Saliva biomarkers in cardiovascular disease(Invited Paper)

No Abstract Available

Craig S. Miller, Univ. of Kentucky (United States)
No Abstract Available

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring IV

9112-21, Session 3

human physiology, including changes in bone remodeling, muscle atrophy,
immune system status, sensorimotor integration, circadian rhythms, andfluid distribution in the body. Current missions are approximately 6 months
in length, but preparation for long-duration exploration missions will
require additional examination of these physiological changes over longer
periods of time. NASA uses microgravity-compatible aspects of remote
medicine to enable better diagnosis and treatment of crewmembers, butcurrently the medical and physiological research systems still rely heavily
on return of physiological samples (blood, urine, and saliva) from the ISS toground laboratories for analysis. NASA is developing additional analytical
instrumentation onboard the ISS to improve both diagnostic and researchcapabilities. To reduce risk to the crewmembers during sample collection
as well as to improve crew compliance and participation, NASA is also
exploring the expanded use of saliva as a physiological fluid for both clinicaltests and research studies.

Sports-related traumatic brain injury: prevention
and rehabilitation (Invited Paper)
Barry D. Jordan, Sports Concussion Institute (United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-22, Session 3

Clinical detection of brain damage in TBI
Ava M. Puccio, Univ. of Pittsburgh Medical Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-26, Session 4

Drug stability analyzer for long duration
spaceflights

9112-23, Session 3

New approach to neurorehabilitation: cranial
nerve noninvasive neuromodulation (CN-NINM
technology)

Stuart R. Farquharson, Chetan S. Shende, Real-Time Analyzers, Inc.
(United States)
Crewmembers of current and future long duration spaceflights require
drugs to overcome the deleterious effects of weightlessness, sickness andinjuries. Unfortunately, recent studies have shown that some of the drugs
currently used may degrade more rapidly in space, losing their potency
before their expiration dates. To complicate matters, the degradation
products of some drugs can be toxic. Consequently there is a need foran analyzer that can determine if a drug is safe at the time of use, as wellas to monitor and understand space-induced degradation, so that drug
types, formulations, and packaging can be improved. Towards this goal wehave been investigating the ability of Raman spectroscopy to monitor andquantify drug degradation. Here we present preliminary data by measuring
acetaminophen, azithromycin, epinephrine, lidocaine, and their degradation
products, as pure samples, commercial products, mixtures, and duringforced degradation reactions.

Y. Danilov, K. Kaczmarek, M. Tyler, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison(United States)
Cranial-Nerve Non-Invasive NeuroModulation (CN-NINM) is a primaryand complementary multi-targeted rehabilitation therapy that initiates
the recovery of multiple damaged or suppressed brain functions that are
affected by neurological disorders. It is deployable as a point-of-need device(portable tongue neurostimulator, PoNSTM). The device is simple and easy
to use by lay users following initial patient training in an outpatient clinic.
It may be easily combined with all existing rehabilitation therapies, andmay reduce or eliminate need for more aggressive invasive procedures ordecrease the total medication intake. CN-NINM uses sequenced patternsof electrical stimulation on the tongue. Our hypothesis is that CN-NINM
induces neuroplasticity by noninvasive stimulation of two major cranial
nerves: trigeminal, CN-V, and facial, CN-VII. This stimulation excites anatural flow of neural impulses to the brainstem (pons varolli and medulla),and cerebellum, to effect changes in the function of these targeted
brain structures, extending to corresponding nuclei of the brainstem.
CN-NINM represents a synthesis of a new non-invasive brain stimulation
technique with applications in physical medicine, cognitive, and affective
neurosciences. Our new stimulation method appears promising fortreatment of a full spectrum of movement disorders, and for both attention
and memory dysfunction associated with traumatic brain injury.

9112-29, Session 4

Non-invasive monitoring of hydration status in
warfighters
Sarka O. Southern, Gaia Medical Institute (United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-24, Session 3

9112-30, Session 4

Saliva-based biomarkers for TBI diagnostics
No Abstract Available

Prioritizing military-relevant toxicants and futuresensing needs for exposure assessment andadverse health effects (Invited Paper)

9112-25, Session 4

Jonathan D. Stallings, U.S. Army Ctr. for Environmental HealthResearch (United States)

Sarka O. Southern, Gaia Medical Institute (United States)

No Abstract Available

Monitoring physiology during spaceflight (Invited
Paper)

9112-32, Session 4

Virginia E. Wotring, Universities Space Research Association/NASA
JSC (United States)

Raman spectroscopic analysis of whole sheep’s
blood acetylcholinesterase

During spaceflight missions, NASA crewmembers experience months ofordinary medical events, as well as certain syndromes associated with theunusual environment of spaceflight. It is well documented from current andpast missions that many spaceflight-associated alterations are observed in393+1 360 676 3290

Phillip G. Wilcox, U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Ctr.
(United States) and Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States); Jin U.

·

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring IV
Kang, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)

Pölönen, Univ. of Jyväskylä (Finland)

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an enzyme used to break down theneurotransmitter acetylcholine. Exposure to organophosphate nerve
agents and insecticides can inhibit AChE levels which can lead to a rangeof physiological responses including restlessness and agitation to seizures,coma, and eventually death. There are currently two main methods used
to measure AChE activity, both of which involve drawing a blood sample
from a patient, adding reagents observing a chemical reaction over several
minutes. A drop in AChE activity levels can indicate OP exposure even
before symptoms are present and a quick test without any consumables
would allow for more frequent monitoring of AChE activity and could reduce
the time between exposure and beginning treatment. In this effort, we
examined the ability to use ultraviolet and visible Raman spectroscopy as
a rapid and reagentless method to measure AChE activity in whole blood.
Raman spectra were taken of whole sheep’s blood with varying levelsof acetylcholinesterase inhibition using 229 and 532 nm laser excitation
wavelengths. AChE levels were inhibited using the organophosphates
malathion, paraoxon-ethyl, and octamethyldiphosphoramide and confirmed
using the standard Ellman assay. The AChE activity level was assessed with
the Raman spectra being analyzed using a partial least squares calibration.
Using this technique it was possible to predict a trend in AChE activity using
the 229 nm excitation spectra which could potentially be used to trigger a
blood draw and more accurate laboratory method.

The previous research includes contradictory results of the separation ofhuman blood from other materials with a hyperspectral camera. For theforensic and military medicine the most critical question is whether two
different person’s blood can be separated with a hyperspectral camera
and for which reason this would be possible. According to a previous
study, human blood can be separated from some other materials but for
example sweet soda may in some occasions cause false interpretations
with a hyperspectral camera. However, according to another study, threedifferent persons’ and a cow’s blood can be separated from each other witha SWIR type of hyperspectral camera. For finding out which results aretrue in this study the separation of blood is repeated by making even moredetailed tests of four persons’ blood with NIR, SWIR and MWIR cameras
and by analyzing the same blood samples with other kinds of tests as well.
The tests try to eliminate factors which might lead into false interpretationof the hyperspectral analysis of blood and to identify some possible
ingredients inside the blood which might explain the positive results. Someof those ingredients might not be permanent and due to that reason thehyperspectral image of the same person’s blood might not be the sameat different times either. The tests are made in cooperation with medical
professionals and with forensic investigators.

9112-34, Session 4

NASA laboratory analysis for manned exploration
missions

9112-67, Session 4

Military target task performance after wavefrontguided (WFG) and wavefront-optimized (WFO)
photorefractive keratectomy (PRK)

Michael Krihak, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz (United States);
Tianna Shaw, NASA Ames Research Ctr., Moffett Field (UnitedStates)Tana Maurer, Oanh Nguyen, Greg Mueller, Dawne Deaver,
Christopher Howell, Steve Moyer, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Denise Ryan, Rose K.
Sia, Richard Stutzman, Joseph Pasternak, Kraig Bower, Warfighter
Refractive Surgery and Research Ctr. (United States)

No Abstract Available

9112-68, Session 4

Rapid, high-sensitivity diagnostic assay for viral
DNA in saliva: translation from space to patientson EarthMajor decisions regarding life and death are routinely made on the modern
battlefield, where visual function of the individual soldier can be ofcritical importance in the decision-making process. Glasses in the combat
environment have considerable disadvantages: degradation of visualperformance can occur as dust and sweat accumulate on lenses during a
mission; visual performance can diminish as lenses become increasingly
scratched and pitted; during periods of intense physical trauma, glasses canbe knocked off the soldier’s face and lost or broken. Although refractive
surgery offers certain benefits on the battlefield when compared towearing glasses, it is not without potential disadvantages. As a byproductof refractive surgery, elevated optical aberrations can be induced, causing
decreases in contrast sensitivity and increases in the symptoms of glare,
halos, and starbursts. Typically, these symptoms occur under low light level
conditions, the same conditions under which most military operations are
initiated. With the advent of wavefront aberrometry, we are now seeing
correction not only of myopia and astigmatism but of other, smaller opticalaberrations that can cause the above symptoms. In collaboration with
the Warfighter Refractive Surgery and Research Center at Fort Belvoir
and Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, the overall objective of
this study is to determine the impact of wavefront guided (WFG) versus
wavefront-optimized (WFO) photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) on military
task visual performance. Psychophysical perception testing was conducted
before and after surgery to measure each participant’s performance
regarding target detection and identification using thermal imagery. The
results are presented here.

Duane L. Pierson, Satish K. Mehta, NASA Johnson Space Ctr.
(United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-31, Session Posters-Tuesday

Environmental data and remote sensing as an
early warning system for dengue and malaria
Md. Z. Rahman, Kadik Abdel Hamid, LaGuardia Community College(United States); Leonid Roytman, The City College of New York
(United States)
Malaria and Dengue fever,the two most common diseases transmitted
by mosquitoes, lead to millions of serious illnesses and deaths each year.
Because the mosquito vectors are sensitive to environmental conditions
such as temperature, precipitation, and humidity, it is possible to map
areas currently or imminently at high risk for disease outbreaks using
satellite remote sensing. The proposed research intends to develop the first
operational geospatial early warning system for malaria and dengue by
bringing together geographic information system (GIS) tools, artificial neuralnetworks (ANN) for efficient pattern recognition, the best available groundbased epidemiological and vector ecology data, and current satellite remotesensing capabilities.

9112-35, Session 4

The challenges of analysing blood stains withhyperspectral imaging

We use Vegetation Health Indices (VHI) derived from visible and infrared

Jaana R. Kuula, Heikki J. Rinta, Hannu-Heikki Puupponen, Ilkka

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
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radiances measured by satellite-mounted Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometers (AVHRR) and available weekly at 4-km resolution as one
predictor of malaria and dengue fever risk in Bangladesh. We focus on
Bangladesh as an area of study where malaria and dengue fever areserious public health threats. The technology developed however, will belargely portable to other countries in the world and will be applicable toother disease threats. The malaria and dengue fever early warning system
will be a boon to international public health by enabling resources to befocused where they will do the most good to stop pandemics, and will be aninvaluable decision support tool for national security assessments regarding
potential troop deployment in regions susceptible to disease outbreaks.

effects of RF radiation emitted from a cellular telephone on the embryonicdevelopment of zebra fish. The expression of two genes, shha and hoxB9a,that are key to the early development of the fish will be examined; bothgenes have homologs in humans as well as in other model organisms. The
goal of this study is to provide data on the expression of these two genes
during early embryonic development in D. rerio and any effects that cell
phone radiation has on them.

9112-51, Session Posters-Tuesday

Remote laser spectroscopy of oil and gas
deposits

9112-49, Session Posters-Tuesday

Sergey V. Kascheev, National Research Univ. of Information
Technologies, Mechanics and Optics (Russian Federation)

Simulation studies in biochemical signaling andenzyme reactions
Mary C. Vagula, Gannon Univ. (United States); Sudarshan R.
Nelatury, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College (United States);Charles F. Nelatury, Drexel Univ. (United States)

Raman lidar with spectral resolution of l/D l > 1000 mounted on helicopter
board have been demonstrated in prospecting of methane leaks ontranscontinental pipe. Such ultraspectral resolution allows to eliminate thespectral lines overlap under significant difference of gas concentrations in
the atmosphere.

Biochemical pathways characterize various biochemical reaction schemesthat involve a set of species and the manner in which they are connected.
Determination of schematics that represent these pathways is an importanttask in understanding metabolism and signal transduction. Examples ofthese

Laser remote spectroscopy availability for airborne search of the oil-and-gas
deposits has been examined. Essential reduction of terms and economic
expenses for search of new hydrocarbonic deposits is reached by complex
carrying out of laser sensing, geological and seismic survey. The heavyhydrocarbon gases (HHG) are the oil-gas deposits indicator agents.

Pathways are: DNA and protein synthesis, and production of several macromolecules essential for cell survival. A sustained feedback mechanism arises
in gene expression and production of mRNA that lead to protein synthesis
if the protein so synthesized serves as a transcription factor and becomesa repressor of the gene expression. The cellular regulations are carriedout through biochemical networks consisting of reactions and regulatory
proteins.

Experiments were carried out under the CARS circuit. Hermetic chamber
filled by mixture of such gases and air served as the simulator ofhydrocarbon halo was irradiated by Ti:Saphire and Nd:YAG lasers. Thus
pulses of femtosecond (l = 800 nm) and nanosecond (l = 1064 nm)
duration were focused in a chamber. Spectra were registered with use of
the EPP200 compact optical fiber spectrometer. Back scattering antiStocks radiation got on a spectrometer and received spectrum was further
processed on a computer. Pressure of methane and propane chosen as
indicator substances of hydrocarbon deposits was made ~ 0.01 Torr in
0.2 m-length chamber that was corresponded to 10m-thickness of anreal halo with concentration at level of 5•1012 sm-3, i.e. 200 ppb, foreach of these gases. Since the Ti:Saphire laser has a wide spectrum, thecoherent anti-Stock scattering of radiation occurs from corresponding
Fourier-components of pump (l = 800 nm) and Stocks signal (l = 1064nm), removed on Stocks shift size of researched gases from ND:YAG laser
wavelength. Therefore it was possible to observe an occurrence of newcomponents about 650 nm, various for different HHG (fig.1), in anti-Stockscattering spectrum.

Systems biology is a relatively new area that attempts to describe thebiochemical pathways analytically and develop reliable mathematicalmodels for the pathways. A complete understanding of chemical reaction
kinetics is prohibitively hard thanks to the nonlinear and highly complex
mechanisms that regulate protein formation, but attempting to numericallysolve some of the governing differential equations seems to offer significant
insight about their biochemical picture. To validate these models, one canperform simple experiments in the lab.
This paper proposes some simulation studies and presents interesting
results in enzyme parameter estimation. MATALB software is used to write
the script and to obtain numerical solutions. The statistical techniqueused is non-linear regression. Also we wish to look into certain oscillatory
mechanisms by solving differential equations of Elowitz and Leibler.

As estimations have shown the reliability of HHG detection can exceed 80 %at the integration method of seismic prospecting and laser remote sensing
in CARS circuit with the use of Nd:YAG laser (1064 nm, 3J, 6 ns, 300 Hz)

9112-50, Session Posters-Tuesday

9112-52, Session Posters-Tuesday

Health hazards of radio wave frequency radiation
on gene expression during early embryonicdevelopment using zebra fish

Investigation of plasmonic enhancement ofchlorophyll emission in optical waveguide foralgae detection

Mary C. Vagula, Ryan Harkless, Muntather Alquraishi, Gannon Univ.
(United States)

Jimmy Wang, National Sun Yat-Sen Univ. (Taiwan)
This study aims to integrate lately development of Plasmonic enhancementof nano-metal with optical fiber technology; manly to exploit fiber
technology from telecommunication to sensing applications. Although theoptical fiber technology in telecommunication is quite mature, there are stillquite a lot research and development have to be done in order to enable its
practical utilization in great extent.

With the reality of increasing and unavoidable exposure to radio-wave
frequency (RF) radiation, it is imperative that the effects of such radiation
on living organisms be well understood. In particular, it is critical tounderstand any effects that RF radiation may have on gene expression
during embryonic development, as this is a crucial and delicate time for any
organism. Proper understanding of the genes that are expressed during
this time is very important. Owing to any effects that RF radiation may
have on gene expression, it is essential to understand any carcinogenic
or teratogenic properties that it may show. As a model organism, zebra
fish (Danio rerio) have been studied extensively, and their value in studies
of gene expression cannot be overstated. This study will observe the395+1 360 676 3290

In this paper, we like to address the followings:(1) Fabrication of nano-silver incorporated fiber probe: two main issues areloss and nano-silver distribution in optical fiber waveguide.
(2) Plasmon-enhancement effectiveness of silver on chlorophyll
photoemission: the main interest is to study the extent of enhancement·

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring IV
factor and mechanism as function of spectra overlap between silver’s
emission and chlorophyll’s absorption.

equilibrium points, computing the jacobian, computing the characteristic
polynomial for the jacobian, and applying the Routh-Hurwitz theorem tothe characteristic polynomial. Finally, using SMT-Solvers is possible to makeautomatically checks of satisfiability, validity and quantifiers elimination
being these computations very useful to analyse complicated epidemic
models.

(3) Exploiting the fiber probe with optimal Plasmon-enhancement design
for algae detection and making a comparison to current products.

9112-53, Session Posters-Tuesday

Analysis of a generalized model for influenza
including differential susceptibility due toimmunosuppression

9112-55, Session Posters-Tuesday

Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Martin Rodriguez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Recently, a mathematical model of pandemic influenza was proposed
including typical control strategies such as antivirals, vaccination andschool closure; and considering explicitly the effects of immunity acquired
from the early outbreaks on the ulterior outbreaks of the disease. In suchmodel the algebraic expression for the basic reproduction number (without
control strategies) and the effective reproduction number (with control
strategies) were derived and numerically estimated. A drawback of thismodel of pandemic influenza is that it ignores the effects of the differential
susceptibility due to immunosuppression and the effects of the complexityof the actual contact networks between individuals. We have developed ageneralized model which includes such effects of heterogeneity. Specificallywe consider the influence of the air network connectivity in the spread of
pandemic influenza and the influence of the immunosuppression when
the population is divided in two immune classes. We use an algebraic
expression, namely the Tutte polynomial, to characterize the complexity of
the contact network. Until now, The influence of the air network connectivity
in the spread of pandemic influenza has been studied numerically, but notalgebraic expressions have been used to summarize the level of network
complexity. The generalized model proposed here includes the typicalcontrol strategies previously mentioned (antivirals, vaccination and school
closure) combined with restrictions on travel. For the generalized model thecorresponding reproduction numbers will be algebraically computed andthe effect of the contact network will be established in terms of the Tutte
polynomial of the network.

Computational Algebraic Geometry is applied to the analysis of various
epidemic models for Schistosomiasis and Dengue, both, for the case without
control measures and for the case where control measures are applied. The
models were analyzed using the mathematical software Maple. Explicitly
the analysis is performed using Groebner basis, Hilbert dimension and
Hilbert polynomials. These computational tools are included automaticallyin Maple. Each of these models is represented by a system of ordinary
differential equations, and for each model the basic reproductive number(R_0) is calculated. The effects of the control measures are observed by thechanges in the algebraic structure of R_0, the changes in Groebner basis,the changes in Hilbert dimension, and the changes in Hilbert polynomials.
It is hoped that the results obtained in this paper become of importancefor designing control measures against the epidemic diseases described.
For future researches it is proposed the use of algebraic epidemiology toanalyze models for airborne and waterborne diseases.

Computational algebraic geometry of epidemic
models9112-56, Session Posters-Tuesday

Using Tutte polynomials to characterize sexual
contact networks
Juan José Cadavid Muñoz, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Tutte polynomials are used to characterize the dynamic and topologyof the sexual contact networks, in which pathogens are transmitted as
an epidemic. Tutte polynomials provide an algebraic characterization of
the sexual contact networks and allow the projection of spread control
strategies for sexual transmission diseases. With the usage of Tutte
polynomials, it allows obtaining algebraic expressions for the basic
reproductive number of different pathogenic agents. Computations aredone using the computer algebra software Maple, and it’s GraphTheory
Package. The topological complexity of a contact network is represented
by the algebraic complexity of the correspondent polynomial. The change
in the topology of the contact network is represented as a change in thealgebraic form of the associated polynomial. With the usage of the Tutte
polynomials, the number of spanning trees for each contact network can
be obtained. From the obtained results in the polynomial form, it can besaid that Tutte polynomials are of great importance for designing andimplementing control measures for slowing down the propagation of sexualtransmitted pathologies. As a future research line, the analysis of weighted
sexual contact networks using weighted Tutte polynomials is considered.

9112-54, Session Posters-Tuesday

Using computer algebra and SMT-solvers toanalyse a mathematical model of cholera
transmission
Mariana Trujillo Arredondo, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
We analyze a mathematical model for the transmission of cholera. The
model is already defined and involves variables such as the pathogen
agent, which in this case is the bacterium Vibrio cholera, and the humanpopulation. The human population is divided into three classes: susceptible,
infectious and removed. Using Computer Algebra, specifically Maple weobtain two equilibrium states: the disease free state and the endemic state.
Using Maple it is possible to prove that the disease free state is locallyasymptotically stable if and only if R0 < 1. Using Maple it is possible to provethat the endemic equilibrium state is locally stable when it exists, it is to say
when R0 > 1.

9112-57, Session Posters-Tuesday

Using the package Red-Log of the Computer algebra system Reduce andthe SMT-Solver Z3Py it is possible to obtain numerical conditions for themodel. The formula for the basic reproductive number makes a synthesis
with all epidemic parameters in the model. Also it is possible to makenumerical simulations which are very illustrative about the epidemic pattersthat are expected to be observed in real situations. We claim that thesekinds of software are very useful in the analysis of epidemic models giventhat the symbolic computation provides algebraic formulas for the basic
reproductive number and such algebraic formulas are very useful to derive
control measures. For other side, computer algebra software is a powerfultool to make the stability analysis for epidemic models given that the
all steps in the stability analysis can be made automatically: finding the396

SPIE DSS 2014

Computing Ro in a population with heterogeneity
in sexual activity and proportionate mixing using
a STM-solver
Natalia A. Gutierrez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
A model to determinate the reproductive basic number, detonated Ro,
for the case of population with heterogeneity in sexual activity andproportionate mixing is solved using computer algebra and SMT solvers.
Specifically Maple and Z3 were used. The code for the solution of the·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring IV
represented by the Bessel function K0.

model was written in Z3-Python, but it can also be played by Z3-SMT-Lib.
R0 represents an algebraic synthesis of every epidemiological parameter.
Numerical simulations were done to prove the effectiveness of the modeland the code. The algebraic structure of R0 suggests the possible control
measurements that should be implemented to avoid the propagation of
the sexual transmitted diseases. The obtained results are important on thecomputational epidemiology field. As a future investigation, it is suggested
to apply the STM solvers to analyze models for other kinds of epidemic
diseases.

The spatial and temporal distribution of the number of infected individuals
is computed and plotted for some numerical simulations. All computations
were made using software Computer algebra, specifically Maple.
It is expected that the analytical results that we obtained allow the designof treatment rooms and ventilation systems that reduce the risk of spread oftuberculosis.

9112-61, Session Posters-Tuesday

9112-58, Session Posters-Tuesday

Optimal control in a model of malaria withdifferential susceptibility

Bessel filters applied in biomedical image
processing

Isabel Montoya Arroyave, Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Juan P. Mesa Lopez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

A malaria model with differential susceptibility is analyzed using the optimal
control technique. In the model the human population is classified assusceptible, infected and recovered. Susceptibility is assumed dependent
on genetic, physiological, or social characteristics that vary between
individuals. The model is described by a system of differential equations that
relate the human and vector populations, so that the infection is transmitted
to humans by vectors, and the infection is transmitted to vectors by humans.
The model considered is analyzed using the optimal control method when
the control is the use of insecticide-treated nets, and the optimality criterion
is to minimize the number of infectious humans, while keeping the cost as
low as possible. It is determine the effects of differential susceptibility in the
proposed control mechanism and it is determine the algebraic form of thebasic reproductive number of the model. All computations are performed
using computer algebra, specifically Maple. It is claimed that the analyticalresults obtained are important for the design and implementation of control
measures of malaria. It is suggested some future investigations as theapplication of the method to other vector-borne diseases such as dengue
or yellow fever, and is suggested the possible application of free software ofcomputer algebra like Maxima.

A magnetic resonance is an image obtained by means of an imaging test
that uses magnets and radio waves to create body images, however, in some
images it’s difficult to recognize organs or foreign agents present in the
body. With these Bessel filters the objective is to significantly increase theresolution of magnetic resonance images taken to make them much clearer
in order to detect anomalies and diagnose the illness. As it’s known, Bessel
filters appear to solve the Schrödinger equation for a particle enclosed in acylinder and affect the image distorting the colors and contours of it, thereinlies the effectiveness of these filters, since the clear outline shows moredefined and easy to recognize abnormalities inside the body.

9112-59, Session Posters-Tuesday

Application of a Morse filter in the processing of abrain angiogram
Santiago Venegas Bayona, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
The angiograms are frequently used to find anomalies in the blood vessels.
Hence, for improving the quality of the images with an angiogram, a Morsefilter will be implemented (based on the model of the Morse Potential) in abrain’s vessels angiogram using both softwares Maple ® and ImageJ ®.

9112-62, Session Posters-Tuesday

Using quantum filters to process images ofdiffuse axonal injury

It will be shown the results of applying a Morse filter to an angiogram of thebrain vessels. First, the image was processed with ImageJ using the plug-in
Anisotropic Diffusion 2D and then, the filter was implemented.

Mateo Pineda Osorio, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

As it is illustrated in the results, the edges of the stringy elements areemphasized. Particularly, this is very useful in the medical image processingof blood vessels, like angiograms, due to the narrowing or obstruction which
may be caused by illness like aneurysms, thrombosis or other diseases.

Some images corresponding to a diffuse axonal injury (DAI) are processedusing several quantum filters such as Hermite, Bessel and Morse. Diffuse
axonal injury is a particular, common and severe case of traumaticbrain injury (TBI). DAI involves global damage on microscopic scale ofbrain tissue and causes serious neurologic abnormalities. New imaging
techniques provide excellent images showing cellular damages related to
DAI. Said images can be processed with quantum filters, which accomplish
high resolutions of dendritic and axonal structures both in normal andpathological state. Using the Laplacian operators from the new quantum
filters, excellent edge detectors for neurofiber resolution are obtained.
Image quantum processing of DAI images is made using computer algebra,
specifically Maple. Quantum filter plugins construction is proposed asa future research line, which can incorporated to the ImageJ software
package, making its use simpler for medical personnel.

9112-60, Session Posters-Tuesday

Using special functions to model the propagationof airborne diseases
Daniela D. B. M. Bolaños Marin, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Some special functions of the mathematical physics are using to obtain amathematical model of the propagation of airborne diseases. In particular
we study the propagation of tuberculosis in closed rooms and we model the
propagation using the error function and the Bessel function. In the model,
infected individual emit pathogens to the environment and this infect others
individuals who absorb it.

9112-36, Session 5

Next generation disease diagnostics: advancesin laboratory and field-expedient technologies(Invited Paper)

The evolution in time of the concentration of pathogens in the environment
is computed in terms of error functions. The evolution in time of thenumber of susceptible individuals is expressed by a differential equationthat contains the error function and it is solved numerically for different
parametric simulations. The evolution in time of the number of infectedindividuals is plotted for each numerical simulation. On the other hand,the spatial distribution of the pathogen around the source of infection is397+1 360 676 3290

Stephen M. Hewitt, National Cancer Institute (United States)
No Abstract Available·

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
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9112-70, Session 5compact portable chip-based capillary electrophoresis system employing
capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (C4D) as analternative detection method compared to the commonly used opticaldetection based on laser-induced fluorescence will be introduced. Typicaltarget molecules such as small ionic species like Li+, Na+, K+, SO42- orNO3-, organic acids in wine whose concentration and ratio to each otherdocuments the wine quality, or caffeine or phosphate in coke were detected.
Results from sample matrices like various beverages as water, coke, tea,wine and milk, water from heaters, environmental samples and blood will bepresented.

Current NIH funding opportunities in opticalimaging and spectroscopy (Invited Paper)
Richard Conroy, National Institutes of Health (United States)
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the largest funder of biomedical
research in the world, supporting thousands of research projects andscientists. One of the 27 Institutes and Centers that comprise NIH has the
specific mission to support biomedical imaging and bioengineering, thoughmany of the other Institutes have significant programs in these areas. NIBIB
has an annual budget of ~$330 million and the five goals of: 1) supporting
development of innovative biomedical technologies, 2) enabling patientcentered health care, 3) advancing our understanding of cellular andmolecular disease processes, 4) developing accessible medical technologies
and 5) training the next generation of interdisciplinary researchers. This
presentation will give an overview of some of the current work being funded
by NIBIB, some of the current funding opportunities available at NIBIB, as
well as highlighting some of the trans-NIH initiatives including Big Data to
Knowledge and BRAIN. Special attention will be given to opportunities thatare relevant to the optical imaging and spectroscopy community.

The instrument, the lab-on-a-chip as consumable, and the application andprotocols established on the system will be highlighted. Fast analysis timesof a few minutes to seconds, detection limits in the µM range, and therealization as portable system offers the system itself as ideal tool for onsite analytical tasks.

9112-39, Session 6

Critical stages of a biodetection platform
development from sensor chip fabrication tosurface chemistry and assay development

9112-74, Session 5

Yildiz Uludag, TUBITAK UME (Turkey)

Quantification of cellular disease biomarkers
using digital image analysis

Once viewed solely as a tool to analyse biomolecular interactions,biosensors are gaining widespread interest for diagnostics, biologicaldefense, environmental and quality assurance in agriculture/food industries.
Advanced micro fabrication techniques have facilitated integration of
microfluidics with sensing functionalities on the same chip making system
automation more convenient. Biosensor devices relying on lab-on-a-chip
technologies and nanotechnology has attracted much of attention inrecent years for biological defense research and development. However,compared with the numerous publications and patents available, thecommercialization of biosensors technology has significantly lagged behind
the research output. This presentation reviews the reasons behind theslow commercialisation of biosensors with an insight to the critical stagesof a biosensor development from the sensor chip fabrication to surface
chemistry applications and nanotechnology applications in sensing withcase studies.

James Evans, Gaia Medical Institute (United States)
No Abstract Available

9112-75, Session 5

Saliva-based multiplex technology: applications
for oral clinical diagnostics in HIV/AIDS
Jennifer Webster-Cyriaque, The Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill (United States)

Portable capillary electrophoresis-system foron-site food analysis with lab-on-a-chip based
contactless conductivity detection (Invited Paper)

In addition, the presentation will include the description of a new
biodetection platform based on Real-time Electrochemical Profiling (REP)
that comprises novel electrode arrays and nanoparticle based sensing.
The performance of the REP platform has been tested for the detectionof Planktothrix agardhii, one of the toxic bloom-forming cyanobacteria,
usually found in shallow fresh water sources that can be used for humanconsumption. The optimised REP assay allowed the detection of P. agardhii
DNA down to 6 pM. This study, showed the potential of REP as a new
biodetection platform for toxic bacteria and hence further studies will
involve the development of a portable multi-analyte biosensor based on
REP technology for on-site testing.

Claudia Gärtner, René Sewart, Richard Klemm, Holger Becker,
microfluidic ChipShop GmbH (Germany)

9112-40, Session 6

A portable analytical system for the characterization of liquid environmental
samples and beverages in food control was realized. The key element is
the implementation of contactless conductivity detection on lab-on-a-chipbasis ensuring the system to be operated in a label free mode without any
necessity of analyte staining.

Chemoselective surface attachment of
antimicrobial peptides and its effects on
interfacial behavior

While chip-based capillary electrophoresis has established itself as one of
the fastest and potentially convenient methods for the analysis of larger
molecules in many biotechnological and clinical applications, the large andeconomically attractive field of analysis of foodstuff and environmental
screening has not been addressed with the same intensity. This is the more
surprising, as increased regulatory requirements, the commercial structureof the food industry and the inherent perishable nature of the ingredientsmake this field an ideal candidate for a small and fast analysis system which
can be operated on-site at the food production site.

Stella H. North, Christopher So, Kenan Fears, Chris R. Taitt, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)

No Abstract Available

9112-38, Session 6

Protein and peptide-based biological recognition elements are valuable
agents for biosensors used for biodefense systems. The utilization of suchbiomolecules for detection purposes relies on the ability to immobilize
them on the surface of a detection platform in a predictable and reliable
manner that facilitates target binding. Numerous immobilization methods
have been used to improve the performance of protein and peptide-based
biosensors and strategies; however, the molecular details of how surface
attachment affects structure and activity require further investigation to

A fully integrated chip-based capillary electrophoresis device realized as

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring IV
establish general approaches for obtaining consistent sensor surfaces. Thishas been largely due to the lack of analytical techniques. Using surface
infrared and circular dichroic spectroscopies, we examined the orientationand secondary structure of peptide tethered to solid support. Different
tethering parameters were investigated by substituting a cysteine residue to
the N-terminus, C-terminus, or at two central points in cationic antimicrobial
peptides, and its effects on antimicrobial activity against gram-positiveand gram-negative bacteria. Spectroscopic analyses showed that surface
immobilization may drive transition of peptides secondary structures,
resulting in different interfacial behaviors. We have begun to gain insight
into how surface attachment may have direct implications for peptide
presentation and function and is an important advance in preparing a robust
sensing interface.

Gaussian-based filter bank. The joint CLBP and WLD feature set, which
achieves a classification accuracy of 90.1%, shows superior performance
than of those previously reported in the literature.

9112-43, Session 6

Software system for computing material andstructural properties of bone and muscle in thelower extremity from PQCT
Sokratis Makrogiannis, Delaware State Univ. (United States) andNational Institutes of Health (United States); Luigi Ferrucci, National
Institutes of Health (United States)

9112-41, Session 6

Peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography (pQCT) imaging technology
facilitates the non-invasive assessment of material, structural and functional
properties of the peripheral human skeleton using low radiation doses.
Herein we present a software system for hard and soft tissue quantificationin the lower leg with encouraging accuracy and precision using pQCT
imaging data. Our interest is focused on segmentation and identificationof bone, muscle and fat regions which are key components for thecomputation of densitometric and geometric variables of each regional
tissue type. The computed material parameters are mineral density averages
and standard deviations, and the structural parameters are areas andprincipal moments for each tissue type. We validated our method againstreference area and densitometric measurements over a set of test images
at three tibia sites (proximal, medial, distal). Reference measurements were
produced by a clinical specialist who executed a supervised image analysis
workflow. Linear regression model parameters and squared correlation
coefficient (R-squared) values measure the agreement level between
the two methods. Validation shows very good agreement with referencematerial and structural variables of muscle and bone. The R-squared values
between the automated and semi-manual method for muscle area anddensity are 0.997 and 0.85 (N=12). The corresponding R-squared values
for cortical bone area and density are 0.85 and 0.72 respectively (N=27).
Another advantage of this method is that it is highly reproducible because
manual operations have been minimized. Finally, its software design allows
installation on different computer platforms and frontends (i.e., standalone
console application, or plug-in GUI component).

Data-driven classification of HEp-2
immunofluorescence patterns for autoimmune
disease diagnosis
Victor V. Pomponiu, Harishwaran Hariharan, Univ. of Pittsburgh(United States)
Currently, the Indirect Immunofluorescence (IIF) technique is widely used
to identify infections that affect the human autoimmune system. Essentially,
the approach consists in the examination of the patient serum in order tofind antinuclear autoantibodies (ANAs). However, it is a subjective methodthat hinges on the experience and expertise of the physician. Therefore,
devising an accurate computer aided classification system is of great
importance for the detection of autoimmune infections. In this paper, we
present a novel method for automatic classification of the staining patternsof IIF cell images. To achieve this objective, we combine a robust andscalable multi-class classifier with several discriminative visual features
extracted from a set of images obtained through a multiresolutional
decomposition based on bilateral filtering. The feature set comprises the cooccurrence local binary patterns (coLBP), used to characterize the textural
structure of the HEp-2 cell images, along with several statistical measures
such as area, eccentricity, mean, standard deviation, entropy and contrast.
After the features are computed, a k nearest neighbor (NN) classifier, witha similarity measure as distance, is used to perform the classification. In thisstudy the capability of the method is assessed on a large dataset comprising13596 cell images pertaining to six most frequently occurred strain classes,
i.e., homogeneous, centromere, speckled, nucleolar, numem, and golgi. The
result computed with 5 fold cross validation shows the feasibility and clinicalefficiency of our automated classification system.

9112-44, Session 6

Label-free single cancer marker protein detection
using a nanoplasmonic-photonic hybrid
whispering gallery mode biosensor

9112-42, Session 6

Stephen Holler, Fordham Univ. (United States); Venkata R. Dantham,Curtis Barbre, David Keng, Polytechnic Institute of New York
Univ. (United States); Vasily Kolchenko, New York City College ofTechnology (United States); Stephen Arnold, Polytechnic Instituteof New York Univ. (United States)

Automated detection of pulmonary emphysema
in CT images of the lungs
Victor V. Pomponiu, Harishwaran Hariharan, Univ. of Pittsburgh(United States)

The growth of tumors within the body often leads to the presence orelevated level of protein markers within bodily fluids. These protein
markers circulate throughout the body and may serve as indicators thatwarn of early stage infection or the reemergence of the disease; a canaryof sorts, provided one can detect their presence. We recently reported
label-free single protein detection using a nanoplasmonic-photonic hybrid
resonant microcavity. Plasmonic-enhanced resonant systems have proveneffective at being highly sensitive and highly responsive to changes intheir environment. While small single viruses have been detected with aplasmonic-photonic hybrid whispering gallery mode sensor, individual
proteins have remained beyond the limits of detection. This limitation waslargely imposed by the assumed morphology of the plasmonic nanoparticle;
a smooth sphere. In reality, the plasmonic nanoparticles have textured
surfaces with peaks, valleys and regions of high curvature. As a result, theelectric field in the vicinity of a plasmon resonance may be considerably

Visual assessment and the relative area of voxels below a specific threshold(RA) are the common methods used to examine chronic obstructive
pulmonary diseases (COPD), such as bronchitis and emphysema, in
computed tomography (CT) images. However these approaches are
subjective, lack automation and their performances depends on theradiologist experience. Computerized evaluation of pulmonary CT
images has emerged as an alternative that can efficiently assess the twoconstituents of COPD. In this study we investigate the use of complete
local binary patterns (CLBP) and Webber local descriptor (WLD) as joint
histogram features in a classification framework which aims to characterize
the textural patterns in CT images. The classification is carried out using
the support vector machines (SVMs) with a radial base function as thekernel. The proposed texture-based scheme is tested on the CT emphysema
database which contains a set of 168 regions of interest (ROIs) including
various emphysema patterns and normal tissue, and compared to RA and399+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9112: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
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water treatments in order to determine levels of toxicity with respect to theenvironment.

higher in this rough morphology than in the smooth surface case. This
realization has led us to be able to detect the binding of individual protein
markers to the surface of the hybrid resonator. The enhanced detection
capability was demonstrated using small protein molecules (BSA (66 kDa)
and Tg (660 kDa)), which resulted in the observation of a larger (2.4? - 15?)
response than expected from this smooth surface model and allows us toproject the limit of detection of the whispering gallery mode sensor to be 5
kDa.

9112-47, Session 6

Estimation of suspended sedimentconcentrations by spectral reflectance: a fieldsurvey on the Yellow River (Invited Paper)

9112-45, Session 6

Liqin Qu, Xiusheng Yang, Daniel Civco, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)Miniature polymer Fabry-Perot sensor with dual
optical cavities for simultaneous pressure andtemperature measurements

The dynamic sediment distribution on the large river with dams constructed
often attract wide attention due to their possible adverse environmental
impacts. Sediment transportation modeling and accurate evaluationof environmental effects are often hindered by the lack of sedimentmeasurements with spatial details. This study aimed to investigate themethod to estimate the suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs)
from on-site spectral measurements. The study investigated the spectral
signature of river water between natural channel and Sanmenxia reservoir
on the Yellow River. A field spectral survey was conducted with on-site
spectral and SSCs measured by spectroradiometer and sampling ofwater. The result confirmed an exponential relationship between SSC andreflectance that was reported in the previous study on a tank experiment.
A single band model (R = 0.8, RMS E = 0.28g/l) was built for estimate
SSC using band setting same as the band 4 of Landsat 7 image (760nm900nm). We also apply the Spectral Mixing Algorithm(SMA) from the tankexperiment to the on-site spectral measurements. The result shows the SMA
models were better than single band model, but the improvement was notvery significant. This study could provide critical instructional assistance for
estimating SSC directly from remote sensing data.

Hyungdae Bae, Miao Yu, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates)We present a miniature polymer Fabry-Perot sensor fabricated at the tip ofan optical fiber for simultaneous pressure and temperature measurements.
The pressure sensing cavity is an extrinsic air cavity created on a polymer
housing by using an optically aligned UV-molding process. A metal/polymer
composite diaphragm is exploited as the pressure transducer for achieving ahigh pressure sensitivity while maintaining a miniature sensor size. Anotherintrinsic polymer cavity is used for temperature sensing. The added polymer
layer makes it possible to achieve a high temperature sensitivity with ashort cavity length due to the large thermal expansion of the polymer(~ 90 times larger). The overall sensor size is around 150 µm in diameterand 120 µm in length. Experimental study shows that the sensor exhibitsa good linearity over a pressure range of 1 psi to 5 psi with a pressure
sensitivity of 0.010 µm/kPa at 26°C, and a temperature range of 26.0 °C to50.0 °C with a temperature sensitivity of 0.006 µm/°C. An optical signal
processing method is developed to retrieve the two cavity length changes,
which is demonstrated to have a better resolution and a faster speed thanthe conventional method. The sensor is expected to benefit many fronts
that require simultaneous pressure and temperature measurements withminimum intrusiveness, especially for biomedical applications due to its
small size and high pressure and temperature sensitivities.

9112-48, Session 6

Antarctic sea ice temperature monitoring using
passive microwave SSM/I data
Liu Yanxia, Wuhan Univ. (China)

9112-46, Session 6

Sea ice is a significant indicator of global climate change, and sea ice
temperature is one of the most important factors for sea ice observation.
Passive microwave remote sensing technology is seldom susceptible tothe impact of clouds and has certain advantages for the special climatic
environment of polar regions. Sea ice temperature was inverted using eachmonth of 2003-2011 Southern Hemisphere SSM/I data based on radiationtransfer iteration algorithm in this paper. The validity of results was verified
by sea ice temperature derived from AMSR-E, and results of Great Wall
Station and Zhongshan Station were analyzed, the result presents highretrieval precision and a consistent trend compared with the past climatechange.

Prototype spectral analysis of water samples
for monitoring and treatment of public water
resources (Invited Paper)
Samuel G. Lambrakos, Maria Lee, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Constantine Yapijakis, The Cooper Union for the
Advancement of Science and Art (United States); Scott A. Ramsey,
Lulu Huang, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Andrew
Shabaev, George Mason Univ. (United States); Lou Massa, HunterCollege (United States)
Experimental measurements conducted in the laboratory, involving
hyperspectral analysis of water samples taken from public water resourcesin the New York City metro area, have motivated a reevaluation of issues
concerning the potential application of this type of analysis for water
monitoring, treatment and evaluation prior to filtration. One issue concerns
hyperspectral monitoring of contaminants with respect to types and relative
concentrations. This implies a need for better understanding the statisticalprofiles of water contaminants in terms of spatial-temporal distributions ofelectromagnetic absorption spectra ranging from the ultraviolet to infrared,
which are associated with specific water resources. This issue also implies
the need for establishing correlations between hyperspectral signatures andtypes of contaminants to be found within specific water resources. Anotherissue concerns the use of absorption spectra for determining changes inchemical and physical characteristics of contaminants after application of400

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Conference 9113: Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9113 Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments

9113-1, Session 1

harsh environment applications such as flame detection, imaging, space
navigation and astronomy. For applications such as sun sensors, where UV
light from the sun is used to determine spacecraft attitude and altitude as
well as orientation in deep space, the detectors may be exposed to both
ionizing radiation and extreme temperature swings. UV photodetectors
based on gallium nitride (GaN) materials are an attractive option. Witha wide bandgap of 3.4 eV, advantages of GaN-based materials include
direct bandgap for better spectral selectivity, cutoff wavelength selection
based on ternary alloy mole fraction, high current density, thermal stability,
and radiation hardness. To determine the robustness of GaN-based UV
photodetectors in extreme harsh environments, the effects of ionizing
radiation and temperature excursions are examined. The initial materials
platform is thin film GaN-on-sapphire substrates. UV photodetectors in a
metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) configuration are fabricated on the GaN
substrates, exposed to a total ionizing dose of 100 krad from a Cs-137 sourcewith no shielding (J.L. Shepherd and Associates) and annealed per military
specifications. The photoresponse of irradiated detectors is compared with
control samples. Additionally, samples are exposed to various temperature
ranges to evaluate detector performance with and without exposure toharsh environmental conditions. Several materials for the photodetector
anode and cathode are also evaluated.

The effects of gamma irradiation on microhotplates with integrated temperature sensing
diodes (Invited Paper)
Laurent A. Francis, Nicolas André, Pierre Gérard, Univ. Catholiquede Louvain (Belgium); Zeeshan Ali, Florin Udrea, Cambridge CMOS
Sensors (United Kingdom); Denis Flandre, Univ. Catholique deLouvain (Belgium)
Micro-hotplates are MEMS structures of interest for low-power gas
sensing, lab-on-chips and space applications, such as micro-thrusters.
Micro-hotplates usually consist in a Joule heater suspended on a thin-film
membrane while thermopiles or thermodiodes are added as temperature
sensors and for feedback control. The implementation of micro-hotplates
using a Silicon-On-Insulator technology makes them suited for cointegration with analog integrated circuits and operation at elevatedenvironmental temperatures in a range from 200 to 300 °C, while the heater
allows thermal cycling in the kHz regime up to 700 °C, e.g. necessary forthe activation of gas sensitive metal-oxide on top of the membrane, with
mW-range electrical power. The demonstrated resistance of micro-hotplates
to gamma radiations can extend their use in nuclear plants, biomedical
sterilization and space applications.

9113-5, Session 2

Silicon carbide solid-state photomultiplier for UV
light detection

In this work, we present results from electrical tests on micro-hotplates
during their irradiation by Cobalt-60 gamma-rays with total doses up to
20 kGy. The micro-hotplates are fabricated using a commercial 1.0 µm
Silicon-On-Insulator technology with a Tungsten Joule heater, which allows
power-controlled operation above 600 °C with less than 60 mW, andtemperature sensing silicon diodes located on the membrane and on thebulk. We show the immunity of the sensing platform to the harsh radiation
environment. Beside the good tolerance of the thermodiodes and themembrane materials to the total radiation dose, the thermodiode located on
the heating membrane is constantly annealed during irradiation and keeps
a constant sensitivity while the thermodiode located in the bulk can berestored entirely by post-irradiation annealing.

Stanislav Soloviev, Peter Sandvik, Sabarni Palit, Sergei Dolinsky, GE
Global Research (United States)
The detection of signals with high signal-to-noise in the deep UV
wavelength range is desired for various applications, including flame
detection, biological and chemical detection, as well as for the detection of
jet engines and missile plumes. For detection of low photon flux, solid-state
photomultipliers (SSPMs) may offer advantages compared to conventional
photomultiplier tubes, including lower supply voltages, smaller volume
and greater robustness. Due to its wide bandgap, silicon carbide (SiC) is asuitable material for UV detection at elevated temperatures. Here, we reporton the design and fabrication of SiC-based SSPMs for detection of faint UVlight.

9113-2, Session 1

AlN-based resistive random access memory forharsh environment

The SiC SSPM consists of an array of individual SiC APDs connectedin parallel. Each individual APD (pixel) has its own quenching resistor
connected in series. Unlike silicon, modern SiC substrates have structuraldefects such as basal plane and threading dislocations. It has been shownthat these defects are responsible for higher leakage currents in APDs
operating in linear mode or for higher dark count rates in APDs operating inGeiger mode. In this work, in order to minimize the impact of the structuraldefects on device performance, the diameter of the APD pixels was
optimized based on empirical correlation between the number of defects
per device and the dark count rate of SiC devices. Device design parameters
as well as optical and electrical performance will be presented

Po-Kang Yang, National Taiwan Univ. (Taiwan)
An AlN-based resistive random access memory (RRAM) device withtransmittance above 80%, (On/Off) ratio over than 10, and radiation
hardness is demonstrated. The operation voltages (reset & set voltages)
are within ±3 V, and multilevel storage capabilities can be achieved bycurrent compliance modification. Moreover, the AlN-based RRAM device
can be operated under the proton irradiation fluences to up 1015 cm-2,
showing it potential for harsh electronics due to their superior stability
under radiation bombardment. The obtained results presented could not
only be a fundamental for see-through electronic devices, but also for harshenvironment.

9113-6, Session 2

4H-SiC PN diode for extreme environment
temperature sensing applications

9113-3, Session 1

Nuo Zhang, Chih-Ming Lin, Yi Rao, Univ. of California, Berkeley(United States); Debbie G. Senesky, Stanford Univ. (United States);
Albert P. Pisano, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States)

Effects of radiation and temperature on gallium
nitride (GaN) metal-semiconductor-metal
ultraviolet photodetectors

An integrated sensing module capable of operating at high temperatures up
to 600 °C would be beneficial to a number of industrial applications, suchas geothermal energy plant, aircraft engines, and industrial gas turbines.
Silicon Carbide (SiC) is a promising semiconductor for harsh environment
sensing applications due to its excellent electrical and physical properties.
The most simple temperature sensor that can be integrated with a circuit is

Heather Chiamori, Minmin Hou, Debbie G. Senesky, Stanford Univ.
(United States)
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation photodetectors are often used in extreme

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Conference 9113: Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments

transient drifts in the ZPO at high temperature are not repeatable.

based on semiconductor diodes. SiC Schottky diodes have been proposed
previously as temperature sensors that can work at temperatures up to
400 °C. However, SiC Schottky diodes suffer from high leakage current atelevated temperatures.

Extensive analyses confirmed that the ZPO instability was driven largely bythermodynamics and zone reaction kinetics within the metal/semiconductor
junction. This resulted in the optimization of the contact metallization to
suppress such reactions enough to produce minimal shifts in the ZPO.

In this work, a 4H-SiC pn diode has been designed, fabricated andcharacterized. The device can stably operate in a temperature range from
20 °C up to 600 °C. In forward biased mode, the forward voltage of the
4H-SiC pn diode shows linear dependence on temperature at a constantcurrent. This dependence is utilized to sense temperature variations and the
proposed device achieves a sensitivity of 3.5 mV/°C, which is higher than
the reported sensitivities of SiC Schottky diodes. These results indicate thatan integrated circuit compatible temperature sensor based on 4H-SiC pn
diode is a promising technology for harsh environment sensing applications.

9113-10, Session 3

Mechanical properties of MEMS materials:
reliability investigations by the combination of
mechanical and HR-XRD characterizations withenvironmental testing (Invited Paper)

9113-7, Session 2

Tobias Bandi, Ctr. Suisse d’Electronique et de Microtechnique SA(Switzerland) and Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne(Switzerland); Herbert R. Shea, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale deLausanne (Switzerland); Antonia Neels, Ctr. Suisse d’Electronique etde Microtechnique SA (Switzerland)

Sensors for high temperature displacement,
deformation and strain measurement: a review
Jiuhong Jia, East China Univ. of Science and Technology (China)

The reliability of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) inherently
is of multifaceted nature due to the variety of influencing factors suchas the operation modes, material properties, material interactions andthe environmental conditions. Despite this challenging complexity, theperformance and aging of devices is ultimately defined by the materials
used. For microsystems with moving parts the mechanical properties areof special interest: For instance, resonant structures are at the heart of
MEMS such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, pressure sensors, oscillatorsand resonant-mode filters. Their resonance characteristics are directly
linked to the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the moving element.
Furthermore, structures under mechanical load or residual stresses arevulnerable to plastic deformation, fracture and creep.

High temperature components are widely applied in aviation, power
plant, petroleum and chemical industries. In these fields, high temperature
displacement, deformation and strain measurement has been widely used
to identify the presence, location, and severity of damage in components,
owing to its sensitive characteristic to local defects. Displacement,
deformation and strain have different definitions, but they can be easily
calculated by corresponding equations. Therefore, recent publications
regarding sensors applied in elevated temperature to measure displacement,
deformation and strain are reviewed in this paper together. DDS is chosen
to represent displacement, deformation and strain in the later review inorder to simplify description. Firstly, the development histories of several
typical high temperature DDS sensors are presented. Then, the performanceparameters and respective characteristics of the latest research withdifferent physical principles are listed, and some generalized methods
on the selection of DDS sensors are concluded. Finally, the developmentlevels of different kinds of sensors are generally analyzed by comparing
published paper numbers in recent ten years. It can be concluded that the
paper numbers about fiber optic sensors are much more than other typesof sensors. Moreover, suggestions for future work are discussed in order tohelp students and early stage researchers.

This paper reviews and discusses recent advances and remaining challenges
on methods to investigate mechanical properties of MEMS materials by the
combination of mechanical characterization, high-resolution x-ray diffraction
methods (HR-XRD), structural characterization and environmental testing.
The measurement of resonance frequency variations of single-material
microresonators allows monitoring minute variations of the elasticity inthe ppm range induced by environmental hazards. Mechanical tests areused to investigate the failure distribution caused by mechanical loading.
X-ray diffraction techniques enable analyzing residual strains, defects anddeformations with high accuracy in crystalline materials. By using devices
and test specimens with operation modes, fabrication processes andgeometries which are relevant for functional MEMS devices, it is possible
to account for characteristic size effects and fabrication-induced defectdistributions.

9113-9, Session 3

High temperature sic pressure sensors with low
offset voltage shift (Invited Paper)

Each of the test methods provides information on specific aspects of themechanical properties of materials, and by combining them in-situ and exsitu, a comprehensive understanding of the effect of hazardous conditions
on MEMS materials can be achieved.

Robert S. Okojie, NASA Glenn Research Ctr. (United States);
Dorothy Lukco, Vantage Partners, LLC (United States) andNASA Glenn Research Ctr. (United States); Ender Savrun, Sienna
Technologies, Inc. (United States)

9113-11, Session 3

We report the development of silicon carbide (SiC) piezoresistive pressure
sensors with very low (~0.25 mV) shift in the zero pressure offset voltage(ZPO). Further, thermal cycling between room temperature and 500 ºC for
500 hours showed the transient ZPO drift to be minimal. This achievement
reduces the error magnitude of the pressure sensor full-scale output voltage
to ~ 0.43 % and ~ 1.4 % at 25 ºC and 500 ºC, respectively.

Development of an aluminum nitride-siliconcarbide material set for high-temperature sensor
applications (Invited Paper)
Benjamin A. Griffin, Scott Habermehl, Peggy J. Clews, Sandia
National Labs. (United States)

Pressure sensors are increasingly needed to monitor and measure pressurein high temperature (>500 ºC) environments. Applications of thesesensors range from jet engine combustion chamber pressure monitoring
for the purpose of real time recognition of the onset of thermo-acoustic
instabilities to the future measurement of Venus atmospheric pressure
where the temperature is 480 ºC. While recognized for its robustness oversilicon at high temperature, SiC piezoresistive sensors do suffer from ZPO
instability with increasing temperature. Since the ZPO is used as reference
during pressure measurement, deviation from the calibrated value induces
measurement error. Temperature compensation is impossible, since the402

SPIE DSS 2014

A number of important energy and defense-related applications would
benefit from sensors capable of withstanding extreme temperatures(>300°C). Examples include sensors for automobile engines, gas turbines,
nuclear and coal power plants, and petroleum and geothermal welldrilling. Military applications, such as hypersonic flight research, would
also benefit from sensors capable of 1000°C. Silicon carbide (SiC) has
long been recognized as a promising material for harsh environment·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9113: Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments

sensors and electronics because it has the highest mechanical strength ofsemiconductors with the exception of diamond and its upper temperature
limit exceeds 2500°C, where it sublimates rather than melts. Yet today,
many advanced SiC MEMS are limited to lower temperatures because they
are made from SiC films deposited on silicon wafers. Other limitations
arise from sensor transduction by measuring changes in capacitance orresistance, which require biasing or modulation schemes that can withstandelevated temperatures. We are circumventing these issues by developing
sensing structures directly on SiC wafers using SiC and piezoelectricaluminum nitride (AlN) thin films. SiC and AlN are a promising material
combination due to their high thermal, electrical, and mechanical strengthand closely matched coefficients of thermal expansion. AlN is also a nonferroelectric piezoelectric material, enabling piezoelectric transduction
at temperatures exceeding 1000°C. In this presentation, the challenges
of incorporating these two materials into a compatible MEMS fabrication
process are presented. The current progress and initial measurements of thefabrication process are shown. The future direction and the need for further
investigation of the material set are addressed.

sensors in harsh environments such as automotive engines, gas turbines,
and geothermal/oil wells, where elevated temperatures (250°C-600°C)
largely limit battery usage and maintenance for these sensor modules
becomes much more difficult and cost-ineffective.
In this work, an aluminum nitride/cubic silicon carbide (AlN/3C–SiC)
composite diaphragm enabling high-temperature energy harvesting frompulsed pressure sources for powering harsh-environment wireless sensors
is presented. The micromachined energy harvester utilizing a unimorph
circular diaphragm composed of thin film piezoelectric AlN and 3C–SiC,
yields an output power density of 87 ?W/cm2 under 1.48-psi pressure pulses
at 1 kHz. In addition, the fabricated device has been stably operated andcharacterized at temperature as high as 320°C, a thermal condition known
to cause failure for lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT)-based devices due todielectric de-poling.
The presented device represents the first energy-harvesting power sourcewith experimentally verified stable operation at elevated temperatures>300°, showing great potentials for a sustainable power source that canbe easily integrated with high temperature SiC-based circuitry and MEMS
sensors, and therefore allow autonomous wireless sensing for a truelong-lived, set-and-forget WSN for harsh environment applications. Work
towards harvester demonstration at temperatures up to 600°C and analysis
on temperature effects is underway.

9113-12, Session 3

Characterization of gallium nitride surface
acoustic wave resonators in radiation
environments

9113-14, Session 3

Emerging GaN-based HEMTs for mechanicalsensing within harsh environments

Ashwin Shankar, Debbie G. Senesky, Stanford Univ. (United States)
Space environments contain harsh conditions such as extreme variation intemperature and radiation exposure. Conventional electronic components
are prone to failure and drift when operated within space environments.
As a result, electronic components are often shielded with heavy andcomplex packaging. New material platforms that leverage the radiationand temperature tolerance of wide bandgap materials can be used todevelop robust electronic components without packaging. One suchcomponent that is vital for communication, navigation and signal processing
on space exploration systems is the on-board timing reference, whichis conventionally provided by a quartz crystal resonator and is prone todamage from radiation and temperature fluctuations. This paper presents
the characterization of microfabricated, wide bandgap, gallium nitride (GaN)
surface acoustic resonators (SAW) resonators in radiation environments.
Ultimately, in combination with the two-dimensional gas (2DEG) layer
at the AlGaN/GaN interface, high electron mobility transistor (HEMT)
structures can provide a monolithic solution for timing electronics onboard space systems. As a first step, 1-port and 2-port SAW resonators aremicrofabricated on a GaN-on-sapphire substrate to explore the impact ofirradiation on the device performance. The SAW resonator was subjected to
extreme temperature conditions to study the change in frequency response
characteristics. Finite element modeling of the resonator has revealed aself-compensating property at cryogenic temperature. In addition, GaN-onsapphire samples were irradiated with 150 krads of radiation using a Cs-137
source. The measured frequency response and X-Ray diffraction (XRD)
spectrum of the GaN SAW resonators microfabricated from the irradiatedsamples are presented.

Helmut Köck, Stanford Univ. (United States) and
Kompetenzzentrum Automobil- und Industrieelektronik GmbH(Austria); Caitlin A. Chapin, Stanford Univ. (United States); Clemens
Ostermaier, Oliver Haeberlen, Infineon Technologies Austria AG(Austria); Debbie G. Senesky, Stanford Univ. (United States)
GaN-based HEMTs have been investigated thoroughly as a potential
alternative to Si-based power transistors by academia and industry in thelast decade. It is well known that GaN-based HEMTs outperform Si-based
technologies in terms of power densities, area specific on-state resistanceand switching speed. Recently, wide band gap material systems have stirreda profound interest regarding their use in various sensing fields ranging fromchemical, mechanical, biological to optical applications due to their superiormaterial properties. For harsh environments, wide band gap sensor systems
are deemed to be superior compared to conventional Si-based systems. A
new sensor generation will enable engineers the design of highly efficient
propulsion concepts versatility applicable to automotive, aeronautics andastronautics systems.
In this paper, the advances of GaN-based HEMTs for mechanical sensing
applications are discussed. Of particular interest are multilayered
heterogeneous structures where spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization
between the interface results in the formation of a 2-dimensional electrongas (2DEG), achieving large carrier densities in the order of 1e13 cm-2.
Experimental results presented focus on the signal transduction understrained operating conditions in harsh environments. It is shown thata conventional AlGaN/GaN HEMT shows a strong dependence of draincurrent under strained conditions, thus representing a promising futuresensor platform. Ultimately, this work explores the sensor performance of
conventional GaN HEMTs and leverages existing technological advances
available in power electronics device research. The results presented
have the potential to boost GaN-based sensor development through the
integration of HEMT device and sensor design research.

9113-13, Session 3

High temperature energy harvesters utilizing
ALN/3C-SiC composite diaphragms
Yun-Ju Lai, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States); Debbie G.
Senesky, Stanford Univ. (United States); Albert P. Pisano, Univ. of
California, San Diego (United States)

9113-15, Session 4

The growing interest in autonomous wireless sensor networks (WSNs)
for condition-based structural health monitoring, where wireless sensors
are distributed to target sites without considering to replace their powersources, spurs an obvious need of sustainable energy-harvesting based
power sources to substitute conventional lifespan-limited batteries.
Particularly, such power solutions become more essential for wireless403+1 360 676 3290

Monitoring corrosion in reinforced concrete
structures (Invited Paper)Peter Kung, QPS Photronics Inc. (Canada); Maria Cominici, McGill·

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Conference 9113: Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments

Univ. (Canada)

over electrical-based floating element techniques [3–6] including immunityfrom EMI and the ability to operate in a conductive fluid medium.

Many defects can cause deterioration and cracks in concrete; these areresults of poor concrete mix, poor workmanship, inadequate design,
shrinkage, chemical and environmental attack, physical or mechanicaldamage, and corrosion of Reinforcing Steel (RS). We want to develop asuite of sensors and system that can detect that corrosion is taking place
in RS and inform owners how serious the problem is. By understanding thestages of the corrosion process, we can develop special sensor that detects
each transition. First, moisture ingress can be monitored by a fiber optics
humidity sensor, then ingress of Chloride, which acts as a catalyst andaccelerates the corrosion process, converting iron into ferrous compounds.
We need a fiber optics sensor which can quantify Chloride ingress over time.
Converting ferric to ferrous causes large volume expansion and cracks. Suchpressure build-up can be detected by a Fibre-optics pressure sensor.

Packaging for optical sensors presents significant challenges. The bulky
nature and size of conventional free-space optics often limit their use to an
optical test bench, making them unsuitable for harsh environments [7]. The
optical package developed in this research utilizes an array of optical fibers
mapped over the moiré fringe. The fiber bundle approach results in a robust
package that reduces the overall size of the optics, mitigates vibration
between the sensor and optoelectronics and enables in situ measurement.
The optical package using the moiré amplification is evaluated using test
setups and through modeling. An optical test bench is constructed tosimulate the movement of the moiré fringe on the floating element. Highresolution images of the optical fringe and optical fibers are combined insimulation to model the lateral displacement of the fringe. The performanceof several fringe estimation algorithms are studied and evaluated.

Finally, cracks will introduce acoustic emission, which can be detected bya high frequency sensor made with phase-shift gratings. This paper will
discuss the progress in our development of these special sensors and also
our plan for a field test by the end of 2014. We recommend that we deploy
these sensors by visually inspecting the affected area and by identifying
locations of corrosion; then, work with the designers to identify spots thatwould compromise the integrity of the structure; finally, drill a small hole inthe concrete and insert these sensors. Interrogation can be done at fixedintervals with a portable unit.

Based on the optical study, the optical package and post-processing
algorithms are implemented on an actual device. Initial device
characterization using this approach results in a device sensitivity of 12.4
nm/Pa.
References:[1] N. Hutchins, T. B. Nickels, I. Marusic, and M. S. Chong, “Hot-wire spatial
resolution issues in wall-bounded turbulence,” Journal of Fluid Mechanics
635(2009), 103–136 (2009) [doi:10.1017/S0022112009007721].
[2] J. Naughton and M. Sheplak, “Modern Developments in Shear-StressMeasurement,” Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38(6-7), 515–570 (2002).

9113-17, Session 4[3] Y. Li, M. Papila, T. Nishida, L. Cattafesta, and M. Sheplak, “Modeling andoptimization of a side-implanted piezoresistive shear stress sensor,” in SPIE,San Diego, CA (2006).

