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農業技能測定試験
Agricultural Skill Assessment Test

テキスト 畜産農業全般

text：General livestock farming

English英語版

English Edition

一般社団法人 全国農業会議所
National Chamber of Agriculture（NCA）

Revision record
Version Update date

Update summary

Updated point

1.0

October 18,2019 Original version drafted

Original version drafted

2.0

November 22,2019 Expression revised

GeneralPreface
Labor shortages in Japanese agricultural workplaces have become a serious problem.
For this reason, as a new framework for accepting foreign human resources (Foreigners
for Agricultural Support) who can work immediately in Japanese agricultural workplaces,
the “Specified Skilled Worker” designation has been established. Along with the TechnicalIntern Training Program, expectations are high of this mechanism to support and develop
Japanese agriculture.
In order for foreigners to work in agricultural workplaces through this project, theyneed to meet the requirements specified by the Japanese government, such as knowledge
and skills concerning agriculture.
The National Chamber of Agriculture has therefore received aid from the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, and has decided to start examinations (Agriculture
Skill Assessment Test) from FY2019, to confirm and evaluate the knowledge andskills of foreigners concerning agriculture, etc. before entering Japan. As part of these
examinations, tests on two subjects will be carried out: 1. General crop farming and 2.
General livestock farming.
This text is organized in an easy-to-understand manner using photographs andillustrations highlighting the knowledge and techniques that should be learned by those
who take exams on general livestock farming. We hope that it will be helpful for learningand that the examinees will utilize it.
In addition, the examination of general livestock farming includes questions to confirm
and evaluate whether the examinees have ability in Japanese language necessary forengaging in Japanese agriculture. For the examination, please also use the text forlearning Japanese, separately prepared by the National Chamber of Agriculture.
Finally, in creating this text, we received great cooperation from each committee
member of the Livestock Subcommittee, and the Planning Committee of Agriculture Skill
Assessment Test, including Miyao Yoshida (dairy cattle), Koji Misumi (pig farming),
Akihiro Kinoshita (beef cattle), and Kan Sato (chicken farming). We are deeply gratefulfor their support.
October 2019
National Chamber of AgricultureTable of contents
Features of animal husbandryⅠ
１

Dairy (dairy cattle)… ………………………………………

1

２

Beef production (beef cattle)… …………………………

6

３

Pig farming (pigs)…………………………………………… 10

４

Chicken farming… ………………………………………… 19① Laying hens… …………………………………………… 19② Meat chicken… …………………………………………… 22

５

Others… ……………………………………………………… 25① Light breed horses………………………………………… 25② Apiculture… ……………………………………………… 28

６

Questions for confirmation… …………………………… 31

Ⅱ Basic knowledge on livestock and their feed１

Dairy cattle…………………………………………………… 34

２

Beef cattle… ………………………………………………… 49

３

Pigs… ………………………………………………………… 58

４

Chicken farming… ………………………………………… 64① Laying hens… …………………………………………… 64② Meat chicken… …………………………………………… 86

５Others… ……………………………………………………… 95① Light breed horses………………………………………… 95② Apiculture… ……………………………………………… 98

６

Questions for confirmation… ………………………… 101

Ⅲ
１

Hygiene management and safety management of farms…… 105

２

Dairy cattle………………………………………………… 109

３

Beef cattle… ……………………………………………… 117

４

Pigs… ……………………………………………………… 120

５

Chicken farming (egg laying hens and meat chickens)……… 124

６

Others… …………………………………………………… 131

Daily livestock management work

① Light breed horses………………………………………… 131② Apiculture… ……………………………………………… 133

７

Key points of management tasks andobservation on livestock (for practical examination)…… 137

8

Questions for confirmation… ………………………… 140<Reference> Terms of animal husbandry often used in daily work…… 142

Introduction

Precautions when entering Japan

When you enter Japan and engage in agriculture, you must follow the following rules
to prevent the invasion of livestock infectious diseases and pests.

◦ Please do not touch livestock within a week before coming to Japan.
◦ As a general rule, please do not enter a barn or its surroundings for 1 week after
entering Japan (including re-entry).

◦ Do not bring dirty work clothes, work shoes, or boots used overseas.
◦ Meat products such as meat, ham, sausage, and bacon must not be brought into
Japan without an inspection certificate.

◦ Please tell your family and friends not to send meat products to Japan in small
packages or small mail (international mail).

◦ In addition, let's work safely according to the instructions of the manager of the
farm.

Features ofⅠ animal husbandry

１

Dairy (dairy cattle)

1 Dairy cow
The majority of Japanese dairy cows are of the Holstein species (its country of origin is the
Netherlands), with an average milk yield of more than 8,000 kg per year.
A dairy cow which has given birth is called a delivered cow, and a cow that has given birth forthe first time is called a primiparous cow.

Holstein

JerseyPhoto supplied by:
National Livestock Breeding Center

Photo supplied by:
National Livestock Breeding Center

Brown Swiss

2 Form and scale of dairy management(1)The dairy industry in Japan is mostly run by families.
(2) In recent years, however, the number of corporate bodies run by multiple farmers and company
management has been increasing.
(3)Dairy farms with a large number of cows are called mega farms.
 The number of dairy farmers in Japan has been decreasing every year, but the number of cows
kept per dairy farmer has been increasing.
Changes in the number of delivered cows per dairy farm

2005

2010

2014

38.1cattle

44.0cattle

48.0cattle

3 Milk yield of Japanese delivered cows
The average annual milk production of Japanese delivered cows is increasing. In 2014, weweighed 8,316 kg, which is a significant increase from 7,619 kg in 2004, 10 years ago.

1

4 Life cycle of dairy cows
・Dairy cows are called calves about 6 months after birth, after that they are called raised cattle
until about 2 years old, and adult cattle after the first calving.
・In general, cows get pregnant by artificial insemination at 14 to 15 months old.
・It is desirable that the delivery interval of dairy cows is 365 days and 1 delivery per year, but
the delivery interval of Japanese dairy cows has become longer. In 1989, it was 405 days, but in
2015, it was 433 days.
・The dairy cow’s gestation period is 280 days (9.3 months).
・After delivering calves, cows are milking for about 1 year, and during this process, artificial
insemination is performed on the cows being milked for the next gestation to delivery.
・At 2 to 3 months before the next delivery, stop milking so that nutrients transfer to the mother’sbody and fetus.
・Dairy cows repeat this cycle every 400 to 430 days and a fertile mother bears 7 to 8 calves, but
on average a dairy cow bears about 4 calves.
Birth

6 months

Suckling for
1 to 2 months

15 months

2 years 26 months

Gestation
Mating for (280 days)
first birth

3 years

Delivery interval(14.2 months: 432 days)(Artificial insemination)
First delivery

Milking period(11.9 months: 361 days)

Dry period(2.3 months)

4 years*Repeat (average 3 times)
Average milk
producing years
6 to 7 years (4 births)
Second delivery The peak of lactation
is at 3rd to 4th birthLife cycle of dairy cows

5 Milk producing years of dairy cows
(1) The mating period of dairy cows to deliver their first calf (first delivery) is generally 14 to 15
months old.
(2) The period after delivery when a dairy cow is not pregnant is called non-pregnant days. The
delivery interval is the period of non-pregnant days plus gestation period.
(3)For example, if the number of non-pregnant days is 120 (4 months), the delivery interval is 13.3
months (399 days).

2

(4)After the first delivery, the calves cows are called second, third, fourth... which are also called
calving numbers.
(5)The milk producing years of Japanese dairy cows (delivered cows) tends to be shortened, with
4.2 in 2002, 4.0 in 2007, and 3.5 in 2015.
(6) The shortening of the milk producing years of dairy cows is caused by disuse of cows due tomammary organ disorders (mastitis, etc.), breeding disorders, limb and hoof disorders (hoofdisease), digestive disorders, and astasia (milk fever).

6 Feedstuff
・Feed to be fed to dairy cows includes concentrate and roughage.
・Concentrate is mainly supplied in the form of formula feed.
・Roughage has silage produced domestically and hay imported from abroad or produced in Japan.
・Major cereal in formula feed is imported corn.

7 Inspection of milk quality
・There is a difference in the milk quality of each dairy cow.
・Milk shipped by dairy farmers is inspected for milk quality.
・For inspection of milk quality, there are ingredient quality: milk fat percentage, milk protein
percentage, milk solid nonfat percentage; and hygienic quality: somatic cell count, bacterial
count.

8 Summer heat and dairy cow
・The comfortable temperature zone of Holstein dairy cattle is 13 to 18°C; they are vulnerable toheat.
・When the humidity is high and the temperature rises to around 30°C, the dry matter intake of thedairy cow decreases and milk yield and ingredient quality drop.
・Dairy cows have a fermentation tank called rumen so that their body temperature is higher thanthat of humans, and their normal body temperature is 38.5°C.
・Due to global warming, the number of “tropical days” (days with a maximum temperatureof 30°C or higher) and “extremely hot days” (days with a maximum temperature of 35°C or
higher) are increasing in Japan.

3

・Dairy cows sometimes die out because of summer heat. In the summer of 2010, 959 cows died orwere disused due to the heat.
・The table below shows the state of dairy cows under conditions at 18°C, 26°C, and 30°C. With
increasing temperature, feed intake decreases, body weight decreases, and milk yield decreases.
・As the ambient temperature rises, body temperature and respiratory rate increase.

Increase in the ambient temperature and the conditions of dairy cows (example)
18°C

26°C

30°C

Formula feed intake

kg/day

12.0

10.3

8.4

Hay intake

kg/day

6.1

4.5

3.7

Body weight (at the end of the study) kg

561

543

528

Body temperature

°C

38.3

39.2

40.2

rate per minute

33.7

58.3

73.1

kg

27.5

23.3

19.3

Respiratory
Milk yield

How to overcome the heat problem for dairy cows is one of the big problems of dairy farming.
For that purpose, it is important to improve the structure of the cowshed, maintenance andmanagement of cooling facilities such as electric fans and water sprayer, afforestation around thebarn, and nutrition control.
In addition, dairy cow livestock drink plenty of water and they are sensitive to the water
quality, so that especially in hot summer season let them drink clean and cold water at any time.

9 Treatment of excreta・The law stipulates that the treatment of livestock excrement, such as odor problems, shall be

performed correctly.
・It is important to make compost of good quality, use it in grassland, and supply it to upland field
farmers and rice farmers.
Because the number of dairy cows fed by dairy farmers is increasing, the amount of livestock
manure discharged from farms is also increasing. On the other hand, there are few cases where
the area of grass and forage crops increases proportionately to the number of livestock, and the4amount of manure excreted in excess of that returning to their own meadow, becoming excessive
manure, often becomes a problem.

Compost house52

Beef production (beef cattle)

1 Beef cattle
Japanese beef cattle produced in a large amount are of the following three kinds: Japanese black
cattle (Japanese cattle), dairy breed steer (Holstein), and hybrid type (F1) of Japanese Black Cattle
and dairy breed. Each fattening period is different.

2 Raising beef cattle
The management of beef cattle production in Japan is divided into the following three types.

（１）Breeding operation
Raising female Japanese cattle for breeding and letting them bear calves and raising them foraround 10 months, then shipping them to the livestock market as fattening cattle.
Farmers aim to produce one group a year. Breeding cows produce about 7 cows on average,
and with some farmers, cows produce an average of more than 10 births.

Grazing

Female Japanese cattle（２）Fattening operation
Japanese cattle (around 10 months old), dairy breed steer (calves), or hybrids (calves oraround 8 months old) are introduced as fattening cattle, and they are fattened for about 30
months for Japanese cattle, 19 to 20 months for dairy breed steer, about 25 months for hybrids
before shipping.

（３）Consistent management
The form of continuous operation that performs breeding and fattening is called consistent
management, but there is not much management of this form in producing Japanese cattle.

6（４）Other
In some cases, dairy farmers artificially inseminate dairy cows with the semen of Japanese
cattle to produce hybrid calves for shipment to fattening farmers. Hybrid calves weigh around 30
kg at birth, which is smaller than that of dairy calves (about 45 kg), and have the advantage ofpreventing dystocia in primiparous dairy cows.

■Cow for beef (in the case of a cow for calf production)

Birth〈Body weight〉

6 months

16 - 18 months

Copulation forfirst birth(350kg)Weaning

2 years 25 months

3 years

Gestation

Delivery intervalFirst birth (around 13 months)
delivery(440kg)(450 - 500 kg)

Second bir(285 days)(180kg)(28kg)■Cow for beef
(in the case of a cow for calf production)

3 years■Beef cattle (in the caseof fattening cattle)
4 years

Birth
Birth

6 months

6 months

16 - 18 months

2 years 25 months

3 years

10 months

27 - 30 months
Average milk producing years
Gestation
Delivery interval
9 years (7 births)
onths)
Second birth delivery
Copulation forFirst birth (around 13 months)
Weaning(285 days)
first birthdelivery〈Body weight〉
0 kg)(180kg)(440kg)(450 - 500kg) cattle
Trading of fattening cattle (350kg)(28kg) Castration Weaning
Shipment of castrated
Japanese〈Body weight〉(30kg)(270 - 300 kg)(650 - 700 kg)

val■Beef cattle (in the case of fattening cattle)

Birth

6 months

10 months

27 - 30 months

apanese cattle
Castration Weaning Trading of fattening cattle〈Body weight〉(30kg)(270 - 300 kg)

Shipment of castrated Japanese cattle(650 - 700 kg)

7

Second b

3 Fodder and feeding（１）Calf, raising cattle
Fodder from the time of calf to raising term changes: breast milk → milk replacer → synthetic
milk → hay and formula feed, in case of Japanese cattle, dairy breed steer, and hybrids.

Calf（２）Fattening cattle
As feed during fattening period, formula feed and rice straw are supplied for Japanese cattle,
silage (rice silage, grass silage, and corn silage), hay, and formula feed are supplied for dairy
breed steer, and in case of hybrids, silage, hay, rice straw, and formula feed are supplied.
Regarding the proportion of the fed amount of roughage and concentrate, formula feed is higher
in fattening cattle.

Fattening cattle (for beef)

4 Points of feeding management
In raising beef cattle, the following are the subjects of feeding management. It is important to
conduct day-to-day feeding management while always taking into consideration the following
issues.

8

（１）Uniform growth of each cattle herd
It is important to raise a heavy body weight, having high quality flesh by taking into accountappropriate nutrition control and stabilization of feed intake, and by preventing fights between
cattle. Especially in the case of Japanese cattle, the production of marbled beef is regarded asimportant.

（２）Health management of calves
Because calves tend to suffer pneumonia and diarrhea, it is important to perform observation,
nursing care, and curing properly.

Keeping calves warm (heating clothes)（３）Prevention of virus invasion
Be careful enough against virus invasion into the farm.

（４）Treatment of excreta
The same efforts as described in 1. Dairy 9 are necessary.

9

3

Pig farming (pigs)

1 Breeds of swine
Pigs are animals of improved wild boars that have been domesticated by humans to enhance theirmeat production capacity. The main swine breeds raised in Japan are Landrace, Large Yorkshire,and Duroc.
Breeds of swine
Breed(abbreviation)

Landrace(L)

Large Yorkshire
(W)

Duroc
(D)

Berkshire(B)

Hampshire(H)

Yorkshire(Y)

Appearance

Characteristics

White, having a long torso.The
face is slender and ears aredrooping.

Large litter size. Rearing rateof piglets is high.

White, ears are erect.

Superior breeding performance

Brown to black, ears aredrooping.

Flesh quality is good, and they
are disease resistant and fast
growing.

A black pig, while the tips ofthe limbs, face, and the tail arewhite. It is called Roppaku(meaning “six white parts” inJapanese).

Both litter size and growth areinferior to the breed describedabove, but they are excellent
in meat quality.

Black with the white belt
wrapping.

Used as a male instead of
Duroc, which is used for threeway crossing.

Having a forward jutting facewith erect ears.

Growth is slow. The meat
quality is good.

When these 3 breeds are crossed (mated) to produce a mix, the rearing rate is high, growth isfast, and meat quality is also good. This is called "three-way cross" and is widely held all overJapan. First, cross Landrace (L) with Large Yorkshire (W). The female born there is raised as abreeding pig. The female is crossed with a Duroc (D) male, and the piglets (LWD) are generally
raised as fattening pigs. In other words, most of the fattening pigs in Japan are hybrids. Crossing
breeds in this way increases the ability (productivity) of the offspring, which is called heterosis.
10Other breeds include Berkshire, Hampshire, and Yorkshire.

×

Landrace Female(L)

Large Yorkshire Male(W)

Dam pig as first-generation hybrid×
Duroc Male(D)

Three-crossbred hybrid(LWD)

Typical three-way cross combinations

In addition, there are female and male breeding and fattening pigs called hybrid pigs, which areproduced by crossing several breeds. The objective of this project is to eliminate the drawbacksof time-consuming three-way cross and to supply a large number of breeding pigs with excellent
uniformity.

11

Names of parts of the pig's body

2
1

5
3
22

7

6

4

14

8

21
9

13

16

11
17
18

12

10

19

15

20
23
1.Snout 2.Ear 3.Jowl 4.Neck 5.Shoulder 6.Back 7.Loin
8.Side 9.Fore flank 10.Rear flank 11.Rump 12.Ham 13.Belly
14.Forelimb 15.Hind limb 16.Tail 17.Hip bone 18.Stifle joint
19.Hock 20.Pastern 21.Chest (includes belly) 22.Anterior chest
23.Spur

2 Life cycle of pigs
Pigs can be divided into fattening pigs and breeding pigs according to usage. Fattening pigs
are those which we eat as meat. They are also called pork pigs. The dam pig is the parent of thefattening pig. A male pig to be mated with a dam pig is called a stud pig. It is also called Tanebuta
in Japanese. The dam pig repeats mating, gestation, delivery, and lactation.
Pigs are omnivores and eat various feeds. The basic structure of a pig’s digestive system is thesame as that of human, who is also omnivorous. Feed is first digested in the stomach, then digested
further in the small intestine, and absorbed. Later, in the large intestine part, the indigestible fraction
is fermented and absorbed.

（１）Fattening pig (pork pig)
Fattening pigs are nursed by the female breeding pig, their mother pig, for a while after birth.
About six months after birth (about 180 days later), the weight becomes about 115 kg, and they
are slaughtered for meat. The period from about 30 kg of body weight to shipment is called thefattening period.

（２）Dam pig (female breeding pig, also called mother pig)
The dam pig first breeds at about 8 months after birth when her body weight is about 120
kg. The gestation period is 114 days. The litter size is 10 to 15, and after a nursing period of 3
to 4 weeks after delivery, mating is performed again. The dam pig controlled healthfully can bepregnant / give birth 4 to 5 times in 2 years. The dam repeats this cycle and usually becomes12

pregnant 6 to 10 times. The estrous cycle of pigs is 21 days.

（３）Stud pig (male breeding pig, sire pig, also called tanebuta in Japanese)
Stud pigs sexually mature in about seven months. Among mating, there are natural mating(Honko in Japanese) and artificial insemination (AI), with artificial insemination increasing now.

Birth 1 month 3 months

7 months 8 months 1 year

Weaning

Gestation(114 days)

18 months

2 years

Pork production years
3 years (6 births)

Delivery interval(6 months)

Copulation First delivery
Delivery
Breeding

Piglet(Body weight) (1.4㎏)(8 kg)

Fattening

Piglet(Body weight)

Raising pig

Adult pig(120 kg)(180 kg)(210 kg)(230 kg)

Fattening pig(37㎏)(115 kg)Life cycle of breeding pig (dam: sow pig)/fattening pig

3 Management style of pig farming
There are 3 types of pig farm management: "consistent management," "breeding operation," and"fattening operation."
Breeding operation involves raising dam pigs and stud pigs, and shipping their piglets forfattening.
Fattening operation is a method of purchasing piglets from breeding operation, fattening them,and shipping them.
Consistent management is a management style in which dam pigs, stud pigs, and fattening pigs
are raised together and management is conducted consistently from breeding to fattening. Currently,
consistent management constitutes the majority. The main reasons for this are the expansion of thebusiness scale and the prevention of disease invasion.
Currently, the main form of breeding operation is to produce and improve dam pigs and studpigs, and sell them to farms that practice consistent management.

13

They range in size from large businesses with tens to more than 100 employees, to small familyrun operations. Large-scale management is sometimes called corporate pig farming.
In addition to production on pig farms, meat product manufacturing, meat wholesaling, and meatretailing are also carried out consistently within the same group, which is called “integration.”
As a classification of farms from the viewpoint of sanitation management, there is "SPF (absenceof a specific pathogen) farms" apart from ordinary farms, and their sanitation management is stricter
than that practiced at general farms. In contrast to SPF, normal farms are called “conventional.”

4 Feed and its production, purchase, and feeding
Most feed ingredients for pigs are imported from overseas.
After arriving at the port, corn and other raw materials are pulverized at feed mills for better
digestion, formulated in consideration of nutritional balance to suit the stage of pig growth, and soldas formula feed. Corn and soybean meal (defatted soybean) are mainly used as raw materials.
The forms are finely ground mash, compression molded pellets, and crushed pellets. Liquid feedis also used.
There are two feeding methods: "ad libitum feeding" and "restricted feeding."
Ad libitum feeding is also called free feeding. There is always feed in the trough and pigs can eat
it at any time.
Restricted feeding is a feeding method to give a fixed amount.
Fattening pigs are often fed with ad libitum feeding, and breeding pigs with restricted feeding.

Mash

PelletShape of feed

14

Liquid5 Dressed carcasses and pieces
The shipped fattening pigs (pork pigs) are slaughtered and traded as "dressed carcasses."
A dressed carcass is the state that the head, limbs, and internal organs are removed from thewhole body. About 75 kg of dressed carcass can be taken from a 115 kg pig. Dressing percentage
is about 65%. The dressed carcass divided into left and right parts is called side (“Hanmaru” inJapanese). Dressed carcasses are graded on the basis of the trading classification for pork carcasses
and are graded in order of quality as excellent, high, medium, ordinary, and substandard. First,
dressed carcass (side) weight and back fat thickness are measured, then the appearance and meat
quality are judged.
Dressed carcasses are further divided into parts. The cut meat is then either sliced further andsold as dressed meat, or processed into ham, sausage, and so on.

Thighs

Belly
Loin

Ribs

Half-carcasses

Portion of divided pork carcasses in Japan

There are criteria for meat color and fat color, and the meat color should not be too dark or too
light (too thin), with a medium light (thin) meat color being ideal. It is determined by the pork color
standard. White is desirable for fat color, rather than yellow fat. When the fat is soft, it is called asoft fat pork and the evaluation is low.

6 Points of feeding management（１）Management of piglets
A piglet weighs about 1.4 kg. Newborn piglets have thin subcutaneous fat and immaturethermoregulatory function. To prevent occurrence of accident death and growth stagnation, it is15necessary to properly manage the temperature in the raising environment. It is desirable to keep
the environment above 30°C especially in the first week after birth.

