123RD INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERSVICTIM PROTECTION IN CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGSTHE VICTIM’S RIGHTS TO INFORMATION, PARTICIPATION AND
PROTECTION IN CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS
Sylvia Frey＊

I. INTRODUCTION“In criminal proceedings it’s all just about the offender!“ Statements like this - and similar remarks – havebeen made by the victims of criminal offences over and over again.
Of course criminal proceedings are necessarily oriented towards offenders. Whether a criminal offence
has been committed and whether the perpetrator is guilty has to be established in accordance with Rule ofLaw criteria and provisions. These are core Rule of Law requirements that nobody wants to weaken.
However, they are just one aspect of the matter.
It is particularly the case that a social state based on the Rule of Law cannot just confine itself to callingthe offender to account – however important that may be. A social state based on the Rule of Law also has
the duty of showing concern for the victims of a criminal offence. The victims are not only burdened with theoffence; they also face the burden of a criminal trial. Here the victim is once again confronted with theoffence. If the victim has to give testimony against the offender in court, he or she will have to face theoffender th∗ere again. The anxiety and feelings experienced here particularly by the victims of sexual
offences or of serious offences involving violence cause great stress. Repressed feelings come to the surface
again through being confronted by the offender.
Giving greater weight in criminal proceedings to the victim’s interests and developing their rights has, fora long time now, been the focus of various legislative projects in relation to the German Criminal Procedure
Code. This has not, however, always been the case. For a long time it was actually the offender, his rights
and his protection that took up the foreground. It has only been since the 1980s with the scientificadvancement of victimology – the academic discipline concerned with the victims of crime – that a lively
discussion was set in motion regarding victim protection in criminal proceedings. A first important milestone
in the course of this discussion was the passage of victim protection legislation in 1986. The discussion that
had started continued, and further important legislative projects followed with regard to victim protection.
Today, in the German Criminal Procedure Code, we have a comprehensive set of provisions guaranteeing
the rights and the protection of victims in criminal proceedings. Nevertheless, there is a lot that still has tobe done. At the moment, a reform of the German Criminal Procedure Code is under way in Germany, andhere once again one of the main areas of attention is victim protection.
I would like to outline the measures in German criminal procedure law that relate to the protection of
victims and witnesses. I have divided my paper into two parts.
In the first part I will be describing the victim’s legal position. I shall be going into the information andprocedural rights of victims during criminal proceedings. Do victims get information on the outcome of theinvestigation proceedings? Are they informed about the stage proceedings have reached and about the further
course of proceedings? Do victims hear anything about the outcome of the court proceedings? Are victims＊

Executive Assistant,
Section on Criminal Procedure (Court Proceedings),
Federal Ministry of Justice,
Germany