Rainfall compensation scheme in distributed
optical-fiber vibration sensor engineering system[4] V. Chandrasekharan, J. Sells, D. P. Arnold, and M. Sheplak,“Characterization of a MEMS-based floating element shear stress sensor,” in47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit (2009).

Hui Zhu, Chao Pan, Xiaohan Sun, Southeast Univ. (China)
Recently, distributed optical-fiber vibration sensing technique has been
widely used to locate broken points and detect intrusion in the field suchas underground pipeline monitoring and perimeter security, and more
and more practical systems are implemented. However, it is difficult todistinguish between normal disturbance and environmental impact whensensing fiber is exposed to the harsh climatic environment, because noises
caused by harsh climatic drown the sensing signals. Rainfall is obviously an
important factor which can produce the large noise in the rainy season. In
this paper, we demonstrated a scheme for compensating the signal withlarge noise induced by rainfall in the distributed optical-fiber vibration
sensor engineering system (DFVSES).

[5] J. Sells, V. Chandrasekharan, J. Meloy, M. Sheplak, H. Zmuda, and D. P.
Arnold, “Microfabricated silicon-on-Pyrex passive wireless wall shear stresssensor,” in 2011 IEEE SENSORS Proceedings, pp. 77–80, Ieee, Limerick,Ireland (2011) [doi:10.1109/ICSENS.2011.6127352].
[6] J. Meloy, J. Griffin, J. Sells, V. Chandrasekharan, L. N. Cattafesta, and
M. Sheplak, “Experimental Verification of a MEMS Based Skin Friction
Sensor for Quantitative Wall Shear Stress Measurement,” in 41st AIAA Fluid
Dynamics Conference and Exhibit(June), pp. 1–18, Honolulu, Hawaii (2011).
[7] S. Horowitz, T. A. Chen, V. Chandrasekaran, K. Tedjojuwono, L. Cattafesta,
T. Nishida, and M. Sheplak, “A wafer-bonded, floating element shearstress sensor using a geometric Moiré optical transduction technique,” inTransducers 2004, pp. 13–18, Hilton Head (2004).

The DFVSES with rainfall compensation is made up of two subsystems
using a common optical source and same optical circuit, one of which is thesensing subsystem and another is the reference one, both can produce thenoise signals caused by rainfall. The fiber cable in sensing subsystem is layon the perimeter as the sensing element, and the fiber cable in reference
subsystem is shorter and fixed on a funnel which should be only disturbed
by rainfall. By analyzing spectrum of the noise signals produced by rainfall
in the reference subsystem, and comparing the output signals of the two
subsystems, the vibration signals can be extracted through denoising theoutput signals of the sensing subsystems. We set up the experimental
system, and the results show the scheme can reduce effectively the impactof the rainfall on the sensing signal.

9113-19, Session 4

Development of a sapphire optical pressure
sensor for high-temperature applications
David A. Mills, Dylan Alexander, Ghatu Subhash, Mark Sheplak, Univ.
of Florida (United States)
This research presents the fabrication and packaging of a sapphire opticalpressure sensor for high-temperature applications. Currently available
instrumentation poses significant limitations on the ability to achieve realtime, continuous measurements in high-temperature environments suchas those encountered in industrial gas turbines and high-speed aircraft.
For these applications, fiber-optic sensors provide several advantages overtraditional electrical sensing methods including being passive, immune
to electromagnetic interference, and nonconductive. Sapphire further
enhances these qualities due to its high chemical inertness and operating
temperature range; however, a lack of well-established micromachining
processes necessitates the development of innovative processes to enable
the fabrication of three-dimensional mechanical structures.

9113-18, Session 4

A miniaturized optical package for shear stressmeasurements in harsh environments
Tai-An Chen, David A. Mills, Vijay Chandrasekharan, Mark Sheplak,
Univ. of Florida (United States)
We report the development of a time-resolved direct shear stress sensing
technique using an optical moiré transduction technique for harshenvironments. The floating-element-based sensor is a lateral-position sensor
that is micromachined to enable sufficient bandwidth and to avoid spatial
aliasing [1,2]. The optical transduction approach offers several advantages

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The fiber-optic lever transduction mechanism employed utilizes thedeflection of a circular platinum-coated sapphire diaphragm to modulate
the light reflected back to a single send/receive sapphire optical fiber. A·

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Conference 9113: Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments

10 ps, 355 nm wavelength ultra-short pulse laser is used to pattern thesapphire back cavity for the sensor with minimal thermal damage using apulse overlap of 86% and laser fluence of 4.48 J/cm2. The 7 mm diameter,
50 μm thick diaphragm is attached using a novel thermocompression
bonding process based on spark plasma sintering technology. Bonds using
platinum as an intermediate layer are achieved at a temperature of 1200°C
with a hold time of 5 min. Initial characterization of the bond interface using
a simple tensile test resulted in a strength in excess of 12 MPa. The packaged
sensor enables continuous operation up to 900°C with a resonance of 22.1
kHz and theoretical sensitivity of 0.12 ?V/V/Pa.

information regarding the location of the fractures which were conducting
the tracer between wellbores. Sandia is developing a high-temperatureelectrochemical sensor capable of measuring tracer concentrations andpH downhole on a wireline tool. The goal of this effort is to collect realtime pH and ionic tracer concentration data at temperatures up to 225 °C
and pressures up to 5000 psi. In this paper, we will present a prototype
electrochemical sensor and data showing the measurement of Li+, Cs+, F-,
and I- concentrations at high temperature and pressure in a laboratory scaleautoclave.

9113-22, Session 59113-20, Session 5

Modeling and fabrication of a low cost passive
wireless temperature sensor using metamaterials

Robust MEMS gyroscope for oil and gas
exploration (Invited Paper)

Hasanul Karim, Diego Delfin, Mohammad Arif I. Shuvo, Raymond C.
Rumpf, Ryan B. Wicker, Ahsan Choudhuri, Yirong Lin, The Univ. of
Texas at El Paso (United States)

David Lin, Todd Miller, GE Global Research (United States)
To satisfy the performance and reliability requirement of a MEMS basedharsh environment sensor, the sensor development needs to depart fromthe classic method of single-discipline technology improvement. In thispaper, the authors will describe a Microsystem-based design methodology
which considers simultaneously multiple technology domains and achieves
performance optimization at the system level to address the harshenvironment sensing challenge. This is demonstrated through specificexamples of investigating a robust MEMS gyroscope suitable for hightemperature and high vibration environments such as down-hole drillingfor Oil and Gas applications. In particular, the different mechanisms oftemperature-induced errors in MEMS gyroscope are discussed. The error
sources include both the direct impact of the gyroscope dynamics bytemperature and the indirect perturbation by temperature-induced package
stress. For vibration and shock induced failure, the error contributions fromthe low frequency and high frequency contents are discussed. Different
transducer designs with equivalent rate sensitivity can vary with several
orders of magnitude in terms of the susceptibility to mechanical vibration.
Also shown are the complex interactions among the gyroscopic transducer,
packaging and the control electronics, resulted from these temperatureand vibration error sources. The microsystem-based design methodology isable to capture such complex interactions and help improve the gyroscope
temperature and vibration performance.

Wireless passive temperature sensors are receiving increasing attention
due to the ever-growing need of energy efficient and precise monitoringof temperature in high temperature energy conversion systems such as gas
turbines and coal-based power plants. Unfortunately, the harsh environment
such as high temperature and corrosive atmosphere present in thesesystems has significantly limited the reliability and increased the cost of
current solutions. Therefore, this paper presents the design, simulation andmanufacturing process of a low cost, passive, and wireless temperature
sensor that can withstand high temperature and harsh environment. The
temperature sensor was designed following the principle of metamaterials
by utilizing Closed Ring Resonators (CRR) in a dielectric matrix. The
proposed wireless, passive temperature sensor behaves like an LC circuit,which has a resonance frequency that is temperature dependent. A full wave
electromagnetic solver Ansys Ansoft HFSS was used to perform simulations
to determine the optimum dimension and geometry of the sensor unit. Bothceramic-binder based 3D printing and metal-die compression were used
to fabricate the sensor. Testing will be performed and compared with thesimulation results to demonstrate the temperature sensing capabilities ofthe fabricated sensor.

In contrast to other efforts in harsh environment sensing which focus on
specific domains of technologies, the authors strive to demonstrate theneed and advantage of addressing MEMS performance and reliability inharsh environment from a Microsystem perspective.

9113-23, Session 5Open architecture health monitoring and analysis
for large structures and a distributed network ofsynchronized strain sensors

9113-21, Session 5

James Morrison, Robert Klug, Jonathan Williams, McQ, Inc. (UnitedStates)Development of a downhole tool for measuringreal-time concentration of ionic tracers and pH in
geothermal reservoirs

McQ Inc. is a leading provider of high performance, advanced technology
unattended ground sensor (UGS) systems. Our research spans two
decades of investigating technologies suitable for automatically detecting,imaging, and tracking targets. This also includes novel data processing andcommunications expertise gained through the development of classification
algorithms and network protocols specifically designed for low power
operation, accurate sensing of targets, and reliable notification. Through two
independent programs, we have developed a structural health monitoring(SHM) sensor system and a software toolset for analyzing data collectedfrom a variety of SHM sensor systems. Our investigations and engineering
have lead to two operational prototype systems that are capable ofcollecting synchronized structural health data and providing valuable
information for planning the operation and maintenance of Naval ships.

Grzegorz G. Cieslewski, Ryan F. Hess, Scott Lindblom, Timothy
J. Boyle, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Greg Stillman,
U.S. Dept. of Energy (United States); William G. Yelton, Steven J.
Limmer, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
Proper monitoring of geothermal reservoirs is essential for developing andmaintaining productivity of the geothermal field. Enhanced or Engineered
Geothermal Systems (EGS) extract heat by circulating fluid through fracture
network in subsurface rock formations. The hot geothermal brine is pumped
to the surface via the production wells, heat extracted, and spent brine isre-injected via the injection wells. Chemical tracers are commonly used tocharacterize the fracture network and determine the connectivity between
the injection and production wells. Currently, most tracer experiments
involve injecting the tracer at the injection well, manually collecting liquidsamples at the wellhead of the production well, and sending the samples
off for laboratory analysis. While this method provides accurate tracer
concentration data at very low levels of detection it does not provide

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A strain monitoring system that is simple, unobtrusive, and highly reliable
is invaluable for assessing the health of Navy vessels. The strain acquisition
and monitoring system (SAMS) consists of a scalable network of distributed
miniature data acquisition modules that acquire, condition, and digitize
strain signals. The Integrated Naval Ship Condition Assessment Toolset(INSCAT) is comprised of several software subsystems integrated into asingle toolset for monitoring the structural health of naval ships. The INSCAT·

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Conference 9113: Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments

includes a multi-tiered UI to display pertinent SHM data, AI (SOM) based
SHM algorithms for real time situational awareness and long term SHM
oversight, and a flexible data interface to facilitate integration with current
Navy systems.

human impact on climate change. The test results are relevant to defenserelated chemical sensing in extreme environments.

9113-24, Session 6

Harsh electronics: materials and electronic device
development

9113-26, Session 6

Magnetoresistive sensors for angle, position, andelectrical current measurement in demanding
environments

Dung-Sheng Tsai, Jr-Hau He, National Taiwan Univ. (Taiwan)
Electronic products today are often used in extreme harsh environments
such as high temperature, aggressive media, extreme vibration and radiation
exposure. It is very important that as considering the constrains for abovementioned practical applications, the operation of electronic system in
extreme environments is required inevitably. To ensure high reliability,
it is necessary to develop new generation electronics for extreme harshenvironment applications.

Rolf Slatter, Ronald Lehndorff, Johannes Paul, Marco Doms, Sensitec
GmbH (Germany)
The magnetoresistive effect is best known from the read heads of computer
hard discs or from magnetic memory (MRAM) applications, but it is also
well suited to uses in sensor technology. It has a long history, the anisotropic
magnetoresistive (AMR) effect being first discovered in 1857 by Lord Kelvin.
The AMR effect occurs in ferromagnetic materials, such as nickel-iron layers
structured as strip elements, whose specific impedance changes with thedirection of an applied magnetic field. Due to a special structure of the
strips the resistance change is proportional to the applied magnetic fieldover a wide range.

An overview of research works on harsh electronics at He’s group will bepresented. Work highlighted will include design, fabrication, and applicationof photodetectors, thin-film transistors, solar cells and memory devices inharsh environments.

9113-27, Session 6

However, the MR-effect did not experience widespread use until the early
1980s, when the first MR-based read heads were implemented in hard discdrives. The first industrial applications for MR-based sensors followed at
the beginning of the 1990s, since when the number of applications has
increased dramatically. The applications are not only limited to terrestrial
use – MR sensors are used to control the electric drives used on “Curiosity”,
the Planetary Rover that landed successfully on Mars in August 2012. MR
sensors are also used extensively in safety-critical automotive applications,for example in wheel speed sensors for the ABS (anti-lock braking) system
or in steering angle sensors for the ESP (electronic stability program)system.

Remote optical detection of alpha particle
sources from joint Russian-Ukrainian R&D teamAndrey Bashchenko, GeoSpex Sciences (Russian Federation); SergiyBaschenko, Institute of Physics (Ukraine)
Spectral investigations of the alpha-radioluminescence phenomenon in theatmosphere have been carried out in the UV–V region. It was found that: (1)more than 95% of the intensity of the alpha radiation induced luminescence(alpha-radioluminescence) falls in the narrow range between 310 and 400
nm, (2) the alpha-radioluminescence spectrum consists of a small numberof bands typically 2–3 nm wide and belonging to the 2+ system of nitrogenmolecule transitions, (3) each alpha particle emitted from the surface causes
creation of approximately 30 UV photons in ambient air, (4) alpha particles
emitted from the source surface have an angular distribution proportional
approximately to cos8(?).

The paper will describe the principle of operation, manufacturing process
and benefits of MR sensors. This will be followed by a description ofpractical application examples from the automotive, oil & gas, renewableenergy and space fields, where MR sensors are successfully applied in verysmall envelopes at very low /very high temperatures, under high pressure,high mechanical loading and under strong radiation.

By determining the main features of the alpha-radioluminescence spectrum,
it should be possible to design optical methods and techniques for theindirect remote detection of alpha particle sources even in the presence ofa high background of beta or gamma radiation. With the aim of proving thispossibility, a laboratory model of an optical receiving system was designed
and tested. From a distance of 30 m, the optical image of a clean alphasource (239Pu, 3.7 ? 107 Bq) placed close to a high activity gamma ray
source (60Co, 18.5 ? 107 Bq) was captured photographically by the model
system.

9113-25, Session 6

High-sensitivity trace gas sensor at 30-km
altitude
Douglas Maukonen, Andrey V. Muraviev, Christopher J. Fredricksen,
Joshua Colwell, Ammar Alhasan, Robert E. Peale, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States)

The possibility of the practical indoor implementation of such a passive
optical method for the remote (hundreds of metres) detection of alphaparticle sources even in intense beta/gamma radiation fields is discussed.
The potential for an active version of the method is also considered.

The Planetary Atmospheres Minor Species Sensor (PAMSS) is a midinfrared intracavity laser absorption spectrometer based on an external
cavity quantum cascade laser. The prototype system has achieved technicalreadiness level (TRL) 4 with laboratory demonstrated near-real-time
sensitivity to molecular absorption coefficients as small as 1 x 10^-5 cm^-1.
This is equivalent to a mixing ratio as small as 30 ppbv at 1 atm. The present
objective is to raise the TRL to 6 by testing PAMSS in near space. The
extreme low pressures that eliminate convective cooling and temperatures
below -60 C present several optical alignment, electronics, and thermal
management challenges. We present the results of PAMSS’s flight to 30
km in Near Space Corporation’s Small Balloon System. Technologies tested
during the flight involve heat transfer and re-use, and autonomous datacollection using commercial off-the-shelf components, and self-alignment
techniques to ensure data gathering throughout the flight. The science value
for solar-system exploration is that trace gasses are indicative of biologic
activities and geologic activities on planets, asteroids, and comets, anddetection of trace gasses on Earth can also advance our understanding

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9113-29, Session 6

Qualification of quantum cascade lasers for spaceenvironments
Tanya L. Myers, Bret D. Cannon, Carolyn S. Brauer, Pacific Northwest
National Lab. (United States); Blake G. Crowther, Utah State Univ.
Research Foundation (United States) and Space Dynamics Lab.
(United States); Stewart Hansen, Utah State Univ. (United States)
Laser-based instruments are enabling a new generation of scientificinstruments for space environments such as those used in the exploration·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9113: Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environmentsof Mars. The lasers must be robust and able to withstand the harshenvironment of space, including radiation exposure. Quantum cascadelasers (QCLs), which are semiconductor lasers that emit in the infrared
spectral region, offer the potential for the development of novel laser-based
instruments for space applications. The performance of QCLs after radiation
exposure, however, has not been published. Thus, in this paper, we reporton work to quantify the performance of QCLs after exposure to different
radiation sources including protons and gamma rays to determine theeffects of radiation damage.

9113-4, Session Posters-Thursday

Thin film transistors based on hafnium indium
zinc oxide (HIZO) with high radiation tolerance
Dung-Sheng Tsai, Shih-Guo Yang, Meng-Lin Tsai, Der-Hsien Lien,
National Taiwan Univ. (Taiwan); Kuan-Ming Chen, Yueh-Chung
Yu, Academia Sinica (Taiwan); Jr-Hau He, National Taiwan Univ.
(Taiwan)This work demonstrates the high radiation tolerance of TFTs up to ?1015
cm-2 using HIZO films from co-sputtering of IZO and Hf targets at RT.
Under 2-MeV proton irradiation, the VGS–IDS characteristics of HIZO TFTs
degrade with the fluences ranging from 0 cm-2 (pristine) to 1013 cm-2
and then recover to a initial level of the pristine with increasing the proton
radiation fluences up to ~1015 cm-2. That indicates that the interface could
be improved via dynamic annealing effects under high proton irradiation
fluences. The C-V curves of HIZO TFTs are also measured and consistent
with the VGS–IDS characteristics of HIZO TFTs. These results support theuse of HIZO TFTs in high radiation environments.

9113-41, Session Posters-Thursday

A two laser noise estimation technique to reduce
the effects of 1/f noise in open path tunable diodelaser absorption spectrometry (OP-TDLAS)
Israa L. Mohammad, Univ. of Arkansas at Little Rock (United States)
and The Univ. of Mustansiriyah (Iraq); Gary Anderson, Youhua Chen,
Univ. of Arkansas at Little Rock (United States)
Many techniques using high frequency modulation have been proposed
to reduce the effects of 1/f noise in tunable diode-laser absorption
spectroscopy (TDLAS). The instruments and devices used by thesetechniques are not suitable for space applications that require small, lowmass and low power instrumentation. A new noise estimation techniqueusing two-laser beams excited at slightly different frequencies have been
proposed to reduce the effect of 1/f noise at lower frequencies. The twolasers are excited at slightly different frequencies, giving two different
harmonics that can be used to estimate the total noise in the measurement.
Indoor experimental results on ammonia gas validate the 1/f noise iseffectively reduced by the new noise estimation technique. Experimental
results indicate that the effect of 1/f noise is reduced to 1/5 its normal value.

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Conference 9114:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIII
Wednesday - Thursday 7 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9114 Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIII

9114-1, Session 1

9114-3, Session 1

Device physics to receiving photons from lunar
orbit: an evolution of superconducting nanowire
single photon detectors (Keynote Presentation)

Cryogenic SiGe integrated circuits forsuperconducting nanowire single photon
detector readout (Invited Paper)

Eric A. Dauler, Andrew J. Kerman, Matthew E. Grein, Danna
Rosenberg, Matthew M. Willis, Jan E. Kansky, Bryan S. Robinson,
Daniel V. Murphy, Don M. Boroson, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)

Joseph C. Bardin, Prasana Ravindran, Su-Wei Chang, Univ. ofMassachusetts Amherst (United States); Charif Mohamed, The Univ.
of New Hampshire (United States); Matthew D. Shaw, Francesco
Marsili, Giovanni Resta, William H. Farr, Jet Propulsion Lab. (UnitedStates)Technology development is driven by understanding both the details of
the device operation and the performance desired by target applications.
The recent evolution of superconducting nanowire single photon
detector technology, particularly in support of the first high-rate, opticalcommunication link from a satellite in lunar orbit, provides insight into
this technology development process and some opportunities for futureadvances. The evolution of the detector design was driven not only by
the application needs, but as the result of innovations that were closely
connected to our understanding of the detector operation.

As the performance of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors(SNSPDs) has improved drastically over the past several years, there isa growing interest in developing sophisticated systems employing large
arrays of SNSPDs. In order to make such systems practical and to extract the
maximum level of performance from these devices, it is desirable to develop
the technology to perform signal processing functions before transporting
signals to room temperature. In this paper, we will review recent progressin the design, implementation, and testing of Silicon Germanium (SiGe)
integrated circuits for the readout of SNSPDs. In particular, we will present
the design and characterization of a cryogenic eight-channel pixel combiner
circuit designed to read-out arrays of SNSPDs. The circuit is designed toamplify, digitize, edge detect, and combine the output signals of an array ofeight SNSPDs. The design has been enabled by the development of novel
large-signal cryogenic SiGe HBT simulation models. The circuit has been
fabricated and measurement results demonstrate excellent agreement withsimulation. The paper will conclude with a summary of ongoing work andfuture directions.

Over the past decade, major advances have been made in understanding
many aspects of superconducting nanowire single photon detector
operation. In particular, the optical absorption and the electro-thermal
behavior of the nanowires can be quantitatively modeled, allowing devices
to be designed that account accurately for these effects. Furthermore, theimpact of using different substrate and superconducting materials andthe effect of different nanowire geometries (including closely-spaced,
electrically-independent wires) have also been studied.
More recently, system requirements have motivated specific advancementsin the detector performance. The development path taken to achieve these
performance improvements involved design innovations in the electricalreadout, the optical coupling and the detector structure itself. The strong
connection between the models of detector operation and the innovations
that were developed and adopted will be highlighted. Furthermore, parallels
to other single-photon detector array development efforts and implications
for future technology development will also be discussed.

9114-4, Session 2

Photon-number-resolving detectors for photonic
on-chip quantum information (Invited Paper)This work is sponsored by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Researchand Engineering under Air Force Contract FA8721-05-C-0002. Opinions,interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the author
and are not necessarily endorsed by the United States Government.

Thomas Gerrits, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
We demonstrate a high-efficiency, photon-number resolving transition edge
sensor, integrated on an optical silica waveguide structure. The new design
employs a detector/absorber design to enhance the photon absorption
inside the optical waveguide, enabling high fidelity detection of quantum
information processes in on-chip platforms. We found that photon number
resolution of the TES is well observed with the added absorber material. The
derived detection efficiency for the TM input polarization is 79.0 ± 2.0%. Thisis the efficiency with which a photon inside the waveguide will be detected.
This does not account for the coupling efficiency from the optical fiber tothe waveguide. In this case the coupling efficiencies are 22.1 ± 0.3% and 14.8
± 0.2% for the either side of the waveguide chip. When tuning our laser toan integrated high-reflector wavelength of 1551.9 nm, we observe a quantum
efficiency of 88%, as the photons now pass each absorber/sensor twice.
The results are in very good agreement with the results from our opticalmodeling and show the ability to accurately tune the detection efficiency
of a detector. The ability to tailor the detection efficiency of each detector
enables a partially reflecting beamsplitter and a very well mode-matchednumber resolving single photon detector using just one single element
placed on top of the waveguide structure. We will show how such a design
allows for a range of photon-subtraction/addition experiments to be carriedout on-chip for the first time.

9114-2, Session 1

Tungsten silicide superconducting nanowire
single photon detector arrays for deep space
optical communication (Invited Paper)
Matthew D. Shaw, Francesco Marsili, Andrew D. Beyer, William H.
Farr, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Giovanni Resta, Politecnico
di Torino (Italy); Varun B. Verma, Robert D. Horansky, Adriana Lita,
Richard P. Mirin, Sae Woo Nam, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)
We report on the development of tungsten silicide superconducting
nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD) arrays at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory. We discuss the development of large-format SNSPD focal
planes, free space optical coupling performance, strategies for dark countmitigation and blackbody rejection, and advanced readout technology. In
particular, we discuss the use of monolithic SiGe readout integrated circuits
to combine detector channels for optical communication applications. We
also discuss spatial multiplexing experiments using SNSPD arrays, and theprospects for using SNSPD arrays for deep space optical communication
under realistic conditions. We will discuss strategies for scaling this SNSPD
architecture toward kilopixel arrays, in terms of focal plane design, device
architecture, and readout electronics.

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Conference 9114:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIII

9114-5, Session 2

statistical studies, thus confirming the hypothesis that constrictions exist in
SNSPDs.

Photon-number-resolving detectors for GaAs
waveguide quantum circuits (Invited Paper)

9114-7, Session 3

Dondu Sahin, Technische Univ. Eindhoven (Netherlands); Alessandro
Gaggero, Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (Italy); Zili Zhou,
Saeedeh Jahanmirinejad, Technische Univ. Eindhoven (Netherlands);
Francesco Mattioli, Roberto Leoni, Istituto di Fotonica e
Nanotecnologie (Italy); Johannes Beetz, Matthias Lermer, Martin
Kamp, Sven Höfling, Julius-Maximilians-Univ. Würzburg (Germany);
Andrea Fiore, Technische Univ. Eindhoven (Netherlands)

Progress towards implementation of a quantum
communication receiver satellite (Invited Paper)
Thomas D. Jennewein, Brendon L. Higgins, Jean-Philippe Bourgoin,
Catherine Holloway, Christopher Pugh, Nick Gigov, RaymondLaflamme, Univ. of Waterloo (Canada)
Quantum information and quantum entanglement enables new protocols forcommunication tasks not possible with classical system. One very important
example is the secure key exchange based on the transmission of individual
quantum bits. A global quantum internet, comprised of a network quantum
communication and quantum entanglement is a long term vision, and there
is a significant amount of research on how to reach this goal. Satellite based
quantum communication based on optical photons is a very promisingsystem, as it offers the potential to perform global coverage with today’s
technology.

Single-photon sources, passive optical elements and single-photon
detectors constitute the basis of the monolithic integration of quantum
photonic circuits, as needed for scaling photonic quantum information
protocols to tens of qubits. However, integrated quantum photonics has
so far been limited to passive implementations, due to the difficulty ofintegrating the detectors on the same substrate with the sources and thewaveguides.
To this aim, we have recently demonstrated the first waveguidesingle-photon detectors (WSPDs) [1] and polarisation-independent,
integrated autocorrelators for the on-chip measurements of the secondorder correlation function, g(2)(t) [2]. The detectors are based onsuperconducting NbN nanowires, located on top of GaAs ridge waveguides.
In this work, we report the integration of photon-number-resolving
detectors (PNRDs) on top of GaAs ridge waveguides. These detectors are
based on an array of four superconducting nanowires, each exploiting thesame geometry of WSPDs [1], and therefore able to measure up to four
photons. Each wire is connected in parallel to an integrated resistance andin series to the other wires. When a coherent light beam is coupled into the
waveguide, four clearly-resolved output levels are observed [3]. The PNRDs
show device quantum efficiencies of 24% and 22% at 1310 nm for the TE andTM polarisations with an estimated maximum count rate of >50 MHz. These
detectors are highly suited for high-speed quantum information processing
and linear-optics quantum computing.

I will present the mission proposal for QEYSSAt, the proposed quantum
encryption and science satellite pursued in Canada, aiming to place a singlephoton quantum receiver in space. This system is planned to incorporatea photon analyzer and photon detector, capable of demonstrating global
quantum key exchange as well as tests of quantum entanglement andquantum teleportation. in particular, I will outline the performance analysisof the quantum key exchange, and present our recent advances towards
implementing and testing the required subsystems of the payload.

9114-8, Session 3

A compact high-performance gigahertz-gated
SPAD in an actively stabilized RF-interferometer

References

Alessandro Restelli, Joint Quantum Institute (United States); Joshua
C. Bienfang, Alan L. Migdall, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)[1] J. P. Sprengers et. al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 181110 (2011)[2] D. Sahin et. al., Opt. Express 21, 11162-11170 (2013)[3] D. Sahin et. al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 103, 111116 (2013)

It has been shown that for gigahertz-gated InGaAs/InP single-photon
avalanche diodes (SPADs) in which the gate is composed of sinusoids,
the capacitive transient can be effectively suppressed by destructive
interference with reference sinusoids. Using this approach, we havebuilt a compact detection system gated at 1.25 GHz that applies bias
gates exceeding 35 Vpp at the cathode, and achieves suppression of thecapacitive transient at the anode sufficient to use avalanche discriminationthresholds in the millivolt range. The gate signal is composed of four
harmonics of the gate frequency (up to 5 GHz), and achieves gate durations
below 150 ps. The reference signal must maintain a match to the capacitivetransient to better than 10^-4 to ensure operation limited by the noise floorof the broadband low-noise amplifier at the system’s output.

9114-6, Session 2

Characterization of superconducting nanowire
single-photon detector with artificial
constrictions
Ling Zhang, Lixing You, Dengkuan Liu, Weijun Zhang, Xiaoyu Liu,
Junjie Wu, Yuhao He, Chaolin Lv, Zhen Wang, Shanghai Institute ofMicrosystem and Information Technology (China)

To maintain this the system actively controls the phase and amplitude ofeach of the four harmonics in the reference signal, achieving stable andhigh-quality transient rejection. We describe the microcontroller-based
circuit, and the performance of the detection system when operated atcount rates in the 100 x 10^6 s^-1 range.

Statistical studies on the performance of different superconducting
nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) on one chip suggested that
random constrictions existed in the nanowire. However, they were barely
registered by scanning electron microscopy or other tools. With the aid ofadvanced e-beam lithography, artificial geometric constrictions with specificsizes were fabricated on SNSPDs as well as single nanowires. In this way,
we studied the influence of artificial constrictions on SNSPDs in a straightforward manner. By introducing artificial constrictions with different widths
in single nanowires, we found a consistent linear relationship between thedark count rate and the bias current, which indicated that the dark countsof SNSPDs originate from a single constriction. By introducing artificial
constrictions in SNSPDs, we studied the relationship between detection
efficiency and the bias current. The result of DE-Ib relation was similar tothe previous statistical studies. Further, it is consistent with the width of theconstriction. Meanwhile, we examined the current dependence of the kinetic
inductance Lk for the above SNSPDs. The results were also similar to the409+1 360 676 3290

9114-9, Session 3

Detector-related security loopholes in quantum
cryptography (Invited Paper)
Vadim Makarov, Univ. of Waterloo (Canada)
Single-photon detector is a tricky device to build, with many imperfections.
When used in quantum cryptography systems, its imperfections open
up ways to compromise system security. The talk reviews attacks based·

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Conference 9114:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIII
on detector imperfections, and recent progress in development ofcountermeasures.

imaging. Laboratory testing results are presented as a basis for evaluation.
These results include dark count rate, afterpulsing probability, photon
detection efficiency, and intra-pixel sensitivity. The detector was irradiatedwith a radiation dose equivalent to 10x the expected dose for an 11 year
mission at an L2 orbit. All detector performance metrics are presented bothpre- and post-radiation. The theoretical signal to noise ratio is presented
as the overall evaluation method, based on measured results. The GM-APD
detector performance will be compared to current state-of-the-art CCD
and EMCCD performance in a low-light-level scenario. Theoretical process
improvements and their impact on the GM-APD detector performance arealso considered.

9114-10, Session 4

Photon sparse imaging (Invited Paper)
Miles J. Padgett, Univ. of Glasgow (United Kingdom)
How many photons does it take to form an image? Although a single photon
can be spatially encoded to carry large amounts of information, real images
are not fully orthogonal to each other and hence, realistically, require manydetected photons to distinguish between them. Even if one has access to a
pixellated imaging detector with high quantum-efficiency, the fidelity of arecorded, or inferred, image depends critically upon the dark counts fromthe detector(s). Here we will present our latest results using heralded singlephotons and a time-gated, intensified-camera to all but eliminate noise
events, and record images of biological specimens. The images are formed
from low photon-number and are therefore subject to a noise inherent
within the Poissonian distribution of single-photon events. We apply
techniques of compressive sensing and image regularisation to obtain good
estimates of the object, obtained for ultra-low optical exposures.

9114-13, Session 4

Near-infrared silicon photon-counting arrays
Stefan A. Vasile, aPeak, Inc. (United States)
Under a contract from JPL/NASA we developed a photon counting arrayfor long-range communications at 1030nm with beam tracking andcommunication functions. The response at 1030nm is enhanced using theresonant cavity effect.
NIR enhanced photon-counting Resonant Cavity Geiger avalanche
Photodiode (RC-GPD) arrays assembled with matching 32x32 pixel ROIC
arrays were qualified in 2013. ROIC arrays with 130um x130um pixel size withactive quenching, afterpulsing control (APC), write-read functions at pixel
level and integrated twin-read drivers were fabricated in 2012. The twindrivers allow reading either the whole 32x32 pixel array or simultaneous
reading of two 16x32 sub-arrays at maximum 160MHz clock rate. Because
the count memory cell at pixel level copies constantly the data to the output
shift register the ROIC array should be able of continue counting while
shifting the data out. The ROIC is capable of counting in UP and DOWN
modes to allow for automatic electronic+optical background subtraction intracking mode.

9114-11, Session 4

Low-noise CMOS SPAD arrays with in-pixel timeto-digital converters (Invited Paper)
Alberto Tosi, Federica A. Villa, Danilo Bronzi, Yu Zou, Davide
Tamborini, Politecnico di Milano (Italy); Simone Tisa, Micro Photon
Devices S.r.l. (Italy); Daniel Durini, Sascha Weyers, Uwe Paschen,
Werner Brockherde, Fraunhofer-Institut für Mikroelektronische
Schaltungen und Systeme (Germany); Franco Zappa, Politecnico di
Milano (Italy)

Process improvements of the RC-GPD back-end fabrication resulted in arobust cavity tuning process with 50pm wavelength resolution. RC-GPD
arrays, assembled in flip-chip to ROIC arrays were packaged in a ceramic
PGA with microlens arrays.

We present our latest results concerning CMOS Single-Photon Avalanche
Diode (SPAD) arrays for high-throughput parallel single-photon counting.
We exploited a high-voltage 0.35 µm CMOS technology in order to develop
low-noise CMOS SPADs. The Dark Count Rate is 30 cps at room temperaturefor 30 µm devices, increases to 2 kcps for 100 µm SPADs and just to 100
kcps for 500 µm ones. Afterpulsing is less than 2% for hold-off time longer
than 50 ns, thus allowing to reach high count rates. Photon Detection
Efficiency is > 50% at 420 nm, > 40% below 500 nm and is still 5% at 850
nm. Timing jitter is less than 100 ps (FWHM) in SPADs with active area
diameter up to 50 µm.

RC-GPD+ROIC arrays were tested at only 20 MHz for heat dissipation
reasons. The total power consumption at 20MHz and RC-GPD biased at
1KHz dark count rate /pixel was 2W, with negligible contribution from the
RC-GPD array. The AQC design was tested to allow stable operation up to 1V
above the breakdown voltage. All design functions (APC, UP/DOWN/READ
were verified to work. The product GainxQuantum efficiency at the resonant
wavelength was 17%.
.

We developed CMOS SPAD imagers with 150 µm pixel pitch and 30 µm
SPADs. A 64x32 SPAD array is based on pixels with three 9 bit up/down
counters for smart time-resolved photon counting up to 100 kfps. A 32x32
SPAD array includes 1024 10 bit Time-to-Digital Converters (TDC) with 300
ps resolution and 450 ps single-shot precision, for 3D ranging and FLIM. We
developed also linear arrays with up to 60 pixels (with 100 µm SPAD, 150µm pitch and in-pixel 300 ps TDC) for time-resolved parallel spectroscopy
with high fill factor.

9114-14, Session 4

SWIR Geiger-mode APD detectors and cameras
for 3D imaging
Mark A. Itzler, Princeton Lightwave, Inc. (United States)
The operation of avalanche photodiodes in Geiger mode by arming thesedetectors above their breakdown voltage provides high-performance
single photon detection in a robust solid-state device platform. Moreover,these devices are ideally suited for integration into large format focal planearrays enabling single photon imaging. We report recent advances forthe performance of both discrete and arrayed formats of InGaAsP-based
Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GmAPDs). In particular, through the
reduction of the detector active region volume, we have realized significant
improvement in detector characteristics such as dark count rate andradiation tolerance.

9114-12, Session 4

Evaluation of GM-APD array devices for low-lightlevel imaging
Kimberly E. Kolb, Brandon J. Hanold, Joong Y. Lee, Donald F. Figer,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
The ability to count single photons facilitates science goals that are
impossible even with current state-of-the-art detectors. Single photon
counting detectors are the future, and many different implementations
are in development. This paper will evaluate the performance of a photoncounting array-based Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode for low-light-level

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Conference 9114:
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9114-15, Session 5

We report on the performance of a 3D imaging system for long range
remote sensing operating at a wavelength of 1550nm which uses a photoncounting Geiger mode 32x32 InGaAs/InP camera. Pattern recognition
techniques are used to mitigate range aliasing and enable the measurementof the absolute time-of-flight and therefore absolute range at very highframe rate, typically 125kHz. The imaging system is able to determine
absolute range to single or multiple surfaces and derive depth profilesof distributed surfaces through clutter within the instantaneous fieldof view of each pixel. The performance of the photon-counting camera
will be discussed for two alternative laser sources: a fast unamplified
semiconductor diode laser with a data rate in excess of 40Mb/s at pulse
energies of less than 10pJ per pulse and an optically amplified fibre laser at
a data rate of 125kb/s with pulse energies of 4µJ per pulse. The performanceof the system for measurements of the time-of-flight to remote manmade
Lambertian surfaces and foliage at ranges up to 10km with range accuracyof better than 4cm are reported. These manmade Lambertian surfaces
include buildings, motor vehicles and calibrated painted wooden boards.
The simultaneous imaging and measurement of the time-of-flight of two
remote manmade Lambertian surfaces separated by >1km will be also bepresented.

Advanced 3D imaging lidar concepts for longrange sensing (Invited Paper)
Robert A. Lamb, Philip A. Hiskett, Gerald J. Wong, Karen J. Gordon,
Agata M. Pawlikowska, Roger Pilkington, Peter Sinclair, SELEX ES
Ltd. (United Kingdom)
Recent developments in 3D imaging lidar are presented. Long range 3D
imaging using photon counting is now a possibility, offering a low-cost
approach to integrated remote sensing with step changing advantages insize, weight and power compared to conventional analogue active imaging
technology. We report results using a Geiger-mode array for time-offlight, single photon counting lidar for depth profiling and determinationof the shape and size of tree canopies and distributed surface reflections
at a range of 9km, with 4 micro Joule pulses, a frame rate of 100kHz anda low-cost fibre laser operating at a wavelength of 1.5 microns. The range
resolution is less than 4cm providing very high depth resolution for target
identification. This specification opens up several additional functionalities
for advanced lidar, for example: absolute rangefinding and depth profilingfor long range identification, optical communications, turbulence sensing
and time-of-flight spectroscopy. Complementary developments incomputational imaging schemes for passive polarimetric and multispectral
imaging will also be reported. Future concepts for 3D time-of-flightpolarimetric and multispectral imaging lidar with optical communications,in a single integrated system are proposed. This multi-functionality will
revolutionise future air-to-ground remote sensing for unmanned air vehicles.

9114-18, Session 5

Applications of depth imaging based on timecorrelated single-photon counting (Invited Paper)
Gerald S. Buller, Aongus McCarthy, Ximing Ren, Nathan R. Gemmell,
Aurora Maccarone, Yvan R. Petillot, Andrew M. Wallace, Heriot-Watt
Univ. (United Kingdom)

9114-16, Session 5

Single-photon detection has emerged in recent years as a candidate fora number of depth imaging applications. This presentation will describea series of proof-of-concept experiments which highlight the virtues of
the approach, including sensitivity, accuracy and resolution, long range
and eye-safe capabilities. At long distances, both superconducting andsemiconductor-based single-photon detectors have been used to utilize
atmospheric window around the 1550nm wavelength. We will discuss the
merits of both detector types and the choice of this detector band. Anotherarea of emerging interest is the use of multiple wavelength single-photon
LIDAR which, for example, may be suitable for investigation of distributed
targets. An appropriate selection of wavelengths can reveal indications of
the structural and physiological parameters of vegetation. For example,
the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Photochemical
Reflectance Index (PRI) can be ascertained throughout the volume of thefoliage, ultimately to provide a valuable insight into the carbon dioxide
cycle for environmental research. We demonstrate early measurements andanalysis from a prototype multiple wavelength system. Another growing
area of interest is the use of single-photon depth imaging in turbid media.
We present some preliminary results on underwater depth imaging, andillustrate the issues and challenges involved in the measurement of longdistance depth images in this environment.

Moderate to high altitude, single photon
sensitive, 3D imaging lidars
John J. Degnan, Christopher T. Field, Sigma Space Corp. (UnitedStates)Over the last several years, Sigma Space Corporation has developed avariety of scanning, single photon sensitive (photon-counting) 3D imaging
lidars that operate at aircraft AGLs between 2 and 9 km (6 to 30 kft) withspeeds in excess of 200 knots. All of these systems use a Diffractive Optical
Element (DOE) to generate a 10x10 array of low power beamlets from asingle laser beam which are then imaged by the receiver onto a matching
10x10 detector array, which feeds into 100 independent timing channels
having a +40 psec (+6mm) timing/range resolution and a channel recovery
time of less than 2 nsec . Thus, with laser repetition rates between 20 and
32 kHz, we have achieved measurement rates up to 3.2 million 3D pixels per
second. High range resolution has been achieved through the use of laser
pulsewidths between 100 and 700 picoseconds. The result has been rapid
areal coverage with high resolution horizontal (few decimeter) and vertical(few centimeter) 3D imagery. Our systems are presently being deployedon a variety of aircraft to demonstrate their utility in multiple applications
including large scale surveying and surveillance, bathymetry, forestry, etc.
Our smallest unit , the Mini-ATM (Miniature Airborne Topographic Mapper), designed for NASA to fit in a mini-UAV for wide swath cryosphericmeasurements, features a 90o full conical scan, measures approximately
0.03 m3 (1 ft3) in volume, weighs 12.7 kg (28 lbs), and consumes ~168 W of
28 VDC prime power.

9114-19, Session 5

Using HgCdTe e-APD detector arrays with single
photon sensitivity for space lidar
Xiaoli Sun, James B. Abshire, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr.
(United States); Jeffrey D. Beck, DRS RSTA, Inc. (United States)

9114-17, Session 5

We have recently developed a multi-element HgCdTe electron initiatedavalanche photodiode (e-APD) focal plane array (FPA). The detector array
was fabricated with 4.3µm cutoff HgCdTe with a spectral response from 0.4
to 4.3 μm. We have demonstrated a 4x4 e-APD FPA, with 80 µm square
elements, followed by a custom CMOS read-out integrated circuit (ROIC).
The device operates at 77K inside a small closed-cycle cooler-Dewar, andthe support electronics integrated in a field programmable gate array(FPGA). Measurements showed a unity gain quantum efficiency of 91% at
1.5-1.6 µm wavelength. The bulk dark current of the HgCdTe e-APD at 77K

Long range 3D imaging with a 32x32 Geiger
mode InGaAs/InP camera
Philip A. Hiskett, Karen J. Gordon, Jeremy W. Copley, Roger
Pilkington, Agata M. Pawlikowska, Peter Sinclair, Iain A. Clark,
Robert A. Lamb, SELEX ES Ltd. (United Kingdom)411+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9114:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIII

9114-22, Session 6

was less than 50,000 input referred electrons/s at 12 V APD bias where the
APD gain was 620. The measured noise equivalent power (NEP) was 0.4
fW/Hz1/2. The rise and fall times of the response are about 50 nsec. These
characteristics enable single photon detection at rates up to several MHz per
pixel. Because the detector array operates in linear mode without avalanche
breakdown, each pixel can count photons continuously without gating andhave no dead-time. The present device allows considerable improvements
in integrated path differential absorption (IPDA) lidar compared to nearinfrared photomultiplier tubes (PMT) and InGaAs APDs.

Study of silicon photomultipliers and applications
Nicola D’Ascenzo, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (Germany)
The interest in the Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM) has been dramaticallyrising in the last few years. Nowadays the SiPM is substituting theconventional Photomultiplier Tubes and the other photodetectors for the
low photon flux detection systems in many applications. In high-energy
experimental physics the SiPM is already used in large scale prototypes
for the new International Linear Collider project. Many studies are being
performed for medical imaging systems with improved performance. SiPMbased systems have a very perspective application in homeland security
infrastructure. The interest in SiPMs for optical telecommunications andoptical interconnection systems is also growing.

We are also developing a 2x8 FPA with similar HgCdTe e-APD but a muchhigher electrical bandwidth and lower input capacitance ROIC. The detector
elements are designed for multiplication gains of 500-1000. The new FPA
is optimized for laser altimetry and is expected give a much higher signal
to noise ratio for single photon detection and better timing resolution.
These new HgCdTe e-APDs will have wide application in space lidar fromvisible to mid-wave infrared (MWIR) wavelength and enable new scientificmeasurements with substantially less laser power.

The SiPM structure is based on an array of submicron semiconductor
microcells, with a density of few thousands per mm2, working in breakdown
mode with integrated quenching elements and common electrode. The
microcells are identical and independent. Their internal gain of amplification
is of the order of 10^5-10^6, allowing the detection down to the single
photon at room temperature. The common electrode structure gives thepossibility to act as a proportional detector for the measurement of the low
intensity photon flux. The output is defined as the sum of the elementary
uniform signals of the independent microcells triggered by the initial flux ofphotons.

9114-20, Session 6

New trends in silicon photomultiplierdevelopment (Invited Paper)
Valeri Saveliev, M. V. Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics(Russian Federation) and National Research Nuclear Univ. MEPhI(Russian Federation)

A detailed mathematical simulation was developed for the optimizationof the technological processes and the estimation of the performances fordifferent applications, in particular for medical imaging systems. Resultsof the optimization and performance of the SiPM will be presented, withcomparison between experimental tests and mathematical simulation.

Single photon detection performance at room temperature is one of the
fascination characteristic of the Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM), shows the
SiPM as an ultimate instrument for study of nature of photons and usefulelement in many applications as high energy physics, medical imaging
systems, homeland security systems and other.

9114-23, Session 6

The detection principle of SiPM is based on the quantum nature of theelectromagnetic radiation. In particular using the distributions of theradiation quanta in space and detection of the photon flux by submicron
space distributed semiconductor micro-cells, sensitive to the single
electromagnetic radiation quanta. The SiPM structure is based on thematrix of optically isolated submicron semiconductor micro-cells working
in breakdown mode with integrated quenching elements and common
electrode. All micro-cells are identical and independent provided highinternal gain of amplification and allow detection up to single photon atroom temperature. The common electrode structure gives these devices thepossibility to acts as a proportional detector for measurement at ultra low
intensity photon flux levels.

Free-running operation of InGaAs single photon
avalanche photodiodes with extremely low noise(Invited Paper)
Boris Korzh, Nino Walenta, Tommaso Lunghi, Raphael Houlmann,
Claudio Barreiro, Hugo Zbinden, Univ. of Geneva (Switzerland)
Free-running single photon detectors at telecom wavelengths are
attractive for many tasks in quantum optics. However, until recently, theconvenient and compact InGaAs avalanche photodiodes did not operatewith satisfactory performance in this regime due to high dark count rates
and afterpulsing effects. The development of negative feedback avalanche
photodiodes (NFAD) enabled very fast passive quenching of the avalanche
current, effectively reducing the afterpulse probability and subsequently
allowing free-running operation. Here we present recent analysis of NFAD
operation at low temperatures, down to 150 K, which reveals a significant
reduction of the dark count rate. We succeeded in developing a compact
single photon detection system with a dark count rate of ~2 Hz at 10%
detection efficiency. In order to ensure that the NFAD is in a well defined
initial condition during the characterization of the detection efficiency
and afterpulsing, we use a recently developed FPGA based test procedure
suitable for free-running detectors. To demonstrate the performance of thedetector in a real-world application we integrate it into a 1.25 GHz clocked,
fiber-based quantum key distribution system. An optimization of thedetector temperature allowed secret key distribution with more than 30 dB
loss in the quantum channel.

The interest to the Silicon Photomultipliers is dramatically increasing during
last few years and few manufacturers are starting the mass production.
Nevertheless the potential of SiPM Structures is much high. The feature of
SiPM is the digital nature of the principle of operation. The structure andmaterial are compatible with Modern Microelectronics Technology. This open
the way to getting the principle new structures (Sensor and Electronics on
the same substrate) and organize the fully Digital Processing compatible
with direct communication to the modern computing systems. The new
trends in the development if the Digital Silicon Photomultiplier Structures
will be presented.

9114-21, Session 6

Silicon photomultipliers for high-performancehigh-volume applications (Invited Paper)
Carlton Jackson, SensL (Ireland)
No Abstract Available

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Conference 9114:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIII

9114-24, Session 7

9114-27, Session 8

Underwater optical communications at single
photon sensitivities

Advances in photon arrival timing circuitry andtime-resolved luminescence imaging

Philip A. Hiskett, Robert Struthers, Roy Tatton, Robert A. Lamb,
SELEX ES Ltd. (United Kingdom)Michael Wahl, Tino Roehlicke, Hans-Jürgen Rahn, Volker
Buschmann, Uwe Ortmann, PicoQuant GmbH (Germany); Gerald
Kell, Fachhochschule Brandenburg (Germany)

We present and discuss results for an optical communications systemthat uses photon counting to transmit and receive optical encoded data
through water. The test system uses a laser diode operating at a wavelengthof 450nm and an optical receiver containing a shallow junction silicon
single photon avalanche diode. The optical data is transmitted through a
1m long aquarium tank containing ~100 litres of water. Optical attenuation
due to scatter is varied by increasing the concentration of Maalox. A datatransmission rate of 200kb/s through 74db of attenuation with a transmitted
average power of 43uW was achieved. This is equivalent to ~ 4.7Mb/s/mW
through 114m of clear sea water. The effect on the shape of the received
optical pulse from scattering will also be discussed. Clock synchronisation
between the transmitter and receiver channels is achieved using reference
headers appended to the encoded message signal to correct for timing
drift between the transmitter and receiver. The potential advantages of theuse of single photon sensitive detection in the optical receiver system aredescribed together with the engineering challenges encountered with thetransmission of optically encoded data through water.

9114-26, Session 7

Progress in detector technology and growing interest in time-resolved
detection methods in the materials and life sciences continues pushingthe development of photon timing circuitry. While one early goal was
the improvement of timing accuracy, some applications require otheroptimization targets. Notably in fast fluorescence imaging applications
it is often more important to reduce dead time and increase throughput,
matched to recent detectors such as hybrid photomultiplier tubes. Very
good progress towards high timing resolution, short dead time and highthroughput has recently been made with application specific circuits in
Si:Ge technology. Compact and reasonably priced multichannel timing
solutions have been designed this way and modern data bus technologies
have helped to provide very high throughput in tima tagged data collection.
When the requirements for time resolution are relatively low, when manydetector channels are required and when ultimately short dead timeis the top priority it can be more cost efficient to implement the entire
timing system in field programmable logic. We present a modular system
supporting both approaches and show the relative merits. Test resultswith special focus on data quality will be shown as well as results in some
application examples, notably time-resolved luminescence imaging.

Receiver dead time in non-line-of-sightultraviolet communications

9114-28, Session 8

Robert J. Drost, Paul L. Yu, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Gang Chen, Univ. of California, Riverside (United States); Brian M.
Sadler, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Effect of process parameters of CsI photocathodepreparation in the enhancement of efficiency ofgaseous photomultipliers

The significant scattering of deep ultraviolet (UV) light (e.g., 200-300 nm)
by the atmosphere presents the possibility of non-line-of-sight (NLOS)
optical communications, though a received NLOS UV signal can be expected
to be greatly attenuated. Fortunately, absorption of nearly all solar deepUV radiation by the atmosphere results in a virtually noiseless channel
amenable to extremely sensitive photon-counting receivers. Much of therecent research on NLOS UV communications has focused on the use of
rapidly maturing UV light-emitting diode technology for short-range (e.g.,less than 100 m) communications. However, developments in solar-blind
filter technology enabling such short-range communication also allow for
longer range (e.g., 1-5 km) NLOS communication with a UV laser.

Baishali Garai, Indian Institute of Science (India); V. Radhakrishna,
ISRO Satellite Ctr. (India); K. Rajanna, Indian Institute of Science(India)There is a growing demand for large area photon detectors with sensitivity
level of single photons for spectroscopy, astronomical imaging andhigh energy physics experiments. The detection efficiency of photon
detectors such as gaseous photomultiplier (GPM) strongly depends on
the photoemission property of photocathode and also the detection ofphotoelectrons emitted. In GPMs operating in the UV spectral range, athin film of CsI coated over UV transparent quartz window acts as thephotocathode. UV photons release photoelectrons into the gas volumeof the detector; these photoelectrons undergo avalanche multiplications
across electron multiplier structures producing large detectable signal. In
this work, we have investigated the effect of different process parameters
used during photocathode preparation on the photoelectron yield. It isfound that if the substrate over which the CsI photocathode is deposited issubjected to in-situ plasma cleaning prior to deposition, the photoemission
from the photocathode increases by 50-55 %. This effect is correlated withthe microstructure of the deposited film studied under scanning electron
microscope. Investigations also show that post deposition vacuum annealingof the film improves the photoemission and hence can lead to improved
efficiency of the GPM. In addition, the rate of evaporation also plays a role indeciding the detectors efficiency. It is seen that a deposition rate of 1-2 nm/s
gives better photoemission from the photocathode compared to higher
evaporation rates.

In addition to increased power output, UV lasers can transmit extremely
short pulses, allowing for improvements in signal-to-noise ratios throughgated-receiver designs. However, short transmitted laser pulses have thepotential to overwhelm the response time of a practical receiver. After
detecting a photon, a photon-counting receiver experiences a period
of dead time during which subsequent impinging photons are ignored.
The result is altered signal statistics and a communication-performancedegradation that can be exacerbated if the altered statistics are not taken
into account.
In this paper, we review and apply a Monte Carlo NLOS UV channel model
to characterize system configurations for which the dead time of a typicalphotomultiplier tube can have significant effects. Results from a recent
channel-sounding experiment are provided for real-world illustration of such
effects. Finally, we contrast optimal detection algorithms with and without
dead time effects and investigate performance implications associated with
applying each algorithm in representative communication examples.

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Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications V
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9115 Energy Harvesting and Storage: Materials, Devices, and Applications V

9115-1, Session 1

9115-3, Session 1

Embeddable solid state fuel cells as powersources for autonomous systems (Keynote
Presentation)

Tantalum tungsten alloy photonic crystals forhigh-temperature energy conversion
Veronika Stelmakh, Veronika Rinnerbauer, Jay J. Senkevich,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States); John D.
Joannopoulos, MIT Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies (UnitedStates); Marin Soljacic, Ivan Celanovic, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (United States)

Shriram Ramanathan, Harvard School of Engineering and Applied
Sciences (United States)
We will discuss our on-going efforts to realize ultra-thin solid oxide fuelcells with electrolytes at the electron tunneling limit. Such studies allow
one to probe rigorously electronic-ionic transport in two-dimensionaloxide membranes that are self-supported and proximal to free surfaces.
Experimental realization of high performance two-dimensional solid oxide
fuel cells operable in a variety of hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels will bepresented. By use of special oxide anode materials where in rapid redox
processes occur at the operating temperature, one can realize energy
storage as well, creating the ability to build-in additional functionality
into existing solid state fuel cells. We will present select experimental
case studies on this aspect as well using model vanadium oxide anodes.
Experimental techniques to synthesize atomically tailored designer materials
for electrolyte versus electrode graded functionality in thin film form insuspended structures will be considered. Integration of such micro-powersources into autonomous system structural components will be presented.

A tantalum tungsten solid solution alloy, Ta 3%W, based 2D photonic crystal(PhC) was designed and fabricated for high-temperature energy conversion
applications. Metallic PhCs are promising as high performance selective
thermal emitters for solid-state thermal-to-electricity energy conversion
concepts including thermophotovoltaic (TPV) energy conversion, as wellas highly selective solar absorbers/emitters for solar thermal and solar
TPV applications due to the ability to tune their spectral properties andachieve highly selective emission. The mechanical and thermal stabilityof the substrate was characterized as well as the optical properties of thefabricated PhC. The Ta 3%W alloy presents advantages compared to the
non-alloys as it combines the better high-temperature thermo-mechanicalproperties of W with the more compliant material properties of Ta, allowing
for a direct system integration path of the PhC as selective emitter/absorber
into a spectrum of energy conversion systems. Furthermore, the thermomechanical properties can be fine-tuned by the W content. A 2D PhC
was designed to have high spectral selectivity matched to the bandgapof a TPV cell, using numerical simulations and fabricated using standard
semiconductor processes. The emittance of the Ta 3%W PhC was obtained
from near-normal reflectance measurements at room temperature before
and after annealing at 1200C for 24h in vacuum with a protective coatingof 40nm HfO2, showing high selectivity in agreement with simulations.
SEM images of the cross section of the PhC prepared by FIB confirm thestructural stability of the PhC after anneal, i.e. the coating effectively
prevented structural degradation due to surface diffusion.

9115-2, Session 1

Development of irradiation methods anddegradation modeling for state-of-the-art spacesolar cells (Invited Paper)
Takeshi Ohshima, Shin-ichiro Sato, Japan Atomic Energy Agency(Japan); Taishi Sumita, Tetsuya Nakamura, Mitsuru Imaizumi, Japan
Aerospace Exploration Agency (Japan)

9115-4, Session 1

It is very important to understand the radiation response of solar cells
since we need to predict the performance degradation of solar cells on
space satellites during the missions. In general, the electrical characteristics
of solar cells are evaluated before and after electron/proton irradiation,
and accelerator facilities are just involved in irradiation (referred to as“Sequential method). Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) together withJapan Aerospace eXploration Agency (JAXA) has developed an in-situ
evaluation technique that the electrical characteristics of solar cells can bemeasured under AM0 light illumination during proton/electron irradiation
experiments (referred to as “Simultaneous method). As a result, we canshorten the evaluation period, since the Simultaneous method can allow us
to know radiation degradation of solar cells during irradiation experiments.
Furthermore, a sample holder with a cryogenic system was installed tothe irradiation chamber in order to clarify the radiation response of solar
cells under low temperature and low light intensity conditions such as
missions for Mars or farther planet explorations. Using this unique method,
we revealed the radiation degradation of multi-junction solar cells such as
InGaP/GaAs/Ge triple junction (3J) solar cells under low temperature. In
this paper, irradiation techniques for the evaluation of space solar cells will
be introduced. The degradation mechanism of the 3J solar cells, and themodeling of degradation behavior of 3J solar cells will be also discussed.
The development of space solar cells in Japan will be introduced, especiallyfrom the point of view of radiation response.

414

SPIE DSS 2014

Doped semiconductor nanocrystals
Latha Nataraj, Aaron Jackson, Lily Giri, Clifford Hubbard, Mark L.
Bundy, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Low-dimensional semiconductor structures such as nanocrystals arehighly promising for various applications in electronics. The intentional
addition of small amounts of foreign materials, known as dopants, provides
an easy mechanism to control the behavior of semiconductors as theirelectronic, optical, and magnetic properties are considerably modified.
Therefore, significant research is underway to explore the influence of
dopants on semiconductor nanocrystals. Doped nanocrystals have beenshown to provide better conductivity for thin conducting films, improved
emission characteristics for lasers, protection for photovoltaic devices
from photooxidation due to prolonged exposure, and serve as less harmful
alternatives to toxic fluorescent dyes in bio-imaging, to name a few
advantages. However, the process of doping such nanocrystals is extremely
challenging due to their nanoscale sizes. In addition, the introduction ofeven a few atoms of the dopant into the nanocrystal that contains just a few
hundred atoms could result in a degenerate material or compromise thecrystal structure. Some strategies such as remote doping and substitutional
doping have led to progress in acheiving doping in these nanocrystals andheavily doped nanocrystals have been obtained with p- and n-type dopants
incorporated. However, such processes involve complex chemical synthesis
processes and in some cases, do not provide consistently successful results.
Many questions still remain unanswered. In this work, we present a simple,
low-cost mechanism for consistently obtaining doped semiconductor
nanocrystals through mechanical milling techniques and study theirproperties.

·

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Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications V

9115-5, Session 1of 10%. This result is noteworthy because modules consisting of an array ofmultiple n-/p- couples typically exhibit noticeably lower efficiency than thecorresponding single couples under similar thermal profiles. The improved
module efficiency is believed to be due to improved materials and optimized
cross-sectional area ratios between the n- and p- elements.

Nanocavity absorption enhancement towards
atomically thin layers
Haomin Song, Kai Liu, Xie Zeng, Dengxin Ji, Nan Zhang, QiaoqiangGan, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)

9115-7, Session 2

In most thin-film energy harvesting/conversion applications, there isa long-existing trade-off between optical absorption and thickness ofactive materials. Particularly, research on two-dimensional (2D) atomic
crystals and Van der Waals heterostructures receives intense efforts inrecent years, which is promising for the development of new functional
ultra-thin electronic and optoelectronic energy efficient devices, suchas photodetectors, phototransistors and light sources. However, due
to their atomically thin nature, the optical absorption is inherently
weak. Consequently, absorption enhancement strategies will introduce
revolutionary advances to these ultra-thin-film materials/devices. Here
we propose a design by placing an ultra-thin absorptive material on topof a predesigned lossless spacer layer and a metal reflector to realize
spectrally tunable resonances absorbed in the top ultra-thin layer. As theincident light is coupled into this structure, the reflected components
will cancel the incident light at the top surface, resulting in a destructive
interference absorber. Since the bottom metal reflector does not absorb
much light, most energy will dissipate in the top ultra-thin layer resulting
in the significant absorption enhancement. By tuning the thickness of thespacer layer, the destructive interference resonance is spectrally tunable
for ultra-thin absorptive materials down to atomic thickness, and therefore
overcoming the conflict between the optical absorption and film thicknessof energy harvesting/conversion materials. This principle exploits the wave
property of light in ultra-thin absorptive nanocavities and will pave theway towards the spectrally tunable absorption enhancement of ultra-thinmaterials including semiconductor films and monolayers of 2D atomic
crystals.

MEMS electromagnetic energy harvesters withmultiple resonances
Sudarshan R. Nelatury, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College(United States); Robert Gray, Penn State Harrisburg (United States)
There is going on a flurry of research activity in the development ofefficient energy harvesters from all branches of energy conversion. The
need for developing self-powered wireless sensors and actuators to be
employed in unmanned combat vehicles also seems to grow steadily.
These vehicles are inducted into perilous war zones for silent watch
missions. Energy management is sometimes carried out using missonaware energy expenditure strategies. Also, when there is a requirement
for constant monitoring of events, the sensors and the subsystems of
combat vehicles require energy harvesters that can operate over a discrete
set of spot frequencies. This paper attempts to review some of the recent
techniques and the energy harvesting devices based on electromagnetic
and electromechanical principles. In particular, we shall delve into the design
and performance of a MEMS-harvester that exhibits multiple resonances.
Variation in the power density as a function of load is found, which
determines the matched load resistance.

9115-8, Session 2

Piezoelectric-based event sensing and energyharvesting power sources for thermal battery
initiation in gun-fired munitions

9115-6, Session 2

High-efficiency energy harvesting using TAGS85/half-Heusler thermoelectric devices (Invited
Paper)

Jahangir Rastegar, Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States); Carlos
M. Pereira, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development andEngineering Ctr. (United States)

Gary E. Bulman, Bruce Cook, RTI International (United States)

A novel class of piezoelectric-based energy harvesting devices withintegrated safety and firing setback event detection electronic circuitrythat can be used in gun-fired munitions or other industrial equipment for
detecting events such as impact or vibration or other similar events ispresented. In this paper, the application of the device to the developmentof an initiation device for thermal reserve batteries in gun-fire munitions
is presented. The novel and highly efficient electrical energy collection
and storage and event detection and safety electronics used allows theuse of a small piezoelectric element. As a result, such devices can behighly miniaturized. For thermal battery initiation, when the prescribedfiring setback acceleration profile, i.e., the prescribed all-fire condition isdetected, a highly efficient charge collection electronic circuitry wouldroute the piezoelectric element generated charges to the initiator bridge
element, thereby causing the thermal battery pyrotechnic material to be
ignited. For munitions powered by thermal reserve batteries, the present
initiation device provides a self-powered initiator with full no-fire safety
circuitry for protection against accidental drops, transportation vibration,and other similar low amplitude accelerations and/or high amplitude but
short duration acceleration events. The device is shown to be readily set toinitiate thermal batteries under almost any all-fire conditions. The device canbe readily hardened to withstand very high G firing setback accelerations
in excess of 100,000 G and the harsh firing environment. The design ofprototypes, including packaging for high-G hardening and results of their
testing under realistic conditions are presented.

