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農業技能測定試験
Agricultural Skill Assessment Test

テキスト 耕種農業全般

text：General Crop farming

English英語版

English Edition

2019 年 10 月 一般社団法人 全国農業会議所
October 2019 National Chamber of Agriculture（NCA）

Revision record
Version Update date
1.0

Update summary

October 18,2019 Original version drafted

Updated point
Original version draftedPreface
Labor shortages in Japanese agricultural workplaces have become a serious problem.
For this reason, as a new framework for accepting foreign human resources (Foreigners
for Agricultural Support) who can work immediately in Japanese agricultural workplaces,
the “Specified Skilled Worker” designation has been established. Along with the TechnicalIntern Training Program, expectations are high of this mechanism to support and develop
Japanese agriculture. In order for foreigners to work in agricultural workplaces throughthis project, they need to meet the requirements specified by the Japanese government,such as knowledge and skills concerning agriculture.
The National Chamber of Agriculture has therefore received aid from the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, and has decided to start examinations (Agriculture
Skill Assessment Test) from FY2019, to confirm and evaluate the knowledge andskills of foreigners concerning agriculture, etc. before entering Japan. As part of these
examinations, tests on two subjects will be carried out: 1. general crop farming and 2.
general livestock farming.
This text is organized in an easy-to-understand manner using photographs andillustrations on the knowledge and techniques that should be learned by those who takethe examinations on general crop farming. We hope that it will be helpful for learning andthat the examinees will utilize it.
In addition, the examination on general crop farming includes questions to confirm
and evaluate whether the examinees have the necessary Japanese abilities to engage inJapanese agriculture. For the examination, please also use the text for learning Japanese,
separately prepared by the National Chamber of Agriculture.
Finally, in creating this text, we received great cooperation from each member of theAgriculture Skill Assessment Test Planning Committee Crop Subcommittee, including
former Professors of Utsunomiya University Yoshikazu Yamaki (fruit tree cultivation),
Yukio Ohashi (Greenhouse Horticulture), Tadashi Nagashima (rice cultivation), andTomomi Hirasawa (crop cultivation). We are deeply grateful for their support.
October 2019
National Chamber of AgricultureTable of Contents
１

General Japanese agriculture

1 Rice cultivation… ………… 12 Vegetable… ……………… 1

２

General crop farming

1 Growth of each organ…… 2
2 Cropping systemand cropping type……… 4
3 Sowing… ……………… 5
4 Raising of seedlingsand planting … ………… 6
5 Irrigation (Watering)…… 8
6 Soil for growing crops…… 10
7 Improvement of soil fertility…… 12
8 Replant failure… ……… 15
9 Fertilizer………………… 16

３ Fertilizer application…… 19
 Ridging… ……………… 21
 Pinching, defoliationand fruit thinning … …… 22
 Artificial pollination… … 23
 Training, supporting…… 23
 Harvest… ……………… 24
 Utilization of covering material…… 25
 Knowledge of pest
and weed control ……… 27

Health and safety

1 How to use agricultural
machinery safely… ……… 30
2 Pesticide spraying……… 32

４

3 Fruit tree cultivation… …… 1

3 Handling power
supplies and fuel oil…… 34
4 Keeping things in order…… 36
5 How to use stepladders safely…… 37

Rice cultivation work

1 Seed preparation… …… 38
2 Raising of seedlings…… 39
3 Management of paddy fields…… 40
4 Harvest… ……………… 42

5 Preparation and shipping…… 42
6 Management of
paddy fields after harvest…… 42

５Upland field work for crops and vegetables

1 Characteristics of
cultivated crops … …… 45

６Facility horticulture work

1 Characteristics of crops
in facility horticulture …… 55
2 Types and structuresof facilities ……………… 57
3 Facility coating materials
and their characteristics …… 58

7

4 Equipment in facilities…… 60
5 Environmental management…… 62
6 Growth diagnosis… …… 64
7 Nutriculture……………… 65
8 Seedling methods……… 66

Fruit tree cultivation work

1 Definitions andspecies of fruit trees…… 68
2 Features of fruit tree cultivation…… 68
3 Cultivation managementof fruit trees …………… 71

8

2 Cultivation management of
upland crops and vegetables…… 51
3 Seeds…………………… 52

4 Facility cultivation of fruit trees…… 85
5 Characteristics of main fruit trees
and cultivation management…… 85
6 Agricultural materials andmachinery used for fruit trees…… 87

Terms used in farm work… …………………………… 90

List of photographs (vegetables, covering materials and fruits)
Vegetables… … 94

Covering materials…… 95

Fruits…………… 95

Introduction

Precautions when entering Japan

When you enter Japan and engage in agriculture, you must follow the following rules
to prevent the invasion of livestock infectious diseases and pests.

◦ Please do not touch livestock within a week before coming to Japan.
◦ As a general rule, please do not enter a barn or its surroundings for 1 week after
entering Japan (including re-entry).

◦D o not bring dirty work clothes, work shoes, or boots used overseas.
◦ Meat products such as meat, ham, sausage, and bacon must not be brought into
Japan without an inspection certificate.

◦P lease tell your family and friends not to send meat products to Japan in small
packages or small mail (international mail).

◦ In addition, let's work safely according to the instructions of the manager of the
farm.

１

General Japanese agriculture

1 Rice cultivation
Rice cultivation means growing rice plants.
There is Asian rice and African rice. The former is widely cultivated around the world especiallyin Asia.
Asian rice is classified roughly into Indica and Japonica subspecies and most of the rice plants
cultivated in Japan are Japonica rice.

Brown rice of the Indica subspecies

Brown rice of the Japonica subspecies

The grains of a rice plant which has had the hulls removed are called “rice.”
Rice for processing use such as rice powder, and rice for livestock feed are also cultivated.
The work involved in rice cultivation such as tillage, transplanting, harvesting (reaping),
threshing and preparing is mechanized.

2 Vegetables
Vegetables are actively grown by facility cultivation using vinyl houses as well as by open field
cultivation.
There are root vegetables whose roots and rhizomes are used, leafy vegetables whose leaves areused, and fruit vegetables whose fruits are used.
Higher quality vegetables have been produced by improvements in breeding and cultivation
technology.
The popularization of facility cultivation and the availability of covering materials have alsoenabled the same kind of vegetable to be produced throughout the year. This is called year-roundcultivation.

3 Fruit tree cultivation
For evergreen fruit trees, there are citrus fruits such as Satsuma mandarin, loquat, etc.
For deciduous fruit trees, there are apples, grapes and pears, etc.
Apples are mainly grown in areas where the winters are cold, whereas Satsuma mandarins aregrown where the winters are warmer.
1

2

General crop farming

1 Growth of each organ（１）Crop body
Leaves, stems and roots are the organs for growth. They are called the vegetative organs.
Flowers and fruits are the organs that leave offspring. They are called the reproductive organs.
Apical bud
FlowerReproductive
organ

Stem
が

Leaf

Lateral bud(Axillary bud)

Vegetative organ

Root（２）Vegetative growth and reproductive growth
Growth is divided into vegetative growth and reproductive growth.
Vegetative growth means the growth of the vegetative organs such as leaves, stems, and roots.
Reproductive growth means the growth that produces fruits and seeds.
The conditions and appearances to shift from vegetative growth to reproductive growth dependon the crops.

（３）Photosynthesis
Crops carry out photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis requires light, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O).
Crops synthesize carbohydrates by photosynthesis.
Generally, stronger light will produce more photosynthesis.

2２ General crop farming（４）Respiration
Crops carry out respiration.
Respiration increases when crops are rapidly growing and when the temperature is high.
When the temperature at night is high, respiration increases and the carbohydrates that weremade during the daytime are consumed in large amounts, resulting in less accumulation in thecrops.

Carbon dioxide CO2

Oxygen O2

Sunlight

Transpiration

Photosynthesis

Water
Stoma

Water H2O

Carbohydrate

Respiration
Carbon dioxide
CO2
Stoma

Inorganic nutrients

Absorption ofnutrients and water（５）Transpiration
Crops drain moisture from leaf stomata. This is called transpiration.

（６）Absorption of nutrients and water
Crops absorb nutrients and water in the soil through their roots.

3

Oxygen O2

Water

２ General crop farming（７）Formation of flower buds
When vegetative growth has progressed to some level, reproductive growth begins and flower
buds are formed. This is called flower bud differentiation.
There are two types of flower bud differentiation.

①

A type that grows to some extent and then differentiates regularly.
Example: tomatoes.

②

A type that differentiates under the influence of environmental changes
such as temperature and day length.

Example: Radish and spinach.
Short-day plants are plants that differentiate flower buds when the dark time is longer than acertain time (decrease in the length of the light time). Strawberries, chrysanthemums, and so on.
Long-day plants are plants that differentiate flower buds when the dark time is shorter than acertain time (increase in the length of the light time). Spinach and so on.
Some plants differentiate flower buds when the temperature is low. Radish, cabbage, broccoli,
and so on.

2 Cropping system and cropping type①

Cropping system

A cropping system is a system that handles the species of crops grown in the fields and theorder of cultivation.

②

Cropping type

Even with the same crop, the cultivation season and method may be different. This is called
cropping type.
For example, in leaf vegetables and root vegetables such as cabbage and radish, there arespring sowing cultivation, summer sowing cultivation, and autumn sowing cultivation, which
differ in seeding and harvesting periods.
In addition, tomatoes and cucumbers are also grown by forcing cultivation method which
advances the harvest time compared to open field (normal season) cultivation, and also bydelayed cultivation method which delays the harvest time.

4

２ General crop farming
Example of cropping type
Month

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Cucumber

Forcing cultivation (greenhouse)
Open field cultivation(normal season cultivation)

Delayed cultivation (greenhouse)
Spring sowing/
Summer harvesting

Cabbage

Summer sowing/
Winter harvesting
Autumn sowing/
Spring harvesting
Winter sowing/
Summer harvesting

Sowing

Greenhouse

Harvest3 Sowing（１）Sowing
The work of sowing seeds is called sowing.
Moisture, temperature and oxygen are all essential for the germination of seeds. These are thethree conditions required for germination. The seeds are covered with soil to ensure the three
conditions for germination.
Some seeds germinate easily when exposed to light (photoblastic seed), while others germinate
poorly when exposed to light (negative photoblastic seed). Photoblastic seeds should be covered
thinly with soil. Negative photoblastic seeds should be covered thickly with soil.

（２）Direct sowing
Direct sowing means sowing directly into the field.
Root vegetables such as radish and carrot are directly sown.

（３）Agricultural tools and machinery for sowing

Hand seeder

Seeder5

２ General crop farming（４）Thinning
In direct sowing cultivation, thinning is carried out. Thinning is to create a proper space between
the seedlings by removing any seedlings that are damaged by pests, deformed seedlings and extra
seedlings.

Poor growth Spindly growth

Leave behindThin

Deformed/
wormy leaf

Thin

Thin

Densely-planted

Leave behind

Thin

Leave behind

4 Raising of seedlings and planting（１）Raising of seedlings
Sowing and growing seedlings in a different place from the field is called the raising of seedlings.
The place where seedlings are raised is called a nursery bed.
Raising of seedlings is used for fruit vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers, etc.) and leafy vegetables(cabbage, lettuce, etc.).

Advantages of raising of seedlings
・We can protect seedlings from weather changes such as rain and wind, diseases and pests.
・We can prepare healthy and evenly grown seedlings.
・We can grow other crops in the field by shortening the cultivation period of a crop.
・You can raise seedlings efficiently in a small area.

（２）Planting
Planting is to plant seedlings in a field.
The growth stage suitable for planting and the space between seedlings (intrarow spacing) differ
among crop species.

6２ General crop farming
There are two methods of planting: using a machine and by hand.

Intrarow
spacing
Transplanter

Hand planting

The characteristics of machine planting and hand planting○ The method using a machine (transplanter)
Advantage: You can plant seedlings over a large area in a short time.
Disadvantage: Advanced techniques, such as uniform seedling growth, are required.
○ The method of planting by hand
Advantage: You can plant seedlings reliably. It doesn't cost anything.
Disadvantage: It takes time to plant and requires hard work to bend down.

7

２ General crop farmingal

Practicskill○ Understand the proper planting method of seedlings.
How to plant seedlings in pots

Pulling from the pot

Planting method

How to plant plug seedlings

Plant in the middle of a ridge

Planting a little deeper
is preferred.

Shallow planting

Oblique planting

5 Irrigation (Watering)（１）Irrigation
Irrigation (watering) is also important work.
Irrigation must be done while observing the growth of the crops and the soil condition.
The amount of water required depends on the temperature and humidity. Excess water may cause
root rot.
Irrigation is mainly performed in the morning and evening.

8２ General crop farming（２）Methods of irrigation①

Overhead irrigation

A general method that sprays water down
onto the crops. Hoses with a rose or sprinkler,
watering tubes, etc. are used.
Watering should better be avoided in thedaytime in midsummer.

②

Plant foot irrigation

A method that gives water to the roots of the crop.
Tools such as drip irrigation tube are used. Water can besaved using this method.

③

Furrow irrigation

A method that floods the furrows with water. A
large amount of water is necessary.

（３）Tools used for irrigation

Rose

Sprinkler

Irrigation tube

9

Drip irrigation tube

２ General crop farmingal

Practicskill○ Understand the main irrigation tools.
○ Understand the time required for irrigation.
○ Understand the irrigation equipment such as drip irrigation tube andirrigation tube.

6 Soil for growing crops（１）Classification of soil texture
In Japan, the soil texture is divided into five types according to the proportion of clay.
Fertilizer response (also called fertilizer retention), drainage, etc. differ greatly depending on thesoil texture.