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allowed to inspect the files? Are victims informed about the offender’s custody or release from custody? Arethey allowed to be present during the court hearing? Are victims allowed to participate in the proceedings incertain cases?
I would like to answer these questions for you and show what the improvements are that we are aiming atin the framework of our reform of criminal proceedings, especially as regards rights to information.
In the second part I am going to look at the victim’s situation as a witness in the proceedings. Are any
persons who may be rendering assistance allowed to be present during the examination of the victim? Are
victims required to give their personal particulars at the examination? Can a victim be examined by video
link? Does the victim have to give testimony in the defendant’s presence or in front of the general public?
Does the victim have to wait for his or her examination in the corridor outside the courtroom, where he may
be exposed to meeting the defendant? You will be hearing the answers to these questions in the second partof my paper.
II. PART 1: INFORMATION AND PARTICIPATION RIGHTS OF THE VICTIM IN CRIMINALPROCEEDINGS
A. Information Rights
Victims of criminal offences who have laid a criminal information and who want the offender to be called toaccount obviously want to hear what has happened to their criminal information. In the German Criminal
Procedure Code their rights to information are dealt with in various places.
1. Information During the Investigation Proceedings
It is provided by statute that the victim of a criminal offence who has also laid a criminal information willautomatically be notified by the public prosecution office when the investigation proceedings are terminated(section 171 German Criminal Procedure Code, Number 89 of the Guidelines for Criminal Proceedings andfor Regulatory Fining Proceedings). These Guidelines apply uniformly throughout the Federation. They
take the form of directives for action on the part of public prosecutors in normal cases.
2. Information During the Court Proceedings (Intermediate and Main Proceedings)
In regard to the question of what information the victim receives during court proceedings one has to bearin mind that the proceedings are not party proceedings. The victim is not a plaintiff or a party to theproceedings. As a rule, victims are witnesses in the proceedings. If, however, they are not needed in thecriminal proceedings as witnesses, the main proceedings not infrequently take place without the participationof the victim of the offence. This may, for instance, be the case where the offender has made a confession.
Notification of the date set down for the main (court) hearing
For the reason just stated victims are not automatically notified about when the court hearing against thedefendant will be taking place. If a victim has not been summoned as a witness, there is basically no
obligation to inform him of the date set down for the court hearing. Here the victim is merely able to make arequest for relevant information from the court or the public prosecution office. In practice, the court or the
public prosecution office will certainly give the victim the information he seeks. But there is no statutory
obligation for them to do so.
Information on the stage reached in the proceedings
There is also no express obligation for the court or the public prosecution office to provide the victim withinformation on the stage proceedings have reached or on the course of proceedings. However, the victim is
free to address the relevant question to the court or to the public prosecution office at any time. The court or
the public prosecution office will decide – exercising their duty-bound discretion – on the extent to which
information will be given.
Information on the outcome of the court proceedings
The victim will not automatically be informed of the outcome of the court proceedings. If the victim wants
to know anything about the outcome, he will have to make the relevant application to the court. In that casethe court will, however, be obliged to give the victim the information (section 406d German Criminal
Procedure Code).

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3. Inspection of Files and Information and Copies from the Files
In principle, the victim is not able to inspect the files himself. The provisions of German Criminal
Procedure Code are designed in such a way as to make inspection always take place via a Rechtsanwalt – inother words, via a lawyer practising as an attorney.
The reason for these provisions is mainly due to aspects arising under the law of data protection. In acase file one finds a large amount of information concerning not only the victim but also the offender andother people. It is expected of a Rechtsanwalt, i.e. a practising attorney, that he or she will deal with caution
and in a conscientious manner with the information in the files – by virtue of his being bound by professional
ethics. Victims may, however, be given information or copies from the files (section 406e paragraph 5
German Criminal Procedure Code). They will, however, have to address the relevant application to the
public prosecution office or the court. The public prosecution office or the court will then decide on thisapplication in the exercise of their duty-bound discretion. A refusal to give information or copies can becontested in court (section 406e paragraph 4 and 5 German Criminal Procedure Code).
Let me give you an example here:
An accident victim wants to have a copy of the sketch made of the accident so as to be able to submit it to
the insurance company. The public prosecution office, however, refuses to hand over a copy of the sketch.
The victim can now turn to the court and obtain a review of this refusal.
4. Information about Release from Custody
Particularly for the victims of sexual offences and of offences involving violence it is important for theirow2n sense of personal wellbeing that they should know whether the offender is at liberty or not. According
to law as it presently stands, the victim of a criminal offence can only request the penal institution – in theform of a written application – to state whether the offender is in custody and when his release canforeseeably be reckoned with. This is dealt with in section 180 paragraph 5 of the Prison Act.
The prison authority is, however, not obliged to provide information. In making its decision, it must
weigh up the legitimate interest of the victim in obtaining this information against such interests of the prison
inmate as are worthy of protection.
The victim can also ask the public prosecution office or the court. They are not obliged to giveinformation. They will decide in the exercise of their duty-bound discretion.
5. Reform of the German Criminal Procedure CodeAs we see, the rights of the victim of a criminal offence to notification and information have been dealt
with only in respect of certain points. But practice shows that the need for information felt by victims ofcriminal offences is much more substantial. For this reason, the wish for further development of informationrights has repeatedly been expressed.
At present, a bill is being drafted to reform the German Criminal Procedure Code. One of the focal pointsof this envisaged legislation is victim protection. Particular attention is being devoted both to eliminating the
deficit with regard to information rights and to taking greater account of the interests of victims. Criminal
proceedings are also about victims. They are the ones who suffer. Violation by the offender of their legal
positions is what forms the subject-matter of the proceedings. The victims’ desire not to be excluded fromthese proceedings because of lack of information is certainly understandable. That the victims of offences
involving violence and of sexual offences want to know whether or not they face the possibility of bumping
into the offender in the street is equally understandable.
On this ground it is envisaged that in future victims will be able to obtain the following information upon
application:•

Information on the course of proceedings and on the stage they have reached.

