Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

The English language competence gap between the Cold War generationand the generation educated after the fall of socialism and establishmentof the Slovak Republic in 1993
Monika Brídová
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia

Abstract
The goal of this article is to examine the English language competence gap between
the Cold War generation of Slovak people and the generation educated after the fall ofsocialism in 1989. The first part of the paper defines the term language competence. In
addition, it shows the results of the survey on foreign language competence conducted in the
Slovak Republic in 2011. The second part describes the educational system in Czechoslovakia
during the socialist period in general, and the foreign language educational system inparticular, characterized at the time by the predominance of the Russian language. The thirdpart of the article focuses on the reformed educational system after the collapse of theCommunist regime in 1989. The final part shows the different opinions on English language
education and its impact on people’s everyday lives as well as the English language
competence of Slovak people in the context of preserving national identity.
Key words: language competence, educational system, English language, Cold War, socialism
Monika Brídová is a postgraduate student enrolled in a master’s degree program inJapanese Studies at Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia. She earned a B.A. in
Japanese language and intercultural communication in August 2015. Her research interests
focus primarily on Japanese cinematography and film theory. The topic of her B.A. thesis
was the portrayal of the family in contemporary Japanese film. At present, she is working on
her Master’s thesis dealing with Japanese film theory. Furthermore, she is also very
interested in foreign language education, having short-term experience in teaching Japanese
language at high school in Slovakia and English language at Ryukoku University in Kyoto,where she studied Japanese language for one year as an exchange student. In the future, sheis planning to apply for a Ph.D. program at Comenius University and continue her research
about Japanese and Slovak cinematography.

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『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

Introduction
The English language has become one of the most widely spoken foreign languages in
Slovakia. Nowadays, learning English at primary and secondary school has become normal.
Slovak people start to study foreign languages from an early age, mostly because the ability to
speak English is considered a necessary skill for many positions in international companies,
as well as in state-owned enterprises. Young adults, who have been educated after theeducational reforms, have rather positive expectations about their future career. Thanks to
many opportunities to learn English at school, individually or abroad, the level of theirlanguage competence is considered adequate according to the regional rankings of English
proficiency.
However, is the English competence of the Cold War generation educated before theestablishment of the Slovak Republic equal to the competence of the younger generation? We
need to remember that there were few opportunities to study English at primary school in thesocialist period. Due to the educational system of the socialist regime and the pro-Russianpolitical orientation of Czechoslovakia, the Russian language was the first foreign languagetaught as a compulsory subject at schools. Instruction in other foreign languages was often
only optional in school curricula.
Is the situation different nowadays? Foreign language education has become moreaccessible. However, the generation of Slovak people educated during the Communist regime,
whose English competence is usually insufficient, may be put at a disadvantage by the overalltendency to promote English as lingua franca in various areas of everyday life (e.g. theInternet and IT in general).

Language competence definition
There are many different ways of defining the term language competence. According
to linguist Noam Chomsky, the term competence simply refers to “the person’s knowledge oflanguage”.1 American anthropologist Dell Hymes defines communicative competence as “aspeaker’s underlying knowledge of the rules of grammar and rules for their use in sociallyappropriate circumstances”.2 As stated in the Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages, communicative competence is a term that in a narrower sense consists of1
2

T. McArthur (ed.), The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Oxford 1992, p. 242.
Ibid., p. 239

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

linguistic competences (lexical, grammatical, semantic, phonological, orthographic, andorthoepic), sociolinguistic competences and pragmatic competences (discourse and functional
competence).3
According to the official educational framework of the Slovak Pedagogical Institute4,competence is defined as “a system of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and values which affectone’s behaviour”. A fundamental principle of foreign language education is to ensure that alearner is able to: a) deal with various situations in everyday life in a foreign country; b)
exchange information and ideas with people of all ages who speak this foreign language; c)better understand a way of life and thinking of other nations and their cultural heritage.5
The foreign language educational system in the Slovak Republic follows the European
Indicator of Language Competence which is divided into three levels that are further
subdivided into two levels. Each level describes what a learner is able to do in reading,listening, speaking and writing.
A: Basic User, A1 Breakthrough or Beginner, A2 Waystage or Elementary
B: Independent User, B1 Threshold or Intermediate, B2 Vantage or Upper
Intermediate
C: Proficient User, C1 Effective Operational Proficiency or Advanced, C2 Mastery or
Proficiency6
Foreign language competence is evaluated worldwide and regionally. According to EF
English Proficiency Index, the language proficiency in the Slovak Republic is moderate andSlovakia is rated 25th out of 70 countries.7 Various surveys are also made by other institutions
such as The Institute for Public Relations, British Council, Goethe Institute, etc. However,these surveys are not conducted periodically and therefore it is difficult to observe continuous
trends.

