The Premier Event for Sensing and Imaging Technologies– DEFENSE + SECURITY– SENSING TECHNOLOGY + APPLICATIONS2015
TECHNICALSUMMARIES•
WWW.SPIE.ORG/DSS

Conferences & Courses
20–24 April 2015

Baltimore Convention Center
Baltimore, Maryland, USA

DSS EXPO
21–23 April 2015

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1Two Major Symposia.
SYMPOSIUM CHAIR

Nils Sandell Jr.

SYMPOSIUM
CO-CHAIR

Director, Strategic
Technology Office/DARPA(USA)David A. LoganSYMPOSIUM CHAIRSYMPOSIUM
CO-CHAIRSENSORS, IMAGING, AND OPTICS FOR A SAFER WORLDContinues 25+ years of being the leading conference on
imaging and sensing technologies used to help create asafer world.

Wolfgang Schade

Clausthal Univ. of Technology
and Fraunhofer HeinrichHertz Institute (Germany)

Vice President andGeneral Manager ofTechnology Solutions,
BAE Systems

Ming C. Wu

Electrical Engineering& Computer Sciences,
University of California,
Berkeley (USA)COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND CONSUMER SENSORS

Focused on commercial sensing and imaging topics
and further development of technologies with
consumer applications.

DSS STEERING COMMITTEE

Barbara D. Broome

Michael T. Eismann

Kevin G. Harding

Robert Lieberman

David A. Whelan

Kenneth R. Israel

U.S. Army Research Lab(USA)

Air Force Research Lab (USA)

Lumoptix, LLC (USA)2

SPIE DSS 2015

Boeing Defense, Space, andSecurity (USA)·www.spie.org/dss

GE Global Research (USA)Lockheed Martin Corp.
(USA)

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“Excellent conference and an important eventto meet researchers discovering and creating
the future in optics and photonics.”
2014 DSS Exhibitor

Contents
DEFENSE + SECURITY ABSTRACTSSENSING TECHNOLOGY + APPLICATIONS ABSTRACTS

Infrared Technology and Applications XLI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, andTesting XXVI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9453 Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36
9454 Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects, andObscured Targets XX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  429455 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives(CBRNE) Sensing XVI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  56
9456 Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, andIntelligence (C3I) Technologies for Homeland Security, Defense,and Law Enforcement Applications XIV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  659457 Biometric and Surveillance Technology for Human and
Activity Identification XII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9458 Cyber Sensing 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  809459 Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  84
9460 Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR)
Systems and Applications XII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  94
9461A Radar Sensor Technology XIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9461B Active and Passive Signatures VI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1129462 Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1169463 Motion Imagery: Standards, Quality, and Interoperability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
9464 Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability, Integration, andNetworking for Persistent ISR VI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9465A Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9465B Atmospheric Propagation XII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9466 Laser Technology for Defense and Security XI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9467 Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII. . . . . .  1519468 Unmanned Systems Technology XVII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9469 Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9470A Display Technologies and Applications for Defense, Security,and Avionics IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9470B Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XX: Design and Applications . . . . . . . 198
9471 Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced, Synthetic, andExternal Vision Solutions 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2029472 Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral,and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2079473 Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V. . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9474 Signal Processing, Sensor/Information Fusion, andTarget Recognition XXIV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2289475 Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
9476 Automatic Target Recognition XXV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9477 Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2569478 Modeling and Simulation for Defense Systems and Applications X. . . . . . .  2629479 Open Architecture/Open Business Model Net-Centric Systems
and Defense Transformation 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  267

Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Image Sensing Technologies: Materials, Devices, Systems, andApplications II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2799482 Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2909483 Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems IX:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3039484 Compressive Sensing IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
9485 Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9486 Advanced Environmental, Chemical, and Biological
Sensing Technologies XII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
9487 Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII. . . . . . . . . . . . .  3429488 Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
9489 Dimensional Optical Metrology and Inspection for Practical
Applications IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3629490 Advances in Global Health through Sensing Technologies 2015. . . . . . . . . .  3689491 Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
9492 Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
9493 Energy Harvesting and Storage: Materials, Devices, andApplications VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3899494A Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3969494B Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired Computation:
Theory and Applications IX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9495 Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . 404
9496 Independent Component Analyses, Compressive Sampling,
Large Data Analyses (LDA), Neural Networks, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9497 Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing, Security, andApplications 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4239498 Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion: Architectures,
Algorithms, and Applications 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4329499 Next-Generation Analyst III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4369500 Quantum Information and Computation XIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4439501 Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing XI. . . . . . . .  455

9451
9452

9480
9481

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SPIE would like to express its deepest appreciation to the symposium chairs,
conference chairs, program committees, session chairs, and authors who haveso generously given their time and advice to make this symposium possible.
The symposium, like our other conferences and activities, would not be possible
without the dedicated contribution of our participants and members. This
program is based on commitments received up to the time of publication andis subject to change without notice.

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3Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
Monday - Thursday 20–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9451 Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-1, Session 1

Improved sensitivity performance of SWIR
imager in a multispectral VIS/SWIR zoom
camera for long-range surveillance tasks
Martin Huebner, Bertram Achtner, Michael Kraus, Mario O.
Muenzberg, Airbus DS Optronics GmbH (Germany)In the paper we will report on the performances of the algorithms at
different environmental conditions (up to 70° case temperature). The
residual FPN of the TrueNUC model is compared to calibrations optimized
for a fixed integration time and detector temperature. For the TrueNUC
model a typical residual FPN of <1% is obtained (at 25°C) over the complete
integration time range from 100us to 40ms, both in high and low gain.
Finally we will illustrate the capabilities of the algorithms in different
applications.

The discussed multispectral sensor suite consists of an HD-TV camera
for the visible spectral range and a SWIR camera channel for imaging in
combination with an integrated laser range finder all through one common
entrance pupil. The sensor suite is deveoloped for long ranging surveillance
applications.

9451-3, Session 1

A significant reduction of the noise equivalent irradiance (NEI) of the SWIR
imager in the multispectral VIS/SWIR sensor suite has been reached by apitch reduction and corresponding optics F-number reduction of the SWIR
channel. The pitch has been reduced from 20µm to 15µm and the F-number
from F/7.0 to F/5.25, respectively. The visible channel has an F-number of
F/2.6 with an 11- times optical zoom and provides the same field of view andfocus position as the SWIR camera with the reduced pitch.

Ethan J. D. Klem, Christopher W. Gregory, Dorota S.
Temple, Jay S. Lewis, RTI International (United States)

The contributions from the pitch dependent dark current and read out noiselevels in combination with the reduced F-number, increasing the resulting
signal to noise ratio (SNR), are discussed.
The optical coating designs of the two multispectral beamsplitters forthe separation of the visual (450nm – 680nm) from the SWIR spectral
wavelength range (900nm – 1700 nm) and the separation of the included
laser rangefinder (LRF) receiver channel at 1.57nm center wavelength has
been significantly improved in transmission and spectral separation.

9451-2, Session 1

Smart onboard image enhancement
algorithms for SWIR day and night vision
cameraJo Das, Koen Vanhoof, Guy Gielis, Benedict Gouverneur,
Pieter D. Deroo, Xenics NV (Belgium); Raf L. P.
Vandersmissen, sInfraRed Pte. Ltd. (Singapore); Jan P.
Vermeiren, Xenics NV (Belgium); Patrick J. Merken, Xenics
NV (Belgium) and Royal Military Academy (Belgium)
SWIR imaging based on InGaAs based FPA’s is well suited for passive or
active day and night vision applications in different weather conditions,
including surveillance, defense or fire-fighting. Xenics developed the Rufus
camera, based on a 640 x 512 pixel resolution FPA. In order to achieve thebest performance over a large span of lighting conditions, different smart
algorithms are implemented onboard.

This combination of high performance, dramatic cost reduction, andmulti-band sensitivity is ideally suited to expand the use of SWIR imaging
in current applications, as well as to address applications which require a
multispectral sensitivity not met by existing technologies.

9451-4, Session 1

InGaAs focal plane array developments
and perspectives

The auto-exposure algorithm optimizes the integration time in order toposition the image histogram at a given user-controlled brightness level.
Moreover the algorithm can also switch automatically between different
gain modes. At the same time a TrueNUC algorithm is calculating the nonuniformity correction. This correction depends on the detector temperatureand integration time, because of the variable dark current of the InGaAs
diodes. After the image correction and auto-exposure, further image
enhancement is done by additional auto-gain and histogram equalization
algorithms. Depending on the application, the user can modify several
parameters of the algorithms, e.g. the maximal allowed stretching, theoutput histogram position and equalization strength.

SPIE DSS 2015

RTI has developed a photodiode technology based on solution-processed
PbS colloidal quantum dots (CQD). These devices are capable of providing
low-cost, high performance detection across the Vis-SWIR spectral range.
At the core of this technology is a heterojunction diode structure fabricatedusing techniques well suited to wafer-scale fabrication, such as spin coating
and thermal evaporation. This enables RTI’s CQD diodes to be processedat room temperature directly on top of read-out integrated circuits (ROIC),
without the need for the hybridization step required by traditional SWIR
detectors. Additionally, the CQD diodes can be fabricated on ROICs
designed for other detector material systems, effectively allowing rapid
prototype demonstrations of CQD focal plane arrays at low cost and on awide range of pixel pitches and array sizes.
We will show the results of fabricating CQD arrays directly on top ofcommercially available ROICs. Specifically, the ROICs are a 640 x 512 pixel
format with 15 µm pitch, originally developed for InGaAs detectors. We
will show that minor modifications to the surface of these ROICs makethem suitable for use with our CQD detectors. Once completed, these
FPAs are then assembled into a demonstration camera and their imaging
performance is evaluated. In addition, we will discuss recent advances
in device architecture and processing resulting in devices with room
temperature dark currents of 2-5 nA/cm^2 and sensitivity from 350 nm to
1.7 µm.

First electro-optical results of the improved multispectral sensor suite are
discussed and compared with the original design.

4

Low-cost SWIR imaging: demonstration ofa colloidal quantum dot focal plane array·

Anne Rouvié, Jérôme Coussement, Odile Huet, JeanPatrick Truffer, Maxime Pozzi, El-Houcine Oubensaid,
Sébastien Hamard, Vincent Chaffraix, Eric M. Costard,
SOFRADIR (France)
SWIR spectral band is an attractive domain thanks to its intrinsic properties.
Close to visible wavelengths, SWIR images interpretation is made easierfor field actors. Besides complementary information can be extracted from
SWIR band and bring significant added value in several fields of applications
such as defense and security (night vision, active imaging), space (earth
observation), transport (automotive safety) or industry (non destructive
process control).

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLIAmong the various new technologies able to detect SWIR wavelengths,
InGaAs appears as a key technology. Initially developed for opticaltelecommunications, this material guaranties performances, stability andreliability and is compatible with attractive production capacity. Thanks
to high quality material, very low dark current levels can be achieved atambient temperature. Then uncooled operation can be set up, allowing
compact and low power systems.

Nighttime imaging: moonless starlight conditions
1064nm laser imaging: daytime imaging out to 2Km

9451-102, Session 1

Extended wavelength SWIR detectors with
reduced dark current

Since the recent transfer of InGaAs imaging activities from III-Vlab, Sofradir
provides a framework for the production activity with the manufacturing ofhigh performances products: CACTUS320 SW. The developments towards
VGA format with 15µm pixel pitch, lead today to the industrialization of anew product: SNAKE. On one side, the InGaAs detection array presents highperformances in terms of dark current and quantum efficiency. On the otherside, the low noise ROIC has different additional functionalities. Then this
640x512 @ 15µm sensor appears as well suited to answer the needs of awide range of applications.

Noam Cohen, Ori Aphek, Israel Aerospace Industry (Israel)
Most SWIR sensing applications are limited to cutoff wavelength of 1.7µm atroom temperature due to the energy gap of InGaAs alloy lattice matched to
InP. Nevertheless, there is an increasing demand for detectors with extended
cutoff wavelength of up to 2.5µm for various applications. Due to system
requirements those detector should be operated at near room temperature
conditions. The high temperature operation requirement limits the use ofhigh Indium content alloys, since those alloys are strained related to the InP
substrate and exhibit high dark current and poor uniformity, or even SWIR
MCT – both of which need significant cooling.

In this paper, we will present the Sofradir InGaAs technology, theperformances of our last product SNAKE and the perspectives of InGaAs
new developments.

In this paper we will present some comparative methods for evaluation ofextended wavelength SWIR detectors with reduced dark current, working
at near room temperature. Those types of detectors can be based on lattice
matched alloys consist of type II superlattice, as well as other advanced
structures, expected to have better uniformity and utilized for variety of
SWIR based applications.

9451-5, Session 1

Low light level CMOS sensor for nightvision camera
Elad Gross, Ran Ginat, Ofer Nesher, Elbit Systems Ltd(Israel)

9451-8, Session 2

For many years image intensifier tubes were used for night vision systems.

Semi-scanning single sensor omnidirectional observation system (Invited
Paper)

Elbit developed a low light level CMOS sensor with similar sensitivity to Gen
2 image intensifier, down to starlight illumination conditions.
In this work we describe the basic principle behind this sensor, the physicalmodel, performance and result from field testing.

Yan Itovich, Dan V. Regelman, Rafael Advanced Defense
Systems Ltd. (Israel)

In addition a theoretical and experimental comparison between other nightvision technologies will be shown.

A novel omni-directional observation system concept is presented. The
observation system resembles a scanning system in the sense that it enjoys
high spatial resolution at the expense of temporal resolution. However, thefocal plane array (FPA) and objective optics are static, the unique scanning
concept ensures no smearing during the exposures and no `dead-time`
between the exposures of the individual sectors although the moving parts
are all moving continuously at constant angular velocity. The same method
enables double-spectral sequential observation without a significant
additional complexity to the system. Thus, the suggested observation
system is well suited for all application requiring high spatial resolutionomni-directional images where the FPA’s are expensive and their numberof pixels is limited. One important example is SWIR Maritime Situational
Awareness (MSA) and Maritime Obstacle Detection (MOD). Implementationof the general concept at SWIR MSA and MOD system suited for Unmanned
Surface Vehicle (USV) is discussed.

9451-6, Session 1

IR CMOS: the digital nightvision solution
to sub-1 mLux imaging
Martin U. Pralle, James E. Carey III, Chris J. Vineis, SiOnyx
Inc. (United States)
SiOnyx has demonstrated imaging at light levels below 1 mLux at 60
FPS with a 720P CMOS image sensor in a compact, low latency camera.
The camera contains a 1 inch (16 mm) optical format sensor and streams
uncompressed video over CameraLink with row wise image latency below
1 msec. Sub mLux imaging is enabled by the combination of enhanced
quantum efficiency in the near infrared together with state of the art
low noise image sensor design. The quantum efficiency enhancement isachieved by utilizing SiOnyx’s proprietary ultrafast laser semiconductor
processing technology that enhances the absorption of light within a thinpixel layer. Our technology demonstrates 10 fold improvements in infraredsensitivity over incumbent imaging technology while maintaining complete
compatibility with standard CMOS image sensor process flows. Applications
include surveillance, nightvision, and 1064nm laser see spot. Imaging
performance metrics will be discussed.

The system comprised of an inverted multi-faceted pyramidal prismoriented such that each facet reflects an image of a field of view facing it
towards the apex of the pyramid. Two discs containing apertures locatedbeneath the apex of the pyramid rotate at the same angular velocity in
opposite directions, and an optical arrangement under the disks is arranged
to focus light passing through apertures in both disks onto the FPA detector.
The apertures in the disks and their angular velocities are adjusted such thatapertures in both disks align to allow the image from only one facet at atime to fall on the detector. In one complete revolution of the disks images
from all facets fall on the detector; thereby providing a plurality of images
that can be combined to form a panoramic view of the surroundings of thesystem.

Demonstrated performance characteristics:
Pixel size : 5.6 & 10 um
Array size: 720P/1.3Mpix
Frame rate: 60 Hz
Read noise: 2 ele/pixel
Spectral sensitivity: 400 to 1200 nm (with 10x QE at 1064nm)
Daytime imaging: color (Bayer pattern)

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5Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-10, Session 2

9451-11, Session 3

Maritime piracy: design of an infraredmultiple cameras system for short-range
detection and targeting (Invited Paper)

Opportunities and future trends for Navy
shipboard imaging systems
James R. Waterman, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Dominique Maltese, Olivier Reichert, Sagem Défense
Sécurité (France)
Naval piracy acts as those that occurred recently in Gulf of Aden near
Somalia turn out to be a new threat for commercial ships. Consequently, theimplementation of protecting systems to face these acts (soft kill actions)becomes now inevitable and a real challenge. In a near future, commercial
ships that are sailing in dangerous areas (straits…) will have to possess
more and more dedicated detection and countering capabilities to facecoordinated attacks from pirates in different short-range scenarios andenvironments (open sea, coastal backgrounds…).
In this paper, it is discussed a practical example of a module composedof multiple non-collocated COTS passive sensors and focused on thesurveillance of the ship neighboring and its means to detect and track
such maritime threats. The surveillance module presented hereafter takes
advantage of SAGEM Company experience in naval applications. The paper
puts forward the detection process (image processing and 3D tracking). The
module is planned to be combined with other ones (radar, electro-optics
sensors suites) through a data fusion process to provide the ship with full 3D
coverage in its vicinity.
To conclude, results of detection scenarios are provided. Data have beenregistered during sea trials dedicated to very short range threats. Results
highlight how the module detects and tracks the threats. They also put
forward how module performances are improved by implementing specificprocesses such as track fusion.

9451-9, Session 3

Considerations for opto-mechanical versus
digital stabilization in surveillance systems(Invited Paper)David Kowal, CONTROP Precision Technologies Ltd.
(Israel)Electro-optical surveillance and reconnaissance systems are frequently
mounted on unstable or vibrating platforms such as vehicles, aircraft andmasts. Mechanical coupling between the platform and the cameras leads toangular vibration of the line of sight, and a reduction in system performance.
Image motion during the detector integration time leads to image smear
and a resulting loss of resolution. Additional effects are image smear due toimage motion during the integration time of the eye and annoying jumps ofthe image. A good stabilization system should yield sub-pixel stabilization
errors and meet cost and size requirements.
There are two families of LOS stabilization methods: opto-mechanicalstabilization and electronic stabilization. Each family, or a combinationof both, can be implemented by a number of different techniques ofvarying complexity, size and cost leading to different levels of stabilization.
Opto-mechanial stabilization is typically based on gyro readings, whereas
electronic stabilization is typically based on gyro readings or image
registration calculations. A few common stabilization techniques as well as
options for different gimbal arrangements will be described and analyzed.
The relative merits and drawbacks of the different techniques and theirapplicability to specific systems and environments will be discussed, with anemphasis on systems designed for naval use.
Over the years Controp has developed a large number of stabilized
electro-optical payloads. A number of payloads with unique stabilization
mechanisms will be described.

This paper will examine the potential impact of emerging imaging related
technologies on shipboard situational awareness and targeting systems.
We will discuss the role of new imaging sensor chips, optical systems,
automated detection and classification algorithms, image processing, userinterfaces, and display technology in providing leap-ahead capability for
imaging in the maritime environment. The challenges associated with thatenvironment and constraints associated with shipboard operation will beconsidered.

9451-12, Session 4

Future of clip-on weapon sights: pros andcons from an applications perspective
Glen L. Francisco, C. Reed Knight Jr., Ken Greenslade,
Knight’s Armament Co. (United States)
Clip-On Weapon Sight Technology was deemed an interim solution by the
US Government for use until integrated and integrated fused (day/night)
Weapon Sights were developed/fielded. Clip-On has become the solutionof choice by Users and finally the US Government. Through progressive
advances in Clip-On Image Intensified (I2), passive thermal, LL-CMOS andfused I2 &/or LL-CMOS plus thermal capabilities, SWAP-C for weapon sightsthat are now no longer position sensitive (maintaining aim point boresight)
weapon sights are being used at longer ranges, increased capabilities using
networked accessible decision making.
Active low-light level (both analog I2 and digital LL-CMOS) imaging isrightfully a real-world technology, proven to bring daytime and low-lightlevel identification confidence. Passive thermal imaging is rightfully a realworld technology, proven to bring daytime, nighttime and all-weather target
detection confidence. Image processing detection algorithms with intelligent
analytics has provided proven promise to improve confidence by reducing
user work-loads and improving overall system engagement solution
outcomes. In order to understand the future of clip-on weapon sights,
including pros and cons, this paper starts with a brief review of historical
weapon sight applications, technologies and stakeholder decisions driving
milestone events that helped shape the clip-on weapon history. Then, thispaper systematically reviews current attributes of integrated multispectral
wavelength electro-optical imaging systems that are being successfully(and unsuccessfully) used to shape today’s User’s net-capabilities. Finally,
this paper will explore the pros and cons of future clip-on weapon sights
for tomorrow’s military solider and paramilitary first responder, from a realworld applications perspective.

9451-13, Session 4

Development of an infrared ultracompact multichannel camera integrated
in a SOFRADIR’s detector Dewar cooler
assembly
Florence de la Barrière, Guillaume Druart, Nicolas
Guérineau, Aurélien Plyer, ONERA (France); Gilles
Lasfargues, Eric D. de Borniol, Commissariat à l’Énergie
Atomique (France); Serge Magli, SOFRADIR (France)
We present a prototype of an infrared cryogenic camera directly integrated
inside an off-the-shelf SOFRADIR’s Detector Dewar Cooler Assembly andwhose field of view is equal to 120°. Based on the co-design principle

6

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-17, Session 5

between optical design and image processing, we have designed amultichannel lens that produces four non-redundant images on a single
SCORPIO detector of format 640x512 and with a pixel pitch of 15µm. This
leads to an ultra-miniaturized optical system with a greatly decrease of
the additional optical and mechanical mass to be cooled. By this way, thecool-down time of the camera is comparable to the one of an equivalent
DDCA without an imagery function. With a superresolution algorithm, thefour images produced by the camera are combined to restitute a single
full-resolution image with an equivalent sampling pitch equal to 7.5µm.
The performances of this camera will be presented with experimental
characterizations and, finally, the adaptation of this camera to a Daphnis
detector with a format of 1280x720 and a pixel pitch of 10µm will be
discussed.

Passive electro optical countercountermeasures
Ariela Donval, Tali Fisher, Moshe Oron, KiloLambda
Technologies, Ltd. (Israel)
Today’s modern warfare relies heavily on optical sensors for information
gathering. Optical equipment is used by the military personal for many
purposes, e.g. observation, navigation, fire control, and reconnaissance.
The laser, on the other hand, is a powerful countermeasure against opticalequipment, particularly the detectors and is used to disable optical sensors,
including the human eye when using direct vision, e.g. through a sight,
exposed to damaging laser light. Protection of the sensors and human eyes
has to be developed and fielded widely.

9451-14, Session 4

With the development of more powerful lasers for military applications,
optical limiters and blockers are required for providing human eye andoptical sensors protection. In some scenarios, laser radiation may seriouslyinterrupt the signal, from transient saturation and can lead to permanent
damage. The problem exists in imaging sensors comprising of CCDs andother matrix detectors, human eyes or other imaging and non-imaging
sensors in the visible and the IR range. A common option is to use a notch
filter to remove a narrow band of wavelengths. However, these types offilters block power at a specific wavelength regardless of the power leveland versatility of the damaging laser. The availability of wavelength agile
lasers makes this strategy useless. The major drawbacks of this solution arethat the color impression may be affected and that the protection is limited
to specific wavelengths only, whereas the threats can exist in any other laser
wavelengths. Smart protection is needed, a filter that is transparent for low
input intensities and limit or block the high input intensities, and is effective
over a wide band of wavelengths.

Spin scan tomographic infrared imager
Harald Hovland, Norwegian Defence Research
Establishment (Norway)
A novel imaging device based on tomographic reconstruction is presented.
The imager is based on rotating an image of the scene onto a linear
detector array, and then reconstructiong a 2-dimensional image from thedetector array signal using tomographic reconstruction techniques. Similar
in many ways to the conical scan tomographic scanning (TOSCA) imager,
the spin scan TOSCA imager features several improvements compared to its
predecessors, mainly because the linear array covers the whole scene andhence in principle can collect 100% of the incoming photons. In addition
to presenting the theory behind the device and its sensitivity to noise,nonuniformity and errors, an experimental uncooled mid-wave infrared
imager demonstrator is also presented, together with images and videos
of test targets, both the final result as well as the incremental steps in theimaging reconstruction process.

In a 2003 publication by the US National research council, named “Materials
research to meet the 21th century defense needs”(Ref1) the following isstated: “Optical Limiting Materials: Progress in compact laser systems madelaser weapons possible, but it is a challenging task to protect sensors andeyes from laser light damage because there is a wide range of laser systems
with different temporal and spectral characteristics”.

9451-16, Session 5

Minimising blooming in MWIR missile
launch systems

This was an invitation to develop electro-optic counter-countermeasure
EOCCM to mitigate the damage that can be inflected on optical andelectrooptical sights, thus maintaining its operational value. As laser
countermeasures proliferate around the world, infantry, aircrews andelectro-optic sensors are at risk of being engaged with little to no warning.
A laser countermeasure can adversely affect targeting and navigation
functions by jamming or ‘spoofing’ the sensor through laser illumination(transient performance degradation) or by damaging the sensor throughmore intense laser illumination (permanent performance degradation). The
laser can also be used to detect and track an otherwise covert electro-optic
target by sensing retro-reflections off the target optics.

Patrick R. Body, TECNOBIT (Spain)
Due to the enormous differences in the radiance between standard scenes
and the missile plume, MWIR missile launch systems have always sufferedfrom launch blindness due to blooming. Although most IR detector
manufacturers now include anti-blooming functions this does not solve theproblem of large scale image saturation at the integration times required toclearly see the rest of the scene including the targets. This paper presents a
low latency technique that has been developed to minimise this effect whichallows an ACLOS system to maintain sight of the target and the missile bodysimultaneously permitting it to take control of wire guided missiles within
the first few seconds of flight.

KiloLambda technologies took this challenge as a goal and developed afamily of passive, nanotechnology based, protection filters for continuousand pulsed lasers that are effective in a very wide spectral region using asingle filter, thus hardening optical sights on various platforms. This paper
presents a non-linear, solid-state passive wideband optical protection
filters (WPF). These filters have advantages over fixed spectral filters,
which permanently block only specific wavelengths, the wideband filter istransparent at all wavelengths until it is hit by damaging light. We present
work in continuation of our special design WPF suitable for dual-band
wavelength range, which protects in the near as well as in the mid IR fromlaser threats.

The presentation explains the physics behind the causes of the blooming
and includes images and videos showing the effects using traditional
systems. These are then contrasted with images and videos showing theeffect of the anti-blooming process on the MWIR images. Also shown are
LWIR images of the same scene as a control since LWIR detectors do not
traditionally suffer from this problem.
Standard MWIR detectors and optics are used at all times so the process canbe adapted to existing systems without any major redesign being necessary.
Although specifically developed to overcome launch blindness, thetechnique can also be used to increase system sensitivity in high contrast
scenes such as above and below the horizon increasing system performanceand detectivity ranges. Images and videos of this application are also
shown.

9451-18, Session 5

Daylight coloring for monochrome infrared
imagery
James Gabura, Raytheon ELCAN Optical Technologies(Canada)Return to Contents+1 360 676 3290·

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7

Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
Is it possible to create daylight colored imagery from a monochrome
infrared sensor? Under difficult seeing conditions it may be hard togenerate a useful image in the visible light range. Even if a visible lightimage is generated under such circumstances it is often low in contrast.
By distinction, infrared imagery is very useful for enhancing night visibility
or for penetrating fog and smoke. Previous approaches to colorizingnighttime imagery have utilized either an intensified visible-light imager
where the luminances of the source are similar to those in the colorized
image, or a multispectral imager where intensity combinations in multiple
wavebands outside of the visible spectrum can be transformed via a color
table into realistic RGB color values. By contrast, our method works witha monochromatic single-band infrared source image typically exhibiting aluminance scale that is uncorrelated with its corresponding natural daylightcolorized version. The method starts with two reference images, one
infrared and one color, of a similar but different scene from the one to becolorized. The two reference images are of the same size, and are registeredpixel by pixel. From these, a 2D color table is generated in which RGB
values from pixels of the color image are indexed by the mean and standard
deviation from a region around the pixels of the corresponding infrared
image. The only information derived from the source scene and utilized
in the transformation is the monochrome source image. We present ouralgorithm for colorizing infrared images with examples.

9451-20, Session 6

Type-II superlattice detector for long-wave
infrared imaging (Invited Paper)
Philip C. Klipstein, Eran Avnon, Yael Benny, Avraham
Fraenkel, Alex Glozman, Elad Ilan, Ezra Kahanov, Olga Klin,
Lidia Langof, SCD SemiConductor Devices (Israel); Yoav
Livneh, Israel Ministry of Defense (Israel); Inna Lukomsky,
Michal Nitzani, Lior Shkedy, Itay Shtrichman, Noam Snapi,
Ron Talmor, SCD SemiConductor Devices (Israel); Avi
Tuito, IMOD (Israel); Shay Vaserman, Eliezer Weiss, SCD
SemiConductor Devices (Israel)Type II InAs/GaSb superlattices (T2SLs) are a promising III-V alternativeto HgCdTe for infrared Focal Plane Array (FPA) detectors. They offer fullwavelength tunability through the Mid Wave and Long Wave infraredatmospheric windows. When incorporated into an “XBp” barrier detector
structure they also offer diffusion limited dark currents which are within
one order of magnitude of those found in state of the art Mercury Cadmium
Telluride (according to MCT Rule 07). High quantum efficiencies canalso be achieved with a relatively thin stack thickness for the absorbing
layer. A key to the successful engineering of such structures is the use ofsuitable simulation software that can determine the band alignments anddetector quantum efficiency as a function of the period dimensions andstack thickness. Using this approach we have developed an XBp T2SL FPA
detector with a format of 640x512 and 15 micron pitch. The detector hasa high quantum efficiency with a cut-off wavelength of ~9.5 micron, andoperates at 77K with background limited performance (BLIP). The BLIP
temperature at F/2 is ~100K (photo-current = dark current). The digital
Read-Out Integrated Circuit (ROIC) closely follows the configuration of
SCD’s Pelican-D detector, and its Interface Control Document (ICD) is
fully compatible with Pelican-D. The measured NETD is 15mK at F/2, fora blackbody temperature of 25 C and a frame rate of 30Hz. The designprinciples and radiometric performance of the detector will be presented,
and illustrated with examples of image quality.

9451-21, Session 6

Short wavelength and middle wavelength dual color infrared detector were
designed and prepared with InAs/Ga(In)Sb type-II superlattices materials.
The Crosslight software was used to calculate the relation between
wavelength and material parameter such as thickness of InAs?GaSb, thenenergy strucutre of 100 periods 8ML/8ML InAs/GaSb and the absorption
wavelength was calculated. After fixing InAs/GaSb thickness parameter,
devices with nBn and pin structure were designed and prepared tocompare performance of these two structures. Comparison results showedboth structure devices were available for high temperature operation
which black detectivity under 200K were 7.9?108cmHz1/2/W for nBn and1.9?109cmHz1/2/W for pin respectively. Considering the simultaneous
readout requirement for further FPAs application the NIP/PIN InAs/GaSb
dual-color structure was grown by MBE method. Both two mesas and one
mesa devices structure were designed and prepared to appreciate the short/
middle dual color devices. Cl2-based ICP etching combined with phosphoricacid based chemicals were utilized to form mesas, silicon dioxide wasdeposited via PECVD as passivation layer. Ti/Au was used as metallization.
Once the devices were finished, the electro-optical performance wasmeasured. Measurement results showed that optical spectrum response withpeak wavelength of 2.7?m and 4.3?m under 77K temperature was gained,
the test results agree well with calculated results. Peak detectivity wasmeasured as 2.08?1011cmHz1/2/W and 6.2?1010cmHz1/2/W for short andmiddle wavelength infrared detector respectively. Study results disclosedthat InAs/Ga(In)Sb type-II SLs is available for both short and middle
wavelength infrared detecting with good performance by simply altering the
thickness of InAs layer and GaSb layer.

9451-103, Session 6

Optimization of Type-II superlatticeheterojunction infrared detectors (Invited
Paper)
Sumith Bandara, Neil Baril, Patrick G. Maloney, Curtis
Billman, Nathan Henry, Alexander Brown, Eric Nallon,
Joseph G. Pellegrino, Meimei Tidrow, U.S. Army Night
Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
Design parameters for the heterojunction-based strained layer superlattice(SLS) long-wave infrared (LWIR) detector are investigated so that it
operates at a lower bias voltage with lower dark current and higher photo
response. At typical operating temperatures (T~77 K), the dark current
of GaSb/InAs SLS LWIR detectors is dominated by the Shockley-ReadHall (SRH) generation-recombination (g-r) process in the space-charge(depletion) region. In order to suppress this dark current, a wide bandgap
region next to the absorber layer has been included in recent SLS designs. A
series of heterojunction-based LWIR SLS detectors with various doping andbarrier profiles have been designed and characterized. The significance ofthe doping profile and thickness of the wide-bandgap layer in optimizationof the heterojunction-based SLS detector performance are exhibited fromthe modeling and experimental results of these devices.

9451-22, Session 7

Current directions in sensor technologies
at NVESD (Keynote Presentation)
Donald Reago, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States)
No Abstract Available

InAs/Ga(In)Sb type-II superlattices short/
middle dual-color infrared detectors(Invited Paper)
Yanli Shi, Kunming Institute of Physics (China)

8

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-24, Session 8

calculated, and will be able to describe the complete performance of a T2SL
detector. We will then influence the new designs of structure of T2SL thatwill be more efficient.

Limiting dark current mechanisms in
antimony-based superlattice infrared
detectors for the mid- and longwavelength infrared regime

9451-26, Session 8

Carrier transport in unipolar barrier
infrared detectors

Robert Rehm, Volker Daumer, Tsvetlina Hugger, Norbert
Kohn, Florian Lemke, Wolfgang Luppold, Jasmin Niemasz,
Johannes Schmidt, Johannes Schmitz, Frank Rutz,
Tim O. Stadelmann, Matthias Wauro, Andreas Wörl,
Martin Walther, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte
Festkörperphysik (Germany)

David Z. Ting, Alexander Soibel, Linda Höglund, Cory J.
Hill, Arezou Khoshakhlagh, Sam A. Keo, Anita M. Fisher,
Layton Baker, Edward M. Luong, Robert S. Kowalczyk,
John K. Liu, Jason M. Mumolo, Sir B. Rafol, Sarath D.
Gunapala, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)

Within the last decade type-II superlattice (T2SL) infrared (IR) detector
technology for the mid- (3 5 µm, MWIR) and long-wavelength (8-12 µm,
LWIR) transmission window of the atmosphere has progressed from lab
demonstration to first commercial applications. To further increase theelectro-optical performance of today’s T2SL detectors, the development
focus is currently on the reduction of the detector dark current. Correct
identification of the limiting current mechanisms and extraction of thecorresponding material and device parameters are key to improve both the
manufacturing technology and the device design. Certainly, the separationof bulk and sidewall contributions is indispensable to avoid misconceptions.
In this paper, we will present a temperature-dependent investigation of thelimiting dark current mechanisms in several homojunction InAs/GaSb SL
photodiode wafers grown in two different molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)reactors. Subtraction of the measured sidewall contribution allows us to fit
sophisticated models from the literature to the bulk dark current and extractbulk parameters like, e.g., background doping, shunt resistance, trap density
and carrier lifetimes. The results from both MBE reactors will be evaluated
and we will compare our findings to the available literature.

We examine carrier transport in unipolar barrier infrared photodetectors
such as the nBn detector and the complementary barrier infrared detector(CBIRD). In a barrier infrared detector the unipolar barrier should block only
the majority carriers while allowing the un-impeded flow of the minority
carriers. Under the right conditions, unipolar barrier doping can reduce
generation-recombination dark current without affecting minority carrier
extraction. However, improper barrier doping or barrier-absorber band
offset could also block minority carriers and result in higher turn-on bias,
as has been observed in both MWIR and LWIR devices. Contact doping has
also been observed to result in temperature-dependent turn-on bias. Holemobility in n-doped type-II superlattice (T2SL) is believed to be very low
because of the extremely large effective mass along the growth direction.
In practice MWIR and LWIR barrier infrared detectors with n-type T2SL
absorbers have demonstrated good optical response. A closer inspectionof the T2SL band structure offers a possible explanation as to why the holemobility may not be as poor as suggested by the simple effective mass
picture.

9451-25, Session 89451-27, Session 8

Modeling of the InAs/GaSb superlattices
performance

Minority carrier lifetimes in InAs/
InAsSb type-II superlattices measured
using double-modulation time-resolved
photoluminescence

Julien Imbert, ONERA (France); Virginie Trinite, III-V Lab.
(France); Sophie Derelle, Julien Jaeck, ONERA (France);
Jean-Baptiste Rodriguez, Institut d’Electronique du Sud(France); Riad Haidar, ONERA (France); Mathieu Carras,
III-V Lab. (France); Philippe Christol, Institut d’Electroniquedu Sud (France)

Zhiyuan Lin, Shi Liu, Yong-Hang Zhang, Arizona State Univ.
(United States)
Ga-free InAs/InAsSb type II superlattice (T2SL) has attracted much attention
due to its potential as an alternative material to HgCdTe for infrared
detectors. Recently the minority carrier lifetimes of InAs/InAsSb T2SLs
have been improved to the order of µs, which is two orders of magnitudes
longer than that of the InAs/(In)GaSb T2SLs. However the temperaturedependence of the minority carrier lifetime is not well understood yet. In
this study, the minority carrier lifetimes of a series of InAs/InAsSb T2SLsgrown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) are measured by a time-resolved
photoluminescence (TRPL) system using a double-modulation technique,which has been demonstrated to significantly improve the signal-to-noise
ratio of the measurements. The technique modulates the excitation pulse
laser using a low frequency chopper and collecting the signal using a lock-in
amplifier. The longest minority carrier lifetime of a mid-wavelength infrared
InAs/InAsSb T2SL is measured to be 2.8 µs at 12 K, longer than that (1.24?s) of an MBE-grown InAs0.91Sb0.09 sample with similar structure. The
lifetime of the T2SL gradually decreases to 0.71 µs when temperature ramps
up to 77 K, and then increases to 0.8 µs with the temperature increasing to120 K. Thereafter the lifetime keeps decreasing as the temperature ramps
up to 300 K. Excitation dependent PL measurements are carried out andshow that Shockley-Reed-Hall recombination contributes significantly
to the minority carrier lifetimes from 12K to 150K. Details of the TRPL
measurements and the physical interpretation of the temperaturedependent behavior of the minority carrier lifetime of the T2SL will bepresented at the conference.

A 18-band k.p formalism has been developed to determine the band
structure and wave functions of InAs/GaSb type II superlattices (T2SL).
First bandgap results are in good agreement with bandgaps measured
for symetrical superlattices. In order to validate the input parameters of
our model, we developed a tool to simulate the absorption coefficient andcompare results with measurements performed on superlattice samples
at cryogenic temperature. Thus we are able to calculate theoretical opticaland electrical properties of InAs/GaSb T2SL as the effective mass, theabsorption coefficient and the free carrier concentration.
The IES team manufactures different T2SL structures with a different InAs
to GaSb thickness ratio R, but the same cut-off wavelength of 5µm at 77K.
We compare these properties for these structures in order to investigate theinfluence of this ratio R. This model allows to unravel the well-known 2D/3D
behaviours of the InAs-rich and GaSb-rich asymmetric SL structures.
Our main objective is to simulate the transport and then to predict thecomplete performance of a T2SL detector. The next step of our work is tohave a good agreement on the absorption spectra between measurements
performed on specific T2SL samples and modeling.
Once the model confirmed by this comparison, we will be able to give
reliable datas for intrinsic parameters of T2SL. we will then work on thetransport of a T2SL detector, using the intrinsic parameters previously

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9Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-29, Session 8

InP. We conclude by demonstrating that the commercial production of large
diameter GaSb substrates has matured and is thus ready to support the fullcommercialization of GaSb based detector technologies.

Confocal Raman Spectroscopy and AFM
for Evaluation of Sidewalls in Type II
Superlattices

9451-31, Session 8

Alexander A. Ukhanov, Tito L. Busani, Pranav Rathi,
Thomas J. Rotter, Felix Jaeckel, Kevin J. Malloy, Actoprobe
LLC (United States); Elena Plis, Sanjay Krishna, SKINfrared
LLC (United States); Neil F. Baril, J. D. Benson, Marvin
Jaime-Vasquez, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States); Dmitri A. Tenne, Boise State Univ. (UnitedStates)Long-wave (LW) and multicolor infrared (IR) detectors are desirable in avariety of applications related to remote sensing and object identification.
Detectors based on mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) and quantum wellinfrared detectors (QWIPs) have been the dominant technologies for suchapplications. InAs/GaSb type-II strained layer superlattice (T2SL) detectors
are predicted to have a number of advantages over MCT devices, including
lower tunneling currents, suppressed Auger recombination, and an improved
bandgap uniformity over large areas. By optimizing the oscillator strengthin T2SL, a large quantum efficiency may be obtained that overcome theinherent problem of QWIP detectors. Moreover, the commercial availabilityof substrates with good electro-optical homogeneity, and without large
cluster defects, also offers advantages for T2SL technology.
However, due to complexity of InAs/GaSb system, etch and passivationof T2SL detectors is still an issue especially, in the LWIR spectral range.
We propose to utilize confocal Raman spectroscopy combined with thehigh resolution AFM technique, to access the sidewall profiles of etch andpassivated small (24µm x 24µm) focal plane array (FPA) features fabricatedusing LW/LWIR T2SL detector material. Special high aspect ratio Si and
GaAs AFM probes, with tip length of 13µm and tip aperture less than 7
degrees, allow imaging of sidewall profile through optical sectioning. Raman
spectra measured on etched T2SL FPA single pixels enable us to quantify
the non-uniformity of the mesa delineation process. More experimental
details on non-destructive characterization of T2SL FPAs will be discussed
during the presentation.
US Army Distribution statement A: Public Release – Unlimited.
Approved for Public Release 14-MDA-8010 (8 October 14)

Amy W. K. Liu, Dmitri Loubychev, Yueming Qiu, Joel M.
Fastenau, IQE Inc. (United States); Mark J. Furlong, IQE
IR (United Kingdom); Marius Tybjerg, Wafer Technology
Ltd. (United Kingdom); Rebecca J. Martinez, IQE IR(United Kingdom); Andrew Mowbray, Brian Smith, Wafer
Technology Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The GaSb-based 6.1 Å lattice constant family of materials andheterostructures provides rich bandgap engineering possibilities andhave received considerable attention for their potential and demonstrated
performance in infrared (IR) detection and imaging applications. Mid-wave
and long-wave IR photodetectors are progressing toward commercial
manufacturing applications. To succeed, they must move from researchlaboratory settings to general semiconductor production, and high-quality
GaSb-based epitaxial wafers with diameter larger than the current standard
3-inch are highly desirable. 4 inch GaSb substrates have been in production
for a couple of years and are now commercially available. Recently, epiready GaSb substrates with diameter in excess of 6 inch were successfully
produced.
In this work, we report on the MBE (Molecular Beam Epitaxy) growthof generic MWIR bulk nBn photodetectors on ≥6 inch diameter GaSb
substrates. The surface morphology, optical and structural quality of the
epiwafers as evaluated by atomic force microscopy (AFM), Nomarski
microscopy, low temperature photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, andhigh-resolution x-ray diffraction (XRD) will be discussed. IV measurementsfrom large-area mesa diode fabricated will also be reported. Material anddevice properties of these ≥6 inch epiwafers will be compared to similar
structures grown on 4-inch diameter GaSb, as well as metamorphically on
6-inch GaAs substrates.

9451-32, Session 99451-30, Session 8

Digital pixel readout integrated circuitarchitectures for LWIR

Growth and characterization of ≥6”
epitaxy-ready GaSb substrates for use inlarge area infrared detector applications

Melik Yazici, Huseyin Kayahan, Omer Ceylan, Atia Shafique,
Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)

Mark J. Furlong, IQE IR (United Kingdom); Rebecca J.
Martinez, Marius Tybjerg, Andrew Mowbray, Brian Smith,Wafer Technology Ltd. (United Kingdom)
In this paper we report on an industry first; the commercial growth andcharacterization of >/=6” diameter GaSb substrates that are suitablefor use in the fabrication of epitaxially grown, large area MWIR-VLWIR
detectors. Results will be presented on the production of single crystal>/=6” GaSb ingots grown by a modified version of the Czochralski (LEC)
technique, supported by the analysis of bulk material quality by spatial
etch pit density assessments with mm resolution. The electrical quality of
6” GaSb crystals will be assessed. Hall mobility, resistivity and carrier levelmeasurements will be made spatially. IR transmission spectra of ultra-low
doped 6” substrates will be presented demonstrating the suitability ofthis material for VLWIR devices. High quality, epitaxy-ready type surfaces
have been prepared and we will demonstrate how the key surface quality
characteristics of roughness, oxide thickness and flatness have been
maintained across production processes that scale 4” to ≥6” wafer formats.
Comparisons will be made between ≥6” GaSb and other large diametercompound semiconductor materials produced in volume such as GaAs and

10

MBE growth of Sb-based bulk nBn infrared
photodetector structures on ≥6” GaSb
substrates

SPIE DSS 2015·

This paper presents and discusses digital pixel readout integrated circuitarchitectures for long wavelength infrared in CMOS technology. Presented
architectures are designed for respectively scanning and staring arrays. For
scanning arrays, digital time delay integration (TDI) is implemented on 8
pixels with over sampling rate of 3 in CMOS 180nm technology. For staring
type arrays, A digital ROIC with extending counting method architecture
is presented. It achieves very low quantization noise (161 electrons) while
having a very high (2.33Ge-) charge handling capacity in CMOS 90nm
technology.
In the digital scanning architecture, analog signal integrated on integration
capacitor is converted to digital domain in pixel, and digital data istransferred to TDI summation counters, where contributions of 8 pixels areadded. Output data is 16 bit, where 8 bits are allocated for most significant
bits and 8 bits for least significant bits. Quantization noise of analog-todigital conversion is less than 500e-. ROIC is fabricated with 0.18?m CMOS
process. Post-layout simulation results of the implemented design arepresented.
Current state of the art has shown that staring digital readouts with pulse
frequency method can achieve charge handling capacities higher thanwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-74, Session PTue

3Ge- with quantization noise higher than 1000e-. Even if the integration
capacitance is reduced, it cannot be lower than 1-3 fF due to the parasitic
capacitance of the comparator. For achieving a very low quantization noiseof 161 electrons in a power efficient way, a new method based on measuring
the time to measure the remaining charge on the integration capacitor
is proposed. With this approach SNR of low flux pixels are significantly
increased while large flux pixels can store electrons as high as 2.33Ge-.

Dark current characterization of very longwavelength HgCdTe photodetectors
Weida Hu, Xiaoshuang Chen, Shanghai Institute ofTechnical Physics (China)
Detection in the very long wave infrared range (LWIR, 12-15µm) using
third-generation infrared focal plane array (FPAs) is essential for remote
atmosphere sounding. Indeed, these wavelengths are particularly richin information about humidity and CO2 levels and provide additional
information about cloud structure and temperature profile across theatmosphere. However, the dark current characteristic and associated noise
behavior of the HgCdTe photodiode in the wavelength range of 12-15µm,
operating at ~77K, are very sensitive to surface passivation techniques aswell as to surface material treatments. For current HgCdTe material anddevice technology, detection of LWIR and VLWIR energy is the subjectof current research. Within this range of shrinking band-gaps in detectormaterial, precise control of the quality of the surface passivation andtreatment is of great importance. The underlying physics of dark current
mechanism is theoretically investigated by using a previously developed
simultaneous current extraction approach and numerical simulations.

9451-33, Session 9

A 1280x1024-15µm CTIA ROIC for SWIR
FPAs
Selim Eminoglu, MikroSens Elektronik San ve Tic A S(Turkey)
No Abstract Available

9451-34, Session 9

Cryogenic measurements of a digital pixel
readout integrated circuit for LWIR

9451-76, Session PTue

Atia Shafique, Melik Yazici, Huseyin Kayahan, Omer Ceylan,
Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)

Stress effects on electrical transportation
properties of HgCdTe film

This paper presents and discusses the cryogenic temperature (77K)
measurement results of a digital readout integrated circuit based on pulse
frequency modulation (PFM) technique for a 32x32 long wavelength
infrared pixel sensor array designed in 90nm CMOS process. The chipachieves a SNR of 58dB with a charge handling capacity of 2.03Ge- at
cryogenic temperature with 1.3mW of power dissipation. The performanceof the readout is discussed in terms of power dissipation, charge handling
capacity and SNR considering the fact that the process library models are
not optimized for cryogenic temperature operation of the MOS devices.
These results provide an insight to foresee the design confrontations due
to non-optimized devices model for cryogenic temperatures particularly forshort channel devices.

Pengyun Song, Xing Chen, Shan Zhang, Shanghai Instituteof Technical Physics (China); Zhenhua Ye, Shanghai
Institute of Technical Physics (China); Xiaoning Hu,
Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (China)
It has been demonstrated that stress state of HgCdTe layers has significant
effects on the electrical properties of HgCdTe film and thus the performanceof hybrid infrared focal plane array detectors based on HgCdTe materials
because of thermal expansion mismatch at low temperature arising fromits multilayer structure. In order to further study the stress effect, a pieceof Hg vacancis doped p-type square HgCdTe grown on Si substrate using
MBE method is selected and various states of stress is introduced into
the HgCdTe film through sticking various thickness of covar layer to thebackside of the Si substrate. Using infinite elements analysis the stressstate and deformation of the sample could be determined accordingly at
low temperature. The surface of the sample is initially capped by as-grown
CdTe layer which is thereafter corroded by wet chemical method in order
to avoid the disturbation of the surface layer. The Hall measurement of
the sample with different stress states is performed with magnetic field
and temperature ranging from -1.5 to 1.5 Tesla and from 20 K to 300 K
respectively using Van de Pauw method in order to obtain the carrier
density and mobility after it is passivated by doule layers of CdTe and ZnSwith thickness of 1000 and 2300 angstroms respectively. PL spectrum
measurement is used to obtain energy band gap of the sample at low
temperature. The experiment results show that the electrical transportation
properties of HgCdTe film could vary along with the change of the stressstate and possible mechanism underlying is presented.

In the same chip, several NMOS and PMOS standalone test devices areplaced to measure their current-voltage (I-V) curves at 300K and cryogenic
temperature to determine the deviation from their spice model simulations
at 77K. There are three different sets of device sizes Width/Length (W/L)
10um/10um, 600nm/100nm, and 120nm/100nm, for both NMOS and
PMOS. These device aspects ratios are selected based upon minimum W/L,
intermediate and the maximum W/L of transistors which have been usedin actual design of DROIC, and to analyze the difference of temperature
variations on small and long channel length devices.

9451-7, Session PTue

Design of IR omni-directional opticalsystem for night vision and surveillance ofdefence and safety
Jae Heung Jo, Hannam Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jae
Myung Ryu, Kumoh National Institute of Technology(Korea, Republic of); Jong-goo Kang, Hannam Univ.
(Korea, Republic of)9451-91, Session PTue

Study on magnetic circuit of moving
magnet linear compressor

The omni-directional optical system designed with a catadioptric systemin this paper. So this omni-directional system has the primary and second
mirror where the primary mirror has a convex surface, and the second mirror
is plane. We must decide diameter of the primary mirror and obscuration,
the position of mirrors, the incident angle of chief ray at rear imaging
system and so on in order to design the omni-directional optical system. We
confirm this paraxial design method that can be applied to the infrared (IR)omni-directional optical system.

Return to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Xia Ming, Xiaoping Chen, Jun Chen, Kunming Institute ofPhysics (China)
The moving magnet linear compressors are very popular in the tacticalminiature stirling cryocoolers. The magnetic circuit of LFC3600 moving
magnet linear compressor, manufactured by Kunming institute of Physics,·

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11

Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
was studied in this study. The analysis theory, numerical calculation andexperiment study were investigated in the analysis process. The calculated
formula of magnetic reluctance and magnetomotive force were given intheoretical analysis model. The magnetic flux density and magnetic flux line
were analyzed in numerical analysis model. A testing method was designed
to test the magnetic flux density of the linear compressor. When the pistonof the motor was in the equilibrium position, the value of the magnetic flux
density was at the maximum of 0.27T. The results were almost equal to theones(0.29T) from numerical analysis.

9451-92, Session PTue

Polarization-selective uncooled infrared
sensor using a one-dimensional plasmonic
grating absorber
Shinpei Ogawa, Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Japan); Yousuke
Takagawa, Masafumi Kimata, Ritsumeikan Univ. (Japan)
Information such as the shape, position and average radiant intensity ofobjects can be observed using a typical uncooled infrared (IR) sensor;
however, polarization information cannot be obtained with such a sensor.
Artificial objects, such as vehicles, buildings, roads and agricultural fields,change the polarization state of the electromagnetic field reflectedor emitted from their surfaces. Therefore, human influences can be
distinguished from the natural environment on the Earth by polarimetricsensing. A polarization-selective uncooled IR sensor has been developed
using a one-dimensional plasmonic grating absorber (1D-PGA). The 1D-PGA
has an Au-based one-dimensional periodic grating structure, where photons
can be manipulated by surface plasmon polaritons. Numerical investigations
demonstrate that 1D-PGA gives rise to polarization-dependent absorption
properties according to the grating direction. The absorption wavelength
can be defined by such parameters as the depth and the width in addition
to the grating period. A microelectromechanical systems-based uncooled
IR sensor was fabricated using PGA through a complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) and micromachining techniques. The 1D-PGA wasformed by an Au layer sputtered on a SiO2 layer with one-dimensional
periodic grating. An Al layer was then introduced on the backside of
the 1D-PGA to reflect scattered light and prevent absorption at the SiO2
substrate. Measurement of the responsivity dependence on the polarizationshows that the responsivity is selectively enhanced depending on thepolarization and the direction of the gratings. The results provide direct
evidence that a polarization-selective uncooled IR sensor can be realized
simply by using 1D-PGA without any polarizer or optical resonant structures.
In addition, a pixel array where each pixel has a different detection
polarization could be developed for polarimetric imaging using standard
CMOS and micromachining techniques.

In this work, it is aimed to design and develop a device that can act as IR
detector at room temperature. The model formation is based on electron
tunneling in MIM diode devices. First the preliminary DC characterizationof individual MIM diodes have been carried out, afterwards, joint
characterization of antenna along with diode has been performed. Device
characteristics such as responsivity, I-V and C-V results are reported.

9451-94, Session PTue

Low-power LVDS for digital readout
circuits
Melik Yazici, Huseyin Kayahan, Omer Ceylan, Atia Shafique,
Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)
This paper presents information about the design of a mixed-signal LVDS
driver in 90 nm CMOS technology. The designed LVDS core is to be used
as a data link between Infrared Focal Plane Array (IRFPA) detector end andmicroprocessor input. Parallel data from 220 pixels of IRFPA is serialized
by LVDS driver and read out to microprocessor. It also offers a reduced
power consumption rate, high data transmission speed and utilizes dense
placement of devices for area efficiency. Due to those features, the designed
LVDS driver is suitable for purposes such as portable, high-speed imaging.
Additionally, the design offers a wide range of temperature of operation.
It can provide fast data transmission at room temperature and within
cryogenic temperature range.
Switchable current source LVDS core consists of two PMOS current sources
turning on and off with respect to input pulse. Changing polarity of thecurrent flowing on the differential load creates voltage swing. Differential
load resistor is symmetrically divided into two 50 Ohm resistors and thecommon mode voltage is set to 600 mV via a feedback loop. To generate
a 500 mV peak to peak swing, 2.5 mA current must flow through thedifferential load resistor and the 100 Ohm termination resistor as well.
Therefore, PMOS transistors must be able to drive high amount of current
and possess large device sizes. Following the PMOS drivers and differential
load resistors, NMOS transistors are used as switches to prevent or permit
the current flow through the legs by turning off and on with respect to input
pulse. At the bottom of the circuit, an NMOS transistor functions as a current
sink which needs to flow 5 mA of current to ground. Current sink’s input
voltage is a function of the common-mode node and set by common-mode
feedback loop.

9451-95, Session PTue

9451-93, Session PTue

A study of doping influences ontransmission of large-diameter gallium
antimonide substrates for long-wave(LWIR) to very long wavelength (VLWIR)
infrared applications

Model, design, and fabrication of antenna
coupled metal-insulator-metal diodes for
IR sensing
Mesut Inac, Atia Shafique, Meriç Özcan, Sabanci Univ.
(Turkey); Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci University (Turkey)

Rebecca J. Martinez, IQE IR (United Kingdom); Andrew
Mowbray, Brian Smith, Marius Tybjerg, Wafer Technology
Ltd. (United Kingdom); Mark J. Furlong, IQE IR (United
Kingdom)

Demand for the inexpensive devices operating at room temperature for
infrared (IR) sensing and imaging are increasing in the last years. Due tothe small sizes and the integration capabilities, antenna coupled metalinsulator-metal (MIM) diodes are one of the potential candidates in thefield of IR sensing and imaging. The antenna coupled diodes are alreadyillustrated in the literature for energy harvesting applications and wirelesspower transmission. The miniaturizing feature and ease of integration with
infrared focal plane array makes antenna-coupled-MIM diode an attractive
alternative for IR sensing and imaging applications. As matter of fact, MIM
diode’s functionality based on quantum tunneling leads to device time
constant as lower as few femtoseconds. The smaller sizes of these devices

12

can enable more pixels in detectors. In general, conventional IR detectors
are classified based on two mechanisms: thermal detectors and photon
detectors. Due to the inevitable limitations of the both types, antennacoupled diode is thought to be a better choice as an ultra-fast and highly
responsive IR detector.

SPIE DSS 2015

Gallium antimonide (GaSb) is an important Group III-V compound
semiconductor for infra-red (IR) photodetectors used in sensing andimaging applications. Operating in the mid (3-5 µm) to long wavelength
region (8-12 µm) of the IR spectrum, the application of GaSb detectors areextensive, encompassing military, industrial, medical and environmental
uses. A significant developing technology for GaSb based detectors arethose effective in the very long wavelength (VLWIR) infra-red region (13·www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLIµm and beyond) which are advantageous in space and stealth based
applications which necessitate high operating temperatures. In this study
different doping levels of GaSb are considered and the IR transmission
spectra examined by Fourier Transform IR analysis (FTIR). GaSb n- type
doped material consistent in delivering long to very long wavelengthtransmission is demonstrated which is preferable to p-type material which
requires backside thinning for IR transmission. The Czochralski (Cz) grown
GaSb wafers are assessed for electrical quality and uniformity results on
Hall mobility, resistivity and carrier level reported. Results of this work
will establish the carrier concentration that ultimately results in hightransparency substrates. The doping uniformity in larger diameter substrates(100mm to 150mm) is examined and the material quality and consistency
demonstrated post epitaxial growth. In summary enhancements in room
temperature IR transmission will be shown to be achieved in GaSb bulk
crystals by tellurium (Te) compensation.

As infrared technology develops, the passivation process on high aspectratio HgCdTe mesa arrays produces a new challenge on the traditional
thin-film deposition technologies. Atomic Layer Deposition is a unique
technology to meet these challenges because of its precise control in thefilm thickness and compositions, excellent uniformity on high aspect-ratio
pattern. Thermal stability of Atomic Layer Deposition Al2O3 film on HgCdTe
has been studied by two steps of experiments. The effectiveness of Al2O3
film was evaluated by measuring minority carrier lifetime and dielectric
constant. In the first experiment, two devices were fabricated with identical
HgCdTe samples and Al2O3 film of one device was annealed at 180? for
180s. This step was mainly used to evaluate the Al2O3 film’s compatibility
with subsequent processes. Minority carrier lifetime increased by an orderof magnitude after Al2O3 deposition and presented a slight decrease
after Al2O3 anneal. In the second experiment, the two finished devices
were both annealed at 75? for 48h. This step was mainly used to evaluate
the passivation reliability of the device, especially the thermal stability.
According to the C-V measurements, the calculated dielectric constant
was about 7. The device with annealed Al2O3 film presented a decreasing
dielectric constant and fixed charge after device anneal. The device withunannealed Al2O3 film presented an increasing dielectric constant and fixedcharge after device anneal. The experimental results demonstrated thatatomic layer deposition Al2O3 film on high aspect-ratio HgCdTe IRFPAs is
feasible and stable.

9451-96, Session PTue

A 640x480-17µm ROIC for uncooled
microbolometer FPAs
Selim Eminoglu, MikroSens Elektronik San ve Tic A S(Turkey)
No Abstract Available

9451-99, Session PTue

9451-97, Session PTue

Preliminary validation results of an ASIC
for the readout and control of nearinfrared large array detectors

SiO2 films mask processed by lift-off
techniques for plasma etching of HgCdTe

Philip Påhlsson, Dirk X. Meier, Hans Kristian Otnes
Berge, Petter Øya, David Steenari, Alf Olsen, Amir
Hasanbegovic, Mehmet Akif Altan, Bahram Najafiuchevler,
Jahanzad Talebi, Suleyman Azman, Codin Gheorghe,
Jörg Ackermann, Gunnar Mæhlum, Integrated Detector
Electronics AS (Norway)

Yiyu Chen, Univ. of Chinese Academy of Sciences (China);
Zhenhua Ye, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)High anisotropy etching process with low etch induced damage is necessary
for the advanced HgCdTe IRFPAs. Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP) enhanced
Reactive Ion Etching (RIE) technique is adapted to perform these IRFPAs
devices. An accurately patterned mask with sharp edges is decisive toaccomplish pattern duplication. It has been reported by some researchersthat the SiO2 (silicon dioxide ) mask functions well in etching HgCdTe withhigh selectivity. However, the wet process in patterning the SiO2 mask
is limited by ambiguous edges and nonuniform patterns. Some otherprocesses are too complicated to be effectively applied on large dimension
wafers. Lift-off technique was then carried out to define accurate anduniform silicon dioxide mask. In this report, a 70nm ZnS film was formed
to avoid any possible damage in the magnetron sputtering process bythermal evaporation prior to the SiO2 deposition. Then an improved lift-off
process was applied. Due to high selectivity between SiO2 and HgCdTe,
the etch bias could be greatly suppressed. The well-defined SiO2 pattern
and the etched smooth surfaces were investigated with Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) and Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). This new developed
lift-off process could define the patterns accurately and continuously, which
was beneficial for the delineation of decreasing pixels while fabricating large
format IRFPAs.

This work describes the preliminary results of the design validation
performed on the Near Infrared Readout and Controller ASIC (NIRCA)
for large area image sensors. The project aims at future astronomical
science and Earth observation missions, where the ASIC will be used withimage sensors based on mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe, or MCT,
currently under development independently at CEA-LETI and SELEX
UK). The applications require high spectral sensitivity, very low noise andenvironmental durability. NIRCA is also interesting for other hybrid image
sensors (HAWAII-2RG, and MCT Research at FFI in Norway), which requirea readout and controller ASIC. Besides our work, there are other European
ongoing developments aiming at similar applications and requirements(independently at CAELESTE and SRON).
The NIRCA can directly connect to the ROIC and to the instrument
electronics. It provides to the ROIC regulated power supplies, biases, andfully programmable digital sequences with ADC sample control. Bothanalog and digital output from the ROIC can be sampled, and the digitizedimage data is delivered to the instrument. Additionally the NIRCA provides
temperature measurement, and monitors several analog and digital signals.
The NIRCA is designed to be able to operate from 77 K and to be tolerant
against radiation (SEE LET > 60 MeVcm2/mg).

9451-98, Session PTue

The analogue front-end of the NIRCA provides 4 inputs to preamplifiers withsingle-ended to differential conversion, 5 different gain setting (1x to 16x),
as well as offset cancellation and level shifting, to optimize the dynamic
range for the ADC. Each preamplifier connects to a 12-bit ADC designed fora differential input swing of ±2 V and a maximum 3 MSps conversion rate.
NIRCA provides programmable regulators from 1.8 V to 3.3 V with a rippleof less than 10 µV and a PSRR of 40 dB. Internally the NIRCA contains a
programmable sequencer (32 arbitrary digital waveforms and controls, inaddition to sampling triggers, and auxiliary control functions). The NIRCA
provides the CIS with reference and bias voltages programmable up to
10 bits with a dynamic range from 0 V to approximately 3 V. NIRCA iscontrolled through an SPI interface, which allows writing to configuration

Thermal stability of atomic layer
deposition Al2O3 film on HgCdTe
P. Zhang, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (China);
Changhong Sun, Y. Zhang, Shanghai Institute of TechnicalPhysics (China); X. Chen, Shanghai Institute of TechnicalPhysics (China); Y. Y. Chen, Zhenhua Ye, Shanghai Instituteof Technical Physics (China)

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13

Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-36, Session 10

registers and memory for the programmable sequencer. Access to acommon serial peripheral interface (SPI) is provided for an external system
to interface with an SPI to the CIS.
NIRCA is implemented in a mature 0.35 µm CMOS process from a European
foundry. Internal registers in the ASIC will have Single Event Upset (SEU)
detection and single bit correction. The ASIC is made to tolerate Single
Event Latchup (SEL) using design and layout techniques. Test vehicles
have been manufactured and validated with respect to both radiation andtemperature. Simulations and measurements at low temperatures havebeen performed to verify the accuracy of the simulation models. The NIRCA
ASIC has been manufactured and design validation is being performed. The
design validation verifies that the ASIC contains the functionality and thecharacteristics that it is designed for and aims to confirm the functional,
performance, interface and compatibility requirements.

9451-101, Session PS2

Survivability of Corning durable silverbased multispectral mirrors

Survivability testing results for Corning Durable Silver based multispectral
mirrors are presented. These tests were designed to estimate the lifeof these mirrors when exposed to extreme environments. They wereand continue to be used in assisting with the adjustment of designs
to enhance mirror longevity. Discussions will include various designs
and their survivability in various environments. Spectral performance ismonitored along with the optics physical appearance, in order to capture
any throughput loss and defect quantification with chemical analysis
information. Results from samples exposed to actual flight conditions are
discussed and some comparison testing with other vendor silver stackoptions, such as the known heritage silver coating stack, is presented.

Over recent years advances in High Operating Temperature (HOT) MWIR
detectors such as those based on mercury cadmium telluride (MCT)grown by Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) have reduced thesteady state cooling power to a level comparable to the combined power
consumption of the digitization and image processing electronics required
to operate the detector. At this point one can no longer focus only on
reducing cooling power to make further reductions in total system Size
Weight and Power (SWAP). By taking a systems engineering approach andconsidering the infrared detector as one component in a low power imaging
system it has been possible to realise a design that reduces the SWAP of thesystem as a whole.

9451-37, Session 10

Fabrication of high-operating temperature(HOT), MWIR transparent photon-trap
barrier-based detectors

9451-35, Session 10

Infrared SWAP detectors: pushing thelimitsHasan Sharifi, Mark S. Roebuck, James Jenkins, Sevag
Terterian, Pierre-Yves Delaunay, Terrence J. De Lyon, Daniel
Yap, Sarabjit Mehta, Rajesh D. Rajavel, HRL Labs., LLC(United States)

Yann Reibel, Laurent Rubaldo, Rachid Taalat, Alexandre
Kerlain, Nicolas Péré-Laperne, Marie-Lise Bourqui, David
Billon-Lanfrey, SOFRADIR (France); Gérard Destéfanis,
Olivier Gravrand, Pierre Castelein, CEA-LETI (France)
The growing demand for compact and low consumption infrared cooled
detectors is driven by different products segments. Hand Held Thermal
Imagers, UAV, small gimbals are some of them. End users are requiring
devices easy to use with fast cool down time, excellent portability, low
acoustic noise with no trade-offs in reliability and performance. These
requirements are pushing the technology developments toward constantinnovations on detectors, coolers, read out circuits and proximity electronicboards.
In this paper we will discuss the different figures of merit; we will
highlight the challenges for the different components. An update on thedevelopments of HOT technology for most advanced pixel pitch will bepresented.
The advantages and results of the use of digital outputs for the ROIC will be
discussed as it allows significant system performance improvements. Alsovery compact products are driving the developments for innovative coolers
and cryogenic solutions. A low power yet compact architecture is a must forelectronic boards to optimize the overall system power consumption. Finallya look to the future requirements for further shrink will be addressed.

SPIE DSS 2015

Luke Pillans, Tim Edwards, Lee Richardson, David Jeckells,
SELEX ES (United Kingdom)This paper describes the architecture of the Firefly infrared module, a newgeneration of infrared camera core developed by Selex ES. Firefly includes
a new ROIC designed to reduce the power consumption of digitisationelectronics and a multifunction processing core which reduces systemcomplexity by allowing peripheral devices such as laser rangefinders to becontrolled directly by the core without additional circuitry. A software based
rendering engine enables the flexibility to meet the evolving requirements
of modern battlespace systems. Recent advances in silicon technology haveallowed the inclusion of such broad functionality without adding significant
cost or power consumption overheads. The design trades are examined indetail and the flexibility of the system is illustrated by examining a numberof integration scenarios. Empirical data will be presented for electrical
power consumption and image processing capacity.

Leonard G. Wamboldt, Corning Incorporated (UnitedStates)14

Firefly: A HOT camera core for thermal
imagers with enhanced functionality·

We describe our efforts in developing mid-wave (3µm- 5.0 µm) transparent
photon-trap InAsSb-based infrared detectors grown on GaAs substrates
operating at high operating temperature (150K) with very low dark current.
A novel detector design based-on transparent pyramidal photon-trapping
structures has been utilized in conjunction with compound barrier-based
device architecture. At high operating temperature, diffusion current isa major source of dark current and can be suppressed through absorbervolume reduction by using a thin layer (1-2µm) of absorbing InAsSb material
opposed to conventional thick (≥ 4-5µm) absorber layer. To enhance opticalabsorption and quantum efficiency for the thin absorber, the pyramidal
photon-trap structures which acting as an anti-reflective coating are
fabricated into the non-absorbing InAs layer grown over the thin layer ofabsorbing bulk InAsSb. The InAs layer will be transparent at the MWIR and
there will be no absorption or loss associated with this layer. A thin layer of(1 and 2µm) lattice-mismatched InAsSb with 5.0 µm cutoff at 150K and 5µm non-absorbing InAs layer was grown by MBE. 320x256/30µm detector
arrays that consist of bulk thin absorber as well as transparent photon-trap
pyramid structures were fabricated to compare the detector performance.
The measured dark current density for the diodes with the transparent
pyramidal absorber was 3-5X lower that for the conventional diode with thebulk thick absorber, which is consistent with the volume reduction due tothinner absorber layer. We have achieved median low dark current densityof 5.5x10-6 A/cm2 with NEdT of 9mK (f/2-optics) at 150K.

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI“The views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the official
policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government.”
This is in accordance with DoDI 5230.29, January 8, 2009.”

9451-40, Session 10

9451-38, Session 10

Zhao-Bing Tian, Sanjay Krishna, The Univ. of New Mexico(United States)

Progress on the development of interband
cascade photodetectors (Invited Paper)

High-operating temperature MWIR
unipolar barrier photodetectors based on
strained layer superlattices

The InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice (T2-SL) based interband cascade (IC)photodetectors are emerging as a viable candidate for high performance
infrared (IR) detectors [1-4], particularly for high operating temperatureapplications [2-4]. It takes full advantage of the great versatility in energyband alignment in InAs/GaSb/AlSb material systems with a multiple-stage
design [1-3]. In each stage of the IC detector design, the InAs/GaSb
T2-SL absorber is sandwiched between electron and hole barriers, whichefficiently block the majority carriers without impending the photo-carriertransport. In addition, an ultra-fast carrier relaxation channel is implemented
by carefully construct a series of coupled quantum-wells (QWs) adjacentto the absorbers, to facilitate highly efficient photo-carrier extractions in IC
detectors [2-3]. These multiple-stages are electrically connected in series,
via the type-II broken-gap alignment between InAs and GaSb quantum
structures [1-2]. Our effort has led to the demonstration of mid-IR single
pixel device operating up to 450 K under zero-bias, and these devices haveachieved superior electrical performance compared to MCT technology at
higher operation temperatures. The first IC focal plane array has also been
demonstrated and is operational up to 180 K.

David A. Ramirez, Elena Plis, Stephen A. Myers, SKINfrared
LLC (United States); Christian P Morath, Vincent M Cowan,
Air Force Research Laboratory (United States); Sanjay
Krishna, SKINfrared LLC (United States) and The Univ. of
New Mexico (United States)
The realization of high operating temperature (HOT) midwave infrared(MWIR) photodetectors would significantly relax the requirements imposedon the cooling system, which would lead to a reduction in the size, weight,
and cost of the detection system. One of the most attractive material
systems to develop HOT photodetectors is InAs/GaSb Type II Superlattices(T2SLs). This is due the ability of T2SLs materials to engineer the band
structure of the device, which can be exploited to make devices withunipolar barriers. It has been shown that the use of unipolar barriers candramatically reduce the dark current levels of the device, which is essential
to realize HOT photodetectors. In this work, we report on the design,
growth, and fabrication of MWIR HOT photodetectors based on InAs/GaSb
T2SLs. We have designed, grown, and fabricated band-structure engineered
MWIR photodetectors based on the pBiBn architecture.

In this talk, we will present our latest progress on the development ofhigh performance IC photodetectors in both mid- and longwave-IR. Our
results show significant improvement in both the electrical and optical
performances for IC detectors. Our mid-IR detectors show zero-bias
operation, with external quantum efficiency as high as 11%. The darkcurrent is as low as 1.75 nA/cm2 at 120 K and -10mV, which shows 5 times
improvement at lower temperatures. The Johnson-limited D* of the midIR detector is around 1.15x1011 Jone at 200 K, showing nearly 10 times
improvement compared to the previous results [2,3]. These mid-IR IC
detectors have obtained background limited operation up to 210 K. Progress
in LWIR IC detectors are also made and will be presented. Furthermore, ourvery recent progress on the understanding of device physics in quantumengineered IC detectors, including the dark current mechanisms will also be
discussed.

9451-39, Session 10

Effects of AlSb interfaces on InAs/InAsSb
type-II infrared superlattice material
properties
Elizabeth H. Steenbergen, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Zhiyuan Lin, Arizona State Univ. (United States);
Said Elhamri, Univ. of Dayton (United States); Yong-Hang
Zhang, Arizona State Univ. (United States); Ron Kaspi, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)

9451-41, Session 10

Numerical analysis of CdS/PbSe room
temperature mid-infrared heterojunction
photovoltaic detectors

Electron and hole barriers and their comprising materials are key design
parameters for current type-II superlattice infrared detectors due to theirability to reduce dark current and limit surface recombination. Where
the large bandgap barriers interface with smaller bandgap superlattices,band bending is introduced, with the degree of bending depending on
the doping levels. This barrier-superlattice interface may also contributeadditional carriers to the superlattice due to defect levels at the interface
or within the barrier bandgap. The band bending and defect levels canaffect the superlattice material characterization results. Barriers havebeen reported as necessary to reduce surface recombination in order toobtain the minority carrier lifetime in the superlattice using time-resolved
photoluminescence for InAs/GaSb superlattices and as unnecessary for
InAs/InAsSb superlattices. Here effects of AlSb and GaSb layers at thesuperlattice-surface and superlattice-buffer interfaces on the electrical andoptical properties of an InAs/InAsSb long-wavelength infrared superlattice
are examined. Preliminary results show that the low-temperature Hall
Effect mobility of the sample with AlSb is five times higher than that of
the sample with GaSb and that the low-temperature photoluminescenceintensity is higher with AlSb than with GaSb layers. Excitation-dependent
photoluminescence results from 12 K to 130 K indicate that the effective
Shockley-Read-Hall recombination rate in the superlattice is higher with
AlSb than with GaSb layers. Further electrical and optical characterization
outcomes and the effects of the barriers on the superlattice material
parameters will be discussed.

Return to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Binbin Weng, Jijun Qiu, Wanyin Ge, Zhisheng Shi, The Univ.
of Oklahoma (United States)
Theoretical constrains of a CdS/PbSe room-temperature heterojunction
photovoltaic mid-infrared detector are discussed as to provide guidelines
for future experimental improvement based on the previous experimental
exploration . As reported, the polycrystalline CdS film was prepared on topof the monocrystalline PbSe grown by molecular beam epitaxy method.
Various material and device parameters including electron affinity, carrier
concentration, interface recombination velocity remain uncertain or
ambiguous. However, these parameters could have detrimental effect on
the device performance of the CdS/PbSe detector. In this work, therefore,
the numerical analysis will be majorly based on these parameters throughdevice modeling and simulation.

9451-42, Session 10

Long-wave infrared HgCdTe unipolar PBnn
photodetector
Weicheng Qiu, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics·

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15

Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI(China) and National Laboratory for Infrared Physics,
Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academyo (China); Weida Hu, Shanghai Institute of TechnicalPhysics (China); Xiang-Ai Cheng, National Univ. of Defense
Technology (China); Tian Jiang, College of Photoelectric
Science and Engineering, National University of Defense
Technology (China); xiaoshuang Chen, Shanghai Instituteof Technical Physics (China)

decreased with an increase in junction area and is the same for devices with
400 and 500 µm diameters (Fig. 2). The estimated surface leakage currentof the detector equals to 0.155 mA/cm at -0.2 V and 300 K.

Unipolar barrier structure has been proven to be an effective method for
reducing dark current components in infrared photodetectors. More recently,
hot (operate at a high temperature) and dual-band infrared detectors area hot focus and challenge objective of current research. In this paper, we
report on the design and modeling of HgCdTe PBnn photodetectors basedon bandgap-engineering, which is used in dual-band devices. Numericalsimulation was applied to calculate the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic
and R0A values for PBnn unipolar barrier photodiodes and traditional
pn junction photodiodes. The results show that the performance of PBnn
unipolar barrier device has significantly improved compared with that ofconventional pn device. Auger-suppressed is clearly observed when the
PBnn device operates at non-equilibrium state at a temperature of 140K,
and the responsivity is also improved. Therefore, the PBnn structure may be
an ideal choice for fabricating hot double-color devices.

Uncooled infrared focal plane array
imaging in China (Invited Paper)

9451-104, Session 10

MOCVD grown HgCdTe p+BnN+ barrier
detector for MWIR HOT operation (Invited
Paper)

Recently, there has been considerable progress towards the materials
development and device design innovations for infrared (IR) photodetectors.
One of the leading topics are barrier detectors. Barrier detector in the nBn
configuration requires a proper bandgap engineering. The barrier in the
conduction band should be high enough to block the electron flow fromthe cap layer to the absorber, while in the valence band there should be no
discontinuity to allow unimpeded transport of photogenerated holes. Moregenerally, zero valence band offset is the key item limiting the performanceof nBn detectors [1 5]. In HgCdTe material system, nBn concept cannot
be easily realised due to the significant valence band offset, as well as
the difficulties posed by heterostructure interface instabilities. In spite ofthese hurdles, HgCdTe nBn devices operating in mid-wavelength infrared(MWIR) range were presented by Itsuno et al. [6]. The device was grown
on a bulk CdZnTe substrate using molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Uniform
n-type doping ensures the absence of depletion in the narrow bandgap
layers; however, provide the existence of valence bands offset. First MWIR
HgCdTe barrier detectors with a zero valence band offset were presented by
Kopytko et al. [7]. The epitaxial structure with a configuration of p+BpnN+
was grown using MOCVD method on GaAs substrate after CdTe buffer layer.
The paper present the electrical and optical properties of MWIR HgCdTe
p+BpnN+ barrier photodetectors operating at room temperature. Initial
experiments indicate the influence of the barrier on electrical and optical
performances of the device. The devices exhibit very low dark current
densities in the range of (2÷3)?10–3 A/cm2 at 300 K. The estimated thermal
activation energy of about 0.33 eV is close to the full Hg0.64Cd0.36Te
bandgap (Fig. 1), which in zero temperature equals to 0.327 eV [8]. This
indicate diffusion limited dark currents.
The structures with a round mesa geometry were defined by a standard
optical photolithography and fabricated by wet chemical etching with
Br:HBr (1:100) solution. Since the deep etching reveals side walls around theabsorber layer and the mesa’s slopes have not been passivated, the surface
leakage current was not negligible for small devices. The dark current

SPIE DSS 2015

9451-43, Session 11

Shuyu Lei, North GuangWei Technology Inc. (China)
This article reviews the development of uncooloed infrared focal planearray imaging in China in the past decade. Sensors based on optical orelectrical read-out mechanism were developed but the latter dominates themarket. In resistive bolometers, VOx and amorphous silicon are still the two
major thermal-sensing material. The specifications of the IRFPA made bydifferent manufactures were collected and compared. Currently more than
five Chinese companies and institutions design and fabricate uncooleded
infrared focal plane array. Some devices have sensitivity as high as 30
mK; the largest array for commercial products is 640*512 and the smallest
pixel size is 17 um. Emphasis is given on the MEMS design, ROIC design,
fabrication, and packaging of the IRFPA manufactured by GWIC, especailly
on design for high sensitivities, low noise, better uniformity and linearity,
better stabilization for whole working temperature range, full-digital design,
low cost and high high performance WLP, etc.