•

Information about the decision on whether to open the main proceedings.

•

Notification of the date set down for the main (court) hearing.

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Information on custody, committal or release, or on relaxation of the conditions under which theoffender concerned is being held in prison.

B. Proceedings to Compel Public Charges
Ladies and Gentlemen – as I said just now, the victims of a criminal offence receive notification from thepublic prosecution office when the proceedings have provisionally been terminated. But what can a victim do
if he or she is not satisfied with such termination? Is there any chance of the victim being able to take action
against this termination?
The answer to this question will depend on what the reasons are for the public prosecution office’s
terminating the proceedings.
1. Termination for Lack of Suspicion of Commission of a Criminal Offence(Section 170 German Criminal Procedure Code)If the public prosecution office terminates the proceedings because – in the light of the investigations
pursued - there is not sufficient suspicion that the accused committed the criminal offence, the victim cantake action against such termination (section 172 German Criminal Procedure Code).
The victim must start by filing a complaint with the public prosecution office. The public prosecution
office will then have the opportunity of reviewing the termination once again. If the public prosecution office
sticks to the termination, the case will be reviewed by the regional public prosecution office. If the regional
public prosecution office also refuses to prefer public charges, the victim can then bring an action before theHigher Regional Court for a judicial review.
2. Termination on Other Grounds
In all other cases of termination by the public prosecution office, for example, termination on the ground of
negligibility pursuant to section 153 or to section 153 a CCP, there is no provision for a proceeding to compel
public charges (section 172 paragraph 2 German Criminal Procedure Code).
This is connected with the intention behind the proceeding to compel public charges. The latter chiefly
serves the purpose of securing the principle of mandatory prosecution. The public prosecution office isobliged to prosecute criminal offences and, provided the prerequisites are fulfilled, to prefer public charges.
To secure this obligation, provision was made for the possibility of pursuing a proceeding to compel
preferment of public charges.
When the public prosecution office terminates proceedings, for example on the ground of negligibility, it
regularly proceeds on the basis of the accused’s guilt. On the basis of an evaluation of the facts it dispenses,
however, with further prosecution of the matter on discretionary grounds.
Example:A was accused of giving the victim B a slap on the face. The background to this was a dispute between
neighbours. A had been until then a respectable person. The public prosecution office terminates theproceedings on condition of payment by A of a sum of money to an association for victim protection.
If in such a case the victim thinks that meeting the condition of payment of a sum of money is too lenient,
it is true that he cannot get a court review – as in the case of a proceeding to compel preferment of publiccharges –but he can indeed file an ordinary complaint with the public prosecution office. If he does so, thepublic prosecutor will review his own decision. If the latter adheres to his original decision, the regional
public prosecution office will review this decision once again. If the regional public prosecution office also
does not remedy the complaint, then the proceedings are over. No further court review will take place.
C. Rights of Presence During the Main (Court) Hearing
The question as to what extent a victim is allowed be present during the entire main hearing depends onwhether the victim is needed as a witness or not.
If the main hearing is held in public and the victim has not been summoned as a witness, the victim will –like everybody else – have the right to be present during the entire main hearing.