3“Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment“, Council ofEurope, at http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf, 21 October 2016, p. 108.
4“Štátny vzdelávací program: anglický jazyk“, Štátny pedagogický ústav, at
http://www.statpedu.sk/sites/default/files/dokumenty/statny-vzdelavaci-program/anglicky_jazyk_a2_titul.pdf,
18 October 2016, p. 5.
5Ibid., pp. 5-6
6
Ibid., pp. 4-5
7“The world's largest ranking of countries by English skills - Slovakia”, EF English Proficiency Index 2015, at
http://www.ef-slovakia.sk/epi/, 7 October 2016.

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In 2012, The Institute for Public Relations in Slovakia presented the results of a survey
on the language competence of Slovak people. They interviewed 1,086 respondents aged 15
years or more. The results of this survey show that among six foreign languages (Russian,German, French, English, Spanish, Italian) the most frequently spoken are Russian, German
and English. Some 54 % of respondents are able to speak Russian, 49 % German and 46 %are competent in English. French, Spanish and Italian are not considered very common in the
Slovak Republic. Regarding the level of language competence, Slovaks are most proficient inEnglish. Fourteen percent of survey respondents are able to speak or write “without any
difficulties”, and another 14% stated that their level of English language competence is “verygood”.8

The above chart from 2011 shows the correlation between age and English language
competence in Slovakia. The number of respondents whose English-speaking skills are
excellent, very good or good decreases with the age of the respondent. Respondents aged 1535 are able to speak English, but the English language competence of the generation of
respondents aged 65 and above (which means those born in 1946 or before) is insufficient.

8“Jazyková kompetentnosť ľudí na Slovensku: nemecký jazyk v porovnaní s inými jazykmi”, Inštitút pre verejné
otázky, 30 March 2012, at http://www.ivo.sk/6438/sk/aktuality/jazykova-kompetentnost-ludi-na-slovenskunemecky-jazyk-v-porovnani-s-inymi-jazykmi, 10 May 2016.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

What is the main cause of the generation gap in English language competence in
Slovakia? Since language competence is mainly gained through formal education, to find theanswer to our question we need to take a close look at the educational system during theCommunist regime (1948-1989), especially at foreign language education in primary andsecondary schools.

Education system in Czechoslovakia during the Communist regime
The years following the end of World War II had a significant influence on the further
development of many European countries. For Czechoslovakia, February 1948 represents aturning point. That year, the Communist Party tightened its control over Czechoslovakia
laying the foundations for 41 years of de facto one-party rule bringing with it policies
affecting the development of the country in the political, industrial, social and also
educational sphere.
The law on the fundamental re-organization of the school system, called the Uniform
School Act, was adopted on April 21, 1948. Under the terms of this Act, nine-year
compulsory school attendance was introduced. All children under 15 years of age could
acquire education up to lower secondary school and thus have equal access to upper
secondary and tertiary levels. All education was provided free of charge.
Primary school education
The goal of primary school education was to provide good vocational guidance, toensure physical, moral and emotional
growth, and to equip children with basic
intellectual abilities and to prepare themfor further studies. Subjects were taught
according to a curriculum which included
compulsory and optional subjects as well
as hobby groups. Among optional
subjects were: singing, cooking andsewing classes, games, practical work at
chemistry and physics, exercises inmathematics and in the Czech/Slovak
language, art classes and also foreign5