Keeping piglets warm

32
Ambient temperature(°C)

28
24
20

0

Optimum temperature range according to survey A
Optimum temperature range according to survey B○ The dot “○” suggests the optimum temperature.
ＡＢ

ＡＢ

ＡＢ

ＡＢ

ＡＢ

3～4

6～7

10～11

17～18

24～25 31～32

Ａ

Age in days
Estimation of the optimum temperature range of piglets at each age in days

（２）Score of gain
The intake of feed increases with the growth of pigs. The increase in body weight per day iscalled “daily gain (DG).” After weaning, daily gain increases with increase of the feed intake,and standard daily gain is 0.78 kg at body weight of 30 to 50 kg, 0.85 kg at 50 to 115 kg.
The amount of feed required for 1 kg increase is called “feed conversion ratio.” It usually
ranges from 3.2 to 3.6. If it exceeds the range, it is necessary to re-examine the contents of the
feed.

16

１

2

3

4

5

Score

Condition

Body type1

Too thin

The hipbones and spine are visible to the naked eye.

2

Thin

By pushing with the palm of your hand, you can easily feel the hipbones and spine.

3

Ideal

The hipbones and spine can be felt by pressing hard with the palm of your hand.

4

Fat

The hipbones and spine cannot be felt.

5

Overweight

The hipbones and spine are covered with thick layers of fat.
Body condition scores of dam pigs

（３）Infectious diseases
Pigs are affected by many diseases, in particular, if legal communicable diseases, namely
foot-and-mouth disease, swine cholera, and epidemic encephalitis occur, promptly notify theLivestock hygiene service center and take measures according to the instructions. We must takecare of it accordingly.
It is necessary to introduce a strict quarantine system when transferring people, feed, andmaterials.
There are various kinds of swine diseases seen in pig farms, and vaccinations will be given if
effective. Currently there are few diseases that lead to death as soon as acute symptoms appear,
and there are many diseases of chronic symptoms. As representative diseases, transmissible
gastroenteritis (TGE), and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) are viraldiseases; mycoplasma spp., Escherichia coli , and Streptococcus spp. are pathogenic bacteria, andthe large pig roundworm (Ascaris suum ) is a parasite.

（４）Treatment of odor and excretion from piggery
Breeding pigs excrete 2 ~ 3kg of feces and 5.5kg of urine per day, and fattening pigs 1.9kg offeces and 3.5kg of urine. Foul odors from feces and urine are the most frequent kind of complaint
as pollution caused by livestock production, and are a major cause of the poor impression of thepig farming industry and the survival of management. In addition, since it leads to environmental
pollution such as adverse effects on the health of pigs and humans and the inducement andpropagation of pests such as flies, it is necessary to control the occurrence.
17

The odor inside the piggery derives mainly from ammonia and sulfur compounds generated
from feces and urine, and volatile fatty acids such as butyric acid, propionic acid, and acetic
acid. These odors are harmful for both pigs and humans who manage them, so reducing odor isnecessary. For that purpose, separate feces and urine as much as possible to avoid contact witheach other, and suppress the reaction between urine and enzymes in feces.
Feces and urine must each be properly treated; generally feces are processed at composting
facilities while urine is processed at purification facilities. In addition, there is a method ofprocessing mixture of feces and urine, and this manure mixture is called a slurry.
A large portion of the compost is composed of microorganisms; that is, the compost is the
product made by aerobic microorganisms that grow in the feces by breaking down putrefactive
organic matters. For compost preparation, it is important to create an environment suitable foraerobic microorganisms that require oxygen.

（５）Heat and cold
Swine have vestigial sweat glands and it is difficult to release body heat from the skin.
Especially in summer in Japan, the heat does not dissipate, because of high temperature andhigh humidity. Therefore, it is necessary to remove moisture from a piggery in summer with anelectric fan and the like.
A hot environment caused by heat in summer has a bad effect on breeding pigs. A decrease in
the number of sperm, a decrease in sperm motility, and a decrease in mounting motivation occur
in males, and a decrease in overall breeding performance occurs in females, such as delayed
estrus, stillbirth, a decrease in body weight at birth, and a decrease in milk production due todecreased appetite.
Also in the case of fattening pigs, loss of appetite occurs and affects weight gain performance.
If the temperature rises rapidly, they may die of heat stroke.
On the other hand, since both temperature and humidity are low in winter, the body heat is
excessively released as opposed to summer. Therefore, in winter, pay attention to the temperature
control of the piggery, especially the temperature control for piglets vulnerable to cold.

18

4

Chicken farming① Laying hens
1 Breeds of laying hens
Among chicken breeds kept in Japan, the most common and representative race (chicken breed)is Single-Comb White Leghorn (its country of origin is Italy). As a laying hen laying white eggs,
White Leghorn and its hybrids are raised widely. In addition, Rhode Island Red (its country oforigin is the United States) or its hybrids as laying hens that lay brown eggs, and races (chicken
breeds) that lay eggs in intermediate color between white and brown are also raised.

Single-Comb White Leghorn

Rhode Island Red

2 Scale of raising and management of laying hens
As of February 1, 2018, the number of adult female chickens was 139.03 million, and there has
been no significant change over the past 20 years. The number of poultry farms raising laying hensis 2,200 and is decreasing every year, mainly in small groups.
For management of laying hen farms, 25% is run by farmers and 75% by companies. The
companies operate a small number of farms, but keep about 70% of the total number of hens. Manycompanies are run by individuals or families.
One management style is to entrust brooding companies with brooding up to the stage of midsized chicks (chubina) or large chicks (obina), and to manage adult chickens mainly, and the otherstyle is to consistently manage the entire process from brooding to adult chickens on the farm.

19

3 Life cycle of laying hens
Chickens live 5 to 15 years with careful rearing. The case of egg production from an economic
point of view is shown in the figure as the life cycle of the laying hen. Hatching eggs (fertilizedeggs) hatch and chicks are born after 21 days of incubation under appropriate temperature andhumidity conditions. This female chick grows to an adult chicken in about 150 days and begins tolay eggs (start of egg laying). It begins to lay the largest number of eggs around 210 days after birth(peak of egg laying). After that, It lays eggs for about a year or a year and a half, but gradually it
comes to not lay eggs, so that it is shipped (culled chicken) as processed meat in roughly two years.
Egg laying Hatching 2 days

30 days

Hatching period (21 days)
Day old chick〈Body weight〉 40g

60 days 150 days 210 days (around 6 - 7 months)

Start of egg laying

Yousu (youbina, Chusu (chubina, Daisu (obina,
young chick) middle-sized chick) large-sized chick)Peak of egg laying
Adult chicken

1,700g1,750g〈Egg weight〉

48g

58g

〈Egg laying rate〉

50%

90%

310g

790g

550 days

2,000g
66g
65%(Average 75 to 80% per year)

Life cycle of egg-laying hens

4 Feed and its production, purchase, and feeding
In order to raise chickens, many chicken farms use commercially available formula feed preparedby blending several raw materials, according to the growth process and use.
Most of the corn, milo and soybean meal used as raw materials are imported from overseas.
Feed manufacturers sell a variety of formulated and mixed products. At present, formula feed forchicken farming produced in Japan accounts for 42% of the total compound feed production, whichis the largest share.
Of the formula feed for chicken farming, 7.8% is for chicks and 58.2% is for adult laying hens.
66% of the formula feed for chickens is for laying hens.
Formula feed developed for one’s own chicken farm without depending on the products of a feed
manufacturer is called in-house formula feed.

20

The formula feed for adult chickens contains 60% of cereals such as corn and milo as anenergy source, 15% of soybean meal from vegetable oil meal as a protein source, 10% of fishmeal as an animal feed, 5% of corn gluten feed as bran, and 10% of vitamins and minerals.
Blending ratio, raw materials, constituent etc. vary depending on the chicken breed, age, andrearing environment.

5 Points of feeding management（１）Hygiene management
To be thorough in preventive hygiene. First of all, prevent the invasion of pathogens into thebreeding control area and improve the poor environment of breeding areas. According to the
Feeding and Health Control Standards in the Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Act,
sanitation control areas must be set up to prevent the invasion of pathogens.
Because poultry houses grow in size and keep large numbers of chickens, health control ofchickens, environmental management inside the poultry house, and hygiene management suchas removing feces and cleaning tend to be insufficient, so that the cause of diseases and damage
must be thoroughly eliminated.
①

Hygiene management of poultry houses and other facilities
Be thorough with removing feces, cleaning, washing, and disinfection②

Health control of chickens
Attention must be paid to diseases of the respiratory system caused by alteration in theenvironment.
For chickens, prepare a vaccination program for diseases with strong infectivity and carryout vaccination faithfully.

（２）Avian influenza
It is important to check up-to-date information on animal quarantine; especially, information
on highly pathogenic avian influenza provided by the Livestock hygiene service center must
be checked and the guidance of the center must be followed. Set up a bird net, etc. around thepoultry house in the breeding area to thoroughly prevent the invasion of wild birds, observe thehealth of the chickens, and report immediately when abnormalities and specific symptoms arefound (this is mandatory). In addition, if you find dead bodies of wild birds and the like near thepoultry house, it is important to inform the administrator immediately.

21

② Meat chicken
1 Breeds of meat chicken
More than 85% of meat chicken comes from young meat chickens (broilers), which are highly
improved to enable them to grow quickly and to be shipped quickly, and to ensure that they growwell. The breed is a first-generation hybrid chicken for practical use produced by crossing a white
Plymouth Rock female with a white Cornish male. Although native chickens account for only 1%of the entire meat chickens, they are high-quality meat chickens produced as a hybrid using gamefowls, Nagoya breeds, Rhode Island Red breeds, and other local breeds in order to improve meat
quality.

White Cornish

White Plymouth Rock2 Scale of raising and management of young chickens for meat (broilers)
As of February 1, 2018, there were 2,260 poultry farms and 138.77 million chickens, for an
average of 61,400 chickens per farm. The number of chickens per farm is increasing year by year,
and the scale is expanding to achieve more efficient management.
Most of the broiler breeding is controlled by general trading companies, agricultural
cooperatives, or individuals, and all stages from raising to processing and distribution are linked(integration). Farmers are contracted to raise broilers. Also, with the rapid growth of mass retailers
such as supermarkets, there is a system in which distributors produce broilers and the whole process
is affiliated.

3 Life cycle of young chickens for meat (broilers)
The life cycle of a young chicken (broiler) used as meat is shown in the figure. Chicks to befinished in small size are raised for about 7 weeks after hatching and shipped with a weight of about
2.3 kg. Chicks to be finished in large size are raised for about 8 weeks and shipped with a weight ofabout 3.0 kg. In the case of native chickens, it takes more than 80 days to raise and many of them
are kept for 4 to 5 months to produce good taste and texture and then shipped.
22

Production process (body weight)
Egg laying

Hatching 2days

30days49days(21 days)
Day old chick
Early growth period

56–59days

Late growth period

Yousu
Chusu
Daisu
(youbina, young chick)(chubina,(obina, large chick)middle-sized chick)<Body weight> 40ｇ
1,100ｇ2,200～2,300ｇ

Shipping in small size

2,700～3,000ｇ

Shipping in large size at 8 weeks(approximately 2 months)

Life cycle of a young chicken for meat

4 Feed and its production, purchase, and feeding
Rearing broilers is mostly carried out using commercially available formula feed prepared byblending several raw materials, according to the growth process. Feed manufacturers sell various
formulated products. At present, formula feed for broilers produced in Japan accounts for 14% of
total formula feed production and 34% of formula feed for chickens (accounting for 42% of total
formula feed).
Formula feed for broilers contains cereals (corn) and milo in the largest amount as energy
sources, followed by soybean cake, a vegetable oil cake, as a protein source, and fish meal as an
animal feed. It also contains corn gluten feed as bran and vitamins and minerals. Blending ratio,
raw materials, constituents, etc. vary depending on the chicken breed, age, and rearing environment.

23

5 Points of feeding management（１）Hygiene management
To be thorough in preventive hygiene. First of all, prevent the invasion of pathogens into thebreeding control area and improve the poor environment of breeding areas. According to the
Feeding and Health Control Standards in the Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Act,
sanitation control areas must be set up to prevent the invasion of pathogens.
Breeding and improvement of broilers has been remarkably improved, especially in weightgain performance. Raising a large number of birds has become common, and the raising period isshort, so feeding management tends to be delayed. Therefore, it is important to eliminate factorsthat cause harm or adverse effects in daily feeding management.
①

Hygiene management of facilities
In the Chicken coop, the removal of feces, cleaning, washing, and disinfection are carriedout thoroughly so that no pathogenic microorganisms, sanitary insects, and antibacterial
substances remain.

②

Health control of chickens
As for fast-growing broilers, you should not neglect ventilation control and should pay
attention to respiratory diseases.
For chickens, it is important to prepare a vaccination program for diseases with strong
infectivity and carry out vaccination faithfully.

（２）Measures against avian influenza
It is necessary to take the same measures as for laying hens (page: 21).

24

５

Others① Light breed horses
1 Light breed horses (Thoroughbred)・There are five kinds of light breed horses, Thoroughbred, Thoroughbred pedigree, Arabian,Anglo-Arabian, and Arabian pedigree. Most light bleed horses produced in Japan are
Thoroughbred.
・The annual production of Thoroughbred horses is approximately 7,000 (2018), mainly in
Hokkaido, Tohoku, and Kyushu. Among them, Hokkaido accounts for more than 98% of thetotal production.
・Most Thoroughbred horses are used as racehorses after they have been trained for horse racing.
・Thoroughbred horses used for horse racing are limited to those produced by natural mating.
Horses produced by artificial insemination cannot be used for horse racing.
・Thoroughbred is a species whose pedigree is strictly controlled by the pedigree registry. Only
horses born from registered father horses (stud stallions) and mother horses (broodmares) can beregistered. Also, a horse without a pedigree cannot be a racehorse.
A pedigree registration certificate is issued to the registered horse from the registration agency.

2 Life cycle
・The age of a horse is called in a unique way. The year of birth is called weanling (“Tousai” inJapanese), and the years after the year of birth are called yearling and 2-year-old.
・The gestation period of Thoroughbred is about 11 months, and in Japan most foals are born
between February and May.
・From birth to summer, the foal is raised with the mother horse, but after weaning in autumn (about
6 months after birth), it is raised separately from the mother.
・From around the fall of weanling, young horses begin training (breaking) to wear tack, such as
saddles and bits, and to get used to being ridden on their back.
・After breaking, they do running training with a rider on the back to build up their physicalstrength.
・The 2-year-old trained horses are moved to a race track or training center, registered as a
racehorse, and trained further for running.
・Among racehorses that have retired, mainly those that have performed well or have a good
pedigree are returned to the production area as breeding horses.

25

① Mating (March to May)
(Gestation period: 11 months)② Delivery(February to May of the following year)③ Lactation(until 6 months of age)

④ Autumn: weaning(approximately 5 to 6 months of age)

⑤ Winter - summer: grazing foals together (separated by sex)
(6 months of age to yearling in summer)⑥ Yearling in autumn: breaking⑦ Yearling in winter to 2- year-old: training⑧ 2-year-old after April: race debut⑨ Retirement, some horses are subjected to breeding26

3 Management of stock farm
There are two main types of management in the light breed horse stock farm.
・Breeding farm
A mother horse is raised and a foal is produced and sold at auction markets and the like.
・Yearling training farm
Breaking and training of young horses are performed.
In addition, there are some farms that do the consistent work of the breeding and training farms.

Breeding farm

Yearling training farm27

② Apiculture
1 Species and characteristics of honeybees（１）Species
There are 2 species of bees in Japan, the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and theJapanese honey bee (Apis cerana japonica), but most bees kept as livestock are the European
honeybee (hereinafter referred to as honeybees).

（２）Characteristics
Honeybees live in groups and have their own roles within the group.
・Worker bees (female)
Worker bees are raised in their normal cells (hexagonal compartments that form the comb ofbees). During the larvae stage, royal jelly is given in the first half, pollen and honey are given in
the last half, and they become adults in about 21 days. The life span (survival time) is about 1
month, but in the cold winter times, they may live for about 6 months. After they become adults,
they first clean the cells of the hive, then raise the larvae and finally go out of the hive to feed (thecollection of nectar or pollen from flowers).
・Queen bee (female)
Queen bees grow in special cells called royal cells, where only royal jelly is given to thelarvae. Usually there is one queen bee in a hive and it only lays eggs. The queen bee is heavier
than worker bees and has a lifetime of 2-3 years.
・Drones (male)
Drones are born during the mating season of the queen (In Japan, April to June is the best
season), when worker bees make special cells for them in the hive. Drones do not work in thehive but mate with the queen bee in the air.

28

0 days

Constructing cells
15 days
Gatekeeper

3 days20 days

Cleaning

10 days
7 daysStorage clerk

Rearing larvae

Worker bees’ cells (hexagonal compartments)

Life of worker bees

Start of egg laying
Egg
Queen bee

Adult
(Mating)
Approximately
16 days

Egg
DronesAdult(Mating)Start of egg laying(about 2000 eggs
per day)

Cessation ofegg laying(Decline of outside
air temperature)
October to November

Do nothing

Foraging(about 2000 eggs
per day)(Rise of outside
air temperature)
February to March

Death

Around OctoberLife of queen bee and drones

29(Decline of outside
air temperature)
October to November

Replaced by
the new queen bee(Rise of outside
air temperature)
February to March

2 Activities of honeybees during the year
Seasons

Activities

Spring(building up)

In spring and summer, when many flowers bloom, honeybees forage and breed.
When a hive reaches a certain size, the production of drones for breeding and theconstruction of the royal cell begin. A few days before the birth of a new queen bee inthe royal cell, the old queen bee leaves the hive with about half the worker bees andbuilds a new one in another place. This is called swarming.

Except for highlands with many flowers, there are few flowers, so it is a difficult time for
Summerhoneybees. That's why bees sometimes run away from hive boxes in search of new land
(summering)and don't come back. This is called escaping.
Autumn

It is the time when bees have to store enough honey in the comb before winter. They dotheir best to collect nectar from flowers whose odors people dislike.

Winter(wintering)

Bees huddle together in the comb to endure the cold. They stop egg laying and rearing
larvae during winter, but start laying eggs when spring approaches. In addition, bees
sometimes starve to death due to a lack of stored honey.

Swarming
Wintering

Building up

Summering

Breeding period

Worker bees
Drones

Old queen bee
New queen bee
The annual flow and the number of bees in a hive

30

Wintering６

Questions for confirmation

For the following questions, answer ○ if correct, and × if incorrect.

＜ Cattle ＞
１．The average milk yield of Japanese dairy cows per year is about 5,000 kg.

（）

２．The gestation period of the Holstein breed is 280 days.

（）

３．The milk quality of a dairy cow is the same as that of any other cow.

（）

４．Feed intake by dairy cows decreases on hot summer days and the milk yield decreases.（）

５．Feces and urine discharged from a cowshed are allowed to be left in the field.

（）

６．All beef cattle raised in Japan are Japanese black cattle.

（

）

（

）

（

）

１．Japanese fattening pigs develop fast and weigh 100 to 110 kg in 5 to 6 months.

（）

２．The average litter size of Japanese dam pigs is 5.

（）

３．The dam pig and piglets are raised together for 2 months after birth.

（）

４．The dam pig can become pregnant and give birth 4 to 5 times in 2 years.

（）

５．Since diseases seldom occur in Japanese pig farms, vaccination is not needed.

（）

７．In fattening operation of Japanese black cattle, cattle at around 10 months old arepurchased on the market and fattened until around 30 months of age.
８．For fattening cattle, the proportion of roughage is higher than that of concentrate(formula feed).

＜ Pigs ＞＜ Chicken ＞
１．The development of chicks is divided into four stages, namely, yosu (youbina, young
chick), chusu (chubina, middle-sized chick), daisu (obina, large-sized chick), and adult（）

２．Formula feed is most frequently used as feed for laying hens.

（）

３．Chickens will not die even when infected with avian influenza.

（）

４．Growth of meat chicken (broiler) is slower than growth of egg-laying chicken.

（）

５．The weight of the broiler is about 5 kg for males at 7 weeks of age.

（）

chicken.

31

Answers＜ Cattle ＞
１．×（Reason: The average milk yield of Japanese dairy cow / Holstein breed exceeds 8,000 kg.）２．○
３．×（Reason: The milk quality differs among cows.）
４．○
５．×（Reason: It is decided by law that composting process, etc. should be employed properly.）
６．×（Reason: Other than Japanese cattle, there are types of dairy breed steer and hybrids (F1),there are thus 3 types in total.）７．○
８．×（Reason: Proportion of formula feed is high during fattening period.）＜ Pigs ＞
１．○
２．×（Reason: The litter size of Japanese dam pigs is 10 to 15）
３．×（Reason: Nursing period of piglets is 3-4 weeks.）
４．○
５．×（Reason: Various diseases occur in the pig farm so that appropriate preventive injection isnecessary.）＜ Chicken ＞
１．○
２．○
３．×（Reason: When infected with a highly pathogenic virus, it will die within one week.）
４．×（Reason: Broiler is characterized by its faster growth rate than laying hens.）
５．×（Reason: Male broiler grows to about 3.3 kg at 7 weeks of age.）32

Basic knowledge
Ⅱ on livestock andtheir feed33

１

Dairy cattle

1 The nature of dairy cattle
Dairy cows are animals with a strong wariness and irritability, so that people should contact themwith a friendly attitude.
Dairy cows sometimes eat concentrate rather than roughage, this is called “choosy eating”.
In hot summer days, the dairy cow increases frequency of respiration and evaporates water toprevent the body temperature from rising.
To measure the temperature of a dairy cow, usually a thermometer is inserted into the anus.
The milk yield by dairy cows gradually increases after delivery and the daily yield reaches
maximum at 5 to 7 weeks, and many dairy cows yield daily milk around 50 kg.
Milking is finished (stopped) about 60 days before delivery, and it enters the dry period.

2 Structure of the cowshed
For raising method of dairy cows, there are “grazing” that is grazing the cows in grassland and“housing” that is raising cows in the cowshed.
There are 3 ways of housing: “tied housing”, “freebarn” “freestall”.
Tied housing refers to a raising method that each cow is tied and fixed to a pillar with astanchion, a rope, a chain, etc.
A water cup is often used as a water supply. Milking is done in the place where dairy cows aretied and the milk collected goes through a milk conveying pipe above the head of a cow and enters
a refrigerator (bulk cooler).

Stanchion barn

New York style tie stall

34

Milking in a tied barn

Vacuum gauge
Vacuumregulator

Vacuumtank

Trap

Vacuum pipe
Milk pipe line

Pulsator

Milk receiver(milk receiver jar)

Teat cup

Vacuumpump
Bulk cooler

Milk flow
Milking system

Freebarn is a raising method that let the cow move freely without being tied in the large roofed
enclosure. Litter is laid entire floor except feeding space. Sawdust (powder of wood), reusing
compost (fermented/manured dry compost) are often used as litter. A water tank is often used as awater supply. Milking is done in a separate room, milking parlor.

Freebarn cowshed

Milking parlor

Milking robot35

In freestall, beds (cattle floor) is individually partitioned as shown in the picture. This is thedifference from freebarn.

Trough in freestall cowshed

Bed (cattle floor) in freestall cowshed

In cowsheds of freebarn and freestall, weak cows may be kicked out of the trough by strong
cows, resulted in the decrease of the amount of feed intake.