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If the victim is needed as a witness in the case, the general provisions shall apply as for all witnesses.
This means that the victim is not allowed to follow the proceedings in the courtroom until he or she isexamined. Only after his examination will he be allowed to remain in the courtroom if the hearing is being
held in public. What lies behind this provision is the fact that a witness should give his testimony
uninfluenced by the course the proceedings have taken until he is called as a witness. The sole fact of a
victim’s status as such does not confer on the victim the right to continuous presence during the hearing.
D. Private Accessory Prosecution
With regard to a number of offences Parliament has, however, strengthened the legal position of victims.
In a private accessory prosecution (sections 395 to 402 German Criminal Procedure Code) a so-called private
accessory prosecutor – being a private individual enjoying his own procedural rights – joins the proceedingscommenced by the public prosecution office. Private accessory prosecution allows persons who areparticularly aggrieved by a criminal offence to participate in the proceedings – for their own satisfaction andalso for the purpose of safeguarding their own rights. To make this quite clear, I would like to stress once
again that a private accessory prosecutor has an autonomous right of participation, independently of the publicprosecution office. Hence he is not a co-prosecutor assigned to the public prosecutor. The private accessory
prosecutor can exercise his rights completely independently. But the prior requirement is always that publiccharges must have been preferred by the public prosecution office since the private accessory prosecutor
cannot prefer such charges independently.
1. Who can Join the Proceedings as a Private Accessory Prosecutor?
The question whether a person can be a private accessory prosecutor or not is determined, as a rule, by
the criminal offence committed. In particular, it is the victims of a criminal offence
against sexual self-determination (for example, rape, sexual abuse, trafficking in human beings for the
purpose of prostitution),against personal honour (for example insult, defamation),against physical integrity (for example bodily harm),
against personal freedom (for example hostage-taking or serious cases of deprivation of liberty),
or of an attempted murder or manslaughterthat are entitled to bring a private accessory prosecution.
In cases of completed murder or manslaughter close relatives also have the right to join the proceedings
as private accessory prosecutors.
A private accessory prosecution can be conducted by the person entitled to join the proceedings in thisfunction, although he also has the right to be represented by an attorney.
2. What Rights does a Private Accessory Prosecutor have?
As already stated, the private accessory prosecutor is equipped with special rights as a participant in theproceedings:
Right of presence (section 397 paragraph 1, first sentence, German Criminal Procedure Code)Unlike the other witnesses, the private accessory prosecutor has the right to be present during the entire
court hearing – from the beginning to the end. For this reason, private accessory prosecutors are also
summoned automatically to attend on the dates set down for the main hearing.
Right to make applications
The private accessory prosecutor is able to make his own applications for evidence to be taken at the main
hearing. He also has the right to make general applications, for instance an application for exclusion of the61

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general public and/or for removal of the defendant during the examination of the private accessory prosecutor
himself.
Right to pose questions
The private accessory prosecutor can address his own questions during the main hearing to the defendant,
the witnesses and the experts. When he is being examined himself, he is able to get the court to reject
questions posed by the public prosecution office and by the defence.
The private accessory prosecutor also has the right to challenge a judge or an expert, or to object toorders made by the presiding judge.
Right to submit declarations and to make his own a closing speech.
One of the core rights of the private accessory prosecutor is the possibility of making declarations during
the hearing and of making his own closing speech at the end of the main hearing. In this closing speech thevictim is able to present his own view of the case and to make submissions on the points that are importantfor him.
The private accessory prosecutor also gets a copy of the judgment and of the reasons given therefor.
Private accessory prosecutor’s right to seek appellate remedies:
If the private accessory prosecutor does not agree with a judgment he can file an appellate remedy. The
private accessory prosecutor’s right is, however, limited in comparison with that of the convicted person andof the public prosecution office. Hence the filing of an appellate remedy is not possible with the objective ofgetting a different legal consequence or a conviction for a criminal offence that does not entitle the person
concerned to join the proceedings a private accessory prosecutor (section 400 German Criminal ProcedureCode). What does this mean in precise terms? Ladies and Gentlemen, I would now like to give you a few
examples to illustrate this point:
Example 1:
The defendant A seriously injured the victim B by stabbing him with a knife and was convicted of causing
serious bodily harm and sentenced to a term of 2 years’ imprisonment, suspended on probation. B joined theproceedings as a private accessory prosecutor and he does not agree with the level of the sentence imposed.
His aim is to have another legal consequence imposed, in other words a higher sentence. He is barred fromachieving this objective because of his limited right of application under section 400 German Criminal
Procedure Code. Here he will have no chance of taking action against the judgment.
Example 2:
The defendant A is accused of having seriously injured the victim B by stabbing him with a knife. The
defendant A denies the charge contained in the relevant count in the indictment, and, since the court was notconvinced of his guilt, it acquitted the defendant A. The victim B, who joined the criminal proceedings as a
private accessory prosecutor, continues, however, to be convinced that A was the offender. In this case B canfile an appellate remedy.
Example 3:
The defendant A is accused of having seriously injured the victim B by stabbing him with a knife. The
court convicts the defendant A of causing serious bodily harm and sentences him to a term of 3 years’
imprisonment. The victim B, who joined the criminal proceedings as a private accessory prosecutor, is,however, convinced that A not only wanted to injure him but rather wanted to kill him out of greed, so that
this is a case of attempted murder. Here the victim B is not opposed to the legal consequence but to theverdict of guilty of causing serious bodily harm. For this reason, he will have the right to contest theconviction.
Example 4:
The defendant A is accused of having seriously injured the victim B on 12 January 2002 by stabbing him
with a knife and then, at a later stage on 20 January 2002, of having entered the victim’s apartment and of62