9451-44, Session 11

Malgorzata Kopytko, Military Univ, of Technology (Poland);
A. K?b?owski, Vigo System S.A. (Poland); Waldemar
Gawron, Piotr Martyniuk, Pawel Madejczyk, Krzysztof
Jozwikowski, Antoni Rogalski, O. Markowska, Military Univ.
of Technology (Poland)

16

Due to the large photoresponse of about 2 A/W at zero bias and in a wide
range of reverse bias voltages (Fig. 3), those devices have a zero valenceband offset and are able to operate at near zero-bias voltage.

·

Uncooled infrared detector and imager
development at DALI technology
Lijun Jiang, Haitao Liu, Liangshan Qian, Jiguang Chi, Feng
Pan, Xiang Liu, Xiaorong Zhu, Zhigang Ma, Zhejiang Dali
Technology Co., Ltd. (China)
Zhejiang Dali Technology Co Ltd is one of the major players in China
Infrared industry. The company has been working on infrared imagers
using uncooled FPAs for more than 15 years. It started the research anddevelopment of uncooled microbolometer detectors since 2006, and has
mass producted several different format detectors, including 35um 384x288,
25um 160x120, 384x288, 640x480, 17um 384x288, 640x480. The developed
detectors have been used in imagers such as thermography cameras andautomotive night vision imagers. In this presentation, we will describe
the development and status of uncooled detectors and imagers at DALITechnology.

9451-45, Session 11

BAE Systems’ SMART Chip Camera FPA
development (Invited Paper)Louise C. Sengupta, Pierre-Alain Auroux, Donald D.
McManus, D. Ahmasi Harris, Richard J. Blackwell, Jeffrey
F. Bryant, Evan Binkerd, Mihir Boal, BAE Systems (UnitedStates)BAE Systems’ SMART Chip camera combines 12 µm wafer level packaged
FPA with multichip stack ASIC and wafer level optics to provide very
compact LWIR solutions. The key innovations include single-layer 12 µm
pixel bolometer design and robust fabrication process, as well as wafer-level
lid packaging. We have used advanced packaging techniques to achieve an
extremely small form-factor camera presenting a complete camera volumeof 2.9 cm3 and a thermal core weight of 5.1g. The SMART Chip camera
supports up to 60 Hz frame rates and requires less than 500 mW of power.

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-46, Session 11

9451-48, Session 11

Advanced uncooled sensor productdevelopment (Invited Paper)

Low-SWaP shutterless uncooled video
core by SCD

Adam M. Kennedy, Paolo Masini, Mark J. Lamb, Jeff
Hamers, Thomas A. Kocian, Eli E. Gordon, Raytheon Co.
(United States); William J. Parrish, Ross E. Williams, Seek
Thermal, Inc. (United States)

Udi Mizrahi, Yair Lury, Yaakov Gridish, Shahar Yuval,
Nickolay Syrel, Yaron Shamay, Roman Meshorer, Roman
Iosevich, Shibolet L. Horesh, SCD SemiConductor Devices(Israel)Raytheon and its partners, SEEK Thermal and Freescale continue on thepath to bring the latest technology and innovation to both the military andcommercial customers. Raytheon with its partners have matured the 17 um
pixel for volume production on the TWS (Thermal Weapon Sight) programin efforts to bring advanced production capability to produce a low cost,high performance product. Raytheon has developed the 12 micron pixel andhas demonstrated performance across a family of detector sizes ranging
from formats as small as 206 x 157 to full High Definition formats. Detector
pixel sensitivities have been achieved using the Raytheon double leveladvanced pixel structure. Transition of the packaging of microbolometersfrom a traditional die level package to a Wafer Level Package (WLP) in ahigh volume commercial environment is complete. Innovations in wafer
fabrication techniques have been incorporated into this product line toassist in the high yield required for volume production. The WLP seal yieldis currently > 95%. Simulated package vacuum lives >> 20 years have been
demonstrated through accelerated life testing where the package has beenshown to have no degradation after 2,500 hours at 150C. Additionallythe rugged assembly has shown no degradation after thermal shock andweapons fire testing. The transition to production effort was successfullycompleted in 2014 and the WLP design has been integrated into multiple
new production products including the TWS and the innovative SEEK
Thermal commercial product that interfaces directly to an iPhone or android
device.

Over the last decade SCD has established a state of the art VOxµ-Bolometer product line. The markets demand for low SWaP (Size, Weightand Power) uncooled engines is growing, where low SWaP is especiallycritical in battery-operated applications such as goggles and Thermal
Weapon Sights.

9451-47, Session 11

Alexander Tempelhahn, Helmut Budzier, Volker Krause,
Gerald Gerlach, Technische Univ. Dresden (Germany)In this approach, SCD have developed a low-SWaP, shutter-less uncooled
video core, with a foot-print of 30x30mm and power consumption less than
1W. The video core contain a temperature calibrated, HS (high-sensitive)
640x480 17µm pitch detector (NETD ≤ 32mK), packed (without TEC) in a
new ceramic package (26x23mm).
The video core has excellent image processing algorithms, like local andglobal DRC (Dynamic Range Compression), and de-noising algorithms(spatial and temporal), which gives low NETD (Noise Equivalent
Temperature Different) and stable and low RNU (Residual Non Uniformity)
video.

9451-49, Session 12

Improving the shutter-less compensation
method for TEC-less microbolometerbased infrared cameras

On-orbit performance of the compact
infrared camera (CIRC) with uncooled
infrared detector

The present trend of miniaturizing microbolometer focal plane arrays (FPAs)
enables infrared thermography to discover new fields of application, e.g.
smart phone devices or sensors for smart building control systems. These
applications require compact, robust and simple-constructed infrared
cameras with low power consumption. For that reason, infrared cameras
should consist only of the sensor array, the infrared lens system and thedigital signal processing unit (DSP).

Haruyoshi Katayama, Michito Sakai, Eri Kato, Yasuhiro
Nakajima, Toshiyoshi Kimura, Japan Aerospace Exploration
Agency (Japan); Koji Nakau, Hokkaido Univ. (Japan)

The influences of changing ambient conditions, especially of the ambient
temperature, are the main sources of measurement uncertainty and need
to be addressed. In [1] we have shown that it is possible to compensatechanges in the disturbing radiation derived from the interior of thecamera housing for infrared cameras with temperature-stabilized sensor
arrays using several additional thermometers placed inside the camera
housing. In this paper we improve this approach for infrared cameras
without temperature stabilization (TEC-less). Here changes of the ambient
temperature affect the sensor temperature due to heat conduction; andthe two main sensor parameters, pixel responsivity and pixel offset, follow
this sensor temperature change. In order to compensate that we adapt theapproach mentioned in [2] for shutter-less infrared cameras. The changes ofthe pixel responsivity due to the changing sensor temperature are estimatedwithin an additional calibration step. The estimation of the changing pixel
offset is combined with the estimation of the disturbing inside-camera
radiation mentioned in [1]. The results of this compensation approach arecompared to the known shutter-based method.

We have developed the Compact Infrared Camera (CIRC) with an uncooled
infrared array detector (microbolometer) for space application. The CIRC
is an infrared sensor intended for observing wildfires, volcanoes, and heatisland phenomena. Microbolometers have an advantage of not requiringcooling system such as a mechanical cooler, and is suitable for resourcelimited sensor system. Another characteristic of the CIRC is its use ofathermal optics. The athermal optics system compensates for defocus
owing to temperature changes by utilizing a combination of different
lens materials and diffractive lenses.. The CIRC can keep the optical
performance at ambient temperature ranging from ?15 to 50 °C. We also
employ a shutterless system which is a method to correct non-uniformityof the detector without a mechanical shutter. The CIRC achieves a small
size (approximately 200 mm), light mass (approximately 3 kg), and low
electrical power consumption (<20 W) by employing athermal optics and a
shutterless system.
The CIRC was launched in May 2014 as a technology-demonstration payloadof Advanced Land Observation Satellite-2 (ALOS-2). In the initial functionalverification phase (July 4-14, 2014), the athermal optics and the shutterlesssystem showed a good performance according to its intended design. We
also confirmed the temperature accuracy of the CIRC observation data iswithin 4K without a calibration function. The CIRC also detected more than
900 wildfires and observed the volcano activities in various areas.

REFERENCES[1] Tempelhahn, A., Budzier, H., Krause, V., Gerlach, G., “Modeling transient
thermal behavior of shutter less microbolometer based infrared cameras”,
Proc. SPIE, Vol. 9249-3, 1-9 (2014).
[2] Budzier, H., “Radiometrische Kalibrierung ungekühlter Infrarot-Kameras”,
TUDpress, Band 51, Dresden (2014).

In this paper, we present the on-orbit performance of the CIRC onboard
ALOS-2.

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17

Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-50, Session 12

Carol Hirschmugl, Department of Physics, University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee (United States); Robert E. Peale,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States); David J. Shelton,
Plasmonics, Inc. (United States)

Implementation and performance of
shutterless uncooled micro-bolometer
camerasWe have patterned a highly absorbing gold-black film onto the top surface
of a vanadium oxide based infrared bolometer. Gold black is a porous,
nano-crystalline film, achieved by evaporating gold in a ~1 torr inert
atmosphere. While the film is very highly absorbing, it is also extremely
fragile. Our method of infusing the gold black layer with evaporated oxide
makes the film robust while preserving its near unity absorption. This allows
gold-black to be patterned using standard lift-off techniques and even to
survive dry-etch removal of sacrificial polyimide used to facilitate air-bridgebolometers. Gold-black coated VOx-based air-bridge bolometers show aclear improvement in infrared responsivity over uncoated devices.

Jo Das, Danny De Gaspari, Philippe Cornet, Pieter D.
Deroo, Jan P. Vermeiren, Xenics NV (Belgium); Patrick J.
Merken, Xenics NV (Belgium) and Royal Military Academy(Belgium)
Nowadays micro-bolometer cameras are equipped with a mechanicalshutter to compensate for pixel offset due to temperature effects. An
undesired consequence of the shutter operation is that the camera isblinded during the re-calibration period, which is not acceptable in safety
critical applications related to security or critical observation and tomonitoring for machine-vision.
For these applications a shutterless approach is proposed, that is
implemented into the Xenics LWIR thermal cameras and cores. The
shutterless camera can have either a cameralink or analog output interface,and has a power consumption of less than 2W.
Based on a set of calibration images the optimal non-uniformity correction
is calculated onboard of the camera. The calibration data is taken fordifferent integration times of the bolometer, and also a temperature
coefficient is included into the model. Due to the limited resources in thecamera the compactness of the algorithm and the efficiency of the coding isvery important.
We will present in this paper the performance of the shutterless algorithm.
The residual FPN is analyzed at different integration times, black body
(0-120°C) and ambient (up to 60°C) temperatures, and compared to a
traditional shutter-based offset correction. Also the long term stability of
the algorithm is investigated.

9451-51, Session 12

Shutters with embedded processors
Stanley W. Stephenson, Melles Griot (United States)
Shutters are used to periodically provide a non-uniformity correction (NUC)
calibration surface to micro-bolometers. Many micro-bolometer applications,such as TWS and DVE, require compact, power efficient actuators. Actuatorsin these applications, such as bistable solenoids and stepper motors,
benefit from complex drive schemes. Consumer electronics products havegenerated compact, low-cost drive components that can be used to embedcomplex drives into these shutters. Shutter drives using these components
maintain compactness and power efficiency while simplifying interfaces atminimal cost. Recently, several commercially available shutter systems havebeen created that incorporate embedded microprocessors into shuttersusable for NUC correction of micro-bolometers.

9451-52, Session 12

Evan M. Smith, Univ. of Central Florida (United States) andPlasmonics, Inc. (United States); Deep Panjwani, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States); James C. Ginn III, Andrew
Warren, Christopher J. Long, Plasmonics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Pedro Figuieredo, Plasmonics, Inc. (United States)
and Univ of Central Florida (United States); Christian W.
Smith, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Joshua D.
Perlstein, Plasmonics, Inc. (United States); Nick Walter,

SPIE DSS 2015

Three-dimensional plasmonic metamaterial
absorbers based on all-metal structures
Shinpei Ogawa, Daisuke Fujisawa, Mitsubishi Electric Corp.
(Japan); Masafumi Kimata, Ritsumeikan Univ. (Japan)
Information such as the shape, position and average radiant intensity ofobjects can be observed through a typical uncooled infrared (IR) sensor;
however, color (wavelength) information cannot be obtained. If an uncooled
IR sensor with a wavelength selective function could be realized, thenadvanced uncooled IR sensors with color information and multicolor
imaging could be developed, which would be advantageous for fire
detection, gas analysis and analytical applications. Small pixel structures
maintaining high absorption are strongly required in order to realize highperformance uncooled infrared sensors for multi-color imaging. Threedimensional plasmonic metamaterial absorbers (3D-PMAs) based on fullmetal structures were fabricated. 3D-PMAs consist of the two-dimensional
periodic micropatches and the bottom plate which are connected throughthe finite posts. All components of the 3D-PMA are based on plasmonic
metals such as Au. 3D-PMAs were constructed by the two-step lift-off
procedure with a carbon sacrifice layer. The 200 nm gap was achieved
with the finite post. Measurement of the reflection demonstrates that the
wavelength-selective absorption is realized and the absorption wavelengthis defined by the micropatch size, regardless of the micropatch array period
and is longer than the micropatch array period. A strong wavelength
selective absorption is realized by the plasmonic resonant mode localized
at the edge of the micropatch and the narrow-gap resonant mode between
the micropatch and the plate. The disturbance of the metal post for bothresonance modes is negligible. Full metal structures have no additionalmode comparing to typical metal-insulator-metal absorbers. 3D-PMAs havethe small volume and the absorption wavelength beyond the period, which
result in the fast response and the small pixel size. The results obtained here
will contribute to the development of high-performance uncooled IR sensors
for multicolor imaging.

9451-54, Session 13

Enhanced performance of VOx-based
bolometer using patterned gold black
absorber

18

9451-53, Session 12·

Design and high-volume manufacture of
low-cost molded IR aspheres for personal
thermal imaging devices
Amy L. Zelazny, Kenneth F. Walsh, John P. Deegan, Brian
Bundschuh, Edward K. Patton, Rochester Precision Optics,
LLC (United States)
The demand for infrared optical elements, particularly those made ofchalcogenide materials, is rapidly increasing as thermal imaging becomes
affordable to the consumer. The use of these materials in conjunction withestablished lens manufacturing techniques presents unique challenges
relative to the cost sensitive nature of this new market. We explore thewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
Mikhail Kotov, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (UnitedStates); Gryphon Drake, Univ. Research Foundation(United States)

process from design to manufacture, and discuss the technical challenges
involved. Additionally, facets of the development process including
manufacturing logistics, packaging, supply chain management, andqualification are discussed.

Graded index (GRIN) optics offer potential for both weight savings andincreased performance but have so far been limited to visible and NIR bands(wavelengths shorter than about 0.9 µm). NRL is developing a capability
to extend GRIN optics to longer wavelengths in the infrared by exploiting
diffused IR transmitting chalcogenide glasses. These IR-GRIN lenses arecompatible with all IR wavebands (SWIR, MWIR and LWIR) and can beused alongside conventional wideband materials. Traditional multiband IR
imagers require many elements for correction of chromatic aberrations,making them large and heavy and not well-suited for weight sensitive
platforms. IR-GRIN optical elements designed with simultaneous opticalpower and chromatic correction can reduce the number of elements inwideband systems, making multi-band IR imaging practical for platforms
including small UAVs and soldier handheld, helmet or weapon mounted
cameras. The IR-GRIN lens technology, design space and anti-reflection
considerations will be presented in this paper.

9451-55, Session 13

Design and fabrication of multispectral
optics using expanded glass map
Shyam S. Bayya, Daniel J. Gibson, Vinh Q. Nguyen,
Jasbinder S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Mikhail Kotov, Sotera Defense Solutions,
Inc. (United States); Gryphon Drake, Univ. Research
Foundation (United States); John P. Deegan, George P.
Lindberg, Rochester Precision Optics, LLC (United States)
There is a strong desire to reduce size and weight of single and multiband
IR imaging systems in ISR operations on hand-held, helmet mounted orairborne platforms. Current systems are limited by bulky optics. We haverecently developed a large number of new optical materials based on
chalcogenide glasses which transmit in SWIR to LWIR wavelength region
that fill up the glass map for multispectral optics and vary in refractive index
from 2.38 to 3.17. They show a large spread in dispersion (Abbe number) andoffer some unique solutions for multispectral optics designs. These glasses
were specifically designed to have comparable glass molding temperatures
and thermal properties to be able to laminate and co-mold the optics andreduce the number of air-glass interfaces (lower Fresnel reflection losses).
These new NRL glasses also have negative or very low positive dn/dT
making it easier to athermalize the optical system. Our multispectral optics
designs using these new materials demonstrate reduced size, complexity
and improved performance. This presentation will cover discussions on the
new optical materials, multispectral designs, fabrication and characterizationof new optics.

9451-58, Session 13

Index change of chalcogenide materials
from precision glass molding processes
John P. Deegan, George P. Lindberg, Robert Benson,
Rochester Precision Optics, LLC (United States); Daniel J.
Gibson, Shyam S. Bayya, Jasbinder S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
With the increase in demand of infrared optics for thermal applications
and the use of glass molding of chalcogenide materials to support thesehigher volume optical designs, an investigation of changes to the opticalproperties of these materials is required. Typical precision glass molding
requires specific thermal conditions for proper lens molding of any type of
optical glass. With these conditions a change (reduction) of optical index
occurs after molding of all oxide glass types and it is presumed that a similar
behavior will happen with chalcogenide based materials. We will discuss
the effects of a typical molding thermal cycle for use with commercially andnewly developed chalcogenide materials and show results of index variationfrom nominally established material data.

9451-56, Session 13

Investigation of As40Se60 chalcogenide
glass in precision glass molding for highvolume thermal imaging lenses

9451-59, Session 13

Alan Symmons, William V. Moreshead, Jacklyn
Novak, Jeremy Huddleston, Edward Foote, LightPath
Technologies, Inc. (United States)

Methods of both destructive and nondestructive metrology of GRIN opticalelements

The growing demand for thermal imaging sensors and cameras has
focused attention on the need for larger volumes of lower cost optics
in this infrared region. A major component of the cost of thermal
imaging lenses is the Germanium content. As40Se60 was developed asa moldable, germanium-free chalcogenide glass that can serve as a low
cost alternative to germanium and other infrared materials. As40Se60 has
found acceptance as a material to be diamond turned or polished, but has
not been widely used for molding as originally anticipated. This paper will
review the challenges of chalcogenide molding and characterize As40Se60
for widespread use in high volume molded thermal imaging optics. The
relative advantages and disadvantages of As40Se60 as compared to otherchalcogenide glasses and other traditional infrared materials will also be
discussed.

George P. Lindberg, John P. Deegan, Robert Benson,
Rochester Precision Optics, LLC (United States); Andrew
J. Berger, Joseph J. Linden, Univ. of Rochester (UnitedStates); Daniel J. Gibson, Shyam S. Bayya, Jasbinder
S. Sanghera, Vinh Q. Nguyen, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Mikhail Kotov, Sotera Defense Solutions,
Inc. (United States)
Gradient index (GRIN) optics have been an up-and-coming tool in the worldof optics. They have been used primarily in the fiber optic coupling industry.
However, by combining an index gradient with a surface curvature thenumber of optical components for a lens system can be greatly reduced.
Current methods of producing GRIN lenses make larger optics prohibitive.
Their use in the realm of infra-red is only becoming realized as new efforts
are being developed to create materials suitable and intercompatible forthese optical components. The materials being pursued are chalcogenide
based glasses. Small changes in elemental concentrations in theseglasses can have dramatic effects on physical and optical properties. The
commonality between these glasses and their widely different optical

9451-57, Session 13

GRIN optics for multispectral infrared
imaging (Invited Paper)
Daniel J. Gibson, Shyam S. Bayya, Jasbinder S. Sanghera,
Vinh Q. Nguyen, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);

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19

Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLIproperties make them prime candidates for GRIN applications. The difficulty
comes in with the metrology of a GRIN optic. Traditional methods ofmeasure are complicated by the combination of the GRIN and the curvatureof the element. We will present preliminary data on both destructive andnon-destructive means of measuring the gradient index. The most promising
destructive methods being sought is interferometry of thinned slices oflenses. Non-destructive methods may require inference of index throughmaterial properties, by careful measurement of the individual materials
going into the GRIN optic, followed by mapping measurements of the
GRIN surface. Methods to be pursued are micro Raman mapping and CT
scanning. By knowing the properties of the layers and accurately mapping
the interfaces between the layers we should be able to back out the index
profile of the GRIN optic and then confirm the profile by destructive means.

9451-65, Session 13

Reducing narcissus with a GRIN (Invited
Paper)

9451-61, Session 14

Varo-Achro-Phobia: the fear of broad
spectrum zoom optics
Christopher C. Alexay, Troy A. Palmer, StingRay Optics,
LLC (United States)
Today’s battlefield is evolving at lightning speed. Our warfighters are being
tasked with highly complex missions requiring the very best technologythat our industry can offer. The demand for these advanced ISR platforms
is challenging designers and engineers in the optics industry to push
the envelope and develop wider band solutions to support all multiple
and broadband sensor platforms. Recently, significant attention has
been directed towards the development of optical systems that enable
simultaneous operation in the visible and shortwave infrared spectral
wavebands.
This paper will present a review of the evolution of StingRay Optics’
GhostSight™ zoom optics that offer broad chromatic imaging capabilities
from the visible through the shortwave infrared spectrum.

Jay N. Vizgaitis, Arthur R. Hastings Jr., optX imaging
systems (United States)
Narcissus is a habitual problem in infrared systems that often takes aseemingly wonderful design and makes it relatively unusable. It forces
further optimization of the surfaces, addition of more lenses, or the
reduction in performance to make it go away. If not eliminated, the narcissus
reduces dynamic range, reduces contrast, and complicates the overallsystem by forcing a non-uniformity correction scheme that includes all of
the culprit lenses. Adding GRIN lenses to a system adds additional degrees
of freedom in the design. Enabled by these degrees of freedom is the
manipulation of the curvatures of the lenses of a system to minimize thenarcissus impact without the traditional degradation in performance or
increase in lens count. This paper explores the design space of including
GRIN lenses to improve narcissus in infrared systems.

9451-60, Session 14

Diffractive optics technologies in infraredsystems (Invited Paper)
Yakov G. Soskind, DHPC Technologies (United States)
The proliferation of diffractive optics technologies into military andconsumer markets has been driven by the advancements in modeling,
fabrication, and performance characterization of diffractive components.

9451-62, Session 15

Improved optical-to-mechanical software
export process for precision systems
Ian B. Murray, Jerry Ma, BAE Systems (United States)
BAE Systems has developed an improved tool for exporting optical design
coordinates to Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) software. Existing scripts
within common lens design packages export element shapes and rays
which is enough for standard systems, but complex system design requires
knowledge of surface vertices and coordinates for each component.
Fixed coordinates for each element allows the mechanical engineer toplace parts more accurately than allowed by the standard surface export
algorithms, as well as locking optical elements in space so that mating
surfaces do not inadvertently move optical elements during mechanicaloptimization. Including optical element vertex coordinates is useful for
rotationally-symmetric systems, especially after multiple design iterations,and is essential for multi-channel, off-axis systems where apertures are notcentered on surface vertices.

9451-63, Session 15

Cost-effective lightweight mirrors foraerospace and defense

Diffractive optics offers additional degrees of freedom for controlling the
propagation, dispersion, and polarization of light in photonic instruments.
It provides optical developers and designers with additional flexibility insystems’ design, resulting in solutions with reduced overall size and weight,
as well as enhanced performance.
Diffractive optics is playing an increasingly important role in spectral regions
where optical quality vitreous materials are sparse or not available. That
applies especially to long-wave infrared and THz spectral regions, wherediffractive optics performs exceptionally well.
In this paper I will compare unique benefits offered by using diffractive
optical components in modern photonic instruments, emphasizing
successful examples of optical systems and photonic devices enabled by theuse of diffractive optics. In addition, I will show that further development
of diffractive optics for applications in the IR and THz regions can provide
significant system-level performance benefits.

Kenneth S. Woodard, Lovell E. Comstock, Leonard G.
Wamboldt, Brian P. Roy, Corning Incorporated (UnitedStates)The demand for high performance, lightweight mirrors was historicallydriven by aerospace and defense but now we are also seeing similar
requirements for commercial applications. These applications range fromaerospace-like platforms such as small unmanned aircraft for agricultural,
mineral and pollutant aerial mapping to an eye tracking gimbaled mirror
for optometry offices. While aerospace and defense businesses can often
justify the high cost of exotic low density materials, commercial businesses
rarely can. Also, to obtain high performance with low overall opticalsystem weight, aspheric surfaces are often prescribed. This may drive the
manufacturing process to diamond machining thus requiring the reflectiveside of the mirror to be a diamond machinable material.
This paper summarizes the diamond machined finishing and coating ofsome high performance, lightweight designs using non-exotic substrates
to achieve cost effective mirrors. The results indicate that these processes
can meet typical aerospace and defense requirements but may also becompetitive in some commercial applications.

20

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI

9451-64, Session 15

The world growth in research and development of High Operating
Temperature IR detectors impels the development process and the
optimization of “HOT” cryocoolers at RICOR.

An ultra-low surface finish process for
6061-Al mirrors

The development emphasis on the “SWAP” configuration which is small size,
low weight and low power consumption, in order to optimize IDDCA for
future hand held thermal sights.

Leonard G. Wamboldt, Corning Incorporated (UnitedStates)This paper will present the progress made with optimization performed on“HOT” prototypes and engineering pre-production series cryocoolers at the
FPA temperature range of 130 - 200K for three different cryocooler models
based on rotary & linear design concepts.

An ultra-low surface finishing process for 6061 type aluminum has beendeveloped by Corning Incorporated, Specialty Materials Division, and has
been successfully applied to mirrors up to 12 inches in diameter. This paper
presents finish and figure data achieved from this process. Mirror stability isdemonstrated through distortion versus delta temperature measurements,
over the ambient to cryogenic temperature range. As an added benefit,
the process enables the use of deterministic polishing and enhances thereflective optics resistance to corrosion. Survivability of the reflective optic
is evaluated through extended extreme temperature cycling and otherenvironment testing. The paper will discuss successful uses of processed
optical components on various installed systems.

The paper will also review the progress with development activities thatwere implemented in the cryocoolers and the electronic control modules inorder to minimize “Idle electronic and mechanical losses” hence minimizing
the regulated power consumption.
As a result of the new approach of developed cryocoolers for HOT
detectors, the progress in cryocoolers reliability will also be reported in thepaper.

9451-68, Session 16

9451-66, Session 16

Miniature linear cryocoolers for HOT
applications

Miniature cryocooler developments forhigh-operating temperatures at Thales
Cryogenics

Ingo N. Ruehlich, Markus Mai, Carsten Rosenhagen,Andreas Withopf, Sebastian Zehner, AIM INFRAROTMODULE GmbH (Germany)

Roel Arts, Thales Cryogenics B.V. (Netherlands); JeanYves Martin, Sebastien Van Acker, Thales Cryogénie
S.A. (France); Daniel Willems, Jeroen C. Mullié, Thales
Cryogenics B.V. (Netherlands); Alexander Göbel,Thales Cryogenics BV (Netherlands); Mark Tops, Thales
Cryogenics B.V. (Netherlands); Julien Le Bordays, Thierry
Etchanchu, Thales Cryogénie S.A. (France); Tonny
Benschop, Thales Cryogenics B.V. (Netherlands)

Mid Wave IR HOT detectors today allow operating temperatures as high as
130K - 150K and current developments predict even higher temperatures forthe near future. To achieve improvements in size, weight, power and cost
(SWaP,C) improved miniature, long life cryocoolers are demanded.
Since many years developments at AIM are focused to compact, lightweightlinear cryocoolers to also achieve highest MTTF targets. The most compact
linear compressors are featuring single piston moving magnet driving
mechanisms and passive balancer technology.
Linear coolers provide key advantages vs. rotary cooler technology likelow audible noise and vibration, high flexibility in IDCA concepts due tosplit design and finally outstanding MTTF life. The high MTTF significantly
reduces total cost of ownership as cooler replacements due to wear-out arecompletely eliminated for most applications.

In recent years there has been a drive towards miniaturized cooled IDCA
solutions for low-power, low-mass, low-size products (SWAP). To support
this drive, coolers are developed optimized for high-temperature, low heatload dewar-detector assemblies.
In this paper, Thales Cryogenics development activities supporting SWAP
are presented. Design choices are discussed and compared to various key
requirements, such as high efficiency, short cooldown times, low acoustic
noise & vibrations, and small size & mass.

In 2014 AIM presented SX020 model which is lightweight (<200g) andcompact (< 60mm compressor length) and high efficient (~2W typicalpower consumption).
In this paper AIM will give an update on qualification and production
status for SX020. Status of development of the next smaller cooler SX010
and of a miniature coldfinger (<40mm overall length) including predictedperformance data will be presented.

Trade-off analysis results are presented on drive voltage, cold finger
definition (length, material, diameter and sealing concept), and otherinterface considerations. As optimization at cooler level is not always the
optimal choice at IDCA or camera level, a link to camera-level considerations
such as overall IDCA length and power budgets are discussed. As thesesystem-level considerations affect the cold finger interface definition, thissubject is touched upon as well.

9451-69, Session 16

In parallel with linear and rotary cooler options, designs for small-sizehigh-efficiency drive electronics based on state-of-the-art architectures
are presented, together with a discussion on camera-level electronicarchitecture choices, such as voltage regulation, digital I/O, and filtering.

Multi-slope warm-up calorimetry ofIntegrated Dewar-Detector Assemblies
Alexander Veprik, Baruch Shlomovich, SCD
SemiConductor Devices (Israel); Avi Tuito, Israel Ministry of
Defense (Israel)

9451-67, Session 16

Development and optimization progresswith Ricor’s cryocoolers for HOT IR
detectors

Characterization of the Integrated Dewar-Detector Assemblies (IDDA)
usually relies on the traditional boil-off calorimetry. The parasitic heat load isnormally evaluated as the product of the latent heat of vaporization and the“last drop” boil-off rate of the cryogenic coolant (LN2, typically), which is let
to isothermally boil off from the IDDA cold well to the atmosphere throughthe dedicated flow meter.

Amiram Katz, Ilan Nachman, Sergey V Riabzev, Dan Gover,
Victor Segal, Avishai Filis, RICOR-Cryogenic & Vacuum
Systems (Israel)

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This approach, producing satisfactory results for the regular 77K IDDA
featuring long cold fingers, however, appears to be impractical for the HighOperational Temperature (HOT) applications. Beyond the need in using·

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
exotic cryogenic coolants boiling at higher than LN2 temperatures, the “lastdrop” boil-off rate measurement is usually inaccurate and not repeatable forsuch Dewars usually featuring short cold fingers.
The authors disclose modification and adaptation of the well-known dualslope calorimetry. The novel technique relies on comparing slopes of thethermal transient processes during the warm-up of the initially precooled
IDDA at different amounts of added (trial) heat load.
Theoretical findings are supported by the outcomes of full-scale
experimentation. Because of the simplicity, accuracy and ability to perform
calorimetry at any temperature of interest, this approach seems to be ideallysuited for the HOT IDDAs and shows good potential of entirely replacing the
traditional boil-off calorimetry.

In order to withstand such harsh environmental vibration, the cold finger
and outer Dewar structure have been significantly ruggedized; efficientheat sinking methods have been applied and also novel vibration isolation
methods have been implemented.
The electronic design concept is based on a rigid structure of the controller,
the PCB of which has been designed with internal heat sinking paths andspecial components being able to withstand extreme temperatures.
As a final stage of development, such cryocoolers were successfully
qualified by RICOR in harsh environmental conditions and an accelerated life
demonstration test was performed at IDDCA level.

9451-72, Session 17

9451-70, Session 16

RMS noise modeling and detection for
high-reliability HgCdTe infrared focal planearrays development

Microsat cryocooler system
Carl S. Kirkconnell, Lauren S. Shaw, Jacinto Dominguez,
Michael J. Ellis, Andy Buric, Mitul H. Jambusaria, Iris
Technology Corp. (United States)
As the scientific requirements of microsatellites migrate closer to thoseof larger more-expensive traditional satellites, the technical requirementson the key enabling components and subsystems are becoming moredemanding. If the utility of microsatellites is ever to expand to include highperformance mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and short-wave infrared (SWIR)
sensors, significant advancement in the state of art of small cryocooler
systems is required. The Microsat Cryocooler System (MCS) is a radiation
hard, space-qualified integrated cryocooler assembly (ICA) for cubesat andmicrosat applications. The ICA includes a high reliability tactical cryocooler,a miniature set of Low Cost Cryocooler Electronics (mLCCE), the thermal
management components, and the isolation structure. As is the case withthe larger LCCE from which it was derived, the mLCCE supports any of awide range of linear cryocoolers in its design output power range (nominally
25W). With minor adaptation, rotary coolers are also supported.
This paper presents the initial results from the brassboard phase of the MCS
Program. A high fidelity set of cryocooler electronics with a well-defined
upgrade path to a space-compatible design has been built and tested withseveral cryocoolers. Those data are presented. In addition to reducing risk
for the spaceflight design to follow, these electronics are being released
as an intermediate product for high-end tactical applications where theplug-and-play operability among different coolers and the enhanced level ofcontrol and programmability (relative to typical tactical cooler electronics)
are desired.
The overall cubesat-compatible mechanical subsystem design is alsopresented, including descriptions of the thermal management and vibration
isolation approaches.

9451-71, Session 16

Advanced Ricor’s cryocoolers for high-end
IR missile warning systems and ruggedized
platforms
Ilan Nachman, Sergey V Riabzev, Dan Gover, Victor Segal,
Avishai Filis, RICOR-Cryogenic & Vacuum Systems (Israel)
The growth in world demand for infrared missile warning systems (MWS)
originated development of new technologies, in particular, special cryogenic
coolers. Since such a cryocooler is a core component in High end IR
systems, RICOR has met the challenge by developing new models capableof withstanding high ambient vibration conditions along with ambient
temperature extremes in excess of 100°C, as typical for airborne jet fighter
applications.
The development focused on a cryocooler rigid structures approach andcold finger optimization in order to achieve high cooling capacity at highambient, withstand the high level of vibrations, keep the challenged demand22

of detector Line of Sight and meet the reliability requirements of the system.

SPIE DSS 2015·

Augustin Cathignol, Guillaume Vauquelin, Alexandre
Brunner, Vincent Destefanis, Magalie Maillard, Laurent
Rubaldo, SOFRADIR (France)
Sofradir is the world’s leader in the development and manufacture ofhigh-tech infrared (IR) detectors for military, space-based and industrial
applications. Its vast range of IR products covers the entire spectrum
from visible and short-wave infrared to very long-wave infrared. Sofradirkeeps innovating in the development of cooled IR detectors using highperformance technologies based on mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) as
well as other technologies such as indium antimonide (InSb), indium gallium
arsenide (InGaAs) and the quantum-well infrared photo detector (QWIP).
This paper presents recent improvements introduced in productionlines of MWIR and LWIR HgCdTe detectors that increase performances,image quality, and reliability. This was achieved thanks to the proper
characterization of RMS noise distributions. Based on many MWIR and LWIR
devices RMS distributions, a RMS noise distribution model that accounts
for both Background Limited diodes and 1/f noise affected diodes is first
proposed. Then, a criterion for quantifying the defective pixels that meetsthe properties detailed above is introduced. This criterion is shown to beeasy to use and robust to statistical variability. Moreover, this criterion is also“physical”, in the way that the number of defects that are calculated thanks
to this criterion do well correlate with other figure of
merit that gauge the material quality or the low frequency noise. The ability
to accurately and efficiently quantify RMS noise benefits to Sofradir in its
development of highly reliable technologies. Such benefits are illustrated
on the latest MWIR and LWIR technologies developed by Sofradir thatare demonstrated to be very robust regarding thermal stress and thermal
cycling, which directly translates into image quality stability through whole
product lifetime.

9451-73, Session 17

MCT by MBE on GaAs at AIM: state of theart and roadmap
Heinrich Figgemeier, Jan Wenisch, Detlef Eich, Stefan
Hanna, Wilhelm Schirmacher, Holger Lutz, Timo
Schallenberg, Rainer Breiter, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE
GmbH (Germany)
For many IR companies, the development of molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)technology as a fabrication process for HgCdTe (MCT) material has been aprime focus to benefit from its considerable cost reduction potential and thecapability to produce 3rd generation IR devices. At AIM, the MBE process on
the alternative substrate GaAs is making rapid progress since 2009.
In multiple publications over the last years, MCT MBE on GaAs has beenshown to be a very versatile and promising material system and indeed may

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
architecture and is well adapted for low flux detection or high operating
temperature.

be the prime candidate among the alternative substrates for the fabricationof high-performance detectors across the whole IR composition range. Highquality growth will be demonstrated in the Cadmium fraction range 0.2< x(Cd) < 0.8. The main focus of development at AIM has been the MWIR
segment with detector formats of 640 x 512 and 1280 x 1024 pixel with
15 µm pitch. For the former, a pixel operability of 99.5% at an operating
temperature of 120 K with low dark current has been reported. In addition
to the MWIR band, the performance of MBE grown MCT on GaAs is being
evaluated for the LWIR and SWIR regions, both of which are key elements ofadvanced 3rd generation IR multi-spectral detectors.

This architecture has been evaluated for space applications in LWIR andVLWIR spectral bands with cutoff wavelengths from 10µm up to 15µm
at 78K[3]. From these results, innovations have been introduced to thetechnological process to lower dark current at low temperature. This has
been performed by decreasing the transition temperature from diffusion
limited to generation-recombination limited dark current.
Other developments tend to improve the modulation transfer function(MTF). Large diffusion length which characterizes low doped n-type
HgCdTe affect MTF, as optical cross-talk between pixels may be important.
An evolution of the process has been brought to lower this cross-talk to
improve MTF.

This contribution will provide an up to date overview as well as selected
highlights of AIM´s MBE technology development across the whole MCT
composition range.

Electro-optical characterizations on p-on-n photodiodes have been
performed on test arrays on individual photodiodes and on half-VGA format
FPAs with 25µm and 30µm pixel pitches. Obtained results will be presented
and discussed by focusing on the behavior at low temperature (Dark-current
and MTF).

9451-75, Session 17

Improved MCT LWIR modules fordemanding imaging applications
Rainer Breiter, Heinrich Figgemeier, Holger Lutz, Joachim
C. Wendler, Stefan Rutzinger, Timo Schallenberg, AIM
INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany)

9451-79, Session 18

Thermal imagers based on cooled LWIR Modules are the choice for many
Army applications in battlefield conditions like e.g. Gunner and Commander
Sights in armored vehicles or Pilotage and Targeting Sights for helicopters.

Michael A Kinch, DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc.
(United States)

An IR journey (Invited Paper)

No Abstract Available

AIM has developed and produces LWIR FPAs based on liquid phase epitaxy(LPE) grown MCT on CZT substrates with different formats up to detector
arrays with 1280x1024 elements in a 15µm pitch. LWIR detector arrays withdifferent spectral cut-off wavelengths in the range of 9µm up to >12µm havebeen produced and characterized.

9451-80, Session 18

An IR castle (Invited Paper)

For cost reduction a fabrication of molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) grown
MCT on GaAs substrates is developed.

Gérard Destéfanis, CEA-LETI (France)

Critical performance parameters of the detector arrays are temporal noise
at low frequencies and the residual fixed pattern noise after non-uniformity
correction. A performance limiting factor of a LWIR FPA is also the available
full well capacity (FWC) of the readout integrated circuit (ROIC) for signal
integration. AIM has done a redesign of the standard 640x512, 15µm
pitch ROIC using now 0.18µm Si-CMOS technology. The available FWC for
signal integration could be significantly increased resulting in better NETD
performance.

No Abstract Available

9451-81, Session 19

Reducing pixel geometries with MOVPE
grown MCT arrays

Further developments are done for pitch reduction to realize LWIR modules
also with 12µm and 10µm pixel pitch.

R. Kennedy McEwen, David Jeckells, Sudesh K. Bains,
Selex ES (United Kingdom)

The FPAs are integrated in compact dewar cooler configurations using
different kinds of cooler types, like AIM’s split linear coolers SX095 or SX040
or rotary integral types depending whatever fits best to the application.

The fabrication of high performance infrared detectors using mercury
cadmium telluride (MCT) grown on GaAs substrates by Metal Organic
Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) is now an established mature production
process at Selex ES. Recent years have seen a substantial reduction in
MCT pixel sizes, driven by system requirements for increased resolutions,lower power consumption and reduced costs. From initial devices with
30µm pixels, previous developments have produced MOVPE grown MCT
arrays of 24µm, 20µm and 16µm pixels with response in long, mid anddual wavebands (LWIR, MWIR & DWIR). High definition (HD) format andmulti-megapixel arrays of 12µm MWIR pixels have also been produced
using MOVPE grown MCT. The mesa structure of MOVPE grown MCT pixels
inherently controls optical scattering, inter-pixel cross-talk, carrier diffusion
and other blurring defects to negligible levels. This allows the goal for
pixel size reduction to ultimately be determined by optical diffraction andNyquist-Shannon sampling criteria alone.

The paper will present the development status and performance results ofAIM’s latest improved MCT LWIR Modules.

9451-77, Session 17

Low-dark current p-on-n MCT detector inlong and very long-wavelength infrared
Cyril Cervera, Nicolas Baier, Olivier Gravrand, Olivier
Boulade, Laurent Mollard, Commissariat à l’Énergie
Atomique (France); Gérard Destéfanis, CEA-LETI (France);
Vincent Moreau, Jean-Paul Zanatta, Commissariat àl’Énergie Atomique (France)

This paper discusses the development of a new MCT detector at Selex ES,
introducing the next generation of small pixels, towards this ultimate goal.
Transition to smaller silicon design rules has enabled the pixel size reductionin the read-out integrated circuit (ROIC) to be achieved with minimum
sacrifice of storage capacity. The ROIC has a completely digital control withon-chip digital generation of photodiode bias voltage. Low power proximity
electronics providing a fully digitised output have been developed to easeinterface with the detector. Characteristics of the pixel design together withIn this paper, we report on results obtained at CEA on p-on-n HgCdTe
Infra-Red Focal Plane Arrays (IR FPAs) for the Long-wave (LW) and the
Very-long-wave (VLW) spectral ranges. For many years, p-on-n arsenic-ion
implanted planar technology has been developed and improved within theframework of the joint laboratory DEFIR[1][2]. This technology presents
lower dark current and lower serial resistance in comparison with n-on-p

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23

Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
measured performance of the detector and its application to infrared sensor
development, including updates of standard definition (SD) products to HD
and better performance, will be addressed in the paper.

9451-84, Session 20

9451-82, Session 19

Hardware acceleration of lucky-region
fusion (LRF) algorithm for highperformance real-time video processing

Update on 10µm pixel pitch MCTbased focal plane array with enhanced
functionalities

Tyler Browning, Christopher R. Jackson, Furkan Cayci,
Univ. of Delaware (United States); Gary W. Carhart, Jony
J. Liu, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Fouad E.
Kiamilev, Univ. of Delaware (United States)

Yann Reibel, Thibault Augey, Laurent Baud, Nicolas PéréLaperne, Julien Roumegoux, Laurent Rubaldo, Olivier
Pacaud, SOFRADIR (France)
Sofradir was first to show a 10µm FPA in DSS 2012, and announced the
DAPHNIS 10µm product family back in DSS 2014. This pitch is a key,enabling more compact sensors and increased resolution. SOFRADIR
recently achieved outstanding MTF demonstration at this pixel pitch, whicheven emphasizes the benefit to the users to adopt those new 10µm pixel
pitch focal plane array based detectors. Those results, and associated gain in
range, are discussed in this paper.
Concurrently to pitch downsizing, SOFRADIR also work on a global offering
based on digital interfaces and smart pixel functionalities. This opens theway to reach enhanced functionalities such as improved image quality,
higher frame rate, lower power consumption and optimum operation for
wide thermal conditions scenes. This paper also discusses those enhanced
features and how they come with strategies allowing an easier integration of
the detector in the customer system.

“Lucky-region” fusion (LRF) is a synthetic imaging technique thathas proven successful in enhancing the quality of images distorted byatmospheric turbulence. The LRF algorithm extracts sharp regions of animage obtained from a series of short exposure frames from fast, highresolution image sensors, and fuses the sharp regions into a final, improved
image. In our previous research, the LRF algorithm had been implemented
on CPU and field programmable gate array (FPGA) platforms. The CPU
did not have sufficient processing power to handle real-time processing ofvideo. Last year, we presented a real-time LRF implementation using an
FPGA. However, due to the slow register-transfer level (RTL) development
and simulation time, it was difficult to adjust and discover optimal LRF
settings such as Gaussian kernel radius and synthetic frame buffer size.
To overcome this limitation, we implemented the LRF algorithm on an
off-the-shelf graphical processing unit (GPU) in order to take advantage
of built-in parallelization and significantly faster development time. Our
initial results show that the GPU implementation has almost comparable
turbulence mitigation to the FPGA version. In our presentation, we will
explore optimization of the LRF algorithm on the GPU to achieve higher
performance results, and adding new performance capabilities such asimage stabilization and color.

9451-83, Session 19

Small pixel oversampled focal plane arrays(Invited Paper)John T. Caulfield, Jerry A. Wilson, Cyan Systems (UnitedStates); Nibir K. Dhar, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States)
Recently, imaging systems using smaller sub diffraction sized pixels haveshown good imaging results. Oversampled pixels results in processing
techniques for smaller pixels that enable a number of related systems
benefits such as improved Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV), Noise
Equivalent Power (NEP), False Alarm Rate, and detection range, as well asother system level benefits.

Cyan has recently tested the new HD format small ROICs and tests exhibitedhigh yield. We will show quantitative data to illustrate the improvements
in resolution, NEP, detection range, and false alarm suppression of theoversampled IR sensor as the temporal and spatial oversampling areincreased. Cyan is fabricating small pitch focal plane arrays and will
demonstrate the first ever high definition IR data of 5 micron pitch MWIR
sensors. We will review the phenomena of reducing pixels size has on
improving Noise Equivalent Power. We will demonstrate the small pixel
imagers capabilities in using temporal and spatial oversampling that
effectively increases the SNR typically lost with smaller pixels. Other
critical performance data such as NEDT, Uniformity, and Operability will besummarized.

SPIE DSS 2015

Demonstrations of compressive pixelbased on-chip coded aperture temporal
imaging of multiple and dynamic
unresolved targets (Invited Paper)
Christy Fernandez-Cull, Brian M. Tyrrell, Joseph H. Lin,
Richard D’Onofrio, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)

Cyan Systems has developed a 5 micrcon pixel ROIC/IRFPA that
demonstrates these features. We will demonstrate that spatial oversampling
can improve aliasing, sensitivity, and drive reductions in False Alarms
through oversampled correlated processing. Oversampled pixels allow larger
format FPAs and smaller optics, resulting in reductions in size, power, andweight. Oversampled IR sensors will also improve detection and acuity inturbulent and hazy conditions over larger pixel IR focal plane array sensors.

24

9451-85, Session 20·

This paper reports on demonstrations with modified MIT Lincoln Laboratory
digital-pixel focal plane array (DFPA) designs with advanced per-pixel
processing capabilities for unresolved and resolved target temporal superresolution. We compare and contrast existing infrared (IR) DFPA global
space-time filtering for single frequency discrimination in a single readout
with our local space-time filtering approach combined with compressivebased processing. On-chip local space-time filtering transfers opticalisomorphic image-plane-encoding to the focal plane array thereby removing
diffraction and signal-to-noise ratio losses. Our hardware and approachenables on chip temporal discrimination of diverse and dynamic targets
orders of magnitude faster than the readout frame rate, thereby allowing
us to break the barriers associated with the conventional tradeoff between
resolution and frame rate yielding a more agile and adaptive solution
for target frequency-based identification and track. This work presents
experimental data from arbitrary waveform modulated laser sources, bothresolved and unresolved, at kHz to MHz frequencies recorded by a baseline
single pixel high frame rate photodiode and two digital readout-integrated
circuits (ROICs) hybridized to InGaAs two-dimensional detector arrays. We
use digital ROICs capable of up to a 6 kHz global frame rate with up to 100
MHz per-pixel shuttering, where each pixel is modulated by a time-varying,pseudo-random, and duo-binary signal (+1,1,0). This paper shows 3D (x,y,t)
temporal super-resolution from 2D-encoded projections of resolved andunresolved multi-target experimental data collected from our digital ROICs.
We employ a compressive sensing framework leveraging recovery speed
and improvements associated with total-variation regularization. Finally,
we assess the compressibility, target size, target frequency, and noise

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Conference 9451:
Infrared Technology and Applications XLI
versus data recovery using linear and nonlinear data recovery approaches.
Our digital ROICs demonstrate the potential for multi-target and multifrequency discrimination in a single detector readout by implementing
per-pixel shuttering and greater than two counters per pixel.

NASA’s current missions. The instrument requirements are described ingeneral terms along with current testing results from the engineering model.

9451-105, Session 20

Theoretical study of QWIP or QDIP IR-FPA
non-uniformity correction

9451-90, Session 21

HD 1920 x 1080 digital ROICs for advanced
IR sensor technologies

Yusuke Matsukura, Fujitsu Labs., Ltd. (Japan)

John T. Caulfield, Jon Paul Curzan, Cyan Systems (UnitedStates); Kenton T. Veeder, Nishant Dhawan, Senseeker
Engineering Inc. (United States)

Infrared focal plane array (IR-FPA), which construct infrared image using
two dimensionally arrayed infrared detector pixels, is useful tool in many
field such as security or infrastructure monitoring, vegetation survey,
medical inspection, and so on.

No Abstract Available

Non-uniformity correction (NUC), which makes the IR-FPA pixel output
to be the same with each other, electronically, for the same IR incidence,is indispensable technique because it is, if not impossible, very difficult
to fabricate the FPA pixel sufficiently uniform. There have been many
researches that are dedicated to the improvement of NUC quality. However,intrinsic (due to the device) and/or extrinsic (due to the electronics)
nonlinearity still impose some difficulty upon the NUC.

9451-88, Session 21

Resonator-QWIP FPA development (Invited
Paper)

In our presentation, we first derive the formula that can successfully
describe the device nonlinearity between the IR incidence corresponding
to the blackbody temperature T and the pixel output V for the infrared
detectors such as QWIPs (Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors) or QDIPs(Quantum Dot Infrared Photodetectors), which has peak (not cutoff) typephoto response.

Kwong-Kit Choi, Jason N. Sun, Kimberley A. Olver, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
Recently, we adopted the resonator-QWIPs to increase QE and observed
values between 30 - 40% in FPAs. In this work, we performed a systematic
optimization of the design using rigorous electromagnetic modeling. The
objective is to improve FPA sensitivity, NETD, integration time, Tint, andoperating temperature, T. The optimization variables are the doping density,
Nd, and the number of QWs, Nq, while T is kept at 77 K. For 25 micron pixel
pitch, 10 Me- integrated charge, and F/2 optics, the model predicts NETD =19 mK at Tint = 1.43 ms for 9.2 micron cutoff. The NETD is larger at 24 mK
at 0.59 ms for 10.2 micron cutoff. For 12 micron pitch, 6.8 Me- integrated
charge, and F/2 optics, NETD = 24 mK at 2.2 ms for 9.2 micron cutoff. For
6 micron pitch, 6.8 Me- integrated charge, and F/1 optics, NETD = 19 mK
at 4.0 ms for 9.0 micron cutoff, and it is 25 mK at 4.3 ms for 10.5 micron
cutoff. Experimentally, we have investigated single R-QWIP detectors with
9.2 micron cutoff, Nd = 1E18/cm3, and Nq = 17 and 6; and detectors with 10.5
micron cutoff, Nd = 0.5E18/cm3, and Nq = 19 and 8. We have also fabricated
FPAs with different pixel pitches from 6 to 30 microns and formats from 256
x 256 to 1920 x 1080. Their characteristics and performance will be reported
if they become available.

Secondary, using this formula, we show that, in theory, conventional “twopoint correction” can completely correct the non-uniformity, therefore, inthe case of QWIP- or QDIP-FPA, the origin of the NUC incompleteness, thatis, the origin of the residual non-uniformity in the IR image, is the nonlinear
input-output (I/O) characteristics in the electronics.
Lastly, we show that the I/O nonlinearity in the electronics can be correctedusing our formula to reconstruct the completely non-uniformity corrected
IR image.

9451-89, Session 21

Thermal infrared sensors at the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory: hyperspectral andmultispectral remote sensing
William R. Johnson, Simon J. Hook, Jet Propulsion Lab.
(United States)
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is now actively flying the Hyperspectral
Thermal Emission Spectrometer (HyTES) on various science campaigns. It
records 256 spectral channels in the long wave infrared at low altitude (1K to
3K meters AGL) with a wide 50-degree imaging field of view. It’s also being
modified to allow sub-orbital flights on NASA’s ER-2 platform. Results fromrecent low altitude flights are discussed along with design modifications
needed to fly on the ER-2.
JPL is also actively working on the ECOsystem Spaceborne ThermalRadiometer Experiment on Space Station (ECOSTRESS). It will be thefirst thermal infrared instrument on the space station and will allow
unprecedented high spatial resolution in 5 thermal infrared spectral channels
over a wide swath. Due to the space station orbit, it will have a temporal
repeat similar to MODIS but with sampling throughout the diurnal cycle, andspectral coverage similar to ASTER. This optimal combination of attributes
enables the advancement of the science objectives not addressable with

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI
Tuesday - Thursday 21–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9452 Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing
XXVI

9452-1, Session 1

9452-3, Session 1

Black-box imager characterization,from measurements to modeling range
performance (Invited Paper)

Validating machine vision MRT
performance against trained observer
performance for linear shift invariant
sensors

David P. Haefner, Stephen D. Burks, Brian P. Teaney, U.S.
Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (United States)
This talk outlines the process of transitioning from measured values tomodeled performance employed by NVESD in the Advanced Sensor
Evaluation Facility (ASEF). We discuss the details of the measurement
process in terms of the assumptions that have to be made and how theyaffect the end result. We also detail how measurement and sampling
errors can be included by using confidence intervals, which in turn enables
comparisons from lab to lab to be made. Some of the topics under review
will include: Pixel level SiTF or Photon Transfer, sample corrected 3D Noise
with confidence intervals, sampling determination from projected bar
targets, FOV calculation from an assumed projection, MTF for scanningsystems, and MTF with defective pixels. Although some change in hardware
is typically required, the techniques and procedures discussed can beapplied to both emissive and reflective band sensors. We will conclude
with the main output of objective measurements, a system model, which
can then be used for performance modeling (for example in NV-IPM) of
situations beyond those examined in the laboratory.

Stephen D. Burks, Joshua M. Doe, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
Researchers at the US Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate
have added the functionality of Machine Vision MRT (MV-MRT) to the
NVLabCap software package. While the original calculations of MV-MRT
were compared to human observer’s performance using digital imagery ina previous effort, the technical approach was not tested on 8-bit imagery
using a variety of sensors in a variety of gain and level settings. Now that itis relatively simple to calculate the MV-MRT for a given sensor in multiple
states, it is prudent to compare the results of MV-MRT in multiple sensor
states to the performance of human observers for thermal imaging systems
that are linear and shift invariant. The comparison of the results for multiple
MWIR and LWIR systems to trained human observers are presented.

9452-4, Session 1

Advanced E-O test capability for Army
Next-Generation Automated Test System(NGATS)9452-2, Session 1

Characterizing a high-resolution CRT
display performance using a Prichard
photometer with microscannerFred King, Steve Errea, Gregory P. Matis, Steve W. McHugh,James McKechnie, Brian Nehring, Santa Barbara Infrared,
Inc. (United States)

Balvinder Kaur, Jeff T. Olson, Jonathan G. Hixson, U.S.
Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate(United States)
Measuring the performance of a cathode ray tube (CRT) display is necessary
to enable end-to-end system modeling and measurement of currently
used high performance analog imaging systems, such as 2nd Generation
FLIR systems. If the CRT is a color CRT or high resolution monochrome
CRT, the performance measurements are made more difficult becauseof the underlying structure of the pixel as compared to a low resolution
monochrome pixel. Out of the various characteristics of interest, we focus
on determining the gamma value and MTF of a display. Gamma quantifies
the non-linear response between the gray scale and the displayed
luminance. MTF quantifies the displayed image degradation based on theblur, contrast, noise, bandwidth, and signal metrics. If the displayed image
can be corrected for the CRT’s gamma and MTF, an accurate scene canbe presented or characterized for laboratory measurements such as MRT(Minimum Resolvable Temperature) and CTF (Contrast Threshold Function).
In this paper, we present a method to determine the gamma and MTF tocharacterize a color CRT display using the Prichard 1980A photometer with
the SC-80A microscanner attachment. Gamma corrections were applied tothe test images for validating the accuracy of the computed gamma value.
MTFs were computed based on measurements made with various aperturesizes and corrected for the aperture size. The method presented here isa simple one, easily implemented employing a Prichard photometer. An
analogous method for flat panel displays will also be commented on.

The Next Generation Automatic Test System (NGATS) is a reconfigurable,
general-purpose, mobile, deployable, automated test system developed toprovide off-platform sustainment support to all U.S. Army weapon systems.
The Future E-O (FEO) program was established to meet the Army’s need fora flexible, modular, automated test capability as part of NGATS to support
the test and diagnostic needs of current fielded Army electro-optical (E O)
devices, as well as being expandable to address the requirements of future
military EO systems. The “smart module” philosophy implemented in the
FEO system design will provide significant reductions in the cost of periodic
calibration and ease of maintenance.
The FEO system - in addition to its extensive test and evaluation capabilities
for MWIR, LWIR and visible/low-light-level imaging sensors - is also capableof testing a wide range of key performance characteristics for systems
incorporating laser rangefinders and/or designators.
In addition to presenting a detailed overview of the FEO hardware design,
features and testing capabilities, the paper will also describe how SBIR’s
IR/EO sensor test software package, IRWindows™4, has been integrated
to automate the test execution, data collection, and analysis, archiving andreporting of results.

9452-5, Session 1

Signal intensity transfer function
determination on thermal systems withstray light and scattering present
Stephen D. Burks, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI
Sensors Directorate (United States)

minimize uncertainty of the modeling. Predicting the minimum number oftest subjects required to calibrate or validate the model should be, but is
not always, done during test planning. The objective of this analysis is todevelop guidelines that recommend the number and types of test samples
required to yield a statistically significant result. Hypothesis testing, sample
size justification, and experimental power calculations are applied to asample target acquisition task, and a determination of statistical significanceis reported.

Accurate Signal Intensity Transfer Functions (SITF) measurements arenecessary to determine the calibration factor in the 3D noise calculationof an electro-optical imaging system. The typical means for measuring
a sensor’s SITF is to place the sensor in a flooded field environment at a
distance that is relatively close to the aperture of the emitter. Unfortunately,
this arrangement has the potential to allow for additional contributions
to the SITF in the form of scattering and stray light if the optics are notdesigned properly in the system under test. Engineers at the US Army Night
Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate have come up with a means ofdetermining the contribution due to scatting and stray light, and show theircontribution to the SITF for a variety of systems that have come to NVESD
for testing.

9452-8, Session 1

Panoramic sensor requirements for military
vehiclesOrges Furxhi, Ronald G. Driggers, St. Johns Optical
Systems (United States); Bradley L. Preece, Keith A.
Krapels, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

9452-6, Session 1

Measuring noise equivalent irradiance of adigital short-wave infrared imaging systemusing a broadband source to simulate thenight spectrum

Panoramic infrared imaging is relatively new and has many applications
to include tower mounted security systems, shipboard protection, andplatform situational awareness. In this paper, we review the requirements
for an infrared panoramic imaging system for military vehicles. We begin
with a broad view of military requirements organized into three categories,
survivability, mobility, and lethality. The requirements for the sensor modesof operation across all categories are ranked so that panoramic systemdesign can address as many needs as possible, but with affordability applied
to system design. These military requirements are translated into panoramic
imager requirements by parameterizing the characteristics of the scene andother typical sensor parameters that are independent of panoramic imaging.
The paper presents these requirements as well as potential design strategies
that result in comprehensive and affordable solutions.

Tim Robinson, John Green, Esterline Control &Communication Systems (United States)
There is a growing interest in developing helmet-mounted digital imaging
systems (HMDIS) for integration into military aircraft cockpits. This interest
stems from the multiple advantages of digital vs. analog imaging such asimage fusion from multiple sensors, data processing to enhance the image
contrast, superposition of non-imaging data over the image, and sending
images to remote location for analysis.
There are several properties an HMDIS must have in order to aid the pilot
during night operations. In addition to the resolution, image refresh rate,
dynamic range, and sensor uniformity over the entire Focal Plane Array(FPA); the imaging system must have the sensitivity to detect the limitednight light available filtered through cockpit transparencies. Digital sensor
sensitivity is generally measured monochromatically using a laser with awavelength near the peak detector quantum efficiency, and is generally
reported as either the Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) or Noise Equivalent
Irradiance (NEI).

9452-9, Session 2

Simulation of a polarized laser beamreflected at the sea surface: modeling andvalidation

This paper proposes a test system that measures NEI of Short-Wave Infrared(SWIR) digital imaging systems using a broadband source that simulates thenight spectrum. This method has a few advantages over a monochromatic
method. Namely, the test conditions provide spectrum closer to what is
experienced by the end-user, and the resulting NEI may be compareddirectly to modeled night glow irradiance calculation. This comparison may
be used to assess the Technology Readiness Level of the imaging system
for the application. The test system is being developed under a Cooperative
Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with the Air Force
Research Laboratory.

Frédéric Schwenger, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)

9452-7, Session 1

Our computer simulation combines the 3D simulation of a maritime scene(open sea/clear sky) with the simulation of polarized or unpolarizedlaser light reflected at the sea surface. The basic sea surface geometry ismodeled by a composition of smooth wind driven gravity waves. To predictthe view of a camera equipped with a linear polarizer, the polarized sea
surface radiance must be calculated for the specific waveband. The s- andp-polarization states are calculated for the emitted sea surface radianceand the specular reflected sky radiance to determine the total polarized
sea surface radiance of each component. The states of polarization andthe radiance of laser light specularly reflected at the wind-roughened sea
surface are calculated by considering the s- and p- components of theelectric field of laser light with respect to the specular plane of incidence.
This is done by using the formalism of their coherence matrices according toE. Wolf. Additionally, an analytical statistical sea surface BRDF (bidirectionalreflectance distribution function) is considered for the reflection of laser
light radiances.

A 3D simulation of the polarization-dependent reflection of a Gaussian
shaped laser beam on the dynamic sea surface is presented. The simulationconsiders polarized or unpolarized laser sources and calculates thepolarization states upon reflection at the sea surface. It is suitable forthe pre-calculation of images for cameras operating in different spectral
wavebands (e.g. near-infrared). The simulation also considers a bistatic
configuration of laser source and receiver as well as different atmosphericconditions. In the near-infrared, the detected total power of reflected laser
light is compared with data collected in a field trial.

Statistical analysis of target acquisition
sensor modeling experiments
Dawne M. Deaver, Steven K. Moyer, U.S. Army Night Vision& Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
The US Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD Modeling and Simulation Division
is charged with the development and advancement of military target
acquisition modeling to estimate expected soldier performance whenusing all types of imaging sensors. Two elements of sensor performancemodeling are: (1) laboratory-based psychophysical experiments used
to measure task performance and calibrate the various models and (2)field-based experiments used to confirm the model estimates for specificsensors. In both types of experiments, it is common practice to control ormeasure environmental, sensor, and target physical parameters in order toReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI
and applicability to maritime laser applications. For validation purposes,
field measurement data (images and meteorological data) was analyzed.
A near-infrared laser, with or without a mounted polarizer, produced laser
beam reflection at the water surface and images were recorded by acamera equipped with a polarizer with horizontal or vertical alignment. The
validation is done by numerical comparison of measured total laser power
extracted from recorded images with the corresponding simulation results.
The results of the comparison are presented for different incident (zenith/azimuth) angles of the laser beam and different alignment for the laser
polarizers (vertical/horizontal/without) and the camera (vertical/horizontal).

averaging windows to balance turbulence mitigation and the preservation of
dynamic scene content (non-turbulent motions).
These modifications deliver a level of enhancement quality that approaches
that of manual interaction, without the need for operator interaction. As aconsequence, the range of operational scenarios where this technology is ofbenefit has been significantly expanded.

9452-13, Session 2

Atmospheric turbulence and sensor
system effects on biometric algorithm
performance

9452-10, Session 2

Detector integration time-dependent
atmospheric turbulence imaging
simulation

Richard L. Espinola, Kevin R. Leonard, U.S. Army RDECOMCERDEC NVESD (United States); Kenneth A. Byrd, U.S.
Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate(United States); Guy Potvin, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada, Valcartier (Canada)

Todd W. Du Bosq, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States); Endre Repasi,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik, Systemtechnik und
Bildauswertung (Germany)
Atmospheric turbulence is a well-known phenomenon that often degrades
image quality due to intensity fluctuations, distortion, and blur in electrooptic and thermal imaging systems. To properly assess the performanceof an imaging system over the typical turbulence trade space, a time
consuming and costly field study is often required. A fast and realistic
turbulence simulation will allow the performance assessment of an imaging
system under various turbulence conditions to be done as well as provide
input data for the evaluation of turbulence mitigation algorithms in a cost
efficient manner.
The simulation is based on an empirical model with parameters derived
from the first and second-order statistics of imaging distortions measured
from field collected data. The dataset consists of image sequences recordedwith a variable frame rate visible camera at strong and weak turbulence
conditions. The simulation uses pristine, single images containing no
turbulence effects as an input and produces image sequences degradedby the specified turbulence. Target range, optics diameter, wavelength,
detector integration time, and the wind velocity component perpendicular
to the propagation path all contribute to the severity of the atmosphericturbulence distortions and are included in the simulation. The addition of
the detector integration time expands the functionality of the simulation
tool to include imagers with lower frames rates. Examples are presented
demonstrating the utility of the turbulence simulation.

Biometric technologies composed of electro-optical/infrared sensor
systems and advanced matching algorithms are being used in various force
protection/security and tactical surveillance applications. To date, mostof these sensor systems have been widely used in controlled conditions
with varying success (e.g., short range, uniform illumination, cooperative
subjects). However the limiting conditions of such systems have yet
to be fully studied for long range applications and degraded imaging
environments. Biometric technologies used for long range applications willinvariably suffer from the effects of atmospheric turbulence degradation.
Atmospheric turbulence causes blur, distortion and intensity fluctuations
that can severely degrade image quality of electro-optic and thermal
imaging systems and, for the case of biometrics technology, translate topoor match algorithm performance. In this paper, we evaluate the effects
of atmospheric turbulence and sensor resolution/noise on biometricmatching algorithm performance. We use a subset of the Facial Recognition
Technology (FERET) database and various commercial and researchalgorithms to perform the analyses on turbulence degraded facial images
to obtain match performance. The goal of this work is to understand thefeasibility of long-range facial recognition in degraded imaging conditions,and the utility of camera parameter trade studies to enable the design of thenext generation biometrics sensor systems.

9452-14, Session 2

An adaptive tracker for ShipIR/NTCS
9452-12, Session 2

Srinivasan Ramaswamy, David A. Vaitekunas, W. R. DavisEngineering, Ltd. (Canada)

Automatic parameter estimation foratmospheric turbulence mitigation
techniques
Stephen Kozacik, Aaron L. Paolini, Eric J. Kelmelis, EM
Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Several image processing techniques for turbulence mitigation have beenshown to be effective under a wide range of long-range capture conditions;however, complex, dynamic scenes have often required manual interaction
with the algorithm’s underlying parameters to achieve optimal results.
While this level of interaction is sustainable in some workflows, in-field
determination of ideal processing parameters greatly diminishes usefulness
for many operators. Additionally, some use cases, such as those that rely on
unmanned collection, lack human-in-the-loop usage.
To address this shortcoming, we have extended a well-known turbulence
mitigation algorithm based on bispectral averaging with a number oftechniques to greatly reduce (and often eliminate) the need for operator
interaction. Automations were made in the areas of turbulence strength
estimation (Fried’s parameter), as well as the determination of optimal local

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A key component in any image-based tracking system is the adaptive
tracking algorithm used to segment the image into potential targets,rank-and-select the best candidate target, and the gating of the selected
target to further improve tracker performance. This paper will describe a
new adaptive tracker algorithm added to the naval threat countermeasure
simulator (NTCS) of the NATO-standard ship signature model (ShipIR). The
new adaptive tracking algorithm is an optional feature used with any ofthe existing internal NTCS or user-defined seeker algorithms (e.g., binary
centroid, intensity centroid, and threshold intensity centroid). The algorithm
segments the detected pixels into clusters, and the smallest set of clusters
that meet the detection criterion is obtained using a knapsack algorithm
to identify the set of clusters that should not be used. The rectangulararea containing the chosen clusters defines an inner boundary, from whicha weighted centroid is calculated as the aim-point. A track-gate is thenpositioned around the clusters, taking into account the rate of change of thebounding area and compensating for any gimbal displacement. A sequenceof scenarios is used to test the new tracking algorithm on a genericunclassified DDG ShipIR model.

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI

9452-38, Session PSTue

9452-40, Session PSTue

New night vision goggle gain definition

Contrast performance modeling ofbroadband IR imaging systems withtunable filter fore-optics

Vyacheslav B. Podobedov, George P. Eppeldauer, Thomas
C. Larason, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)

Van A. Hodgkin, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States)

A new definition is proposed for the calibration of Night Vision Goggle(NVG) gains. This definition is based on the measurement of radiometric
input and output quantities of the NVG. While the old definition used the“equivalent fL” which is a non SI traceable luminance unit, the new definition
utilizes the radiance quantities that are traceable to the SI units through
NIST standards. The new NVG gain matches the previous one as a result of
the application of a correction coefficient originating from the conversionof the radiance to luminance units. The new definition was tested at the
NIST Night Vision Calibration Facility and the measurement results werecompared to the data obtained with a Hoffman Test Set Model ANV-126.
The tests also included the calibration issue of the internal luminance meterof the Test Set and the radiance and luminance set points of the ANV-126
Test Set that define the measured NVG gain. Comparing the radiometricquantities at the Hoffman Test Set and those measured by the NIST transfer
standard radiometer, indicates that the observed differences up to 15% were
due to the calibration and experimental errors of the ANV-126 Test Set. In
view of different spectral characteristics of luminophores that can be utilized
in the NVG design, the simulation of the NVG output for gain measurement
was performed. The NVG output was simulated with a sphere-based sourcewith different LEDs and the measured gain was compared to that obtainedwith the internal ANV-126 luminance meter. The NVG gain uncertainty
analysis was performed for the Type A, B, and C goggles. An additional
uncertainty component due to the no-moon night sky illumination was also
analyzed.

Most mass-produced, commercially available and fielded military infrared(IR) imaging systems operate across broad swaths of the near infrared(NIR), shortwave infrared (SWIR), or thermal infrared (TIR) wavebands
without any spectral selectivity within those wavebands. In imaging
applications that employ these systems, it is not uncommon to be imaging
a scene in which the image contrasts between the objects of interest, i.e.,
the targets, and the objects of little or no interest, i.e., the backgrounds, aresufficiently low to make target discrimination difficult and uncertain. Thiscan occur even when the spectral distribution of the target and backgroundsignatures across the given waveband differ significantly from each other,because the fundamental components of image contrast are the spectral
integrals of the target and background signatures. Spectral integration in
the detectors tends to smooth out any differences. Hyperspectral IR imaging
is one approach to preserving, and thus highlighting, spectral differences
across the scene, even when the waveband integrated signatures would be
about the same, but it is an expensive, complex, noncompact solution andgenerally not timely. This paper documents a study of how the capability toselectively customize the spectral width and center wavelength would allow
a broadband IR imaging sensor to customize image contrast as a function ofscene content and ambient illumination.

9452-41, Session PSTue

A real-time contrast enhancement using
adaptive histogram threshold for a FLIR
camera9452-39, Session PSTue

Application and validation of a S/Wdeveloped for IR signal simulation by using
the measured data from a moving test ship

Sunmi Oh, Samsung Digital City (Korea, Republic of); GyuHee Park, SK Telecom (Korea, Republic of)

Kuk-Il Han, Dong-Geon Kim, Jun-Hyuk Choi, Tae-Kuk Kim,
Chung-Ang Univ. (Korea, Republic of)

Recently, forward looking infrared (FLIR) cameras are being deployedover the world to protect important public facilities. In order to make FLIR
camera small and reasonable price, the camera does not have enoughcomputing power to process FLIR images. Thus, it is very important todevelop a real-time image processing algorithm. We present, in this paper,a real-time contrast enhancement method for a FLIR camera by using
adaptive histogram threshold and redistribution. In the FLIR imaging system,
histogram equalization (HE) is generally used for contrast enhancement.
Since the HE approach causes significant change in brightness, it resultsin the washed-out appearance and false contouring. Another approach,dynamic range separate histogram equalization (DRSHE), enhances theimage contrast by separating the dynamic range of histogram into k parts,
but the scale factor is static and manually configured. Therefore, theapproach cannot be used for real-time imaging system since the scale factor
should be adjusted to a real surveillance environment. In order to resolve
the problem, we proposed an adaptive histogram threshold mechanism andredistribution based on the histogram partition. We evaluate lots of different
environment by using our FLIR camera to acquire dynamic histogram
threshold. We conclude the iteration threshold for separating histogram is
3 for an indoor environment and 4 for an outdoor environment since theimage quality is almost converged on a certain threshold. Results on thevideo sequences showed that the proposed method can enhance video
quality irrespective of indoor and outdoor environment due to the dynamic
histogram threshold.

Infrared signals are widely used to detect or discriminate objects against
the background. Direct measurements of the infrared signals from objects
under various operating conditions are cost ineffective and time consuming
works and the computer simulation method is developing rapidly to replaceor supplement those experimental tasks. The IR signal detected by a sensor
can be divided into three components: the self-emitted radiance, theradiance coming out after being reflected on the surface from the externalradiation sources, the radiance not related to the object that is generated
by the atmosphere. In this study, we developed an IR image generation S/W
by considering these three IR signal components to be applied for moving
objects. To validate the S/W developed here the IR signal and the surface
temperature are measured from a test ship(displacement: 1,200 tons, length:65.4 meters, width: 12.4 meters) operating along a designated route on thesea, and the weather conditions and the ship positions are also measured
simultaneously. Calculation of the surface temperature profile of the test
ship is performed by using the S/W developed in this study with the threedimensional modeling of the test ship subdivided into 41,000 meshes andthe corresponding IR image is generated into 640x512 pixels. Calculationsof the surface temperature and the IR signal level are performed by using
the measured weather data obtained during the experiments. Results ofthe surface temperature and the IR signal obtained from the measurement
and the numerical analysis show fairly good agreements and we found an
applicability of the developed S/W in analyzing IR signals from moving
objects

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI

9452-42, Session PSTue

9452-16, Session 3

Optical design of an LWIR imaging
polarimetric camera

Probability of detection using ShipIR/
NVIPM

S?awomir Gogler, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland)David A. Vaitekunas, W. R. Davis Engineering, Ltd.
(Canada); Gerald C. Holst, JCD Publishing (United States);
Srinivasan Ramaswamy, W. R. Davis Engineering, Ltd.
(Canada)Imaging polarimetry has been a topic of research for almost two decades
and still new concepts in the field emerge. It has proven to be an attractivemeans of detection for man-made objects against non-polarized scene or in
SAR operations for man detection against polarized water surface. Different
spectral bands are used and different approaches to the architecture
are utilized. Among well-known solutions that of division of amplitude,
division of aperture and division of time are most common in literature.
Although general idea of a rotating polarizer architecture is well known
a new approach to this architecture is proposed. In the article an opticaldesign of a two-detector, division of amplitude LWIR (8 -14 ?m) polarimeteris discussed that combines approaches used in division of amplitude anddivision of time architectures. The novelty of the design lays in that thepolarizer in the measurement arm of the camera is being rotated at aconstant speed (unlike in division of time, rotating polarizer architecture)and the polarimetric Stoke’s parameters are calculated from harmonic
intensity variations in registered image.
Lacking retarding element the said polarimeter is of the incomplete type,i.e. it measures S0, S1 and S2 components of the Stoke’s vector. Since
rotating polarizer design is mechanically more complicated than mostother architectures the optical design is discussed along with mechanicalconsiderations that affect optical parameters and performance of the final
design. Bearing selection, critical tolerances of mechanical and opticaldesign and final alignment procedure is discussed.

9452-15, Session 3

Simulation-based sensor modeling andat-range target detection characterization
with MuSES (Invited Paper)

Existing FLIR detection models such as NVThermIP and VN-IPM, fromthe U.S. Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD),
use only basic inputs to describe the target and background (area of thetarget, average and RMS temperatures of both the target and background).
The objective of this work is to try and bridge the gap between moresophisticated FLIR detection models (of the sensor) and high-fidelity
signature models, such as the NATO-Standard ShipIR model. A custom
API is developed to load an existing ShipIR scenario model and performthe analysis from any user-specified range, altitude, and attack angle. The
analysis consists of computing the total area of the target (m2), the average
and RMS variation in target source temperature, and the average and RMS
variation in the apparent temperature of the background. These results
are then fed into the associated sensor model in NV-IPM to determine
its probability of detection (versus range). Since ShipIR computes andattenuates the spectral source radiance at every pixel, the black bodysource and apparent temperatures are easily obtained for each point
using numerical iteration (on temperature), using the spectral attenuationand path emissions from modtran (already used by ShipIR to predict theapparent target and background radiance). In addition to performing
the above parameters on the whole target area, a variable threshold andclustering algorithm is used to analyse whether a sub-area of the target,with a higher contrast signature but smaller size, is more likely to be
detected. The methods and results from this analysis should provide thebasis for a more formal interface between the two models.

9452-17, Session 3

A TRM4 component for the night vision
integrated performance model

Corey D. Packard, Allen R. Curran, ThermoAnalytics, Inc.
(United States); Nicholas E. Saur, ThermoAnalytics Inc(United States); Peter L. Rynes, ThermoAnalytics, Inc.
(United States)
Accurate infrared signature prediction of targets, such as humans or
ground vehicles, depends primarily on the realistic prediction of physicaltemperatures. Thermal model development typically requires a geometricdescription of the target (i.e., a 3D surface mesh) along with material
properties for characterizing the thermal response to simulated weather
conditions. Once an accurate thermal solution has been obtained, signature
predictions for an EO/IR spectral waveband can be generated. The image
rendering algorithm should consider the emissions, diffuse/specularreflections, and atmospheric effects to depict how an object in a naturalscene would be perceived by an EO/IR sensor.
The EO/IR rendering process within MuSES (ThermoAnalytics, Inc.) can beused to create a synthetic radiance image that predicts the energy detectedby a specific sensor just prior to passing through its optics. For additional
realism, blurring due to lens diffraction and noise due to variations in photon
detection can also be included, via specification of sensor characteristics.
Additionally, probability of detection can be obtained via the Targeting Task
Performance (TTP) metric, making it possible to predict a target’s at-range
detectability to a particular threat sensor. In this paper, we will investigate
the at-range contrast and detectability of some example targets andexamine the effect of various techniques such as sub-pixel sampling andtarget pixel thresholding.