『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

languages. Besides the compulsory Russian language, German, English or French were themost preferred choices.9
However, foreign language education in actual practice did not always correspond to
the above description. Not every school had instructors or materials required to teach any
foreign language other than Russian. Particularly, there was a lack of second foreign language
education materials at primary schools in the countryside.
In 1978, a new educational strategy came into being: the Document on the Further
Development of the Czechoslovak Educational System. The task of the new school system
was to prepare young people with a higher level of general theoretical and technical skills, aswell as to produce graduates with broad professional knowledge. These graduates would betherefore capable of quick adaptation to the rapidly changing needs of practical life andprofessional specialization.10 Foreign language education was still oriented toward Russian,which was taught starting from the fifth
grade. Pupils were allowed to choose asecond foreign language (German,
English, French or Spanish) as an optional
subject from the fifth grade or as anelective subject from the seventh grade.11

Secondary and higher school education
After primary schools, pupils had
an option to continue their studies at three
types of secondary schools: secondary
vocational schools, secondary grammar
schools, also called “gymnasia,” andsecondary apprentice-training centres. The
aim of secondary schools was to prepare young people for their further university studies andpractical life.12 Secondary vocational schools provided four-year specialized higher education
courses. Students obtained a general education and vocational training for work in thenational economy, state administration, building, transport, agriculture, industry, schools,
9

P. Jenik, The Czechoslovak Educational System, Prague 1980, pp. 30-33.
J. Lihocký et al., The Forty Years of Slovak Educational System in the Socialist Czechoslovakia, Bratislava 1989,
p. 25.
11
Ibid., p. 42
12Ibid., p. 26
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Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

health services and culture.13 Secondary grammar schools provided students with a four-year
general secondary education as well as with basic specialized preparation. After passing theschool-leaving examination students could proceed to university or use their secondary school
qualification to obtain a position in a relevant profession.14

Compulsory Russian language still occupied a dominant position in curricula.
However, at secondary vocational schools, as well as at secondary grammar schools, students
were taught a second modern language necessary for their specialization.
Secondary grammar schools prepared students for university studies. They were
further divided into schools specializing in mathematics and physics, physical education,
programming, foreign languages, cultural and educational work etc. In the period after WorldWar II secondary grammar schools, especially their curricula, underwent frequent changes. In
1948, new subjects (Russian and Civics) were added to the curriculum.15 The content andconcept of subjects taught were modernized by restricting the encyclopaedic character of
instruction and creating a space for the development of the formative character of instruction
and for creative ways of learning. The social and economic needs of society were taken into
account while introducing new changes into the secondary grammar school system. The
content of the gymnasia introduced in 1984 placed higher requirements on the profile of the13

P. Jenik, The Czechoslovak..., p. 37.
Ibid., p. 35
15
J. Lihocký et al., The Forty Years of..., p. 67.
14

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graduate. Instead of the great amount of factual data, the emphasis was laid on the solid
polytechnic background of graduates, their theoretical mastering of basics of sciences and theability of applying acquired knowledge to practical tasks.16 This idea was reflected in the
curriculum, which contained subjects providing further general knowledge required for study
at university such as Civics, Geography and History. Besides the Russian language, a second
modern language started to be taught. The
most commonly taught foreign language atsecondary schools was German. The teachingof English or French was not very
widespread, especially in Central and Eastern
Slovakia.
In 1980, there were in total 36
universities17 in Czechoslovakia, which
provided further education. Compared toprimary and secondary school, English
language education was more easily available.
The number of teachers and lecturers waslarger and study materials were easier toobtain. Also, attitudes towards foreign
language education differed from one university department to another. However as thissubject is not directly related to the present topic we will forego discussion of it here.
To summarize issues discussed so far, Russian enjoyed a privileged position in theforeign language policies of socialist era Czechoslovakia; students were obliged to study it
starting in primary school. The number of hours set aside for Russian language education inprimary schools far exceeded time allocated to any other foreign language. This situationreflected the dominance and importance of Russian language education during the socialist
period.