RTI has combined two high-performance materials that have not previously
been paired, to form a high ZT, hybrid thermoelectric (TE) device. We
have employed a novel approach of combining enhanced “TAGS-85”, ore-TAGS, as the p-leg material, with improved half-Heusler (HH) materials
for the n-leg, to raise the thermal-to-electrical conversion efficiency ofwaste exhaust at 750°C. This hybrid material pair takes advantage ofrecently-developed, high ZT modified TAGS alloys and n-type half-Heusler
alloys to provide a high ZT, lead-free TE material solution for exhaust gas
heat recovery for use in commercial or military vehicle platforms. RTI has
developed the n-type half-Heusler alloys using a special high-energy milling
approach to produce a reduced thermal conductivity, nanostructured
bulk alloy. This approach included two novel elements to reduce thermal
conductivity: (1) high-energy milling, and (2) addition of coherent inclusions.
Single n-/p- couples were produced using eTAGS and half-Heusler pellets
that achieved 9.2% efficiency with power output of 205mW for Thot =559°C and ∆T = 523K. This compares to an all half-Heusler (p- and n-type)single couple which achieved 8.4% efficiency at Thot = 750°C and 7.5% at
600°C . This proof of concept demonstration clearly showed a dramatic
efficiency improvement at a lower hot side temperature with the hybrid
e-TAGS/HH single couple over the baseline HH couple. By optimizing
the cross sectional areas of the pellets for equal heat flow, the resulting
asymmetric couple achieved 10.5% efficiency with a maximum power output
of 317 mW at Thot = 537°C and ∆T = 497°C. Based on these results, RTI has
assembled a hybrid 49-couple module using p-type e-TAGS and n-type
half-Heusler thermoelements and measured the performance of the hybrid
module up to a maximum hot-side temperature of 600?C. The calculated
device efficiency, corrected for radiation heat losses, reached a maximum

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Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications V

9115-9, Session 2offer one or more solutions for them. The fundamental goal is to produce
more energy without additional overall cost or maintenance cost, whichshould be less than the revenue created by the additional energy produced.

Large-scale lithography-free metasurface with
spectrally tunable super absorption

All of the improvements are based on a well planned and executedmonitoring of the plant. The required information for the optimum operation
is available from the installed devices. The data collected is processed andanalyzed in pseudo real-time on site and/or sent to a remote datacenter.

Kai Liu, Xie Zeng, Dengxin Ji, Nan Zhang, Qiaoqiang Gan, Univ. at
Buffalo (United States)
Plasmonic metamaterial super absorbers are attractive candidates forphoto-harvesting, surface enhanced biosensing and photocatalysis.
However, most reported meta-absorbers based on periodic nanopatterns
were fabricated using expensive and low-throughput nano-lithography
techniques [1,2], therefore imposing a serious cost barrier for thedevelopment of practical applications. Additionally, alternative methods
such as chemical synthesis [3] and nanostencil lithography [4] are still
difficult to obtain high-quality and large-area patterns. To overcome theselimitations, here we report a simple, scalable and cost-effective method
to manufacture uniform super absorptive metasurfaces using a direct
sputtering technique. Using this technique, densely distributed metallic
nanopatterns with controllable dimensions can easily be formed on either
rigid or flexible substrates, which is compatible with large scale roll-to-rollprocesses. These metallic nanopatterns were then covered by an ultrathin
dielectric film and optically-thick metallic ground plate sequentially toconstitute a three-layered meta-absorber. A remarkable optical absorption
peak over 96% in the visible regime was obtained successfully which isinsensitive to polarization states and incident angles up to 70º. Moreover,the lateral dimension of these random nanopatterns can be tuned further
by post thermal annealing processes, resulting in a wide spectral tunabilityof the super absorption resonances in the visible-to-near-infrared domain.
This omnidirectional, polarization-insensitive super absorber structure
is particularly promising for the development of novel thin-film energy
harvesting devices, all-angle color filters and biomimetic photonic structures[5].

9115-11, Session 3

Printed vibration based energy scavenging andstorage devices for mobile electronics
Kate J. Duncan, Victoria Carey, Mark S. Mirotznik, Univ. of Delaware(United States)
A self-powered system that scavenges energy from the body is attractive
for sensing, personal electronics and wireless technologies. Thermal andmechanical (respiration, blood pressure, body movement) energies are
possible and can be scavenged to power devices carried by most people
and will require an accumulation circuit. We will present a simple, printed
piezoelectric energy scavenger that converts vibrations into energy using
piezoelectric polymers printed onto flexible substrates. Typically, the energy
produced by piezoelectric scavengers is too small to directly power devices,
so a charging circuit has been constructed to accumulate a sufficientamount of energy, powering the mobile electronics. The design of theenergy-harvesting circuits allows for capturing and transferring intermittent
low-energy bursts to the battery.

9115-12, Session 3[1] Nano Lett. 10, 2342 (2010).

Integrated soldier power and data system(ISPDS)[2] APL 99, 253101 (2011).
[3] Nature 492, 86 (2012).

Roman P. Ostroumov, Mohamad Zahzah, Thomas C. Forrester,
Robert Stevens, Anthony Lai, Physical Optics Corp. (United States)[4] APL 101, 151106 (2012).
[5] Adv. Mater. 22, 2939 (2010).

Physical Optics Corporation (POC) developed the body-worn Integrated
Soldier Power and Data System (ISPDS), a configurable node for plugin wired or wireless server/client or peer-to-peer computing withaccommodation for power, sensor I/O interfaces and energy harvesting. The
enabling technology increases uniformed personnel and first responders
capability and provides an option for reducing force structure associatedwith the need for hardware network infrastructure to enable a mobile
digital communications architecture for dismounted troops. The ISPDS
system addresses the DoD’s need for an “intelligent” power control system
in an effort to increase mission duration and maximize the first responders
and warfighter’s effectiveness without concern for the available energy
resources (i.e., batteries). ISPDS maximizes durability and survivability,
assesses influences that affect performance, and provides the network
backbone and mobile node hardware. POC is producing two vest-integrated
variants, one each for U.S. Army PEO Ground Soldier and Air Soldier, witheach including state-of-the-art low-profile and robust wearable connectors,
cabling, and harnesses and an integrated low-profile power manager andconformal battery for data and power distribution. The innovative intelligent
power controller (IPC), in the form of the ISPDS firmware and power
sensing and control electronics, will enable ISPDS to optimize power levels
both automatically and in accordance with manually set preferences. IPC
module is power dense, efficient and adaptively provides lossless transfer
of available harvested photovoltaic energy to the battery. The integrated
systems were tested for suitable electrical, electromagnetic interference(EMI), and environmental performance as dictated by military standards
such as MIL-STD-810G and MIL STD-461F.

9115-10, Session 3

PV power plants production maximization(Invited Paper)
Andras Boross, SunEdison (United States)
Solar power plants provide an increasing percentage of our energy. This
paper focuses on the power plants which use Photo Voltaic (PV) technology
for power generation. Approximately 30 GW of solar power have beenconnected to the grid in the past few years. As of last year, the total installed
solar power plants capacity has exceeded 100 GW. The lion share of thiscapacity is provided by utility (above 2.5 GW) and commercial (above
100kW) plants. Most of the PV planes are not run at optimum performance.
If we, increase the yield by 1% without any additional investments we canprovide additional energy to the scale of tens of additional utility scale
plants. How can we maximize the yield?
Issues and Solutions:• Soiling• Equipment failure• Curtailment• Degradation• Weather• Shading, weeds• Wrong reference data (pyranometer)
The issues listed above can create energy loss compared to the estimated or
expected generated energy. This paper will examine all of these issues and

416

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Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications V

9115-13, Session 3

with flexible and lightweight photovoltaic modules for mobile and portable
power applications.

Broadband absorption engineering of hyperbolic
metafilm patterns

9115-15, Session 4

Dengxin Ji, Haomin Song, Xie Zeng, Haifeng Hu, Kai Liu, Nan Zhang,
Qiaoqiang Gan, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)

Micro battery development: from fundamental
research to manufacturing (Invited Paper)Thin-film perfect absorbers are important optical/thermal components
required by a variety of on-chip applications, including photon/thermalharvesting, thermal energy recycling, and vacuum heat liberation. Recently,
researches on metal-insulator-metal (MIM) metamaterials based perfectabsorber and trapped “rainbow” storage of light have attracted considerable
interests. However, these researches are limited by either narrow absorption
band or relatively low coupling efficiency. In this work, we experimentallyrealize a patterned hyperbolic meta-film with engineered and freely
tunable absorption band from near-IR to mid-IR spectral regions based on
multilayered metal/dielectric hyperbolic metamaterial (HMM) waveguidetaper. By cascading resonant MIM perfect absorber elements with gradually
tuned widths along the vertical direction, the absorption band of thepatterned HMM film is extended significantly. As the incident light is coupled
into the HMM waveguide taper, the group velocity of the waveguide mode
at different wavelength can be reduced significantly at their corresponding
critical widths, resulting in the enhanced light-matter interaction [1]. In
addition, multi-patterned HMM metafilms is also demonstrated to reduce
the required number of metal/dielectric layers, and therefore simplifying
the sample preparation and experimental realization of on-chip broadband
super absorbers. The ability to efficiently produce broadband, highly
confined and localized optical fields on a chip is expected to create new
regimes of optical/thermal physics, which holds promise for impacting abroad range of energy technologies ranging from photovoltaics, to thin-film
thermal absorbers/emitters, to optical-chemical energy harvesting.

Jie Xiao, Honghao Chen, Samuel Cartmell, Qiang Wang, Terence
Lozano, Thomas Carlson, Zhiqun Deng, Pacific Northwest National
Lab. (United States)
The Juvenile Salmon Acoustic Telemetry System (JSATS) project supportedby the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District, has yielded thesmallest micro-acoustic transmitter commercially available to date. To study
smaller fish and permit implantation by injection using a needle, the JSATS
micro-acoustic transmitter was reduced in weight and volume. This study
focuses on the development of micro-battery design based on lithium/carbon monofluoride (Li/CFx with x = 1) chemistry. A steady high-rate pulse
current with required lifetime was achieved while the weight and volume of
the battery was significantly reduced. The newly designed micro-batteries
have intrinsically lower impedance than the batteries currently used in
JSATS transmitters, leading to significantly improved electrochemical
performances within a wide operating temperature range from -5°C to
25°C. The fundamental science related with fluorination chemistry will also
be discussed to tune the power/energy ratio for various requirements forpractical applications.

9115-16, Session 4

Electrodics: mesoscale physicochemicalinteractions in lithium-ion batteries (Invited
Paper)

Reference[1] Hu, H., et.al. Rainbow Trapping in Hyperbolic Metamaterial Waveguide.
Sci. Rep. 3, 1249 (2013).

Partha P. Mukherjee, Texas A&M Univ. (United States)

9115-14, Session 3

Recent years have witnessed an explosion of interest and research endeavor
in lithium-ion batteries to enable vehicle electrification. In particular, acritical imperative is to accelerate innovation for improved performance,life and safety of lithium-ion batteries for electric drive vehicles. Lithium
ion batteries are complex, dynamical systems which include a multitude
of coupled physicochemical processes encompassing electronic/ionic/
diffusive transport in solid/electrolyte phases, electrochemical and phasechange reactions and diffusion induced stress generation in multi-scaleporous electrode microstructures. While innovations in nanomaterials
and nanostructures have spurred the recent advancements, fundamental
understanding of the electrode processing – microstructure – performanceinterplay is of paramount importance. In this presentation, mesoscale
physicochemical interactions in lithium-ion battery electrodes will be
elucidated.

High-voltage thin-absorber photovoltaic device
structures for efficient energy harvesting (Invited
Paper)
Roger E. Welser, Gopal G. Pethuraja, John W. Zeller, Ashok K. Sood,
Magnolia Optical Technologies, Inc. (United States) and Magnolia
Solar, Inc. (United States); Kimberly A. Sablon, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (United States)
Efficient photovoltaic energy harvesting requires device structures capableof absorbing a wide spectrum of incident radiation and extracting thephotogenerated carriers at high voltages. In this paper, we review the
impact of active layer thickness on the voltage performance of both nanoenhanced III-V and conventional copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS)
photovoltaic device structures. We observe that thin absorber structurescan, in some cases, be leveraged to increase the operating voltage ofenergy harvesting devices. Thin absorbers in combination with advanced
light trapping structures provide an exciting pathway for enhancing theperformance of flexible, lightweight photovoltaic modules suitable formobile and portable power applications.

9115-17, Session 4

Tritium power source for long-lived sensors
M. Litz, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); D. C. Katsis,
Athena Energy Corp. (United States); J. A. Russo, D. A. Burns, J. J.
Carroll, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

The output voltage of photovoltaic energy harvesting devices is governedby the underlying diode dark current. Theoretically, both the radiative andnon-radiative components of the dark current can be reduced by minimizing
the active layer thickness. In this work, recently reported experimental datafrom both III-V and CIGS cells is reviewed, confirming the expected trendof increasing open circuit voltage with decreasing active layer thickness.
Analysis of recent work in the field of nano-enhanced absorbers also allows
us to experimentally quantify the limiting radiative regime of operation.
Advanced optical designs are then considered: designs that are compatible

417+1 360 676 3290

Isotope power supplies offer solutions for long-lived (100 yr), low-power(100uW) energy sources. The energy density of nuclear batteries uniquely
serves applications for sensors or communications nodes that are required
to last the lifetime of infrastructure. Efficiencies less than 10% are typicalin direct-energy-conversion (DEC) of radiation to electric current, whichis comparable to thermo-electrics (TE) and thermo-photo-voltaics (TPV).
For low-power applications, avoiding a heat-cycle (Carnot limitation) is
useful in reducing a heat signature. A beta-source is coupled directly to a·

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Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications V

9115-21, Session 5

semiconductor (or includes a phosphor/optical conversion precursor) for
conversion to free-electrons creating current in an electrical load. A low-cost
approach is described for next-generation compact electronics and sensor
applications.

Local electromechanical characterization offlexible nanostructured supercapacitors using
atomic force microscopy

9115-18, Session 4

Daniel P. Cole, Kenneth E. Strawhecker, Mark L. Bundy, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

Measuring battery state of health throughmechanical stress measurements (Invited Paper)
The determination of a battery’s state of health and state of charge is critical
for the management of any energy storage system employing batteries(e.g. electric vehicles, grid storage, consumer electronics, etc.) Despite
the fundamental importance of the SOH and SOC parameters in battery
systems, determination of these parameters is not straightforward andremains an area of active research. We propose a novel method of SOH/
SOC determination using easy measurements of stack pressure in battery
cells. Using a model system containing a commercial lithium-ion pouch cell,
we show that cell expansion is predictably related to both the SOH and
SOC of a battery cell. We then show how these relationships can be used ina battery management system to continuously monitor the SOH and SOC
of a battery cell during operation. The inherent simplicity of the proposedmechanical measurement system of battery management offers many
advantages to the complex parameter estimation systems that comprise thecurrent state of the art.

Electric double layer capacitors (EDLCs), or ‘supercapacitors,’ store energy
at the double layer interface between the electrode and electrolyte. EDLCs
have relatively high specific power compared to batteries and fuel cells, andare expected to play an important role in hybrid energy storage and delivery
systems for future vehicles and portable electronics. Carbon nanotubes(CNTs) offer excellent electrical properties, high chemical stability, andhigh specific surface areas, which are all desirable properties for EDLC
electrode materials. In addition, CNTs possess high mechanical properties,
making CNT-based EDLCs attractive for multifunctional structural-energy
storage applications. In this work, solid state electrodes were processedby infiltrating a solid polymer electrolyte into an aligned CNT network.
Flexible EDLCs were created by combining the composite electrodes with aconductive polymer current collector. The local morphology and mechanicalbehavior of the electrode/electrolyte interface was characterized using
atomic force microscopy (AFM). Nanoscale capacitive behavior of thematerials was studied using conductive AFM. The local electromechanicalbehavior of the composite electrodes is compared to the global behavior inorder to better understand bulk material performance.

9115-19, Session 49115-22, Session 5

Design and fabrication of Li-ion microbatteries(Invited Paper)

Nanoengineered capacitor materials withcolossal dielectric constant

John Cannarella, Craig B. Arnold, Princeton Univ. (United States)

Narsingh B. Singh, Samuel Opeka, Vishnu Razdan, Marcus Zupan,
Carlos A. Romero-Talamas, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)

Shen J. Dillon, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States)
Scaling conventional Li-ion battery electrodes to the microscale presents
a number of challenges associated with electrode fabrication and battery
packaging. Microscale batteries (volume < 1 mm3) often contain large
volume fractions of inactive material that diminish the overall energy
density. Alternative approaches deviate significantly from traditional
electrode and system designs, and typically employ some type of topdown or bottom-up nanostructuring approach. This talk will detail our
recent efforts for fabricate high energy density Li-ion microbatteries using
direct ink writing and nanowire growth processes. The talk will also discuss
packaging strategies, concepts for device integration, and cycling stability.

The limitation of a well-publicized CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO) material [1-5] isthe leakage current. CCTO is an excellent material with permittivity of 105
but material uniformity, charge compensation, and design of composite
structures are limiting the applications. The status of leakage current
measurements in CCTO, expressed as a conductivity or resistivity, is in therange of 106 ?-cm. A range of the resistivity values have been reported
based on the processing conditions of the materials. All these values arereasonably lower than an ideal value needed for practical applications. The
main objective for an R?C hold time requires a resistivity of about 1011 ?-cm.
To overcome this problem, we have performed synthesis and growth ofsubstituted CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO) to achieve large size homogeneous grains
in different thermal conditions. We have used Aluminum and Si to achieve
CaCu3AlxTi4-xO12 (CCATO) composition. Preliminary results indicate that
resistivity was 2-3 order magnitude higher than pure CCTO material.

9115-20, Session 5

Flexible Li-ion battery electrodes preparedfrom nanostructured polymer-derived ceramiccomposites (Invited Paper)

9115-23, Session 5

Gurpreet Singh, Kansas State Univ. (United States)

Nanostructured metal-oxides for use as highpower and energy density storage electrodes

We demonstrate synthesis and electrochemical performance of novel
molecular precursor-derived ceramic (PDC)/carbon nanotube embedded
graphene self-supporting composite papers as Li-ion battery electrode.
The papers were prepared through vacuum filtration of various PDCgraphene oxide (GO) dispersions in DI water followed by thermal reduction
at elevated temperatures that resulted in a homogenous PDC/reduced GO
papers that were highly crumpled, mechanically robust and consisted of a
3-D electrically conducting network. Li-ion battery electrodes (prepared ata loading of ~ 1.0 mg/cm^2) showed stable charge capacity of approx. 500
mAh/g (w.r.t. total electrode weight) with nearly 100 % coulombic efficiency
for 1000 cycles. Further, the post electrochemical imaging of the dissembled
cells showed no apparent damage to the anode surface, highlighting
improved chemical and mechanical stability of these ceramic composites.

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SPIE DSS 2014

Bilge Saruhan-Brings, G. C. Mondragón Rodríguez, Deutsches
Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany); Yakup Goenuellue,
Univ. zu Köln (Germany)
Pseudo-capacitance is achieved by use of metal-oxides yielding faradaic
reactions over redox couples. Capacitive charge-storage properties ofmesoporous films made of complex metal-oxides preferably in core + shellarchitecture are superior to those of non-porous crystalline metal-oxides.
RuO2 yields the highest energy densities however is not attractive forcommercial use due to high cost. Other promising candidates are MnO2,
Co2O3, NiO, etc. which need to be improved for achievement of long-·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications V

9115-27, Session Posters-Tuesday

term stability. As well as the electrode material, the type of electrolyte isimportant by the performance of a supercapacitor.
This work describes the fabrication and performance of mesoporous doubleoxides (MnCu, MnNi, MnCo, etc) in aqueous electrolytes. Thin films aredeposited by sputtering technique on metallic foils, graphitic and carbon
fibre substrates. Specific capacitance, energy and power densities arecalculated and the role of electrolyte selection demonstrated. Moreover,electrode materials having an aligned nano-structural titania will bepresented demonstrating intercalation introduced enhanced capacitance.

Junctionless thin-film ferroelectric oxides forphotovoltaic energy production

9115-24, Session Posters-Tuesday

Streaming Process for Electrode-less Electrochemical Deposition (SPEED)
method is used to create TiO2/NiO thin films for photocatalytic water
splitting. When codeposited, the two materials appear to segregate, with
NiO serving as a matrix for ropy or vascular structures of TiO2 that provide
large active surface areas. The morphology, composition, crystallinity, UV
spectrum, and hydrogen production rate are reported. That NiO and TiO2
are semiconductors that form pn junctions retard the recombination ofphoto-excited electrons and holes.

Farnood K. Rezaie, Janardan Nath, Evan M. Smith, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States); Isaiah O. Oladeji, SISOM Thin Films, LLC(United States); Robert E. Peale, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates)Analysis of solar cell using the Lambert W
function with Maple
Daniel Villegas, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
A study of solar cells took place by using Lambert W function based diodemodel. All calculations were made through computer algebra, having thesoftware Maple a special place.

9115-28, Session Posters-Tuesday

Current vs. Voltage graph corresponding to cells was obtained as a main
result, so as diode’s parameters values such as the series, shunt resistances
and its constant.

Modeling of high-efficiency ITO/ZnO quantum
wire photovoltaic

Analytical results will be useful for cell manufacturing, either for home orindustrial usage.

Fahad A. Althowibi, Eric Donkor, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)As a future research line, Lambert W function utilization is suggested as amean for multidiode systems development.

Photovoltaic, PV, cell is widely used for solar energy conversion and its
technology is intensively studies and the research in this area is undergoing.
Finding low-cost materials for PV cells and gaining high efficiency ofsunlight-electric conversion are a challenge task to achieve. This paper
presents a new nanofiber photovoltaic cell with ITO/ZnO/ITO concentriccore, where ZnO serves as active medium for photogenerated carriers, andis designed to have higher efficiency of solar energy conversion. The highenergy band gap and high refractive index of ZnO relatively to ITO generatehigh load voltage at cell terminals while fiber geometry contributes toincrease current generation and charge separation. Results shows that the
open voltage records 3.4V, and the short-circuit current ranges between
0.2A to 3.5A both of which are function of the nanofiber optical andelectronic constituent parameters, as well as device geometry.

9115-26, Session Posters-Tuesday

Single stage AC-DC converter for Galfenol-based
micro-power energy harvesters
Peyton Cavaroc, Chandra V. Curtis, Space and Naval Warfare
Systems Ctr. Atlantic (United States); James P. Cooper, Middle
Tennessee State Univ. (United States); Suketu Naik, Space and Naval
Warfare Systems Command (United States)
Military based sensor systems are often hindered in operational deployment
and/or other capabilities due to limitations in their energy storage elements.
Typically operating from lithium based batteries, there is a finite amount of
stored energy which the sensor can use to collect and transmit data. As aresult, the sensors have reduced sensing and transmission rates. However,coupled with the latest advancements in energy harvesting, these sensors
could potentially run indefinitely. Working with the magnetostrictive
material Galfenol, we demonstrate the generation of enough energy tosupplement and recharge a solid state battery, thereby overcoming the
deficiencies faced by unattended sensors. As with any vibration-basedenergy harvester, this solution produces an alternating current which needs
to be rectified and boosted to a level conducive to recharging the storage
element. When operating down to the micro-watt level, power converter
efficiency plays a critical role in the effective implementation of an energy
harvesting source. The power converter and control circuitry must operate
at ultra low power levels to minimize the parasitic losses they impose not
only on the energy harvester, but potentially the storage element as well.
This paper presents a power converter capable of efficiently converting an
ultra-low AC voltage to a solid state charging voltage of 4.1V DC. While weare working with Galfenol transducers as our energy source, this converter
may also be applied with any AC producing energy harvester, particularly at
operating levels less than 2mW and 200mV AC.

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9115-29, Session Posters-Tuesday

Designing a concentrating photovoltaic (CPV)system in adjunct with a silicon photovoltaic
panel for a solar competition car
Andrés Arias-Rosales, Jorge A. Barrera-Velásquez, Gilberto OsorioGómez, Ricardo Mejía-Gutiérrez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Solar competition cars are a very interesting research laboratory for thedevelopment of new technologies heading to their further implementationin either commercial passenger vehicles or related applications. Besides,
worldwide competitions allow the spreading of such ideas in a healthy
academic environment, where the best and experienced teams bet on
innovation and leading edge technologies, in order to develop vehicles
that are more efficient. In these vehicles, some aspects make the difference
just like aerodynamics, shape, weight, wheels and photovoltaic, since
efficient electric motors and batteries are of common usage between all thecompetitors. In this way, the first Colombian solar vehicle, competitor at theWorld Solar Challenge 2013 in Australia, has implemented the usage of aConcentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) system as a complementary solar energy
module to the common silicon photovoltaic panel implemented on the
top of the vehicles. This system allows the use of more effective solar cellswith lower areas concentrating solar radiation by lenses, but in this specificapplication, the weight induced by the CPV must be less harmful that thebenefit of the usage of the whole system. Such design considerations and its
implementation is presented in this document along with the different steps·

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Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications Vof the design process considering both the restrictions of the context andthe interaction of the CPV system with the solar car setup. The measured
data make evident the advantage of the usage of this system during thecompetition concerning the solar energy harvested with the main silicon
photovoltaic panel.

semi-predictable patterns, computer simulations can cross and match datafrom such sources to forecast generation behavior. The outputs of such
simulations are shadow patterns on the surface of the vehicle, indicating
locations that are suitable or unsuitable to install solar cells. This paper willshow how this analysis was applied to the design of the solar panel for a
Challenger Class solar vehicle that participated in the World Solar Challenge
2013. Illustrating how the employment of a computational tool can help in
the acquisition of both qualitative and quantitative information, related toshadows position and their impact on panel collection. Using data inputs
such as vehicle geometry and its relative position towards the route, the tool
was used to evaluate different possible configurations and select the ones
that are more convenient to the given scenario.

9115-30, Session Posters-Tuesday

Can seismic (destructive) energy be stored afterconversion into electrical or acoustic energy?
Umesh P. Verma, Madhurendra N. Sinha, Patna Science College(India)9115-32, Session Posters-Tuesday“On The purview of precursory revolution in the seismology byElectromagnetic radiation theory and:F.T. Freund2010)et.al,basing
piezoelectric effect on the crustal geo-materials emanation of seismic presignals have been noted frequently. Theirs’ effect in form of ULF and VHF
are commonly detected ( by Greece and American seismologists)in theupper ionosphere from surface of globe.TEC, OLR. MMC are the consequent
instrumentation in acquiring data to these pre-earthquake signals. Our
attempt is to detect the signals prior to earthquake due to impending stressin the area and store the spreading destructive energy in electrical voltage
applying the mathematics of piezoelectric equations and algebra in thiscontext imphasis over the application of piezoelectric sensors as smart
structure in the circuit configuration can be implied for the detection of DC
signals and thus harnessing process can be made by selecting simulationand modulation of seismic signals into DC voltage. Smart sensors of varying
frequency –set graduated at different LB and Watt shaped in various
configuration by MIDE Vulture application can be made.Though the task
seems chalenge but with the available literature of works on American and
Greece platform : F>.T .Freidemann.( NASA )and Afatxious et.al(2010,2011)
can be cited in the this field as citation for Pre- seismic ELF/ULF/and ELS
display confirming the electrical discharge generation.

Temperature influence on energy density ofnanocomposite for dielectric capacitor
Mohammad Arif I. Shuvo, Md. Rajib, Hasanul Karim, Diego Delfin,
Yirong Lin, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States)
With the development of modern technology, the demand of high energy
density dielectric capacitor devices is increasing for its significant role instationary power systems, mobile devices and pulse power applications.
Dielectric capacitor with high energy density at elevated operating
temperature is one of the present research demands. BaTiO3 (Barium
titanate) and PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride) have higher energy density
at elevated temperature and is strongly influenced by temperature. Barium
titanate exhibits a significant change in dielectric properties at its Curie
temperature 120°C, which has a great impact on energy density of dielectric
capacitor. In this study we have fabricated BaTiO3/PVDF nanocomposites
with different volume fractions of ceramic filler materials by solution casting
method to investigate their energy densities at temperature ranges from
20°C to 120°C. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction(XRD) were used for materials characterization. Capacitance and breakdown
strength were measured to determine the energy density of the samples
with 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% volume fractions. Nano-composites with 30%
volume fraction showed highest energy density of 5.79 J/cc at 50°C.

9115-31, Session Posters-Tuesday

Procedure to determine module distribution
within a solar array to increase the net energy
collection in a solar competition vehicle

9115-33, Session Posters-Tuesday

Magnetohydrodynamic-based devices for energy
harvesting from motion and vibration

Nicolás Suárez-Castañeda, Ana M. Gil-Herrera, Jorge A. BarreraVelásquez, Gilberto Osorio-Gómez, Ricardo Mejía-Gutiérrez, Univ.
EAFIT (Colombia)

John Vetrovec, Aqwest, LLC (United States)

A solar panel installed on a solar competition vehicle is expected to collectas much solar radiation as possible, and transform it into electrical energy
efficiently. Unlike a static photovoltaic array, a solar car is subjected tochanges on incident radiation and constantly varying shades, which
decrease the uptake of energy and, thus, its net efficiency. Various factors
intervene in the position, size and time of appearance of shadows on
the panel. Environmental factors (e.g. trees, buildings, mountains, etc.)that cannot be controlled will not be discussed in this paper. Since theirvariability can be avoided or reduced easily (in practical terms using thevehicle in environments with few sources of shadows, or where the time of
exposure to these shadows is minimal, just as seen in desert road conditions
with constant speed). Similarly, the spatial and temporal conditions
cannot be controlled, with a global impact that significantly affects vehicle
performance. They comprise conditions such as the time of day, terrestrial
solar vehicle position, current season or solar cycle, just to name a few.
Finally, there is a third set of intervening factors originating from the vehicle
itself, such as the relative position of the panel to other elements (such as
canopy, driver, panel curvature, etc. Since available space for installationof the panel is limited, it becomes difficult not to install solar modules
in areas impacted by shadows, requiring the reduction of impact fromthese modules, on the overall vehicle generation. Shadow patterns arise
from the relative position of the sun to the earth, and the relative positionof the car towards both of them. Since car, earth and sun are moving in

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SPIE DSS 2014

We report on innovative magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)-based devices
for harvesting of energy from motion and mechanical vibration. The
Aqwest energy harvesters use an electrically conductive working fluid
and permanent magnets to achieve very high conversion efficiencies ofmechanical energy to electrical energy. This paper describes the physics,
design, and testing of energy harvesters using this principle. MHD energy
harvesters can be used to recover energy from mechanical vibrations (e.g.,
on vehicles) or to recuperate energy from reverse stroke of actuators. The
former can find applications powering of remote sensors while the latter are
aimed for recharging storage batteries of electric actuators.

·

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Conference 9115: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications V

9115-34, Session Posters-Tuesday

Pulsed wireless photonic power transfer at highirradiance
Harbans S. Dhadwal, Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States)
Photonic power conversion (PPC) uses high power laser diodes to deliverelectrical power to remote locations, either through a guided approach
using fiber optics or by beam propagation through the air. Photovoltaic
cells, with peak wavelength response matched to the peak wavelengthof the laser diode, provide high efficiency conversion by means of single
junction devices, connected in series for the desired open circuit voltage.
The short circuit current is proportional to the incident optical power.
Continuous operation of these devices is usually restricted to an equivalent
irradiance of 1000 suns and multiple devices can be configured in parallel
provide the desired electrical power. Pulsed power transfer is more effective
for applications, such as dormant sensors, which have sporadic need forelectrical power. Such systems, however, require rapid dump of energy
into the storage device, typically, a high capacity double layer capacitor.
Current-voltage characteristics of the PPC are not a sufficient indicatorof the performance of the device under different illumination conditions.
It is necessary to study the behavior of the device for the intended use.
Our measurements explore the feasibility of using PPC devices to replace
thermal/inductive power sources inside a munition shell. In this paper, we
explore optimal illumination conditions to minimize the charging time of a
25 F capacitor. Comparative data, for two types of commercial GaAs PPC
devices, which have a peak response around 810 nm is presented. The first,
has a diameter of 2 mm for use with a mutimode optical fiber, while thesecond, has large area photovoltaic converter suitable for long distancewireless transmission of power. Experimental results indicate that thesurface irradiance and laser power both determine the minimum energy
transfer time. We found that both devices operated at irradiance levels
exceeding 13,000 suns without causing thermal damage to the PPC.

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Conference 9116: Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics
Thursday 8 –8 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9116 Next-Generation Robots and Systems

9116-1, Session 1

Chicago (United States)

A haptic sensing upgrade for the current EOD
robotic fleet (Invited Paper)

Microassembly is one of the applications successfully implemented bygroup of individually-controllable MEMS microrobots (MicroStressBots).
Although the robots are controlled using a centralized optical closed-loop
control systems, i.e., a camera mounted on top of a microscope, complianceand self-alignment were used to successfully reduce the control error
and permit precise assembly of planar structures. In this work, we further
explore the possibility of using compliance to facilitate docking between
MicroStressBots. The forces generated by the docking surfaces create a local
attractor (pre-image of the goal configuration) that facilitates alignment
between the two structures. Through this interaction the robot senses andaligns its position to match the desired configuration.

Patrick S. Rowe, RE2, Inc. (United States)
The past decade and a half has seen a tremendous rise in the use of mobile
manipulator robotic platforms for bomb inspection and disposal, explosive
ordnance disposal, and other extremely hazardous tasks in both military andcivilian settings. Skilled operators are able to control these robotic vehicles
in amazing ways given the very limited situational awareness obtained froma few on-board camera views. Future generations of robotic platforms will,
no doubt, provide some sort of additional force or haptic sensory feedback
to further enhance the operator’s maneuvers with the robot, especially when
dealing with fragile, unstable, and explosive objects. Unfortunately, therobot operators need this capability today. This paper discusses an approachto provide existing (and future) robotic mobile manipulator platforms, withwhich trained operators are already familiar and highly proficient, withthis desired haptic and force feedback. The goals of this upgrade are to berugged, reliable, and affordable. It should also be able to be applied to awide range of existing robots with a wide variety of manipulator/gripper
styles and sizes. Finally, the presentation of the information to the operator
is also discussed, given the fact that control devices that physically interact
with the operator are still in the research stages.

Specifically, in this work we examine two cases: a) docking of two
microrobots with straight front edges that promote sliding, and b) dockingof two microrobots with patterned edges that restricted sliding between thetwo robots. In the former case, the robots are engaged in mutual alignment,
which is akin to pairwise Self Assembly (SA). This allows generation ofhighly accurate seed-shapes for further assembly. In the latter case, therobots with matching pattern edges can dock and successfully align. Here,the patterned edge functions as a lock-and-key mechanism, and is akinto the selective affinity in SA-systems. The difference however between asystem of MicroStressBots and SA however is that MicroStressBots haveactive propulsion and control, compared with passive SA systems.

9116-4, Session 1

9116-2, Session 1

Haptic exploration of fingertip-sized geometricfeatures using a multimodal tactile sensor

Tactile MEMS-based sensor for delicate
microsurgery

Ruben D. Ponce Wong, Randall B. Hellman, Veronica J. Santos,
Arizona State Univ. (United States)

Young Soo Park, Argonne National Lab. (United States); Woo HoLee, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States); Nachappa
Gopalsami, Argonne National Lab. (United States); Mohan S.
Gundeti, The Univ. of Chicago Medical Ctr. (United States)

Haptic perception remains a grand challenge for artificial hands. Dexterous
manipulators could be enhanced by “haptic intelligence” that enables
identification of objects and their features via touch alone. Haptic
perception of local shape would be useful when vision is obstructed orwhen proprioceptive feedback is inadequate, as observed in this study.
In this work, a robot hand outfitted with a deformable, bladder-type,multimodal tactile sensor was used to replay four human-inspired haptic“exploratory procedures” on fingertip-sized geometric features. The
geometric features varied by type (bump, pit), curvature (planar, conical,
spherical), and footprint dimension (1.25-20mm). Tactile signals generated
by active fingertip motions were used to extract key parameters for use as
inputs to supervised learning models. A support vector classifier estimatedorder of curvature while support vector regression models estimatedfootprint dimension (positive and negative values encoded bumps andpits, respectively). A distal-proximal stroke (along the long axis of thefinger) enabled estimation of order of curvature with an accuracy of 97%.
Curvature-specific regression models performed better than a single
regression model for all orders of curvature, and yielded R2 values of atleast 0.95. While a radial-ulnar stroke (along the short axis of the finger)
was most helpful for estimating feature type and size for planar features,a rolling motion was most helpful for conical and spherical features. The
ability to perceive local shape could be used to advance robot autonomy
and provide haptic feedback to human teleoperators of devices ranging
from bomb defusal robots to neuroprostheses.

The incorporation of robotics in surgery has increased dramatically recently,
owing to the advantages of shorter recuperation, minimal morbidity andbetter aesthetic appearance and ease of performing the intricate suturing.
From the learning curves of operating with robots, however, the surgeons
have realized that further improvements are required especially the haptic
feedback. While there are many advances in haptic display, relatively little
material is available for the essential haptic sensing. Haptic sensing is acomplex mechanism perceived by various cutaneous mechanoreceptors- Merkel’s discs (pressure), Pacinian corpuscles (vibration), Meissner’s
corpuscles (delicate touch, texture), Ruffini’s ending (tension, stretch).
While some sensors such as strain gauges and accelerometers are available
for replicating some of these perceptions, most delicate sense of touch,equivalent to Meissner’s corpuscle, is not replicated. To this end, we aredeveloping a tactile sensor capable of replicating the human sense ofdelicate touch. To attain high spatial resolution required for mounting on
surgical instrument tip, this paper presents a preliminary developmentof the MEMS-based tactile sensor development. The sensor element isdesigned in diaphragm form using SU-8 substrate and gold as piezoresistor.
Sensor elements of various diaphragm sizes (300, 500, 700, and 900um) are fabricated to allow wide range of stiffness measurement. The
characteristic test indicated that the stiffness of the sensors elements match
those of surgical tissues. Upon successful development, such a tactile sensor
will be essential for delicate surgeries, such as handling delicate tissues andin microsurgery.

9116-5, Session 2

Experimental testbed for robotic skincharacterization and interaction control

9116-3, Session 1

Kyle Shook, Woo Ho Lee, Kamesh Subbarao, Dan Popa, The Univ. of
Texas at Arlington (United States)

Tactile sensing and compliance in microstressbot
assemblies

Currently robots are able to reliably perform repeated, specific tasks when

Vahid Faroutan, Ratul Majumdar, Igor Paprotny, Univ. of Illinois at

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Conference 9116: Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics

9116-8, Session 2

their movements are predefined and reside in structured environments.
The next generation of robots will need to perform tasks in unstructured
dynamic environments and in close collaboration with humans. This will
require a vast increase in the robot’s perception of its surroundings throughimproved sensors. We are working on robotic skin to create distributed
sensors for touch, temperature, acceleration and proximity to humans. To
test robotic skin prototypes we have built an experimental testbed to apply
loading profiles on pressure sensors embedded in artificial skin in orderto create reduced order models of skin sensors for simulation and control.
Measurement data from the load applicator and embedded sensor isacquired using National Instruments real time control technology and used
as input into MATLAB’s System Identification Toolbox to obtain the desiredmodels. With this setup many skin sensor designs undergoing a range ofloading profiles can be tested and modeled.

A multidirectional capacitive proximity sensor
array
Jiang Long, Mitsubishi Electric Research Labs. (United States)
and Univ. of California, San Diego (United States); Bingnan Wang,
Mitsubishi Electric Research Labs. (United States)
Proximity sensors have many important applications in industrial
automation, such as accurate position sensing, thickness measurement, andobstacle detection. In robotics, proximity sensors can detect the existence
and distance of an obstacle in small range, where vision sensors have larger
error. In order to cover a larger sensing area and achieve more accuratesensing, more than one sensor is needed. For sensing on a curved surface,multi-directional functionality is required for such sensors.

9116-6, Session 2

This paper presents a multi-directional capacitive proximity sensor array,with four elements designed to detect objects coming from four different
directions. All sensor elements are realized with simple circular patchwith similar dimension, and are modeled as tunable capacitors withcapacitances vary according to the proximity of intruding objects. Suchtunable capacitance is integrated into a quad-band band-stop filter, withfour notches located at 140MHz, 180MHz, 240MHz and 340MHz. The bandstop filter is composed of four decoupled LC resonant circuits, so eachstop band is determined by one capacitive sensor and its corresponding
lumped inductor. Therefore, the change in capacitance can be obtained bymeasuring the change of the notches of the band-stop response. The filter isfabricated into a cubic shape for sensing different directions. Measurement
results show distinct change of notch responses due to objects coming fromdifferent directions. The fabricated sensor can detect objects coming fromall four directions simultaneously by measuring four frequencies near fournotches. The measured sensing range for all directions is at least 8mm.

Conformal grasping using feedback controlled
bubble actuator array
Wei Carrigan, Manoj Mittal, Richard E. Stein, Muthu B. J.
Wijesundara, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)
Current robotic end effectors (e.g. grippers and hands) have the ability toconformally grasp well-defined objects but are limited in their ability toeffectively handle objects with disparate shapes and material properties. To
enhance robotic manipulation capabilities, a novel dynamically controlled
sensor-actuator layer is overlaid onto the end effector to act as an “activeskin” component. The active skin is comprised of an array of omnidirectional
silicone bubble actuators beneath an array of force sensors. Each bubble
can be dynamically inflated or deflated to better conformally grasp thetarget object. Dynamic redistribution of bubble pressure allows the force
acting upon the point of contact with the grasped object to be minimized
without a corresponding increase in the degrees of freedom required by
the end effector. Thus, enhanced grasp control can be achieved without
increasing the complexity of the end effector. Through further development,
this bubble actuator technology can also allow visual control system toignore error in the generated object position and orientation because theobject grasping is handled through the sensor actuator array and the end
effector can be generally positioned near the object. In addition, bubble
actuator technology can be applied to many human robot interactions
including health care and service robots where safety and pressure loadingof sensitive areas is a large concern.

9116-9, Session 3

Need and emerging trends in remote sensing
Michael McNair, Jeongsik Shin, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington(United States)
From the earliest need to be able to see an enemy over a hill to sending
semi-autonomous platforms with advanced sensor packages out into space,humans have wanted to know more about what is around them. Issues of
distance are being minimized through advances in technology to the point
where remote control of a sensor is useful but sensing by way of a noncollocated sensor is better.

9116-7, Session 2

We are not content to just sense what is physically nearby. However, it is
not always practical or possible to move sensors to an area of interest; wemust be able to sense at a distance. This requires not only new technologies
but new approaches; our need to sense at a distance is ever changing withnewer challenges. As a result, remote sensing is not limited to relocating asensor but is expanded into possibly deducing or inferring from available
information.

Development and characterization of a new
silicone/platine-based 2-DoF sensorized endeffector for micromanipulators
Xin Xu, Joel Agnus, Micky Rakotondrabe, FEMTO-ST (France)
This paper reports the development and the characterization of a new
silicone end-effector with integrated sensor based on a set of platine
piezoresistive gage. Used as interface between a micromanipulator
and a manipulated small object, the features of the end-effector are:1) its compactness (length between 750µm and 2mm, width=40µm,
thickness=25µm), 1) the fully integrated force measurement system thanks
to microfabricated platine piezoresistive gage, 2) the 2-dof (degrees of
freedom: along y and z axis) measurement capability, 3) the high sensitivityof measurment provided for each axis (0.6% to 0.8% for the range ofmeasured force of 1mN), 4) and the relatively high gauge factor (G=6).
This paper reports the principle, the steps of microfabrication and thecharacterization of the 2-dof sensorized end-effector.

This paper presents an overview of remote sensing and explores the trends
and directions into which this exciting area is moving. Based on today’s
technologies and tomorrow’s needs, we also look at what the future might
hold. Even so, it is not just the technology that is important: the cost of thetechnology and the cost of its use is vitally important for success. The trends
before us will be shaped by available funding in spite of having the best
sensing methods.

9116-10, Session 3

Toward controlling perturbations in robotic
sensor networks
Ashis G. Banerjee, Saikat Ray-Majumder, GE Global Research(United States)423+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9116: Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics

9116-12, Session 3

Robotic sensor networks (RSNs), which consist of networks of sensors
placed on mobile robots, are being increasingly used for environment
monitoring applications. In particular, a lot of work has been done on
simultaneous localization and mapping of the robots, and optimal sensor
placement for environment state estimation [1]. The deployment of RSNs,
however, remains challenging in harsh environments where the RSNs
have to deal with significant perturbations in the forms of wind gusts,
turbulent water flows, sand storms, or blizzards that disrupt inter-robot
communication and individual robot stability. Hence, there is a need to
be able to control such perturbations and bring the networks to desirable
states with stable nodes (robots) and minimal operational performance(environment sensing). Recent work has demonstrated the feasibility ofcontrolling the non-linear dynamics in other communication networks
like emergency management systems and power grids by introducing
compensatory perturbations to restore network stability and operation [2].
In this paper, we develop a computational framework to investigate theusefulness of this approach for RSNs in marine environments. Preliminary
analysis shows promising performance and identifies bounds on the original
perturbations within which it is possible to control the networks.

Micro-sensor selection for outdoor air quality
monitoring
Kristen L. Dorsey, John Herr, Univ. of California, Berkeley (UnitedStates); F. S. Alleyne, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (United States);
Albert P. Pisano, Univ. of California, San Diego (United States)
Airborne pollutants pose a threat to health and the environment. Of thesepollutants, <2.5 µm diameter particulate matter, NOx compounds, and ozone
are of the greatest concern to both acute and chronic human health. Sensors
that enable real-time air quality monitoring will aid in the identification ofpollution sources and composition of pollution plumes and inform citizensof their exposure to pollutants.
One major impediment to pervasive air quality monitoring is the lack ofsensors in urban neighborhoods. We propose an array of airborne pollutant
sensor clusters stationed throughout an urban core (e.g., on streetlamps)that detect the location, composition, and source of pollutants (e.g. fires,
dirty cars, buildings) and enable enhanced information for first responders
and public safety officials. Sensor placement and required 20+ year lifespandemands that they withstand harsh urban environments.

References[1] B. J. Julian, M. Angermann, M. Schwager, and D. Rus. Distributed Robotic
Sensor Networks: An Information Theoretic Approach, The International
Journal of Robotics Research, 31(10): 1134-1154, 2012.

We will demonstrate an air quality sensing cluster and characterize its
performance in detecting ppm concentrations of ozone, NOx compounds,
and particulate matter. The gases will be detected through a previously
demonstrated micro-electro-chemical sensor. Particulate matter ofdiameters <10 µm, < 2.5 µm, and <1 µm will be detected with a systemof filters and gravimetric sensors. A previously demonstrated Lambmode resonator will be deployed as the particulate matter sensor. The
sensor cluster will also be deployed in real-world environments to test its
capabilities in distinguishing various urban environments.

[2] S. P. Cornelius, W. L. Kath, and A. E. Motter. Realistic Control of Network
Dynamics, Nature Communications, 4(1942), 2013.

9116-11, Session 3

Advanced THz sensor array for precise position
and material properties recognition
Aleksander Sešek, Janez Trontelj, Univ. of Ljubljana (Slovenia);
Andrej Švigelj, Letrika Lab. d.o.o (Slovenia)

9116-13, Session 3

Radiation detection based on luminescence ratio
methodThe precise position of objects in the industrial process, assembly lines,
conveys or processing bins is essential for fast and high quality production.
In many robotized setups the material type and its properties are crucial.
When several types of materials or parts are used, material recognition
is required. Advanced robotics systems depend on various sensors torecognize material properties and high resolution cameras with expensive
laser measuring systems are used to determine the precise object position.

Wei Chen, Lun Ma, Rasool Kenarangui, Andrew Brandt, Erick Jones,
Alex Weiss, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)
Fluorescence intensity ratio (FIR) is a reliable and sensitive technology
in measurements using relative fluorescence intensity changes from twoenergy levels. It has important applications in thermometry, biologicalsensing, and trace water detection. However, FIR has been rarely applied
for radiation detection. In this work, we prepared ZnS:Mn,Eu phosphor withtwo emissions for X-ray radiation doses measurement. The X-ray diffraction(XRD) shows that the obtained phosphor has both ZnS sphalerite andwurtzite phases. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) study reveals
that ZnS:Mn,Eu phosphors have large particles of microns and nanoparticles
of about 20 nm. A very intense violet emission of 420 nm from ZnS:Mn,Eu is
newly reported. The emission is related to Eu2+ doping but only appears at
certain Eu2+ concentrations. More interesting, It is found that the intensityof the 420 nm violet fluorescence is X-ray does-dependent, while the red
fluorescence of 583 nm due to the d-d transition of Mn ions is not. The
FIR of the two emissions has been investigated and empirical formulas of
X-ray radiation doses as a function of FIR are provided for radiation doesmeasurement. Possible X-ray irradiation induced fluorescence quenchingmechanisms are discussed. The intense emission not only provides a violet
light for solid state lighting but also offers a very sensitive method forradiation detection.

The purpose of this paper is to present how the THz sensor and THz waves
can be applicable for such precise object position sensing and its material
properties in the real time. One of additional features of such THz sensor
array is also ability to see behind the barriers which are transparent for
THz waves. This allows the system to obtain precise dimensions, position
and material properties of the object, which is invisible for visible light or
anyhow obscured to other vision systems. Furthermore, a 3D THz imageof the object can also be obtained and, in cases when visual picture isavailable, its fusion with a THz image is possible.
In the paper a THz sensor array, operating at a 300GHz central frequency
and at room conditions is presented, together with the proposed visionsystem description. The target is illuminated with frequency modulated
solid state THz source, providing output power around 1mW. By mixing of
illuminating and reflected signal, the resulting difference frequency signal
is obtained. Its amplitude and phase carry all relevant information of thetarget. Some measurement results are also shown and discussed.

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Conference 9116: Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics

9116-14, Session 49116-16, Session 4

EHD printing as sensor fabrication technology for
robotic skins

Microassembly and packaging of carbon
nanotube-based field emission devices for hightemperature electronics applications

Jeongsik Shin, Woo Ho Lee, Caleb Nothnagle, Muthu B. J.
Wijesundara, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)

Rakesh Murthy, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)

Human-robot interaction can be made more sophisticated and intuitive if
the entire body of a robot is covered with a multi-modal sensors embedded
in artificial skin. In order to efficiently interact with humans in unstructured
environments, robotic skin may require sensors such as touch, impact,
and proximity. Integration of various types of sensors into robotic skin ischallenging due to the topographical nature of skin. Printing is a promisingtechnology that can be explored for sensor integration as it may allow
both sensors and interconnects to be directly printed into the skin. We
are developing Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) ink jet printing technology inorder to co-fabricate various devices onto a single substrate. Using strong
applied electrostatic forces, EHD allows the printing of microscale featuresfrom a wide array of materials with viscosity ranging from 100 to 1000Cps,
highly beneficial for multilateral integration. This paper will present
preliminary data on printing metal oxide microstructures intended for gas
sensors as well as patterning of gold on various substrates using EHD as amask-less lithography method. Thus far we have obtained ZnO structureswith linewidths of 18 to 65 microns within a thickness of 33 to 65nm
using custom inks. For the gold patterning, we have obtained linewidthsof 14 microns and above. In these experiments, we have used an array of
substrate materials including flexible polymers. In the final paper, we will
discuss more experimental data along with printing conditions and the ink
development process.

Electronic components and circuitry capable of functioning at extreme
temperatures are critical for robotiv space exploration. Missions related toVenus exploration for example, demand sensory, signal conditioning andcommunication modules to perform reliably above 400 deg C operating
temperatures for extended periods of time. This paper describes hybrid
microassembly and characterization of Carbon Nanotube based fieldemission devices designed to operate in such harsh environments. Twotypes of active devices- Diodes and Triodes consisting of multi-electrodestack and separated by thin dielectric layers are discussed. Emphasis isdevice design suitable for assembly based approach and on developing
appropriate microassembly techniques. Both devices consist of a diverse
set of materials including titanium, mica, molybdenum, etc. Finite element
analysis based electrothermal stress analysis is used determine thestructural feasibility of the hybrid assemblies, followed by the selection of
appropriate bonding techniques and their verification using experiments. A
multi-manipulator based microassembly platform capable of carrying out
the high precision assembly and bonding operations is presented. Usingmachine vision based approach; post-assembly alignment verification has
been implemented to characterize error along all six degrees of freedom(XYZ/Yaw Pitch Roll). A critical alignment parameter is the spacing
achieved between electrodes since it influences the operating power. In our
experiments we found the gaps to vary between 11?m-44?m in addition to
the design values. Following assembly the diodes and triodes were tested
inside a vacuum chamber to characterize their field emission characteristics,
followed by vacuum encapsulation.

9116-15, Session 4

Multimaterial additive manufacturing of soft
robot bodies with integrated arrays of sensors
and actuators

9116-20, Session 4

Force and joint angle measurements during
activities of daily life

Adam Cohen, Matt Saari, Collin Clay, Paul Krueger, Edmond Richer,Southern Methodist Univ. (United States)

Joe Sanford, Nicoleta Bugnariu, Rita M. Patterson, The Univ. of
Texas at Arlington (United States)

Many emerging robotic platforms will require more than a handful of
discrete, localized sensors to achieve the desired capabilities. Rather, they
will need a distributed, multi-dimensional array of sensors as well as 3-D
interconnects. Furthermore, in the case of soft robotics, it is also necessary
to provide distributed actuators to control the large number of degrees
of freedom. Fabricating a robotic body part comprising 100s or 1000s of
distributed, interconnected sensors and actuators can be difficult withcurrent approaches, which tend to produce assemblies that are costly,
heavy, and bulky.

Research has expanded human-machine communication methods past
direct programming and standard hand-held joystick control. Individual
force sensors have been used as simple means of providing environmental
information to a robot and research has shown that more advanced sensitive
skins can be viable input devices. These touch sensitive surfaces allow for
additional modes of interaction between machines in open, undefinedenvironments. These interactions include object detection for navigation andsafety but can also be used for recognition of a user’s command gestures by
their machine partner. Key to successful implementation of these gestures
is the understanding of varied strategies used for communication andinteraction and the development of performance limits. Characterization
data of dominant hand grip forces during activities that require interaction
with common objects has been collected. Experimental methods describing
data collection are included. Analysis of data from 10 male and female
subjects is presented. The results of qualitative and quantitative analysis ofthese data show variability in interaction methods and hand configurations
between users, variability in applied forces between users, and variability
in interaction speeds, even when interacting with the same objects. These
data will be used in future work to provide human metrology constraints
and limits for use in simulation and design of new, physical human-robot
interaction systems.

To address these challenges, we are developing a novel additive
manufacturing technology that will enable the integrated fabrication ofsoft robotic bodies with distributed, built-in sensors and other elements. In
essence, we aim to create a “robot printer” that automatically produces a
pre-assembled, ready-to-use robotic limb, body, or other component. The
focus is on capacitive sensors and electromagnetic actuators, though othermodalities are envisioned. The research requires a number of advancements
such as co-deposition of multiple materials in layered structures. Today’s
additive manufacturing can only build structures from a single class ofmaterial (e.g., polymers or metals); overcoming this limitation will enable awide range of active structures to be fabricated. Anticipated applications
include advanced prosthetics, minimally-invasive surgical instruments, andwearable electronics.
This paper presents preliminary results for printing elastomers andconductive material simultaneously, and multi-physics simulations of theperformance of capacitive sensors made using this technology. Approaches
to optimizing sensor performance are also discussed.

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014
Monday - Wednesday 5 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9117 Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014

9117-1, Session 1

9117-3, Session 1

Study on the digital hologram recording systemwith extra-large field of view (Invited Paper)

Holographic stereogram printing under the nonvibration environment

Jaisoon Kim, Myongji Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jisoo Lee,
Myongji Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Sanghee Lee, Myongji Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Jinoh Han, Myongji Univ. (Korea, Republicof); Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of);Bong Ho Lee, Kyungae Moon, Jin-Woong Kim, Electronics andTelecommunications Research Institute (Korea, Republic of)Bong Ho Lee, Electronics and Telecommunications ResearchInstitute (Korea, Republic of)Printing the holographic stereogram (HS) is vulnerable to the vibration
when the holographic film is exposed to the continuous wave laser beamcompared to the pulsed laser. The continuous wave laser is required to belonger exposed to the holographic film for forming the fringe pattern, hence
the optical system is normally set up on the anti-vibration device such as
optical table. This could be a latent defect in commercially available printers.
This paper covers the design of holographic stereogram printing system
which is built upon the non-vibration environment where the ambient
vibration exists only.

Recently, 3D imaging is one of the big research issues for wide application inengineering and commercial area. Many kind of limitations in real 3D using
hologram can be overcome by inserting binocular disparity (stereoscopic)
method. In addition, the recording process of hologram including complex
rendering is get faster and easier with the aid of remarkable development
in high speed computer and high resolution SLM (Spatial Light Modulator).1
Starting from the many contiguous vertical strip holograms for synthesizing
a composite hologram from a horizontal sequence of incoherently recorded
two-dimensional photographs2, various researches on the modification andimprovement of multi dot recording method to maintain coherence, improve
beam efficiency and fulfill colorization have been proceeded.3 Among them,
one step with rendering and two steps recording for securing convenient
viewing zone should not be over sighted. Lately, Zebra Imaging, Inc.4 hasrealized commercial version of full parallax 3D having large field of view.
In this paper, designs of recording objective (Voxel control; VC) lens withextremely large viewing field satisfying required resolution, distortion, andtele-centricity are introduced. In addition, experimental results including thelayout of prototype system are presented.

In order to build a robust system under the common sources of vibration,
we designed the optical system which can minimize the effects of ambient
noise as well as reduce the optical vibrations. The main source of the noise
comes from the stage that transfers the hologram plate hogel by hogel.
In order to accelerate the step and scanning, we devised and applied ananti-vibration algorithm which can reduce the vibration significantly and theopen frame architecture as well.
The holographic stereogram printing is conducted using the one-step fullparallax stereograms which are generated by setting up the re-centeredcamera. The optical system features single signal beam converging module
to minimize the optical components and tailored optical components. An
open frame film stage is integrated into the HS system.
For the experiments, the horizontal and full parallax 1mmx1mm, 50x50 and
100x100 hogels are printed to verify the proposed HS printing system.

9117-2, Session 1

9117-4, Session 1

Experimental evaluation of reconstructed
image quality in electronic holography using
rectangular-shaped 1D SLM

Accurate quantitative phase imaging throughtelecentric digital holographic microscopy
Manuel Martínez-Corral, Ana I. Doblas, Emilio Sánchez-Ortiga,
Genaro Saavedra, Univ. de València (Spain); Jorge I. GarciaSucerquia, Univ. Nacional de Colombia Sede Medellín (Colombia)

Osamu Matoba, Kobe Univ. (Japan); Ayaka Ueno, Kobe Univ.
(Japan); Kouichi Nitta, Kobe Univ. (Japan)
We have been developing an electronic holography system using onedimensional (1D) spatial light modulator (SLM). In electronic holographyusing 1D SLM, only horizontal parallax is realized and vertical parallax is lost.
However, it is expected that a large number of pixels can be realized in a
1D SLM by using MEMS technology. This leads to the reconstruction of highquality image and a large size image. There are some issues to be solved forthe implementation of a 3D display system based on electronic holographyusing a 1D SLM. Image quality of reconstructed 3D image is one ofimportant issues. So far, we have presented numerically a design method ofrectangular-shaped pixel in 1D SLM by using criterion of contrast evaluation.

The use of nontelecentric imaging systems in quantitative phase digitalholographic microscopy introduces strong inaccuracies. We show that evennegligible errors in the radius and center of curvature of the remaining
quadratic phase factor introduce big errors in the numerical phasemeasurements. The errors depend on the position of the object in thefield-of-view. However, when a telecentric imaging system is utilized forthe recording of the holograms, the hybrid imaging method shows shiftinvariant behav-ior, and therefore accurate quantitative phase imaging canbe performed.

In this paper, we presented experimental results of evaluating reconstructed
image quality using rectangular-shaped pixels. In the experiment, a part of2D SLM where 4k2k pixels with a pixel size of 4.8 um is used to implement
rectangular-shaped pixels as 1D SLM. When the reconstruction distanceis 40 mm, the experimentally reconstructed images are compared withnumerical results. We will discuss the reconstructed image quality when thereconstruction distance changes.

9117-5, Session 1

Measurement of depth representation using
integral imaging for quality evaluation ofcomputer-generated hologram
Soohyun Lee, Jeho Nam, Eun-Young Chang, Kyungae Moon, JinWoong Kim, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute(Korea, Republic of)
Holographic display has attracted growing attention as an ultimate 3D
display technology. However, until now, most researches have focused on

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014
novel display systems, reduction of computational complexity and/or speedup of processing time for computer-generated hologram (CGH), but few on
measurement and evaluation of holographic image quality itself. Therefore,
we propose an efficient quality measurement scheme for holographic
images, especially focusing on depth representation among various
properties such as brightness, resolution, degree of noise and so on.

or CMOS array is averaged over the spatial extent of each pixel for a given
exposure time. Fluctuations in the power of a laser, vibrations on an optical
table, and electronic noise from the digital sensor all contribute to somedegree to a base-line noise level for a particular optical system. Hence we
expect that the intensity value measured by each pixel will fluctuate overtime. In this paper we investigate the effects of noise of CCD arrays overtime using a speckle field for a range of different CCD parameters suchas exposure time, gain factor, and light power. We then examine how thisbaseline noise level changes when the incident speckle field is mixed witha plane reference wave forming to form a hologram at the CCD plane. We
comment on our experimental results and how they apply to general opticalsystems that measure the phase distribution for a complex field.

We extract the depth information of holographic images from the depthpriority integral imaging. The holographic image through lens array iscaptured by camera focusing on focal plane of lens array. From a single
capture, depth information can be obtained as a form of disparity withspatio-angular distribution. Though there are more direct methods foracquiring depth information such as using depth camera based on timeof-flight (TOF) or structured light, those methods are not suitable forholographic image reconstructed by superposition of wave, which cannot
reflect the light.

9117-13, Session 1

In experiment, CGH for an object on several discrete planes is reconstructedby spatial-light modulator (SLM). From capturing elemental images of theholographic image, we first extracted a set of focused images and thenexploit statistical spatial properties of each focused image to determine
depth of planes at which the holographic image exists. As a result, weverified that calculated depth of the object (holographic image) from
integral imaging is well matched to the directly measured distance. This
result confirms that our proposed method is effective to measure the depth
representation of holographic image for quality evaluation of CGH.

Portable low-coherence interferometry forquantitatively imaging fast dynamics withextended field of view (Invited Paper)
Natan T. Shaked, Tel Aviv Univ. (Israel)
We present our recent advance in the development of compact, highly
portable and inexpensive wide-field interferometric modules. By asmart design of the interferometric system, including the usage of lowcoherence illumination sources and common-path off-axis geometry of
the interferometers, spatial and temporal noise levels of the resulting
quantitative thickness profile can be sub-nanometric, while processing
the phase profile (including phase unwrapping) in real time. In addition,
due to novel experimentally-implemented multiplexing methods, we cancapture low-coherence off-axis interferograms with significantly extended
field of view and in faster acquisition rates. Using these techniques, wequantitatively imaged rapid dynamics of live biological cells including
sperm cells and unicellular microorganisms. Then, we demonstrate
dynamic profiling during lithography processes of microscopic elements,
with thicknesses that may vary from several nanometers to hundreds ofmicrons. Finally, we present how rapid interferometry can be helpful fortissue engineering applications, to characterize rapid drug release from skinequivalents in vitro.

9117-6, Session 1

Generation of three-dimensional color imagesby a horizontally scanning holographic display(Invited Paper)
Yasuhiro Takaki, Tokyo Univ. of Agriculture and Technology (Japan)
Since holographic displays can produce sharp three-dimensional (3D)
images without blur, viewers can focus on 3D images as they do on real
objects. Thus, holographic displays are free from vergence-accommodation
conflict. In the conventional electronic implementation of holographyusing a spatial light modulator (SLM), screen size and viewing zone angle
are limited; horizontally scanning holography was proposed to enlargeboth. The system consists of an anamorphic imaging system, a horizontal
scanner, and an MEMS SLM, which generates images at a high frame rate.
These images are compressed horizontally and enlarged vertically by the
anamorphic imaging system. The vertically enlarged image, which is anelementary hologram, is scanned horizontally by the horizontal scanner.
The pixel pitch of the SLM is reduced horizontally to increase the horizontal
viewing zone angle. The vertically enlarged image is scanned horizontallyto increase the screen size. Recently, the generation of 3D color images wasachieved by introducing RGB lasers into the display system. Because the
MEMS SLM can generate images with a sufficiently high frame rate, there
is a substantial overlap between elementary holograms so that several setsof elementary holograms can be generated by a single horizontal scan. A
different elementary hologram set is displayed with a different color. Color
images with a screen size of 6.2 in. and a viewing zone angle of 11° were
produced using a digital micromirror device with a frame rate of 22.727 kHz
as the MEMS SLM.