Joseph P. Reynolds, Brian P. Teaney, U.S. Army RDECOMCERDEC NVESD (United States); Todd W. Du Bosq,
U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate(United States); Endre Repasi, Fraunhofer-Institut für
Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)
The Thermal Range Model (TRM4) developed by the Fraunhofer IOSBof Germany is a commonly used performance model for military target
acquisition systems. There are many similarities between the U. S. Army,
Night Vision Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM) and TRM4. Almost
all of the camera performance characterizations, such as signal to noise
calculations and modulation transfer theory are identical, only the humanvision model and performance metrics differ. Utilizing the new Custom
Component Generator of NV-IPM wedevelop a component to calculate the Amplitude Modulation at Optimal
Phase (AMOP) and Minimum Temperature Difference Perceived (MTDP)
calculations used in TRM4. The results will be compared with the actual
TRM4 results for a variety of imaging system. This effort demonstrates that
NV-IPM is a versatile system design tool and can easily be extended toinclude variety of image quality and performance metrics.

9452-18, Session 3

A low-light performance survey ofcommercially available camera modules
Bradley L. Preece, David M. Tomkinson, Joseph P.

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI
Reynolds, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (UnitedStates)Likewise, as noise increases, viewing distance changes. Only monochromatictargets are considered.

Using the latest models from Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate(NVESD), a survey of monochrome and color low light level imaging systems
is conducted. Each camera system is evaluated and compared with similar
design constraints, including optics, field of view, dynamic range, as well as
lighting conditions. Comparisons will use the V parameter of the Targeting
Task Performance (TTP) metric within the latest version of the Night Vision
Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM). In addition, a detailed comparison
between the performance of a Bayer color camera, a Bayer color camera
with the near infrared block filter removed, the equivalent monochrome
version of the camera, and an equivalent direct view optical systems is
performed.

9452-21, Session 4

Optimal design of a compressive sensing
imaging system
Bradley L. Preece, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States); Todd W. Du Bosq, U.S. Army Night Vision& Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Nader
M. Namazi, Georges T. Nehmetallah, The Catholic Univ. of
America (United States)

9452-19, Session 3

The design and modeling of compressive sensing (CS) imagers is difficult
due to the complexity and non-linearity of the system and reconstruction
algorithm. The Night Vision Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM) is alinear imaging system design tool that is very useful for complex system
trade studies. The custom component generator, included in NV-IPM, will be
used to include a recently published theory for CS that links measurement
noise, easily calculated with NV-IPM, to the noise of the reconstructed CS
image, given the sparsity of the scene and number of measurements as
an input. As the sparsity will also depend on the optical transfer function,
an empirical relationship will be developed between the linear model
within NV-IPM and the non-linear reconstruction algorithm using humanperception test data. Using the theory and relationship, a CS imager varying
the number of measurements will be compared to a notional traditional
imager.

Depth of field in modern thermal imaging
Norbert Schuster, John W. Franks, Umicore Electro-Optic
Materials (Belgium)
Modern thermal imaging lenses for uncooled detectors are high aperturesystems. Very often, their aperture based f-number is faster than 1.2. The
impact of this on the depth of field is dramatic, especially for narrow fieldlenses. The users would like to know how the image quality changes withand without refocusing for objects with at different distances from thecamera core.
The RAYLEIGH approach to evaluate the depth of field is based on the
un-aberrated Point Spread Function. It delivers a handy first order relation
which cannot consider the actual lens resolution.

9452-22, Session 4

Classic Depth of Field approach supposes a certain allowed blur as circle ofconfusion. This blur has a certain relation to the Transfer Function of lensand of imaging device.

Block randomization versus complete
randomization of human perception
stimuli: Is there a difference?

IR-system designers need a method which relates to real systemmeasurements such as the lens MTF for different object positions. Our way
to respect the camera core performance in a reasonable and handy way is
to analyse the lens performance in terms of MTF at 50% Nyquist frequency.
Then, the lens MTF-value of 0.5 characterizes the limit of Depth of Field. This
criterion is a proven way for many applications.

Steven K. Moyer, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States); Elizabeth R. Uhl, U. S.
Army Research Institute (United States)

The approach presented here is based on the Through Focus MTF. Several
values of spatial resolution can be considered and the impact of imaging
device is shown.

For more than 50 years, the U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC Night Vision andElectronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) has been studying and modelingthe human visual discrimination process as it pertains to military imaging
systems. In 1998 NVESD created a program to help train Soldiers to identify
combat vehicles. From 1998 until 2006 experimental stimuli were blockrandomized, meaning that stimuli with similar difficulty levels (for example,
in terms of distance from target, blur, etc.) were presented together inblocks of approximately 24 images, but the order of images within theblock was random. Starting in 2006, complete randomization of stimuli forhuman perception experiments came into vogue, meaning that difficultychanged image to image. A decrease in Soldier performance has been
noted over the past 14 years. In this preliminary study we will investigate theimpact of the two types of randomization on performance in two groupsof observers, matched for skill to create equivalent groups. Soldiers in theblock randomization condition are expected to perform better than Soldiersin the complete randomization group. It is hypothesized that Soldiers in
the complete randomization condition will have to shift their criteria more
frequently than Soldiers in the block randomization group, and this is
expected to impede performance. Preliminary results suggest that blockrandomization may provide an advantage under certain conditions. Thesefindings indicate that researchers examining visual perception tasks shouldtake presentation order into consideration when designing a task.

A convention for the Depth of Field and Focus Range based on thehyperfocal distance is proposed.
The approach is applied to different commercially available lenses, and thepractical consequences for efficient use of lenses are deduced.

9452-20, Session 4

Optimum viewing distance (Invited Paper)
Gerald C. Holst, JCD Publishing (United States)
Human visual system (HVS) “resolution” varies with illumination level, target
characteristics (Snellen letters, vernier acuity, checkerboard, etc.), andtarget contrast. Resolution is defined as the visual angle subtended by theeye: target size divided by viewing distance. Remarkably, the population
has a resolution of approximately 1 arc minute for high contrast targets.
For signage, computer displays, cell phones, and TVs a viewing distanceand display size is selected. Then the number of display pixels is chosen
to achieve 1 arc min. Resolution of low contrast targets is quite different. It
is best described by Batrten’s contrast sensitivity function (CSF). The CSF
is broad suggesting that there is a range of “optimum” viewing distances.
NVIPM predicts target acquisition range based upon the system MTF and
CSF. The optimum viewing distance depends upon the display pixel size andsystem MTF. It is independent of magnification. As the system MTF degrades(e.g. due to optical aberrations), the optimum viewing distance changes.

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI

9452-23, Session 4

Modeled performance of low-light digital
imagers
Joseph P. Reynolds, Bradley L. Preece, U.S. Army RDECOMCERDEC NVESD (United States)
We present a model-based trade study of various digital imaging
technologies as a possible upgrade to current image intensified nightvision goggles (NVG). The study includes all forms of silicon-based CCD/
CMOS, SWIR focal plane technology as a function of wavelength cutoff, anduncooled thermal imagers. System level performance comparisons will bemade using a unity magnification design. Trades will be made over lightlevel, target contrast, spectral response, dark current, read noise, and opticalparameters. System comparisons use the Targeting Task Performance (TTP)
metric within the latest version of the Night Vision Integrated Performance
Model (NV-IPM).

9452-43, Session 4

Comparative performance of large-format
MWIR and LWIR systems in NV-IPN
Edward M. Burdette, J. Ralph Teague, Georgia Tech
Research Institute (United States); Christopher L. Dobbins,
U.S. Army Redstone Technical Test Ctr. (United States);Samuel B. Wood, U.S. Army (United States)
This report describes tasks comparing the simulated performance levels of
infrared (IR) sensing systems in detecting, recognizing, and identifying (DRI)targets using the Night Vision Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM). Both
mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) systems, chosen
to represent the current state-of-the-art, were analyzed across various
environmental conditions. These states included a range of both manmade and natural obscurants, selected to simulate atmospheric conditions
commonly experienced throughout the world. This report investigates
the validity of the NV-IPM, down-selects top-performing systems from an
original set, and provides detailed performance analysis of these best-ofbreed systems in various environmental scenarios.
Six sensing systems, Indium-Antimonide (InSb) MWIR, MercuryCadmium-Telluride (MCT) MWIR, nBn InSb MWIR, Quantum Well Infrared
Photodetector (QWIP) LWIR, uncooled LWIR, and dual-band MCT MWIR/
LWIR system, were evaluated against a variety of environmental variations.
Specifications for the IR systems were obtained from manufacturers or
relevant published literature. Simulation results indicated the nBn InSb
MWIR system as the strongest-performing system in many of the tests.

NV-IPM, including the conversion of legacy sensor decks to NV-IPM format
decks, differences in parameters entered in the new vs. old model, and acomparison of the predicted performance differences between NV-IPM andlegacy models. Examples are presented to demonstrate the ease of sensor
deck conversion from legacy models and to highlight enhanced model
capabilities available with minimal transition effort.

9452-25, Session 5

Custom component generation in the nightvision integrated performance model
Brian P. Teaney, David P. Haefner, U.S. Army RDECOMCERDEC NVESD (United States); Stephen D. Burks, U.S.
Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate(United States)
The latest version of the Army imager performance models, the Night
Vision Integrated Performance Model (NV-IPM), is now contained within asingle system engineering oriented design environment. This new modelinterface allows sensor systems to be represented using modular, reusable
components. A new feature, added in version 1.3 of the NV-IPM, enables
users to create custom components which can be incorporated intomodeled systems. The ability to modify existing component definitions andcreate entirely new components in the model hierarchy greatly enhances
the extensibility of the model architecture. In this paper we will discuss the
structure of the custom component and parameter generators and provide
several examples where this feature can be used to easily create new andunique component definitions within the model.

9452-26, Session 5

Investigating the validity of the networked
imaging sensor model in field of viewsearchMelvin H. Friedman, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States); Eric A. Flug, Steven K. Moyer, U.S. Army
Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (UnitedStates)The Networked Imaging Sensor (NIS) model takes as input target
acquisition probability as a function of time for individuals or individual
imaging sensors and outputs target acquisition probability for a collectionof imaging sensors and individuals. System target acquisition takes place
the moment the first sensor or individual acquires the target. The derivationof the NIS model suggests it is applicable to multiple moving sensors
and targets. The only assumption in the derivation of the NIS model isthe independence of the events that give rise to the target acquisition
probabilities. For investigating the validity of the NIS model we consider acollection of single images where neither the sensor nor target is moving.
This paper investigates the ability of the NIS model to predict system target
acquisition performance when multiple observers view first and second
Gen field of view imagery that has either zero or one stationary target in alaboratory environment when observers have a maximum of 12 seconds toacquire the target when it is present. Comparison is made between modeled
and measured target acquisition performance.

9452-24, Session 5

Legacy modeling and range prediction
comparison: NV-IPM versus SSCamIP and
NVTherm
Jonathan G. Hixson, Philip I. Richardson, Balvinder Kaur,David M. Tomkinson, Brian P. Teaney, U.S. Army Night
Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
NVESD’s new integrated sensor performance model, NV-IPM, replaces thediscrete spectral band models that preceded it (NVTherm, SSCamIP, etc.).
Many advanced modeling functions are now more readily available, easier
to implement, and integrated within a single model architecture. For thelegacy model user with ongoing modeling duties, however, the conversionof legacy decks to NV-IPM, enabling the rapid transition to the resumptionof making confident predictions, is of more immediate concern thanmastering the many “power features” now available. This paper addresses
the processes for the legacy model user to make a smooth transition to32

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI

9452-27, Session 5

Targeting Task Performance method has gained much attention. In thearticle the TTP method is analyzed in context of polarimetric imaging. Since
thermal contrast is not required for polarimetric signature to be detected,
some modifications of the method need to be employed. Polarimetriccontrast formulations are considered as well as traditional thermal contrast
formulations with respect to their spatial domain content. For polarimetricsignatures single pixel can be sufficient to detect a signature, hence
approach based on energy relations is introduced and incorporated withsimplified TTP method. Polarimetric signature will often depend also on
object’s material properties and its orientation with regard to a source whichis also taken into consideration.

Model of Large-format EO-IR sensor for
calculating the probability of detection
and false alarm for fixed and moving
targets
Andrew R. Korb, Korb Satellite Systems (United States)
A model was developed to calculate probabilities of detection and false
alarm for moving and stationary targets observed in large-format EO and IR
motion imagery. False positive detection probability and false positive rate
per frame are calculated as a function of target-to-background contrast andtarget size. Results show that moving targets are more difficult to detectthan stationary targets because for fixed targets the false detection rates
diminish rapidly with successive frames whereas for moving targets thefalse detection rate remains constant or increases with successive frames.
The model specifies how the desired performance of a detection system,measured by the false positive detection rate, can be achieved by image
system designs with different combinations of SNR and spatial resolution,and this capability enables system design trades and cost optimization. For
operational use, detection thresholds required to achieve a particular false
detection rate can be calculated. Interestingly, for moderate size images themodel converges to the Johnson Criteria. Johnson found that an imaging
system is likely to detect targets when the target has 4 pixels area or more
and an SNR >3.5. Under these conditions our model finds the false positive
rate is much less than one per image frame, and the ratio of the probabilityof target detection to false alarm rate becomes much greater than one. The
model was programmed into Matlab to generate simulated images frames
for visualization.

9452-30, Session 6

Scene projection technology
enhancements for testing infrared imaging
sensors in a simulated environment
Heard S. Lowry, Aerospace Testing Alliance (United States)
A variety of scene-projection technologies are being used at Arnold
Engineering Development Complex (AEDC) Space Systems Test Facility(SSTF) to provide ground testing of space-based and airborne imaging
sensor systems. These sensor systems require visible-to-long wave infrared(LWIR) imaging sensor calibration and characterization, as well as Hardwarein the Loop (HWIL) real-time simulation with high-fidelity complex sceneprojection to evaluate and validate sensor mission performance. Successfully
accomplishing this suite of sensor testing requires continual development,
evaluation, and implementation of these technologies into the simulated
test environment. This paper provides an overview of recent technology
development efforts at the AEDC SSTF.

9452-28, Session 59452-31, Session 6

Face acquisition camera design using the
NV-IPM image generation tool

Development of an ultrahigh-temperature
infrared scene projector at Santa Barbara
Infrared Inc.

Kenneth A. Byrd, Joseph P. Reynolds, U.S. Army Night
Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)

Gregory Franks, Joseph D. Laveigne, Tom Danielson, Santa
Barbara Infrared, Inc. (United States); John M. Lannon Jr.,
Scott H. Goodwin, RTI International (United States); Kevin
Sparkman, Santa Barbara Infrared, Inc. (United States)

In this paper, we demonstrate the utility of the Night Vision Integrated
Performance Model (NV-IPM) Image Generation Tool to create a databaseof face images with controlled degradations. Available face recognition
algorithms can then be used to directly evaluate the camera design using
these degraded images. By controlling camera effects such as blur, noise,and sampling, we can analyze algorithm performance and establish a more
complete performance standard for face acquisition cameras. The ability
to accurately simulate imagery and directly test with algorithms not only
improves the system design process but greatly reduces cost.

The rapid development of very-large format infrared detector arrays has
challenged the IR scene projector community to also develop larger-format
infrared emitter arrays to support the testing needs of systems incorporatingthese detectors. As with most integrated circuits, fabrication yields forthe read-in integrated circuit (RIIC) that drives the emitter pixel array are
expected to drop dramatically with increasing size, making monolithic
large format RIICs impractical and unaffordable. Additionally, many sceneprojector users require much higher simulated temperatures than current
technology can generate in order to fully evaluate the performance of theirsystems and associated processing algorithms.

9452-29, Session 5

Detection range estimation model for
LWIR polarimetric camera

Under the Ultra High Temperature (UHT) development program, Santa
Barbara Infrared Inc. (SBIR) is developing a new infrared scene projector
architecture capable of producing both very large format (>1024x1024)
resistive emitter arrays and improved emitter pixel technology capable ofsimulating very high apparent temperatures. During an earlier phase of the
program, SBIR demonstrated materials with MWIR apparent temperatures inexcess of 1000K. New emitter materials have subsequently been selected to
produce pixels that achieve even higher apparent temperatures. Test resultsfrom pixels fabricated using the new material set will be presented anddiscussed. Also in development under the same UHT program is a ‘scalable’
RIIC that will be used to drive the high temperature pixels. This RIIC will
utilize through-silicon vias and Quilt Packaging technologies to allow
seamless tiling of multiple chips to fabricate very large arrays, and thus
overcome the yield limitations common in large-scale integrated circuits.
Current status of the RIIC development effort will be presented.

S?awomir Gogler, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland)
In infrared optical design one of key aspects considered in military
applications is range at which target can be detected, recognized andidentified. For many years Johnson criteria have been used to establish
these ranges. This well-known approach bases on geometrical resolution
factors (such as line pairs resolved by a system across a target) and simple
energy-based factors, such as MRTD and atmospheric extinction. Thisapproach has been widely used mostly due to simplicity of its application.
In recent years however better, much more reliable and accurate methodsof calculations have been developed. Since Johnson criteria have beenfound to be overly pessimistic these new approaches give a designer
more freedom and can make a design cheaper while still meeting range
requirements. Among these relatively new approaches (or “metrics”)

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI

9452-32, Session 69452-34, Session 6

Test pixels for high-temperature infrared
scene projection

Spectral homogenization techniques forthe hyperspectral image projector

Christopher J. Fredricksen, LRC Engineering, Inc. (UnitedStates); Seth Calhoun, Stephen Trewick, Aubrey Coffey,
Edward Dein, Kevin R. Coffey, Robert E. Peale, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States); Joseph D. LaVeigne,
Gregory Franks, Tom Danielson, Santa Barbara Infrared,
Inc. (United States); John M. Lannon Jr., Scott H. Goodwin,
RTI International (United States)

Logan E. Hillberry, Colorado School of Mines (UnitedStates); Joseph P. Rice, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)

IR scene projection enables realistic simulations of infrared scenes tosupport hardware-in-the-loop testing of missile seekers, FLIRs, and otherinfrared imaging systems. Challenges for reaching the desired higher
maximum pixel temperatures for emitter arrays based on resistive elements
include materials issues such as oxidation of resistive elements, diffusionof impurities into dielectrics with resulting shorts, and strains due torecrystallization. One of the obstacles in developing new materials is thecost associated with running a lot of test pixels through the entire emitter
fabrication process. To allow investigation of novel high-temperaturematerials without the cost of full finished-array manufacturing runs, we havedesigned simplified pixels for testing and developed processes to fabricate
them. Device dies consist of conducting ribbon patterns sandwiched
between dielectric layers on Si wafers. The ribbons consist of a resistive
heating element connected to probe pads by conducting traces. Processing
involves a pad exposure etch, a pixel outline etch, and an undercut etch tothermally isolate the resistive portion of the pixel from the substrate. Test
pixels were successfully fabricated by electron-beam lithography using a
combination of wet and dry etching.

9452-33, Session 6

Resolution specification for infrared sceneprojectors used in hardware-in-the-loop
testing
Joseph D. LaVeigne, Gregory Franks, Tom Danielson, Santa
Barbara Infrared, Inc. (United States)
Infrared scene projectors (IRSPs) are a key part of performing dynamic
testing of infrared (IR) imaging systems. Two important properties of an
IRSP system are apparent temperature and thermal resolution. Infrared
scene projector technology continues to progress, with several systems
capable of producing high apparent temperatures currently available
or under development. These systems use different pixel technologies
including resistive arrays, DMDs, liquid crystals and LEDs. One common
theme in the systems is the specification of the bit depth of the read-in
integrated circuit (RIIC) or projector engine (such as a digital micro-mirror
device or DMD), as opposed to specifying the desired thermal resolution
as a function of radiance or apparent temperature. For infrared systems,
producing an accurate simulation of a realistic scene or scenario may require
simulating radiance values that range over multiple orders of magnitude.
Combined with variable transfer functions between commanded input andradiance output, a single value, especially at the RIIC level, may not offer thebest representation of desired customer radiance resolution. A system may
meet the specified bit depth, but not meet the desired thermal resolution.
Conversely, a system may have adequate thermal resolution, but fail the bit
depth requirement. In this paper, we discuss some of the various factorsthat affect thermal resolution of a scene projector, and propose a variableradiance resolution scale to better define the reals needs of an IR sceneprojector system.

34

SPIE DSS 2015·

In an effort to improve technology for performance testing and calibration ofmultispectral and hyperspectral imagers, the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) has been developing a Hyperspectral Image
Projector (HIP) capable of projecting dynamic scenes than include distinct,
programmable spectra in each of its 1024x768 spatial pixels. The HIP iscomprised of a spectral engine, which is a light source capable generating
the spectra in the scene, coupled to a spatial engine, capable of projecting
the spectra into the correct locations of the scene. In the prototype HIP, thelight exiting the Visible-Near-Infrared (VNIR) / Short-Wavelength Infrared(SWIR) spectral engine is spectrally dispersed and needs to be spectrally
homogenized before it enters the spatial engine. In this paper we describe
the results from a study of several different techniques for performing thisspectral homogenization. These techniques include an integrating sphere,a liquid light guide, a randomized fiber bundle, and an engineered diffuser,
in various combinations. The spectral uniformity of projected HIP scenes ismeasured and analyzed using the spectral angle mapper (SAM) algorithm
over the VNIR spectral range. SAM provides a way to analyze the spectral
uniformity independently from the radiometric uniformity. The goal of thehomogenizer is a spectrally uniform and bright projected image. Using an
integrating sphere provides the most spectrally uniform image, but at agreat loss of light compared with the other methods. The randomized fiber
bundle outperforms the liquid light guide. Using an engineered diffuser withthe randomized fiber bundle increases the spectral uniformity by a factorof five, with a decrease in brightness by a factor of five, compared with therandomized fiber bundle alone. The combination of an engineered diffuserwith a randomized fiber bundle provides comparable spectral uniformity to
the integrating sphere while enabling 200 times greater brightness.

9452-35, Session 6

Advances in iterative non-uniformity
correction techniques for infrared sceneprojection
Tom Danielson, Joseph D. LaVeigne, Gregory Franks,
Marcus Prewarski, Brian Nehring, Santa Barbara Infrared,
Inc. (United States)
Santa Barbara Infrared (SBIR) is constantly developing new methods for
non-uniformity correction (NUC) of its Infrared Scene Projectors (IRSPs)
as part of its comprehensive efforts to achieve the best possible projector
performance. The most recent step forward is called Advanced Iterative
NUC and it improves upon previous NUC approaches in several ways. The
key to NUC performance is the most accurate possible input drive-toradiance output mapping for each emitter pixel. This requires many highlyaccurate radiance measurements of emitter output, as well as sophisticatedmanipulation of the resulting data set. Advanced Iterative NUC expands theavailable radiance data set to include all measurements made of emitter
output at any point, and allows the user to efficiently manage that dataand select any subset to use in the construction of a new NUC table that is
generated from an improved fit of the emitter response curve. Not only does
this improve the NUC by offering more statistics for interpolation than everbefore, it also makes it simple to remove erroneous data from the set so thatit does not propagate into the correction tables. Advanced Iterative NUC
is implemented by SBIR’s IRWindows4 automated test software as part its
advanced turnkey IRSP measurement, calibration and NUC product called
the Calibration Radiometry System (CRS). By employing Advanced Iterative
NUC on the CRS, SBIR has produced the best uniformity results on resistive
emitter arrays to date.

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Conference 9452: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXVI

9452-36, Session 6

Computing the total atmosphericrefraction for real-time optical imaging
sensor simulation
Richard F. Olson Jr., U.S. Army Research, Development andEngineering Command (United States)
Fast and accurate computation of light path deviation due to atmosphericrefraction is an important requirement for real-time simulation of opticalimaging sensor systems. A large body of existing literature covers various
methods for application of Snell’s Law to the light path ray tracing problem.
This paper provides a discussion of the adaptation to real time simulation of
atmospheric refraction ray tracing techniques used in mid-1990’s MODTRAN
releases. The refraction ray trace algorithm and model atmospheres
published in a MODTRAN 2/3 technical report by Kneizys (et. al.) have beencoded in C-language for simulation use. To this published algorithm we haveadded extensions for variable path segment lengths, and for ascending,descending, transitioning and exoatmospheric “near Earth” ray paths. An
important aspect of these extensions is that distance to the observed source
may be specified from any relative viewing geometry. Another modification
to the published ray trace algorithm implements two key “tuning”
parameters for variable path segment length. These parameters govern theaccuracy of the computed refraction offset angle. The MODTRAN-based
refraction model is applicable to atmospheric propagation at wavelengths in
the IR and visible bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. It has been usedduring the past two years by engineers at the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile
Research, Development and Engineering Center (AMRDEC) in support ofseveral advanced imaging sensor simulations.

9452-37, Session 6

Memory efficient atmospheric effects
modeling for infrared scene generators•••Çaglar Kavak, Seçkin Özsaraç, TÜB I TAK B I LGEM I LTAREN(Turkey)
The infrared (IR) energy radiated from any source passes through theatmosphere before reaching the sensor. As a result, the total signature
captured by the IR sensor is significantly modified by the atmosphericeffects. The dominant physical quantities that constitute the mentioned
atmospheric effects are the atmospheric transmittance and the atmosphericpath radiance. The incoming IR radiation is attenuated by the transmittanceand path radiance is added on top of the attenuated radiation.
In IR scene simulations OpenGL is widely used for rendering purposes. In
the literature there are studies, which model the atmospheric effects in an
IR band using OpenGL’s exponential fog model as suggested by Beer’s law.
In the standard pipeline of OpenGL, the related fog model needs single
equivalent OpenGL variables for the transmittance and path radiance, which
actually depend on both the distance between the source and the sensor
and also on the wavelength of interest. However, in the conditions where therange dependency cannot be modeled as an exponential function, it is notaccurate to replace the atmospheric quantities with a single parameter.
The introduction of OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL) has enabled thedevelopers to use the GPU more flexible. In this paper, a novel method is
proposed for the atmospheric effects modeling using the least squares
estimation with polynomial fitting by programmable OpenGL shaderprograms built with GLSL. In this context, a radiative transfer model code isused to obtain the transmittance and path radiance data. Then, polynomials
fits are computed for the range dependency of these variables. Hence, theatmospheric effects model data that will be uploaded in the GPU memory issignificantly reduced. Moreover, the error because of fitting is negligible aslong as narrow IR bands are used.

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Conference 9453:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV
Tuesday - Wednesday 21–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9453 Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV

9453-1, Session 1

introduced to produce homogenous ceramic powders suitable to fabricate
highly transparent and low scattering ceramics for high power laser
application.

Highly-transparent spinel windows by
microwave sintering

9453-3, Session 1

Jasbinder Sanghera, Woohong R. Kim, Shyam Bayya,
Guillermo Villalobos, Benjamin Rock, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Bryan Sadowski, Sotera Defense
Solutions, Inc. (United States)

Transparent ceramics for demanding
applications

Transparent magnesium aluminate spinel (MgAl2O4) ceramic possesses
excellent mechanical and optical properties enabling its potential use
in many applications, especially those in harsh environments. We havepreviously demonstrated fabrication of transparent spinel ceramic withvery low absorption loss (6ppm/cm) at 1 ?m using the hot pressing method(1). However, microwave sintering offers several potential advantages
over conventional densification methods such as uniform heating, shorter
sintering time, ﬁner microstructure of the ceramics, and scalability to large
sizes. Previous attempts to microwave sinter spinel powder resulted in only
opaque or translucent ceramics (2). In this paper, we report the fabricationof highly transparent spinel ceramics using microwave sintering andhighlight the optical, spectral, morphological and mechanical properties.
References
1. J. Sanghera, S. Bayya, G. Villalobos, W. Kim, J. Frantz, B. Shaw, B.
Sadowski, R. Miklos, C. Baker, M. Hunt, I. Aggarwal, F. Kung, D. Reicher, S.
Peplinski, A. Ogloza, P. Langston, C. Lamar, P. Varmette, M. Dubinskiy, L.
DeSandre, Optical Materials 33 (3), 511, 2011
2. J. Cheng, D. Agrawal, Y. Zhang, B. Drawl, R. Roy, Bull. Am. Coll. Surg. 79,
71, 2000.

9453-2, Session 1

CeraNova’s transparent polycrystalline alumina (CeraLumina™) exhibitshigh transmittance in the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and useful bandsof transmission in the RF. The unique microstructure also leads to highhardness, high strength, and high thermal shock resistance. Polycrystalline
alumina is a viable material where sapphire would be applicable without
the constraint of size or shape; e.g., aerodynamic dome shapes. Transparent
CeraLumina hemispheric and ogive dome blanks are routinely produced
and optical fabrication examples these shapes will be presented. CeraNova’s
spinel has high transmittance in the visible and MWIR, and enhanced
mechanical properties including equibiaxial flexure strength. Results of
optical and mechanical testing for both materials will be presented.

20-inch diameter CHES® Sapphire Boules

Woohong R. Kim, Guillermo Villalobos, Colin Baker, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Michael Hunt, Univ.
Research Foundation (United States); Bryan Sadowski,
Ishwar Aggarwal, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (UnitedStates); Jasbinder S. Sanghera, Shyam S. Bayya, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Juan L. Sepulveda, Raouf O.
Loutfy, Tim Lowe, Materials and Electrochemical Research
Corp. (United States)
Ideal exit aperture windows for high-energy laser (HEL) should possess
low absorption and scattering losses and be environmentally rugged andstrong in order to protect the gain medium without compromising thelight propagating through the window. A trace amount of chemical andphysical impurities present in the windows will result in an adverse effectwhere a local heating caused by the impurities changing its refractive index
and these changes, in turn, result in beam distortion and loss of output
power, which has a severe impact on system performance. The conventional
window materials such as fused silica and oxyfluoride (OFG) glasses do
not satisfy HEL systems requirement to operate in harsh environmental
conditions. Transparent magnesium aluminate spinel (MgAl2O4) ceramic,
due to its excellent mechanical properties and wide IR transmission, hasbeen considered as an ideal rugged window material for HEL systems.
Transparent spinel ceramics windows fabricated using commercial powders
often show high absorption and scattering mainly due to the presenceof chemical and morphological impurities. Here, we report convenientand economical powder purification methods to significantly lower theabsorption loss from transparent spinel ceramic. A jet mill method is also

SPIE DSS 2015

CeraNova’s transparent ceramics have been developed for use in a
number of applications, including those involving infrared transmission,
RF transmission, lasers and scintillators. Transparent ceramic materials
developed include alumina, spinel, yttria, YAG, and composites. The
properties of CeraNova’s high strength transparent alumina and magnesium
aluminate spinel will be presented. Optical components made from
CeraNova transparent ceramics will also be discussed.

9453-4, Session 1

Low-loss spinel windows for high-energy
lasers36

Mark V. Parish, Marina R. Pascucci, John Gannon, Brenda
Puputti, CeraNova Corp. (United States)·

Chandra P. Khattak, Joshua Filgate, Saurabh Ullal, Raj
Shetty, C. Richard Schwerdtfeger, ARC Energy (UnitedStates)This paper discusses the development of a new crystal growth system,
Controlled Heat Extraction System (CHES®), which has produced highquality sapphire to meet the demands of the industry and is presently
setting up to grow world’s largest sapphire boules, 500mm diameter,
300kg. Correlation of technology development with different markets andtiming will be discussed.
In 2007 it was recognized that for sapphire a transition from an exotic
material to an industrial product could only be made with a new paradigm
shift towards industrialization of sapphire production. The first market was
Solid State Lighting (SSL) for which c-axis grown 150mm diameter CHES
sapphire was produced. This was contrary to common belief that c-axis
sapphire could not be grown in large sizes. This orientation advantage
resulted in over 75% material utilization compared to less than 35% forconventional approaches. An important result of c-axis growth is that large
diameter windows and domes are now available for zero birefringenceoptics.
In order to reduce costs further larger sapphire boule growth is being
pursued. A CHES furnace capable of growing 500mm diameter, 300kg
boules has been installed. Initial results with 380mm diameter, 190kg boule
growth are very encouraging. Growth of 500mm diameter boules is being
investigated. With CHES approach a-, r- or c-axis boules can be grownwithout changes to hardware. This will allow production of very largemonolithic windows which has not been possible so far.

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Conference 9453:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV

9453-8, Session 2

Details of the CHES process, approaches to reduce costs andcharacterization results will be discussed.

A history of semi-active laser dome andwindow materials (Invited Paper)

9453-5, Session 1

Roger M. Sullivan, Office of Naval Research (United States)

Large conformal ALON® windows

Semi-Active Laser (SAL) guidance systems were developed starting in the
mid-1960’s and today form an important class of precision guided weapons.
The laser wavelengths generally fall in the short wave infrared regionof the spectrum. Relative to passive, image based, infrared seekers the
optical demands placed on the domes or windows of SAL seekers is very
modest, allowing the use of low cost, easily manufactured materials, suchas polycarbonate. This paper will examine the transition of SAL window anddome science and technology from the laboratory to battlefield, with special
emphasis on the story of polycarbonate domes.

Santosh K. Jha, Lee M. Goldman, Robyn Foti, Suri A. Sastri,
Sreeram Balasubramanian, Mark Smith, Surmet Corp.
(United States)
Aluminum Oxynitride (ALON® Optical Ceramic) combines broadband
transparency with excellent mechanical properties. ALON’s cubic structuremeans that it is transparent in its polycrystalline form, allowing it to be
manufactured via conventional powder processing techniques. Surmet
controls every aspect of the manufacturing process, beginning withsynthesis of ALON® powder, continuing through forming/heat treatment ofblanks, ending with optical fabrication of ALON® windows. Surmet has madesignificant progress is production capability in recent years. Additional scale
up of Surmet’s manufacturing capability, for complex geometries, larger
sizes and higher quantities, is currently underway.

9453-9, Session 2

Weibull probability of failure analysis ofwindows and domes: a tutorial (Invited
Paper)The requirements for modern aircraft are driving the need for conformal
windows for future sensor systems. However, limitations on optical systems
and the ability to produce windows in complex geometries currently limit
the geometry of existing windows and window assemblies to faceted
assemblies of flat windows. Surmet’s ability to produce large curved ALON®
Blanks is an important step in the development of conformal windows for
future aircraft applications.

Lee R. Cambrea, Daniel C. Harris, Naval Air Warfare Ctr.
Weapons Div. (United States)
This tutorial paper describes the application of Weibull statistics frommechanical strength testing to predict the static probability of survival of apolished optical window or dome under stress. The process uses the built-in
Solver routine of an Excel spreadsheet to derive the Weibull modulus andcharacteristic strength from mechanical test data without distortion bylogarithmic transformation. From the modulus and characteristic strength,
the probability of survival of each element of surface area of a windowor dome under tensile stress can be calculated. The overall probability ofsurvival is the product of probabilities of survival of each tensile surface
element.

9453-6, Session 1

Scatter properties of polycrystalline
YAG and Nd:YAG in the visible and nearinfrared
R. M. Springer, Michael E. Thomas, A. M. Brown, Johns
Hopkins Univ. (United States)

9453-10, Session 3

No Abstract Available

Updates in high-performance window
fabrication

9453-7, Session 2

Teddy J. Lambropoulos, Zygo Corporation (United States)

Roadmap for transparent advanced
ceramic sensor windows

As the intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, and high energy laser
systems have evolved and progressed, so has the demand for advancing thecapabilities of high-performance windows and other optical components.
These increasing market demands include tighter optical performance
specifications, challenging materials to manufacture, increasing sizes, andnew geometries. To meet these various requirements, Zygo Corporation
continues to improve its optical fabrication technology and metrology
systems. Zygo has developed efficient manufacturing processes for a wide
range of optical materials ranging from, but not limited to, optical glass(such as fused silica and ULE), polycrystalline materials (e.g. ZnS andMulti-Spectral-ZnS), and hard ceramics (such as AlON, spinel, sapphire,and silicon carbide). Furthermore, a so called “Super-Finishing” surface
smoothing process has also been developed that is capable of achieving
sub 0.1nm rms surface roughness over a spatial band ranging from 10 nm
to 1 mm for several key materials. Zygo is capable of manufacturing opticalcomponents with a variety of geometries including high aspect ratio
windows, meter class optics, on or off-axis aspheres and even true freeform
surfaces. This paper will discuss and provide several examples regarding
the advancements Zygo has made relating to material processing, windowgeometries, and optical specifications.

Douglas W. Freitag, USACA (United States)
USACA has developed an industry lead roadmap for transparent advanced
ceramic sensor windows. The roadmap was developed in response to market
trends extreme environments, expanded battlefield networks, increasing
sensor window size, increasing sensor resolution, desired for more complex
shapes, multi-band windows, and increased multi-functionality. Input wasprovided from subject matter experts throughout the value chain and thefederal government. Data was collected on the challenges and needs thatremain for application of sensor windows, the investment required, and thetimeline. Sensor windows were considered operating in the visible, IR and
RF. Examples of challenges identified include cost, size, shape, mounting,coatings, multi-band, performance, testing, industrial base sustainment andtransition. Results of the roadmap will be discussed along with plans forbroader vetting and implementation.

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37

Conference 9453:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV

9453-11, Session 3

Brunelle, Matthew R. Brophy, Optimax Systems, Inc.
(United States)

Development of manufacturing
technologies for hard optical ceramicmaterials
Edward Fess, Scott DeFisher, Mike Cahill, Frank L. Wolfs,
OptiPro Systems (United States)
Hard ceramic optical materials such as sapphire, ALON, Spinel, or PCA
can present a significant challenge in manufacturing precision opticalcomponents due to their tough mechanical properties. These are also thesame mechanical properties that make them desirable materials whenused in harsh environments. Premature tool wear or tool loading during thegrinding process is a common result of these tough mechanical properties.
Another challenge is the requirement to create geometries that conform to
the platforms they reside in, but still achieve optical window tolerances forwavefront. These shapes can be complex and require new technologies tocontrol sub aperture finishing techniques in a deterministic fashion. In thispaper we will present three technologies developed at OptiPro Systems
to address the challenges associated with these materials and complex
geometries. The technologies presented will show how Ultrasonic grinding
can reduce grinding load by up to 50%, UltraForm Finishing (UFF) and
UltraSmooth Finishing (USF) technologies can accurately figure and finish
these shapes, and how all of them can be controlled deterministically, withutilizing metrology feedback, by a new Computer Aided Manufacturing(CAM) software package developed by OptiPro called ProSurf.

Freeform shapes, defined as surfaces without symmetry, are becoming
more commonplace in the optical design industry. These freeforms require
special manufacturing and testing considerations and do not easily lendthemselves to utilizing traditional optical specifications and tolerances.
This talk will include an overview of current freeform manufacturing andtesting processes for producing freeform surfaces. Discussion topics will
also be presented for future collaboration between optical designers andfabricators regarding freeform specifications and tolerancing methods.
Successes, lessons learned and future work will be highlighted throughspecific examples of polycystalline infrared conformal windows, domes andcorrector elements.

9453-14, Session 3

Optical metrology of conformal optics
Mikhail A. Gutin, Olga Gutin, Xu-Ming Wang, Dennis
Ehlinger, Applied Science Innovations, Inc. (United States)

Form, figure, and thickness measurementof freeform and conformal optics with
non-contact sensors

Conformal windows and domes improve aerodynamic quality of missiles
and aircraft but introduce significant optical aberrations. These aberrations
can be compensated by corrective optics, provided both window andcorrective optics are fabricated to high tolerances. Highly accurate
measurement of conformal optics is required for success of the fabrication
process. A broader range of applications for metrology of aggressively
aspheric optics is in fabrication of aspheric and freeform optics such as usedin head-mounted and head-up displays. This paper presents an overview
of existing and emerging metrology techniques for measurement of highly
aspheric wavefronts and surfaces, and describes the development of theInterferometric Tomography – a new tool for metrology of conformal
aspheric optics. The metrology system is designed to measure wavefront
aberrations as well as the optical figure of both surfaces.

Scott DeFisher, Edward Fess, Greg Matthews, OptiPro
Systems (United States)

9453-15, Session 49453-12, Session 3

Advancements in optical manufacturing technology allow optical designers
to implement freeform and conformal shapes in their systems. Metrologyof the shapes has traditionally been difficult, especially at the sub-micronlevel. Contact measuring systems typically lack the accuracy required for
optical qualification and can damage the surface. Interferometric systems
are unable to handle high spherical departures and may require complicatedlateral calibration to generate feedback for deterministic grinding andpolishing. OptiPro has developed UltraSurf, a non-contact coordinate
measuring machine to determine the form, figure, and thickness of freeformand conformal optics. We integrated several non-contact sensors that
acquire surface information through different optical principles. Each probe
has strength and weaknesses relative to an optic’s material properties,
surface finish, and figure error. The measuring probe is scanned over the
optical surface while maintaining perpendicularity and a constant focal
offset. Measurements of freeform and conformal shapes will be presented.
The scanning method of UltraSurf and the non-contact probes will also be
shown. The form, figure, and thickness data will highlight the capabilities
of UltraSurf to measure freeform surfaces. Comparisons between accuracy
and measureable surface departure will be made with current metrology
systems such as coordinate measuring machines, interferometers, andprofilometers. Additionally, methods for defining a freeform or conformal
surface for metrology analysis and manufacturing will be discussed.

9453-13, Session 3

Freeform optical manufacturing andtesting processes for IR conformal window
and domes
Kate Medicus, Jessica D. Nelson, Timothy Lynch, Matt

38

SPIE DSS 2015·

Additive manufacturing of opticalmaterials
Junjie Luo, Luke Gilbert, Douglas Bristow, RobertLanders, Edward C. Kinzel, Missouri Univ. of Science andTechnology (United States)
Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, has been used for printing plastics,
metals, and some ceramics. However, comparatively little work has been
performed on printing glass and other optical components aside frompolymers. Ongoing work is presented on depositing transparent glass
components. This consists of a comparative study between three additive
processes, powder bed, blown-powder and wire fed. In these processes a
CO2 laser is used to locally melt the glass and build 3D shapes. The 10.6 um
laser energy is well absorbed by the glass. The build platform is scannedby moving a heated build platform under a stationary laser beam. In all theprocesses, material is consolidated by melting process solidifies out of themelt pool as the part translates relative to the laser beam.
The key parameters for each process are identified, notably the scan speed,
laser power, and feed-rates. These are mapped in terms of their effects
on the morphology. The relationship between these parameters is studied
experimentally and corroborated with numerical simulations (ANSYS Fluent)of the melt pool temperature.
We use the optimized parameters to build walls of glass. These are polishedand the transmission measured. Generally the wire-fed process outperforms
the powder-based processes. This is due to scattering off entrappedbubbles that limits the transmission through powder built parts while wirefed parts approach the transparency of furnace cast pieces.
Because the additive manufacturing process allows the material
composition of the work piece to be adjusted on a 3D volumetric basis itwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9453:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV
Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)

will be useful for making gradient index optics. In addition it is useful for
printing integrated photonics and depositing hermetic seals.

ZnS:Ag is a well-known, extremely bright scintillator used in powder
form for ?-particle detection and, mixed with powdered LiF, for thermal
neutron detection. Recently, we discovered some colorless and transparent
commercial bulk single-crystal and polycrystalline (chemical vapordeposited) ZnS forms that scintillate in response to ?-particles. The
scintillation light transmits through the sample thickness (millimeters),
challenging the commonly held assumption that ZnS is opaque to its own
scintillation light. Individual ?-particle events were imaged in space andtime using a charged-particle camera originally developed for medical
imaging applications. Photoluminescence (PL) and PL excitation show thatscintillating bulk ZnS likely depends on different electronic defects thancommercial ZnS powder scintillators. These defects, associated with copperand oxygen, are discussed in relation to PL results and extensive literatureassessment. Commercial transparent ZnS is routinely produced by chemical
vapor deposition to sizes larger than square meters, enabling potentiallynovel radiation detection applications requiring large, thick apertures.

9453-16, Session 4

ALON® GRIN optics for Visible-MWIR
applications
Nagendra Nag, Surmet Corp. (United States)
Surmet has continuously strived to introduce novel and trailblazing
advanced optical ceramics products for current and future defense andcommercial systems. With conventional powder processing techniques,
Surmet has progressed its ALON® technology to manufacture large andoptically transparent armor plates and domes. In addition to transparency
at the required wavelengths, many functionalities including EMI shielding,internal heaters, internal antennas and cooling channels etc. have been
demonstrated in dimensions that are of interest to many applications.
Surmet, working closely with the University of Rochester, has developed
gradient index (GRIN) optics in ALON® for use in the visible through the
MWIR bands. Surmet has demonstrated the ability to tailor the refractive
index of the ALON® material by either varying its composition or throughthe addition of dopants. With the development of several enabling process
technologies, smooth axial and radial gradient profiles with ~0.055 change
in refractive index, over depths of 1-8 mm (axial) and over 20 mm radius(radial) have been achieved. Initial design studies with ALON GRIN haveshown such elements to provide uniquely advantageous color correction
characteristics over multispectral wavebands. Radial gradients in particular,
with their optical power contribution, are expected to provide additional
degrees of freedom for color correction in broadband imaging systems.

9453-19, Session 4

Advances in multispectral diamond-likecarbon coatings
Jason Keck, Chris Karp, Reynard Corp. (United States)
Whether in military windows, night vision devices, or supermarket scanners,
harsh environments are often the scene of light needing to pass through arobust material. Improving durability has traditionally incurred an inevitablesacrifice in transmission, particularly in the visible. We discuss a DiamondLike Carbon (DLC) coating that provides the durability of DLC, but does sowith greater transmission in the IR than with traditional coatings of this type,
and with significantly more transmission across the visible. The visible tofar infrared spectral range of this material opens up DLC use to visible andmulti-spectral applications: laser designators, field barcode scanning, night(and day) vision devices. This extended and improved transmission profile isachieved by introducing an index and stress matching intermediate material
deposition between the substrate and the DLC layer. Instead of a coating of
100 percent DLC, the intermediate layer is capped by a tunable thickness of
DLC that best matches the requirements of the desired application.

Surmet is continuing to work in maturing the technology of ALON® GRIN
elements along with metrology and GRIN optical design development.
Surmet is committed to developing manufacturing capability for ALON®
GRIN elements and inserting it into novel imaging solutions for military andother commercial systems.

9453-17, Session 4

Cost-effective and high-strength ZnS IR
windows for LWIR applications

To bring this design to life, we developed a deposition system that provides
for the simultaneous use of the several different technologies required to
manufacture this material. The reduced thickness of the DLC layer enables
higher transmission, but this is achieved without sacrificing durability,
making it suitable for applications in which the coating has to withstandairborne particulate impacts, corrosive fluids, environmental extremes, andabrasive physical handling.

Duraiswamy Ravichandran, Texas Biochemicals, Inc.
(United States)
The goal of this project is to fabricate cost-effective and high strength Zinc
Sulfide (ZnS) IR windows using ceramic powder processing to avoid anexpensive state-of-the-art chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method.

9453-20, Session 4

Erosion-resistant ZnS could be fabricated through various novel sintering
routes and addition of IR Transparent additives to ZnS to enhance its
strength. We have attempted to add additives to produce large scalemonodispersed ZnS nanoparticles (100 nm) by a novel route. The powder
X-ray diffraction patterns of ZnS shows the presence of broad reflections
corresponding to the (1 1 1), (2 2 0), and (3 1 1) planes of the cubic crystalline
ZnS material. This novel route produced ultrahigh purity, homogeneous,well dispersed, and monodispersed ZnS nanoparticles. The correlation ofprocessing variables with respect to additives, strength, morphology, purity,
IR transmittance, X-ray diffraction and TEM analysis will be presented.

Simple optimization method for EMI meshpattern design
Mehmet Erhan Alpman, Tolga Senger, ASELSAN Inc.
(Turkey)
Metallic mesh coatings are used on visible and infrared windows anddomes widely to provide shielding from EMI (electromagnetic interference).
Different EMI mesh geometries are compared with each other regarding
various performance parameters. But to decide best fitting EMI meshgeometry to particular optic system is little bit complicated issue. Therefore
we try to find simple methodology to decide best EMI mesh geometry
design that fits our particular high performance ISR(Intelligence Surveillance
Reconnaissance) systems.”

9453-18, Session 4

Scintillation and luminescence intransparent colorless single andpolycrystalline bulk ceramic ZnSJohn S. McCloy, Washington State Univ. (United States);
Mary Bliss, Brian W. Miller, Zheming Wang, Sean C. Stave,

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Conference 9453:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV

9453-21, Session 4

Stress Measurement of EFG Sapphire Using
Cr3+ Piezospectroscopy
Drew T. Haven, Herbert E Bates, John W Locher, Steven A.
Zanella, Saint-Gobain Crystals (United States)
Sapphire’s excellent hardness, strength, and UV-IR transmittance make it
an excellent candidate for IR window and transparent armor applications.
At Saint-Gobain Crystals, Edge-defined Film-fed Growth (EFG) sapphire
crystals are currently being grown at production quantities in sizes up
to 305 mm wide by 560 mm long by 11 mm thick. However, the demandfor even larger sapphire panels continues to grow. In order to aid in thedevelopment of larger pieces, a nondestructive analysis has been developed
to measure planar stress in sapphire panels, utilizing a Cr3+:Al2O3
piezospectroscopy technique first developed to measure stress in diamondanvil cells.
The measurement works by utilizing trace amounts of naturally occurring
Cr3+ impurities present in sapphire. Upon optical excitation, the Cr3+ will
luminesce and produce a sharp emission doublet centered at 694 nm withthe two peaks dubbed R1 and R2. This emission results from a 2E ? 4A2
transition of Cr3+ in sapphire and its exact emission energy is dependent
on the distance between Cr3+ and O2- ions in the sapphire crystal, which
varies with stress. As a result, measurement of the Cr3+ emission, andthe corresponding shift of the Cr3+ doublet wavelength, can be used as anondestructive means of measuring stress. By recording several data points
over an array, it is possible to construct a stress map of large sapphire
sheets.

9453-22, Session 5

No Abstract Available

9453-24, Session 5

Computational modeling of sand impact
damage in coated, transparent ceramic
windows
Shanna Tune, Robert Schultz, The Univ. of Arizona (UnitedStates); Ibrahim Guven, Virginia Commonwealth Univ.
(United States); Brian J. Zelinski, Raytheon Missile Systems(United States)
No Abstract Available

9453-25, Session 5

New ZnS interatomic potential formolecular dynamics simulations
Erin K. Boland, Raytheon Missile Systems (United States);
Krishna Muralidharan, The Univ. of Arizona (United States);
Brian J. Zelinski, Raytheon Missile Systems (United States);
Stefan Bringuier, The Univ. of Arizona (United States)
No Abstract Available

Electronic-band structures and opticalproperties of transition metal-doped zincoxide9453-26, Session 5

Stress analysis of optical coatings for
improved durability and performance ofhigh-end optical components

Esakkimuthuraju Murugan, Mahesh Rajendran, Badrinath
Vadakkapattu Canthadai, Venugopal Reddy Paduru,
Sreekanth Tirumala, Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology(India)Wide band gap Oxide based diluted magnetic semiconductors (ODMS)
exhibit unique magnetic, magneto-optical and magneto-electrical effects
and can be exploited as a spintronic devices. Theoretical studies oftransition metal (TM) doped zinc oxide which belongs to these class ofmaterials has been attracting significant research interest in the recent
years. In this paper, the electronic structures, and band gap energies of
ZnO doped with different transition metals have been analyzed by ab initio
calculations based on the density functional theory using quantum espresso
PWscf code. For the band gap calculations, we have used both local density
approximation (LDA) and generalized gradient approximation (GGA). The
magnetic and optical properties of the materials have been studied using
the above method. For all the theoretical calculations, the model structuresof transition metal-doped ZnO were constructed by using the 24-atom 2? 1 ? 1 supercell with one Ti atom replaced by a transition metal atom. The
results are useful in understanding the band gap variations with doping andother related properties in oxide based diluted magnetic semiconductors
such as ZnO.

9453-23, Session 5

Role of impactor properties on
computational simulation of sand impact
damage in transparent ceramic windows
Robert Schultz, The Univ. of Arizona (United States);
Ibrahim Guven, Virginia Commonwealth Univ. (United

40

States); Brian J. Zelinski, Raytheon Missile Systems (UnitedStates)SPIE DSS 2015·

Shay Joseph, Anna Gleizer, Doron Yadlovker, Arit E.
Shinman-Avraham, Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.
(Israel)One of the main challenging requirements from modern optical systems
is the ability to function in severe environmental conditions for prolonged
periods without suffering from performance degradation. Essential parts ofsuch electo-optical systems are windows, domes and other optical elements
most often coated with an efficient, multispectral and highly durable antireflection coatings. The complexity further increases when these coatings
are applied on curved surfaces, such as hemispherical domes that areused in order to allow a wider field of view. The durability of the coatedoptical component is dependent upon many different parameters such as
deposition method and process parameters and the adhesion between
layers and substrate. However, one very important parameter, which canhave a significant impact on the durability and optical performance, is thestress state of the applied anti-reflection layers. This subject is mostly left
untreated mainly due to the difficulty of characterization and modelingtechniques and lack of thin film mechanical constants which sometimes
significantly differ from the bulk constants of the same material. The stressstate of the optical part is mainly determined by the mechanical propertiesof the coating materials and substrate, geometrical shape of the part andthe thickness of the layers. In this work, both analytical and experimental
approaches were used for characterization of stress distribution in thinfilms on curved surfaces. In the case of the electron beam gun evaporation
method, which is most commonly used for anti-reflection coatings, thechange in mechanical properties and thickness over the substrate curvaturemust be considered in order to achieve a true stress distribution. The
mechanical properties and thickness distributions of the film were evaluatedwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9453:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIV
result suggests that the ARS measurement can advantageously be used
for roughness analysis. Interference fringes presented in the ARS at angles
greater than 30o were correlated with a rather large bandwidth of thecoating. Integrated near angle scattering was determined by separating thesample scatter from the instrument signature.

experimentally using test samples positioned in a dome shaped mechanicalfixture. The film thickness was measured using Atomic Force Microscope andthe mechanical properties such as Young’s Modulus and Poisson ratio werestudied by using the nano-indentation technique. Finite element simulations
were used in order to estimate the stress distribution in a multilayer anti
reflection coating on a hemispherical dome. First, the finite element model
was successfully compared to the analytical Timoshenko solution of stressstate in a single layer thin film. Next, the finite element model was comparedto the numerical solution of a multilayer thin film stress distribution on
flat surfaces. Finally, finite element analysis was performed on single andmultilayer optical coatings on a hemispherical dome with varying thickness
and mechanical properties of each film. In this study, the stress state of amulti-layer anti-reflection coating on a hemispherical optical dome wasdefined. This would allow the engineer to design a part with the desired
stress state which alongside the optical design, is expected to bring about asignificant improvement in the durability and optical performance.

9453-28, Session 5

Laser-induced damage thresholdprediction of dielectric-enhanced
multiband mirrors at 1064 nm
Jue Wang, Corning Advanced Optics (United States)
Surface mitigation plays an important role on surface quality of diamondturned aluminum alloy Al-6061 for optical applications, especially forachieving high laser damage resistance and prolonged environmental
durability. A 10X increase of laser-induced damage threshold was realized on
the aluminum alloy via physical vapor deposited aluminum (PVD-Al). HfO2
and SiO2 multilayers were used to further enhance spectral reflectance andlaser damage resistance of the PVD-Al modified aluminum alloy. Broadband
spectral reflectance specification was realized, ranging from the visible to
the MWIR. A laser-induced damage threshold of 5.0 J/cm2 was determinedat 1064 nm, which doubles the value when compared to that of the PVDmodified aluminum alloy. Damage morphology analysis indicated laserinduced damage penetrates down to the aluminum substrate with a damage
size close to the test laser beam footprint. Potential damage mechanisms, aswell as LIDT as a function of overall HfO2 and SiO2 multilayer enhancement,
were discussed. The results suggest that a combination of proper coating
design and deposition process enables one to to achieve desired spectral
performance as well as extremely high laser-induced damage threshold up
to ~ 100 J/cm2.

9453-29, Session 5

Angle-resolved scatter of HfO2/SiO2
multilayer high-reflective coating at 1064
nm
Jue Wang, Corning Specialty Materials, Inc. (UnitedStates); Sven Schröder, Marcus Trost, Matthias Hauptvogel,Angela Duparré, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Optik
und Feinmechanik (Germany)
HfO2/SiO2 has been recognized as the best coating material combination
for laser durable coatings in the near IR spectral region. Light scattering
properties of the HfO2/SiO2 multilayer high reflective coatings to beconsidered for high quality IR imaging applications. For the investigations
presented in this paper, angular resolved scattering (ARS) measurement
was performed at a wavelength of 1064 nm at normal incidence on HfO2/
SiO2 multilayer high reflector deposited on a silicon substrate via a modified
plasma ion assisted deposition. A total backscatter of 3.9x10-4 was obtainedby integrating the ARS data over the reflective hemisphere within a scatterangles ranging from 2o to 85o. A good agreement was found between the
total backscatter derived from the ARS and the calculated scatter loss basedon surface and interface roughness assuming fully correlated interfaces.
The surface roughness was determined by atomic force microscopy. The

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41

Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
Monday - Thursday 20–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9454 Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects, and Obscured
Targets XX

9454-1, Session 1

an explosive hazard the methodologies of synthetic aperture radar isfused with the array based super resolution and the NQR data processing
detecting the explosive hazard.

Forecasting the soil-dependent
performance of ground-penetrating radarby means of a conventional field-moisturesensor9454-3, Session 1

Minimally disruptive schedule repair for
MCM Missions

Markus Loewer, Jan Igel, Leibniz Institute for Applied
Geosciences (Germany)
With emerging use of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) for IED and landmine
detection, the demand of a forecasting method came up that enables
to analyse the GPR performance with respect to the soil. The reason forthis is that on-site GPR measurements with visual or acoustic real-time
analysis unfortunately cannot provide the information whether or not the
GPR method is suitable for the soil at all. However, the knowledge of thelimitations of a technique is of vital importance in the field.
Especially for high-frequency GPR applications, various electromagnetic(EM) loss mechanisms in the soil can play a crucial role. Apart fromscattering effects caused by soil heterogeneity, intrinsic attenuation controls
the wave propagation in the subsurface. The intrinsic attenuation, which isdue to EM energy losses, depends on the frequency of the EM field and iscontrolled by the effective electrical and dielectric soil properties.
We investigated the EM properties of various soils from Germany andAfghanistan using different laboratory and field methods. We found that
intrinsic attenuation cannot be described by direct current electricalconductivity alone since dielectric relaxation mechanisms prevail at highfrequencies. We propose a conventional soil-moisture field sensor based ontime-domain reflectometry (TDR) as an alternative to the time-consuming
laboratory measurements. The TDR probe was calibrated by means of thecoaxial transmission-line technique and measures the intrinsic attenuation
as well as the relative dielectric constant. Comparisons between the GPR
performance forecast carried out by on-site TDR measurements and theexperimental GPR performance shows a promising correlation.

Stand-off explosive detection utilizing
low-power stimulated emission nuclear
quadrupole resonance detection and subwavelength focusing wideband super lensWilliam Mouyos, John Apostolos, Judy Feng, Walter
Chase, AMI Research and Development (United States)
The need for advanced techniques to detect improvised explosive devices(IED) at stand-off distances greater than ten (10) meters has driven AMI
Research and Development (AMI) to develop a solution to detect andidentify the threat utilizing a forward looking Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) combined with our CW radar technology Nuclear Quadrupole
Resonance (NQR) detection system. The novel features include a near-field
sub-wavelength focusing antenna, a wide band 300 KHz to 300 MHz rapidly
scanning CW radar facilitated by a high Q antenna/tuner, and an advanced
processor utilizing Rabi transitions where the nucleus oscillates between
states under the time dependent incident electromagnetic field andalternately absorbs energy from the incident field while emitting coherent
energy via stimulated emission. AMI’s Subwavelength Focusing Wideband
Super Lens uses a Near-Field SAR, making detection possible at distances
greater than ten (10) meters. This super lens is capable of operating on
the near field and focusing electromagnetic waves to resolutions beyond
the diffraction limit. When applied to the case of a vehicle approaching

SPIE DSS 2015

Mine countermeasures (MCM) missions entail planning and operations
in very dynamic and uncertain operating environments, which poseconsiderable risk to personnel and equipment. Frequent schedule repair
is needed that considers the latest operating conditions to keep mission
performance on target. However, this is very challenging when performed
manually because of the large number of variables, resources, and operating
constraints that must be considered. We present a novel approach toperform this automatically and incrementally through the use of casebased rescheduling. This technique permits the storage and reuse of repair
strategies that are proven successful in similar situations. We evaluate theperformance impact of automated schedule repair in terms of time taken
to correct a schedule; our results will show substantial savings in termsof operator effort compared to average time required to conduct thesechanges manually.

9454-4, Session 1

Fusion of iECO image descriptors forburied explosive hazard detection in
forward-looking infrared imagery
Stanton R. Price, Derek T. Anderson, Mississippi State
Univ. (United States); James M. Keller, Univ. of MissouriColumbia (United States)

9454-2, Session 1

42

Kalyan M. Gupta, Matthew Molineaux, Bryan L. Auslander,
Philip G. Moore, Knexus Research (United States)·

Data fusion is a powerful theory that often leads to significant performance
benefit and/or improved robustness of a given solution. In this article, we
explore how fusion can be used to advance our previously establishediECO image descriptor framework. The goal of iECO is to learn not one,but a diverse set of individuals (variable length chromosome in a genetic
algorithm). Each iECO individual encodes a unique composition of different
low-level image transformations in the context of a high-level image
descriptor. Two fusion strategies are investigated herein; ensemble theory
and non-linear classifier confidence aggregation. The prior is particularlyinteresting as the problem at hand requires the fusion of multiple inputs,
each of which reside in a different feature space. The latter fusion strategy
is investigated in the context of the Choquet integral, a powerful nonlinear aggregation operator that is parameterized by the fuzzy measure(aka capacity), which can be specified or learned from data. The proposed
theory is presented in the context of buried explosive hazard detection in
forward looking imagery. Experiments are reported using receiver operating
characteristic curves on data from a U.S. Army test site that contains
multiple target and clutter types, burial depths and times of day.

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX

9454-5, Session 29454-7, Session 2

Detection of concealed targets using
spintronic microwave sensor

Using a blackboard architecture or expert
system to identify obfuscated targets fromsymptoms

Lei Fu, Yongsheng Gui, Can-Ming Hu, Univ. of Manitoba(Canada); Yang Xiao, Mounir Jaidann, Hong Guo, McGill
Univ. (Canada); Hakima Abou-Rachid, Defence Researchand Development Canada, Valcartier (Canada)

Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
A variety of techniques exist for enhancing or inferring the existence andcharacteristics of an obscured or partially concealed target. Many of thesetechniques attempt to infer the remainder of the target from a portionof the target that is identified or from imagery that is blurred or two low
resolution to make a direct identification.

Microwave radiation can propagation through large distances in space andhas modest attenuation when passing through physical barriers such as
clothing, plastics, soil, sands, and rocks. Thus microwaves can interact with
subsurface structures in addition to structures on the surface of the material.
This subsurface imaging is attractive for non-destructively detecting
embedded defects and/or concealed threats. Recent advances in spintronics
has explored the possibility to measure the scattered microwave using asingle spintronic device, and demonstrated that spintronic technique allows
a real-time measurement of both the amplitude and phase of microwaves
with a high sensitivity in a large dynamic range using a magnetic tunnel
junction (MTJ). The operation principle enables the measurement performedby the less-expensive instruments (lock-in amplifier) working at low
frequency range. The experiment-friendly low-frequency signal also makes
sensor-based systems field-durable. The use of spintronic devices, which
are able to operate at the same frequency range as current antenna but
are a fraction of the size, allows the built system to be both compact andportable. In this paper, a microwave holographic imaging system has been
established, where the microwave scattering data measured by an MTJ
is reconstructed to generate a readable image based on the holographic
principle. The system has demonstrated the feasibility to detect not only
the existence of the concealed objects but also their shapes, allowing theconcealed threat being distinguished along with other hidden objects.
Finally, a theoretical model is constructed to simulate spin polarizedtransport in MTJ under microwave irradiation and to help interpret themeasured data. First principles calculations of dielectric response in the
microwave range for a number of energetic materials are also reported.

Targets, however, may be completely blocked from view, presenting nothing
to enhance and no image area to extend inferentially. This may occur due tointentional acts by the target (or others acting to conceal the target), due toterrain features, weather factors or for other reasons. Despite the difficulty,
concealed (particularly intentionally) targets may be the most important todetect. A target that is able to close a significant distance without detection
reduces or eliminates the ability to react and take defensive measures.
This paper proposes a technique for using a Blackboard Architecture orexpert system to infer a target’s existence from symptoms. The Blackboard
and expert system approaches are very similar, with the key difference
between them being the Blackboard approach’s ability to take actions
as part of the identification and classification process, while the expert
system simply passively analyzes data. Both systems look at detectable
symptoms of target presence (such as maneuvers of other units, water andsoil deformation, etc.) to infer the presence and classification of a target
within a constrained area. The paper discusses the differences between
the prospective outcomes and risks presented by the two approaches(Blackboard Architecture and expert system) before concluding with a
discussion of prospective future work.

9454-8, Session 2

Efficiency of using the spectral dynamics
analysis for pulsed THz spectroscopy ofboth explosive and other materials

9454-6, Session 2

Differential excitation spectroscopy
for detection of common explosives:ammonium nitrate and urea nitrate

Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Svetlana A. Varentsova,
Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (Russian Federation)
One of the modern problems arising in the detection and identification ofsubstances is a development of criteria for the assessment of a presence of
explosive (or other dangerous substance) fingerprints in investigating THz
signals reflected from a sample. Obviously, criteria depend on using method
for the detection and identification of the substance. Taking into accounton our previous experience, we use for a solution of this problem the SDA
method (method of the spectral dynamics analysis).

Boyd V. Hunter, Jason M. Cox, Kestrel Corp. (UnitedStates); Michael A. Miller, Southwest Research Institute(United States); Richard V. Hunter, Paul Harrison, Levi Van
Bastian, William P. Walters, Kestrel Corp. (United States)
Differential Excitation Spectroscopy (DES) is a new pump-probe detection
technique which characterizes molecules based on a multi-dimensionalparameterization of the rovibrational excited state structure, pump andprobe interrogation frequencies, as well as the lifetimes of the excited states.
Under appropriate conditions, significant modulation of the ground state
can result. DES results provide a unique, simple mechanism to validate andunderstand various molecules in support of relevant science. In addition, theDES multi-dimensional parameterization provides an identification signaturethat is highly unique and has demonstrated high levels of immunity frominterferents, providing significant practical value for high-specificity material
identification.

In this report we show that the SDA method allows us to identify the
explosive under real conditions. We use our approach for the identificationof sample with complicated shape. This situation takes place for the
PWM C4 explosive, for example. Another case under consideration is thecompound explosive. We consider also the detection and identification
drugs, semiconductors and harmless substance. Part of our attention
is attracted to influence of opaque materials on the detection andidentification if we use well-known method based on spectrum analysis. We
show that this method is non-applicable for the identification of substanceunder real conditions. The SDA method allows us to detect the substance forany conditions under consideration.

Ammonium nitrate (AN) and urea nitrate (UN) are both components
commonly used in IEDs and the ability to reliably detect these chemicals is
key to finding, identifying and defeating IEDs. AN and UN are complicatedmaterials, having a number of different phases and because they aremolecular crystals, there are a number of different types of interactions
between the constituent atoms which must be characterized in order tounderstand their DES behavior. Ab initio calculations were performed on
both AN and UN for various rovibrational states up to J’ ≤ 3 and validated
experimentally, demonstrating good agreement between theory andexperiment and the very specific responses generated.

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX

9454-9, Session 3

Fuzzy logic based sensor performance
evaluation of vehicle mounted metal
detector systems
Canicious G. Abeynayake, Defence Science andTechnology Organisation (Australia)
This paper proposes a fuzzy logic-based expert system for experimental
data analysis and fitness evaluation of military and civilian landmine/IED
detection equipment in operational scenarios. The proposed framework also
predicts sensor performance based on the experimental data coupled withexpert knowledge in this field. This new framework has been tested on ametal detector array evaluation and the results show a good agreement of
the predicted results with experimental data points.

9454-10, Session 3

Anthony Pinar, Michigan Technological Univ. (UnitedStates); Matthew P. Masarik, Jack Kelly, Michigan Tech
Research Institute (United States); Timothy C. Havens,
Michigan Technological Univ. (United States); Joseph W.
Burns, Brian T. Thelen, Michigan Tech Research Institute(United States); John Becker, Michigan Technological Univ.
(United States)
This paper explores the effectiveness of an anomaly detection algorithm for
downward-looking ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electromagnetic
inductance (EMI) data. Threat detection with GPR is challenged by highresponses to non-target/clutter objects leading to a large number of false
alarms (FAs) and since the responses of target and clutter signatures are
so similar classifier design is not trivial. We suggest a method based on a
Run Packing (RP) algorithm to fuse GPR and EMI data into a composite
confidence map to improve detection as measured by the area-under-ROC(AUR) metric. We perform an empirical sensitivity analysis on a constantfalse-alarm-rate (CFAR) prescreener by adjusting its spatial parameters,
as well as examine the value of a multiple kernel learning (MKL) support
vector machine (SVM) classifier using image features such as histogram oforiented gradients (HOG), local binary patterns (LBP), and local statistics.
Experimental results on government furnished data show that use of
our proposed fusion and classification methods improve the AUR whencompared with the results from individual sensors and a single kernel SVM
classifier.

9454-11, Session 3

Extended-range electromagnetic induction
sensor concepts
Jonathan S. Miller, Chet Bassani, Gregory Schultz, WhiteRiver Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Typically, electromagnetic sensors are applied using one of two modalities
to detect buried or obscured targets: 1) lower frequency electromagnetic
induction (EMI) sensors that enable detection of targets in the near-field;
and 2) higher frequency wave propagation sensors (such as forward looking
or ground penetrating radar) that enable detection of targets in the far-field.
Each modality has advantages and limitations. EMI sensors enable deep
penetration of overburden or structures that may obscure a target; however,range is limited due to the rapid decay of the near-field. Wave propagation

SPIE DSS 2015

9454-12, Session 3

Wideband electromagnetic interrogationof buried explosive hazards using 3D array
Gregory Schultz, Jonathan S. Miller, Chet Bassani, Peter
Lorenz, Joe Keranen, White River Technologies, Inc.
(United States)

Explosive hazard detection using sensor
fusion and multiple kernel learning withdownward-looking GPR and EMI sensor
data

44

sensors enable detection at much greater standoffs; however, penetration
into ground or structures is limited due to rapid attenuation of the
propagating wave through lossy materials. In this paper, we present several
concepts for enhancing the range capabilities of EMI sensors to provide
both penetration and standoff capabilities. These concepts include higher
frequency operation as well as higher power output transmitters. Because
EMI sensors can produce magnetic field excitation along three orthogonalaxes (by contrast propagating systems are limited to two transmitterpolarizations), the ability to extend the EMI modality into greater standoff
distances could enable not only better penetration, but also better target
characterization for forward looking, side looking, or deep search operating
modes.

·In the often hostile, highly variable and clutter-ridden environment along
roadways current buried explosive hazards (BEH) are challenging both
vehicle-mounted and dismounted soldier-based clearance operations. The
improvised nature of re-used munitions and detonation devices as well as
the variability in BEH constituents drives the need for new technologies
to fill the gaps of current route clearance methods. Recent advances inelectromagnetic induction sensing offer several new capabilities that
can help to extend our current capability. Specifically, we are developing
a new sensor prototype array that provides rich spatial, temporal andspectral information to offer high resolution detection and characterization
capabilities. We present aspects of our current work to leverage several ofthese advanced technologies to demonstrate a modular forward-mounted
BEH detection system for integration within the Route Clearance Squad. We
demonstrate an approach that applies multi-frequency and multi-axis EMI
hardware to enable detection of a wide array of BEH and associated main
charge constituents.

9454-13, Session 3

Munitions detection and discrimination
on-the-move: dynamic EMI classification
methods and potential in CONUS andOCONUS applications
Gregory Schultz, Jonathan S. Miller, Joe Keranen, Fridon
Shubitidze, White River Technologies, Inc. (United States)
The implementation of new advanced electromagnetic induction (EMI)sensor surveys at sites containing unexploded ordnance (UXO) and
explosive remnants of war (ERW) is an effective method for accurate
mapping, but also for discriminating clutter from targets of interest. We
have developed a next generation set of advanced EMI sensors, which
combine the mapping capabilities of previous digital geophysical survey
instruments with the high-resolution discrimination and classification
capabilities of advanced characterization arrays. Here we present resultsfrom recent field tests demonstrating the detection and classification
capabilities of two advanced systems: one configured as a towed array andthe other as a man-portable system. By enabling high-resolution mapping,as well as discrimination and classification of munitions and explosivesof concern (MEC), these systems provide a significant advancement ingeophysical survey capabilities over those of current industry workhorse
instruments, particularly for sites containing large quantities of nonhazardous clutter. By integrating the detection, clutter rejection, and UXO/
MEC classification stages in one survey, the new dynamic discrimination
methods improvements are realized through a reduction in the number of
excavations required for scrap/clutter, a reduction in the total survey timewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
required for detection and classification, and superior quality control due tothe use of a single sensor for detection and classification.

studied. This design uses a high-Q tuned loop antenna for metal/anomaly
detection. By measuring the return loss or voltage standing wave ratioa frequency notch can be detected. Tuning to the optimal location for
detector performance can be accomplished by monitoring both the depth of
the notch and the phase response. It has been experimentally observed that
there are three regions of interest relative to the notch and phase responseof the detector. One is at the frequency where the phase response is on anear vertical line of substantial phase shift and the notch is near its deepest
depth. The second and third are at slightly higher and lower frequencies,
where the slope of the phase shift line is reduced and the notch is still deep,
but slightly removed from the frequency of maximum depth. As would be
expected, initial experimentation indicates that the region of maximum
detection performance, in terms of detection distance, occurs when thephase response is at the center of the near vertical phase shift response
near the location of the deepest notch. However, there may be advantages
to the other two regions, since the response is more stable and less prone
to false alarms. Performance results for various combinations of phase
response and notch depth will be shown.

9454-14, Session 4

Buried threat detection using a handheld
ground penetrating radar system
Mary Knox, Peter A. Torrione, Leslie M. Collins, Kenneth D.
Morton Jr., Duke Univ. (United States)
In this work, we explore the efficacy of two buried threat detectors
on handheld data. The first algorithm is an energy-based algorithm,
which computes how anomalous a given A-scan measurement after it
is normalized according to its local statistics. It is based on a commonlyused prescreener for the Husky Mounted Detection System (HMDS). In the
HMDS setting measurements are sampled on a crosstrack-downtrack grid,and sequential measurements are at neighboring downtrack locations.
In contrast, in the handheld setting sequential scans are often taken atneighboring crosstrack locations, and neighboring downtrack locations
can be hundreds of scans away. In order to include both downtrack andcrosstrack information, we compute local statistics over a much larger area
than in the HMDS setting. The second algorithm is a shape-based algorithm.
Shape Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) features, which capture thegradient distributions of local patches, are extracted and used to train a
non-linear Support Vector Machine (SVM). We found that in terms of AUC,
the SIFT-SVM algorithm results in a 2.2% absolute improvement over theenergy-based algorithm, with the greatest gains seen at lower false alarm
rates.

9454-17, Session 5

A probabilistic framework for comparing
multi-modality buried threat detection
systems with dynamic velocity and sensor
activity
Jordan M. Malof, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins,
Peter A. Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)
Many remote sensing modalities have been developed for buried threat
detection, each one offering its own relative advantages over the others.
There has therefore been interest in combining several modalities intoa single detection platform that benefits from the advantages of eachconstituent sensor, without suffering from their weaknesses. Traditionally
this involves collecting data continuously on all sensors and then performing
data, feature, or decision level fusion. While this is effective for lowering
false alarm rates, this strategy neglects the potential benefits of a moregeneral system-level fusion. Such a fusion can involve dynamically changing
which modalities are in operation. For example, a large standoff modality
such as a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera can be employed until
an alarm is encountered, at which point a high performance (but shortstandoff) sensor, such as ground penetrating radar (GPR), is employed.
Because the system is dynamically changing its rate of advance and sensors,
it becomes difficult to evaluate the expected false alarm rate and advance
rate. In this work a probabilistic model is proposed that can be used toestimate these quantities based on a provided operating policy. In thismodel the system consists of a set of states (e.g., sensors employed) andconditions encountered (e.g., alarm locations). The predictive accuracy ofthe model is evaluated using a collection of collocated FLIR and GPR data
and the results indicate that the model is effective at predicting the desired
system metrics.

9454-15, Session 4

Multiple instance dictionary learningfor subsurface object detection using
handheld EMI
Alina Zare, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States);
Brendan Alvey, Univ. of Missouri (United States) and Univ.
of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Matthew Cook,
Dominic K. Ho, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States)
A dictionary learning approach for subsurface object detection using
handheld electromagnetic induction (EMI) data is presented. A large
number of unsupervised and supervised dictionary learning methods havebeen developed in the literature. However, the majority of these methods
require data point-specific labels during training. In the application to
subsurface object detection, often the specific training data samples
that correspond to target and non-target are not known and difficult
to determine manually. In this paper, a dictionary learning method that
addresses this issue using the multiple instance learning techniques ispresented. Results are shown on real EMI data sets.

9454-18, Session 59454-16, Session 4

Ground vehicle based LADAR for standoff
detection of road-side hazards

Phase response of high- to very highfrequency metal/anomaly detector

Jim Hollinger, LSA Autonomy LLC (United States); Ryan
R. Close, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (UnitedStates)Daniel C. Heinz, U.S. Army CERDEC Intelligence andInformation Warfare Directorate (United States); Michael L.
Brennan, CACI International Inc. (United States); Michael B.
Steer, North Carolina State Univ. (United States); Adam W.
Melber, John T. Cua, U.S. Army CERDEC Intelligence andInformation Warfare Directorate (United States)

In recent years, the number of commercially available LADAR (also referred
to as LIDAR) systems have grown with the increased interest in groundvehicle robotics and aided navigation/collision avoidance in various
industries. With this increased demand the cost of these systems has
dropped and their capabilities have increased. As a result of this trend,
LADAR systems are becoming a cost effective sensor to use in a number
of applications of interest to the Army. One such application is the standoff

In this paper the phase response and return loss notch of a metal/anomaly
detector design that operates in the high to very high frequency range is

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
detection of road-side hazards from ground vehicles. This paper will discuss
detection of road-side hazards partially concealed by light to medium
vegetation. Current algorithms using commercially available LADAR systems
for detecting these targets will be presented, along with results fromrelevant data sets. Additionally, optimization of commercial LADAR sensors
and/or fusion with radar will be discussed as ways of increasing
detection ability.

9454-21, Session 5

Design of a buried explosive hazard prescreener in forward looking imagery basedon shearlet filtering and image postprocessing
Stanton R. Price, Derek T. Anderson, Mississippi State
Univ. (United States); James M. Keller, Univ. of MissouriColumbia (United States)

9454-19, Session 5

Airborne thermal infrared hyperspectral
imaging of buried objects
Marc-André Gagnon, Philippe Lagueux, Pierre Tremblay,
Simon Savary, Vincent Farley, Éric Guyot, Martin
Chamberland, Telops (Canada)
Characterization of hazardous lands using ground-based techniques canbe very challenging. For this reason, airborne surveys are often preferred.
The use of thermal infrared imaging represents an interesting approach as
surveys can be carried out under various illumination conditions and thatthe presence of buried objects typically modify the thermal inertia of theirsurroundings. In addition, the burial or presence of an IED will modify theparticle size, texture, moisture and mineral content of a small region around
it. All these parameters might lead to emissivity contrasts which will makethermal contrast interpretation very challenging. In order to illustrate thepotential of airborne thermal infrared hyperspectral imaging for buried IEDcharacterization, various metallic objects were buried in a test site prior toan airborne survey. Airborne hyperspectral images were recorded using
the targeting acquisition mode, a unique feature of the Telops Hyper-Cam
Airborne system which allows recording of successive maps of the sameground area. Temperature-emissivity separation (TES) was carried out on
individual acquisitions and the hyperspectral map obtained upon averaging.
The improvement on signal-to-noise ratio and detection upon averaging of
the different acquisitions will be presented.