3 digestive system of dairy cows
・There are four stomachs in dairy cows.
・The biggest stomach is the first stomach, which is called lumen.
・Many microorganisms live in rumen and they decompose feed and supply nutrients (volatile fatty
acids) into the body of dairy cows.
・Dairy cows return feed once they are eaten to their mouths, mush with teeth, finely grind andswallow again, which is called rumination and mastication.
・F eed becomes finer by rumination and mastication, decomposition and digestion by
microorganisms in the rumen proceeds fast.
・In the first stomach of a dairy cow (rumen), volatile fatty acids (acetic acid, propionic acid, andbutyric acid) are produced from cereal starch and roughage fibers and are absorbed into the bodyto produce milk and maintain the body.
・The proteins needed to produce milk and maintain the body are made from amino acids absorbed
from the small intestine.

4 Feed・Commonly used roughage is grass silage, corn silage, sorghum silage, hay, rice fermentation
roughage (rice whole crop silage), rice straw etc.
・Commonly used concentrate is formula feed, corn, soybean meal, rapeseed meal, bran, foodproduction byproduct (bean curd lees, beer lees), beet pulp and so on.
・Formula feed is made by mixing various feed ingredients at a formula feed factory, but mainly
36corn and soybean meal is used as grain and oil meal, respectively.
・Silage is made by storing minutely cut grass, rice or corn (stem / leaf / grain mixed) in theabsence of oxygen (air).
・The grass reaped earlier has higher protein content, fiber digestive efficiency and the nutrition
value than that reaped later.

Types of feed

Hay

SilageConcentrate

Feed facility

Tower silo

Bunker silo

Formula feed tank37

5 Nutritional value of feed(1) The composition of feed is indicated by the content of crude protein, crude fat, carbohydrate,
minerals, and vitamins.
(2)Nutritional value (energy) of feed for dairy cows is indicated by TDN (total digestible nutrients)
in Japan.
(3)Cereals have a high TDN content due to the high digestibility of starch, and corn has a very high
TDN content of 93.6% of the dry matter.
(4) Grasses are rich in fiber, but their digestibility is lower than that of cereal starch, so their TDN
content is lower than that of corn.
(5) The crude protein content and fiber digestibility of gramineous pasture grass differ dependingon the mowing time, as shown in the table. The nutrition value of pasture grass is higher whenmown at an earlier time.

Grass mowing time and nutritional value (Italian ryegrass, timothy)

Before heading

Heading time

Flowering time

Crude protein content: %of dry matter

18.4

13.7

8.3

Total fiber digestibility: %

75

60

50

Crude protein content: %of dry matter

17.5

10.0

8.8

Total fiber digestibility: %

70

60

47

Italian ryegrass

Timothy38

6 Feed production(1)Silage is a stored feed made by lactic fermentation using stored pasture grass, rice, and corn (withstem, leaf, and seed mixed) in an oxygen-free, air-tight environment.
(2) In order to produce good silage, it is important to cut the material into small pieces and to give
sufficient tread power and pressure.
Preparation ofgrass silage
Stack silo

Mowing by a mower conditioner

Grass harvesting operation

Creating stack silo

Stack silo

Mowing by a mower conditioner

Baling operation by a round baler

Wrapping by a wrapping machine

Round bale silage

Round bale systemof grass silage

39

7 Feeding・Separate feeding is a method that gives roughage and concentrate separately, whereas total mixed
ration (TMR) is supplied by mixing both feeds with a mixer in advance.
・In lactating cows (milking cows), intake of feed also increases accompanied by increasing yieldof milk after delivery.
・Accompanied by increasing the amount of lactation, the intake of concentrate increases, but
in separate feeding, considering the ratio of roughage to concentrate (balance), care must be
taken not to take exceed concentrate. On that regard, giving total mixed ration (TMR) has anadvantage that can increase both intakes in good balance.
・When feeding separately, it is recommended that first feed a roughage such as hay or silage, andlater feed concentrate.

An example of feeding to milking cows is shown in the following table.
Hokkaido: 40 kg of milk per day
10 kg of grass silage, 14 kg of corn silage, 10 kg of formula feed, 2 kg of alfalfa
hay, and 3 kg of beet pulp
Ibaraki Prefecture: 28 kg of milk per day
4 kg of timothy hay, 2.9 kg of alfalfa hay, 3.4 kg of bermuda grass hay, 6.3 kg of
formula feed, and 3 kg of beet pulp

8 Quality of milk and mastitis(1) The quality of milk is checked by the mixed milk to be shipped (a mixture of milk from manycows).
(2)The price of milk varies depending on the test result of the mixed milk.
(3)The milk quality of each cow is checked once a month if the herd test is conducted.

40

Criteria for milk quality (e.g.)

Excellent milk quality Normal milk quality

Milk quality that needs
improvement

Milk fat: %3.9 or more

3.5 ~ 3.89

3.0 ~ 3.49

Milk protein: %3.4 or more

3.1 ~ 3.39

2.8 ~ 3.09

Solid non fat: %8.8 or more

8.5 ~ 8.79

8.0 ~ 8.49

Somatic cells:
tens of thousands/ml

Less than 10

10 ~ 2930 ~ 99 or more・Milk produced immediately after delivery is called colostrum.
・Since content of milk constituent in colostrum differs from normal milk (average milk), for 5days after delivery the colostrum can not be shipped.
・Mastitis is a disease caused by the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria in the breast of a cow.
When infected with mastitis, inflammation occurs in the breast and it shows clinical symptoms
such as fever, swelling of the breast and pain. When the breast become infected with pathogenic
bacteria, leukocytes increase and they engulf the foreign bodies such as bacteria, and then theleukocytes excreted in milk and the number of somatic cells increases. Somatic cells in milk
consist of the leukocytes and exfoliated pieces of epithelial cells form the mammary gland. The
number of somatic cells of healthy dairy cattle is generally no more than 200,000/ml. In addition,
the number of somatic cells in milk is used to evaluate the hygienic quality of milk.

9 Gastrointestinal and hoof diseases(1) Dairy cows were originally herbivorous animals that ate grass, but now they are fed a large
amount of cereal starch to achieve high milk production.
(2)The digestion rate of cereal starch in the first stomach (rumen) is much faster than that of grassfiber. The production of volatile fatty acid and lactic acid increases as a result of feeding a large
amount of cereal starch.
(3) Therefore, when a large amount of cereal is fed, the pH of the rumen (hydrogen ion
concentration) decreases, which may cause subclinical rumen acidosis and hoof disease.
(4) In Japan, there are many cases of disuse due to limb and hoof disorders (laminitis and hoofdisease).

41

(5) For dairy cows, limb and hoof disorders may also result from the selective eating (choosy
eating) of concentrate feed.
(6)The following table shows the conditions of cows with abomasal displacement, rumen acidosis,
and laminitis.

Digestive disorders and laminitis of dairy cows

Disease

Cause

Symptoms of dairy cows

Abomasaldisplacement

It is likely to occur due to a shortage ofroughage immediately after delivery and alarge supply of concentrate feed.

Anorexia, loss of energy, anddecreased milk production

Rumen
Acidosis

Lactic acid accumulates in the rumen due tothe intake of large amounts of cereal starch,and the pH decreases drastically.

Anorexia, decreased rumen
movement, decreased milk production,and decreased liver function

Laminitis

Lactic acid and histamine formed during
rumen acidosis act on capillaries in thedermis of the hoof, causing inflammation

Difficulty in walking, inability toaccess troughs and water suppliers,
decreased feed intake, and decreased
milk production

 Breeding of dairy cows
・Dairy cows after delivery repeat estrus every 21 days on average.
・It is important that artificial insemination is due without overlooking estrus. Recently, not only
artificial insemination but also transplantation of fertilized egg, which transplants fertilized eggsof Japanese black cattle, has become popular.
・Frozen semen is used in most cases
・When a cow is in estrus, the vulva is congested and mucus is secreted.
・In the prime of estrus, a state that allows other cows to ride on the back (standing estrus) appears,
and observation of the state is important.
・The conception is confirmed by having diagnosis of pregnancy.
・Delivery interval of dairy cows is ideally one birth per year.

42Artificial insemination

 Delivery
・The calf weighs about 45 kg at delivery.
・Natural births without help by humans are ideal, but when calving difficulty, midwifery isnecessary.
・When practicing midwifery, care must be taken not to damage the birth canal of the mother cow
and not to cause bacterial infection.
・The placenta (after birth) is discharged within about 6 hours after the calf is born.
・The mother cow licks the newborn calf to dry the body surface, but it is important to transfer thecalf on the dry litter.

 Giving colostrum・It is important for the newborn calf to drink colostrum that contains a lot of immunoglobulins toacquire immunity.
・It is preferred that colostrum is given to the calf at least for 3 days of birth.

 Nursing and raising calves(1)The early weaning method, in which weaning is carried out at 6 weeks of age, is recommended.
The feeding method is shown in the following table.

43

Feeding by the early weaning method (example)
Colostrum

1 to 2 liters within 4 h after birth and 2 liters between 4 and 6 h

Milk replacer, breast
milk

When only liquid milk replacer is fed, the amount is 600 g/day (fedafter dissolving in warm water). When only milk is used, the amountis 4.5 kg/day until the sixth week.

Calf starter

Concentrate feed for weaning (synthetic milk) from about 1 week ofage.
1 ~ 2 weeks of age: 0.1 kg/day, 2 ~ 3 weeks of age: 0.2 kg/day
3 ~ 4 weeks of age: 0.5 kg/day, 4 ~ 5 weeks of age: 0.8 kg/day
5 ~ 6 weeks of age: 1.2 kg/day(Thereafter, it gradually increases until 3 months of age, reaching amaximum of 2.5 kg/day.)

Hay

Free feeding of good hay(Japan Feeding Standard: Dairy Cows, Production Medicine System: Dairy Cows 1)(2)We aim to achieve the following two goals during the raising period of dairy cows.
① Sufficient development of the first stomach (rumen) should be carried out by feedingroughage preferred with good quality.
② Moderate exercise helps develop their muscles and bones.

 Health management of calves・Calves are prone to be infected with diarrhea, septicemia, pneumonia etc.
・It is important to keep calves in a well ventilated, sunny and clean environment.
・For raising calves, calf hutches and calf cages are often used.
・It is important to keep the calf hutches and calf cages clean using a lot of litter.

44

Calf hutch Body condition score(1)Body condition is the degree of accumulation of subcutaneous fat in dairy cows.
(2)The numerical value of the body condition is called the body condition score and is expressed in
BCS.
(3)BCS has a range of 2.0 ~ 5.0.
(4)BCS is determined by observation of the coxa, hip bones, ischium, transverse
processes, sacrosciatic ligaments, and sacroiliac ligaments.
(5)Because BCS is closely related to milk production and breeding performance, thefollowing target values are set according to the production period of dairy cows.
① In case of delivery, the target is about 3.50 with the range of 3.25 ~ 3.75.
② The maximum decrease after the start of lactation is 0.75 ~ 1.0.
③ The recovery should begin by 100 days after delivery at the latest.
④ The range is 3.25 ~ 3.75 during the dry period.

45

Body condition<Judgment sample of simple body condition score>
Simple BCS = 2: Thin
Whole body: The photograph shows extreme thinness.
Vitality is lacking and the belly is hollow, so the ability is notexpected.

Rump: V-shaped
The hip bones and ischium are angular.

Simple BCS = 3: Average
Whole body: The photograph shows slight fat accumulation,
but within the normal range.
Each part of the body is clearly outlined, and it seems to show
the ability sufficiently.

Rump: V-shaped
The hip bones and ischium arerounded.

Simple BCS = 4: Heavy
Whole body: The photo shows extreme heaviness.
Excess subcutaneous fat is deposited and the outline is very
blurred.
Problems after delivery are expected.

Rump: U-shaped
The hip bones and ischium are hidden
under fat.

Photo (3 whole body photos): Akiko Nishiura, chief researcher, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization
Photo (6 rump photos): Tochigi Prefectural Livestock and Dairy Experimental Center46

 Types of excreta・There are three types of excreta from dairy cows, that is, solid matter, slurry and liquid matter.
・The solid matter is a mixture of feces and litter made by removing of urine, from which compost
is made.
・The liquid matter is urine separated from feces.
・Slurry is a mixture of feces and urine stored in a tank and used for the production of fertilizer andmethane.

Feces and litter moved out fromthe cowshed with a barn cleaner.

Slurry tank

 Manufacturing and usage of compost・Compost is a product that decomposes feces of dairy cows and mixture of feces and litter
aerobically (in the presence of oxygen) and reduces moisture content.
・To make high-quality compost, it is necessary to supply sufficient air, and for this reason it needs
turning (stirring and mixing).
・Compost is used as fertilizer. Dried compost sometimes used as litter inside the cowshed again,
and this is called “reusing compost”.
・Compost is considered to be the best when having a moisture content of about 60 to 65%, and forthis purpose, secondary materials are mixed to produce compost.
・If composting proceeds well, the temperature will rise. The resulting temperature is 70 to 80°C,
which kills pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and weed seeds.

47

Compost house48

２

Beef cattle

1 Japanese cattle (Japanese black cattle)
Japanese cattle are indigenous to Japan, have been bred and improved by Japanese producers
over a long period of time, and are carefully protected. There are Japanese black cattle (black),
Japanese brown cattle (yellowish brown), Japanese shorthorn cattle, and Japanese polled cattle, but
the most common breed is Japanese black cattle. Japanese black cattle are gentle in nature.

（１）Nutrition management of breeding cows①

Nutrition management of breeding cow in natural nursing〇 Terminal stage in gestation
・ Fetuses rapidly grow from two months before delivery to delivery.
・Nutrition for maintaining the body of the mother cow and that for growth of fetuses arenecessary.
〇 Lactation period・ The amount of feed according to lactation amount is necessary.
・It is necessary to increase or decrease the amount of feed according to the nutritional
condition of the mother cattle.

②

Nutrition management of breeding cow in artificial nursing
There is little lactation period compared with the mother cow of the natural nursing.
〇 Gestation period
・ It is the same as the mother cow of natural nursing .
〇 Lactation period
・ Continue the feed amount given in the end of the gestation period.
・ The amount of feed should be according to the nutritional condition of the mother cattle.

（２）Breeding of beef cows
・Beef cows after delivery repeat estrus every 21 days on average.
・It is important that artificial insemination is due without overlooking estrus.
・Semen and fertilized eggs of Japanese cattle are very important to Japanese producers, so it isimportant to store them in a place that can be locked so that they are not lost.
・When a beef cow is in estrus, the vulva is congested and mucus is secreted.
・In the prime of estrus, a state that allows other cows to ride on the back (standing estrus) appears,
and observation of the state is important.
・The conception is confirmed by having diagnosis (inspection) of pregnancy.
・Delivery interval of beef cows is ideally one birth per year.
49

Estrous behavior（３）Delivery
・The calf weighs about 30 kg at delivery by mother beef cows.
・Natural births without help by humans are ideal, but when calving difficulty, midwifery isnecessary.
・When practicing midwifery, care must be taken not to damage the birth canal of the mothercow and not to cause bacterial infection.
・The placenta (after birth) is discharged within about 6 hours after the calf is born.
・The mother cow licks the newborn calf to dry the body surface, but it is important to transfer
the calf on the dry litter.

（４）Management of calves of Japanese black cattle①

Body weight at birth
The calf of Japanese black cattle weighs about 28 kg at delivery.

Immediately after delivery

Natural nursing

50

Artificial
nursing②

Giving colostrum
The calves are given colostrum for 2-3 days of birth. Since colostrum contains
immunoglobulins which is resistant to infection of calf diseases, be sure to make calves drink
colostrum.

③

Program of feed supply after birth
The following table shows the feed providing program (after giving colostrum) of early
weaning in Japanese Feeding Standard: Beef Cattle (2008).
Milk replacer includes powdered skim milk, dried milk whey and cereal powder. Synthetic
milk is a solid feed used in nursing period and includes wheat, barley, corn and soybean flour.

Age in days after
birth

Amount of synthetic
Amount of milk
milk supplied
replacer supplied(air dry matter: g/day) (air dry matter: g/day)

8－13 days

400

14－17 days

500

18－21 days

500

100

22－28 days

500

200

29－35 days

500

300

36－42 days

500

500

43－49 days

250

800

7－ 8 weeks

(250)

1200

8－ 9 weeks(250)(1000)

9－10 weeks

(250)

1400

10－11 weeks(1200)

11－12 weeks

1500

12－13 weeks(1300)

13－14 weeks

1600

Hay

Free feeding

1700
1800
1900
Values in parentheses: The amounts of supplied feed when lactation is continued after 7 weeks of age.
Milk replacer: The temperature of the water used to dissolve milk replacer should be approximately 38
to 40°C, the same as that of breast milk, when the calf drinks it. For this purpose, it ispreferable to dissolve in hot water at 45 to 50°C. When dissolving milk replacer, prepare
hot water, put the milk replacer in it, and stir and dissolve them (National Beef Cattle
Advancement Funding Association (NBAFA), Japan Livestock Industry Association,"Technology of feeding management for dairy cattle and beef cattle" 2006).

51

④

Key points of calf management
Since newborn calves are less resistant to pathogenic bacteria, they are raised bytransferring to a facility dedicated for calves such as calf hutches to prevent bacterial infection
from mother cow (refer to page 23, “  Health management of calves” in the Section of Dairy
cows).
Synthetic milk and hay to be fed should be freshly prepared. The hay to be fed should be inhigh quality.
Observe diarrhea and loose stools firmly.
Pneumonia occurs by infecting pathogens under following condition: “weakening of
immunity by stress and shortage of nutrients”, “damage of bronchial mucosa caused bycoldness and dryness”, “mucosal damage caused by ammonia gas”. To prevent those,“removing ammonia from the barn”, “Cleaning of the cowshed”, “keeping warm the calf”,“adequate feed to reduce stress” and “giving colostrum” are important.

（５）Key points for management of raising period
In the case of beef cattle used for fattening, raising period means the period from weaning
to start of fattening. In this period, it is important to give high quality roughage adequately, todevelop visceral organs and enhance muscle and skeleton.
Castration of male calves should be done by 4 to 5 months at latest.

（６）Fattening
Fattening of Japanese black cattle begins at about 10 months of age, about 300 kg, and is kept
in groups of several fattening cattle (enclosure). Fattening is performed mainly by concentrate
feed for about 20 months.
①

Feeding of Japanese black cattle in fattening period
Feeds during the fattening period are mainly concentrate made mostly from grains (corn,barley), regarding roughage, hay and rice straw are fed together in the early stage of fattening(10 to 16 months old), but after that, only rice straw is fed as roughage. The feeding amountof rice straw in the early to middle stage of the fattening period is around 2 kg, and in the latestage of fattening, around 1 kg is fed.

52

②

Feed intake and fattening results in the fattening period (one example of a study)
Feed intake(dry matter: kg/day)

Daily gain
kg/dayConcentrate feed

Rice straw

Prior
period

6.2

1.8

0.97

Latterperiod

7.2

0.9

0.67

Prior period:
From 10 to 18 months of age③

Body weight at thetime of shipmentkg

725

Latter period:
From 18 to 27 months of age

Key points for management of fattening period
In the late stage of fattening, feed intake becomes non-constant and appetite may suddenly
drop at a certain point, this is called “stop eating”, kuidomari in Japanese. Changes in theintake of feed should be carefully observed on a day-to-day basis, and when it is judged as “stopeating”, the cause must be identified by consulting with a veterinarian and measures must be
reflected in the feeding method. “Stop eating” is often caused by ruminal acidosis. This is adisease caused by excess feeding of cereals.
Urolithiasis is a urological disease frequently occurring in fattening of steer cattle. At theearly stage, fine grayish stones adhere to the genital area. In severe cases, it exhibits lumbar
pain / urinary retention and may die due to appetite abolition, bladder rupture or uremia. It
must be found in early stage as far as possible and had a diagnosis of the veterinarian.
In addition to urolithiasis and ruminal acidosis, as other diseases during the fattening
period, bloating occurs in fattening cattle. This symptom is caused when gas generated in therumen is not excreted well.
Since cattle support a large weight with four feet, it is essential for health care of fattening
cattle to keep the hoofs in a normal shape, so that periodical hoof cutting is necessary.

53

Hoofs with normal length④

Overgrown hoofs

Rating of the dressed carcass of Japanese beef
The beef trade is based on the rating of the dressed carcass. The dressed carcass is thepart where internal organs and skin are removed from the cattle body. The rating is done by
cutting between the 6th and 7th ribs of the dressed carcass, and regarding this surface, yield,
fat marbling, meat color, meat firmness and texture, fat color and quality, and grading aredetermined. A characteristic of Japanese black cattle is that the grade of fat marbling is higher
than that of other cattle (hybrid and Holstein steer cattle).
One of the reasons why Japanese black cattle have a long fattening period is to seek higher
fat marbling grade. Fat marbling is also known as "marbling meat (shimo-furi in Japanese)".
Vitamin A feeding may be adjusted to enhance fat marbling.

2 Holstein steer cattle
Male calves of Holstein, a dairy cow, are castrated and raised as beef cattle. It is commonlyreferred to as Holstein steer fattening.

（１）Management of Holstein calves①

Birthweight of a Holstein calf②

The average birthweight of a Holstein calf is about 45 kg.
Feeding colostrum
The procedure is the same as for Japanese Black cattle, described in the previous section(page 49). Feeding colostrum is the first step to growing healthy cattle.

54

③

Program of feed supply after birth
As in the case of Japanese Black cattle, the feeding program during the nursing period
is conducted in a similar manner. That is, after sufficient colostrum is fed, milk replacer,synthetic milk, and hay are fed (refer to the preceding section). When switching fromcolostrum to milk replacer, calves are more likely to develop diarrhea. Therefore, it isimportant to gradually switch to milk replacer by mixing a portion with the colostrum andchecking the condition of calves.
The following table shows the normal fecal status of newborn calves.
Normal feces of calves

Classification of feces

Aspect of feces
The color of feces is yellow to light brown, and the hardness

First week after birthis gruel-like to tallow-like fatty, which is sticky and contains
no solid components. The form at excretion is maintained.

After switching to milk
replacer

Feces are yellow to grey in color. When hay or straw is firstingested, it assumes a tallow-like fatty and sticky powdery
consistency containing solid components.

（２）Key points of calf management
It is the same as “Key points of calf management” of Japanese black cattle (page 50 (4)) in theprevious section. The picture below shows the rearing in the calf hutch.

Calves of Holstein and calf hutch

55

①Dehorning
When managing cattle as a group, remaining uncut horns increases “danger toadministrator” and “injury due to horn hustling between cattle”, calves of Holstein are thus
undergone dehorning up to 3 months old.

②Castration
To lighten competition between cattle and improve meat quality, it is necessary to perform
castration after 3 months of age.

（３）Key points of management during raising period
The main points of management in the raising period of 4 to 10 months old are “developmentof ruminant stomach and growth promoting of first stomach villi”, “Enrichment of muscles
and skeleton”. For that purpose, it is important to give an adequate amount of formulated feedaccompanied by constant feeding of good quality hay. Weight of mixed feed is 5 kg at 5 monthsof age and 6 kg at 6 months of age is a rough estimate of feeding.

（４）Fattening of Holstein steer
The fattening of Holstein steer is started from 7 to 8 months when its body weight is about
280 kg, and is slaughtered at around 20 months of age.
An example of feeding in fattening Holstein steer cattle in Kyushu is shown below.
Example of feeding at a fattening farm in the Kyushu region

Fattening age in months

7～11

11～18

18～22

Weight gain in the period:
kg/day

1.3

0.7

0.8

Rice straw: kg/day

３

１

0.6

Hay: kg/day

１

０

０

Formula feed: kg/day

４

10～11

12

（５）Key points for management of fattening period
As described in the section on the fattening of Japanese black cattle, daily observation on
ruminal acidosis and urolithiasis, consultation to veterinarians and medical examination arenecessary.