9117-8, Session 2

Speckle suppression in computational hologram
generated using ray-sampling plane (Invited
Paper)
Masahiro Yamaguchi, Takeru Utsugi, Tokyo Institute of Technology(Japan)The advantage of holography in 3D display application is the capabilityof reproducing all the depth cues for human vision, especially for highresolution image display of deep 3D scene. On the other hand, an important
issue in holographic display is the appearance of speckle noise. If wereduce the coherence of the illumination light to reduce speckle, theimage resolution is degraded especially in the case of deep 3D scene.
Then the question that should be addressed is whether the resolution ofreconstructed image is affected by applying speckle suppression or not. In
this paper, the resolution of the 3D image reproduced by a computational
holography is discussed when speckle suppression technique is applied. We
also introduce a new technique for reducing speckle noise in a computer
generated hologram (CGH) calculated using a ray-sampling (RS) plane [1].
The method for CGH calculation using RS plane enables the application of
conventional 3D rendering techniques, as well as the high-resolution displayof deep 3D scene. To reduce speckle noise, the sparse object points areincoherently superposed as in the same manner as the method proposedby Takaki and Yokouchi [2]. This method is applied to ray-based CGH
calculation, by selecting light-rays that reconstruct sparse object points andadding optimized phase to each light-ray [3]. The sampling rate of sparse
object points is optimized by the speckle size that is determined by the9117-7, Session 1

Fluctuations in the intensity read out of
CCD arrays in digital holographic setups: anexperimental investigation
Yang Wu, Damien P. Kelly, Stefan Sinzinger, Technische Univ.
Ilmenau (Germany); Adrian Stern, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev(Israel)In modern optical systems discrete digital devices for measuring intensity
distributions play an indispensible role. The intensity incident on the CCD427+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014

9117-11, Session 2

pupil size of an observer’s eye. As a result, it is shown that the resolution of
the reconstructed image is better than the resolution of the human visionthat is restricted by the diffraction limit of observer’s eye pupil. Namely,
high-resolution display of deep 3D image is still possible even if speckle
suppression is applied.

Multi-parameter motion-picture recording withwide space-bandwidth by parallel phase-shifting
digital holography (Invited Paper)[1] K. Wakunami and M. Yamaguchi, “Calculation for computer generated
hologram using ray-sampling plane,” Opt. Express, 19 (10), 9086–9101 (2011).

Tatsuki Tahara, Kansai Univ. (Japan); Peng Xia, Yasuhiro Awatsuji,
Kenzo Nishio, Shogo Ura, Kyoto Institute of Technology (Japan);Toshihiro Kubota, Kubota Holography Lab. Corp. (Japan); Osamu
Matoba, Kobe Univ. (Japan)[2] Y. Takaki and M. Yokouchi, “Speckle-free and grayscale hologram
reconstruction using time-multiplexing technique,” Opt. Express, 19 (8),7567–7579 (2011).
[3] M. Yamaguchi, H. Hoshino, T. Honda, and N. Ohyama, “Phase-added
stereogram: calculation of hologram using computer graphics technique,”Proc. SPIE, 1914, 25–33 (1993).

High-speed color 3D motion-picture recording with wide space-bandwidth
was experimentally demonstrated by using multi-wavelength parallel
phase-shifting digital holography. Parallel phase-shifting digital holography
is a technique for obtaining amplitude and phase distributions of an object
wave simultaneously from a single hologram, based on space-divisionmultiplexing of multiple phase-shifted holograms. The 0th-order diffraction
wave and conjugate image are removed from a recorded single hologramby applying parallel phase-shifting interferometry. Parallel phase-shifting
has wider space bandwidth available for recording an object wave incomparison to an off-axis configuration applying the Fourier transform
method. Any experimental demonstration of color imaging has not been
conducted in parallel phase-shifting due to the requirement of developinga special image sensor that has both arrays of micro color filters and micropolarizers. This time, the combination of parallel phase-shifting with angularmultiplexing is proposed to capture multi-color information simultaneously.
Complex amplitude distributions of multiple wavelengths are simultaneously
recorded with a single-shot exposure of a single monochromatic image
sensor by adopting angular multiplexing to parallel phase-shifting. Multiwavelength information is separated in the spatial frequency domain by
applying angular-multiplexed recording and no color filter is required. Color
3D motion-picture recording of objects that move at the speed of more than
20 km/h was achieved at 20,000 frames per second. This result is the firstexperimental demonstration of multi-wavelength parallel phase-shifting
digital holography.

9117-9, Session 2

Acceleration of color computer-generated
hologram from three-dimensional scenes with
texture and depth information (Invited Paper)
Tomoyoshi Shimobaba, Takashi Kakue, Tomoyoshi Ito, Chiba Univ.
(Japan)We propose acceleration of color computer-generated holograms (CGHs)
generated from three-dimensional (3D) scenes that are expressed as textureand depth information, which can be regarded as two-dimensional (2D)stacking images along depth direction. This information is obtained by 3Dgraphics libraries or depth cameras. The generation of such CGHs requires
multiple diffraction calculations from the 2D stacking images. If we use
convolution-based diffraction such as the angular spectrum method, thediffraction calculation take long calculation time and requires the large
memory usage because the convolution diffraction calculation requires
the expanded area of the 2D stacking images to eliminate the wraparoundnoise.
In this paper, we propose the acceleration of the diffraction calculation
using “Band-limited double-step Fresnel diffraction” that does not require
the expanded area. In addition, for color CGHs from color 3D scenes, we
propose color CGH acceleration using color space conversion. In general,color CGH generation is done on RGB color space; however, we needto repeat the same calculation for each color component, so that thecalculation cost of the color CGH generation increases three times than
monochrome CGH generation. We can reduce the calculation cost by using
YCbCr color space because the 2D stacking images on YCbCr color spacecan be down-sampled without the impairing of the color quality.

9117-12, Session 3

Liquid crystal lens array for 3D endoscope
application (Invited Paper)
Amir Hassan Firoozi, Tai-Hsiang Jen, National Chiao Tung Univ.
(Taiwan); Yi-Pai Huang, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan); HanPing D. Shieh, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan)
A tunable liquid crystal lens arrays with curved circular electrodes isdeveloped. The ITO is deposited on the outer surface of the plano-convex
of an AZ series photo-resist. All lenses are arranged in a hexagonal with asmall inactive region. The micro lens array consists of two sub lenses, one
is the liquid crystal layer which is electrically tunable and the other is the
NOA81 (Norland Optical Adhesive) as a fixed focal length. We are taking
the advantage of using curved circular electrodes in order to have a muchsuitable electric field distribution without using transparent electrodes as alens itself. We proposed a LC lens with cell gap of 30μm. The electric field
gradually decreases from center of electrode to the edge of electrode which
can create better uniformity of distributed electric field, especially for a lenswith a very small aperture size. Furthermore, varying voltage causes a fastvarying electric field. Simple fabrication, miniaturizing the lens size and its
low voltage property, 3D-2D switchable image acquisition, a proper focal
length for endoscope are the features of this kind of lens array.

9117-10, Session 2

Digital speckle reduction: a comparison between
methods
Adrian Stern, Vladimir Farber, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev(Israel)Digital holography, as any coherent imaging modalities, is subject to speckle
noise that may significantly degrade the image quality. Several opticaland digital speckle reduction techniques were developed. In this paper
we compare the performance of some common digital speckle denoisingtechniques.

9117-14, Session 3

High dynamic depth range for 3D image
capturing system
Yi-Pai Huang, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan); Po-Yuan Hsieh,

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014

9117-17, Session 4

National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan); Yong-Ren Su, Han-Ping D.
Shieh, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan)

Principle and recent developments on depthfused 3D (DFD) display (Invited Paper)

To detect the 3D depth information of objects in a deep scene is not soeasy due to the limited depth of field (DoF) of cameras. In this paper, we
proposed a 3D depth map capturing system with high dynamic depth range(HDDR). Unlike conventional extending depth of field (EDoF) method, theHDDR method doesn’t need applying optical units, and will not deteriorate
the image quality. By imitating an active tunable m?n lens array focusing on
a sequential of imaging planes, each object in this scene would be clearly
captured by at least three elemental lenses. We estimated the elemental
depth maps by using the method depth from disparity individually, andthen fused them into one all-in-focus depth map. Comparing with theconventional 3D cameras, the working range of HDDR system with 3x3
camera array can be extend from 90cm to 165cm.

Hirotsugu Yamamoto, Atsuhiro Tsunakawa, Univ. of Tokushima(Japan); Junnosuke Kawakami, Univ. of Tokushima (Japan); Shiro
Suyama, Univ. of Tokushima (Japan)
This invited paper deals with depth-fused 3D (DFD) display. DFD display
needs only two conventional 2D displays in order to provide 3D depth for an
observer without glasses. Two overlapped images in front and rear planes
can be perceived as a single depth-fused image. The perceived depth of thisfused image continuously changes as the luminance ratio of the two images
is changed. Moreover, DFD display has small but smooth movement parallax,
which enables natural 3D perception.
We explain principle for DFD display based on a stereoscopic viewing
model. Viewed images at both eye positions are simulated based ongeometrical optics. In order to detect intensity changes, we have utilized
Laplacian operation on a Gaussian blurred image. Stereoscopic depths
are calculated by matching the Laplacian operated images. By adjusting
standard deviation of the Gaussian blur function, theoretical curves agreed
with the experimental results.

9117-15, Session 3

Scattering super lens: subwavelength light
focusing and imaging via holographic control incomplex media (Invited Paper)
YongKeun Park, KAIST (Korea, Republic of)

Furthermore, we show recent developments on DFD display. One of themis a deep DFD display technique to overcome the limitation to fuse theoverlapped two images. As the distance between front and rear planes isincreased over 5 min. of arc, perceived depth is separated near front plane,at mid-position and near rear plane. We found a solution to enlarge thedepth limitation for the fusion. By using low-pass filtered front and rear
images, almost linear dependence of perceived depth has been achieved.
Then, we show our recently developed DFD display by use of full-color LED
panels, which provide 50-cm depth at 5-m viewing distance.

The resolution limit using visible light is a limiting factor in many fields ofresearch. This is especially undesirable for bio- and nano-photonics where
imaging and focusing at the sub-diffraction limited regime is critical.
Due to these limitations, various novel schemes have been developed
allowing sub-diffraction limited imaging using visible light. However,
fluorescent nanoscopic methods such as Stochastic Optical Reconstruction
Microscopy (STORM), PhotoActivated Localization Microscopy (PALM),
or structured illumination rely on numerical post-processing to achieve
super resolution and cannot excite or perturb sub-diffraction limited spots
physically. Other methods such as Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED)
microscopy emits fluorescence in sub-diffraction limited volumes but works
only on fluorophores where another beam can be used to de-excite thefluorescence.

9117-18, Session 4

Novel measurement method of multiview 3D
display for determining an optimum viewing
distance (OVD)

In this work, we demonstrate that we can use multiple scattering toobtain a sub-diffraction limited focus at an arbitrary position. Due to therandom structure of the highly scattering media, there are no restrictions
on the physical position of the focus giving the system a high degree of
freedom. Through this demonstration we propose that multiple scatteringin biological tissue, which had been assumed to be unfavorable for imaging
or light treatment, can on the contrary be used to steer and focus subdiffraction limited light spots with arbitrary polarization or wavelength
within its inhomogeneous structure. The wavelength of light is also shown to
be independent on the size of the obtained focus which gives this method
a broad range of spectral applicability as resonance is not its working
mechanism.

Ki Hyuk Yoon, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (Korea,
Republic of) and Univ. of Seoul (Korea, Republic of); Hyunwoo Kim,
Seon Kyu Yoon, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (Korea,
Republic of) and Korea Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Sung Kyu Kim,
Korea Institute of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of)
The optical property of multi-view 3D display system using parallax barrier
is generally slightly different from designed values. The representativevalues among the designed values of multi-view 3D display system are theoptimum viewing distance (OVD) and the view-point distance (VPD) in
OVD. In order to estimate an image quality of multi-view 3D display, OVD
is usually measured and the optical characteristics such as crosstalk andluminance uniformity are evaluated in measured OVD. Various evaluation
methods of multi-view 3D display have been presented. But, an exact
measurement method of OVD and decision method of position error ofview-point images formed from entire 3D display area are not presented
until now. Therefore, the first purpose of this study is to suggest a new
method for determining an exact or effective OVD and VPD basing on
measurements of multi-view 3D display. The other is to suggest method for
determining position error range of view-point images formed different areaof multi-view 3D display. Using the new decision method of OVD and VPD
in this paper, we think that more objective evaluation for optical property ofmulti-view 3D display can be realized.

9117-16, Session 3

From the plenoptic camera to the flat integralimaging display (Invited Paper)
Manuel Martínez-Corral, Adrián Dorado, Hector Navarro, Anabel
Llavador, Genaro Saavedra, Univ. de València (Spain); Bahram
Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
Plenoptic cameras have become popular devices along the past few years.
Based on the old concept of integral photography, reported by Lippmann
at the beginning of the 19th century, these cameras capture a sampled
version of the map of rays emitted by a 3D scene. Plenoptic cameras havebeen proposed for the calculation of depth maps and also sets of views of
the 3D scene. They can also be used as method, alternative to the classical Hartmann-Shack one, for measuring wavefront distortions. In thiscontribution we report a new algorithm for transforming the plenoptic frame
into a picture ready to be projected onto an integral-imaging monitor, andtherefore display 3D images with full parallax.

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014

9117-19, Session 59117-22, Session 5

In memoriam: Fumio Okano, innovator of 3D
displays (Invited Paper)

Noninterferometric tomographic reconstructionof 3D static and dynamic phase and amplitude
objects (Invited Paper)

Jun Arai, NHK Japan Broadcasting Corp. (Japan)

Sarvenaz Memarzadeh, Univ. of Dayton (United States); Georges T.
Nehmetallah, Catholic Univ. of America (United States); Partha P.
Banerjee, Univ. of Dayton (United States)

Dr. Fumio Okano, a well-known pioneer and innovator in 3D displays, passed
away on 26 November 2013 in Kanagawa, Japan, at age 61.
Okano contributed more than 40 papers to SPIE journals and proceedings
since 1998. He served eight years as chair of the annual SPIE conference on
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display, and another four
years as co-chair.

Non-interferometric intensity based methods of phase retrieval such as
the transport of intensity equation (TIE) employs a simple experimental
technique for amplitude and phase reconstruction of a static object by
capturing several diffraction patterns at different observation planes. The
purpose of this work is to numerically and experimentally extend thistechnique to moving phase and amplitude objects. The simulation part isdone based on solving the TIE equation using the Fast Fourier Transform(FFT) method, and the amplitude and the calculated phase in the detection
plane is numerically back-propagated to the object plane using the paraxial
transfer function. A modified form of TIE, which subtracts higher orderderivatives to improve accuracy of the finite difference approximation,is also used. Furthermore, we illustrate how a static 3D phase and/or
amplitude object can also be reconstructed tomographically by illuminating
it at multiple angles. For illustration purposes, the object is mounted on arotating stage and multiple diffraction patterns are captured for different
angles and at different observation planes. The reconstructed optical fields
are tomographically recomposed to yield the final 3D shape using a simple
multiplicative technique. The tomographic technique can be generalized forthe case of 3D moving objects.

Okano received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineeringfrom Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan. He joined Japan Broadcasting
Corporation (NHK) in Tokyo in 1978. Since 1981, he had researched highdefinition television (HDTV) cameras, HDTV systems, 3D televisions, andultrahigh-definition television systems at NHK Science and Technology
Research Laboratories.
In 2011, he moved to NHK Engineering System, Inc., where he worked as
managing director and executive research engineer. Dr. Okano was a fellow
at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and a memberof the Institute of Image Information and Television Engineers of Japan,
Optical Society (OSA), and SPIE.
His publications are frequently cited by researchers. Okano’s leadership in
this field will be greatly missed and he shall be remembered for his enduring
innovations and contributions in the field of 3D displays.

9117-21, Session 59117-52, Session 5

3D reconstruction method based on time-divisionmultiplexing using multiple depth cameras

High-precision microscopic phase imaging
without phase unwrapping for cellular function
evaluation (Invited Paper)

Ji-Hoon Kang, Dong-Su Lee, Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of
Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); Kwang-Hoon Lee,
Korea Photonics Technology Institute (Korea, Republic of)

Eriko Watanabe, The Univ. of Electro-Communications (Japan)

A conventional method for 3D scene Reconstruction was performed
with laser scanner or multiple color cameras. However, a laser scanner isexpensive and slow and the method based on multiple color cameras is
inaccurate. The active depth camera can be an alternative method for 3D
scene reconstruction because of its cheap and accurate depth measurement
scheme for 3D reconstruction. Therefore, in this research, active depth
camera is used for cheap and efficient 3D scene reconstruction.

There has been considerable demand for the cell inspection without
invasion, destruction, and in regenerative medicine and pathologicalexamination. For realizing this demand, researchers from various fieldsof medicine have been attracted to quantitative phase measurement
techniques. Studies on the analysis of cell information using phaseamount have been carried out using FF-OCM (full-field optical coherence
microscopy), digital holographic microscopy, phase shift microscopy, etc.
However, these conventional systems need a phase unwrapping process
when the phase retardation is larger than 2π radians. Phase unwrapping
may fail when the phase distribution contains sharp rises and declines, hashigh spatial resolution, and is complex over several.

Since the depth camera acquires the depth information from a single
viewpoint, it’s inadequate for 3D reconstruction when using single depth
camera. In order to solve this problem, multiple depth cameras are used. For
3D scene reconstruction, the depth information is acquired from a different
viewpoint with multiple depth cameras. However, the use of multiple depth
camera can lead to problems.

In this talk, we show our high-dynamic-range two-dimensional phasemeasurement system without phase unwrapping processing and discuss
recent work on its applications in the biomedical field. The optical setupof this system is based on the Mach–Zehnder interferometer and uses thephase-locking technique. We demonstrate how this technique performs
quality control of cultivated cells as well as cancer identification. Thus,
the system is applicable for evaluating the limitations of the “passages
culture” of biological cells. The optical path length decreases significantly
from passage 3 onwards. This result is in excellent agreement with thoseof the bio analysis method. In addition, the experimental results indicatethat cancerous cells could be distinguished from normal cells using ourdeveloped system.

The depth camera emits infrared rays to acquire the depth information.
When using multiple depth cameras, it’s difficult to acquire accurate depth
information because of interference among depth cameras. To solve thisproblem, in this research, Time-division multiplexing is used. Simply, acquire
the depth information from different cameras one by one at different time.
After acquiring the depth images, extract features using Fast Point Feature
Histogram (FPFH) descriptor. Then, perform 3D registration using algorithm
such as Sample Consensus Initial Alignment (SAC-IA).
We expect the proposed method reconstructs 3D scene with high accuracy
and high speed. Also, the method can be applied to various fields such as
garment industry or 3D printer industry.

430

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014

9117-20, Session Posters-Tuesday

In integral holography, the reconstructed 3D image quality is affected bypositional errors in micro-lens array. We analyzed the spatial distortion
effects in reconstructed 3D integral Fourier holographic image which arecaused by misarrangements of elemental lens in micro-lens array. Then, anintermediate projection views generation method is proposed to eliminate
the spatial distortion effects in the reconstruction. This method provides
a solution to adjust the lens-array manufactured errors in realistic integral
holographic imaging.

Digital holographic visualization of thermallyinduced optical parameter changes in microobejcts
Janak Rathod, Jignesh Pandya, Nimit R. Patel, Swapnil Mahajan,
Vismay Trivedi, Vani Chhaniwal, The Maharaja Sayajirao Univ. of
Baroda (India); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States);
Arun Anand, The Maharaja Sayajirao Univ. of Baroda (India)

9117-37, Session Posters-Tuesday

Bayesian estimation of depth information inthree-dimensional integral imaging

One of the state of the art technique used for three dimensional imaging of
micro-objects is digital holographic microscopy. This single shot technique
directly yields the complex amplitude of the magnified object wavefront,
which could be used to retrieve the object phase information leading tomapping of the optical thickness. From the retrieved phase information
obtained from a series of holograms, information about the spatio-temporal
evolution of optical thickness can be attained. For dielectric mediums,
any temperature changes lead to change in optical parameters. Here we
describe the use of digital holography in imaging optical path lengthvariations to visualize the changes in optical parameters both spatially andtemporally.

Xiao Xiao, Bahram Javidi, Dipak K. Dey, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)In this paper, we propose a Bayesian framework to infer depths of object
surfaces in a 3D integral imaging system. In a 3D integral imaging system,
the depth of Lambertian surfaces can be estimated from the statistics ofthe spectral radiation pattern. However, the estimated depth may containerrors due to system uncertainties. To better infer the depth information,
we utilize a Bayesian framework and a Markov Random Field (MRF) modelwith the knowledge of the statistical information of object intensities andthe assumption that object surfaces are smooth. In the proposed method,
we combine a Bayesian framework and the characteristics of 3D integral
imaging systems to infer the depths. Simulated and experimental results
illustrate the performance of the proposed method.

9117-23, Session Posters-Tuesday

Photorealistic image synthesis and camera
validation from 2D images
Juan C. Santos Ferrer, David M. González Chévere, Vidya B. Manian,Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States)

9117-38, Session Posters-Tuesday

Three-dimensional object recognition via integral
imaging and scale invariant feature transform

Spectral sensing in the visible and infrared regions is usually done using
digital and infrared imaging cameras. Simulating the camera parametersand hence reconstructing the captured scenes, and validating them with realworld scenes will provide insight into camera settings and parameters thatare appropriate for changing complex real world situations. This has several
applications in satellite remote sensing, defense, sensing and security andbiomedical imaging applications. We reconstruct 3D scenes from 2D images
taken from indoor and outdoor scenes with different cameras settings
such as IR color and black and white, and explore different properties in
the reconstructions of the scenes including light, color, texture, shapes
and different views. Matlab and Unity 3D pro tools are used to explore andget different properties from the 2D images and for reconstructing the 3D
scenes, respectively. In a photorealistic 3D reconstruction the reconstructedscene should accurately reproduce the original image, presevering color,
texture and pixel resolution. We can model the real word texture using
strategies such as triangulated polygons, homographies, and by the
extraction of partial textures from visible surfaces to achieve the highest
possible resolution. Methods like edges detection, line parallelism, line
orthogonally, face parallelism and face orthogonally will be used to recoverthe 3D shapes of the objects from images sparsely distributed across therange of views. The quality of the synthetic scenes will be evaluated taking
into consideration the quality of the original 2D image, the functionality of
the game software module developed for simulating a particular scene andthe variability of the parameter settings for simulating a particular target or
background.

Faliu Yi, Inkyu Moon, Chosun Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
We propose a three-dimensional (3D) object recognition approach via
computational integral imaging and scale invariant feature (SIFT) that canbe invariance to object changes in illumination, scale, rotation and affine.
Usually, the matching between features extracted in reference object andthat in computationally reconstructed image should be done for 3D object
recognition. However, this process needs to alternately illustrate all of thedepth images first which will affect the recognition efficiency. Consideringthat there are a set of elemental images with different viewpoint in
integral imaging, we first recognize the object in 2D image by using fiveelemental images and then choose one elemental image with the mostmatching points from the five images. This selected image will include
more information related to the reference object. Finally, we can use thisselected elemental image and its neighboring elemental images whichshould also contain much reference object information to calculate thedisparity with SIFT algorithm. Consequently, the depth of the 3D object canbe achieved with stereo camera theory and the recognized 3D object can bereconstructed in computational integral imaging. This method sufficiently
utilizes the different information provided by elemental images and therobust feature extraction SIFT algorithm to recognize 3D objects.

9117-39, Session Posters-Tuesday

9117-36, Session Posters-Tuesday

Optimized NURBS skinning surface using agravitational search algorithm

Spatial distortion elimination in integral Fourier
holography with intermediate projection views
generation method

Siti Mariyam H. Shamsuddin, Univ. Teknologi Malaysia (Malaysia)
Usually, a skinning method involves skinning interpolation and skinningapproximation. Skinning interpolation constructs a surface perfectly, but
improper selection of parameterization methods could cause bumps,
wiggles, or uneven surfaces on the generated surface. Conversely, a skinningapproximation approximates the data points for surface reconstruction.

Chen Yang, Xidian Univ. (China) and Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates); Xiaorui Wang, Xidian Univ. (China); Bahram Javidi, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014
proper perspectives of the 3D image to the display observer by acquired
pupil positions of display observer using pupil-tracking module. Fiber-based
approach provides a simple and robust alignment, high miniaturization.

In this scenario, the error between generated surfaces and data points
must be minimized to increase the accuracy. In this paper, we propose a
new skinning method called Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline (NURBS) and
optimize the reconstructed surfaces using a Gravitational Search Algorithm(GSA). This method is implemented to solve the error minimization problem
to obtain a smoother and fairer surface. Findings from the experiments arethen compared with the interpolation and a conventional approximation
skinning method. The results show that the optimized skinning surfaces
using GSA yield a smaller error with fewer control points and feasible
surfaces while maintaining the shape of the surfaces.

9117-43, Session Posters-Tuesday

High-resolution TFT-LCD for spatial light
modulator from ETRI
Chi-Sun Hwang, Yong Hae Kim, Gi Heon Kim, Chunwon Byun,
Himchan Oh, Hye Yong Chu, Electronics and Telecommunications
Research Institute (Korea, Republic of)9117-40, Session Posters-Tuesday

Volumetric display containing multiple twodimensional color motion pictures

SLM with very fine pixel pitch is needed for the holographic display system.
Among various kinds of SLMs, commercially available high resolution
LCoS has been widely used as a spatial light modulator. But the size ofcommercially available LCoS SLM is limited because the manufacturing
technology of LCoS is based on the semiconductor process developed on
small size Si wafer.

Ryuji Hirayama, Chiba Univ. (Japan); Atsushi Shiraki, Kisarazu
National College of Technology (Japan); Hirotaka Nakayama,
Takashi Kakue, Tomoyoshi Shimobaba, Tomoyoshi Ito, Chiba Univ.
(Japan)Recently very high resolution flat panel display panel (~500ppi) was
developed as a “retina display”. Until now, the pixel pitch of flat panel
display is several times larger than the pixel pitch of LCoS. But considering
the possibility of shrink down the pixel pitch with advanced lithographic
tools, the application of flat panel display will make it possible to build a
SLM with high spatial bandwidth product.

We have developed an algorithm which can record multiple twodimensional gradated projection patterns in a single three-dimensional
object. Each recorded pattern has the individual projected direction andcan only be seen from the direction. When a single pattern is observed,
information from the other patterns can be treated as background noise.
The proposed algorithm has two important features: the number ofrecorded patterns is theoretically infinite and no meaningful pattern can beseen outside of the projected directions.

High resolution TFT-LCD panel on glass substrate is developed for the SLM
of holographic display. Oxide semiconductor TFT with BCE structure andLC with phase modulation mode are integrated with pixel pitch of 20um.
The TFT-LCD panel is reflective type with 4-metal structure with organic
planarization layers.

In this paper, we expanded the algorithm to record multiple twodimensional projection patterns in full color. There are two ways of color
mixing: Additive ones and Subtractive ones. Additive mixing based on
RGB colors is used to mix light and Subtractive mixing based on CMY
colors is used to mix inks. We established two coloring methods basedon the Additive mixing and Subtractive mixing. We performed numericalsimulations of coloring methods, and confirmed the effectiveness.

The technical challenge for high resolution large area SLM will be discussed.

9117-44, Session Posters-Tuesday

Optical fiber trap and digital holographic
microscope integrated setup

We also fabricated two types of volumetric display and applied the
proposed algorithm to them. One is a cubic display constructed by lightemitting diodes (LEDs) in 8x8x8 array. Light patterns of LEDs are controlled
by a microcomputer board. Another one is made of 7x7 array of threads.
Each thread is illuminated by a projector connected with PC. As a result of
the implementation, we succeeded in recording multiple two-dimensional
color motion pictures in the volumetric displays. This algorithm can beapplied to digital signage, media art and so forth.

Samira Ebrahimi, Ali-Reza Moradi, Univ. of Zanjan (Iran, Islamic
Republic of); Arun Anand, The Maharaja Sayajirao Univ. of Baroda(India); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
The combination of optical trap and digital holography is an elegant
method for three-dimensional imaging of biological structures, while they
are immobilized and manipulated with the trapping beam. In this paper,
we integrated an optical fiber trapping setup with a compact commonpath digital holographic microscope. The trapping beam path is separated
from the holography beam path using a tapered multimode optical fiber
for trapping. The common-path digital holographic microscopy setup is
mounted on a conventional microscope. The trap is calibrated using a highspeed camera and trap stiffness is determined through power spectrum
method. Some validation experiments are presented and the quantitative
phase contrast images of the trapped samples are obtained by postprocessing the recorded digital holograms.

9117-42, Session Posters-Tuesday

Extended viewing-angle holographic display with
optical fiber arrays backlightHyun-Eui Kim, Minsik Park, Kyungae Moon, Jin-Woong Kim,
Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (Korea,
Republic of)
The restrictive space-bandwidth product of the spatial light modulator forholographic display is an obstacle to entering the three-dimensional display
market. Holographic stereogram technique is a typical way to increase thespace-bandwidth product. Even though holographic stereogram techniqueprovides a wider viewing-angle, this method requires multiple spatial light
modulators, which makes the overall system complicated and expensive. We
present wide-viewing angle holographic three-dimensional display using
single mode optical fiber arrays backlight and a pupil-tracking technique.
Beams generated in the multiple optical fibers arranged in circularconfiguration incident on a single spatial light modulator. Next to thespatial light modulator, 6inch lens adjust the scale of magnification of thereconstructed 3D image. According to the result, continuous wide viewing
windows are formed without any overlaps, and the size of reconstructed
3D image increased up to 6inch. The spatial light modulator provides the432

SPIE DSS 2014

9117-45, Session Posters-Tuesday

Nondestructive analysis of advanced materials
nonlinear behavior using digital projection moiré
Yousef Pourvais, Pegah Asgari, Ali-Reza Moradi, Omid Rahmani,
Univ. of Zanjan (Iran, Islamic Republic of)This paper presents a new experimental procedure based on the digitalprojection moiré (DPM) for analyzing the non-linear behavior of sandwich
beam with compliant foam core. This kind of core is very flexible relative tothe face sheets and its behavior is associated with localized effects in the·

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014
form of localized displacements and stresses which influence the overallbehavior of sandwich beam. In this study the three point bending resultsof sandwich beam have compared well with FEA results obtained using
the ABAQUS finite element code. Also the theoretical predictions based on
the high-order sandwich panel theory (HSAPT) were in good agreementwith the experimental as well as FEM results. It is shown that the proposed
procedure produces results with very high accuracy, and it is suggested thatthe present method, which is based on digital projection moiré, can be used
as a simple, advantageous and user friendly whole-field testing techniquefor many applications in evaluation of composite materials and sandwich
structures.

We present a method to automatically extract and analyze 3D facial shapeusing facial curves and curve related geometric features. The geometricfeatures are obtained after transforming the space curve representation
to a local coordinate system of the curve itself which makes the featuresinvariant. A vector related to the curve in 3D space can be represented using
three orthonormal basis vectors of this local coordinate system. We propose
a set of low level geometric features using these orthonormal basis vectors
as they characterize the properties of the curve and the geometry of the
3D facial shape as well. Our curve based approach overcomes the curse ofdimensionality in comparison with point and surface based analysis of 3D
facial shapes. The curve based geometric features represent the variations
in local regions of the face which are found effective in classifying andcomparing 3D facial shapes. We apply our method in classifying six facial
expressions using a publicly available 3D facial expression database. We
obtain the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves and the area
under the ROC curve to evaluate performance of our proposed methods.

9117-46, Session Posters-Tuesday

Controlled phagocytosis by multiple optical traps
Adel Nasehi, Fatemeh Rezaei, Univ. of Zanjan (Iran, Islamic Republicof); Ali-Reza Moradi, Univ. of Zanjan (Iran, Islamic Republic of)and Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences (Iran, Islamic
Republic of); elnaz nasehi, Univ of Zanjan (Iran, Islamic Republic of)9117-49, Session Posters-Tuesday

Comparative analysis of a technique to pick-up
3D hologram data from real object

In this paper phagocytosis phenomenon is studied using multiple andmulti-force optical traps. Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing a solid?particle by a phagocyte or a protist to from an internal phagosome.?? The
process is the central mechanism in the immune system, and is undertaken if
certain mechano-chemical conditions are met. The trap cites and strengths’
are controlled by implementing appropriate diffractive optical elements(DOEs) on a liquid crystal spatial light modulator. The manipulation of
the a?phagocyte cell and the target are then controlled by trapping their
peripherals. The reaction mechanism between the trapped phagocyte
cell and the? prey are then studied in terms of the time of the process forvarious sizes of the targets and the distance between them and the cellwhen the process starts. The measurements were accomplished by postprocessing of the recorded images during the process.

Dong-Su Lee, Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of); Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Kwang-Hoon Lee, Korea Photonics Technology
Institute (Korea, Republic of)
Holography is one method to record the information from a real scene, but
it requires coherent illumination and the lack of resolution of the pickup device may limit strongly the size of the object that can be recorded.
It is also possible to generate a hologram of a real scene in incoherent
illumination condition by using techniques likes integral imaging or multiple
imaging, but the spatial resolution is usually quite poor. Hologram can bemade a scene with a computer, but the heavy computational load limit thesize of the scene and it is difficult to create precise models of complicatedobjects. In this paper, we analyze the different techniques used to pick-up
3D data from a real object like holography or integral imaging. And then, wedevelop a simulator which would be able to evaluate the key parameters of
a 3D image that one can expect to display according to the pick-up system
he had used to get the 3D data from a real scene. Then, it may be possible
to evaluate their performance and to choose the optimal method one should
use according to the resolution, the depth of field or the angle of view hewants to reach.

9117-47, Session Posters-Tuesday

Multispectral photon counting integral imaging
system for color visualization of photon limited
3D scenes
Inkyu Moon, Chosun Univ. (Korea, Republic of)In this paper, we overview a colorful photon-counting integral imaging
system using Bayer elemental images for 3D visualization of photon limited
scenes. The color image sensor with a format of Bayer color filter array, i.e., ared, a green, or a blue filter in a repeating pattern, captures elemental image
set of a 3D scene. It is assumed that the observed photon count in eachchannel (red, green or blue) follows Poisson statistics. The reconstructionof 3D scene with a format of Bayer is obtained by applying computational
geometrical ray back propagation algorithm and parametric maximum
likelihood estimator to the photon-limited Bayer elemental images. Finally,
several standard demosaicing algorithms are applied in order to convert
the 3D reconstruction with a Bayer format into a RGB per pixel format. We
measure the interpolation accuracy as well as the speed of the method.
Experimental results demonstrate that the better performance can beachieved by a gradient-corrected version of the linear interpolation in termsof PSNR metrics.

9117-50, Session Posters-Tuesday

Partially occluded object reconstruction using
multiple Kinect sensors
Tabassum Nasrin, Faliu Yi, Samarjit Das, Inkyu Moon, Chosun Univ.
(Korea, Republic of)In this paper, we propose a new method for the partially occluded object
reconstruction using multiple Kinect sensors. The quality of occluded object
reconstructed from conventional reconstruction method with elemental
images captured by common camera arrays in integral imaging is usuallydegraded due to the existence of occlusion object in the 3D space which is
a common case in reality. On the contrary, the Kinect sensors can provide
not only RGB images but also depth images. Since the depth and RGB color
image is captured by two different cameras on Kinect sensor at different
location, the depth image should be mapped to the color image. After
image mapping (or registration), the same pixel location on depth and
RGB color image would represent the same 3D space point. As result, thedepth image after mapping can be used to remove the occlusion object in
the corresponding RGB image (or elemental image) before doing object
reconstruction in integral imaging. Consequently, the occluded object canbe visualized with a high quality and will not take a long time as othermethods.

9117-48, Session Posters-Tuesday

Curve-based representation and analysis of 3D
facial expressions
Manar D. Samad, Khan M. Iftekharuddin, Old Dominion Univ. (UnitedStates)433+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014

9117-24, Session 6

We have been developing electronic holography systems using phase-only
distribution. We present numerical and experimental results to discuss thereconstructed quality by using phase distribution. We also discuss how to
improve the reconstructed quality.

Interactive holographic display (Invited Paper)Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of); BeomRyeol Lee, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute(Korea, Republic of); Oleksii O. Chernyshov, Volodymyr Gushchyn,
Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jin-Woong Kim, Electronics andTelecommunications Research Institute (Korea, Republic of)9117-27, Session 6

Three-dimensional holographic display using ray
sampling and integral imaging

A holographic display has an ideal property of being an interactive display
due to its nature of generating a spatial image with a real volume. However,
the image can be hardly viewed due to its small viewing angle and muchbrighter active surface of the display panel than the image. To overcome
this problem and to maximize the spatial image property of the holographic
display, a floating imaging optics are combined with the holographic display
to make an interactive holographic display. This combining makes thereconstructed image float in front space of the display and hence to allow
interacting with users because users can locate the image very easily. This
interactive display is also equipped with two flat panel displays which canprovide information regarding the reconstructed image and user position
detection device for interaction.

Xiao Xiao, Univ. of Connecticut (United States); Koki Wakunami,
National Institute of Information and Communications
Technology (Japan); Jeho Nam, Jin Soo Kim, Electronics andTelecommunications Research Institute (Korea, Republic of);
Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)

9117-25, Session 6

In this paper, we overview optical reconstruction results of a high-resolution
three-dimensional (3D) holographic display system based on dense ray
sampling and integral imaging techniques. Holograms are generated basedon re-sampling the rays located near the objects from 2D images capturedby an integral imaging system. The numerical and optical reconstructedresults of the high-resolution holographic display system are shown andcompared with conventional integral imaging-based holographic displaysfor different scenes.

Integral photography capture and electronic
holography display (Invited Paper)

9117-28, Session 7

Yasuyuki Ichihashi, Kenji Yamamoto, National Institute ofInformation and Communications Technology (Japan)

Depth perception due to captured horizontal
motion natural images (Invited Paper)

Our real-time capture and reconstruction system consists of 4K camera byintegral photography (IP), optical system for electronic holography, andcomputing system to up-convert IP images and to generate holograms fromup-converted IP images.

Sumio Yano, Shimane Univ. (Japan)
At first, we examined the optical flow, which is detected by the horizontal
motion capture device. In this case, the capture device moves horizontally,
and also sights on the fixation point. The scene is simply supposed, namely
the upper part of scene is sky, and the lower part of one is land. Using thedetected optical flow, we generated the motion parallax images from therandom dot pattern. As for this motion parallax images, we confirmed thatthe depth perception is generated for viewers clearly.

The resolution of the IP camera is 4K (3840 x 2160 pixels) and the resolutionof liquid crystal display (LCD) panels is 8K (7680 x 4320 pixels). So we
performed up-converting the IP images by interpolation of the lightinformation. The number of elemental images of up-converted IP images
is 480 x 270, which is quadruple of captured IP images, and the size ofeach elemental image is 16 x 16 pixels. Up-converting of the IP images andgenerating the holograms from those IP images were performed by graphics
processing units (GPUs) with compute unified device architecture (CUDA).
We succeeded in real-time capturing and reconstructing 3D live-scene at 10
frames per second.

Second, we set up the capture device, which is moved horizontally, andis always trained to the fixation point in the front. Using this equipment,
we captured the motion natural images, and also captured another scene
without the fixation point. We investigated the depth perception using
these natural scene images. In the evaluation, the marker, which supports
for the head motion, was added to the images. The results showed thatthe only horizontal motion natural images did not propose enough depth
information.

Furthermore, our 3D display with electronic holography has a viewing-zone
angle of 15 degrees. So we improved the IP camera system so that wideangle scene is captured by the IP camera. We succeeded in reconstructing
wide-angle 3D image and we are generating 3D movie by using improved
IP camera now. We also do an experiment in automatic correction of color
aberration of the IP images.

9117-26, Session 6

Third, we made some test images from motion parallax images. The marker
was re-arranged, one is delayed 1/4 period?another is 1/2 period. In the caseof the 1/2 period, the head position is completely reversed from the one ofcapture device. The depth perception is changed for the displayed marker
position. However, the depth perception in the case of delayed 1/2 period is
not so different from the depth perception in the normal head motion.

Electronic holography using binary phasemodulation (Invited Paper)

9117-29, Session 7

Eyetracked optical see-through head-mounted
display as an assistive and augmentative
communication device (Invited Paper)

Osamu Matoba, Kobe Univ. (Japan)
Electronic holography is expected to be an ideal 3D display system.
However, there are many problems for the commercially available product.
One of the problems is that there is no high potential spatial light modulator(SLM) to handle both amplitude and phase distributions. In electronic
holography, there are two ways. One is to display the hologram by using
the amplitude modulation in a SLM. In this method, at least half spectral
distribution is lost. The other is to use the phase distribution. In this method,lose of amplitude distribution degrades the reconstructed quality. However,
it is improved by using a random phase distribution in the original image.

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SPIE DSS 2014

Hong Hua, Xinda Hu, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of
Arizona (United States); Chunyu Gao, Augmented Vision, Inc.
(United States)
A head-mounted display system with fully-integrated eyetracking capability
offers multi-fold benefits, not only to fundamental scientific research but·

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014
also to emerging applications of such technology. A key limitation of thestate-of-the-art eyetracked head-mounted display (ET-HMD) technology
is the lack of compactness and portability. In this paper, we present an
innovative design of a high resolution optical see-through ET-HMD system
based on freeform optical technology. A prototype system is demonstrated,which offers a goggle-like compact form factor, non-obstructive seethrough field of view, true high-definition image resolution for the virtual
display, and better than 0.5 arc minute of angular resolution for the seethrough view. We will demonstrate the application of the technology as an
assistive and augmentative communication device.

if the LCD response is very slow, the displayed image degrades to half
resolution. Birefringent beam displacer can be made in a form of relatively
thick calcite plate or in a form of thin birefringent wedge made of quartz or
polymerized liquid crystal.

9117-32, Session 7

Computer simulation of moiré waves in
autostereoscopic displays basing on spectral
trajectories

9117-30, Session 7

Vladimir V. Saveljev, Sung Kyu Kim, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of)Affective SSVEP BCI to effectively control 3D
objects by using a prism array based display

The moiré effect is an optical phenomenon which has a negative influence
to the image quality; as such, this effect should be avoided or minimized
in displays, especially autostereoscoipic three-dimensional ones. This isbecause of the structure of the multiview autostereoscoipic displays, which
typically include two parallel layers with an integer ratio between the cell
sizes of these layers. In order to provide the minimization of the moiré
effect at finite distances, we developed a theory and computer simulation
tools to simulate the behavior of the visible moiré waves in a range ofparameters. These include the displacement of an observer and the distanceto the screen. Previously [OpEx 20, 2163-2177 (2012)], we made that forthe sinusoidal waves; however this was not enough to simulate all reallife situations. Recently, the theory was improved and the non-sinusoidal
waves are currently included as well. Correspondingly, the simulation tools
are essentially updated. The computer simulation and physical experimentconfirm the theory. The typical normalized RMS error is 3 - 5%. In simulation,
parameters of the resulting moiré waves are measured semi-automatically.
The tools run in two modes, overview and detailed, and can be controlled
in an interactive manner. The advanced theory accompanied by renewed
simulation tools ensure the minimization and make it convenient.

Sungchul Mun, Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of)
3D objects with depth information can provide many benefits to users ineducation, surgery, and interactions. In particular, many studies have been
done to enhance sense of reality in 3D interaction. Viewing and controllingstereoscopic 3D objects with crossed or uncrossed disparities, however,can cause visual fatigue due to the vergence-accommodation conflict
generally accepted in 3D research fields. In order to avoid the vergenceaccommodation mismatch and provide a strong sense of presence tousers, we apply a prism array based display to presenting 3D objects.
Emotional pictures were used as visual stimuli in control panels to increase
information transfer rate and reduce false positives in controlling 3D
objects. Involuntarily motivated selective attention by affective mechanism
can enhance steady-state visually evoked potential (SSVEP) amplitude
and lead to increased interaction efficiency. More attentional resources
are allocated to affective pictures with high valence and arousal levels
than to normal visual stimuli such as white-and-black oscillating squares
and checkerboards. Among representative BCI control components (i.e.,
event-related potentials (ERP), event-related (de)synchronization (ERD/
ERS), and SSVEP), SSVEP based BCI was chosen in the following reasons. It
shows high information transfer rates and takes a few minutes for users tocontrol BCI system while few electrodes are required for obtaining reliablebrainwave signals enough to capture users’ intention. The proposed BCI
methods are expected to enhance sense of reality in 3D space withoutcausing critical visual fatigue to occur. In addition, people who are very
susceptible to (auto) stereoscopic 3D may be able to use the affective BCI.

9117-33, Session 8

Self-referencing digital holographic microscopefor dynamic imaging of living cells (Invited Paper)
Arun Anand, Vani Chhaniwal, Swapnil Mahajan, Vismay Trivedi, The
Maharaja Sayajirao Univ. of Baroda (India); Amardeep S. S. Singh,
Rainer A. Leitgeb, Medizinische Univ. Wien (Austria); Bahram Javidi,
Univ. of Connecticut (United States)

9117-31, Session 7

Digital holographic microscope is an ideal tool for quantitative phase
contrast imaging of living cells. It yields the thickness distribution of
the object under investigation from a single hologram. From a series ofholograms the dynamics of the cell under investigation can be obtained.
But two-beam digital holographic microscopes has low temporal stability
due to uncorrelated phase changes occurring in the reference and object
arms. One way to overcome is to use common path techniques, in which,the reference beam is derived from the object beam itself. Both the beams
travel along the same path, increasing the temporal stability of the setup.
Self-referencing converts a portion of the object beam is used as thereference beam. It could be achieved by using a glass plate to create twolaterally sheared versions of the object beam at the sensor, which interfere
to produce the holograms. This leads to a common path setup, leading tohigh stability (~0.6nm). This technique was used to map cell membrane
fluctuations.

Full resolution stereoscopic television using
flicker-free active beam displacement glasses
Sergey Chestak, Dae-Sik Kim, Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. (Korea,
Republic of)
Two types of stereoscopic television dominate in the consumer market, one
based on shutter-glasses, another-on patterned retarder. First type provides
full resolution, but is not entirely free of flicker. Second type is flickerfree but reduces vertical resolution by the factor 2. We have devised a
stereoscopic system incorporating patterned retarder and new kind of active
glasses in order to combine flicker free operation and full resolution. Active
glasses are capable of electrically controlled displacement of viewing axis.
Each filter of glasses incorporates input polarizer, LC polarization switch andbirefringent plate. Viewer, wearing the glasses, always sees only odd linesof the display by the left eye and only even lines by the right eye. Due tothe birefringent plate visual position of the lines can be normal or displacedin vertical direction depending on the status of the polarization switch.
Distance of the displacement is exactly equal to the lines pitch. By thedisplaying of full set of the image lines in each two consequent frames andsimultaneous switching the polarization switch, full resolution stereoscopic
image can be displayed in interlaced manner. Glasses do not provide any
flicker. Slow switching of LCD cells does not cause image ghosting. Instead.

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Conference 9117:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2014

9117-34, Session 8

9117-85, Session 8

Autostereoscopic 3D display system on
the properties of both the expanded depth
directional viewing zone and the removed
structural crosstalk

Display-specific light-field analysis (Invited
Paper)
Robert Bregovic, Tampere Univ. of Technology (Finland); Péter
Kovács, Tibor Balogh, Holografika Kft. (Hungary); Atanas Gotchev,
Tampere Univ. of Technology (Finland)

Kwang-Hoon Lee, Anjin Park, Dong-Kil Lee, Yang-Gyu Kim, WonGun Jang, Youngsik Park, Korea Photonics Technology Institute(Korea, Republic of)This paper presents an analysis of the 3D visual content cast as light field
and aimed at driving the respective light-field displays. Previous generationsof 3D displays (e.g. stereoscopic displays, autostereoscopic displays) hadvery limited number of views, and thus limited parallax. In contrast, theemerging light field displays support hundred(s) of views at resolutions
comparable to full HD resolution. These angular and spatial resolutions
enable ultra-realistic representation of 3D scenes, for the price of high data
throughput, complex data acquisition (sensing) and a high demand ofcomputational power. Thus, the optimization of the content representation
is of crucial importance for the performance of the whole display system.

In the optical properties of existing auto-stereoscopic 3D displays withlenticular lens type, one curvature radius on the optical power plan oflenti-let makes one focal length and forms one position of the viewing
zone on the depth direction (As the location of the observer). It meansthat there has the restriction of depth directional freedom of degree to
see freely 3D image. Additionally the slanted lenticular lens type induces acrosstalk problem by the structure characteristic between them when thecorresponded unit lens-let area are involving the over the area to the total
number of views of unit pixels. Thus the crosstalk must be existed in there
which cannot remove if any other newly method is would not applied in.

In this paper, we discuss the requirements for light-field based processingof 3D content for representation on the new generation of ultra-realistic
light-field displays. We analyze the overall processing chain from sensing(acquisition) through light-field based modeling and representation up
to visualization on the considered displays. We give guidelines on how toproperly acquire the required data (scene sensing) and repurpose it basedon the targeted display and demonstrate how the data should be processedin spatial and frequency domain. We show that by taking into accountthe properties of the display during scene sensing and during light fieldprocessing, a better visual representation of 3D content on a given display
can be achieved compared to traditional approaches. The overall process isdemonstrated on the state of the art displays produced by Holografika.

In this paper, we suggested an advanced auto-stereoscopic 3D display
system to expand the depth directional freedom of degree and to reducethe crosstalk, which are controlled by both the varying sequential curvatureson the optical power plane of the lenti-let and the construction of lentilet array formed by the shifted slightly and located on between adjacentrows, in the viewing zone forming optics based on lenticular lens sheet. The
former produces the expanding depth regions by the superposed areas
formed by each varying focuses on the depth direction to gives the safety
stereo image to the observer. The latter produces the crosstalk reduction byremoving the structural property such as the corresponded imaging pixel
with the parts of adjacent imaging pixels in between the sequential imaging
pixel width and the unit lenti-let pitch in the slanted lenticular lens type.
Consequently, our approach is one of the quite good candidates to improveand remove the above mentioned problems in ordered. And our validationis performed by the result from the adaptable optical simulation with thepartial experiment.

9117-35, Session 8

Properties of a super-multiview image
Beom-Ryeol Lee, Ilkwon Jeong, Electronics andTelecommunications Research Institute (Korea, Republic of); JungYoung Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Super multiview image can provide a continuous parallax. A way ofgenerating continuous parallax is to make at least two different view images
get into viewers’ each eye simultaneously though it is still not completely
comprehensive. The typical viewing zone of supermultiew imaging is notdifferent from those of the contact-type multiview imaging methods such as
IP and MV. Hence the property of supermultivew image can be identified in
the viewing zone geometries of the methods.
In this paper, the images to be projected to viewers’ eyes at the viewing
zone are synthesized from multiview images and the visual properties of thesynthesized images as the number of the images increases are investigated.

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Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII
Wednesday - Friday 7 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9118 Independent Component Analyses, Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII

9118-1, Session 1

economic models. Blind Source Separation could be used to analyze
large economic data and provide a better basis to represent economic
relationships, which could aid predicting and preempting fluctuations
from unknown sources. We observe the Helmholtz free energy principle
H=E-TS in capturing variations of open dynamic systems with a firm’s
cost minimization P=AK^a L^(1-a)-((P_K P_L ),[(K L)]^T ), and realize
the relationship between input/output tradeoffs governed by an outsidereservoir. We model the uniformity of an ideal firm by the real positive
probability called the Shannon information entropy S, with sources
s_1,s_2,…,s_N. We assume a natural mixing of a closed system populatedwith ideal firms in open thermodynamic subsystems will evolve towards aloss of uniqueness, or maximum entropy driven by interacting discrete firmexchanges. We seek to provide an exemplar of the symbiotic relationshipbetween economic intuition and system dynamics that can foster
meaningful knowledge acquisition through LDA learning.

Large Data Analysis: automatic visual personal
identification in demography of 1.2 billion
persons (Invited Paper)John Daugman, Univ. of Cambridge (United Kingdom) and Morpho(France)
The largest biometric deployment in history is now underway in India,
where the Government is enrolling the iris patterns (among other data) of
all 1.2 billion citizens. The purpose of the Unique Identification Authority ofIndia (UIDAI) is to ensure fair access to welfare benefits and entitlements,
to reduce fraud, and to enhance social inclusion. Only a minority of citizens
in India have bank accounts; only 4 percent have passports; and less thanhalf of all aid money reaches its intended recipients. A person who lacks
any means of establishing their identity is excluded from entitlements anddoes not officially exist; thus the slogan of UIDAI is: “To give the poor an
identity.” This ambitious program enrols a million people every day, across
36,000 stations run by 83 agencies, with a 3 year completion target for
the entire national population. To date almost 500 million persons havebeen enrolled. In order to detect and prevent duplicate identities, every
iris pattern that is enrolled is first compared against all others enrolled
so far; thus the daily workflow now requires 500 trillion (or 500 millionmillion) iris cross-comparisons. Avoiding identity collisions (False Matches)requires high biometric entropy, and achieving the tremendous match speed
requires phase bit coding. Both of these requirements are being successfully
delivered by wavelet methods developed by the author for encoding andcomparing iris patterns, which will be the focus of this presentation.

9118-4, Session 3

Phase change nanowire memory (Invited Paper)
Ritesh Agarwal, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States); Yiping Zhao,
The Univ. of Georgia (United States)
No Abstract Available

9118-5, Session 3

Recent progresses on nanowires (Invited Paper)
Agarwal Ritesh, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States)

9118-2, Session 2

No Abstract Available

Manifolds of large data from different sensory
modalities

9118-6, Session 4

Ming-Kai Hsu, The George Washington Univ. (United States);
Harold Szu, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate(United States)

Probing size-dependent light-matter interactions
and structural phase change properties withnanowires

A sensing architecture of diverse modalities is a possible solution for realworld challenges in both civil and military applications. In many cases, it
acquires a large amount of high-dimensional data. How to interpret theunderlying phenomenon of the collected data is a key for right solutions.
In this paper, we examine the problem of extracting manifolds of large
data from different sensory modalities by the concept of dimensionality
reduction. Furthermore, we show extensive experiments results on faceclassifications from Honda/UCSD video database by Isomap, Laplacian
Eigenmap and LLE.

Ritesh Agarwal, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States)
Semiconductor nanowires offer a unique approach for the bottom
up assembly of electronic and photonic devices with the potential of
integrating different technologies on a common platform. The onedimensional geometry allows efficient transport of carriers, photons andphonons in a directed manner. We will discuss the intriguing size-dependent
properties of one-dimensional semiconductor nanowires at the 20-200
nm lengthscales. At these length-scales not only finite-size effects become
important, but also other length-scales such as visible optical wavelengths,
strain fields, interfacial, and polarization scales become comparable tothe size of the nanostructures. Proper understanding of these phenomena
and the effect of different lengthscales on nanowire properties becomes
important, which is also required to rationally design functional devices withtunable and precisely controlled responses.

9118-3, Session 2

Econometric source LDA discovery byunsupervised learning

We will discuss size-dependent interaction of light within nanowire opticalcavities and their unique waveguiding and slow-light propagation properties
and also nanowires integrated with plasmonic nanocavities which allow
precise control over their excited state lifetimes, which can be shortenedby more than three orders of magnitude to sub-picoseconds due to strong
confinement of the optical fields based on the surface plasmon whispering
gallery modes. We will also discuss size-dependent structural phase

Jeffrey C. Jenkins, Rutger van Bergem, George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates); Dalila Benachenhou, George Washington University (UnitedStates); Harold Szu, The Catholic University of America (UnitedStates)Econometricians generally deal with large data sets that contain more
conflated sources than can be handled by current overdetermined macro-437+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII
implement robotic technology during disaster response. Two platforms
are currently being developed that utilize 3D printer technology. These
platforms will be built from a set of common components that will allow
the later design of other platforms that all share components. This system
will provide an affordable and adaptable method for gaining the required
robotic technology functionality necessary to address the evolving
situations that are encountered during disaster response activities. During
disasters new challenges are faced that may require customized toolingor platforms. Instead of prebuilt and prepositioned supplies, a library ofvalidated robotic solutions will be catalogued to satisfy various challenges
at the scene. 3D printing components will allow these customized tools
to be deployed in a fraction of the time that would normally be required.
While the current system is focused on disaster response personnel, thissystem will be expandable to a range of customers including domestic law
enforcement, the Armed Services, universities, and research facilities.

change phenomena in anowires, which are very important for new types of
nonvolatile memory devices. Our recent efforts to observe the crystalline
to amorphous phase change in “real time” via in situ electron microscopy
techniques will be discussed, which allows unprecedented insights into thecritical events that lead to structural phase transformations. The implicationsof these findings for assembling novel and reconfigurable electronic andphotonic devices will be discussed.

9118-7, Session 4

Neuromorphic Implementation of a camera toenhance imaging through fire and smoke (Invited
Paper)Jae Cha, A. Lynn Abbott, VPI (United States); Harold Szu, The
Catholic Univ. of America (United States); Keith A. Krapels, The
Univ. of Memphis (United States); Joseph Landa, BriarTek, Inc.
(United States)

9118-10, Session 4

3D printing nanotech enhanced by quantum
mechanics (Invited Paper)

Traditional unsupervised LCNN algorithm utilizes iterative optimization
process for searching the optimal minimum free energy point. Combinedwith iterative minimum squared error (MSE) solution techniques for finding
the intermediate solution for a transcendental equation, this approach
typically results in a doubly iterative loop that is computationally expensive
and inefficient. Here, we discuss a new modification of the optimization
process based on algebraic approximation function that offers a noniterative
solution with reduced loops, which can pave the way to a scalable algorithm
suited for a human visual system (HVS)-based massively parallel algorithmicarchitecture (algotecture). Numerical simulation demonstrates a significant
performance improvement over the traditional double loop solution, while
maintaining the error below the preset threshold. Implementation on HVSbased algotecture is expected to accomplish several order of speed-up
through a fan-in wired diagram while bypassing time-consuming sequential
processing.

Harold Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States); Jeffery C.
Jenkins, George Mason Univ. (United States); Jerry Wu, The Catholic
Univ. of America (United States)
3D nnao-printing, or additive manufacturing, is a process of making athree-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a digital modelwith quantum dots elementary material. Sequential additive processes differ
from the method used to produce the ‘layering’ effect of material, in thefollowing three aspects.

9118-11, Session 4

Wavelet techniques for the detection of silicone
on rough aluminum substrates by machine
analysis of mid-infrared spectra

9118-8, Session 4

Enhancing thermal imaging through large scale
fireRichard Fauconier, Block Engineering, LLC (United States)
A method for machine analysis of infrared spectra is presented that blends
the expertise of the spectroscopist with the outputs of common wavelet
transforms in a single algorithm. The reflectance spectra are those ofsilicone oil on rough aluminum substrates. A widely tuned quantum cascadelaser operating in the mid-infrared region provided the irradiance for thisautomated real-time spectroscopy. Depending on the thickness of thesilicone deposit and the angle of incidence at which the deposit is irradiated,the maxima and minima of the spectra can shift appreciably, and/or the
spectra may assume different shapes. The recognition algorithm detected
the presence of silicone in all of these circumstances. For the amounts ofsilicone applied and angles of incidence for the interrogating radiation, twovariants of a specularly distorted spectrum, and two variants of a simple
absorbance spectrum were found. Pertinent details of how the wavelet
transforms are exploited are presented, and their use in machine recognitionof silicone by its mid-infrared spectra is demonstrated. Three of the spectral
variants were successfully identified by using, in conjunction with thecontinuous wavelet transform, the Gauss-1 wavelet, a time-reversed versionof the same, and an inverted Mexican Hat wavelet. The fourth spectral
variant was identified with a symlet-6 wavelet in conjunction with a scaletime energy-distribution analysis across various levels of a multiresolution
analysis. Robust recognition of silicone on rough aluminum substrates isachieved with an algorithm that seamlessly combines the detection of all
four spectral variants.

Jae H. Cha, A. Lynn Abbott, VPI (United States); Keith A Krapels,
The Univ. of Memphis (United States); Harold H Szu, The Catholic
Univ. of America (United States)
Professional firefighters combat fires composed of smoke, chemical aerosols
and huge temperature variations that obscure vision and hinder theirperformance.
Currently, a team member carries a single cooled infrared imager of highdynamic range to improve the team’s operational effectiveness in these low
visibility of environments. But, for large scale fires each firefighter operates
independently to save people and property while overcoming obstacles andhazards. Here we describe a method to equip firefighters with a low-cost,
uncooled infrared imager, delivering enhanced vision to each member of theteam. This solution improves infrared imagery by using a real-time image
processing minus-one algorithm to suppress or remove local obscuring heatsources. We propose to minimize unsupervised free energy in local heatsources, and by blind source de-coupling, present a design of sharper imageof low cost IR camera to each firefighter.

9118-9, Session 4

3D printed rapid disaster response (Invited Paper)
Edward A. Mottern, Robotic Research LLC (United States)
Under Sensor-smart Affordable Autonomous Robotic Platforms (SAARP)
Robotic Research is researching an affordable and adaptable method to

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Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII

9118-12, Session 4

quantization and rate-allocation for different compressive measurements
such as random and information-optimal designs. Specifically, we employ
the Lloyd-Max scalar quantizer and a power-law signal model based rateallocation scheme to quantify the performance of compressive imaging
for a variety of natural scenes. The relative performance of compressive
imaging and traditional image compression algorithms, such as JPEG2000,
is analyzed for different system parameters such as measurement signalto-noise-ratio (SNR) and compression rate. We find that in low and medium
SNR, compressive imaging provides superior and comparative image
fidelity relative to traditional image compression algorithms. However inthe high measurement SNR regime the traditional image compression
yields significantly higher image fidelity relative to compressive imaging.
We also discuss the relative system size, weight and power complexityof compressive imaging and traditional image compression system
implementations.

Highway 3D model from image and lidar data
(Invited Paper)
Henry Chu, Jinfeng Chen, Xiaoduan Sun, Univ. of Louisiana at
Lafayette (United States)
Three-dimensional models can enable highway engineers to design andevaluate highway infrastructures from new perspectives, which are notfeasible with the current available technologies. We devised techniques tointegrate airborne LiDAR data with highway video data collected from adriver’s perspective into a 3-D model of the road and the roadside elements.
The main development tasks are (i) to identify the groundplane in the video
data and then further segment that plane into traffic lanes and shoulder
areas; and (ii) to convert the data extracted from (i) into 3-D models using
the geometry and parameters of the image/video acquisition and LIDAR
data, such as to detect sign posts and guardrails when they are present andto integrate the model into a geographic information system, as follow-up
work. The image data is placed in the 3D world coordinates by extracting
the Road Coordinates of the camera positions stored during the image dataacquisition process. From the LiDAR data, we detected highway segments
as well as other objects such as trees, buildings, and ditches. Finally we
integrated the two data streams using the camera coordinate system toform the 3D environment.

9118-16, Session 6

Optimal filter design for compressive sensing inelectrogastrogram (EGG) (Invited Paper)
Ning Xi, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
Unlike traditional Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC), the main idea of
Analog-to-Information Conversion (AIC) is to sample signal utilizing theinformation that the signal has a sparse representation in some dictionary.
Kirolos et al. in Rice University proposed an AIC scheme based oncompressed sensing in 2006: first demodulation, second analog filtering,and finally uniform sampling. The motivation of such a scheme is to lower
the sampling rate without loss of signal information. However, in otherwords, under the same sampling rate, the sparsity information would help us
reveal more detail of the signal.

9118-13, Session 5Sparse MRI: the application of compressedsensing for rapid MRI (Invited Paper)
Michael Lustig, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States)

The Electrogastrogram (EGG) signal meets the requirement of the modelof the AIC scheme: 1) it is sparse in some domain, e.g. frequency domain; 2)
it can be modeled as a typical linear system, i.e. a plant dynamic equation
and a measurement equation, in the sparse domain. Our progress on thewhole AIC scheme for EGG applications is the denoising method. For atypical linear system, the well-known Kalman filter is the optimal Minimum
Mean-Square Error (MMSE) state estimator; however, under the compressedsensing context, because the observability of the system cannot be satisfied,
the Kalman filter will diverge. Thus we propose a novel method to solve thisproblem.

MRI is en excellent imaging modality. However it suffers from slow dataacquisition rates. Since it invention more than 30 years ago improvements
in hardware and imaging techniques have enabled faster data collection.
However, we are currently at the point where fundamental physical andphysiological effects limit our ability to simply encode data more quickly.
This fundamental limit has led many researchers to look for methods toreduce the amount of acquired data without degrading the image quality.
These reduced sampling methods are based on the fact that MRI data
is redundant, so the underlying information may be extracted from lessdata than traditionally considered necessary. A source of redundancy thathas been gaining significant attention is the sparsity and compressibilityof various MR signals. This effort has been motivated by the recent
introduction of the theory of compressed sensing (CS).

It is not the first time for combining the Kalman filter and the compressedsensing. Vaswani et al. proposed a Kalman filtered compressed sensing
scheme in 2008. Their main idea is to estimate the support of the signal
first and then the Kalman filtering only affects the supports. Our scheme
improves the generality of the model. Basically, the Kalman filter is thefiltering method utilizing the system model information. What we need isjust using both the information of the system model and the informationof sparsity to denoise. To achieve this goal, we design an optimal problem
based on the equivalent Kalman filtering model without any statisticalterm. This equivalent model is actually a least square problem for the plantnoise and the measurement noise in the system model. By adding an L1norm term into the optimal problem, the sparsity information can be thennaturally integrated to the system model information.