9454-20, Session 5

Extended adaptive mutation operator for
training an explosive hazard detection
prescreener in forward looking infrared
imagery
Ravinder Singh, Stanton R. Price, Derek T. Anderson,
Mississippi State Univ. (United States)
A major problem when using forward looking (FL) imagery for explosive
hazard detection (EHD) is that FL cameras see a large part of the scene,both on and off road. Even if a technology such as a road detector is used,
one is still confronted with finding and subsequently discriminating targets
versus clutter on the road and road side. When developing an automatedsystem for FL-EHD, it is often the case that one engages in the use of apre-screener to find regions of interest (ROI) versus looking for tragets in
an inefficient brute force fashion (at every possible translation, rotation, andscale). In this article, we explore the role of genetic algorithms, specificallywith respect to adaptive mutation, for learning the parameters of a FL-EHD
pre-screener in infrared imagery. Currently, our pre-screener consists ofmany free parameters that are empirically chosen by a researcher. These
parameters are learned herein using the proposed optimization techniqueand the performance of the system is measured using receiver operating
characteristic (ROC) curves on data obtained from a U.S. Army test sitethat includes a variety of target types buried at varying depths and fromdifferent times of day.

A major difficulty in designing an automatic explosive hazard detection(EHD) system in forward looking (FL) imagery is the robust and efficient
detection of regions of interest (ROI) that warrant further investigation.
FL-EHD is particularly challenging, versus a downward looking technology,
because a camera sees everything in the scene, on- and off-road. While
off-road can be somewhat mitigated through various mechanisms, such as
road masks or a road detector, on-road obstacles still have to be addressed.
A brute force strategy is infeasible for such an application as a vehicle
equipped with such a sensor requires advanced standoff capabilities, a low
false alarm rate, and real-time processing to achieve a goal such as route
clearance or target avoidance. Herein, we discuss the design of a new prescreener based on Shearlet filtering and image post-processing that lets us
exploit important characteristics of targets in FL imagery. Performance isassessed in the context of receiver operating characteristic curves on datafrom a U.S. Army test site that contains multiple target and clutter types,
burial depths and times of day.

9454-22, Session 6

Near real-time, on-the-move multisensor
integration and computing framework
Chris Burnette, Matt Schneider, EOIR Technologies(United States); Sanjeev Agarwal, U.S. Army Night Vision& Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Diane
Deterline, Chris Geyer, EOIR Technologies (United States);
Chung D. Phan, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States); Richard M. Lydic Jr., U.S. Army Night
Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States);
Kevin K. Green, Bruce Swett, EOIR Technologies (UnitedStates)
Implanted mines and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) are a persistent
threat to Warfighters. Current Army countermine/counter-IED missions forroute clearance include the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) sensor
mounted on a blast-resistant vehicle to identify and neutralize mines and
IEDs. Route clearance is a dangerous and time-consuming process that
impacts the tempo of operational missions. Improving the effectivenessand efficiency of route clearance patrols (RCPs) is vital to Army operational
missions.
Vehicle-based sensors such as electro-optical and infrared (EO/IR) devices
can be used to identify potential threats in near real-time (NRT) to support
route clearance missions. Potential threats identified by the vehicle-based
sensors – such as disturbed earth, changes in AO since last mission, andsuspicious activities in the AO – can be used to improve the use of the GPR
in locating mines and IEDs. The MOVERS (Micro-Cloud for Operational,
Vehicle-Based EO-IR Reconnaissance System) is a vehicle-based systemthat ingests and processes video and imagery data captured from forwardlooking EO/IR and thermal sensors, and also generates target/feature alerts,
using the Video Processing and Exploitation Framework (VPEF) “plug andplay” video processing toolset.
The MOVERS Framework provides an extensible, flexible, and scalable
computing/integration GOTS framework that enables the capability to add
more vehicles, sensors, processors or displays, and a service architecturethat provides low-latency raw video and metadata streams as well as acommand and control interface. Functionality in the framework is exposed

46

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
M. Lydic Jr., U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

through the MOVERS SDK which decouples the implementation of theservice and client from the specific communication protocols.

In this paper, we present a vehicular buried IED (Improvised Explosive
Device) detector developed over the past several years ([1], [2], [3]and [4]), and its latest implementation and integration in VPEF (Video
Processing and Exploitation Framework) environment. During the buried IED
emplacement, the surface soils are inevitably disturbed, resulting in different
heat absorption and dissipation rate as compared to the surrounding soils.
The temperature difference between buried IED surface soil and surrounding
soil produces unique thermal signatures that can be used for the detectionof buried IEDs through MWIR and LWIR cameras mounted on the military
vehicles.

9454-23, Session 6

Near real-time, on-the-move software PED
using VPEF
Kevin K. Green, Chris Geyer, Chris Burnette, EOIRTechnologies (United States); Sanjeev Agarwal, U.S. Army
Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (UnitedStates); Bruce Swett, EOIR Technologies (United States);
Chung D. Phan, Richard M. Lydic Jr., U.S. Army Night Vision& Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Diane
Deterline, EOIR Technologies (United States)

With a vehicular platform at a long standoff distance, the camera grazing
angle is often very small. In this setting, buried IEDs appear as ovular
shapes in thermal imagery, which can be treated as the signature of buried
IEDs. In our system, a baseline module is developed to identify potential
buried targets, either true or false, with ovular shapes using anomaly-based
detection algorithms. Its main task is to detect all potential targets, which
will be further processed for target discrimination and declaration.

The scope of the Micro-Cloud for Operational, Vehicle-Based EO-IR
Reconnaissance system (MOVERS) development effort, managed by Night
Vision Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD), is to develop, integrate, anddemonstrate new sensor technologies and algorithms that improve IED andmine detection using efficient and effective exploitation and fusion of sensor
data and target cues from existing and potential future Route Clearance
Package (RCP) sensor systems.

To discriminate true targets from false alarms, a suite of false alarm
mitigators are developed. Since false alarms show many different
characteristics in their thermal signatures, we have developed a suite offalse alarm mitigators (FAMs) in our buried IED detection system. Each
FAM is designed to reject false alarms from a particular perspective. It was
found that false alarms often come from background clutters such as tire
tracks and rough soils in the wash areas, and their spatial textures in thermal
imagery are different from those associated with true buried targets.
Therefore a number of statistical spatial distribution and randomness
analysis methods are developed to separate the true targets from false
alarms.

Unfortunately, the majority of forward looking full-motion video (FMV)
and computer vision processing, exploitation, and dissemination (PED)
algorithms are often developed using proprietary, incompatible software.
However, by using a framework which standardizes the input and outputs,
algorithms can be made interchangeable, interoperable and flexible. WithPED algorithms supporting standardized inputs, sensors can be evaluatedusing the algorithms without modifying the algorithm’s software itself.

To further reduce the false alarms, we have also developed a multi-target
track analysis method. In this approach, the tracks of targets (true andfalse) are formed over a number of image frames. In addition, the vehicle
track is also estimated and mapped to the corresponding images throughthe camera perspective projection. Both target tracks and vehicle track arethen statistically analyzed for discrimination. Since true target tracks are
statistically similar to the vehicle track, we apply the statistical uniformity
hypothesis test for the rejection of false alarms.

EOIR developed the Video Processing & Exploitation Framework (VPEF),
a GOTS framework, to be able to rapidly integrate, standardize, and testcomputer vision algorithms, and to provide standardized interfaces for
exploitation software, including input video formats, sensor metadata, anddetected objects.
Under the MOVERS effort, EOIR developed a vehicle-based computing
framework within the MOVERS framework and integrated it with VPEF andother non-VPEF-based processing algorithms. VPEF was further extended
for near real-time (NRT) detection processing (i.e., VPEF RT) to support
RCP patrol. VPEF-RT uses a video processing pipeline structure consistingof individual modules, also known as plug-ins, which can be selected from alibrary of FMV and computer vision plug-ins, making the framework flexible.
PED algorithms were modified to support VPEF-RT which allowed thealgorithms to be tested using a variety of input sensors.

All of the detection algorithms have been implemented in C/C++ as VPEF
plugins. The design of each plugin has a set of well-defined input andoutput variables. They can be executed in VPEF multi-thread environment
for realtime buried IED detection. Moreover, following GStreamer standard,these plugins can interact with different plugins developed by third parties.
With this interoperability capability, our buried IED detection system is
flexible and scalable.

With the inputs and outputs standardized, algorithms were able to beinterchanged to compare the performance of each as well as to run thealgorithms together, utilizing the benefits of each algorithm. Algorithm
performance was also tested to ensure real-time on-the-move processing
could be achieved. VPEF-RT was shown to be capable of handling real-timeon-the-move processing and provided a standardized interface for PED
algorithms. PED algorithms were ported quickly and successfully to VPEFRT and tested using multiple visible color and thermal (FLIR) sensors.

In this paper, we will also present the test results of our buried IED detection
system operating in VPEF environment. A number of different datasetscollected in different environments are used to evaluate the system
detection performance.

Finally, EOIR is investigating the added value of incorporating accelerated
processing techniques such as leverage GPU acceleration through CUDA/
OpenCL VPEF plugin developments to further maximize algorithm
performance and speed in execution.

[2] Ling, B, Tiwari, S, Liu, M, Trang A, Smith T, “Performance Enhancement of
IED Detection

Reference[1] Ling B, Liu M, Tiwari S, Trang A, Smith T, “Buried IED Detector Using
Vehicle Mounted LWIR Camera,” in Proceedings of 2008 MSS Battlefield
Survivability & Discrimination.

Using Vehicular Platform, “ in Proceedings of 2009 MSS National
Symposium.
[3] Ling B, Tiwari S, Guven H E, Trang, A, Smith T, “Multi-Camera Association
and IED Declaration for Army Escort Vehicle Test Bed”, in Proceedings of2010 MSS Battlefield Survivability and Discrimination.

9454-25, Session 6

Real-time buried IED detection and cueing
capability in VPEF environment[4] Ling B, Tiwari S, Trang, A, Smith T, “Near Real-Time Implementation and
Field Test of IED Detector Using Army Vehicular Platform”, in Proceedings of2011 MSS Battlefield Survivability and Discrimination.

Bo Ling, Migma Systems, Inc. (United States); Sanjeev
Agarwal, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (UnitedStates); Santiago Olivera, Zlatko Vasilkoski, Migma
Systems, Inc. (United States); Chung D. Phan, Richard

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX

9454-26, Session 79454-28, Session 8

Multi-scale HOG prescreening algorithm
for detection of buried explosive hazards
in FL-IR and FL-GPR data

A method for detecting ultra-low
quantities of explosives with use apicosecond laser FAIMS analyzer

Kevin E. Stone, James M. Keller, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States); Darren Shaw, Univ of Missouri-Columbia(United States)

Gennadii Kotkovskii, Alexander A. Chistyakov, Ivan P.
Odulo, Alexey V. Sychev, National Research Nuclear Univ.
MEPhI (Russian Federation); Artem S. Bogdanov, Anatoly
N. Perederiy, Moscow State Institute of Radiotechnics,
Electronics and Automation (Russian Federation); Evgeny
M. Spitsyn, JSC M.F. Stelmakh Research Institute POLYUS(Russian Federation); Alexander V. Shestakov, POLYUS
Research and Development Institute (Russian Federation)

A sliding window based prescreening algorithm, utilizing multi-scale
histogram of oriented gradient (HOG) features and a linear support vector
machine (SVM) classifier, for detection of buried explosive hazards inforward-looking infrared (FL-IR) imagery is presented. This algorithm iscompared to a previously published FL-IR prescreening algorithm whichuses an ensemble of local, dual-sliding window RX anomaly detectors.
The multi-scale HOG prescreening approach has higher computational
complexity, but improves detection of low-contrast and obscured target
signatures. Results are presented on several large data sets collected at US
Army test sites. These collections span several days, and include imagery
from both long-wave and mid-wave infrared cameras at multiple standoff
distances captured at different hours of the day and different times of theyear. We also investigate how the prescreener model trained on imagery
from one IR camera can be adapted to imagery from a new IR camera. This
adaptation is performed using only the intrinsic and extrinsic parametersof the new camera. It does not require new data collection on calibration
lanes. The performance of the adapted classifier is compared to that of theclassifier when trained directly on the new imagery.

9454-27, Session 7

An application of log-Gabor filter on roaddetection in arid environments for forward
looking buried object detection
James M. Keller, Pooparat Plodpradista, Mihail Popescu,
Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States)
One of the crucial functions in the forward looking buried object detection
method is to anticipate the directional change of the operating vehicle.
Since the operating vehicle is driven on the road, the prominent way toanticipate the directional change is to detect the road that lies in front of thevehicle. It is advantageous to detect the road at a great distance because
the imaging system would have greater amount of time to process thescene. However, using only color imagery, detecting unpaved roads in arid
environments has proven to be a complicated task, and even more so to do
it at a great distance. The complication is due to the fact that the texture of
the road at a close distance is drastically different from that at a far distance.
Furthermore, it is impractical to train multiple road models to handle thevarying road texture and distances.
In this paper, we proposed the use of the Log-Gabor Filter (LGF) to enhance
our road detection system. The LGF can be used to suppress the road-likepixels in the image. By filtering the unpaved road images with varying
scales and orientations of LGF and a combination of basic image processing
techniques, evidence images of the road are created. Each evidence image
is a binary image where value one on any pixel represents the evidence ofroad at that pixel, otherwise the value will be zero. However, the maximum
distance for generating evidence of the road varies for each image.
Therefore, the road model is utilized. Using the least square method, theroad model is optimized to fit the support of the road presented in each
image. By specifying the length of the road on the optimized model, thedistance of road detection is also specified. Thus, utilizing the LGF and theroad model allows our system to detect the road as far as forty meters.

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SPIE DSS 2015·

A method for detecting ultralow quantities of explosives in air andtraces using a state-of-the-art picosecond chip Nd3+:YAG laser has
been elaborated. The method combines field asymmetric ion mobility
spectrometry (FAIMS) with laser ionization of air samples and laser
desorption of analyzed molecules from examined surfaces. Radiation of
wavelength 266nm, pulse time 300ps, pulse energy 40–150?J, frequency
100–300Hz was used. The twin-pass optical scheme was developed forthe laser ion source. Parameters of the laser ion source have been specially
optimized for the use a picosecond ionization mode. The dependenceson frequency, pulse energy, peak intensity, and average power fortrinitrotoluene (TNT), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), and glyceryl
trinitrate (NG) were investigated. It was shown that the optimal peakintensity should be 2 MW/cm2 or higher; at lower peak intensities theincrease of the average laser power in the interval 5–15 mW enhanced
the ion signal. The detected ion signals for all explosives were shown tobe threefold higher for picosecond excitation in comparison with use ananosecond laser of the same average power.
The laser desorption regime was developed where a laser beam exiting thedetector after removal of a special plug was used. The results of TNT, RDX,NG detection are presented.
The chip Nd3+:YAG laser has a small emitter and a consumed electric powerof 25 W. The estimated detection threshold of the prototype equals 10-15
g/cm3. The results are promising in terms of the development of a highly
sensitive, portable laser explosive detector.

9454-29, Session 8

Surface enhanced Raman scattering(SERS) detection of ammonium nitrate(AN) samples fabricated using drop-ondemand inkjet technology
Mikella E. Farrell, Ellen L. Holthoff, Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
The requirement to detect hazardous materials at standoff distances has led
to the development of laser based hazard detection systems with immediate
application to the US military, national security agencies, and environmental
response teams. In particular, common explosives and improvised explosive
devices (IED) materials have motivated research efforts toward detecting
trace quantities on multiple surfaces (textiles, metals, plastics, natural
products, people). Non-destructive detection techniques can detect
trace quantities of explosive materials; however, they are generally notvery effective in the presence of a complex chemical background. One
spectroscopic technique gaining increased attention for detection is SERS.
Despite the current operational challenges of measuring trace hazard
samples with Raman, research efforts continue to improve these standoff
detection systems. One means by which this is achieved is through properly
training the system to accurately identify and quantify hazardous materials.
One such material gaining more attention is Ammonium nitrate (AN). AN
has many agricultural applications, however it can also be used in the
fabrication of homemade explosives (HMEs). In this report, accurate AN

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX

9454-32, Session 9

sample preparation for the evaluation of standoff hazard detection systems
will be discussed as applied to several different common material surfaces(e.g. wood, human hair, textiles, metals, plastics).

Deep belief networks for false alarm
rejection in forward-looking groundpenetrating radar

9454-30, Session 8

John Becker, Timothy C. Havens, Anthony Pinar, Timothy J.
Schulz, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States)

Detection of homemade explosives using
Raman excitation at 1064 nm

Explosive hazards are one of the most deadly threats in modern conflicts.
The U.S.~Army is interested in a reliable way to detect these hazards at
range. A promising way of accomplishing this task is using a forwardlooking ground-penetrating radar (FLGPR) system. Recently, the Armyhas been testing a system that utilizes both L-band and X-band radararrays on a vehicle mounted platform. Using data from this system, wesought to improve the performance of a constant false-alarm-rate (CFAR)
prescreener through the use of a deep belief network (DBN). DBNs combine
unsupervised pre-training with supervised fine-tuning to generate lowdimensional representations of high-dimensional input data. DBNs havealso been shown to perform exceptionally well at detecting anomalies. We
sought to take advantage of these two properties by training a DBN on thefeatures of the CFAR prescreener’s false alarms (FAs) and then use that DBN
to separate FAs from true positives. Our analysis shows that this method
improves the detection statistics significantly. By training the DBN on a
combination of image features, we were able to significantly increase theprobability of detection while maintaining a nominal number of false alarms
per square meter. Our research shows that DBNs are a good candidate for
improving detection rates in FLGPR systems.

Eric G. Roy, Claire Dentinger, Claude Robotham, Rigaku
Raman Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Raman spectroscopy is a powerful tool for obtaining molecular structure
information of a sample. While Raman spectroscopy is a common laboratory
based analytical tool, miniaturization of opto-electronic components has
allowed handheld Raman analyzers to become commercially available.
These handheld systems are utilized by Military and Bomb squad operators
tasked with rapidly identifying explosives in the field, sometimes inclandestine laboratories. However, one limitation of many handheld Raman
detection systems is strong interference caused by fluorescence of thesample or underlying surface which obscures the characteristic Raman
signature of the target analyte.
Homemade explosives (HMEs) are produced in clandestine laboratories,
and the products under these conditions are typically contaminated withdegradation products, contaminants, and unreacted precursors. These
contaminations often will have strong fluorescence. In this work, Raman
spectra of both commercial explosives and HMEs were collected usinga handheld Raman spectrometer with a 1064 nm excitation laser. While
Raman scattering generated by a 1064 nm laser is inherently less efficientthan excitation at shorter wavelengths, high quality spectra were easily
obtained due to significantly reduced fluorescence of HMEs.

9454-33, Session 9

An Apodization Approach for Processing
Forward-Looking GPR for Buried Target
Detection

9454-31, Session 9

Clutter and target discrimination in
forward-looking ground penetrating radarusing sparse structured basis pursuits

Adam Webb, Michigan Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates) and Michigan Technological Univ. (UnitedStates); Timothy C. Havens, Timothy J. Schulz, Michigan
Technological Univ. (United States)

Joseph A. Camilo, Jordan M. Malof, Peter A. Torrione,
Leslie M. Collins, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Duke Univ. (UnitedStates)A forward-looking and -moving ground-penetrating radar (GPR) acquires
data that can be used for explosive hazard detection. As the platformmoves forward, the sensor can acquire and form a sequence of images
for a common spatial region. Due to the near-field nature of relevantcollection scenarios, the point-spread function (PSF) varies significantly
as a function of the spatial position, both within the scene and relative
to the sensor platform. This variability of the PSF causes computationaldifficulties for matched-filter and related processing of the full video
sequence. One approach to circumventing this difficulty is to coherently
or incoherently integrate the video frames, and then perform detection
processing on the integrated image. Here, averaging over the space- andmotion-variant nature of the PSFs for each frame causes the PSF for the
integrated image to appear less space-variant. Another alternative---andthe one we investigate in this paper---is to transform each image from theconventional (range, cross-range) coordinate system to a (range, sine-angle)
coordinate system for which the PSF is approximated as spatially invariant.
Then, the transformed video data can be processed with a computationallyfeasible matched filter to identify potential targets in the video sequence.
To evaluate the relative advantages of this procedure, we will compare theperformance of this video processing with the detection performance fromthe coherently- or incoherently-integrated image.

Forward-looking ground penetrating radar (FLGPR) is a remote sensing
modality that has recently been investigated for buried threat detection.
FLGPR offers greater standoff than other downward-looking modalities
such as electromagnetic induction and downward-looking GPR, but it
suffers from high false alarm rates due to surface and ground clutter. A
stepped frequency FLGPR system consists of multiple radars with varying
polarizations and bands, each of which interacts differently with subsurface
materials and therefore might potentially be able to discriminate clutter
from true buried targets. However, it is unclear which combinations ofbands and polarizations would be most useful for discrimination and how tofuse them. This work applies sparse structured basis pursuit, a supervised
statistical model which searches for sets of bands that are collectively
effective for discriminating clutter from targets. The algorithm works bytrying to minimize the number of selected items in a dictionary of signals; inthis case the separate bands and polarizations that make up the dictionary
elements. A structured basis pursuit algorithm is employed to gather groups
of modes together in collections to eliminate whole polarizations or sensors.
The approach is applied to a large collection of FLGPR data for data aroundemplaced target and non-target clutter. The results show that a sparse
structure basis pursuits outperforms a conventional CFAR anomaly detector,
while also pruning out unnecessary bands of the FLGPR sensor.

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX

9454-34, Session 9

A synthetic aperture acoustic prototype
systemRobert H. Luke III, Steven S. Bishop, U.S. Army Night
Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States);
Aaron Chan, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (UnitedStates); Peter M. Gugino, Thomas P. Donzelli, U.S. Army
Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (UnitedStates); Mehrdad Soumekh, Soumekh Consultant (UnitedStates)A novel quasi-monostatic system operating in a side-scan synthetic
aperture acoustic (SAA) imaging mode is presented. This research project’s
objectives are to explore the military utility of outdoor continuous soundimaging of roadside foliage and target detection. The acoustic imaging
method has several military relevant advantages such as being immune
to RF jamming, superior spatial resolution as compared to 0.8-2.4 GHz
ground penetrating radar (GPR), capable of standoff side and forwardlooking scanning, and relatively low cost, weight and size when comparedto GPR technologies. The prototype system’s broadband 2-17 kHz LFM
chirp transceiver is mounted on a manned all-terrain vehicle. Targets
are positioned within the acoustic main beam at slant ranges of two toseven meters and on surfaces such as dirt, grass, gravel and weatheredasphalt and with an intervening metallic chain link fence. Acoustic image
reconstructions and signature plots result in means for literal interpretationand quantifiable analyses.

9454-35, Session 9

Explosive hazard detection using MIMO
forward-looking ground-penetrating radar
Darren Shaw, Univ. of Missouri (United States); Dominic
K. Ho, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Kevin
Stone, Univ of Missouri (United States); James M. Keller,
Mihail Popescu, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States);
Derek Anderson, Mississippi State Univ. (United States);
Robert H. Luke III, Brian P. Burns, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
This paper proposes a statistical and machine learning algorithm forsubsurface object detection on the multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO)
forward-looking ground-penetrating radar (FLGPR). The proposed systemutilizes an anomaly detection prescreener to identify potential object
locations. We then weigh the confidence or reject the alarms by comparing
the responses of different polarizations of the MIMO FLGPR array. The fast
Fourier transform (FFT) of the data at the candidate-alarm locations is
extracted in order to form a spatial frequency feature set. A Support Vector
Machine (SVM) is then employed to classify potential targets and reduce
false alarms. Experimental results using the data collected at an US Army
test site show the effectiveness of using the MIMO FLGPR and multiple
polarizations for the detection of explosive hazards.

9454-36, Session 9

Advanced processing of standoff sensor
data for detecting explosively formed
penetrators
Joe Keranen, Gregory Schultz, Fridon Shubitidze, WhiteRiver Technologies, Inc. (United States); Kancham Chotoo,
User Systems, Inc. (United States)
Side-attack weapons are being used in a number of munitions systems to

50

SPIE DSS 2015·

defeat armor, masonry, and concrete targets by launching from distance andattacking from oblique angles. The ability to detect and discriminate thesemunitions and similarly Misznay-Schardin effect-based devices rely on theeffective use of vehicle-based standoff sensor technologies such as forwardlooking and ground-penetrating radar, LiDAR, and other electromagnetic
or electro-optical methods. We are developing a robust set of detection
and discrimination features for the current suite of Army sensor assets to
reduce the false alarm rates due to ubiquitous and heterogeneous roadsideclutter environments. We utilize physics-based investigations of propagationand scattering phenomenology as well as adaptations of our airborne andspace-based processing and feature extraction methods to optimize theinformation for detection. The results of our work are driving the design oftailored sensor systems as well as providing the foundation for automatedtarget detection and recognition methods for route clearance.

9454-37, Session 10

Automatic target detection anddiscrimination algorithm applicable toground penetrating radar data
Canicious G. Abeynayake, Defence Science andTechnology Organisation (Australia); Minh D. Tran, Univ. ofSouth Australia (Australia)
This paper focuses on development of a new automatic target recognition(ATR) algorithm applicable to GPR data to detect targets of interest and to
discriminate them from clutter found in realistic scenarios. Three approaches
for ATR are presented: a probabilistic approach; an artificial neural networkwith direct data input; and, an image processing based technique. The
proposed ATR algorithms have been evaluated using a data set acquired bya vehicle-mounted NIITEK GPR array.

9454-38, Session 10

Design and validation of inert homemade
explosive simulants for ground penetratingradar
Anthony A. Faust, Brian VanderGaast, Defence Researchand Development Canada, Suffield (Canada); John E.
McFee, McFysics Consulting (Canada); Cristian Mosquera,
Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield(Canada)The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) identified a requirement for inert
simulants to act as improvised, or homemade, explosives (IEs) when training
on, or evaluating, ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems commonly usedin the detection of buried landmines and improvised explosive devices(IEDs). During routine training, GPR operators are at times tested against
surrogate IEDs consisting of containers filled with locally available materials.
Unfortunately, such ad hoc solutions can generate non-representative GPR
signals, which in turn may lead to poorer operator training and performanceagainst the targets of interest. In response, Defence R&D Canada (DRDC)
initiated a project to develop IE simulant formulations using commonly
available inert materials. These simulants are intended to approximate theexpected GPR response of common IEs, in particular ammonium nitrate,
ammonium nitrate/fuel oil, and ammonium nitrate/aluminum. The complex
permittivity over the range of electromagnetic frequencies relevant tostandard GPR systems was measured for bulk quantities of these three IEs
that had been fabricated at DRDC Suffield Research Centre. Following thesemeasurements, published literature was examined to find benign materials
with both a similar complex permittivity, as well as other physical properties
deemed desirable - such as low-toxicity, thermal stability, and commercial
availability - in order to select candidates for subsequent simulant
formulation. Suitable simulant formulations were identified for all three IEs,
with resulting complex permittivities measured to be within acceptable

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
limits of target values. These IE formulations will now undergo end-user
trials with CAF operators in order to confirm their utility. This paper outlines
the development program, simulant design, and validation results.

9454-41, Session 109454-39, Session 10

Peter J. Dobbins, Joseph Wilson, Brandon Smock, Univ. of
Florida (United States)

A layer tracking approach to buried
surface detection

Deep convolutional neural networks forclassifying GPR B-scans

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) devices use sensors to capture a onedimensional representation, or A-scan, of the soil and buried properties at
each sampling point. Previous work uses reciprocal pointer chains (RPC)
to find one-dimensional layers in two-dimensional data. We extend thiswork to find two-dimensional layers in three-dimensional data. We explore
the application and differences of our techniques when they are applied
to vehicular mounted systems versus handheld systems and their distinct
detection sweep sequences. Not only can this work be used to display
subsurface structure to a system operator, but we can also use changes inthe subsurface structure of a local region to identify buried objects within
the data. We are using Markov Logic Networks (MLN) to better understandthe context of regions examined. We believe this work can increase theprobability of detection and reduce false alarm rates.!

Lance E. Besaw, Phil J. Stimac, Applied Research
Associates, Inc. (United States)
Symmetric and asymmetric buried explosive hazards (BEHs) present real,
persistent, deadly threats on the modern battlefield. Current approaches
rely on highly trained operatives to reliably detect BEHs with reasonablefalse alarm rates using handheld Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and metal
detectors. As computers become smaller, faster and more efficient, there
exists greater potential for automatic detection techniques based on stateof-the-art machine learning approaches to aid field operatives in finding
these deadly threats. Recent advancements in machine learning, specificallydeep learning artificial neural networks, have led to significantly improved
performance in pattern recognition tasks, such as object classification indigital images. Deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are used in thiswork to extract meaningful signatures from 2-dimensional GPR B-scansand classify threats. The CNNs skip the traditional “feature engineering”
step often associated with machine learning, and instead learn the feature
representations directly from the 2-D data. A Gaussian process optimization
technique was used to optimize the CNN hyperparameters. A multiantennae, handheld GPR with centimeter-accurate positioning data wasused to collect shallow subsurface data over prepared lanes containing awide range of BEHs. Several heuristics were used to prevent over-training,
including cross validation, network weight regularization and “dropout.”
Our results show that CNNs can extract meaningful features and accurately
classify complex signatures contained in GPR B-scans, complementing
existing GPR anomaly detection and classification techniques.

9454-42, Session 11

Target signature localization in GPR databy clustering and classification
Daniel Reichman, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Jordan M Malof,
Leslie M. Collins, Peter A. Torrione, Duke Univ. (UnitedStates)Buried threat detection algorithms in Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
measurements often utilize a statistical classifier to model target responses.
There are many different targets types with distinct responses and all areburied in a wide range of conditions that distort the target signature. Robust
performance of this classifier requires it to learn the distinct responsesof the targets types while accounting for the variability due to the object
emplacement. In this work, a method to reduce certain sources of excess
variation is presented that enables a linear classifier to learn distinct
templates for each target type’s response despite the operational variability.
The different target subpopulations are represented by a Gaussian Mixture
Model (GMM). Training the GMM requires jointly extracting the patches
around target responses as well as learning the statistical parameters asneither are known a priori. The GMM parameters and the choice of patches
are determined by variational Bayesian methods. The proposed method
allows for patches to be extracted from larger data-blocks around the target
response. The patches extracted from this method improve the ROC for
distinguishing targets from background clutter compared to the patches
extracted using other patch extraction methods and can help improvesystem performance.

9454-40, Session 10

GPR anomaly detection with robust
principal component analysis
Matthew P. Masarik, Joseph W. Burns, Brian T. Thelen, Jack
Kelly, Michigan Tech Research Institute (United States);
Timothy C. Havens, Michigan Technological Univ. (UnitedStates)This paper investigates the application of Robust Principal Component
Analysis (RPCA) to ground penetrating radar as a means to improve GPR
anomaly detection. The method consists of a preprocessing routine tosmoothly align the ground and remove the ground response (haircut),followed by mapping to the frequency domain, applying RPCA, and thenmapping the sparse component of the RPCA decomposition back to thetime domain. A prescreener is then applied to the time-domain sparse
component to perform anomaly detection. The emphasis of the RPCA
algorithm on sparsity has the effect of significantly increasing the signalto-clutter ratio (SCR) as compared to the original data, thereby enabling
improved anomaly detection. This method is compared to detrending(spatial-mean removal) and classical principal component analysis(PCA), and the RPCA-based processing is seen to provide substantial
improvements in SCR over both of these alternative processing schemes.
In particular, the algorithm has been applied to both government-provided
impulse and stepped-frequency GPR data and has shown significant
improvement in terms of the area under the ROC curve relative todetrending and PCA.

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9454-43, Session 11

Fast 3D subsurface imaging with steppedfrequency GPR
Matthew P. Masarik, Joseph W. Burns, Brian T. Thelen, Lena
Sutter, Michigan Tech Research Institute (United States)
This paper investigates an algorithm for performing 3D imaging of thesubsurface using stepped-frequency GPR data. The algorithm is specificallydesigned for a handheld GPR and therefore accounts for the irregularsampling pattern in the data and the spatially-variant air-ground interface
by estimating an effective “ground-plane” and then registering the data to
the plane. The algorithm efficiently solves the 4th-order polynomial for the
Snell reflection points using a fully vectorized iterative scheme. The forward
operator is implemented efficiently using an accelerated nonuniform FFT(Greengard & Lee, 2004); the adjoint operator is implemented efficiently·

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX

9454-46, Session 11

using an interpolation step coupled with an upsampled FFT. The imaging
is done as a full inverse problem, which is regularized using a sparsity
constraint to reduce sidelobes and therefore improve image localization.
Applying an appropriate sparsity constraint, the algorithm is able toeliminate most the surrounding clutter and sidelobes, while still renderingvaluable image properties such as shape and size. The algorithm is applied
to simulated data, controlled experimental data (made available by Dr.
Waymond Scott, Georgia Institute of Technology), and governmentprovided data with irregular sampling and air-ground interface.

Recognizing subsurface target responses
in ground penetrating radar data using
convolutional neural networks
Rayn T. Sakaguchi, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins,
Peter A. Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)

9454-44, Session 11

Fusion of forward-looking infrared cameraand down-looking ground penetratingradar for buried target detection
Firat Gurbuz, IPA DEFENCE Ltd. (Turkey) and Hacettepe
Univ. (Turkey); Seniha E. Yuksel, Hacettepe Univ. (Turkey);Gozde Bozdagi Akar, Middle East Technical Univ. (Turkey)
Even though Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) systems can give alarms forburied threats autonomously, it is ultimately the operators’ responsibility
to decide whether the given alarm is a mine or not. To assist the operators,
in this work, a novel sensor fusion framework is proposed where a forward
looking long wave infrared (FL-LWIR) camera (FLIR) and a down looking
GPR (Niitek) mounted on the top and on the front of a robotic system,
respectively, are used.
This system collected data from a test area of 500m2, which was preparedat the IPA Defence, Ankara, Turkey. This test area was divided into fourlanes, each of size 25m length by 4m width and 1m depth. Each lane was
first carefully cleaned of stones and clutter and then filled with different soil
types, namely fine-medium sand, course sand, sandy silt loam (mediumcourse silt / medium-course sand mix ) and loam mix (fine silt mixed withfine gravel). In all lanes, various clutter objects and IEDs were buried at
different depths and at 1meter intervals. The IEDs were designed by anexpert soldier.
Two approaches are proposed to detect buried threats from the collected
data. In the sequential approach, RX algorithm together with the GPS data
is used to locate the anomalies in thermal images. On these suspicious
regions, Histogram of Oriented Gradient (HOG) features are extracted from
GPR images and are classified by SVM. In the second approach, GPR andIR based algorithms are used simultaneously and results are combinedusing decision level fusion. The two approaches are compared for different
scenarios including different weather temperature, soil type and depth ofburied targets.

Detection of deeply buried non-metal
objects by ground penetrating radar using
non-negative matrix factorization
Daniel Nabelek, Dominic K. Ho, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States)
The ground penetrating radar (GPR) signal for a deeply buried non-metal
object is weak and does not have a hyperbolic signature, making it difficult
to detect with high confidence. This paper takes a blind source separation
approach by using non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) to improvethe detection of deeply buried non-metal objects. The proposed approachinterprets the GPR signal return as the sum of two independent components
from two different sources, the background and the object. NMF enables theseparation of the object signal component from the composite and thereby
improves the detection performance. Preliminary results from a test site in
the United States indicate that the probability of detecting these objects is
improved by more than 20% compared to the pre-screener, at a false alarm
rate of 0.003/m^2.

SPIE DSS 2015

9454-49, Session 11

Anomaly detection of subsurface objects
using handheld ground-penetrating radar
Dominic K. Ho, Univ. of Missouri (United States); Samuel
Harris, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Alina
Zare, Matthew Cook, Univ. of Missouri (United States)
This paper develops an anomaly detection algorithm for subsurface object
detection using the handheld ground penetrating radar. The algorithm isbased on the Mahalanobis distance measure with adaptive update of the
background statistics. It processes the data sequentially for each data
sample and applies the mean-shift algorithm to generate alarm locations
and detection confidences. The algorithm will be applied to process the datafrom two different radars, an impulse and a step-frequency, for performance
evaluation.

9454-45, Session 11

52

Improved performance in the discrimination of buried threats using Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) data has recently been achieved using featuresdeveloped for applications in computer vision. These features, designed
to characterize local shape information in images, have been utilized torecognize patches that contain a target signature in two-dimensional slices
of GPR data. While these adapted features perform very well in this GPR
application, they were not designed to specifically differentiate between
target responses and background GPR data. One option to develop afeature specifically designed for target differentiation is to manually design
a feature extractor based on the physics of GPR image formation. However,as seen in the historical progression of computer vision features, this is nota trivial task. Instead, this research evaluates the use of convolutional neuralnetworks (CNNs) applied to two-dimensional GPR data. The benefit of usinga CNN is that features extracted from the data are a learned parameter ofthe system. This has allowed CNN implementations to achieve state of theart performance across a variety of data types, including visual images,
without the need for expert designed features. However, the implementationof a CNN must be done carefully for each application as network parameters
can cause performance to vary widely. This paper presents results fromusing CNNs for object detection in GPR data and discusses properparameter settings and other considerations.

·9454-47, Session 12

Improving buried threat detection in
ground-penetrating radar with transfer
learning and metadata analysis
Kenneth A. Colwell, Peter A. Torrione, Leslie M. Collins,
Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Duke Univ. (United States)
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) technology has proven capable ofdetecting buried explosive threats. The system relies on a binary classifierthat is trained to distinguish between two classes: a “target” class,encompassing many types of buried threats and their components; and a“nontarget” class, which includes false alarms from the system prescreener.
Typically, the training process involves a simple partition of the data
into these two classes, which allows for straightforward application ofstandard classifiers. However, since training data is generally collected infully controlled environments, it includes auxiliary information about eachexample, such as the specific type of threat, its purpose, and its depth.

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
Examples from the same specific or general type may be expected to
exhibit similarities in their GPR data, whereas examples from different types
may differ greatly. This research aims to leverage this additional information
to improve overall classification performance by fusing classifier concepts
for multiple groups, and to investigate whether structure in this information
can be further utilized for transfer learning, such that the amount ofexpensive training data necessary to learn a new, previously-unseen target
type may be reduced. Methods for accomplishing these goals are presented
with results from a dataset containing a variety of target types.

include remediation of mines and/or unexploded ordnance, as well as
monitoring of seafloor infrastructure. At JHU/APL, digital holography is
being explored for the potential application to underwater imaging andintegration with an AUV. In previous work, a feature-based approach wasdeveloped for processing the holographic imagery and performing object
recognition. In this work, the results of the image processing method wereincorporated into a Bayesian framework for autonomous path planningreferred to as “information surfing.” The framework was derived assumingthat the location of the object of interest is known a priori, but the type ofobject and its pose are unknown. The path-planning algorithm adaptively
modifies the trajectory of the sensing platform based on historicalperformance of object and pose classification. The algorithm is called“information surfing” because the direction of motion is governed by the
local information gradient. Simulation experiments were carried out using
holographic imagery collected from submerged objects. The autonomous
sensing algorithm was compared to a deterministic sensing CONOP, anddemonstrated improved accuracy and faster convergence in several cases.

9454-48, Session 12

Leveraging robust principal component
analysis to detect buried explosive threatsin handheld ground-penetrating radar data
Dmitry Kalika, Mary Knox, Peter A. Torrione, Leslie M.
Collins, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Duke Univ. (United States)

9454-53, Session 14

Multiple pass collaborative search in thepresence of false alarms

A goal of ground penetrating radar (GPR) preprocessing is to further
distinguish background and clutter data from data containing explosive
threats. This is often achieved by performing depth-dependent mean/
standard deviation normalization, where the mean and standard deviation
are computed on background/clutter data. Under the assumption thatdata with explosive threats has different statistical characteristics thanthe background/clutter, after normalization explosive threat data will
have larger absolute normalized scores than the background/clutter. An
underlying problem is determining which data to compute the backgroundmean and standard deviation statistics over. Often, the backgroundstatistics are computed over a moving window, which is centered at thelocation of interest and has a predetermined guard band (an ignored
region immediately adjacent to the location of interest). However, buried
explosive threats vary considerably in their shapes and more importantly
sizes? and subsequently the size of the GPR responses from theseobjects are considerably varied. Therefore, using a predetermined guardband is inappropriate. We examine a number of preprocessing methods
which utilize Robust Principal Component Analysis (RPCA), where RPCA
decomposes a data matrix into low-rank and sparse matrices. Intuitively, thelow-rank matrix should capture the background data and the sparse matrix
should capture the anomalous explosive threat response. We find that RPCA
is able to further distinguish background/clutter from explosive threat data,and is robust to varying target sizes.

John G. Baylog, Thomas A. Wettergren, Naval Undersea
Warfare Ctr. (United States)
This paper addresses the planning of multiple collaborative searchers thatare seeking to find hidden objects (i.e. mines) in environments where thesensor detection process is prone to false alarms. In such situations it isanticipated that collaboration between searchers that are examining thesame sub-regions may be used to mitigate the impact of false alarms. A
standard Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) analysis is conducted andthe mapping between a single search pass ROC curve and an equivalentmultiple search pass representation within a cumulative probability spaceis discussed. This mapping produces an analogous family of ROC curves
for an increasing number of search passes using either a first detection or
multiple occurrence performance criteria. The migration of ROC operating
points is analyzed as additional search passes are included within a searchplan and suggests the need to coordinate search effort with operating point
selection. The mapping from waiting time event probabilities to a total error
performance criterion weighted according to the cumulative probabilities
of missed detection and false alarm is developed. Details of its application
within a search planning optimization algorithm are discussed and numericalresults are provided to demonstrate the usefulness of the modeling inconstructing a Pareto curve analysis of the performance tradeoff. Finally,
we discuss the impact of this search planning optimization on the use ofmultiple autonomous agents for conducting collaborative searches.

9454-51, Session 13

Tagged neutron capabilities for detecting
hidden explosives

9454-54, Session 14

Sergei G Belichenko, Vyacheslav F Batyaev, Romeo R
Bestaev, Maxim D Karetnikov, Alexander V Gavryuchenkov,
Dukhov All-Russia Research Institute of Automatics(VNIIA) (Russian Federation)

Optimal relative view angles for an object
viewed multiple times
Syed U. Gilani, Apoorva Shende, Daniel J. Stilwell, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (United States); Bao
Nguyen, Defence Research and Development Canada(Canada)No Abstract Available

9454-52, Session 14

Typically, the detection of an object of interest improves as we view theobject from multiple angles. For cases where viewing angle matters, object
detection can be improved further by optimally selecting the relative
angles of multiple views. This motivates the search for viewing angles thatmaximize the expected probability of detection. Although our work is
motivated by applications in subsea sensing, our fundamental analysis iseasily adapted for other classes of applications. The specific challenge that
motivates our work is the selection of optimal viewing angles for subsea
sensing in which sonar is used for bathymetric imaging.

Information surfing with the JHU/APL
coherent imager
Christopher R. Ratto, Kara R. Shipley, Nathaniel Beagley,
Kevin C. Wolfe, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.,
LLC (United States)
The ability to perform remote forensics in situ is an important applicationof autonomous undersea vehicles (AUVs). Forensics objectives may

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For a fixed viewing distance to a symmetric object of interest, our goal is to·

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53

Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
select viewing angles that maximize the expected probability of detection.
We assume that the probability of detection of an object varies with viewing
angle. For example, a long cylindrical object may be easier to detect whenviewed from one axis rather than the other. However, we assume that theorientation of the object in the environment is unknown. If no knowledgeof the orientation of the object is available, then we assume that theorientation of uniformly distributed over all angles. If instead, a preferential
object orientation is known or suspected, then a different distribution canbe used. In any case, we rigorously show that when an object of interestis viewed twice from a fixed distance, and that orientation of the object isuniformly distributed, then expected probability of detection is maximized
when viewing angles are orthogonal. For the case of N>2 viewing angles,
we rigorously show that the angular separation of pi/N radians between
viewing angles satisfies the necessary conditions for optimality of expected
probability of detection. Derivation of corresponding sufficient conditionis on-going. Simulation results presented in the paper for various valuesof N provide further evidence that the angular separation of pi/N radians
between viewing angles corresponds to the global maxima of the expected
probability of detection.
We also consider the case that probability of detection is dependent
on orientation of the sensor with respect to environmental phenomena.
For subsea applications, sand-ripples are a well-known example where
probability of detection varies depending on the orientation of the sensor
with respect to the direction of the sand ripples. With knowledge of thedirection of the sand ripples and an estimate of the probability of detection
as a function of sensor orientation with respect to sand-ripples, we are able
to compute the view angles that maximize expected probability of detection
when orientation of the object is unknown and uniformly distributed. Aninteresting result of this analysis is that orthogonal viewing angles are
no longer optimal. No closed-form solution is available for this case, but
numerical results are easily computed for any given problem.

9454-55, Session 14

Possibilistic context identification for SAS
imagery
Xiaoxiao Du, Alina Zare, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States); James T. Cobb, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr.
Panama City Div. (United States)
This paper proposes a possibilistic context identification approach forsynthetic aperture sonar (SAS) imagery. SAS seabed imagery can display
a variety of textures that can be used to identify seabed types such assea grass, sand ripple and hard-packed sand, etc. Target objects in SAS
imagery often have varying characteristics and features due to changing
environmental context. Therefore, methods that can identify the seabedenvironment can be used to assist in target classification and detection in
an environmentally adaptive or context-dependent approach. In this paper,a possibilistic context identification approach is used to identify the seabed
contexts. Alternative methods, such as crisp, fuzzy or probabilistic methods,
would force one type of context on every sample in the imagery, ignoring
the possibility that the test imagery may include an environmental context
that has not yet appeared in the training process. The proposed possibilistic
approach has an advantage in that it can both identify known contexts
as well as identify when an unknown context has been encountered.
Experiments are conducted on a collection of SAS imagery that display avariety of environmental features.

9454-56, Session 14

Dictionary learning for sparse sonar image
representations
Jason C. Isaacs, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City
Div. (United States)
Frame methods, best basis methods, or dictionary learning methods provide
a unique representation of a given dataset for applications like denoising

54

SPIE DSS 2015·

or pattern recognition. Frame pursuit addresses the problem of finding
optimal overcomplete bases to improve classification for pattern recognition
applications. In this paper, the results of two optimization techniquesapplied to the optimal sparse dictionary problem are presented, K-SVD andgenetic algorithm optimal frame pursuit. A multi-objective cost function isused to evaluate the goodness of the solutions over both sparsity and image
classification. These techniques are applied over two sonar datasets one real
aperture and one synthetic aperture. Results demonstrate the usefulness ofdictionary learning and a correlation between dictionary properties and theperformance of the dictionary to capture relevant discriminating information
for pattern recognition.

9454-57, Session 15

Investigation of measureable parametersthat correlate with automated target
recognition performance in synthetic
aperture sonar
Julia Gazagnaire, Jason C. Isaacs, Naval Surface Warfare
Ctr. Panama City Div. (United States)
There is a desire in the Mine Counter Measure community to develop
a systematic method to predict and/or estimate the performance ofAutomated Target Recognition (ATR) algorithms that are detecting andclassifying mine-like objects within sonar data. Ideally, parameters exist
that can be measured directly from the sonar data that correlate with ATR
performance. In this effort, two metrics were analyzed for their predictive
potential using high frequency synthetic aperture sonar (SAS) images.
The first parameter is a measure of contrast. It is essentially the variance inpixel intensity over a fixed partition of relatively small size. An analysis was
performed to determine the optimum block size for this contrast calculation.
These blocks were then overlapped in the horizontal and vertical direction
over the entire image. The second parameter is the one-dimensional
K-shape parameter. The K-distribution is commonly used to describe
sonar backscatter return from range cells that contain a finite number ofscatterers. An Ada-Boosted Decision Tree classifier was used to calculate
the probability of classification (Pc) and false alarm rate (FAR) for several
types of targets in SAS images from three different data sets. ROC curves asa function of the measured parameters were generated and the correlation
between the measured parameters in the vicinity of each of the contacts
and the ATR performance was investigated. The contrast and k-shapeparameters were considered separately. Additionally, the contrast andk-shape parameter were associated with background texture types using
previously labeled high frequency SAS images.

9454-58, Session 15

Unsupervised 3D scene understanding
and prediction to enable adaptableapproximate solutions to the art gallery
problem and watchman route problem
Bruce A. Johnson, Vatana An, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr.
Panama City Div. (United States); Hairong Qi, The Univ. ofTennessee Knoxville (United States)
The art gallery problem (AGP) asks the question: “How can we place a small
set of sensors to provide maximum coverage of an observed environment?”
The watchman route problem (WRP) operates in conjunction with the AGP
by asking the question “How do we create the shortest route between
AGP-solving positions?” Providing approximate solutions to the AGP and
WRP has been accomplished by using the previously-developed Sensor
Placement Optimization via Queries (SPOQ) and the Photon-mappingInformed active-Contour Route Designator (PICRD) algorithms. The
objective of this work is to provide a means of assessing where to place
both static and mobile sensors in order to approximately solve the AGP and

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Conference 9454: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XX
WRP, respectively, while adapting subsequent approximately optimal AGP/
WRP-solutions in anticipation of future events. We can fulfill this objectiveby 1) extracting a 3D point cloud representation of the item of interest(IOI) to be surveiled in a video frame, 2) determine the highest-probability
anticipated behavior by the IOI based upon training data and 3) incorporate
the information gained from items 1 and 2 in order to obtain approximate
solutions to the AGP and WRP using the respective SPOQ and PICRD
algorithms. In this paper, we show how to accomplish the goals listed in
items 1, 2 and 3 and thus fulfill our objective.

The testing results indicated that the algorithm correctly segmented therectangular a priori regions. For the triangular a priori segmentation, thealgorithm created reasonable rectangular sub-areas.

9454-59, Session 15

Polar format algorithm for cooperative
radar engagement SAR imaging
Tesfaye G-Michael, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City
Div. (United States); Rodney G. Roberts, Florida State Univ.
(United States); Thomas L. Lewis, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
In the context of investigating cooperative radar engagement usingsynthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode, we examine the polar format
algorithm (PFA) for image formation. The cooperative radar engagement
technique is akin to bistatic SAR principle in which the transmitter and thereceiver are on separate platforms, and is seen as a potential means ofcountering the vulnerability of conventional monostatic SAR to electronic
countermeasures, particularly directional jamming and thereby avoiding
physical attack of the imaging platform.
The work presented here investigates theoretical and mathematicalformulation behind PFA for cooperative radar engagement and examples ofsimulated data for sea surface target image formation.

9454-60, Session 15

Automated area segmentation for ocean
bottom surveys
John C. Hyland, Cheryl M. Smith, Naval Surface Warfare
Ctr. Panama City Div. (United States)
In practice, environmental information about an ocean bottom area
to be searched using SONAR is often known a priori to some coarse
level of resolution. The SONAR search sensor then typically has adifferent performance characterization function for each environmental
classification. Large ocean bottom surveys using search SONAR can posesome difficulties when the environmental conditions vary significantly
over the search area because search planning tools cannot adequately
segment the area into sub-regions of homogeneous search sensor
performance. Such segmentation is critically important to unmanned
search vehicles; homogenous bottom segmentation will result in moreaccurate predictions of search performance and area coverage rate. The
Naval Surface Warfare Center, Panama City Division has developed an
automated area segmentation algorithm that subdivides the mission area
under the constraint that the variation of the search sensor’s performancewithin each sub-mission area cannot exceed a specified threshold, thereby
creating sub-regions of homogeneous sensor performance. The algorithm
also calculates a new, composite sensor performance function for each
sub-mission area. The technique accounts for practical constraints such as
enforcing a minimum sub-mission area size and requiring sub-mission areas
to be rectangular. Segmentation occurs both across the rows and down thecolumns of the mission area. Ideally, mission planning should consider bothsegmentation directions and choose the one with the more favorable result.
The Automated Area Segmentation Algorithm was tested using two a prioribottom segmentations: rectangular and triangular; and two search sensor
configurations: a set of three bi-modal curves and a set of three uni-modal
curves. For each of these four scenarios, the Automated Area Segmentation
Algorithm automatically partitioned the mission area across rows anddown columns to create regions with homogeneous sensor performance.

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55

Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI
Tuesday - Thursday 21–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9455 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE)
Sensing XVI

9455-1, Session 1

Neutron spectroscopy using III-V
semiconductor scintillators
Veerendra K. Mathur, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Carderock
Div. (United States); Johnathan Wensman, Naval
Surface Warfare Ctr. Carderock Div. (United States) andGeorgetown Univ. (United States); Noel A. Guardala, Naval
Surface Warfare Ctr. Carderock Div. (United States); John
F. Currie, Georgetown Univ. (United States)
For the detection and identification of nuclear materials it is necessary that
their radioactive-emission signatures be determined without ambiguity.
That requires characterizing their gamma and neutron signatures. Currently,
large numbers of portable devices are available for gamma spectroscopy
and for the detection of thermal neutrons. However, field deployable devices
suitable for fast neutron spectroscopy are lacking. Successful attempts to
use CLYC, solid-state scintillator detectors via the 35Cl (n,p) reaction forfast neutron spectroscopy have been reported. However, their dynamic
range is very limited due to the relatively low cross-section associated with
the neutron-induced reaction. It is desirable to enhance this dynamic range
from 300 keV to 4 MeV of neutron energy. Our goal is to investigate thefeasibility of a direct band gap semiconductor n+InP as a new scintillator
for fast neutron spectroscopy using proton recoil technique. Direct Band
Gap Semiconductors have higher radiative efficiency and have the potentialof higher photon yield, which are desirable features for a scintillator used
for pulse height analysis. For our investigation InP will be implanted with
H+ ions using proton beam from our Pelletron accelerator. In this paper we
present our computational results.We have computed the expected depth
profile of implanted hydrogen ions for (n,p) reaction. It is shown that, underideal conditions, neutron irradiation of hydrogen implanted InP creates
proton recoil scintillation with photon output being directly proportional toincoming neutron energy. It has been found that for the desirable dynamic
range of neutron energy, loss to phonon creation in the lattice is negligible
compare to energy used in electron excitation which results in the linear
response in energy versus pulse height spectrum. Experimental work is inprogress.

9455-2, Session 1

Subwavelength films for standoff radiation
dosimetry
Kyle J. Alvine, Bruce E. Bernacki, Wendy D. Bennett,
Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States); Alan
Schemer-Kohrn, Pacific Northwest National Lab (UnitedStates); Jonathan D. Suter, Pacific Northwest National Lab.
(United States)
We present an optical subwavelength nanostructure architecture suitable
for standoff radiation dosimetry with remote optical readout in the visible orinfrared spectral regions. To achieve this, films of subwavelength structures
are fabricated over several inches via the creation of a 2D array templateof radiation sensitive polymeric nanoparticles, followed by magnetron
sputtering of a metallic coating to form isolated hemispherical nanoscale
metallic shells. The nano-shells are highly reflective at resonance in thevisible or infrared depending on design. These structures and their behavior
are based on the open ring resonator (ORR) architecture and have theiranalog in resonant LC circuits, which display a resonance wavelength that isinversely proportional to the square root of the product of the inductance56

SPIE DSS 2015·

and capacitance. Therefore, any modification of the nanostructure material
properties due to radiation alters the inductive or capacitive behavior of
the subwavelength features, which in turn changes their optical properties
resulting in a shift in the optical resonance. This shift in resonance may be
remotely actively using either laser illumination or passive hyperspectralor multispectral sensing with broadband illumination. These structures
may be designed to be either anisotropic or isotropic, which can also offer
polarization-sensitive interrogation. We present experimental measurementsof the shift in the optical resonance of a subwavelength film after exposure
to an absorbed dose of gamma radiation from 2 Mrad up to 62 Mraddemonstrating the effect. Interestingly the resonance shift is non-monotonic
for this material system and possible radiation damage mechanisms to thenanoparticles are discussed.

9455-3, Session 1

Dehydration of uranyl nitrate hexahydrate
to uranyl nitrate trihydrate under ambientconditions as observed via dynamic
infrared reflectance spectroscopy
Timothy J. Johnson, Lucas E. Sweet, David E. Meier,
Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States); Edward
J. Mausolf, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
and Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas (United States); Eunja
Kim, Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas (United States); PhilippeF. Weck, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Edgar C.
Buck, Bruce K. McNamara, Pacific Northwest National Lab.
(United States)
Uranyl nitrate is a key species in the nuclear fuel cycle. However, it is
known to exist in different states of hydration, including the hexahydrate[UO2(NO3)2(H2O)6] and the trihydrate [UO2(NO3)2(H2O)3] forms.
Their relative stabilities depend on both water vapor pressure andtemperature. In the late 1950s the different phases were studied byinfrared transmission spectroscopy, but were limited both by instrumental
resolution and by the ability to prepare the samples as transmissionpellets without desiccating the sample. We report seminal measurementsof time-resolved infrared spectroscopy using an integrating sphere thatallow us to observe the transformation from the hexahydrate to thetrihydrate simply by flowing a stream of dry nitrogen gas over the sample.
Samples of known hydration state (the hexahydrate) were prepared andconfirmed via known x-ray diffraction patterns. In reflectance mode thehexahydrate UO2(NO3)2(H2O)6 has a distinct uranyl asymmetric stretch
band at 949.0 cm-1 that shifts to shorter wavelengths and broadens as the
sample dehydrates and recrystallizes to the trihydrate, first as a shoulder
growing in on the blue edge but ultimately results in a doublet bandwith reflectance peaks at 966 and 957 cm-1. The data are consistent withtransformation from UNH to UNT since UNT has two non-equivalent UO22+
sites. The dehydration of UO2(NO3)2(H2O)6 to UO2(NO3)2(H2O)3 is botha structural and morphological change that has the lustrous lime green
UO2(NO3)2(H2O)6 crystals changing to the dull greenish yellow of thetrihydrate. The crystal structures and phase transformation were confirmed
theoretically using density functional theory calculations and experimentally
via optical microscopy methods. Both methods showed a transformation
with two distinct sites for the uranyl cation in the trihydrate, as opposed to asingle crystallographic site in the hexahydrate.

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Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI

9455-4, Session 1

Biological warfare agents (BWAs) represent the current menace of theasymmetric war. The early detection of BWAs, especially in the form of
bioaerosol, is a challenging task for governments all around the world.
Label-free quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) based immunosensor wasdeveloped and tested for rapid detection of BWA surrogates (E. coli strains
BL21, DH5 alpha and K-12) in the form of bioaerosol. Two immobilization
strategies for the attachment of antibody were tested; the gold sensor
surface was activated by cysteamine and then antibody was covalently
linked either using glutaraldehyde, or the reduced antibodies were attached
via Sulfo-SMCC. A portable bioaerosol chamber was constructed and used
for safe manipulation with aerosolized microorganisms. The dissemination
was done using a piezoelectric humidifier, distribution of bioaerosol inside
the chamber was ensured using three 12-cm fans. The whole system wascontrolled remotely using LAN network. The disseminated microbial cells
were collected and preconcentrated using the wetted-wall cyclone SASS
2300, the analysis was done using the on-line linked QCM immunosensor.
Limit of detection 1.45?10^4 CFU L-1 of air was achieved with analysis time
16 min, the whole experiment including dissemination and sensor surface
regeneration took 40 min. In case of blank (disseminated sterile buffer),no signal change was observed. Reference measurements were doneusing particle counter Met One 3400 and by cultivation method on agar
plates. The sensor proved to be applicable for rapid screening of model
microorganism in air and with appropriate antibody, it can be used also for
detection of real aerosolized BWAs.

Effects of sample preparation on theinfrared reflectance spectra of powders
Carolyn S. Brauer, Timothy J. Johnson, Tanya L. Myers, YinFong Su, Thomas A. Blake, Pacific Northwest National Lab.
(United States); Brenda M. Forland, Red Rocks Community
College (United States)
While reflectance spectroscopy is a useful tool in identifying molecularcompounds, laboratory measurement of solid (particularly powder) samples
often is confounded by sample preparation methods. For example, boththe packing density and surface roughness can have an effect on thequantitative reflectance spectra of powdered samples. Recent efforts in
our group have focused on developing standard methods for measuringreflectance spectra that accounts for sample preparation, as well as otherfactors such as particle size and provenance. In this work, the effect of
preparation method on sample reflectivity was investigated by measuring
the directional-hemispherical spectra of samples that were hand-packed aswell as pressed into pellets using an integrating sphere attached to a Fouriertransform infrared spectrometer. The results show that the methods used toprepare the sample have a substantial effect on the measured reflectancespectra, as do other factors such as particle size.

9455-11, Session 39455-5, Session 1

Standoff detection and classification
procedure for bioorganic compounds byhyperspectral laser-induced fluorescence

Use of CLYC spectrometer in counterterrorism applications
Harry Ing, Bubble Technology Industries, Inc. (Canada)

Thomas Fischbach, Frank Duschek, Anita Hausmann,
Carsten Pargmann, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany); Valeri Alekseyev, Larisa
Porovkina, Innokenti Sobolev, Sergey Babichenko,
Laser Diagnostic Instruments AS (Estonia); Jürgen
Handke, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
(Germany)

A new crystal now known as CLYC (Cs2LiYCl6:Ce) has been underdevelopment for over 15 years(1). It was primarily of interest for radiation
detection applications because of its good energy resolution for gamma
rays (<4% for 662 keV) and its capability for detection of thermal neutrons.
The pulse shapes of the signals from the two radiations are different
which allows them to be separated electronically, permitting simultaneous
detection of gamma rays and neutrons. The crystal is now commerciallyavailable. Early investigations of the neutron response by the current
authors (2) revealed that CLYC also responds to fast neutrons. In fact, thegood energy resolution of the response under monoenergetic neutron
irradiations showed that CLYC was an excellent high-energy neutron
spectrometer. This discovery has great impact on the field of neutron
spectroscopy, which has numerous, although often specialized, applications.
This presentation focuses on applications in counter-terrorism scenarios
where neutrons may be involved. The relative importance of the fast neutron
response of CLYC, compared to the thermal and gamma-ray response, undersuch scenarios will be discussed.

The high and still increasing number of attacks by hazardous bioorganic
materials makes enormous demands on their detection. A very highdetection sensitivity and selectivity are essential, as well as a rapid
identification with low false alarm rates. A single method can hardly achievethis. Point sensors can collect and identify materials, but positioning at
appropriate locations is time consuming and involves several risks. Laser
based standoff detection, however, can immediately provide information
on propagation and compound type of a released hazardous material. The
coupling of both methods may be a promising solution to optimize theacquisition and detection of hazardous substances.

(1) C.M. Combes, P. Dorenbos, C.W.E. van Eijk, K.W. Krämer, H.U. Güdel, J.
Lumin. 82 (1999) 299-305

At DLR Lampoldshausen, bioorganic substances are measured applying
hyperspectral laser induced fluorescence (LIF) technique in order tosubsequently classify them. In this work, a procedure is presented,
which utilizes time-dependent spectral data and predicts the presenceof hazardous substances by statistical data analysis. For that purpose,measurements are carried out on a free transmission range at a standoff
distance of 22 m. The fluorescence excitation wavelengths are 280 and
355 nm in alternating mode. A gated ICCD spectrometer system records
spectral and time-dependent fluorescence data, which are processed andfed automatically into the classifier. Attention is drawn to physical states,
concentrations, and to the photodecomposition of the samples assisted
by absorption spectroscopy before and after each LIF measurement. This
has a strong impact on the measurement procedure and, especially, on the
training of the classifier.

(2) M.B. Smith, T. Achtzehn, H.R. Andrews, E.T.H. Clifford, H. Ing, V.D.
Kovaltchouk, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci 60(2) (2013) 855-859*This work has been supported by the US Department of Defense,
Defense Threat Reduction Agency, under competitively awarded contract
HDTRA1-12-C-0005. This support does not constitute an express or implied
endorsement on the part of the Government. DISTRIBUTION A. Approvedfor public release: distribution unlimited.

9455-10, Session 3

Quartz crystal microbalance biosensor
for rapid detection of aerosolized
microorganisms
Zdenek Farka, David Kovár, Petr Skládal, Masaryk Univ.
(Czech Republic)

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Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI

9455-12, Session 39455-14, Session 3

Bioaerosol detection and classification
using dual excitation wavelength laserinduced fluorescence

Multisense chip: continuously working
air monitoring system: An integrated
system for the detection of airborne
biological pathogens on molecular andimmunological level

Per Jonsson, Pär Wästerby, Per-Åke Gradmark, Julia
Hedborg, Anders Larsson, Lars Landström, FOI (Sweden)
We present results obtained by a detection system designed to measurelaser-induced fluorescence from individual aerosol particles using dual
excitation wavelengths. The aerosol is sampled from ambient air and via
a 1 mm diameter nozzle, surrounded by a sheath air flow, confined intoa particle beam. A continuous wave blue laser at 404 nm is focused on
the aerosol beam and two photomultiplier tubes monitor the presenceof individual particles by simultaneous measuring the scattered light andany induced fluorescence. When a particle is present in the detection
volume, a laser pulse is triggered from an ultraviolet laser at 263 nm andthe corresponding fluorescence spectrum is acquired with a spectrometerbased on a diffraction grating and a 32 channel photomultiplier tube arraywith single-photon sensitivity. The spectrometer measures the fluorescence
spectra in the wavelength region from 250 to 800 nm. In the present
report, data were measured on different simulants of biological warfare
agents (cultivated in different growth media) and different interference
aerosol particles, e.g. pollen. In the analysis of the experimental data, i.e.,
the time-resolved scattered and fluorescence signals from 404 nm c.w. light
excitation and the fluorescence spectra obtained by a pulsed 263 nm laser
source, we use different multivariate data analysis methods to classify eachindividual aerosol particle.

9455-13, Session 3

Analysis of protective antigen peptide
binding motifs using bacterial display
technology
Deborah A. Sarkes, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Brandi L. Dorsey, Federal Staffing Resources(United States); Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
In today’s fast-paced world, a new biological threat could emerge at any
time, necessitating a prompt, reliable, inexpensive detection reagent
in each case. Combined with magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS),
bacterial display technology makes this possible, isolating selective, highaffinity peptide reagents in days to weeks. We will discuss current methods
available for bacterial display sorting, and investigate the commerciallyavailable, semi-automated autoMACS® Pro Separator as a platform to
improve reproducibility of biopanning by bacterial display. Current protocols
for this platform include biopanning by yeast surface display, but focus on
eukaryotic cells. In parallel with manual magnetic sorting, two autoMACS®
programs designed for low frequency of target cells were used to isolate
candidate peptides to protective antigen (PA) of Bacillus anthracis. After
four rounds of sorting, relative binding performance to PA was assessedand compared for each sorting round and individual candidates using
Fluorescence-Actived Cell Sorting. By round 3, it was evident that thebacterial display library had been enriched by autoMACS sorting, but not
manual sorting. Assessing individual candidates, biopanning by autoMACS
yielded higher affinity, more selective peptide candidates than biopanningby manual MACS. In addition, bioinformatics analysis of the autoMACS
candidates yielded the same consensus previously obtained while screening
for PA peptide candidates using a competing semi-automated technology,
as well as other binding motifs which were studied for their role in relative
binding performance.

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SPIE DSS 2015·

Claudia Gärtner, Holger Becker, Nadine Hlawatsch, Richard
Klemm, Sebastian Schattschneider, Christian Moche,
microfluidic ChipShop GmbH (Germany)
Lab-on-a-chip systems are very promising approach for a decentralized
continuous pathogen monitoring. The overall presented system consistingof a microtiter plate sized consumable and the respective instrument allows
for the detection of airborne biological pathogen. The target pathogens to
be detected are Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis, Burkholderia mallei,
Burkholderia pseudomallei, Brucella melitensis, Brucella abortis, Coxiellaburnetti, and Bacillus anthracis. Important to stress that the technicalplatform can be easily expanded to further pathogens.
In this paper the development of a fully integrated system for the 8-plex
detection of bacterial pathogens will be presented. Two exceptional features
are combined in this device: The overall system allows for the permanent
sampling and analysis of airborne biological pathogens and combines thedetection of the respective bacteria on molecular and immunological level.
Permanent monitoring of airborne bacteria is an essential tool to ensureclean and safe environment be it in a hospital surrounding, metro stations,airports or for big events like football games or international sport events.
The presented system combines the sampling of airborne particles throughan air sampling system based on Coriolis forces. The enriched particles are
directly transferred in a liquid phase. This first enrichment step is followed
by a volume reduction of the liquid phase for air sampling achieved directlyon the lab-on-a-chip device. The concentrated sample undergoes a cell lysis
and is afterwards splitted in two fractions, one sample fraction following
the immunological path where an ELISA is carried out on chip. Detection
is carried out by colorimetric measurement. The molecular assay uses thelysed sample material to undergo a PCR, whereas a special kind of PCR isuse: A continuous flow PCR approach where the sample is guided througha meander channel embedded on chip over fixed temperature zones in
the instrument. This speciality leads to extremely fast PCR and low power
consumption due to the lack of heating up and cooling down the instrument
since only the sample plug undergoes the thermal cycleing, furthermore thesample can be injected permanently in a continuous flow mode. Finally afluorescence detection is carried out.
Besides the implementation of the overall assay on chip two mainachievements were made: Firstly, the surface of the immunoassay despite
being flushed permanently can be used over a longer period for continuous
monitoring of negative results. For the case of positive results the system
will trigger an alert and the chip will be disposed. Secondly, a PCR protocol
in respect to temperature and cycle timing was developed allowing to run alleight target PCR with the same protocol.
The overall system consisting of chip and instrument and the biologicalprocedures embedded on chip will be presented.

9455-15, Session 4

Hyperspectral image analysis for detectionof explosive substances using IR laser
standoff spectroscopy
Jan-Philip Jarvis, Frank Fuchs, Stefan Hugger, Quankui
K. Yang, Ralf Ostendorf, Christian Schilling, Wolfgang
Bronner, Rachid Driad, Rolf Aidam, Joachim Wagner,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik(Germany)www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI

9455-18, Session 4

In this work we present a hyperspectral image sensor based on MIRlaser backscattering spectroscopy for contactless detection of explosive
substance traces. The spectroscopy system comprises two tunable Quantum
Cascade Laser sources covering a total tuning range of 300cm-1 from
7.7µm to 10µm. A high performance Mercury-Cadmium-Telluride infrared
camera is used to collect the diffusely backscattered light. The resulting
measurement data forms a hyperspectral image, where each pixel vector
contains the backscattering spectrum of a specific location in the scene.
The hyperspectral image data is analyzed for traces of target substances
using a state of the art target detection algorithm (the Adaptive Matched
Subspace Detector) together with an appropriate background extraction
method (the Adaptive Target Generation Process). In this work we give a
detailed description of the hyperspectral image sensor with a focus on thementioned data analysis algorithms together with various target detection
performance evaluations.

Single-wavelength lidar retrieval algorithmof particulate matter concentration using
CELiS (compact eyesafe lidar system) a 1.5µm elastic lidar system
Alan W. Bird, Kori D. Moore, Michael D. Wojcik, RobertLemon, Utah State Univ. (United States)
CELiS (Compact Eyesafe Lidar System) is an elastic backscatter lightdetection and ranging (Lidar) system developed for monitoring air
quality environmental compliance regarding particulate matter (PM)generated from off-road use of wheeled and tracked vehicles as part of
the SERDP (Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program)
Measurement and Modeling of Fugitive Dust Emission from Off-Road DoD
Activities program.

In imaging applications it can often be difficult – if not impossible – toobtain valid ground truth data, even under laboratory conditions. Therefore,
we employ artificial hyperspectral image data using the well-known Linear
Mixture Model (LMM) as data generation model for system evaluation. Thisapproach allows us to accurately inspect the impact of various noise sources
commonly observed in real world measurement data on target detection
performance by analyzing the resulting Receiver Operating Characteristics(ROCs). The latter, can also be employed to evaluate the impact of thespectral characteristic of various substances on detection sensitivity.
We show, that the selected measurement wavelength range is of crucial
importance by comparing the detection performance of different explosive
substances including PETN, TNT, RDX and Ammonium Nitrate.

CELiS is small, lightweight and easily transportable for quick setup andmeasurement of PM concentration and emissions. CELiS operates in a biaxial
configuration at the 1.5µm eyesafe wavelength with a working range ofbetter than 6km and range resolution of 5m.
In this paper we describe an algorithm that allows for semi-quantitative PM
determination under a set of guiding assumptions using a single wavelength
Lidar. Meteorological and particle measurements are used to estimate thetotal extinction s and b backscatter at a calibration point located at the end
range of the Lidar. These s and b values are used in conjunction with the
Klett inversion to estimate s and b over the Lidar beam path. A relationshipbetween s, b and PM mass concentrations at calibration points is developed,
which then allows the b and s values derived to be converted to PM at each
Lidar bin over the Lidar beam path.

Finally, we present measurement results that demonstrate the system’s
applicability under real-world conditions.

9455-17, Session 4

CELiS can be used to investigate PM concentrations and emissions overa large volume, a task that is very difficult to accomplish with typical PM
sensors.

Bioinspired digital signal processing forfast radionuclide mixture identification
Mathieu Thevenin, Olivier Bichler, Cheick Thiam,
Christophe Bobin, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique(France)9455-19, Session 4

Maximum discrimination approach forclassification of nearly identical signatures

Countries are trying to equip their public transportation infrastructure withradiation portals and detectors to detect radiological threat. Current works
usually focus on neutron detection, which could be useless in the case ofdirty bomb that would not use fissile material. Other approaches, such as
gamma dose rate variation monitoring is a good indication of the presenceof radionuclide. However, some legitimate products emit large quantities ofnatural gamma rays; environment also emits gamma rays naturally. They canlead to false detections. Moreover, such radio-activity could be used to hidea threat such as material to make a dirty bomb. Consequently, radionuclide
identification is a requirement and is traditionally performed by gamma
spectroscopy using unique spectral signature of each radionuclide. These
approaches require high-resolution detectors, sufficient integration time toget enough statistics and large computing capacities for data analysis. Highresolution detectors are fragile and costly, making them bad candidates
for large scale homeland security applications. Plastic scintillator and NaI
detectors fit with such applications but their resolution makes identificationdifficult, especially radionuclides mixes. This paper proposes an original
signal processing strategy based on artificial spiking neural networks toenable fast radionuclide identification at low count rate and for mixtures. It
presents results obtained for different challenging mixtures of radionuclides
using a NaI scintillator. Results show that a correct identification is
performed with less than hundred counts and no false identification isreported, enabling quick identification of a moving threat in a public
transportation. Further work will focus on using plastic scintillators.

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Darren K. Emge, U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical BiologicalCtr. (United States); Steven Kay, The Univ. of Rhode Island(United States)
We present a method for classifying nearly identical spectral signaturesutilizing maximum discrimination bands. The use maximum discrimination
bands, can overcome the performance degradation that can be encounteredwhen attempting to classify highly similar spectral signatures. The observed
reduction in performance results from the inclusion of non discriminatory
bands when utilizing the full spectral signatures. To overcome this problem
we present a method that utilizes a Kullback-Leibler distance framework,
based upon the assumption of equal prior probabilities, to identify the
maximum discrimination bands. The use of maximum discrimination bands
will be shown to enhance the performance when trying to distinguishbetween chemicals with highly similar spectra. Through simulation, we willshow the improvement in performance gained using the proposed method.
As an example of a real world application of the presented method, acomparison of the classification of 2,4-dinitrotoluene and 2,6-dinitrotoluene
will be presented. The maximum discrimination approach can be utilized
in a two step classification approach in which highly similar chemicals are
first classified as a group. This can be followed by the use of maximum
discrimination bands to correctly classify chemicals with highly similar
spectra.

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59Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI

9455-20, Session 4

Non-specific sensor arrays for chemical
detection
Kevin J. Johnson, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Christian P. Minor, Nova Research, Inc. (United States)
Non-specific chemical sensor arrays have been the subject of considerable
research efforts over the past thirty years with the idea that, by analogy
to vertebrate olfaction, they are potentially capable of rendering complex
chemical assessments with relatively modest logistical footprints. However,
the actual implementation of such devices in challenging “real world”
scenarios has arguably continued to fall short of these expectations. This
work examines the inherent limitations of such devices for complex chemicalsensing scenarios, placing them on a continuum between simple univariate
sensors and complex multivariate analytical instrumentation and analyzing
their utility in general-purpose chemical detection and accurate chemicalsensing in the presence of unknown “unknowns.” Results with simulated
and acquired data sets are presented with discussion of the development
and implementation of chemical sensor arrays suitable for qualitative or
quantitative scenarios.

9455-21, Session 4

Removal of nonresonant background in
MCARS spectra using Fourier filtering
Stephen D. Roberson, Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
Multiplex coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (MCARS) has beenused to create a complete Raman spectrum of a material of interestin milliseconds. However, these MCARS spectra often embedded in anonresonant background that reduces the ability to use those spectra topositively identify the material of interest. There are a number of techniquesthat are used experimentally to reduce the nonresonant background when
taking the MCARS spectrum. However, there are situations where theseexperimental nonresonant background reduction techniques may result in aloss of the desired MCARS signal. In an effort to maintain the signal strengthof the MCARS spectrum, analytical methods of background removal areemployed. There are a number of analytical techniques for nonresonantbackground removal from MCARS signals. However, many of them either
make blanket assumptions about the nonresonant background that sacrificeaccuracy of the technique or require knowledge of the material of interest
before removing the nonresonant background. We will be reporting on an
analytical method to remove the nonresonant background that utilizes a
combination of the maximum entropy method to reproduce the spectrum
as well as complex spectral filtering to remove the nonresonant backgroundand accurately determine the CARS spectrum interest without priorknowledge of the material of interest.

9455-22, Session 4

Trace explosives detection using photothermal infrared imaging spectroscopy(PT-IRIS): theory, modeling, and detection
algorithms

recent advances in PT-IRIS hardware design, experiments, and the theory
and numerical modeling of photo-thermal imaging and spectroscopy ofparticulates on flat substrates. We compare the theoretical models withexperimental data taken on our mobile cart-based PT-IRIS system. Synthetic
data of the photo-thermal response was calculated for a wide range ofanalytes, substrates, particle sizes and analyte mass loadings using theirknown thermo-physical and optical properties. These synthetic data sets
can now be generated quickly and were used to accelerate the developmentof detection algorithms. The performance of detection algorithms will also
be discussed.
References: R. Furstenberg et al. Applied Physics Letters 93, 224103 (2008),
C. A. Kendziora et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8373 83732H-1 (2012). C. Kendziora
et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8709, 87090O-1 (2013); R. A. McGill et al.; US Patent#8,101,915 B2 (2012). This research is sponsored by ONR/NRL and the U.S.
Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate.