56

3 Hybrids (F1)
Female dairy Holstein breed is inseminated artificially with the semen of Japanese black
cattle and the calf is called hybrid (F1). The body weight of hybrid at birth is about 40 kg, it isintermediate between Japanese black cattle and Holstein. Because the calves are smaller than thoseof Holstein, there is an advantage that Holstein cows can feel at ease at primipara.

（１）Purpose of F1 cattle
The purpose of using hybrid cattle is to make beef cattle which has the characteristics of both
Japanese black cattle superior in fat marbling in dressed carcass and Holstein superior in its
growth.

（２）Management of calves, management in raising period and fattening management
This is basically the same as the Japanese black cattle and Holstein steer cattle as describedabove, so that refer to that part when you get a job to handle hybrid cattle.

（３）Fattening of hybrid cattle
The fattening of hybrid cattle starts from 7 months old, when the weight is about 250 kg, andshipping with weight of about 730 kg at 25 months of age is standard.
The following is an example of a feeding system for hybrid cattle.

System for fattening hybrid cattle (example)

Prior period

Middle period

Latter period

7 ~ 11.5 monthsof age11.5 ~ 18.5 monthsof age11.5 ~ 25 monthsof ageDaily gain: kg

1.0－1.17

1.17－0.83

0.67－0.33

Formula feed: kg/day

5.0－8.5

9.0－11.0

8.5－7.5

Alfalfa cube

1.2－0.7

0.5 (~ 13.5 months)

０

Rice straw

0.6－1.0

1.0

0.8－0.6

・Formula feed: include barley for the latter period, at 22 ~ 25 months of age

57

３

Pigs

1 Reproductive physiology and management of breeding pigs
The estrus cycle of female pigs is 21 days, and proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and anestrus
during which estrus symptoms are not observed, are repeated. Female breeding pigs are mated by
identifying the period suitable for mating. There cases of natural mating, artificial insemination (AI)or performing both. They are judged as pregnant if they do not express estrous again after 21 daysof mating.
During gestation period, it is raised in individual pig room in the stall and when the delivery
approaches, it is transferred to the specific piggery with farrowing pen.
With delivery of pigs, there are few difficulties and giving birth one by one at about 10 minuteintervals. After the last piglet is born, after birth begins to appear and the delivery will finish within
2 to 3 hours. After delivery, the sow does not come into heat during lactation period. After weaningof piglets, the sow comes into heat again in 4 to 5 days.
Obesity of pregnant pigs causes fetal growth insufficiency and delivery difficulty, restricted
feeding is thus necessary accompanied by observation whether physical condition is good or bad. In
the late stage of gestation, increase the feed slightly to satisfy the growth of fetuses.
The sows during nursing are liable to lose their weight due to lactation, the amount of feed must
be increased.
After delivery, gradually increase the amount of feed, and when the amount is insufficient, devise
such as increasing the times of feeding. When piglets weaning and nursing has finished, adjust thefeed with paying attention to the physical condition of the mother pig.
Male breeding pig (boar) is used after semen examination on the number and motility of sperm.
In case of raising for natural mating, so as not to cause a big difference in body size against females,feeding control which suppress growing larger is necessary.

2 Nursing and raising of piglets
The accident rate is the highest in the piglet’s nursing period and immediately after weaning.
Born in an immature body, then rapidly prepare the immunity and digestive capacity, and it grows
rapidly and the weight reaches more than six times the birth at weaning. For that reason, it canbe also said that the piglet tends to break down the balance in the body. If the piglet’s tail hangs
down, it indicates bad condition. Healthy pigs have no adhered secretions in their eyes, their nose ismoderately damp, the tails are rolling, and the hair is glossy.
For piglets, it is necessary to drink enough milk of mother pig (colostrum) immediately after
birth. Colostrum means breast milk from immediately after delivery to the 2nd day. Antibody
against various diseases (immunoglobulin) is contained in colostrum, it is not until drinking
colostrum that piglets gain resistance to external diseases.
58

In addition, iron, which is a material of erythrocytes in the blood, is insufficient, so that iron pills
is administered as necessary.
A few days after birth, nursing starts in a short time at once. Nursing is usually carried out about
24 times a day. The health condition and milk yield of a sow are closely related to the growth of thepiglets. Feed for first feeding (synthetic milk) is started at about 1 week after birth to familiarize thebabies with solid feed other than breast milk.
Weaning from the dam is generally done 3 - 4 weeks after delivery. In some cases, early
weaning called SEW is carried out, but if weaning is carried out within 2 weeks, estrus returns andconception rate of the sow will be adversely affected.
The feed after weaning is synthetic milk A, but it is mixed with the feed for first feeding forseveral days.

50
45
40

After birth
Body weight
15 ~ 20 days 7～8kg<Feed>

35

Synthetic
milk A

kg
50
15kg

40kg

Synthetic
milk B

Feed for raising piglets

25

10
5

3kg

Weaning

15

First feeding

20

Nursing

Body weight (kg)Constant feeding

30<Body weight>

g
1 0k

g
f
20k wth oordgRestricted feeding orConstant feeding

g

lets

pig

sire

De

Etermination

5kg

k
30

Feed for raising young pigs

Etermination0

Birth 10 days 20 days 1 month

2 months

3 months

Example of development and raising management of piglets

59

4 months

3 How to keep the fattening pigs and facilities/equipment
Usually, fattening pigs are managed with herd of 10 or more pigs (group feeding). For fattening
piggery (pork piggery), a drainboard floor style piggery is common. Since high rearing density
causes stress such as fighting behavior, it is necessary to secure floor area per head of 0.7 m2 with abody weight of 50 kg and 1.0 m2 with that of 100 kg. Narrower floor area affects productivity.
In principle, feeding to fattening pigs should be done by ad libitum feeding. As a feeder, aconstant feeder (self-feeder) is used to maintain the state that pigs can always eat feeds. An
automatic feeder is used as feeder (trough) in the piggery. The feeder has a structure suitable for ad
libitum feeding, and the wet feeder has a structure for mixing feed and water when eating.

4 Habits of pigs and how to contact with pigs
Pigs have herd instinct, that is, have a habit of creating group. In case of group feeding, thestrength appears, so that care must be taken that even weak pigs can eat enough feed. Pigs aretemperate in nature, well attached to humans and has ability to distinguish persons. A sense of smell
and hearing are particularly developed. In addition, it is timid and susceptibly reacts to movement
and sound. For that reason, contact gently and do not be surprised. Also handle pigs without getting
stressed at the time of shipment. Stress also affects meat quality.
Make pigs excrete feces and urine into a fixed place and distinguish it from the place to sleep.
Lower and wet places are prone to excretion place. In addition, when competition occurs between
adjacent pig rooms, a habit appears that excreting feces near the fence, which is the boundary ofeach other.

5 Pig feed
Feed is roughly divided into synthetic milk for piglets, feed for raising and feed for fattening.
The amount of the nutrients required varies depending on the growth stage, the nutritional designis thus adjusted to each stage. Specific numerical values of demand are decided based on feeding
standard. Items to be confirmed as nutrients are energy (mainly carbohydrates and lipids), proteins,minerals and vitamins.
Synthetic milk is a powdered feed for piglets and contains skim milk at a high rate. Synthetic
milk is further divided into synthetic milk as creep feed, synthetic milk A, synthetic milk B, etc.andthese are fed up to 15 kg in order. Synthetic milk A is for early period after weaning, synthetic milk
B is for later period after weaning. After that, feed for raising piglet rich in corn, feed for fattening
pig of the early stage and that of the late stage. Feed for fattening pig for the late stage must notcontain antimicrobial feed additives.

60

Synthetic milk

Feed for fattening

6 Device for reducing feed costs
In pig farming management, feed purchasing costs is high, accounting for 60 to 70% of
production cost. For that reason, it is desirable to reduce feed costs by equally using raw materials
for feed that is cheaply available nearby. Representatives are food waste discharged from foodproduction and food sales. In that case, attention must be paid to make a nutrition design. Especiallywhen the fat content of feed is high, it adversely affects meat quality. Based on the Japanese feeding
standard, blend the raw materials to meet the demand of nutritional ingredients according to thegrowing stage of pig followed by feeding. Be careful about balance between energy of feed (TDNor DE) and the feeding amount of protein, and also about lack of calcium and phosphorus.

7 Fattening period, body weight gain, and formula feed amoun
During the fattening period from 30 to 110 ~ 120 kg of body weight at shipping, body weightincreases rapidly as feed intake increases. After exceeding 50 kg, the pig starts to eat more than 2
kg of feed per day and eventually consumes more than 3 kg. The daily gain during this period is 0.85kg.
The body develops in the order of bones, muscles (lean meat), and fat. Therefore, in the priorperiod of fattening, they are fed so that the protein necessary for muscles remains sufficient. In thelatter period, the amount of fat accumulated increases, so the amount of protein is reduced, and theamount of starchy feed is increased to produce fat that tastes good and has adequate hardness.

61

How to measure the withers height of pigs

Measure here

8 Disease of pigs and its prevention
Take countermeasures from three perspectives against pig diseases.
①

Isolation of infected pigs and carrier pigs as infection sources
Give the pigs medical treatment or selection so as not to spread the pathogens.

②

Shutdown of infection route

Prevent invasion of pathogens adhering to humans, rodents, birds, vehicles, feeds, water,
equipment and so on. For this purpose, disinfection is to kill pathogens using drugs ex vivo toblock the infection route. As a physical blocking method, work clothes and boots exclusively
for the piggery are used, and they are not used outside. Restrict outsiders to enter the piggery.
If it is unavoidable for the outsiders to enter, have them put on protective clothing and boots for
exclusive use. Select and use appropriate disinfectants according to the purpose. Be thorough to
do disinfection by foot dips. Exterminate rats and prevent invasion of birds and other animals.
③

Strengthen resistance of uninfected pigs

Strengthen the immunity and resistance of healthy pigs which are not infected with pathogens
by vaccination etc. Inoculate protective injection systematically according to the vaccination
program appropriate for the disease condition of the pig farm.
SPF pigs at SPF farms are ones that do not have mycoplasma pneumonia, swine dysentery,
AR (atrophic rhinitis), Aujeszky's disease, or toxoplasmosis. Sterile animals that are taken out by
a Cesarean section or hysterectomy from a dam that does not possess these pathogens are used asparents for SPF pigs. It is very productive because there is no production failure due to disease.
In order to maintain this hygienic situation, it is necessary to isolate the pig farm from the outside
and to disinfect it strictly beyond the level of normal pig farms.

62

9 Treatment method of excreta
Collect the feces with the excrement machine (scraper) and compost it. Always manage in aplace with a roof. Do not leave it exposed.
The essential points for composting are as follows.
①

Oxygen supply
Sufficient oxygen supply is necessary for aerobic microorganisms to being active.

②

Moisture adjustment
Excess moisture leads to poor air permeability, so that lower and adjust the moisture
content to about 60% by, for example, mixing the secondary materials.

③

Temperature rise in compost
Before long, the temperature in the compost rises by microbial activity. This kills parasite
eggs, pathogenic bacteria, weed seeds, etc. and the compost can be used safely.
Sewage containing urine discharged from the piggery is released after treated by the
purification process. After solid-liquid separation of urine and feces, biological treatment suchas using activated sludge is carried out, and then clear supernatant after settling of sludge isreleased.

63

４

Chicken farming① Laying hens
1 How to raise laying hen and facilities/equipment（１）How to raise
Methods for keeping laying hens can be divided into a cage rearing system which keeps thehens in cages inside the chicken house and floor feeding system which keeps them free-range in
the area surrounded with a net or the like, or which keeps them on the floor inside the chickenhouse, and the majority is the cage rearing system.
①

Cage rearing system
There is a single cage that keeps one bird in one cage and a double cage that keeps two
or more birds. Because it stays away from the feces on the soil or the floor surface, hens areunlikely to be infected by diseases transmitted from feces. Normally, since rearing density
can be heighten by stacking cages in multiple tiers, it is economically advantageous, but
consideration must be given to the adverse effects on the health of the chickens.

Cage rearing system②

Floor feeding system
Because the chickens move around on the soil and floor surface freely to some extent,
this rearing method fits the inherent behavior of chicken. However, grouped chickens takean offensive action such as attacking other party with a beak and jumping higher to give akick to other party with a cockspur. This is an instinctive action to determine ranking amongindividuals, which keeps the social life of the group. This is called peck order. In addition,
when they are in a narrow place, under condition such as high temperature/high humidity, orlack of nutrients, chickens take actions that peck each other or peck buttock of other chicken(butt pecking). In a severe case, a chicken kills others and sometimes it spreads throughout the64

group if left as it stands. This is called cannibalism. In a hygienical aspect, the chickens areoften infected by diseases directly transmitted from feces because they directly touch the feceson the floor. Therefore, it is not suitable for rearing a large number of birds.

Floor feeding system（２）Style of chicken house
There are open-type chicken houses where light enters directly into the house and windowless(no windows) chicken house where light is blocked.
①

Open-type chicken house
This is a chicken house which divide inside the house and outside with windows orcurtains, so that it is likely directly affected by the external environment such as temperature,
wind and rain, and sunlight.

②

Windowless chicken house
This is a chicken house surrounded by walls with no windows to block sunlight and heatinsulating material is applied to the walls and ceiling (roof). Light control is done with electric
light and ventilation is done with fans. Because in this house it is possible to keep chickens inhigher density than open type chicken houses, it is easy to mechanize and suitable for large
chicken farms.

（３）Equipment and devices of chicken houses
In large-scale poultry farms keeping a large number of birds, feeding, water supply, egg
collection and removing feces are mechanized and automation is proceeding in various places.
However, in order not to damage the health of the chicken, and not to cause accident in theworkplace, proper use according to the scale of the farm is important.

65

①

feeder
For the cage rearing system, a gutter type feeder is installed, in addition, as a feeding
device, there are self-propelled feeder cars and an automatic feeder capable of setting thefeeding amount and time.
For the floor feeding system, feeding by hand (manual feeding) with round type feeder andautomatic feeding from a hopper.

②

Water pot
For the cage rearing system, a gutter type water pot or small water pot called nipple
drinkers are often used.
For the floor feeding system, in addition to these described above, there is a hanging type,bell shaped water pot.

③

Automatic egg collector
In the floor feeding system, the floor of the laying box is tilted and eggs are rolled on thebelt, and in the cage raising system, the device often used is that, a netted belt runs on the eggreceiving part to catch eggs and the conveyer automatically carries to the collection site.

④

Automatic feces removing device
There are scraper type which pulls collecting plate with wire rope to gather feces on
one side, and a type suitable for cage rearing system that is installed a rotating net in a belt
conveyor shape under the cages.

2 Structure of gastrointestinal tract and digestion / absorption of feed
（１）Necessary nutrients
Chickens ingest nutrients such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals fromthe feed, and use it for the growth and maintenance of the body and the production of eggs. It is
important to feed so that these nutrients do not run short. The Japanese feeding standard indicatesthe amount of nutrients necessary for raising.

66

（２）Structure of digestive system
The structure of the digestive system is as shown in the figure below.
Liver

Gallbladder

Beak

LarynxTonguePharynx

Ceca

Trachea

Crop

Digestive tract
Proventriculus
Ventriculus

Colon and rectum

Duodenum

Jejunum
and ileum

CloacaPancreas

Digestive system of chickens（３）Characteristics of the digestive system①

Beak
A chicken's mouth has no teeth, but its tip is hard and keratinized, and its shape is suitablefor pecking, eating, and repelling grain and insects on or under the ground.

②

Crop
Located in the middle of the digestive tract, it temporarily stores feed and softens it withwater and mucus from the pharynx in the oral cavity and esophagus.

③

StomachThere are the proventriculus and the ventriculus. The proventriculus secretes gastric acidand digestive fluid. The ventriculus grinds and agitates feed by strong muscular contraction
motion. Free-range chickens pick up pebbles (grit) and store them in their stomachs to help
grind hard feed such as grain. In the case of recent corn based granular feed, it is not necessary
to give pebbles, but if chaffy grains are given, pebbles should be given.

67

④

Intestine
Ingested feed is digested and absorbed in the digestive tract (mainly the small intestine).
The small intestine is shorter in both length and volume than in other livestock. Therefore,
feed is excreted through the intestinal tract in a short time. In the case of formula feed,
excretion starts 2.5 hours after ingesting and the whole of it is excreted in 7 hours. Therefore,
the digestion of fiber, which requires a long time to digest, is very poor compared with otherlivestock. However, other ingredients are not so different from cows and pigs, and cereals arerather excellent.

⑤

Ceca
There is a pair of cecum, which takes in part of the feed and keeps it for a relatively longtime, and after it has been fully digested and absorbed, it is excreted. The feces are brown andthick. They are excreted 4 to 5 times a day and have a strong odor.

⑥

Colon and rectum
The colon and rectum are very short, and feces are stored in the cloaca and excreted withurine.

（４）Types and characteristics of feed
Since chickens have weak fiber digestion, chicken feeds are mainly easy-to-digest
concentrated feed containing a lot of carbohydrates and proteins. The ability of chickens to
produce livestock products such as eggs and meat from concentrate feed is higher than cattle andpigs.
①

Cereals
Corn and milo are contained in poultry feed at thehighest rate. It is mainly used as an energy source.
In particular, maize is one of the most important raw
materials for poultry feed.

Corn

②

Vegetable oil cake
It is mainly used as a protein source. Soybean meal is often used, but soybean meal lacks
methionine, an essential amino acid, it is thus used in combination with fish meal. In addition,
cottonseed and rapeseed oil cake are used.
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③

Soybean mealBran

In addition to cereals and vegetable oil cakes, it has been used through the ages to regulateenergy and to supply micronutrients. Defatted rice bran is a kind of rice bran from which oil is
extracted.
④

Animal protein source
Fish meal is good in amino acid composition, especially rich in lysine and methionine, and
it is often used as raw material for feed.

⑤

Other raw materials for feed
Alfalfa meal is often used because it contains various vitamins and xanthophylls as green
feed. Green leaf vegetables, meadow grass, wild grass, etc. are also familiar raw materials
for feed. The laying hen needs a lot of calcium and phosphorus, so that shellfish, calcium
carbonate, calcium phosphate, etc. are used as inorganic feed. In addition, salt must be given.

3 F eed for laying hens (nutrient requirements during growth period andconcentration and feeding amount of formula feed)（１）Nutrient requirements
Formula feed for chickens is composed of animal, vegetable, and mineral substances
containing all nutrients such as energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins.
Nutrients in feed are divided into the digestible part and the undigestible part. Digested andabsorbed nutrients are further divided into those used for the chicken body and those unused
followed by decomposition and excretion (urine). Of these, those used for the body of chickens
are used for the maintenance and growth of the body and production of eggs, and the surplus isstored as fat.
Since chickens preferentially take energy in nutrients, the amount of feed intake depends
on the amount of energy intake. Other nutrients must therefore be present in amounts that do
not cause extreme excess or deficiency within the range of their intake. With this in mind, theJapan Feeding Standard indicates the nutrient content (ratio) of feed that can satisfy the nutrient69requirements of chickens. The requirements for crude protein (CP) and metabolizable energy(ME) shown in the Japan Feeding Standard are as follows: CP 19% and ME 2,900 kcal in the
period of young chicks, CP 16% and ME 2,800 kcal in the period of mid-sized chicks, CP 13%
and ME 2,700 kcal in the period of large chicks, CP 15.5% and ME 2,800 kcal in the laying
period.

For young chicks

For mid-sized to large chicks

For adult chickens

Chicken feed（２）Concentration and feeding amount of formula feed
Generally, laying hens are fed commercially available formula feed. Different types offormula feed suitable for each growth stage are available in the rearing period, and thoseadjusted to the laying stage are available in the adult period. CP and ME are set slightly higher
in commercial formula feed. Not only the ratio of CP and ME, but also the feed shape varies,
and includes mashed raw materials (mash), hardened raw materials into granules (pellets), andcoarsely ground pellets (crumbles), and many of them are preferable and digestive.
In general, feed for first feeding at the rearing period (CP 22%, ME 3,150 kcal) should be fed
freely, and feed for young chicks (CP 21%, ME 2,950 kcal) should be fed freely up to 35 g/day.
After that, based on their weight, the feed should be switched to feed for mid-sized chicks(CP 18%, ME 2,800 kcal), then feed for large chicks (CP 15%, ME 2,800 kcal). Then, they are
fed according to the manual of each chicken breed so as to be close to the standard weight of thechicken breed.
The amount of feed for adult chickens during the laying period (CP 18%, ME 2,850 kcal)
depends on the breed of chickens, but a manual aiming at 115 g/day is generally used. Dependingon the type of formula feed, feed may be divided into that for the prior laying period (CP 18.5%,
ME 2,870 kcal) and that for the latter laying period (CP 17%, ME 2,870 kcal). There are also
products with different blending ratios (CP 18.5% in summer and CP 17.5% in winter) dependingon the season.

4 Collection and hatching of hatching eggs
（１）Collection of hatching eggs
Hatching eggs (fertilized eggs) are obtained by mating males and females. In floor feeding,mating takes place naturally, and 10 to 15 females are raised as a group for 1 male to obtain70hatching eggs. Insemination is done in cage rearing. Hatching eggs are laid from around the 3rd
day after mating, and they lay eggs for about 10 days with one fertilization.
For hatching eggs, choose clean ones that have a normal shape and the size of 54 ~ 65 g. Afterdisinfecting, the eggs are stored in a place where the temperature is 15 ~ 20 ° C and humidity is
40 ~ 70% with the blunt ends facing up. Eggs are usually kept for less than a week, and after thatthe hatching rate gradually decreases.

Hatching eggs laid on the egg tray in the incubator（２）Hatching①

Process of hatching
Embryos develop when eggs are given a constant temperature (37.8°C) and humidity (60%).
First, the blastodisc grows larger and nerves and blood vessels are formed. Subsequently,
the skeletal structure, brain, respiratory organs, and circulatory organs are formed. On the
21st day, the egg shell is broken by the tip of the beak (egg tooth), followed by hatching bybreaking the egg shell with the head and legs.

②

Styles of incubators
All chickens for practical use are hatched artificially with incubators. There are two typesof incubators, a flat type and a cubic type. Many flat types are small, and they are used forexperimental purposes. The cubic type is large, and some can hold tens of thousands of eggs.

③

Operations before hatching
Before using the incubator, clean, wash, and disinfect it, and check the temperature andhumidity controller. Hatching eggs are disinfected with invert soap and phenol disinfectant.

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④Management during hatching
Place the eggs on pockets or trays with the blunt ends facing up, mark them to indicate thebreed and strain, and start hatching. During this period, air is ventilated to send fresh air tothe eggs. In addition, the eggs are rotated so that the embryos in the eggs do not adhere to theshell membrane, and they are rotated 10 ~ 20 times a day from the day after the placement to
the 18th day.

⑤

Egg inspection
Place the eggs on egg tray or trays with the blunt ends facing up, mark them to indicate thebreed and strain, and start hatching. During this period, air is ventilated to send fresh air to theeggs. In addition, the eggs are rotated 10 to 20 times a day from the day after the placement to
the 18th day, so that the embryos in the eggs do not adhere to the shell membrane.