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having stolen valuable items there. The defendant A is convicted of causing serious bodily harm but is,however, acquitted of the theft because it could not be proved that he had committed the offence. The victim
B, who joined the proceedings as a private accessory prosecutor, is convinced that A also committed the theftand he wants to file an appellate remedy in this respect. It will not, however, be possible for him to do this.
Theft is not an offence that entitles a person to join the proceedings as a private accessory prosecutor. Here,too, section 400 German Criminal Procedure Code limits the right to file an appellate remedy.
3. Does a Private Accessory Prosecutor get an Attorney?
Private accessory prosecutors are given an important position under procedural law. Important
procedural rights are conferred on them. Only very rarely, however, are private accessory prosecutors
trained lawyers, and for that reason they want to avail themselves of the services of an attorney. This desire
is entirely understandable. But having an attorney costs money. On the other hand, victims who do not havesufficient financial means must also have the chance to get legal representation by an attorney. Germancriminal procedure law makes the following provision for private accessory prosecution:•

Legal aid (section 397a paragraph 2 German Criminal Procedure Code)Victims who are entitled to bring a private accessory prosecution can make an application to be granted
legal aid. Legal aid will be granted if:-

the factual and legal situation is complex,-

the victim cannot sufficiently safeguard his or her own interests, or if this cannot reasonably be
expected of him, and-the victim cannot, in the light of his personal and financial circumstances, pay the costs, or can only
do so in part, or only in instalments.

Legal aid means that the state pays an advance in respect of the costs for the attorney and for theproceedings. But if the victim cannot – because of his financial situation – pay the attorney, he will not haveto pay back the costs arising by virtue of his representation by the attorney as long as there is no change in
his circumstances. If the defendant is convicted during the criminal proceeding, the court will then demand
payment of these costs from the convicted person.
•

Attorney for the victim at state expense (section 397a paragraph 1 German Criminal Procedure
Code)

Under certain conditions, the victim can, upon application being made, be assigned an attorney at state
expense. Assignment of an attorney for the victim is independent of the victim’s income, and the costs never
have to be repaid by the victim. Only in cases of grave criminal offences will it be possible to assign anattorney for the victim. This will, for instance, be the case where sexual offences have been committed orwhere there has been an attempt to commit a homicide offence.
In this connection, it has repeatedly been stressed that also the close relatives of a victim killed through acriminal offence are particularly worthy of protection, and that it is justified here, too, for an attorney to be
assigned to the victim. In the course of the reform of the German Criminal Procedure Code, it is precisely
this problem that is to be addressed and the victim’s surviving relatives are in future to be assigned an
attorney.
Legal aid is granted, or an attorney for the victim is assigned not only to private accessory prosecutors
who actually join the proceedings. Even before joinder as a private accessory prosecutor, it may be important,already during the investigation, for persons entitled to join the criminal proceedings to take advice from anattorney and then to decide whether they actually also want to join the proceedings. For this reason, on theconditions stated, those entitled to join the proceedings will also get legal aid or an attorney for the victim atstate expense irrespective of whether they join the proceedings or not.