Soil texture Percentage of clay

Fertilizer
retention

DrainageClay

50.0% or more

Good

Bad

Clay loam

37.5 to 50.0%

Good

Slightly bad

Loam

25.0 to 37.5%

Good

Good

Sandy loam

12.5 to 25.0%

Slightly bad

Good

Sand

12.5% or less

Bad

Good

Loam and clay loam, which contain a moderate amount of sand and clay, are suitable for thecultivation of many crops.

10

２ General crop farmingal

Practicskill○ Learn to identify soil texture by looking at soil samples.
○ Understand a simple method to identify soil texture.
The soil will not harden
even if you hold it

The soil will harden slightly but
will crack

The soil has hardened

Sand - sandy loam

Loam - clay loam

Clay

○ Understand the characteristics of each soil texture (fertilization anddrainage).

（２）Soil type
In Japanese farmland, unique soils are distributed according to the geographical features.

Major soil groups①

Andosol
It is widely distributed on plateaus and hills. It is mainly volcanic ash and contains a lot of
humus. It is a black soil layer. Half of the crop fields in Japan are andosol.

②

Brown lowland soil
It is distributed in natural levees in alluvial lowlands, etc. All or almost all layers are tawny
soil layers. It is used for crop fields.

③

Gray lowland soil
It is distributed in alluvial fans and plains with good drainage. It is a gray soil layer. It is
used for paddy fields.

④

Gley soil
It is distributed in alluvial depressions. It is a blue-gray soil layer. It is used for paddy
fields.

（３）Crumb structure of soil
A crumb means a cluster of soil particles.
11

２ General crop farming
Soil with a large amount of crumbs (crumb structure soil) is soft and suitable for the cultivationof crops.
The opposite of crumb structure is single-grain structure. Soil of single-grain structure is densewith particles and is a hard soil. To increase crumb structure, add compost and organic matter.

Characteristics of soil with many crumbs
・There are spaces in the soil.
・It adsorbs fertilizer nutrients and retains fertilizer.
・It has high air permeability and water holding capacitythat make crops grow well.

Single-grain
structure

Crumb structure

Characteristics of single-grain structure soil
・It has low air and water permeability that prevent crops from growing well.
al

Practicskill○ Understand crumb structure and single-grain structure.

（４）Three-phase structure of soil
Soil is composed of solid (soil particles, organic matter), liquid (moisture), and gas (air) phases.
These three are called three-phase structure of soil.
The balance of solid, liquid, and gas phases influences crop growth.
Good soil has a percentage from 30% to 40% for each of solid, liquid and gas.

₇ Improvement of soil fertility（１）Soil fertility
Soil fertility means the overall soil productivity.
Soil with soil fertility is able to grow crops well and yields a large amount of crops.
Improving the properties of soil to enhance soil fertility is the basics of agriculture.

12

２ General crop farming
Characteristic of soil with soil fertility① It has thick and soft soil layer, high air permeability, and high water holding capacity.
② It appropriately contains nutrients necessary for crops and the soil acidity is within theproper range.
③ It contains appropriate amounts of soil organic matter, and soil microorganisms areactive.

（２）Improvement of soil properties①

Tillage (plowing): Improvement of physical properties
Tillage means digging up the soil.
Air enters into the soil and makes it soft.
Tillage improves air permeability and drainage.
Plowing the soil deeply is called deep tillage.

②

Improvement of acidity: Improvement of chemical properties
Japanese soil is generally very acidic.
The acidity needs to be adjusted to a level suitable for the crops.
To improve acidic soils, spread an appropriate amount of lime or dolomite.

③

Replenishment of organic matter: Improvement of microflora

To propagate and activate soil microorganisms, spread soil amendment such as compost andorganic matter.

（３）Appropriate pH
pH (pH and hydrogen ion concentration index) indicates the acidity of soil.
pH 7 is neutral, higher than 7 is alkaline, and lower than 7 is acidic.
Soil with a pH less than 7 is called acidic soil, and soil with a pH greater than 7 is called alkaline
soil.
Many Japanese crops are suitable for growing at pH 5.5 to 6.5.

Crop species and suitable pH for growth
6.5 ～ 7.0

Spinach

5.5 ～ 6.0

Sweet potatoes

6.0 ～ 7.0

Japanese radish, cabbage, tomato

5.0 ～ 6.5

Potatoes

6.0 ～ 6.5

Eggplant, lettuce

4.5 ～ 5.5

Tea, blueberry

5.5 ～ 6.5

Strawberries, onions, carrots

13

２ General crop farming（４）Instruments for measuring the acidity and pH of soil
A soil acidity meter is an instrument to measure soil acidity.
Other types of pH meters include those thatmeasure pH using a colorimetric table (colorimetric
pH tester), those that measure pH by putting theminto soil, and those that display numerical values
digitally.

Acidity meteral

Practicskill○ Understand the measurement of acidity of soil.
How to use a soil acidity meter
It is a simple measuring instrument to measure the approximate acidity byinserting it directly into the soil.
① First, water is sprinkled on the soil to be measured to make it sufficiently
wet. (To the extent that it hardens with your hands.)② Insert it into the soil so that all the electrodes of the metal part are filled.
(so that the soil tightly adheres to the metal surface.)③ After 1 minute, when the number becomes stable, read it.

（５）Agricultural tools and machinery for “tillage”①

Agricultural tools

Grub hoe [hiraguwa]

Fork hoe [mannouguwa]

Scoop (shovel)14

２ General crop farming②

Agricultural machinery

Riding tractor

Plow

Rotary harrow

Walking tractor (cultivator)* The tractor is used for tilling with a rotary and plow mounted.
* In addition to tillage, with farm working machinery mounted, a tractor is a general-purpose
machine which can be used for harvesting, pest control, sowing, transport, etc. Ride-on
tractors are usually called tractors, and walking tractors are called tillers or cultivators.

8 Replant failure（１）Replant failure
Repeated cultivation in the same field is likely to cause the occurrence of pests which leads topoor growth and may decrease the yield. This is called replant failure.
Causes of replant failure
・Increase of pathogens in soil・Lack of specific nutrients・I ncrease of substances that hinder the growth of・Increase of pests such as nematodes
crops（２）Countermeasures against replant failure
A preferred countermeasure against replant failure is crop rotation.
Crop rotation means cultivating different kinds of crops periodically in the same field.
In addition, there are also methods such as using grafting, using disease-resistant varieties,
improving soil by introducing compost, and soil disinfection using chemicals or sunlight.

15

２ General crop farming
An example of a 2-year and 4-cycle crop rotation with a combination of summer crops and winter crops
SoybeanFebruary April

June

August

Wheat

Sweet potato

October December February

April

June

AugustWheat

October December February

April

An example of a 2-year and 4-cycle crop rotation with a combination of summer crops and autumn crops
Sweet potato Chinese cabbage

February April

June

AugustWatermelon

October December February

April

June

AugustRadishOctober December February

April

9 Fertilizer（１）Three elements of fertilizer
Fertilizer is necessary for crop growth. It is because soil itself does not contain enough nutrientsfor crops.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the three elements of fertilizer.
Elements essential for the growth of crops are called essential elements. There are 16 essential
elements.
The element symbols for the three elements of fertilizer are nitrogen: N, phosphoric acid: P, andpotassium: K.
Trace elements are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), manganese (Mn), boron (B), iron(Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), chlorine (Cl), and molybdenum (Mo).
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) are obtained from air and water and are fixed byphotosynthesis. Oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) are absorbed as water from roots, and carbon (C) isabsorbed as carbon dioxide from air through leaves.

（２）Characteristics of the three elements of fertilizer
Nitrogen (N): Associated with crop growth and yield.
Nitrogen mainly elongates stems and leaves and makes color of leaves darker.
Excess nitrogen makes crops flaccid.

16

２ General crop farming
Phosphorus (P): Affects mainly blooming and fruiting.
Potassium (K): Affects mainly blooming, fruiting, and root development.

Fruit

Stem
Oxygen O

Air
Carbon C

Stoma

Leaf

Root

Chlorine

Zn
B

Molybdenum

Zinc

Cu

Boron

Ca

S

CopperMg

Manganese

K

Iron

P

SulfurPotassiumN

Calcium

Phosphorus

Water

Magnesium

NitrogenHydrogen

Oxygen

H

O

Fe

Cl

Mn
Mo

Three elements
Inorganic nutrients necessary for crops（３）Types of fertilizer①

Chemical fertilizer (inorganic fertilizer)

A chemically synthesized fertilizer. Also called inorganic fertilizer.
The fertilizer effect appears quickly with chemical fertilizer.
Straight fertilizer contains only one element of the three.
Compound fertilizer contains two or more elements of the three. Compound fertilizers include
complex fertilizers and mixed fertilizers.
Mixed fertilizer is mainly made by mixing of straight fertilizers of the chemical fertilizer.
It contains 2 or more elements among nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potassium, and the total
content is guaranteed to be 10% or more. Most mixed fertilizers contain organic fertilizer.

Classification of fertilizers○ Straight fertilizer
Nitrogen fertilizers Ammonium sulfate, urea, etc.
Phosphate fertilizers Superphosphate, fused phosphate, etc.

17

２ General crop farming
Potassic fertilizers

Potassium sulfate, Potassium chloride, etc.

○ Compound fertilizer

Complex fertilizers	[Rin-shou-an-kari] Ammonium nitrate, calcium phosphate, potassium
sulfate / [Rin-ka-an] Ammonium, potassium phosphate / [Ryu-ka-rinan] Ammonium nitrate, potassium sulfate, ammonium phosphate / NK
fertilizer / PK fertilizer
Mixed fertilizers
BB fertilizer, mixed fertilizer which contains organic matter
High-analysis complex fertilizer, one of the complex fertilizers, contains 2 or more elements
among nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potassium and the total amount is 30% or more. Complex
fertilizer that contains less than 30% is low-analysis complex fertilizer.

②

Organic fertilizer
A fertilizer made from organic substances derived from animals and plants.
There is fish meal, rapeseed meal, bone meal, etc.
The fertilizer effect appears slowly with organic fertilizer.

③

CompostCompost is made with fermented cattle manure, chicken manure, swine manure, bark, fallen
leaves, etc.
Depending on the type of main material, there is cattle manure compost, swine manurecompost, chicken manure compost, bark compost, fallen leaves-compost, rice straw compost,
etc.
Compost not only has a soil improvement effect but also a fertilizer effect.

④

Liquid fertilizer

It is a liquid form fertilizer. Even if the original form is a solid such as powder or granule, if it
is dissolved into a liquid at application, it should be classified as liquid fertilizer.

⑤

Quick acting fertilizer, slow release fertilizer, and delayed release fertilizeri

Quick acting fertilizer
The effect will appear soon after fertilization. The effect lasts up to 30 days.
Includes liquid fertilizer, complex fertilizer, etc.
ii Slow release fertilizer
The effect lasts for a long period. The effect lasts for 30 to 120 days.
Includes fertilizer covered with a film and response-controlled fertilizer whose dissolution
is regulated and the like.
iii Delayed release fertilizer
It takes a long time for the effect to appear until degraded by microorganisms.
Includes rapeseed meal, bone meal, etc. Some chemical fertilizers are effective for a year.

18

２ General crop farming（４）Form of fertilizer and the lik
Fertilizer is processed into various forms forease of use and effectiveness. Forms include
powdery, granular, liquid, or pelleted fertilizer
that is processed into a cylindrical solid (pellet).
Recently, there are fertilizers made by mixing
organic fertilizers into chemical fertilizers.

Granular fertilizer

Powdery fertilizer

Pelleted fertilizer

Liquid fertilizeral

Practicskill○ Understand the main types of fertilizer.
○ Understand chemical fertilizer, organic fertilizer and compost.
○ Understand the form and classification of fertilizers.
Granular fertilizer, powdery fertilizer, pelleted fertilizer, liquid fertilizer� Fertilizer application（１）How to use fertilizers
Giving fertilizer to crops is called fertilizer application.
For fertilizer application, there is basal fertilizer and additional fertilizer.
Basal fertilizer is a fertilizer given before planting crops.
Apply mainly slow release fertilizer whose effect is mild and lasts for a long time.
Additional fertilizer is a fertilizer additionally given to crops according to their growth, etc.
Use quick acting fertilizer (complex fertilizer, liquid fertilizer, etc.) which exert an effectimmediately.
Liquid fertilizer can also be used to spread on leaves.
Fertilizers must not directly touch the seeds or roots when given. Otherwise the crops may die.
In addition, excess fertilizer can increase the salt concentration in the soil and impair the growthof crops.
This is called salt injury.

19

２ General crop farming
Salt concentrations are measured by electrical conductivity (EC). Soil with a high EC value has a
lot of fertilizer left.
Apply fertilizer according to the recommended rate of fertilizer application for each crop.