⑥

Sexing and shipping of day old chicks
Newly hatched chicks are called day old chicks, and they are picked out from the hatcherybasket, moved to the chick room, and undergo sexing. There are two methods of sexing
chicks: vent sexing by the shape of the chick’s anal vent (cloaca), and feather sexing by thedifference in the color of feathers and legs and the growth rate of main wing feathers. Feather
sexing is now widely used. The selected female chicks are vaccinated and shipped to chicken
farms. In some cases, debeaking is performed before shipment.

5 Growth of chicks of laying hen
Nursing chicks for the purpose of using as a laying hen in the future (raising) is called brooding.
The period from first feeding to laying is called the brooding period and it divided into three stages;that is, young chick (youbina) period (from 0 to 4 weeks of age), middle-sized chick (chubina)
period (from 4 to 10 weeks of age), and large-sized chick (daibina) period (10 to 20 weeks of age,
until laying eggs). When brooding chicks, it is fundamental of management to prepare optimum
environmental conditions for chicks to raise them strongly. In addition, to prevent the occurrence ofdisease, it is important to conduct sanitation management such as vaccination systematically.

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（１）Brooding method①

Method using box type brooder
A box type brooder is the most rudimentary equipment; that is, a wooden box equippedwith a heat source. It is suitable for raising about 50 to 100 birds.

②

Battery brooding method
Battery brooder is a facility that is space-saving and suitable for brooding a relatively large
number of chicks; it is set up by stacking cages whose heat source and floor are made of metalgauze, mesh, or drainboard. Raise the chicks by transferring to the cage for middle-sizedchicks, and then to that for large-sized chicks, according to the growth. Although it is not
expensive, the temperature in the cages tends to be uneven in winter.

③

Floor brooding method
This is a method brooding on the floor of the room including umbrella type brooder, heatingby hot-water pipes installed under the floor or cages, or heating the whole brooding facility
with hot air. This method is suitable for raising a large number of birds, raising until transfer
to a cage for large-sized chicks, or until direct transfer to an adult cage. The temperature isuniform, and work such as disinfection is labor-saving, but it is expensive.

（２）Management during young chick stage①

Entry of chicks (acceptance of chicks)
Because a considerable amount of time has been taken to arrive at the poultry farm after
hatching, supply baby chicks with water immediately after arrival and rest for a while ina dark room to repair the body. When using any brooders, namely, Battery type, floor typeumbrella-shaped brooder (using chick guard), or floor heating (using chick guard), warm
the brooder to about 32 to 35°C in advance and adjust the humidity to around 65%. Transfer
the chicks into the brooder while observing the condition of the chicks. If there are frail
chicks, select them. This is called entry of chicks (nyusuu in Japanese). A chick guard is acircular enclosure of about 30 cm in height and young chicks are raised in this enclosure withwarming.

73

Robust chick②

Frail chickFirst feeding
The timing of first feeding is usually preferred around the time when most of the egg yolk
remaining in the chick is digested, and 25 to 60 hours after hatching is a rough guide, but infact the feeding time is often indicated at the hatchery.
After entry, let the baby chicks eat brooding feed tightly kneaded with water placed on
paper or a box with a shallow edge (chick plate) on the floor of the heat source of the brooder.
This is called first feeding. Times of feeding are 5 to 6 times a day for the first 3 days of
feeding, after that decrease the times to 4 times a day. Arrange the feeder and the watersupplier alternately and prepare for the chick to take it with ease. For the first week or so, it isgood to turn on the lights so that the chicks can learn the position of feed and drinking water.

③

Beak cutting (debeaking or beak trimming)
It is effective as a measure to prevent bad habits such as butt pecking and feather eating
after the middle-sized chick stage. Commonly, one-half of both the upper and lower beaks areburned off with a dedicated equipment debeaker between 1 to 2 weeks of age.

④

Raising density
Rough indications for open-type chicken houses: 33 to 44 birds / m2 for battery cagebrooding up to 6 weeks of age, 18 to 20 birds / m2 for floor brooding up to 6 weeks of age. In
addition, in case of windowless chicken houses, the raising density can be higher because theenvironmental conditions are better than in the open-type chicken houses.

（３）Management during the period of middle-sized chick
During the middle-sized chick stage, keep in mind to let them exercise as much as possible
and accustom to open air to make robust body. When using a battery brooder, transfer the chicks
to the battery for middle-sized chicks at around 4 weeks of age. The number of birds containedin one compartment of the battery is the extent to which all chicks can comfortably line at each
feeder. Raising density influences later development and health condition of chicks. It is also atime to switch to feed for middle-sized chicks, and movement is a big stress for chick, so that it74

is important to carefully handle it. For alleviating stress and preventing disease, it is also good todissolve antibiotics, vitamins, and the like in water and feed for 2 to 3 days.
①

Growth of chicks
The development of the chicks in the first half of the brooding period is very fast.
Especially in early stage of brooding period, a chick grows 65 g or more at 1 week of age, 120
g or more at 2 weeks of age, and 190 g or more at 3 weeks of age. After that, although daily
gain gradually decreases overall, the weight gain per day increases sharply up to around 10
weeks old (body weight 850 g or more) and in the late stage of brooding period, daily gain
decreases with the onset of sexual maturity in the latter half of the brooding period and therate of development becomes slow.

②

Weight measurement of chicks and their average body weight
It is important to measure the weight of chickens because they are raised aiming to thestandard weight shown in the manual. It is not desirable for chicks to weigh too little, but it
is more important to have less variation (uniformity) in groups than to have large or small
weights.

（４）Management in the period of large-sized chicks
The target for raising in the large-sized chick period is to make a body that can sufficiently
cope with long-term laying and to start laying eggs at an appropriate age. In the case ofbattery brooding, it is important to transfer chicks with the same degree of growth to the same
compartment of the battery for large-sized chicks. As for the period of middle-sized chick, thenumber of accommodating birds in one compartment should be that at which all chicks can
comfortably line at each feeder.
Change the feed from that for middle-sized chicks to that for large-sized chicks. Feed intake
increases with weight gain, and the amount of excretion of feces also increases. Since toxic gas
such as ammonia generates when left unattended, cleaning such as removing feces is essential.
Among large-sized chicks, precocious ones start laying from about 130 days of age, thus before
that, transfer them to the adult chicken house.

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①

Raising density
In the case of open-type chicken houses, 22 to 25 birds /m2 for battery cage brooding
up to 18 weeks of age, while floor brooding 7 to 8 birds /m 2 up to 18 weeks of age. In
addition, in case of windowless chicken houses, the raising density can be higher because theenvironmental conditions are better than in the open-type chicken houses.

②

Light control
In the period of large-sized chick, light control, that is, regulation of day length (day length+ lighting time) is conducted by installing illumination lamps in the chicken house. This
is to adjust the sexual maturity of chicks; namely, sexual maturity is delayed as day length
becomes shorter, whereas it accelerates as it becomes longer. Generally, chickens for practicaluse tend to sexually mature early, so that in the open-type chicken house, light control is done
to suppress sexual maturation. Lighting during the brooding period is done to ensure sexual
maturity (start laying) at the proper age. Because proper sexual maturation age varies with thechicken breed, it is better to target the sexual maturation age recommended for each chicken
breed.
In windowless chicken houses, light control can be done systematically without influence
by day length. The brightness of the lighting is preferred to be around 5 to 10 lux and lighting
time after reaching adulthood is recommended not to be shortened.

③

Weight measurement and feed restriction
It is important to control the weight of large chicks. If the weight is brought closer to thestandard score, good egg production will often be obtained after that. Weight is measured
every week, and the feeding amount for the next week is decided. If the growth is good andthe body weight exceeds the standard weight, a method to limit the amount of feed is taken.

6 Laying of laying hens and management during period of adult chicken（１）Initiation of laying
Laying hens start laying at around 18 weeks of age (around 130 days), and after that egg
production number is the highest in 2 to 4 months, then gradually decreases. The feature of thelaying process is called laying pattern. With chickens, the first day of laying egg is called firstdelivery age, which is also the time of sexual maturity. Early or late sexual maturity greatly
influences the result of subsequent egg production. Early or late sexual maturity is strongly
influenced by day length and nutrition supply as well as genetic component. Therefore, themethod that makes them mature at appropriate age is taken by controlling light and feeding
during the brooding period.

76

①

Egg formation and ovulation
In the ovaries of chickens thatstarted egg laying, there are follicles
in various stages of development up to
about 1 to 35 mm in diameter. Whenthe follicle develops and become thelargest, the outer membrane breaks
and the egg (egg yolk) is ovulated
and enters the fallopian tube fromthe funnel. With this egg yolk, egg
white is formed in the magnum, shellmembrane is formed in the isthmus,
and shell is formed in the uterus,
and then the egg is released from thecloaca. The interval between ovulation
is said to be 25 to 26 hours.

Immature
ovarianfollicle
Ovarianfollicle

Ovary

Ovarianfollicle
Infundibulum

Magnum(egg
albumensecretory
portion)Oviduct

IsthmusColon andrectumVaginaUterus(including
ovum)

Skin
CloacaReproductive organs of chicken②

Laying cycle

The laying of hens shows a cycle in which hens lay eggs for several days, then rest for 1
day (or 2 ~ 3 days), and then lay eggs again for several days. This cycle is called laying cycle,
and a continuous series of laying is called clutch.
③ Seasonal changes in egg laying
Hens lay eggs in the season when the day length is long, and under the natural day length,
egg laying increases in spring and decreases in autumn. Therefore, the pattern of egg laying
varies depending on the season of hatching, and chicks that hatched in spring and autumn andthose hatched in winter and summer show contrasting egg laying patterns. The temperature
suitable for egg laying is said to be 12 to 25°C.

（２）Management in period of adult chicken
Feeding and water supply
Feed for adult chicken is usually fed while dividing the daily amount to before noon
and afternoon, accompanied by observation on the condition of chickens and the situationof intake. With automatic feeders, it is possible to feed multiple feeding times a day, avoid
selective intake and leftovers, and lead to the constant amount of intake.
Because egg production increases rapidly at the early stage of egg laying, high protein feedis fed and then according to the degree of laying and growth, a feeding method is carried out
to lower the coarse protein (CP) level through the middle stage of the egg laying period (about77

40 to 60 weeks of age) and the late stage (after about 60 weeks of age).
Let the chickens drink fresh water at any time; in particular, do not run out of water andprevent water from being high temperature in the summer season, and manage not to freeze in
winter.
② Egg collection
Laying almost ends before noon. In a poultry farm where an automatic egg collector isinstalled, eggs are collected several times a day and shipped. In a poultry farm not equippedwith an automatic collector, eggs are collected by hand as many times as possible to keep
freshness, using an egg collecting basket or an egg tray and egg tray container.
③

Removing feces / cleaning
To keep the inside of the chicken house clean, work for removing excreta is periodically
performed. In particular from spring to autumn when many flies occur, remove excreta
frequently and treat it promptly in poultry manure treatment facilities. In addition, sinceectoparasites and the like inhabit the cages around the laying hens, instruments, dirt, and duston the walls and ceilings, etc., keeping clean by cleaning and removing is important.

④

Environmental management
The body temperature of healthy adult chickens is about 41°C.
i Response to heat and management in summer season
When the temperature rises, chickens exert a body temperature diffusion function such as
breathing with open mouth, increase of respiration rate (panting), and open wing posture toprevent rising of body temperature. In addition, the amount of drinking water increases, andthe feces become watery. It is said that when the temperature exceeds 30°C, egg production
rate and egg quality are affected. In other words, at high temperatures feed intake decreases,
so that egg weight decreases and the eggshell becomes thin.
ii Response to cold and management in winter season
When the temperature falls, the chickens round the body and ruffle their feathers to prevent
diffusion of heat. Feed intake increases, but egg laying decreases.
iii Light control
This is a management technique to control sexual maturity and promote egg laying byinstalling illumination lamps in the chicken house and giving appropriate lighting time (daylength + lighting time). In open type chicken houses, constant lighting time of 14 to 15 hours(day length + lighting time) is given to all adult chickens in the early laying period, and thenthe lighting time is gradually prolonged (gradual increase: 30 minutes per 2 weeks) from thetime when decrease in egg production stands out, and after lighting time reaches 17 hours, this78

level is maintained. Laying is not promoted further if lighting time is further extended.
In a windowless chicken house, 24 hours’ lighting for 2 weeks from first feeding, 19 hours’
lighting after becoming 2 weeks old, then shortening the lighting time in 30 minute incrementsfor 2 weeks (gradual decrease), and finally the lighting time is 14.5 hours at 18 weeks of age.
After that, in the period of adult chicken, lighting control is done in the same manner as for an
open type chicken house.
iv Forced molting and its procedure
About 1 year after the first egg laying, the frequency of egg laying decreases, the egg shell
becomes thin, and the egg quality decreases. During the 2 to 4 months from autumn to winterwhen the day length becomes shorter, hens stop laying eggs and natural molting occurs, inwhich old feathers naturally fall out and change into new ones. Artificial molting prior tonatural molting improves the eggshell quality and extends the egg collection period. Thismethod is called forced molting.
A common method is to make them fast for 10 ~ 14 days in summer and 7 ~ 10 days in
winter at about the age of 60 weeks, and to stop lighting at the same time. After the fasting
period, feed is gradually increased over several days.
v Selection of useless hens
Hens that lay few eggs or that are in poor health do not bring good egg production and are
not profitable. These useless chickens (called “dakei” in Japanese) should be found and culled
in daily management.

7 Egg quality
Most of the eggs are shipped as shelled eggs according to the trade standards. The qualityof an egg is determined by the state of the eggshell, egg yolk, and egg white.

79

（１）Classification and quality of eggs
The classifications are as follows: LL for 1 egg weighing 70 g or more but less than 76 g; Lfor 64 g or more but less than 70 g; M for 58 g or more but less than 64 g; MS for 52 g or more
but less than 58 g; S for 46 g or more but less than 52 g; and SS for 40 g or more but less than 46 g.
Eggs should be of normal shape, clean, and should have a moderately smooth and strong
shell with no cracks. Also, when an egg is broken, the thick egg white should rise high and there
should be no foreign matter (blood or meat spots).

Eggs suitable for shipment

Eggs unsuitable for shipment（２）Factors that determine the quality
The quality of eggs is affected by genetic factors, feed, season, age in days of chickens, andrearing environment.
①

Eggshell
It is mainly made of calcium carbonate. The closer and thicker the eggshell is, the stronger
it is. If it is thin and weak, the number of broken eggs and damaged eggs increases and thecommercial value decreases drastically.
The strength of an eggshell generally decreases due to a lack of nutrients, especiallycalcium and other minerals, heat in the summer, and aging of chickens.

②

Egg white
It is transparent, light yellow to light yellow-green, and has a watery part (thin egg white)
and a thick part (thick egg white). The higher the thick egg white rises, the better. The heightof the rise of the thick egg white decreases with the number of storage days, making it anindication of freshness. Also, the younger the age of a chicken, the higher the egg white rises.

80

For this reason, Haugh units are introduced based on the height of the thick egg white
and the weight of the egg, and are used as indicators of freshness. Small amounts of blood(blood spot) or fleshy clots (meat spot) in egg white are not a problem, but they are notrecommended.
③

Egg yolk
The yellow pigment is the result of transfer of pigment contained in corn and green feed.
The more elastic the egg yolk is and the more rounded it is, the better. This embossment will
flatten as the days go by, and eventually the vitelline membrane will break.

Egg of a hen fed corn as feed

Egg of a hen fed rice flour as feed

8 Disease of chickens（１）Observation of chickens and detection of diseased chickens
As the size of chicken houses grows larger and a large number of birds are raised, ventilation
tends to be poor, resulting in the generation of toxic gases and high humidity, and respiratory
diseases are likely to occur. In addition, in the case where the number of persons to manage
decreases, be careful, because daily control, removing feces, observation of health condition, andhygiene management tend to be inadequate.
Especially important diseases must be addressed in accordance with the Domestic Animal
Infectious Diseases Control Act as “legal communicable diseases,” and the regulations must
be complied with. Legal communicable diseases include fowl cholera, highly pathogenic avian
influenza, Newcastle disease, and poultry salmonella infection (pullorum disease).
①

Behavior of diseased chicken

・There is no vitality, movement becomes dull, and there is no appetite.
・The amount of feces decreases, the color of feces changes, and diarrhea occurs.
・In the case of adult chickens, egg laying stops and soft eggs or deformed eggs are laid.
・Sometimes letting out a strange noise.
② Appearance of diseased chicken
81

・Feathers are ruffled and wings are droopy.
・The color of the comb is paled out, or turns dark purple.
・The eyes get dirty with tears, the nose get dirty with nasal discharge. Eyes are often closed.
・Breathing with open mouth.

（２）Measures against diseases of chicken①

Preventing invasion of pathogens and transmission
Some infectious diseases do not occur if chickens are raised in a good environment, butsome cannot be prevented by themselves, due to their strong infectious power. First of all, it
is necessary to eliminate the pathogens in the chicken house facilities, to prevent invasion ofpathogens from outside (measures against wild animals), and to prevent bringing pathogens
into the facilities (people, vehicles, feeds, materials, etc.). In addition, to prevent pathogens
from transmitting to neighboring chicken houses, administrators disinfect their hands and feetfor each chicken house and prepare dedicated work clothes and footwear.
The Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Act indicates “Feeding and healthcontrol standards for chickens”; it is thus important to surely comply with the standards.

②

Control of disease by vaccine / preventive drug
For vaccination-effective diseases (Newcastle disease, chicken infectious bronchitis,
fowlpox, Marek’s disease), prepare a vaccination program and execute it faithfully(vaccination). Vaccination methods include drinking water, nasal drops, ocular instillation,
spray, injection, and needling; among these, choose the most appropriate method dependingon the type of vaccine, chicken age, and health condition.
Leucocytozoonosis mediated by Culicoides arakawae (a biting midge species,
niwatorinukaka in Japanese) is treated by adding sulfa drug to feed or drinking water, but
measures to suppress occurrence and exterminate the nocturnal biting midge are necessary.
Regarding mycoplasma infections with respiratory infections, tylosin and spiramycin have
preventive effect. Although seldom seen in cage and battery type brooding, coccidiosis caused
by protozoa which attack the intestinal tract often occurs in floor brooding. In many cases, thesymptoms are acute in young and middle-sized chicks, whereas they become chronic in largesized chicks. Sulfa drugs are effective for treatment, but adding prophylactic agents to feeds
for brooding is more effective.

82

（３）Control of hygiene pests
Recently, red mite (wakumo in Japanese), an ectoparasite,
frequently occurs and its damage includes occurrence of foul
eggs due to the adhesion of excreta and blood of red mite,death of chickens, anemia, decrease of egg laying, severanceof administrator due to discomfort, and mediating pathogensof zoonotic infection. Preventive measures include early
detection of the red mite, early extermination, prevention ofinvasion, thorough washing and cleaning on a daily basis,and spraying of insecticides. Furthermore, Ornithonyssus
sylviarum (a hematophagous mite species, torisashidani
in Japanese) and Culicoides arakawae (which mediates
leucocytozoonosisa) must be controlled as well.

Red mite exterminator（４）Protection from wildlife
To prevent entry of excreta of wildlife such as rodents and wild birds into feeders, watersupplier, and feed storage, install bird nets to prevent intrusion into the chicken house. There are
numerous damages caused by rodents such as loss of feed, wear damage of constructions, andmediation of zoonotic infections. In addition to blocking invasive routes, protection measures
include traps and use of rodenticides. In particular, intrusion of wild birds is largely related to theoccurrence of avian influenza and thus chickens become threatened, so that thorough protection
measures are necessary.

9 Avian influenza and its defense（１）Avian influenza
Avian influenza is a disease of birds including poultry caused by influenza virus (AI virus)
infection, and in chickens “high pathogenicity” and “low pathogenicity” are classified according
to the nature or degree of the disease caused by the virus; “virulent type” and “attenuatedtype” are classified according to the difference in toxicity. “Highly pathogenic” and “virulent
type” viruses show mortality of 100% between 4 and 5 days after confirming the occurrence ofdiseases.

83

（２）Defensive measures against avian influenza
Avian influenza has been designated as a legal communicable disease by the Domestic Animal
Infectious Diseases Control Act and you must comply with the Feeding and health control
standards with regard to the prevention of the occurrence of disease and prevention of spread.
①

Prevention of wild bird intrusion into the area of chicken house②

Early detection by screening, etc.

③

Early selection at virus isolation (to prevent becoming virulent)④

Implementation of monitoring⑤

Maintain sanitary condition of chicken house⑥

Perform health observation of chickens⑦

Confirmation of specific symptoms of highly pathogenic avian influenza
Symptoms: In the same chicken house, the mortality of chickens per day is more than twice
the average mortality in the target period.

 Treatment method of excreta
Currently, most chicken feces is processed by a fermentation method and used as compost.
Fermentation methods include the deposition method, the open type stirring method, and the closed
type stirring method. However, in the case that the environment allows installation of chicken
manure drying facilities, it is advantageous to produce dry poultry manure in warm and intermediateareas. For making poultry manure compost, in case that the feeding scale is 10,000 birds or less,manure sheds or box-type fermentation facilities using a moisture conditioner are advantageous.
However, when the number of birds exceeds 30,000, an open type or closed type fermentation
facility equipped with a stirring device is required, furthermore, and a moisture conditioner isavailable for open type and installing heating devices is safe for closed type.

 Rearing plan and performance evaluation（１）Rearing plan
The number of chicks to be introduced and the number of introduction are determined inconsideration of egg production on the entire chicken farm. Ideally, the same number of chicks
should be replaced (all-in all-out) at equal intervals in each chicken coop.

84

（２）Performance survey and evaluation①

Egg laying rate
The egg laying rate is calculated by dividing the number of eggs laid in a given period ofa group by the number of laying hens kept in the same period and multiplying the result by
100 (shown in %). The rate indicates the percentage of laying hens that actually laid eggs. For
example, at a simple egg laying rate, if 100 hens lay 90 eggs per day, the egg production rate
is 90%.
The egg laying rate increases to about 90% at around 200 days after the first egg laying
and reaches its peak. After high egg production is maintained for around 60 days, the egg
laying rate gradually decreases to 65% at the time of selection at 550 days of age. Egg weightalso increases with age in days. Increasing the egg laying rate is the most important aspect oftechnology in laying hens, and the business profit varies greatly.

②

Amount of eggs
The egg weight gradually increases for 1 year after the first laying, and the average weightis 61 to 65 g. The total egg production is 17 to 20 kg per 1 hen per year. Daily egg production
is calculated by dividing the total egg production of a group per day by the number of raisingchickens. Daily egg production is related to the nutrient requirements of hens, and egg
production gradually decreases unless enough feed is provided for egg production.

85

② Meat chicken
1 How to keep meat chickens, facilities and equipment（１）How to raise
The growth of broilers is much faster than that of laying hens, and they are often shippedaround 8 weeks of age. The floor feeding system that raises hens on the floor is the standard
raising method for broilers because it is suitable for group management and labor-saving
mechanization. However, due to the increase in production, the density of chickens tends to behigh, and careful attention must be paid to the health management of chickens. Therefore, thefloor of the chicken coop should be covered with litter of more than 10 cm thickness such asplanar chips, sawdust, and cut straw. This helps to reduce overloading the feet, as broilers gain
weight rapidly. In addition, the same burden is placed on the breastbone when the broiler issitting, and inflammation (edema) is likely to occur, so litter may help prevent it.