9455-23, Session 5

Intracavity optical parametric oscillators
based upon orientation-patterned GaAs
(OPGaAs): development toward a flexible
deep-infrared active hyperspectral
imaging system (Invited Paper)David M. Stothard, Daniel J. Kane, Fraunhofer Ctr.
for Applied Photonics (United Kingdom); Peter G.
Schunemann, BAE Systems (United States); Malcolm
H. Dunn, Malcolm H. Dunn, Univ. of St. Andrews (United
Kingdom)
Spectroscopic imaging is an ideal means for the rapid detection of toxic,
explosive or otherwise hazardous and contraband substances. Many
passive and active hyperspectral imaging systems have been developed
to this end, and those based upon active illumination with a narrow-band,widely tunable laser sources have shown particular promise for species
discrimination and identification due to the exception spectral brightnessof the laser illumination sources upon which they depend (and whose
linewidth defines the spectral resolution of the system). Optical parametricoscillators (OPOs) offer an ideal route to the generation of widely tunable,
narrow-band radiation in the waveband of interest and to date such systems
have typically been predicated upon the nonlinear material periodicallypoled lithium niobate (PPLN). Whilst these devices offer low threshold,potentially compact designs (particularly when implemented in theintracavity geometry), the transmission properties of PPLN limit their use
to the mid-infrared spectral band (~1.5-4.5µm). This is problematic as it is
at longer wavelengths, (the so-called ~6-10µm spectral fingerprint region)that many molecules and substances of interest exhibit their peak rotationaland vibrational optical absorption. OPGaAs is becoming established
as an excellent material for deep-infrared radiation generation throughparametric down-conversion and is poised to become the “PPLN” of deep
infrared OPOs. Recent developments have led to improvements in its linear
transmission at the pumping wavelength around 2µm, and this enables it to
be placed within the cavity of the parent pump laser where it can access its
high circulating field – substantially reducing the external (diode) pumping
power required to reach threshold. In this talk I will present recent work
towards developing such an intracavity OPO based upon both establishedand emergent parent pump laser technology, and discuss its potential
in the context of back-scatter absorption imaging (BAGI) for the rapid
spectroscopic detection and imaging of hazardous substances.

Robert Furstenberg, Christopher A. Kendziora, Michael
R. Papantonakis, Viet Nguyen, Jeff M. Byers, R. Andrew
McGill, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
We are developing a technology for stand-off detection based on photothermal infrared (IR) imaging spectroscopy (PT-IRIS). In this approach, one
or more IR quantum cascade lasers are tuned to strong absorption bands
in the analytes and directed at the sample while an IR focal plane array isused to image the subsequent thermal emissions. In this paper we present

60

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Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI

9455-24, Session 59455-26, Session 5

New plasmonic materials and fabrication
tools for near- and mid-infrared sensing(Invited Paper)

Detecting liquid contamination on surfaces
using hyperspectral imaging data
Russell E. Warren, EO-Stat, Inc. (United States); David B.
Cohn, DBC Technology Corp. (United States); Marc-André
Gagnon, Vincent Farley, Telops (Canada)

Otto L. Muskens, Yudong Wang, Leo-Jay Black, Cornelis
Hendrik de Groot, Univ. of Southampton (United
Kingdom); Arnaud Arbouet, Ctr. d’Elaboration deMatériaux et d’Etudes Structurales (France)

Over the past two years we have developed a new approach for detecting
and identifying the presence of liquid chemical contamination on surfaces
using hyperspectral imaging data. This work requires an algorithm forunmixing the data to separate the liquid contamination component of thedata from all other possible spectral effects, such as the illumination andreflectance spectra of the pure background. The contamination components
from S and P polarized reflectance data are then used to estimate thecomplex refractive index. We retain the index estimates within spectral
windows chosen for each of a set of candidate contaminant materials basedon their optical extinction. Spectral estimates within those windows arecharacteristic of the liquid material, and can be passed on to an algorithm
for chemical detection and identification. The resulting algorithm isinsensitive to the composition of the surface material, and requires no priormeasurements of the uncontaminated surface. In a series of field tests, datafrom the Telops Hyper-Cam sensor were used to develop and validate ourapproach. We discuss our hyperspectral unmixing and index estimation
approaches, and show results from tests conducted at the Telops facility in
Quebec under a contract with the U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical BiologicalCenter.

Plasmonics, the manipulation of electromagnetic fields on nanometer lengthscales using small metal structures, has many applications in sensing. The
enhancement of electromagnetic fields around metallic nanostructures isof interest for enhancing the interaction of light with molecules. Precise
rational design of the plasmonic structures is of importance to optimize
this interaction strength. In addition, recent years have seen a development
toward new materials for plasmonics, with applications in near- and midinfrared. Here, I will give an overview of new directions in nanofabricationof plasmonic structures aimed toward combined Raman and infrared gas
sensing for defense applications, including new helium-ion beam milling
tools [1], oxide and nitride plasmonics [2], and their use in plasmonenhanced spectroscopy, spectral and polarization sensitive filters andmetasurfaces [3].
[1] Y. Wang, M. Abb, S. A. Boden, J. Aizpurua, C. H. de Groot, O. L. Muskens,
Ultrafast nonlinear control of progressively loaded, single plasmonicnanoantennas fabricated using helium ion milling,
Nano Lett. 13, 5647-5653 (2013)[2] L.-J. Black, Y. Wang, C. H. de Groot, A. Arbouet, O. L. Muskens, Optimal
Polarization Conversion in Coupled Dimer Plasmonic Nanoantennas for
Metasurfaces, ACS Nano 8(6), 6390–6399 (2014)

9455-27, Session 5

The development of a wide-field, highresolution UV Raman hyperspectral imager[3] M. Abb, Y. Wang, N. Papasimakis, C. H. de Groot, O. L. Muskens, SurfaceEnhanced Infrared Spectroscopy Using Metal Oxide Plasmonic Antenna
Arrays, Nano Lett. 14 (1), 346–352 (2014)

Nathaniel R. Gomer, Matthew P. Nelson, ChemImage Corp.
(United States); Stanley M. Angel, Univ. of South Carolina(United States)

9455-25, Session 5

Raman spectroscopy is a valuable tool for the investigation and analysis of
explosive and biological analytes because it provides a unique molecularfingerprint that allows for unambiguous target identification. Raman can beadvantageous when utilized with deep UV excitation, but typical deep UVRaman systems have numerous limitations that hinder their performanceand make their potential integration onto a field portable platform difficult.
These systems typically offer very low throughput, are physically large
and heavy, and can only probe an area the size of a tightly focused laser,
severely diminishing the ability of the system to investigate large areas
efficiently. The majority of these limitations are directly related to a system’s
spectrometer, which is typically dispersive grating based and requires avery narrow slit width and long focal length optics to achieve high spectral
resolution.

Detection of chemical clouds using widely
tunable quantum cascade lasers
Anish K. Goyal, Petros Kotidis, Erik R. Deutsch, Ninghui
Zhu, Mark Norman, Jim Ye, Kostas Zafiriou, Alexander
Mazurenko, Block Engineering, LLC (United States)
Widely tunable quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) spanning the long-wave
infrared (LWIR) atmospheric transmission window and an HgCdTe detector
were incorporated transceiver for line-of-sight atmospheric sensing forthe detection of chemical clouds. The system is compact having a 50-mmdiameter transmit/receive aperture. When used in combination with a
50-mm-diameter hollow retroreflector, the system has been used to perform
atmospheric sensing over round-trip path lengths of >500 meters. The
system has been operated continuously for several days and demonstrated
the capability to detect and identify a wide variety of gases with detection
sensitivities in the parts-per-billion range when averaged over the path
length. Two rapidly tunable QCLs spanned the wavelength range of 7.7 to 13
microns within a fraction of a second. Transmission measurements between
the transceiver and retoreflector were made with a spectral resolution of 2
cm-1 as a function of distance to the retroreflector with a maximum roundtrip distance of >500 meters. Freon 132 and other gases were sprayed into
the beam path and the concentration-length product (CLP) was measured
as a function of time. The system exhibited a noise-equivalent concentration(NEC) of 3 ppb for Freon 132 for a round-trip path of 310 meters. Algorithms
based on correlation methods were used to both identify the gas and to
determine its CLP as a function of time. This presentation will detail thesystem design and detection algorithm. Also discussed will be the relativeadvantages of QCL-based open-path spectrometers with those basedon Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers for the monitoring of
atmospheric gases.

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To address these shortcomings, ChemImage Sensor Systems (CISS), teamingwith the University of South Carolina, are developing an innovative widefield Raman hyperspectral imaging system capable of providing wide-area,
high resolution measurements with greatly increased throughput in a small
form factor would revolutionize the way Raman is conducted and applied.
The innovation couples a spatial heterodyne spectrometer (SHS), a novelslit-less spectrometer that operates similar to the Michelson interferometer,with a fiber array spectral translator (FAST) fiber array, a two-dimensional
imaging fiber for hyperspectral imagery, to create a novel wide-field, highthroughput Raman hyperspectral imager capable of yielding very highspectral resolution in a small form factor. This paper will focus on theneed for an innovative UV Raman system, provide an overview of spatial
heterodyne Raman spectroscopy, and discuss the development of thesystem.

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61

Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI

9455-28, Session 59455-30, Session 6

Advanced shortwave infrared and Raman
hyperspectral sensors for homeland
security and law enforcement operations

Single-shot stand-off detection of
explosives precursors using UV coded
aperture Raman spectroscopy

Matthew P. Nelson, Chuck Gardner, Nathaniel R. Gomer,
ChemImage Corp. (United States)

Mattias Svanqvist, Markus Nordberg, Henric Östmark,Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)

Proliferation of chemical and explosive threats continues to be an escalating
danger to civilian and military personnel. Conventional means of detecting
and identifying hazardous materials often require the use of reagents and/or
physical sampling, which is a time-consuming, costly and often dangerous
process. Stand-off detection allows the operator to detect threat residues
from a safer distance minimizing danger to people and equipment. Current
fielded technologies for standoff detection of chemical and explosive
threats are challenged by low area search rates, poor targeting efficiency,
lack of sensitivity and specificity or use of costly and potentially unsafe
equipment such as lasers. A demand exists for stand-off systems that are
fast, safe, reliable and user-friendly.

Multiplexed spectroscopy using coded apertures (CA) can under certain
conditions give a large increase in light collection compared to standard slit
based configurations[1]. This can in turn, for example, be used to reduce
measurement times, increase measurement distances, or increase sensitivity
in stand-off Raman systems[2] designed to detect threat substances like
explosives or other hazardous chemicals.

To address this need, ChemImage Sensor Systems (CISS) has developed
reagent-less, non-contact, non-destructive sensors for the real-time
detection of hazardous materials based on widefield shortwave infrared(SWIR) and Raman hyperspectral imaging (HSI). Hyperspectral imaging
enables automated target detection displayed in the form of image making
result analysis intuitive and user-friendly.
Application of the CISS’ SWIR-HSI and Raman sensing technologies
to Homeland Security and Law Enforcement for standoff detection ofhomemade explosives and illicit drugs and their precursors in vehicle andpersonnel checkpoints will be discussed. Sensing technologies will include
a portable, robot-mounted and standalone variants of the technology.
Test data will be presented that support the use of SWIR and Raman HSI
for explosive and drug screening at checkpoints as well as screening for
explosives and drugs at suspected clandestine manufacturing facilities.

The spectrometer used was a Spex 500M spectrometer, modified to allow
for exchanging the slit for a coded aperture mask. The CA masks (produced
by Applied Image Inc.) consists of a chrome oxide masking film on UV
grade fused silica, AR coated for 266 nm, with a doubled Haddamard matrix
pattern. The CA used in these experiments had 64x128 pixels with a size of
100 µm each, resulting in a total area of 12.8x6.4 mm^2. One mask pixel was
imaged over 8 pixels on the ICCD camera (Andor USB iStar).
The detector images were demultiplexed and the resulting spectra werecompared to measurements done using the same hardware with the original
slit configuration (using a slit width of 100 µm, giving the same spectral
resolution). The signal-to-noise ratio was found to be about an order ofmagnitude better in the mask configuration compared to using the slit.
[1] S.T. McCain et al, Applied Spectroscopy 60(6), 2006

9455-29, Session 6[2] S. Wallin et al, Proc. of SPIE 8358(83580P), 2012

Characterization of inkjet-printed
explosive materials
Mikella E. Farrell, Ellen L. Holthoff, Logan S. Marcus, Paul M.
Pellegrino, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The requirement to detect hazardous materials at both point and standoff
distances has led to the development of laser-based hazard detection
systems with immediate application for the security and safety of the US
military, national security agencies, and environmental response teams.
In particular, common explosive and improvised explosive device (IED)
materials have motivated research efforts toward detecting trace (<100µg/cm2) and bulk (>100 µg/cm2) quantities of these threats on multiple
surfaces. Test coupons must demonstrate realistic concentrations, mimic reallife particle sizes, and be fabricated on a host of substrate materials in orderto evaluate the ability of these systems to accurately detect and identify
hazard materials.
At the Army Research Laboratory (ARL) we have developed a standardized
sample preparation method for the evaluation of systems using test coupons
with known concentrations of target material for the evaluation of thehazard detection systems. ARL test coupons are fabricated using an inkjet
printing system. We will discuss the printing and characterization of test
coupons for common explosive materials, like cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine(RDX), pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), ammonium nitrate (AN) andurea. The explosives are printed onto substrates that mimic real world test
conditions. Painted car panels, bare steel, and plastic substrates with thedeposited explosives are characterized using Raman, scanning electron
microscope (SEM) imaging, and profilometry measurements. These
measurements have increased the understanding of how the materials
set-up on substrates and our ability to better design standardized sample
coupon creation protocols for comprehensive evaluation of hazard detection
systems.

62

Measurements were done using the second harmonic of an Nd:YAG laser(Ekspla NL300) giving 6 ns pulses with 100mJ at 355 nm with a repetition
rate of 10 Hz. The laser pulses illuminated bulk samples of ammonium nitrate(AN) and AN mixed with fuel oil (ANFO) positioned outside the laboratory
at a distance of 10 meters. An 8 inch telescope (Celestron C91024-XLT) wasused to collect the Raman scattered light emitted from the samples andadditional beam shaping optics were used to optimize the beam before it
entered the spectrometer.

SPIE DSS 2015·

9455-32, Session 6

Advances in sublimation studies forparticles of explosives
Robert Furstenberg, Tara Abrishami, Michael R.
Papantonakis, Christopher A. Kendziora, David R. Mott, R.
Andrew McGill, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
When handling explosives, explosive devices, or related surfaces, the hands
become contaminated with particles of explosives. Subsequent contact
actions result in particle crushing and depositions on a surface within afingerprint. These particles provide an evidentiary trail for detection andforensic applications. The longevity or stability of explosives particles
on a substrate is a function of particle geometry, substrate geometry,temperature, airflow, areal coverage, relative humidity, condensation,
inclusion chemicals, exposed light and, in some instances, the substratematerial type. In this work we deposit particles of explosives on smoothglass substrates by sieving, inkjetting or pipetting, and monitor theirsublimation by photo/video-microscopy in a custom-made sublimation
cell with controlled airflow, humidity and temperature. Analysis of 2D
micrograph images is used to compute and track the size of each individual
particle in a large particle ensemble as functions of time and experimental
test conditions. 3D particle imaging, GCMS or UV-visible spectrophotometry
are used to provide supporting confirmation to 2D image analysis. In thispaper, we expand the set of test conditions including variable airflow rates
and particle areal coverage (fingerprint representative values) at fixed
humidity and temperature. We find that particles loaded at relatively low
areal densities show essentially constant radial sublimation velocities (RSV)
for different particle sizes, whereas higher loadings are found to significantlywww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVI
affect RSV values through micro-climate effects which form between
particles. In connection to these results we expand the known sublimation
models to include the effects of neighboring particle proximity at different
flow rates.

of chemical and radiological threats will be discussed in the context of aseries of chemical release measurements as well as radiological source
searches. The measurement utilized the InstantEye soldier UAV. The quadcopter UAV was equipped with either a colorimetric sensor for the detectionof ammonia or a scintillator sensor for the detection of gamma-emitting
radiological threats.

9455-33, Session 7

A range of standoff detection technologies were employed to provide initialcueing and flight guidance to the UAV. The AIRIS hyperspectral imaging
sensor was used to provide initial identification and vector to potential
chemical threats while DNDO’s imaging Standoff Radiation Detection
System (SORDS) was used to provide initial cues for radiological threats.
Broadband thermal imaging and visible CCD cameras which are capableof detecting but not identifying chemical and biological clouds, as wellas an acoustic sensor, were also explored as cueing mechanisms for UAV
deployment.

Experimental examination of ultraviolet
Raman cross sections of chemical warfare
agent simulants
Fredrik Kullander, Lars Landström, Hampus Lundén, Pär
Wästerby, Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
Laser induced Raman scattering from the commonly used chemical warfare
agent simulants dimethylsolfoxide, tributhylphosphate, phosponoacetate
was measured at excitation wavelengths ranging from 210 to 410 nm using
a pulsed laser based spectrometer system with a probing distance of 1.4m (and with an image size on the target of less than 1mm). Droplets of thesubstances were deposited on a silicon wafer to reduce the backgroundlevel. For the purpose of comparison with well explored reference liquids
the Raman scattering from simulants was additionally measured in theform of an extended liquid surface layer on top of a silicon wafer. Thisway of measuring enabled direct comparison to the Raman scatteringstrength from cyclohexane and acetonitrile. The reference Raman spectra
were used to validate the signal strength of the simulants and calibrate thespectrometer. Measured UV absorbance functions were used to calculate
Raman cross sections. The Raman signal strength from the simulants wasthen compared to that from chemical warfare agent droplets deposited in
the same way.

Data from the tests will be presented showing that the UAV sensor was able
to locate the ammonia release location and fly downwind of the release
point while continuously detecting the ammonia and relaying detection
data back to the UAV operator in real-time. The ability of the UAV-based
scintillator to detect small sources while either hovering over possible
location or landing for longer term sampling will also be demonstrated.

9455-34, Session 7

Eric G. Roy, Rigaku Raman Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates); Phillip G. Wilcox, Soren Hoffland, U.S. Army
Edgewood Chemical Biological Ctr. (United States); Ian
Pardoe, EXCET, Inc. (United States)

An expansion of the UAV sensor capability to a broader range of target
chemicals as well as the conduct of biological sampling will also be
discussed.

9455-36, Session 7

Detection of munitions grade g series
nerve agents using Raman excitation at
1064 nmPhotoacoustic chemical sensing: layered
systems and excitation source analysis
Logan S. Marcus, Ellen L. Holthoff, Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)

Raman spectroscopy is a powerful tool for obtaining molecular structure
information of a sample. While Raman spectroscopy is a common laboratory
based analytical tool, miniaturization of opto-electronic components has
allowed handheld Raman analyzers to become commercially available.
These handheld systems are utilized by Military and First Responder
operators tasked with rapidly identifying potentially hazardous chemicals
in the field. However, one limitation of many handheld Raman detection
systems is strong interference caused by fluorescence of the sample orunderlying surface which obscures the characteristic Raman signature of thetarget analyte.

Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) is a versatile tool that is well suitedfor the ranged interrogation of layered samples. We have previously
demonstrated standoff photoacoustic (PA) chemical detection of condensed
phase samples at one meter distance using an interferometric sensing
platform. Current research investigates layered solid samples constructedfrom a thin layer of energetic material deposited on a substrate. The PA
signal from the system, as measured by the interferometer, changes basedon the differing optical and mechanical properties of the substrate. Thissignal variance must be understood in order to develop a sensor capableof detecting trace quantities of hazardous materials independent of thesurface. Optical absorption and modal excitation are the two biggest
sources of PA signal generated in the sample/substrate system. Finally, themode of operation of the excitation source is investigated. Most PA sensing
paradigms use a quantum cascade laser (QCL) operating in either pulsed or
modulated CW mode. We will discuss photoacoustic signal generation withrespect to these different operating modes.

Munitions grade chemical warfare agents (CWAs) are produced and stored
in large batches and typically have more impurities from the storage
container, degradation, or unreacted precursors. In this work, Raman
spectra of munitions grade CWAs were collected using a handheld Raman
spectrometer with a 1064 nm excitation laser. While Raman scattering
generated by a 1064 nm laser is inherently less efficient than excitation
at shorter wavelengths, high quality spectra were easily obtained due
to significantly reduced fluorescence of the munitions grade CWAs. The
spectra of these less pure, but more operationally relevant, munitions grade
CWAs were then compared to spectra of CASARM grade CWAs, as well as
Raman spectra collected using the more common 785 nm excitation laser.

9455-35, Session 7

Cooperative use of standoff and UAV
sensors for CBRNE detection

9455-37, Session 8

A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)coated microbeam MEMS sensor forchemical detection

William J. Marinelli, Thomas Schmit, Julia Rentz Dupuis,
David Manegold, Physical Sciences Inc. (United States);
Manal Beshay, Marvin Lav, Intelligent Optical Systems, Inc.
(United States)

Ellen L. Holthoff, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Lily Li, Kimberly L. Turner, Tobias Hiller, Univ. of California,

The concurrent use of standoff and compact UAV sensors for the detection

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63

Conference 9455: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XVISanta Barbara (United States)
Recently, microcantilever-based technology has emerged as a viable sensing
platform due to its many advantages such as small size, high sensitivity, andlow cost. However, microcantilevers lack the inherent ability to selectively
identify hazardous chemicals (e.g., explosives, chemical warfare agents).
The key to overcoming this challenge is to functionalize the top surface ofthe microcantilever with a receptor material (e.g., a polymer coating) sothat selective binding between the cantilever and analyte of interest takes
place. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) can be utilized as artificial
recognition elements for target chemical analytes of interest. Molecularimprinting involves arranging polymerizable functional monomers around atemplate molecule followed by polymerization and template removal. The
selectivity for the target analyte is based on the spatial orientation of thebinding site and covalent or noncovalent interactions between the functionalmonomer and the analyte. In this work, thin films of sol-gel-derived xerogels
molecularly imprinted for TNT and dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP),a chemical warfare agent stimulant, have demonstrated selectivity andstability in combination with a fixed-fixed beam microelectromechanicalsystems (MEMS)-based gas sensor. The sensor was characterized byparametric bifurcation sweep-based tracking.

that is highly unique and has demonstrated high levels of immunity frominterferents, providing significant practical value for high-specificity material
identification.
Dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) is used as a simulant for G series
nerve agents and thiodiglycol as a simulant for sulfur mustard (HD). Ab
initio calculations were performed on DMMP for various rovibrational states
up to J’ ≤ 3 and validated experimentally, demonstrating good agreement
between theory and experiment and the very specific responses generated.
Thiodiglycol was investigated empirically. Optimal detection parameters
were determined and mixtures of the two materials were used todemonstrate the immunity of the DES technique to interference from othermaterials, even those whose IR spectra show significant overlap.

9455-40, Session 8

Breadboard sized photo-acoustic
spectroscopy system using an FPGA based
lock-in amplifierJohn F. Schill, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

9455-38, Session 8

A study of single-beam femtosecond
MCARS in trace material detection
Stephen D. Roberson, Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
There is a need for rapid and accurate detection and identification ofcomplex aerosol particles in a number of fields for countless applications.
Full identification of these particles has been hampered by the inability to
use an information-rich spectroscopic method such as Raman scattering ina flowing aerosol environment due to the time needed to generate a Raman
spectrum. Multiplex coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (MCARS)
has been shown to generate a complete Raman spectrum from the materialof interest using a single ultrabroadband pulse to coherently drive multiple
molecular vibrations simultaneously. When used in conjunction with anarrow probe pulse, a complete Raman spectrum is created that can bedetected in milliseconds. We will report on the MCARS spectra obtained
from materials of interest at a distance of 1 m from the sample location.
A limit of detection study of the MCARS spectrum of various materials ofinterest will be also reported as well as a determination of the Raman gain
factor of MCARS versus spontaneous anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy.
Additionally, a limit of detection study as a function of the number of pulses
used to comprise the CARS spectrum of the materials of interest will bepresented.

Over the past several years we have developed a photo-acoustic
spectroscopic (PAS) technique for trace gas detection that is capable ofparts per million (ppm) detection limits. The desire to reduce the size ofthe system has lead to several efforts that have reduced the size of thevarious components of the system. We have reduced the dimensions of theresonant cell to micrometer scale (MEMS). We have worked with Daylight
Solutions to reduce the size of the tunable quantum cascade laser (QCL)
used in the system. In this paper we demonstrate the reduction in size ofthe entire system to a 12” x 12” footprint. We do this by implementing thelock-in amplifier on a field programmable gate array (FPGA) demonstration
board that is also capable of acting as the system controller and data output
device. We briefly describe the digital lock-in amplifier and sketch our
implementation on the FPGA. We go on to compare the spectroscopic data
we collected using this system with data we collected using a large rack
mounted Stanford Research Systems SR830 lock-in amplifier and a PC.

9455-39, Session 8

Differential excitation spectroscopy for
detection of chemical threats: DMMP and
thiodiglycol
Boyd V. Hunter, Jason M. Cox, Kestrel Corp. (UnitedStates); Michael A. Miller, Southwest Research Institute(United States); Paul Harrison, William P. Walters, Kestrel
Corp. (United States)
Differential Excitation Spectroscopy (DES) is a new pump-probe detection
technique which characterizes molecules based on a multi-dimensionalparameterization of the rovibrational excited state structure, pump andprobe interrogation frequencies, as well as the lifetimes of the excited states.
Under appropriate conditions, significant modulation of the ground state
can result. DES results provide a unique, simple mechanism to validate andunderstand various molecules in support of relevant science. In addition, theDES multi-dimensional parameterization provides an identification signature

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Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security, Defense, and Law Enforcement
Applications XIV
Monday - Wednesday 20–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9456 Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence(C3I) Technologies for Homeland Security, Defense, and Law Enforcement XIV

9456-1, Session 1

comparable alternatives; (ii) a resonant receiver matched to the transmitterand designed for efficient coupling to walls and for enhancing with multiple
sensors the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of the received signal before
signal processing; (iii) effective configurations for efficiently coupling thetransmitter and matched receiver to walls; (iv) methods of signal processingthat increase S/N by several additional tens of dB; (v) algorithms used
for real-time through-the-wall tracking of multiple persons; and (vi) a
conceptual design of an acoustic through-the-wall sensor, costing about$10,000 per unit and capable of remotely and non-intrusively scanning steel
cargo containers for stowaways at a rate of two containers per minute.

Detection of chemicals using quantum
cascade laser spectroscopy (Keynote
Presentation)
Panos G. Datskos, Marissa E. Morales-Rodríguez, Phillip
Bingham, Larry R. Senesac, David Graham, Ilia Ivanov,Kenneth W. Tobin Jr., Oak Ridge National Lab. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

9456-3, Session 1

9456-2, Session 1

The use of short and wide x-ray pulses
for time-of-flight x-ray Compton scatter
imaging in cargo security

Demonstration of novel high-power
acoustic through-the-wall sensor

Nick Calvert, Marta M. Betcke, Univ. College London(United Kingdom); John R. Cresswell, Univ. of Liverpool(United Kingdom); Alick N. Deacon, The Univ. ofManchester (United Kingdom); Anthony J. Gleeson,
Science and Technologies Facilities Council (United
Kingdom); Daniel S. Judson, Univ. of Liverpool (United
Kingdom); Peter Mason, Rapiscan Systems Ltd. (United
Kingdom); Peter A. McIntosh, Science and Technologies
Facilities Council (United Kingdom); Edward J. Morton,
Rapiscan Systems Ltd. (United States); Paul J. Nolan,
Univ. of Liverpool (United Kingdom); James Ollier, Mark G.
Procter, Rapiscan Systems Ltd. (United Kingdom); Robert
D. Speller, Univ. College London (United Kingdom)Franklin Felber, Starmark, Inc. (United States)
An acoustic sensor, capable of detecting and tracking persons throughthe steel walls of cargo containers, trailer truck bodies, and train cars, hasbeen developed and demonstrated. The high-power acoustic through-thewall sensor is based on a new concept for narrowband mechanical-impact
acoustic transmitters and matched resonant receivers. The lightweight,
compact, and low-cost transmitters produce high-power acoustic pulses
at one or more discrete frequencies with very little input power, and canbe battery-operated. A breadboard impact-transmitter and matchedreceiver system that detected human motion through thick walls with only
rudimentary signal processing is described, and results are presented.
The foremost advantage of acoustic through-the-wall sensors over radarand gamma-ray sensors is that sound penetrates metal walls almost as wellas it penetrates other wall materials, and does so with harmless non-ionizing
radiation. Another significant advantage over ultra-wideband (UWB) radar
sensors is that acoustic sensors are sensitive to motions smaller than 1/10
of a wavelength, and so can detect stationary persons by their breathing
motion alone. Besides these, other attractive features of the acoustic sensor
and its signal processing include: high-resolution locating and tracking;portability; low cost; quick and easy preparation and deployment; near-realtime data processing and display; and no damage or changes to the wall.
These features provide a robust stand-alone through-the-wall surveillancecapability or an excellent complement to a radar sensor.

In conventional Compton scatter imaging for Cargo security screening, theimage is formed by accumulating photons scattering back from the object
upon illumination with a pencil beam of x rays. Using a pulsed x-ray source
and measuring the time-of-flight (TOF) of the scattered photons, the pointof interaction can be determined, assuming a single scatter. Sweeping apencil beam of x rays over the object under inspection and recording the
TOF can lead to three dimensional image formation of cargo containers andtheir contents. A short pulse width (piceosecond) x-ray source allows for
direct measurement of the TOF of the photons, and trivial reconstructionof the interaction point. A longer pulse width (100’s of nanoseconds) also
allows for reconstruction of the interaction point, after deconvolution of thetemporal profile of the source pulse. Preliminary experiments have been
performed using the picosecond pulse length Versatile Electron Linear
Accelerator (VELA) situated at STFC Daresbury, UK, measuring the TOF ofphotons scattering from a set of test objects. A full width at half maximumof 12 cm was achieved for a 5 cm thick plastic test object, when using asingle CeBr3 detector in the presence of a high radiation background.
Results from further experiments, measuring the resolution achievable withsuch a technique, using an array of plastic scintillator detectors at VELA will
be presented. Resolution results from measurements using a conventional
wide pulse x-ray source will also be presented.

The new impact-transducer concept is particularly well suited for efficiently
and inexpensively producing and coupling high-power acoustic pulses into
walls. The concept is based on the discovery that, with proper coupling
to a wall, a properly designed thin plate transduces a mechanical impulse
to acoustic energy in a wall with high efficiency at the resonant mode
frequencies of the plate. Optimal coupling of the transmitter to the wallis achieved with sub-millimeter spacing of the resonant plate from thewall. The principal advantage of mechanical impact transducers is that theenergy for each pulse is accumulated over long times at low powers, like amousetrap, and therefore can be operated with ordinary batteries and nopower conditioning.
The through-the-wall system advances reported include: (i) a newmechanical transmitter that is compact, lightweight, low-cost, and canoperate on battery power, yet produces acoustic pulses in walls at one
or more frequencies that are orders of magnitude more powerful than

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Topical Area: Concealed Weapons and Through-the-Wall Sensor
Technologies and Systems.

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Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security, Defense, and Law Enforcement Applications XIV

9456-4, Session 1

9456-7, Session 2

Consideration of the use of visible light
3D scanning for prisoner contraband
possession assessment and other similar
purposes

Acoustic and infrared active shooter
detection and reporting

Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

No Abstract Available

Ron Fowler, Chris Connors, Shooter Detection Systems
LLC (United States)

The assessment of those being involuntarily confined for contraband andother purposes, whether in the context of a civilian criminal detention
facility or detention of warfighters is inherently problematic. Some
individuals may desire to, for a number of purposes, retain objects beyond
screening. These objects may range from benign to weapons or otherobjects that could injure other detainees or which, in the context of
warfighters, may be detrimental to security or defense objectives in otherways. Current techniques to identify these items (or assert the lack ofcontraband possession) are invasive to the detainees and demonstrably
ineffective in certain circumstances.

9456-9, Session 2

Target plane projectile location sensor
system

A variety of techniques have been proposed for contraband detection,
ranging from radiative scanners to manual search techniques. This paper
describes the prospective use of a visible light 3D scanner for checkpoint
assessment purposes. It contrasts the invasiveness of this technology
with conventional techniques, considering the competing rights of thedetainees to personal dignity and diminished, but existent, privacy rights.
United States law regarding detainee searches is reviewed to identify
any prospective compliance hurdles for a 3D scanning solution as well as
prospective benefits that this non-invasive technique may provide (relative
to what can be performed manually under law). The use of visible light,
as compared to other prospective scanning solutions, is considered (fromboth technological and legal implication perspectives) and hybrid solutions
are considered. The value of the color data produced by the scanner isalso discussed. The paper considers next steps for the use of this type oftechnology, before concluding.

9456-5, Session 1

Optically transparent superhydrophobic
coatings for enhanced performancesensing and CSP and CPV power
generations
Scott R. Hunter, D. Barton Smith, Georgios Polizos, Daniel
A. Schaeffer, Panos G. Datskos, Oak Ridge National Lab.
(United States)
No Abstract Available

9456-6, Session 1

Ultra-strong and electrically conductive
graphene fibers
Panos G. Datskos, Ivan Vlassiouk, Oak Ridge National Lab.
(United States)

Slobodan Rajic, William R. Lawrence, Panos G. Datskos,
Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States); Ross W. Towers,
U.S. Army Armament Research, Development andEngineering Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9456-10, Session 3

A low-cost FMCW radar for footprint
detection from a mobile platform
David Boutte, Paul Taylor, AKELA, Inc. (United States);
Allan Hunt, AKELA Inc. (United States)
Footprint and human trail detection in rugged all-weather environments
is an important and challenging problem in perimeter security, passive
surveillance and reconnaissance areas. To address the challenges a low
cost wideband frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar
operating at 33.4GHz – 35.5GHz has been developed which is capableof detecting footprints and footprint trails on unimproved roads from amoving vehicle. The system also has applications to personnel detection
through light foliage. It is based around a low cost digital signal processor(DSP) that makes important operating parameters reconfigurable andallowing for frequency sweep linearization, a key technique developed toincrease footprint signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Tuning a voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO) over a wide bandwidth introduces a non-linear frequency
response into an FMCW radar system which, if uncorrected, causes blurringin target-receive signatures and overall SNR degradation. By pre-distorting
the VCO tuning waveform the overall response can be corrected. In addition
to footprint detection, the same technology and system is applicable topersonnel detection at standoff distances >50m through light brush/foliage.
This paper discusses the design, DSP implementation and experimental
results of a low-cost FMCW radar for mobile footprint detection. A
technique for wideband sweep linearization is detailed along with system
performance metrics and experimental results showing receive-SNR fromfootprint trails in sand and on unimproved dirt roads. The results show that
there is sufficient receive-SNR to detect even shallow footprints (~1cm)
when using the sweep linearization technique. Similarly experimental results
detailing system performance against moving targets are also shown.

9456-11, Session 3

No Abstract Available

Optically resonant subwavelength films fortamper-indicating tags and seals
Kyle J. Alvine, Jonathan D. Suter, Bruce E. Bernacki, Wendy
D. Bennett, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
We present the design, modeling and performance of a proof-of-concept
tamper indicator that exploits newly-developed subwavelength-patterned

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Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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films. These films have a nanostructure dependent resonant opticalreflection that is wavelength, angle, and polarization dependent. As such,they can be tailored to fabricate overlay transparent films for tamper
indication and authentication of sensitive or controlled materials notpossible with currently-known technologies. An additional advantage is thatthe unique optical signature is dictated by the geometry and fabrication
process of the nanostructures in the film, rather than on the material used.
The essential structure unit in the subwavelength resonant coating is a
nanoscale Open-Ring Resonator (ORR). This building block is fabricatedby coating a nanoscale template with metal to form a shell-like structure.
The curved metallic shell structure has a cross-section with an intrinsic
capacitance and inductance and is thus the optical equivalent to the wellknown “LC” circuit where the capacitance and inductance are determinedby the nanoshell dimensions. For structures with sub 100 nm scale, thisresonance occurs in the visible electromagnetic spectrum, and in the IR forlarger shells. Tamper indication would be visible though misalignment of
the angular dependence of the features in the film. It is additionally possible
to add in intrinsic oxidation and strain sensitive matrix materials to further
complicate tampering and counterfeiting. Cursory standoff readout would
be relatively simple using a combination of a near-infrared (or visible) LED
flashlight and polarizer or passively using room lighting illumination and adispersive detector.

available (target classification, in particular, is one area that is lacking), thetechnological limitations are not tremendous and it is likely that this typeof system (particularly for use by a non-state actor acting within a statein which the non-state actor perceived almost everything as a prospective
target, irrespective of its legitimacy as a target of war under internationallaw) could be fielded within years, not decades. The paper discusses thetechnical considerations for this type of robotic system and the limited
enhancements to current technologies required to current technologies(particularly UAVs) needed to create such a system.
Particular consideration is paid to how the introduction of this type oftechnology by one actor could create a need for reciprocal development.
The parallels of this scenario to the nuclear-weapon-based mutual assured
destruction phenomenon are considered and conclusions are drawn. The
differences between these two scenarios (particularly in terms of the scopeof warfighting and granularity of targeting) are discussed. The impact ofthese differences on state and non-state actors to deploy such a systemis, from this, considered. Finally, the prospective utilization of this typeof technology by non-state actors and the potential for this scenario
occurring’s impact on state actors is discussed, before concluding.

9456-14, Session 3

Performance of a buried microphone todetect voice and footsteps

9456-12, Session 3

Multi-capability color night vision HD
camera for defense, surveillance, andsecurity applications

Thyagaraju Damarla, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Traditionally, both acoustic and seismic sensors are used as a part ofmodern unattended ground sensor (UGS) suite. Acoustic sensors capture
the high frequency content of human voice, automobile, airplanes, etc.,
and their unique features are used to discriminate them. Whereas, theseismic sensors are primarily used to detect vibrations caused by people
walking and vehicles traveling in the vicinity of the sensor. Both sensor data
are analyzed and the results are fused to get better detection statistics 1.
However, the UGS system once deployed should last for several months
before changing the batteries. This implies, one should use fewer sensors
that consume very little power. Towards this goal, experiments were madeto replace the performance of both seismic and acoustic sensors by a single
buried microphone. The performance of the buried microphone is comparedwith the performance of a seismic sensor in detection of footfalls and witha microphone that is above ground for high frequency fidelity. Moreover,buried microphone can be used for stealth operations.

Francis Pang, e2v Aerospace and Defense, Inc. (UnitedStates)e2v has developed a family of high performance cameras based on our next
generation CMOS imagers that provide multiple features and capabilities tomeet the range of challenging imaging applications in defense, surveillance,and security markets.
Two resolution sizes are available: 1920x1080 with 5.3um pixels, and an
ultra-low light level version at 1280x1024 with 10um pixels. Each type isavailable in either monochrome or e2v’s unique bayer pattern color version.
The camera is well suited to accommodate many of the high demands
for defense, surveillance, and security applications: compact form factor(SWAP+C), color night vision performance (down to 10-3 lux), ruggedized
housing, Global Shutter, low read noise (<6e- in Global shutter mode and<2.5e- in Rolling shutter mode), 60 Hz frame rate, high QE especially inthe enhanced NIR range (up to 1100nm). Other capabilities include active
illumination and range gating.
This paper will describe all the features of the sensor and the camera. It
will be followed with a presentation of the latest test data with the current
developments. Then, it will conclude with a description of how thesefeatures can be easily configured to meet many different applications.
With this development, we can tune rather than create a full customization,
making it more beneficial for many of our customers and their custom
applications.

We performed several experiments to detect human activity near aculvert. Two buried microphones, one at the bottom of a culvert near its
entrance and another just above the culvert are used for monitoring theculvert. We also buried two seismic sensors next to the microphones andmounted a microphone above the ground to assess the quality of the buried
microphones. Single channel source separation techniques, such a principle
component analysis, non-negative matrix factorization, are used to separate
the subsurface (seismic) and above surface (acoustic) signals from thesignals of buried microphone. The performance of the buried microphone ispresented on the actual data collected in the field.

9456-13, Session 39456-15, Session 3

Analysis of a mutual assured destructionlike scenario with swarms of non-recallable
autonomous robots

Surveillance systems for intermodaltransportation
Sergej Jakovlev, Klaipeda Univ. (Lithuania); Miroslav
Voznak, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic);
Arunas Andziulis, Klaipeda Univ. (Lithuania)

Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
This paper considers the implications of the creation of an autonomous
robotic fighting force without recall-ability which could serve as a deterrent
to a ‘total war’ magnitude attack. This style of robot would be programmedwith targeting parameters and could persistently attack the designatedenemy or enemy targets, without human intervention, once unleashed.
While the technology required for this type of system is not currently

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Intermodal container monitoring is considered a major security issue
in many major logistic companies and countries worldwide. Current
representation of the problem, we face today, originated in 2002, right after
the 9/11 attacks. Then, a new worldwide Container Security Initiative (CSI,
2002) was considered that shaped the perception of the transportation·

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Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security, Defense, and Law Enforcement Applications XIV
psychological dimension and loosing a pilot during operations may result in
decreasing the population support to operations, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs) started to be used by practitioners and took priority over otherassets. Although UAVs have been on the theatre for a long time used for ISR
mission in conventional conflicts, with the advent of drones, UAVs have also
started to be used for attack missions in counterterrorism operations.

operations. Now more than 80 larger ports all over the world contributeto its further development and integration into everyday transportation
operations and improve the regulations for the developing regions.
Although, these new improvements allow us to feel safer and secure,constant management of transportation operations has become a very
difficult problem for conventional data analysis methods and information
systems.
Integration of many new Information and Communication Technologies(ICT) and other safety and security regulations in existing cargo handling
operations and processes is likely to be the main solution. As an example,
some industrial applications already include new RFID standards, but withlimited applicability. The choice of the applied communication technology
often depends on the used frequency. Frequency reflects numerous factors,
including not only technical considerations, but also international availability
and economic considerations. One of the most known monitoring systems
is the ConTracer. But even this known product is applied mostly in theory, toevaluate the potential risks and their prevention methods. Research is now
being done to estimate the efficiency of the installations in terms of cost.
Still, this main solution has many research related communication and data
analysis problems.
In general, the developed systems use different communication andintegration standards, therefore, many authors suggest using only separate
systems and technologies rather than complex integrated solutions. There
are several application scenarios and appropriate technologies that need tobe considered. Firstly, we have a scenario where containers are stored ona ship. Next, we have a scenario where containers are stored in a container
terminal. Finally, these containers are transported via truck and trains totheir destinations. So, appropriate technologies are applied at each separate
scenario. They include application of WSN, RFID, GPS/Galileo, video
surveillance systems and many other methods and data analysis algorithms
that are strictly formalized and standardized.
In our research, we have focused on presenting a new concept container
monitoring approach by using an intellectual agent in a conceptual deployed
middleware module for the WSN. The module sends alert information only
when a real threat takes place.

9456-16, Session 3

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs): a newtool in counterterrorism operations?
Mehmet F. Dörtbudak, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)
Terrorism is not a new phenomenon to the world, yet it remains difficult todefine and to counter. Countering terrorism requires several measures thatmust be taken at the same time, however, counterterrorism strategies ofmany countries mostly depend on military measures.
In the aftermath of the 2001 terrorist attack on the Twin Towers of the World
Trade Center, the United States (U.S.) has started and led the campaign
of Global War on Terrorism. They have invaded Afghanistan and Iraq andhave encountered insurgencies run by terrorist organizations, such as alQaeda and its affiliates. The insurgencies have increased in effectivenessover the years. The U.S., though, has made significant improvements
in disrupting and destroying terrorist organizations’ activities. The U.S.
made the utilization of Air and Space Power very intensively during these
operations. In order to implement operations; Intelligence, Surveillance, andReconnaissance (ISR) assets were used to collect the necessary information.
Before the successful insertion of a small number of U.S. Special Operation
Force (SOF) teams into Afghanistan, the U.S. Air Force attacked al-Qaeda
and Talibans’ targets such as infrastructure, airfields, ground forces,
command-control facilities etc. As soon as the U.S. troops got on the groundand started to marshall to Kabul, the Air Force supported them by attacking
the targets determined by the ground forces. The Air Force continued tocarry out the missions and played a significant role to achieve the objectiveof operation during all time.
This is not the only example of utilization of Air and Space Power incounterterrorism and counterinsurgency operations. All around the world,many countries have also made the utilization of Air Power in different
missions ranging from ISR to attacking. Thinking that terrorism has a

68

SPIE DSS 2015

In this study, it is aimed to determine whether UAVs are convenient
assets that can be used in counterterrorism operations. The study starts
by examining the term terrorism and counterterrorism and discusses therole of the Air and Space Power in counterterrorism operations. After
proposing that UAVs are convenient assets for counterterrorism operations,
it continues by explaining types and common usage concepts of UAVs.
The advantages and disadvantages of UAVs are put forward from thecounterterrorism operations’ perpectives. It finally examines the utilizationof UAVs in counterterrorism operations. In this context, as much as obtained
from open sources, countries’ roadmaps, usage concepts, experience, andcurrent structure are examined to determine whether UAVs are convenient
assets in counterterrorism operations. When the advantages of UAVs andthe disadvantages of manned systems analyzed, and other findings of oursurvey show us that UAVs will be increasingly used in counterterrorism
operations.

9456-54, Session 3

Packet-based serial link realized in FPGA
dedicated for high-resolution infrared
image transmission
Grzegorz Bieszczad, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland)
In this article the external digital interface specially designed forthermographic camera built in Military University of Technology is
described. The aim of article is to illustrate challenges encountered during
design process of thermal vision camera especially related to infrared
data processing and transmission. Article explains main requirements
for interface to transfer Infra-Red or Video digital data and describes thesolution which we elaborated based on Low Voltage Differential Signalling(LVDS) physical layer and signalling scheme.
Elaborated link for image transmission is built using FPGA integrated
circuit with built-in high speed serial transceivers achieving up to 2500Gbps
throughput. Image transmission is realised using proprietary packet
protocol. Transmission protocol engine was described in VHDL language
and tested in FPGA hardware. The link is able to transmit 1280x1024@60Hz
24bit video data using one signal pair. Link was tested to transmit thermalvision camera picture to remote monitor. Construction of dedicated video
link allows to reduce power consumption compared to solutions with ASIC
based encoders and decoders realising video links like DVI or packed based
Display Port, with simultaneous reduction of wires needed to establish link
to one pair.
Article describes functions of modules integrated in FPGA design realising
several functions like: synchronisation to video source, packetisation ofvideo stream, interfacing transciever modulea and dynamic clock generationfor video standard conversion.

9456-55, Session 3

Mobile, portable lightweight wirelessvideo recording solutions for homeland
security, defense, and law enforcement
applications
Matthew Sandy, Nanometrology LLC (United States)
No Abstract Available·

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Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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9456-17, Session 4

The decryption algorithm uses the encrypted data and processes them ininverse order with an identical number of iterations. The proposed method
can be extended to encrypt and decrypt documents as well as other typesof digital media. Simulation results of the purposed method are presented
to show the performance for image encryption. The comparison of the
proposed method with previously used methods of encryption is given.

Deep learning of behaviors (Keynote
Presentation)
George Cybenko, Thayer School of Engineering at
Dartmouth (United States)

9456-22, Session 5

No Abstract Available

An exact computational method for
performance analysis of sequential
test algorithms for detecting network
intrusions

9456-18, Session 4

National Institute of Justice: Science andTechnology Office initiatives (Keynote
Presentation)

Xinjia Chen, Frederick W. Lacy, Patrick Carriere, Southern
Univ. and A&M College (United States)

William A. Ford, U.S. Dept of Justice (United States)

Sequential test algorithms are playing increasingly important roles for quick
detecting network intrusions such as portscanners. In view of the fact thatsuch algorithms are usually analyzed based on intuitive approximation or
asymptotic analysis, we develop an exact computational method for the
performance analysis of such algorithms.

No Abstract Available

9456-19, Session 5

Our method can be used to calculate the probability of false alarm andaverage detection time up to arbitrarily prespecified accuracy. We establish
a recursive method for efficiency of computation. We propose to use
Chernoff bounds to ensure the accuracy of computation. In particular, weapply our method to Threshold Random Walk Algorithm for detecting portscanners. A path counting technique is proposed for further reducing thecomputational complexity.

Quantification of moving target cyberdefenses
Katheryn A Farris, George Cybenko, Thayer School ofEngineering at Dartmouth (United States)
No Abstract Available

9456-23, Session 69456-20, Session 5

Bayesian truthing as experimental
verification of C4ISR sensors

Enterprise scale cyber risk assessment andmanagement

Tomasz P. Jannson, Thomas C. Forrester, Physical Optics
Corp. (United States); Volodymyr Romanov, Wenjian
Wang, Thomas Nielsen, Andrew Kostrzewski, Physical
Optics Corp (United States)

Jeff Hughes, Tenet 3, LLC (United States); George
Cybenko, Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth(United States)
No Abstract Available

In this paper, the general methodology for experimental verificationof C4ISR sensor performance for both analog and digitized sensors, ispresented, based on Bayesian inference, in general, and binary sensing, inparticular. This methodology, called Bayesian Truthing, named after Radar
Truthing, defines Performance Metrics for binary sensors in such diversified
areas as: optics, medicine, law enforcement, C3ISR, QC, ATR (Automatic
Target Recognition), Homeland Security, defense, terrorism related events,and many others. For Bayesian Truthing, the sensing medium itself is notwhat is truly important; it is how the decision process is affected which
defines what is, and what is not, target or noise.

9456-21, Session 5

Image encryption by redirection andcyclical shift
Artyom M. Grigoryan, Bryan A. Wiatrek, The Univ. of Texas
at San Antonio (United States); Sos S Again, University ofTexas at San Antonio (United States)

Two conditions define binary sensor and Bayesian Truthing methodology:
binary decision space and descrete (quantal) event space, where anomalous
events are signals and non-anomalous (regular) events are noise. The basic
Figures of Merit of this C3I-decision generation tools, are: PPV (Positive
Predictive Value), Probability of False Alarm (PFA), Probability of Detection(PoD), and number of false no-alarms (or, target misses). In this paper, weshow how these FoMs can be optimized, using two examples: C3ISR-optical,
and medical (mammography) ones, the latter well-established PPV-basedone.

In this paper, we present a novel method for encrypting and decrypting
large amounts of data such as 2-D images, both gray-scale and color,
without the loss of information using private keys of varying lengths. The
proposed method is based on the concept of the tensor representation ofimage and splitting the two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform by 1-D
DFTs of signals from the tensor representation, or transform. The splittingof the transform is accomplished in a three dimension space, namely on
the 3-D lattice placed on the torus. Each splitting-signal of the image
defines the 2-D DFT along the frequency-points located on the spirals on
the torus. Spirals have different form and cover the lattice on the torus in acomplex form, which makes them very effective when moving data throughthe spirals and between them, and data along the spirals. The encryption
consists of several iterative applications of the mapping the 3-D torus into
the several ones of small sizes, and rotates and moves the data around thespirals on all tori. The encryption results in the image which is uncorrelated.

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For experimental verification of sensor performance optimization purposes,
the basic challenge, addressed in this paper, is the rare occurrence of targets(signals) within (quantal) event space; i.e. anomalous events were rare. Then,the reducing of target misses usually increases false alarm rate (PFA).
The long-term potential benefits: due to Bayesian Truthing, sensor’s
performance can be evaluated in a standardized, more uniform way,
independent on specific sensing medium.

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69Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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9456-24, Session 6

Stochastic optimization of space-time
constellations
Xinjia Chen, Patrick Carriere, Frederick W. Lacy, Southern
Univ. and A&M College (United States)
For wireless data communication systems employing multiple antennas,
space-time codes play crucial roles for fast transmission of data withaccuracy and bandwidth efficiency. Motivated by the large size of
constellations of space-time codes and the resultant computational
complexity, we develop a stochastic approach for the optimization of spacetime constellations. We use union bounds of block error rate as performancemeasures of the space-time codes. To overcome the computational
complexity, we propose to transform the performance measure into themean of a bounded random variable and establish a statistical method forthe estimation of such mean and its gradients with respect to parameters. A
stochastic gradient descent method is developed for optimizing space-timecodes. Such stochastic techniques are applied to obtain high performance
space-time codes of large constellation sizes.

9456-25, Session 6

Improving situation awareness with theAndroid team awareness kit (ATAK)

We consider the general problem of analysis and design of control systems
in the presence of uncertainties. We treat the uncertainties that affectthe performance of control systems as random variables. We consider
the probability that the control system fails to satisfy the pre-specified
requirements. We develop adaptive sequential randomized algorithms for
estimating such a probability with guaranteed accuracy and confidence
level. Moreover, we establish stochastic optimization techniques for seeking
the controller with the lowest failure probability from a set of parameterized
systems. We develop methods for investigating the optimality andcomputational complexity of such algorithms.

9456-27, Session 7

Vulnerabilities in GSM technology andfeasibility of selected attacks
Miroslav Voznak, Martin Prokes, Lukas Sevcik, Jaroslav
Frnda, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic);
Homer Toral-Cruz, University of Quintana Roo (Mexico);
Zdenka Chmelikova, VŠB-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech
Republic); Peppino Fazio, University of Calabria (Italy);
Miralem Mehic, Martin Mikulec, VŠ0B-Technical Univ. ofOstrava (Czech Republic)
Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) is the most widespread
technology for mobile communications in the world and serving over 7
billion users. Since first publication of system documentation there has been
notified a potential safety problem’s occurrence. Selected types of attacks,
based on the analysis of the technical feasibility and the degree of riskof these weaknesses, were implemented and demonstrated in laboratoryof the Department of telecommunications in Ostrava, Czech Republic.
These vulnerabilities were analyzed and afterwards possible attacks were
described. These attacks were implemented using open-source tools,
software programmable radio USRP (Universal Software RadioPeripheral)
and DVB-T (Digital Video Broadcasting – Terrestrial) receiver. GSM security
architecture is being scrutinized since first public releases of its specification
mainly pointing out weaknesses in authentication and ciphering
mechanisms. Short description of realized attacks:

Kyle Usbeck, Matthew Gillen, Joseph P. Loyall, Andrew
Gronosky, Raytheon BBN Technologies (United States);
Joshua Sterling, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States); Ralph L. Kohler Jr.,Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Kelly Hanlon,
Andrew Scally, WinTec Arrowmaker, Inc. (United States);
Richard Newkirk, David Canestrare, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States)
To make appropriate, timely decisions in the field, Situational Awareness(SA) needs to be conveyed in a decentralized manner to the users at theedge of the network as well as (optionally) at operations centers. Sharing
real- time SA efficiently between command centers and operational troops
poses many challenges, including handling heterogeneous and dynamic
networks, resource constraints, and varying needs for the collection,dissemination, and display of information, as well as recording that
information.

1. First attack described in this paper presents implementation of faked GSM
base station (BTS) that is built on software radio platform USRP and opensource implementation of GSM protocol stack. This allows an attacker to act
as a real GSM BTS in restricted radio spectrum GSM 900/1800 and makes
the mobile phones to communicate with it.

A mapping application that allows teams to share relevant geospatial
information efficiently and to communicate effectively with one another andcommand centers has wide applicability to many vertical markets across the
Department of Defense, as well as a wide variety of federal, state local, andnon-profit agencies that need to share locations, text, photos, and video.
This paper describes the Android Team Awareness Kit (ATAK), an advanced,
distributed tool for commercial- off-the-shelf (COTS) mobile devices suchas smartphones and tablets. ATAK provides a variety of useful SA functions
for soldiers, law enforcement, homeland defense, and civilian collaborativeuse; including mapping and navigation, range and bearing, text chat, force
tracking, geospatial markup tools, image and file sharing, video playback,fire control, site surveys, and many others. This paper describes ATAK, theSA tools that ATAK has built-in, and the ways it is being used by a variety of
military, homeland security, and law enforcement users.

9456-26, Session 6

2. Second type of attack is eavesdropping of communication in real GSM
network using low-cost device USB DVB-T tuner. Data captured withusage of software tool rtl-sdr consists of GSM network signaling and traffic
communication between BTS and mobile phone. There is also de-scribed away how to obtain session ciphering key that allows an attack-er to decrypt
SMS messages as well as voice calls.
3. Last type of attack is catching identity information of subscribers using
tool IMSI catcher. IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) is sensitive
information that identifies subscriber’s SIM card. Knowledge of IMSI by
an attacker is big security issue that allows tracking of sub-scribers in
its area. This and first attack can be performed due to lack of two-way
authentication between GSM and mobile station allowing to impersonate
real network BTS with only two parameters MCC (Mobile country code) andMNC (Mobile network code).
This contribution also summarizes practically proofed and used scenariosthat are performed using open-source software tools and variety of scripts
mostly written in Python.

Adaptive randomized algorithms foranalysis and design of control systems
under uncertain environments
Xinjia Chen, Southern Univ. and A&M College (UnitedStates)70

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9456-28, Session 7

Corp. (United States); Kevin Walter, Physical Optics Corp
(United States)

PACT DSS: a decision support systemfor privacy impact assessment of future
security investments

The effectiveness of Decision Generation Tools depends on successful
extraction of essential events from, usually very large, event space. In thispaper, we propose a new approach of extraction of essential events, based
on topologic visualization of essential (or, rather anomalous) events inbinary event space, called by us Digital Decision Support (DDS) tools. In
this paper, we provide topological visualization of these tools, based on
so-called Digital Topologic Singularities (DTS), in general, and those ofcatastrophes, in particular.

Stelios C.A. Thomopoulos, Dimitris M. Kyriazanos,Anastassios Bravakis, National Ctr. for Scientific Research
Demokritos (Greece); Olga Segou, NCSR Demokritos(Greece)

DTS can be categorized within three (3) major types: Threshold DTS (priorart of-the-expectation incidents); Linear DTS (functions maxima, minima,
inflection points, etc.); non-Linear DTS, the latter ones being various
kinds of mathematical catastrophes, such as fold, cusp, etc. In this paper,
we mostly discuss the 3rd DTS category, as well as we compare themwith the linear DTS, within heuristic machine learning, idealization, andabstraction. The basic flow chart of DDS includes: regression, smoothing
and 2D “analogization” of descrete experimental data; generation of 2Dparametric curves; parametrization-to-continuum (PtC) of these curves into
surface continuum (i.e., 3D “analogization”); and, final discretization (or,quantization) into non-linear DTS (catastrophes).

The PACT Decision Support System (DSS) is a tool for assessing theimpact of future security technology investments and deployments interms of privacy, ethics, social acceptance and public perception. It aims at
assisting the decision process of experts through efficient visualisation andinteraction powered by the software implementation of PACT’s theoreticaland empirical findings.
The DSS methodology begins with the surveillance technology scenario
and use case analysis, identifying in the process the assets to protect. As anext step, legal requirements as well as ethical and societal considerations(the latter being based on the PACT empirical results) are analysed andcorrelated in order to produce threat and impact assessment metrics. The
metrics are then consulted in order to build relevant decision trees which
will support the user in his/her decision making for the selected security
investment.

In this paper, we discuss topological visualization of singularities andanomalies, in the form of: curves, surfaces, spaces, cross-sections, andprojections, in 3D, 4D, and higher spaces.
As a basic physical example, we discuss catastrophes of non-linear harmonic
oscillator, generalized into Bayesian Anomalous Events (or, BAEVENTS).

The PACT DSS is context-specific and it is based on the three contexts
specified in the PACT survey, namely the Travel, Healthcare and Internet.
However, the PACT DSS is modular and extensible, having the ability tointegrate future empirical studies in other contexts, or enrich the existing
contexts without overhead or need for extended offline time for the PACTDSS system. To achieve this, the tool is powered by an extensible data
model and data management algorithms which can adapt the analytical andprediction DSS functionalities to new use cases and datasets.

Long-term potential benefits: more effective Decision Generation Tools
within Command and Control Systems and Technologies.

9456-30, Session 7

The next generation of command postcomputing

PACT DSS aims at the following user-perspective success criteria:
i. Reduction on average decision process time (including collaboration withother users)

Ross D Arnold, Aaron J Lieb, Jason M Samuel, Mitchell A
Burger, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development andEngineering Ctr. (United States)ii. Improving decision specific context visibility & access to necessary
knowledge for related security technologies decision makingiii. Reduction on average time for compiling a privacy impact assessment
reportNo Abstract Available

iv. Convenience and acceptance of the produced PACT impact assessment
report9456-31, Session 7

v. Usability & User friendliness

DXBC: a long distance wireless broadband
communication system for coastal
maritime surveillance applications

vi. Cost effectiveness (value for money)
It should be clearly noted that the PACT DSS is not a legal instrument tool
responsible of taking or validating the legality of the user’s decisions. The
user is the expert responsible of taking decisions, and the PACT DSS is aconvenient and user-friendly tool to help him reach to the decision fasterand with a better view of associated parameters, knowledge and arguments.

Stelios C.A. Thomopoulos, National Ctr. for Scientific
Research Demokritos (Greece); George Vastianos, NCSR
Demokritos (Greece)

It is important to highlight that the design of the PACT DSS is user-driven,and decisions are taken by the users themselves, with the system supporting
the process through multiple modalities and presenting quantitative andqualitative information regarding the impact of each decision path.

The field of Homeland Security focuses on the air, land, and sea borders
surveillance in order to prevent illegal activities while facilitating lawful
travel and trade. The achievement of this goal requires collaboration ofcomplex decentralized systems and services and transfer of huge amountof information between the remote surveillance areas and the command &control centers. It becomes obvious that the effectiveness of the provided
security depends highly on the available communication capabilities
between the interconnected areas. Although nowadays the broadband
communication between remote places is presumed easy because of theextensive infrastructure inside residential areas, it becomes a real challenge
when the required information should be acquired from locations where
no infrastructure is available such as mountain or sea areas. The Integrated
Systems Lab of NCSR Demokritos within the PERSEUS FP7-SEC-2011-261748
project has developed a wireless broadband telecommunication system thatcombines different communication channels from subGHz to microwave
frequencies and provides secure IP connectivity between sea surveillance

1 European Research Project PACT: Public perception of security andprivacy: Assessing knowledge, Collecting evidence, Translating research
into action, FP7-SECURITY-Call4-285635 Capability Project, http://www.
projectpact.eu/

9456-29, Session 7

Anomalies, singularities, and catastrophes
in C3ISR systems
Tomasz P. Jannson, Pedram Boghrat, Thomas C. Forrester,Thomas Nielsen, Andrew A. Kostrzewski, Physical Optics

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71Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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9456-36, Session 8

vessels and the Command and Control Centers over long distances. The
system was deployed in Fast Patrol Boats of the Hellenic Coast Guard thatare used for maritime surveillance in sea boarders and tested successfullyin two demonstration exercises for irregular migration and smuggling
scenarios. This paper describes in detail the system architecture in termsof hardware and software and evaluation measurements of the systemcommunication capabilities.

Flexible fire control system (F2CS)
Jose G. Vergara, U.S. Army Armament Research,
Development and Engineering Ctr. (United States);
Jonathan Leslie, DHPC Technologies, Inc. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9456-32, Session 8

Precision tracking of low radar crosssection targets

9456-38, Session 9

RF photonics for next-generationelectronic warfare (Keynote Presentation)

Amanda Keeshen, U.S. Army Armament Research,
Development and Engineering Ctr. (United States)

Josh Conway, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)

No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9456-33, Session 8

Remote ballistic emplacement of anelectro-optical and acoustic target
detection and localization system9456-39, Session 10

Aaron West, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development
and Engineering Ctr. (United States)(U) The Sensor Mortar Network (SMortarNet) is a 60mm Intelligence,
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) mortar designed to give the Squadnear real-time situational awareness in uncontrolled non-line-of-sight andbeyond-line-of-sight environments with a deployment range up to 3500m.
SMortarNet is designed to track targets both acoustically and electrooptically and can fuse tracks across modalities. The system is linked to othermortar nodes and the user via a masterless, frequency-hopping, spread
spectrum, ad-hoc mesh radio network.
(U) This paper will discuss SMortarNet in the context of a squad level
dismounted soldier, its technical capabilities, and its benefit to the small unit
Warfighter. The challenges with ballistic remote emplacement of sensitive
components and the on-board signal processing capabilities of the system
will also be covered. The paper will also address how the sensor network
can be integrated with existing infrastructure for rapid transition to soldier
systems.

Laser beam propagation through an
atmospheric transitional and turbulent
boundary layer
Richard A. Katz, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

9456-40, Session 10

Challenges of laser beam propagation near
and within the marine boundary layer
Tariq Manzur, Richard A. Katz, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr.
(United States)
No Abstract Available

9456-41, Session 109456-34, Session 8

Picatinny optical detection system (PODS)
Gerard Gaeta, U.S. Army Armament Research,
Development and Engineering Ctr. (United States)

Patterning for success
Theresa Baus, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9456-42, Session 119456-35, Session 8

Various uses for optical metamaterials

Installation as a system

Jose G. Barbosa, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (UnitedStates)Robert Giarratano, Mike Cazzola, U.S. Army Armament
Research, Development and Engineering Ctr. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

72

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Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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9456-43, Session 11

When we take into account the developments and changes with regards
to naval warfare, it may be said that the full-spectrum of Naval Operations
and the scenarios which will be constituted in the near and medium future(3-20 years) shall be more clarified compare to the other military forces.
The concept of network-centric naval warfare and the command control
centers have always and will be dependent on surface, subsurface andflying platforms operating miles apart from each other as well as far fromshore support. In this way the reliance on a “network-centric intelligence”
structure that is fully integrated within this system shall gain infinitely more
importance.

Nonlinear acoustic modeling for undersea
sensors
Richard A. Katz, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

This study will offer solutions for the above stated problems about futurenaval warfare’s need for real-time intelligence and create new types ofprocesses that can operate within traditional intelligence production cycles.
The end desire is the incorporating of the disciplines which currently havea place in producing products within this cycle and successfully transiting
to future technologies capable of exploiting information in the open seas tooperating in narrow seas for NATO Operations.

9456-44, Session 11

Navigational lights color study
Jose G. Barbosa, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (UnitedStates)Outline for the Full Paper

No Abstract Available

Conventional Intelligence Cycle and Collection Disciplines
Conventional Intelligence Architecture and Building

9456-45, Session 11

Necessity for Transition to Intelligence Process and Network-CentricIntelligence (NCI) Structure

Fundamentals of optical signal-based
MWIR uncooled silicon carbide sensor for
DoD/DHS applications

NCI Structure Based On Satellite Model in Use
NCI Model Proposal without Use of Satellite for NATO in Narrow Seas
Conclusions

Geunsik Lim, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

9456-49, Session 12

No Abstract Available

DETERRENCE OF BALLISTIC MISSILESYSTEMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON
TODAT’S AIR OPERATIONS

9456-46, Session 11

Hasan Durak, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)

Image processing in a maritime
environment

Today and in our recent past, the effect-based approach has gained
importance in executed air operations. Thus breaking the enemy’s
determination and making it more successful in achieving the desired resultsin near future. Air force is the first option to be chosen in order to defuse
the strategic objectives. However, the problems such as the defense oftargets and country, radars, range,...etc. becoming as serious problems. At
this level ballistic missiles emerge as a strategic weapon. Ultimate emerging
technologies that can be guided by the INS and GPS can also be engaged
with multiple warheads and reinforced with conventional explosive, ballistic
missiles are weapons that can destroy targets with precision. They havethe advantage of high speed, being to be easily launched from every
platform and not be easily detected by air defense systems as other air
platforms. While these are the advantages, there are also disadvantages ofthe ballistic missiles. The high cost, unavailability of nuclear, biological andchemical weapons, and its limited effect while using conventional explosives
against destroying the fortified targets are the disadvantages. The features
mentioned above should be considered as limiting the impact of theballistic missiles. The aim is to impose the requests to enemies without
starting a war with all components and to ensure better implementationof the operation functions during the air operations. In this study, effectsof ballistic missiles in the future air battle theatre will be discussed in the
beginning, during the process and at the end phase of air operations within
the scope of an effect-based approach.

Kenneth A. Pietrzak, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

9456-47, Session 11

Sea-air boundary meteorological sensor
Jose G Barbosa, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

9456-48, Session 11

the transition from intelligence cycle tointelligence process: network-centric
intelligence in narrow seas
Engin BÜKER, Turkish Naval War College (Turkey)

9456-51, Session 12

In defense technologies where the one who is one step ahead is
advantageous, the most critical step is predicting the next environment andspectrum of warfare. Defense technologies are developing and changing
with an ever increasing acceleration making it difficult to foresee what thebattlefield will look like in 20 years and therefore be able to plan for the
exploitation of the possibly new areas of operations as well as properly
defend against them.

Human factor in future air command andcontrol systems

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Fatih Buyruk, Harun R. Altun, Ferhat Pinar, Turkish Air War
College (Turkey)·

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73Conference 9456: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security, Defense, and Law Enforcement Applications XIV
Command and Control systems have became one of the most importantelements in the use of air power from the period of First World War tothe present time. They’re built on several general functions and renewed
themselves to the needs of the period. When we look at today’s Command
and Control systems, we can see that renewal clearly from their names
such as C4ISR , C4ISTAR , C5I , C5I2 , C5IMP , C5ISR etc. In addition, today’s
Command and Control systems find more places in military operations withmentioning such terms; effect-based approach, comprehensive approach,
network-centric warfare, information superiority, decision superiority etc.
Technology has the biggest role over these terms which are unused untila very short time. The technology is changing very quickly and the area of
operations expanded into different areas such as near-space, space, andcyber space. All these advancements show that operational environmentof future will have a different understanding then today. In the future air
operations, it’s expected that unmanned platforms and decision support
systems will pervade thus human effects are expected to decline in part.
In this article, it’s studied if human factor has an accelerator effect or
prolonging the duration of sensor-to-shooter cycle and slowing down thewhole system on Command and Control systems of future air operations.
In the study, it’s discussed human effects in advanced Air Command andControl systems of modern countries and international organizations. As
a result, it’s appeared that air operation’s density and sensivity increasing
dependence on decision support mechanisms and the interdependence ofthe human factor and technology is shaped according to the level of theoperation.

9456-53, Session 12

Laser-aided navigation system for GPSdenied navigation and recovery
Brian S. Goldberg, Adsys Controls, Inc. (United States)
The prolific reliance of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) on GPS for
navigation has established a key vulnerability point. The ability for jammingand spoofing GPS signals has already been demonstrated and further
exemplifies the need for alternative navigation solutions. Adsys Controls’
Laser Aided Recovery System (LARS) provides 3D precision navigation
with complete independence from GPS and the RF spectrum. This allweather long range navigation system offers a new solution for A2AD aswell as EMCON environments where GPS is vulnerable or RF interference/
jamming is susceptible. The LARS architecture will be discussed, as wellas its applicability to both precision ship-relative navigation and mission
navigation. Field and flight test results will be discussed as well as future
vehicle integration and test plans.

9456-52, Session 12

Future’s operation areas: new-generation
suppression enemy air defence (SEAD)
elements
Ilker Hazinedar, Turkish Air War College (Turkey)
Since air vehicles took place in the theater of operations, they have become
the indispensable elements and the strongest attack power of armed forces.
In the following period, with technological development, supersonic aircrafts
took place in the operation area and this increased effectiveness of air
vehicles much more. Air forces have used these aircrafts during importantmissions like strategic attack and air defence operations.
On the other hand, decision makers understood that it was not feasible tointercept fighter aircrafts by executing combat air patrol flight missions.
Since there is not enough reaction time to intercept the high speed aircrafts,
ground stationed Surface to Air Missiles (SAM) system requirement has
emerged. Therefore, SAM systems took place in the operation scene as well.
Due to the fact that SAM systems emerged against the attack power, theattack aircrafts are to keep away from the fire of the ground stationed SAM
systems. Hence, the requirement of Supression Enemy Air Defence (SEAD)
arose. SEAD elements take under suppression the radar of the SAM systems.
In this way, attack aircrafts are able to attack without the risk of SAM
systems.
The purpose of this study is to find new methods or concepts in order toprotect friendly attack aircrafts against ground based surface to air misilles’fires.
Modernization of SAM systems and new generation SAM system producing
activities have proceeded with pozitive acceleration. So, current SEAD
elements and consepts are not be able to cover the requirements due to theincreased SAM system ranges. According to the concepts, SEAD weapons‘ranges must be longer than the SAM weapons‘ ranges to protect friendly
aircrafts.
In this study, new concept was offered to overcome the deficiencies ofcurrent SEAD concept. The elements of new concepts were put forward.
Classic SEAD concept and new generation concepts were assessed by using
SWOT analysis technique.
As a result, this study has revealed that, air forces’ effectiveness can beenhanced by using new generation SEAD concepts against enemy SAM
systems.

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Conference 9457: Biometric and SurveillanceTechnology for Human and Activity Identification XII
Wednesday 22–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9457 Biometric and Surveillance Technology for Human and Activity
Identification XII

9457-1, Session 1

network properties of the transaction, such as coin flow and the number ofedge outputs and inputs, contribute further to reveal account identity. In
this paper, we propose a novel methodology for identifying and verifying
Bitcoin users based on the observation of Bitcoin transactions over time.
The behavior we attempt to quantify roughly occurs in the social band of
Newell’s time scale. A subset of the Blockchain 230686 is taken, selecting
users that initiated between 100 and 1000 unique transactions per monthfor at least 6 different months. This dataset shows evidence of being
nonrandom and nonlinear, thus a dynamical systems approach is taken.
Classification and authentication accuracies are obtained under various
representations of the monthly Bitcoin samples: outgoing transactions, aswell as both outgoing and incoming transactions are considered, along withthe timing and dynamic network properties of transaction sequences. The
most appropriate representations of monthly Bitcoin samples are proposed.
Results show an inherent lack of anonymity by exploiting patterns in longterm transactional behavior.

Implementation and optimization ofa biometric cryptosystem using irisrecognition
Charles McGuffey, Chen Liu, Stephanie Schuckers, Clarkson
Univ. (United States)
Protecting data is an important part of life in the modern world. The
science of protecting data, known as cryptography, makes use of secretkeys to encrypt data in a format that is not easily decipherable. However,most modern cryptography systems use passwords to perform user
authentication. These passwords are a weak link in the security chain, andare a common point of attack on cryptography schemes. One alternative topassword usage is biometrics, e.g., using a person’s physical characteristics
to verify who the person is and unlock the data correspondingly. This
study provides a concrete implementation of one biometric cryptosystem
of interest. In addition, hardware acceleration has been performed on
the system in order to reduce system runtime and energy usage, whichis compared with software-level code optimization. The experimenttakes place on a Xilinx Zynq-7000 All Programmable SoC. Software
implementation is run on one of the embedded ARM A9 cores while
hardware implementation makes use of the programmable logic. This has
resulted in an algorithm with strong performance characteristics in both
energy usage and runtime.

9457-4, Session 2

Human actions recognition in confined
spaces and under partial observability
constraints
Amir Shirkhodaie, Tennessee State Univ. (United States);
Alex L. Chan, Shuowen Hu, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)

9457-2, Session 1

This paper presents an ontology-based framework for human activity
recognition based on modeling of motions of partially observable humanbody parts within confined spaces. Intuitively, a collective understandingof human body part movements can lead to better understanding andrepresentation of any human actions. In this paper, we proposed an
ontological approach to analyze in-vehicle human activity recognition via
a generative learning scheme, which examines partially observable local
and global motion of the human body parts in order to detect and classify
human actions. Under this scheme, a fast approach is initially applied todetect local observable motions. Then, appearance-based salient motions
are extracted and associated with spatiotemporally tracked humanbody parts. Through this process, the sparse local and global motions ofhuman body parts are co-registered and fused robustly with the relevant
information from local appearance changes. Furthermore, a Hidden Markov
Model (HMM), trained with established human activity ontological patterns,
is developed to recognize spatiotemporal human activities. The proposed
method is evaluated using several datasets and the results are comparedagainst other state-of-the-art methods.

Fingerprint + Iris = IrisPrint
Asem A. Othman, Arun A. Ross, Michigan State Univ.
(United States)
We consider the problem of generating a biometric image from two
different traits. Specifically, we focus on generating an IrisPrint that inherits
its structure from a fingerprint image and an iris image. To facilitate this,the continuous phase of the fingerprint image, characterizing its ridge flow,
is first extracted. Next, a scheme is used to extract minutiae from an iris
image. Finally, an IrisPrint will be created by mixing these components; so
the IrisPrint ridge flow is the ridge flow of the fingerprint and the locationsof its minutiae are the locations of the iris minutiae. Preliminary experiments
on fingerprint and iris datasets suggest that the new biometric image(i.e., IrisPrint) (a) can potentially be used for authentication by an existing
fingerprint system, and (b) can potentially conceal the original fingerprint
and iris images because they cannot be easily matched with the IrisPrint.

9457-6, Session 29457-3, Session 1

Human task performance baseline: resultsfrom a cross-band facial identification
perception study

Identifying Bitcoin users by transaction
behavior
John V. Monaco, Pace Univ. (United States)

Kenneth A. Byrd, Hee-Sue Choi, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)

Digital currencies, such as Bitcoin, offer convenience and security tocriminals operating in the black marketplace. Some Bitcoin marketplaces,such as Silk Road, even claim anonymity. This claim contradicts the findingsin this work, where long term transactional behavior is used to identify andverify account holders. Transaction timestamps and network properties
observed over time contribute to this finding. The timestamp of eachtransaction is the result of many factors: the desire purchase an item, dailyschedule and activities, as well as hardware and network latency. Dynamic

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Cross-band facial recognition is a difficult task, even for the most robust
matching algorithms. Inherent factors such as camera effects (blur, noise,and sampling), and variation in pose and illumination, are known tonegatively affect algorithm performance. Because cross-band matchingalgorithms are in the infancy of development, it is currently unclear if
their performance is superior to human observers performing this task. In·

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75

Conference 9457: Biometric and SurveillanceTechnology for Human and Activity Identification XII
this paper, we present findings from a pilot study aimed at analyzing theability of an ensemble of human observers to perform the 1:N cross-band
facial identification task on degraded facial images, where the probe andgallery images were captured in different spectral bands (visible, SWIR,
MWIR and LWIR). Results from our 11-alternative forced choice perception
study indicate that: 1) a group of observers familiar with even a subset of
subjects in a gallery set are, on average, able to perform the task with higher
probability (p>0.15) than a group of observers with no prior exposure, and2) task performance for both the familiar and unfamiliar groups increased
1.5-3.4% when matching multi-spectral probe images to galleries of 24-bit
color facial images vs. 8-bit monochrome facial images. For the SWIR case,however, we observed a 9.1% increase in performance with 24-bit facial
images vs. 8-bit facial images. Results from this study can be leveraged
for future work directly comparing cross-band matching performance ofhumans vs. algorithms.

9457-7, Session 3

Rapid-DNA as a new biometric forfamily relationship verification (Keynote
Presentation)
Christopher Miles, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

9457-10, Session 4

An indexing method for color iris images
Simona G. Crihalmeanu, Arun A. Ross, Michigan State Univ.
(United States)

9457-8, Session 4

A gallery approach for off-angle irisrecognition
Mahmut Karakaya, Rashiduddin Yoldash, Meliksah Univ.
(Turkey); Christopher B Boehnen, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (United States)
It has been proven that hamming distance score between frontal andoff-angle iris images of same eye differs in iris recognition system. The
distinction of hamming distance score is caused by many factors such asimage acquisition angle, occlusion, pupil dilation, and limbus impact. In thispaper, we first study the effect of the angle variations between iris plane
and the image acquisition systems. We present how hamming distancechanges for different off-angle iris images even if they are coming from thesame iris. We observe that increment in acquisition angle of compared iris
images causes the increment in hamming distance. Second, we propose a
new technique in off-angle iris recognition system that includes creating agallery of different off-angle iris images (such as, 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50
degrees) and comparing each probe image with these gallery images. We
will show the accuracy of the gallery approach for off-angle iris recognition.

9457-9, Session 4

Neurological disorder identification byeye movement biometric using machinelearning schemes

In recent past, many neurological disorders diagnosed with the help ofeye movement signals. Such type of disorders is reflected through theabnormalities of eye movements. This is why eye movement signals arebeing utilized for identification of such brain level abnormalities. The key
factor that is associated with such identification is the combined nature ofhuman eye movement plant and brain stem control. For defense personnel,

SPIE DSS 2015

In this work, we study the possibility of indexing color iris images. In the
proposed approach, a clustering scheme on a training set of iris images isused to determine cluster centroids that capture the chromaticity of theiris texture. An iris image is indexed by comparing its pixels against thesecentroids and determining the dominant clusters - i.e., those clusters towhich the majority of its pixels are assigned to. The cluster indices serveas an index code for an input iris image and are used during the search
process, when an input probe has to be compared with a gallery of irides.
Experiments using multiple color spaces convey the efficacy of the scheme,with hit rates closes to 100% being achieved at low penetration rates.