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III. PART 2: THE VICTIM’S POSITION AS A WITNESSThe victims of a criminal offence are already under great mental stress because of what happened. During
the criminal proceedings they are usually, however, urgently needed as witnesses and, in many cases, they
have to go over what they experienced again and again. Even if this is a difficult time for the victim, a statebased on the Rule of Law cannot, and must not, dispense with the testimony of witnesses. In a large numberof cases it is the testimony of victims that is one of the most important sources of evidence for procuring theoffender’s conviction.
On the other hand, it is important that victim stress and anxiety be taken seriously in the context ofcriminal proceedings and for an effort to be made to keep the stress experienced down to a level that is as low
as possible.
A victim witness cannot avoid fulfilling his duty to testify. If he is not entitled to refuse to testify he will
have to describe what happened to the public prosecution office and to the court again.
In recent years in Germany, and particularly following the Victim Protection Act of 1998, new provisions
have been created to protect victims, taking account of the victim’s concerns especially in this difficult
situation.
A. Persons Rendering Assistance
It is often the case that victims will feel the need to take a person whom they trust to their examination.
This gives them greater confidence and makes them feel less left on their own. Assistance from a person
whom the victim trusts can reduce the victim’s nervousness and anxiety during his or her examination.
In section 406f paragraph 3 German Criminal Procedure Code it is therefore provided that the victim of acriminal offence may, if so desired, take a person whom he trusts to his or her examination. This applies toall examinations, irrespective of whether they are conducted by the police, the public prosecution office or the
court.
The decision on whether to permit the person the victim trusts to be present at the examination is madeby the person conducting the examination. The presence of the person the victim trusts may be excluded if it
is feared that the purpose of the investigation will be jeopardised as a result thereof. The decision is notcontestable. It was decided to dispense with giving the victim an unlimited entitlement to the presence of theperson he trusts. Cases may indeed occur where the presence of such a person can have a detrimental effecton the examination. Such cases may, for instance, arise where a child or a juvenile has been abused by aparent and the former brings this parent to the examination. In such a case it must be possible for the parent
concerned to be refused permission to be present at the examination.
The victim may also bring an attorney to examinations conducted by the public prosecution office or the
court. The attorney may not only be an emotional support for the victim. He can also exercise certain
interests on the victim’s behalf. So, for instance, he has the right to object to questions. In addition to this,he can make an application during the court hearing for the general public to be excluded.
Under certain circumstances a attorney can, pursuant to section 68b German Criminal Procedure Code,be assigned at state expense to assist the witness for the duration of his examination by the publicprosecution office or the court. Such assignment is geared to protect the witness during his examination andis therefore also limited to this examination. It presupposes that the witness is unable to exercise his rights
himself and that interests of his that are worthy of protection cannot be taken into account in another way.
When can cases like this occur?
To illustrate this, I would like to give you an example:
A young woman is repeatedly beaten and abused by her husband. She is frightened because of what
happened and under great mental stress. It is feared that she will not be able to exercise her rights, forinstance, her right to refuse to testify or her right to object to questions, or it is feared that because of her
mental situation she will not, for example, be able to give expression to her wish that the general public be
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excluded during the court hearing. Here it may be sensible to assign an attorney to the young woman only inrespect of the examination she has to undergo; the attorney can then support and advise her regarding her
rights.
B. Personal Data on Examination
Many victims are afraid of giving their personal data at their examination. Especially victims of serious
offences involving violence often fear that the offender might find out their address and take revenge.
In principle, at the examination the victim is, however, obliged as a witness to state his first name andfamily name, age, occupation and place of residence (section 68 paragraph 1 German Criminal ProcedureCode). The provision has the object of avoiding cases of mistaken identity, and it is also designed to create areliable basis for evaluating credibility and enabling the participants to collect information.
There are, however, exceptions to this principle (section 68 paragraph 2 and 3 German Criminal
Procedure Code). Where there is reason to fear that the victim or, for example, a relative of the victim might
be endangered by the victim stating his or her place of residence, the latter can be kept secret. The
legislation makes provision for the option of stating an address where the victim can reliably be reached thatis different from the victim’s home address. This can, for instance, be a victim’s office address or the addressof the attorney`s office.
In extremely exceptional cases where the witness’s life or, for example, the life of his relatives isendangered by disclosure of the witness’s personal data, he may also be permitted not to give personalparticulars.
C. Use of Video Technology
With the Victim Protection Act of 1998 the use of video technology was regulated for the first time incriminal proceedings. Both the recording of a witness examination on an audio-visual medium and the optionof examining a witness by video link were made possible. The object of this legislation was to spare thewitness repeated examination or being confronted by the offender.
1. Recording the Examination on an Audio-Visual Medium
Section 58a German Criminal Procedure Code regulates the recording of witness examinations on an
audio-visual medium and their use in criminal proceedings. On principle, any examination of a witness can berecorded at any stage of the proceedings. It is the person conducting the examination who decides on this in
the exercise of his duty-bound discretion.
The examination shall, on principle, be recorded where- a victim witness is under 16 years of age,- or there is a fear that the witness cannot be examined during the main hearing and the recording isrequired in order to establish the truth.
Only under certain conditions can such recording, however, be shown at the main court hearing instead of
direct examination of the witness concerned (section 255a German Criminal Procedure Code).
In Germany one of the most important procedural principles is the principle that both the hearing itself
and the taking of evidence must take place before the adjudicating court, and that the proceedings have to be
conducted orally. This means that in principle witnesses have to be examined personally before the court.
Only in exceptional cases can the examination of a witness be dispensed with and the written record of an
earlier examination be read out or the audio-visual recording made of such examination be shown. This will,
for instance, be the case where the witness has died in the meantime or is ill for a long or indefinite period oftime. Also, when all participants (public prosecutor, defence counsel and defendant) agree, such reading out
or showing is permitted.
In relation to victims who are in need of special protection it is possible for the video recording to beshown at the main hearing under less strict conditions. In cases of sexual criminal offences or of homicide65