Broiler farm

Native chickens (“jidori” in Japanese) produce less meat than broilers, but for the purpose of
producing high-quality chicken, they have characteristics such that they are raised for 80 to 150
days or more for a long period of time, raised in a floor feeding system, in a free-range system,
and in a low-density feeding system, and fed special materials.

（２）Styles of chicken coop①Open-type chicken coop
This is a chicken coop which divides inside the house and outside with windows orcurtains, so that it is likely directly affected by the external environment such as temperature,
wind and rain, and sunlight.

86

②

Windowless chicken coop
This is a chicken coop which has no windows, so as to block sunlight, and heat insulating
material is applied to the walls and ceiling (roof). Light management is done by electric lights,
and ventilation is done with fans. Because in this coop it is possible to keep chickens at higher
density than in open type chicken coops, it is easy to mechanize and suitable for large chicken
farms. In addition, the closeness of the chicken coop makes it hygienic. However, capital
investment is required.

（３）Warming system
There is an umbrella type brooding method with an umbrella-type heater suspended forwarming and a floor heating method.
①

Umbrella-type or pancake-type brooding methods
Hang umbrella-type or pancake-type brooders from the ceiling and warm them from the
top of the chicks.
Many of them use gas as fuel, and it is necessary to adjust the heating power finely
according to the condition of the chicks. The floor is thickly covered with litter, but if thefloor area is large, it is difficult to create a uniform environment, and it is necessary to devise
insulation materials to prevent humidity and coldness in the floor structure.

② Floor heating method
It is a large facility and piping is executed under a concrete floor. Hot water is passed
through the piping and warms the floor surface. Although it requires capital investment, it issuitable for Japan, where the humidity is high, and it is easy to observe chicks, and brooding
under the same environmental conditions is possible. It is said that this makes chicks growquickly and grow flesh well. There is an advantage that it is easy to control the feces by drying
them, but if the dryness progresses, it will cause respiratory diseases, so humidity control isimportant.

（４）Facilities and equipment①

Chick guard
The chicks are placed in a circular enclosure about 30 cm high (long galvanized plate) forbrooding of day old chicks, in which litter, heat source, feeder, and water supplier are placed.
An umbrella-type brooder is placed near the center of the floor, and is surrounded by a circular
chick guard 50 cm away from the umbrella. Chick guards are also used for floor heating.
Chick guards gradually widen the circle as chicks grow from around the 4th day. And they
are removed at the age of 10 days in summer and 13 days in winter.

87

②

FeederFor first feeding, a flat shallow box (chick plate) is used.
In the case of automatic feeders, there are two types of feeders. One is the overhead type, inwhich the feeding line is connected to the ceiling of the chicken coop and the feed is dropped
to the pan feeder. The other is the low level type, in which the feeding line is connected to theheight of the chickens and the feeding line moves up and down according to growth. In any
case, the feeding line, the height of the feeder, and the feed amount in the hopper are adjusted
according to the chickens.

③ Water supplier
At the time of first feeding, a watering basin and an auxiliary drinker are used so that chicks
can drink easily.
In the case of nipple drinkers and bell-type water suppliers, the height and water pressure
are adjusted so that all the chicks can drink water.

Feeding box for the first feeding (chick plate)

Auxiliary drinker

2 Feed for meat chickens (nutrient requirements during growth period
and concentration and feeding amount of formula feed)
Broilers should be provided with commercial formula feed (feed for the prior period and thelatter period) without any restrictions (constant and free feeding). Upon shipment, from 7 days ormore before slaughtering, they are provided with feed without medicine such as antibiotics (feedfor a drug holiday).
According to the 2011 edition of the Japan Feeding Standard for Poultry, the nutrient
requirements for broilers are metabolized energy (ME) of 3,100 kcal, crude protein (CP) of 20.0%
in the prior period (0 ~ 3 weeks of age), ME of 3,100 kcal, and CP of 16.0% in the latter period (after
3 weeks of age). Many commercial feeds contain 2% higher CP than this.

88Feeds include mashed raw materials (mash), raw materials hardened into granular (pellets), andcoarsely ground pellets (crumbles). Pellets and crumbles are used for broilers because they are easy
to ingest. In addition, the feed amount per 1 chicken during the breeding period is approximately 6.3
kg (The feed intake is 2.1 times the shipping body weight of about 3.0 kg.).
Since native chickens have less growth and a longer breeding period than broilers, they do notneed high-protein and high-energy feed, thereby avoiding an increase in feed costs and excess fat.
They are often provided with less nutrients and low-priced feed. In general, high-protein feeds are
expensive, and high-calorie feeds are too fatty. In addition, feed for improving meat quality includes
beer lees and fermentation lees of alcohol for whisky. For health trend and functional foods, there
are additives such as fish oil.

3 Growth and changes in body weight of meat chickens（１）Growth of a young chicken (broiler) for meat
The prior period of broiler development (0 ~ 3 weeks of age) is the stage of development ofskeleton and internal organs, and feed intake is low and digestive capacity is not sufficiently
developed. The body weight at first feeding is about 40 g and becomes about 850 g at 3 weeks
of age. They gain weight, become more sensitive to changes in temperature, and the required
ventilation rapidly increases. In the latter and final periods (4 to 8 weeks of age), muscles
develop and they gain weight rapidly every day. The thermoregulatory function is completed andmolting is finished. The chicks spread throughout the coop and become more adaptable to theenvironment. On the other hand, the house becomes overcrowded and the environment is likely
to deteriorate, so ventilation management becomes important. At the time of shipment at 7 to 8
weeks of age, they weigh approximately 3.0 kg.

（２）Growth of native chickens
There are differences depending on the breed and brand of native chickens, but the bodyweight difference between males and females increases because the breeding period is long.
After 20 weeks of age, the difference between males and females is about 1.0 kg (male: 3.0 kg,
female: 2.0 kg). As a matter of course, the feed intake during the breeding period increases toabout 13.0 kg for males and about 10.0 kg for females.

89

4 Feeding management (from entry of chicks to shipping)
After entry, the period from the time of first feeding to the age of 3 weeks is called the priorperiod and the period after that is called the latter period. At 8 weeks of age, the body weight of atypical broiler is over 3 kg in males and nearly 3 kg in females.
Rearing broilers is basically the same as brooding laying hens, but broilers are for fattening.
Therefore, in order to increase the production per unit area, the rearing density is increased, exercise
is restricted, and unhealthy conditions such as high protein and high calorie feed are often given. If
the management is insufficient, it is easy to induce diseases, so you need to be careful.

（１）Management in the prior period
In the prior period of broiler rearing, in the case of floor feeding, it is necessary to put litterin the floor of the coop and heat it with a heating device for 2 to 4 weeks. It is important tocontrol the brooding temperature. If the temperature is low, ascites (abnormal enlargement of theabdomen) is likely to occur. In addition, many underdeveloped chickens have abnormal feet, andare quickly culled.
① Entry of chicks (acceptance of chicks)
In the case of floor feeding, both the umbrella-type brooder and the floor heating are
enclosed in a circle with a chick guard around the heating part, and the warmth should be
supplied in advance. The chicks that arrived are placed in a chick guard and allowed to rest.
The temperature and humidity inside the chick guard are important and should be adjusted to atemperature (32°C) and humidity (around 65%) that allows the chicks to disperse comfortably.

②

First feeding
The feeder should be a flat shallow feeding box for first feeding (chick plate) or a feeding
tray to be stabilized on the litter. As a water supplier, a nipple drinker or a bell-shaped watersupplier should be installed, but an auxiliary drinker is added to make it easier to drink. These
feeders and water suppliers are placed alternately and prepared so that chicks can ingest
comfortably. If first feeding is carried out by kneading and churning the feed and a small
amount of feed is given many times, the feeding becomes better. Feeding for broilers after the
first feeding is done according to the management manual of chickens for practical use.

90

③

Raising density
The raising density should be about 15 birds per 1 m2 of floor space of brooding coop. It issaid that it is easier to breed and gain weight when chicks are kept separately according to sex,
but it is common to keep both sexes together to save time for differentiation.

④

Humidity control
With floor feeding, it is difficult to keep the humidity during warming and it gets too dry, sowater should be sprinkled on the center of the litter at times. Humidity during warming (50%or more) greatly affects the subsequent growth.

⑤

Temperature management
The brooding temperature is gradually lowered while watching the condition of chicks.
The temperature is gradually lowered to 29°C at 7 days of age. Adjust the temperature sothat chicks spread evenly. If the temperature in the house is not lowered after chicks are
introduced, the environment will be hotter at the age of 2 to 3 days than at the time of first
feeding. Such an initial high temperature will decrease the amount of feed intake and affectthe subsequent weight gain, resulting in a large difference in body weight among chicks, so be
careful about temperature control.

⑥

Warming abolition
Stopping the warming is called warming abolition. In an open-type chicken coop, it iscarried out when chicks are about 2 weeks old in summer and about 3 weeks old in winter. Ina windowless chicken coop, however, warming abolition is not considered in particular, and it
is important to balance supply between temperature and ventilation volume in the coop.

⑦

Feeding and water supply management
Since chicks grow rapidly, height, water pressure, and water level of nipple drinkers andbell-shaped water suppliers should be adjusted according to the growth of chicks.

Nipple drinker: Raised to the appropriate height

Feeder: P lace the edge of the dish at the crop levelof the female chick.

91

Bell-shaped water supplier: Place the bottom of the dish at theshoulder level of the female chick.

⑧

Chick guard management
After the first feeding, the circle is spread according to the growth of chicks. By 10 to 13
days of age, chicks start to get over chick guards, and then they are removed.

⑨

Ventilation
The raising density is high and the flock is large, so special attention is paid to ventilation.

⑩

Light control
In the case of a windowless chicken coop, the lighting is 5 lux for 24 hours until 1 week ofage, 3 lux for 2 ~ 3 weeks of age, and 0.5 lux for 23 hours after that. In an open-type chicken
coop, natural light is used in the daytime and this lighting is used at night.

（２）Management in the latter period
At 4 weeks of age, the feed is switched from that for early growth to that for late growth andfinishing. As the chicks grow, their feed intake increases and their feces discharge increases. In
addition, since the chicks are raised at high density from around this time, ventilation should be
carried out. Especially in floor feeding, it is important to devise so that air flows on the floor. As
a result, the litter dries moderately and generates less harmful gas.
In the latter period, the chicks’ movement gradually slows as the body weight increases,
and the difference in growth between males and females increases. At this time, the indoor
temperature of the coop is 19 to 23°C, and the amount of feed intake is the largest and theweight gain increases accordingly. However, when it is hot in summer, it is necessary to takeheat prevention measures such as blowing air or restricted feeding. Heat stroke is likely to occur
when the temperature suddenly rises above 30°C.
92

（３）Shipment
Female chicks are shipped at about 6 to 7 weeks of age (this also serves as culling, “nakanuki”
in Japanese). This is because the growth of the female is slowed down after that. The breeding
space for the male is widened after culling (nakanuki). After culling (nakanuki), all chicks areshipped at around 9 weeks of age. It is standard to ship 32 to 35 kg of live weight per 1 m2,
including the shipping accompanying culling (nakanuki).

5 Hygiene management of meat chickens (all-in all-out and disinfection)（１）Cleaning after shipment and before entry of chicks
In general, broilers are raised in an all-in all-out system, in which only chicks hatched on thesame day are stocked in the same coop (all-in) and are reared and shipped (all-out).
Since chicken coops are repeatedly used for rearing management (from entry to shipping) fora certain period of time, various pathogens may remain over time. The purpose of disinfection
is to thoroughly eliminate pathogens, pathogenic microorganisms, and harmful insects that wereleft behind by chickens reared previously. Feces in vacant coops are removed immediately after
shipment. Before the next chicks are stocked, remove the whole litter, kill insects, and wash anddisinfect everything. Not only the inside but also the surrounding area should be cleaned anddisinfected.

（２）Protection from wildlife
Metal gauze and bird nets should be set up to prevent entry of rodents and wild birds into thechicken coop.

（３）Use of vaccines and preventive drugs
Vaccination is effective for Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, infectious
laryngotracheobronchitis, infectious bursa Fabricius disease, fowlpox, and Marek's disease, andvaccination programs are faithfully implemented for each vaccine. Most programs for broilers
are based on live vaccines.

936 Treatment method of excreta
Currently, most chicken feces are processed by a fermentation method and used as compost.
Fermentation methods include the deposition method, the open type stirring method, and the closed
type stirring method. There are many open type fermentation facilities for broiler feces treatment.
The mixture of broiler feces and litter is mainly low in moisture content, so if the fermentation
process is carried out in a compost house or box-type fermentation facility, and initial moisturecontrol is required. In closed fermentation facilities, treatment of excrement is completed rapidly,
but care should be taken to avoid insufficient decomposition of growth impediments in the littersuch as sawdust.

7 Rearing plan and performance evaluation（１）Rearing plan
At present, most broilers are raised under contract with feed companies and trading
companies. The date of introduction, the number of birds introduced, and the age at shipment
are determined by the contract, so it is necessary to consider the facility and work schedule inadvance.

（２）Method of performance survey
Since the growth is fast and the rearing period is short, weight measurement is done every
week and feed intake is also measured. From the result, performance such as weight gain is
calculated. Depending on the shipping ratio (the ratio of the number of units shipped to thenumber of entry), shipping weight (weight of living body shipment per unit area), etc., the profit
in the business varies greatly.

94

５

Others① Light breed horses
1 Characteristics of Thoroughbred・A Thoroughbred is a very cautious animal. Sudden movement of the person handling it may

surprise them and cause them to run or act up. When you touch a horse, it is important toapproach it from the front and call out gently to reassure the horse.
・The intestines of horses are longer than those of other animals, and colic (abdominal pain) is
more likely to develop, so care must be taken in feeding management.

2 Names of main body parts of Thoroughbred (contrast with human)
①

②

③

④

⑤

⑥

▲

⑦

⑧
⑨
⑩
⑪

⑫
⑬
① Forelock⑧ Stifle (human knee)② Mane⑨ Elbow (human elbow)③ Withers⑩ Carpus (human wrist)④ Back
⑤ Croup⑥ Tail
⑦ Withers height⑪ Hock (human ankle)⑫ Fetlock (base of human finger)⑬ Hoof (nail of human middle finger)95

3 Individual identification
Individual identification of Thoroughbred is carried out using hair color, characteristics (whitepatches, hair whorls, etc.), microchip, etc. This information is on the pedigree certificate.

（１）Coat color
The following eight coat colors are present among Thoroughbreds.

Chestnut

Dark chestnut

Bay

Dark bay

Brown

Black

Gray

White

（２）Characteristics
・It is characterized by white patches on the face and limbs and hair whorls on the whole body.
（３）Microchip・It is implanted in the center of the left neck before the pedigree is registered.
・The microchip number is on the pedigree certificate.
・To use Thoroughbreds in horse racing, you need to embed a microchip.

4 Feed・Feed supplied to Thoroughbreds includes concentrate feed and roughage.
・Among concentrate feed, there are formula feed, as well as cereals such as oats and bran.
・Roughage includes dry grass imported from abroad or produced in-house.

965 Litter・A partitioned room in a stable is called a stall, and straw and so on used as bedding in the stall
are called litter.
・Rice straw, wheat straw, home-grown pasture grass, wood shavings, and sawdust are mainly used
as litter.
・Rice straw and home-grown pasture grass are used in breeding farms, but wheat straw, woodshavings, and sawdust are often used in training farms to prevent eating of litter.

97

② Apiculture
1 Structure of a beehive（１）Beehive and joint box
Honeybees are kept in hives (counted asa colony). A normal hive can hold 8 ~ 10combs and about 20,000 worker bees live
there. Also, when the colony grows large, abottomless box called a joint box is placed
on top of the hive box to cope with theincrease in the number of honeybees.

Beehivejoint box（２）Honeycomb
A cluster of cells is called a honeycomb.
This is the basic part of a honeybee hive.
The size of a colony is settled by the numberof combs put in the hive and vice versa.

（３）FeederComb

A feeder is a device to feed honeybees(sugar water, etc.). In the hive, it is put inthe outermost part of the comb to feed them.

2 Food and feed for honeybees（１）Flower nectar and pollen

FeederHoneybees only eat nectar and pollen. The nectar of the flower is the energy source and thepollen produces minerals and protein. Royal jelly given to queen bees and larvae is secreted fromworker bees that eat pollen.

98（２）Feeding
Honeybees do not need daily feed. However, when the nectar of the flowers is not gathered,bees are sometimes given feed (sugar water, etc.) to survive. When pollen levels are low,commercial feed (pollen substitutes) may be used instead of pollen.

3 Foraging behavior of honeybees
Honeybees usually fly within a 2 kilometer radius to collect nectar and pollen, but if there areno flowers around, they can fly as far as 10 kilometers. Honeybees prefer flowers with high sugarconcentration and high nectar content. In addition, to avoid wasting energy, if there are good andpoor nectar flowers at about the same distance from the hive, the inferior flowers are ignored. They
comprehensively judge the 3 elements of flower "quality, quantity, and distance" and decide which
flower to go to, depending on the situation of the surrounding flowers.
Honeybees also have separate collectors of nectar and pollen, but sometimes they collect both.
Comb

Hive
FeederNectar and pollen in cells

Hive and combs in which bees live

4 Honeybee diseases（１）Foulbrood (American foulbrood and European foulbrood)
Foulbrood causes death during the larval and pupal stages. Larvae that die of American
foulbrood become rotten, viscous, and emit an irritating odor (gluey odor). On the other hand,larvae that die of European foulbrood have no viscosity and smell of acid, which is different
from the case of American foulbrood.
In Japan, Tylan soluble is approved as a foulbrood preventive medicine, but colonies that havecontracted foulbrood must be incinerated.

99

（２）Varroa disease (Varroa mite syndrome)
Abnormalities caused by the infestation of Varroa mite (Varroa destructor) are called Varroa
disease. Bees’ blood is sucked by Varroa mites and honeybees (adult, larva, and pupa) are
weakened. Many viruses are also transmitted by this kind of mite.
In Japan, Nichino Apistan and Apivar are approved as acaricides.

（３）Others
Others include Nosema disease (worker bees show diarrhea-like symptoms and the colony
becomes weak) and chalk disease (pupae die in a white chalky state).

Larvae that have contracted American foulbrood

Larvae that have contracted European foulbrood(Source: United States Department of Agriculture)(Source: United States Department of Agriculture)

Larvae parasitized by Varroa mite

Adults strongly parasitized by Varroa mite

100

６

Questions for confirmation

For the following questions, answer ○ if it is correct, and × if it is incorrect＜ Cattle ＞
１．The breathing rate of a dairy cow increases as it gets hot.

（）

individually in a freebarn cowshed.

（）

３．Cows have one stomach, like humans.

（）

４．“Stop eating” of fattening cattle occurs due to overeating of roughage.

（）

５．Somatic cell count decreases in mastitis cows.

（）

６．Mother cows after delivery repeat estrus every 21 days on average.

（）

７．A calf is put in an enclosure, and raised with shielding the sunlight.

（）

１．The main swine breeds raised in Japan are Landrace,Large Yorkshire, and Hampshire. （）

２．Mating of pigs in Japan is only natural mating.

（）

３．Delivery difficulty is rare for pigs.

（）

４．The body weight of a newborn piglet is normally around 0.5 kg.

（）

５．Piglets obtain resistance against various diseases from colostrum.

（）

６．Fattening pigs are fed a fixed amount once a day.

（）

７．Since pigs have herd instinct, even if they are kept in groups, every pig can eat the sameamount of feed.
（）

２．There is no bed in a freestall cowshed,but there is a bed in which cattle can sleep＜ Pigs ＞＜ Chicken ＞
１．Hatching eggs are hatched in an artificial incubator for 10 days.

（）

２．Chickens lay many eggs in the season with long day length.

（

）

101

３．Chickens continue laying for several days, then rest for 1 to 3 days, again continue
laying for several days.

（）

４．The weight of chicken eggs as a product is an average value of 30 g.

（）

５．The egg production rate of chickens increases rapidly after 13 to 14 months of age.

（）

６．Feed intake of chickens decreases when the temperature rises.

（

）

（

）

７．As chicken houses, there are open type chicken houses to which sunlight enters andwindowless chicken houses which block sunlight.

102

Answers＜ Cattle ＞
１．○
２．×（Reason: There is an individual bed in the freestall cowshed, and no bed in the freebarn
cowshed.）
３．×（Reason: The cow has four stomachs.）
４．×（Reason: Stop eating occurs with excess feeding of formula feed which mainly contains
cereals.）
５．×（Reason: The number of somatic cells increases in mastitis cows.）
６．○
７．×（Reason: The calves should be raised in a well ventilated and sunny environment.）＜ Pigs ＞
１．×（Reason: Landrace, Large Yorkshire, and Duroc.）
２．×（Reason: Natural mating and artificial insemination (AI) are conducted.）３．○
４．×（Reason: The average weight of newborn piglets is 1.4 kg.）
５．○
６．×（Reason: In principle, feeding to fattening pigs should be done by ad libitum feeding.）
７．×（Reason: In case of keeping in groups, it is necessary to be careful because a poorly
growing pig which cannot eat enough feed comes out.）＜ Chicken ＞
１．×（Reason: Eggs hatch on the 21th day.）２．○
３．○
 S size (52-58 g), M size (58-64 g), L size (64-70 g) are the central to trading
４．×（Reason: M
eggs.）
 gg production rate declines rapidly at 13 to 14 months of age and the hens enter
５．×（Reason: E
molting.）
６．○
７．○

103

Dailylivestock
Ⅲ management work

104

１

Hygiene management andsafety management of farms

1 Status of malignant infectious diseases(1)In Japan, foot-and-mouth disease broke out in 2010 and many pigs and cows were killed.
(2)A highly pathogenic avian influenza broke out in Japan in 2007.
(3)In Japan, epidemic diarrhea for swine has been a problem in various areas since 2013.
(4)These three infectious diseases are caused by viruses.
(5) Foot-and-mouth disease and highly pathogenic avian influenza have also occurred inneighboring countries of Japan.
(6) In recent years, the number of people and goods coming and going between countries has
increased, increasing the risk of malignant infectious diseases invading Japan.

2 What farmers should be careful of(1) When you go in and out of the barn, you should disinfect your rubber boots and work clothes
sufficiently.
(2)You should carefully observe the condition of the livestock and report to the farmer if there isany abnormality.
(3)You should prevent wild animals such as wild birds and rodents from invading the barn.
(4) Since flies mediate viruses and pathogenic bacteria, and the occurrence of fly larvae also
attracts flocks of wild birds, It is important to exterminate flies.

3 Farm area
As the sanitary control area, the farm area is supposed to need management to prevent infestationof pathogens.
There are two areas in the farm area, namely, the livestock area (barns and exercise grounds) andthe management area (feed tanks, feed warehouses, pathways, offices, etc.), and in these two areas
the entry of people and vehicles must be strictly regulated and controlled.
(1) It is necessary to prevent visitors to the farm from entering the barn without permission and to
inform the farmer in such cases.
(2)When taking visitors to the farm into a barn, put boot covers (vinyl) on shoes, have them wear
clean work clothes, and have them disinfected in a foot dip before entering the barn.