（２）Agricultural machinery used for fertilizer application

Fertilizer broadcaster

Manure spreader

Lime sower○ Look at the fertilizer bag and understand the fertilizer components.
・The meaning of “10-8-8” stated by a complex fertilizer
The fertilizer components are nitrogen: 10%, phosphoric acid: 8% and potassium: 8%.
Since the total amount of components is less than 30%, this belongs to low analysis
compound fertilizer.
・The weight of the components in 20 kg (per bag) of a fertilizer stating "10-8-8"
Nitrogen 20 x 10 = 2; that is, the fertilizer contains 2 kg of nitrogen.
100
8Phosphoric acid 20 x 100 = 1.6; that is, the fertilizer contains 1.6 kg of phosphoric acid.
8 = 1.6; that is, the fertilizer contains 1.6 kg of potassium.
Potassium 20 x 100○ You should be able to calculate the required amount of fertilizer basedon the recommended rate of fertilizer application.
Question: How to calculate the amount of fertilizer that satisfies the recommended rate offertilizer application
A Recommended rate of fertilizer application forvegetables (application amount of fertilizer per 10 a)
Nitrogen (N)
21 kg
Phosphoric acid (P) 23 kg
Potassium (K)
18 kg

Fertilizer used (component content rate)(N: 21%)
Ammonium sulfate
Calcium superphosphate (P: 46%)
Potassium chloride(K: 60%)Application amount of fertilizer=

amount of fertilizer based on the recommended rate of fertilizer application x 100
component content rate20

２ General crop farming(Answer)
Calculation formula
Ammonium sulfate: 21 × 100 = 100 (kg)21
23Calcium superphosphate: 46 × 100 = 50 (kg)Potassium chloride: 18 × 100 = 30 (kg)60

� Ridging（１）Ridge shape
A ridge is a cultivation bed with mounded soil. The aim is to improve drainage and air
permeability.
The work of making a ridge is called ridging. It is carried out before sowing or planting
seedlings.
In a field with a high groundwater level, the ridge should be a high ridge with a raised bed.

High ridge

Level ridge

RidgeheightRidge width

Furrow
Bed widthalPracticskill○ Understand the type of the ridge.
High ridge, level ridge○ Understand the name of the ridge.
Ridge width, ridge height, furrow, bed width21

２ General crop farming（２）Agricultural tools and machinery for ridging
When ridging by hand, a hoe, etc. is used.
When ridging using machines, we work using a tractor or a cultivator mounted with a ridger orhiller, etc.

Small ridge forming machineHigh ridge hiller

 Pinching, defoliation and fruit thinning（１）Pinching
Pinching is the work of cutting off the
tip of the stem.
Pinching will feed nutrients to theleaves and fruits.
It also makes cultivation management
and harvesting easier.

Pinching

Axillary bud
picking（２）Axillary bud picking
Axillary buds sprout from the axil ofthe leaf. Remove them to prevent excess
fruiting and over-luxuriant growth of theleaf, and to catch more sunlight.

Branchtraining（３）Defoliation
Defoliation is the work of removing
diseased leaves and crowded leaves.
Defoliation supplies good ventilation
and a large amount of sunshine.

Fruitthinning
Branchtraining

22

Defoliation

２ General crop farming（４）Disbudding, flower picking and fruit thinning
Disbudding, flower picking and fruit thinning are work that picks excess flower buds, flowers andfruits, respectively. Remove excess flower buds, flowers and fruit, fruit damaged by pests and deformed
fruit, etc.
Fruit thinning enables to grow high quality fruit by concentrating nutrients and moisture into theremaining fruit.
Generally, it is performed in fruit cultivation, but also performed in vegetable cultivation such as
watermelon, melon and tomato.

alPracticskill○ Understand the work of pinching, axillary bud picking, defoliation, andfruit thinning.

� Artificial pollination

StamenThe process by which pollen is transferred to the stigma
of a pistil is called pollination.
In circumstances where pollination does not occur
easily, artificial pollination is carried out, which involves
transferring the pollen onto the pistil artificially.
In greenhouses, insects such as honeybees andbumblebees are used.
Honeybees are mainly used to pollinate strawberries.
With watermelon, melon and pumpkin, artificial
pollination is performed to ensure fruiting.

� Training, supporting（１）Training
Training is the trimming of branches to adjust their
number and arrangement.
Training increases the yield and makes maintenanceeasier.

23

Rub the pollen
onto the pistilof the stigma.
StigmaArtificial
pollination Female flower

２ General crop farming（２）Supporting
Supporting is work that trains the branches to be appropriately arranged.
Supporting protects the plant from dropping and prevents the branches from being crowded. The
plant will be well-exposed to the sun and easy to maintain.
When supporting tomatoes, eggplants, cucumbers, etc., branches such as the main stems andlateral branches are bound to the supports and taped.
The support and stem
should be fixed by tying
with string or similar in a figure 8.

 Harvest（１）Harvest
Harvesting is the work of ingathering crops.
Harvesting must be done at just the right time (optimum stage).
For example, the indications to harvest are: tomato = coloring, spinach = plant height, cucumber= length of fruit.
Most of the harvesting of vegetables, flowers, and fruit is performed manually, but mechanization
has made progress for carrots, potatoes, etc.

（２）Agricultural tools and machinery for harvest①

Agricultural tools

Harvest scissors

Container

24

Harvest bag

２ General crop farming②

Harvesting machines

Combine harvester (rice)

Vegetable harvesting machine (green onion)

Digging harvester (potato)（３）Precooling
Pre-cooling is to cool harvested vegetables and fruits.
The purpose is to maintain freshness.
Harvesting early in the morning gives a precooling effect.
Vacuum precooling is a major precooling method, and there are also forced draft methods.
Vacuum precooling is a system in which vegetables are placed in a vacuum state in theequipment, and the heat from the vegetables is removed so that they are cooled. Vegetables arecooled quickly and the pre-cooling time is shortened.

� Utilization of covering material（１）Tunnel cultivation
Tunnel cultivation is a method of cultivation that covers the ridges with covering materials in theform of a tunnel.
Tunnel struts and covering materials are used.
The effect of tunnel cultivation is to keep the warmth, to prevent wind, rain and pests.
Covering materials include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene film for agriculture (PE),nonwoven fabric, cheesecloth and insect screens, which should be selected according to the
purpose.
Tunnel struts（２）Cultivation with floating row covers
Cultivation with floating row covers is a method of cultivation that covers the crops directly intouch with the covering material or with the material somewhat floating above the crops.
The effect of a floating row cover is to stabilize germination, improve initial growth, protect25

し ちゅうトンネル支柱２ General crop farmingfrom the wind, rainfall, pests, etc.
Covering materials include nonwoven fabric, cheesecloth.

（３）Mulching①

Mulching

Mulching (mulch) means to cover the surface of the soil with rice straw, plastic film, etc.
The effect of the mulch is as follows.
・Adjusts the soil temperature and improve the growing condition
・Keeps the soil soft and prevents runoff of moisture and fertilizer
・Prevents diseases and harmful insects
・Prevents weeds

Rice straw mulch②

Film mulch

Mulching materials and their characteristics
Covering materials include rice straw and plastic film.
There are various materials and colors for plastic film.
The effect depends on the color of the film.

Film colors and their effects
Transparent

Most effective in raising soil temperature

Green

The eﬀect of raising the soil temperature is intermediate between
transparent and black, and it also prevents weeds.

Ｗｈｉｔｅ

Prevents the soil temperature from rising

Ｂℓａｃｋ

Prevents weeds

26

２ General crop farming
There are also bilayer films that combine white and black (suppression of increase ofsoil temperature), silver films that reflect sunlight (use of reflected light, suppression of soil
temperature rise, insect control), perforated films that have holes for planting, and biodegradable
films that are degraded by microorganisms (labor saving in waste disposal). Except perforated
films, the films prevent percolation of rain water in the soil.

③

Agricultural machinery for mulching

Rotary mulch for level rows（４）Disposing of film
Care must be taken in disposing of film used for tunnels and mulching. Be sure to ask a specialist
for disposal.
Burning in the field is forbidden by law. There is a risk that it may generate toxic gas.

 Knowledge of pest and weed control（１）Pest control①

Basic way of thinking
Create an environment where pests hardly occur.
Detect them at an early stage and control them as soon as possible before they spread.

②

Control with chemical pesticide
Chemical pesticides used for the prevention and control of diseases are called fungicides.
Chemical pesticides used for the prevention and control of pest insects are called insecticides.

③

Pest control using other than chemical pesticidesiCultural control method
Use varieties that are resistant to diseases and pest insects (disease resistant varieties).
Cultivate plants that suppress the generation of pests and diseases. For example, thedensity of soil nematodes decreases when cultivating marigold.
27

２ General crop farming
The density of Cucurbitaceous Fusarium oxysporum is reduced by planting genus Alliumat the root.
ii Use of natural enemies
Insects and microorganisms that prey on and kill harmful insects are used.
iii Use of sex pheromone
Use pheromone traps to control harmful insects.
Using pheromone dispensers, interfere with insect mating (communication disturbance)and reduce harmful insects in the next generation.
iv Use of visual sense
Apply reflective tape to the aphids.
Illuminate with yellow light to prevent harmful insects.
Trapping with adhesive tape.
v Physical pest control
Prevent invasion of harmful insects using an insect screen.

（２）Weed control①

Basic way of thinking
Do not bring weed seeds into the field.
Remove the weeds as soon as possible before they drop their seeds.

②

Herbicide
Chemical pesticides used for weed control are called herbicides.

③

Control other than herbicidesi 	Mulch with a light-blocking material.
ii 	Intertillage (plowing the soil between ridges) and earthing up (piling soil up around thebase of a plant) should be carried out during cultivation.
iii	Fields without crops should be plowed.

Drawing soil

Plowing

Intertillage

Earthing up
28

２ General crop farming④

Notes on using herbicidesi 	Use the herbicides which are effective for each weed. Do not use herbicides intended for
non-crop areas which are not registered for crop fields.
ii 	Obey the usage standards of the herbicides (applicable crops, time of application,
concentration, etc.) and apply them at the appropriate time.
iii The tools for herbicide application should not be used for pest control.
iv	If there are crops nearby, use a special nozzle or cover and take care not to disperse (drift)
around the chemical agent.

Nozzles commonly used in herbicide spraying

Nozzles commonly used in insecticide spraying（３）Agricultural tools and machinery for pest control and weed control①

Pest control

Knapsack sprayer②

Power sprayer

Speed sprayer (SS)

Weed control

Grass mower

Walking type hammer knife mower

29

Riding mower

3

Health and safety

1 How to use agricultural machinery safely（１）Preparation before work
Understand the operation procedure of the machine well by reading the instruction manual, etc.
before use.
Understand how to start the engine, how to operate the break, and how to stop the engine.

（２）Daily inspection
Daily inspections will help maintain the machine's abilities, prolong the life of the machine, andprevent farm accidents.
Inspect for abnormalities before, during, and after machine operation.
When checking, be sure to stop the engine except for any operational checks required during
operation.

（３）Caution during machine operation (common to all machines)①

Common to machines
・When temporarily interrupting machine operation, be sure to stop the engine.
・Always stop the engine when unjamming machinery.

②

Riding tractor
・Get on and off from the left side of the tractor.
・Work with the safety frame set up.
・While the tractor is running, connect the left and right brake
pedals.
・After the work, the work machine attached to the tractor isremoved or lowered down to the ground after cleaning.
・After the work, fill up the fuel tank.

Safety frame・You need a license to drive on the street.

Connection of the brake pedal（４）Reasonable work plan
Fatigue can affect attentiveness and may cause accidents. When you are tired, machine work isdangerous.
30

In addition, since machine operation after taking alcohol is dangerous, never do it.
Take a break between tasks.

（５）Safety clothing

Hard hat

Wear suitable clothes for work that will not get caught
in the machinery or a rotating belt.

GlovesCoveralls

Safety shoesal

Practicskill○ Understand how to use the agricultural machinery safely.

○ Understand how to start and stop the engine of thecultivator and grass mower.
・Start and stop the cultivator
Start・Confirm that the main clutch lever and tilling clutch lever are"OFF" and that the main shift lever is in neutral.
・Turn on the engine switch.
・Pull the recoil handle firmly to start the engine.
Stop
・Using the accelerator lever, reduce the engine speed, turn off themain clutch lever, and stop the machine.
・Set the main shift lever to neutral and turn off the engine switch.

Main clutch lever OFFEngine switch ON

Pull the recoil handle

31

・Start and stop of the grass mower
Start・Open the throttle lever (1/3 to half).
・Push the rubber bulb (primer pump) several times to send the mixed gasoline to the
carburetor.
・Set the choke lever to "Close". (reduce the amount of air entering
the carburetor)
・Pull the string (recoil starter knob) vigorously.
・Turn the choke to "Open" when the engine starts.
Primer pump・If the engine does not start, repeat this step.
・When the engine starts, return the throttle lever to the position of
the lowest speed and warm it up.
Stop
Choke/string・Return the throttle lever to the position of the lowest speed.
・Press the stop switch until the engine stops.

2 Pesticide spraying（１）Clothing
Pesticide spraying must be done in appropriate clothing to avoid exposing the skin tochemicals.
Wear a hat, protective clothing with long sleeves and long pants, rubber boots, an agriculturalmask, protective eyewear and rubber gloves. Do not use cotton work gloves because they get wet.
Cover your gloves with the sleeves of your protective clothing jacket and cover your rubberboots with the hem of the pants.
Hat
Mask

Preferably, a hat with a brim

Wear a mask for weighing,adjusting and spraying.

Protective eyewear
Use goggle-type glasses whichtightly adhere to the face.

Rubber gloves
Cover your gloves
with the long sleevesof your coat.

Protective clothing
Wear the protective clothingwith long sleeves and long pants.

Rubber boots
Cover your work shoes with the hemof your pants so that the liquid chemicals
do not get inside your clothes.

32

３ Health and safety（２）Strict observance of usage standards
For agricultural chemicals, usage standards such as the concentration to be used, amount used,
time of use and number of times are all decided so that we are safe when we eat the crops that have
had these chemicals applied.
When using pesticides, carefully read the labels on the product and always observe the usage
standards.

（３）Inspection of pest control machines
Check each connection of the sprayer for looseness, etc.