CS is a new sampling theory for compressible signals that allows samplingat rates much lower than the Nyquist-rate. CS implicitly compresses
data within the signal acquisition process by obtaining fewer so-called“incoherent measurements”. The practical result of CS in the context of MRI
is that MR images require much less data for reconstruction, and hence canbe scanned much faster.
The purpose of the talk is cover the basics of compressed sensing theory
in the context of MRI and to survey current status and trends in using
compressed sensing for clinical applications.

Simulations show that this novel optimal problem can balance the modeland sparse information well. However the complexity of the calculation ishigh as it grows with time. Thus, the future work is to figure out a recursive
calculation method, which only needs to solve a constant scale sub-problem
at each new time moment, just like what the Kalman filter had done.

9118-15, Session 6

Compressive imaging: quantization and rateallocation (Invited Paper)

9118-17, Session 6

Amit Ashok, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona(United States); Yuzhang Lin, The Univ. of Arizona (United States)

Noninvasive scalp pair correlation functions
electroencephalogram (EEG) (Invited Paper)

Compressive imaging typically counts the number of measurements relative
to scene dimensionality to provide a measure of compression. However,for data storage and transmission purpose compressive measurements
need to be quantized. In this work we consider compressive measurement439+1 360 676 3290

Francois Lalonde, Nitin Gogtay, National Institutes of Health (UnitedStates); Binh Q. Tran, Charles C. Hsu, Jefferson Willey, Jerry Wu,·

help@spie.org

Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII
Gyu Moon, Joseph S. Landa, François Carlo Morabito, Yuh-Show
Tsai, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States); T.-P. Jung, C. T.
Lin, Univ. of California, San Diego (United States); Harold H. Szu,
Alan T. Krzywicki, Babajide O. Familoni, Keith A. Krapels, U.S. ArmyRDECOM, NVESD (United States)

9118-26, Session 6

We apply a smart algorithm to capture compressive sensing high density
brain wave EEG for the detection and treatment of Brain Order Disorder(BOD) transitions conveniently, e.g. sport brain injury-blood clot, fever; toaxon erosion; senior cognitive decline, as well as juvenile Children Onset of
Schizophrenia (COS), and adult Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). NEW
DESIGN: EEG information resides in the brain’s Frontal, Parietal, Temporal,
and Occipital lobes of each hemisphere. We designed a new high-density
design of micro-(gecko feet like)-dry-electrodes N~O(10^(2+3)) covering
the whole head scalp with a non-tethered, wearable cap. Both the averageand fluctuating EEG electric potentials, e_s=e =_s+e =_s, are received andprocessed by the wearer’s personal Smartphone type device. This will allow
a distributed “Points-of-Care” testing approach for patient homecare, with
rapid transmittal of data and fewer clinic visits complement the patient
telemetry both outside and inside medical facilities.

Anke Meyer-Bäse, Simon Foo, Dana Skinner, Florida State Univ.
(United States)

Split Bregman’s optimization method for image
construction in compressive sensing (Invited
Paper)The theory of compressive sampling (CS) was reintroduced by Candes,
Romberg and Tao, and D. Donoho in 2006. Using a priori knowledge that asignal is sparse, it has been mathematically proven that CS can defy Nyquist
sampling theorem. Theoretically, reconstruction of a CS image relies on
the minimization and optimization techniques to solve this complex almost
NP-complete problem. There are many paths to consider when compressing
and reconstructing an image but these methods have remained untested
and unclear on natural images, such as underwater sonar images. The goalof this research is to perfectly reconstruct the original sonar image froma sparse signal while maintaining pertinent information, such as mine-likeobject, in Side-scan sonar (SSS) images. Goldstein and Osherhave shownhow to use an iterative method to reconstruct the original image througha method called Split Bregman’s iteration. This method “decouples” theenergies using portions of the energy from both the l1 and l2 norm. Oncethe energies are split, Bregman iteration is used to solve the unconstrained
optimization problem by recursively solving the problems simultaneously.
The faster these two steps or energies can be solved then the faster theoverall method becomes. While the majority of CS research is still focusedon the medical field, this paper will demonstrate the effectiveness ofthe
Split Bregman’smethods on sonar images.

Moreover, Instead of 3-D FFTs, we employ 1-D space-filling HilbertPeano s-curve, preserving the local neighborhood relationship for rapid
compressive sensing (CS). We use 1-D FFT sorting EEG’s in sparser
frequency bins to facilitate m sparse linear combinations, m<< N, forwireless CS readout. While physicians utilize the average e =_s of all N
electrodes, we can efficiently compute the N^2 pair-electrodes correlation offluctuations < e =_s +e =^’=_s> by Wiener-Khinchin-Einstein formula.
We amend the clinic test & evaluation Protocol supplementing the Children
Onset Schizophrenia, with the Electroencephalogram (EEG) noninvasive
reading on scalp electrodes (FDA Device #3), sampled following patient
telemetry protocol both outside and inside medical facilities.”

9118-19, Session 7

Unsupervised learning toward brain imaging data
analysis (Invited Paper)

9118-18, Session 6

Overcoming shadowing occlusion by compressive
sensing (Invited Paper)

Jong-Hwan Lee, Korea Univ. (Korea, Republic of)In this talk, I would like to introduce our recent works on the brain imaging
data analysis applying unsupervised learning methods. We have been
proposed several methodological applications of unsupervised learningalgorithms including an (1) independent vector analysis and (2) iterativedual-regression approach as an extension toward a temporal-concatenation
based independent component analysis to analyze a group of functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data sets acquired from multiple
subjects. To get accurate neuronal activation maps from group fMRI
data, neuronal activation maps from each of multiple subjects need to becorrectly estimated and our works from the following two studies are drawn
in this context. First, a method to correctly estimate individual neuronal
activations from group fMRI data from multiple subjects was addressed
applying an independent vector analysis (IVA). Using an IVA approach,spatially dependent neuronal activation patterns across multiple subjects
were successfully estimated in each independent vector (IV) component,
while maintaining the independence across multiple IVs. Second, anapproach to fine tune individual neuronal activations estimated from a
temporal-concatenation based group ICA method was proposed deploying
an iterative approach of spatial-temporal regression of the neuronal
activations to maximally fit into the fMRI data of corresponding individual.

Harold Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States); Charles
C. Hsu, The George Washington Univ. (United States); Todd W.
DuBosq, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Steven K. Moyer,
The Catholic Univ. of America (United States); Bavinder Kaur,George Mason Univ. (United States); Kelvin R. Leonard, Christopher
M. May, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States); Keith A.
Krapels, The Univ. of Tennessee Health Science Ctr. (United States);
Joseph S. Landa, BriarTek, Inc. (United States)
The active EOIR&RF imaging often suffered the line of sight occlusion,shadowing, and motion blur. For such a corrupted or missing pixels, we
explored error–resilient analytical continuation method combined with
CRT&D compressive sensing (CS). We map 3-D to 1-D space-filling curve
preserving the neighborhood proximity, where a 1-D windowed FFT or
Wavelet Transform could generate a sparse space-frequency (x-f) joint
representation. Then, CRT &D purely random zero-one filter was appliedat the sparse (x-f) representation. We preserved local randomness
property, while vary the sparseness from region to region for our different
requirement in high frequency. In other words, we move ones and zeros
respectively around in each region for the need of the informationacquisition and the error resilience.

9118-20, Session 8

We proved the inverse CS linear programming can cover a gracefuldegradation. It turned out that the restoration was comparable to thepercentage of missing pixels (3% ~5%) suffered in 3-D active LIDAR imagery
near the edges, that proved to be detrimental to human visual perception.
Design of COTS is given combining laser pointer pen with fan-in collector
and pen-knob housing smart algorithm processor.

440

SPIE DSS 2014

User authentication systems based on brain
finger-prints (Invited Paper)
Soo-Young Lee, Eunsoo Jung, KAIST (Korea, Republic of)
We propose to use EEG signals to make user authentication for requiringhigh security. EEG signals were measured while the subjects saw several
images in sequences. Since subject’s EEG signals are different for known
and unknown images, these EEG sequences may be used to identify beach·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII
subject. Correlation analysis and classification results shows the feasibility ofuser authentication from EEG signals.

Low-discrepancy point distributions exhibit excellent uniformity
properties for sampling in applications such as smartphone-based
electroencephalogram (EEG) system for homecare applications. In thispaper, we discuss a number of algorithms for generating effective lowdiscrepancy point distributions on arbitrary parametric surfaces using theidea of converting the 2D sampling problem into a 1D problem by adaptively
mapping a space-filling curve onto the surface. Peano curve is a densely
self-intersecting curve to construct a continuous mapping from a higher
dimensional hypercube to 1 dimensionality. Hilbert curve is a continuous
fractal space-filling curve to effectively preserve locality. Both space-filling
curves will be analyzed and their results will be applied to the homecare
applications of the EEG system.

9118-21, Session 8

Fixing basis mismatch via alternating convex
searchJonathan M. Nichols, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Albert Oh, Duke Univ. (United States); Rebecca Willett, Univ. of
Wisconsin-Madison (United States)
The theory behind compressive sampling pre-supposes that a given
sequence of observations may be exactly represented by a linear
combination of a small number of basis vectors. In practice, however, evensmall deviations from an exact signal model can result in dramatic increases
in estimation errors, the so-called “basis mismatch” problem. This work
provides one possible solution to this problem in the form of an iterative,
biconvex search algorithm. The approach uses the standard l1-minimization
to find the signal model coefficients followed by a maximum likelihood
estimate of the signal model. The process is repeated until a convergencecriterion is met. The algorithm is illustrated on harmonic signals of varying
sparsity.

9118-24, Session 8

SAR GMTI technologies and their applications
Charles C. Hsu, Trident Systems Inc. (United States); Harold Szu, The
Catholic Univ. of America (United States)
SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) and GMTI (Ground Moving Target Indicator)
technologies provide U.S. forces results from its unique ability to distinguishtargets moving on land or water from surface clutter over a large area in bad
weather and darkness by virtue of the Doppler radar return of the moving
targets. SAR is an active sensor to transmitting its own RF energy (such asa frequency chirp), and then measure the echoed return scattered by thesurface on the ground. Technically, SAR processing is the transformation of
raw SAR signal data into a spatial image. GMTI is a remote sensing processusing multiple channels of RF data to minimize the effects of interference
patterns and ground clutter and to recognize and extract targets on the
ground. In this paper, research interest is primarily focused on using SARchange detection for detecting moving targets in regimes for slow-moving
targets in nonhomogeneous clutter. Specific interests include continuous
detection, geolocation, and tracking.

9118-22, Session 8

Detecting directional and spectral characteristics
of anomalous radiation sources
Benjamin Manning, Wojciech Czaja, Thomas McCullough, Univ. of
Maryland, College Park (United States); Lance McLean, National
Security Technologies, LLC (United States)
OSCAR (Occluding Six Crystal ARay) is a configuration of six sodium iodide
scintillators arranged in a hexagon to give six modes of detection for the
purpose of detecting the angular response of real world radiation sources.
We are particularly interested in recovering the direction and, to an extent,
the complete spatial information of well localized anomalous radiation
sources.

9118-42, Session 8

Probabilistic inequalities with applications tomachine learning
Xinjia Chen, Southern Univ. and A&M College (United States)

We present a fast numerically stable algorithm for recovering directional
information of radiation sources. This algorithm works in near real time andoperates autonomously, providing actionable feedback to identify potential
threats and their characteristics.

We propose a new approach for deriving probabilistic inequalities basedon bounding likelihood ratios. We demonstrate that this approach is moregeneral and powerful than the classical method frequently used for deriving
concentration inequalities such as Chernoff bounds. We have derived
new concentration inequalities using the proposed approach, which haveimportant applications in machine learning.

Our approach utilizes a new class of composite dilation wavelets, designed
in line with symmetries of OSCAR. These wavelets use a non-commutative
crystallographic group of shifts. This group contains the symmetry group of
the OSCAR geometry and extends beyond the usual commutative group of
integer translates which do not respect the symmetry of the OSCAR system.
This yields a sparse representation of localized anomalous radiation sourcesalong with sparse representations of large scale background radiation.

9118-14, Session 10

A minimum invasive and maximum specificneo-Angiogenesis biomarker of a time-reversal
spectral image tracking toward malignant breast/
skin cancer (Invited Paper)

We model OSCAR’s response to monoenergenic sources using Monte Carloradiation transport code. This, combined with the wavelet decompositionof spatial and energy space, gives a dictionary that sparsely represents
the response of the OSCAR from any real world scenario. We then use
compressed sensing techniques to recover the spatial distribution ofradiation sources with the emphasis on recovering the direction and spectraof well localized sources.

Harold H. Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States);
Nadarajen A. Vydelingum, National Cancer Institute (United States);
Philip P. Hoekstra III, Therma-Scan, Inc. (United States); Joseph
S. Landa, BriarTek, Inc. (United States); Charles C. Hsu, George
Washington Univ. (United States); Liyi Dai, Harvard Univ. (UnitedStates); David G. Brown, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (UnitedStates)9118-23, Session 8

Low-discrepancy sampling of parametric surface
using adaptive space-filling curves
Charles C. Hsu, Trident Systems Inc. (United States); Harold Szu, The
Catholic Univ. of America (United States)441+1 360 676 3290

In compressive sensing, various methods have been proposed to recover a
vector of sparse signals x from a linear measurement model y = Ax. Because·

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Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII
the linear model is often an approximation for problems of practical interest,
the robustness of signal recovery solutions in the presence of uncertainties
is a basic issue in the compressive sensing framework. In this paper, we
describe several recent results pertaining to the robustness of sparse
signal recovery solutions. The first is the sensitivity analysis of compressive
sensing solutions to perturbations in the linear model. An exact formulafor sensitivity analysis is provided. Algorithms for sensitivity reduction
are designed. Furthermore, algorithms for obtaining robust compressive
sensing solutions under the worst-case perturbations are derived throughthe Alternating Direction Method of Multipliers. The effectiveness of thealgorithms for improving the solution robustness is illustrated using a
numerical example.

observation of the relationship generally requires long observation times
that are not necessarily practical in dynamic settings. In this paper, we use
Electrocardiogram (ECG) time series collected during normal and stressed
conditions, produced by means of the Trier social stress test and the Stroop
effect test, to compute HRV driven features and quantify the ability of a setof classification algorithms to distinguish stressed from normal conditions.
To classify RR-intervals, we explored classification algorithms that arecommonly used for medical applications such as 1) logistic regression [9],2) least square discriminant analysis (LDA) [3], 3) artificial neural network[4], and 4) support vector machines (SVM) [4]. Classification performancewas quantified by means of precision, sensitivity and specificity; ROC curves
are generated. Results from each classifier are then compared to find the
optimal classifier and HRV features for stress detection. This work, collectedunder an approved protocol, not only provides a method for developing
models and classifiers based on human data, but also provides a foundation
for a stress indicator tool based on potential HRV. Further, developedclassification tools will not only benefit many medical applications for
detecting stress, but also many security and military applications forscreening such as: border patrol, stress detection for deception [1, 10], andwounded-warrior triage [8].

9118-27, Session 10

Authentication, privacy and security can exploit
brainwaves by smartphone (Invited Paper)
Jeffrey C. Jenkins, Charles Sweet, Loft Mind, Inc. (United States);
James Sweet, Loft Mind, Inc. (Germany); Harold Szu, The Catholic
Univ. of America (United States)

References:
1. Berntson, G.G., Cacioppo, J.T. Heart rate variability: Stress and psychiatricconditions. In: Dynamic electrocardiography. A.J. Camm, M. Malik (Eds.), pp.
56-63, Futura, New York. ISBN-10: 1405119608. (2004)

In Authentication, Privacy and Security (APS) disciplines, the brainwave
among all other well known biometrics has never been exploited. We apply
wireless EGG Smartphone (Szu, et al. J. CIS 2013) to augment current digital
User Access Control (UAC) and verification systems with an additional layerof security using non-tethered Electroencephalogram (EEG) devices. The
aim of hardening UAC verification is not only beneficial for soft biometricenhancement of computer terminal security, but may also serve to provide
the medical and mental health communities with a tool to measurefluctuations in an individual’s mental performance baseline over time.
Towards that goal, we describe an infrastructure that supports distributed
verification for web-based EEG authentication and the performance metrics
required for access to web content. A user attempting to gain access todigital content protected by EEG-UAC soft biometrics shall perform a seriesof sensory evoked memory recall perception tests. A series of N random
images are shown with an embedded set of M randomly placed personal
images provided by the user at a rate of 1.25 Hz. While the images are being
displayed, we collect the user’s wireless head mounted EEG output, which
are indications of relative amplitudes of the individual EEG frequency bands(alpha, beta, gamma, theta, delta). To provide an upper bound on mental
processing time, the user was instructed to click a mouse when seeing
one of their images. We assert that the difference in time (T_t-T_0 )=T =between seeing an image and clicking a mouse in response will statisticallyconverge to an upper bound for a physical hand-eye coordination reaction.
This reaction time T =_R contains within it a vector of separate time series
which also revert to a mean value with low variance. We begin by discussing
the EEG and other brain monitoring devices, and current UAC systems.
Then, we demonstrate the signal processing procedure to predict the next
reaction fluctuation time. Results of the single and multiple user access anddenial ROC curve is demonstrated, and results of simulated “attacks” onuser login data is performed. We then describe applications of this work toenhance security of web-based UAC, and interfacing with control of otherelectronic devices.

2. Boonnithi S. and Phongsuphap S., “Comparison of heart rate variability
measures for mental stress detection”, Computing in Cardiology, pp.85-88,
18-21 Sept. 2011.
3. Duda, R.O., Hart, P.E., and Stork, D.G. Pattern Classification. USA & Canada:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp 117-134., 2001.
4. Fukuoka, Y., Fukuhara, M., and Ishida, A. “Stress assessment based on ecg
using neural networks.” IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.
1996.
5. Haitham M. Al-Angari and Alan V. Sahakian, “Automated recognition of
obstructive sleep apnea syndrome using support vector machine classifier”
IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine, Issue: 99, pp.
1-6. 2012.
6. Irvine, J. M., Wiederhold, B. K., Gavshon, L. W. et al., “Heart ratevariability: a new biometric for human identification,” in Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IC-AI ‘01), pp. 1106-1111,
Las Vegas, Nev, USA, Jun. 2001.
7. Israel, S. A., Irvine, J., Wiederhold, M. B. K. and Wiederhold, M. D. “Theheartbeat: the living biometric,” in Biometrics: Theory, Methods, andApplications, N. V. Boulgouris, E. Micheli-Tzanakou, and K. N. Plataniotis,
Eds., Wiley-IEEE Press, New York, NY, USA, 2009.
8. King, D.R., Ogilvie, M.P., Pereira, B.M., Chang, Y., Manning, R.J., Conner,
J.A., Schulman, C.I., McKenney, M.G., and Proctor, K.G., “Heart rate variability
as a triage tool in patients with trauma during prehospital helicoptertransport.” J Trauma.; 67(3):436-40. Sep. 2009.
9. Rao, A., Lee, Y., Gass, A., and Monsch., A. “Classification of Alzheimer’s
Disease from Structural MRI using Sparse Logistic Regression with Optional
Spatial Regularization.” 33rd Annual International Conference of the IEEE
EMBS. 2011.
10. Sung, M., and Pentland, A.P. PokerMetrics: Stress and lie detection
through non-invasive physiological sensing. Ph.D. thesis, MIT Media
Laboratory, 2005.

9118-28, Session 10

Heart rate variability (HRV): an indicator of stress9118-29, Session 10

Balvinder Kaur, Joseph J. Durek, Barbara L. O’Kane, U.S. Army Night
Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Vasiliki N.
Ikonomidou, George Mason Univ. (United States)

Impact of human emotions on physiologicalcharacteristics

Heart rate variability (HRV) is an important indicator of several conditions
that affect the autonomic nervous system, including traumatic brain
injury, post-traumatic stress disorder and peripheral neuropathy [1, 6,
7]. Recent work has shown initial progress in establishing a relationshipbetween HRV features and subject’s mental state [2, 10]. Although a varietyof time and frequency domain classifiers have been investigated, the442

SPIE DSS 2014

Pavol Partila, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic);
Miroslav Voznak, Technical Univ of Ostrava (Czech Republic); Tomas
Peterek, Marek Penhaker, Vilem Novak, Jaromir Tovarek, Miralem
Mehic, Lukas Vojtech, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech
Republic)·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII
Human emotions and their impact on physiological characteristics areresearched and discussed in this article. Nowadays there are many
applications for which information about the emotional state is importantin many fields. Increase the accuracy and simplicity of systems for theclassification of emotional states is necessary for full utilization of such asystem. Information about the emotional state is in today’s applications
received by voice or facial mimicry. This research has focused mainly on
voice compared with brain activity. Our research is based on an examinationof physiological changes in the patient and compared these changes withthe vocalization. The patient was stimulated by psychological methods inthe normal calm state. In this condition, the patient reads text and speech
activity are recorded. The same process is also performed after the patientis stimulated in the stress state. Number of measured patients was 30.
Emotional activities were captured using electroencephalography (EEG),
electrocardiography (ECG), samples of cortisol level and parameters ofspeech expression. Because EEG measurement is very sensitive to changes
in power supply, all 30 measurements were carried out in the EMC chamber
to remove unwanted electromagnetic interference. Classifier of emotional
state is an artificial neural network whose inputs are extracted speechparameters are the fundamental frequency of human speech, Cepstralcoefficients and others parameters of physiological activity of the brain. This
article presents a new perspective for the classification of emotional state ofman of his speech and physiological changes.

delay, delay variation (jitter) and packet loss on the speech quality as
it is perceived by the end users is studied. Based on this study a modelfor nonintrusive speech quality estimation was developed utilizing theknowledge about the current network state as it is reported by probing
software. This model is built upon the neural networks and it allows fora successful, efficient and accurate speech quality prediction with highconformity with the results of the PESQ algorithm. The actual conformancewith the PESQ algorithm, the results of which form the basis for the neuralnetwork training, is studied in this paper as well to testify the high precisionof the proposed model in estimating this industry standard in the fieldof objective speech quality measurements. The final part of the paper
describes the actual experimental implementation of this model using someof the well-known simulation tools so that the reader of this paper can easily
deploy the measuring platform as it is described here. The main contributionof this paper lies in the model for speech quality estimation, which makes
it possible to obtain the information about the speech quality without theneed of actually performing the call.

9118-32, Session 12

Using Computer Algebra and SMT Solvers in
Algebraic Biology
Mateo Pineda Osorio, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

9118-30, Session 10

Biologic processes are represented as Boolean networks, in a discrete time.
The dynamics within these networks are approached with the help of SMT
Solvers and the use of computer algebra. Software such as Maple and Z3
was used in this case. The number of stationary states for each network was
calculated. The network studied here corresponds to the immune system
under the effects of drastic mood changes. Mood is considered as a Boolean
variable that affects the entire dynamics of the immune system, changing
the Boolean satisfiability and the number of stationary states of the immune
network. Results obtained show Z3’s great potential as a SMT Solver. Someof these results were verified in Maple, even though it showed not to be
as suitable for the problem approach. The solving code was constructedusing Z3-Python and Z3-SMT-LiB. Results obtained are important in biology
systems and are expected to help in the design of immune therapies. As
a future line of research, more complex Boolean network representationsof the immune system as well as the whole psychological apparatus aresuggested.

Neural network classifier of attacks in IP
telephony
Jakub Safarik, Miroslav Voznak, Miralem Mehic, Pavol Partila, Martin
Mikulec, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
Various types of monitoring mechanism allow us to detect and monitor
behavior of attackers in VoIP networks. Analysis of detected malicious
traffic is crucial for further investigation and hardening the network. This
analysis is typically based on statistical methods and the article brings asolution based on neural network. The proposed algorithm is used as aclassifier of attacks in a distributed monitoring network of independent
honeypot probes. Information about attacks on these honeypots is collected
on a centralized server and then classified. This classification is based on
different mechanisms. One of them is based on the multilayer perceptron
neural network. The article describes inner structure of used neural network
and also information about implementation of this network. The learning
set for this neural network is based on real attack data collected from IP
telephony honeypot called Dionaea. We prepare the learning set from real
attack data after collecting, cleaning and aggregation of this information.
After proper learning is the neural network capable to classify 6 types ofmost commonly used VoIP attacks. Using neural network classifier brings
more accurate attack classification in a distributed system of honeypots.
With this approach is possible to detect malicious behavior in a different
part of networks, which are logically or geographically divided and use
the information from one network to harden security in other networks.
Centralized server for distributed set of nodes serves not only as a collector
and classifier of attack data, but also as a mechanism for generating aprecaution steps against attacks.

9118-33, Session 12

Telescopic augmented reality at nanoscale
Jeffrey C. Jenkins, George Mason Univ. (United States); Harold Szu,
The Catholic Univ. of America (United States)
In this paper, we describe a consistent macroscopic (cm-scale), mesoscopic(micron-scale), and microscopic (nano-scale) approach to enable telescopic
multiple resolution (TMR) of current Augmented Reality (AR) technology.
We proposed to augment AR-TMR by adding a new energy-matterinteraction engine based on Quantum Mechanics (QM) and Quantum
Computing (QC). The interactions must be realistic Einstein photoelectriceffect (EPE), regardless of the view point. Einstein was puzzled whyquantized photon energy E=nhw;n=integers,w=2pf, can produce after
photoelectric surface interaction a continuous analog electric charge current
density j =pqv . Note that a constant Einstein speed of light C_o=fl ; thenl=1µ at MWIR has exactly 1 eV photon energy and has frequency f=300 THz.
Some of the molecular electrons involved in a chemical interaction haveabout a eV of binding energy. As such, Tera-Hz radiation would be absorbed
and scattered, unable to propagate through the atmospheric molecules. To
achieve such a TMR AR, we provide a virtual telescope consistent algorithm
for viewing 3D physics and/or chemical interactions at a point in space, withan arbitrary MRA field of view. To illustrate the algorithm, we consider the
EPE, including nano-scale quantum mechanics effects. These effects model
the interaction between particles and photons at the microscopic level,
considering the properties of de Broglie-Bohm photon wave packet emitted
from a source, as well as the molecular properties of a surface that is in

9118-31, Session 10

Predictive model for determining the quality of acall
Miroslav Voznak, Technical Univ of Ostrava (Czech Republic); Jan
Rozhon, Pavol Partila, Jakub Safarik, Martin Mikulec, Miralem Mehic,
VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
This paper deals with the methodology and experimental implementationof the system for the speech quality prediction in IP networks, which inour days form the backbone of modern communications. The fundamental
impact of qualitative parameters of the IP networks such as network443+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII

9118-35, Session 12

the path of the wave packet in a 3D environment. We propose a stochastic
method of updating the visual and material properties of point-wiseinteractions to enable dynamic rendering. To view the effect of microscopic
interactions in a macroscopic viewpoint, (i.e. simulating a fire with polygonal
structure which is able to deform intersecting 3D object faces), we describe
a new stage of the rendering pipeline which uses Quantum-Dot Cellular
Automata (QCA) to simulate the structural propagation of energy changes
from point-wise microscale interactions upwards to the larger mesoscopic
structure. Furthermore, the mesoscopic behavior can be extended to modify
the 3D structure of a macroscopic object by dynamic deformation, driven
by a relational database (lookup table) approach to progressive material
mapping. Our method of texture mapping includes a separate channel ofthe surface boundary condition (molecular structure, density, etc.) of each
3D point in the environment, which receives updates from the preceding
two behavioral scales. We demonstrate the results of implementing thisaddition to the AR rendering pipeline via for the photoelectric effect, andconclude by describing areas of future work and application for quantum
rendering algorithms.

Analyzing toys models of Arabidopsis andDrosphila using Z3 SMT-LIB
Martin Rodriguez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Toy models for the Arabidopsis Taliana flower and the Drosophila are
analyzed using Microsoft SMT-Solver Z3 with the SMT-LIB language. The
models are formulated as Boolean networks which describe the metabolic
cycles for Arabidopsis and Drosophila. The dynamic activation of thedifferent bio macromolecules is described by the variables and laws ofBoolean transition. Specifically, bitvectors and assertions, which describe
the change of state of bitvectors from a sampling time to the next, are used.
The dynamic feasibility problem of the biological network is translated toa Boolean satisfiability problem. The corresponding dynamic attractors are
represented as a model of satisfiability. The Z3 software allows all required
computations in a friendly and efficient manner. It is expected that the
SMT-solvers, such as Z3, will become a routine tool in system biology andthat they will provide bio-nanosystem design techniques. As a line for future
research, the study of the models for Arabidopsis and Drosophila using
different SMT-solvers such as CVC4, Mathsat and Yices, is proposed.

9118-34, Session 12

Experimental verification of the performance ofartificial neural networks (ANNs) versus partial
least squares (PLS) for spectral interference
correction in optical emission spectrometry(Invited Paper)

9118-36, Session 12

Solving a discrete model of the lac operon using
Z3

Z. Li, X. Zhang, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo (Canada)

Natalia A. Gutierrez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Regardless of the number of grooves/mm of the grating used, in atomic
emission spectrometry, a spectrometer with a long focal length (e.g., 0.5
m to 0.75 m) is required in order to obtain resolution of <100 pm. Such aresolution is essential in order to address (but not completely eliminate)spectral overlaps (often called spectral interference effects). Due to theirsize and weight (on account of their long focal length), such spectrometers
cannot be used for taking “the lab to the sample” type of applications.
Spectral overlaps become progressively more severe as the focal lengthof the spectrometer is decreased, for example down to 12-15 cm. Short
focal length spectrometers (translating to small size) are better suitedfor portable chemical measurements in the field. Although increasing thenumber of grooves/mm used in small focal length spectrometers appears
to be appealing, there are fundamental limits to such a suggestion.
Interesting alternatives arise by considering use of artificial neural networks
or of statistical (or mathematical) methods to address spectral overlaps.
In this presentation, statistical and neural network-based methods will becompared and contrasted using actual experimental results (rather thanmostly simulations that were previously reported).

A discrete model for the Lcac Operon is solved using the SMT-solver Z3.
Traditionally the Lac Operon is formulated in a continuous math model.
This model is a system of ordinary differential equations. Here, it wasconsiderated as a discrete model, based on a Boolean red. The biologicalproblem of Lac Operon is enunciated as a problem of Boolean satisfiability,
and it is solved using an STM-solver named Z3. Z3 is a powerful solver thatallows understanding the basic dynamic of the Lac Operon in an easierand more efficient way. The multi-stability of the Lac Operon can be easily
computed with Z3. The code that solves the Boolean red can be written in
Python language or SMT-Lib language. Both languages were used in local
version of the program as online version of Z3. For future investigations it is
proposed to solve the Boolean red of Lac Operon using others SMT-solvers
as cvc4, alt-ergo, mathsat and yices.

9118-37, Session 12

Using Tutte polynomials to analyze the structureof the benzodiazepines
Juan José Cadavid Muñoz, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Graph theory in general and Tutte polynomials in particular, areimplemented for analyzing the chemical structure of the benzodiazepines.
Similarity analysis are used with the Tutte polynomials for finding othermolecules that are similar to the benzodiazepines and therefore that mightshow similar psycho-active actions for medical purpose, in order to evadethe drawbacks associated to the benzodiazepines based medicine. For
each type of benzodiazepines, Tutte polynomials are computed and somenumeric characteristics are obtained, such as the number of spanning trees
and the number of spanning forests. Computations are done using thecomputer algebra Maple’s GraphTheory package. The obtained analyticalresults are of great importance in pharmaceutical engineering. As a future
research line, the usage of the chemistry computational program named
Spartan, will be used to extent and compare it with the obtained resultsfrom the Tutte polynomials of benzodiazepines.

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Conference 9118: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XII

9118-38, Session 129118-40, Session 12

Analytical resolution of the reactive diffusion
equation for transient electronics including
materials whose porosity value changes in termsof their thickness

Efficiency of nearest neighbor entropy estimators
for Bernoulli measures

Agustín Vargas Toro, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

A problem of nonparametric entropy estimation for discrete stationary
ergodic processes is considered. The estimation is based on so-called“nearest-neighbor method”.

Alexei Kaltchenko, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. (Canada); Evgeniy A.
Timofeev, Yaroslavl State Univ. (Russian Federation)

Transient Electronics is a new development in technology whose main
characteristic is that its components can disappear in a programmed andcontrolled way, which means such devices have a pre-engineered service
life. Nowadays, there is a huge field of application employing TransientElectronics, involving the reduction of e-waste in the planet and thedevelopment of medical instruments and implants that the user does notneed in a long term, avoiding him the trouble of having another surgicalprocedure. These devices must be made from biocompatible materials
avoiding long-term adverse effects in the environment and the patients.

It is shown that, for Bernoulli measures, the estimator is unbiased, i.e.
converges to the (inverse) entropy of the process. Moreover, for symmetricBernoulli measures, the unbiased estimator can be explicitly constructed by
the quadratic optimization of its parameters.

9118-41, Session 12

It is fundamental to develop an analytical model that allows describing the
behavior of these materials considering cases in which their porosity may
be constant or not, in presence of water or any other biofluid. In order toaccomplish this analysis, the reactive diffusion equation is solved based on
Bromwich Integral and the Residue Theorem for materials whose porosity
is constant, and some of them where their porosity increases linearly or
quadratically in terms of its thickness, giving a more general expression.
The results show the presence of special functions such as BesselJ, BesselY,
LegendreP and LegendreQ. This leads to the analysis of the relation of
the electric resistance (per unit length) and the rate of dissolution of thematerial. These results are utterly important in the design of medical andpharmaceutical nanotechnology where the material’s time of dissolution is
critical. Furthermore, based on the analytical model, some research lines aresuggested in order to achieve future developments in this area.

Improving the efficiency of nonparametric
entropy estimation
Alexei Kaltchenko, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. (Canada); Evgeniy A.
Timofeev, Yaroslavl State Univ. (Russian Federation)
A problem of improving the efficiency of nonparametric entropy estimation
for discrete stationary ergodic processes is considered. The estimation isbased on so-called “nearest-neighbor method” and depends on selection ofunderlying metric on the space of right-sided infinite sequences. Proposed
is a new family of metrics which depend on a set of parameters. The
estimator is linearly dependent on the parameters, and the best accuracy
is achieved by a quadratic optimization of the parameters. It is shown that,
under certain conditions, the proposed estimator has a small variance, andthe quadratic optimization of the parameters reduces the estimator’s bias.

9118-39, Session 12

A model of the immune-compatibility using the
install problem in computer science
Felipe Diaz Jaramillo, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
We simulate the immune compatibility using the Install Problem: The idea
is to define a Boolean variable for each antibody. This variable is true if theantibody must be in the immune system. The Install Problem refers to theincompatibility that some programs may have with an specific operative
system making it impossible to be installed. The analysis was implemented
using SMT-solvers, specifically Z3, and the code was wrote using thecommands “DependsOn”, “Conflict” and “Compatibility_check”, making it
possible to check the antibody compatibility. The programming languages
used to build up the code were Z3-Python and Z3-SMT-Lib. The results canbe used in systems biology and in the analysis of immunological therapies.
As future line of research it could be developed a more complex algorithm
to verify the immunological compatibility.

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Conference 9119: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VIII
Thursday - Friday 8 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9119 Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired Computation: Theory and Applications VIII

9119-1, Session 1

properties give way to discrete,probabilistic and noisy processes. This
presents an enormous challenge, as the foundation of modern computing
is built on deterministic and fault-free hardware. Our focus on determinism
has prevented us from understanding and exploiting one of the mostpowerful forces in nature: thermodynamic self-organization. At the sametime, modern computing architecture based on the separation of memory
and processing leads to a well-known problem called the von Neumannbottleneck, a restrictive limit on the data bandwidth between CPU andRAM. We introduce a new approach where memory, processing and intrinsic
thermodynamic volatility unite via synaptic plasticity in a simple universal
adaptive memory structure we call Thermodynamic Random Access
Memory (kT-RAM). We show the application of kT-RAM to problems inmachine learning including perception (classification, clustering, feature
extraction), planning (combinatorial optimization, prediction) and control(robotic actuation) and introduce the Knowm API, an open-source kT-RAM
emulator for application development.

TBD (Keynote Presentation)
No Abstract Available

9119-2, Session 2

Probabilistic graphs using coupled randomvariable
Kenric P. Nelson, Raytheon Co. (United States)
Neural network design has utilized flexible nonlinear processes which can
mimic biological systems, but has suffered from a lack of traceability in the
resulting network. Graphical probabilistic models ground network design inprobabilistic reasoning, but the restrictions reduce the expressive capabilityof each node making network designs complex. The ability to model
coupled random variables using the calculus of nonextensive statisticalmechanics provides a neural node design incorporating nonlinear coupling
between input states while maintaining the rigor of probabilistic reasoning.
A generalization of Bayes rule using the coupled product enables of single
node to model correlation between hundreds of random variables. Applying
the coupled Bayesian node to the inferencing and classification of UCI’s
MLR ‘Multiple Features Data Set’ shows that thousands of linear correlation
parameters can be replaced with a single coupling parameter with just a(3%, 4%) reduction in (classification, inference) performance. A coupledbayesian network is demonstrated utilizing a hierarchy of coupled nodes.

9119-5, Session 3

Energy-efficient STDP-based learning circuitswith memristor synapses
Xinyu Wu, Vishal Saxena, Kristy A. Campbell, Boise State Univ.
(United States)
It is now accepted that the traditional von Neumann architecture, withprocessor and memory separation, is ill suited to process parallel data
streams which a mammalian brain can efficiently handle. Moreover,researchers now envision computing architectures which enable cognitive
processing of massive amounts of data by identifying spatio-temporal
relationships in real-time and solving complex pattern recognition
problems. Memristor cross-point arrays, integrated with standard CMOS
technology, are expected to result in such massively parallel and low-power
neuromorphic computing architectures. Recently, significant progress has
been made in spiking neural networks (SNN) which expect to emulate
data processing in the cortical brain. These architectures comprise of adense network of neurons and the synapses formed between the neuralaxons. Further, unsupervised or supervised competitive learning schemes
are being investigated by for global training of the network. In contrast
to a software implementation, hardware realization of these networks
incurs massive circuit overhead for addressing and individually updating
network weights. Instead, we employ bio-inspired learning rules such as the
spike-dependent timing plasticity (STDP) to efficiently update the network
weights. To realize SNNs on a chip, we are densely integrating mixed-signal
integrate-and-fire neurons (IFNs) and cross-point arrays of memristors inback-end-of-the-line (BEOL) of CMOS chips. Novel IFN circuits have been
designed to drive memristive synapses in parallel while maintaining overall
power efficiency (<1 pJ/spike/synapse), even at spike rate greater than 10
MHz. We present circuit design details and simulation results of the IFN withmemristor synapses, its response to incoming spike trains and STDP learning
characterization.

9119-3, Session 2

Evaluating data distribution and drift
vulnerabilities of machine learning algorithms insecure and adversarial environments
Kevin M. Nelson, BAE Systems (United States); George E. Corbin,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Christopher W. Banas, BAE
Systems (United States); Misty Blowers, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Machine learning is continuing to gain popularity due to its ability tosolve problems that are difficult to model using conventional computer
programming logic. Much of the current and past work has focused on
algorithm development, data processing, and optimization. Lately, a subsetof research has emerged which explores issues related to security. This
research is gaining traction as systems employing these methods are being
applied to both secure and adversarial environments. One of machinelearning’s biggest benefits, its data-driven versus logic-driven approach,is also a weakness if the data on which the models rely are corrupted.
Adversaries could maliciously influence systems which address drift anddata distribution changes using re-training and online learning. Our work is
focused on exploring the resilience of various machine learning algorithms
to these data-driven attacks. In this paper, we present our initial findings
using Monte Carlo simulations and statistical analysis to explore the maximalachievable shift to a classification model, as well as the required amount ofcontrol over the data.

9119-6, Session 4

Towards leakage resiliency: memristor-based AES
design for differential power attack mitigation
Dhireesha Kudithipudi, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Ganesh Khedkar, Qualcomm Inc. (United States)

9119-4, Session 3

Differential Power Analysis (DPA), are considered as one of the mostcompetent attacks to obtain the secure key of a cryptographic algorithm.
Conventional countermeasures for DPAs are focused on hiding and masking
techniques at different levels of design abstraction, associated with highpower or area cost. However, emerging technologies such as Resistive

AHaH computing with thermodynamic RAM
Alex Nugent, M. Alexander Nugent Consulting (United States)
Integrated electronics has approached the atomic wall, where bulk

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Conference 9119: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VIII

9119-9, Session 5

Random Access Memory (RRAM), offer unique opportunities to mitigate
DPAs with their inherent device characteristics such as variability in write
time, reconfigurability, ultra low power (0.1-3 pJ/bit), and high density (4F2).
In this research, DPA attacks are mitigated by balancing the memory power
profile with custom complementary RRAM modules. AES state memorytransaction power traces are balanced when both the RRAM modules
are accessed in tandem based on a peripheral low power balancing logic
block. Balancing is performed only when the memory is accessed without
reducing the overall performance of the system. A baseline RTL architecture
for the 128-bit AES cryptoprocessor is designed and implemented in CMOS
technology with Hamming weight DPA attack model. DPA attacks mounted
on the complementary CMOS and RRAM based AES cryptoprocessor
yielded unsuccessful results with no keys recovered, demonstrating theresiliency of the proposed architecture. Moreover, a significant 80% power
advantage is achieved with RRAM state memory modules compared to thebaseline CMOS.

Hardware-based artificial neural networks for
size, weight, and power constrained platforms
Bryant T. Wysocki, Nathan R. McDonald, Clare D. Thiem, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
A fully parallel, silicon-based artificial neural network (CogniMem CM1K)
built on zero instruction set computer technology was used for change
detection and object identification in video data. Fundamental patternrecognition capabilities were demonstrated with reduced neuron numbers
utilizing only a few, or in some cases one, neuron per category. This
simplified approach was used to validate the utility of few neuron networks
for use in applications that necessitate severe size, weight, and power
restrictions. The limited resource requirements and massively parallel natureof hardware-based artificial neural networks make them superior to many
software approaches in resource limited systems, such as micro-UAVs,
mobile sensor platforms, and pocket-sized robots.

9119-7, Session 4

Implementation of a synthetic neuron softprocessor integrating ion-conducting memristors
for advanced computing architectures

9119-10, Session 5

A reinforcement learning trained fuzzy neuralnetwork controller for maintaining wirelesscommunication connections in multi-robot
systems

Eric Booth, Terry Gafron, Bio Inspired Technologies, LLC (UnitedStates)A configurable neural network based processing platform was designed,
simulated and fabricated using the On Semiconductor C5 process withintegrated memristor devices from Boise State University. The system
is designed using a synthetic neuron fabric (array of memristors) andtraditional neural building blocks (synaptic summing junctions using
memristors as adjustable weights). The system can be programmed to a
specific state using a hardware descriptive language using industry standard
interface protocols. It can also adapt to new input through a pulse based
training protocol. The initial prototype can learn basic logic functions andrecognize simple patterns; however the platform is meant to be scalable tovery complex machine learning applications such as environment sensing,threat detection and collision avoidance.

Xu Zhong, Stony Brook Univ. (United States); Yu Zhou, State Univ.
of New York Institute of Technology (United States)
This paper proposes an adaptive multi-robot motion control solution to thefundamental problem of maintaining wireless communication connectivity
in a team of collaborative mobile robots, which is of critical importance toreliable functioning of multi-robot systems (MRS) but challenging in physicalenvironments. The performance of MRS relies on efficient inter-robot
coordination, which in turn relies on reliable inter-robot communication
connections to support efficient data exchange among robots. However, thecommunication condition among mobile robots in a physical environment isusually unstable due to the signal loss, attenuation, fading and shadowing.
In order to maintain reliable communication connections among robots,
this paper proposes a decentralized multi-robot motion control strategy
which uses a fuzzy neural network (FNN) controller, trained throughreinforcement learning, to attain desired wireless communication coveragein a target environment based on perceived wireless link quality amongneighboring robots. To keep the structural and computational complexityof the controller reasonable, we design the FNN controller for a robot tomaintain the wireless link quality with one neighbor, and, when a robot
has multiple neighbors, assign an FNN controller to each neighbor. The
FNN controllers for all the neighbors are aggregated for a mobile robot
to make decisions on its movement to maintain the desired link quality
with its neighbors. The involved controller parameters are trained withreinforcement learning, which, through consecutive interactions with theenvironment, allows the controller to adapt to the real condition of wirelesssignal propagation in a physical environment. In the work of this paper, theFNN controller is applied to a multi-robot deployment process to form andmaintain desired wireless communication coverage in target environments.
The effectiveness of the training and application of the proposed control
scheme is verified through simulations, in several environments which are
simulated using a probabilistic log-normal signal propagation model withdifferent signal propagation conditions. The proposed control scheme
combines the ability of fuzzy inference to adapt to uncertainties in inputs
and the ability of artificial neural network to adapt to unknown input-output
relationship. It can adaptively guide MRS to form and maintain desired
wireless communication coverage under realistic wireless signal propagation
conditions in realistic environments.

9119-8, Session 4

Heterogeneous CMOS/memristor hardware
neural networks for real-time target classification
Cory Merkel, Dhireesha Kudithipudi, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
The advent of nanoscale metal-insulator-metal (MIM) structures withmemristive properties has given birth to a new generation of hardware
neural networks based on CMOS/memristor integration (CMHNNs). The
advantage of the CMHNN paradigm compared to a pure CMOS approachlies in the multi-faceted functionality of memristive devices: They canefficiently store neural network configurations (weights and activation
function parameters) via non-volatile, quasi-analog resistance states.
They also provide high-density interconnects between neurons when
integrated into 2-D and 3-D crossbar architectures. Finally, their inherent
computation of Ohm’s law allows efficient weighing of pre-synaptic neuron
activations. However, the infancy of this field has limited exploration of
the CMHNN design space, and to date, most published implementations
have followed from ad-hoc design methodologies. In this work, we present
several neuron,synapse circuits and architectures, and training algorithms
for CMHNNs along with their accuracy, area, and power tradeoffs. Then, we
present a design methodology based on a neuroevolutionary algorithm tooptimize a CMHNN architecture for real-time target classification.

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Conference 9119: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VIII

9119-11, Session 5

submitted to a hardware search and sort for the closest result. The device
can output the closest match, anomalies detected or data with firing
neurons for further statistical analysis. The technology is highly scalable andcan be deployed in a heterogeneous facility with traditional approaches atthe server or even cost effectively at the client. Techniques for accelerating
intrusion detections beyond signature-based algorithms plus handlingpolymorphic and metamorphic viruses will be described with empiricalresults.

A novel pipeline based FPGA implementation of agenetic algorithm
Nonel S. Thirer, Holon Institute of Technology (Israel)
To solve problems when an analytical solution is not available, more andmore bio-inspired computation techniques have been applied in the lastyears.

9119-13, Session 6

Thus, an efficient algorithm is the Genetic Algorithm (GA), which imitates
the biological evolution process, finding the solution by the mechanismof “natural selection”, where the strong has higher chances to survive.
A genetic Algorithm (GA) is an iterative procedure which operates on a
population of individuals called “chromosomes” or “possible solutions”(usually represented by a binary code). GA performs several processes withthe population individuals to produce a new population, like in the biologicalevolution.

The application of top-down abstraction learning
using prediction as a supervisory signal to cybersecurity
Jonathan Mugan, Aram E. Khalili, 21st Century Technologies, Inc.
(United States)

Thus, the principal phases of the GA are population initialization, fitness
calculation (including termination judgment), selection, crossover andmutation.

Current computer systems are dumb automatons; their blind execution of
instructions makes them open to attack. Their inability to reason means
they don’t consider the larger, constantly changing context outside their
immediate inputs. Their nearsightedness is particularly dangerous because,in our complex systems, it is difficult to prevent all exploitable situations.
Additionally, the lack of autonomous oversight of our systems means they
are unable to fight through attacks. Keeping our adversaries completely outof our systems may be an unreasonable expectation, and our systems needto adapt to attacks and other disruptions to achieve our objectives. Whatis needed is an autonomous controller within the computer system thatcan sense the state of the system and reason about that state. This paper
presents SATPAM, which uses prediction to learn abstractions that allow it
to recognize the right events at the right level of detail. These abstractions
allow SATPAM to break the world into small, relatively independent, pieces
that allow employment of existing reasoning methods. In this paper, we
present the initial experimental results using SATPAM.

To provide a high speed solution, pipelined based FPGA hardware
implementations are used, with a n- stages pipeline for a n-phases genetic
algorithm.
The FPGA pipeline implementations are constraints by the different
execution time of each stage and by the FPGA chip resources.
Thus, because the execution time of each GA phase is different, the pipeline
must be synchronized according the slowly phase or an asynchronous
pipeline, which requires more resources, must be used.
To minimize these difficulties, we propose a bio-inspired technique tomodify the crossover step by using “non identical twins”. Thus two of
the chosen chromosomes (parents) will build up two new chromosomes(children) not only one as in classical GA.
We analyze the contribution of this method to reduce the execution timein the asynchronous and synchronous pipelines and also the possibility toa cheaper FPGA implementation, by using smaller populations. The full
hardware architecture for a FPGA implementation to our target ALTERA
development card is presented and analyzed.

SATPAM goes beyond classification based machine learning and statisticalanomaly detection to be able to reason about the system. SATPAM’s
knowledge representation and reasoning is more like that of a human. For
example, humans intuitively know that the color of a car is not relevant toany mechanical problem, and SATPAM provides a plausible method whereby
a machine can acquire such reasoning patterns.

9119-12, Session 6

Hardware machine learning for cybersecurity
virus detection

9119-14, Session 6

Bruce McCormick, CogniMem Technologies, Inc. (United States);
Robinson E. Pino, ICF International (United States)

Gustave W. Anderson, MacAulay-Brown, Inc. (United States)

Cybersecurity increasingly is strategic for the protection of financial,personal, corporate, government and infrastructure data assets. Viruses
and malware methods and techniques are growing in sophistication anddemanding increasingly innovative solutions to detect and prevent cyberattacks. Growth in polymorphic and metamorphic virus approaches demandin situ learning and real time adaptation to address these threats. Machinelearning based hardware combines the best ideas from non-linear and fuzzyalgorithms powerful enough to address these threats with the performanceand power advantages of specialized, but general purpose hardware. This
presentation describes applying such neural based hardware trained on
network traffic attack data sets and our ongoing research to extend suchmethods to polymorphic and metamorphic virus detection.

As the saying goes, “You can’t manage what you don’t measure.” This isechoed by the DHS cyber-security roadmap:

Index of cyber integrity[ Introduction ]“Security metrics are difficult to develop because they typically try tomeasure the absence of something negative (e.g., lack of any unknown
vulnerabilities in systems and lack of adversary capabilities to exploit both
known and unknown vulnerabilities). This task is difficult because there
are always unknowns in the system and the landscape is dynamic andadversarial. We need better definitions of the environment and attacker
models to guide risk-based determination.”
Unfortunately, there is no metric, nor set of metrics, that are both generalenough to encompass all possible types of applications and systems yet
specific enough to capture the system and attack specifics details. As aresult we are left with ad-hoc methods for generating evaluations of the
security of our systems. Current state of the art methods for evaluating
the security of systems include penetration testing and cyber evaluation
tests. For these evaluations, security professionals simulate an attack frommalicious outsiders and malicious insiders. These evaluations are very
productive and are able to discover potential vulnerabilities resulting from
improper system configuration, hardware and software flaws or operational
weaknesses.

The technology being used is a digital based neural network utilizing Radial
Basis Functions (RBF) with Restricted Coulomb Energy (RCE) learningand k Nearest Neighbor (kNN) natively implemented non-linear classifiers.
Learning is done on chip at the same performance as recognition. 40,000
hardware based neurons will be used to train on network attack data andcode sequences for metamorphic virus detection. The hardware technique
is based on a component that accepts vector lengths up to 256 bytes andbroadcasts in parallel to 40,000 parallel distance calculating neurons. A
fuzzy threshold that is learned is applied to the outputs which are then

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Conference 9119: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
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However, these evaluations are static in the sense that these evaluations
cannot provide a holistic view of the applications performance while underattack. Furthermore, beyond providing a measure of adversarial work factor
or vulnerabilities before and after assessments, there is a lack of providing
definable and repeatable security performance metrics.

to identify unusual activity that is indicative of network-based attacks.
By extending the communication between Neugent networks on othernetworked hosts the network as a whole is able to recognize anomalies that
may be indicative of attacks and potential vulnerabilities across the network
in a distributive manner. Similar to autonomic processes of biologicalsystems each Neugent network recognizes activity in its local environment
and then contributes to the overall situational awareness and security of theentire system.

Calculating definable and repeatable performance metrics is not a newchallenge presented to the research community. Economic and biologicalindices have provided well defined, meaningful and repeatable measures forsome time. Perhaps, the challenge for the security community should be:
How may we leverage the vast research poured into these economic andbiological indices in order to develop index of cyber integrity?

9119-17, Session 7

Therefore, MacAulay-Brown, Inc. (MacB) presents the index of cyberintegrity (ICI), which is modeled after the index of biological integrity (IBI)
to provide a holistic measure of the health of a system under test in a cyberenvironment.

A tool for TDM time slot grouping
Christopher P. Kaiser, Clinton E. Park, Michael A. Pittarelli, North
Point Defense, Inc. (United States)[ Index of Cyber Integrity ]We discuss a tool developed to aid in the grouping of time slots into
subchannels within a TDM communication channel when the correctgrouping is unknown. We approach the task of grouping the time slots as aclustering problem.

In 1981, Dr. James R. Karr’s introduced the index of biological integrity (IBI)and has been widely used to monitor and evaluate the health of complex
ecosystems.
“Health, on the other hand, implies a flourishing condition, well-being,vitality, or prosperity. An organism is healthy when it performs all its vitalfunctions normally and properly; a healthy organism is resilient, able torecover from many stresses; a healthy organism requires minimal outsidecare.”

The features (compressibility of bit stream, etc.) were selected to minimize
slot labelling uncertainty using as training data channels with known
layouts. Our fitness function is a weighted ratio of within- to betweensubchannel squared error. When the number of subchannels is known,
simulated annealing gives faster and more accurate results than a genetic
algorithm. Methods for determining the correct number of clusters (gapstatistic, etc.) give reasonable results but tend to underestimate the numberof subchannels (e.g., all 64 kbit/s CVSD slots in one subchannel). Becauseof this, a hierarchical agglomerative algorithm is used when the number ofsubchannels is unknown. The tool provides simultaneous visualization of alltime slots as individual bit rasters and the hypothesized slot grouping (ateach level of slot merging,Though Dr. Karr is defining the health of an ecosystem, a healthy cybersystem is also resilient, able to recover from many stresses and still capableof normal function in the face of attack.
It is infeasible to model all aspects of a complex ecosystem, not to mention
the varied impacts humans have on an ecosystem. The same may be said
for cyber systems. Yet, we continually try to develop more sophisticatedmachine learning techniques to model all aspects of cyber systems withlittle success. The IBI

if the agglomerative option is chosen). Open problems include developmentof a reliable measure of the correct number of subchannels whennecessary and improving discrimination of constant and bursting timeslots in extremely noisy channels. Individual feature selection was basedon conditional entropy of the subchannel label given the feature value;
future work will include developing a GA wrapper to select feature weights
and parameter values for the parameterized features using as the fitness
function partition distance between hypothesized and known channel
layouts.

provides a broad base measure that integrates site specific metrics toprovide an indication of health. In the same way, the ICI provides an index ofcyber health through a collection of application and system specific metrics.

9119-15, Session 7

Neuromorphic computing applications for
network intrusion detection systems
Robinson E. Pino, ICF International (United States)

9119-18, Session 7

No Abstract Available

Machine learning for cyber operations
Misty Blowers, Jonathan Williams, Air Force Research Lab (UnitedStates)9119-16, Session 7

Current automatic cyber offensive and defensive capabilities will not remaincompetitive when they heavily rely on human oversight, a set of pre-definedrules and heuristics, and/or threshold based alerting. An autonomous
system is needed which can operate with some degree of self-governanceand self-directed behavior. Machine learning can help achieve this goal.
Machine learning techniques can help cyber analysts both defensively andoffensively. This research will investigate machine learning techniques thatare currently being research and are under investigation.

An adaptive collective intelligence approach toanomaly detection
James D. Cannady, Nova Southeastern Univ. (United States)
The accurate identification of computer intrusions has been an active areaof research for over thirty years, but a computationally efficient approachthat can function in a variety of information systems has not been previously
developed. Our approach utilizes simple software processes to identify
anomalous activity on the protected system that may be indicative ofan attack. These neural agents, or Neugents, contain a small number ofbehaviors that enable them to demonstrate emergent properties and adapt
to the unique characteristics of the protected system. The set of behaviors
exhibited by each Neugent are limited to data processing and low-level
pattern recognition. The individual units quickly build a hierarchical networkfrom a single Neugent that enables the identification of complex activity in
a computer environment. Initial experiments have demonstrated that theresulting Neugent network has the ability to identify the components of
the local computer environment (OS, applications, etc.) and the “normal”
behavior of the system users. These capabilities have enabled the approach449+1 360 676 3290

9119-19, Session 7

Bio-inspired diversity for increasing attacker
workload
Stephen Kuhn, Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth (UnitedStates)Much of the traffic in modern computer networks is conducted between
clients and servers, rather than client-to-client. As a result, servers represent·

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Conference 9119: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VIIIa high-value target for collection and analysis of network traffic. As they
reside at a single network location (i.e. IP/MAC address) for long periodsof time Servers present a static target for surveillance, and a unique
opportunity to observe the network traffic. Although servers present aheightened value for attackers, the security community as a whole has
shifted more towards protecting clients in recent years (1). In addition,
servers typically remain active on networks for years, potentially decades.
This paper builds on previous work that demonstrated a proof of concept
based on existing technology. Here we present our clean slate approach toincreasing attacker workload through a novel hypervisor and micro-kernel,
utilizing next generation virtualization technology to create synthetic
diversity of the server’s presence.

deluge, two main technical solutions have recently received significant
attention across research and development as well as acquisition programs:
Cloud-based distributed processing, and autonomous cooperative data
exploitation.

9119-20, Session 8

In this paper, we present a model for processing distributed data acrossmultiple heterogeneous computing resources. Our model exploits thedependencies in the data to provide solution to both distributed querying
and pattern learning. In distributed querying mode, the computing
resources are assigned the subsets of the query based on high-level
information about the data they have access to. This query decomposition
is designed to achieve the highest quality of search and optimal balance ofcomputational load between available resources. The resources find local
query match estimates and collaborate by exchanging belief messages that
efficiently encode how the agents can influence each other’s estimates.

We study a problem of data exploitation in denied areas, where the control
of analytical operations and coordination between distributed data accessand computing resources, and even existence of these resources, can be
disrupted. The Cloud-based technologies are inappropriate for this domain
due to weakness of control over computational units and inability to movethe data to a central warehouse where it could be indexed, partitioned
and analyzed in parallel. Our model provides a solution for autonomous
cooperative exploitation of relational data, which is encountered in a variety
of applications ranging from geospatial analysis to open source mining.

Patterns of life in temporal data: indexing andhashing for fast and relevant data retrieval
Georgiy M. Levchuk, Matthew Jacobsen, Mark Weston, Aptima, Inc.
(United States)
As temporal datasets grow larger, the need to efficiently and meaningfully
search through the data becomes very important. To facilitate this, the needto efficiently and accurately index the data in databases is paramount. This
indexing procedure is made especially challenging when the datasets arenoisy or incomplete.

In distributed pattern learning mode, the computational resources learn
partial correlations between the data they have access to, transfer thisknowledge to other agents, and collaboratively learn the patterns across thedata they have access to.

Conventional indexing methods require accurate and complete data to work
effectively, and are unsuitable for this situation. Current methods to recover
lost or corrupted data fail when the amount of lost data is large, as is often
the case in temporal data sets. Dimensionality reduction techniques canbe used to compress data to fewer attributes in spite of noise, but assume
specific distributions of data, rely on the existence of a large number of
attributes, and require a non-trivial learning process, which is impossible or
impractical in many database environments. To effectively index noisy andincomplete time series data, it is necessary to determine the underlying
behaviors used to generate the observed data to begin with.

Our model achieves better-than-linear computational complexity by using
several concepts from probabilistic data analysis and belief propagation.
First, we minimize communications among computational resources by
only sending the beliefs of high residual values. This reduces the amount of
irrelevant messages that have little to no impact on join solution. Second,
we use compressive sensing model to reduce the size of communicatedmessages. Finally, the computational resources use local data prioritization
to reduce the computation time of every analysis superstep, resulting infaster production of near-optimal results.

In this paper, we have developed an indexing procedure to extract the
typical latent behaviors occurring within the time series. In particular, we
aim to determine the underlying behaviors generating the observations
that make up the time series, as these will be the stable in the presence ofnoise. With these behaviors extracted, the time series can be indexed by thepresence or absence of behaviors occurring within.

9119-23, Session 8

Trust metrics in information fusion
Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

The method first applies a form of vector quantization to the dataset, whichconverts the time series into a series of discrete observations. A Hidden
Markov Model (HMM) is used to learn the latent states characterizing thetime series. The HMM is converted to a unique code which is used to index
the time series in a standard relational database.

Trust is an important concept for machine intelligence and is not consistentacross many applications. In this paper, we seek to understand trust froma variety of factors: sensors, communications, displays, and intelligenceprocessing algorithms. In modeling the various aspects of trust, we provide
an example from machine intelligence that supports the various attributesof trust such as sensor accuracy, communication timeliness, machineprocessing confidence, and display throughput to convey the various
attributes that support user acceptance of machine intelligence results. The
example used is change detection in motion imagery whereby an analyst
needs trust in the identified changes in imagery.

We compared this indexing method to traditional indexing methods
for time series, such as a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and Discrete
Wavelet Transform (DFT). Our method classified the time series into moremeaningful categories than the other methods. In addition, our method
was more stable in the presence of varying amounts of noise than thealternatives, achieving over 10-50% improvement in retrieval accuracy andrelevance across different data types and noise levels.

9119-24, Session 99119-22, Session 8

Quick data evaluation inspired by human vision

Analysis of large-scale distributed knowledge
sources via autonomous cooperative graphmining

Dieter Meinert, ROSEN Technology and Research Ctr. GmbH
(Germany)
The environment provides man with a plethora of different stimuli, often
only noticed by tiny changes in colour, e.g. different kinds of grass on the
ground.

Georgiy M. Levchuk, Andres Ortiz, Aptima, Inc. (United States);
Xifeng Yan, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara (United States)

Similarly, in environmental monitoring, small differences are expected indata allowing the discrimination of harmless from dangerous, e.g. discern
wind noise from hail, or passing trucks from an earth quake. Unfortunately,
often these differences are not detectable immediately in noisy data.

Amounts of data that need to be collected, examined and shared duringIntelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) operations are growing
fast due to increasing use of sensors. In order to manage the resulting data

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Conference 9119: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VIIIThis paper presents the base IWD algorithm, a simplified version of thealgorithm (SIWD) and a derivative of this simplified version that has been
adapted and applied to planning air and ground robot paths based uponorbital (for aerial) and aerial (for ground) imagery. An analysis of theperformance of the algorithm is presented, which highlights its areas ofstrength (i.e., generating particular types of solutions) and weaknesses (i.e.,lack of repeatability from run to run on the same data) and assesses its
viability for use in a variety of persistent surveillance and combat scenarios.
A plan for further testing of the algorithm and its applications is presented
and discussed.

Electronic processing of large amounts of data collected will consume either
a large amount of time, or much energy when processing in parallel.
This is not suitable for quick automatic decisions nor useful in nearlyautonomous systems with very low energy budget.
Human vision is capable of identifying tiny nuances in colour immediately.
Nevertheless, it is based on only three different spectral receptors, eachcovering rather large areas of the visible spectrum. Each receptor has a
specific sensitivity function, partly covering the frequency range of its
neighbours.
Perception of colour nuances is performed in the brain through a
combination of the intensities collected by these three receptors.

9119-31, Session 9

In this paper methods similar to vision are applied to quickly determine thecontent of signals collected by a monitoring system.

Autonomous target tracking of UAVs based on
low-power neural network hardware

Basically the signal is fed into a set of overlapping filters representing thelight receptors, and may be processed by an artificial Neural Network.
It is shown that the system is capable to discern changes in input signals,
and to distinguish different signals, even though using only a simple filterset. It is expected that, by adoption of a more sophisticated filter-set, thesystem may strongly improve.

Wei Yang, Zhanpeng Jin, Binghamton Univ. (United States); ClareThiem, Bryant Wysocki, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Dan Shen, Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates)
Detecting and identifying targets in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)
images and videos have been a challenging problem due to various
types of image distortion. Moreover, the significantly high processing
overhead of existing image/video processing techniques and the limited
computing resources available on UAVs make most of the processing tasks
performed by the ground control station (GCS) in an off-line manner. In
order to achieve fast and autonomous target identification on UAVs, it isthus imperative to investigate novel processing paradigms that can fulfill
the real-time processing requirements, while fitting to the size, weight,
and power (SWaP) constrained environment. In this paper, we present a
new autonomous target identification approach on UAVs, leveraging the
emerging neuromorphic hardware which is capable of massively parallel
pattern recognition processing and demands only a limited level of power
consumption. A proof-of-concept prototype is developed based on a microUAV platform (Parrot AR Drone) and the CogniMem neural network chip,for processing the video data acquired from UAV camera on the fly. The aimof this study is to demonstrate the feasibility and potential of incorporating
emerging neuromorphic hardware into next-generation UAVs and theirsuperior performance and power advantages towards the real-time,
autonomous target tracking.