105

4 Disinfection facility at entrance of sanitation control area
（１）In the case that vehicles enter or leave
There are disinfection facilities such as "disinfection gate for vehicles," "disinfection sprayer,""vehicle disinfection tank," and "slaked lime belt."
For cars going in and out of the farm, disinfection of tires is carried out with a disinfection
sprayer or a vehicle disinfection tank.

（２）In the case that persons enter or leave
When a person goes in and out of a sanitation control area such as a livestock area or acontrolled area, disinfect their feet (rubber boots) and work clothes with "disinfection sprayer,""foot dips," "slaked lime belt," etc.

Foot dips

5 Management of disinfection apparatus / disinfection tanks / disinfection zone（１）Disinfection gates for vehicles
When the vehicle enters, the sensor opens, chemicals are sprayed from the top and bottom, left
and right, and as a result, the whole body of the vehicle including the underbody is disinfected. It
is necessary to replenish disinfectants and to check spraying machines on a daily basis.

（２）Disinfection sprayers
These work manually; in the case of a vehicle, disinfect the lateral surface and tires of thevehicle, and in the case of a person, disinfect his or her feet. Always replenish disinfectant.

106

（３）Vehicle disinfection tanks
The vehicle slowly passes through the disinfectant solution and mainly the tires are
disinfected. Since the effect of disinfectant solution declines with time, the chemical solution
is required to be changed 2 to 3 times a week. In addition, contamination of the disinfectant
solution with mud and sand decreases the disinfection effect, so cleaning is also necessary.

（４）Foot dips
For disinfection, immerse the rubber boots for 15 to 30 seconds in a container containing
disinfectant solution. Since the effect of disinfectant solution declines with time, the chemicalsolution must be changed. Changing of the chemical solution is done every day, or every time it
becomes dirty.

（５）Slaked lime zone (disinfection zone)
Spread slaked lime on the entrance to disinfect tires in the case of a vehicle or soles of rubberboots in the case of a person. Spreading lime must be done every day.

6 Cautions on use of disinfectant solution
When using disinfectants, the following must be preserved: “to obey usage and dose,”“disinfectant is freshly prepared,” “disinfectant (stock solution) is kept in a dry and dark place,”“do not mix with other disinfectants or insecticides,” and “Use safety gloves when handling, wear
masks when spraying.” Wear work clothes when disinfecting, be careful not to put disinfectant
solution on the body, and if disinfectant solution adheres to the body, it is important to wash wellwith water.

Storage of disinfectant

107

Wear the protective clothing properly.
How to correctly wear protective clothing
Hat

Mask

A hat with a brim is preferable

Wear a mask for weighing,adjusting, and spraying

Protective eyewear
Use goggle-type
eyewear which tightly
adheres to the face

Rubber gloves
Cover your gloves with thelong sleeves of your coat

Protective clothing
Rubber boots

Wear protective clothing withlong sleeves and long pants

To prevent chemicals from entering
the clothes, cover your work shoes
with the cuffs of your pants.

7 S afety management of barns（１）Fuel oil and electricity
When handling fuel oil (petroleum, gasoline, etc.), be sure that there is no fire around it and be
careful of fire.
You need to be especially careful with cigarettes and lighters. You should never bring themclose to fuel oil.

（２）Electrical system
If the electrical outlet gets wet, there is a risk of electric leakage.
When cleaning, be careful not to get the outlet wet.

108

２

Dairy cattle

1 A day of a dairy farmer
Morning

Noon

Night

Cleaning of the troughSweeping of feed

Cleaning of the passage

Cleaning of tank and water cup

Treatment of excreta

Milking

Milking(Feeding)

Feeding

Feeding

Sweeping of feed

Sweeping of feed
Cleaning of the passage

2 Management of facilities（１）Passage
It is important to keep the passage through which dairy cows pass clean and not slippery.

（２）Feed warehouse
・Be careful not to allow wild birds or rodents to enter the feed warehouse.
・Keep clean by daily cleaning.
・Check that the feed does not get moldy.

（３）Trough・Clean the trough before feeding in the morning.
・A trough with a smooth surface without small dents or holes is ideal.

（４）Sweeping of feed
It is important to sweep the feed close to the mouth of a cow so that dairy cows can eat feedeasily.

109

Sweeping of feed（５）Cleaning of tank and water cup
・In the morning, it is important to remove feed in the tankor water cup to clean up so that dairy cows can drink fresh
water.
・It is preferred to change the water in the tank so that the cows
can drink cold water in hot summer season.

Water cup（６）Ventilation in the cowshed
・Prevent drafts during cold weather.
・It is important to promote convection of fans during the hot season.
・During the hot season the rectal temperature often rises to 39°C or more, respiratory rateincreases, and feed intake decreases.

Ventilation of cowshed

110

（７）Stall・Keep the cattle floor (stall) clean and dry.
・Maintain elastic condition by using litter to reduce damage on legs of dairy cows and give
comfort.

Stall（８）Protect from ectoparasites
・Prevent propagation of cattle flies, house flies, and the like in the cowshed.
・For that purpose, cleaning and removal of feces, replacement of litter, and removal of putrefied
feed are necessary.

（９）Observation of cows
Observation should be done on “Competition between strong cow and weak cow” “Detectionof depressed cow” “damage to cow body” “choosy eating of feed (selective eating)” and“condition of feces such as diarrhea.”

3 Milking Procedure（１）preparation and principle
・Milking instruments should be inspected, cleaned, and sterilized before milking.
・The cows with high somatic cell count and mastitis cows should be milked at the end.

（２）Pre-milking
・Pre-milking is carried out for “detection of solids in the milk juice,” “discard milk possibly
contaminated with bacteria invaded in the teat after the last milking,” and “discard dipping
solution remaining in the teat after the last milking.”
・Hand disinfection and milking gloves: Prepare buckets for hand washing and hand towels.
111

Pre-milking

・Strip Cup: For each teat, perform forestrip to the strip cup and check the solid matter in themilk. In this case, if the teat is very dirty, wash it first. In addition, if the teat is very dirty,
wash it first.

Strip cup（３）Predipping (It is done in a farmhouse raising cows with less dirt on teats.)① After pre-milking, fungicide is used instead of the next "teat cleaning".
② Dipping means "to soak in a chemical solution".
③ The purpose of dipping is to sterilize the teat and protect thesurface of the teat.
④ Dipping liquid contains fungicide and a teat surface protection
substance (glycerin, etc.).
⑤ After completion, wipe clean with a disposable paper towel toprevent the drug from remaining in the milk.

Dipping solution

112

（４）Cleaning of the teat・Clean the teat with a towel soaked in disinfectant solution.
・The purpose of wiping is “to give stimulation for milking” and “sterilization of the teatsurface.”・Prepare one or more towels per head, and put the used towels in another bucket.
・In some cases, disposable paper towels are used instead of cloth towels.

Wiping of teats（５）Drying of the teat
After wiping or predipping the teats, wipe them with a disposable paper towel to dry them.

113

（６）Attaching, milking, and detaching of teat cups
・Attach a teat cup 1 or 2 minutes after the start of pre-milking.
・Attach the unit correctly to 4 teats.
・As a guide, milking should be finished within 5 minutes.
・Do not over milk (machine stripping) trying to strip the remaining milk. Because it damages
the teat end and papillary duct. Do not strip too much.
・After completion of milking, detach 4 teat cups from the teats at the same time.

Attaching a teat cup

Correct procedure of milking

Stop machine stripping (a bad example)

Shut off the vacuum, wait for a while, and thenleave 4 cups at the same time by free fall

Damage around teat end by overmilking114

（７）Post dipping・Dipping after removing the teat cup is called post dipping.
・The purpose is to prevent infection of the teat with bacteria until the next milking.

Dip cup

Dipping of the teat（８）Temperature control of bulk cooler・At the time of first injection, adjust the temperature below 10°C within 1 hour after milking
and below 4.4°C within one additional hour.
・At the time of additional input, control the temperature not to exceed 10°C.

Bulk cooler

4 Detection of estrus（１）Estrus cycle
The estrous cycle of cows is 21 days.

（２）Observation
・When estrus approaches, dairy cows become restless and rub against other cows or persons, or115

walk around at night even when other cows are quiet.
・In the past, it was said that the duration of estrus was about 12 ~ 18 hours, but it became shorter as
the milk production of dairy cows increased. Recently, it is said that the duration of estrus is 7
~ 8 hours as a standard.
・Observe the behavior involved in estrus (such as standing estrus) early in the morning and atnight.
・A state that allows other cows to ride on the back without disgust is called standing estrus. It isregarded as a true estrus.

（３）Detection of estrus in tied housing
In the case of tied housing such as a stanchion barn,checkthe following situation.
・Loss of appetite
・Decrease in milk yield
・It looks restless
・It roars
・Leakage of estrus mucus・Swelling of the vulva

Hyperemia and enlargementof the vulva

5 Nursing of calves at delivery (preparation)・It is important to prepare a clean and dry nursing cage with enough litter prior to calves' delivery.
・It is important to prepare clean towels, transportation equipment, and disinfectant solution (suchas iodine tincture) to wipe off the fetal fluid of the calf.

116

３

Beef cattle

1 Facility Inspection
This is basically the same as in III-2- 2 “management of facilities.” Refer to that part.

2 Health check（１）Appetite
In the following cases, digestive organ disease, febrile illness, and dental disease aresuspected.
・Keeping away from the trough・There is leftover feed in a large amount・Apart from herd（２）Whether their eyes are mild and vigorous
Anemia, jaundice, and early- stage respiratory disease are suspected in the following cases.
・Lacking vitality
・Anemia of mucous membranes
・Hyperemia of mucous membranes
・Yellowing of mucous membranes
・Purulent conjunctivitis
・Lots of tears, eye mucus（３）Condition of the nose
In the following cases, respiratory disease and febrile illness are suspected.
・Water soluble nasal discharge
・Yellow-white to yellow-green nasal discharge
・Drying of the nasal speculum（４）Behavior and suspected diseases and problems
・Restlessness, salivation, bruxism, straining, pawing (scratching the ground with the forelegs),
anguish, and seeing the abdomen → Pain in internal organs or poisoning

117

・Consciousness disorder or neurological symptoms such as gloom, abnormal excitement,
circling, frenzy, convulsion, and paralysis → Infectious disease or vitamin B1 deficiency
・Claudication → Hoof disease・Bruise, sprain, or arthritis → Defective floor structure・Abnormal curvature of back and hock joint during urination and feces → Metabolic disease・Rubbing the body against a wall or pillar → Skin disease・Shaking shoulders and waist → Encephalitis or poisoning・Sparse fur, swollen limbs, exophthalmos, and degraded vision → Vitamin A deficiency（５）Condition of tail head, tail
Diarrhea is suspected in the following cases.
・The hair of the tail head is lost and the tail head has become bald・Yellowish white or dark brown dirt attaches to the tail head・Dirt attaches to the entire tail（６）Condition of respiration
Respiratory illness is suspected in the following cases.
・Breathing with open mouth, labored breathing・Breathing rate increases
・Abdominal breathing（７）When coughing
Aspiration (accidentally swallowing foreign matter) and respiratory illness are suspected.

（８）Body temperature (rectal temperature)
Respiratory diseases and the like are suspected when having a fever of over 40°C or showing
whole body tremor.

118

（９）Condition of the hair・Coarse stiffness and lack of gloss → Malnutrition is suspected.
・Long, irregular, and torsional → Parasitic infection is suspected.
・Alopecia → Skin disease is suspected.
・Adhesion of white small calculi on the tip of pubic hair → Urolithiasis is suspected.

119

４

Pigs

1 Points to note during breast feeding by mother pig
With a mother pig, more than 12 teats in total line right and left in two rows. Milk yield fromteats near the head is higher. A few days after delivery, the position of each piglet corresponding toeach teat (teat order) is decided, and each piglet starts to drink from the same teat. Breast feeding isdone once roughly every hour. The milk ejection time is actually 10 to 20 seconds.
During lactation, accidental deaths due to being squashed by the mother pig often occur. While itis natural not to surprise the mother pig, the management should be done while keeping in mind thefollowing three points.
・Since the nutrition control of the mother pig is bad and the amount of lactation is small, thepiglets do not move away from the mother pig.
・Because the mother pigs have difficulty drinking water, repeat standing and sleeping manytimes.
・If keeping piglets warm is inadequate, the piglets search for warmth and contact with themother pig, sleep there, and then they are crushed.

2 Heating of piglets during nursing and raising
The optimum temperature of piglets is high and the ability to regulate bodytemperature is still low, so sufficient heating is necessary. The optimum temperature
range changes with growth, so each time we decide whether or not it is appropriate.
The optimal temperature is 36°C at birth, 30°C after 1 week, 28°C after 2 weeks, and26°C after 3 weeks, gradually decreasing. If piglets overlap just below the heater,
it is judged to be cold. On the other hand, if they sleep away from the heater, it isconsidered hot. Keep the piglets in a moderately scattered state.
Be careful when handling heaters. Most of the fire accidents in pigsties are caused by
the fall of heating equipment and the outbreak of fire from heating equipment.
Age in days and body weight Optimum temperature

Piglet1-3 days after birth
４- ７
８-30
31-45

30-32°C
28-30
22-25
20-22

Pork pig

15- 50kg
50-100

20-25
18-20

Adult pig

100 kg or more

15-18

Optimal temperature range of pigs120

3 Points to note on piglet management
Piglets are susceptible to disease and often develop gastrointestinal problems (diarrhea) andrespiratory abnormalities (pneumonia). In addition, parasites from the mother pig cause poor
growth of the piglet; deworming of sows, mother pigs, are also important; the mother pig and thepiglets are thus also vaccinated sequentially.

Piglet nursing

4 Precautions when castrating piglets
Male piglets are castrated before fattening. This is done to prevent the smell of the male fromtransferring to the pork. Castration is done within the time period between a few days after birthand before weaning, and it is often done within a week.

5 Precautions for estrus, mating, and delivery of breeding pigs
A short time after the piglets are weaned, estrus returns. Estrus cycle is 21 days and it lasts for 2
to 3 days, depending on the individual. The signs of estrus are seen in mounting, loss of appetite,tail uplift, swelling of the vulva, and mucus. It should be detected early in proestrus, when the vulva
is congested and swollen, and when they enter estrus, mating is performed at the appropriate time.
The best time for mating with the highest conception rate is 10 to 25 hours after the beginning of
estrus. When a breeding pig enters estrus, it becomes quiescent when a human presses the loinbacks of the pig with both hands (back pressure reaction test). In addition, when the male is broughtcloser, the permissive female
remains immobile and quiet
when mounted, and raises herears. Sows that have not given
birth may not show signs of
estrus.
EstrusConfirmation of estrus

Reddening and swelling of the vulva(photo supplied by: National Livestock Breeding Center)

121

（１）Proestrus : 2.7 days, development of vulvar reddening and swelling（２）Estrus : 2.4 days, from the onset to the end of receptivity to males（３）Postestrus : 1.8 days, regression of vulvar reddening and swelling（４）Anestrus : 14.1 days
Reddening and swellingof the vulva

Days from proestrus

Conception rate

Time after receptivity
to maleProestrus
Estrus(receptive to male) Postestrus

Since sows have a long estrous period, fertilization is
attempted at least twice in one estrus period, regardlessof whether the pig is naturally mated or inseminatedartificially, to obtain high conception rate and as manyoffspring as possible per litter. Pregnancy is confirmed byrecognizing no re-estrus after 21 days and by using the
pregnancy diagnosis device. When pregnant, many pigs
become quiet and their appetite increases.
Before putting pigs into farrowing pens, clean, disinfect,
and dry the pens. Pigs give birth easily, and it is rare
to have difficult delivery. If the piglet is not breathing,artificial respiration is performed.

1
day

Time
0
10
25
36
48

2
days

%
81
100 Optimum time for mating

4
46 Ovulatory phase days
50
0

72

3
days

Maximum

5
days
6
days
7
days

Relation between signs of the vulva during
estrus and the appropriate time for mating(fertilization) (in the case of natural mating
and insemination with semen in liquid form)

6 Points to note in hot season
Piglets are weak to cold, whereas grown-up fattening pigs and sow pigs are weak to heat.
For raising environment of fattening pigs and sow pigs, about 20°C is appropriate. Since sow
pigs and piglets have different optimal temperature range, if a high temperature around delivery
affected the sow pig (mother pig), it adversely affects the piglets as well.
In hot season, ventilate forcibly with electric fans, especially maintain aeration near the floor.
This is done to expose the pig body to the wind and to remove moisture. Wind speed of 1.0 m/s ormore is a rough indication. Pay attention to the wind route caused by ventilation so that the winddirection in the piggery becomes constant. In case that the air supply is hot and the effect of blast is
low, introduce, for example, duct blowing using an air cooler. Since the hot and humid environment122

in Japanese summer is harsher than that in the West, it is often not practicable to adapt overseas heat
management technology.

7 Management of trough and drinking water
Feeding pigs are fed ad libitum in principle. Always keep feed remaining in the trough. In thecase of a wet feeder that adds water when the pig eats, pay attention to decay of the leftovers.
Prevent birds and others aiming for feed from intruding, and regularly disinfect rodents. Pigs areallowed to drink water freely. With bite type and nipple type, pigs may not be able to drink enoughwater depending on water pressure, so be careful.

8 Points to note on storage and handling of feed
Store the feed in places as cool and dark as possible to avoid high temperature and high humidity.
In particular, since synthetic milk tends to be deteriorated easily, finish it up as soon as possible. Do
not supply moldy feed. Protect feed from damage caused by rodents, birds, and insects by keeping
it in the warehouse.

9 Environment and sanitation management of piggery
Regulating the sanitary environment of the piggery is important not only for prevention of
pig diseases and health maintenance, but also for health maintenance of workers. Maintenanceof sanitary environment of piggery is to maintain working environment of workers. From theviewpoint of food hygiene and also from the viewpoint of preventing contamination of thesurrounding environment, sanitary control of the piggery is important.
By separating the breeding area and the fattening area, arrange the flow line in the piggery into
one direction. Only sow pigs are introduced from outside, so that a piggery for quarantine is built.
Then, with the whole placement, fattening piggery should be located in a place facing outside tolimit possible damage caused by invasion of pathogens to fattening pigs.
Symptoms of swine diseases appear in various forms. If symptoms are recognized, promptly
report to and consult the veterinarian at the pig farm.

123

５

Chicken farming (egg laying hens and meat chickens)

1 Management of brooder（１）Temperature management
Baby chicks are small in size, body temperature is low and adaptivity to environmental
temperature is low, so that they cannot grow without warming. Whichever type of chicken house(open type chicken house or windowless chicken house) and whichever method of brooding(battery type brooder, floor type umbrella-shaped brooder, and floor heating) is employed,
gradually lower the temperature from 32 to 35°C at entry of the chicks with observation of thebaby chicks and condition them to live at the room temperature within 3 to 4 weeks, then stop
warming.

（２）Humidity control
Condition baby chicks gradually from a humidity of 65% to indoor humidity. To keep thehumidity of 65% under 35°C at entry of the chicks, every brooder must be humidified by placing abasin and the like. However, after around one week, excretion of feces increases and evaporation ofwater from feces increases, so that according to these, reduce the water supply. After the 10th day,the humidity should be rather dry.

（３）Ventilation management
In the case that the temperature in whichever brooder is high, ventilation occurs naturally due
to the difference of temperature between the brooder and the room, but excessive ventilation
lowers the temperature in the brooder. While observing the condition of the chicks, pay attention
to harmony with keeping warm.

2 Management of feeder and water supplier（１）Period of young chicks
With both battery brooder and floor type brooder (in the chick guard), to promote eating atentry of the chicks, feed a small amount of kneaded pre-starter many times as litter feeding in
the feeder (with flat and low rim). To drink easily from water supplier as well, a water basin or
auxiliary drinker should be used as a water supplier. Since young chicks frequently repeat eating
and drinking, place the feeder and water supplier close to them.
In the case that proper temperature control (lowering the temperature of the heating part
gradually from 32 to 35°C at the entry of the chicks) is performed, the chicks come out from theheating part day by day and have to come to eat and drink in the room temperature part. From
two days after first feeding, prepare feed and drinking water in the room temperature part (in the124case of battery type, playground, and in the case of floor type, the periphery away from the heatsource in the chick guard). When most of the chicks start eating in the room temperature part,stop feeding and water supply in the heating part.
During the period of young chicks, always prepare feed and drinking water and allow to eat
and drink freely. The amount of feed to be placed in the feeder should be about half, to avoid
feed spills during eating. To protect the chicks from entering the feeder, devise attachment suchas an umbrella and separator. Supply drinking water constantly, and regarding bell-type watersupplier whose dish stores water, cleaning and replacement must be done once a day because
contamination of feed and feces occurs. A nipple drinker is sanitary because the chicks looking at
the water drop drink it directly. Adjust the water level of both the nipple drinker and the bell-typewater supplier according to the growth of chicks.

Brooder

Chick Guard：Water supplier：Feeder：Water basin

Placement of feeder and water supplier in chick guard（２）Period of middle to large sized chicks①

Feeder management
In this period, the feeding space becomes insufficient, so that replenishing the feeding
space using dishes in the playground side for battery brooder, in the space made by enlarging
the chick guard for the floor-type. Afterwards, in the battery type, install a gutter-type feeder125

on the side of the cage and guide chicks to feed with their face out of the cage. In floor type
brooding, shift to a hopper type feeder by the time when the chick guard is removed, and in
the chicken house with the feeding line, gradually shift from manual feeding to automatic
feeding. Automatic feeding is a feeder installed with feeding lines; with the battery type thefeed is supplied to the gutter-type feeder, whereas with the floor type it is supplied to the panfeeders (dish type).
Observe the growth and feeding situation of the chicks and adjust the height of the feeder
and the amount of food in the gutter and hopper. It is important that feed is uniformly spreadin the feeding dish of the automatic feeder so that the chicks eat easily. In the battery type thechicks do not enter the feeder (gutter), but in the case of floor type, devise attachment such as
an umbrella, a separator, and a spire to prevent the chicks from entering the feeder.
②

Management of water supplier
Increase the number of water suppliers according to the enlargement/removal of theplayground or chick guard, and evenly arrange them. In both battery type and floor type,considering the number of the nipple drinkers, adjust the height of the nipples to slightly
higher than the eye line of the chicks and the water pressure to be easier to drink. In the floor
type, adjust the position of the dish of bell-type water supplier to the height of the chest of
the chick. With the broiler, adjust it especially to fit the female chicks. Since the amount ofdrinking water increases, management of water supply facilities (water supply equipment,water supply pipe, subtank, etc.) is also important, carry out cleaning regularly.

3 Methods of cutting the beak (debeaking)
Butt pecking often occurs among the chicks during brooding. When chicks are small, they only
damage the area around the tail, but before the age at first birth, they often poke the intestines andcause unexpected damage in a short time. To prevent these damages, it is common to cut the beak(debeaking).
The beak is cut by using a debeaker to burn off the upper and lower beaks. In the case of egglaying hens, debeaking is usually done at 3 to 10 days of age. Broilers undergo debeaking at the ageof 1 day or as early as possible, but sometimes it is already done at the hatchery.