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attempts on victims under 16 years of age the video recording made of their judicial examination can also be
shown if the defendant and defence counsel had the chance of taking part at this examination.
2. Examination by Video Link
Furthermore, ever since the Witness Protection Act it has been possible to conduct a so-calledexamination by video link:
In the investigation proceedings the judge can, pursuant to section 168e German Criminal Procedure
Code, conduct the examination of a witness separately from the other participants in the proceedings if there
is an imminent risk to the well-being of the witness, which cannot be averted in some other way. There is
supposed to be simultaneous audio-visual transmission of the examination to the other participants. The
judge remains in contact by telephone or radio so that the defence in particular can intervene in theexamination by interposing questions.
As regards the main proceedings, it is section 247a German Criminal Procedure Code that regulates thepossibility of examination by video link. In the cases covered here the witness remains in another place
during the examination. The court, including the presiding judge and the other participants in theproceedings, remain in the courtroom. They are connected to the witness through a video link. The
witness’s testimony is transmitted simultaneously to the courtroom. Conducting an examination by video
link is, inter alia, permissible where there is an imminent risk – that cannot be averted in some other way - ofserious detriment to the well-being of the witness in the event of his being examined in front of those present
at the main hearing.
That there should be two different models for the investigation proceedings and for the main hearing wasa matter of deliberate choice. This is due to the different stages a case goes through. In relation to the main
hearing, having a “split” in the main hearing was dispensed with. Here the court will remain together withthe other participants in the proceedings in the courtroom, and the witness is either alone or together with aperson rendering assistance in another room. Any other provision would have raised complex questions
under criminal procedure law. The principle applying to the main hearing, requiring the uninterrupted
presence in one place of those persons who are charged with reaching judgment in the case concerned.
The question whether the judge is to remain with the other participants in the proceedings or in the room
where the witness is was indeed the subject of heavy controversy during the discussions on the Witness
Protection Act in Germany. Both alternatives certainly have their merits. In the end, however, Germany
also followed Great Britain. There the model where the presiding judge does not leave the courtroom andexamines the witness by means of an audio-visual transmission has proved its worth over quite a long periodof time.
Ladies and Gentlemen, you will certainly be wondering how far video technology has now been
implemented in the German courts. I would be happy to be able to give you detailed information but
unfortunately this is not possible. At present, there is no statistical material available to me on how often andhow successfully video technology has been used in criminal proceedings. One should not forget that thelegislation has only been in place for a few years and that courts and public prosecution offices first needed a
start-up phase in order to get the necessary technical equipment for their agencies. There has often been
criticism to the effect that the application of video technology is still minimal. This criticism is definitely
connected with difficulties in adjustment in this area and also with the fact that judges also have to get used tothis new technology.
One should not, however, underestimate the effect that a recorded examination of a victim can have on
the offender. I believe that particularly with regard to serious offences involving violence and sexual offences,
showing the victim’s testimony as a witness can have a positive effect on the offender. In this way theoffender is already confronted with the victim. This will not be the case with written testimony. Suchconfrontation may already induce the offender to make a full confession at an early stage and spare the victim
further appearance before the court. This has also been confirmed by those involved in the practicalapplication of the law.