9119-25, Session 9

Use of neural computing architecture for radio
frequency image and target detection
Daniel Stambovsky, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
There has been a fair amount of research into the use of bio, particularly
neural, inspired computation methods for optical image recognition andprocessing. The applications of this research both in defense and generaluse technologies are extremely broad ranging from text recognition toimage intelligence equipment identification and classification. The current
paper investigates parallel use of neuro-inspired hardware and softwareon Radio Frequency (RF) reflections for radar-like target and image
recognition. In order to test this capability, a RF chirp swept from 21 to
34 GHz was generated by a vector network analyzer and reflected off a
metallic plane capable of taking on a variety of shapes. The amplitude
measurements of received signals were then formatted and processedby software simulated and hardware based neural networks grounded on
systems obtained from CogniMem® Technologies in order to determine if
the neuronal computing architecture is capable of learning and identifying
specific reflector geometries. While research using neural network
computing has been undertaken in the realm of Electronic Intelligence(ELINT) radar emitter identification (Petrov et al. ), less effort has been
applied to radar data post-processing. Applications of such capabilities
would include automated target acquisition and target identification, as well
as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) image analysis, target identification andtracking in a noisy environment. Such systems could autonomously analyze
radar video data for specific known target types of interest thus requiring
less human-in-the-loop system monitoring.

9119-26, Session 9Intelligent water drops for aerospace and defense
applications
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A modified version of the intelligent water drop (IWD) algorithm (originallycreated by Hosseini) to allow it to be useable for performing planning for air
and ground robots based on telemetry provided by orbital craft has beencreated. The IWD algorithm works by simulating the flow of water drops
in a stream-network. The speed of the drops is changed based upon thelevel of sediment present at each point in the simulated stream. Sedimentis collected or dropped based upon the speed of the drop at each point,
allowing the network to be dynamically reconfigured at the same time thata planning solution is being searched for.

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Conference 9120: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2014
Monday - Tuesday 5 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9120 Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing, Security, and Applications 2014

9120-1, Session 1

investigate the error probability behavior, i.e., the probability of detection
and the probability of false detection, for the applied optimal decoders. By
taking into account the efficiency and the necessary auxiliary information
for decoding the watermark, we discuss the suitable decoder for various
operating situations. Experimental results are carried out to show theimperceptibility and decoding efficiency of the proposed scheme against
various attack scenarios.

An enhancement technique for stereoscopic
image using salient shape and wavelet transformYimin Qiu, Wuhan Univ. of Science and Technology (China); Jinshan
Tang, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States)
In the past, stereo vision technology has obtained great development anddifferent stereo video equipment has been developed. One issue in stereo
videos is how to enhance the quality of the images for different applications
and different viewers. In this paper, we propose a wavelet- transform based
approach for enhancing the quality of the original images for stereoscopic
systems. The proposed approach exploits wavelet transform to decompose
the original image into subbands with different resolutions and image
enhancement is performed in the wavelet domain. The image is enhancedby the modification of the high-frequency coefficients. Experimental results
show that the proposed approach outperforms conventional approaches.

9120-4, Session 1

Steganography based on pixel intensity value
decomposition
Alan A. Abdulla, Harin Sellahewa, Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of
Buckingham (United Kingdom)This paper focuses on steganography based on pixel intensity value
decomposition. A number of existing schemes such as traditional binary,Fibonacci, Prime, Natural, Lucas, and Catalan are evaluated in terms of
payload capacity and stego quality. A new technique based on a specificrepresentation is proposed to decompose pixel intensity values into
16 (virtual) bitplanes suitable for embedding purpose. The proposed
decomposition has a desirable property whereby the sum of all bitplanes
does not exceed the maximum pixel intensity value, i.e. 255. Experimental
results demonstrate that the proposed technique offers an effective
compromise between payload capacity and stego quality of existingembedding techniques based on pixel intensity value decomposition.
Its capacity is equal to that of binary and Lucas, while it offers a higher
capacity than Fibonacci, Prime, Natural, and Catalan when the secret bits
are embedded in 1st Least Significant Bit (LSB). When the secret bits areembedded in higher bitplanes from 2nd LSB to 8th Most Significant Bit(MSB), the proposed scheme has more capacity than Natural numbers
based embedding. The proposed scheme has less capacity than Fibonacciand Lucas if embedding in higher bitplanes. However, from 6th bitplane
onwards, the proposed scheme offers better stego quality. In general,the proposed decomposition scheme has less effect on pixel value whencompared to most existing pixel intensity value decomposition techniques
when embedding messages in higher bitplanes.

9120-2, Session 1

Detecting 2-LSB steganography using extended
pairs of values analysis
Omed S. Khalind, Benjamin Aziz, Univ. of Portsmouth (United
Kingdom)
In this paper we propose an extended pairs of values analysis to detect andestimate the amount of secret messages embedded with 2-LSB replacement
in digital images based on chi-square attack and regularity rate in pixel
values, as explained in later sections. The method can accurately detect
2-LSB replacement even when the message length is about 10% of the total
capacity, it also reaches its best performance with an accuracy of higher
than 0.96 and a true positive rate of 0.997 to 0.999 when the amount ofdata are from 20% to 100% of the total capacity. However, the method
puts no assumptions neither on the image nor the secret message, as it
tested with a random set of 3000 images from ASIRRA (Animal Species
Image Recognition for Restricting Access) public corpus pet images andembedded with a random message for each case. This method of detection
could also be used as an automated tool to analyse a bulk of images for
hidden contents, which could be useful for digital forensics analysts in theirinvestigation process.

9120-5, Session 1

Taxonomy of LSB steganographic techniques
James C. Collins, Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San Antonio(United States)

9120-3, Session 1

SS-SVD: spread spectrum data hiding scheme
based on singular value decomposition

The Least Significant Bit (LSB) embedding technique is a well-known
and broadly employed method in multimedia steganography, usedpredominantly in applications involving single bit-plane manipulations inthe spatial domain. This paper reviews some of the major techniques ofspatial domain LSB steganography, providing the fundamental backgroundof this important embedding method while detailing several of the major
evolutionary changes that were driven by increasingly sophisticated LSB
steganalysis techniques. Our research focus emphasizes the fact that the
LSB technique is not restricted solely to the spatial domain. We establish amuch broader view of LSB steganography methods as we summarize andcategorize the applications across the full spectrum of carrier domains.
Specifically we describe a detailed taxonomy of how many of the LSB
embedding techniques are applied in both wavelet and fractal domains,
as well as in a number of direct transforms such as the discrete cosine andfast-Fourier transform cases. Finally, we provide a summary of some of
the most common LSB embedding techniques implemented in multimedia
applications and compare and contrast the robustness of these methods
against standard steganalysis attacks.

Victor V. Pomponiu, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States); Davide
Cavagnino, Marco Botta, Univ. degli Studi di Torino (Italy);
Harishwaran Hariharan, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States)
Recently, the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) received much attention
from the watermarking community due to its appealing properties, suchas the invariance of singular values (SVs) to common image processing
operations and geometric transforms, like rotation, translation and scaling.
However, most of watermarking schemes require a lot of prior information
to detect the watermark and in addition they are not secure. In this paper
we investigate the efficiency of several optimal decoding schemes forthe watermark inserted into the SVD domain of the host images using an
additive spread spectrum (SS) embedding framework. In order to use theSVs with the SS embedding we adopt several restrictions that ensure thatthe values of the SVs remain real, positive and sorted. For both the optimal
maximum likelihood decoder and sub-optimal decoders we assume that the
PDF of SVs can be modeled by the Weibull distribution. Furthermore, we

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Conference 9120: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2014

9120-6, Session 2

most powerful techniques for safely visualizing pelvic organs and earlypregnancies. Improvements in ultrasound technology have led to a better
understanding of early pregnancy development. Such advances have led
to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of early pregnancy events. The
diagnosis of miscarriage, in particular, has been subject to recent review
by the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. It is imperativethat there is accurate assessment of the size of early pregnancies to avoid
misdiagnosis of a miscarriage and therefore inadvertent termination ofpregnancy.

Power centroid radar (Invited Paper)
Erlan H. Feria, College of Staten Island (United States)
Power centroid radar (PCR) is a fast, powerful and novel techniquefor adaptive radar. In this paper the nascent PCR methodology is firstpresented where its derivation is traced to the recent discovery of a dual
for information theory which has been called latency theory. The roots ofthis US patented technique go back to DARPA funded research on adaptive
radar of the last decade. The outstanding performance of the techniqueunder severely taxing environmental disturbances will be demonstrated bycontrasting its signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR) performance tosignificantly more complex schemes such as that derived under the DARPA
Knowledge Aided Sensory Signal Processing Expert Reasoning (KASSPER)
program. Real-world synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images will be used inthis illustration.

The first sign and measurable element of an early pregnancy is theGestational Sac (GS). If the gestation sac is above a certain mean diameter(25mm), and a measurable embryonic pole is not seen within it, then adiagnosis of miscarriage can be made. Below this diameter, the pregnancy
is classified as a Pregnancy of Unknown Viability (PUV), and a repeat scan
for assessment of growth and appearance of an embryo performed at alater date. The assessment of gestational sac size is currently carried out
manually. Manual measurements involve multiple subjective decisions,in which dimensions are taken in three planes to establish a Mean Sac
Diameter (MSD). This will increase the inter-and intra-observer error.
In this paper an automatic method is proposed for accurate detection of
GS in noisy ultrasound images. Furthermore, the proposal extracts themost important geometrical features from GS relevant to miscarriage
identification such as Mean Sac Diameter (MSD), volume, perimeter, area,
circularity, compactness, solidity, eccentricity. We then used support vector
machine (SVM) and K Nearest Neighbour (KNN) classifiers to automatically
identify early miscarriage cases. To verify the proposed automated method,
we conduct experiments based on stratified cross validation on a data setof 68 ultrasound images captured from two planes - transverse and Sagittal
for GS and labelled by domain experts. Our experimental results show thatthe proposed early miscarriage identification scheme can achieve a highlevel of accuracy using KNN classifier when the right geometric features are
selected.

9120-7, Session 2

Effectiveness of image features and similarity
measures in cluster-based approaches forcontent-based image retrieval (Invited Paper)
Hongbo Du, Harin Sellahewa, The Univ. of Buckingham (United
Kingdom)
No Abstract Available

9120-8, Session 2
9120-11, Session 2

A mobile system for skin cancer detection andmonitoring

A colour and texture based multi-level fusion
scheme for ethnicity identification

Yanliang Gu, Michigan Technological University (United States);
Jinshan Tang, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States)

Hongbo Du, The Univ. of Buckingham (United Kingdom); Sheerko
H. M. A. Salah, Koya Univ. (Iraq); Hawkar O. Ahmed, Univ. of theSulaimani (Iraq)

People whose skin is exposed to sunlight for more time are more likely to
get skin cancer; and the detection of skin cancer, in its early stage, can savehuman life. In this PAPER, we will develop an early skin cancer detection
and monitoring system using a smart phone. In the system, we will design
an iOS app that will be installed in patients’ smart phones to collect imagesof their skin. Images will be sent to a cancer detection system remotelyconnected to the clients’ smart phone. The cancer detection system uses
image processing and pattern recognition algorithms to detect, segment,
and classify the skin lesions. After the cancer detection system makes adecision on the skin lesions, the system will return the results to the patient’s
smartphone.

Ethnicity identification of face images is of interest in many areas ofapplication, but existing methods are few and limited. Different from facerecognition of individuals, ethnicity identification classifies faces according
to the common features of a specific ethnic group. This paper presents
a multi-level fusion scheme for ethnicity identification that combines
texture features of local areas of a face using local binary patterns with
global color and texture features using HSV binning and wavelet transform.
Optimal weightings are assigned to the different features in a similarity
measurement for classification. The scheme fuses the decisions from a
k-nearest neighbor classifier and a support vector machine classifier into a
final decision for identification. We have tested the scheme on a databaseof face images collected from a number of publicly available databases, andthe results demonstrate the effectiveness of the combined facial featuresand clear improvements on accuracy of identification by the fusion scheme
over the identification using individual features as well as other state-of-art
techniques.

9120-10, Session 2

Automatic identification of early miscarriage
based on multiple features quantification fromultrasound images
Shan Khazendar, The Univ. of Buckingham (United Kingdom);
Jessica Farren, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust (United
Kingdom); Hisham Al-Assam, The Univ. of Buckingham (United
Kingdom); Ahmed Sayasneh, Imperial College Healthcare NHS
Trust (United Kingdom); Hongbo Du, The Univ. of Buckingham(United Kingdom); Tom Bourne, Imperial College Healthcare NHS
Trust (United Kingdom); Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of Buckingham(United Kingdom)

9120-12, Session 3

Search algorithm complexity modeling withapplication to image alignment and matching(Invited Paper)
Stephen P. DelMarco, BAE Systems (United States)
Search algorithm complexity modeling, in the form of penetration rate

Ultrasound imaging is considered by gynaecologists to be one of the453+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9120: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2014
estimation, provides a useful way to estimate search efficiency in application
domains which involve searching over a hypothesis space of reference
templates or models, as in model-based object recognition, automatic target
recognition, and biometric recognition. The penetration rate quantifies the
expected portion of the database that must be searched, and is useful for
estimating search algorithm computational requirements. In this paper we
perform mathematical modeling to derive general equations for penetration
rate estimates that are applicable to a wide range of recognition problems.
We extend previous penetration rate analyses to use more generalprobabilistic modeling assumptions. In particular we provide penetration
rate equations within the framework of a model-based image alignment
application domain in which a prioritized hierarchical grid search is used
to rank subspace bins based on matching probability. We derive generalequations, and provide special cases based on simplifying assumptions. We
show how previously-derived penetration rate equations are special casesof the general formulation. We apply the analysis to model-based logo
image alignment in which a hierarchical grid search is used over a geometricmisalignment transform hypothesis space. We present numerical results
validating the modeling assumptions and derived formulation.

interpolation method for interpolation arithmetic was been chosen for abetter result. And then the method of histogram equalization was used toenhance the contrast in the unfolded iris image.

9120-13, Session 3

Yuqing He, Siyuan Wang, Jing Pan, Kun Huang, Jiaqi Li, Beijing
Institute of Technology (China)

According to the position of light spot located before, we put forward
the corresponding block coding method, greatly shortened the feature
extraction, coding, matching the required time, improve the efficiency of thealgorithm.
Finally, we tested our algorithm in the UBIRIS2_1. 20 individuals’ iris
images was chosen. The result showed that there was an improvement
in comparison with other algorithms. As for hamming distance, theaverage intra hamming distance was been decreased while the inter one
increased. These tests proved the proposed algorithm has an encouraging
performance.

9120-15, Session 3

Degraded iris image localization and recognitionin mobile devices

A novel RANSAC-based Kalman filter algorithm
for object characterization and tracking

With the rapid development of digital and information-based society, thetraditional identity authentication can’t meet the need of mobile information
security, so biometrics based authentication is a new identity method?Iris
recognition is the most reliable method in biometrics. But most of the irisrecognition system should be work in a specific image acquisition module,
which always has the near-infrared illumination to get good quality iris
texture for the following image analysis and recognition algorithm. Whenusing mobile devices, although we can get the iris images, the iris images
was got under natural light. The image quality may degraded and may havenioses caused by the scenary reflection, traditional recognition methods
may not work well in this situation. To get better recognition performance,
it is necessary to build a new frame of iris preprocessing and recognition
under natural light in mobile device.

Sumit Chakravarty, New York Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Particle Filters has been used extensively in the domain of video based
tracking of target objects. They can be viewed as an extension of Kalman
Filtering principle. Instead of using object point mass as a tracker as usedin the Kalman filter, a number of finite element mass particles are usedin particle filter. This is the typical formulation of the Kalman Particle
Filter (KPF). Even though this allows the use of non-linearity for stateprediction, it is constrained by its choice of the Kalman state transition
function. Furthermore the KPF does not provide a methodology of selectionof number of the particles and the distribution of the prior. The proper
tuning of the above choices is critical for performance of the KPF. This
work addresses these constraints of the KPF. It particularly targets two
significant areas. Firstly it automates the state matrix generation process
by fusing alternate tracking mechanism to the KPF. Secondly and perhaps
most significantly it provides a novel technique for selection of numberof particles and the prior distribution by use of a procedure similar to the
popular RANSAC algorithm. This novel technique is tested for tracking ofreal video sequence and its efficacy is quantified.

In this mobile-based iris authentication, the key issue is to deal with theiris images which may contain uneven illumination and interference fromscene light. First of all, in the pre-processing procedure, we adopted ancoarse to fine algorithm to effectively locate the edge of the iris area.
The OTSU dual-threshold segmentation combing with the morphologicaland gray projection method is used for the pupil’s coarse location andthe region of the interest (the iris area) extraction, at the same time, thereflection area can also be located. Then an circular integrodifferential
operator is used to precisely locate the outer and inner edge of the iris. The
next was to normalize the accurate positioned iris circle. Non-concentricmodel and bilinear interpolation method for interpolation arithmetic wasbeen chosen for a better result. The normalized iris image is enhanced byblocked histogram equalization with transition compensition. According to
the position of light spot located before, we put forward the corresponding
block coding method. Weighted hamming diatance is used for the feature
match. The weighting factor was determined by the reflection location
results.

9120-14, Session 3

The iris recognition algorithm under thecondition of visible light on portable devices
Siyuan Wang, Yuqing He, Yuan Zeng, Jiaqi Li, Mingqi Liu, Beijing
Institute of Technology (China)

We tested our algorithm in the dataset UBIRIS2_1 and real mobile-based
iris images acquired by IPhone. Experimental results showed that the
texture and the noises area of the iris can be located efficiently. As for therecognition, the average intra-class hamming distance was been decreased
while the inter-class one increased. These results proved the proposed
algorithm has an encouraging performance in mobile iris recognition.

With the rapid development of digital and information-based society?the
traditional identity authentication can’t meet the need of information
security, so the method based on biometrics emerges as a new identity
authentication. Currently most of the iris recognition algorithm under thecondition of visible light can’t work smoothly, they mostly call for an infrared
illuminator to take images. But we may hardly get an infrared illuminator in
our daily life, so it is rare necessary to build a new frame of iris recognition
for average person.

Keywords: Iris recognition, mobile device natural light, image localization,

9120-16, Session 3

In this paper, main object was to deal with the iris images which may
contain uneven illumination and interference from scene light?First of all?inthe pre-processing part, we adopted an algorithm, which was the adaptive
threshold segmentation combine with the gray projection method, toeffectively locate the outer edge of the iris area. Then the inside edge of theiris was been located by OTSU adaptive threshold selection algorithm. The
next was to normalization the accurate positioned iris circle. And Bilinear

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SPIE DSS 2014

Long distance face detection and tracking withprobabilistic data association
Seokwon Yeom, Daegu Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Face detection and tracking at a distance has wide applications in security·

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Conference 9120: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2014
and surveillance. As multiple frames are often available from CCTV andvideo camera feeds, acquired information having varying temporal settings
can be used to recognize and trace persons of interest over time. In thispaper, long-distance face detection and tracking with probabilistic dataassociation is presented. Detection is performed by Adaboost filtering andfalse alarm reduction methods. Probabilistic data association is utilized to
distinguish a human target from falsely detected objects. Kalman filtering
is adopted to estimate the state vector of the target. The experiments are
performed with outdoor scenes captured at a distance with complicatedbackgrounds. The preliminary results of real-world images show theefficiency of the proposed algorithm.

9120-19, Session 49120-17, Session 3

9120-20, Session 4

Markov prediction using geometric mixing of
weighted count partitions

Develop a solution for protecting and securing
enterprise networks from malicious attacks

Richard E. L. Metzler, Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San
Antonio (United States)

Harshitha Kamuru, Texas A&M Univ., Kingsville (United States); Mais
Nijim, Texas A&M Univ.-Kingsville (United States)

Online prediction methods estimate likelihood distributions for observationof future symbols by normalizing previously observed symbol counts.
During the learning phase, training sequentially updates counts withnew observations from the source, and prediction sequentially computes
likelihood distributions from the updated count distributions. The theory
behind universal prediction tells us that in the limit of many counts, thederived observation frequencies will approach the source probability forstationary, ergodic processes, justifying the usage of direct normalization
for likelihood generation. When observations are sparse, however, which
is typical at the outset of training, observational frequencies may neither
provide sufficient precision for accurate estimation of symbol frequencies
nor reflect the nonlocal symbol probabilities of the true source distribution.
Smoothing methods compensate for a sparsity of training data with
the intention of speeding the convergence rate of derived likelihood
distributions to true source distributions. Our work questions the standard
approach of additive smoothing and direct count normalization, and in
response we propose a novel geometric solution to likelihood generation
by mixing likelihoods from smoothed Dirichlet distributions, the method ofwhich is proven optimal for mitigation of a certain loss function. Empiricaltests demonstrate that the novel approach converges more quickly thanany other methods known to the authors. We also revisit the problems
of weighting and fusing a plurality of models into a single, predicteddistribution, especially in the Markov sense where higher order memory
models are partitions of lower order memory models and propose several
schemes that exploit this property for prediction generation.

Develop a solution for protecting and securing Enterprise networks from
Malicious Attacks :Simultaneous compression and encryption for
secure real-time secure transmission of sensitive
video transmission
Nazar Al-Hayani, Naseer Al-Jawad, Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of
Buckingham (United Kingdom)
No Abstract Available

In the world of computer and network security, there are myriad ways tolaunch an attack, which, from a network perspective, can generically be
defined as “traffic that has malicious intent.” There are certainly computerattacks that no firewall can prevent, such as those executed locally on themachine by a malicious user. From the network’s perspective, there are
numerous types of attack. We can group attacks into two types: brute
force and precision. Juniper Firewall has the capability to protect against
both types of attack. Denial of Service (DoS) attacks are one of the mostwell-known network security threats under brute force attacks, whichis largely due to the high-profile way in which they can affect networks.
Over the years, some of the largest, most respected Internet sites havebeen effectively taken offline by DoS attacks. A DoS attack typically has asingular focus, namely, to cause the services running on a particular host or
network to become unavailable. Some DoS attacks exploit vulnerabilities inan operating system and cause it to crash, such as the infamous Winnuke
attack. Others overwhelm a network or device with traffic so that there
are no more resources to handle legitimate traffic.Precision attacks often
involve a bit more thought than brute force attacks, and typically involve
multiple phases, all the way from reconnaissance to machine ownership.
Before a precision attack is launched, information about the victim needs
to be gathered. This information gathering typically takes the form ofvarious types of scans to determine available hosts, networks, and ports.
Ping sweeps are used to determine which hosts are available on a network.
Port scans are used to locate available ports on a machine. Screens are
configured on a per-zone basis, and they cover a wide variety of attack
traffic. Depending on the type of screen being configured, there may be
additional settings beyond simply blocking the traffic.Attack prevention is
also a native function of any firewall. Juniper Firewall handles traffic on a
per-flow basis. We can use flows or sessions as a way to determine whether
traffic attempting to traverse the firewall is legitimate. We control the statechecking components resident in Juniper Firewall by configuring “flow”
settings. These settings allow you to configure state checking for various
conditions on the device. You can use flow settings to protect against TCP
hijacking, and to generally ensure that the fire-wall is performing full stateprocessing when desired. We take a case study of attack on a network andperform study of the detection of the malicious packets on a Netscreen
Firewall.

9120-18, Session 4

Analytic sequential methods for detecting
network intrusions
Xinjia Chen, Ernest L. Walker, Southern Univ. and A&M College(United States)
In this paper, we propose an analytic sequential methods for detecting
port-scan attackers which routinely perform random ``portscans’’ ofIP addresses to find vulnerable servers to compromise. In addition torigorously control the probability of falsely implicating benign remote hosts
as malicious, our method performs significantly faster than other current
solutions. We have developed explicit formulae for quick determination of
the parameters of the new detection algorithm.

In this one i will develop a new solution for securing enterprise networks
from malicious attacks .

9120-21, Session 4

Number system for encryption based privacy
preserving speaker verification
Lei Xu, Tao Feng, Xi Zhao, Weidong Shi, Univ. of Houston (United455+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9120: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2014
States)solution for constructing a spherically arranged wide FOV plenoptic imaging
system where the omni-directional image quality is limited by low-end
sensors. In this paper, an overview of current Panoptic camera designs isprovided. New results for a very high resolution visible spectrum imaging
and recording system inspired from the Panoptic approach are presented.
The GigaEye-1 system, with 44 single cameras and 22 FPGAs, is capableof recording omni-directional video in a 360º?100º FOV at 9.5 fps with aresolution over (17,000x5,000) pixels (85MP). Real-time video capturing
capability is also verified at 30 fps for a resolution over (9,000x2,400)
pixels (22MP). The next generation system with significantly higher
resolution and real-time processing capacity, called GigaEye-2, is currently
under development. The important capacity of GigaEye-1 opens the door
to various post-processing techniques in surveillance domain such as large
perimeter object tracking, very-high resolution depth map estimation andhigh dynamic-range imaging which are beyond standard stitching andpanorama generation methods.

As speech based operation becomes a main hand-free interaction solution
between human and mobile devices (i.e., smartphones, Google Glass),
privacy preserving speaker verification receives much attention nowadays.
Privacy preserving speaker verification can be achieved through manydifferent ways, such as fuzzy vault and encryption. Encryption based
solutions are promising as cryptography is based on solid mathematic
foundations and the security properties can be easily analyzed in a wellestablished framework. Most current asymmetric encryption schemes workon finite algebraic structures, such as finite group and finite fields. However,
the encryption scheme for privacy preserving speaker verification must
handle floating-point numbers. This gap must be filled to make the overall
scheme practical. In this paper, we propose a number system (NES++) thatmeets the requirements of both speaker verification and the encryption
scheme used in the process. It supports additional homomorphic propertyof Paillier’s encryption, which is crucial for privacy preserving speakerverification. As asymmetric encryption is expensive, we propose a methodof packing several numbers into one plain-text and the computation
overhead is greatly reduced. To evaluate the performance of this method,
we implement Paillier’s encryption scheme over NES++ and the packing
technique. Our findings show that NES++ can fulfill the gap between
speaker verification and encryption scheme very well, and the packing
technique improves the overall performance. Furthermore, NES++ is abuilding block of encryption based privacy preserving speaker verification;
the privacy protection and accuracy rate are not affected.

9120-24, Session 5

Robust digital image inpainting algorithm in thewireless environment
Gevorg Karapetyan, Hakob G. Sarukhanyan, Institute for Informatics
and Automation Problems (Armenia); Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of
Texas at San Antonio (United States)
Image or video inpainting is the process/art of retrieving missing portionsof an image without introducing undesirable artifacts that are undetectableby an ordinary observer. An image/video can be damaged due to a variety
of factors, such as deterioration due to scratches, laser dazzling effects,
wear and tear, dust spots, loss of data when transmitted through a channel,
etc. Applications of inpainting include image restoration (removing laser
dazzling effects, dust spots, date, text, time, etc.), image synthesis (texture
synthesis), completing panoramas, image coding, wireless transmission(recovery of the missing blocks), digital culture protection, image denoising, fingerprint recognition, and film special effects and production.
Most inpainting methods can be classified in two key groups: global andlocal methods. Global methods are used for generating large image regions
from samples while local methods are used for filling in small image gaps.
Each method has its own advantages and limitations. For example, theglobal inpainting methods perform well on textured image retrieval whereas
the classical local methods perform poorly. Most of the techniques require apriori knowledge of the locations of the damaged pixels which is unavailable
in certain applications. Also, some of the techniques are computationallyintensive; exceeding the capabilities of most currently used mobile devices.
In general, the inpainting algorithms are not suitable for the wirelessenvironment.

9120-22, Session 4

Image encryption using 2D sine-logistic chaotic
map
Zhongyun Hua, Yicong Zhou, Chi-Man Pun, C. L. Philip Chen, Univ.
of Macau (Macao, China)
With the properties of unpredictability, ergodicity and initial value/
parameter sensitivity, chaotic maps are good tools in cryptography
applications. In this paper, a new two dimensional chaotic map, the 2D
Sine-Logistic map is introduced. It can overcome the weaknesses of low
dimensional chaotic maps in simple chaotic orbits and high dimensional
chaotic maps in expensive computation cost. Its trajectory diagram andLyapunov exponent distribution are provided to show its good chaotic
performance. Using the 2D Sine-Logistic map, a new image encryption
algorithm based on the ring shifting is proposed. The ring shifting canchange both a pixel’s row and column positions at the same time, theshifting order and position are determined by the 2D Sine-Logistic map.
Thus, it can separate neighbor pixels very fast, and can achieve a highsecurity level. Simulation results and security analysis show that the
proposed image encryption algorithm is with high security level that can
resist different kinds of known attacks.

This paper presents a new and efficient scheme that combines theadvantages of both local and global methods into a single algorithm.
Particularly, it introduces a blind inpainting model to solve the above
problems by adaptively selecting support area for the inpainting scheme.
The proposed method is applied to various challenging image restoration
tasks, including recovering old photos, recovering missing data on real andsynthetic images, and recovering the specular reflections in endoscopic
images. A number of computer simulations demonstrate the effectivenessof our scheme and also illustrate the main properties and implementation
steps of the presented algorithm. Furthermore, the simulation results showthat the presented method is among the state-of-the-art and compares
favorably against many available methods in the wireless environment.
Robustness in the wireless environment with respect to the shape of themanually selected “marked” region is also illustrated. Currently, we areworking on the expansion of this work to video and 3-D data.

9120-23, Session 5

A new omnidirectional multicamera system forhigh resolution surveillanceÖmer Cogal, Abdulkadir Akin, Kerem Seyid, Vladan Popovic,
Alexandre Schmid, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne(Switzerland); Beat Ott, Peter Wellig, Armasuisse (Switzerland);
Yusuf Leblebici, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne(Switzerland)
Omni-directional high resolution surveillance has a wide application range
in defense and security fields. Early systems used for this purpose are basedon parabolic mirror or fisheye lens where distortion due to the nature of the
optical elements cannot be avoided. Moreover, in such systems, the image
resolution is limited to a single image sensor’s image resolution. Recently,
the Panoptic camera approach that mimics the eyes of flying insects using
multiple imagers has been presented. This approach features a novel

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SPIE DSS 2014

9120-25, Session 5

Color image attribute and quality measurements
Chen Gao, Karen Panetta, Tufts Univ. (United States); Sos S. Agaian,
The Univ. of Texas at San Antonio (United States)·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9120: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2014

9120-29, Session 5

Color image quality measures have been used for many computer visiontasks. In practical applications, the no-reference (NR) measures are desirable
because reference images are not always accessible. However, only limited
success has been achieved. In this paper, three NR color image attributes,
colorfulness, sharpness and contrast, are quantified by new metrics. Using
the linear combination of these metrics, a new Color Quality Measure(CQM) is presented. We evaluated the performance of several state of theart no-reference measures for comparison purposes. Experimental results
demonstrate the performance of CQM is independent of distortion types,
the CQM correlates well with evaluations obtained from human observers,
and it operates in real time. The results also show that the presented CQM
outperforms previous works with respect to ranking image quality among
images containing the same or different contents.

Using DNS amplification DDoS attack for hiding
data
Miralem Mehic, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic);
Miroslav Voznak, Technical Univ of Ostrava (Czech Republic); Jakub
Safarik, Pavol Partila, Martin Mikulec, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava(Czech Republic)
The paper concerns available steganographic techniques that can be used
for sending hidden data throw public network. Typically, in steganographic
communication it is advised to use popular/often used method for sending
hidden data and amount of that data need to be high as much as possible.
We confirmed this facts by choosing a Domain Name System (DNS) as avital protocol of each network and choosing Distributed denial of service(DDoS) attacks that are most popular network attacks currently represented
in the world. Apart from characterizing existing steganographic methods
we provide new insights by presenting two new techniques. The first one
is network steganography solution which exploits free/unused protocols
fields and is known for IP, UDP or TCP protocols but has never been applied
to DNS (Domain Name Server) which are fundamental part of network
communications. The second, explains usage of DNS Amplification DDoS
Attack to send seamlessly data throw public network. We changed thestandard DNS server to handle the direct command of the coordinating unit
and we analyze the detection of these communication. Also we propose themechanism for confirmation of delivered hidden data throw network. The
results of the experiment, that was performed to estimate a total amount ofdata that can be covertly transferred during these technique, regardless ofsteganalysis, are also included in this paper.

9120-26, Session 5

Implementation of wireless 3D stereo image
capture system and synthesizing the depth ofregion of interest
Woonchul Ham, Chulgyu Song, Hyeokjae Kwon, Luubaatar Badarch,
Chonbuk National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)In this paper, we introduce the mobile embedded system implemented for
capturing stereo image based on two CMOS camera module. We use WinCE
as an operating system and capture the stereo image by using device
driver for CMOS camera interface and Direct Draw API functions. We send
the raw captured image data to the host computer by using WiFi wirelesscommunication and then use GPU hardware and CUDA programming for
implemetation of real time 3D stereo image by synthesizing the depth ofROI(region of interest ). Synthesized stereo image is real time monitored
on the shutter glass type 3D LCD monitor. If we have another experimental
results conecrning deblurring for near object, in case od endoscope, we
added and discuss for deblurring algorithm considering the relative size ofaperture of CMOS camera modure compared with the distance of CMOS
camera from the object.

9120-33, Session 5

Machine learning approach for objective
inpainting quality assessment
V. A. Frantc, V. V. Voronin, V. I. Marchuk, A. I. Sherstobitov, Don State
Technical Univ. (Russian Federation); S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas
at San Antonio (United States); K. Egiazarian, Tampere Univ. ofTechnology (Finland)

9120-27, Session 5

Color image enhancement of low-resolution
images captured in extreme lighting conditions

This paper focuses on a machine learning approach for objective inpainting
quality assessment. Inpainting has received a lot of attention in recent
years and quality assessment is an important task to evaluate different
image reconstruction approaches. Quantitative metrics for successful image
inpainting currently do not exist; researchers instead are relying upon
qualitative human comparisons in order to evaluate their methodologies
and techniques. We present an approach for objective inpainting quality
assessment based on natural image statistics and machine learningtechniques. Our method is based on observation that when images areproperly normalized or transferred to some transform domain, local
descriptors can be modeled by some parametric distributions. In this case
we use MRF framework to model this local descriptor. The shapes of these
distributions are different for non-inpainted and inpainted images. Approachpermits to obtain a feature vector strongly correlated with subjective
image perception by a human visual system. Next, we use a support vector
regression learned on assessed by human images to predict perceived byhuman quality of inpainted images. We demonstrate how our predicted
quality value repeatably correlates with a qualitative opinion in a humanobserver study.

Evan Krieger, Saibabu Arigela, Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton(United States)
Security and surveillance videos, due to usage in open environments,
are likely subjected to low resolution, low lighting and low resolution,overexposed conditions that are detrimental to the amount of useful details
available in the collected images. We propose an approach to improveimage quality for low resolution images captured in extreme lighting
conditions in order to obtain useful details for various security applications.
This technique is composed of a fusion of a nonlinear intensity enhancement
process and a single image super resolution process that will provide higher
resolution and better visibility. The nonlinear intensity enhancement process
consists of dynamic range compression, contrast enhancement, and color
restoration processes. The dynamic range compression is performed by alocally tuned inverse sine nonlinear function to provide various nonlinear
curves based on neighborhood information. A contrast enhancement
technique is used to obtain sufficient contrast and a nonlinear color
restoration process is used to restore color from the enhanced intensity
image. The single image super resolution process is performed in the phasespace and consists of defining neighborhood characteristics of each pixel inorder to estimate the interpolated pixels in the high resolution image. The
combination of these approaches shows promising experimental resultsthat indicate an improvement in visibility and an increase in usable details. A
quantitative evaluation is performed to show an increase in image features,provided by the Harris corner detection and speeded up robust featuredetection methods, and improved structural similarity index measures.

457+1 360 676 3290

9120-30, Session Posters-Tuesday

Interactive video audio system: communication
server for INDECT portal
Martin Mikulec, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic);
Miroslav Voznak, Technical Univ of Ostrava (Czech Republic); Jakub·

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Conference 9120: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2014
Safarik, Pavol Partila, Jan Rozhon, Miralem Mehic, V?B-Technical
Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
The paper deals with presentation of INDECT project – Intellingent
Information System Supporting Observation, Searching and Detection for
Security of Citizens in Urban Environment. The INDECT project aims at
developing the tools for enhancing the security of citizens and protecting
the confidentiality of recorded and stored information. It is a part of
the Seventh Framework Programme of European Union. We participate
in INDECT portal and the Interactive Video Audio System (IVAS). This
IVAS system provides a communication gateway between police officers
working in dispatching centre and police officers in terrain. The officers in
dispatching centre have capabilities to obtain information about all online
police officers in terrain, they can command officers in terrain via text
messages, voice or video calls and they are able to manage multimedia files
from CCTV cameras or other sources, which can be intersting for officers
in terrain. The police officers in terrain are equipped by smartphones ortablets. Besides common communication, they can reach pictures or videos
sent by commander in office and they can respond to the command via text
or multimedia messages taken by their devices. Our IVAS system is unique
because we are developing it according to the special requirements from the
Police of the Czech republic. The IVAS communication system is designed touse modern Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) services. The whole solution
is based on opensource software including linux and android operating
systems, Asterisk PBX, Openfire XMPP server or Owncloud clouding system.
The technical details of our solution are presented in the paper.

9120-34, Session Posters-Tuesday

Texture descriptor based on local polynomial
approximation
A. I. Sherstobitov, V. I. Marchuk, D. V. Timofeev, V. V. Voronin,
Don State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation); K. O. Egiazarian,Tampere Univ. of Technology (Finland); Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of
Texas at San Antonio (United States)
No Abstract Available

9120-35, Session Posters-Tuesday

Image extrapolation for photo stitching using
nonlocal patch-based inpainting
V. V. Voronin, V. I. Marchuk, A. I. Sherstobitov, E. A. Semenischev,
Don State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation); S. Agaian, The Univ.
of Texas at San Antonio (United States); K. Egiazarian, Tampere
Univ. of Technology (Finland)
Image alignment and mosaicing are usually performed on a set ofoverlapping images, using features in the area of overlap for seamlessstitching. In many cases such images have different size and shape. So weneed to crop panoramas or use image extrapolation for them. This paper
focuses on novel image inpainting method based on modified exemplarbased technique. The basic idea is to find an example (patch) from an image
using local binary patterns, and replacing non-existed (‘lost’) data with
it. We propose to use multiple criteria for a patch similarity search sinceoften in practice existed exemplar-based methods produce unsatisfactory
results. The criteria for searching the best matching uses several terms,
including Euclidean metric for pixel brightness and Chi-squared histogram
matching distance for local binary patterns. A combined use of texturalgeometric characteristics together with color information allows to get more
informative description of the patches. In particular, we show how to apply
this strategy for image extrapolation for photo stitching. Several examples
considered in this paper show the effectiveness of the proposed approachon several test images.

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Conference 9121: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2014
Tuesday - Wednesday 6 –7 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9121 Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2014

9121-1, Session 1

9121-3, Session 1

MTS in false positive reduction for multi-sensor
fusionNew results in semi-supervised learning using
adaptive classifier fusion

Robert Woodley, 21st Century Systems, Inc. (United States)

Robert S. Lynch, Analytic Information Fusion Systems, LLC (UnitedStates)The Mahalanobis Taguchi System (MTS) is a relatively new tool in thevehicle health maintenance domain, but has some distinct advantages in
the current multi-sensor implementations. The use of Mahalanobis Spaces(MS) allows the algorithm to identify characteristics of the sensor signals
to identify behaviors in the machines. MTS is extremely powerful withthe caveat that the correct variables are selected to form the MS. In thisresearch work, 56 sensors monitor various aspects of the vehicles. Typically,using the MTS process, identification of useful variables is preceded byvalidation of the measurements scale. However, the MTS approach doesn’t
directly include any mitigating steps should the measurement scale not bevalidated. Existing work has performed outlier removal in construction of
the MS, which can lead to better validation. In our approach, we modify theoutlier removal process with more liberal definitions of outliers to better
identify variables’ impact prior to identification of useful variables. This
subtle change substantially lowered the false positive rate due to the factthat additional variables were retained. Traditional MTS approaches identify
useful variables only to the extent they provide usefulness in identifying thepositive (abnormal) condition. The impact of removing false negatives is notincluded. Initial results show our approach can reduce false positive values
while still maintaining complete fault identification for this vehicle data set.

In typical classification problems the data used to train a model for eachclass is often correctly labeled, so that fully supervised learning can beutilized. For example, many illustrative labeled data sets can be found atsources such as the UCI Repository for Machine Learning (http://archive.
ics.uci.edu/ml/), or at the Keel Data Set Repository (http://www.keel.es).
However, increasingly many real world classification problems involve datathat contain both labeled and unlabeled samples. In the latter case, thedata samples are assumed to be missing all class label information, andwhen used as training data these samples are considered to be of unknown
origin (i.e., to the learning system, actual class membership is completely
unknown). Typically, when presented with a classification problem
containing both labeled and unlabeled training samples, a technique that isoften used is to throw out the unlabeled data. In other words, the unlabeleddata are not included with existing labeled data for learning, and which can
result in a poorly trained classifier that does not reach its full performancepotential. In most cases, the primary reason that unlabeled data are notoften used for training is that, and depending on the classifier, the correct
optimal model for semi-supervised classification (i.e., a classifier that learns
class membership using both labeled and unlabeled samples) can be far too
complicated to develop.
In previous work [1], results were shown based on the fusion of binaryclassifiers to improve performance in multiclass classification problems.
In this case, Bayesian methods were used to fuse binary classifier fusion
outputs, while selecting the most relevant classifier pairs to improve theoverall classifier decision space. Here, this work is extended by developing
new algorithms for improving semi-supervised classification performance.
Results are demonstrated with real data form the UCI and Keel Repositories.

9121-2, Session 1

Embedding the results of focused Bayesian fusion
into a global context
Jennifer Sander, Michael Heizmann, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)[1] R. S. Lynch, Jr. and P. K. Willett, “Using classifier fusion to improve theperformance of multiclass classification problems,” Proceedings of the SPIE
Security & Defense Symposium, April 2013.

Bayesian statistics offers a well-founded and powerful fusion methodology
also for the fusion of heterogeneous information sources. However, except
in special cases, the needed posterior distribution is not analyticallyderivable. As consequence, Bayesian fusion may cause unacceptably highcomputational and storage costs in practice.

9121-4, Session 1

Process of probabilistic multisource multi-INT
fusion benefit analysis

Local Bayesian fusion approaches aim at reducing the complexity of theBayesian fusion methodology significantly. This is done by concentrating
the actual Bayesian fusion on the potentially most task relevant parts of thedomain of the Properties of Interest. Our research on these approaches ismotivated by an analogy to criminal investigations where criminalists pursue
clues also only locally.

David J. Wisniewski, Paul C. Hershey, Raytheon Co. (United States)
In order to evaluate the deployment of platforms, sensors, or PED, one mustfirst know the effectiveness or benefit of such an addition to the resulting
Intel products. A Process of Probabilistic Multi-Source Multi-INT Fusion
Benefit Analysis (PIFBA) has been developed to provide a methodology forstatistically computing the probability of detecting, locating, and tracking
an object in order to assess current capabilities or the benefit of adding
or removing ISR assets in order to obtain the statistically optimal result.
While models exist to show the availability of given platforms or sensors,or the effectiveness of using multiple sensors of one type to obtain ananswer (e.g. which platforms, sensors, and number of sensors are best to
obtain the best location accuracy in a given region at a specified time); no
model exists to quantitatively demonstrate the benefits of multi-source
multi-INT data fusion. The PIFBA process defines the approach to calculate
the probabilistic benefits of integrating or fusing multi-source multi-INT
products across a wide range of platforms, sensors, and target objects.
This process is designed to be platform, sensor, and Intelligence (INT)
agnostic while accepting the specific data INT level parameters to provide
a benefit analysis capable of being tailored to specific targets, with specificplatforms, sensors, environmental conditions, and timeline scenarios. This

This publication follows previous publications on a special local Bayesianfusion technique called focussed Bayesian fusion. Here, the calculation of
the posterior distribution gets completely restricted to a suitably chosen
local context. By this, the global posterior distribution is not completely
determined. Strategies for using the results of a focussed Bayesian analysis
appropriately are needed.
In this publication, we primarily derive and contrast different ways of
embedding the results of focussed Bayesian fusion into a global context.
To obtain a unique global posterior distribution, we especially analyze
the application of the maximum entropy principle that has been shown
to be successfully applicable in measurement technology and in different
other areas. To address the special need for making further decisions
subsequently to the actual fusion task, we further analyze decision criteria
resulting from the application of the theory of linear partial information andprinciples of lazy decision-making.

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9121-7, Session 2

process is used to derive results that provide identification of statistical ISR
capabilities, their effectiveness, and gaps; as well as, provide analysis of thebenefits of applying existing capabilities and new technology or tactics.

Characterization of computer network events
through simultaneous feature selection andclustering of intrusion alerts

9121-5, Session 1

Siyue Chen, Henry Leung, Univ. of Calgary (Canada); Maxwell
Dondo, Defence Research and Development Canada (Canada)Multisensor fusion with non-optimal decisionrules: the challenges of open world sensing

As computer network security threats increase, many organizations
implement multiple Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS) to
maximize the likelihood of intrusion detection and provide a comprehensive
understanding of intrusion activities. However, NIDS trigger a massive
number of alerts on a daily basis. This can be overwhelming for computer
network security analysts since it is a slow and tedious process to manually
analyze each alert produced. Thus, automated and intelligent clusteringof alerts is important to reveal the structural correlation of events bygrouping alerts with common features. As the nature of computer network
attacks, and therefore alerts, is not known in advance, unsupervised alert
clustering is a promising approach to achieve this goal. We propose a joint
optimization technique for feature selection and clustering to aggregate
similar alerts and to reduce the number of alerts that analysts have tohandle individually. More precisely, each identified feature is assigned abinary value, which reflects the feature’s saliency. This value is treated as ahidden variable and incorporated into a likelihood function for clustering.
Since computing the optimal solution of the likelihood function directly
is analytically intractable, we use the Expectation Maximization (EM)algorithm to iteratively update the hidden variable and use it to maximize
the expected likelihood. Our empirical results, using a labelled Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 2000 reference dataset,show that the proposed method gives better results than the EM clustering
without feature selection in terms of the clustering accuracy.

Christian P. Minor, Nova Research, Inc. (United States); Kevin J.
Johnson, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
In this work, simple, generic models of chemical sensing are used tosimulate sensor array data and to illustrate the impact on overall system
performance that specific design choices impart. The ability of multisensor
systems to perform multianalyte detection (i.e., distinguish multiple targets)is explored by examining the distinction between fundamental designrelated limitations stemming from mismatching mixture composition
and fused sensor measurement spaces, and limitations that arise frommeasurement uncertainty. Insight on the limits and potential of sensor
fusion to robustly address detection tasks in the realistic field conditions
can be gained through an examination of a) the underlying geometry of
both the composition space of sources one hopes to elucidate and themeasurement space a fused sensor system is capable of generating, andb) the informational impact of uncertainty on both of these spaces. For
instance, what is the potential impact on sensor fusion in an open world
scenario where unknown interferants may contaminate target signals?
Under complex and dynamic backgrounds, decision rules may implicitly
become non-optimal and adding sensors may increase the amount ofconflicting information observed. This suggests that the manner in whicha decision rule handles sensor conflict can be critical in leveraging sensor
fusion for effective open world sensing, and becomes exponentially more
important as more sensors are added. Results and design considerations
for handling conflicting evidence in Bayes and Dempster-Shafer fusion
frameworks are presented. Bayesian decision theory is used to provide an
upper limit on detector performance of simulated sensor systems.

9121-8, Session 2

Space-based detection of spoofing AIS signals
using Doppler frequency

9121-6, Session 2

Shanzeng Guo, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada)Data mining to identify out-of-the-box findings indata that cannot be reviewed by a human

The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is a self-reporting system basedon VHF radio to transmit a vessel’s identity, position, speed, heading
and other parameters to improve maritime domain awareness. However,
AIS information can be programmatically spoofed by terrorists or othercriminals, who often choose to masquerade as innocent civilians and exploit
the vulnerabilities of military and civilian infrastructures for their purposes.
Therefore, detecting and localizing a spoofing AIS ship become a critical andchallenging issue for maritime security. This paper presents an algorithm
to detect and geolocalize a spoofing AIS emitter using space-based AIS
signals with its Doppler frequency. With an AIS signal sensor on a fast
orbiting satellite, the measured AIS Doppler frequency of an AIS emittercan be used to define a double-napped cone of which the satellite is at its
vertex and satellite velocity coincides with its axis, such that the theoretical
Doppler frequency derived from the radial velocity to the AIS emittermatches the measured Doppler frequency. All such matches can only lie
on either cone extending out from the satellite, which cuts the Earth’s
surface in two curves, so we know that the AIS emitter must lie somewhereon these curves. Two such AIS Doppler frequency measurements for thesame stationary AIS emitter produce two valid curves which intersect at
the position of the AIS emitter. Multiple Doppler frequency measurements
can be used to better estimate the position fix of an AIS emitter, hence
determine the spoofing AIS ship if the estimated position fix unreasonably
differs from the position carried in its AIS message. A set of formulas
are derived which relate an AIS emitter position to its Doppler frequency
measurements.

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A recent survey of planetary scientists evidenced a concern that the
automation of processing of data onboard the spacecraft that cannot (dueto communications limitations) be returned to Earth for human review may
overlook unexpected patterns in the data that a human may notice. This
concern is supported by the numerous historic scientific discoveries thathave been stumbled upon when researching a related (or even unrelated
topic). As there is no way, short of constraining the spacecraft to minimize
its data collection (wasting craft capabilities) to effect the transfer of allcollected data to Earth, it is critical to find a method for the identificationof these ‘out-of-the-box’ unexpected findings. This same technology has
terrestrial applications for autonomous persistent surveillance and otherapplications.
This paper proposes the use of data mining onboard a planetary science
spacecraft as a technique to solve for this problem. It considers several
forms of data mining that could possibly be used and presents an algorithm
for identifying unexpected phenomena that may be present in image or
topographical data. The extrapolation from these two data types to otherprospective types of data is considered. Also considered is the impactof this technology on the acceptance of autonomous data analysis byplanetary scientists, based on survey responses.

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9121-9, Session 2

9121-11, Session 3

A metamaterial-inspired combined inductivecapacitive sensor

On and efficient and effective intelligent
transportation system (ITS) using field andsimulation data

Jiang Long, Mitsubishi Electric Research Labs. (United States)
and Univ. of California, San Diego (United States); Bingnan Wang,
Mitsubishi Electric Research Labs. (United States)

Nnanna N. Ekedebe, Wei Yu, Towson Univ. (United States)Intelligent transportation system (ITS) applications provide a more effective,
reliable, and safe driving experience that minimize road traffic congestion.
In this paper we compare two vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) routing
algorithms namely Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm, and A* algorithmwith respect to their effect on total travel time in terms of efficiency, andeffectiveness in terms of accuracy of adaptive/dynamic routing from source
to destination in a real-world driving scenario using field and simulation
data. Our investigation shows that an increase in network size results inscalability problems as the efficiency, and effectiveness of these algorithms
diminishes in larger road networks with greater traffic volume densities, flow
rates, and congested conditions. In addition, road network state imprecision
increases when network size and traffic volume density increases. The abilityof these VANET routing algorithms to adaptively route traffic in an efficientan effective manner depends on the type, size, and current roadway
conditions.

In industrial automation, it is often necessary to detect the proximity ofan object and determine if it is metal. Most of proximity sensors have thecapability of detecting an object, but are not capable of distinguishingmetal from non-metallic objects. This paper proposes a metamaterialinspired combined inductive-capacitive sensing method for detecting anddistinguishing metallic and non-metallic objects, which is realized using acompact sensing structure and detecting circuit.
It is well known that proximity sensing can be realized using capacitive
or inductive method. While a single inductive or capacitive sensor cannot
distinguish different object, they do have different responses for incoming
metallic and non-metallic objects. Thus, it is possible to distinguish objects
by combining inductive and capacitive sensing functionalities into a single
sensor. To realize the combined functionality, a metamaterial-inspired
sensing structure is designed. As a resonant structure, metamaterialpresents either capacitive or inductive behavior when operating at offresonant frequencies. Thus, both inductive and capacitive sensing are
simultaneously realized when the sensor is operating at two different
frequencies. For demonstration, the proposed sensor is developed from theunit cell of Ω-shape metamaterials. The resonance frequency of the sensor
is around 200MHz. The inductive and capacitive sensing is realized at two
off-resonant frequencies of 100MHz and 500MHz, respectively. The sensor
is fabricated and tested with aluminum and wood pieces. Measurements
show distinct results for the two different objects within a range of about 10
mm. Note that the sensing structures can be flexibly designed for different
frequency requirements.

9121-12, Session 3

Hyperspectral data recovery by incorporating
heterogeneous imaging modalities
Alexander Cloninger, Wojciech Czaja, Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States)
As new imaging modalities arise, the problem of recovery (inpainting) of
missing heterogeneous data becomes increasingly important. State of theart techniques for inpainting rely on appropriately designed penalization
terms used in certain optimization schemes. These methods range fromminimizing total variation, to finding the sparsest solution in a given basis,to minimizing the Ginzburg-Landau energy.

9121-10, Session 3

Synchronous radiation sensing and 3D urban
mapping for improved source identification

In this paper, we propose a novel approach to inpainting of multispectraland hyperspectral images using prior measurements taken withheterogeneous imaging modalities. We then combine these priors with theaforementioned well studied optimization methods. The priors can take theform of images obtained with different lighting and focus, or under different
weather conditions, but also images with spacio-temporal changes, or evenall together different remote sensing modalities, such as LiDAR or synthetic
aperture radar. Our approach utilizes such manifold learning techniques
as diffusion maps or Laplacian eigenmaps that are applied to each image
individually, creating new feature spaces, followed by learning a rotation
between the feature spaces to place data points from both images in a new
joint representation. Next, we apply a novel preimage algorithm to the
fused data in conjunction with an inpainting penalization method to recreate
the missing pixels. We analyze the role of different inpainting methods usedin conjunction with the preimage algorithm, for the purpose of providing
an optimal reconstruction of missing information. We also investigate
these techniques when no a priori pixel registration exists between theheterogeneous image modalities.

Kevin Kochersberger, Kenneth Kroeger, Gordon Christie, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (United States); Morgan
McLean, Remote Sensing Lab. (United States); Wojciech Czaja, Univ.
of Maryland, College Park (United States)
The acquisition of synchronous EO imagery and gamma radiation data
in aerial overflights of an unmanned aircraft can provide valuable spatial
context for radioactive source mapping. Using structure from motion (SfM)
methods, a 3D terrain map is generated and classification of the urban
terrain is accomplished using reason-based learning methods. This isaccomplished by training classifiers on labeled point clouds, where features
are computed for each 3D point, or group of points, such as the height fromthe estimated ground plane, color values for the point, the orientation of
the nearest neighbor points, etc. In this case, we are interested in classifiers
that will reduce the uncertainty in radiation source position estimation. For
instance, vehicles may be likely hiding places for nuclear materials, so asource model with assigned probability is used at the vehicle to reduce theoverall uncertainty in position estimation.

9121-13, Session 3

Synchronized high resolution EO and low resolution gamma radiation data
can be used to find intrinsic correlations between the data sets. Using
radioactive material dispersion models or point source models, the derived
correlations serve to enhance coarse gamma radiation data. Simulations
using injected radiation data show that the method is effective in improving
source location estimates with distributed sources at ground level and forpoint sources that are correlated to 3D structures.

Tree species identification in a coastal region of
Portugal using airborne hyperspectral remotesensingPrem C. Pandey, Nicholas Tate, Heiko Balzter, Univ. of Leicester(United Kingdom)

Experiments were flown with an Airstar Mongoose autonomous helicopter
carrying an 8” x 2” NaI detector and a two-camera imaging system toprovide scaled 3D terrain data. Both quantitative and qualitative results arepresented.

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spectrum and can be used to demarcate different tree species from each·help@spie.org

Conference 9121: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2014
other. Reflectance spectra were extracted from airborne hyperspectral data
for the identification and discrimination of Mediterranean tree species.
Airborne hyperspectral AISA Eagle/Hawk sensor imagery was used to carryout this research, having a spectral resolution of 350 nm -2400 nm with
2 m spatial resolution. Spectral signatures were analysed and validatedwith ground data collected in the field. The field data include the spectralreflectance of leaves measured by a handheld spectroradiometer. Each tree
species has its own unique spectral signature. Here, the signatures wereused to map Pinus pinea, Pinus pinaster, Eucalyptus globulus, and Juniper
species in a coastal region in Portugal. This method is useful for ecosystemconservation and will also help in the timely detection of invasive species
in the coastal region. Spatial extent of tree species cover was mapped andvalidated by ground data. Spectral angle mapper is used to map the study
area. This will also mark a step towards coastal environmental protection
from invasive species which can be monitored using Hyperspectral remotesensing. Our results show the best wavelength bands for the detectionof the different tree species from both the Eagle and Hawk sensors. Best
Channels identified to discriminate different tree species are 526-580 nm,
620-650 nm, 800-830 nm, 980- 1050 nm and 1400-1450 nm at visible,
NIR and SWIR wavelength ranges. MLC , MDC and SAM classified maps
were produced with overall accuracies of 96.38%, 67.5% 50.63% (Kappa
coefficient values 0.95, 0.69 0.45)

to enhance night vision imagery. Such an approach can give a more detailed
image than either of the input scenes; however, the result often has anunnatural color appearance. Therefore, we used a color transfer process
to make the nighttime scene appear as if it was viewed in daylight. An
effective approach for transferring color has been a look-up table, because
they avoid some problems with statistical transformations. However, asingle colormap is not sufficient for navigation when the environment ischanging. Our approach used a public database of images for navigation.
We continuously extracted colormaps from images in the database thatwere acquired at different locations. Hence, a set of different colormaps wasderived for different environments. By comparing image histograms, wewere able to select a subband of images and eventually a colormap for thelocation of interest. We evaluated the results of several comparison metrics
and showed the results for several nighttime driving scenarios. We foundthat our approach could be used in real-time and can aid nighttime vehicle
navigation.

9121-16, Session 4

Low-cost, high-performance and efficiency
computational photometer design
Sam B. Siewert, Univ. of Alaska Anchorage (United States) andUniv. of Colorado at Boulder (United States); Jeries Shihadeh,
Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (United States); Randall Myers,
Mentor Graphics, Inc. (United States); Vitaly Ivanov, Univ. of Alaska
Anchorage (United States)

9121-14, Session 3

Detecting and mapping oil pollution along
pipeline routes in tropical ecosystems frommultispectral data

Researchers at the University of Alaska Anchorage and University ofColorado Boulder have built a low cost high performance and efficiency
drop-in-place computational photometer to test in field applications ranging
from port security and safety monitoring to environmental compliancemonitoring and surveying. The CP (Computational Photometer) integrates
off-the-shelf visible spectrum cameras with near to long wavelength
infrared detectors and high resolution digital snapshots in a single device.
The proof of concept combines three or more detectors into a single
multichannel imaging system that can time correlate read-out, capture, andimage processing of all channels concurrently with high performance andenergy efficiency. The dual-channel continuous read-out is combined witha third high definition digital snapshot capability and has been designed
using and Altera Cyclone-III FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) tocapture, decimate, down-convert, re-encode, and transform images fromtwo standard definition CCD (Charge Coupled Device) cameras at 30Hz.
The continuous standard definition stereo vision can be time correlated tomegapixel high definition snapshots. This proof of concept has been laid out
for a four-layer PCB (Printed Circuit Board) suitable for use in education andin research for low cost high efficiency field monitoring applications thatneed multispectral and three dimensional imaging capabilities. Initial testing
to be completed in the summer of 2014 in Alaska include field testing in
ports, potential test flights in un-manned aerial systems, and future planned
missions to image harsh environments in the arctic including volcanic
plumes, ice formation, and arctic marine life.

Bashir Adamu, Kevin Tansey, Booker Ogutu, Univ. of Leicester(United Kingdom)
The paper is aimed at detecting and mapping oil pollution along pipeline
routes in tropical ecosystems from multitemporal Landsat TM and ETM(multispectral) data. The study was conducted in an oil producing
environment predominantly mangrove and swamp vegetation in Niger Delta,
Nigeria. Ancillary data including oil pipeline map and GPS of spill points
were used in selecting sample sites to identify, detect and map the polluted
pixels. We identified the polluted pixels by extracting vegetation spectralreflectance and the maps of vegetation indices from the sample sites fora four year period (1986, 1987, 1999 and 2003). The vegetation spectra
extracted from the sampled locations indicated high and low reflectancein both the visible and near infrared regions of the wavelength suggesting
pollution at the sites with the exception in one location. Similar results were
found in the map of vegetation indices with low and high values at polluted
and non-polluted pixels respectively from the sample locations for thesame period. Supervised neural network classification was optimized using(principal component analysis (PCA) and minimum noise fraction (MNF))
to improve the accuracy of change detection maps. Images (1987, 1999 and2003) from the post spill events indicated some pixels with low and highvegetation spectral reflectance in both visible and NIR, while the values
for vegetation indices improved from -1 to 1 due to successive vegetation
regrowth and recovery at the spill sites overtime. To increase acceptability of
the results, the ancillary data (oil pipelines and spill points) were overlaid on
the vegetation indices and classified maps which correspond to anomaloussites. Further work will be focus on increasing sample size, validation using
high resolution imageries and possible assessment of environmental impactof the oil spill at wider buffer zone around the spill sites.

9121-17, Session 4

Forensic prescreening system using coded
aperture snapshot spectral imager
Sehoon Lim, David C. Berends, Aveek K. Das, Michael Isnardi, Sek M.
Chai, SRI International Sarnoff (United States)

9121-15, Session 4

Enhancing thermal video using a public databaseof images

In forensic analysis, the spectral signatures of fluorescent light are used to
identify material and classify probative crime samples. In this paper, we
present a camera system that enables an instantaneous, non-destructive
capture and pre-analysis of the spectral signatures of any and all objects atthe crime scene before the lab-based full analysis. Our system detects highly
probative samples in the crime scene overwhelmed by the backgroundinterference. This spectral classification system is achieved by combining

Hemin Qadir, Ehsan Ali, Samuel Kozaitis, Florida Institute ofTechnology (United States)
We added color to fused imagery from a public database for nighttime
vehicle operation. We initially fused two spectral bands, thermal and visible,

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9121-20, Session 5

a coded aperture snapshot spectral imager with a multi-spectral detection
algorithm. The spectral datacube is captured and encoded simultaneously
into a 2D image using a code aperture, and later decoded by sparsity-based
computational framework. An adaptive-cosine estimator (ACE) is used toquantitatively detect and classify the probative samples from the decoded
spectral cube. The ACE detection scores the pixel-based spectral responses
and the highly scored pixels are segmented as the desired samples byusing a spectral library. We present selected results in the 450nm to
600nm range, which is optimally suited for discriminating the luminescencecharacteristics of the samples.

Improving object detection in 2D images using a
3D world model
Herbert Viggh, Peter Cho, Nicholas Armstrong-Crews, Danelle C.
Shah, Myra Nam, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)
A mobile robot operating in a netcentric environment can utilize offboard
resources on the network to improve its local perception. One such offboard
resource is a world model built and maintained by other sensor systems. In
this paper we present results from research into improving the performanceof Deformable Part Model object detection algorithms by using an offboard
3D world model. Experiments were run for detecting both people andcars in 2D photographs taken in an urban environment. After generating
candidate object detections, a 3D world model built from airborne LIDAR
and aerial photographs was used to filter out false alarm using several typesof geometric reasoning. Comparison of the baseline detection performanceto the performance after false alarm filtering showed a significant decreasein false alarms for a given probability of detection.

9121-18, Session 4

True and false symmetries in the classification of
optical scatterers
Giovanni F. Crosta, Univ. degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca (Italy);
Gorden Videen, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The TAOS (Two-dimensional Angle-resolved Optical Scattering) is anexperimental method by which single airborne aerosols are detected, andthen illuminated by a pulsed, monochromatic laser beam. An elliptical mirror
collects and images a large portion of the resulting scattering pattern ontoa CCD detector. Characterizing and discriminating aerosol classes haveapplications in the biomedical and security fields.

9121-21, Session 5

Fusion of ranging and RGB-D data from robot
teams operating in confined areas

The interpretation of TAOS data is an inverse problem and fraught withdifficulties. This work focuses on the relation between the observed
symmetries of TAOS patterns and symmetry operations on the
scatterer, such as translation, rotation, reflection, and scaling. In a simplified
scalar treatment, the main tools are operator theory and the representationof the scattered wave by the Born sequence. In addition to true symmetries,
false ones are shown to arise from detector properties, which are spatiallydiscrete and insensitive to both phase and polarization. Implications on theperformance of TAOS pattern analysis are discussed.