9457-11, Session 5

Deep learning and face recognition: thestate of the art
Stephen Balaban, Lambda Labs (United States)
Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) have established themselves as a dominant
technique in machine learning. DNNs have been top performers on a wide
variety of tasks including image classification, speech recognition, and facerecognition [1–3]. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have been used innearly all of the top performing methods on the Labeled Faces in the Wild
(LFW) dataset [3–5]. In this talk and accompanying paper, I attempt toprovide a review and summary of the deep learning techniques used in thestate-of-the-art. In addition, I highlight the need for both larger and morechallenging datasets to benchmark these systems.
Despite the ability of DNNs and auto-encoders to perform unsupervised
feature learning, modern facial recognition pipelines still require domain
specific engineering in the form of re-alignment. For example, in Facebook’s
recent DeepFace paper, a 3D “frontalization” step lies at the beginningof the pipeline. This step creates a 3D face model for the incoming image
and then uses a series of affine transformations of the fiducial points to“frontalize” the image. This step enables the DeepFace system to use aneural network architecture with locally connected layers without weightsharing as opposed to standard convolutional layers [5]. Deep learningtechniques combined with large datasets have allowed research groups tosurpass human level performance on the LFW dataset [3].

Vivek Srivastava, Rama Univ. (India); Pipin K. Tripathi,
Harcourt Butler Technological Institute (India); Vinay K
Pathak, HBTI KANPUR (India)

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timely identification of neurological disorders plays crucial role in orderto prevent the degree of such disorders from mild to severe as they havehigher chance for repeated trauma. Further, eye movement biometricfeatures extracted from eye movement signals are being used for suchdiagnosis due to its intrinsic discrimination properties and associatedbrain level activity. In this paper, we investigated the mild traumatic brain
injury (m-TBI) neurological disorder identification by eye movement
biometric through intelligent machine learning schemes. Three different
approaches have been involved in intelligent machine learning scheme: firstis evolutionary fuzzy clustering, second is supervised neural network andthird is the fusion of evolutionary fuzzy clustering with neural network. We
assessed the three comparative analyses of intelligent machine learning
for m-TBI identification from eye movement signals. Velocity threshold
identification algorithm is employed for fixation identification from raw eye
movement signals. After that, biometric feature vectors are derived fromobtained fixations and saccades. The m-TBI quantitative features (fixation
count, fixation duration, vectorial saccade amplitude, fixation quantitativescore, simple overshoot, multi-corrected undershoot and the agonist
muscle activation-time constant) are generated through achieved biometricfeatures. Based on the threshold, disorder is identified. The results obtained
through our experiments over eye movement signals demonstrate thepromising outcome for m-TBI diagnosis.

The high accuracy (99.15% face verification accuracy for DeepID2) and·www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9457: Biometric and SurveillanceTechnology for Human and Activity Identification XII

9457-13, Session 5

utilization of outside data (millions of images in the case of Facebook’s
DeepFace) suggest that current face datasets such as LFW may not bechallenging enough for current techniques [3]. There exist a variety oforganizations with mobile photo sharing applications that would be capableof releasing a very large scale and highly diverse dataset of facial images
captured on mobile devices. Such an “ImageNet for Face Recognition”
would likely receive a warm welcome from researchers and practitioners
alike.

Privacy issues related to fingerprint
recognition systems
Emanuela Marasco, West Virginia Univ. (United States);
Bojan Cukic, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte(United States)

Citations:[1] O. Russakovsky, J. Deng, H. Su, J. Krause, S. Satheesh, S. Ma, Z. Huang,
A. Karpathy, A. Khosla, M. Bernstein, A. C. Berg, and L. Fei-Fei, “ImageNet
Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge.” 2014.

When deploying biometrics for personal recognition, along with security
and convenience, comes a concern for information privacy. Information
privacy addresses issues related to the use of information pertaining toan individual. Biometrics applications typically require a central databaseof gallery data containing relevant information about each authorizedindividual, to guard against multiple enrollment attempts. Such centralized
storage causes higher privacy concerns compared to applications in which
the individual’s data is stored in separate locations, for example, on a card.
The constitutional right of privacy affects biometrics used in government
mandated applications. An individual who provides a biometrics possesses
legal rights; and, the government collecting the biometric is responsible forthe acquired data. A common question people ask is: “Can a citizen refuse
to provide a biometric identifier?”. Identity fraud and terrorism are relevant
problems. Biometrics can help to protect against them if used properly. But
protections against misuse of biometric data are important as well.

[2] G. Hinton, L. Deng, D. Yu, G. E. Dahl, A.-r. Mohamed, N. Jaitly, A. Senior, V.
Vanhoucke, P. Nguyen, T. N. Sainath, and others, “Deep neural networks foracoustic modeling in speech recognition: The shared views of four researchgroups,” Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE, vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 82–97, 2012.
[3] Y. Sun, X. Wang, and X. Tang, “Deep learning face representation by joint
identification-verification,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.4773, 2014.
[4] G. B. Huang, M. Mattar, T. Berg, and E. Learned-Miller, “E.: labeled faces
in the wild: A database for studying face recognition in unconstrained
environments,” 2007.
[5] Y. Taigman, M. Yang, M. Ranzato, and L. Wolf, “DeepFace: Closing the
Gap to Human-Level Performance in Face Verification,” in Conference on
computer vision and pattern recognition (cVPR), 2014.

Fingerprint scanners are being used for unlocking the phone (e.g., iPhone
5S) or to make purchases. Risks associated with the possibility of making
a person’s fingerprint public cause insecurity and distrust. A further
application which raises serious questions about privacy is the Mobile
Offender Recognition and Information System (MORIS) [3] designed to
improve speed and accuracy of police work. MORIS can photograph theface of a person and match it to a database of US criminals without theperson being aware of it. This device may potentially become a de-facto
surveillance system; thus, many concerns about privacy have risen up.
Additionally, the wide use of facial recognition technology, such as on
Facebook, is arising privacy concerns. Facial recognition technology can beused without the knowledge or consent of the individual, and anonymity
is not guaranteed. For instance, a face photo captured by someone can beused for a match against a database. If an individual goes in a store, video
cameras capture the face and enroll him / her in a database that allows fora possible identification in the future. Furthermore, IPhone 6 iris scanners[1] [2] may be used by police as help to identify people or to track criminal
suspects. Associated iris-scan databases would raise privacy concerns.
Iris recognition technology should be able to address privacy issues
because subjects have to agree / participate to enroll images of their irises.
However, privacy concerns have prevented the Department of Homeland
Security from installing iris scanners at U.S. airports. Also the American
Civil Liberties Union considers eye-tracking technology as a privacy threat,when iris scans can be acquired “at-a-distance” and without the subject’s
knowledge. Finally, advances in human genomic research cause worries
about the possibility of inferring medical information from the data stored
for identification purpose.

9457-12, Session 5

Computational cameras for iris recognition
Scott McCloskey, Sharath Venkatesha, Honeywell
Automation & Control Solutions (United States)
Iris-based biometric identification is increasingly used for facility access andother security applications. Like all methods that exploit visual information,
however, iris systems are limited by the quality of captured images. Opticaldefocus due to a small depth of field (DOF) is one such challenge, as is theacquisition of sharply-focused iris images from subjects in motion. At ahigh level, there are two complementary approaches to dealing with image
quality limitations. One is to make the matching algorithm more robust to
image quality loss, through multi-biometric fusion or by extracting featureswith invariance to blur. A second approach, which we pursue, is using nontraditional cameras to capture iris images which make matching easier indifficult settings.
Traditional imaging is constrained by a number of well-known tradeoffs. In
low-light environments - which are common for indoor, uncooperative irisrecognition – the well-known photographic tradeoff is between a longexposure, small-aperture exposure and a short duration exposure with alarger aperture. As illustrated in Figure 1, this amounts to a tradeoff between
motion and optical blur due to subject movement and limited depth of field,
respectively. Despite the rapid improvement in solid state sensor resolution,
this tradeoff will persist due to the limits of the photon conversion process(existing back-illuminated CCDs already have quantum efficiencies above
90%).

9457-14, Session 5

Anti-spoofing for display and print attacks
on palmprint verification systems

Computational cameras are becoming more prevalent, with Lytro’s releaseof a consumer-grade light field camera, and with the increasing adoptionof computational photographic techniques (high dynamic range imaging,panoramic stitching, refocusing, etc.) in mobile phone cameras. In thistalk, I will describe the performance of two computational photographic
techniques for iris recognition: coded exposure and motion invariance.
Both combine non-traditional image capture with image post-processing
to reduce artifacts arising from motion de-blurring, but differ significantly
in important ways that impact the design of iris recognition systems. Our
experiments show that, in a real world system where subject velocity is
unknown, motion invariance provides the best recognition performance aslong as a suitably-chosen Point Spread Function (PSF) is de-convolved.

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Vivek Kanhangad, Shruti Bhilare, Pragalbh Garg,
Pranjalya Singh, Narendra S. Chaudhari, Indian Institute ofTechnology Indore (India)
A number of approaches for personal authentication using palmprintfeatures have been proposed in the literature, majority of which focus on
improving the matching performance. However, of late, preventing potential
attacks on biometrics system has become a major concern as more andmore biometric systems get deployed for wide range of applications.
Among various types of attacks, sensor level attack, commonly known as
spoof attack, has emerged as the most common attack due to simplicity
in its execution, wherein a spoof palmprint is presented in place of a valid·

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77Conference 9457: Biometric and SurveillanceTechnology for Human and Activity Identification XII
biometric to get illegitimate access. In this paper, we present an approachfor detection of display and print based spoof attacks on palmprint
verification systems. The approach is based on the analysis of acquired hand
images for estimating surface reflectance. First and higher order statisticalfeatures computed from the distribution of pixel intensities and sub-band
wavelet coefficients form the feature set. A trained binary classifier utilizes
the discriminating information to determine if the acquired image is of real
hand or a fake one. Experiments are performed on a publicly available hand
image dataset, containing 1300 images corresponding to 230 subjects.
Display and print spoof images used in our experiments were created using
real hand images present in this dataset. Experimental results show thatthe real hand biometrics samples can be substituted by the fake digitalor print copies with an alarming spoof acceptance rate as high as 79.8%.
Experimental results also show that the proposed spoof detection approachis effective for discriminating between real and fake palmprint images. The
proposed approach consistently achieves over 99% average 10-fold crossvalidation classification accuracy in our experiments. Experimental resultspresented in this paper suggest that the feature set explored in this work
carries adequate information to discriminate between images of real hand
and the spoof copies.

9457-16, Session 5

Biometrics and IRB best practices
Christopher B Boehnen, Oak Ridge National Lab. (UnitedStates); David Bolme, UT-Battelle (United States); Patrick
Flynn, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States)
Biometrics research is inherently tied to the Institutional Review Board(IRB) system for the majority of the world for legal and ethical reasons. IRB
approval is required for two reasons. First, because interaction with a humanbeing in a research setting requires an IRB. Second because even if theresearch does not interact with a person if it uses data that is individually
identifiable such as in a face image dataset downloaded from the internet
it falls under IRB purview. This paper will discuss the intricacies of IRB bestpractices within the biometrics community. This is important because humansubjects research decisions are made at a local level at which precedent,
i.e. the decisions of another IRB board, is not relevant to the decision a
specific board makes. In many cases what one board approves would not beapproved by another board. This results in significant inconsistencies thatis a disadvantage to both the researcher and human subjects. Further, as
many IRB boards are unfamiliar with the intricacies of biometrics research
they are commonly not qualified as to how best evaluate these protocols.
This publication will attempt to define best practice recommendations for
performing human subjects research in the biometrics community. However,
it is in no way a legal opinion nor does it in any way bind the actions of an
IRB. It is merely the opinion of its authors and is presented as such.

9457-17, Session 6

Open-set speaker identification withdiverse-duration speech data
Rawande Karadaghi, Heinz Hertlein, Aladdin M.
Ariyaeeinia, Univ. of Hertfordshire (United Kingdom)
The concern in this paper is an important category of applications of openset speaker identification in criminal investigation, which involves operatingwith short and varied duration speech. Speaker identification is a main
subclass of speaker recognition, defined as determining the correct speakerof a given test utterance from a registered population. When the processincludes the option of declaring that the test utterance does not belong to
any of the registered speakers, then it is specifically referred to as open-set
speaker identification (OS-SI). Moreover, if the utterances used for training
and testing are not constrained to be of the same linguistic content, theprocess is called open-set, text-independent speaker identification. This is
the most challenging subclass of speaker recognition and has a wide range
of applications in such areas as audio indexation, surveillance,and screening.

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SPIE DSS 2015·

This study presents investigations into the adverse effects, on the accuracyof open-set speaker identification, of operating with short and varied
duration speech. The work is based on the use of the well-established
GMM-UBM technique and the i-vector method, which is the state-of-the art
approach. The experiments are conducted using a protocol developed for
the OS-SI task, based on the NIST speaker recognition evaluation corpus of2008. In order to closely cover the real-world operating conditions in theconsidered application area, the study includes experiments with various
combinations of training and testing data duration. The experimental
results corresponding to these considered scenarios are presented andanalysed in terms of the accumulated error rate, which is an error measuredesigned specifically for the evaluation of OS-SI. In order to facilitate thecomparative analysis of the various classification approaches on the basis of
the accumulated error rate, a novel score range normalisation technique isintroduced in this paper.
The experimental results show that, as expected, with sufficient enrolment
and test data, the state-of-the art approaches such as i-vector (withintra-speaker variability compensation) attain a high degree of accuracy inopen-set speaker identification and offer significant improvement over more
traditional techniques. However, when the reference data is of short andvaried duration, the i-vector technique offers only marginal improvement
over bilateral GMM-UBM (with score normalisation). Furthermore, if thereference data is too short or if both reference and test data are of varied
duration, a significant drop in the OS-SI accuracy is experienced. In this case,there appears to be little difference between the effectiveness achievable
by various approaches considered in the study. The paper details thecharacteristics of the experimental investigations conducted and provides athorough analysis of the results obtained.

9457-18, Session 6

Multisensor concealed weapon detection
using the image fusion approach
Tuzhi Xu, Q. M. Jonathan Wu, Univ. of Windsor (Canada)
In this paper, an effective concealed weapon detection (CWD) algorithm
based on image fusion is presented. For CWD application, the fused image
is desirable to provide the information on both the concealed weapons
from an infrared (IR) or millimeter wave (MMW) sensor image and theappearance of suspects from a visual sensor image. Motivated by the aim of
CWD application, special fusion algorithm have been developed. First, theimages obtained using different sensors are decomposed into low and highfrequency bands using double-density dual-tree complex wavelet transform(DDDTCWT) with sixteen orientations, which is nearly shift-invariance andable to provide directional selectivity. Two different novel decision methods
are then introduced referring to the characteristics of the frequency bands
and the fusion objective, which significantly improves the image fusion
performance for CWD application. An adaptive weighted average strategy
based on the local contrast is applied to low frequency band coefficients
which reflect the coarser approximation of the original image. The regions
having high brightness contain the concealed weapon information in
the special sensor image and the appearance information in the visual
image and the areas in the other image corresponding to the high brightregions are normally darker. Thus, the local contrast of the corresponding
coefficients in the two images is used to decide the weight and the brighter
areas are preferable. The high frequency band fusion rule is developed byconsidering both the texture feature of the human visual system (HVS)
and the local energy basis. Noise Visibility Function (NVF) is used as atexture masking to estimate the edge and texture information in the detailcoefficients and the local energy is applied to improve the accuracy ofthe estimation. Finally, the fused image is obtained through the inverse
DDDTCWT. Experiments and comparisons demonstrate the robustness andefficiency of the proposed approach and indicate that the proposed fusion
rules can be applied to different multiscale transforms and achieve better
performance in comparison with existing approaches. Also, the experiments
show that the fusion results using the proposed fusion rules on DDDTCWT is
superior to other combinations as well as previously proposed approaches.

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Conference 9457: Biometric and SurveillanceTechnology for Human and Activity Identification XII

9457-19, Session 7

Human analytics: challenges andopportunitites
Ioannis A. Kakadiaris, Univ. of Houston (United States)
No Abstract Available

9457-20, Session 7

An automated watchlist identification
system for higher security at the bordercrossings
Ajay Kumar, The Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ. (HongKong, China)
Currently available methods of watchlist identification at border-crossingsare largely manual and/or operate under constrained settings that require
high degree of cooperation from the users. The use of facial masks andmakeup, which can also be due to religious belief and/or practices, have
posed new challenges on commonly practiced face recognition based
watchlist identification. Therefore the screening process at border-crossingsis often not accurate and/or is highly time-consuming, especially when alarge number of subjects/suspects are to be examined. Therefore there ispressing need to develop an automated system for border-crossings thatcan examine vital details from around the eyes which are more effectively/
conveniently observed under multispectral illumination, identify spoof/fakebiometric features, and operate in least constrained manner. This paper
details the development of such a unique watchlist identification system(along with the hardware and software) using simultaneous multispectral
imaging of passengers passing through the immigration crossings. The
developed system can also generate alerts even for the non-watchlist
passengers whenever spoof biometric samples, like face masks or iris
stamps, are suspected. We detail and describe the development of such
system and present performance evaluation from the online images
acquired under less-constrained environment. The developed system hasa range of applications from immigration crossings using e-channel andpassport inspections, to law-enforcement and helpful in providing early
warning support for the protection against criminals/terrorist and otherhuman-based threats.

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79Conference 9458: Cyber Sensing 2015
Tuesday 21–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9458 Cyber Sensing 2015

9458-1, Session 1

anomalies, learning the usual addresses of connections to a node, observing
Internet addresses (since rarely should external sites connect to an ICS),
observing anomalous network protocols such as unencrypted data transfers,
observing unusual scheduled tasks, and comparing key files through registry
entries and hash values to find possible malicious modifications. We tested
our methods on actual data from ICSs including publicly-available data,
voluntarily-submitted data, and researcher-provided “advanced persistent
threat” data. We found a number of instances of interesting behavior in our
experiments. Intrusions were generally easy to see because of the repetitive
nature of processing on ICSs, but operators need to be motivated to look.

Image reconstruction from sub-aperturesof circular spotlight SAR
Xiaohui Yuan, Univ. of North Texas (United States); Igor V.
Ternovskiy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9458-2, Session 1

9458-4, Session 2

Testing simple deceptive honeypot tools

Situational consciousness for autonomous
cyberspace operations (Keynote
Presentation)

Aymen Yahyaoui, Tunisian Air Force (Tunisia); Neil C.
Rowe, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)
Deception can be a useful defensive technique against cyber-attacks; it has
the advantage of unexpectedness to attackers and offers a variety of tactics.
Honeypots are a good tool for deception. They act as decoy computers to
confuse attackers and exhaust their time and resources. This work tested
the effectiveness of two free honeypot tools in real networks by varying
their location and virtualization, and the effects of adding more deception
to them. We tested a Web honeypot tool, Glastopf (www.glastopf.org), andan SSH honeypot tool, Kippo (code.google.com/p/kippo). We deployed
the Web honeypot in both a residential network and our organization’s
network in the form of several virtual machines; the organization honeypot
attracted more attackers starting in the third week. Results also showedthat the virtual honeypots received attacks from more unique IP addresses.
They also showed that adding deception to the Web honeypot, in the formof additional linked Web pages and interactive features, generated moreinterest by attackers. For the purpose of comparison, we used examined
log files of a legitimate Web-site www.cmand.org. The traffic distributions
for the Web honeypot and the legitimate website showed similarities (withmuch malicious traffic from Brazil), but the SSH honeypot was different(with much malicious traffic from China). Contrary to previous experiments
where traffic to static honeypots decreased after the first two weeks, ourhoneypots received increasing traffic over a period of three months. It
appears that both honeypot tools are useful for providing intelligence aboutcyber-attack methods, and that additional deception is helpful.

9458-3, Session 1

A prototype forensic toolkit for industrialcontrol-systems incident response
Nickolas B Carr, U.S. Department of Homeland Security(United States); Neil C. Rowe, Naval Postgraduate School(United States)

SPIE DSS 2015

No Abstract Available

9458-5, Session 2

Qualia centric hypothetical thinking:applications to vehicle tracking with thefusion of EO and SAR input data sources(Invited Paper)
Jonathan L. White, Harding Univ. (United States); AnthonyHelmstetter, Arizona State Univ. (United States); Jared L.
Culbertson, Igor V. Ternovskiy, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
In this work, we present a novel improvement to classical vehicle tracking
algorithms by implementing a three-tier architecture consisting of a datacentric vehicle tracker paired with a hypothetical thinking layer that iscontrolled by an overarching goal layer – this models more effectively how ahuman thinks about and analyzes situations like vehicle tracking. The upper
two layers are disassociated from the data itself and instead operate fromthe idea of qualia in event space. Our proof-of-concept results show how aclassical vehicle tracker can be improved by fusing multiple input sources
using coincident SAR and EO data paired with a thinking layer that is able todetect, hypothesize, and resolve conflicts.

9458-6, Session 2

Addressing cyber information overloadwith cognitive modeling constructs

Industrial control systems (ICSs) are an important part of criticalinfrastructure in cyberspace. They are especially vulnerable to cyberattacks because of their legacy hardware and software and the difficultyof changing it. We first survey the history of intrusions into ICSs, themore serious of which involved a continuing adversary presence on an
ICS network. We discuss some common vulnerabilities and the categoriesof possible attacks, noting the frequent use of software written a longtime ago. We propose a framework for designing ICS incident response
under the constraints that no new software must be required and thatinterventions cannot impede the continuous processing that is the norm
for such systems. We then discuss a prototype toolkit we built using theWindows Management Instrumentation Command-Line (WMIC) tool for
host-based analysis and the Bro intrusion-detection software for networkbased analysis. Particularly useful techniques we used were learning thehistorical range of parameters of numeric quantities so as to recognize

80

Steven K. Rogers, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Sandra L. Vaughan, Air Force Institute of Technology(United States) and U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency(United States); Robert F. Mills, Michael R. Grimaila, Gilbert
L. Peterson, Air Force Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Steven K. Rogers, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Information overload and critical human resource shortages have resulted in
unprecedented cyber domain vulnerabilities. Inspired by human intelligence,
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Computational Intelligence (CI) have provided
successful engineering solutions in complex domains including cyber.
Current AI/CI approaches aggregate large volumes of data to infer the·

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Conference 9458: Cyber Sensing 2015
general from the particular, i.e. Inductive reasoning, and generally cannot
infer answers not previously programmed. Whereas humans, rarely able toreason over large volumes of data, have successfully evolved and reached
the top of the food chain by inferring situations from partial or even partiallyincorrect information, i.e. abductive reasoning; generating a hypotheticalexplanation of the observations.

Assessing and quantifying cyber risk accurately in real-time is essential toproviding security and mission assurance in any system and network. This
paper presents a modeling and dynamic analysis approach to assessing
cyber risk of a network in real-time by representing dynamically its
vulnerabilities, exploitations, and impact using integrated Bayesian network,
Markov and state-space models. Given the set of vulnerabilities detected bya vulnerability scanner in a network, this paper addresses how its risk canbe assessed by estimating in real-time the exploit likelihood and impact ofvulnerability exploitation on the network, based on real-time observations
and measurements over the network. The dynamic representation of
the network in terms of its vulnerabilities, sensor measurements, andobservations is built dynamically using the integrated Bayesian network,
Markov and state-space models. The transition rates of outgoing andincoming links of states in hidden Markov models are used in determining
exploit likelihood and impact of attacks, while emission rates help determine
the attack states of vulnerabilities. State-space model and Kalman filter are
employed to estimate the range of changes in state variables. Simulations
are conducted for performance analysis.

Humans do not store the details of experiences; we store the significant
components of experiences which cognitive researchers have defined asconceptual knowledge, and are represented computationally as prototypicalschemas. Conceptual knowledge is brought to bear in human abductive
reasoning and situational awareness.
Cognitive research has focused on understanding and predicting humancognitive processes and behavior by developing computational Cognitive
Modeling Architectures (CMAs). In this research, conceptual knowledge,
abstracted from individual events, will be captured in a prototypical schemaand processed in a CMA for improved situational awareness in areas wheredata overload has become a significant challenge to human operators. The
underlying methodology and theories are generalizable to any domain.

9458-9, Session 39458-7, Session 3

ASN Reputation System Model

On a simulation study for reliable andsecured smart grid communication

Steve Hutchinson, ICF International (United States); Robert
F. Erbacher, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Sriharsha Mallapuram, Paul Moulema, Wei Yu, Towson Univ.
(United States)

All traffic on the Internet, indeed every packet, is routed over the multiple
links from source to destination via the Boundary Gateway Protocol.
This routing protocol uses the autonomous system number (ASN) of thedestination to select the ‘best’ communications link for the next hop,
between routers. In intelligence gathering for cyber defense, we frequently
need to determine the actual source of suspicious traffic. Unfortunately,
the readily observable features of traffic can easily be spoofed, or are
highly variable, so as to be useless in source attribution. An organization,company, group, is assigned an (usually one) ASN that specifically labels
one or more ranges of IP addresses in that organization’s network, thus the
ASN is a long-term stable attribute that links all disparate IP address rangesof that organization’s network. This paper describes the results of analysisof 7-years of actual malware incident reports as documented by a cyberdefense operation. A reputation system and model for suspicious ASNs wasdeveloped, and evaluated on a set of recent reports to show the strengthof correlation between current and past hostile IP addresses, linked by acommon ASN. Lastly, we propose an IP-to-ASN cache model of past hostile
ASNs with associated IP ranges for use in predicting the maliciousness of anobserved IP address, linked with a known-hostile, or ‘tainted’ ASN.

The smart grid is the integration of information and communication
technologies and renewable energy resources into the traditional power
grid with a vision of providing a reliable, efficient, and environment friendly
energy services through two-way energy and information flow between
customers and utilities. The smart grid integrates components from both
physical world (power grid) and the cyber world (communication network).
These two domains are intertwined and designed to work cooperatively
with intensive interaction between them. While various technologies
and solutions have being proposed to address reliability, cost-efficiency,
interoperability, communications challenges of the smart grid, there isa need to study and evaluate these technologies in a safe and reusable
environment prior to real-world. Therefore, a software-based co-simulation
framework is an adequate environment to conduct such studies. By
integrating power grid and communication network within a single unified
simulation framework, the co-simulation takes into account the hybrid andheterogeneous nature of smart grid and allows evaluating the system as awhole and studying mutual impacts and dependencies between the cyberworld and the physical world.
In this paper, we design and develop a co-simulation framework that
integrates two independent simulators: MATLAB for power systems
distribution and NS-2 for the communication network. To achieve highlevel of accuracy, our developed co-simulation framework integrates
synchronization mechanisms to address the disparity between a continuoustime-based simulator (power grid) and a discrete event-based simulator(communication network simulator). Because the smart grid is an energybased critical infrastructure, the resilience of the smart grid is critical.
We then consider two groups of co-simulation scenarios to evaluate theresilience of the smart grid against failures and attacks. The first groupinvolves the simulations of faults and failures in the physical domain (e.g.
transmission lines and power generation failures) whereas the second groupfocuses on the simulations of cyber-attacks that affect network transmission
delay, packet delivery, and power grid operations.

9458-10, Session 3

CyberSecurity for aerospace autonomous
systems
Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
High profile breaches have occurred across all types of information systems:
from business systems to systems that manage and support guidance,
navigation and control. One area where these attacks are, perhaps, among
the most problematic is autonomous control systems. Unlike manual control
approaches, where typical verification and non-repudiation techniques canbe used to verify that the two communicating parties are who they claim
and transmissions have not been altered in route, autonomous systems
present a distinct challenge. An autonomous system can, prospectively, becompromised by attacks against the AI (which seek to control it, overwhelm
it or otherwise) as well as attacks against the supporting systems which the
AI relies upon.

9458-8, Session 3

Risk assessment by dynamic
representation of vulnerability,
exploitation, and impact

This paper considers the aerospace information system with a particularfocus on elements that interact with autonomous control systems (e.g.,
onboard UAVs). It discusses the trust that is placed in the autonomous
systems and supporting systems (such as navigational aids) and how thistrust can be validated and if it is well placed. It considers technologies that

Hasan Cam, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

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81Conference 9458: Cyber Sensing 2015
would support reducing the reliance of the next generation of autonomous
control software on these external information suppliers and validation
techniques that could be used to determine when to transition from theless computationally expensive (and prospectively more accurate) external
positioning technologies to other positioning systems. It also discusses
approaches to remotely detect the compromise of UAVs, without relying
on the onboard software (on a potentially compromised system) as part ofthe process and how different levels of autonomy (task-based, goal-based,
mission-based) impact this remote characterization. The paper concludes
with a discussion of the impact of information warfare on autonomous
systems and their efficacy and ethical questions regarding their deployment
when their security may be questionable.

degree. From databases and private information that stored in governmental
institutions, to power plants, waterworks, communications networks andnavigation systems; many governmental institutions and services are indanger now. Superfluity of threats, dangers and consequences, all became
a non-ignorable reality. Adding this reality the data transfer speed, it will
come into light that building effective and strong defence systems, creating
an awareness and consciousness on the matter are of great importance.
Although it is a relatively new field, there are excess studies and wide rangeof content on the subject. Setting out all evidences, a final assessment thatshow the significance of cyber security for national security has been madein this study. Suggestions on the precautions have also been presented in all
individual, institutional and national level

9458-11, Session 39458-14, Session 4

Cybercrime and prospect theory:
Considerations for policy efforts and theframing of ‘cyber warfare’

Network systems security analysis
Ismail Yilmaz, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)

Wesley Beaver, Oxford Internet Institute (United Kingdom)
No Abstract Available

9458-12, Session 4

Is cyber warfare threat or advantage for air
operations ?
Harun R. Altun, Fatih Buyruk, Ferhat Pinar, Turkish Air War
College (Turkey)
In the age of modern warfare, the first and second world wars in the 19th
century have direct effects on scientific studies. Scientific studies in the
military field has caused ease or difficulties in human life. The weapons usedin military operations has changed and developed. New equipments were
technologically. Therefore, advances in technology have been very effectivein military equipments. Rifles, tanks, planes, ships, helicopters began to
be technology based. Emerging technology with air tools, weapons andplatforms has changed and developed. Air weapons used in operations andplatforms are known to be in the advanced level of addiction to technology.
Therefore the increased dependency of cyber environment. In 21st century
Cyberspace has been considered as the fifth operations environment afterland, sea, air and space. Equipments used in air operations, have evolved
by means of technology. In this way, rapid response, high precision, lowcollateral damage and minimum human loss standards has been improved.
However, the development of cyberspace has driven a great effect ontechnology-based weapons systems. As the dependence of weaponssystems on technology has increased, dependence on cyber environment
increased accordingly. In recent air campaigns, cyber operations has also
taken part in the theater. Cyber operations used in the air strikes have led
to different results. In the future, it is assessed that the use of cyber warfare
will increase in air operations. In this study cyber operation strategies in air
campaigns was analyzed in case studies. Cyber warfare is assessed to be theindispensible part of future air and space campaigns.

9458-13, Session 4

Turkey’s cyber security perception andthe portion of cyber security in national
defence
Mahmut Tükenmez, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)
Technology is constantly progressing and it has begun to impact our daily
lives to an alarming extent. Internet passed beyond being a facility tool andbegan an important medium that is actually necessary. Thus, Internet andour daily lives integrated and imperil our personal information, of equal

82

SPIE DSS 2015·

Network Systems Security Analysis has utmost importance in today’s world.
Many companies, like banks which give priority to data management, test
their own data security systems with “Penetration Tests” by time to time.
In this context, companies must also test their own network/server systems
and take precautions, as the data security draws attention.Based on thisidea, the study cyber-attacks are researched throughoutly and Penetration
Test technics are examined. With these information on, classification ismade for the cyber-attacks and later network systems’ security is tested
systematically. After the testing period, all data is reported and filed for
future reference.
Consequently, it is found out that human beings are the weakest circle ofthe chain and simple mistakes may unintentionally cause huge problems.
Thus, it is clear that some precautions must be taken to avoid such threats
like updating the security software.

9458-15, Session 4

Efficient non-resonant absorptionof electromagnetic radiation in thin
cylindrical targets: experimental
demonstration
Andrey Akhmeteli, LTASolid Inc. (United States); Nikolay
G. Kokodiy, Boris V. Safronov, Valeriy P. Balkashin, Ivan
A. Priz, V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National Univ. (Ukraine);
Alexander Tarasevitch, Univ. Duisburg-Essen (Germany)
A theoretical possibility of non-resonant, fast, and efficient (up to
40 percent and more) heating of very thin conducting cylindricaltargets by broad electromagnetic beams was predicted in [Akhmeteli,arXiv:physics/0405091 and 0611169] based on rigorous solution of
the diffraction problem. The diameter of the cylinder can be orders ofmagnitude smaller than the wavelength (for the transverse geometry) or
the beam waist (for the longitudinal geometry) of the electromagnetic
radiation. This can be used for numerous applications, such as pumpingof active media of shortwavelength lasers, e.g., through efficient heatingof nanotubes with laser radiation. Experimental confirmation of theabove results is presented [Akhmeteli, Kokodiy, Safronov, Balkashin, Priz,
Tarasevitch, arXiv:1109.1626 and 1208.0066]. Significant (up to 6% vs.
theoretical prediction of 12%) absorption of microwave power focusedon a thin fiber (the diameter is three orders of magnitude less than the
wavelength) by an ellipsoidal reflector is demonstrated experimentally.
These results can be greatly improved via optimization of the reflector
shape. For the longitudinal geometry, experiments provide a confirmationof significant absorption (20-25% vs. theoretical prediction of 40%) of
the power of a wide CO2 laser beam propagating along a thin wire (thediameter of the wire is two orders of magnitude less than the beam
waist width).

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Conference 9458: Cyber Sensing 2015

9458-16, Session 4

Cyber warfare and electronic warfare
integration in the operational environmentof the future: Cyber Electronic Warfare
Osman Askin, Riza Irmak, Mustafa Avsever, Turkish War
Colleges, Turkish Naval War College (Turkey)
For the states with advanced technology, effective use of electronic
warfare and cyber warfare will be the main determining factor of winninga war in the future’s operational environment. The developed states will
be able to finalize the struggles they have entered with a minimum of
human casualties and minimum cost thanks to high-tech. Considering theincreasing number of world economic problems, the development of humanrights and humanitarian law it is easy to understand the importance ofminimum cost and minimum loss of human. In this paper, cyber warfare andelectronic warfare concepts are examined in conjunction with the historicaldevelopment and the relationship between them is explained. Finally,assessments were carried out about the use of cyber electronic warfare in
the coming years.

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83Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII
Tuesday - Wednesday 21–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9459 Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII

9459-1, Session 1

This paper intends to not only show what is the “world of the possible”
for these four O&G architectures, but also how these four commercial
architectures map into defense applications.

An overview of underwater blue-green
optical communications (Invited Paper)
Greg Mooradian, Mooradian & Associates, Inc. (UnitedStates); Michael Lovern, Space and Naval Warfare Systems
Ctr. Pacific (United States)
Energy in the blue-green spectrum is the only electro-magnetic radiation
which can transfer information at operationally significant data rates touseful ranges through seawater. In addition to fundamental propagation
physics, the lack of stealth and the susceptibility to jamming also impacts
the viability of both acoustic and electro-magnetic communications
systems.

9459-3, Session 1

High bandwidth underwater opticalcommunications: overview and practicalapplications
Norman E. Farr, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution(United States)

The overall objective of this paper is to not only review what has been
done in the past, but also address both the scope of performance that is
possible (e.g., data rate and range), as well as address relevant engineering
considerations (e.g., size, weight, and power) to begin predicting capabilities
for a variety of innovative architectures that support critical undersea
applications. This paper will provide an understanding of the fundamental
phenomenology and system architecture issues attendant to making apractical/viable underwater blue-green optical communications system.

The optical communications group at Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution (WHOI) has demonstrated high-bandwidth underwater wirelesscommunication for the purposes of video transmission, data harvesting,and vehicle control. The optical communications group, in concert with
WHOI’s Deep Submergence Laboratory and Sonardyne International,
has demonstrated an untethered, remotely controlled vehicle performing
manipulation tasks at ranges up to 100 meters. A high ambient light
optical system has been used to perform bi-directional video transmission
and vehicle control at shorter ranges. A data harvesting operation has
successfully recovered 0.25GB of data from a seafloor observatory in
2,500 meters of water using a very modest “ship of opportunity” and alowered communications module. Current development work has focusedon increasing both data rates and ambient light tolerance. The range of thehigh-bandwidth optical link is, in most cases, complemented by long-range
acoustic communications. These developments will be presented alongwith other demonstrated applications made possible by long-range, highbandwidth optical communications.

9459-2, Session 1

9459-4, Session 1

Common underwater free space optical(UFSO) communications architectures insupport of both defense and oil and gas
applications

Spatial multiplexing for blue lasers forundersea communications

Underwater Blue-Green Optical Communications is a “game-changer” inconnecting a variety of undersea networks where applications include both
all-through-water (ATW) and underwater through the air-water-interface(AWI) to above water platforms (especially in an RF denied environment). In
order to be viable, the latter requires propagation through the dynamicallyvariable multiple scattering/absorption environments of seawater, fog,rain and clouds, all while operating in full sunlight. This represents a very
challenging propagation channel in optical communications.

Joshua Baghdady, Matthew Byrd, Clemson Univ. (UnitedStates); Wenzhe Li, Ctr. for Optical Materials Science +Engineering Technologies (United States); Kaitlyn Morgan,
Aaron J. Pung, Eric G. Johnson, Clemson Univ. (UnitedStates)Greg Mooradian, Mooradian & Associates, Inc. (UnitedStates) and Leidos (United States); Dean Richter,
Sonalysts, Inc. (United States); Susan Harris, Leidos(United States); Stephen Szender, Liedos, Inc. (UnitedStates)In the past, Optical Laser Communications (OLC) has been focused on
Defense applications for the U.S. Navy. However, OLC is now finding criticalapplications in support of the Oil and Gas (O&G) industry. While Optical
Laser Communications (OLC) includes both all-through-water (ATW) as wellas through the air-water interface (AWI) applications, O&G is focused nearlyexclusively on ATW architectures.
Four fundamental architectures support the connectivity requirements
for the Subsea O&G Industry. These architectures range from (1) low-tomoderately high data rates (e.g., 10 Kbps to 100s of Mbps) between fixed
terminals at very short ranges (effectively “subsea wireless connectors”); to(2) data transfer between mobile undersea platforms (e.g., ROVs and AUVs)
and fixed terminals at data rates up to 10 Mbps at ranges of 100 m to 250 m
with very large coverage envelopes of ±30° to greater than hemispherical;
to (3) data exfiltration by AUVs from 100s of seismic sensors deployedon the sea floor (e.g., the “fly-by” CONOPS exfiltrating ≥ 15 GB of datafrom each sensor at transfer rates of 100s of Mbps); to (4) O&G pipeline
monitoring and data access of multiple access nodes using AUVs at longstandoff ranges (e.g., up to data transfer rates 10 Mbps at up to ranges of
150 m).

84

SPIE DSS 2015·

Space Division Multiplexing of optical beams has recently been
demonstrated for improving the bandwidth of optical communication
links. This paper will explore the use of space division multiplexing utilizing
blue lasers for potential undersea applications. Experimental results
will be shown for optical vortices utilizing a range of charge numbers
corresponding to various Orbital Angular Momentum states.

9459-5, Session 1

High-speed blue-light free space opticalreceiverSusan Harris, Mark Krepel, Leidos (United States); Greg
Mooradian, Mooradian & Associates, Inc. (United States)and Leidos (United States)
High Speed Underwater Optical Laser Communications are currently limitedby the availability of high speed receivers. Leidos, under contract to ONR, isdeveloping a high-speed optical receiver that significantly increases single
channel data rates for free-space underwater optical data transmission.

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Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII
Hampshire (United States)

Previous efforts have successfully communicated data at rates up to 1.2
gigabits per second and have used photomultiplier tubes (PMT) as the
optical receiver element. PMT detectors are limited to line rates less than 2
gigabits per second.

Underwater optical propagation is used in many marine applications,such as airborne lidar bathymetry (ALB), subsurface navigation andcommunication. Previous studies on performance evaluation of underwater
applications involving laser propagation have been heavily dependent on
simulations that provide an approximation to the direct measurement of
the laser beam. Results from light propagation simulations that attempt toinclude complex effects such as multiple scattering may differ significantly.
In this paper, we present two experimental designs of underwater detectors
using a 6-by-6 array of photodiodes. The design of the array is based on
considerations of the performance of the photodiodes and potential noise
sources within the associated hardware. Performance evaluation tests
for the two array detectors are conducted in the Ocean Engineering Tank
Facilities at the University of New Hampshire. The study presented in thispaper also includes geometric beam path diagnostics for a green (532 nm)
laser source. The test measurements take into account the source lightfield and explore the effects of variable environmental conditions in watercolumn scattering (turbidity) and seafloor reflectance.

The work described in this paper is focused on the investigations of
optical receivers that would support data rates greater than 2 gigabits per
second with expanded working optical power dynamic range. The detector
selected for this effort, an avalanche photo diode, operates adequately tosupport a data channel at line rates of 4 gigabits per second. The avalanche
photo diodes tested in this effort have active area diameters less than
0.25 millimeters. The small sampling area requires incoming optical beamcollimation and concentration to operate at ranges greater than a few
meters. The expected field of view of the receiver using tradition refractive
optics is less than 1 degree. This narrow field of view is not compatible
with underwater optical receivers that depend on the ability to accept
light subjected to small angle scattering. To overcome this limitation, thiseffort includes development and test of a volume holographic array opticalconcentrator to capture a 5-degree field of view, and concentrate it onto theactive area of the photo diode.

9459-8, Session 29459-6, Session 1

Chaotic lidar for underwater channel
identification

Airborne relay connectivity through air/ice/water interface comm (ARCTIComm)high data rate through-ice opticalcommunication system

Luke K. Rumbaugh, David W. Illig, William D. Jemison,
Clarkson Univ. (United States)
The impulse response/transfer function of the underwater channel ischaracterized using a 532 nm chaotic lidar transmitter.

Dean Richter, Sonalysts, Inc. (United States); Greg
Mooradian, Mooradian & Associates, Inc. (United States);
Susan Harris, Stephen Szender, Leidos (United States)

The transmitter is based on a 1064 nm fiber ring laser which generates
quasi-CW chaotic intensity modulation with ~1 GHz bandwidth at baseband.
Two fiber amplifier stages and a frequency doubling periodically poled
crystal are used to generate sufficient power at 532 nm for transmission
underwater.

The Airborne Relay Connectivity Through air/ice/water Interface Comm
(ARCTIComm) Optical Laser Communications (OLC) system will support
the real-time exchange and exfiltration of information collected under thepolar ice, enabling the networking of data from fixed distributed sensors
and mobile platforms (e.g., both above water aircraft as well as underwater
platforms) and the aggregation of their data for enhanced analysis andinterpretation. ARCTIComm becomes an Arctic “information enabler;”dramatically increasing Arctic situational awareness for both commercial
and national security applications.

To obtain the impulse response of the underwater channel, the lidar beamis split into a reference and a probe signal. The probe signal is sent throughthe water, and on its return it is detected by a high-speed photomultipliertube and then digitized. The reference signal is likewise detected by a highspeed photodetector and digitized, and the two signals are cross-correlated.
The resulting impulse response indicates reflective targets and scattering
elements in the underwater scene.

Transferring information through seawater, ice and snow is fundamentally
limited by physics. RF and acoustics all fill a niche in enabling the“networking” of underwater terminals and platform;, however blue-green
OLC provides the only technology capable of truly connecting the undersea
environment (even through polar ice and snow) at the data rates required.

The wide bandwidth of the transmitter, and the high speed components
used for the receiver, allow effective characterization of the channel fromDC to 1 GHz. Characterizations are shown for ranging scenarios with multiple
targets and heavy scattering. The effect of frequency domain selection are
explored, indicating the usefulness of impulse response/transfer function
measurements for scatter suppression.

Defined by the geometry of the platforms/terminals, the Employment
Concept for ARCTIComm results in two system implementations: (1)
ARCTIComm two-way data transfer directly between underwater assets
and airborne platforms (manned aircraft or UAVs) at 100s of Kbps to 30
Mbps, and (2) two-way data transfer between underwater assets and small/
low-cost/long-endurance Surface Artic Relay Terminals (SARTs) at 36 – 60
Mbps. The SARTs then connect to the outside world through low power
RF links (e.g. line-of-sight (LOS) RF through a relay aircraft or satellite).
Under-ice sensors and platforms (e.g., UUVs or submarines) will then havethe ability to rendezvous with pre-deployed SART gateway terminals andtransmit data via above-the-ice RF links.

9459-9, Session 2

Experimental validation of a Monte Carlomodel for determining the temporal
response of the underwater opticalcommunications channel
Alan Laux, Brandon Cochenour, Naval Air Warfare Ctr.
Aircraft Div. (United States)

9459-7, Session 2

Underwater-detector array for laser beamdiagnostics

In turbid environments, underwater optical communications channel are“dispersion limited” due to the scattering of light by small particles. This
scattering causes two forms of dispersion: spatial and temporal. Spatial
dispersion, or beam spread, occurs as the initial transmitted photon paths
are altered due to interaction with the particles. At the receiver, the path
length differences that arise from spatial dispersion can result in a formof intersymbol-interference. This temporal dispersion ultimately limits link
bandwidth and range.

Shachak Pe’eri, Firat Eren, The Univ. of New Hampshire(United States); Jack L. Riley, National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (United States); May-Win
Thein, Yuri Rzhanov, Matthew Birkebak, The Univ. of New

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85

Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII
Attempts to model temporal dispersion typically fall under two categories.
The first aims to find an analytical solution to the Radiative Transfer
Function (RTE). In order to find a tractable solution though, one is often
forced to make a series of simplifying assumptions. The benefits of these
simplifying assumptions however tend to be negated by the reduced fidelity
in the temporal components they aim to describe. One the other hand
numerical techniques, such as Monte Carlo models, provide better accuracy
but require significantly more processing time and power. Regardlessof the method chosen, few of the models reported in the literature arevalidated against experimental data. This is particularly true in the cases ofhigh speed (approaching 1 GHz) and high scattering environments where
temporal dispersion is expected to be highly sensitive to small changes
in environment or link geometry. The reason for the lack of experimental
measurements is due in part to the technological challenges placedon the source and receiver hardware needed to make such high speed
measurements with sufficient sensitivity in the blue/green portion of thespectrum. Fortunately the authors have previously reported on a highsensitivity/high-dynamic range measurement technique that has begun toprovide some of the necessary experimental data which can be used formodel validation. [1]9459-13, Session 3

Pulse compression techniques to improve
modulated pulsed laser line scan systems
Robert W. Lee, Naval Air Systems Command (UnitedStates) and Univ. of Maryland (United States); Justin Nash,
Brandon Cochenour, Linda J. Mullen, Naval Air Systems
Command (United States)

9459-12, Session 3

A modulated pulse laser imaging system has been developed which
utilizes coded/chirped RF modulation to mitigate the adverse effects of
optical scattering in degraded visual underwater environments. Current
laser imaging techniques employ either short pulses or single frequency
modulated pulses to obtain both intensity and range images. Systems using
short pulses have high range resolution but are susceptible to scattering
due to the wide bandwidth nature of the pulse. Range gating can be used
to limit the effects of backscatter, but this can lead to blind spots in therange image. Modulated pulse systems can suppress the contribution fromscattered light in generated imagery without gating the receiver. However,the use of narrow-band, single tone modulation, results in limited range
resolution. Targets can be small and camouflaged within the background.
This drives the need for systems which have high range resolution while still
suppressing the effects of scattering caused by the environment. Coded/
chirped modulated pulses enable the use of radar pulse compression
techniques to substantially increase range resolution while also providing a
way to discriminate the object of interest from the light scattered due to theenvironment. Linearly frequency chirped waveforms and phase shift keyedbarker codes were experimentally investigated to determine the effects
that pulse compression would have on intensity/range images. Different
processing algorithms for coded/chirped pulses will be explored, and theresults from laboratory experiments will be presented and compared tomodel predictions.

FMCW optical ranging technique in turbid
waters9459-14, Session 3

In this work, we report on our own Monte Carlo model for determining thefrequency response of the underwater optical communications channel,
and compare results against these new experimental data sets. Specifically,
we evaluate the numerical model to the experimental data as a function of
frequency (< 1 GHz), turbidity (<20 attenuation lengths), particle scatteringfunction, transmitter/receiver alignment, and receiver FOV.
[1] B. Cochenour, L. Mullen, and J. Muth, “Temporal response of
the underwater optical channel for high-bandwidth wireless laser
communications,” IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, vol 38, no 4,
Oct 2013.

David W. Illig, Clarkson Univ. (United States); Alan Laux,
Robert W. Lee, Naval Air Systems Command (UnitedStates); William D. Jemison, Clarkson Univ. (United States);
Linda J. Mullen, Naval Air Systems Command (UnitedStates)Conventional methods for detecting the range to an underwater object
involve sending and receiving an acoustic signal. Under certain conditions,the range resolution and accuracy of acoustic systems may be limited.
Laser-based range finders offer the possibility for high-precision range
accuracy in the underwater environment. However, these systems
experience an exponential loss due to scattering and absorption of photons.
Absorption reduces received signal power, while scattering produces a“clutter” signal. Optical modulation techniques have been shown to provide
accurate range information in a variety of underwater environments.
The performance of a frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW)
hybrid lidar-radar system will be presented in the context of an underwater
ranging application. In this technique, the radar frequency is modulatedwith a linear ramp over a fixed bandwidth for a fixed duration. The
transmitted signal is mixed with a reference copy to obtain a beat frequency,
indicating the distance to the desired object. This work will use a short
ramp duration and a wide bandwidth to achieve large unambiguous range
and high resolution, respectively. The frequency band will be selected tobe high enough to take advantage of channel physics so that the effects ofscattering can be reduced. The FMCW equations will be derived for turbid
waters, a highly scattering environment. The derived theory and simulated
predictions indicate that FMCW can detect both the desired object and thevolumetric center of the backscatter “clutter” signal. Results from laboratory
experiments will be presented and compared to both model predictions andprior work with different ranging techniques.

86

SPIE DSS 2015·

DCS versus DCS: evaluation of different
signal models for the underwatercompressive line sensing imaging system
Bing Ouyang, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute(United States); Weilin W. Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Frank M. Caimi, Fraser R. Dalgleish, Anni
K. Vuorenkoski, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute(United States); Cuiling Gong, Texas Christian Univ. (UnitedStates)In recent years, a type of compressive sensing (CS) based underwater
imaging system concept – Compressive Line Sensing (CLS) imaging
system was proposed [1]. One of the main objectives of this concept isto enable resource efficient system that is optimum for power-constraint
unmanned platforms such as UUVs/AUVs. In the CLS system, each line
segment is sensed independently; when reconstructing the signal, thecorrelation among the adjacent lines is exploited to achieve high fidelity
using a reduced number of measurements of each line. In the current
implementation, the distributed compressing sensing model [3] isadopted to jointly reconstruct a group of lines. In distributed compressing
sensing joint sparsity model-1, each line (i.e. source) consists of a common
component shared with all other sources and a unique component. An l1norm minimization solver is then adopted to recover these lines.
Lately a new CS signal model – dynamic compressive sensing [2] wasproposed to recover correlated, time-varying signals using non-adaptive,
linear measurements from a Bayesian perspective. The amplitude andsupport correlation structure is captured through a computational efficientapproximate message passing scheme. In this regard, the CLS problem
fits well with the scope of the dynamic compressive sensing model. Oneof the aspects of the dynamic compressive sensing motivates the attemptof solving CLS problem with this framework is its ability to learn model

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Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII

9459-17, Session 4parameters adaptively from the data. In the distributed compressive sensing
model, model parameter adaption is not considered.

The influence of the choice of the phasefunction on imaging under waterThis paper investigates these difference models in solving the CLS problem
through the comparison of their performance in a series of simulations andagainst different experimental datasets.

Katrin Braesicke, Endre Repasi, Fraunhofer-Institut für
Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)

References[1] B. Ouyang, F. R. Dalgleish, F. M. Caimi, T. E. Giddings, W. Britton, A. K.
Vuorenkoski, and G. Nootz, “Compressive Line Sensing Underwater Imaging
System”, SPIE Optical Engineering Vol. 53, Issue 5, April 2014.

There is a large diversity of phase functions for the computer simulation oflight under water. We study the influence of these phase functions on thesimulation of the resulting image of a target. For these simulations we are
only interested in those parts of the light that reach the camera position.
Therefor we investigate the influence of the phase function on the image.

[2] Ziniel, J. and Schniter, P., “Dynamic compressive sensing of time-varying
signals via approximate message passing,” arXiv:1205.4080, May 2012.
[3] D. Baron, M. B. Wakin, M. F. Duarte, S. Sarvotham, and R. G. Baraniuk,“Distributed compressed sensing”, Rice University, Depart. Electrical andComputer Engineering Technical Report TREE-0612, Nov 2006.

We use a Monte Carlo Simulator with several Fournier-Forand, HenyeyGreenstein phase functions. The resulting signals at the receiver of thesesimulations are compared to a simulation with a Petzold function that isbased on measurements of the phase function.

9459-15, Session 3

Semi-empirical inversion technique for
retrieval of quantitative attenuation
profiles with underwater scanning LIDAR
systems

9459-18, Session 4

A controlled laboratory environment
to study EO signal degradation due tounderwater turbulence

Anni K. Vuorenkoski, Fraser R. Dalgleish, Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institute (United States); Michael S.
Twardowski, WET Labs., Inc. (United States); Bing Ouyang,
Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute (United States);Charles C. Trees, STO-CMRE (Italy)

Silvia C. Matt, Weilin W. Hou, Wesley Goode, Andrey V.
Kanaev, Sergio R. Restaino, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)
Temperature microstructure in the ocean can lead to localized changes
in the index of refraction and can distort underwater electro-optical (EO)
signal transmission. A similar phenomenon is well-known from atmospheric
optics and generally referred to as “optical turbulence”. Though turbulent
fluctuations in the ocean distort EO signal transmission and can impact
various underwater applications, from diver visibility to active and passive
remote sensing, there have been few studies investigating the subject.
To provide a test bed for the study of impacts from turbulent flows on
underwater EO signal transmission, and to examine and mitigate turbulence
effects, we set up a laboratory turbulence environment allowing thevariation of turbulence intensity. Convective turbulence is generated ina large Rayleigh-Bénard tank and the turbulent flow is quantified using
high-resolution Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter profilers and fast thermistor
probes. The turbulence measurements are complemented by computational
fluid dynamics simulations of convective turbulence emulating the tankenvironment. These numerical simulations supplement the sparse laboratory
measurements. The numerical data compared well to the laboratory data
and both conformed to the Kolmogorov spectrum of turbulence and the
Batchelor spectrum of temperature fluctuations. The controlled turbulenceenvironment can be used to assess optical image degradation in the tankin relation to turbulence intensity, as well as to apply adaptive optics
techniques. This innovative approach that combines optical techniques,
turbulence measurements and numerical simulations can help understandhow to mitigate the effects of turbulence impacts on underwater opticalsignal transmission, as well as advance optical techniques to probe
oceanic processes.

No Abstract Available

9459-16, Session 4

Analysis of polarimetric image by fullstokes vector imaging camera for retrievalof target polarization in underwater
environment
Yalong Gu, Carlos Carrizo, Ahmed El-Habashi, Alexander
Gilerson, The City College of New York (United States)
The absorption and scattering of light in aquatic environments cansignificantly degrade the image quality. However, polarization provides
another channel for target imaging in turbid waters. Some animals in theocean have partially polarized surfaces which could be advantageous forcamouflage or conversely for increased conspicuousness. Polarimetric
imaging of such targets in various underwater conditions as well as theretrieval of target polarization characteristics from polarimetric imaging
is of significant scientific and technological interest. Recently developed
full Stokes vector imaging cameras can record the polarization pattern ofa scene. It contains rich information of the targets which strongly depends
on the inherent optical properties of the water. Generally, the formed
polarimetric image results from a complex imaging process including
underwater radiance from the Sun, underwater light propagation, lightreflection on target surface and light detection by underwater imaging
optics. However, our Monte Carlo simulation of underwater light propagationshows that the forward scattering of light can be often neglected.
With a simplified underwater polarimetric imaging model, we analyze
the polarimetric images of a manmade underwater target with known
polarization properties which were acquired by a full Stokes vector imaging
camera in a recent field trip. Decrease of polarization induced by thecamera’s numerical aperture is observed and evaluated. With the knowledge
acquired in the analysis of such a forward polarimetric imaging process, we
also explore algorithm to extract the inherent optical properties of the waterand finally to retrieve the polarization characteristics of the target.

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9459-19, Session 4

A miniature fiber-optic sensor for highresolution and high-speed temperatureand flow sensing in ocean environment
Ming Han, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln (United States);
Weilin W. Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Guigen Liu, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln (United States)
In oceanography, the underwater thermal structures are critical for analyzing
the energy events, monitoring material transfer, transmitting optical signals,·

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87Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII
etc. In this paper, we present an optical fiber sensor for the high-resolution
and high-speed temperature profiling. The developed sensor consists of athin piece of silicon wafer which forms a Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI)
on the end of fiber. Due to the unique properties of silicon, such as large
thermal diffusivity, notable thermo-optic effects and thermal expansion
coefficients of silicon, the proposed sensor exhibits excellent sensitivity andfast response to temperature variation. The small mass of the tiny probe also
contributes to a fast response due to the large surface-to-volume ratio. The
high reflective index at infrared wavelength range and surface flatness ofsilicon endow the FPI a spectrum with high visibilities, leading to a superiortemperature resolution along with a new data processing developed by us.
Experimental results indicate that the fiber-optic temperature sensor canachieve a temperature resolution ~0.001 degree Celsius with a sampling
frequency higher than 500 Hz. In addition, the miniature footprint of thesenor provide high spatial resolutions. By heating the silicon film using avisible light which is well separated from the signals in infrared range, wewill demonstrate that the proposed sensor can also be used as a waterflow sensor.

9459-11, Session 5

Detecting oil on water using polarimetric
imaging
Amber Iler, Patrick Hamilton, Integrity Applications, Inc.
(United States)
Integrity Applications Incorporated (IAI) collected electro-opticalpolarimetric imagery (PI) to evaluate its effectiveness for detecting oil
on water. Data was gathered at multiple sun angles for vegetable oil andcrude oil to demonstrate PI sensitivity to different liquids and collection
geometries. Unique signatures for oil relative to water were observed.
Both oils consistently displayed higher degree of linear polarization(DOLP) values than water, which was expected based on the lower index
of refraction of water (1.33) relative to vegetable oil and crude oil (1.47
and 1.47-1.57, respectively). The strength of the polarimetric signatures
was found to vary as a function of collection angle relative to the sun, withpeak linear polarizations ranging from 40-70% for crude oil and 20-50% forvegetable oil. IAI found that independently-scaled DOLP was particularly
useful for discriminating these liquids, because it demonstrated the leastsensitivity to collection angle, compared to other PI products. Specifically,
the DOLP signature of vegetable oil was approximately 20% lower than for
crude oil, regardless of collection angle. This finding is consistent with thelower index of refraction values for vegetable oil compared to crude. Basedon the promising results presented here, IAI recommends further testing anddevelopment of PI for oceanic remote sensing applications such as oil spill/leak detection and for supporting oil cleanup efforts. With additional work,
PI may also be applicable to other oceanic environmental issues such asdetection of agricultural runoff or effluent from industrial
facilities or watercraft.

9459-20, Session 5

An expansion of glider observation
strategies to systematically transmit andanalyze preferred waypoints of underwater
gliders
Lucy F. Smedstad, Charlie N. Barron, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Rachel Bourg, Michael W. Brooking,Danielle A. Bryant, Naval Oceanographic Office (UnitedStates); Robert J. Carr, Univ. of Washington (UnitedStates); Kevin D. Henaey, Ocean Acoustical Services andInstrumentation Systems, Inc. (United States); Edward A.
Holmberg, Univ. of New Orleans (United States); Andrea C.
Mask, Bryan L. Mensi, Naval Oceanographic Office (United

88

SPIE DSS 2015·

States)The Glider Observation STrategies (GOST) system provides real-timeassistance to ocean glider pilots by suggesting preferred ocean glider
waypoints based on relations among glider trajectories and on ocean
forecasts and their uncertainties. Using existing operational regional Navy
Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM) output, demonstrations of glider waypoint
calculation are ongoing in Navy operational areas. After the ocean forecast
models and GOST components run at the Navy DoD Supercomputing
Resource Center (Navy DSRC), GOST-suggested glider paths are transferredto the Glider Operations Center (GOC). The glider pilots at the GOC
import this information into their Unmanned Systems Interface (USI),
developed at the University of Washington, Applied Physics Laboratory(APL-UW) to evaluate the suggested glider paths, make adjustments, andupdate waypoints for the gliders. The waypoints being sent are visualized
and analyzed using graphic capabilities to convey guidance uncertainty
developed under a grant to the University of New Orleans (UNO) and added
under the Environmental Measurements Path Planner (EMPath) system
within GOST. USI forwards automatic messages from the gliders withrecent glider location, speed, and depth to GOST for the next cycle. Overthe course of these demonstrations, capabilities were added or modified
including use of initial glider bearing, refinement of glider turn frequency,
correction of glider speed, and introduction of glider rendezvous locations.
Automation has been added with help from the modeling group at theNaval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO). GOST supports NAVOCEANO’s
ongoing efforts to direct and recover gliders, to safely navigate in changing
ocean conditions, and to provide feedback to improve ocean
model prediction.

9459-21, Session 5

Are the satellite-observed narrow, streaky
chlorophyll filaments locally intensified by
the submesoscale processes?
Igor Shulman, Bradley Penta, James G. Richman, Gregg
Jacobs, Stephanie Anderson, Peter Sakalaukus, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
Based on observations and modeling studies we have evaluated the impact
of submesoscale processes on the development and intensification of
offshore narrow (5-10km wide) phytoplankton filaments during late springearlier summer and late summer time frames in the Monterey Bay, CA. We
have demonstrated that during the late summer time frame, submesoscale
processes lead to the development of very productive phytoplankton
patches along the edges between the cold jet and warm anticycloniceddy -- in contrast to the earlier summer time, when the submesoscale
processes mix phytoplankton much deeper into the area below the euphotic
depth (the depth of light penetration), and productive patches are notmaintained. Our results illustrate that during persistent upwelling favorable
winds, submesoscale processes can modulate the development andintensification of offshore narrow (5-10km wide) phytoplankton filaments.
These processes can incubate the phytoplankton population offshore (asfor example, bioluminescent dinoflagellates during August 2003). These
offshore phytoplankton filaments can migrate onshore during relaxed winds
following the upwelling, and be an additional source of phytoplankton
bloom development in and around Monterey Bay. Therefore, the discussed
offshore phytoplankton filaments may be a factor in the Bay ecosystem
health, as for example, in the development of such events as harmful algae
blooms (HABs). All these emphasize the importance of further observationaland modeling studies of these submesoscale processes which impact thedevelopment and intensification of offshore phytoplankton filaments.

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Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII

9459-22, Session 59459-24, Session 5

Factors affecting radiometric calibrationof ocean color satellite sensors using
AERONET-OC data

Ocean and polarization observations from
active remote sensing: atmospheric andocean science applications

Samir Ahmed, Vincius De Paula, Alexander Gilerson,
The City College of New York (United States); Menghua
Wang, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, andInformation Service (United States); Robert A. Arnone, The
Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States)

Damien B. Josset, Weilin W. Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Jacques R. Pelon, Univ. Pierre et Marie
Curie (France); Yongxiang Hu, NASA Langley Research
Ctr. (United States); Simone Tanelli, Jet Propulsion Lab.
(United States); Richard Ferrare, Sharon P. Burton, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States); Nicolas Pascal, Univ.
des Sciences et Technologies de Lille (France)

We recently reported on an approach for radiometric vicarious calibration ofocean color (OC) satellite sensors using radiative transfer (RT) simulations
carried out for the full sunlight path of the coupled ocean–atmospheresystem based on the aerosol and water-leaving radiance data from two
AERONET-OC coastal sites, one located in Long Island Sound (LISCO) and
one in the Gulf of Mexico (WaveCIS), for the visible and near-infrared (NIR)
bands. The top of atmosphere radiances (TOA) simulated in this manner
are then compared with satellite measured TOA radiances to arrive at aquantitative evaluation of the potential for achieving radiometric accuraciesof OC satellite sensors. While very high correlations were obtained for all
channels with those of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer (VIIRS) for
TOA simulated and satellite measured values for both AERONET-OC sites
and the vicarious calibration factors derived from this approach were very
consistent for both sites in the blue and green spectral regions, much lower
than expected gain values were obtained for the red and near infrared (NIR)
channels . To better understand these results, and define the potential andlimitations of the proposed approach for vicarious calibration, tests are
now extended to additional AERONET-OC sites and other open ocean sites
with clearer waters and atmospheres and the resulting variability in the
red and NIR retrievals and gains is examined, and possible factors limiting
AERONET-OC red and NIR retrievals leading to low gain values are assessed.

In the past few years, we have demonstrated how the differential
attenuation between CloudSat/CALIPSO active instruments allows us toretrieve the optical depth and backscatter phase function (lidar ratio) of
aerosols and ice clouds. This methodology lead to the development of adata fusion product currently publicly available at the ICARE archive center(Synergized Optical Depth of Aerosols and Ice Clouds, SODA & ICE).
This low level data fusion of CALIPSO and CloudSat ocean surface echoes
has been used to explore different research path. Among them, we can cite:- In-depth analysis of the lidar ratio of cirrus clouds (Josset et al. 2012)- Development of a new Millimeter-Wave Propagation Model for the W-Bandobservations (EMPIRIMA, Josset et al. 2013)- In-depth analysis of the lidar ratio of sea-spray aerosols (Dawson et al.
2013, Dawson et al. 2014)- Use of EMPIRIMA and the radar/lidar ocean surface relationship (SODAcalibration output) to correct the attenuation of the CALIPSO polarized
observation and retrieve the subsurface particulate backscatter coefficientsof phytoplankton particles (Behrenfeld et al. 2013)- Use of SODA for the retrieval of Aerosol multilayer lidar ratio andextinction (R. Ferrare NASA funded research)

9459-23, Session 5

We propose to present this research as well as the main features of SODA.

Bio-optical model of remote sensing
signals in a stratified ocean

References:
Behrenfeld, M., Y. Hu, C. Hostetler, G. Dall’Olmo, S. Rodier, J. Hair, and C.
Trepte, Space-based lidar measurements of global ocean carbon stocks,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 4355–4360, doi:10.1002/grl.50816, (2013).

James H. Churnside, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States)

Dawson, K. Synergetic Observations of Sea Spray Aerosol Optical Properties.
North Carolina State University Master thesis, http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/
ir/bitstream/1840.16/8799/1/etd.pdf, (2013).

Several semi-analytic models exist for the inherent optical properties ofsea water, at least for Case 1 waters. In these waters, models based on
chlorophyll-a concentration seem to be fairly successful. For passive remotesensing, the critical properties are the backscattering coefficient andthe zenith diffuse attenuation coefficient. The former describes the total
scattering at angles > 0.5π steradians. The diffuse attenuation coefficient
is not strictly an inherent optical property, because it depends on the sunangle. The zenith diffuse attenuation coefficient, defined as the attenuationof a diffuse source located at the zenith, depends only on the opticalproperties of the water. The observed remote sensing reflectance can be
estimated from these two parameters and the solar zenith angle. Most of
the investigations to date have assumed that the chlorophyll concentration
does not vary with depth. This assumption is often quite good, because of
the limited penetration of light into sea water. We will consider the case of
intense thin plankton layers on a shallow pycnocline, where this assumption
might not be valid. For active remote sensing, an additional parameter isimportant. This parameter is the volume scattering function at a scattering
angle of π steradians, which is the sum of contributions from sea water andparticles in the water. The sea water contribution is known. The particulate
contribution can be modeled as the product of the scattering coefficient,which depends on chlorophyll concentration, and the phase function at πsteradians, which does not.

Dawson, K. W., Meskhidze, N., Josset, D., and Gassó, S.: A new study of sea
spray optical properties from multi-sensor spaceborne observations, Atmos.
Chem. Phys. Discuss., 14, 213-244, doi:10.5194/acpd-14-213-2014, 2014. In
revision for ACP.
Josset, D., J. Pelon, A. Garnier, Y. Hu, M. A. Vaughan, P. Zhai, R. E. Kuehn,
and P. Lucker, Cirrus optical depth and lidar ratio retrieval from combined
CALIPSO-CloudSat observations using ocean surface echo. J. Geophys. Res.,
doi:10.1029/2011JD016959 (2012).
Josset, D., S. Tanelli, Y. Hu, J. Pelon, P. Zhai, Analysis of water vapor
correction for CloudSat W-band radar, IEEE TGRS, 51, 7, 3812–3825,
doi:10.1109/TGRS.2012.2228659 (2013)9459-25, Session 5

Real-time ship monitoring system foroffshore maritime surveillance in South
Korea
Chan-Su Yang, Korea Institute of Ocean Science &Technology (Korea, Republic of)
We have developed the ship monitoring system based on Automatic
Identification System (AIS) and FMCW radar, and a prototype system

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89

Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII
including Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) was introduced in the conference(IGARSS 2013; SPIE DSS 2013) and the Journal of Navigation (2012).
Offshore is a restricted area to get in-situ data such as AIS, video and radar
when satellite-based surveillance system is applied to the region. In thiswork we consider the ocean towers as a hub in the adjacent sea of Korean
Peninsula and transmit the field information collected at the station via thegeostationary satellite, COMS(Communication, Ocean and Meteorology
Satellite). At the land station, it is possible to integrate the all availale data
and monitor ship traffic in near real time. We applied the integrated ship
surveillance system to the Gageocho Ocean Science Station in the Yellow
Sea of South Korea using SAR, FMCW-radar and AIS. AIS and radar provide
a real-time ship monitoring capability, and when SAR image is available it isconverted to the satellite mode which operates by standards of the time andposition of satellite data. In addition to that, we will introduce an algorithm
for integrating ship information.

9459-26, Session 6

Ocean thermal fronts detection in the fullthermal IR imagery
Irina Gladkova, The City College of New York (UnitedStates) and NOAA-CREST (United States); Fazlul Shahriar,
The City College of New York (United States); Alexander
Ignatov, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, andInformation Service (United States); Yury Kihai, NOAA
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (United States) and GST, Inc. (United States)
Ocean thermal fronts are indicators of intense ocean dynamics. Being highlyvariable in space and time, they difficult to predict from prior or ancillarydata, and should be identified from the satellite data itself. Customarily,
front detection from satellite observations is done on cloud- and ice-freesea surface temperature (SST) imagery. However, cloud and ice masks may
not be fully accurate, and mistakenly label some cloud and ice as clear sky,and vice versa. As a result, the identified thermal fronts may also include
boundaries between clear sky and thin cloud, and quasi-linear textures of(e.g. cirrus) cloud/cloud transitions. More importantly, false alarms (i.e. when
ocean features have been screened out as clouds) often occur, preventing
identification of thermal fronts under masked area. Sea ice mask also leads
to inclusion of ice features in the dynamic areas where sea ice cover might
be rapidly changing. Regions with new ice formation often resemble thetypical apparent whirl-like ocean pattern, affecting thermal front detection
if not masked out. We explore an approach that does not require a precomputed clear sky or sea ice mask, but rather performs the search on thewhole water domain and relies on the gradient behavior of the derived
SST field, connectivity of the front, the local SST statistics on both sides ofthe front, as well as bimodality of the SST distribution in the vicinity of thethermal front. The algorithm has been tested on VIIRS Level 2 full swath that
includes bow tie regions.

9459-27, Session 6

A fast, robust, adaptive destriping
algorithm for SNPP VIIRS and Terra/Aqua
MODIS SST
Karlis Mikelsons, GST, Inc. (United States) and NOAA
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (United States); Alexander Ignatov, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States); Marouan Bouali, Univ. de São Paulo(Brazil); Yury Kihai, GST, Inc. (United States) and NOAA
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (United States)

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Radiometric performance of MODIS and VIIRS sensors has dramatically
improved over the AVHRR, and much more stringent calibration efforts andpractices are in place. Nevertheless, the multi-detector MODIS and VIIRS
instruments are subject to striping artifacts. A robust adaptive destriping
algorithm recently introduced by Bouali and Ignatov [1] was optimized
and now operationally applied at NOAA to remove striping artifacts fromthe S-NPP VIIRS brightness temperature (BT) data. The algorithm is also
run with MODIS data onboard Terra/Aqua, in an experimental mode. We
demonstrate improved image quality of VIIRS and MODIS BTs in bands
centered at 3.7, 11 and 12 µm, and significant improvements in the SST
imagery derived from the destriped BTs. The algorithm proves capableof removing the striping noise, while preserving the fine natural contrastsof the original satellite imagery. The same algorithm is also applied toremove striping artifacts from the VIIRS and MODIS “optional SST” bands
centered at 4 and 8.5 µm. Destriping is critically important for several SST
applications relying on accurate BT or SST gradient data, including patternrecognition improvements to cloud mask and ocean front detection. We
also present the results of statistical characterization of striping artifacts
in the VIIRS and MODIS thermal IR bands under various conditions. Our
implementation of destriping is computationally very efficient, adding only
a fraction of time to the SST data processing flow. It is currently used in the
NOAA VIIRS operations as well as reprocessing efforts.
[1] M. Bouali and A. Ignatov, “Adaptive reduction of striping for improved
sea surface temperature imagery from Suomi National Polar-orbiting
Partnership (S-NPP) Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS),”
JTech, 31, 150–163 (2014).

9459-28, Session 6

Evaluation of VIIRS SST fields throughthe analysis of overlap regions between
consecutive orbits
Jean-François P. Cayula, Vencore, Inc. (United States)
Sea Surface Temperature (SST) retrievals derived from data acquired by
the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) sensor on-board the
S-NPP satellite can be produced to the edge of the scan with approximately
constant spatial resolution and little degradation in quality. Full swath
processing creates significant areas of overlap between consecutive orbits.
These overlap regions are found at all latitudes and grow larger away fromthe equator. In this study, we use the overlap regions to evaluate VIIRS SST.
For simplicity, as a first step, we concentrate on low and mid-latitudes toavoid multiple orbits overlap and difficulties with nighttime and daytime
definitions. The motivation for this study comes from the observationthat SST fields stay relatively unchanged within the approximately 100
minutes which separate two consecutive orbits, even in dynamic regions.
As such, inconsistencies between SST values from consecutive orbits
are likely indications of degraded quality. This presentation looks at two
potential sources of inconsistencies between orbits. One potential sourceof inconsistencies results from the unequal response of the SST equations
when observing a scene from differing view angles. To take into accountthe effect of varying atmospheric conditions in the response, different
ocean regions are examined. Another source of inconsistencies addressedin this study is caused by undetected data contamination, for example,
clouds which can produce quickly changing localized patterns. In this case,overlap analysis is particularly effective because the wide coverage of theoverlap regions can spotlight areas for which buoy coverage is sparse andproblems overlooked. This study will present results for two VIIRS SST
products: The one from the Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO)
which is assimilated in the Navy Ocean Models, and the Advanced ClearSky Processor for Oceans (ACSPO) product from the National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) center for Satellite Applications
and Research (STAR). Global statistics based on drifting buoys for both
NAVOCEANO and NOAA products complete the analysis.

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Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII

9459-29, Session 6

time. This presentation describes the ACSPO noise suppression algorithmand discusses results of its initial evaluation based on SST imagery andmatchups of NOAA/Metop AVHRRs (GAC and FRAC), Terra/Aqua MODIS
and SNPP/JPSS VIIRS with in situ data.

Seasonal trends of ocean SST products
characterized by the differences in orbital
overlaps for waters types

9459-31, Session 7

Robert A. Arnone, Ryan A. Vandermeulen, The Univ. ofSouthern Mississippi (United States); Jean-François P.
Cayula, Vencore, Inc. (United States); Alexander Ignatov,
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, andInformation Service (United States)

VIIRS SST products and monitoring at
NOAA
Alexander Ignatov, John Stroup, Yury Kihai, Boris Petrenko,
Irina Gladkova, Prasanjit Dash, Xingming Liang, Feng Xu,
Xinjia Zhou, Karlis Mikelsons, John Sapper, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States)

The uncertainty of the SST products from the VIIRS satellite is examinedusing consecutive orbital overlaps. The overlapping region on the left andright side of swath at 23-35 degree latitude is approximately 500 pixels
which occur within 100 minutes. This can provide a total of 4 SST products(2 day and 2 night) per day. By assuming the ocean products should be
similar on each side of the swath in this short time period, we can evaluate
the uncertainty of products and how rapidly the SST is changing. VIIRSACSPO product from NOAA STAR was used to determine the differencein SST at the overlaps. These product changes were evaluated between
consecutive orbits to characterize how the products are impacted on eachside of the swath by solar and sensor angles, and sensor characterization.
Sensitivity of the products to water types was evaluated by analyzing
product differences for open ocean, shelf and coastal waters. Besides theabsolute diurnal SST changes that can occur within 100 minute time, theproduct differences can result across the swath from surface glint, sensor
angular impacts and sensor characteristics such as half angle mirror side
(HAM) and calibration. The seasonal trends of the difference in SST at theoverlaps for these water masses were tracked on a monthly basis. The
unique capability of using the same VIIRS sensor for self-characterization
can provide a method to define the uncertainty of ocean products andcharacterize the diurnal changes for different water types.

NOAA produces Level 2 and 3 SST products from VIIRS onboard S-NPP/
JPSS platforms. Over the past year, the Interface Data Processing Segment(IDPS) system was discontinued, and the NOAA heritage Advanced ClearSky Processor for Oceans (ACSPO) system designated as operational JPSS
product. Destriping was operationally implemented. VIIRS SST is routinely
monitored and validated in the SST Quality Monitor (SQUAM; www.star.
nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/squam/). Quality controlled n situ data come fromthe in situ SST Quality Monitor (iQuam; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/
iquam/). ACSPO clear-sky radiances are monitored in the Monitoring of IR
Clear-sky Radiances over Oceans for SST (MICROS; www.star.nesdis.noaa.
gov/sod/sst/micros/). Current status and future plans are discussed.

9459-32, Session 7

Monitoring and validation of AVHRR FRAC,
MODIS, (A)ATSR and VIIRS high-resolution
sea surface temperatures

9459-30, Session 6

Prasanjit Dash, Alexander Ignatov, Yury Kihai, John
Stroup, Boris Petrenko, John Sapper, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States)

Suppressing the noise in SST retrieved
from satellite infrared measurementsby smoothing the differential terms inregression equations

Monitoring and validation of global sea surface temperature (SST) products
are routinely performed by the NOAA SST Quality Monitor (SQUAM) andthe diagnostics are provided online. Initially, only NOAA SST products
were monitored, but since SQUAM inception in 2008 all major global polar
infrared SST products either have been added, or are being added to thesystem.

Boris Petrenko, NOAA National Environmental Satellite,
Data, and Information Service (United States) and GST,
Inc. (United States); Alexander Ignatov, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States); Yury Kihai, NOAA National Environmental
Satellite, Data, and Information Service (United States)
and GST, Inc. (United States)

SQUAM is organized following the product levels (levels 2, 3 4; L2, L3, L4),
as outlined by the Group for High resolution SST (GHRSST) specifications.
A number of global L2 high-resolution (1km or better) SST products are
generated from various satellites and sensors, by different countries
and agencies using a wide range of sampling, cloud screening and SST
retrieval algorithms. The SQUAM high-resolution (HR) module (www.star.
nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/squam/HR/) provides diagnostics of these HR L2
SSTs. Currently, several HR products are ingested and analyzed including
the NOAA Advanced Clear-Sky Processor for Oceans (ACSPO), NOAAInterface Data Processing Systems (IDPS), Eumetsat Ocean & Sea Ice
Satellite Application Facility (O&SI SAF), US NAVOCEANO and ESA (A)ATSR Reprocessing for Climate (ARC). The ACSPO products are from NPP
VIIRS, Metop-A/B AVHRR FRAC and Terra/Aqua MODIS. The other products
include IDPS (NPP VIIRS), O&SI SAF (Metop-A AVHRR), NAVO (NPP VIIRS)
and the ARC (A/ATSR series).