NozzleNozzle pipe

*Check that there is noabnormality in the connecting
part packing.

*Check the loosenessof the screws.

*Check the looseness of the screws.
*Check that the bandhas no scratches
or damage.
*Check the loosenessof the screws.

（４）Correct spraying
When spraying pesticide, be careful not to disperse (drift) it around.
Spraying must be done on a day with light winds and must be stopped if the wind becomesstrong. Spray in the cool hours of the morning or the evening as much as possible.
Spraying should be done with your back to the wind. Avoid direct contact with the chemicals.
Do not spray for a long time. If you need to spray for a long time, take appropriate breaks.
If you feel anything unusual in your body such as dizziness or nausea in the middle of thespraying work or afterwards, you must see a doctor immediately.
All the prepared pesticide must be used up in the field. Do not throw into waterways, etc.

33

３ Health and safety（５）Treatment after spraying
Wash the tools well after spraying. Wash your hands
and gargle.

Wind
direction（６）Storage of pesticides
Record the use of the pesticides and store them in a
dedicated place (such as a cabinet) that can be locked.
Pesticides corresponding to poisonous and deleterious
substances must be stored in a separate warehouse fromthose corresponding to ordinary substances, and must
be locked up after being labeled.

Movingdirectional

Practicskill○ Learn to wear protective clothing correctly.
○ Understand how to check the safety of the sprayer, how to use it, andwhat to do after spraying.

●Understand how to dilute disinfectant solution.
How many milliliters of pesticide would be needed to make a 1,000 fold diluted
disinfectant solution in a 10-liter foot dip?
Adding 999 mL of water to 1 mL of pesticide makes 1 L of 1,000 fold diluted
disinfectant.
10 liters (10,000 mL) of 1,000 fold diluted disinfectant solution is 10 times thedisinfectant, so that 10 mL of pesticide is needed.

3 Handling power supplies and fuel oil（１）Handling power supplies
For agricultural power supplies, alternating current (AC) 100 volt and three-phase AC 200 volt
are often used.
A 200 volt power supply is used for dryers, motors, heaters, etc.
It is dangerous to touch the switchboard and leading wires with your bare hands. In particular,
handling the electrical plug with wet hands will lead to an electric shock accident.
34

３ Health and safety

Outlet shape for 200 volt and 100 voltThree-phase alternating current 200 volt

Alternating current 100 volt

Notes on three-phase alternating current
・Handle with care as the voltage is high.
（２）Types of fuel oil
Fuel oils for agricultural machinery include gasoline, heavy oil, light oil, heating oil, mixed oil,etc. Depending on the machine, the type of fuel oil is different.

Gasoline

Cultivator, transplanter, etc.

Light oil

Tractor, combine harvester, etc.

Mixed oil of gasoline and oil

Grass mower (2-stroke engine)

Heavy oil/heating oil

Grain dryer, hot air heater, etc.

（３）Precautions when handling fuel oil
・Check the type of fuel oil such as gasoline or light oil and use the one suitable for each
agricultural machine. If you use a fuel oil that does not match the machine, it may cause a
malfunction.
・When fueling, be sure to stop the engine.
・During refueling, make sure there is not a fire in the surroundings. In particular, gasoline easily
catches fire, so be careful.
・When fueling, be careful not to let the fuel overflow from the tank.

（４）Storage of fuelThe containers for gasoline and light oil are restricted by law.
Gasoline should be stored in metal containers.

35

３ Health and safety
It is prohibited to store gasoline in plastic
containers for kerosene (20 liters).
Light oil can be stored in plastic containers
if it is 30 liters or less.
Fire is strictly prohibited in the storage
place, and a fire extinguisher should beinstalled.
Fuel deteriorates when it is stored for a longtime. Do not use the deteriorated fuel, as it may
lead to mechanical failure.

Metal container(Notes) Release the pressure and open the cap.

alPracticskill○ Understand the fuel for each agricultural machine.

4 Keeping things in order
Handle tools such as saws and scissors correctly, and keep them safely.
An inspection before use and correct care after use should also be carried out.

36

３ Health and safety

5 How to use stepladders safely
Check for cracks, breaks, bends, etc., before use.
Make sure you put the stepladder up so that it is stable.
Spreaders (chains or stoppers) should be locked or hooked properly.
Do not ride or straddle the stepladder top, work while standing on the step.

al

Practicskill○ Understand how to use the stepladder safely.
Dangerous action● Leave the chain or clasp
unhooked● Ride on
the top board● Straddle the top board● Hang out of the tripod post37

4

Rice cultivation work

In Japan, transplanting cultivation is generally carried out using a rice transplanter.
March

April

May

Rice transplanting

Startperiodof thetillering
stage

June

July

AugustSeptember

SowingSeed soaking/hastening of germination

Raising of seedlings

Herbicide spraying

Heading time

Time ofmaturity

Young-earformation stage Booting stage

Midsummer drainage

Basal fertilizer/
puddling

HarvestEar
manuring

Growth stage of rice and outline of main work (cropping season for early maturing varieties)

1 Seed preparation（１）Structure of the seed
Seed rice consists of brown rice, which is made up of embryos and endosperm, and rice husks,
which protect it. The embryo has organs that become leaves and roots after germination, and theendosperm stores nutrients necessary for their growth.
Endosperm
Embryo

Chaff
Chaff

Brown rice（２）Seed disinfection
Disinfects diseases attached to the rice seed such as rice white-tip nematode, bakanae disease,rice bacterial grain rot and rice blight.
38

（３）Seed soaking
Soak rice seeds in water for roughly 10 days to let the seeds absorb enough water.
This is carried out for 7 to 10 days at a water temperature of
10 to 15°C.
The indication is 100°C as accumulated temperature.
Seeds

Water temperature forthe seeds is 10 to 15°C.

Soaking of seeds（４）Hastening of germination
Warm up to 30-32°C so they sprout on the day before sowing.
Create a state known as pigeon breasts where the buds come out about 1 mm.

■ Hastening of germination

Lack

Appropriate

ExcessRice seeds in the pigeon breast state

2 Raising of seedlings
Making seedlings for transplanting cultivation using a rice transplanter is called raising of
seedlings.
To raise seedlings, put the fertilizer-containing soil (culture soil) in a nursery box 60 cm long, 30
cm wide and 3 cm thick, and after watering, sow the rice seeds and cover them with soil.
After covering with soil, let them germinate by covering with a heat-retention material in anursery chamber or in a vinyl house (greenhouse).
After germination, arrange them in a vinyl house (greenhouse) and cover them until the seedlings
turn green.
Water the seedlings while paying attention to the temperature in the vinyl house, then seedlings
called young seedlings grow in 20 to 25 days of the nursery period, and those called middle
seedlings grow in 30 to 35 days.
39

4 Rice cultivation work
Second leaf

Fourth leaf
Third leaf

Second leaf

Third leaf
Incomplete leaf
(primary leaf)

First leaf

First leaf

Coleoptile

Young seedling

Middle seedlingTypes of seedlings

Nursery boxes arranged in a vinyl house (greenhouse)

3 Management of paddy fields（１）Preparation of paddy fields
Plow the paddy field with a tractor (rotary) and make it even. After irrigation, agitate the soil tomake it soft. This is called puddling.

Puddling with a tractor（２）Fertilizer application
Spread fertilizer across the whole surface of the paddy field before puddling. There is anothermethod of fertilizer application, which can be done simultaneously with rice transplanting.

Transplanting with a ride-on type transplanter40

4 Rice cultivation work（３）Rice transplanting
Rice planting is carried out using 2 to 8 rows rice transplanters. With a rice transplanter, theinterrow space (or the furrow) should be 30 cm. The intrarow spacing is adjusted by the ricetransplanter. It is usually set at 10 to 30 cm.

（４）Water management
After transplanting, introduce water (referred to as beginning irrigation) to protect the seedlings.
When new roots and leaves appear, make the water shallow to increase the number of new stems(called tillers).
After that, drain (called midsummer drainage) or add water according to the amount of growth.

（５）Spraying herbicide
Spray herbicide after transplanting. There are different kinds of granules and flowables, etc.

（６）Pest control
Control diseases such as rice blight and leaf blotches.
In areas where pest insects that eat leaves and ears occur after transplanting, control them.

Rice blight (leaf blight)

Stink bug (Stenotus rubrovittatus)（７）Additional manure
Apply additional nitrogen and potassium (Ear manuring) 15 to 25 days before heading to increase
the differentiation of the glumose flowers and to suppress degeneration. Note that a glumose flower
refers to the flower of a gramineous plant.

41

4 Rice cultivation work

4 Harvest
The panicles differentiate when vegetative growth transfers to reproductive growth. The period
when the panicles differentiate is called the young panicle formation stage.
The panicles develop in roughly 30 days after differentiation of the young panicles. This is calledheading. Harvest time will be 30 to 60 days after the heading.
Harvest is done using combine harvesters in most areas. Combine means “a machine with areaper and a threshing machine combined.” In Japan, a “head-feeding combine” is generally used.

Harvest using a head-feed combine

5 Preparation and shipping
The moisture content of unhulled rice immediately after harvest is
as high as 20 to 27%, so dry with heated-air to reduce the moisture
to 14 to 15%.
After drying, brown rice is prepared by hulling which removes
the chaff. Next, brown rice is prepared to ship by removing any
rice fragments and then packing in 30 kg rice bags and flexible
containers.

Grain dryer

6 Management of paddy fields after harvest
After harvesting, plow the paddy field with a tractor (rotary) and bury any stumps of rice, straws
and weeds.

42

4 Rice cultivation work

● Regarding low-cost rice cultivation
Methods of low-cost rice cultivation include ① direct sowing and ② sparse planting.
①

Direct sowing
Direct sowing cultivation is a method that cultivates rice by sowing seeds directly inpaddy fields without transplanting. Since there is no operation for raising seedlings,
the work time is shortened and materials for raising seedlings are unnecessary.
Sowing methods include direct sowing in flooding paddy field and that in welldrained paddy field.
Direct sowing in flooding paddy field is a method that sows in the soil or on thesurface of the soil after plowing and puddling. Seeds coated with calcium peroxide(Calper) or iron are used to improve budding.
In direct sowing in a well-drained paddy field, seed rice is sown in paddy fieldunder dry condition and the plants are left in field condition after germination, andthen flooded. It is possible to share the machines, such as the sowing machine, withwheat crops.
②

Sparse planting
Sparse planting is a cultivation method that reduces planting density by widening
the intrarow spacing set by rice transplanters.
If the conventional 30-cm interrow space and intrarow spacing is widened from
15 cm to 28 cm, the number of nursery boxes decreases by more than 40%. This
reduces production costs for seeds and seedling materials and labor hours.

Direct sowing cultivation (A multipurpose rice transplanter equipped with a sowing machine)
Photo: cited from “Nousagyou benri-cho” (agricultural work handbook)43

4 Rice cultivation work

● Regarding rice for livestock feed
When rice is used for livestock feed, there are two types; that is, seed of rice thatis utilized for livestock feed and rice WCS that utilize ears and forage concurrently
harvested.
Rice for animal feed

Rice WCS

Cooperation between rice farmers and livestock farmers is also necessary forcultivation.
Rice fermentation roughage (rice WCS) is a silaged roughage that is harvested
before the rise grain is fully matured. Specialized varieties of high yielding stems andleaves have been developed.
To improve the quality of silage, it is harvested around the "yellow ripe stage".
Rice for animal feed is an excellent feed that can be produced by utilizing paddy
fields. Rice for animal feed can be produced using the same cultivation method andagricultural machinery as rice for staple food.
In addition to using conventional cultivars, special forage rice cultivars have beendeveloped. They are characterized by ① high yield, ② cultivation characteristics (Itdoesn't fall easily and is easy to raise), ③ many varieties that are resistant to diseases,④ not affected by the taste of rice cooked or the quality of brown rice, and ⑤ manyvarieties with large grains.
Rice for animal feed needs to be produced at low cost because its unit selling
price is lower than that of rice for staple food. It is necessary to devise ways toreduce production costs and increase yields, using techniques such as direct sowing
cultivation, sparse planting cultivation, and the compost produced by livestock farmers.

44

5

Upland field work for crops and vegetables

1 Characteristics of cultivated crops（１）Grain
Grains include wheat and barley, pulses, etc.

①

Mugi (in Japanese)
There is wheat, barley, rye, oats, etc.

②

PulsesThere are soybeans, adzuki beans, etc.
Immature soybeans are classified as a vegetable called edamame.

（２）Potatoes
There is sweet potato, potato, etc. These are used as raw materials for starch, etc.
Those eaten fresh are classified as vegetables.

（３）Vegetables①

Kinds of vegetables

There are about 150 species of vegetables cultivated in Japan.
Potatoes, sweet potatoes, radishes, cabbages, Chinese cabbage, and so on have a large
cultivation area. In addition, onions, carrots, and spinach are also popular.
The classification system for vegetables includes a natural classification based on botany andan artificial classification based on available organs.