Damian M. Lyons, Michael Yu, Fordham Univ. (United States)
We address the problem of fusing laser and RGB-Data from multiple robots
operating in close proximity to one another. By having a team of robots
working together, a large area can be scanned quickly, or a smaller areascanned in greater detail. However, a key aspect of this problem is theelimination of the spurious readings due to the other robot operating inclose proximity. While there is an extensive literature on the mapping andlocalization aspect of this problem (e.g., Liu and Thrun (2003), Wansiripitak
and Murray (2009)), our problem differs from the dynamic map problem
in that we look at one kind of transient map feature, other robots, and weknow that we wish to completely eliminate the feature.

9121-19, Session 4

Hybrid fusion and demosaicing algorithm withnear-infrared image

In prior work, we investigated the problem of fusing laser data from multiple
robots in such a manner as to reject the spurious data from other robots.
We showed that a combination of local robot-based direction filtering andglobal map-based visibility filtering at a central map server removed 91% of
the spurious data and resulted in a 98% quality improvement.

Xiaoyan Luo, Jun Zhang, BeiHang Univ. (China); Qionghai Dai,
Tsinghua Univ. (China)

In this paper we additionally consider the problem of fusing RGB-D
data, and we consider two sources for the RGB-D data, Stereovision
and Kinect sensors. The additional image component of the data admits
new approaches rejecting the spurious readings from other robots. The
phenomenon of inattentional blindness (IB) is well know in cognitive
psychology as the inability to see an object that might be right in front of
the viewer (Friedenberger 2013). We present an approach based on the IB
phenomena and compare it with our prior work and with other related work.
We show results for these approaches for several experiments for a two
robot team operating in a confined indoor environment (4m x 4m).

Silicon-based digital cameras can record visible and near-infrared (NIR)
information. Recently, many researchers capture joint visible/NIR image
pair, and then combine them to obtain better quality image. However, thefull color visible image must be restored from the color filter array (CFA)
samples via demosaicing firstly. Therefore, the image quality in visible/
NIR combination can be affected seriously, if some information is lost or
some artifacts are generated in the interpolation process. In this paper, we
propose a unified framework for visible/NIR image combination and CFA
interpolation.
The proposed method aims to reconstruct a high quality image from raw
CFA data and the corresponding NIR image, similar to a multi-spectral
fusion of color and NIR images. The main advantage of this method liesin the hybrid algorithm with NIR to unify the interpolation and fusion.
Our work first analyzes the property of gradient difference between
NIR and visible images, and then improves the alternating projections
interpolation algorithm according to the correlation of R, G, B channels
and gradient difference constraint between visible/NIR images. With suchprior information of NIR, the hybrid scheme combines the demosaicing andfusing processes as an optimized algorithm.

1. Friedenber, J., Visual Attention and Consciousness, Psychology Press 2013.

The proposed scheme achieves more effective performances forprocessing the color plane interpolation and the fusion of visible/NIR
images simultaneously than treating the interpolation and fusion problems
separately not only in image information but also in edge detail. Moreover,the hybrid processing can reduce the computational complexity. We believethat the proposed scheme can be employed to many applications.

Building animats: neurobiomimetic approach forcognitive systems

463+1 360 676 3290

2. Liu, Y., Thrun, S., Gaussian Multirobot SLAM, Advances in Neural
INformation Processing Systems, NIPS 2003, Vancover Canada, 2003.
3. S Wangsiripitak and D W Murray, Avoiding moving outliers in visual SLAM
by tracking moving objects, Proc IEEE Int Conf on Robotics and Automation,
Kobe, May 2009.

9121-22, Session 5

Jerome J. Braun, Marianne A. DeAngelus, Kate D. Fischl, Austin R.
Hess, Danelle C. Shah, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)·

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Conference 9121: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2014
Many real-life tasks that are readily accomplished by biological species fromhumans to rodents prove too challenging for the current state-of-the-art
machine-intelligence approaches. Over the past several years, we have been
conducting an effort we refer to as ‘Cognitive Robotics’. The approaches
pursued in this effort are biomimetic, in the sense that they are inspiredby and rooted in neuroscience and cognitive science insights. We pursued
two complementary directions. The first of these aimed at emulation of
cognitive phenomena, including the development of a model of innerrehearsal cognitive phenomenon. Subsequently, focusing on the second
direction which we refer to as ‘neurobiomimetic’ paradigm, we implemented
constructs that constitute rudimentary emulations of biological brains’
neural regions and their interactions. Many variants of such constructs are
possible, differing in synaptic connectivity specifics, neural region specifics,
and other aspects. We refer to these different variants as ‘animats’.

rate in excess of 97%. Commands were received with commander in thefield (relatively quiet setting) or via an internet link, from a remote location,with delays of the order of a second. Group-level of autonomy (GLOA)
were tested illustrating the effectiveness of commanding at higher levels of
autonomy.

9121-24, Session 6

Integrated multisensor fusion for mapping andlocalization in outdoor environments for mobile
robotsThomas Emter, Janko Petereit, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)

In comparison to biological brains, animats are down-scaled forcomputational feasibility. Nevertheless, they are very large computational
constructs, containing many tens of thousands of neurons and many
hundreds of thousands synaptic connections in animats implemented in ourwork. Due to their size and complexity, implementation of neurobiomimetic
animats poses an overwhelming developmental challenge. This isexacerbated by the need to experiment with multiple animat structures. The
paper discusses the Neurobiomimetic Cognitive Architecture Foundation
Framework (NCAFF) we developed to address these challenges. NCAFF
separates the animat-development process from the details of the lowlevel internals. NCAFF allows specifying aspects such as neural regions andsynaptic connectivity by its commands, and automatically generates animat
constructs according to those commands; algorithmic details underlying
those commands at the neuron level are encapsulated within NCAFF.
This amounts to complexity-hiding that enables animat implementationand studies to focus on higher-level architectural aspects such as thosepertaining to representation of neuroanatomical structures and theirconnectivity, rather than on the underlying constructional details. This
enables animats’ implementation and experimentation in a feasible andmore reliable manner.

Autonomous navigation in unstructured outdoor environments still poses
great challenges for unmanned mobile systems. As all sensor measurements
are influenced by noise, no single sensor is sufficient to reliably allow for
precise localization in all situations. Thus multiple sensors have to be usedand combined for better robustness and higher precision. In order to avoid
involved hardware synchronization of the sensors and incorporate sensors
with heterogeneous data rates, the fusion algorithm has to be able tocope with asynchronous sensor data. Furthermore, even in case of timeconsuming processing steps, the fusion algorithm has to guarantee real-time
operation.
We propose an integrated multi-sensor fusion framework for localizationand mapping. The framework is based on extended Kalman filters (EKF) andis capable of combining data from several asynchronous sensors sources.
The sensors for localization include an inertial measurement unit, a GPS, afiber optic gyroscope, and wheel odometry. Additionally a 3D-LIDAR is used
for mapping. While the data of the former sensors is fed directly into the
EKF, a localization from the measurements of the LIDAR has to be processedin a separate algorithm. This algorithm is performing simultaneous
localization and mapping (SLAM). It is building a 3D Normal Distributions
Transform map while concurrently estimating a localization in the so far
established map with the current scan of the LIDAR. Despite of longer
runtime of the SLAM algorithm compared to the EKF update we can still
guarantee a high update rate by sophisticatedly joining and synchronizing
two parallel EKFs.

This paper provides an overview of selected aspects of our neurobiomimetic
effort, with a particular focus on NCAFF. The computational experiments inthis work were in the context of a cognitive task pertinent to autonomousvehicles, namely that of learning an unfamiliar spatial environment
and performing navigation by landmarks in that environment. Animat
experiments were conducted in a virtual environment which we constructed
for that purpose. While results of these experiments we conducted areencouraging, the main value of the work discussed in this paper is not insolving a specific problem of navigation by landmarks. Rather, approaches
such as NCAFF enable feasible building of animats which, by emulating
aspects of brain structure and processes, may provide a particularly
promising path to cognitive systems.

9121-25, Session 6

Control fusion for safe multi-robot coordination

This work was sponsored by Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research& Engineering under Air Force Contract #FA8721-05-C-0002. Opinions,interpretations, recommendations and conclusions are those of the authors
and are not necessarily endorsed by the United States Government.

Roger V. Bostelman, Jeremy A. Marvel, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)
In traditional manufacturing systems, process planning and productscheduling provide only a single sequence of operations to be executed foreach product in the manufacturing process. This should be more flexible
and new solutions should be approached [1]. Multiple robots used in concert
for manufacturing might typically have low-level motion control pairedwith high-level communication between robots. This was demonstrated
in [2] with a self-stabilizing robot supervisory system used to synchronize
and schedule the movements of multiple robots. The supervisor receives
information from the robot controllers regarding their status, and then,based on the status reports, issues instructions to the devices. While
traditional manufacturing systems incorporate this multi-robot control
within fixed cells, future smart manufacturing systems will include more
complex coordination of mobile manipulators (robot arms mounted on
mobile bases). These mobile manipulators are expected to perform tasks
such as material handling of variable sub-assemblies and then assembling
the parts into larger structures, perhaps side-by-side with humans and in
frequently changed locations. The Computing Community Consortium’s
Robotics Roadmap [3] predicts that in 5 years we will have “inherently safe
(hardware and software) professional mobile robots, with manipulation,
operating in cooperation with trained humans in all professional
environments,” including manufacturing.

9121-23, Session 5

Voice and gesture control of a robotic
reconnaissance unmanned unit (R2-U2)
Adrian Stoica, Jet Propulsion Lab (United States)
This paper addresses human-oriented command and control technology
and an associated natural and effective interface designed to empower thecommander of a robotic reconnaissance unmanned unit (R2-U2). The R2-U2
would move in front of an advancing squad, and provide real time Intelof the hostile terrain and threats ahead, generating increased battlefieldawareness and highly reducing the risk of surprise for the squad. The tests
were performed with a R2-U2 pack of 3 quadrotors. The commander uses acommand language (UAV-L) to trigger pre-determined flight behaviors or totake over direct flight maneuvers. He receives the real-time video livestream(pilot view) from the quadrotors’ cameras, as well as other situational
information (GPS, attitude, position on a map). Over 50 commands voicecommands and 20 hand gestures are tested, with a correct classification

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Conference 9121: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2014
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Performanceof Collaborative Robot Systems Project has been researching safety andperformance control aspects of multi-robots using a mobile platform(automated guided vehicle, or AGV, with an onboard robot arm). Industrial
robot [4] and AGV [5] safety standards mandate failsafe control of thesedevices with little overlap between standards and thus provide gaps [6]when the two systems are combined into mobile manipulators. One suchgap is in competing control decisions based on obstacle detection from the
AGV and/or robot arm, as well as other aspects including AGV and robot
position and speed. The NIST testbed includes a robot arm and an AGV
where each have independent controllers with collaborative decisions tomake so that appropriately safe movement proceeds. There are several ways
to provide this decision making control, including:the system in which the camera is modelled as a sphere and show thatthe estimation of a conic on this sphere allows to obtain the distance
between wheel chair and obstacle. We propose some experiments basedon simulated data followed by real sequences. The estimated distancesfrom our method are comparable with commercial sensors in terms of its
accuracy and correctness. The results from our cheaper system over the
expensive commercial sensors prove its suitability for a cheap wheelchairable to assist users with cognitive impairments and that can be functional indark environments as well.

9121-27, Session 6

A generic multisensor fusions framework forrobust odometry in mobile robots• Independent– each robot makes decisions to account for their own safe
control regardless of the other robot;• Master/Slave – one robot leads decision making for both robots;

Davide A. Cucci, Matteo Matteucci, Politecnico di Milano (Italy)• Fused – three alternatives for decision making:

Odometry, i.e., the estimate of a mobile robot position and orientation fromproprioceptive measurements, is the first milestone in the development ofautonomous mobile robots and unmanned vehicles. While the problem iswell studied in the literature, and established solutions exist, developers areoften required to write their own ad-hoc implementations to adapt suchtechniques to the particular application or platform considered. In this work
we present the ROAMFREE sensor fusion library, a general, open-source
framework for pose tracking and sensor parameter self-calibration in mobile
robotics. In ROAMFREE, a comprehensive logical sensor library allows to
abstract from the actual sensor hardware and processing while preserving
model accuracy thanks to a rich set of calibration parameters, such as
biases, gains, distortion matrices and geometric placement. The modular
formulation of the sensor fusion problem, which is based on state-of-theart factor graph inference techniques, allows to handle arbitrary numberof multi-rate sensors and to adapt to virtually any kind of mobile robot
platform, such as Ackerman steering vehicles, quadrotor unmanned aerial
vehicles and omni-directional mobile robots. Different solvers are available
to target high-rate online pose tracking tasks and offline accurate trajectorysmoothing and parameter calibration. High level, clean, C++/Python API,
as long as ROS interface nodes, allow to easily fit in existing robot softwarearchitectures. After reviewing the structure and the properties of the
ROAMFREE sensor fusion library which make it an ideal choice for new,and existing, mobile robot projects, we discuss use cases and real-world
validation experiments.

• Shared model (decision rules) – sequential and complimentary statetransition;• Implicit coordination – one robot helps the other to provide appropriate
movement; and• Explicit coordination – one robot negotiates control with the other toprovide appropriate movement.
This paper will reference and briefly discuss previously uncovered gaps in
AGV and robot standards and detail decision sharing for when robots andAGVs are combined into a collaborative, mobile manipulator system. The
NIST mobile manipulator will be tested using independent, master/slave andshared model control with performance measured, analyzed, and results
included in this paper. In closing, there will be a plan for testing implicit andexplicit coordination control of the mobile manipulator.
References:[1] C. Plaisanu , D. Niculae , R. Sora , L. Cerban, D. Clapa, A. Enache, “Control
Techniques for a Holonic Manufacturing Platform with Multiple Robots,”[2] Eric Klavins, “A Formal Model of a Multi-Robot Control andCommunication Task,” Proceedings of the 42nd IEEE Conference on Decision
and Control (CDC’03), Maui, HI, 9-12 December 2003.
[3] “A Roadmap for U.S. Robotics From Internet to Robotics 2013 Edition,”
March 20, 2013.
[4] International Organization for Standards 10218 Robots and robotic
devices — Safety requirements for industrial robots, 2011.
[5] American National Standards Institute/Industrial Truck Safety
Development Foundation B56.5-2012, Safety Standard for Driverless,
Automatic Guided Industrial Vehicles and Automated Functions of Manned
Industrial Vehicles, March 2013.
[6] Jeremy Marvel and Roger Bostelman, “Towards Mobile Manipulator
Safety Standards,” IEEE Robotic and Sensor Environments, Washington,
D.C., 21 October, 2013.

9121-26, Session 6

Camera-laser projector stereo system based anticollision system for robotic wheelchair users withcognitive impairment
Ashutosh Natraj, Sonia Waharte, Daniel Kroening, Univ. of Oxford(United Kingdom)This paper presents a system for the real-time estimation of distanceto obstacles designed to assist robotic wheelchair users with cognitive
impairment. Upon falling under the speciﬁed safe distance to an obstacle
an alarm alerts that it can be used by the control system to act immediately
to avert a possible collision. This system consists of a ﬁsh-eye camera,
which allows to cover a large ﬁeld of view (FOV), and a laser circle
projector mounted on a ﬁxed baseline. The approach uses the geometricalinformation obtained by the projection of the laser circle onto the plane
simultaneously perceived by the camera. We show a theoretical study of465+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9122: Next-Generation Analyst II
Tuesday 6 –6 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9122 Next-Generation Analyst II

9122-1, Session 1

utterances could be considered the ultimate in human-centric “big data”
compression and transmission.

Automatic theory generation from analyst text
files using coherence networks

9122-3, Session 1

Steven C. Shaffer, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

A JDL fusion approach to I&W of terrorist attacks

Much of the security analysis knowledge is in textual form. Given theextensive amount of such data, automated processes for effectively
analyzing such data are highly sought after. Beyond simple text searches,well-done analysis will involve higher order levels of knowledge, involving
what is sometimes referred to as comprehension and analysis in Bloom’s
taxonomy. It is feasible to generate analysis that reports intelligence atthese higher levels, using a combination of natural language processing,coherence theory, and evolution-based algorithms.

David M. McDaniel, Silver Bullet Solutions, Inc. (United States)

Using an evolution-based algorithm allows for obtaining a sequence of
optimal (or quasi-optimal) solutions within a reasonable amount of runtime.
Initial experiments have been conducted on soft data for a military situation
awareness application using the SYNthetic Counter-INsurgency (SYNCOIN)
data set, developed at Penn State. This paper will provide a summary of
the prototype algorithms and initial results from processing a subset of the
SYNCOIN data.

Analytics to support I&W of terrorist attacks, particularly IED attacks,
continue to be of critical National importance. In this work we experimented
with a novel approach using an analog of the JDL fusion levels and processmodels of terrorist activities. The operational concept is that analysts
hypothesize about of activities that need to be performed to accomplish
terrorist attacks to develop process models, similar to what has been done
for some time for crime analysis. Data analytics assess the likelihood ofthese process models based. Analysts may choose to store many different
models as search agents for alerting. Models are constructed as extensions
within a general ontology to support hierarchal reasoning. The inputs aretokenized utterances which we treat analogously to radar contacts thatare associated across the network to conversations about objects in theprocess models using e.g., Jaccard distance analogously to Mahalanobis
distance. Object and event associations (level 2 fusion) are then associatedto the terrorist process models, adapting work on process model matching.
We setup a Hadoop cluster to hold portions of the Web 1T 5-gram data
set to simulate a data collection center. The utterances were generated
by randomly dissembling, biasing, and dropping utterances related to theprocess models. Distributed data fusion MapReduce jobs were then run froma coordinating node, distributing parts of the data fusion problem across the
Hadoop nodes.

9122-2, Session 1

9122-4, Session 1

Using complex event processing (CEP) and vocal
synthesis techniques to improve comprehensionof sonified human-centric data

Warfighter information services: lessons learnedin the intelligence domain

Coherence theory sees the concept of meaning as a network of relations,each of which has a relative coherence value. If one imagines a very large
network of “everything in the reports”, some subnets will have a larger
coherence value than others; those with the highest coherence values canbe viewed as central themes within the reports. This amounts to searchinga large graph for the “best” subgraphs, using the coherence value as anindicator of “best.” The notion is fairly intuitive; the problem with thisalgorithm is that the run time explodes exponentially.

Simon E. Bray, Defence Science and Technology Lab. (United
Kingdom)

Jeffrey C. Rimland, Mark Ballora, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)

This paper presents solutions and lessons learned from a concept
demonstrator project which implemented the concepts of “Warfighter
Information Services” and a “Virtual Knowledge Base” in the intelligencedomain, supporting Intelligence Analysts. These concepts were presented
in a previous paper which is outlined. Several innovative technologies were
employed in the solution, which are presented and their benefits explained.
The project was successful, validating many of the design principles for sucha system which had been proposed in earlier work. Many of these principles
are discussed in detail, explaining lessons learned. The results showed that
it is possible to make substantial improvements in the ability to exploit
available data, making it discoverable and query-able wherever it is fromanywhere within a participating network; and the ability to exploit machinereasoning to make faster and better inferences from available data (fusing
data from sensors, databases and natural language text), enabling humananalysts to spend more of their time doing more difficult analytical tasks
rather than searching for relevant data. It was also demonstrated that asmall number of generic Information Processing services can be combined
and configured in a variety of ways (without changing any software code)
to create “fact-processing” workflows, in this case to create different
intelligence analysis capabilities. It is yet to be demonstrated that the samegeneric services can be reused to create analytical/situational awarenesscapabilities for logistics, operations, planning or other military functions but
this is considered likely.

The field of sonification, which uses auditory presentation of data to replace
or augment visualization techniques, is gaining popularity and acceptancefor analysis of “big data” and for assisting analysts who are unable to utilize
traditional visual approaches due to either: 1) visual overload caused byexisting displays; 2) concurrent need to perform critical visually intensive
tasks (e.g. operating a vehicle or performing a medical procedure); or 3)
visual impairment due to either temporary environmental factors (e.g. dense
smoke) or biological causes.
Sonification tools typically map data values to sound attributes such as
pitch, volume, and localization to enable them to be interpreted via humanlistening. In more complex problems, the challenge is in creating multidimensional sonifications that are both compelling and listenable, and thathave enough discrete features that can be modulated in ways that allow
meaningful discrimination by a listener.
We propose a solution to this problem that incorporates Complex Event
Processing (CEP) with speech synthesis. Some of the more promisingsonifications to date use speech synthesis, which is an “instrument” that is
amenable to extended listening, and can also provide a great deal of subtle
nuance. These vocal nuances, which can represent a nearly limitless numberof expressive meanings (via a combination of pitch, inflection, volume, andother acoustic factors), are the basis of our daily communications, and thus
have the potential to engage the innate human understanding of thesesounds. Additionally, recent advances in CEP have facilitated the extractionof multi-level hierarchies of information, which is necessary to bridge
the gap between raw data and this type of vocal synthesis. We therefore
propose that CEP-enabled sonifications based on the sound of human

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Conference 9122: Next-Generation Analyst II

9122-5, Session 1(COP) of the critical infrastructure (CI). The purpose is to improve thesituational awareness (SA) of the strategic-level actor and the source system
operator in order to support decision making. The information is obtained
through the Situational Awareness of Critical Infrastructure and Networks(SACIN) framework. The system consists of an agent-based solution forgathering, storing, and analyzing the information, and a user interface ispresented in this paper.

A survey of automated methods for sensemaking
supportJames Llinas, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
Complex, dynamic problems in general present an analysis environment
in which it is difficult to structure reliable a priori procedural knowledge
descriptive of the dynamic processes in the environment. Intelligence
analysis or military versions of these problems impute added difficulties
involving deception of covertness. In turn, these factors create ananalysis environment that demands adaptive discovery and learning, orsensemaking, in conjunction with automated toolsets that create helpful
but fragmented hypotheses about situational conditions.An analysis
requirement therefore exists for the analysts to synthesize these fragmented
hypotheses into a complete situational picture or story. This paper describes
our efforts to survey and review a number of automated techniques thatmight be helpful to anaysts in combining such hypotheses into a composite
picture. Methods from legal analyses involving evidential analysis, financial
analyses involving disparate evidence, and intelligence and military
problems are discussed; each of these methods is analyzed in terms offeatures and benefits, as well as limitations.

The user interface consists of multiple views visualizing information from the
CI in different ways. Different CI actors are categorized in eleven separate
sectors and events are used to present meaningful incidents. Current,
past, and future states, together with geographical distribution and logicaldependencies, are presented to the user. The current state is visualized witha segmented circle to represent event categories. Geographical distributionof assets is displayed with a well-known map tool. Logical dependencies
are presented in a simple directed graph and users also have a timeline toreview past events.

9122-6, Session 2

9122-8, Session 2

Neural network based visualization ofcollaborations in a citizen science project

Visualization for multi-INT fusion using JVIEWThe objective of the user interface is to provide an easily understandable
overview of the status of the CI. Therefore, user testing methods, such as
visual walkthrough, informal walkthrough, and the Situation AwarenessGlobal Assessment Technique (SAGAT), were used in the evaluation of theuser interface. These sessions improved the overall quality and feasibility of
the user interface, enabling the creation of a use case based on real-world
data.

Erik Blasch, Alex Aved, James Nagy, Steve Scott, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States)

Alessandra M. M. Morais, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais(Brazil); Jordan M. Raddick, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States);
Rafael D. Coelho dos Santos, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas
Espaciais (Brazil)

Visualization is important for multi-intelligence fusion and we demonstrateissues for presenting physics-derived (i.e., hard) and human-derived (i.e.,soft) fusion results. Physics-derived solutions (e.g., imagery) typicallyinvolve sensor measurement that is objective, while human-derived(e.g., text) typically involve language processing. Both results can begeographically displayed for user fusion. Attributes of an effective andefficient display are not well understood, so we demonstrate issues andresults for filtering, correlation, and association for users - be they operatorsor analysts. Operators require near-real time solutions while analysts havethe opportunities of non-real time solutions for forensic analysis. In a use
case, we demonstrate examples using the JVIEW concept that has been
applied to piloting, space situation awareness, and cyber analysis. Using
the open-source JVIEW architecture, we showcase a big data solution for
multi-intelligence information fusion applications for context-enhanced
information fusion.

Citizen science projects are those in which users are asked to collaborate inscientific projects, usually by volunteering idle computer time for distributed
data processing efforts or by actively labeling or classifying information-- shapes of galaxies, whale sounds, historical records are all examples ofcitizen science projects in which users access a data collecting system tolabel or classify images and sounds.
In order to be successful, a citizen science project must captivate users
and keep them interested on the project and on the science behind it,
increasing therefore the time the users spend collaborating with the
project. Understanding behavior of citizen scientists and their interaction
with the data collection systems may help increase the involvement of theusers, categorize them accordingly to different parameters, facilitate theircollaboration with the systems, design better user interfaces, and allow
better planning and deployment of similar projects and systems.

9122-9, Session 2

Users behavior can be actively monitored or derived from their interaction
with the data collection systems. Records of the interactions can beanalyzed using visualization techniques to identify patterns and outliers.
In this paper we present some results on the visualization of more than
80 million interactions of almost 150 thousand users with the Galaxy Zoo I
citizen science project. Visualization of the attributes extracted from their
behaviors was done with a clustering neural network (the Self-OrganizingMap) and a selection of icon- and pixel-based techniques. These techniques
allows the visual identification of groups of similar behavior in several
different ways.

A visual analytic framework for sense-making ininvestigative intelligence
Guoray Cai, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Geoff
A. Gross, Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Dong Chen, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); James Llinas, Univ. at
Buffalo (United States)Intelligence analysis in defense and counter-terrorism has encountereda new level of complexity as data from sensors, human observers, web
sources, social media, and various databases need to be synthesized into
coherent hypotheses for investigating suspicious activities. This paper
focuses on a special type of intelligence analysis, investigative intelligence,
which heavily involves the use of human expert knowledge and judgment toperform sense-making activities, develop and synthesize hypotheses about
the data, and endeavor to understand emerging threats more thoroughly.
Our research was done in coordination with a State of the Art survey ofexisting methods of automated support to learning/discovery processes that
helped in providing a basis for our proposed visual analytic workbench.

9122-7, Session 2

Visualizing Common Operating Picture of Critical
Infrastructure
Lauri Rummukainen, Lauri Oksama, Jussi Timonen, Jouko Vankka,
National Defence Univ. (Finland)This paper presents a solution for visualizing the common operating picture467+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9122: Next-Generation Analyst II

Second, user correspondence with a set of profiles can be tracked. Finally,
this can be extended to match a user not just with a single profile but with(possibly different) profiles for each dimension tracked. The benefits of eachof these three approaches are discussed and the pathway to each solutions’implementation is considered.

Based on a cognitive task analysis of a threat analysis scenario in the
counter-insurgency domain, we identified two modes of analytical
work: (1) situation monitoring and awareness, and (2) investigative
analysis driven by priority intelligence requirements (PIR) received fromcommanders. We map the processes of the two modes of work roughly
to the “information foraging” loop and the “sense-making loop” of Pirolliand Card’s Sensemaking theory [1]. In both cases, analysts must mix expert
judgment with computational analysis in an opportunistic fashion in order
to be productive in dealing with overwhelming amounts of disparate,
conflicting, and often deceptive information. We present the design andimplementation of a visual analytic workbench that supports investigative
analysis. The visual side of our workbench environment implements a linked
multiview representation of geospatial, temporal, entity-link networks of
the underlying textual reports and observations; this multiview agility is also
linked to computational graph-matching and link analysis modules that areable to discover interesting links across entities and events, and interface tothe visual system.

9122-12, Session 3

Exploiting social media in future army operations:a chemical attack case study
Sue E. Kase, Kirk Ogaard, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Tanvir Al Amin, Tarek Abdelzaher, Univ. of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign (United States)
The prevalence of Social Media (SM) use globally and its growing
significance to the evolution of events resulting in social, political, andeconomic changes has attracted the attention of the Army and otheragencies charged with protecting national security interests. SM isa potential source of intelligence as it facilitates information sharing
relevant to strategic, operational, and tactical activities. SM could facilitate
engagement and shaping endeavors, inform and influence activities, andsimultaneously disseminate information and evaluate the effectivenessof the effort. Despite the potential value of SM to the Army, there are
significant technological barriers to leveraging its use. Because SM provides
real-time information streams, collection and analysis are difficult. Even
when collected and analyzed, the veracity of SM information presents a
serious problem. SM generated data has the potential to be particularly
inaccurate under circumstances when it might be of highest value to theArmy, for example, when a crisis evolves in an area of strategic interest
where no other means of observation are available. This paper describes
experiences with a new fact-finding technology called the Apollo
Information Distillation Engine that aims towards mitigating the problem
of inaccurate or falsified SM data. Apollo groups data into sets (or claims),
corroborating specific observations, then iteratively assesses both claim andsource credibility resulting in a ranking of claims by likelihood of occurrence.
From a tactical operations perspective, we demonstrate Apollo’s fact-finding
capabilities in detecting an event of interest and providing situationalawareness extracted from SM communications during the Syrian chemical
attack.

[1] P. Pirolli and S.K. Card, The sensemaking process and leverage points foranalyst technology. In the Proceedings of the 2005 International Conferenceon Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, USA, 2005

9122-10, Session 2

Human terrain exploitation suite: applying visual
analytics to open source information to improvetactical human terrain understanding
Timothy P. Hanratty, John Dumer, John T. Richardson, Mark Mittrick,Sue E. Kase, Heather Roy, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
This paper presents the concept development and demonstration of the
Human Terrain Exploitation Suite (HTES) under development at the US
Army Research Laboratory’s Tactical Information Fusion Branch. The HTES
is an amalgamation of four complementary visual analytic capabilities
that targets the exploitation of open source information. Open source
information, specifically news feeds, blogs and other social media, provides
unique opportunity to collect and examine salient topics and trends, andprovides valuable insights in determining opinions, values, cultural nuancesand other sociopolitical aspects within a military area of interest. The early
results of the HTES field study indicate that the tools greatly increased
the analysts’ ability to exploit open source information, but improvement
through greater cross-tool integration and correlation of their results isnecessary for further advances.

9122-13, Session 3

A qualitative model for quantifying
organizational data-sharing and integration
readiness across enterprise warehouses

9122-11, Session 3

Profile-based autonomous data feeding: anapproach to the information retrieval problem ina high communications latency environment

Mohammed M. Olama, Allen W. McNair, Sreenivas R. Sukumar,
James Nutaro, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
In the last three decades, there has been an exponential growth in the areaof information technology providing the information processing needsof data-driven businesses in government, science, and private industry
in the form of capturing, staging, integrating, conveying, analyzing, andtransferring data that will help knowledge workers and decision makers
make sound business decisions. Several levels of data integration havebeen identified across enterprise warehouses: Data access, data storage,
harmonized data, data matching, and data grouping. Each level ofintegration has its own set of complexities that requires a certain amountof time, budget, and resources to implement. Such levels of integration
are designed to address the technical challenges inherent in consolidating
the disparate data sources. In this paper, we introduce a qualitative modelfor quantifying an organization and data system’s readiness to share data
at a given data integration level. It is based largely on the establishedand accepted framework provided in the Data Management Association(DAMA) International Data Management Body of Knowledge (DMBOK). It
comprises several key data management functions and supporting activities,
together with several environmental elements that describe and apply to

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A high latency environment, such as a mission to another planet in the solar
system (or a craft, like Voyager, beyond the bounds of the solar system),can make data access very frustrating to a user. These environments require
several minutes for a command to reach the spacecraft and significant time
for the desired data to be returned. This is problematic for creating any
type of enjoyable user experience for a typical user and can be frustrating
for trained mission scientists and controllers as well. Techniques used inother (non-space) areas hold a possible solution to this problem. User
profiling has been shown to be effective at recommending books, movies
and other products based on past indications of interest, viewing patterns, acomparison with other users and purchases.
This paper proposes the use of user profiles for the selection andprioritization of data for transmission. This approach has three parts. First,
a profile can be created for an individual user and uploaded to the remote
craft. This may provide the best results for the particular user; however,it requires transmitting a separate profile up for each prospective user.

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Conference 9122: Next-Generation Analyst II

9122-17, Session 4each function. The developed model provides a pragmatic methodology
for evaluating integration risks. It scores the maturity of a system’s data
governance processes. The higher the computed scores, the better managed
the source data system and the greater the likelihood that the data system
can be brought in at a higher level of integration.

User-centric incentive design for participatory
mobile phone sensing
Wei Gao, Haoyang Lu, The Univ. of Tennessee Knoxville (UnitedStates)9122-14, Session 3

Mobile phone sensing applications rely on participation of individual
smartphone users. Participating users transmit their sensed data via 3G
or WiFi communications to a sensing server residing in the remote cloud,in which the sensed data is accumulated, processed, and published. Most
designs of mobile phone sensing assume voluntary user participation whichis unrealistic in practice. A straightforward solution to user incentive design
is to offer payments that compensate users’ sensing costs, but does notprioritize the benefits of participating users.

Virtual information exchange: enabling secure,dynamic, and policy-controlled interoperation
Geeth de Mel, David Wood, Seraphin Calo, Keith Grueneberg, IBM
Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States); David Braines, IBM
United Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom); Paul Sullivan, Intelpoint
Inc. (United States); Tien Pham, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Dinesh Verma, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (UnitedStates)In this paper, we propose a user-centric incentive design for participatory
sensing systems. Our basic idea is to enable a user to express her generictolerance to sensing costs by flexibly adjusting her preferred Level ofParticipation in Sensing (LoPS) at runtime, and further to exploit reductionof sensing costs with respect to a user’s LoPS as the user’s incentive. The
key insight behind this counter-intuitive design is the selfish but rational
nature of human beings. A user’s willingness to participate in sensing
is negatively proportional to her sensing costs, and a user consents toparticipate in a sensing task which is cost-free even if no incentive isprovided at all.

The Virtual Information Exchange (VIE) strives to enable coalition service
providers to share services and interoperate with other shared services
in a controlled and secure environment. Services may dynamically andselectively be made available from behind a VIE gateway which thenexposes those services to other gateways participating in the coalition
according to policy constraints. Services are then only accessible acrossgateways in a secure, controlled and monitored fashion. Services areregistered with semantic meta-data to enable matchmaking between
service consumers and providers. Further, services can be composed andrecomposed using a service template that describes the services it requires.
VIE supports a role-based onetime authentication so that effective policy
constraints could be placed at service level and leverage those whilst
selecting services to instantiate service templates. The gateways forman overlay network to create a distributed registry of services that canaccommodate dynamic changes to the network topology. Further, the VIE
provides a generic framework that can be easily configured to support
different domains, including the mobile ad hoc coalition scenarios weenvision. We will describe the details of the proposed architecture, use casescenarios and some early experience with the VIE.

We realize our design by proposing a universal sensing platform that is
integrated to the smartphones’ Operating Systems. This platform provides
techniques to generically quantify the requirements of sensing performance
specified by heterogeneous sensing tasks, and further customizes a taskindependent sensing plan at runtime according to the user’s LoPS andsystem resource conditions. This generic sensing plan is then taken as
input for reducing the sensing costs in various aspects, while satisfying therequirements of sensing performance.

9122-18, Session 4

Conversational sensing
Alun D. Preece, Christopher Gwilliams, Christos Parizas, Diego
Pizzocaro, Cardiff Univ. (United Kingdom); David Braines, IBM
United Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom)

9122-16, Session 3

Utilizing semantic wiki technology for
intelligence analysis at the tactical edge

Recent developments in sensing technologies, mobile devices, and contextaware user interfaces have made it possible to represent information fusionand situational awareness for Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance(ISR) activities as a conversational process among actors at or near thetactical edges of a network. Motivated by use cases in the domains ofcoalition operations and Company Intelligence Support Team (COIST)
tasks, we present an approach to information collection, fusion, and sensemaking based on the use of natural language (NL) and controlled natural
language (CNL) to support richer forms of human-machine interaction. The
approach uses a conversational protocol to facilitate a flow of messages
from NL to CNL and back again in support of interactions such as: turning
eyewitness reports from human observers into actionable information(from both soldier and civilian sources); fusing information from humans
and physical sensors (with associated quality metadata); and assisting
human analysts to make the best use of available sensing assets in an areaof interest (governed by management and security policies). We highlightthe use of CNL as a common formal knowledge representation for bothmachine and human agents to support reasoning, semantic information
fusion, and generation of rationale for inferences, in ways that remaintransparent to human users. We include preliminary results of experimentswith human subjects, exploring the utility of the CNL representation andvarious alternative styles for user feedback, including NL, CNL, and graphicalfeedback.

Eric G. Little, Modus Operandi, Inc. (United States)
Challenges exist for intelligence analysts to efficiently and accurately
process large amounts of data collected from a myriad of available
data sources. These challenges are even more evident for analysts who
must operate within small military units at the tactical edge. In suchenvironments, decisions must be made quickly without guaranteed accessto the kinds of large-scale data sources available to analysts working at
intelligence agencies. Improved technologies must be provided to analysts
at the tactical edge to make informed, reliable decisions, since this is often
a critical collection point for important intelligence data. To aid tacticaledge users, new types of intelligent, automated technology interfaces
are required to allow them to rapidly explore information associated with
the intersection of hard and soft data fusion, such as multi-INT signals,
semantic models, social network data, and natural language processing of
text. Abilities to fuse these types of data is paramount to providing decision
superiority. For these types of applications, we have developed BLADE.
BLADE allows users to dynamically add and delete data via a semantic
wiki, allowing for improved interaction between different users. Analysts
can see information updates in near-real-time due to a common underlying
set of semantic models that allows for updates on related data points fromindependent users tracking different items (persons, events, locations,organizations, etc.). The wiki can capture pictures, videos and related
information. New information added directly to pages is automatically
updated in the semantic model making that data integrated with otherusers’ pages.

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help@spie.org

Conference 9122: Next-Generation Analyst II

9122-19, Session 49122-22, Session Posters-Tuesday

Technology and the analyst: using ACT-R models
to understand collective sensemaking and therole of technology in mediating cognition

Application of the JDL data fusion process modelfor the condition monitoring of aircraft
Joseph T. Bernardo, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

Darren P. Richardson, Paul R. Smart, Univ. of Southampton (United
Kingdom); Katia Sycara, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)

Information fusion has been proposed as a way to enhance the diagnostic
capability of condition-based maintenance technologies. However, there
is a limited understanding of where the entire information fusion process
could and should be applied in the condition monitoring of aircraft.
Condition-based maintenance (CBM) refers to the philosophy of performing
maintenance when the need arises, based upon indicators of deteriorationin the condition of the machinery. Traditionally, CBM involves equipping
machinery with electronic sensors that continuously monitor components
and collect data for analysis. The addition of the multisensory capability ofhuman cognitive functions (i.e., sense-making, problem detection, planning,
adaptation, coordination, naturalistic decision making) to traditional
CBM may create a fuller picture of machinery condition. Future progressin information fusion will be made by increasing the understanding of avariety of information fusion processes and applying them to the conditionbased maintenance applications domain for aircraft. This research explores
the underlying processes identified in the Joint Directors of Laboratories(JDL) Data Fusion Process Model and describes their use in the condition
monitoring of aircraft.

The next generation of analysts will have an array of new and powerfultools at their disposal. However, despite the rapidly evolving technology,
the humans that form the core of the analysis-based activities will remain
largely unchanged. It follows that the technology will have to be designed
to suit their cognitive characteristics and limitations. Additionally, wheresuch analysts are working in groups, issues concerning social interaction andcommunication have to be taken into account. In view of these facts, there is
a compelling need to advance our understanding regarding the interaction
between cognitive, social and technological factors in collective problemsolving situations.
This paper proposes a computational model that can be used to perform
experimental studies into collective sensemaking. The model consistsof multiple instances of the ACT-R cognitive architecture, which is aneurobiologically-inspired computational model of human cognition.
ACT-R has been used to model cognitive performance in a broad varietyof task contexts; however, for the most part, its use has tended to focus on
the performance of individual subjects rather than groups of interacting
individuals. By using multiple ACT-R agents that are able to communicate
with one another, we are able to perform cognitive social simulations intocollective sensemaking. In particular, we can explore the interplay between
cognitive, social, informational and technological factors and the role theyplay in collective sensemaking performance within a dynamic information
landscape. We describe an experiment using this system and present somepreliminary results.

9122-23, Session Posters-Tuesday

Predicting student success using analytics incourse learning management systems
Mohammed M. Olama, Gautam Thakur, Allen W. McNair, Sreenivas
R. Sukumar, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
Predicting college student performance is crucial for both the student
and educational institutions. It can support timely intervention to prevent
students from failing a course and also to provide additional services. In thispaper, we present our efforts in conducting predictive analytics to academic
data available in the Learning Management System such as Moodle. We first
identified the data features useful for predicting student outcomes suchas students’ scores in homework assignments, quizzes, exams, and theiractivities in discussion forums, in addition to their total GPA (at the same
term they enrolled in the course). Then, Logistic Regression and Neural
Network predictive models are used to identify students as early as possiblethat are in danger of failing the course they are currently enrolled in. Thesemodels compute the likelihood of any given student failing (or passing)
the current course. The outcome is to prioritize students for intervention
and referral to academic advisors. Numerical results will be presented toevaluate and compare the performance of the developed models and theirpredictive accuracy.

9122-21, Session 4

Language and dialect identification in social
media analysis
Stephen Tratz, Douglas Briesch, Jamal Laoudi, Clare Voss, Melissa
Holland, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Historically unwritten Arabic dialects are increasingly appearing online insocial media texts and are often intermixed with other languages, including
Modern Standard Arabic, English, and French. The next generation analyst
will need new capabilities to quickly distinguish between the languages
used in a given text and to identify informative patterns of language
switching that occur within a user’s social network – patterns that may
correspond to socio-cultural aspects such as participants’ perceived andprojected group identity. This paper presents work to (i) collect texts written
in Moroccan Darija, a low-resource Arabic dialect from North Africa, and(ii) build an annotation tool that (iii) supports development of automatic
language and dialect identification and (iv) provides social and information
network visualizations of languages identified in tweet conversations.

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Conference 9123: Quantum Information and Computation XII
Thursday - Friday 8 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9123 Quantum Information and Computation XII

9123-1, Session 1

significance in time-gated hyper-entangled QKD; the magnified difficulties
for any potential eavesdropper are analyzed.

Superdense teleportation for space applications
Trent M. Graham, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates); Herbert J. Bernstein, Hampshire College (United States);
Hamid Javadi, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Barry J.
Geldzahler, NASA Headquarters (United States); Paul Kwiat, Univ. of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States)

9123-3, Session 1

The transfer of quantum information over long distances has long been agoal of quantum information science. Loss and random fluctuations are
particularly devastating to quantum communication channels, as quantum
states cannot be amplified and error correction protocols are presently very
difficult to implement. These limitations make communication of quantum
states to distant objects a difficult prospect and have thus far limited
quantum communication protocols to terrestrial applications. However,by encoding quantum states in degrees of freedom that are resistant toatmospheric turbulence our experiment might be adapted to earth-tospace communication. We are currently designing and implementing an
entanglement-assisted quantum state communication protocol which
can be adapted for deployment on the International Space Station (ISS).
Specifically, we are developing an experimental protocol known assuperdense teleportation (SDT) to communicate, using only a classicalcommunication channel, a quantum state jointly encoded in polarizationand temporal mode of a photon between two remote parties that sharean entangled photon pair. SDT has reduced classical information cost per
state parameter and simplified measurements compared with traditional
entanglement-assisted quantum communication techniques such as
quantum teleportation and remote state preparation. Leveraging fromthe results of our prototype experiment and other satellite and ISS laser
communication research, we will work toward flight validation of SDT for
the ISS, as a prelude to eventual near-earth and deep-space quantum
communication. We will also discuss current experimental results using SDT
to communicate polarization and spatial-mode quantum states between
remote parties.

Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) error correction is a one-way algorithm
that has become popular for quantum key distribution (QKD) postprocessing. As researchers delve into Gb/s QKD key production rates,
attached processors have become a necessity. Initially FPGAs were thepreferred attached platform used to provide real-time and high speed
processing. FPGAs have been instrumental in achieving Mb/s QKD
key production rates. But FPGAs can’t scale LDPC algorithms to Gb/s
performance. FPGAs lack sufficient amounts of memory, a critical resource
for LDPC algorithms, and the bulk of that memory is not n-ported whichis required for highly parallel implementations. Graphic processing units(GPUs) are alternative platforms that provide parallelism through many
processing elements and multiple GPUs can be supported by one computer.
Although GPUs have large global memories that can support many parallel
LDPC datasets, they have limited fast local memories that limit the sizeof a dataset. While privacy amplification dictates large datasets, about a
Mbit or more, error correction can be conducted on smaller datasets andthe accumulated results of multiple datasets combined into a larger one
needed for privacy amplification. LDPC performance of 100 Mb/s has beenreported on a GPU. Such performance requires use of GPU instructionsand GPU streaming. We present the details of our various LDPC GPU
implementations and the performance that each achieves. A 100 Mb/s LDPCGPU performance implies 10 GPUs to attain 1 Gb/s. The new generation ofGPUs is advertised as an order of magnitude faster, implying one GPU (or 2)
could achieve Gb/s performance.

LDPC error correction for Gb/s QKD
Alan Mink, Anastase Nakassis, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)

9123-4, Session 1
9123-2, Session 1

Polar codes in a QKD environment

Quantum state regeneration in entanglement
based QKD

Anastase Nakassis, Alan Mink, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)

Reinhard Erdmann, Advanced Automation Corp. (United States);David H. Hughes, Richard J. Michalak, John Malowicki, Paul Cook,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

The paper addresses the practical issues of adapting Polar code error
correction to the quantum key distribution (QKD) protocol. We also discuss
our approach to designing efficient Polar codes and present the error
correction performance results of those codes. We also present the detail ofvarious Polar code implementations and how concern over number precision
infulences those implementations. detail and of Polar code adaptations that
fit the requirements of the QKD model and addresses the practical issues inthe development of efficient decoding procedures.

The first Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) protocols were based on theprinciple of ‘single photon states on demand;’ the interception (andregenerated replacement) of an indivisible photon reveals its presence byreconciliation errors induced between intended users. Later QKD protocols
used entangled photon pairs, where eavesdropping is also revealed by the
induced errors. In both cases it is measurements performed in unknown
bases, which induce errors. Even for random selection of bases, intended
users can reconcile the matched choices to construct a secret sharedkey, but an eavesdropper cannot. It is generally assumed that variationof measurement bases is fundamental to operational QKD. It is shown
here that it is not, and that under certain conditions secure QKD can be
implemented without any variation of bases. An explicit example is provided
by time-gated detection, based on the inherent time delay induced by any
eavesdropper in measuring-regenerating a photon state. In a free-space
QKD application, relativity constrains signal propagation velocity such that
it is not possible for any regenerated photon to enter the gated time slot
established by the users. Any photon that does enter the proper time slot
is either the entangled partner, or an incorrect substitute (which induces
Bell Inequality violations established in Ekert protocols). The significant
difference is that no basis settings require variation, thereby demonstratingthat what is fundamental to entangled state QKD is the inability by an
Eavesdropper to deliver a properly regenerated photon. This has application

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9123-5, Session 1

Spectral-temporal-polarization encodingof photons for multi-user secure quantum
communication.
Eric Donkor, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
We describe a Quantum Key Distribution protocol that combines temporal-,
spectral- and polarization-encoding of photons for secure communication
over an interconnected network of users. Temporal encoding is used to
identify a user’s location or address on the network. Polarization encoding
is used to generate private cryptographic key. Polarization encoded
information is locally and randomly generated by users and exchanged only
over a dedicated secure channel. Spectral encoding allows for the detection·

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Conference 9123: Quantum Information and Computation XII

9123-8, Session 2of eavesdropping and tampering by a malicious agent. Temporal-spectral
signals sent from the network administrator (Alice) to a user are bright lightsource. On the other hand spectral-temporal signal from a network user(Bob) to the administrator (Alice) are single photons. Signals are sent acrossthe network as ordered light pairs. The ordering format is randomly chosen
and are revealed only at the time of key selection between the parties sothat a secure one-time cryptographic pad can be generated.

Dual compressible hybrid quantum secret sharing
schemes based on extended unitary operations
Hong Lai, Mehmet Orgun, Macquarie Univ. (Australia); Liyin Xue,
Australian Taxation Office (Australia); Jinghua Xiao, Beijing Univ. ofPosts and Telecommunications (China); Josef Pieprzyk, Macquarie
Univ. (Australia)

9123-6, Session 2

A crucial issue with hybrid quantum secret sharing schemes is the amountof data that is allocated to the participants. The smaller the amount ofallocated data, the better the performance of a scheme. Moreover, quantum
data is very hard and expensive to deal with, therefore, it is desirable to use
as little quantum data as possible. To achieve this goal, we first constructextended unitary operations by the tensor product of n,n>=2, basic unitary

Adaptive multicarrier quadrature division
modulation for continuous-variable quantum key
distribution
Laszlo Gyongyosi, Budapest Univ. of Technology and Economics(Hungary) and Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Hungary); Sandor
Imre, Budapest Univ. of Technology and Economics (Hungary)operations, and then by using those extended operations, we design
two quantum secret sharing schemes. The resulting dual compressible
hybrid quantum secret sharing schemes, in which classical data play acomplementary role to quantum data, range from threshold to accessstructure. Compared with the existing hybrid quantum secret sharing
schemes, our proposed schemes not only reduce the number of quantum
participants, but also the number of particles and the size of classical shares.
To be exact, the number of particles that are used

In a continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CVQKD) system, theinformation is conveyed by coherent state carriers. The quantum continuous
variables are sent through a quantum channel, where the presence ofthe eavesdropper adds a white Gaussian noise to the transmission. The
amount of tolerable noise and loss is a crucial point in CVQKD, since it
determines the overall performance of the protocol, including the secure
key rates and transmission distances. In this work, we propose the adaptive
multicarrier quadrature division (AMQD) modulation technique for CVQKD.
The method granulates the Gaussian random input into Gaussian subcarrier
continuous variables in the encoding phase, which are then decoded bya continuous unitary transformation. The subcarrier coherent variables
formulate Gaussian sub-channels from the physical link with strongly diverse
transmission capabilities, which leads to significantly improved transmission
efficiency, higher tolerable loss, and excess noise. We also investigate amodulation-variance adaption technique within the AMQD scheme, which
provides optimal capacity-achieving communication over the sub-channels
in the presence of a Gaussian noise.

to carry quantum data is reduced to 1 while the size of classical secret sharesalso is also reduced to $frac{l-2}{m-1}$ based on ((m+1,n’)) threshold andto (l-2)/(r_{2}) (where /(r_{2} is the number of maximal unqualified sets)based on adversary structure. Consequently, our proposed schemes cangreatly reduce the cost and difficulty of generating and storing EPR pairs
without weakening the security of quantum secret sharing.

9123-10, Session 3

Example of lumped parameter modeling of aquantum optics circuit

9123-7, Session 2

Paul J. Werbos, National Science Foundation (United States)

The braided single-stage protocol for quantumsecure communication

Is it ever possible for a simple lumped parameter model of a circuit toyield correct quantum mechanical predictions of its behavior, when thereis quantum entanglement between components of that circuit? This paper
shows that it is possible in a simple but important example – the circuit of
the original Bell’s Theorem experiments, for ideal polarizers.

Bhagyashri A. Darunkar, Pramode K. Verma, The Univ. of Oklahoma,
Tulsa (United States)

Correct predictions emerge from two alternative simple models, basedon classical Markov Random Fields across space-time. These models are
essentially a translation of the picture of Klyshko, widely used in the workof Yanhua Shih and Morton Rubin, into formal, classical lumped parametermodels. Exact agreement with quantum mechanics does not violate Bell’sTheorem itself, because the interplay between initial and final outcomes inthese calculations does not meet the classical definition of time-forwards
causality. Both models raise interesting questions for future research. The
final section discusses several possible directions for following up on theseresults, both in lumped system modeling and in more formal and generalapproaches.

Securing information in transit is an increasingly important need of themodern society. Quantum cryptography is the only known means to provide
unconditional security. Contemporary cryptographic solutions basedon the BB’84 protocol rely on the availability of single photons to carryinformation. This constraint restricts the distance and speed over whichquantum cryptography can be offered, resulting in limiting its application
to Quantum Key Distribution over short distances as opposed to quantum
communication.
This paper presents the concept of a braided single-stage protocol for
quantum-secure communication. It is based on the three-stage protocol thatuses a multi-photon approach to provide quantum-secure communication.
The multi-photon three-stage protocol results in the system not sufferingfrom the distance and speed limitation associated with the BB’84 protocol.
However, the three-stage protocol requires information to traverse thetransmission link between the two communicating endpoints three times.
The concept of braiding results in the protocol transferring quantum-secure
information in just one step without the need for it going back and forththree times. The braided single-stage protocol requires the use of thethree-stage protocol technique just once, initially, to exchange an initializing
vector prior to its operation.

9123-11, Session 3

Implications of the Landauer limit for quantum
logic
Fabian M. Mihelic, The Univ. of Tennessee Graduate School of
Medicine (United States)
The design of any system of quantum logic must take into account the
implications of the Landauer limit for logical bits. Useful computation
implies a deterministic outcome, and so any system of quantum
computation must produce a final deterministic outcome, which in

The braided single-stage protocol has been implemented in the laboratory
using optical devices and components over free space. In brief the proposed
protocol capitalizes on strengths of the three stage protocol and while using
the concept of braiding to transfer quantum-secure information in a single
step.

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Conference 9123: Quantum Information and Computation XII

a quantum computer requires a quantum decision that produces adeterministic qubit. All information is physical, and any bit of information
can be considered to exist in a physicality represented as a decision
between the two wells of a double well potential in which the energy
barrier between the two wells must be greater than kT•ln2. Any proposedsystem of quantum computation that does not result in such a deterministic
outcome can only be considered stochastically as a probability distribution(i.e. a wave function). An example of such determinism in a quantum logic
system is theorized to exist in the DNA molecule, where the decoherence ofquantum decision results in an enantiomeric shift in the deoxyribose moiety
that is appropriate to the Landauer limit.

many kilometers with high fidelity, essential for a scalable, long-distancequantum network.

9123-14, Session 3

A 3D topological insulator quantum dot for
optically controlled quantum memory andquantum computing
Hari P. Paudel, Michael N. Leuenberger, Univ. of Central Florida(United States)

9123-12, Session 3

We present the model of a quantum dot (QD) consisting of a sphericalcore-bulk heterostructure made of 3D topological insulator (TI) materials,
such as PbTe/Pb_{0.31} Sn_{0.69}Te, with bound massless and helical Weylstates existing at the interface and being confined in all three dimensions.
The number of bound states can be controlled by tuning the size of the QD
and the magnitude of the core and bulk energy gaps, which determine theconfining potential. We demonstrate that such bound Weyl states can berealized for QD sizes of few nanometers. In contrast to topologically trivial
semiconductor QDs, the confined massless Weyl states in 3D TI QDs are
localized at the interface of the QD and exhibit a mirror symmetry in theenergy spectrum. We find that strict optical selection rules give rise to the
Faraday effect due to Pauli exclusion principle. We show that the semiclassical Faraday effect can be used to read out spin quantum memory.
When a 3D TI QD is embedded inside a cavity, the single-photon Faraday
rotation provides the possibility to implement optically mediated quantum
teleportation and quantum information processing with 3D TI QDs, where
the qubit is defined by either an electron-hole pair, a single electron spin, ora single hole spin in a 3D TI QD. Remarkably, the combination of inter- andintraband transition gives rise to a large dipole moment of up to 450 Debye.
The strong-coupling regime can be reached for a cavity quality factor ofQ≈10^4 in the infrared wavelength regime.

Building two-photon qubit from incoherent
thermal fields
Tao Peng, Hui Chen, Jane Sprigg, Yanhua Shih, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
During the last 20 years, quantum computing has attracted much attention
due to its promising super-fast calculation in those algorithms that needexhaustion, such as factoring a large number. Similar to classical computer,quantum computing also need binary basis, which are implemented with
two orthogonal quantum states called qubits. To perform a real quantum
computing, a large number n-qubits are required. The n-qubit states
construct a Hilbert space with dimension of N=2^n. One promising way tobuild an N-qubit system is using entangled photons. However, produce alarge number n-photon entangled state is still a challenge.
Recently, a number of experiments successfully simulated entangled
photons’ behaviors with thermal light, and acquired similar quantum effects.
These inspire us using thermal photons to build n-qubits. An n-qubit system
can be built with n independent and incoherent thermal fields. Each field
can be horizontal or vertical polarized. Although there are still challenges
and debates, this reported experiment provides a quit interesting andexciting result.

9123-15, Session 4

The reported experiment is a principle demonstration of n-photon
qubit of thermal light. In this experiment, with the help of Franson-type
interferometer and the positive-negative fluctuation correlation protocol,
two qubits are prepared from two incoherent and orthogonal polarized
thermal fields. We demonstrated a classic Franson interference in which apair of photons from incoherent thermal fields takes the long-long path and/or the short-short path of the interferometer only. The observed visibility of
two-photon interference exceeds 71% indicating a Bell type correlation in
space-time variables.

New results in remote quantum sensing
Gerald N. Gilbert, The MITRE Corp. (United States)
It was shown several years ago that the use of photonic N00N states asprobe signals for remote quantum sensing intended to achieve increased
phase sensitivity encounters problems when realistic atmospheric loss istaken into account. It was shown that in the presence of non-vanishing
photon attenuation the Heisenberg limit is never achieved, and that
attenuated N00N states actually produce worse phase estimates thanequally attenuated N-photon separable states unless the transmittance ofthe medium is sufficiently high. In this talk we examine a new approach that
may circumvent these problems thus possibly enabling remote quantum
sensing in realistic environments.

9123-13, Session 3

Progress towards a quantum memory with
telecom-wavelength conversion
Daniel T. Stack, Qudsia Quraishi, Patricia J. Lee, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)

9123-16, Session 4

Characterization of photons generated in
spontaneous parametric down-conversion

Fiber-based transmission of quantum information over long distances
may be achieved using quantum memory elements and quantum repeater
protocols. However, atom-based quantum memories typically involve
interactions with light fields outside the telecom window where attenuationin optical fibers is at a minimum. We report on progress towards a quantum
memory based on the generation of 780 nm spontaneously emitted
single photons by an off-resonant Raman beam interacting with a cold Rb
ensemble. The single photons are then frequency-converted into telecom
photons (via difference frequency generation in a PPLN crystal), sent
through a 13 km fiber, and then converted back to 780 nm photons (via sum
frequency generation in a PPLN crystal). Finally, the atomic state is read out
via the interaction of another off-resonant Raman beam with the quantum
memory. With such a system, it will be possible to realize a long-lived
quantum memory that will allow transmission of quantum information over473

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Mark Bashkansky, Igor Vurgaftman, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); J. Reintjes, Sotera Defense Solutions (UnitedStates)Low-photon-number sources can exhibit non-classical and counterintuitive
behavior that can be exploited in the developing field of quantum
technology. Single photons play a special role in this arena since they
represent the ultimate low-photon-number source. They are considered an
important element in various applications such as quantum key distribution,
optical quantum information processing, quantum computing and intensity
measurement standards. Other applications in this developing field are yet
to be discovered. True deterministic sources of single photons on demand·

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Conference 9123: Quantum Information and Computation XII

9123-19, Session 4

are currently an area of intensive research, but remain under development.
As a result, researchers commonly default to the well-establishedworkhorse: spontaneous parametric down-conversion generating entangled
signal-idler pairs. Since this source is statistical in nature, it is common touse a detected idler photon to herald the production of a signal photon. The
need exists to determine the quality of the single photon state generated
in the heralded signal beam. Quite often, the literature reports a “heralded
second-order coherence function” of the signal photons conditionedon the idler photons using readily available single-photon detectors. In
this work, we examine the relevance of this technique to single-photon
characterization and the consequences of the fact that the most commonlyused single-photon detectors are not photon-number resolving. Our results
show that this method using non-photon-resolving detectors can only be
used to characterize certain particular properties of the quantum state.

Quantum walk search factors in the regime of
weak measurement
Debabrata Ghoshal, George Mason Univ. (United States)

9123-17, Session 4

Our previous work brought some interesting results of the discrete Quantum
Walks in the regime of Weak Measurement (QWWM). Using the knowledgeof such results of QWWM, we are now exploring the search algorithms
and investigating the factors associated with such walk. The study of suchfactors like dimensionality, connectivity of the dataset and disorder are
already studied by others in the context of general quantum walks. It is ourinterest to show the similarities and/or differences of such factors of generalquantum walks with QWWM. The subject of decoherence in quantum walks
is another challenging research topic at present. We are also exploring the
topic of decoherence in QWWM.

Phase manipulation in fluctuation-fluctuation
correlation of thermal light9123-20, Session 4

Hui Chen, Tao Peng, Jane Sprigg, Yanhua Shih, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)

Analysis of quantum dot superlattice of quantum
information theory

The high-order correlation of thermal light originates from the non-trivial
correlation of intensity fluctuations.

Subhamoy Singha Roy, JIS College of Engineering (India)
The thickness and the doping dependences of the field emission from all
the aforementioned cases have been studied for the purpose of relative
comparison, taking GaxAsyP1-y and AlAs lattice matched to InP quantum
wire superlattice (QWSL) as an example.

The intensity fluctuations are caused by mutual correlation of difference
subfields within a thermal source, i.e. the phase differences between
subfields induces the intensity fluctuations.
Although the phases of individual subfields are not able to be manipulated
or measured during the second- or higher-order joint detections, theirphase differences are actually controllable.

9123-21, Session 4

In the reported experiment, the phase differences between two independent
subfields are precisely manipulated, and a sinusoidal correlation function isobserved in fluctuation-fluctuation correlation measurement. The visibility isclose to 100%.

Quantum hyper-entanglement based sensor
arrays with reduced measurement time andenhanced signal to interference ratios

The study can be easily extended to N-order(more than 2) correlations justby manipulating the phase differences among N subfields.

James F. Smith III, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

The experiment demonstrates the fundamental physics of intensity
fluctuations and a novel application in high-order correlation, which isgiving an exciting 100% visibility.

An array consisting of M sensors made up of quantum mechanicaltransmitter-detector pairs (TMPs) is considered. Each transmitter-detector
pair makes use of one signal and one ancilla photon which are quantum
hyper-entangled. The optical or infrared frequency signal photon will betransmitted and used to probe the propagation environment while theancilla photon will be maintained within the detector. The effect of noisein every mode as well as loss is included. The signal photon will experienceclassical loss and each ancilla photon will suffer a low level of loss. Forming
an array offers the further advantage of a greater reduction in measurement
time. It is shown mathematically that in the large d limit, where d is thenumber of modes, that different TMPs do not interfere with each other
implying they can be put close together, i.e., the signal to interference
ratio (SIR) is enhanced by a factor of d. Entanglement provides a kind ofquantum isolation between TMPs. This permits an enormous reductionin the measurement time by a factor of d times M, reducing imaging to asnapshot at certain ranges. Closed form results for the reduced density
operator, probability of detection, probability of false alarm, signal to noise
ratio (SNR), SIR, symmetrized logarithmic derivative, quantum Fisher
information (QFI), quantum-Cramer-Rao lower bound (QCRLB), quantum
Chernoff bound (QCB), and number of required detections based on the QFIand QCB are provided.

9123-18, Session 4

Deterministic generation of many-photon GHZ
states using quantum dots in a cavity
Michael N. Leuenberger, Mikhail Erementchouk, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States); Ahmed Elhalawany, CREOL, The College of
Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
We propose a novel theoretical scheme based on the off-resonantinteraction of N photons with four InAs/GaAs semiconductor quantum dots
(QDs) in an AlGaAs microdisk cavity to create many-photon GHZ states
deterministically in the polarization degree of freedom at a wavelength of
1.5 microns for N up to 60, without the need of any projective measurement
or local unitary operation. Taking advantage of off-resonant interaction, thetime evolution of the N-photon state is robust against decoherence due toexciton-phonon and hyperfine interactions.
However, decoherence due to leakage of the photons out of the cavity is
not negligible and is therefore considered. Remarkably, by taking advantage
of a cascaded multi-level Landau-Zener transition, we are able to reduce
the GHZ state generation time to below 100 ps for N up to 60, which allows
for the creation of GHZ states with N up to 60 in cavities with Q=10^6 withfidelity above 70% including decoherence due to leakage.

9123-22, Session 5

Absence of local energy in elementary spin
systems at low temperature

Our method paves the way to the miniaturization of many-photon GHZ statesources to the nanoscale regime, with the possibility to integrate them on acomputer chip based on semiconductor materials.