SST retrieval systems widely use regression algorithms based on Nonlinear(NLSST) and Multichannel (MCSST) approaches. In order to improve theatmospheric correction, the NLSST and MCSST equations include theterms dependent on the difference between the brightness temperaturesin the spectral bands with different atmospheric absorption. A side effectof using these terms is amplification of the radiometric noise present inindividual BTs. The random noise is often clearly seen on images of retrieved
SST and may affect the performance of high-level image processing
algorithms for detecting thermal fronts and small-scale SST anomalies.
Noise of radiometric origin can also affect the precision of retrieved SST,
determined as a global standard deviation between retrieved and in situ
SSTs. Some processing systems (e.g., EUMETSAT OSI-SAF) incorporate
noise suppression algorithms based on spatial smoothing of the differential
terms in the SST equations. Recently, an algorithm of this type has been
also implemented and tested within the NOAA Advanced Clear-Sky
Processor for Oceans (ACSPO) system. The ACSPO smoothing algorithm
aims at suppressing the random noise in SST while preserving natural SST
variations and the initial spatial resolution, and minimizing the processing

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All HR L2 products are consistently validated against quality controlled insitu data (from another NOAA system, in situ SST Quality Monitor, iQuam,www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/iquam/), monitored against several
level-4 gap-free SSTs (CMC, OSTIA, and Reynolds), and cross-compared,
employing the established SQUAM metrics. Results of monitoring
and validation from SQUAM-HR, and additionaly, and random error
characterization employing a triple-collocation method will be presented.

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91Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII

9459-33, Session 79459-35, Session 7

Assimilation of ECMWF versus GFS
profiles in fast CRTM for SST retrievals at
NOAA

Long-term analysis of AVHRR calibration inthermal IR channels

Xingming Liang, NOAA National Environmental Satellite,
Data, and Information Service (United States) andColorado State Univ. (United States) and Cooperative
Institute for Research in the Atmosphere (United States);
Alexander Ignatov, NOAA National Environmental Satellite,
Data, and Information Service (United States)
NOAA SST system, Advanced Clear-Sky Processor for Ocean, simulates
top-of-atmosphere clear-sky brightness temperatures in bands at 3.7 (IR37),
11 (IR11), and 12µm (IR12). Community Radiative Transfer Model (CRTM) is
used in conjunction with first guess SST and atmospheric profiles. Based onearlier sensitivity analysis to first-guess SST (Saha et al., 2012), initial SST
implementation (Reynolds) was replaced by the Canadian Met Centre (CMC)
product. This study additionally checks sensitivity to atmospheric profiles,
by comparing the current implementation of NCEP Global Forecast System(GFS, 1° lat-lon resolution, 26 levels) with the European Center for Medium
range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF, 0.25°, 97 levels). The comparisonsare performed in the Monitoring of IR Clear-sky Radiances over Oceans for
SST (MICROS; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/micros/) system, whichanalyzes Model minus Observation (M-O) biases for several AVHRR, MODIS
and VIIRS sensors. Preliminary results based on four-month global data
show that the number of clear sky pixels slightly increases. In IR37, theglobal mean M-O biases (currently, ~0.2-0.3K) and standard deviations(currently, STD<0.5K), are only minimally affected. In IR11 & IR12, the meanbiases and STDs (currently, both ~0.6K) are reduced, and become closer
to IR37. This suggests that the ECMWF has more moisture, and this mainly
affects M-O biases in the longwave bands. The effect is generally positive- the large warm spots in M-O biases in the tropics are reduced, and evenreverted to negative M-O biases, suggesting that ECMWF overestimateswater vapor. We plan to also include ERA-Interim and MERRA profiles in
the comparisons.

9459-34, Session 7

A new deterministic inversion technique
for sea surface temperature retrieval from
MODIS radiances

Kai He, GST, Inc. (United States) and NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States); Alexander Ignatov, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States); Yury Kihai, GST, Inc. (United States)
and NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,and Information Service (United States); Xingming
Liang, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,and Information Service (United States) and Colorado
State Univ. (United States); Changyong Cao, NOAA
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (United States); John Stroup, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service(United States) and Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies(United States)
AVHRR clear-sky brightness temperatures (BTs) and sea surface
temperatures (SSTs) are produced at NOAA by the Advanced Clear-Sky
Processor for Oceans (ACSPO). Monitoring of IR Clear-sky Radiances over
Oceans for SST (MICROS; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/micros/)suggests that artifacts in SSTs and BTs are strongly correlated. This study
analyzes long-term trends of AVHRR Level-1b data (calibration slope,intercept, black body temperature, etc.) for NOAA polar-orbiting satellites(NOAA-15 to -19) and the MetOp series (MetOp-A and –B) and their links
with BTs.
Long term time series of AVHRRs calibration coefficients for some platforms(e.g., MetOp-A) are highly consistent and show a smooth monotonic
trend over time due to sensor degradation. For some other platforms (e.g.
NOAA-16), the variations are strong and non-monotonic in time, and areapparently correlated with the temperature of the sensor. In short term,
calibration is more stable over the part of an orbit when the satellite is in
the Earth shadow (referred to as “satellite night”), and more variable when
the satellite is in direct Sun light (“satellite day”). Significant day-nightdifferences are most pronounced in the shortwave band 3B, suggesting thatthe “daytime artifacts” are due to e.g. sun impingement of AVHRR
black body.
For thermally stable sensors, improvements to AVHRR calibration are
explored based on the use of “the best part of an orbit” (“satellite night”) or
best parts of satellite lifetime, rather than the current line-by-line approach.
For thermally unstable sensors or periods, a different calibration algorithm isneeded. Work is underway to explore these improvements.

Prabhat K. Koner, Andrew R. Harris, The Univ. of Maryland(United States)
The MODIS imager contains 16 channels in the thermal infrared, making it
an attractive instrument to study the atmospheric and oceanic sciences.
Even for satellite-derived sea surface temperature (SST) retrievals, thedynamics of atmospheric conditions need to be characterized by thesatellite measurements to retrieved good quality SST. The current MODIS
SST product available from the Group for High Resolution SST (GHRSST)
Global Data Assembly Center (GDAC), uses a regression-based inversion
method and only two and/or three channels. The few coefficients of theregression based retrieval method are unable to adequately capture thewide atmospheric variability and, as a result, a significant error is embedded
in retrieved SST. We will demonstrate in this talk that the MODIS SST can be
retrieved two times higher accuracy compared to the current GHRSST SST,
by using using more channels and a physical deterministic-based modified
total least squares (MTLS) method. This study also includes the SST4,NLSST, optimal estimation based SST retrieval for comparison purposes. The
information content and noise analysis of these retrievals, and the retrieval
error due to the quality of cloud detection will be discussed.

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Conference 9459: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring VII

9459-36, Session 7

Identification of sea surface temperature(SST) variability areas through a statistical
approach using remote sensing andnumerical ocean model data
Jesus Loeches, STO-CMRE (Italy); Raul Vicen, North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (Italy) and STO-CMRE (Italy);
Giuliana Pennucci, Aniello Russo, STO-CMRE (Italy)
An understanding of environmental variability (stability/instability) is
important to support operational planning of expeditionary warfare andlittoral operations, as well as for preparing the Recognized Environmental
Picture (REP). Specifically, the identification of environmentally stable/
unstable areas helps the planning of maritime operations, increasing
their likelihood of success. The purpose of the paper is to describe amethodology to form and interpret an initial spatial-temporal variability
characterization of maritime areas from Remote Sensing (RS) and Numerical
Ocean Model (NOM) data. As a case study, the analysis of the sea surface
temperature (SST) in the Black Sea from historical time-series of RS imagery
and NOM data is considered. The results of the analysis are validated within situ measurements from moorings. Identification of gaps of geospatial
information is also done in this study. The analysis is focused on monthly
spatial-temporal variability of the SST, generating stability maps displaying
the geospatial distribution of environmentally stable/unstable areas alonga year. The results show how the proposed methodology captures the
temporal variability of the SST in the Black Sea, being compared with insitu measurements, and provides useful information for the identificationof environmentally stable/unstable areas. The results show a generalagreement in the variability with both RS and NOM data, when RS imagery
may be used for the present analysis, i.e. when low cloud coverage is given.
This paper demonstrates that when RS imagery gaps are not negligible (e.g.
due to high cloud occurrence in winter season), these gaps could be filledwith NOM data.

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93Conference 9460: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XII
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9460 Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems andApplications XII

9460-1, Session 1

9460-3, Session 1

Reconnaissance architecture in near space

Design of a disguised miniature unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAV) system withsurveillance function

Eren O. Dundar, Harp Akademileri Komutanlı?ı (Turkey)
Today, reconnaissance architecture is established to carry out thereconnaissance needs of the states. This architecture includes air platforms
like reconnaissance aircrafts with camera systems, unmanned air vehicles
and satellites which provide valuable air pictures. When we take careof the irregular warfare, once again it could be easily proved that thereconnaissance systems are crucial for the states in order to obtain real timeand correct data.
With the unprecedented advances in technology, manned reconnaissancesystems become unmanned because of their low risk. Although satellites
and unmanned aircraft systems are succesful as reconnaissance, in order to
get more mission-effective and cost-effective data, scienciests are begin to
study on unmanned air platforms which are flying in the newly discovered
area called near space.

Terence K. L. Goh, Donny Ng, Ian V. H. Tam, SIM Univ.
(Singapore)
Fixed wing and rotary wing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been
extensively used and researched in commercial and military applications.
Disguising the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) as a bird with a flapping
wing platform is a relatively new concept but it holds potentially excitingreconnaissance and surveillance UAV applications. There are no establishedmethodologies in designing and developing a flapping wing system in theindustry yet.

In this essay, we will see the term of near space, its characteristics, using
areas, its importance for the reconnaissance and the latest developments.
Besides we will study on the pros and cons with the comparison of satellites
and unmanned air vehicles.

This paper presents on efforts to explore and develop methodologies tobuild successful flapping wing prototypes and incorporate systematic andeffective functional test approach for various essential system components
and payloads. Analysis and design tool for unsteady flapping wing
aerodynamics as well as structural design and its limitations have been
investigated and to be presented.

9460-2, Session 1

9460-4, Session 2

Hybrid consensus UAV formation control

IR CMOS: an ISR solution for Nightvision
and See Spot

Haci Mehmet Guzey, Missouri Univ. of Science andTechnology (United States); Travis A. Dierks, DRS
Sustainment Systems, Inc. (United States); Jagannathan
Sarangapani, Missouri Univ. of Science and Technology(United States)

Martin U. Pralle, James E. Carey, Chris J. Vineis, SiOnyx Inc.
(United States)
Demonstrated performance characteristics:
Pixel size : 5.6 & 10 um

In this paper, hybrid consensus based formation control for a team ofUnmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV’s) is considered. A hybrid consensus
based formation controller is applied for UAV’s moving at fixed altitudes
to drive them to a goal point while maintaining a specified formation. The
proposed hybrid automaton consists of two discrete states, each with
continuous dynamics: a regulation state and a formation keeping state. The
controller in the regulation state uses local state information to achieve
its objective while the formation controller utilizes the state and controller
information of neighboring UAV’s. Consequently, the UAV’s switch between
the control objectives of formation keeping and goal seeking in route totheir goal points. The switching behavior creates hybrid dynamics from theinteractions between the continuous and discrete states making the stability
analysis of the system more complex than considering purely discrete or
purely continuous. Therefore, the stability of the hybrid approach is provenby using multiple Lyapunov functions and also considers the switchingconditions between the regulation and the formation states. The Lyapunov
based approach demonstrates that the formation errors converge to asmall bounded region around the origin and the size of the bound can be
adjusted by using the switching conditions. Convergence to goal position
while in formation is also demonstrated in the same Lyapunov analysis, andsimulation results verify the theoretical conjectures.

Array size: 720P/1.3Mpix
Frame rate: 60 Hz
Read noise: 2 ele/pixel
Spectral sensitivity: 400 to 1200 nm (with 10x QE at 1064nm)
Daytime imaging: color (Bayer pattern)
Nighttime imaging: moonless starlight conditions
1064nm laser imaging: daytime imaging out to 2Km

9460-5, Session 2

Results from an experiment that collectedvisible-light polarization data using
unresolved imagery for classification ofgeosynchronous satellites
Andy Speicher, Mohammad A. Matin, Univ. of Denver(United States); Francis K. Chun, Roger D. Tippets, U.S.
Air Force Academy (United States); David Strong, UnitedStates Air Force Academy (United States)
In order to protect critical military and commercial space assets, the UnitedStates Space Surveillance Network must have the ability to positively
identify and characterize all space objects. Unfortunately, positive
identification and characterization of space objects is a manual and labor

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Conference 9460: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XII
intensive process today since even large telescopes cannot provide resolved
images of most space objects.

The design of a laser terminal with lighter steerable optics is described indetail. Finally, the advantages of a mobile airborne node compared to a
space network are underlined.

The objective of this study was to collect and analyze visible-spectrum
polarization data from unresolved images of geosynchronous satellites
taken over various solar phase angles. Different collection geometries
were used to evaluate the polarization contribution of solar arrays, thermal
control materials, antennas, and the satellite bus as the solar phaseangle changed. Since materials on space objects age due to the spaceenvironment, their polarization signature may change enough to allow
discrimination of identical satellites launched at different times. Preliminary
data suggests this optical signature may lead to positive identification orclassification of each satellite by an automated process on ashorter timeline.

9460-7, Session 2

Small SWAP 3D Imaging Flash Ladar for
Small Tactical Unmanned Air Systems
Alan W. Bird, Scott A. Anderson, Michael D. Wojcik, Scott
E. Budge, Utah State Univ. (United States)
The Space Dynamics Laboratory (SDL), working with Naval ResearchLaboratory (NRL) and industry leaders Advanced Scientific Concepts (ASC)and Hood Technologies, has developed a small SWAP (size, weight, andpower) 3D Flash LADAR (LAser Detection And Ranging) sensor system
concept design for small tactical unmanned air system (STUAS). The design
utilizes an ASC 3D Flash LADAR camera and laser in a Hood Technologies
gyro-stabilized gimbal system. The design is an autonomous, intelligent,geo-aware sensor system that supplies real-time 3D terrain and target
images. Flash LADAR and visible camera data are processed at the sensor
using a custom digitizer/frame grabber with compression. Mounted in theaft housing are power, controls, processing computers, and GPS/INS. The
onboard processor controls pointing and handles image data, detection
algorithms and queuing. The small SWAP 3D Flash LADAR sensor systemgenerates georeferenced terrain and target images with a low probabilityof false return and <10 cm range accuracy through foliage in real-time. The
3D Flash LADAR is designed for a STUAS with a complete system SWAP
estimate of <9 kg, <0.2 m3 and <350 W power. The system is modeledusing LadarSIM, a MATLAB® and Simulink®-based LADAR system simulator
designed and developed by the Center for Advanced Imaging LADAR (CAIL)
at Utah State University. We will present the concept design and modeled
performance predictions.

The instrumentation used in this experiment is a new ground-based asset
for the United States Air Force Academy (USAFA) Department of Physics.
The system consists of a 20-inch Ritchey-Chretien telescope and a dual
focal plane optical train fed with a polarizing beam splitter. Following arigorous calibration, polarization data was collected on six geosynchronous
satellites built by different manufacturers and launched several years apart.
When Stokes parameters were plotted against solar phase angle, the data
indicates that a polarization signature from unresolved images may havepromise in classifying specific satellites.

9460-6, Session 2

Laser links for mobile airborne nodes
Wolfgang Griethe, G2Aerospace GmbH (Germany); Markus
Knapek, Joachin Horwath, ViaLight Communications
GmbH (Germany)
The communication link between the Ground Control Station (GCS) andRemotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) is a key component of the overall system.
Without such a reliable link the Unmanned Vehicle is not operable.
Today’s common practice is that the radio link, typically operated in kuband, is used for both, control of the aircraft as well as transmission of
intelligence data. The result is a big problem: While the aircraft could besecurely controlled with relatively low bandwidth, enormous bandwidths
for the transmission of intelligence data is required which is often notavailable. Of course, the today’s fixed and limited frequency allocationof the available spectrum creates a hard limit on the amount of usable
capacity. In addition, the current use of the radio ku-band for UAS mobile
communications neither complies with ITU, nor is it regulated by national
authorities. Incidentally, this will cause another future problem in terms of
the airworthiness certification of Remotely Piloted Aircrafts.

9460-8, Session 2

EM modeling of far-field radiation patterns
for antennas on the GMA-TT UAV
Anne I Mackenzie, NASA Langley Research Center (UnitedStates)The NASA AIRSTAR Program, conducted by the NASA Langley ResearchCenter, flies various research unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV’s) in order
to simulate how the corresponding full-scale manned aircraft will behavein flight upset conditions. The GMA-TT UAV is a 16-foot scale model of alarger, generic T-tail aircraft, and represents a class of regional jet transports.
Before flying the GMA-TT, it is necessary to situate numerous antennas on
the UAV to enable systems such as flight termination (UHF-band), automatic
dependent surveillance - broadcast (ADS-B, UHF-band), commandand control (L and S-bands), data relay (L and S-bands), and global
positioning system (GPS, L-band). Each antenna must be placed so that it
can communicate with another antenna, which may be on the ground in a
mobile operating station (MOS) or overhead on a satellite. Communications
must be maintained with the GMA-TT whether it is on the runway or in the
air and regardless of attitude.

Finally, the use of sensors with permanent increased resolution, the parallel
operation of different sensor types aboard the aircrafts and also the rapidly
increasing numbers of RPAs aggravate the bandwidth problem. Anyway,
bandwidth is a limited resource that needs to be managed. The current
methods for solving the problem are manyfold and range from compression
technologies and high-order modulation techniques until tofrequency reuse.
Anyway, all these methods may be useful and in some cases also effective,
but they do not solve the fundamental problem of scarce bandwidth, but
remind rather of the problem of squaring the circle.
According to the authors, the problem is only solvable if the vital control
link of the RPA, is separatly operated from the data link. Suggested is the
future control of RPA’s with narrowband fault-resistant radio links, while
reconnaissance data of Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) andHigh Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) vehicles should be transferred intofrequency spectra that are not subject of coordination by ITU, i.e. opticalfrequencies. Consequently the paper discusses a mobile airborne node
which uses laser communications to meet future data capacity requirementsof RPAs.

To optimize communication with the UAV, electromagnetic (EM) simulations
can be performed to predict the performance of each antenna on theaircraft. Simulated far-field radiation patterns tell the amount of powerradiated by the antennas and the aircraft together, taking into accountblockage by the aircraft as well as radiation by conducting and dielectric
portions of the aircraft. With a knowledge of the polarization and distanceof the two communicating antennas, e.g. one on the UAV and one on
the ground, and the transmitted signal strength, a calculation may be
performed to find the strength of the signal travelling from one antenna to
the other and to check that the transmitted signal meets the receiver system
requirements for the designated range. In order to do this, the antenna
frequency and polarization must be known for each antenna, in addition toits design and location. The permittivity, permeability, and geometry of the

In this way reconnaissance data can be transmitted over several hundred
miles from RPA to RPA. The tactical advantages of the airborne node arehighlighted. It is shown that laser communications can be operated in theupper layers of the atmosphere with high reliability. Special problems andtechnical challenges of laser communications aboard RPAs are addressed.

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Conference 9460: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XII
UAV components must also be known. The full-wave method of moments(MOM) solution produces the appropriate dBi radiation pattern in which thereceived signal strength is calculated relative to that of an isotropic radiator.
Measurements of the GMA-TT outer covering material revealed the carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy composite to be highly reflective. Two types ofantennas, blade antennas and conformal antennas, were modeled on thesurface of the GMA-TT. Radiation patterns were calculated for various
antennas at a number of possible locations, including the winglets,
wings, fuselage, and tail. Some conclusions were drawn regarding thecharacteristics of antenna patterns produced by the different antenna
designs and locations.

enabling real-time performance and the trade-offs of using each platform.
This technology can be used to add performance to ISR applications byimproving the quality of long-range imagery as it is collected and effectively
extending sensor range.

9460-12, Session 3

Characterization of UAV hover patterns in
support of superresolution research

Modeling was performed on an HP Z820 Workstation computer, making useof the multilevel fast multipole (MLFMM) method in FEKO software.

9460-23, Session 2

Low-SWaP 4-axis stabilized Gimbal systemand enabled missions
Karl J. Pendergast, Adsys Controls, Inc (United States)
The utility of small UAS (SUAS) has exploded in the past decade withincreasingly complex mission requirements being levied on SUAS platforms.
Inevitably, this means smaller and more capable payloads with focus onlong range ISR, laser designation/targeting, geolocation, high definition
imagery, video compression, advanced image processing, and increased
payload autonomy. Key limitations for low-SWaP payloads have been inprecision pointing/stabilization, sensor modularity, and video processing/compression. Adsys Controls, Inc. will present an overview of our new 6”class Arrow gimbaled sensor system, and discuss its design solution forthis challenging next generation mission set. We will discuss the Arrowarchitecture with 4-axis stabilization mechanism and advanced on-board
video processing system. We will also present simulation-based stability
analysis and flight data.

9460-10, Session 3

Fusion of video and radar comparison to
3D ladar for activity recognition
David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Jeremy Straub, Ronald Marsh, Univ. of North Dakota(United States)
Prior work has demonstrated the efficacy of a hierarchical super-resolution
technique, based on Schultz, Meng and Stevenson’s Bayesian multiframe
resolution enhancement approach, for enhancing image data similar to thatcollected by UAVs. This technology relies on sub-pixel movement between
images (which was artificially created during the prior work), ideally
producing five images: one center image and four surrounding images witha one-half pixel diagonal offset (in each diagonal direction).
This paper characterizes a Parot AR.Drone’s hover movement (the small
movements made by the craft for position keeping to correct for air
movement and mechanical or electrical irregularities) as an initial step
towards evaluating the efficacy of UAV hover patterns for creating imagery
suitable for this super-resolution technique. It characterizes the UAV’s
hover pattern to answer two questions. First it seeks to determine whether
hover movement may produce the requisite level of movement for superresolution use. Second, it characterizes the distances from the target atwhich this hover pattern movement provides a suitable level of shifting.
Multiple distances and resolution levels are considered.
Based on this data, the efficacy of the use of the hover movement isevaluated. Then, the impact of being able to utilize this hover movement
to aid super-resolution is discussed. It is compared and contrasted to theutility of utilizing directional movement, qualitatively, to this same end andbenefits and drawbacks of the two approaches are discussed. Finally, thepotential utility of super-resolution onboard UAVs, and how this could beenabled by the hover-pattern collection technique is discussed and future
work is considered.

9460-13, Session 4

No Abstract Available

Aerial video mosaicking using binaryfeature tracking

9460-11, Session 3

Breton L. Minnehan, Andreas E. Savakis, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)

Real-time embedded technology forenhancing long-range imagery
Aaron L. Paolini, Daniel L. Hertenstein, Eric J. Kelmelis,James Bonnett, Paul A. Fox, EM Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates)Many ISR applications require constant monitoring of targets from long
distance. When capturing over long distances, imagery is often degraded byatmospheric turbulence. This adds a time-variant blurring effect to captured
data, and can result in a significant loss of information. To recover it, image
processing techniques have been developed to enhance sequences of short
exposure images or videos in order to remove frame-specific scintillation
and warping. While some of these techniques have been shown to be quite
effective, the associated computational complexity and required processing
power limits the application of these techniques to post-event analysis.
To meet the needs of real-time ISR applications, video enhancement must
be done in real-time in order to provide actionable intelligence as thescene unfolds. In this paper, we will provide an overview of an algorithm
capable of providing the enhancement desired and focus on its real-time
implementation. We will discuss the role that both FPGAs and GPUs play in

96

SPIE DSS 2015·

As the cost of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) decreases, UAVs
become an increasingly attractive platform for applications ranging fromreconnaissance to disaster relief and infrastructure monitoring. Creating
detailed aerial maps from UAV data requires fast and accurate video
mosaicking methods. Traditional mosaicking techniques rely on interframe homography estimations that are cascaded through the video
sequence. Keypoint matching algorithms, such as kd-trees, are typicallyused to determine the correspondence of SIFT or SURF keypoints between
frames, but small errors may accumulate over successive frames to larger
discrepancies. Large moving objects pose additional challenges to the
traditional mosaicking methods. This paper presents a video mosaicking
method that uses a keypoint tracking approach for matching keypoints
between frames to improve both efficiency and robustness. Tracking isbased on dictionaries of local binary descriptors and leverages the spatial
locality of the keypoints to simplify the matching process. Our method
is robust to cascaded errors by determining the homography between
each frame and the ground plane rather than the prior frame. The frameto-ground homography is calculated based on the relationship of eachpoint’s image coordinates and its estimated location on the ground plane.
Robustness to moving objects is integrated into the homography estimation
step through detecting anomalies in keypoints motion and eliminating theirwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9460: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XII
influence. The resulting mosaics are of high accuracy and can be computed
in real time.

Constant Acceleration-2 Coordinated Turn (2CV-CA-2CT) model set proves
to be the most robust at the cost of computational resource. The Constant
Velocity and Constant Acceleration (CV-CA) model set is the fastest.
However, it is the least robust in terms of performance. These results assist
decision makers and researchers in choosing appropriate models for IMM
trackers. Augmenting the capability of the tracker improves the ability of theplatform to identify possible threats and consequently, enhancesituational awareness.

9460-14, Session 4

Background image understanding andadaptive imaging for vehicle tracking
Anthony Vodacek, Matthew J. Hoffman, Burak Uzkent, Bin
Chen, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)

9460-16, Session 5

Improving change detection results withknowledge of registration uncertainty

Surveillance of vehicles from a remote platform using an imaging sensor
is often done with a pointing sensor and small field of view, limiting the
tracking to a single vehicle. Other sensors have been designed to observe awider area, but automated tracking algorithms for these sensors often track
any vehicle moving in the scene, even ones that may be irrelevant to thetask. Automated tracking algorithms may also fail when vehicles become
obscured or otherwise enter scenarios that make imaging difficult. We
describe our effort to create a imaging-based vehicle tracking system thatuses the principles of dynamic data driven applications systems to observe,
model, and collect new within a dynamic feedback loop. Several uniqueaspects of the system include tracking of user-defined vehicles, the use ofan adaptive sensor that can change modality, and a reliance on backgroundimage understanding to improve tracking and minimize error. We describe
the system and show results demonstrated within the DIRSIG image
simulation model that show improved tracking results for the system.

Andrew J. Lingg, Etegent Technologies, Ltd. (UnitedStates); Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ. (United States)
Uncertainty in the registration between two images remains a problematic
source of error in performing change detection between them. We present
a method for reducing the impact of misregistration based upon a statisticalcharacterization of the uncertainty in the estimate of the registrationtransformation. When using a feature-point based registration algorithm,
we can compute a Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB) on the estimate of
the registration transformation based on an assumed covariance in thefeature-point locations. This information is used to estimate the varianceon the location at which pixels will appear in the registered image, which isused to estimate the bias and variance introduced into the pixel intensities
by registration uncertainty. Here, we use this information to improve change
detection performance and verify this improvement with simulated andexperimental results.

9460-15, Session 4

Enhanced performance for the interacting
multiple model estimator with integrated
multiple filters

9460-17, Session 5

Change detection on UGV patrols withrespect to a reference tour using VIS
imagery

Madeleine G. Sabordo, Elias Aboutanios, The Univ. of New
South Wales (Australia)
In this paper, we propose a new approach to target visibility for theInteracting Multiple Model (IMM) algorithm. The concept of target visibility
is used as a basis for deciding the status of a track. We say that a target isvisible if it exists and is detectable by the sensor. The probability of visibility
is recursively calculated based on the following assumptions:Thomas Müller, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)
Autonomous driving robots (UGVs) equipped with visual-optical (VIS)
cameras offer a high potential to automatically detect suspicious
occurrences and dangerous or threatening situations on patrol. In order toexplore this potential, the scene of interest is recorded first on a reference
tour representing the ‘everything okay’ situation. On further patrols changes
are detected with respect to the reference in a two step processing scheme.
In the first step, an image retrieval is done to find the reference images thatare closest to the current camera image on patrol. This is done efficiently
based on precalculated image-to-image registrations of the reference by
optimizing image overlap in a local reference search (after a global searchwhen that is needed). In the second step, a robust spatio-temporal change
detection is performed that widely compensates 3-D parallax according tovariations of the camera position. Various results document the performanceof the presented approach.

1) Target visibility sequence {n} with outcomes 1 and 0 can be modeled asa first-order homogeneous Markov chain with transition probabilities y01(probability that the target switches from invisible at time k?1 to visible attime k) and y11 (probability that the target remains visible).
2) Clutter returns received at different sampling times are independent andtarget detection is independent of clutter detections.
3) The number of validated measurements, denoted by m(k,t), of visible
target at each time step is a binary random variable which takes on thevalue 1 or 0. The non-zero conditional probability is P{m(k,t) = 1|q(k),Z(kq1)},
where q(k) is the event that the target is visible at time k and Z(k-1) is theset of measurements up to the previous time step.
In addition to this concept, we employ an integrated multiple filter (IMF)
which engages two filters to deal with data association. Unlike conventional
practice in associating measurements to tracks where each technique isused in isolation throughout the recursive process, in this work we employ
both the Nearest Neighborhood (NN) filter and the Probabilistic Data
Association (PDA) filter to alternately associate measurements to track
depending on the density of measurements that fall inside the validation
region. We investigate five model sets that model the dynamic motion ofa manoeuvring target. The model sets are incorporated into the IMM-IMF
tracker to estimate the behaviour of the target. We employ the Dynamic
Error Spectrum (DES) to assess the effectiveness of the tracker with target
visibility concept incorporated and to compare the performance of themodel sets in enhancing tracking performance. Results show that the newversion of target visibility significantly improves the performance of the
tracker. Simulation results also demonstrate that the 2-Constant Velocities-

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9460-18, Session 6

Pressing the sparsity advantage via databased decomposition
Vahid R. Riasati, Laura Andress, Raytheon Space &Airborne Systems (United States); Denis Grishin, Rockwell
Collins (United States)
The l1-norm reconstruction techniques have enabled exact data
reconstruction with high probability from ‘k-sparse’ data. This paper
presented an added technique to press this reconstruction by truncating the·help@spie.org

97Conference 9460: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XIIsparse data in its decomposed state. The truncation utilizes a transformationof the eigen-vectors of the covariance matrix and prioritizes the vectors
equally without regard to their energy levels associated to the eigenvalues of the vectors. This method presents two primary advantages indata representation: first, the data is naturally represented in only a few
terms components of each of the vectors, and second, the complete set offeatures is represented, albeit, the fidelity of the representation may havechanged. This technique alleviates the issues associated with high-energy
fading of small-signal data features. The current technique utilizes thenatural contributions of various frequencies associated with each signal
sample in the eigen-vector data representation enabling a high probabilityof exact reconstruction of the vectors using very few samples.

parameters to use for a given video stream. The video quality model rests
on a suite of image metrics computed in real-time from the video. We will
describe the formulation of the image quality model. Results from a recent
experiment will quantify the empirical performance for recognition of eventsof interest.

9460-21, Session 7

Image sequence exploitation for mobile
operations
Markus Mueller, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany); Stella
Oldenbuerger, Bundeswehr Technical Ctr. for Information
Technology and Electronics (Germany)

9460-19, Session 6

Orthomosaic construction and analysis
of EO imagery from a small unmanned
aircraft system (SUAS) for natural
resources management on an active
military training range
Leslie Bolick, Nicholas C. Stroumtsos, Dawn Lawson,
Kimberly O’Connor, SPAWAR Systems Ctr. (United States)
Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (SUAS) provide remote sensing platforms
that offer efficient deployment and ultra-high spatial resolution data well
suited to focused surveys. These systems have particular value for natural
resources management (NRM) on military installations, where monitoringis required for regulatory compliance but ground access is constrained bytraining activities, challenging terrain, and unexploded ordnance (UXO). US
Pacific Fleet (PACFLT) has initiated a UAS remote sensing program for NRM
at San Clemente Island (SCI), a military training range and ship-to-shore
live firing range with ten federally listed endangered or threatened species
regulated by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). PACFLT aims to
improve management of these species in order to reduce encumbranceson the Navy, while also reducing NRM program costs and training mission
conflicts by expanding remote sensing coverage in training areas using
SUAS. The first mission was flown with the Aeryon Sky Ranger, a quadcopter
equipped with a stabilized EO camera, tasked with collecting imagery
across known locations of SCI Bushmallow, a federally listed endangered
plant whose population status in the Shore Bombardment Area (SHOBA)
was unknown. EO imagery collection, orthomosaic construction, 3D
terrain modeling, and image classification provided direct quantificationof SCI bushmallow population distributions in SHOBA that meet USFWS
monitoring requirements and can be used to support delisting and recovery.
Based on the success of the first mission, new applications in UAS remotesensing for NRM are currently under development including invasive weed
species detection and monitoring, wildlife population assessment andpredator control.

9460-20, Session 7

Context and quality estimation in video forenhanced event detection
John M. Irvine, Richard J. Wood, Draper Lab. (UnitedStates)Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) are equipped with various electrooptical (and other) sensors for reconnaissance and surveillance tasks.
These systems play an important role in international peacekeeping
missions, armistice surveillance, defense against terrorism, disaster relief,
and other sovereign tasks. Therefore, the Fraunhofer IOSB developed inclose cooperation with the Technical Center of the German Armed Forces
the generic and integrative platform for automatic and semiautomatic
image sequence exploitation ABUL (Automated Image Exploitation for
UAS). Since the system deals with live video/image sequences, real-time
requirements demand efficient implementations. One core topic is theregistration of two or more images of a sequence or of different sensors inreal-time and in high quality. The estimated registration parameters allow
for further processing like image stabilization, panorama composition, image
mosaicking, image-based moving target detection, 3D-model extraction/
fitting, target recognition and target distance estimation. Although originallydeveloped for the use in ground control stations further developments
concern the use on mobile devices in (protected) vehicles or on personalequipment during operations. This implies that the system must be adapted
to novel use cases, e.g. by developing new user interface concepts, and new
system requirements, e.g. limited computing power. The paper describes
recent advances with respect to system technology, high-level and real-time
capable image exploitation algorithms for mobile operations.

9460-22, Session 7

Automated FMV image quality assessment
based on power spectrum statistics
Andrew R. Kalukin, NGA/IID (United States)
Factors that degrade image quality in video and other sensor collections,such as noise, blurring, and poor resolution, also affect the power spectrumof imagery. Prior research from the last few decades has shown thatthe image power spectrum can be useful in assessing image quality instatic images. The research in this article explores the possibility of using
the power spectrum to automatically evaluate full-motion video (FMV)
imagery frame by frame. Degradation factor effects on power spectrum are
simulated in the research, and analysis of variance is applied to ascertain
the ability of power spectrum statistics to measure image quality. The goalof the research will be to develop an automated system for assigning image
quality ratings calibrated to the National Imagery Interpretability Rating
Scale (NIIRS) modified for video products.

Numerous practical applications for automated event recognition invideo rely on analysis of the objects and their associated motion, i.e., thekinematics of the scene. The ability to recognize events in practice depends
on accurate tracking objects of interest in the video data and accurate
recognition of changes relative to the background. Numerous factors candegrade the performance of automated algorithms. Our object detection
and tracking algorithms estimate the object position and attributes within
the context of a dynamic assessment of video quality, to provide morereliable event recognition under challenging conditions. We present anapproach to robustly modeling the image quality which informs tuning

98

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Conference 9460: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications XII

9460-24, Session 7

An automated analysis of wide area
motion imagery for moving subject
detectionDavid Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Automated analysis of wide area motion imagery (WAMI) can significantly
reduce the effort required for converting data into reliable decisions. We
register consecutive WAMI frames and use false-color frame comparisons tohighlight possible subjects in the imagery. We then prepare and prioritize aqueue of detections for automated revisit with smaller field-of-view assets
based on the locations and features of the movers as well as the probabilityof the detection. This automated queue works within an operator’s preset
prioritizations but also allows the flexibility to dynamically respond to new
events as well as incorporating additional information into thesurveillance tasking.

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99

Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX
Monday - Wednesday 20–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9461 Radar Sensor Technology XIX; and Active and Passive Signatures VI

9461-1, Session 1

Calculation of the phase-center offset from
2D antenna radiation patterns
Patrick S. Deboux, Berenice Verdin, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States); Samuel A. Pichardo, The Univ. of
Texas at El Paso (United States)
Measuring the radiation pattern of a directive antenna when its phase center
is not aligned with the center of rotation yields large far-field radiation
phase changes, and if severe enough, can have a significant effect on theamplitude symmetry of the radiation pattern about its mainbeam direction.
In this paper, we propose an algorithm to calculate the phase-center offset
from point of rotation of a 2D antenna pattern. The hybrid algorithm iscomprised of a combination of the two-point method to calculate thephase-center offset along the antenna mainbeam, and an antisymmetry
method to calculate phase-center offset perpendicular to the mainbeam
direction. The algorithm is tested on the E-plane radiation pattern ofa cylindrical horn antenna calculated using the HFSS (High Frequency
Structural Simulator) electromagnetic simulation engine, radiating at 5GHz.
Given the separation distance of the transmit and receive antennas and theoperating frequency, the developed algorithm can calculate the magnitude
and direction of the phase-center offset relative to the axis of rotation towithin 5%. The number of phase wraps is taken to account to mitigate theambiguities that arise from offsets greater than one wavelength.

Characterization of radar cross section ofcarbon-fiber composite materials

Deployment of rare Earth elements (REEs)
on RF sources, lasers, and EO/IR sensors
Asu R. Jha, JHA Technical Consulting Services (UnitedStates)This paper identifies potential applications of REEs for RF sources, lasers ,and EO sensors. Critical REE materials such as yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG),
yttrium-aluminum-garnet (YAG), samarium cobalt and ternary materials are
specified for radars, electronic warfare, lasers, and EO sensors.

9461-5, Session 1

Hernan Suarez, Yan Zhang, The Univ. of Oklahoma (UnitedStates)Elliot J. Riley, Erik H. Lenzing, Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
Carbon fiber composite materials (CFC) have been used for many structural
applications for decades. Their electromagnetic properties are now ofgreat interest in the defense industry and are being quantified by recent
research. This research has explored shielding effectiveness, antenna design,
conductivity, reflection, and absorption properties.
The work in this paper explores the radar cross section of CFC structures.
Various CFC samples were created using a wet layup method and vacuum
bagging techniques. These samples were then placed in an anechoic
chamber and their RCS values at normal incidence were measured. These
measured values were compared to typical conductors made into the same
shape as the RCS samples. All of the measurements were made in the X
band frequency range.
The RCS of the CFC samples show some interesting results. The fiber
direction in the CFC samples had great influence on the RCS. Theories andreasoning for the results are presented and discussed.

9461-3, Session 1

Design considerations for eye-safe singleaperture laser radars

New radar applications need to execute complex algorithms and process
large quantity of data to generate useful information for the users. Thissituation has motivated the search for better processing solutions that
include low-power high-performance processors, efficient algorithms,
and high-speed data interfaces. In this work, hardware implementationof adaptive pulse compression and digital pre-distortion for real-timetransceiver optimization are presented. They are based on a System-on-Chiparchitecture for a programmable and reconfigurable device. This study also
evaluates the performance of the required pre-processing blocks such as
digital down conversion, filtering, and traditional pulse compression which
are implemented in the programmable logic side of the device. Moreover,this work justifies the importance of having dedicated coprocessors as
hardware accelerator units, to speed up and improve the performanceof high demanding computational tasks such matrix multiplication andmatrix inversion, which are required to operate the covariance matrix. The
tradeoffs between latency and hardware utilization for the implementationof the processing blocks are also presented. The system architecture takes
advantage of the embedded dual-core ARM hard processor, which isinterconnected with the logic resources through the high-performance AXI
buses, to perform floating-point operations, control the processing blocks,
and communicate with external PC through a customized software interface.
The overall system functionality is simulated for real-time operations usinga Ku-band transceiver tested together with a low-cost channel emulator fordifferent types of waveforms.

9461-6, Session 1

Dmitry S. Starodubov, Torrey Pines Logic, Inc. (UnitedStates)The design considerations for low cost, compact and efficient laser radars
and ranging systems are discussed. The reviewed approach with single
optical aperture allows reducing the size, weight and power of the system.
Additional design benefits include improved stability, reliability and rigidityof the overall system. The proposed modular architecture provides simplified

SPIE DSS 2015

9461-4, Session 1

System-on-chip architecture and validation
for real-time transceiver optimization

9461-2, Session 1

100

way of varying the performance parameters of the range finder productfamily by selecting the sets of specific illumination and detection modules.
The performance operation challenges are presented. The implementationof non-reciprocal optical elements is considered. The cross talk between
illumination and detection channels for single aperture design is reviewed.
3D imaging capability for the ranging applications is considered. The
simplified assembly and testing process for single aperture range finders
that allows to mass produce the design are discussed. The eye safety of therange finder operation is summarized.

·

Acceleration of generalized adaptive pulse
compression with parallel GPUs
Jingxiao Cai, Yan R. Zhang, The Univ. of Oklahoma (UnitedStates)www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX
Graphic Processing Unit (GPU) based parallel computing is an emerging
and promising approach to accelerate massive real-time computations.
For general adaptive pulse compression (APC), there are scenarios wherea large number of range and Doppler cells are handled especially in 2D
scanning, which have potentials for parallelization. Traditionally, the APC
algorithms are specific combinations of various matrix manipulations andimplemented in CPU-based processor architectures. For large scale APC,
the nature of CPUs makes the computation less efficient. In contrast, theoriginal graphic rendering tasks of GPUs require highly parallel architecture,
which leads to better large matrix computing capability. The goal of thiswork is modifying existing APC algorithms to enhance parallelization,
implementing such algorithms into embedded GPU platforms and achieving
the acceleration given various types of radar applications.

A major advantage of a harmonic radar over conventional radar is its
ability to provide better discrimination between targets of interest, such as
nonlinear targets and linear clutter targets. A harmonic radar is currently
under development in order to detect nonlinear targets at a stand-off
distance using the nonlinear approach. The processed nonlinear SAR
images demonstrate the system’s ability to clearly detect nonlinear targets
and reject linear targets. In addition, the nonlinear radar is able to locate
nonlinear targets in down-range and cross range.

9461-9, Session 2

Filter selection for a harmonic radar
receiverAn example system with low Space, Time and Power (SWaP) is
demonstrated with NVidia CUDA technology, the revised algorithms are
implemented on a System-on-Chip (SoC) platform “Jetson TK1”, which
is a light-weight computing solution distributed by NVidia with its peakcomputation power at over 300 GFLOPS per unit. In addition, the Thermal
Design Power (TDP) of this board is just 5 watts and it is possible to be
expanded to clusters and multiply the computing power.

Kyle A. Gallagher, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel (United States);
Anthony F. Martone, Kelly D. Sherbondy, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
In a harmonic radar system design, one of the most important components
is the filter used to remove the self-generated harmonics by the highpower transmitter power amplifier, which is usually driven close to its 1-dB
compression point. The obvious choice for this filter is a low-pass filter.
Most low-pass filters are reflective devices, which operate by reflecting theunwanted high frequency signals back to the power amplifier output. In a
harmonic radar, this reflection can create problems by generating additional
forward distortion. This paper will discuss the issues arising from the use ofreflective filters in harmonic radar design. We will show data validating theconcept that frequency diplexers are more attractive in place of low passfilters to harmonic radar design since they route the reflected power awayfrom the power amplifier output.

9461-7, Session 2

Short-range harmonic radar: chirp
waveform, electronic targets
Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel (United States); Kyle A.
Gallagher, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States);
Anthony F. Martone, Kelly D. Sherbondy, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
The U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) is currently evaluating nonlinear
ultra-wideband (UWB) radar for the detection of radio-frequency (RF)electronics. RF electronic targets, such as man-portable electronics, cannot
be detected by traditional linear radar because the radar cross section of
those targets is much smaller than that of nearby clutter. One technologythat is capable of separating RF electronic targets from naturally-occurring
clutter is nonlinear radar. For electromagnetically nonlinear electronics,
some of the radar waves that reflect from the target oscillate at frequencies
different from those transmitted to the target. Reception of frequencies
that are not part of the original transmission distinguishes the received
signal from a linear return produced by clutter and indicates the presence ofelectronics.

9461-10, Session 2

Sparse SAR imaging for stepped frequency
nonlinear radar
Lam H. Nguyen, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Kyle A. Gallagher, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Kenneth I. Ranney, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)

Presented in this paper is the evolution of nonlinear radar at ARL andrecent results of short-range over-the-air harmonic radar tests. For the
nonlinear radar discussed, the transmit waveform is a chirp which sweeps
one frequency at constant amplitude over an ultra-wide bandwidth. The
receiver captures a single harmonic of this entire chirp. From the UWB
received harmonic, a nonlinear frequency response of the radar environment
is constructed. An inverse Fourier Transform of this nonlinear frequency
response reveals the range to the nonlinear target within the environment.
The chirped harmonic radar concept is validated experimentally using aridged horn antenna and off-the-shelf electronic targets.

The Army Research Laboratory is studying the feasibility of using steppedfrequency ultra-wideband (UWB), synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for thedetection of non-linear targets with harmonic frequency responses. The
approach would filter out all natural clutter and man-made objects inthe scene that do not have responses in the harmonic frequency bands.
The resulting SAR imagery formed using this frequency band would bevery sparse with only a few targets of interest. Therefore, sparse image
processing would be ideal in this scenario.
In this paper, we will describe the sparse SAR imaging technique and its
application to form SAR imagery in the harmonic frequency band. The
radar is operating in the low frequency band (UHF and L bands) where
the available spectrum is very sparse and shared by many radar andcommunications systems. Thus, the main objective in this sparse imaging
scheme is achieving good performance using sparse frequency contents
within the operating bandwidth. We will study and compare SAR imagery
performance versus various sparsity levels.

9461-8, Session 2

Nonlinear synthetic aperture radar imaging
using a harmonic radar
Kyle A. Gallagher, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel (United States);
Kenneth I. Ranney, Lam H. Nguyen, Anthony F. Martone,
Kelly D. Sherbondy, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)

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101Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX

9461-11, Session 3

nozzle feature from the bodies themselves presented. Radar Cross Section(RCS) distributions, tumbling body analysis, and other related scatteringparameters will be assessed and discussed.

Terrain clutter simulation using physicsbased scattering model and digital terrain
profile data

9461-14, Session 3

James Park, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Joel
T. Johnson, The Ohio State Univ. (United States); KungHau Ding, Kristopher Kim, Joseph Tenbarge, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

Building detection in SAR imagery

Clutter suppression is critical to the performance of Air Moving Target
Identification (AMTI), Ground Moving Target Identification (GMTI), and otherradar applications. This requires an improved understanding of radar clutter
property. To understand the characteristics of terrain clutter, numerous
clutter modeling approaches have been investigated using a statisticallydescribed surface or a deterministic surface. Although these approaches
address the general characteristics of clutter, the impact of radargeometries, terrain types, and topographies on scattering coefficients havenot been studied in detail by using physics-based EM models combinedwith Digital Terrain Elevation Datasets (DTED). This approach allows
us to study the direct effect of terrain to be surveyed on the scattering
problem to be solved. In this paper, we investigate physics-based clutter
modeling approaches using DTEDs as underlying basis for terrain large
scale topography. Digital terrain data with a spatial resolution at 1/9 arc is ofinterest to this research. A digital terrain profiles is triangulated to generate
the surface facets, and line-of-sight analysis is performed to differentiate
the shadowed and illuminated regions, which is critical to capturing thephysics of low grazing angle terrain scattering. Furthermore, the local
terrain slope of illuminated facets and the slope of rays from the ray-tracing
method define the radar geometries. The size of the radar resolution cellon the ground is first calculated using the relevant radar parameters. Next
the terrain surface facets can be described by the roughness parameters:
rms height and correlation length to address the small-scale local terrain
features. To obtain the scattering coefficient over a resolution cell, the small
perturbation method (SPM), physical optics (PO), or other approximate
analytical method for capturing small scale roughness returns is used.

Current techniques for building detection in Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) imagery can be computationally expensive and/or enforce stringent
requirements for data acquisition. We present a technique that is effective
and efficient at determining an approximate building location from multipass single-pol SAR imagery. This approximate location provides focus-ofattention to specific image regions for subsequent processing. The proposed
technique assumes that for the desired image, a preprocessing algorithm
has detected and labeled bright lines and shadows. Because we observethat buildings produce bright lines and shadows with predetermined
relationships, our algorithm uses a graph clustering technique to find groupsof bright lines and shadows that create a building. The nodes of the graphrepresent bright line and shadow regions, while the arcs represent therelationships between the bright lines and shadow. Constraints based onangle of depression and the relationship between connected bright lines
and shadows are applied to remove unrelated arcs. Once the related brightlines and shadows are grouped, their locations are combined to provide
an approximate building location. Experimental results are presented todemonstrate the outcome of this technique.

9461-12, Session 3

Global warming has caused serious damage to our environment in recent
years. Accelerated loss of ice from Greenland and Antarctica has been
observed in recent decades. The melting of polar ice sheets and mountainglaciers has a considerable influence on sea level rise and altering ocean
currents, potentially leading to the flooding of the coastal regions andputting millions of people around the world at risk. Synthetic aperture radar(SAR) systems are able to provide relevant information about subsurface
structure of polar ice sheets. Manual layer identification is prohibitively
tedious and expensive and is not practical for regular, long-term icesheet monitoring. Automatic layer finding in noisy radar images is quite
challenging due to huge amount of noise, limited resolution and variations in
ice layers and bedrock. This study presents an efficient automatic algorithm
to detect several layers of ice sheets using mathematical morphology
operations. The proposed approach involves the identification and selectionof internal layers. Experimental results of testing on publicly available
SAR data of Greenland and Antarctica show promising capabilities forautomatically detecting ice layers.

Ryan M Steinbach, Mark W. Koch, Mary M. Moya, Jeremy
Goold, Sandia National Labs. (United States)

Radar-centric scattering of possible
targets for orbital debris remediation
Russell Vela, James Park, Brian M. Kent, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Anthony Griffith, Rebecca Johanning,
Kenneth Baker, Peter Spehar, NASA Johnson Space Ctr.
(United States)
Decades of international launches and various space expeditions in the low
Earth orbit (LEO) have caused it to become littered with man-made objects
and debris. With over 22,000 objects larger than a softball, and hundredsof thousands in smaller size existing, remediation efforts must take place tominimize the likelihood of on-orbit debris collisions with either civilian, or
military assets. While many conceptual techniques for debris remediation
exist, an active form of engagement will most likely be necessary. In regards
to the debris itself, smaller objects become difficult to track, and require
more onboard resource consumption for engagement. Conversely, larger
bodies, such as rocket bodies, offer a greater volume for removal withless required space-based operations. Robust sensor packages required
to detect, track, and engage these targets would most likely include an
onboard microwave remote sensing system such as Radar. To assist in
the architectural design of these sensors, relevant apriori Radar-centric
scattering knowledge of these large freely tumbling bodies is essential. This
paper focuses on the scattering phenomenology from possible large bodied
orbital debris, such as rocket bodies, whose geometries are publicallyavailable. Particular emphasis is placed on the exhaust nozzle as this is acommonly reoccurring feature between rocket configurations, which could
be utilized a grappling, interlocking, or interfacing structure. Radar required,and producible, data will be analyzed with considerations for extracting the102

SPIE DSS 2015·

9461-15, Session 3

Automatic segmentation of ice layers inradar images
Maryam Rahnemoonfar, Texas A&M Univ. Corpus Christi(United States)

9461-16, Session 4

Bistatic and multistatic target
identification for through-wall radar
imaging
Joshua M. Allebach, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States); Benjamin Hoe, DSCI (UnitedStates); Sean P. Broderick, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC
NVESD (United States)www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX

9461-19, Session 5

Bistatic and multistatic antenna systems have become increasingly popular
for through-wall radar imaging because of their ability to collect moretarget scattering information. This increased information allows for better
identification of human targets in complex environments. In this paper, theuse of bistatic and multistatic radar for discriminating against clutter andthe general use of cross-polarization in multistatic systems is examined. To
investigate the ability of radar systems in target identification, returns from
common office clutter and human targets for monostatic and bistatic arrays
were captured. The data were processed to construct receiver operating
curves for both system and multistatic radar. Furthermore, data weregathered for a human target in different environments using both co-andcross-polarization for direct comparison. Results indicate that multistaticradar offers increased discrimination against clutter while co-polarization
images targets more clearly than cross-polarization.

Performance analysis of spectrally
versatile forward-looking groundpenetrating radar for detection ofconcealed targets
Brian R. Phelan, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Marc A. Ressler, Kenneth I. Ranney, Gregory D.
Smith, Getachew A. Kirose, Kelly D. Sherbondy, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
Stepped-Frequency Radars (SFR) have become increasingly popular withadvent of new technologies and increasingly congested RF spectrum.
Furthermore, SFRs have inherently high dynamic range due to their small
IF bandwidths, allowing for the detection of weak target returns in thepresence of clutter. The Army Research Laboratory’s (ARL) Partnershipin Research Transition (PIRT) program has developed a preliminary
SFR for imaging buried landmines and Improvised Explosive Devices(IEDs). The preliminary system utilizes 2 transmit antennas and 4 receive
antennas and is meant to act as a transitional system to verify the system’s
design and imaging capabilities. The SFR operates between 300 MHz
and 2000 MHz, and is capable of 1-MHz step-sizes. A 16-receive channel
system is anticipated to supersede the preliminary system, this system
will be mounted on ARL’s existing Forward-Looking Ground Penetrating
Radar (FLGPR) platform which was used for the Synchronous Impulse
REconstruction (SIRE) radar. An analysis of the preliminary SFR’s RFI
mitigation, dynamic range, clutter rejection, and imaging capability ispresented here.

9461-17, Session 4

Fall detection and classification thoughwalls and in heavy indoor clutter
Moeness G. Amin, Fauzia Ahmad, Villanova Univ. (UnitedStates)As the field of assisted living using remote radar monitoring progresses, it
has become important to examine the offerings of this technology in actual
homes or elderly care facility settings. The fall and gait classifiers which
proved effective in direct line-of-sight scenarios and controlled lab settings
may face challenges when operating on data gathered through single andmultiple walls and in presence of heavy clutter caused by resolvable andunresolvable multipath. This paper compares the performance of several
fall classifiers, which extract their features from the data time-frequency
representations. The data is collected in home and office environments
where the radar unit is placed 1) at different heights, and 2) in different
rooms. We examine the power and antenna gain necessary to sense thehuman gross-motor activities, specifically falls. The paper also shows theadvantages of using two radar units, in lieu of a single unit, and discusses
fusion strategies to reduce false alarms and avoid blind spots. In addition to
falls, the experiments include sitting, standing, falling off bed, and falling
off chair.

9461-20, Session 5

FlexSAR: demonstrating high-quality,
cost-effective multimodal radar systemprototyping
Mark D. Jensen, Chad Knight, Space Dynamics Lab.
(United States)

9461-18, Session 4

The FlexSAR radar system was designed to be a high quality, low-cost,
flexible, research prototype instrument. Radar researchers and practitioners
often desire the ability to prototype new or advanced configurations,
yet the ability to enhance or upgrade existing radar systems can be costprohibitive. A flexible radar system that can be easily extended withminimal cost and time expenditures could drastically reduce the resources
required for developing and validating advanced radar modalities. The
FlexSAR system is designed to achieve such extensible, flexible capabilities.
This is accomplished by using an RF design that leverages connectorizedcomponents with digital COTS cards in a PC. The connectorized RF design
allows for efficient RF configuration such as increasing the bandwidth,
center-frequency, etc. The digital COTS cards provide software definedradio (SDR) capability. Adding channels (RX or TX) is easily accomplishedby incorporating additional digital COTS cards. The PC allows for a costeffective storage device, incorporating raided SSD drives to capture raw orprocessed data. This is beneficial because the ability to capture raw data canbe desirable for real-time algorithm development and validation. A moredetailed design consideration (advantages and disadvantages) is discussed
and multiple examples of the flexible system nature of the FlexSAR system
are illustrated for diverse applications including multi-band SAR (L/X),
quad-polarizations (littoral), and ATI (GMTI/SAR) applications. The RF anddigital configuration is modified for the various applications. The requiredchanges are discussed as well as the overall system performance foreach application.

RCS information theoretic approach fortarget classification
Travis D. Bufler, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State
Univ. (United States); Traian V. Dogaru, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)
This paper investigates the application of information theory for theclassification of stationary human targets and indoor clutter. The paper
focuses on analysis and comparison between stationary human targets andthat of common indoor clutter through modeling results obtained using
Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD). Using FDTD techniques allows us
to examine the radar cross section (RCS) of humans and indoor clutter
objects by using different types of computer models. FDTD allows for the
spectral characteristics to be acquired over a wide range of frequencies,
polarizations, aspect angles, and materials.
The acquired target and clutter RCS characteristics are then investigatedin terms of their entropy and mutual information (MI) content. Basedupon variables such as frequency, polarization, and aspect, angle a radar’s
waveform can be optimized to provide separation between targets andclutter. Experimental results and scenarios are used to compare and contrast
target emphasis and clutter suppression via information theory.

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103Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX

9461-21, Session 5

Recent experiments using the ARL RailSAR
Kenneth I. Ranney, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Brian R. Phelan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States); Getachew A. Kirose, Kelly D. Sherbondy,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The Army Research Laboratory has constructed an indoor, rail-mounted,
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) system capable of simulating airborne
data collection geometries. The collection facility includes both a “building
within a building” for through-the-wall measurements and a “sand pit” forburied-target measurements. While we collect background measurements
for the purpose of clutter removal, the elimination of multi-path responses
due to target emplacements presents a significant problem. These multipath
effects can manifest themselves as artifacts in the processed SAR imagery—artifacts that were observed in data presented at last year’s Defense,
Security and Sensing Radar Sensor Technology conference. In this paper,
we present the results of additional data collections and analysis performed
to identify the source of observed Rail-SAR artifacts. We describe theprocedures developed to eliminate artifacts in future Rail-SAR experiments
and analyze data collected using various target emplacement scenarios.
We examine results obtained both with and without the new measurement
procedures in place.

9461-22, Session 5

Technology integration and synergies:
radar, optics, and AIS
Hasan Shahid, Stevens Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Joe Nathan Abellard, New York City College
of Technology (United States); Yong-Qi Chen, Stevens
Institute of Technology (United States); David M. González
Chévere, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States)
Various technologies were used to detect, track, and classify vessels on the
Hudson River. Broadband radar was used to detect and track vessels. Visible
light cameras, infrared cameras, and image processing techniques wereused to detect, track, and classify vessels. Automatic Identification System(AIS) was used to track and classify vessels. The technologies, collectively
referred to as the Integrated Technology System (ITS), were used inconjunction with each other to achieve synergies and to overcome individual
system limitations. These limitations included a narrow field of view, faulty
detection and poor classification capabilities. Over the course of six weeks,
the ITS was used to observe vessel traffic on the Hudson River in order totest the effectiveness of the system. The suite of technologies successfully
fulfilled its purpose. The radar was effective despite some errors. The
cameras allowed for software development including automatic slewing andimage processing. While AIS was considered the most reliable tool, it wasdetermined not to be infallible. Future work includes integration of passive
acoustics into the system and wake analysis for vessel detection.

9461-23, Session 5

Ann M. Raynal, Dale F. Dubbert, Bryan L. Burns, William H.
Hensley Jr., Sandia National Labs. (United States)

9461-24, Session 5

SAR-based vibrometry using the fractional
Fourier transform
Majeed M. Hayat, The Univ. of New Mexico (UnitedStates); Tom D. Atwood, Sandia National Labs. (UnitedStates); Justin B. Campbell, Jelili Ade-bello, Ishwor Bhatta,
Humberto Caudana, Nicole B. Trujillo, Balu Santhanam,
Walter H. Gerstle, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States);Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
Theoretical and experimental research in the past few years by the groupat the University of New Mexico has demonstrated that a single syntheticaperture-radar (SAR) platform can serve in performing the simultaneous
generation of imagery and the corresponding vibration histories of theobjects being imaged at each pixel. The vibrometry approach is based upona powerful signal-analysis technique, called the fractional Fourier transform(FRFT), which enables the production of three-dimensional data comprising
the vibration histories (acceleration, velocity and amplitude) co-registeredwith a SAR image. In this presentation, we will show the potential for
extending this SAR-based capability to remotely detect and classify objects
that are housed inside buildings and other cover based knowing the locationof vibrations as well as the vibration histories of the vibrating structuresthat house the vibrating objects. This presentation specifically includes
simulation and certain experimental results (using the Lynx SAR System incollaboration with General Atomics - ASI) of SAR imagery and the vibration
histories of a certain structure that is designed and built by our group toserve as a test target. The sensed vibration histories are compared with theground truth, which is obtained from accelerometers attached to both thevibrating objects inside the structure as well as the vibrations of the surfaceof the housing structure. Preliminary recommendations on the detectablevibration frequency and amplitude, as well as the required radar-crosssection and signal-to-clutter ratio will be presented.

An algorithm for segmenting polarimetric
SAR imagery
Jorge V. Geaga, Consultant (United States)
We have developed an algorithm for segmenting fully polarimetric single
look TerraSAR-X, multilook SIR-C and 7 band Landsat 5 imagery usingneural nets. The algorithm uses a feedforward neural net with one hidden
layer to segment different surface classes. The weights are refined throughan iterative filtering process characteristic of a relaxation process. Features

A radome, or radar dome, protects a radar system from exposure to theelements. Unfortunately, radomes can affect the radiation pattern of theenclosed antenna. The co-design of a platform’s radome and radar is ideal
to mitigate any deleterious effects of the radome. However, maintaining
structural integrity and other platform flight requirements, particularly

SPIE DSS 2015

Sandia National Laboratories is a multi-program laboratory managed andoperated by Sandia Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed
Martin Corporation, for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear
Security Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.

9461-25, Session 6

Radom effects on coherent change
detection radar systems

104

when integrating a new radar onto an existing platform, often limits radome
electrical design choices. Radars that rely heavily on phase measurements
such as monopulse, interferometric, or coherent change detection (CCD)
systems require particular attention be paid to components, such as theradome, that might introduce loss and phase variations as a function of theantenna scan angle. Material properties, radome wall construction, overall
dimensions, and shape characteristics of a radome can impact insertion
loss and phase delay, antenna beamwidth and sidelobe level, polarization,and ultimately the impulse response of the radar, among other things, overthe desired radar operating parameters. The precision-guided munitions
literature has analyzed radome effects on monopulse systems for well overhalf a century. However, to the best of our knowledge, radome-induced
errors on CCD performance have not been described. The impact ofradome material and wall construction, shape, dimensions, and antennacharacteristics on CCD is examined herein for select radar and radome
examples using electromagnetic simulations.

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Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX

9461-28, Session 6

selected from studies of fully polarimetric complex single look TerraSAR-X
data and multilook SIR-C data are used as input to the net. The seven bands
from Landsat 5 data are used for as input for the Landsat neural net. The
Cloude-Pottier incoherent decomposition is used to investigate the physicalbasis of the polarimetric SAR data segmentation. The segmentation of a
SIR-C ocean surface scene into four classes will be presented.

Reflection RF tomography of stationary
objects in free space: preliminary results
Jia Li, Oakland Univ. (United States); Robert L. Ewing,Charles Berdanier, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Chris J. Baker, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)

9461-26, Session 6

RF tomography has great potential in defense and homeland security
applications. A distributed sensing research facility is under development at
Wright Patterson air force base. It is consisted of 12 radar sensors locatedon a ring of 100 meter radius in a near urban environment. To develop a
RF tomographic imaging system for the facility, preliminary experiments
have been performed in an indoor range with the same sensor set up
scaled down to a ring of 3m radius. Ultra-wideband pulses of 10GHz
bandwidth were used to illuminate single and multiple spherical targets.
The echoes received by distributed sensors were processed and combined
to reconstruct the tomography. Traditional matched filter algorithm andtruncated singular value decomposition algorithm are compared in termsof their complexity, accuracy, and suitability for distributed processing. The
main contribution of our work is a new algorithm, which jointly estimates
the scatter points on the waveform’s propagation path and the object
boundary. In the experiments, the 12 radar sensors are non-uniformly
distributed on the ring and direct path coupling is the main clutter. To
effectively mitigate direct path coupling and reject clutters in the field,
sensor data are weighted and fused according to the relative location andorientation of transmitter and receiver pairs. The results show that the newalgorithm allows accurate reconstruction of the object shape, which is notavailable through the traditional algorithms.

Generalization of susceptibility ofRF systems through far-field patternsuperposition
Berenice Verdin, Patrick S. Debroux, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)
The purpose of this paper is to perform an analysis of RF (Radio Frequency)
communication systems in an extensive electromagnetic environment to
identify its susceptibility to jamming systems. We propose a new methodthat incorporates the use of reciprocity and superposition of the far-fieldradiation pattern of the RF system Fr(jr,qr) and the far-field radiation
pattern of the jammer system Fj(jj,qj). By using this method we can findthe susceptibility pattern of RF systems with respect to the elevation andazimuth angles Fs(js,qs). An experiment was performed with HFSS (HighFrequency Structural Simulator) where the radiation pattern of the jammer
was simulated as a cylindrical horn antenna. The RF receiver antenna used
was a half-wave dipole inside a cavity with apertures that approximates aland-mobile vehicle. Because of the limitation of the simulation method,
extensive electromagnetic environments cannot be quickly simulated in
HFSS. Therefore, the combination of the transmit antenna radiation patternsuperimposed onto the receive antenna pattern was performed in MATLAB.
A 2D or 3D susceptibility area is obtained with respect to the azimuth andelevation angles. In addition, by incorporating the jamming equation into
this algorithm, the received jamming power at the RF receiver Pr(jr,qr)
can be calculated. The received power depends on antenna properties,
propagation factor and system losses. Test cases include: a cavity withfour apertures, a cavity above an infinite ground plane, and antennas withvertical and horizontal polarizations. By using the proposed algorithm asusceptibility analysis of RF systems in electromagnetic environments canbe performed.

9461-29, Session 6

Application of equalization notch to
improve synthetic aperture radar coherent
data products
Cameron Musgrove, Sandia National Labs. (United States);
James C. West, Oklahoma State Univ. (United States)
Interference and interference mitigation techniques degrade synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) coherent data products. Radars utilizing stretch
processing present a unique challenge for many mitigation techniques
because the interference signal itself is modified through stretch processing
from its original signal characteristics. Many sources of interference,
including constant tones, are only present within the fast-time sample data
for a limited number of samples, depending on the radar and interference
bandwidth. Adaptive filtering algorithms to estimate and remove theinterference signal that rely upon assuming stationary interference signal
characteristics can be ineffective. An effective mitigation method, called
notching, forces the value of the data samples containing interference tozero. However, as the number of interference sources increase and thenumber of data samples set to zero increases, image distortion and loss ofresolution degrade both the image product and the coherence
data products.

9461-27, Session 6

A practical look at target detection using
MIMO radar
Mark A. Govoni, U.S. Army CERDEC Intelligence andInformation Warfare Directorate (United States); Jeffrey
Spak, U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Research
Development and Engineering Command (United States);
Traian V. Dogaru, DaHan Liao, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
The conditions for orthogonality in Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
radar enable a virtual array gain beneﬁcial to beamforming on receive.
However, this condition imposes a constraint on the transmit beam since
the aperture is non-coherently formed across the real array. As such,
both the antenna gain and the effective radiated power suffer whencompared to a traditional monostatic phased array. With this in mind, we
will investigate the expected receive power for a scenario in which MIMO
radar beamforming is used to illuminate an arbitrary target-of-interest (TOI)
obfuscated by different line-of-sight (LOS) obstructions such as foliage
and/or buildings. Using ﬁnite-difference time-domain (FDTD) modeling, oursimulations will grow the understanding of how plausible MIMO radar is for
detecting targets in challenging environments.

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Techniques to repair image distortions, such as CLEAN, are effective incertain cases for point-like targets. However, CLEAN is unable to modeland repair distortions within SAR image terrain. Good terrain coherence
is important for most SAR images because terrain occupies the majorityof the image. For the case of coherence change detection it is the terrain
coherence itself that determines the quality of change detection image.
This paper proposes a unique equalization technique that improvescoherence over existing notching and equalization techniques. First, theproposed algorithm limits mitigation to only the samples containing
interference, unlike filtering algorithms, so that the remaining samples
maintain maximum coherence from pass to pass. Additionally, the mitigation
adapts to changing interference power such that the resulting correction
equalizes the power across the data samples. The result is reduced
distortion and improved coherence for the terrain. Simulated and real SAR·

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105Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX
data demonstrate improved coherence from the proposed equalization
correction over existing notching and equalization methods for chirped
interference sources.

are averaged to improve the image quality. The experimental results arecompared to the theoretical prediction. The system has successfully imaged
a PEC cylinder.

9461-30, Session 7

Radar cross-sectional study using noiseradar
Al Freundorfer, Queen’s Univ. (Canada); Jawad Y. Siddiqui,
Yahia M. Antar, Royal Military College of Canada (Canada)
A noise radar system is proposed with capabilities to measure and acquire
the radar cross-section (RCS) of targets.
The proposed system can cover a noise bandwidth of near DC to 50 GHz.
The noise radar RCS measurements were conducted for selective targets likespheres and carpenter squares with and without dielectric bodies for a noiseband of 400MHz-5000MHz.
The bandwidth of operation was limited by the multiplier and theantennae used.

The arbitrary waveform generator allows for the production of a band
limited Gaussian waveform from 0-6 GHz. This system utilizes a 2-4 GHz
band limited waveform. The waveform produced by the arbitrary waveformgenerator is then filtered and mixed up to the target frequency of 8-10 GHz.
The waveform is amplified before being transmitted through a horn antennathat is centered in front of the target object. The test object is located in
front of a wall of foam absorbers. A linear scanner with a horn antennacollects the backscatter from the test object. The waveform is then mixed
down to 2-4 GHz and time domain data is taken with an oscilloscope. The
data are then used to reconstruct a tomographic image of the test object.
The images from each iid ultra-wideband random noise waveform are thenaveraged together.

9461-33, Session 7

Efficient pulse compression for LPI
waveforms based on a nonparametric
iterative adaptive approach
Zhengzheng Li, The Univ. of Oklahoma (United States);
Ramesh Nepal, Univ of Oklahoma (United States); Yan
Zhang, The Univ. of Oklahoma (United States); WIlliam
Blake, Garmin International (United States)

9461-31, Session 7

Principle and experimental results ofultra-wideband noise radar imaging ofa cylindrical conducting object using
diffraction tomography
Hee Jung Shin, Mark A. Asmuth, Ram M. Narayanan,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Muralidhar
Rangaswamy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
In this paper, the principle, measurement system, and experimental resultsof tomographic imaging of a cylindrical conducting object using random
noise waveforms are presented. Theoretical analysis of scattering and theimage reconstruction technique are developed based on physical optics
approximation and Fourier diffraction tomography, respectively. The bistaticradar system is designed to transmit multiple independent and identically
distributed (iid) ultra-wideband random noise waveforms at a fixed position,
and a linear scanner allows a single receiving antenna to move along a
horizontal axis for backward scattering measurement in the frequency
range from 8 GHz to 10 GHz. The reconstructed tomographic image of thecylindrical conducting object based on experimental results are shownin good agreement with the simulation results, which demonstrate thecapability of ultra-wideband noise radar for two-dimensional tomographic
image of a cylindrical conducting object.

9461-32, Session 7

In order to achieve low probability-of-intercept, LPI waveforms are usuallylong and randomly generated. Due to the randomized nature, Matched filter
responses (autocorrelation) of those waveforms can have high sidelobes
which would mask weaker targets near a strong target, limiting radar’sability to distinguish close-by targets. To improve resolution and reduced
sidelobe contaminations, a waveform independent pulse compression
filter is desired. Furthermore, the pulse compression filter needs to beable to adapt to received signal to achieve optimized performance. As
many existing pulse techniques require intensive computation, real-time
implementation is infeasible. This paper introduces a new adaptive pulse
compression technique for LPI waveforms that is based on a nonparametric
iterative adaptive approach (IAA). Unlike the original IAA filter thatis designed to operate directly on the received signal, the proposed
approach uses matched filter outputs as its input, thus termed MF-IAA
filter. Since the length of the MF-IAA filter can be very small comparedto the transmitted waveform, it is more efficient than the original IAA.
Also due to the nonparametric nature, no parameter tuning is required for
different waveforms. Furthermore, as MF has been implemented in many
existing radar systems, the MF-IAA filter may be applied without significant
modification. A general requirement analysis for future pulse compression
radar sensing is provided, followed by detailed derivation of the proposed
MF-IAA filter. The proposed algorithm is tested with some typical LPI
waveforms and its performance is discussed and compared with other APC
techniques. It is shown that the MF-IAA filter is efficient, robust, and can istruly waveform-independent.

Design and implementation of a noiseradar tomographic system

9461-34, Session 7

Mark A. Asmuth, Hee Jung Shin, Ram M. Narayanan,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Muralidhar
Rangaswamy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Probability of target detection using
advanced pulse compression noise (APCN)

A hardware system has been developed to perform noise radar tomography
at 8-10 GHz. The system utilizes RF hardware to transmit of multiple
independent and identically distributed ultra-wideband random noise
waveforms. A 2-4 GHz frequency band limited signal is generated using an
arbitrary waveform generator and a RF system mixes the frequency up to
8-10 GHz and amplifies the waveform. A linear scanner with a single antenna
is used in place of an antenna array to collect backscatter. The backscatter iscollected from the transmission of each waveform and reconstructed into an
image. The images that result from each scan are averaged to produce one
tomographic image of the target. After background subtraction the scans

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Mark A. Govoni, U.S. Army CERDEC Intelligence andInformation Warfare Directorate (United States); Ryan A.
Elwell, U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Research
Development and Engineering Command (United States);
Traian V. Dogaru, DaHan Liao, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
The advanced pulse compression noise (APCN) radar waveform preserves
salient features from both traditional pulse compressed and stochasticwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX
validity of the proposed approach through simulations, this project seeks
to develop and implement hardware prototypes for the proposed imaging
radar system. Simulated chaotic radar data was generated and loaded to the
FPGA board to test the algorithms and their performance. The results from
implementing the Orthogonal Matching Pursuit (OMP) and the Stage wise
Optimal Matching Pursuit (STOMP) algorithms to an FPGA will be presented.

waveforms. Having the ability to control the waveform features byautomated tuning of the amplitude and phase control parameters allows
the user to optimize radar system performance as a function of the channel
conditions. Given the typical dependencies of radar cross-section (RCS), we
will investigate the e?ects that waveform tuning, speciﬁcally non-uniform
transmit envelope have on classic radar detection for cases when di?erent
line-of-sight (LOS) scenarios are considered. Using ﬁnite-di?erence timedomain (FDTD) modeling, our simulations will grow the understanding of
how plausible cognitive waveforms such as APCN are for detecting targets
under various conditions.

9461-37, Session 9

Range detection using entangled opticalphotons

9461-35, Session 8

Matthew J. Brandsema, Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Marco O.
Lanzagorta, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Analysis of chaotic system synchronization
for bistatic radar
Chandra S. Pappu, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (UnitedStates); Berenice Verdin, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Benjamin C. Flores, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso
(United States); James Boehm, Patrick S. Debroux, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)

Quantum Radar is a developing field that shows a lot of promise inproviding much more resolution than its classical radar counterpart. The key
to this kind of resolution lies in the entanglement of the photons being used.
In this paper, the basic concepts of a quantum radar are briefly discussed.
This includes the fundamental concepts of what a quantum radar is, as well
as some of the engineering challenges into making one with the current
technology available.

We propose a scheme for bistatic radar that uses a chaotic system togenerate a wideband signal that is replicated at the receiver to extract
high resolution information from targets. The setup for the bistatic radar
includes an n state variable drive oscillator at the transmitter and a response
oscillator at the receiver. A challenge for this setup resides in synchronizing
the response oscillator of the radar receiver utilizing a scaled version of
the transmitted signal sr(t, x) = ast(t, x) where x is a drive oscillator statevariables and a is the scaling factor that accounts for antenna gain, systemlosses, and space propagation. For AM, we assume that the transmitted
signal is an amplified version of the state variable x: st(t)= Ax(t). Likewise,
the received signal is sr(t) = ax(t). Since a is not known a priori, theresponse oscillator must be able to accept the scaled version of x as an
input. Thus, we utilize a generalized projective synchronization techniqueproposed by Yan and Li that introduces a controller variable µ(xs – ax)
into the Lorenz system, where xs is the response state variable and a is acontroller parameter and show that the synchronization is achievable for a≥ 10–4. For FM, demodulation of sr(t) is required to reconstruct the chaotic
state variable x for oscillator synchronization. We verify through simulations
that, once synchronization is achieved, the short-time correlation of x and xs
is high and that this correlation is consistent over long periods of time.

Proceeding that is a discussion of the experiment done in this paper using
optical photons from SPDC methods. After the entangled photons are
created and emerge from the crystal, the idler photon is detected very
shortly after. At the same time the signal photon is sent out towards thetarget and upon its reflection will impinge on the detector of the radar. Fromthese two measurements, correlation data processing is done to achieve
the distance of the target away from the radar. Various simulations are thenshown to display the resolution that is possible.
Lastly, experimental results of the actual experiment are shown, along witha discussion of the implications of these results. Although the ideal quantum
radar will be built in the microwave regime, the information from this study
are still extremely important to show the feasibility of the system, and thetypes of measurements that need to be done.

9461-38, Session 9

Algorithmic analysis of quantum radarsidelobes

9461-36, Session 8

Salvador E. Venegas-Andraca, Tecnológico de Monterrey(Mexico); Marco O. Lanzagorta, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)

The implementation of compressive
sensing on an FPGA for chaotic radars

Sidelobe structures on classical radar cross section graphs are aconsequence of discontinuities in the surface currents. In contrast, quantum
radar theory states that sidelobe structures on quantum radar cross section
graphs are due to quantum interference. Moreover, it is conjectured thatquantum sidelobe structures may be used to detect targets oriented off the
specular direction [1].

Hector A. Ochoa, The Univ. of Texas at Tyler (UnitedStates); David H. Hoe, Loyola Univ. Maryland (UnitedStates); Dinesh Veeramachaneni, The Univ. of Texas at
Tyler (United States)

Algorithmic modeling of physical phenomena is one of the goals ofquantum computing. Quantum walks, a universal model of quantum
computation, is a powerful tool for modeling physical processes in whichquantum interference is involved [2].

Most of the advances in current radar systems are aimed at improving
their resolution [1] [2] [3]. As a result, their operating frequency has been
increased from 10GHz up to 94GHz, and new millimeter-wave (100-300GHz)
radar systems are currently being studied. One of the major concernswith these frequencies is the associated large bandwidth requirement.
Compressive Sensing (CS), also known as Compressive Sampling, hasbeen proposed as a solution to overcome the aforementioned problems by
exploiting the sparsity of the radar signal [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]. Using the
CS method, a sparse signal can be reconstructed even if it is sampled below
the Nyquist rate. This method provides a completely new way to reconstruct
the signal using optimization techniques and a minimum number ofobservations. The objective of this research project is to investigate anddevelop a Chaotic Radar Imaging system that leverages Compressive
Sensing [10] [11] (CS) technology to improve the image resolution without
increasing the amount of processed data. In addition to demonstrating the

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Because of the high data bandwidth expected from quantum radar, it may
be necessary to use sophisticated quantum signal analysis algorithms todetermine the presence of stealth targets through the sidelobe structures.
In this paper we introduce a quantum walk-based algorithmic descriptionof quantum sidelobe structures. It is our purpose to develop a computerscience-oriented tool for further physical analysis of quantum radar models
as well as applications of quantum radar technology in various fields.
[1] Quantum Radar. Marco Lanzagorta. Morgan and Claypool (2012).
[2] Quantum Walks: a Comprehensive Review. Salvador E. VenegasAndraca. Quantum Information Processing, vol. 11(5), pp. 1015-1106 (2012).