126

Debeaking prevents development of bad habits and reduces spilling of feed. The loss of eggs byeating eggs decreases after they become adult chickens.

Cutting the beak (debeaking)

4 Measurement of body weight
Body weight is an excellent indicator to fully demonstrate the development of chicks for egglaying and future laying capacity, so that body weight must be measured for randomly selected
chicks at least once every week or every two weeks. In addition, understanding the daily gain of thechicks for fattening is important for the broiler shipping plan.
Measure the body weight at about every 4 weeks after starting laying and also to find out whether
nutrition is properly ingested without excess or deficiency; investigation on the change in bodyweight is necessary. It is preferred that body weight of adult chickens is measured individually forthe same chicken.

5 Notes on receipt, storage, and handling of feed
（１）Receipt of feed
Feed tanks or storage sheds must be cleaned before carrying the feed in, and the feed delivery
vehicle must be properly disinfected at the farm entrance and so on. The feed must originate ina factory periodically conducting salmonella inspection and the result of following inspection
on the feed is required to be attached; no abnormality in appearance, color, flavor, and quality isobserved, and no foreign matter is recognized. It is also important to know the name of the feed
additives or materials that have been mixed, and the shipping restricted period.

127

（２）Storage of feed
Decide feed purchasing plan in advance and be careful not to keep in stock for a long time.
Feed must not contaminated with mold and the like, and ingredients (proteins, lipids, etc.) in
the feed must not be deteriorated (decayed), furthermore, added substances (additives) such asvitamin premixes must be stored in a cool and dark place. In addition, it is important that in thestorage shed, rodents and their feces and the like are not detected.

（３）Handling of feed
Feed is decided based on an appropriate feeding plan, in case of adding feed additives in thefarm, it is important that mixing it homogeneously and that it is fed according to the method anddose. In particular, after entry of the chicks, various feeds according to the feeding plan (feeding
system) corresponding to the growth and production stage of chickens can be fed by weighing
the body weekly. In addition, comply with the shipping restricted period of feed additives that
directly affect the quality of chicken products (eggs, meat), and feeding with care about thequality of feed (appearance, color, flavor, mold, deterioration, etc.) is important.
Feeding management records must be kept for at least 2 years

6 Management in hot season
In the open type chicken house in the summer, laying hens may die from heat even at theoutside air of 32 to 33°C. The temperature inside the chicken house may be higher by 5°C or morethan the outside temperature, because the roofs and walls are heated by the sunlight and further
receive radiation heat from the ground; in addition, the temperature around the chicken body ishigher. Taking measures against heat is thus necessary. In the open type chicken house, improvethe ventilation inside the house; in case that the wind cannot escape, supply the wind at a windspeed of 0.5 to 0.8 m/s with a blower. Avoid direct sunlight by creating shade with trees and thelike. Spraying water in the chicken house is also effective for lowering the temperature. When thetemperature inside the chicken house rises, the water temperature of drinking water will also rise,and chickens do not drink warm water, so give them as cold water as possible.
In a windowless chicken house, devise a ventilation method so that the temperature inside thehouse is as uniformly lower than the outside temperature as possible. Generally, lower the chicken’s
sensible temperature by increasing the amount of ventilation. This is influenced by the quality ofheat insulation of the ceiling and walls, and the better the heat insulating property, the less influenceby the outside air temperature.
For broilers, prevention measures against summer heat are the most important aspect ofmanagement. Above all, ventilation is a lifeline for chicks. Therefore, the duct is connected fromthe air blower during the extremely hot season, and the air is sent directly into the house. In thepeak of daytime heat, water is sprayed and the temperature in the house is lowered by the heatof vaporization. Death due to the heat is likely to occur in chickens that are grown enough to be
shipped soon. At that time, the temperature around the chicken body is about 5°C higher than the128room temperature. Heat death happens suddenly, so it is important to take measures early on a hotday.

7 Management in cold season
In an open type chicken house, measures against cold weather are required to prevent cold
winds blowing in the house with curtains or the like. Keep tightly closed but care must be taken sothat ventilation failure will not occur. In windowless chicken houses, the amount of ventilation issmaller, but be careful not to cause ventilation failure.

8 Health management of chickens
It is important to observe whether the raising chicken has dirty rump, weak legs, abnormal breathsounds, abnormal walking, or abnormalities of clinical symptoms. The following are required;Temperature, humidity, and ventilation suitable for the age of chicken breeds are well controlled;
ventilation suitable for the age and temperature (room temperature) is well controlled; and raisingarea suitable for the age is secured.
The manager observes the raising room every day to check the following; the presence ofabnormal and dead chickens; measurement of the temperature, humidity, and the amount ofventilation; whether feed and drinking water are properly supplied.

9 Egg collection to shipment
Most eggs are laid before noon. Work process of egg collection → grading → candling → egg
cleaning → shipment is carried out irrespective of the size and facility of the egg-producing chicken
farm and depending on whether or not machines such as automatic egg collector, automatic egg
grader, and egg cleaner are installed, it is divided into mechanical work and manual work.
It is important to collect eggs immediately after laying to avoid eggs hitting each other, injured
by chickens (egg eating habit) and getting eggs dirty (dirty rump). Generally, bad eggs such as
scratched and deformed ones are removed and the other eggs are collected with egg trays andshipped in containers. There are various methods, such as: cleaning and sorting eggs (grading
by weight) are done by farm households; using home-delivery service after packing and boxing;
selling directly to the consumer. Facilities in which egg collection line is connected to the GP center(a facility for egg collection, sorting, cleaning, and packing) adjacent to the egg production chickenhouse are called inline system.
Store the eggs before shipment in a place away from the chicken house, and control thetemperature in the storage to the level that dew condensation is not formed on the eggs, comparing
with the outside temperature. Keep the storage period as short as possible.
The operator must wash and disinfect hands before working. Collecting baskets, egg trays, andegg containers to be used must be cleaned and disinfected. It is necessary to check whether the egg
129collection tools/machines operate normally and to prepare properly. Inspect egg collection tools/
machines regularly and clean/disinfect them. In the case of manual collection, eggs are collected as
many times as possible every day to keep freshness.

 Shipment of young chickens (broilers) for meat
The chickens are provided with non-dosing feed (feed containing no antibacterial substances)for 7 days before shipment. If antibacterial substances are administered during raising, ensure thatthe shipment restricted period has passed. The lights should be on for 24 hours from 7 days before
shipment. Stop feeding from 12 hours before the scheduled processing time (feed withdrawal). Start
catching chickens to coincide with the time of shipment. While checking the remaining feed in thecrop, healthy and clean chickens are shipped by culling underdeveloped chickens and chickens
whose body surface is heavily contaminated.

 Maintenance and hygiene management of facilities and equipment
The facilities are chicken house, feed storage facility, compost storage facility, waste storage
facility, and incidental facility, and it is important that the facilities are located to be able to raise
the chickens hygienically. Day-to-day management is important so as not to cause damage andinconvenience in the facility and to avoid unsanitary conditions due to dust and dirt.

130

６

Others① Light breed horses
1 Health management（１）Body temperature (rectal temperature)
The normal temperature is 37.5 to 38.4°C. If the temperature is 38.5°C or higher, it isconsidered attack of fever.

（２）Limb check
The extremities are susceptible to bacterial infection and swelling, which may interfere withtraining. Observe carefully before and after grazing and training, and if there is a wound, It is
important to treat it as soon as possible.

2 Horseshoeing
・Horseshoes are put on to protect the hooves because they are easily worn away as the training

progresses.
・The frequency of replacement of horseshoes is generally from 3 weeks to 1 month.

3 Management of pasture（１）TrimmingAt the pasture, cleaning and cutting the grass are performed periodically to shorten the plantheight .
Horses like short grass and eat well, which leads to weed control.

（２）Hygiene management
Collect horse manure from the pasture and prevent the spread of parasites.

4 Points of feeding management（１）Management of breeding farm・Grazing management is generally carried out for mother horses and foals. In Hokkaido, the main

production area, the temperature is low in winter and there is a lot of snow. Therefore, grazing isdone only during the day, and horses are kept in the stable in other times, which is called daytime
grazing. In other seasons, they are kept in the stable only for a limited time period of the day131and grazing is done in other time periods, which is called day-and-night grazing, or nighttime
grazing.
・Concentrate feed is given at the time of confinement rearing, and the amount of the feed isincreased for mother horses during lactation or late pregnancy.
・Grazing is done in a group, but the foals after weaning are grazed separately according to sex.

Daytime grazingNighttime grazing（２）Management of yearling training farm・The amount of concentrate feed is increased according to the intensity of riding training.
・Horses that are highly trained for riding are fitted with horseshoes on their hooves, so they
are not grazed collectively to prevent injury by messing around. They are generally grazed
individually on a small pasture (paddock).

132

② Apiculture
1 Annual workflow (example)
Season Month１
WinterSpringSummer２

WinterChecking the honey in cells and temperature control in the hive
Checking the honey in cells, disinfecting and repairing the beekeeping equipment,
checking bees in the hive, and providing feed and medicine

３

Increase the number of combs and check bees in the hive

４

Increase the number of combs and check bees in the hive

５

Collect honey６

Collect honey７

Temperature control in the hive, providing feed and medicine

８

AutumnWork content

Temperature control in the hive, providing feed and medicine, reducing the numberof combs in the hive, and exterminating wasps

９

Feeding, reducing the number of combs in the hive, and exterminating wasps

10

Providing feed and medicine, storage of combs, and exterminating wasps

11

Feeding

12

Temperature control in the hive

※ wasps = enemies of honeybees

2 Clothes
When you check honeybees in a hive or collect honey, you should wear a veil (face protection),gloves, and bright clothes that hide your skin.

3 Beekeeping equipment（１）Smoker
It is used to blow smoke on honeybees and make them less aggressive. Linen cloth, paper,
fallen leaves, etc. are burned to smoke.

（２）Hive tool
It is an iron spatula and used to pull off the comb when it sticks to the hive.

133

（３）Bee brush
It is used to sweep honeybees out of a comb or a hive.

Bee brush

Veil

Hive tool
SmokerGlove

Beekeeping operation

4 Equipment for the production of honey（１）Uncapping knife
This is a knife used to thinly cut off the cappings (beeswax) in the comb when collecting
honey. It is used while being warmed with hot water, but there is also a electric heating type.

（２）Extractor
It is a machine to put in a honeycomb filled with honey whose cappings are removed androtate it to extract honey by centrifugal force.

（３）Honey strainer
It is used to remove debris from the honey when the honey is transferred from a extractor to a
storage container.

（４）Saccharimeter
It is used to measure the sugar concentration of honey.

134Extractor

Honey strainer

Uncapping knife

Saccharimeter

5 Extract honey

Calm the bees
with the smokefrom the smoker.
If you put it in an
extractor and turn itaround, honey will comeout from the bottom.
Take out the comb.
There are about 2000
bees on one comb.

Cut off the cappings.

Process of collecting honey135

If you strain it with a net,
it will be clean and pure
honey!

6 Using honeybees for agriculture
Bees visit flowers to get food, but they also carry pollen from flower to flower. As a result,honeybees are used at agricultural production sites where strawberries, melons, watermelons,cherries and so on are grown.

Bee carrying strawberry pollen

Hive set up in a strawberry greenhouse

136

７

Key points of management tasks and observation
on livestock (for practical examination)

In everyday work on a farm, it is important to master the correct way to work and to observe
livestock while learning from the administrator about the following things.

1 Cattle
・How to approach cows, how to draw, how to connect
・How to distinguish between healthy cows and weak cows
・Condition of hoofs and way of hoof cutting・Confirmation of the name and role of the facilities (compost board, silo, freebarn cowshed,freestall cowshed, milking parlor, etc.)
・Confirmation of names and roles of instruments and devices used for dairy cows
・Hygiene management at milking and how to attach and detach milkers
・Observation of the properties and condition of feces (how to distinguish normal feces fromdiarrhea / loose stools)・Confirmation of type and name of feed (difference between roughage and concentrate feed)・Difference between separate feeding of roughage / concentrate feed and total mixed ration(TMR)
・Order of feeding of roughage and concentrate feed in the separation feeding of dairy cattle
・Points of day-to-day management of trough and tanks
・Observation of signs of estrus
・How to castrate bulls
・How to dehorn cattle
・How to feed on calves
・How to distinguish between colostrum and usual milk・Confirmation of how to make a foot dip and how to pass through it

2 Pig farming
・How to guide pigs
・How to distinguish between healthy pigs and weak pigs
・Confirmation of type and name of feed・Raising method of newborn piglets
・Observation of the properties and condition of feces (how to distinguish normal feces fromdiarrhea / loose stools)
・How to castrate boars
・How to distinguish sow pigs and fattening pigs
・Observation and confirmation of normal teat arrangement
・Confirmation of shipping time and the size of pigs
137

・Pig breeds
・Observation of dressed carcass of a pig
・Confirmation of how to make a foot dip and how to pass through it

3 Chicken farming (egg-laying chicken)
・Observation of fecal properties and condition
・Sorting contaminated eggs
・How to arrange the hatching eggs in the egg seat of the incubator
・How to distinguish fertilized eggs
・How to distinguish between healthy chicks and weak chicks
・Development process of chicks
・Observation on the temperature and the state of flocking / dispersing of the chicks in thecontrol room
・How to distinguish between water supplier and feeder, and cleaning of them・Vaccination method
・Debeaking method・H ow to determine the nutritional and health condition of laying chickens (Method byobservation of pectoral muscle)
・Observation of egg laying by laying hens・How to use egg tray
・Confirmation of chicken breeds and egg color
・Determination of egg quality by egg breaking
・Confirmation of feed for chicks, middle-sized chicks, and adult chickens
・Confirmation of how to make a foot dip and how to pass through it138

4 Hygiene management
１．Confirmation of clothes when entering the barn (hat, gloves, work clothes, towels, boots)
２．Request people coming from outside the farm to have a vinyl boot cover attached.
３．Things to be checked (intrusion of birds or small animals such as rodents, whether mold grows
in silage, whether strangers are in the farm)
４．How to wear correctly protective clothing
５．How to dilute disinfectant solution
Hat
Mask

A hat with a brimis preferable

Protective eyewear

Wear a mask for weighing,adjusting, and spraying

Use goggle type whichtightly adheres to theface

Rubber gloves
Cover your gloves withthe long sleeves of yourcoat

Protective clothing
Wear protective clothingwith long sleeves and longpants

Rubber boots
To prevent chemicals fromentering the clothes, cover yourwork shoes with the cuffs ofyour pants.

139

８

Questions for confirmation

For the following questions, answer ○ if it is correct, and × if it is incorrect＜ Cattle ＞
１．It is necessary to always keep the tank and water cup clean.

（）

２．Because dairy cows stretch their neck and consume feed, sweeping of feedin the trough is not necessary.

（）

３．Even on hot summer days, the body temperature of a cow does not exceed 39°C.

（）

４．When a cow has diarrhea, dirt is attached to the entire tail.

（）

５．Do not over milk (machine stripping).

（）

６．After completion of milking, detach teat cups from the teats one by one.

（）

７．A cow becomes restless when it gets estrus.

（）

１．If keeping piglets warm is inadequate, accidental deaths due to being squashed often
occur.
（）

２．Piglets are weak to cold, whereas grown-up pigs are weak to heat.

（）

３．Cleaning boots is not necessary if there is a foot dip.

（）

４．There is one type of synthetic milk for piglets.

（）

５．To prevent bad odor from the piggery, it is necessary not to hoard excreta in the piggery.（）＜ Pigs ＞＜ Chicken ＞
１．If you find a dead bird near a chicken house, immediately discard it in a garbage bucket.（）

２．Since ventilation tends to be poor with raising a large number of birds, be careful about
respiratory diseases.
（）

３．It is important to have the chickens drink warm water on hot summer days.

（）

４．At the period of the middle-sized chicks, some chicks attack others with their beaks. （）

５．The meat chicken (broiler) is allowed to be fed formula feeds containing antibiotics until
the day before shipment.
（

）

140

Answers＜ Cattle ＞
１．○
２．×（Reason: Sweep feeds to where cows can eat easily.）
３．×（Reason: When the temperature is around 30°C, the rectal temperature will be 40°C.）
４．○５．○
６．×（Reason: Detach the four teat cups from the teat at the same time.）
７．○＜ Pigs ＞
１．○
２．○
３．×（Reason: After washing away dirt such as mud attached to boots, disinfecting is done withfoot dips.）
４．×（Reason: The synthetic milk is selected according to the growth of the piglet and fed.）
５．○＜ Chicken ＞
１．×（Reason: I nform the farmer to pay attention to highly pathogenic avian influenza, andnotifying the Livestock hygiene service center or the like is necessary.）２．○
３．×（Reason: To have the chickens drink cold water on hot summer days is important.）
４．○
５．×（Reason: F eed containing antibiotics must not be fed to chickens for 7 days before
slaughter.）141

<Reference> Terms of animal husbandry often used in daily work
＜ Cattle ＞

Esa (in Japanese)	���������� means feed.
Feeding	���������������������������� giving feed to livestock.
Choosy eating of feed	���� Livestock eat only the favorite feeds in the trough and leave the disliked
feeds, also called selective eating.
Staphylococcus aureus	��� Bacteria that cause mastitis which is difficult to cure if it grows in thepapilla.
Dry matter intake	����������� Feed without moisture is called dry matter, and the amount (kg) of dry
matter ingested per day is referred to as dry matter intake.
Herd test	�������������������������� This system checks the milk yield, milk quality, breeding status, etc. of
the cows in the farm once a month.
Stop eating	���������������������� Condition that the intake of a cow suddenly decreases.
Non-pregnant days	������� Number of days from delivery to conception.
Close-up period	������������� Refers to the second half of the dry period of dairy cattle. The periodof three weeks immediately before delivery. It is also called perinatal
period.
Foot-and-mouth disease	���� An acute communicable disease having strong infectivity that cause
water blisters on the mucosal membranes of the nose and mouth andon the skin of the hoof, caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus. It is
designated as a legal infectious disease.
Litter	��������������������������������� Materials used to give comfort to livestock as well as to promotecomposting of excreta, and as litter, sawdust, chaff, and wheat straw
are often used. To put the litter out of the barn is called borodashi inJapanese.
Colostrum	����������������������� Milk that appears in the first several days after delivery.
Artificial insemination	�� For the purpose of pregnancy, inject semen artificially into female
reproductive organs.
Stress	������������������������������� Refers to the condition that livestock suffer spiritual pain.
Abomasum displacement	��� A disease in which the position of the abomasum changes to the left or
right from the normal position, the feeding amount reduces and the milkyield decreases.
Laminitis	�������������������������� A disease that the hooves of a cow are congested accompanied bysevere pain and movement disorder.
Embryo replacement	���� To inject embryos (fertilized eggs) artificially into female reproductive
organs for the purpose of pregnancy.
Estrus	������������������������������� A state that a female allow male to mate. At the time of this estrus,
artificial insemination is performed.
Rumination	���������������������� A motion in which cattle bring up bolus of feed from the first stomach(rumen), masticate (mash with teeth), and swallow again.
Solids (Butsu in Japanese)	��� Miscellaneous small and large clusters contained in milk of mastic cow.
Delivery 	��������������������������� Refer to a calf is born.
142

Delivery interval	������������� Regarding cows that have experienced two or more deliveries, refer tothe interval between the latest delivery date and the previous delivery
date.
Nursing	���������������������������� The period between immediately after delivery and weaning when
supplying liquid feeds.
Body condition	�������������� Numerical expression of the accumulation condition of subcutaneousfat, it is used as a basis for judgment of overweight or underweight oflivestock. The greater the value, the more fat accumulated.
Mega farm	����������������������� refers to a very large enterprise farm.
TDN	����������������������������������� The total amount of nutrients in feed, the feed whose value is high has
high energy content.

＜ Pigs ＞
Wet feeding	��������������������� A method of mixing feed and water and feeding it in a kneaded state.
Esa (in Japanese)	���������� means feed.
Feeding	���������������������������� giving feed to livestock.
First feeding	������������������� Refers to giving newborn piglets feed for the first time after birth;
synthetic milk is used for this purpose.
Ogako piggery	��������������� A piggery where feces, urine, and litter remain unseparated.
Stop eating	���������������������� Condition that the intake of a pig suddenly decreases.
Three-crossbred pig	����� A method of breeding hybrid pigs using three varieties or three breeds.
It is bred by crossing the third variety male to the offspring (female)between two varieties.
Litter	��������������������������������� Materials used to give comfort to livestock as well as to promotecomposting of excreta, and as litter, sawdust, chaff, and wheat straw areoften used.
Colostrum	����������������������� Milk that appears in the first several days after delivery.
Synthetic milk	���������������� Feed given to piglets during the nursing period, there is synthetic milk
A that is fed until weighing up to 10 kg and synthetic milk B that is fed
weighing up to 30 kg afterwards.
PRRS	�������������������������������� Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
PED	����������������������������������� Swine epidemic diarrhea
SPF pig	����������������������������� A pig having no specific pathogen.Sow pigs that are the basis of SPF
pigs are made by hand raising of the piglets directly extracted from thewomb of the mother pig by caesarean section.
(Note) Fattening pigs, sow pigs, mother pigs, and boar pigs are also referred to as “hiiku buta,”“hanshoku buta,” “haha buta,” and “tane buta,” respectively.

143

＜ Chicken ＞
Brooding	�������������������������� raising hatched chicks.
Esa (in Japanese)	���������� means feed.
Feeding	���������������������������� iving feed to livestock.
	������� Condition of eating a lot or eating a little.
Bait eating(Esagui in Japanese)
Smoothing feed 	������������ Smooth the raw materials for feed in the trough.
First feeding	������������������� Refers to giving chicks feed for the first time after hatching. For chicks,
give feed by kneading with water.
Molting	����������������������������� Development of new feathers and dropping of old feathers, referred toas substitution. It is seen from the late summer to autumn. Resting iscommon in laying hens.
Cannibalism	�������������������� Group feeding chickens are affected by an adverse environment or
malnutrition, and the chickens take actions of pecking each other.
Sometimes a chicken kills others.
Warming	��������������������������� To keep warming the room raising chicks.
Grid	����������������������������������� Pebbles grinding cereals in the stomach (gizzard) of a chicken.
Chickens for practical use	���� Also called commercial chickens. A chicken with high egg laying
performance and high flesh quality, commonly spread chickens.
Jidori chicken	����������������� Unlike practical chicken broilers, it is a traditional variety in the area
and is a chicken used to produce high quality chicken meat.
Debeaking	����������������������� Burning out a half of the chicken’s upper and lower beaks. This isperformed to prevent butt pecking and feather eating after the middlesized chick stage. It is also called debeak.
Pecking order	����������������� Grouped chickens take offensive action such as attacking the other party
with the beak and jumping higher to give a kick to other party. This is
an instinctive action to determine ranking among individuals, which
maintains the order of social life.
Raising at high density	���� To accommodate more chickens than the number of birds to be(Mitsugai in Japanese) accommodated in a certain area. This adversely affects the healthcondition of chickens.

144

Support project to properly accept foreigners for agricultural support

Agricultural Skill Assessment Test
Text: General livestock farming
English Edition
Published by National Chamber of Agriculture, October 2019
Chuorodokijunkyokai Bldg. 9-8 Nibancho,Chiyoda-ku,Tokyo,Japan 102-0084
Dedicated Website http://asat-nca.jp/◎ All rights reserved