Education system since the establishment of the Slovak Republic in 1993

16
17

Ibid., pp. 68-69
P. Jenik, The Czechoslovak..., p. 43.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

After November 1989, many changes of historical, social, political and economic
character took place in the Slovak Republic. These resulted in fundamental changes in thefield of education, in particular: new standards which were created were focusing not only on
new provisions in the Constitution of the independent Slovak Republic, but also on the newinternational documents and guidelines such as UNESCO, OECD, the Bologna Declaration
etc.18
However, during this period of social change educational policies were implemented
under conditions which were not very favourable. The situation in the 1990’s resulted instronger differentiation among population and in undesirable changes within the hierarchy ofvalues. In spite of that, we can find positive results achieved, for example: publishing new
curricula for primary and secondary schools, new study plans for universities, creation ofopportunities for the establishmentof alternative, church and private
schools, implementation of a new,modern concept of organization ofwork at primary and secondary
schools and universities, incompliance with European
standards, etc. 19
Primary school education
Since 1997, the system of primaryschool education has been divided
into two levels: a) the 1st level (1st4th grade) and b) the 2nd level (5th9th grade). These levels aredifferentiated according to theskills and interests of young pupils.
The compulsory education lasts for
10 years (nine years of primary school education + one year of secondary school education);

18
19

Ministry of Education of the SR (ed.), Educational system in Slovakia. Bratislava 2002, p. 3.
Ibid., p. 5

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『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

pupils are admitted to the 1st grade after reaching six years of age. Education is determined bygeneral curricula and implemented according to study guidelines.20
Since the school year 2011/12, English language education has become compulsory
for every pupil starting with the 3rd grade of primary school. At four-year secondary grammar
schools, according to the guidelines, the first foreign language is taught four times per week.21
Foreign language education strategy at primary and secondary schools is based on the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching,
Assessment, which provides a framework for formulating educational policy pertaining toforeign language education.22 In keepingwith this document, foreign language
education in Slovakia starts in the 3rd yearof primary school. However, there aresome primary schools where foreign
language education starts even earlier, inthe 1st year.23
After the revolution in 1989,
secondary grammar schools weretransformed into a modern type of
secondary schools offering general
education, which prepares students
especially for their university studies andfor other forms of higher education.
Fundamental changes took place within
the concept of education, in particular: a)cancellation of compulsory vocational
training; b) more emphasis has beenplaced on education in social sciences,20

Ibid., pp. 11-12
M. Kaliňák, “Súčasný systém výučby cudzích jazykov je naplnením programu Milénium”, Ministerstvo
školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu slovenskej republiky, 26 February 2013, at https://www.minedu.sk/sucasnysystem-vyucby-cudzich-jazykov-je-naplnenim-programu-milenium/, 7 October 2016.
22“Štátny vzdelávací program: anglický jazyk“, Štátny pedagogický ústav, at
http://www.statpedu.sk/sites/default/files/dokumenty/statny-vzdelavaci-program/anglicky_jazyk_a2_titul.pdf,
18 October 2016, p. 4.
23
J. Bérešová, Výučba anglického jazyka v primárnom vzdelávaní. Trnava 2012, p. 7.
21

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

foreign languages and physical education, and curricula now include arts and ethics (orreligion); c) significant change in study guidelines – permitting bilingual education, creationof eight-year grammar schools and strengthening the powers of schools to modify theircurricula.24
Nowadays, secondary education is provided by secondary grammar schools (4 years),
2nd level of eight-year gymnasia, secondary specialized schools and secondary vocational
schools. The aim of secondary education is to prepare students for their professional andpersonal lives, as well as to provide necessary knowledge for further studies and personal
growth.25
Foreign language education occupies anincreasingly important position. However,as Šajgalíková states: “the range oflanguages studied is decreased in favour
of English. Despite the desire to conserve
the multilingual character of Europe,
English is the language studied by thegreater number of young people atprimary school and general secondary
school everywhere in Europe.”26
In Slovakia, it is recommended to follow
the European language portfolio and use
modern teaching materials, as well as pay
attention to innovative methods and formsof education.27 The most often taught
foreign languages at schools are English,
German, French, Spanish, Italian andRussian. At most schools English is thefirst foreign language taught, but there are24