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VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS
D. Exclusion of the General Public
During the main hearing in court it is possible for the general public to be excluded (sections 171b and 172of the Courts Constitution Act). Seeing that the presence of the general public in the courtroom is an
important procedural principle, their exclusion can be effected only in closely defined exceptional cases. The
statutory provision made for these exceptions is conclusive. This may apply when particularly burdensome
details of the victim’s personal life have to be brought up or where a victim’s health, sexual sphere or
intimate details of his or her family life are concerned. Exclusion is also possible when there is a threat to awitness’s life, limb or personal liberty. It is the court that makes the decision on whether to exclude thegeneral public.
E. Testimony in the Defendant’s Absence
The defendant has a right to a fair trial, guaranteed under the Rule of Law. This also means that he will bepresent in the courtroom during the entire main hearing and that he will be able to follow the proceedings.
However, where there is the risk of a particularly grave threat to, or strain on, a witness, it will be possible toconduct his examination – by way of exception – in the defendant’s absence (section 247 German Criminal
Procedure Code). Here it will not be sufficient just for the witness not to want to be confronted by the
defendant. The court is required to strike a fair balance between the witness’s interests and the defendant’s
rights. In doing so, the court must always bear in mind that the defendant’s right to be present is one of his
most important procedural rights. But a witness’s interests will take precedence in any case where there is
the imminent risk of substantial detriment to his health, for instance because of too much emotional strain.
Where the witness is under 16 years of age, it will suffice if there is the risk of considerable detriment to his
or her well-being.
F. Separate Waiting Rooms in Court
Victim protection associations have said over and over again that the victim of a grave criminal offencecannot reasonably be expected to face the offender. There were often situations where the victim had to wait
for his examination as a witness in the corridor outside the courtroom, when the offender suddenly appeared.
This may lead to the situation where victims who are to appear as witnesses will become anxious even before
their examination has begun, where they feel uneasy and are worried about having to testify as witnesses.
For this reason, a large number of courts have already arranged to have special waiting rooms, for instance
Leipzig Regional Court has a nice room specially for children who have been the victims of an offence
involving violence. There are toys and books for children there so as to enable small children to relax before
their examination and to help them overcome their fear.
Provision is already made pursuant to No. 135 of the Guidelines for Criminal Proceedings and Regulatory
Fining Proceedings to the effect that such special waiting rooms should be used. But it is not only the use, it
is also the creation of such rooms which is important. For this reason, as part of the reform of the Code of
Criminal Procedure, there will be a statutory stipulation for provision of such rooms.
IV.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

I have now reached the end of my paper, and I hope I have been able to give you a broad view of thesituation of victims under German criminal procedure law. As you will have seen, German criminal
procedural law is still not perfect but we are also constantly working on further improvements in the victim’s
situation.

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