45

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetables
In natural classification, plants of the same family have common properties.
Natural classification
FamilyMajor vegetables
Cucumber

Melon

Watermelon

SquashGreen pepper

Potatoes

Cucurbitaceae

Eggplant

TomatoSolanaceae

Liliaceae

Onion

Welsh onion

Asteraceae

Lettuce

Burdock

Chenopodiaceae

SpinachBrassicaceae

Cabbage

Apiaceae

CarrotAraceae

Taro

GramineaeCorn

Convolvulaceae

Sweet potatoes

Rosaceae

Strawberry

Chinese cabbage

46

Shungiku

Radish5 Upland field work for crops and vegetables
Classification by organ of use
Leafy vegetables:
eating leaves

SpinachChinese cabbage

Cabbage

Root vegetables:
eating roots and rhizomes
Lotus root

Potatoes

RadishCarrot

Lotus

Fruit vegetables:
eating fruits and seeds
Cucumber②

TomatoEggplant Green pepper

EdamameCharacteristics of representative vegetables (by artificial classification)iLeafy vegetables
a Cabbage
Suitable for cool climates.
Grown by transplant cultivation.
It is used not only for raw consumption but also for various
edibles.

b Chinese cabbage
An autumn vegetable used for pickles and an essential
ingredient in Japanese Nabe (hot pot). Grows well in coolclimates.
Usually grown by transplanting cultivation but also cultivatedby direct sowing depending on the region.
There is head type, loose-head type and non-head type.

47

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetablesc Lettuce
There are many varieties: leaves with a ball-like head, withouta head, crispy, etc.
Grows well in cool climates.
Grown by transplant cultivation.
The seed is a photoblastic seed. It is weak to acidity.
Differentiates flower buds at high temperatures.

d Spinach
Harvested in one and a half to two months after sowing. A
vegetable that is easy to grow. Harvested at a plant height ofabout 25 cm.
Usually grown by direct sowing, but recently also grown bytransplanting cultivation.
Breeding improvement has enabled year-round cultivation.

ii Root vegetablea OnionThe edible round ball is an overlapping part of the leaf andstem, but it is a root vegetable.
Grown by transplant cultivation.

b Radish
Autumn radish, harvested from autumn to winter, wasmainstream but the production of spring radish and summer
radish has also increased meaning it is now cultivated throughout
the year. Tunnel cultivation is also employed during the coldseason.
Grown by direct sowing.
Flower buds differentiate in continued low temperatures.

48

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetablesc Potatoes
In addition to being eaten as fresh potatoes, also used as raw
materials for starch and processed foods.
Cultivation starts with planting seed potatoes in the field.

d Sweet potato
The enlarged root is the edible part.
Grows well even in soil with poor fertility. Excess fertilizer
makes the leaves and stems larger but the roots remain small.
Cut the buds that sprout from the seed sweet potatoes andplant them in the field as seedlings.

e Carrot
Contains high beta-carotene. In addition to cooking, also used for juice.
Grows well in cool climates, but is cultivated anywhere in
Japan.
Grown by direct sowing. Difficult to germinate in dry
conditions.

iii Fruit vegetables
a Tomatoes
There are many varieties including those for cooking. Mini tomatoes with high sugar
levels are also popular.
Grown by transplant cultivation. Grown by grafting.
To grow single stem tomatoes, prune the axillary buds
while they are small, which is called “axillary bud picking.” In
addition, carry out pinching and fruit thinning.

49

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetables

b Cucumber
The immature green fruit is the edible part. Used for salads
and pickles.
Harvested throughout the year not only by open field
cultivation but also by facility cultivation.
Harvested when the fruit length (fruits) is about 20 cm.
Grown by transplant cultivation. Grafting is also applied.

c Eggplant
There are many varieties including many region-specific varieties.
Because of the long cultivation period, enough fertilizer is needed.
Grown by transplant cultivation.
As they grow up, use support, and perform bud picking/supporting and branch training.

（４）Industrial crops
Industrial crops require advanced processing.
There is tea, konjac, peanuts, rush, tobacco, sugar beet, sugarcane, etc.

a Tea
Tea is the leaves of the tea tree. Since it is anarboreal crop, once planted it can be harvested
for many years. A field of tea trees is called atea field.
For easier harvesting work, tea trees arearranged to reach waist height.

50

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetablesb KonjacHarvest konjac potatoes, a rhizome,
and process them into konjac products.
Grown on flat land with good drainage
or sloping land.
Cultivation starts with the seed konjac
potatoes.

c Peanut
Peanut is a legume plant.
After fertilization of the flowers above
the ground, the pedicel grows down into
the soil and the tip develops into a pod.
Dig up the pods from the soil to harvest.
Cultivation starts with seeding in thefield.

（５）Forage crop
Forage crops are crops that serve as feed for livestock. Includes pasture grass, rice, corn,sorghum, and oats.
Raw grass, hay, and silage are given to livestock.
The ears, stalks, and leaves of grass, rice, or corn are harvested together and stored in a tightly
closed state free of oxygen (air); this is a fermented feed called silage.
Harvesting is done when the nutrition value of crops is high.

2 Cultivation management of upland crops and vegetables①

Temperature

Crops have the optimum temperature range for growth depending on the species and growthstage. There are crops that prefer low temperatures and those that prefer high temperatures.
Breeding and ingenious cultivation methods have expanded the cultivable area.
Even crops that grow well at high temperatures can be grown in cold areas by using agreenhouse, tunnel cultivation, floating row covers, etc.

51

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetables②

Light intensity and photosynthesis

Crops grow by photosynthesis.
Generally, the stronger the light, the more effected the photosynthesis. There is a lightsaturation point that reaches a plateau when the light exceeds a certain intensity.
The intensity of light required differs depending on the crop.
Vegetables that need strong light include tomatoes, melons, corn, and carrots.
Japanese honewort and Japanese ginger grow with weak light.

③

Moisture

The growth of crops depends on the moisture condition of the soil.
If there is not enough water, it will wilt and suffer nutrient deficiency.
On the contrary, if there is too much water, oxygen becomes deficient and the roots may rot.
To measure soil water content, use a soil moisture meter and a tension meter. The value ofwater content can be expressed as a percentage or as a pF value. Appropriate soil water content
ranges from 35 to 55%.

3 Seeds（１）Seeds①

Germination

Moisture, temperature, and oxygen are necessary for the seeds to sprout (germinate). These
are the three conditions required for germination.
Excess water causes a lack of oxygen and decreases the germination percentage.

②

Photoblastic seeds and negative photoblastic seeds

Seeds that germinate easily when exposed to light are called photoblastic seeds.
Example: carrots, lettuce, etc.
Seeds that have difficulty germinating when exposed to light are called negative photoblastic
seeds.
Example: Radish, tomato, watermelon, etc.

③

Lifetime of seeds and storage method

Seeds have a lifetime. The lifetime is different depending on the species of the crop orvegetable, and there are short ones and long ones.
Seeds should be stored in cool and dry conditions.
Improper storage conditions shorten the lifetime of seeds.

52

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetables

Life span of vegetable seeds
1-2 years: carrot, corn, spinach
2-3 years: welsh onion, onion, radish, cabbage
3-4 years: tomato, eggplant④

Processed seeds

Processed seeds have increased in number and feature easy sowing, good germination, anddisease prevention.
・Coated seeds: processed uniformly spherical・Naked seeds: seeds stripped of their hard skins and denuded (Spinach)・Disinfected seeds: seeds having undergone disinfection
・Seed tape: A tape with seeds placed at regular intervals.

⑤

F1 (F one) seeds

It is also called seed of first filial generation.
It is a seed with excellent ability of parents using heterosis.
Currently, F1 seeds are used for many vegetables.
In addition, seeds of true breed have been inherited from their parents' superior abilities. Local
specialty vegetables such as Kyoto vegetables and Kaga vegetables are true breeds. They can be
maintained by home seed-raising.

al

Practic
skill○ You should be able to imagine the species of vegetables by looking
at their seeds.
○ You should be able to recognize the processed seeds.
○ Understand the storage method of seeds.
○ Understand the difference of the life span of seed depending on thespecies of vegetables.
○ Understand the major types of photoblastic seeds and negative
photoblastic seeds.

53

5 Upland field work for crops and vegetables（２）Sowing
Sowing includes broadcasting, drilling and dibbling.
Seeding should be done in a suitable way for each vegetable.
Putting the soil on the seeds after sowing is called soil covering.
For photoblastic seeds such as carrot, overly thick soil cover lowers the germination rate, so thesoil cover should be thin.

Dibbling

Drilling

Intrarow
spacing

Seed

Seed

Sow several seeds in one place(Such as radish)Broadcasting

Intrarow
spacing

Sow on a ridge in a line
(Such as carrot)alPracticskill〇 Understand how to sow.

54

Sow on the whole ridge(Such as raising of onion seedlings)

6

Facility horticulture work

1 Characteristics of crops in facility horticulture（１）Vegetables①

Tomatoes

Tomato is a solanaceous plant.
It has many cropping types and is cultivated throughout the year.
It grows well at slightly higher temperatures, but grows even at
low temperatures.
It requires strong light for growth.

②

Strawberries

Strawberry belongs to the rosaceae family.
Elevated bench cultivation where you can stand working is
becoming more common.
It reproduces itself through vegetative propagation. After
flowering/fruiting, a runner occurs and the daughter plants that form
at the tip of the runner are used for propagation.
Seeding methods that accelerate differentiation of the flower bud are
now common and so forcing cultivation has become usual.

③

Cucumber

Cucumber is a cucurbitaceous fruit vegetable (using young fruits).
A diclinous plant which cross-fertilizes, but has a nature that
produces fruit without pollination or fertilization (parthenocarpy).
Most cultivation uses support.

④

OthersMany vegetables such as spinach (Chenopodiaceae/leafy vegetables),eggplant (Solanaceae/fruit vegetables), green peppers (Solanaceae/fruit
vegetables) are cultivated in the facility.

55

6 Facility horticulture work

SpinachEggplant

Green peppers（２）Flowers
Flowers are also actively grown using facility cultivation. Regulation of the flowering period
allows production of high quality cut flowers and pot flowers.

①

Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum is a perennial plant.
Raise seedlings by herbaceous cutting.
The chrysanthemum that blooms in the autumn is a shortday plant. To delay flowering, light cultivation is carried out
by lighting up at night.
There are many varieties including those that bloom in the summer and
it is shipped throughout the year.

②

Rose

Used for cut flowers of flower trees.
Facility cultivation is carried out and the flowers areshipped throughout the year.

③

Lily

Raised from bulbs and used for cut flowers.
There are many kinds such as Easter lily, Asiatic hybrids,
Oriental hybrids, etc. It is shipped throughout the year using
low temperature treatment, etc.

56

6 Facility horticulture work④

Carnation

Carnation is a perennial plant and used for cut flowers.
Cropping of the spray type, that blooms many flowers per
stem, is roughly 70%.

2 Types and structures of facilities（１）Types
Depending on the covering material used, facilities can be divided into glass greenhouses andplastic greenhouses.

①

Glass greenhouse
A greenhouse made of glass.
The light transmits easily. It can also be used for many years because of its durability.
Construction cost is higher than plastic.

②

Plastic greenhouse

A facility using soft and hard film that is light and easy to handle. Durability is inferior
compared to glass. Has recently increased due to development of long usable film and low
construction cost.

③

Rain protection greenhouse

This is a plastic house with only its roof covered with film.
Since crops are not directly exposed to the rain, it is effective
in preventing diseases/harmful insects and fruit cracking.

（２）Structure①

Type
a Detached typeType that has a single roof. Strong against the wind and snow, and has good ventilation andplenty of sunshine.

b Connected type
A house that is multiple single houses connected. The efficiency of heating is better thanthat of the detached type. The interior is wide and workability is good, but there are drawbacks
such as reduced light in the connected parts.

57

6 Facility horticulture work②

Shape of the roofa Gable-style roof
There are slopes on both sides of the roof and it has the shape of a house.

b Dome-style roof
The roof has a round shape.

c Uneven span typeOne of the two roof segments is narrow.

d Venlo typeA large house with high eaves developed in the Netherlands.
Detached type

Gable-style roof

Gable-style roof (large type)Dome-style roof

Uneven span type

Connected type
Eaves
heightGable-style roof connected typeDome-style roof connected type

Venlo type3 Facility coating materials and their characteristics（１）Sheathing material①

Glass
Flat glass is used. It transmits light well.

②

Soft film“Noubi” (vinyl chloride film for agricultural use) and “Nou PO” special film (Special
polyolefin films for agricultural use) are available.

586 Facility horticulture work
Characteristics
i Noubi (vinyl chloride film for agricultural use)
A film that allows light to pass through easily and has high heat retention.
T he materials are heavy. It is sticky and easily gets dirty. It also has the property of
being easy to tear.
It needs to be replaced in 1-2 years. When burned, toxic gas is produced.
ii Nou PO special films (special polyolefin films for agricultural use)
It is lighter than Noubi. There is no stickiness, and stain resistance.
U sually it resists extension for 2 to 3 years and certain types resist longer, extension for
3 to 5 years.

③

Rigid film
Fluorine film for agriculture is available. It has durability of more than 10 years.
There is also an acrylic plate type which can be used for more than 10 years.

（２）Lining material①

Soft film
Transparent films such as Nobi, Nou Poly (polyethylene film for
agricultural use), Nou Sakubi (ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer
resin film for agricultural use), and Nou PO special film are also
used for lining. The film for lining is thinner than the outside film.
Among soft films, nou poly is poor in heat retention.

②

Nonwoven fabric
It is used as a thermal curtain for lining. Light transmission is lower than that of transparent
films, but it has moisture permeability and water permeability.

③

Cheesecloth
It blocks light and has air permeability.

Nonwoven fabric

Cheesecloth59

6 Facility horticulture workal

Practicskill○ Understand the types of covering materials and their main purposes
of use.

4 Equipment in facilities（１）Heating system
There are hot air systems and hot water systems for heating. Hot air
systems are used a lot because they are easy to install.
The fuel used is mostly heavy oil and kerosene. Some heating systemuse electricity, gas, or wood pellets.
Solar heat and heat pumps are also being introduced.