Ibid., p. 14“Štátny vzdelávací program pre gymnázia v Slovenskej republike ISCED 3A – Vyššie sekundárne vzdelávanie“,Štátny pedagogický ústav, at http://www.statpedu.sk/sites/default/files/dokumenty/statny-vzdelavaciprogram/isced3_spu_uprava.pdf, 21 October 2016, p. 6.
26
H. Šajgalíková, English for European Integration: Education, Bratislava 2001, pp. 42-43.
27“Pedagogicko-organizačné pokyny na školský rok 2016/2017” Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu
slovenskej republiky, at https://www.minedu.sk/data/att/9841.pdf, 20 October 2016, p. 15.
25

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『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

also primary and secondary schools where children learn another foreign language first,
followed later by English.
Nowadays, English education in Slovakia faces various problems. The most often
mentioned problems are the lack of materials and qualified teachers. Based on the data of the
Slovak Pedagogical Institute, 65% of first level (1st-4th grade) English teachers are qualified toteach, however, the rest (35% of teachers) lack full qualifications. The main reason isconsidered to be insufficient preparation for the introduction of English as a compulsory
subject in 2010. Although the need for a greater number of better qualified English teachers
was recognized, the government did not take action to provide additional training ofteachers.28 Furthermore, questions need to be asked about future trends in English language
education. The policy of EU, Brexit, migration and the dominant position of the German
economy in Europe are few of the factors which may influence decisions regarding the needto promote, or not to promote English education in the future.

Different views on the English language competence
During the Cold War, English language education was affected by a number of factors,
one of the most important being politics. From 1948 to 1989 Czechoslovakia was a part of socalled “the Eastern bloc.” The division of Europe into “the West” and “the East” was related
to the complicated relations between the Soviet Union and the United States. This tension,
called “the Cold War”, greatly influenced the internal affairs of Czechoslovakia. It was
impossible to travel to western countries freely, and western influences were repressed. ProRussian orientation had a great impact on the educational system too. It was for this reason
that Eastern orientation, Russian occupied a privileged position among foreign languages
taught at schools. Other than Russian it was possible to choose German, English or French as
optional subjects, but the primacy of Russian was never in doubt.
The Communist regime lasted in Czechoslovakia for almost 41 years (1948-1989).
During this period, there were years when the attitude towards English was more liberal thanin other years, especially in the mid-sixties and eighties. During these interludes, tensions
eased, and Western culture along with the English language were more accessible to the
public than before. However, in 1968 Czechoslovakia was invaded by the armed forces of the28“Reakcia ministerstva školstva na list poslanca NR SR Miroslava Beblavého vo veci didaktických prostriedkov
na výučbu anglického jazyka”, Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu slovenskej republiky, 10 April 2015,
at https://www.minedu.sk/reakcia-ministerstva-skolstva-na-list-poslanca-nr-sr-miroslava-beblaveho-vo-vecididaktickych-prostriedkov-na-vyucbu-anglickeho-jazyka/, 7 October 2016.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

Warsaw Pact29, the Prague Spring came to an abrupt end and the political situation reverted tothe usual Cold War pattern of severe limitation on contacts with the West.
In 1989 the Velvet Revolution took place and the Communist regime collapsed. Free
travel to western countries became the norm. Since then, foreign language education came torefer to languages spoken in the countries of Western Europe. Slovak people who started toattend school since 90’s had much better opportunities (more study materials, lecturers
language schools) to study English.
Another factor is a location. Schools in Prague, Brno and Bratislava had rather better
conditions to teach foreign languages. In industrial and cultural centres of Czechoslovakia thepossibility that a school would have a teacher able to teach English language was greater thanin the countryside where access to study materials was limited, not that such materials existed
in great abundance in metropolitan areas either. But still, secondary schools and universities
where the conditions for English language education were better, were located in the cities,
not in the countryside.
The choice of secondary school and university also played an important role forindividual learners of foreign langauges. Certain training centres and departments provided
more opportunities to study English than others. As we stated in the previous section,
curricula depended very much on the orientation of departments. Departments of computer
programming or English Studies naturally put a greater emphasis on English education thanfor example departments of agriculture.
A very important determining factor of foreign language competence is personal
attitude. In contrast to the present, English as well as other foreign languages were available
only as optional courses during the Cold War. Only students with enough motivation or
personal interest would decide to take optional subjects.
The language proficiency gap between the generations educated in different
environments is a very complex issue including almost every citizen educated in the Slovak
school system. For this reason, a survey which could bring relevant results requires a great
number of respondents and a significant amount of time. Interviews made for this paper did
not aim to come up with general conclusions about the competence gap and its impacts on
people’s lives. Rather the purpose of the survey was to gather a variety of different viewpoints
on this topic. Respondents describe their own views on the impacts of the English language