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Michael R. Frey, Bucknell Univ. (United States); Masahiro Hotta,
Tohoku Univ. (Japan)·

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Conference 9123: Quantum Information and Computation XII

Local energy in a component of a multipartite quantum system is the
maximum energy extractable by a quantum operation applied locally justto that component. Systems of Heisenberg spin-1/2 particles in thermal
equilibrium with a heat reservoir occupy a quantum Gibbs state with awell-defined temperature. In this setting, for general (Kraus, operator-sum)quantum operations applied to a single particle, we find without exceptionin each of many cases considered that the system temperature must exceed
a non-zero threshold for local energy to be present; below this thresholdlocal energy is absent. This threshold varies with the system, depending on
the degree of particle coupling and the strength of any external magnetic
field. This threshold for local energy is not restricted to systems of just a
few particles. In fact, in cases of ring and star spin coupling topologies,
local energy is absent at low temperature for systems of arbitrarily many
particles.

graphical network. Directionality in such networks leads to a categoryinterpretation of the calculus, but our thesis in this talk is that it is mostconvenient to consider graphical calculi (comparable to tensor networks but
more general) and to understand that they fit into categorical frameworks
in a multiplicity of ways. We will give examples of applications of thesetechniques to the Fibonacci model in quantum computing, to the formalismof teleportation and to other aspects of entanglement.

9123-23, Session 5

Paul Benioff, Argonne National Lab. (United States)

Maximal proper acceleration and the quantumclassical boundary

A stronger foundation for earlier work on local availability of mathematics
and scaling, and new results, will be described. Gauge theory considerations
lead to use of local mathematical universes, U_{x} at each point ,x, of aflat 4 dimensional manifold, M. Each U_{x} contains representations ofmathematical systems that include numbers in their description. Coordinate
systems, defined by charts, that map M to {R}^{4}_{x} are included. For
each pair, x,y of points of M and each type, S, of mathematical system,
isomorphisms, F_{S,y,x}, that map a structure, S_{x} onto S_{y} in U_{y},define the notion of “same value as” between elements of S_{x} and S_{y}.

9123-26, Session 5

Global effects of mathematical locality andnumber scaling on physical systems and on spacetime

Howard E. Brandt, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
I first review the physical basis for the universal maximal proper
acceleration. Next, I introduce a new formulation for a relativistic scalarquantum field which generalizes the canonical theory to include the limiting
proper acceleration. This field is then used to construct a simple model ofan uncorrelated many-body system. I next argue that for a macroscopic
object consisting of more than Avogadro’s number of atoms, any supposed
quantum state of the object is negligibly small, so that for all practical
purposes, the object is best described by classical mechanics. Thus, a new
explanation is offered for the quantum-classical transition and the absenceof quantum superposition of macroscopic objects in the everyday world.

Global mathematical entities that belong to no U_{x} are defined. These
include coordinate charts, fields, wave packets, etc. Any entity represented
as a function with domain M, or is an integral over space time is included.
Global coordinate charts, phi, are defined where for each y in M, phi(y) is alocation in {R}^{4}_{y}. For each point, x, phi is equivalent to a coordinate
system on {R}^{4}_{x} in U_{x}.
Space time dependent scaling of numbers expresses the freedom to choose
scaled number structures of each type at each point of M. The existence ofscaled structures of each number type, satisfying relevant axioms, follows,
provided basic operations and relations are also scaled.

9123-24, Session 5

A quantum benchmark for the D-Wave computer

As noted in earlier talks, Number scaling is described as a scalar boson field.
Theoretical descriptions of quantum systems and geometry are affected.
The new result is that scaling distorts maps of global coordinate charts onto{R}^{4}_{x} in each U_{x}. The result is a manifold in U_{x} that represents
a distorted space time. With scaling, this is the global arena for describing
physical dynamics and kinematics in U_{x}.

Samuel J. Lomonaco Jr., Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States); Louis H. Kauffman, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago(United States); Omar Shehab, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)
Simon’s algorithm is a quantum algorithm that solves Simon’s Problem
in polynomial time. On the other hand, it is proven that every classicalalgorithm that solves Simon’s Problem will take at least exponential time tocomplete its task. We propose running Simon’s algorithm on the D-Wave. If
the resulting running time of the algorithm scales as a polynomial, then thisis a strong indicator that the D-Wave is actually a quantum computer.

9123-27, Session 5

Topological quantum computation of the DoldThom functor
Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

9123-25, Session 5

A possible topological quantum computation of the Dold-Thom functor
is presented. The method that will be used is the following: a) Certain
1+1-topological quantum field theories valued in symmetric bimonoidal
categories are converted into stable homotopical data, using a machinery
recently introduced by Elmendorf and Mandell; b) we exploit, in thisframework, two recent results (independent of each other) on refinementsof Khovanov homology: our refinement into a module over the connective
k-theory spectrum and a stronger result by Lipshitz and Sarkar refining
Khovanov homology into a stable homotopy type; c) starting from the
Khovanov homotopy the Dold-Thom functor is constructed; d) the fullconstruction is formulated as a topological quantum algorithm. It isconjectured that the Jones polynomial can be described as the analyticalindex of certain Dirac operator defined in the context of the Khovanov
homotopy using the Dold-Thom functor. As a line for future research isinteresting to study the corresponding supersymmetric model for which the
Khovanov-Dirac operator plays the role of a supercharge.

Graphical calculi for quantum information andquantum topology
Louis H. Kauffman, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago (United States);Samuel J. Lomonaco Jr., Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)
Such calculi were first invented by Roger Penrose as ‘abstract tensor
calculus’ and have many uses in physics and in combinatorial mathematics.
These calculi are very close to methods used in knot theory, quantum
topology and category theory. This talk will discuss such structures andhow they can be used to illuminate many aspects of quantum information
including topological quantum computing, teleportation, measurement,
entanglement and quantum knots. The key to this approach is to represent atensor by a planar node or glyph and its indices by graphical edges incident
to the nodes. edges that are incident to two nodes correspond to paired
tensor indices and would be summed over in an evaluation of the resulting475+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9123: Quantum Information and Computation XII

9123-28, Session 5

Quantum walk in optical quantum device
Nan Wu, Haixing Hu, Ping Xu, Fangmin Song, Nanjing Univ. (China);
Xiangdong Li, New York City College of Technology (United States)
and City Univ. of New York (United States)
We study a probability model of quantum walk by using an integrated
optical quantum device, which can demonstrates the quantum-walk based
searching algorithm in 2-D glued trees within the device. We discuss thatthe integrated optical device can be a good candidate to implement thequantum-walk algorithm.

9123-29, Session 5

Logical synchronization: how evidence andhypotheses steer atomic clocks
John M. Myers, Harvard Univ. (United States)
Based on a recent proof of unknowability in the choice a wave function
to explain given evidence, we show that explanations of clock readings,
whether framed in concepts of quantum theory or in a metric theoryof gravitation, involve hypotheses beyond the reach of logic, subject totesting and subsequent revision in an endless cycle. While explanations are
subject to an endless evolution, the back-and-forth of hypothesis making
and evidence gathering to do with the steering of atomic clocks proceeds
within fixed “machinery,” cartooned here by a Turing machine modified
to communicate, subject to phasing constraints on its reception of logicalsymbols. In an example of clock-carrying spaceships, phasing constraints
impact communications necessary to the gathering of evidence to be
explained by a metric tensor field, while a hypothesized metric tensor fieldunderpins an aiming point toward which to steer the spaceships with theirclocks so as to maintain the phasing constraints.
Variation in spacetime curvature is shown to limit the bandwidth of a
feedback loop that steers the spaceships and their clocks.

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X
Thursday - Friday 8 –9 May 2014
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9124 Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X

9124-1, Session 1

is computed out automatically by endmember extraction algorithm, andthe Euclid distance combined with the shape spectral angle cosine is used
to define the growing rule. At last, a new growing pattern is presented
according to the influence of waves. Not only the high dimensions
information is taken into consideration in this algorithm, but also its
automaticity is improved. The results on marked hyperspectral image andthe actual oil spill hyperspectral images all prove the efficiency of thealgorithm.

A theory of least squares target-specified virtual
dimensionality in hyperspectral imagery
Drew Paylor, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)
Virtual dimensionality (VD) has been widely used to determine thenumber of endmembers. Unfortunately, VD was originally defined as
the number of spectrally distinct signatures which were not specificallydefined. Accordingly, a spectrally distinct signature does not necessarily
imply an endmember. In other words, VD varies with how a spectrally
distinct signature is defined. As a result, if a spectrally distinct signature
is defined as an anomaly, VD for anomalies is certainly different from
VD for endmembers. This paper develops a theory for least squares (LS)target-specified VD where a spectrally distinct signature is defined by anLS-generated target signature which can be generated by an LS-based
unsupervised target detection algorithm. Three such LS-based algorithms
are of interest, automatic target generation process (ATGP), unsupervised
non-negativity constrained least squares (UNCLS) and unsupervised
fully constrained least squares (UFCLS). The determination of VD is thenformulated as a binary hypothesis testing problem where a Neyman Pearson
test is performed to see if target signatures generated by ATGP, UNCLS or
UFCLS pass or fail the test for each spectral band. When a test fails for aparticular spectral band, it indicates that there is a target signature present
in this band. The value of VD is then determined by the number of spectral
bands that the test fails. In order to evaluate the theory, synthetic and real
hyperspectral image experiments are conducted to perform analysis.

9124-4, Session 1

High-resolution remote sensing image restoration
based on double-knife-edge method
Shaohui Zhang, Lin Wang, Qiuhua Luo, Xiaopeng Shao, Xidian Univ.
(China)The Point Spread Function (PSF) is one of the key indicators characterizing
the signal transfer characteristics of an imaging system. Edge method isapplicable to calculate the PSF of the remote sensing imaging systems
for its easy implement and robust noise-resistant ability. In this paper, aDouble-Knife-Edge method is proposed to recover the degraded images
using a precise estimated PSF of the imaging system. The exact motion-blurdirection is estimated by image differentiation firstly. Two orthogonal edges,
one of which is in the same direction as the main motion-blur, are pickedup from the candidate edges via Hough transform and employed to obtainedge spread functions (ESF). Derived from these ESFs, a more accurate
PSF is used to deconvolute the degraded image by an image restoration
algorithm based on total variation (TV) deconvolution which is capable of
suppressing the artifacts and noise. The experiment results show that thisalgorithm is adaptive and efficient to reconstruct remote sensing images,
and the reconstructed image has better PSNR, MSE and MTF than theoriginal degraded image.

9124-2, Session 1

Investigation on the GPS single scattering from a
2D largescale sea surface
Yiwen Wei, Li-Xin Guo, Xidian Univ. (China)

9124-5, Session 1

Global positioning system (GPS) signals reﬂected from the ocean surface
can be used for various remote sensing purposes. In this paper, we develop
a facet model to simulate the received GPS single from a 2-D largecale sea
surface. In this model, the sea surface is envisaged as a two-scale proﬁleon which the long waves are locally approximated by planar facets. The
microscopic proﬁle within a facet is assumed to be represented by a set ofsinusoidal ripple patches. The complex reﬂective function of each modiﬁed
facet is evaluated by a modiﬁed formula of the original Bass and Fuks’
two-scale model, in which the phase factor of each facet is with the capillary
wave modiﬁcation. The scattering ﬁeld and the bistatic scattering coe?cientof facet model is derived in detail. With received GPS single, we give a
detail analysis of the polarization property, the scattering property of GPS
scattering signal over the sea surface.

Scattering characteristics of Gaussian beam fromtwo dimensional dielectric rough surfaces basedon the two-scale method
Longxiang Linghu, Zhensen Wu, Yuanyuan Zhang, Xidian Univ.
(China)The scattering characteristic of paraxial Gaussian beam from twodimensional dielectric rough sea surface is studied in this paper.
The Kirchhoff approximation theory and the small perturbation
approximation(SPA) theory for rough surface scattering by an incident
Gaussian beam instead of a plane wave are developed based onconventional Kirchhoff scattering theory, conventional SPA scattering
theory and plane wave spectrum expansion method. As a application, The
Two-scale Method based on Kirchhoff theory and SPA theory is applied to
calculate the backscattering radar cross section of Gaussian beam scatteringfrom dielectric rough surfaces change with the scattering azimuth angle,the frequency and the wind speed. A close form for the normalized radarcross section is derived when the linear dimension of rough surface patchis larger twice than the beam size. In the same scattering conditions, we
compared the backscattering radar cross section between the Gaussian
beam and plane wave to prove that our results are correct. The results showthat the radio between the beam size and the surface height correlation
length play an important role in the scattering characteristic of the Gaussian
beam for two dimensional dielectric rough surface. It is shown that provided
the incident Gaussian beam size is much larger compared with the surface
height correlation length, the normalized scattering cross section is thesame as for an incident plane wave.

9124-3, Session 1

Applying the hyperspectral region growing
algorithm to oil segmentation
Meiping Song, Wei Xu, Dalian Maritime Univ. (China); Haimo Bao,
Dalian Nationalities Univ. (China)
It has always been a hot topic to separate the hyperspectral image
effectively. Although there are already many common method for thisproblem, most of them can not work well for the airborne hyperspectral
image for oil spill on the sea. A high dimensional region growing
segmentation algorithm is prompted for the hyperspectral image,considering the features of oil spill image. In this method, the original seed477

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X

9124-6, Session 1

algorithm is designed to deal with this problem. This algorithm begins
with a 2D wavelet transform in spatial domain. After that, the obtained
spectral vectors are clustered into different subsets based on their statistics
characteristics, and a 1D-DCT is performed on every subset. The classified
algorithm consists of three steps to make sure the statistics features fully
used. In step1, a mean based clustering is done to obtain basic subsets.
Step2 refines clustering by the range of spectral vector curve. Spectral
vector curves, whose maximum and minimum values are located in different
intervals, are separated in step3. Since vectors in one subset are close toeach other both in values and statistic characteristics, which means a highrelationship within one subset, the performance of DCT can be very close
to KLT, but the computation complexity is much lower. After the DWT and
DCT in spatial and spectral domain, an appropriate 3D-SPIHT image coding
scheme is applied to the transformed coefficient to get a bit stream within
scalable property. Results show that the proposed algorithm retains all
the desirable features of compared state-of-art algorithms despite its highefficiency, and can also have a high performance over the non-classified
ones at the same bitrate.

Multidimensional edge detection operators
Sungwook Youn, Chulhee Lee, Yonsei Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
In remote sensing, modern sensors produce multi-dimensional images.
For example, hyperspectral images contain hundreds of spectral images.
In many image processing applications, segmentation is an important stepsince it divides an image into meaningful homogeneous regions. Usually,
image segmentation has been developed for one-dimensional images. For
multi-dimensional images, the output images of spectral band images are
combined under certain rules or using decision fusions. Also, edge detection
is a difficult task since images may contain complex scenes without clear
boundaries.
In this paper, we proposed a new edge detection algorithm for multidimensional images using second-order statistics. First, we reduce thedimension of input images. For example, we can use principal component
analysis to reduce the dimension. Then we apply multi-dimensional edge
detection operators which utilize second-order statistics. Experimental
results show promising results compared to conventional one-dimensionaledge detectors such as the Sobel filter.

9124-9, Session 2

Hyperspectral data compression using lasso
algorithm for spectral decorrelation

9124-7, Session 2

Amedeton Simplice Alissou, Ye Zhang, Harbin Institute ofTechnology (China)

Efficient lossy compression implementations ofhyperspectral images: tools, hardware platforms,
and comparisons

Among discrete orthogonal transforms, Karhunen-Loeve transform (KLT)
achieves the most optimal spectral decorrelation for hyperspectral datacompression with minimum mean square error. A common approach for
those spectral decorrelation transform techniques such as KLT is to selectm coefficient using some threshold value and then treating the rest of thecoefficients as zero, this will result in loss of information. In order to preserve
more information on small target data, this paper focused on a newtechnique called joint KLT-Lasso. The Lasso was applied to KLT coefficient.
Sparse loadings were obtained using the Lasso constraint on KLT regression
coefficients and more coefficients were shrunk to exact zero. The goal of our
new method is to introduce a limit on the sum of the absolute values of the
KLT coefficients and in which some coefficients consequently become zero
without using any threshold value. A simulation on different hyperspectral
data showed encouraging results.

Jose F. Lopez, Univ. de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain)
Efficient onboard satellite hyperspectral image compression represents anecessity and a challenge for current and future space missions. Therefore,
it is mandatory to provide hardware implementations for this type ofalgorithms in order to achieve the constraints required for onboard
compression. In this work, we implement the Lossy Compression for
Exomars (LCE) algorithm on an FPGA by means of high-level synthesis(HSL) in order to shorten the design cycle. Specifically, we use CatapultC
HLS tool to obtain a VHDL description of the LCE algorithm fromC-language specifications. Two different approaches are followed for HLS:on one hand, introducing the whole C-language description in CatapultCand on the other hand, splitting the C-language description in functional
modules to be implemented with CatapultC, connecting and controllingthem by an RTL description code without HLS. In both cases the goal is toobtain an FPGA implementation. We explain the several changes applied
to the original C-language source code in order to optimize the results
obtained by CatapultC for both approaches. Experimental results show
low area occupancy of less than 15% for a SRAM-based Virtex-5 FPGA anda maximum frequency above 80 MHz. Additionally, the LCE compressor
was implemented into an RTAX2000S antifuse-based FPGA, showing an
area occupancy of 75% and a frequency around 53 MHz. All these serve
to demonstrate that the LCE algorithm can be efficiently executed on an
FPGA onboard a satellite. A comparison between both implementation
approaches is also provided. The performance of the algorithm is finallycompared with implementations on other technologies, specifically agraphics processing unit (GPU) and a single-threaded CPU.

9124-10, Session 2

Wavelet-based compression of multichannel
climate data
Ershad Sharifahmadian, Yoonsuk Choi, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)
To compress multichannel climate data, the wavelet subband arranging
technique is proposed.
The proposed technique is based on the wavelet transform, and is designed
to deal with the large amount of multichannel climate data for transmission,and real-time analysis.
At first, the wavelet transform is applied on multichannel climate data. Then,to simultaneously compress the data, the wavelet subbands of channels
should be arranged appropriately. To arrange the wavelet subbands, thelargest threshold from every channel is calculated.

9124-8, Session 2

Lossy hyperspectral image compression using
improved classified DCT and 3DSPIHT
Keyan Wang, Zifan Hu, Ran Han, Jing Zhang, Yunsong Li, Xidian
Univ. (China)

A partial ordering of the wavelet coefficients plays a key role in the
proposed approach. The partial ordering is performed based on a set
partitioning sorting, ordered bit stream transmission, and exploitation ofself-similarity across the wavelet subbands. In fact, the wavelet coefficientsare organized in hierarchies.

An improved classified DCT-based hyperspectral image compression
algorithm is proposed. As variation of pixel values in one band of thehyperspectral image is large, the traditional DCT is not very efficient forspectral decorrelation(compared with the optimal KLT). The proposed

In comparison with other compression methods, the proposed technique isfaster due to the evaluation way of the wavelet coefficients in the sorting
procedure. Moreover, execution time of compression for the proposed
approach is short compared with 2-D or 3-D compression algorithms.

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X
Additionally, the proposed method reduces the number of transmitted orstored bits in a bit stream. Furthermore, arranged wavelet subbands of input
channels provide more efficient multichannel data compression, because
appropriate parent-offspring relations among wavelet coefficients areconstructed in the hierarchical structure.

Ongoing research at Los Alamos National Laboratory studies the Earth’s
radiofrequency (RF) background utilizing satellite-based RF observationsof terrestrial lightning. Such impulsive events are dispersed through theionosphere and appear as broadband nonlinear chirps at a receiver on-orbit.
They occur in the presence of additive noise and structured clutter, making
their classification challenging. The Fast On-orbit Recording of Transient
Events (FORTE) satellite provided a rich RF lightning database. Applicationof modern pattern recognition techniques to this database may further
lightning research in the scientific community, and potentially improve
on-orbit processing and event discrimination capabilities for future satellite
payloads. We now develop new event classification capability on the FORTE
database, with the initial goal of improved feature extraction using sparse
representations. We compare classification scenarios designed to identify
the presence and capture the dynamic behavior of standard lightning
event types, while remaining robust to changes in clutter and noise levels.
Conventional data representations using analytical dictionaries, such as ashort-time Fourier basis or wavelets, are not comprehensively suitable foranalyzing broadband RF transients. We propose two alternative approaches
based on dictionaries adapted to data. A first option is using analytical,
over-complete dictionaries, which yield sparse representations by design.
A second option is learning discriminative dictionaries directly from data. A
pursuit search over either dictionary generates sparse classification features.
We present comparative results on real RF satellite data, and discussrobustness to variability in lightning RF emissions.

To test and evaluate the proposed approach, data from the Nevada climatechange database is utilized. Based on results, the proposed technique canbe an appropriate choice for compression of multichannel climate data withsignificant low compressed data rate.

9124-11, Session 3

Anomaly discrimination in hyperspectral imagery
Shih-Yu Chen, Drew Paylor, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
Anomaly detection finds data samples whose signatures are spectrally
distinct from their surrounding data samples. Unfortunately, it cannot
discriminate the anomalies it detected one from another. In order toaccomplish this task it requires a way of measuring spectral similarity
such as spectral angle mapper (SAM) or spectral information divergence(SID) to determine if a detected anomaly is different from another.
However, this arises in a challenging issue of how to find an appropriate
thresholding value for this purpose. Interestingly, this issue has not received
much attention in the past. This paper investigates the issue of anomaly
discrimination which can differentiate detected anomalies without using any
spectral measure. The ideas are to makes use unsupervised target detection
algorithms, Automatic Target Generation Process (ATGP) and Unsupervised
Fully Constrained Least Squares (UFCLS) coupled with an anomaly detector
to distinguish detected anomalies. Experimental results show that the
proposed methods are indeed very effective in anomaly discrimination.

9124-14, Session 3

A compressed coded aperture imaging warning
systemXiaopeng Shao, Juan Du, Lin Wang, Xidian Univ. (China)
Compressed coded aperture based imaging warning system with a low
resolution optical sensor is proposed in this paper, which is specificallydesigned to support the demands of rapid, high resolution, long-range
detection and warning in complex battlefield environment. After analyzingof the tactic specification and the technical specification, the key techniquesof this novel alarming system are discussed and designed, including opticalimaging module, image-processing module, alarming control module andinterfaces unit. The optical imaging module is used for image compression,
then, the coded image will be mathematically reconstructed to a highresolution image by the image-processing module. The presented superresolution reconstruction algorithm is efficient and robust. Combining
compressed coded imaging simulation and coded image super-resolution
reconstruction, experiments show that the compressed coded aperture
imaging alarming system has a longer detectable range, which is potential in
the defence of important targets.

9124-12, Session 3

MTF compensation method utilizing the curvededge for high-resolution satellite image recovery
Qiuhua Luo, Lin Wang, Hong Yang, Shaohui Zhang, Xiaopeng Shao,
Xidian Univ. (China)
The low resolved satellite images caused by serious degradation in remotesensing weaken its utilities in practice. An effective algorithm of highresolution remote sensing image reconstruction is proposed to recover the
degraded images using a precise estimated modulated transfer function(MTF) of the imaging system from a curve knife edge. Choosing a proper
curve edge is most important step in image reconstruction. A curve edge,
even irregular in shape, from which a better edge spread function (ESF)
can be obtained, is automatically picked up from the edge informationaccording to the neighborhood features of the image first. The estimated
MTF derived from the above ESF is employed to deconvolute the degradedimage. To suppress the artifacts and noise, the total variation (TV) method
is applied in reconstruction as well. The advantage of this algorithm is thata curve edge is chosen automatically and robustly among many candidate
edges, which can provide a higher precision in comparison to straight edge.
The experiments show that this algorithm is suitable to recover a highresolved image with a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) from a degradedremote sensing image.

9124-15, Session 3

An adaptive filtering based on generalizedsidelobe cancellation for target detection of
hyperspectral images
Lena Chang, Zay-Shing Tang, National Taiwan Ocean Univ (Taiwan);
Yang-Lang Chang, National Taipei University of Technology(Taiwan)In the study, we proposed an adaptive filter with multiple constrains basedon the generalized sidelobe canceller (GSC) structure for target detectionof hyperspectral images. The proposed filtering approach can alleviate
the performance degradation in target detection caused by estimation
errors in spectral signature of the desired target or some random noise by
unknown interference. First, we design an optimal filter to minimize theinterference effect with multiple constrains including unit gain response on
desired target and null response on undesired targets. The optimal filter can
detect the desired target, suppress the undesired targets and minimize theinterference effect. Then, an adaptive filter with GSC structure is proposedto transform the constrained minimization problem into an equivalent9124-13, Session 3

Adaptive sparse signal processing of satellitebased radiofrequency (RF) recordings oflightning events
Daniela I. Moody, David A. Smith, Los Alamos National Lab. (UnitedStates)479+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X
unconstrained minimization. The structure of GSC contains two branches:
the upper branch is a filter with fixed weights Wf designed by multiple
constrains to reserve the desired target and interference; the lower branchcontains a blocking matrix B and an adaptive filter with weights Wa. Matrix
B blocks the desired target and preserve the interference. The adaptive filter
can be designed to minimize the interference effect without constrains.
Simulations validate the effectiveness of the proposed adaptive filter with
GSC structure which is robust to the random errors in spectral signature of
the desired target.

9124-18, Session 49124-16, Session 4

Spectral mixture analysis is one of the major techniques in hyperspectral
remote sensing image analysis. Endmember extraction for spectral
mixture analysis is a necessary step when endmember information is
unknown. If endmembers are assumed to be pure pixels present in animage scene, endmember extraction is to search the most distinct pixels.
Popular algorithms using the criteria of simplex volume maximization(e.g., N-FINDR) and spectral signature similarity (e.g., Vertex Component
Analysis) belong to this type. N-FINDR is a parallel-searching method, where
all the endmembers are determined simultaneously. VCA is a sequentialsearching method, finding endmembers one after another, which can greatly
save computational cost. In this paper, we focus on VCA-based endmember
extraction. In particular, we propose a new searching approach that makes
the extracted endmembers more distinct. This is fulfilled by integrating thejoint and pairwise orthogonal subspace projection (OSP)-based distancemetrics for endmember quality screening. Real data experiments show thatit can improve the quality of extracted endmembers.

On performance improvement of vertex
component analysis-based endmember
extraction from hyperspectral imagery
Qian Du, Mississippi State Univ. (United States); Nareenart
Raksuntorn, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat Univ. (Thailand); Nick Younan,
Mississippi State Univ. (United States)

On the acceleration of the NFINDR algorithm for
hyperspectral endmember extraction
Raul Guerra, Sebastian López, Gustavo M. Callico, Jose F. Lopez,
Roberto Sarmiento, Univ. de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain)
Endmember extraction represents a critical step within the process of
linearly unmixing a given hyperspectral image because of two main reasons.
The first one is due to the need of computing a set of accurate endmembers
in order to further obtain confident abundance maps. The second one refers
to the huge amount of operations involved in this time-consuming process.
Winter’s NFINDR represents one of the most popular alternatives for theprocess of inducing the endmembers of a hyperspectral image. It is basedon finding the simplex of maximum volume that can be inscribed within
the hyperspectral data set, being its vertices the sought endmembers. For
completing this process, the NFINDR algorithm requires the image to be
first dimensionality reduced to p-1 bands, where p equals to the number ofendmembers of the targeted scene.

9124-19, Session 4

Fisher’s ratio-based criterion for finding
endmembers in hyperspectral imagery

In order to reduce the computational load of the NFINDR algorithm,
this work proposes to wisely use the information obtained after thedimensionality reduction step together with a preprocessing stage basedon the Automatic Target Generation Procedure (ATGP) algorithm in orderto obtain the first p-2 endmembers of the image, and then, to run the
NFINDR algorithm in order to uncover the remaining endmembers. The
results obtained with synthetic images demonstrate that a reduction in thecomputational load of up to 87% can be achieved when compared withthe original NFINDR algorithm without compromising the accuracy of theextracted endmembers. Moreover, the results obtained with the well-known
Cuprite dataset also corroborate the benefits of our proposal.

Cheng Gao, Shih-Yu Chen, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
Endmember extraction has recently received considerable interest in
hyperspectral imagery. However, several issues in endmember extraction
may have been overlooked. The first and foremost is the use of endmember
extraction. Many algorithms claimed to be endmember extraction
algorithms actually do not extract true endmembers but rather findpotential endmember candidates, referred to as virtual endmembers (VEs).
Secondly, how difficult for an algorithm to find VEs is primarily determinedby two key factors, endmember variability and endmember discriminability.
While the former issue has been addressed recently in the literature, thelatter issue is yet explored and has not been investigated before. This paper
re-invents a wheel by developing a Fisher’s ratio approach to finding VEs
using Fisher’s ratio criterion for finding VEs endmembers is defined by ratioof endmember variability to endmember discriminability.

9124-17, Session 4

Endmember variability resolved by pixel purity
index in hyperspectral imagery
Yao Li, Shih-Yu Chen, Cheng Gao, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)

9124-20, Session 4

Endmember variability presents a great challenge in endmember extraction
since a true endmember may be contaminated by many unknown factors.
This paper develops a pixel purity index (PPI) based approach to resolving
this issue. It is known that endmember candidates must have their PPI
counts greater than 0. Using this fact we can starts with all data samples
with PPI counts greater than 0 and cluster them into p endmember classes
where the value of p can be determined by virtual dimensionality (VD).
We further develop an endmember identification algorithm to select true
endmembers from these p endmemberes. So, in our proposed techniquethree state processes are developed. It first uses PPI to produce a set ofendmember candidates and then develops a clustering algorithm to group
PPI-generated endmember candidates into p endmember classes and finallyconcludes by designing an algorithm to extract true endmembers from thep endmember classes.

480

SPIE DSS 2014

Progressive band processing of simplex
growing algorithm for finding endmembers in
hyperspectral imagery
Robert C. Schultz, Marissa Hobbs, U.S. Naval Academy (UnitedStates); Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates)This paper presents a progressive band processing (PBP) of an endmember
extraction algorithm, simplex growing algorithm (SGA), to be called
PBP-SGA, which allows users to process SGA band by band progressively.
Several advantages can be gained from this approach. First of all, PBPSGA does not require data dimensionality since PBP begins with a lower
band dimension and gradually increases band dimensions band by band
progressively until it achieves the desired results. Secondly, PBP canprocess SGA whenever bands are available without waiting for full band·

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X

9124-44, Session Posters-Thursday

data information completed. As a result, PBP-SGA can be used for datatransmission and communication. Thirdly, PBP –SGA can identify whichbands are crucial during the process of endmember extraction. Finally, PBPSGA provides feasibility of being implemented in real time.

A novel IR polarization staring imaging systemdesigned by a four-camera array
Xiaopeng Shao, Fei Liu, Pingli Han, Xidian Univ. (China)

9124-21, Session 4

A novel IR polarization staring imaging system employing a four-cameraarray is designed for target detection and recognition, especially manmade targets hidden in complex battle field. The design bases on theexistence of the difference in infrared radiation’s polarization characteristics,
which is particularly remarkable between artificial objects and the naturalenvironment. The system designed employs four cameras simultaneously tocapture the polarization difference to replace the commonly used systems
engaging only one camera. Since both types of systems have to obtain
intensity images in four different directions (I0 , I45 , I90 , I-45 ), the fourcamera design allows a better real-time capability and lower error without
the mechanical rotating parts which is essential to one-camera systems.
Information extraction and detailed analysis demonstrate that the caught
polarization images include valuable polarization information which caneffectively increase the images’ contrast and make it easier to segment thetarget even the hidden target from various scenes.

Relationship between linear spectral unmixing
and endmember finding
Hsiao-Chi Li, Shih-Yu Chen, Cheng Gao, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
Linear spectral unmixing (LSU) and endmember finding are closely related.
The link to bridge these two is the same geometric structure, simplex that isused to perform LSU and endmember extraction. Since a fully abundanceconstrained LSU (FAC-LSU) performs two physical constraints, Abundance
Sum-to-one Constraint (ASC) and Abundance Non-negativity Constraint(ANC) it assumes that all data sample vectors are embraced by a simplex
with vertices formed by a set of signatures of interest that are provided
a priori and found by in an unsupervised means. In this case, all the data
sample vectors inside the simplex are unmixed by their fully constrained
abundance fractions, while all data sample vector outside the simplex
are considered as unwanted sample vectors such as noisy samples, badsample vectors. As for endmember extraction it makes use of a simplex tolocate and extract endmembers which are assumed to be its vertices dueto their signature purity and geometric convexity. In other words, in order
to find endmembers we are required to find a largest simplex that include
as many data sample vectors so that the vertices of this simplex will beconsidered endmembers. Such simplex is the one with maximal simplex
volume. Interestingly, both LSU and endmemberfinding share one thingin common, which is their use of the same two constraints, ASC and ANC
imposed by a simplex. This paper explores such relationship between LSU
and endmember finding.

9124-45, Session Posters-Thursday

Imaging characteristics of ball lens
Qinghui Li, Xiaopeng Shao, Xidian Univ. (China)

Nonlinear hyperspectral unmixing based on
multiple kernel constrained NMF

A proof-of-concept gigapixel computational camera consisting of aspherical lens shared by several small planar sensors have been reported
recently. Because the resolution of spherical lens is fundamentally limited
by geometric aberrations, the imaging characteristics of the ball lens isexpressed by the geometrical aberrations, in which the general equations
for the primary aberration of the ball lens are given. To achieve high quality
imaging, the effects of lens shape, stop position, and glass material on theaberrations are discussed, respectively. The third-order and the fifth-order
spherical aberration as a function of lens shape and the relative apertureare analyzed as well. The other image evaluation merits, such as the spot
diagram, the modulation transfer function(MTF) and the encircled energy
are also described.

Jiantao Cui, Xiaorun Li, Zhejiang Univ. (China); Liaoying Zhao,
Junpeng Zheng, Hangzhou Dianzi Univ. (China)

9124-46, Session Posters-Thursday

9124-22, Session 4

Nonlinear spectral unmixing constitutes an important field of researchfor hyperspectral imagery. An unsupervised nonlinear spectral unmixing
algorithm, namely multiple kernel constrained nonnegative matrix
factorization (MKCNMF) is proposed by coupling multiple-kernel selection
with kernel NMF. First, with a nonlinear mapping associated with a kernel
function, the original nonlinear mixed data is implicitly mapped into ahigh-dimensional feature space, where the mapped data is linearly mixed.
Then the NMF algorithm is used to unmix the mapped data in the feature
space. Additionally, a minimum endmember-wise distance constraint isintroduced to alleviate the uniqueness problem of NMF in the algorithm.
In the MKCNMF, two problems of optimizing matrices and selecting theproper kernel are jointly solved. The kernel selection process is conductedby comparing the objective functions based on different candidate kernels.
The projected gradient and multiplicative update methods are respectively
used to update the endmember matrix and abundance matrix alternatively.
The performance of the proposed unmixing algorithm is evaluated via
experiments based on synthetic and real hyperspectral data sets. The
experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method yields higher
accuracy in terms of spectral angle distance (SAD) compared with someexisting unmixing algorithms and the abundance fractions obtained by
MKCNMF coincide well with the published geologic maps.

481+1 360 676 3290

Spherical aberration and modulation transfer
function
Qinghui Li, Xiaopeng Shao, Xidian Univ. (China)
The fundamental problem of the modulation transfer function(MTF) form
the viewpoint of the lens designer is to find relation between the MTF andthe geometrical aberrations. Let it be required to develop the sphericalaberration into a polynomial expansion. The incoherent point spreadfunction(PSF) of the optical imaging system is derived from the diffraction
integral in the presence of aberrations. The optical transfer function(OTF)
is the Fourier transform of the PSF, and the modulus of the OTF is the MTF.
The relation between the spherical aberration and the MTF is denoted bynumerical integration method. The normalized MTF is numerically calculated
for various amounts of spherical aberration. A comparison is made between
the MTF of the corrected spherical aberration using the optimum design forthe minimum root mean square(RMS) wavefront aberration and those forthe minimum peak-to-valley(P-V) wave front aberration.

·

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X

9124-47, Session Posters-Thursday

each image obtained are mapped to a virtual digital plane at which precise
and resolution enhanced polarization images can be obtained by taking
advantage of the pixel deviation and rearranging the pixels. Experimental
results demonstrate the algorithm can assist the four-camera array inrendering easily precise and high-resolution polarization images.

Focusing through a turbid medium by amplitude
modulation with genetic algorithm
Xiaopeng Shao, Wei Jia Dai, Li Gen Peng, Xidian Univ. (China)

9124-50, Session Posters-Thursday

Multiple scattering of light in opaque materials such as white paint andhuman tissue forms a volume speckle field, will greatly reduce the imaging
depth and degrade the imaging quality. A novel approach is proposed
to focus light through a turbid medium using amplitude modulation withgenetic algorithm (GA) from speckle patterns. Compared with phasemodulation method, amplitude modulation approach, in which the elementsof spatial light modulator (SLM) is either zero or one, is much easier toachieve. Theoretical and experimental results show that, the advantage of
GA is more suitable for low the signal to noise ratio (SNR) environments
in comparison to the existing amplitude control algorithms such as binary
amplitude modulation. The circular Gaussian distribution model andRayleigh Sommerfeld diffraction theory are employed in our simulations
to describe the turbid medium and light propagation between opticaldevices, respectively. It is demonstrated that the GA technique can achievea higher overall enhancement, and converge much faster than others, andoutperform all algorithms at high noise. Focusing through a turbid medium
has potential in the observation of cells and protein molecules in biologicaltissues and other structures in micro/nano scale.

Online visual tracking based on updating withsmoothing
Jin Zhang, Kai Liu, Fei Cheng, Yunsong Li, Xidian Univ. (China)
Visual tracking is an important task in computer vision. Despite many
researches have been done in this area, some problems remain. One ofthe problems is drifting. To handle the problem, a new appearance model
update method based on a forward filtering backward smoothing particle
filter is proposed in this paper. A smoothing of previous appearance model
is performed by exploiting information of current frame instead of updating
instantly in traditional tracking methods. It has been shown that smoothing
based on future observations makes previous and current predictions moreaccurate, thus the appearance model update by our approach is moreaccurate. And at the same time, online tracking is achieved compared withsome previous work in which the smoothing is done in an offline way. With
the smoothing procedure, the tracker is more accurate and less likely to drift
than traditional ones. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness ofthe proposed method.

9124-48, Session Posters-Thursday

Particle swarm optimization for focusing byphase modulation through scattering media

9124-51, Session Posters-Thursday

Xiaopeng Shao, Li Gen Peng, Wei Jia Dai, Xidian Univ. (China)

Random grid ferns for visual tracking

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is exploited in an optical focusing
system, by changing the phase of the incident light, which can break thediffraction limit and enhance focal intensity through highly scattering media.
To emphasize that the focusing optical system is mainly composed of a
spatial light modulator (SLM), a lens and highly scattering media placed
behind the lens. The stepwise sequential algorithm and the continuous
sequential algorithm are sensitive to noise and the partitioning randomly
algorithm and the genetic algorithm converge slowly. Compared with thesealgorithms theoretically and experimentally, the PSO is robust, effective
and able to converge rapidly, which obtains a best solution by following
the search for the optimal particle in the solution space. The capacity of
beyond-diffraction and increasing intensity of the focus through dynamic
scattering media could be conducive to biological microscopy and imaging
through turbid environments.

Fei Cheng, Kai Liu, Jin Zhang, Yunsong Li, Xidian Univ. (China)

9124-49, Session Posters-Thursday

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Pixel-level image registration method ofpolarization images acquired by a four-camera
arrayTechnology miniaturization and system architecture advancements havecreated an opportunity to significantly lower the cost of many typesof space missions by sharing capabilities between multiple spacecraft.
Historically, most spacecraft have been atomic entities that (aside fromtheir communications with and tasking by ground controllers) operate
in isolation. Several notable example exist; however, these are purposedesigned systems that collaborate to perform a single goal. The above
the cloud computing (ATCC) concept aims to create ad-hoc collaboration
between service provider and consumer craft. Consumer craft can procure
processing, data transmission, storage, imaging and other capabilities fromprovider craft. Because of onboard storage limitations, communications link
capability limitations and limited windows of communication, data relevant
to or required for various operations may span multiple craft.

Visual Tracking is one of the significant research directions in computer
vision. Although standard random ferns tracking method obtains a good
performance for the random spatial arrangement of binary tests, the localityof image and more information are ignored. This paper proposes a novel
spatial arrangement of binary tests to divide the bounding box into grids
in order to keep more details of the image. Experimental results show thismethod can improve tracking accuracy.

9124-23, Session 5

Above the cloud computing orbital services
distributed data model

Xiaopeng Shao, Pingli Han, Fei Liu, Xidian Univ. (China)
The aim of polarization imaging is using four different polarized images at
0°, 45°, 90° and 135°, respectively, to compose the DoLP (degree of linear
polarization) image and polarization orient image. A common polarization
imaging method acquires the different polarized images using a mechanicalsystem to rotate the polarizer to a certain angle. The drawback of thismethod is the poor precision and much time consuming in implementation.
An effective proposal of polarization imaging using a four-camera array isto acquire four different polarized images simultaneously. With partiallyoverlapping FOV (field of view), it’s essential to register and reconstruct
images with a high precision captured for precise polarization images, whichis the emphasis of this research. A pixel-level image matching algorithm isdeveloped which employs the geometric mapping relation between images.
Parameters of the mapping relation are firstly calculated, and then pixels of482

SPIE DSS 2014

This paper presents a model for the identification, storage and accessingof this data. This model includes appropriate identification features for thishighly distributed environment. It also deals with business model constraints
such as data ownership, retention and the rights of the storing craft toaccess, resell, transmit or discard the data in its possession. The model
ensures data integrity and confidentiality (to the extent applicable to a·www.spie.org/dss

Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X
an alternative way to miniaturize dimensions considering two different
antennas in the S and C bands. Scattering parameters (S-parameters) andradiation patterns were obtained in both cases and were compared tostandard microstrip antennas. Finally, the results obtained by simulations
show the possibility of reducing the dimensions of the antenna by 22%,
data transmission and directivity of the antenna were also improved
demonstrating a relatively easy implementation and development.

given data item), deals with unique constraints of the orbital environment
and tags data with business model (contractual) obligation data.

9124-24, Session 5

Parallelized physical optics computations for the
RCS prediction of rough surface by CUDA
Xiao Meng, Li-Xin Guo, Xidian Univ. (China)

9124-27, Session 5

The problem of wave scattering by rough surfaces has been studied
extensively by scientists and engineers because of its wide applications inscience and technology. In this letter, the Physical Optics technique, which
is a high frequency technique, is presented for analyzing scattering of roughsurface. In addition, the compute unified device architecture (CUDA) of
NVIDIA takes advantage of the Graphics Processing Units (GPU) for parallel
computing, and greatly improve the speed of computation. Because there
is a large number of data to deal with, in order to further improve thecomputational efficiency, a parallelization concept is presented which isbased on the utilization of GPU. At last, the simulation time of CPU and GPU
are compared, and it can be found that good acceleration effect has beenachieved.

Massive parallel implementation of JPEG2000
decoding algorithm with multi-GPUs
Xianyun Wu, Yunsong Li, Kai Liu, Li Wang, Xidian Univ. (China)
JPEG2000 is an important technique for image compression that has
been successfully used in many fields. Due to the increasing spatial,
spectral and temporal resolution of remotely sensed imagery data sets,
fast decompression of remote sensed data is becoming a very importantand challenging object. In this paper, we develop an implementation of
the JPEG2000 decompression in graphics processing units (GPUs) for fast
decoding of block-based parallel compression stream. We use one CUDA
block to decode one frame. T2 is still serial decoded while T1 and DWT areparallel processed. Since our encode stream are block-based parallel whichmeans each block are independent with other blocks, we parallel processeach block in T1 with one thread. For DWT, we use one CUDA block to
execute one line and one CUDA thread to process one pixel. We investigate
the speedups that can be gained by using the GPUs implementations withregards to the CPUs-based serial implementations. Experimental result
reveals that our implementation can achieve significant speedups comparedwith serial implementations.

9124-25, Session 5

Optimizing weather and research forecast (WRF)
Thompson cloud microphysics on Intel Many
Integrated Core (MIC)
Jarno Mielikainen, Melin Huang, Bormin Huang, HungLung Allen
Huang, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States)

9124-28, Session 5

The Thompson cloud microphysics scheme is a sophisticated cloud
microphysics scheme in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)model. The scheme is very suitable for massively parallel computation
as there are no interactions among horizontal grid points. Compared tothe earlier microphysics schemes, the Thompson scheme incorporates alarge number of improvements. Thus, we have optimized the speed of thisimportant part of WRF. Intel Many Integrated Core (MIC) ushers in a newera of supercomputing speed, performance, and compatibility. It allows
the developers to run code at trillions of calculations per second using thefamiliar programming model.

Using Intel Xeon Phi to accelerate the WRF TEMF
planetary boundary layer scheme
Melin Huang, Jarno Mielikainen, Bormin Huang, HungLung Allen
Huang, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States)
The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is designed fornumerical weather prediction and atmospheric research. The WRF software
infrastructure consists of several components such as dynamic solvers andphysics schemes. Numerical models are used to resolve the large-scale
flow. However, subgrid-scale parameterizations are for an estimation ofsmall-scale properties (e.g., boundary layer turbulence and convection,
clouds, radiation). Those have a significant influence on the resolved scaledue to the complex nonlinear nature of the atmosphere. For the cloudy
planetary boundary layer (PBL), it is fundamental to parameterize verticalturbulent fluxes and subgrid-scale condensation in a realistic manner. A
parameterization based on the TEMF that unifies turbulence and moist
convection components produces a better result that the other PBL
schemes. For that reason, the TEMF scheme is chosen as the PBL scheme
we optimized for Intel Many Integrated Core (MIC), which ushers in a newera of supercomputing speed, performance, and compatibility. It allows
the developers to run code at trillions of calculations per second using thefamiliar programming model. In this paper, we present our optimization
results for TEMF planetary boundary layer scheme.

In this paper, we present our results of optimizing the Thompson
microphysics scheme on Intel Many Integrated Core Architecture (MIC)
hardware. The Intel Xeon Phi coprocessor is the first product based onIntel MIC architecture, and it consists of up to 61 cores connected by ahigh performance on-die bidirectional interconnect. The coprocessor
supports all important Intel development tools. Thus, the development
environment is familiar one to a vast number of CPU developers. Although,getting a maximum performance out of MICs will require using some novel
optimization techniques. Currently, the Xeon Phi is connected to a CPU via
the PCI Express (PICe) bus. However, in the near future a MIC on a socket
will be available. Therefore, future MICs don not have to deal with issues
related to data transfer over PCIe. In the paper, both computation time anddata transfer issues for Thompson microphysics scheme are analyzed indetail.

9124-26, Session 59124-29, Session 6

Computational design of miniaturized microstrip
antenna for satellite communications in the bands
S and C

Texture based adaptive lifting wavelet transformfor hyperspectral image compression

Damian A. Campo, Jose I. Marulanda, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Yan Yan, Zifan Hu, Xidian Univ. (China)

This paper presents a computational model of a microstrip antenna coatedwith a high dielectric constant thick film. The main objective is to explore

Hyperspectral images are rich in texture features. In this paper, a newcompression algorithm is proposed to adaptively choose the texture483+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X
direction so as to make a direction-adaptive lifting DWT. This method takes
advantages of texture features of hyperspectral images. Compared withtraditional approaches which only operate lifting DWT upon the vertical andhorizontal directions, the proposed compression algorithm can reduce thehigh frequency energy which contributes better compressive properties.
In directional adaptive wavelet transform, the key problem is to determine
a block edge expanding principle to ensure a reversible DWT. To deal withthis problem, a new edge expansion algorithm is proposed based on the
direction features and it is able to recover pixel information for the blockedges accurately. After directional adaptive DWT operated in spatial
domain, the KLT which is considered as the optimal transform for datacompression in a statistical sense is used in spectral domain. To make the bit
stream scalable property, a 3D-SPIHT image coding algorithm is applied on
the transformed coefficient. Finally, the experiments show that, comparedwith the traditional DWT algorithm, the proposed method can get a higher
SNR with the same compressive properties.

With the development of mobile networks, the demand for remote sensing
in the mobile terminal is growing increasingly. However, the narrow network
bandwidth and the large network data traffic of mobile transmission
have become a bottleneck in the transmission of remote sensing image
through mobile networks. In order to meet the different needs for different
users to the quality of remote sensing images in heterogeneous network
environments, an online remote sensing image progressive transmission
model is constructed in which remote sensing image compression
and decompression are synchronized with transmission. At the sametime, a pipeline-based multi-threaded acceleration method has been
proposed through solving the asynchronous problem among compression
decompression and transmission to improve the efficiency of remotesensing progressive transmission. Furthermore, for the purpose of reducing
waiting time consumed in transmission thread and compression thread,the code stream of compressed remote sensing image is divided into small
fixed-length packets to transmit. The packet of compressed code stream
is sent to client by transmission thread concurrently with the compression
procedure through compression thread. Similarly, while the packet being
received by receiving thread, the decompression thread is used to decode
packets which have been received simultaneously. At last, an idea of retry
broken downloads transmission interruption has been implemented to
improve end-user interactive experience. Experimental results show that thewhole processing speed has been improved remarkably without reducing
image transmission quality by using the proposed progressive transmission
and real-time compression model based on SPIHT algorithm. On the other
hand, this proposed progressive transmission model has done better invisual effect.

9124-30, Session 6

FPGA based JPEG-LS encoder for lossless andlossy onboard image compression
Yakup Murat Mert, TÜBITAK UZAY (Turkey)
This study introduces JPEG-LS encoder for both lossless and lossy image
compression. Proposed architecture is fully competible with standard
and comprises parallel pipelines for regular and run modes. It simplifies
the run-mode calculation with Run-index feedback. Besides, lossy image
compression is achieved with single division with proper arrengments
and simplifications. Proposed architecture is implemented with FPGA andeligible for high-performance real time encoding.

9124-33, Session 7

Land cover classification in multispectral satellite
imagery using sparse approximations on learned
dictionaries

9124-31, Session 6

Daniela I. Moody, Steven P. Brumby, Joel C. Rowland, Chadana
Gangodagamage, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States)

Lossless compression of hyperspectral images
using edge-based multi-order predictor

Techniques for automated feature extraction, including neuroscienceinspired machine vision, are of great interest for landscape characterizationand change detection in support of global climate change science andmodeling. We present results from an ongoing effort to extend machine
vision methodologies to the environmental sciences, using state-of-theart adaptive signal processing, combined with compressive sensing andmachine learning techniques. We use a modified Hebbian learning rule tobuild spectral-textural dictionaries that are tailored for classification. We
learn our dictionaries from millions of overlapping multispectral image
patches and then use a pursuit search to generate classification features.
Land cover labels are automatically generated using CoSA: unsupervised
Clustering of Sparse Approximations. We demonstrate our method on
multispectral Worldview-2 data from three Arctic study areas: Barrow,
Alaska; the Selawik River, Alaska; and a watershed near the Mackenzie Riverdelta in northwest Canada. Our goal is to develop a robust classification
methodology that will allow for the automated discretization of thelandscape into distinct units based on attributes such as vegetation,
surface hydrological properties (e.g., soil moisture and inundation), andtopographic/geomorphic characteristics. In this paper, we evaluate thespectral properties of the clusters and compare them to remote sensingderived classifications of landscape attributes, in order to interpret andassign land cover categories to the clusters.

Keyan Wang, Huilin Liao, Yunsong Li, Liping Wang, Xianyun Wu,
Xidian Univ. (China)
The existing lossless compression methods of hyperspectral images
mainly exploited the strong spatial or spectral correlation, but they rarely
considered the edge features of the images. In this paper, an edge-based
multi-order predictor (EMOP) is presented to utilize the strong correlationof the pixels along an edge. It contains two prediction modes: intra-bandand inter-band. In intra-band mode, an improved median predictor (IMP) is
adopted which takes not only the horizontal and the vertical edge detection
but also the diagonal edge detection into account. In inter-band mode, amulti-order predictor (MOP) with edge detection and analysis is proposed
for accounting the spectral redundancy. Due to the fact that edge detection
can find gradient between adjoining pixels, MOP uses the edge detection to
select optimal context as sharp gradient shows low relationship. MOP is anextension from one-order to multi-order prediction as a process of Wiener
filtering. Finally, all predicted residuals are entropy coded. Experimental
results show that the proposed method EMOP is effective on both standard
AVIRIS 1997 hyperspectral images and the newer CCSDS images to achieve
better compression performance.

9124-32, Session 6

9124-34, Session 7

Remote sensing image real-time progressive
transmission based on multi-threads with retry
broken downloads

A novel SVM-based classification for
hyperspectral image
Jiahui Liu, Xidian Univ. (China); Hui Guan, Beijing Institute of Space
Mechanics & Electricity (China); Jiaojiao Li, Wanchun Yin, Yunsong
Li, Xidian Univ. (China)

Haicheng Qu, Yu Meng, Xiaochen Shan, Wanjun Liu, Jie Yu, Liaoning
Technical Univ. (China)

484

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Conference 9124:
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9124-36, Session 7

With the extensive application of hyperspectral images in the field of image
classification, as the most basic and important part, pixel classificationof hyperspectral data has become a major research point in the recent
years. Traditional classification algorithms are the maximum likelihoodclassification, the minimize distance and the neural network, etc. However,
because of the huge data of the hyperspectral image cube, these traditionalalgorithms cannot give a classification image with high accuracy. Now
Support Vector Machine (SVM) is widely used in the hyperspectralclassification due to its high performance. SVM maps the nonlinear problems
in the input space into a higher dimension space where they are considered
to become linearly separable. In the higher dimension space, a maximum
margin hyperplane is created. It is assumed that the larger distance between
the two parallel hyperplanes, the smaller total error of the classifier. Actually,
the projection can be simulated using a kernel function. There are a great
number of kernel functions which can be defined as two kinds of kernels,
one being local kernels and the other global kernels. Examples of typical
local kernels are Radial basis kernel and Inverse multiquadric kernel and soon. All kernels based on the dot-product are global, for example, Polynomial
kernel, Radial Basis Function (RBF) kernel and Sigrnoid kernel, etc. But, due
to the complication of the landforms in hyperspectral image, using usual
kernel functions, the accuracy of classification is not as high as predicted.

A stereo remote sensing feature selection
method based on artificial bee colony algorithm
Yiming Yan, Pigang Liu, Ye Zhang, Nan Su, Shu Tian, Harbin Instituteof Technology (China); Fengjiao Gao, Institute of Automation(China) and Heilongjiang Academy of Sciences (China)
To improve the efficiency of stereo information for remote sensingclassification, a stereo remote sensing feature selection method is proposedin this paper presents, which is based on artificial bee colony algorithm.
Remote sensing stereo information could be described DSM and opticalimage, which contain information of the three-dimensional structure andoptical characteristics, respectively. Firstly, three-dimensional structure
characteristic could be analyzed by 3D-Zernike descriptors (3DZD).
However, different parameters of 3DZD could descript different complexityof three-dimensional structure, and it needs to be better optimized selected
for various objects on the ground. Secondly, features for representing
optical characteristic also need to be optimized. If not properly handled,when a stereo feature vector composed of 3DZD and image features, thatwould be a lot of redundant information, and the redundant information
may not improve the classification accuracy, even cause adverse effects.

In order to improve the classification performance of SVM, this paper
proposes a new kind of kernel function combining with a prior informationof the image, which improves the classification accuracy of hyperspectral
image, and reduces the classification error probability. Compared with theusual kernel functions, the new kernel function includes more distribution
characteristics of the landforms in the image, with a better classification
accuracy when the hyperspectral image has a large number of spectral
bands and a extremely complex surface features. For making a more exact
classification, the new kernel function and usual kernel functions are linear
weighted as a hybrid kernel function for hyperspectral classification. In
this paper, We propose a set of weighting coefficients so that the hybridkernel has the best classification image. In the experiment, a simulated
hyperspectral image data set and a real hyperspectral image data are used
to prove the accuracy of SVM algorithm with the new kernel and the hybridkernel. We test SVM algorithm with our hybrid kernel, the hybrid kernel,
Polynomial kernel and RBF kernel. Overall Accuracy and Kappa Coefficientare used to evaluate the quality of the classification image. The result of theexperiment shows that the hybrid kernel with the optimal coefficients gives
a clearer classification image and has a better accuracy of classification thanother algorithms.

To reduce information redundancy while maintaining or improving theclassification accuracy, an optimized model for this stereo feature selection
problem is created, and artificial bee colony algorithm is introduced forsolving this optimization problem. Experimental results show that the
proposed method can effectively improve the computational efficiency,
improve the classification accuracy.

9124-37, Session 7

Fisher criterion based nearest feature line
approach to land cover classification using
multisource data fusion
Yang-Lang Chang, Yi-Shiang Fu, Tung-Ju Hsieh, National Taipei
Univ. of Technology (Taiwan); Lena Chang, National Taiwan Ocean
Univ. (Taiwan); Chin-Chuan Han, National United Univ. (Taiwan);
Bormin Huang, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States)

9124-35, Session 7

In this paper a novel technique, known as nearest feature line (NFL)approach, is proposed for supervised classification of multi-source images
for the purpose of landslide hazard assessment. This approach presents aframework for data fusion of multisource remotely sensed images, which
consists of two approaches, referred to as band generation process (BGP)and Fisher criterion based NFL classifier. It is developed for land coverclassification based on the fusion of remotely sensed images of the same
scene collected from multiple sources. Compared to the original NFL,
we propose an improve NFL classifier which uses the Fisher criterion of
between-class and within-class discrimination to enhance the original one.
In the training phase the labeled samples are discriminated by the Fisher
criterion, which can be treated as a pre-processing of NFL. The classification
results can be obtained by NFL algorithm. In order for the proposed
NFL to be effective for multi-spectral images, a multiple adaptation
BGP is introduced to create a new set of additional bands especially
accommodated to landslide classes. Experimental results demonstrate theproposed BGP/NFL approach is suitable for land cover classification in earth
remote sensing and improves the precision of image classification.

An efficient spatial-spectral classification method
for hyperspectral imagery
Wei Li, Beijing Univ. of Chemical Technology (China); Qian Du,
Mississippi State Univ. (United States)
It is well-known that including spatial information can improve theclassification accuracy of hyperspectral imagery. In this paper, afeature extraction method using a very simple local averaging filter for
hyperspectral image classification is proposed. The method potentiallysmoothes out trivial variations as well as noise of hyperspectral data, andsimultaneously exploits the fact that neighboring pixels tend to belong to
the same class with high probability. The spectral-spatial features, which
are extracted and fed into the designed classifier with locality preserving
character in the experimental setup, are compared with other features, suchas spectral signature only and wavelet-based spatial features. Simulated
results show that the proposed approach facilitates superior discriminantfeature extraction and yields significant improvement in hyperspectral
image classification performance.

9124-38, Session 8

Background suppression issues in anomaly
detection for hyperspectral imagery
Yu-lei Wang, Harbin Engineering Univ. (China); Shih-Yu Chen,
Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States); Chunhong

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X
Liu, South China Agricultural Univ. (China); Chein-I Chang, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)

data format standards have been designed to further decrease non-datatransmission as well as improve the delivery of data transmission. Acrossboth of these foci, impacts to error control and correction, image anddata processing, and authentication are also examined. The resulting open
revised standards for best practices can then be generalized for usage withother satellite and ground station communication.

Anomaly detection becomes increasingly important in hyperspectral data
exploitation due to the use of high spectral resolution which can uncover
many unknown substances that cannot be visualized or known a priori.
Unfortunately, in real world applications with no availability of groundtruth its effectiveness is generally performed by visual inspection which is
the only means of evaluating its performance qualitatively in which casebackground information provides an important piece of information to help
image analysts to interpret results of anomaly detection. Interestingly, thisissue has never been explored in anomaly detection. This paper investigates
the effect of background on anomaly detection via various degrees ofbackground suppression. It decomposes anomaly detection into a twostage process where the first stage is background suppression so as toenhance anomaly contrast against background and is then followed by amatched filter to increase anomaly detectability by intensity. In order to see
background suppression progressively changing with data samples causal
anomaly detection is further developed to see how an anomaly detector
performs background suppression sample by sample with sample varying
spectral correlation. Finally, a 3D ROC analysis used to evaluate effect ofbackground suppression on anomaly detection.

9124-41, Session 8

An equivalent model for the electromagnetic
scattering coefficient of the typical land surface
in the microwave band
Yuanyuan Zhang, Zhensen Wu, Kaiyuan Fu, Xidian Univ. (China)
A new semi-empirical equivalent model for the different bands and thedifferent polarizations is developed in the microwave band for the soil,
concrete, asphalt and the vegetation surface. The Gaussian or the Exponent
surface scattering and the possible bulk scattering, the layers reflection
scattering are included. The genetic algorithm and the SVR method areused to retrieve the parameters of the equivalent model with the bistatic
scattering coefficients of these typical rough surfaces in the L-band andthe S-band. After the parameters are determined, the equivalent model can
predict the bistatic scattering coefficients of the rough surfaces well in theabove bands, which will be very convenient for the numerical computations.

9124-39, Session 8

No-reference remote sensing image quality
assessment using a comprehensive evaluation
factor9124-42, Session 8

Unfolding hurricane volume data using focusplus-context technique

Lin Wang, Wang Xu, Xiao Li, Xiaopeng Shao, Xidian Univ. (China)
The conventional image quality assessment algorithm, such as Peak Signal
to Noise Ratio (PSNR) Mean Square Error (MSE) and structural similarity(SSIM), needs the original image as a reference. It’s not applicable to theremote sensing image for which the original image cannot be assumed to beavailable. In this paper, a No-reference Image Quality Assessment (NRIQA)
algorithm is presented to evaluate the quality of remote sensing image.
Since blur and noise (including the stripe noise) are the common distortion
factors affecting remote sensing image quality, a comprehensive evaluation
factor is modeled to assess the blur and noise by analyzing the image visualproperties for different incentives combined with SSIM based on humanvisual system (HVS) , and also to assess the stripe noise by using Phase
Congruency (PC). The experiment results show this algorithm is an accurate
and reliable method for Remote Sensing Image Quality Assessment.

Tung-Ju Hsieh, Chun-Jhun Wu, Yang-Lang Chang, National Taipei
Univ. of Technology (Taiwan); Bormin Huang, Univ. of WisconsinMadison (United States)
Volume rendering provides a way to look at volume data. However, user
cannot observe the region-of-interest (ROI) because it is obscured. It isalso difficult to select ROI using one dimension transfer function. This paper
presents a technique to unfold volume data using curved cross section.
Our method allows user to select ROI in volume data and project ROI into
2D plane to overcome visual limitations. This approach makes it easy toobserve the ROI. Meanwhile, we improve unfolding performance to reachreal-time interaction using GPU. In this paper, a case study of hurricane
simulation study was conducted to study the time-varying properties. We
integrate a region-growing based feature extraction and tracking method
into the system to track a feature in the time-varying hurricane simulation
volume data. It assists user to unfold the same ROI during observation. The
contribution of the proposed system is to generate an unfolding image fortime-varying volume data.

9124-40, Session 8

Impact of a revised standard for best practices foracademic, governmental and industrial groundstation scheduling and communications design
Scott Kerlin, Jeremey Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (UnitedStates); Christoffer Korvald, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
As launches and satellites lower in overall cost, the variety and purpose of
the data collected continues to evolve. This evolution requires a revised
set of standards for best practices with regard to academic, governmental
and industrial communication and scheduling design. With deliberateconsideration into communication and scheduling design, throughputof data passed via the ever more crowded and noisy limited-bandwidthchannels can be improved. This study outlines how implementing a revised
standard with regard to ground station scheduling and communication
impact the expectation for throughput from the satellite itself. For the
purposes of the case study under evaluation, two primary focal points areemphasized. First, the off-loading of processing traditionally handled bysatellite the satellite itself. Intelligently applying the revised standard forselecting processes to off-load frees up power for transmission and reduces
the quantity non-data messaging from the satellite itself. Secondly, revised

486

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Conference 9124:
Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing X

9124-43, Session 8

Manifold regularized sparsity model for
hyperspectral target detection
Jing Li, Zhejiang Univ. (China); Liaoying Zhao, Hangzhou Dianzi
Univ. (China); Xiaorun Li, Zhejiang Univ. (China)
Target detection is one of the most important applications in hyperspectral
remote sensing image analysis. Sparse representation method has been
considered to be effective in hyperspectral target detection. In this method,a sparse representation with respect to a certain pixel in hyperspectral
imagery means a linear combination of few data vectors in the data
dictionary. An over complete training dictionary consisting of both target
and background samples in the same feature space is first constructed andtest pixels are sparsely represented by decomposing over the dictionary.
Though sparse representation is considered to preserve main information ofmost pixels, inevitable indeterminacy may lead to different representationsof same or similar pixels. In this paper, a manifold regularized sparsemodel is proposed to deal with this problem. A graph regularization term
is incorporated into the sparsity model under the manifold assumptionthat similar data pixels should have similar sparse representation. Then amodified simultaneous version of the SP algorithm (SSP) is implemented
to obtain the recovered sparse vector which is composed of sparse
coefficients corresponding to both target subdictionary and backgroundsubdictionary. Once the sparse vector is obtained, the residual between
original test samples and estimate recovered from target subdictionary as
well as the residual between original test samples and estimate recoveredfrom background subdictionary are calculated to determine the test pixel’s
class. The proposed algorithm is applied to several hyperspectral imageries
to detect targets of interest. Experimental results show a more accurate
target detection performance with this proposed model over that withconventional sparse models.

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