Unheated greenhouse
Unheated greenhouse is a procedure that uses no heaters. It is suitable for crops that areresistant to low temperatures. The advantage is that there is no fuel cost.
If you use a tunnel at the same time, it effectively blocks the heat loss at night.

（２）Ventilator
The inside of the facility will be hot due to the heat of the sun during the daytime. Ventilate andintroduce outside air so that the temperature inside does not rise too high.
There are two ventilation methods.

①

Natural ventilation

Introduce outside air by opening a ventilation window and part of the covering material. Thismethod is affected by the weather.

②

Forced ventilation

Turn on the ventilation fan and forcibly introduce outside air. This method requires power andthe effect depends on the abilities of the ventilator.

60

6 Facility horticulture work③

Order of ventilation

Ventilation should be done from naturalventilation. The order of natural ventilation is
to open the lining first and then open the roof
skylight. If the temperature is still high, open
the sides.
If the temperature does not drop by naturalventilation, forced ventilation should be
performed.

Natural ventilation
Roof skylight
Forced ventilation

Change the inside air tothe outside air throughthe window

Forcibly change the inside
air to the outside air

Control panelal

Practicskill○ Understand how to ventilate and the order of ventilation.

（３）Carbon dioxide generator
Carbon dioxide (carbon-rich gas) promotes photosynthesis in crops. A
shortage of carbon dioxide may occur in a closed facility. By supplying
carbon dioxide using a carbon dioxide generator, photosynthesis can bepromoted.

Carbon dioxide generator（４）Pest control equipment

Because the inside of the facility is very humid and warm, pests tend to occur easily and may
spread rapidly. Pesticide spraying in the facility is done by using equipment that automaticallyspreads pesticides such as “self-propelled sprayers” to reduce labor and ensure worker safety. There
are also methods that do not use chemical pesticides, such as yellow light “insect repellent lightsystems.”

Self-propelled sprayer

Insect repellent light61

6 Facility horticulture work

5 Environmental management
Open field cultivation is greatly influenced by the weather and the climate.
Facility cultivation allows to regulate the above-ground environment (temperature, humidity, light,etc.) and the underground environment (soil temperature, soil moisture, nutrient concentration, etc.).

（１）Temperature management①

Temperature control

Control the temperature in the facility according to the optimum growth temperature of the crop.
The temperature inside the facility may be too high during the daytime. Reduce thetemperature using ventilation. In summers with high humidity, the temperature may be loweredusing a cooling device. In summers when the temperature is high, the temperature may belowered using a cooling device.
In the early morning and at night in cooler seasons, increase the temperature using heating
devices.

②

Instruments to measure temperature

A bar thermometer that encapsulates colored alcohol (displays the current temperature), a
maximum and minimum thermometer that encapsulates mercury (displays the current
temperature and the maximum and minimum temperature since the last reset), and a digital
thermometer that displays the current temperature digitally (displays the maximum and minimum
temperatures recorded since the last reset).

Bar thermometer③

Maximum and minimum thermometer

Digital thermometer

Heat retention methods

The effect of heat retention depends on the number of sheets
Vinyl film
Curtainsof covering material (multiplexing/multilayer) and the type ofTunnelmaterial.
If it is the same material, the greater the number of sheets, themore effective for heat retention.
It is also effective to prevent gaps and improve air tightness.
There are 2 ways of lining to improve heat retention. 1. Fix the heat retention material with alittle space inside the Sheathing material, 2. Movable curtains that can be opened and closed.
There is also a way to install a single-layered tunnel or a double-layered tunnel in a greenhouse.
626 Facility horticulture workal

Practicskill○ Understand the type and usage of thethermometer.
Celsius is used in Japan.
When using the thermometer, read the figure fromjust beside the liquid. The units are degrees or °C.

30

21℃

20

Correct eye positional

Practicskill○ Understand how to use a maximum and minimum thermometer.
The maximum temperature, minimum temperature, and current temperature
can be measured simultaneously.
The left side The right side
(minimum(maximumThe maximum temperature istemperature)temperature)measured at the lower end of the
Steel
50
‒20
markersteel marker (temperature index
40
‒10
30
Correct eye position0
inside the liquid) on the right.
10
20
12℃
10 Maximum temperature
20
The minimum temperature is(Lower end of the steel
Current0
Minimum temperature
marker on the right)
Temperature(Lower
end
of
the
steel
measured at the lower end of themarker on the left)
Mercury column
steel marker on the left side.

（２）Moisture
The growth of crops depends on the moisture condition of the soil.
If there is not enough water, it will wilt and suffer nutrient
deficiency.
On the contrary, if there is too much water, oxygen
content is too low and poor growth and root rot may occur.
To measure soil water content, use a soil moisture meterand a tension meter. The value of water content can be
expressed as a percentage or as a pF value.
Appropriate soil water content ranges from 35 to 55%.
Soil moisture meter（３）Humidity
In the facility, humidity tends to be high due to heat retention and warming.
63

Tension meter6 Facility horticulture work
In particular, during winter nights, this humid tendency may cause disease. It is necessary tolower the humidity and prevent condensation.

（４）Complex environmental control
The simultaneous management of several environmental factors such as temperature, humidity,
light, and carbon dioxide is called complex environmental control.
Computers enable automatic control of ventilation and heating systems.

6 Growth diagnosis
Look at the growing conditions of the crop when watering and applying fertilizer. To understandthe growing conditions, observe the number of leaves, the interval between nodes (internode
length), plant height, leaf color, etc.
alPractic
skill[Number of leaves]
Count the actual
leaves.

○ Learn how to measureplant height and internode
length.

PlantheightInternode
Do not countthe cotyledons.

○ Understand the numberof leaves.

64

6 Facility horticulture workal

Practic
skill

けんこう

なえ

はんだん

You
shouldbe断できるようになりましょう。
able to judge healthy seedlings.
○健
○
康な苗
を判
けんこう
なえ
とちょう
は
くき
びょうはん
しょくがいこんがいちゅう
くUnhealthy
seedlings
arecharacterizedbyspindly
growth,blotches
健康でない苗は、徒長している、葉や茎に病斑や食害痕（害虫に食andわ
feedingand きstems(bearing tracesしof
あと marks on leaves
ようみゃくかんいろよ うbeing eaten by pests),は脈間が黄色くなっている、子葉がとれている、葉やれた跡）がある、葉etiolation
betweenveins,
lackingcotyledons, and senescenceof leaves and
くき
ろうか
とう
とくちょう
stems.
茎が老化する等の特徴があります。

Thinstem
stem
Thin

The leaves
leaves areThethin andand large
large
thin
and
tend
to droopand tend to

The
internodes
The
internodes
are
short
and
are
short
and
dark
in
color
dark incolor

The
Theleavesleavesturnturn
up
upfirmly
firmlyThick stem
stem
The
Thecotyledons
cotyledonsarearerobust.
robust.
Healthy
Healthy seedlingseedling

Spindlyseedlingseedling
Spindly

せいいくしょうがい

Leavesaresmall
Leaves
are
small
and
look
stuntedandlookstunted

Short
Short
internodesinternodes

Long
Long internodesinternodes

Thick
Thickstem
stem

Cotyledonsare
Cotyledons
are
small
small

Aged
Agedseedlingseedling

げんいんYoushould be因がわかるようになりましょう。
able to find out the cause of growth failure.
○
○生
育障害の原
みずぶそく

くき

せんたん

さ

は

Water
shortage:the端が下tip of がり、葉the stem falls
and leaves wilt.
・
◦水
不足：茎
の先
がしおれます。
ひりょう ぶ そ く
ぶそく
せいりしょうがい
しりぐさ
Lack
of
Lack
of
calcium:
developsaphysiological・・◦肥料不足 ・カルシウム不足：生理障害（尻腐れ）fertilizers disorder (bottom rot).
となります。
deficiency:
etiolationof new leaves.
・Iron
てつ ぶ そ く
しんよう
おうか
しりぐさ
stems,
long化。
internodes, thin and
トマトの尻腐れ・Lack of sunlight:
・鉄不thin
足：新葉の黄にっこうぶそく
くき
ほそ
せつかん
なが
は
うす
おお
large
leaves.
◦日光不足：茎が細く、節間が長く、葉は薄く大きくなります。

Bottom rot of tomato

₇ Nutriculture（１）Nutriculture
Nutriculture is a method to grow crops in a culture solution in which
nutrients are dissolved in water without using soil.
There are two ways of nutriculture, using solid medium and not using
solid medium.
Solid media include rock wool, palmhusk, peat moss, gravel, and so on.
The methods without using culture media
are hydroponic culture and hydroaeroponic
culture.
Rock wool cultivation

65

Hydroponic cultivation

Gravel cultivation

6 Facility horticulture work

（２）Characteristics of nutriculture・There are few outbreaks of diseases
transmitted from soil・Improvement of soil property, irrigation,
and weeding can be eliminated・There is no waste of fertilizers

・There is no replant failure・Management is easily automated・Facilities cost for construction（３）Nutriculture system
Nutriculture needs a tank to store the culture
solution, a bed for cultivation, and a pump tosend the culture solution to the bed.

Pump
Tank
Bed
Medium

8 Seedling methods（１）Seedling methods①

Seedlings in ground seedbeds

Prepare nursery beds and sow the seeds. There are the hot beds and the cold beds. No special
materials are required for the cold beds. With the hot beds, set heating wires to warm the bed
soil.

②

Nursery box
Sow seeds in the nursery box. A nursery box is required.

③

Pot seedling
Sow seeds in the plastic pot. Plastic pots come in various sizes.

④

Paper pot seedling
Sow seeds in the paper pot that decomposes in the soil.

⑤

Plug seedling

Sow seeds in a dedicated plug tray. The number of cells in the plug tray corresponds to eachvegetable.

666 Facility horticulture work

Seedlings in a ground seedbed

Nursery box

Seedlings in a nursery box

Plastic pot

Seedlings in plastic pots

Paper pot

Seedlings in plug trays

Plug tray（２）Grafted nursery plant
A grafted nursery plant is a seedling made by grafting a scion onto a stock.
Grafting is employed for eggplant, cucumber, tomato, watermelon, etc.
For stocks, use varieties that are resistant to diseases and pest insects.
For scions, use superior varieties with high yields and high quality.
The advantage of grafting the nursery seedlings is that they are strong against diseases and pests,
and the yields increase.

（３）Healthy seedlingGood seedlings have short internodes, thick stems and are solid.
Excess water and controlling at high temperatures make the seedlings spindly (seedlings withelongated branches and stems).
Lack of light also makes spindly seedlings.
Shortage of nitrogen fertilizer makes the lower leaves turn yellow and discourages the seedlings.

67

7

Fruit tree cultivation work

1 Definitions and species of fruit trees（１）Definition of a fruit tree
Fruit tree refers to “timber” (“tree” in this text) cultivated to harvest fruit.
We also harvest fruit from melon, watermelon and others, but because they are “grass” that die
within a year, they are classified as vegetables.
The fruit is called kajitsu or “mi” in Japanese.

（２）Types of fruit trees
Deciduous fruit trees are trees that lose their leaves in the winter. There is apple, grapes, pear,
peach, persimmon, chestnut, etc.
Evergreen fruit trees are trees with leaves that are present throughout the year. There is Satsuma
mandarin, yuzu, loquat, etc.

（３）Why do we grow fruit trees?
Sweet and fragrant fruits enrich our dietary life.
High quality fruit can be sold at a high price, resulting in a lot of income even from a small
arable field.

2 Features of fruit tree cultivation（１）The life of fruit trees
After planting the nursery stock, the tree should be grown larger for several years without letting
it fruit.
Once the tree grows, let the tree produce fruit and harvest it.
After that, depending on the species, you can harvest every year over 20 to 40 years.

687 Fruit tree cultivation work
Sapling

Mature tree

Old treeYoung tree
Amount of
growth/fruit yield

Tree size
Start periodof fruiting

Fruit amount

0

10

20

30

Age of tree (years)
Amount of fruit

Young tree

Amount offlower buds

Sapling

Mature tree

Old treeLife of fruit trees (age, amount of flower bud formation and amount of fruit)（２）Growth of fruit trees①

Formation of leaf buds and flower buds

There are two kinds of fruit tree buds: a “leaf bud” from which the leaves emerge, and a “flowerbud” from which the flower blooms and which bears the fruit.
Depending on the species of fruit tree, flower buds are formed in different seasons. With many
fruit trees, flower buds are formed in the year before the year when the flowers bloom and they
bear fruit.
There are two types of flower bud formation. Peach and yellow peach form flower buds on the
branches that grew last year. Apple, pear and grapes form flower buds on new branches that havegrown this year. Satsuma mandarin has both types.
Depending on the position of the flower buds, the way of pruning is different.

Factors that aid differentiation of flower buds
・Reduce the effect of nitrogen fertilizer.
・Perform light pruning.
・Avoid excessive fruiting.
・Reduce the soil moisture slightly.

69

7 Fruit tree cultivation work

Period of flower bud differentiation
Most deciduous fruit trees differentiate flower buds in June-August. Grapes differentiate
in late May, and Satsuma mandarin from October to December.

②

Growth and maturation of fruit

After blooming, as flower pollen reaches the pistil to pollinate, bearing occurs and the fruit
begins to grow. Like Satsuma mandarin, some fruit trees grow fruit without pollination.
The growth of fruits without fertilization is called parthenocarpy. In addition to Satsuma
mandarin, figs and Hiratanenashi persimmon produce fruits by parthenocarpy. When grapes aretreated with gibberellin, they become seedless fruits.