29

D. Kováč, Dejiny Slovenska, Praha 1998, p. 291.

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『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

on their lives. The survey therefore should be seen as a starting point for further research inthis area.
We asked 23 respondents between the ages of 40 and 82 various questions about
English education during the socialist period and encouraged them to make comparisons to
the present time. The opinions of people varied based on factors described above. We havechosen three from the total of 12 questions asked reproducing below a short selection of
responses.
Does your insufficient language competence affect your everyday life?
„It definitely does. Nowadays, everybody expects you to speak English. If you can’t, you are
disadvantaged in job seeking, science, information technology and also in the entertainment
industry...“ (Sales manager, 43 years old)
„My insufficient competence has a negative effect on my everyday life. One of the examples is
the Internet, where most of the terms are in English which I do not understand. For example,
I have often problems when buying cosmetic products, because almost everything is in
English. I encounter English words I do not understand almost every day.” (Nurse, 40 years
old)„Yes it does, especially when traveling to countries outside the region [of Central
Europe].“ (Junior lawyer, 42 years old)
What is the attitude of present-day society towards the English language education?
„The English language starts to be a part of life since kindergarten; often there is a child who
can speak both Slovak and English. Children have an opportunity to educate themselves inEnglish. It is necessary for us. Children in preschool education are already able tounderstand instructions in English when working with digital tools without even realizing
it.“ (Kindergarten teacher, 52 years old)
„It is the most preferred foreign language.“ (IT professional, 55 years old)
Do you think that the widespread use of English affects the cultural identity of Slovak
people?
„In my opinion, it does and it has a negative effect. There are too many English names andwords which are used in our mother tongue in daily life even if it is not necessary. Narrow

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)vocabulary of young Slovak generation is also another negative consequence.“ (Auditor, 58
years old)
„Yes, we lose our Slovak words, which are replaced by the English ones. I think that
especially the older generation sometimes does not understand what others are talking about.
I do not like it. We have many Slovak words, but we still replace them (budget-badžetrozpočet) which I find unnecessary.“ (Sales manager, 47 years old)„Every language influences the culture and level of intelligence of people. The morelanguages you know, the easier it is for you to deal with different situations. Deformation of
mother tongue is caused mostly by the mass media’s unnecessary use of English terms. Massmedia just do not search for Slovak equivalents.“ (Retiree - former university professor, 82
years old)
„Ability to speak English definitely positively affects the cultural identity of Slovak people.
Knowledge of any foreign language creates new opportunities and brings newcontacts.“ (Nurse, 40 years old)

Conclusion
This article examined the educational system in Czechoslovakia during theCommunist regime (1948-1989) and in present-day Slovakia with a focus on foreign language
education. Comparison of these two education systems shows the shift in the preference of thefirst foreign language taught at schools. During the socialist period, Russian, which wastaught as a compulsory subject starting in primary school, enjoyed a position of dominanceover other foreign languages, which were offered only as optional subjects. Althoughsecondary schools taught other foreign languages, the dominant position of Russian remained
unchallanged. Students were generally more fluent in Russian than in any other foreign
language. However, after the fall of socialism and the establishment of the Slovak Republic,
the education started to follow western trends and as a result, awareness and availability oflearning English improved. Nowadays, in keeping with the recommendations of the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages, children learn English from an early age,starting in primary school. Moreover, it seems that English has become a part of people’s
everyday life not only through the mass media, entertainment or workplace communication,

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『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

but English may also come to have influenced Slovak people’s perception of their national
identity. Needless to say, further research in this area is required.

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