③

Growth and maturation of fruit

The fruit grows gradually, accumulates sugar and most fruit become sweet at maturity. Thenthe cells change to become soft.
The growth of fruit occurs by first increasing the number of cells, then by enlarging the cellvolume.

（３）Cultivation environment for fruit trees①

Temperature, irradiation, precipitation, wind

Appropriate air temperature, day length and precipitation are necessary for growth of thecurrent shoots (= newly growing branches) and fruit.
Strong wind either damages or makes the fruit fall so it is necessary to protect it from wind.
Pears are grown by trellis training to protect the fruit from damage and dropping due to strong
winds such as typhoons.

②

Nutrition

In addition to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, balanced nutrients are required for thegrowth of fruit trees.
It is also important that the season and the amount of fertilizer applied are appropriate.

③

Soil

In order for fruit trees to spread their roots, and absorb nutrients and moisture, proper
improvement of soil fertility is necessary.
It is important that the fertilizer does not run off easily, and that the water holding capacity(water retention) and water permeability (drainage) are favorable.

70

7 Fruit tree cultivation work

3 Cultivation management of fruit trees（１）Management of trees①

Production and raising of nursery stocks
Fruit tree nursery stock is usually made by “grafting” a “scion” to a “stock”.
Select a variety of stock that spreads roots well and is resistant to diseases.
Select a superior variety of scion that bears high quality fruit.
Grafting includes scion grafting and bud grafting.
Grafting the branch onto the stock is called “scion grafting.”
As methods of scion grafting, there is veneer grafting, cleft grafting and side grafting.
Grafting the bud to the stock is called “bud grafting.”
As methods of bud grafting, there is T-budding and chip budding.

Production method

Explanation

Characteristics

Propagation
by grafting

Graft the scion onto the rootstock.

For fruit trees in general

Propagation
by cutting

Cut a part of the branches or the leaves, placethem in soil or culture soil, and let them bud androot to use as seedlings.

Grapes, figs, etc.

Propagation bylayering

Bend a part of the branch and fill it in the soil, andwhen the root comes out cut it apart to prepare
the seedlings.

Apple, etc.

Sexual propagation

Prepare seedlings by sowing seeds.

How to produce rootstocks

Cutting

Layering (before rooting)71

Layering (after rooting)7 Fruit tree cultivation work
Production of nursery stocks includes vegetative propagation (Grafting, etc.) and seedpropagation.
A seedling propagated by sowing seed is called a seedling by sexual propagation.
Seed propagation is utilized when growing rootstocks and breeding new varieties.
Good nursery stocks have well developed fine roots and are not affected by pests.
Use scions that are not damaged by pests.

Purpose of grafting①②③④

Breed the individuals of the same variety and phylesis.
Hasten the start period of fruiting.
Renew varieties in a short period by top-grafting.
Reduce the damage of pests and diseases using resistant rootstocks.

al

Practicskill○ Understand the nursery stock of main fruit trees.
Evergreen
fruit tree

Deciduous
fruit tree

CitrusPersimmon

72

Grape

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practicskill○ Understand the method of scion grafting and bud grafting.
《Scion grafting》

Veneer grafting

Cleft graftingSide grafting

Insert the scion by putting thecambium layer of the scion
and rootstock together.

Break the stock and insert a wedge-shaped
scion. Mainly used to regenerate the mainbranch.

A method of grafting the scion
in between without cutting thebranches or stems.

《Bud grafting》①Cut out one sprout.

②Make a T-shaped cut in the rootstock.

③Insert the sprout.

④Roll the tape with the sprout exposed.

○Understandthe necessary
tools for grafting.

Knife (for cutting out)

○Understandhow to plant
grafted nursery stocks.

Grafting tape

Grafting wax

Place the grafted part above
the ground.
Grafted part

Rootstock73

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practicskill○ Understand how to do scion grafting.
Rootstock①②

Cambium
PhloemXylem (vessel)

Xylemparenchyma③④
Cut inward
with a knife
About 3 cm

Cut it slightly
inward
※4.5～6cm※If you turn it to the outside, it will snap sharply
and you may cut your fingers and hands.

① Cut the rootstock at a height of 4.5 - 6 cm above the ground surface.
② Remove the shoulder by cutting upward at a 45 degree angle.
③ Cut right below at the slanted part.
④ Graft the scion before the cut is dry.

Scion
①

②

③
The part that isinserted into a stock

The part from whicha scion is removed
About 3.6 cm

About 3 cm

45 degrees

About 9 mm

① For scion, use the central part of the branch where the buds are fulfilling.
② Remain 1 - 3 buds and cut down diagonally and thinly about 3.6 cm length.
③ Cut off about 9 mm diagonally from the back at an angle of about 45 degrees.

How to graft②①

Lateral side③

Front side

① Insert the scion by putting the cambium layer of the scion and rootstock together.
Since the cambium cannot be seen with the naked eye, join the outside of the xylem (vessel).
Apply wax to the top of the rootstock.
② Firmly fix with tape.
③ Cover the rootstock and the scion with a polyethylene bag or the like.

How to join rootstocks and scions (Note) Be careful not to make a gap between the rootstock and the scion.

Good
exampleXylem (vessel)
PhloemCambium

Rootstock
Scion

Bark

PhloemXylem (vessel)

Join the two cambium layers

Badexample74

Xylemparenchyma

7 Fruit tree cultivation work②

Training, pruning“Training” is the work of arranging the shape of the tree by cutting and training branches.
“Pruning” means cutting branches.
The purpose is to harvest better fruit stably by increasing the flowers and making the workeasier.
Depending on the extent of the branches cut, there is “heavy pruning” and “light pruning.”
Heavy pruning encourages vegetative growth. Light pruning weakens vegetative growth andencourages reproductive growth.
Fruit trees have a specific training method (tree form) for each species and variety.
Central leader type is used for dwarfing cultivation, etc. of apple and peach, modified leader
type is used for apple and persimmon, etc., open center type is used for peach, etc., trellis
training is used for grapes and Japanese pear, etc.
When training, be careful not to make a “whorl of branches” where the main branches sprout
from one place of the main stem.

Whorl of branches

The pruning is mainly done in winter, called "winter pruning". "Summer pruning" is done
adjunctively.
There are 2 types of pruning: "heading back pruning" and "thinning-out pruning".
“Heading back pruning” is to cut newly grown branches in their middle, and it promotes thegrowth of new branches (branches that newly shoot).
“Thinning-out pruning” is to cut unnecessary branches, leaving necessary branches. It
improves ventilation and sunlight.

75

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practicskill○ Understand the principle of pruning.
Before pruning, observe the whole tree and decide which branch to prune
by considering the arrangement of the main and secondary branches, thedegree of crowding of branches, and the position to produce fruit.
Start with the main branch. Cut unnecessary branches from the tip to thebase.
Saw off unnecessary thick branches from their base (Thinning-out pruning).
Cut the thin branches to remain, on top of the leaf buds in the direction you
intend to extend them (Heading back pruning).
Cut off unnecessary small branches from their base with scissors(Thinning-out pruning).

76

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practicskill○ Understand how to prune branches.
Cut the new branches shooting from the main stem

Thinning-out pruning

Heading back pruning

After pruning

Before pruning

Shin-eda (Central branch)

Inverse branch(reverse branch)

Water
sproutWater
sprout

How to cut thick branches

Upright
branchCrossedbranchReversebranchLateralbranchInverse branch

Shootsfrom the main stem

SuckerBranches requiring pruning

How to cut thin branches

Water sprouts, upright branches, reverse branches,lateral branches, inverse branches, crossed branches,shoots from the main stem, suckers, etc. are pruned.
Do not cut the central branch.

77

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practicskill○ Understand training method (tree form) and the types of fruit trees.

MainbranchMain stem

Main stem

Water sprout
TrellisMain stemMainbranch③

MainbranchMainbranchCentral leader type

Modified leader typeOpen center type

Trellis training(Apple, peach)(Dwarfing cultivation)(Apple, persimmon)(Peach, plum, Japanese plum (Ume))(Grape, pear)

Supporting

Supporting is carried out to arrange the growing direction of young branches of Japanese pearand grapes, etc.

④

Fruiting management
From before flowering to harvest, the following work is carried out.

 i Disbudding, ﬂower picking
Pick excess flower buds and flowers to grow higher quality fruit and to facilitate flowering
next year.

 ii Pollination (fertilization)
When flowers bloom, put pollen onto the pistil using artificial pollination.
Sometimes insects such as bees are used.
To facilitate fruiting, plant a different variety called a “pollinizer.”78

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practic
skill

Deciduous fruit tree
○ Understand the tools used for artificial pollination.

Hand pollinator

Hand pollinator

Bonten(a fluffy-ball type tool used like a pollinating brush) iii Fruit thinning
Pick young excess fruit in order to harvest higher quality fruit and to facilitate flowering
next year.

al

Practic
skill

Common○ Understand the fruit to be picked.
①

Fruit with damage or injury by pests②

Slow developing or deformed fruit③

Fruit in positions where bagging will be difficult

Pear Fruit to leave

Fruit that seems
to be cappedwith a dishFruit to pickFig-like fruit

Deformed fruit

OrangeFruitwith streaks

79

Fruit to leave

Fruit to pick

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practic
skill

Evergreen fruit tree
○ Understand the fruit thinning of Satsuma mandarin.

 iv Bagging
Wrap the fruit with bags to prevent pests and to make clean fruit.

al

Practic
skill

Deciduous fruit tree
○ Understand how to apply basic bagging.

80

7 Fruit tree cultivation workal

Practic
skill

Deciduous fruit tree
○Understand the bag types formain fruit trees and how to
bag the fruits.

For peach

Peach

For grapes

Stopper

Inflate the bag, put a branch in the cut of
the bag, and make sure the fruit isplaced in the center of the bag.

Gather the top of the bag to one sideand fold it toward the base of the branch,and tie them together with the wire thatis attached to the bag and tighten firmly.

Grape
StopperFruit axis

Inflate the bag, put the fruit clusterin the center of the bag and gather
the top of the bag (the side without
the wire).

Gather the other side with thewire and fold the wire to tie itaround the fruit axis and tighten
the mouth firmly.

【Common matter】① Make sure the fruit is in the middle of the bag.
② Be careful not to crush the fruit axis and branches when winding the stopper tightly.

81

7 Fruit tree cultivation work⑤

HarvestApple, Japanese pear, citrus fruits, etc. are harvested after the fruits have matured.
Pear, kiwi fruit, etc. are stored to ripen (ripening) after harvest.
Harvest period of major fruit treesal

Practic
skill

Satsuma mandarin

Mid-October to early December

Apple

Early September to mid November

Pear

Mid-August to late November

Grape

Mid-August to early October

Peach

Late June to late August

Persimmon

Late September to early December

Evergreen fruit tree
○ Understand how to harvest Satsuma mandarin.
▼Cut it twice and cut off
the long part of the “axis (fruit axis).”▲Disconnect it from the branch so that the cutting edge
does not hurt the fruit. Removing by pulling will hurt the fruit.

（２）Renewal of variety①

Replanting

Old trees with low tree vigor and yields, and garden sites with poor varieties are replantedwith new seedlings, called "replanting".

②

Top-graftingIt's a method of grafting new variety of branches to the branches of fruit trees. There are 2
types, one is to cut the original (fruit-tree) branch and the other is to leave it as the largest branch.
82

7 Fruit tree cultivation work
It is grafted to the middle of the main or secondary main branch.

Position of graftingMainbranchSecondarymainbranchScion
CutSecondarymainbranchScion

Mainbranch Main
stem

Main
branchHow to do top-grafting with
cutting original branches

SecondarymainbranchHow to do top-grafting without
cutting original branches（３）Soil management①

Management of the surface soil

To manage the surface of the soil, there is: ① the method of not letting weeds grow, ②
the method of laying rice straw or grass, ③ the method of always keeping grass, and ④ a
combination of any of the above.
In an orchard with many hills, method ① is not suitable because the soil flows.

②

Conservation and improvement of soil

Drain ditches are made to protect the soil from run-off due to heavy rain.
Stone walls are also built to prevent the soil from collapsing.
Plowing the soil deeply (deep tillage) and adding organic matter improves the water retention
and air permeability, resulting in the healthy growth of roots.
Depending on the fruit tree, the pH of the soil suitable for cultivation (hydrogen ion exponent)
will be different.
Since there is a lot of acidic soil in Japan, adjust the pH with alkaline calcareous materials,
etc.

83

7 Fruit tree cultivation work
Soil pH suitable for growth of major fruit trees
Types of fruit trees Range suitable for the growthSatsuma mandarin
4.2 ～ 7.0Apple
4.6 ～ 7.1
Grape
5.0 ～ 7.9
Japanese pear
4.3 ～ 6.7
Peach
4.3 ～ 6.7
Persimmon
4.5 ～ 7.0
Chestnut
4.1 ～ 6.1
Loquat
4.3 ～ 6.5
Fig-tree
5.5 ～ 7.5③

Range for the best growth
5.4 ～ 6.3
5.5 ～ 6.6
6.1 ～ 7.4
5.3 ～ 6.2
4.8 ～ 5.9
5.5 ～ 6.6
4.6 ～ 5.5
5.1 ～ 6.0
6.1 ～ 7.2

Management of moisture

Adjust the timing and amount of watering according to the species of the fruit tree and its
growth.
In addition, it is important that the water holding capacity (water retention) and water
permeability (drainage) are favorable.

④

Fertilizer application

Fertilizer is applied several times a year as “basal fertilizer” and “additional fertilizer,” whichhave different roles.
“Basal fertilizer” supplies the nutrients that become the basis for the growth that year.
“Additional fertilizer” is only applied when the nutrients in the basal fertilizer are not enough.
The basal fertilizer is given during the dormant period before the growth starts. For deciduous
fruit trees, apply it in December to January, and for evergreen fruit trees, apply it in March to April.
For adult trees, fertilizer is usually applied to the surface of the soil, called "broadcasting of
fertilizer". In addition, in some cases, "total layer application" that supplies to all layers together
with organic matter in deep tillage, and "foliar application" that sprays fertilizer dissolved inwater over the entire tree, are performed.
Additional fertilizers include spring applied fertilizer, summer applied fertilizer, and fall
applied fertilizer, and quick acting fertilizer is used.
・Spring applied fertilizer: for growth of shoots, branches, and leaves. It is also called fertilizer
for sprouting (Medashi-goe).
・Summer applied fertilizer: for growth of fruits. It is also called fertilizer for ripening (Mi-goe).
・Fall applied fertilizer: for restoring tree vigor and for increasing stored nutrients. It is also
called fertilizer after harvest (Orei-goe).

（４）Other management
The weather disasters that fruit trees are likely to be affected by are strong winds, the cold, heavy84

7 Fruit tree cultivation work
rain, drought, heavy snow, hail, etc.
In areas that are prone to damage, various measures are taken.

（５）Shipping and storage
Select the harvested fruit according to size, taste, appearance, (visual aspect) etc., and then shipthem. There is a technology that prolongs storage life and enables systematic shipping.
Before storage, citrus fruits undergo “pretreatment” to dry a few percent of the moisture.
Cool apples in a refrigerator, reduce the oxygen, increase the carbon dioxide and put them inlong-term storage (CA storage).

4 Facility cultivation of fruit trees（１）Type of facility
Some fruit trees such as grapes, Satsuma mandarin, edible cherries (Japanese cherries) arecultivated in the facility.
For cultivation facilities, there are glass greenhouses, vinyl houses and rain protectors.
There is also a cultivation method that uses a heater to raise the temperature inside the facility.

（２）Cultivation management
As the temperature differs greatly from the outside, appropriate cultivation control is needed in
the facility.
In addition, because there is no rainfall, moisture management is also important.

5 Characteristics of main fruit trees and cultivation management（１）Citrus
Citrus fruits are cultivated in warm regions.
70% of citrus cultivated in Japan is Satsuma mandarin.
Satsuma mandarin is native to Japan and the representative varieties are Miyagawa wase (21%),
Aoshima unshu (14%), and Okitsu wase (13%).
Citrus fruits are particularly vulnerable to cold and strong winds, so care must be taken in
management.
From year to year, cycles tend to occur where there will be years with many fruit and other years
with less fruit (alternate bearing).

85

7 Fruit tree cultivation work

Flowers of Satsuma mandarin（２）Apple
Apples are cultivated mainly in areas with cold winters.
Representative varieties are Fuji (52%), Tsugaru (13%), and Orin (8%).
Artificial pollination work is carried out to transfer the pollen to the pistil, and also disbudding,flower picking, fruit thinning work, etc. should be done.
Because pest damage tends to occur, appropriate control is necessary. Sometimes bagging isused.
For apples, dwarfing cultivation using dwarfing rootstock is carried out. Central leader type trees
are planted closely. This cultivation method aims to increase yield early and save labor by lowering
tree height (height of the tree).

（３）Grapes
Grapes are widely cultivated throughout Japan.
Representative varieties are Kyoho (35%), Delaware (19%), and Pione (16%).
Spread the branches horizontally and train on a trellis. Because they are vulnerable to wind anddiseases, also cultivated in facilities.
Using the plant hormone “Gibberellin,” seedless grapes are also cultivated.

How to produce seedless grapes
The cluster is soaked in a solution of gibberellin twice, before and after
flowering.
It is important to keep the timing to use gibberellin and the concentrationof the solution.

86

7 Fruit tree cultivation work（４）Persimmon
Japanese persimmons come in both sweet and astringent varieties.
Typical varieties of persimmon are Fuyu (Sweet persimmon, 25%), Hiratanenashi (astringent
persimmon 17%), and Tonewase (astringent persimmon 15%).
Sweet persimmon is a native of Japan and cultivated in warm regions.
Half of the persimmons being cultivated are astringent persimmon. Astringent persimmons
undergo a process to remove the astringency.
From year to year, cycles tend to occur where there will be years with many fruit and other years
with less fruit (alternate bearing).

（５）PearPears are grown in various places because they are suitable for the warm and rainy climate ofJapan.
Representative varieties are Kosui (40%), Hosui (27%), and Niitaka (10%).
Pears are cultivated in cool, dry areas.
Since pears require pollen from other varieties to pollinate, it is necessary to ensure pollination.
Because the fruit of a Japanese pear tends to fall in the wind, it is trained on a trellis.

（６）Peach
Peaches are mainly cultivated in cool areas.
Representative varieties are Akatsuki (19%), Hakuho (16%), and Kawanakajima Hakuto (14%).
Growth of the saplings is fast, and it fruits in 3 years and becomes a large tree in 7 or 8 years.
In addition to disbudding and fruit thinning, bagging is carried out to prevent pests and to
improve the appearance.

6 Agricultural materials and machinery used for fruit trees（１）Agricultural materials
Materials used in orchards include materials used for vinyl houses and trellis, nets to protect
against strong winds, birds, pest insects, etc. and sprinklers for control and irrigation.
In addition, there are insects such as bees that help pollinate, chemicals for pest control, plant
growth regulators that work on growth (chemicals with the same effect as plant hormones).
Sometimes frost protection fans are used to prevent damage by frost.
Sometimes sprinklers are used to prevent damage by freezing.

87

7 Fruit tree cultivation work

Intended use of plant growth regulators in major fruit trees
・To prevent peel puffing: Satsuma mandarin
・To make seedless fruits: Grape
・To prevent fruit drop before harvest: Apple, Japanese pear・To hasten maturation: many fruit trees
・To promote development of roots and branches: apple, etc.

alPracticskill○ Understand the main materials for fruit trees and their purposes.
Bird proof nets, insect proof nets, mulching materials, reflective sheeting,and other materials

Bird/insect proof net

Mulch

Reflective sheeting

Mulching material
How to use: Place on the ground around the roots of fruit trees.
Purposes: To prevent soil erosion. To prevent water evaporation. To
prevent weeds.
Reflective sheeting
How to use: Cover the ground under fruit trees at harvest time.
Purpose: To improve coloring of fruits by reflecting sunlight.

88

7 Fruit tree cultivation work（２）Agricultural machinery
Agricultural machines include those that cultivate the soil, those that spread agents, those used
for weeding, those to control fruiting, and those for transportation. In addition to those common
machines, the following are also used for fruit tree cultivation.
Cultivation management:
Machines for work in high places

Control: Speed sprayer (SS)Transportation: Monorail

Transportation: Transporter（３）Agricultural tools (only those often used in fruit tree cultivation)
Pruning scissors

StepladderalPracticskill○ Understand the main agricultural tools and agricultural machinery for
fruit tree cultivation.
89

8

Terms used in farm working

Fall fertilizing 	����������������� applying fertilizer after harvesting fruit to increase the storage of(Reigoe in Japanese)
nutrients
Underdrainage	��������������� a drainage method that lays earthen pipes in the soil
Raising of seedlings	����� preparation of seedlings by sowing in nursery beds instead of the fields
Ridging	����������������������������� work that builds up the soil in a field to create places to plant crops(ridges)
Flower bud	���������������������� a bud that will form the flower and fruit in the future
Drought damage	������������ damage to crops because of no rainfall
Irrigation (watering)	������ giving water to the crops
Tillage (plowing)	������������ work of plowing the soil in the field to soften and improve the airpermeability
Photosynthesis	�������������� crops produce starch, etc. from water and carbon dioxide from light
Hastening of germination	����� creating the condition where buds come out about 1 mm on the day
before sowing
Cropping type	���������������� a method of cultivation which combines cultivation techniques
according to variety, season and environment
Grafting	���������������������������� a method of cutting part of a tree such as the branches, placing themin soil to let them bud and root, and growing them as nursery stocks orrootstocks
Weed control	������������������ preventing weeds using chemicals, mulching or other methods
Direct sowing	����������������� sowing directly into the field soil
Facility horticulture	������ a type of cropping that grows crops inside facilities (such as vinyl
houses and greenhouses)
Training	���������������������������� a tree shape appropriate for the different species and varieties of fruit
trees

90

8 Terms used in farm work

Gibberellin treatment	��� use of gibberellins in normal varieties to let them be seedless and in
seedless varieties to promote fruit enlargement
Harvest	����������������������������� work to pick and collect fully grown vegetables, seeds and fruit fromfields and trees
Pretreatment of seeds	���� a series of work done before sowing to let the germination andgrowth after germination go smoothly. It includes “seed selection,”“disinfection,” “soaking of seeds” and “hastening of germination”(described as “preparation of seeds” in the text)
Disinfection	��������������������� controlling seed-borne diseases and pest insects using “seeddisinfection”
Weeding 	�������������������������� removing weeds in paddy fields and upland fields, orchards, footpaths(removing weeds)in the paddy fields and pathways
Paddling	��������������������������� making the soil soft by plowing the paddy soil after introducing water
suitable for planting rice seedlings
Artificial pollination	������ artificially transferring pollen to the pistil of the flowers that needpollination
Soaking of seeds	����������� promoting germination by letting seeds absorb enough moisture togerminate
Flooding damage	���������� Injury and diseases in crops caused by heavy rain
Drilling	������������������������������ sowing seeds on the ridges in line
Training	���������������������������� cutting off extra branches and training branches to arrange the shape ofcrops and trees suitable for fruit production
Land grading	������������������ work that levels the field soil after tillage
Seed selection	��������������� removing defective seeds, selecting seeds using difference in specificgravity, “seed selection using a salt solution”
Pruning	���������������������������� cutting branches
Forcing cultivation	�������� a type of cropping that cultivates crops earlier than open field (normal
season) cultivation using facilities, etc.

91

8 Terms used in farm work

Rootstock	������������������������ a plant or tree which has roots when grafting
Removing astringency	������� artificially changing soluble tannins to an insoluble state (do not(Shibunuki in Japanese) dissolve in water)
Sowing (seeding)	���������� work that sows crop seeds
Intertillage	����������������������� work to lightly plow the surface soil of the field during crop cultivation
Additional fertilizer	������� applying fertilizer during crop growth
Grafting	���������������������������� a method that cuts off a part of the plant or the tree such as a branch or a
sprout and grafts it onto the rootstock or another tree
Planting	���������������������������� work to plant the seedlings grown in nursery beds
Flower picking	��������������� picking excess flowers
Fruit thinning	������������������ selecting and leaving the fruit to be grown and picking other fruit
Pinching	��������������������������� cutting the tip of a stretched stem or branch
Defoliation	����������������������� removing excess leaves
Disbudding	���������������������� removing excess flower buds
Dibbling	���������������������������� a method of sowing several seeds in one place at set intervals
Midsummer drainage	��� drying a paddy field during the growth of the rice plant by draining fora short period
Scattering	������������������������ sowing on a whole field or ridge (also called Sanpa in Japanese)
Pest control	�������������������� protecting from pest insects and diseases using chemicals, etc.
Soil covering	������������������ covering seeds with a thin layer of soil
Scion 	������������������������������� shoots, seedlings or branches which are flowering or fruiting when
(also called Tsugiho in Japanese) grafting
Thinning	��������������������������� selecting and leaving the seedlings, nursery stocks or branches to begrown while picking or cutting others
Mulching	�������������������������� covering the surface soil with film, straw, etc.

92

8 Terms used in farm work

Basal fertilizer 	��������������� applying fertilizer to the soil before planting crops or before the buds ofa fruit tree to be activated(basal manure)Supporting	���������������������� regulating the direction of extension by binding the branches of crops towires or supports
Delayed cultivation	������� the opposite of forcing cultivation, a type of cropping that cultivates
crops later than open field (normal season) cultivation
Crop rotation	������������������ after harvesting a crop, raising another species of crop in the same field
Cool weather damage	���� crop damage caused by low summer temperatures due to abnormal
weather
Replant failure	���������������� reduction of growth and yield caused by cultivating the same crop after
harvesting
Open field cultivation	����� a type of cropping that grows crops under natural conditions, not in
facilities

93List of photographs (vegetables, covering materials and fruits)
Vegetables
Major vegetables and classification
1. Leafy vegetables

Cabbage[Brassicaceae]

Chinese cabbage[Brassicaceae]

Lettuce[Asteraceae]

Spinach[Chenopodiaceae]

2. Root crops

Onion[Liliaceae]

Radish[Brassicaceae]

Sweet potato[Convolvulaceae]

Potato[Solanaceae]

Carrot[Apiaceae]

3. Fruit vegetables

Tomato[Solanaceae]

Eggplant[Solanaceae]
94

Cucumber[Cucurbitaceae]

Covering materials

Vinyl chloride

Polyethylene film for
agriculture (PE)

Nonwoven fabric

Cheesecloth

Insect screen

Fruits

Apple

Grape

Peach

Blueberry

Pear

Persimmon

Chestnut

Satsuma mandarin

Kiwi fruit

Yuzu

95

LoquatSupport project to properly accept foreigners for agricultural support

Agricultural Skill Assessment Test
Text: General crop farming
English Edition

Published by National Chamber of Agriculture, September 2019
Chuorodokijunkyokai Bldg. 9-8 Nibancho,Chiyoda-ku,Tokyo,Japan 102-0084
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