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107Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX

9461-39, Session 9

Low-brightness quantum radar
Marco O. Lanzagorta, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)One of the major scientific thrusts from recent years has been to try toharness quantum phenomena to dramatically increase the performance ofa wide variety of classical information processing devices. These advancesin quantum information science have had a considerable impact on thedevelopment of standoff sensors such as quantum radar. In this paper weanalyze the theoretical performance of low-brightness quantum radar thatuses entangled photon states. We use the detection error probability asa measure of sensing performance and the interception error probability
as a measure of stealthiness. We compare the performance of quantum
radar against a coherent light sensor (such as lidar) and classical radar. In
particular, we restrict our analysis to the performance of low-brightness
standoff sensors operating in a noisy environment. We show that, comparedto the two classical standoff sensing devices, quantum radar is stealthier,more resilient to jamming, and more accurate for the detection of low
reflectivity targets.

9461-40, Session 9

When multiple receiver channels are employed in a pulse-Doppler radar,achieving and maintaining balance between the channels is problematic. In
some circumstances the channels may be commutated to achieve adequatebalance. Commutation is the switching, trading, toggling, or multiplexingof the channels between signal paths. Commutation allows modulating theimbalance energy away from the balanced energy in Doppler, where it canbe mitigated with filtering.

9461-51, Session PSTue

Comments on radar interference sources
and mitigation techniques
Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
Radar ISR does not always involve cooperative or even friendly
environments or targets. The environment in general, and an adversary inparticular, may offer numerous techniques to diminish the effectivenessof a radar ISR sensor. These generally fall under the banner of jamming,
spoofing, or otherwise interfering with the EM signals required by theradar sensor. Consequently mitigation techniques are often prudent toretain efficacy of the radar sensor. We discuss in general terms a number of
mitigation techniques.

Quantum error reduction without coding

9461-52, Session PSTue

Keye Martin, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Balancing I/Q data in radar range-Doppler
imagesNo Abstract Available

Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States)

9461-41, Session 9

It has become the norm for modern high-performance radar systems
to sample and digitize the raw radar returns for subsequent processing
by Digital Signal Processing (DSP) techniques. Furthermore, the data isoften rendered to distinguish between positive and negative frequencies
necessitating complex data values, with real and imaginary constituentstypically termed In-phase (I) and Quadrature (Q) elements respectively.
However, the reality of non-ideal component and circuit behavior willallow deleterious imbalances to manifest between I and Q data elements.
A number of techniques may be employed to mitigate the effects of I/Q
imbalance. These are presented, as well as recommendations for new
designs, as well as retrofits to existing hardware.

Space-based quantum sensing fordetection of small targets
Jeffrey K. Uhlmann, George Mason Univ. (United States);
Marco O. Lanzagorta, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

9461-49, Session PSTue

9461-53, Session PSTue

Spurious effects of analog-to-digitalconversion nonlinearities on radar rangeDoppler maps

Joint estimation of thermal andmultiplicative noise levels in dual- andquad-polarization SAR images

Armin W. Doerry, Dale F. Dubbert, Bert L. Tise, Sandia
National Labs. (United States)

Robert Riley, Sandia National Labs. (United States)

Radar operation, particularly Ground Moving Target Indicator (GMTI) radarmodes, are very sensitive to anomalous effects of system nonlinearities.
These throw off harmonic spurs that are sometimes detected as false
alarms. One significant source of nonlinear behavior is the Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC). One measure of its undesired nonlinearity is its Integral
Nonlinearity (INL) specification. We examine in this paper the relationship of
INL to GMTI performance.

9461-50, Session PSTue

Balancing radar receiver channels with
commutation
Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States)

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SPIE DSS 2015·

An estimate of the combined thermal and multiplicative noise levels
within a SAR image is sometimes required for exploitation processing andquality assessment. Given pertinent and accurate radar parameters, it is astraightforward process to estimate the thermal noise-equivalent returnin a SAR image. However, the backscatter-dependent multiplicative noiselevel cannot be estimated a priori; furthermore, the resulting multiplicative
noise level within a SAR image will in general be spatially varying in a
non-trivial fashion. This paper describes a data-driven method for robustly
estimating the thermal and multiplicative noise-equivalent return within a
SAR image using the joint observations of dual-polarization measurements.
The net cross-polarized response from a scene is typically many orders ofmagnitude lower than that of the co-polarized response, and hence will
have an equivalent noise return that much more closely approaches thatof thermal noise, while the corresponding non-return regions within the
co-polarized image will exhibit substantially higher no-return magnitude.
Also, true non-backscatter observations, in particular from shadows, arenon-return for both the co-polarized and cross-polarized radar channels.
This process does assume a modicum of non-return regions exist withinwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX

9461-80, Session PSTue

the image, but does not require finding these non-return locations. A
two-dimensional co-/cross-pol joint SAR image magnitude distribution
is formed, with the lowest joint magnitude density cluster representing
the non-return observations within the SAR image. This process can beextended to fully-polarimetric data sets, with additional robustness being
provided in that situation.

Adaptive OFDM waveform design for
spatio-temporal-sparsity exploited STAP
radar
Satyabrata Sen, Jacob Barhen, Oak Ridge National Lab.
(United States)

9461-54, Session PSTue

We propose a sparsity-based space-time adaptive processing (STAP)
algorithm to detect a slowly-moving target using an orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) radar. The motivation of employing an OFDM
signal is that it improves the target-detectability from the interfering
signals by increasing the frequency diversity of the system. However, due
to the addition of one extra dimension in terms of frequency, the adaptive
degrees-of-freedom in an OFDM-STAP also increases. Therefore, to avoid
the construction a fully-adaptive OFDM-STAP, we propose a sparsity-based
STAP algorithm. We observe that the interference spectrum is inherently
sparse in the spatio-temporal domain, as the clutter responses occupy
only a diagonal ridge on the spatio-temporal plane and the jammer signals
interfere only from a few spatial directions. Hence, we exploit that sparsity
to develop an efficient STAP technique that utilizes considerably lesser
number of secondary data compared to the other existing STAP techniques,and produces nearly optimum STAP performance. In addition to designing
the STAP filter, we propose to optimally design the transmit OFDM signals
by maximizing the output signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) in
order to improve the STAP-performance. The computation of output SINR
depends on the estimated value of the interference covariance matrix,
which we obtain by applying the sparse recovery algorithm. Therefore,
we analytically assess the effects of the synthesized OFDM coefficients on
the sparse recovery of the interference covariance matrix by computing
the coherence measure of the sparse measurement matrix. Our numericalexamples demonstrate the achieved STAP-performance due to sparsitybased technique and adaptive waveform design.

Experimental evaluation of single-aperture
range finder
Kyle McCormick, Dmitry S. Starodubov, Leo Volfson, Torrey
Pines Logic, Inc. (United States)
Single aperture range finders with eye safe lasers due to their smaller sizeand simplified design have a strong potential for wide implementation in
military and commercial systems. In this paper we present the results ofexperimental evaluation of a single aperture laser range finder. The new
design operates at eye safe wavelength range around 1535 nm and uses
passively Q switched laser for illumination. The optical circulator is used toseparate the detection and illumination channels. The measurements of thepower budget and ranging performance evaluation for the new design
are discussed.

9461-55, Session PSTue

Coherence model for building layover ininterferometric SAR
Douglas L Bickel, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
The complex coherence function describes information that is necessary
to create maps from interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). This
coherence function is complicated by building layover. This paper presents amathematical model for this complex coherence in the presence of building
layover and shows how it can describe intriguing phenomena observed inreal interferometric SAR data.

9461-42, Session 10

Investigations on the effect of frequency
and noise in a localization technique basedon microwave imaging for an in-body RFsource

9461-76, Session PSTue

Instantaneous, stepped-frequency,
nonlinear radar

Rohit Chandra, Norwegian Univ. of Science andTechnology (Norway); Ilangko Balasingham, NorwegianUniv. of Science and Technology (Norway) and Oslo Univ.
Hospital (Norway)

Kenneth I. Ranney, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Kyle A. Gallagher, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States); Kelly D. Sherbondy, Anthony F. Martone,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Gregory J.
Mazzaro, The Citadel (United States); Ram M. Narayanan,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

Localization of a wireless capsule endoscope finds many clinical applications
from diagnostics to therapy. There are potentially two approaches: a) model
based localization using a priori information of the person’s dielectricchannels and, b) microwave imaging based localization without using any apriori information. In this paper we study the second approach in terms ofa variety of frequencies and signal-to-noise ratios for localization accuracy
and in-body RF source distance from the skin. To this end, we select a 2-D
anatomically realistic numerical phantom for microwave imaging at different
frequencies. The selected frequencies are 13.56 MHz, 431.5 MHz, 920
MHz, and 2.45 GHz, which are typically considered in the wireless capsuleendoscopy literature. Microwave imaging of a phantom will provide us with
an electromagnetic model with electrical properties (relative permittivity
and conductivity) of the internal parts of the body and can be useful asa foundation for localization of an in-body RF source. Low frequency
imaging at 13.56 MHz provides low resolution image with high contrast
in the dielectric properties. However, at high frequencies, the imaging
algorithm is able to image only the outer boundaries of the tissues due tolow penetration depth as higher frequency means higher attenuation. Using
these preliminary investigations, a lower frequency bound is determinedwith an acceptable electromagnetic tissue model having good penetration.
Furthermore, a localization method based on microwave imaging is used for

Researchers have recently developed radar systems capable of exploiting
non-linear target responses to precisely locate targets in range. Thesesystems typically achieve the bandwidth necessary for range resolution
through transmission of either a stepped-frequency or chirped waveform.
The second harmonic of the reflected waveform is then analyzed to isolate
the non-linear target response. In other experiments, researchers haveidentified certain targets through the inter-modulation products they
produce in response to a multi-tone stimulus. These experiments, however,
do not exploit the phase information available in theintermodulation products.
We present a method for exploiting both the magnitude and phase
information available in the inter-modulation products to create an“instantaneous” stepped frequency, non-linear target response. The new
approach enables us to both maintain the unambiguous range dictatedby the fundamental, multi-tone separation and obtain the entire target
signature from a single transmitted waveform.

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109Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX

9461-45, Session 10

estimating the localization accuracy at different frequencies and signalto-noise ratios. Statistical evaluation of the localization error is performed
using the cumulative distribution function (CDF). Based on our results,
we conclude that the localization accuracy is minimally affected by thefrequency or the noise. However, the choice of the frequency will become
critical if the purpose is to image the internal parts of the body for tumor
and/or cancer detection.

Radar sensitivity to human heartbeats andrespirationØyvind Aardal, Sverre Brovoll, Yoann Paichard, Tor Berger,
Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (Norway); Tor
Sverre Lande, Univ. I Oslo (Norway); Svein-Erik Hamran,Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (Norway) andUniv. I Oslo (Norway)

9461-43, Session 10

A new microwave imaging algorithm
based on third-generation WCE system

Human heartbeats and respiration can be detected from a distance using
radar. This can be used for medical applications and human being detection.
It is useful to have a system independent measure of how detectable
the vital signs are. In radar applications, the Radar Cross Section (RCS)
is normally used to characterize the detectability of an object. Since thehuman vital signs are seen by the radar as movements of the torso, themodulations in the person RCS can be used as a system independentmeasure of the vital signs detectability.

Huiyuan Zhou, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Rohit Chandra, Norwegian Univ. of Science andTechnology (Norway); Ilangko Balasingham, Oslo Univ.
Hospital (Norway); Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States)
Wireless capsule endoscope (WCE) is one of the most innovative
applications of wireless technology in medicine which can transmit still
images and in some cases real-time video from the gastrointestinal track to
an external receiver for clinical analysis and processing. The third generation
WCE facilitates a transceiver inside the “pill” which operates in microwave
frequency range. As a result, it can communicate with the externaltransceivers to provide additional information. Based on this background,a new microwave imaging algorithm needs to be developed to exploit the
new transceiver in conjunction with the external transceivers in order toimage the tumor under the gastrointestinal track which cannot be detectedby optical images and videos. The conventional microwave tomographyalgorithms, such as Gauss-Newton Inversion (GNI) method and Contrast
Source Inversion (CSI) method, satisfy the situation only when externalantennas are included. By the introduction of the internal transmitter andreceiver, this paper aims to refine the classic algorithms (GNI and CSI
methods) to adapt to the new system and use numerical methods to obtainthe 2-D images. We also make a comparison on how much the new system
can improve the resolution of images theoretically, and furthermore use the
new algorithm to detect the tumor under the surface of thegastrointestinal track.

In this paper, measurements of persons seated in an anecoic chamber arepresented. The measurements were calibrated using empty room and a
metallic calibration sphere. A narrowband radar operating at frequencies
from 500 MHz to 18 GHz in discrete steps was used. A turntable provided
measurements at precise aspect angles all around the person under test.
In an I & Q receiver, the heartbeat and respiration modulation is acombination of amplitude and phase modulations. The measurements were
filtered, leaving the modulations from the vital signs in the radar recordings.
The procedure for RCS computation was applied to these filtered data,
capturing the complex signatures. It was found that both the heartbeat andrespiration detectability increase with increasing frequency. The heartbeat
signatures are almost equal from the front and the back, while being almost
undetectable from the sides of the person. The respiration signatures areslightly higher from the front than from the back, and smaller from the sides.
The signature measurements presented in this paper provide an objective
system independent measure of the detectability of human vital signs as
a function of frequency and aspect angle. These measures are useful for
example in system design and in assessing real measurement scenarios.

9461-13, Session 11

The Born approximation, multiple
scattering, and algorithm

9461-44, Session 10

Investigating signatures of diverse
waveforms to assess changes in thickness
and dielectric properties of intestines
afflicted with Crohn’s disease

Alejandro F. Martinez, Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of TexasPan American (United States)
Radar works by focusing a beam of light and seeing how long it takes toreflect. To see a large region the beam is pointed in different directions. The
focus of the beam depends on the size of the antenna (called an aperture).
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) works by moving the antenna throughsome region of space. A fundamental assumption in SAR is that waves only
bounce once. Several imaging algorithms have been designed using thatassumption. The scattering process can be described by iterations of a badly
behaving integral. Recently a method for efficiently evaluating these typesof integrals has been developed. We will give a detailed implementation ofthis algorithm and apply it to study the multiple scattering effects in SAR
using target estimates from single scattering algorithms.

Sonny Smith, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State
Univ. (United States); Evangelos Messaris, Penn State
Milton S. Hershey Medical Ctr. (United States)
Crohn’s disease is a bowel disease resulting in inflammation along thelining of one’s digestive tract. Moreover, such an inflammatory condition
causes changes in the thickness of the intestines; and we posit inducechanges in the dielectric properties detectable by radar. In this paper, weconsider two constitutive parameters of the intestines (i.e. thickness andrelative permittivity) and scrutinize how changes in such parameters arecaptured by different waveforms with ultra-wideband characteristics. We
extend XFDTD simulations to include various altered intestinal models
and investigate the return signals of different ultra-wideband signals.
Furthermore, plans are in progress to create an intestinal phantomlike model that varies in thickness and permittivity to begin laboratory
measurements. Continued development in this work will lead to the design
and implementation of an ultra-wide band radar system to detect andmonitor Crohn’s disease.

9461-46, Session 11

Micro-Doppler characteristics of elderly
gait patterns with walking aids
Moeness G. Amin, Yimin D. Zhang, Fauzia Ahmad,
Villanova Univ. (United States)
Radar is an effective sensing modality for providing self-dependent living

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Conference 9461A: Radar Sensor Technology XIX
to the elderly due to its non-intrusive nature and the ability to preserve
privacy, detect human motions in all types of environments, and insensitivity
to lighting conditions. However, analysis of the radar returns associated withhuman motions can be a demanding task, given their complex nature thatstems from the presence of multiple signal components which correspondto various parts of the moving body. In this paper, we analyze the microDoppler characteristics of narrowband radar signals corresponding toelderly gait. More specifically, we consider gait patterns both with andwithout walking aids, such as walking canes and walkers. Using real data, wedemonstrate the differences in the radar signatures of elderly walking withand without aids.

9461-47, Session 11

Fall detection and classification
using high-resolution time-frequency
distributions
Moeness G. Amin, Villanova Univ. (United States); Boualem
Boashash, Qatar Univ. (Qatar); Yimin D. Zhang, Villanova
Univ. (United States)
Radar Micro-Doppler is the phenomenon of the observed micro-motions on
top of the bulk main Doppler component of a target’s motion. It has been
the subject of research over a number of years focusing on the additional
information that can be extracted from this signal. Such information canthen be exploited in a variety of applications for security, law enforcement,
urban warfare, and search and rescue, where the detection, tracking, andclassification of many human targets moving in a cluttered environment is ofparamount importance. These signals are also associated with radar returns
from vibrating, oscillating, and rotating targets.
Motion classifications based on target micro-Doppler signatures are typically
based on time-frequency analyses of the radar returns. Spectrograms havebeen the de facto joint-variable signal representation, depicting the signal
power in both time and frequency. Several papers on motion classifications
using radar proceed to extract pertinent features to the motion profiles ofinterest in the time-frequency domain and then apply these features to aclassifier. Although there have been major advances in designing quadratic
time-frequency distributions (TFDs) which are superior to spectrogramsin terms of detailing the local signal behavior, the contributions of these
distributions in the area of human motion classifications and their offeringsin enhanced feature extractions have not yet been properly evaluated.
In this paper, we examine the role of high resolution time-frequency
distributions for fall detection. The work supports the recent and risingbroad interest in using emerging radar technology for elderly care andassisted living. The paper contributions are twofold and as follows: 1. Weshow the effect of using high resolution TFDs, in lieu of spectrograms onclassification rates of the fall. We use features which have been commonly
identified and used in association of falls and spectrograms; 2. We devise
new features in congruence with high resolution TFDs which exploit thelevel of details provided by these distributions in comparison with thecoarse and smoothed time-frequency signatures offered by spectrograms.

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111

Conference 9461B: Active and Passive Signatures VI
Thursday 23–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9461 Radar Sensor Technology XIX; and Active and Passive Signatures VI

9461-56, Session 12

Human activity classification using timefrequency image analysis of micro-Doppler
signatures
Matthew Zenaldin, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States)
We investigate the viability of classifying human activities by utilizing the
micro-Doppler effect in radar. To this end, measured data on 5 humansubjects performing various activities were collected using a continuouswave X-band Doppler radar. Some activities included walking, running,arm swinging, crawling, and crouching-to-standing. The time-frequency
distribution signatures resulting from these movements were then analyzed
as images, thereby inviting image classification techniques to the fieldof non-stationary signal analysis. Analysis showed that it was possible toclassify human movements based upon their time-frequency signatures. We
report on the results of our classification approach.

9461-57, Session 12

Berta Rodriguez-Hervas, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso
(United States); Michael Maile, Mercedes-Benz Research& Development North America, Inc. (United States);
Benjamin C. Flores, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (UnitedStates)Autonomous driving in urban environment critically depends on theability of its environment perception system to detect and to correctlyclassify vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and bicyclists in dense,
complex environments. Self-driving vehicles include sensing systems
such as, cameras and radars to enable the vehicle in decision-making
situations. Among the sensor systems, radars are particularly relevant,due to their operational robustness under adverse weather or illumination
conditions and their large field of view. Classification of pedestrians and car
targets in the same environment with automotive radar has been widely
investigated, proving the microdoppler signature to be the most suitablefeature for target discrimination. Our objective is to analyze and study the
micro-Doppler signature of bicyclists approaching the vehicle hosting theradar system from different directions in order to establish the basis of aclassification criterion to distinguish bicycles from other target types.
The micro-Doppler signature of the targets (i.e. cars, pedestrians, bicyclists,
clutter) is established by grouping individual reflecting points in objects by
the use of a clustering algorithm, observing the evolution of all the points
belonging to an object in the Doppler domain over time, and establishing
the relation with the kinematic model of bicyclists’ movement. We will
discuss the suitability of the microdoppler signature of bicyclist targets as aclassification feature by comparing their microdoppler spectrum with thosebelonging to cars and pedestrians approaching the radar systems withsimilar direction and velocity characteristics.

9461-58, Session 12

Extracting and analyzing micro-Doppler
from ladar signatures
David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

SPIE DSS 2015

9461-59, Session 12

High range resolution micro-Doppler
analysis
Graeme E. Smith, The Ohio State Univ. (United States);
Zach Cammenga, The Ohio State University (UnitedStates); Christopher J. Baker, The Ohio State Univ. (UnitedStates)The micro-Doppler (µD) effect and high range-resolution (HRR) profiles
have both capable of providing target signatures that are unique andcan form the basis of radar automatic target classification or recognition
systems. However, µD is usually considered in CW or sampled CW situations
that are not conducive to obtaining HRR profiles and, as such, most analysisof the techniques are independent. Here, the signatures are considered
together with the aim of providing a joint µD-HRR target characterizationthat will provide greater target information for classification.

Study of the micro-Doppler signatureof a bicyclist for different directions ofapproach112

Ladar and other 3D imaging modalities have the capability of creating
3D micro-Doppler to analyze the micro-motions of human subjects. An
additional capability to the recognition of micro-motion is the recognitionof the moving part, such as the hand or arm. Combined with measured RCS
values of the body, ladar imaging can be used to ground-truth the moresensitive radar micro-Doppler measurements and associate the moving partof the subject with the measured Doppler and RCS from the radar system.
The 3D ladar signatures can also be used to classify activities and actions
on their own, achieving an 86% accuracy using a micro-Doppler basedclassification strategy.

·

This research focuses on how to analyze µD-HRR signatures. Chen andSmith have previously considered such analysis; their technique focusedon forming a joint range-time-frequency data cube. However, neither of
the analyses they provide explores the technique in depth, and they focus
instead on their data. Here real and simulated data of a walking person
target illuminated with a W-band radar will be used explore the range-timefrequency data cube and understand what additional target information canbe obtained from it.
The range cuts through the data cube provide a target signature in which
the µD signature is naturally separated components. The data cube canthen be reprocessed into 2D image that counts of the number of scattering
centres comprising the target at each range, as a function of slow time. This
analysis has the potential extract the target micro-motions without requiring
assumptions about the number of scattering centres and their motion
models—a common limitation of micro-motion extraction methods.

9461-60, Session 13

Application of a laser Doppler vibrometer
for air-water to subsurface signaturedetection
Phillip Land, James Roeder, Dennis J. Robinson, Arun K.
Majumdar, Naval Air Warfare Ctr. Weapons Div. (UnitedStates)There is much interest in detecting a target and optical communications
from an airborne platform to a platform submerged under water. Accurate
detection and communications between underwater and aerial platforms
would increase the capabilities of surface, subsurface, and air, manned
and unmanned vehicles engaged in oversea and undersea activities. The
technique introduced in this paper involves a Laser Doppler Vibrometer(LDV) for acousto-optic sensing for detecting acoustic information
propagated towards the water surface from a submerged platform inside
a 12 gallon water tank. The LDV probes and penetrates the water surfacewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9461B: Active and Passive Signatures VI

9461-63, Session 13

from an aerial platform to detect air-water surface interface vibrations
caused by an amplifier to a speaker generating a signal generated fromunderneath the water surface (varied water depth from 1” to 8”), ranging
between 50Hz to 5kHz. As a comparison tool, a hydrophone was usedsimultaneously inside the water tank for recording the acoustic signatureof the signal generated between 50Hz to 5kHz. For a signal generated bya submerged platform, the LDV can detect the signal. The LDV detects thesignal via surface perturbations caused by the impinging acoustic pressure
field; proving a technique of transmitting/sending information/messages
from a submerged platform acoustically to the surface of the water andoptically receiving the information/message using the LDV, via the Doppler
Effect, allowing the LDV to become a high sensitivity optical-acoustic
device. The technique developed has much potential usage in commercial
oceanography applications. The present work is focused on the reception of
acoustic information from an object located underwater.

Enabling forest structure research with acost-effective terrestrial LiDAR platform
Jason W. Faulring, Jan A. N. van Aardt, David Kelbe,Paul Romanczyk, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States); Francesco Peri, Crystal Schaff, Univ. ofMassachusetts Boston (United States)
Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) instruments have become a commonplace tool for the acquisition of spatial point cloud data representativeof scenes found in the physical world. Commercially available terrestrial
LiDAR systems are capable of generating impressively dense data setsover large distances and often find use in the field of site surveying where
this level of performance is demanded. Unfortunately, these units can bebulky, slow and inaccessible for use by many researchers due to the costof the instrument. Some LiDAR research applications, such as the study of
localized forest scenes, can tolerate a lesser overall system resolution andrange performance in trade for the ability to have access to a compact, fastand cost-effective sensor that will generate data that is still desirable andvalid for the application.

9461-61, Session 13

Hyperspectral chemical agent standoff
detection using sparse representation
Asif Mehmood, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States)
Standoff detection, identification and quantification of chemical agentsare fundamental needs in various fields of applications. We propose asparsity-based algorithm for standoff detection of chemical agents inconjunction with constrained energy minimization (CEM) band selectionin Hyperspectral imagery (HSI). The proposed sparsity-based detection(SD) approach relies on the observation that spectral signatures belonging
to the same class approximately lie in a low-dimensional subspace. An
unknown test sample can be represented by only a few training samples inthe structured dictionary, and the underlying sparse representation vector
contains discriminative information for detection. The proposed algorithm
is applicable to both spectrally pure as well as mixed pixels. Experimental
results show that SD outperforms the classical detection algorithms suchas generalized likelihood ratio test (GLRT), adaptive coherence estimation
algorithms (ACE), and orthogonal subspace projection (OSP).

A compact, terrestrial LiDAR platform has been developed that specificallytargets the needs of researchers performing field surveys in remote forested
areas. The system was designed to minimize the cost, weight and sizeof the instrument while meeting the resolution and range requirements
needed by forest researchers to accurately reconstruct the targeted scene.
As computing technology has evolved and hardware has shrunk to support
greater capability from system on a chip (SOC) devices, the platform has
undergone several generations of mechanical packaging. This has produced
an instrument that is easy to field, minimizes the workload of the operator
and generates accurate scene data. Presented in this paper is the developed
system architecture and the characteristics of the response, accuracy anddensity of the collected data. Each generation of the platform has beenutilized to collect field data at various locations; sample data sets will bepresented along with representative post processing work to utilize the data
for specific applications.

9461-62, Session 13

9461-64, Session 13

Signature simulation of mixed materials

Electro-optical detection probabilityof optical devices determined bybidirectional laser retro-reflection crosssectionTyler Carson, Carl Salvaggio, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Soil target signatures vary due to geometry, chemical composition andscene radiometry. Although radiative transfer models and function-fit
physical models may describe certain targets in limited depth, the ability
to incorporate all three signature variables is difficult. This work describes
a method to simulate the transient signatures of soil by first considering
scene geometry synthetically created using 3-d physics engines. Throughthe assignment of spectral data from the Nonconventional Exploitation
Factors Data System (NEFDS), the synthetic scene is represented asa chemical mixture of particles. Finally, first principles radiometry ismodeled using the Digital Imaging and Remote Sensing Image Generation(DIRSIG) model. With DIRSIG, radiometric and sensing conditions weresystematically manipulated to produce and record goniometric signatures.
The implementation of this virtual goniometer allows users to examine
how a target bidirectional reflectance function (BRDF) will change withgeometry, composition and illumination direction. By using 3-d computer
graphics models, this process does not require geometric assumptions thatare native to many radiative transfer models. It delivers a discrete method
to circumnavigate the significant cost of time and treasure associated withhardware based goniometric data collections.

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Martin Laurenzis, Frank Christnacher, Alexis Matwyschuk,
Emmanuel Bacher, Stephane Schertzer, Sebastien Hengy,
Institut Franco-Allemand de Recherches de Saint-Louis(France)
The menace of sniper attacks became more and more serious for own
troops in hostile urban environments as in MOUT (Military Operation in
Urban Terrain) scenarios. Measures to detect snipers were widely discussed
in the defense community. At the French-German Research Instituteof Saint-Louis (ISL), the acoustical and electro-optical means to detectand locate snipers before and during the attack was investigated in theframe of an interdisciplinary project, called IMOTEP (IMprovement Of
optical and acoustical TEchnologies for the Protection). Here, the use of a
distributed sensor network was studied including transmission and fusion ofheterogeneous sensor information.
In the present publication, the authors want to focus on the electro-opticaldetection of retro-reflections, only. A good measure for the possibility todetect a sniper’s telescopic sight is the effective laser cross section and theorientation of the optics or its bidirectional retro-reflection cross section.
This spectral and angular (bi-directional) property of an optical device canbe measured and, thus, gives a fist reliable value to estimate its probability
to be detected by a given active imaging system. At ISL, a systematic studyof different optics as well as false targets was performed. As a result, a·

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Conference 9461B: Active and Passive Signatures VI
model for DRI range predictions depending on situational parameter ispresented. Further, a new method to evaluate active signatures is presented
which effectively reduce false alarm rates by classification of retro-reflector
types in a principal component analysis matrix.

9461-65, Session 13

Spectral reflectance variability of skin andattributing factors(RCS) measurement ranges. Since commonly artificial targets are measured
in these ranges, coherent decompositions are of special interest for the
analysis of these images. In this paper, a known decomposition is used toremove non-polarized clutter from fully polarized targets. Also a variationof this decomposition will be introduced and compared to a well-known
image processing lter. Finally it will be demonstrated that both methods canenhance the contrast of RCS images.

9461-68, Session 13

Anomalous reflection of THz pulse
containing a few cycles from absorbing
layer: influence of absolute phase of thepulse on the medium response

Catherine C. Cooksey, Benjamin K. Tsai, David W. Allen,
National Institute of Standards and Technology (UnitedStates)Knowledge of the spectral reflectance signature of human skin over a wide
spectral range will help advance the development of sensing systems formany applications, ranging from medical treatment to security technology.
A critical component of the signature of human skin is the variability
across the population. We describe a simple measurement method
to measure human skin reflectance of the inside of the forearm. The
variability of the reflectance spectra for a number of subjects measured at
NIST is determined using statistical methods. The degree of variability is
explored and an attempt to explain the variability is made based on known
physiological models. We also propose a method for collaborating withother scientists, outside of NIST, to expand the data set of signatures toinclude a more diverse population and perform a meta-analysis to further
investigate the variability of human skin reflectance.

Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Mikhail V. Fedotova, Elena S.
Komarova, Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (RussianFederation)
We analyze an interaction of THz pulse containing a few cycles withabsorbing or transparent layer. This analysis is very important for problem of
the detection and identification of substance.
We found out the nonmonotonic dependence of a reflection coefficient fromboth absorption coefficient, and layer thickness, and absolute phase of thepulse. Absorption energy depends on these characteristics also.
Under the interaction of THz pulse with layer of substance the pulse
spectrum can essentially change in dependence of layer thickness. As
a consequence, excitations of different energy levels occur despite
unchanging the spectrum of incident pulse. Therefore, the medium response
can change. For problem of the detection and identification this leads toadditional requirements with respect to the spectrum of incident THz pulse.

9461-66, Session 13

Rugged target standards for HSI remotesensing

For absorbing layer we see a dependence of absorption energy from thelayer thickness. This dependence has maximum with changing of theabsorption coefficient because a reflection of laser energy is a function ofboth dielectric permittivity of medium and its absorption coefficient.

Mark Morey, John D. DiBenedetto, Mary O’Neill, National
Security Technologies, LLC (United States)
There is a need for stable test standards for many remote sensing
applications that can be used both in the laboratory and in rugged test
environments. Ideally these standards would be stable over time suchthat the same standard could be used from year to year for comparisonof system performance. While ink-jet and spray gun methods candisperse controlled doses of dissolved analytes, methods to maintainparticle size spectral variations are lacking. In addition, standards that areenvironmentally robust and stable over time are limited. As part of therecent Lighthouse work toward a Hyperspectral Imagery (HSI) proximal
handheld sensor, Special Technologies Laboratory (STL) was tasked to do
preliminary work toward a rugged, transportable, waterproof target board.
This involved developing test standards using minerals of known particle
sizes that have spectrally relevant features. Mineral powders were dispersed
in binders that did not change their spectral characteristics. These standards
were packaged such that they could be transported and used repeatedly.
This paper discusses the methodology for developing this preliminary setof targets. Target sizes were limited to the proximal case, and further work
is required to finalize the optimum binder and examine other possible
appropriate minerals.

9461-67, Session 13

Enhancing radar cross-section images ofartificial targets using radar polarimetry
Thomas Dallmann, Dirk Heberling, RWTH Aachen Univ.
(Germany)

Amplitude of reflected THz pulse depends in strong way from absolutephase of incident THz pulse if the pulse duration is sufficient small.

9461-69, Session 14

Applying composite signatures to rapidly
detect and characterize
Chadwick T. Hawley, U.S. Dept. of Defense (United States)and Help Me Now, LLC (United States)
A composite signature is a group of signatures that are related in such a
way to more completely or further define a target or operational endeavor
at a higher fidelity. This paper explores new applications using composite
signatures, in lieu of waiting for opportunities for the more elusive
diagnostic signatures to satisfy key essential elements of information(EEI) associated with civil disaster-related problems. It discusses efforts
to refine composite signature development methodology and quantify the
relative value of composite vs. diagnostic signatures. The objectives are
to: 1) investigate and develop innovative composite signatures associatedwith civil disasters, including physical, chemical and pattern/behavioral;
2) explore the feasibility of collecting representative composite signaturesusing current and emerging intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance(ISR) collection architectures leveraging civilian and commercial
architectures; and 3) collaborate extensively with scientists and engineersfrom U.S. government organizations and laboratories, the defense industry,
and academic institutions.

Nowadays polarimetric decompositions are common processing techniques
for synthetic aperture radar images. However, some of the decomposition
methods can also be applied to imagery obtained in radar cross-section

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Conference 9461B: Active and Passive Signatures VI

9461-70, Session 14

9461-73, Session 14

Real-time full-motion color Flash-LIDAR
for target detection and identification

QUILT: combining stereoscopy with lidar
for precision 3D object characterization

Roy D. Nelson, Eric Coppock, Rex M. Craig, Jeremy Craner,
Dennis Nicks, Kurt von Niederhausern, Ball Aerospace &Technologies Corp. (United States)

G. Charmaine Gilbreath, Carlos Omar Font, David Bonanno,
Blerta Bajramaj, Kristen Nock, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)

Real-time, full motion Flash- LIDAR, when combined with multi-spectral
context imagery and inertial navigation data, provides additional modalities
for improved understanding of areas or objects of interest and produces
truly georegistered 3D imagery. Georegistered 3D full motion video provides
crucial information beyond the widely used typical 2D full-motion video(FMV), allowing users to exploit the z dimensional for intelligence. When
LIDAR is fused or combined with context imagery, the typical point cloudnow becomes a 3D scene which is intuitively obvious to the user andallows rapid cognitive analysis with little or no training. Ball Aerospace hasdeveloped a real-time, full motion LIDAR system that fuses context imagery,
VIS to MWIR demonstrated, which is capable of streaming fully fused 3D
imagery to the user from an airborne platform. LIDAR can now be seen as
Laser Imagery, Detection and Ranging. In addition, since the context camera
is boresighted and frame synchronized to the LIDAR camera and the LIDAR
camera is an array sensor, the context camera higher resolution can beused to apply its pixel RGB values for example to interpolated LIDAR pixel
values creating a point cloud that has the same resolution as the context
camera, effectively creating an high definition (HD) LIDAR image. Thishigh resolution 3D image provides additional information to the user for
improved image analysis or comprehension. This paper presents a design
overview of the Ball TotalSight LIDAR system along with typical results overurban and rural areas collected from both rotary and fixed wing aircraft. We
conclude with a discussion of future work.

In this paper, we present preliminary experimental results combining active(LIDAR) with passive (stereoscopy) methods to obtain precise voxel-likereference objects as a basis for metrology. These multi-modal signatures
promise to provide calibration bases for photogrammetry, computer vision,and other applications. Initial results use a 1550 nm LIDAR with frames fromtwo cameras from two “LadyBug” camera suites.

9461-78, Session 14

High-range resolution micro-Doppler
analysis
Zach Cammenga, Graeme E Smith, Christopher J. Baker,
The Ohio State Univ. (United States)
The micro-Doppler (?D) effect and high range-resolution (HRR) profiles
have both capable of providing target signatures that are unique andcan form the basis of radar automatic target classification or recognition
systems [1] Chap. 14, [2]. However, ?D is usually considered in CW or
sampled CW situations [2] that are not conducive to obtaining HRR profiles
and, as such, most analysis of the techniques are independent. Here, thesignatures are considered together with the aim of providing a joint ?D-HRR
target characterization that will provide greater target information
for classification.

9461-72, Session 14

This research focuses on how to analyze ?D-HRR signatures. Chen [3] andSmith [4] have previously considered such analysis; their technique focusedon forming a joint range-time-frequency data cube. However, neither of
the analyses they provide explores the technique in depth, and they focus
instead on their data. Here simulated data (and real data in the final paper)
will be used explore the range-time-frequency data cube and understandwhat additional target information can be obtained from it.

HySpecIQ: realizing the potential of
hyperspectral remote sensing informatics
in the age of data analytics
Joseph D. Fargnoli, HySpecIQ (United States)
The potential of Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) as a transformative
information source has been well established through analysis as well as
ground, air and space validation. In many cases HSI is a powerful tool but
it’s full impact has often been under realized because of the absence of aframework for the integration of the degree of information value present
even if not complete. HySpecIQ is a global remote sensing informatics
business developing a constellation of hyperspectral imaging satellites tobe launched from 2018. The HySpecIQ system has two parts, namely: (i)satellite sensors with superior spatial, spectral and radiometric resolutions
as well as high temporal frequency/coverage, combined with (ii) “multimodal interpretation” (MMI) processing capabilities that ingest thesesatellite data (as well as other spatial information) to generate highly
specific (and accurate) information products. In order to overcome some ofthe historical limitations of HSI and to fully realize the market potential ofthis data we will introduce a framework whereby HSI MMI is enabled throughthe use of Upstream Data Fusion (UDF) in order to enable the means andtools for higher levels impact through the application of the principles ofContext Accumulation and Relevance Detection. This paper will explain thetheoretical underpinnings of this approach as well as provide examples of
it’s efficacy and validation of it use as building blocks for the realizationof the true potency of HSI in practical applications in key Commercial andGovernment market applications.

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9461-79, Session 14

The Johns Hopkins University multimodal
human actions dataset
Thomas S. Murray, Daniel R, Mendat, Kayode A. Sanni,
Andreas G. Andreou, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)
We present the Johns Hopkins University Multimodal Action (JHUMMA)
dataset, which contains a set of twenty-one actions. The data was collectedwith a novel data acquisition system that includes three independent active
sonar sensors and RGB-Depth video from a Microsoft Kinect sensor. The
data converters on the sensor boards are synchronized using a wirelessbeacon. We develop a feed-forward physics model for predicting theacoustic micro-Doppler modulations from body tracking data derived fromthe Kinect sensor. The time-frequency modulations produced by the physics
model are compared to the actual active acoustics in the JHUMMA dataset.

·

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Conference 9462:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII
Thursday 23–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9462 Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII

9462-2, Session 1

Optical and imaging performance
testing for an improved real time passive
millimetre-wave imager to be used indegraded visual environments
Colin D. Cameron, Rupert N. Anderton, Gordon N. Sinclair,
James G. Burnett, Philip J. Kent, QinetiQ Ltd. (United
Kingdom)This paper discusses the optical testing and imaging performance of the
improved passive mm-wave imager design for use in degraded visualenvironments for base security and helicopter navigation reported in the2014 conference.
The testing regime starts with optical component testing, to show whether
each optical component conforms to its specification, and predict what
effect each component will have on system performance. The testing
described includes metrology of surface profiles, measurements of loss foreach component, measurements of point spread functions and encircled
energy of each component with optical power, and measurements ofpolarising efficiency on the polarising material and quarter–wave plate usedin the system. The performance of the receivers is also measured in terms ofnoise equivalent temperature difference, frequency response and receiver
feed horn beam pattern. Also described is the design of two corrector test
lenses which allow either imager component with optical power to forma sharp image without the presence of the other component, and thus betested individually.
Testing of the full optics is described, both using a single scanned receiverand later the full receiver array. The former gives better sampled point
spread functions; the latter better represents the full system. The loss,
effective aperture, field of view, depth of field, narcissus, thermal and fixedpattern noise are also measured. Iterative methods to set the tolerancecompensation and optimise the scan conversion look up tables
are described.
Finally testing of the system imaging performance on bar targets and simple
scenes is described.

9462-3, Session 1

Design and operation of ACTPol: amillimeter wavelength, polarization
sensitive receiver for the Atacama
Cosmology Telescope
Benjamin L. Schmitt, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States);
ACTPol Collaboration, Princeton Univ. (United States)
We highlight considerations for the design and operation of ACTPol, a
new receiver for the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT), capable ofmaking polarization-sensitive, millimeter-wavelength observations of theCosmic Microwave Background (CMB) at arcminute angular scales. ACT isa six-meter telescope located in northern Chile, dedicated to enhancing
our understanding of the structure and evolution of the early Universe bydirect measurement of the CMB. We describe the design of the ACTPol
focal plane at full-deployment, consisting of dual 150 GHz array package
modules and a multichroic array package with simultaneous 90 GHz and 150
GHz sensitivity. Each of these detector array packages reside behind a setof custom-designed, high-purity silicon reimaging optics with a novel antireflective coating geometry, the characteristics of which will be detailed.
Each array package module consists of ~1000 transition-edge sensor (TES)116

SPIE DSS 2015·

bolometers used to measure the response of ~500 feedhorn-coupledpolarimeters, enabling characterization of the linear orthogonal polarizationof incident CMB radiation. The polarimeters are arranged in three hexagonal
and three semi-hexagonal silicon wafer stacks, mechanically coupled to an
octakaidecagonal, monolithic corrugated silicon feedhorn array (~140 mm
diameter). Readout of the TES polarimeters is achieved using time-division
SQUID multiplexing. Each array package is cooled using a custom-designed
dilution refrigerator providing a 100 mK bath temperature to the detectors,
which have a target Tc of 150 mK. Given the unique cryomechanicalconstraints associated with this large-scale monolithic superconducting
focal plane, we address the design considerations necessary for integration
with the optical and cryogenic elements of the ACTPol receiver. With firstlight achieved in July 2013, and second season operations completed inlate-2014, details of the ACTPol receiver deployment and early results
will be highlighted. Finally, specific consideration will be given to thecontext of these associated technologies and their synergistic application
supporting allied field applications, including interests in national security,
counterterrorism, and nuclear nonproliferation. The NIST 350 GHz will
be highlighted as an example of a standoff security system that has
successfully leveraged integrated technologies originally developed formillimeter-wavelength cosmology applications, within systems suchas ACTPol.

9462-4, Session 1

Concealed object stand-off real-time
imaging for security: CONSORTIS
Roger Appleby, InnovaSec Ltd. (United Kingdom); Stuart
Ferguson, Queen’s Univ. Belfast (United Kingdom); HenrikPetersson, Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
Within the European commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP7),CONSORTIS will design and fabricate a stand-off system for the detection of
objects concealed on people operating at sub-millimetre wave frequencies.
This system will scan people as they walk by the sensor. The aim of the
project is to produce a system which has a high probability of detection, lowfalse alarm rates, is non-invasive and respects privacy.
This paper presents the top level system design which brings together bothpassive and active sensors and discusses the trade-offs required to deliver
the necessary performance. The passive system will operate in two bands
between 100 and 600GHz and will be based on a cryogen free cooled focal
plane array sensor whilst the active system will be a solid-state 340GHz
radar. This will maximize the probability of detection and reduce false
alarms. A ‘systems engineering’ approach is adopted with performancemodelling being used to develop the system specifications. The resultsof this modelling and how they impact on the design will be discussed. A
modified version of OpenFx is used for the passive system and SE-RAY-EM
for the active system. Both of these tools are capable of rendering imagery
which is electromagnetically correct and accounts for the properties of thesensor. Furthermore this imagery can be animated as in the real system.
Targets can be embedded under clothing so that performance can be
estimated. False alarms can be introduced in a similar way to understandif their signatures can be rejected. The strengths and weaknesses of thisapproach will also be discussed.

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Conference 9462:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII

9462-5, Session 1

9462-7, Session 2

Toward a real time stand-off
submillimeter-wave imaging system withlarge field of view: quasi-optical systemdesign considerations

Millimeter-wave imaging at up to 40
frames per second using an optoelectronic
photo-injected Fresnel zone plate lensantenna at (sub-) mmw frequencies

Erio Gandini, Nuria Llombart, Technische Univ. Delft(Netherlands)

Thomas F. Gallacher, Aalto Univ. School of Science andTechnology (Finland); David G. Macfarlane, Univ. of St.
Andrews (United Kingdom); Rune Søndenå, Institutefor Energy Technology (Norway); Duncan A. Robertson,
Graham M. Smith, Univ. of St. Andrews (United Kingdom)

We are developing, in the frame-work of the European project
CONSORTIS, a stand-off system for concealed object detections working
at submillimetre-wave frequencies. The system is required to perform
real time image acquisition over a large field of view using both an active
and passive sensor. Here we present the quasi-optical system design that
operates in the frequency range from 250 to 500 GHz with a field of viewthat is approximately the size of a human body, 1x2 m2. The quasi-opticalsystem acquires images from 2m to 5m range with 1 cm spatial resolution.
Focal plane arrays are used to achieve high imaging frame rates. Twoconfigurations are analyzed: a sparse array with 1x8 active transceivers and a
10000 element incoherent passive staring array. Both cases use mechanicalscanning to achieve the required field of view.

Optoelectronic beam steering provides a promising pathway for realizing
rapid and highly reconfigurable beam steering for a wide range ofapplications, ranging from microwave through to terahertz frequencies. In
particular, the photo-injected Fresnel zone plate antenna (piFZPA) method,wherein a dynamic binary lens antenna is created by the opto-excitation of a
Fresnel zone plate plasma within a suitable semiconductor substrate, offers
highly accurate, symmetric, directive and rapid beam control which has thepotential to yield low-cost, video rate imagery using no moving parts.

After understanding the fundamental trade-offs, we present two practicalimplementations that fulfil the requirements for both types of imaging
array configurations. The simulated performance in terms of beam quality,
sensitivity and expected imaging speeds will be presented.

We will present and discuss the latest results obtained using a novel
piFZPA architecture. The key system design leverages the advantages ofan integrated OEM digital light projection (DLP) spatial light modulator
for rapid mask reconfiguration. A range of experimental results will bepresented and discussed that include a range of designs which demonstrate
up to 17,500 beams per sec, and which readily yield up to 40 (mmw) frames
per sec when configured to generate 1D plan-polar-images (PPI). Other
imaging modalities will also be discussed demonstrating up to 7 frames
per second with moderate density 2D FOVs. The latest measurements
demonstrate a wide field-of-view and highlight a 3-order-of-magnitude
increase in beam rates to those presented previously, whilst also extending
the operating frequency beyond 100 GHz.

9462-6, Session 1

9462-8, Session 2

Noise analysis for near-field 3D FM-CW
radar imaging systems

Characteristics and performanceof a commercial multiband passive
submillimetre-wave video camera

This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the different trade-offs driving
the quasi-optical design: from the achieved imaging speed to the opticalbeam quality over the whole field of view. This analysis starts from thefundamental limitations of the quasi-optical systems and mechanicalscanners. The required motor performance to achieve real time imaging is
discussed as a function of the sampling patterns. The performance of thecommercial motors are then linked to the quasi-optical system design.

David M. Sheen, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (UnitedStates)

Arttu R. Luukanen, Asqella Oy (Finland); Juha AlaLaurinaho, Aalto Univ. School of Electrical Engineering(Finland); Alex Kokka, Mikko M. Leivo, Asqella Oy(Finland); Aleksi A. Tamminen, Aalto Univ. School ofElectrical Engineering (Finland); Antti V. Räisänen, Aalto
Univ. School of Science and Technology (Finland)

Near field radar imaging systems are used for several applications including
concealed weapon detection in airports and other high-security venues.
Despite the near-field operation, phase noise and thermal noise can limit
performance in several ways. Practical imaging systems can employ arrayswith low gain antennas and relatively large signal distribution networks thathave substantial losses that limit the transmitted power and increase theeffective noise figure of the receiver chain, resulting in substantial thermal
noise. Phase noise can also limit system performance. The signal coupledfrom transmitter to receiver is much larger than expected target signals.
Phase noise from this coupled signal can set the system noise floor if theoscillator is too noisy. Frequency modulated continuous wave (FM-CW)
radar transceivers used in short range systems are somewhat immune tothe effects of the coupled phase noise due to range correlation effects.
This effect can push the phase-noise floor below the thermal noise floor
for moderate performance oscillators. Phase noise is also manifest in therange response around bright targets, and can cause smaller targets to be
obscured. Noise in synthetic aperture imaging systems is mitigated by theprocessing gain of the system. In this paper, the effects of thermal noise,
phase noise, and processing gain are analyzed in the context of a nearfield 3-D FM-CW imaging radar as might be used for concealed weapon
detection. In addition to traditional frequency domain analysis, a timedomain simulation is employed to graphically demonstrate the effect ofthese noise sources on a fast-chirping FM-CW system.

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The paper summarizes the imaging performance of Asqella’s new passive
multi-band THz imaging system - the Argon. The camera operates at threewavebands between 250 GHz and ~620 GHz, at a frame rate of ~10 fps,
capturing a ~2 m diameter field-of-view at a 5 m fixed imaging distance.
The measured performance of the system will be presented with some of its
unique features.

9462-9, Session 2

Video rate passive millimeter-wave
imager utilizing optical upconversion withimproved size, weight, and power
Richard D. Martin, Christopher A. Schuetz, Thomas E.
Dillon, Daniel G. Mackrides, Phase Sensitive Innovations,
Inc. (United States); Dennis W. Prather, Shouyuan Shi, Univ.
of Delaware (United States); Peng Yao, Phase Sensitive·

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117Conference 9462:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII
Innovations, Inc. (United States); Kevin Shreve, Univ. of
Delaware (United States)
In this presentation we will discuss performance and limitations of our 220
channel video rate passive millimeter wave imaging system based on a
distribute aperture with optical upconversion architecture. We will cover ourefforts to reduce the cost, size, weight, and power (CSWaP) requirementsof our next generation imager. To this end, we have developed custom
integrate custom silicon-germanium (SiGe) low noise amplifiers that havebeen designed to efficiently couple with our high performance lithium
niobate upconversion modules. We have also developed millimeter wave
packaging and components in multilayer liquid crystal polymer (LCP)
substrates which greatly improve the manufacturability of the upconversion
modules. These structures include antennas, substrate integrated
waveguides, filters, and substrates for InP and SiGe mmW amplifiers.

9462-10, Session 2

Optical-network-connected multi-channel
96-GHz-band distributed radar system

In our opinion best natural “candidate” for sensor in future PMWIS isJosephson junction (JJ) – it has super wide voltage electronic regulation
on frequency by basic ratio 2eV= h? [39]. It can be used without outside
heterodyne during the job in self-pumping regime [40, 41]. In this case it will
be possible to reach main future advantage and first principal peculiarity –possibility to do choice or changing of the receiving frequency – to do many
spectral images analysis by simplest voltage regulation.

Atsushi Kanno, Toshiaki Kuri, Tetsuya Kawanishi, National
Institute of Information and Communications Technology(Japan)The millimeter-wave (MMW) imaging technique is being extensively
developed for civil security applications. Owing to its short wavelength,
it can achieve high resolution and its penetrability allows the detection of
hidden weapons in clothing. However, its high atmospheric attenuation
coefficient limits its detection range and, thus, large-area surveillance
requires a large number of radar heads. An optical fiber network is the
optimal solution to transport such high-bandwidth signals to remote sites
owing to its low loss of 0.2 dB/km. Therefore, an optical-fiber-connected
MMW imaging system with a large number of heads in the distributed
antenna system (DAS) configuration can perform high-resolution
surveillance of large areas, such as airport runways and railways. An opticalfiber-connected radar system has already been reported and demonstrated
in the 96-GHz band, which is allowed for radiolocation in the US, the EU, andJapan. In recent years, fiber-connected radar system has been developed in
90-GHz band using analog-based radio-over-fiber technologies. Frequencymodulated continuous-wave (FM-CW) signal by an optical multiplication
based on optical modulation techniques can provide broad-bandwidth
signal with identical degradation of phase noise by multiplication. For
realization of the large-area surveillance, multi-channel radar system
connected by an optical fiber network should be configured.
This paper reports on a wavelength-division-multiplexed (WDM) multichannel optical signal generation for a frequency-modulated continuouswave radar signal at 96 GHz, its distribution, and multi-channel radar
operation. A four-channel WDM optical FM-CW signal was generated
by a high-precision optical modulation technique. These WDM channels
were de-multiplexed by a channel selector to transport each radio head.
A photomixer converted the optical signal to the MMW radar signal for
irradiation. In this paper, only the independent operation of each radar headis shown. A synthetic aperture radar system based on the fiber-connected
DAS will be realized in the future.

9462-11, Session 3

Alexander Denisov, Jing Hui Qiu, Shengchang Lan, Harbin
Institute of Technology (China); Alexander Gudkov, State
Scientific Research Institute of Physical Problems (RussianFederation)
Passive millimeter wave imaging is a method of forming images through

SPIE DSS 2015

In this work there are attempts to evaluate some aspects of such JJ’s
application for the receiving radiometric matrix.

9462-12, Session 3

Multiplexable sub-mm detector arrays forradiometric imaging
Juha Hassel, Andrey V. Timofeev, Visa Vesterinen, Hannu
Sipola, Panu Helistö, Leif Grönberg, VTT TechnicalResearch Ctr. of Finland (Finland); Arttu R. Luukanen,
Asqella Oy (Finland)
We present results on detectors and imager hardware aimed for sub-mm
radiometric imaging using staring optics. The detectors are based on
nanomembrane-integrated kinetic inductance detectors (KIDs). As opposedto the KIDs developed for astronomy, operating with sub-Kelvin cryogenics,
our detectors function at elevated base temperatures in the order of 10 K.
Operation with compact cryogenics is a benefit in commercial applications.
The proposed technology is aimed as an alternative for the state-of-art
imagers based on optomechanical scanning. Our detectors are compatible
with multiplexing techniques enabling large 2D arrays. The system canbe operated near the intrinsic sensitivity level as limited by the detectors
themselves, without the scanning penalty, which improvies the radiometricresolution. Also the optics can be considerably simplified. We present
detector characterisation results showing that the detectors are competitivein terrestrial imaging applications. We also present a status report on thedevelopment of an imager, based on the technology, considering the issues
related to the cryogenics, optics, and electronics.

9462-13, Session 4Some opinion about matrix terahertz
imaging system based on Josephson
junctions118

the passive detection of naturally existing millimeter wave radiation of
the neighborhood situation. Main problem consists of obtaining image inreal time in such way as in the infrared thermal imagers or an optical one.
This can be fulfilled by using simultaneous receiving of the radiation fromdifferent parts of a scene. For simultaneous receiving the creation of arraywith a large number of the receiving channels and the multibeam quasioptical antenna are required. The passive millimeter-wave imaging systems(PMWIS) were developed from a single-channel scanning imager [1] to thefully staring array, which contains more than thousands of the receivers[2]. PMWIS is new type of the critical technologies, because it is new fields
of human activities, so there are big interests to develop the principal newtechnologies for the construction focal plane matrix with a lot of receiving
pixels. Integration of plurality of the receivers or the radiometers as anindividual pixel into a matrix receiving systems seems efficient for therealization of “radio-vision” or imaging systems without scanning if smallsized sensors with good operating parameters are available. Undoubtedly,various current technical realizations which have place in this field ofknowledge depend on the concrete principal trends of the scientific worldlevel teams [3] which move forward their principal achievements.

·

Toward the development of an image
quality tool for the testing of active
millimeter-wave imaging systems
Jeffrey Barber, James C. Weatherall, Joseph Greca,
Battelle Memorial Institute (United States); Barry T. Smith,
U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security (United States)
Government agencies worldwide have deployed active millimeter wave

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Conference 9462:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII(MMW) imaging systems for screening personnel. In the context of aviation
security, systems are deployed at checkpoints which run at or near 24-hour
operation. While OEM systems may have internal calibration and fault
check methodologies, it is desirable to have a tool (or tools) that can beused to independently test the operation/performance of the system fromdevelopmental testing through daily commissioning at the checkpoint. To
this end, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has
initiated an effort to develop an image quality tool capable of testing active
MMW imaging systems. As part of this effort, DHS is seeking to engage themillimeter wave community in a dialogue in order to obtain feedback on
design concepts.

systems to screen personnel for concealed explosives and weapons. AIT
systems deployed in airports auto-detect potential threats by highlighting
the threat location on a generic passenger shape, with the imaging
data collected over a range of frequency. We demonstrate a method forextracting dielectric constant from the free-space, multi-frequency reflection
data, using 18 – 40 GHz. The reflection coefficient is a function of frequency
because of propagation effects that relate to the material’s complex
dielectric constant. By numerically fitting the reflection coefficient as afunction of frequency to a theoretical model based on geometric optics, asolution can be found for the complex dielectric constant andtarget thickness.

Potential embodiments of an image quality tool may contain materials thatmimic human skin in order to provide a realistic signal return for testing.
These materials may also help reduce or eliminate the need for mock
passengers for developmental testing. Two candidate materials, a dielectricliquid and an iron-loaded epoxy, have been identified and reflection
measurements have been performed using laboratory systems in the range
18 – 40 GHz. Results show good agreement with both laboratory andliterature data on human skin. Issues related to the practical use of liquids
and magnetic materials for image quality tools will be discussed.

The measurement of dielectric constant, including dielectric loss, from thereflection data provides signatures useful for threat identification. In thispaper, the method is demonstrated with inert substances and a military
sheet explosive to show that detected reflection data can discriminate thematerials in a two-dimensional dielectric space. In principle, the detectionof reflection coefficient using multiple frequencies can be incorporated
into Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT) and standoff imaging systems
to provide identifying data on the composition of potential threats, which
would allow threat assessment to be accomplished within the scope of
millimeter wave screening.

9462-14, Session 49462-16, Session 4

Simulations and image validation for 350
GHz passive imaging systems

Summary and analysis of 216 GHz
polarimetric measurements of in-situ rain

Daniel T. Becker, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Peter A. R. Ade, Cardiff Univ.
(United Kingdom); James A. Beall, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States); Hsiao-Mei Cho,
Stanford Univ. (United States); Simon R. Dicker, Univ. of
Pennsylvania (United States); William D. Duncan, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States);Mark Halpern, The Univ. of British Columbia (Canada);
Gene C. Hilton, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Kent D. Irwin, Stanford Univ.
(United States); Nicholas G. Paulter Jr., Robert E. Schwall,
Carl D. Reintsema, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Carole E. Tucker, Cardiff Univ.
(United Kingdom)

Abigail S. Hedden, David A. Wikner, Russell Bradley, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
Degraded visual environments remain a significant operational challenge.
In addition to other hazards, obscurants like clouds and rain limit theoperational support capabilities that overhead aircraft can provide to the
Warfighter on the ground. Atmospheric penetration properties, the ability toform high-resolution imagery with modest apertures, and available source
power make the extremely high-frequency (EHF) portion of the spectrum
promising for the development of radio frequency sensors capable ofpenetrating visual obscurants, including rain and fog. Comprehensive
phenomenology studies, including polarization and backscatter propertiesof relevant targets, are lacking at these frequencies. The Army ResearchLaboratory has developed a fully-polarimetric frequency-modulated
continuous-wave instrumentation radar designed for carrying out EHF
phenomenology studies, specifically, around the 220 GHz atmosphericwindow. This work summarizes measurements of the polarization andbackscatter properties of in-situ rain.

Over the past few years multiple groups have developed passive imaging
systems operating at submillimeter wavelengths. Here at NIST we havebuilt a 350 GHz video imager operating at standoff distances of 16 m using
an array of 251 superconducting detectors. To confirm the observations
made with our imaging system, we have developed a physically accurate
simulation tool for estimating the effects of various scene parameters on
our imager’s performance. This tool can predict the appearance of a simple
scene, given the optical properties and temperatures of the materials inthe scene. The simulation provides a real-time demonstration that helps
understand the tradeoffs in image quality inherent in different design
decisions and can also be used to validate different approaches to image
processing and scanning.

9462-17, Session 4

Electromagnetic scattering from metallic
and dielectric surfaces at millimeter-wave
and terahertz frequencies
David A. DiGiovanni, Andrew J. Gatesman, Robert H. Giles,
Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States); Williams E.
Nixon, National Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)

9462-15, Session 4

With the demand for larger bandwidths and faster data speeds, wirelesscommunication systems are expanding into the millimeter-wave andterahertz region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Successful transition
to higher frequencies, particularly for systems located in indoor or
urban environments, will require a thorough understanding of reflection,transmission, absorption, and scattering of a wide variety of materials.
For this study, the co-polarization and crosspolarization backscattering
coefficients of several structures were measured in compact radar ranges
operating from 100 GHz to 1.55 THz. These structures consisted of metallic
plates, dielectric structures, and a variety of common building materials.
Simple rough surface scattering theory was compared to the measured
backscattering coefficients of the metallic and dielectric structures. The

Spectral signatures for identifying
explosives with wide-band millimeterwave illumination
James C. Weatherall, Jeffrey Barber, Battelle Memorial
Institute (United States); Barry T. Smith, U.S. Dept. ofHomeland Security (United States)
Millimeter wave imaging is employed in Advanced Technology Imaging (AIT)

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119Conference 9462:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII

9462-20, Session 5

backscattering measurements of these materials were compared as afunction of polarization, incident angle, and frequency.

Feasibility of radon imaging reconstructionin the MMW region using very inexpensive
plasma GDD lamps with new video rate
16x16 FPA camera

9462-18, Session 4

Beyond the Kirchoff approximation:
quantitative studies of submillimeterrough surface scattering

Assaf Levanon III, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel);
Michael Konstantinovsky II, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev(Israel) and Intel Corp. (United States); Yitzhak Yitzhaky,
Adrian Stern, Natan S. Kopeika, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the
Negev (Israel); Amir Abramovich, Ariel Univ. (Israel)

Erich N. Grossman, Richard A. Chamberlin, Josh Gordon,
Natalie Mujica-Schwahn, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States)
The Kirchoff-Spizzichino treatment of rough surface scattering is, todate, the most sophisticated scattering theory to have been appliedat submillimeter wavelengths. However, the low curvature assumption
underlying it precludes any ability to analyze important effects such asenhanced backscatter, that have been well studied in other wavelength
regimes. In this study, we have quantitatively compared the predictionsof a recent, more general theory developed by A. Fung using the Integral
Equation Method (IEM) with predictions based on the Kirchoff-Spizzichinotreatment, and with measurements performed over the 160-650 GHz bandon a variety of test samples. The samples included both well-controlled,
artificially prepared, laboratory surfaces and common, everyday surfaces
presented by (for example) common building materials. In all cases,
the statistical properties of the surface topography (roughness andautocorrelation function) were carefully analyzed in three dimensions using
focus-variation microscopy data. Although the measurements were confined
to scattering only in the plane of incidence, we generally find very good
agreement between IEM theory and measurement. Except for the verysmoothest, most weakly scattering, samples, we find normalized scatteringcross-sections (or alternatively bidirectional reflectance distributionfunctions) within 2 dB of IEM predictions over a wide dynamic range.

9462-19, Session 5

Automatic detection of hidden threats in
the TeraSCREEN passive millimeter-wave
imaging subsystem
Satish Madhogaria, Marek Schikora, Fraunhofer FKIE
(Germany)
Passive millimeter-wave imaging systems have a broad application insecurity applications. Especially the detection of hidden threats for bordersecurity, e.g. on airports, is a growing field. However, the gained images
have very small spatial resolution and are therefore hard to analyze fully
automatically. In this paper we propose a novel approach for automaticthreat detection using a time series of 94 GHz passive millimeter-wave
images. Herein, we discuss four principle steps essential to solve the task of
threat detection: pre-processing, region-of-interest (ROI) extraction, threat
extraction in each frame and finally reaching a conclusion by examining
results from all frames. We discuss the problems incurred in each step andpropose a solution. For pre-processing, we apply a linear transformation to
the intensity values to enhance the contrast. ROI extraction involves humanlike contour extraction, convex hull (of the human-like contour) computationand finally extraction of all the points that lies inside the convex hull. This
step is essential to get rid of background noise, which is turn reducesconsiderable amount of false detections. Finally, threat detection is carriedby separating appropriate closed contours based on the shape and size.
Final decision is taken automatically by fusion of the results from all frames
and examining the most concentrated region inside the fused image.
Besides showing that the proposed method works very well and reliably forthe data set at hand, we also discuss the advantages of using this method
in contrast to state-of-the-art methods, i.e. segmentation-based detection[(Martinez, 2010)].

120

SPIE DSS 2015·

A new approach which combines two interesting fields is presented.
Compressed imaging (CI), along with Millimeter Wave (MMW) imaging,is suggested in order to implement real time MMW compressed imaging.
CI is a joint sensing and compressing process that attempts to exploit
the large redundancy in typical images in order to suffice with fewer
samples. In general, in Compressing Sensing (CS) there is no need tocollect all the signal elements. It is enough to collect much fewer signal
components in the transform domain where a large number of the signal
frequency components are almost zero or negligible and not includedin the data acquisition. This approach, unlike other methods of image
acquisition which rest on the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, does
not require it. MMW based imaging systems are required for a large variety
applications in many growing fields such as medical imaging, homeland
security, concealed weapon detection, prevention of smuggling, and spacetechnology. Moreover, the possibility to create reliable imaging in low
visibility conditions such as heavy cloud, smoke, fog, and sandstorms in
the MMW region, generates high interest. The atmospheric attenuation inthis range of the spectrum is relatively low and clear weather scattering is
also low compared to the near infrared and visible. The lack of inexpensive
room temperature imaging systems makes it difficult to provide a suitable
MMW system for many of the above applications. In the last few years weadvanced in research and development of imagers using very inexpensive(30-50 cents) Glow Discharge Detector (GDD) plasma indicator lamps as
MMW detectors. The GDD is located in free space and it can detect MMW
radiation almost isotropically. A system based GDD Focal Plane Arrays(FPA) can be very efficient in real time imaging and yield significant results.
The 1st and 2nd FPA generations were an 8?8 pixel array and an 18?2
mono-rail scanner array respectively, both of them for direct detection
and limited to fixed imaging. The most recent sensor is a multiplexing
frame rate 16x16 GDD FPA. It permits real time video rate imaging of 30
frames per second and comprehensive 3D MMW imaging using chirped
heterodyne detection. The principle of detection in this imager is afrequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) system. However, it also
is capable of direct detection while each of the 16 GDD pixels over a line issampled simultaneously. This FPA is built with 256 commercial GDD lampsof 3 mm diameter and fully supported by Graphical Unit Interface (GUI)software. Here we present a new approach of reconstructing MMW imaging
by rotation scanning of the target. The collection process here, based onradon projections, and allows implementation of the compressive sensing
principles into the MMW region. This process allows us significant memorysaving, working with smaller quantities of detectors, and still being able toprocess large frames. Feasibility of the concept is demonstrated as radonline imaging. Moreover, new MMW imaging results are presented with our
3rd generation imager for the first time. Combination of these two fields
should make significant improvement in MMW region imaging research, andgenerate new possibilities involving compressing sensing.

9462-21, Session 5

Real-time image processing for passive
mmW imagery
Stephen T. Kozacik, Univ. of Delaware (United States) andEM Photonics, Inc. (United States); James Bonnett, Aaron
L. Paolini, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States); Thomas E.

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Conference 9462:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIII
Dillon, Richard D. Martin, Christopher A. Schuetz, Phase
Sensitive Innovations, Inc. (United States); Dennis W.
Prather, Univ. of Delaware (United States)

artifacts on the reconstructed images, while there are also backgroundscattering waves which have negative effects on the final results. Thus
we developed a set of calibration methods to eliminate the influences ofsystem errors including response non-uniformity, transmission delay andbackground scattering. Assuming antenna response curve linear, calibrations
could be achieved via solving response equations. Illuminating targets
made of different materials with same signal and recording the response,
several response equations are acquired. As the response is a functionof input signal, solutions of the equations makes it possible to solve thefunction expression, with which we can calculate the real back-projection
signal to eliminate response non-uniformity. Reconstruction is based on
spherical wave decomposition and spatial matched filter. There are certain
approximations in the original method. According to Rayleigh-Sommerfeld
diffraction formula, we introduce a correction factor related to signal
phase and frequency to remove the approximations. Sampling intervals
would issue in sub-sampling on the edge of apertures, while there are also
Gaussian noises from circuits, which contribute to artifacts over the images.
In this case, non-local means filter and its derivate algorithms prove to beefficient according to other researches. In this paper, an improved NL-means
algorithm named PRI_NLM3D is introduced. It is a combination of ODCTand RI_NLM3D algorithm, the processing procedure consists of two steps.
The method uses hard threshold DCT denoise as pre-filtering and applies
original ODCT and NL-means algorithm to the processed image. NL-means
utilizes redundancy of images to denoise. The denoised gray value of one
pixel is estimated by the weighted average of its neighbor areas. Calculating
every pixel in this way, we can get the denoised image. The experimental
results prove that the calibration methods contribute to non-uniformity
reduction, while non-local means is efficient in eliminating the disturbancesof artifacts with little loss of contrast.

The transmission characteristics of millimeter waves (mmWs) make themsuitable for many applications in defense and security, from airport preflightscanning to penetrating degraded visual environments such as brownout
or heavy fog. While the cold sky provides sufficient illumination for theseimages to be taken passively in outdoor scenarios, this utility comes at acost; the diffraction limit of the longer wavelengths involved leads to lower
resolution imagery compared to the visible or IR regimes, and the low
power levels inherent to passive imagery allow the data to be more easily
degraded by noise. Recent techniques leveraging optical upconversion
have shown significant promise, but are still subject to fundamental limits inresolution and signal to noise ratio.
To address these issues we have applied techniques developed for visible
and IR imagery to decrease noise and increase image resolution in mmW
imagery. Additionally, we pursued methods for fusing mmW imagery withvisible or IR imagery to enhance situational awareness. We subsequently
discuss the use of GPU and FPGA platforms for real-time operation ofcomputationally complex image processing algorithms.
We present data from a passive, 77 GHz, distributed aperture, video rate
imaging platform captured during field tests at the full video rate. These
videos demonstrate the increase in situational awareness that can be gained
through applying computational techniques in real-time without needingchanges in detection hardware.

9462-22, Session PSThu

Mathematical principles of settings for
extremely-high resolution instead of
method regularization
Evgeni N. Terentiev, Lomonosov Moscow State Univ.
(Russian Federation); Nikolay E Terentiev, HiQo Solutions(Russian Federation)
Mathematical Principles of Settings transforms irregular Apparatus
Functions sets to the regular sets invertible and inverse AF’s sets. MPS
inversion of AFs gives us the non smoothness solutions with the controlled
maximum precision and extremely high resolution. Method regularization
is based on assumption that the badly conditioned AF remains unchanged.
Ill-conditioning or regularization of AF is substituted by the strange object“a priori solution smoothness”. As result we have the irreversible andsmoothness solutions with the low precision. MPS extremely high resolution
and regularization ultra resolution [1] are compared on the old radio-vision
image of the Sun in 3 mm wave range.
1. E.N. Terentiev, N.E. Terentiev, “Application of pointed ultra-resolution
method in microwave imaging”, Proc. SPIE Vol. 5789, 167-177 (2005).

9462-23, Session PSThu

Calibration and image processing method
for millimeter-wave holographic imaging
Zheng Li, Tsinghua Univ. (China); Zongjun Shen, Nuctech
Co. Ltd. (China); Ziran Zhao, Lingbo Qiao, Tsinghua Univ.
(China)Millimeter-wave imaging technology has wide application prospects in fields
of safety inspection due to its low attenuation and non-ionization. It could
acquire 3D images with a single scan, which makes it especially suitablefor human imaging. In a typical active millimeter-wave imaging system,
phase and amplitude information of the target back-projection waves arerecorded via an antenna array, which contributes to scanning speed. In oursystem, the array moves over a rectangular aperture instead of a cylinder
one. The antennas variant response characters would lead to non-uniformity

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121Conference 9463: Motion Imagery:Standards, Quality, and Interoperability
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9463 Motion Imagery: Standards, Quality, and Interoperability

9463-1, Session 1

9463-4, Session 1

Motion Imagery Standards Board (MISB)
overview (Invited Paper)

FMV end-to-end interoperability
Joseph A. Smith, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency(United States)

Bryan E. Blank, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency(United States)

No Abstract Available

This presentation will provide an overview of the Motion Imagery Standards
Board (MISB), its activities, recent accomplishments, and focus areas.

9463-6, Session 29463-2, Session 1

Video test equipment justification processStandards and interoperability 101:
standards across the DoD enterprise(Invited Paper)

Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)

Mark Hary, 2d3 Sensing (United States)
This talk will discuss industry standards used by US government agencies
when designing still and motion imagery systems. Both US and NATOSTANAGs will be covered. Our investigation will start with low-level sensor
standards (covering full motion video, still imagery, and metadata); continue
to higher level command and control standards; and then expand to theenterprise and service oriented architectures. We will conclude with looking
at cutting edge technology regarding full motion video and still imagery,namely georegistration and 3D reconstruction, and look at the standards will
drive adoption of that technology.

9463-3, Session 1

Compression fundamentals: MPEG2, H.264,
and HEVC H.265
Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)

Video Test Equipment Justification Process- Getting the right tools forthe job is paramount to being able to run a high quality deployment thatall starts with the test equipment justification process and it requires
management buy-in to get the budget secured. Staying current withtechnology is a requirement in today’s fast moving world of video to reduce
the Unknown Unknowns.
There must be an understanding of the test needs you have today and thenbeing proactive to determine what is needed in the next phases of a project.
The test project lead needs to determine what needs to be tested and therisk associates with not testing to make a strong business case to properly
fund the test plan. All layers from end to end need to be included in thetest plan. All phases of the project need to part of this plan- from early R&D
all the way to the everyday operational aspects of a mature deployment.
The test project lead needs to always have a ready and current Wish List ofrequired equipment for when funding is incrementally approved.
There is always a cost of not testing but that risk is often not defined aspart of the project budget and the project risk assessment. What is the realcost when something goes wrong?This presentation will include several
important lessons learned from the presenter’s 35 years of
testing experience.

9463-21, Session 2

Compression Fundamentals - MPEG2, H.264, and HEVC H.265—The
fundamentals of compression will be covered to include the latest H.265/
HEVC to maintain high quality at a reduced bitrate. The goal is to provide
the highest quality possible at the lowest bitrate required to stay within
the design bandwidth limits of the delivery network. Compression ismost challenging when tasked with meeting quality requirements on a
bandwidth constrained network. Compression is needed to make storage
and transport process more efficient. The cost of storage and transport
continues to become more affordable but it is not free so compression is alogical process. This presentation will be a tutorial on the practical aspectsof maintaining an acceptable Quality of Experience.

Transitioning from NTSC analog to HD
digital Video
Paul Hightower, Instrumentation Technology Systems(United States)
As video systems move from analog NTSC to HD digital video, new system
topologies, new transport systems, compression and new data spaces must
be considered. This paper will explore some of the tradeoffs and benefitsof HD video. There are many new elements of specification that should beconsidered when designing an HD video system. Throughout, there aretables correlating specifications that define image frames, image samplingand data rates.

This presentation will cover the implementation of Discrete Cosine
Transforms and Wavelet JPEG 2000 Compression schemes. Motion
estimation and buffer modeling will be discussed as a way to increase
efficiency and how the GOP structure can impact system latency. The
fundamental differences between MPEG2, H.264, and H.265 will be
explained to show how they increase compression efficiency. Screen shotsof compression testing tools will be shared to show how they are used todetermine the efficiency and stability of a compression algorithm
under evaluation.

This paper will survey HD video and compare the terms between it andanalog video. It will also uncover new issues and new capabilities notpreviously available in analog video systems. For example, SMPTE designed
in significant data spaces in each frame that may be used to store timestamps and other time sensitive data. The data space features are a major
tool to overcome the issue arising from the introduction of transport latency
and image quality impact of compression.
The paper will reveal that resolution is three dimensional in HD where it isdefined not only as lines and pixels, but pixel depth. There are a variety ofsampling techniques that take advantage of the foibles of our physiology
to reduce frame data sizes. Some are barely perceptible to the eye, somecompromise image quality to some extent. These sampling techniques

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Conference 9463: Motion Imagery:Standards, Quality, and Interoperability

9463-9, Session 3

will be described. It will also be shown that regardless of the samplingtechnique, transport bandwidths of uncompressed HD video must be very
wide, or compression must be used to fit the conduit. Similarly, HD video
clips can consume enormous data spaces. Only 45 minutes of 1080p/60
uncompressed high profile video requires a terabyte of storage. Once more,compression may be required to collect, edit, distribute and archive HD
video sequences. Compression introduces real time latency between thesource and destination video. Latencies can be 50 100 milliseconds up to
several seconds depending on the complexity of the scene and bandwidthof the transport. Latencies impact human remote control, data collection
and time stamping strategies. Latency affects the overlay of time criticalmeasurements; compression threatens the legibility of such overlay when
made at the source. Further, other the side effects of compression tools
used (e.g. JPEG 2000, MPEG, H.264) to accomplish transport will
be discussed.

Interfaces, part two: implementation
challenges of compressed video:transports streams over RF and IP
Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)
Interfaces- Part Two- Implementation Challenges of Compressed Video –Transports Streams over RF and IP
Maintaining quality of HD video and related meta-data and their associatedissues are not always apparent in the digital domain. We can no longer
just look at the video and listen to audio to determine all its signal quality
aspects. Each layer of the underlying digital technology needs to beconstantly monitored to see if you are moving closer to the “Digital Cliff”.
This presentation will explain how to make sure your content adheres to the“rules of the road” and operates within interoperability requirements. Thistutorial will be presented with a focus on the practical aspects you need toknow to better understand testing methodology.

9463-23, Session 2

WorldView-3 direct geolocation accuracy
analysis

The practical aspects of the real life challenges in implementing compressed
content over 8VSB and QAM for video, audio, and data distribution will becovered. It will address challenges such as timing issues concerning PCR(Program Clock Reference) inaccuracies, PCR jitter/drift, frequency offset,
Error Vector Magnitude (EVM) , modulation error ratio (MER), Constellation
Diagrams, and how they will impact the quality of the compressed contents
delivery to the viewers.

Paul C. Bresnahan, Evan H. Brown, National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (United States)
A geolocation analysis was conducted of WorldView-3 panchromatic
imagery. The analysis quantified horizontal and vertical geolocation
accuracy by comparing image-derived coordinates to surveyed groundcontrol. Additional analysis included comparisons of observed to predicted
errors, geolocation consistency between two imagery product processing
levels, and how well the Rational Polynomial Coefficients (RPC) replacement
geometry model and the Community Sensor Model (CSM) results match.
Through a novel approach the analysis was automated for statisticaltabulation, result summaries, and graphing.

IP Packet transport and delivery requires the system to be smooth andstable. If the packets are lost, duplicated, or out of sequence this severely
impacts the Quality of Experience. The importance of monitoring packet
timing and continuity counter errors will be discussed.
Multi-layer monitoring techniques based on TR101 290 measurement
guidelines are primarily designed to check the integrity of an MPEG
transport stream in an operational environment. The guidelines provide
for three priority levels of ATSC compliance and decodability tests. This
presentation will cover the methodology and tools needed to properly
approach and troubleshoot implementation challenges.

9463-8, Session 3

Interfaces, part one: implementation
challenges of uncompressed video: 3G-SDI
and HDMI with HDCP

9463-11, Session 4

Big data happiness (Invited Paper)

Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)

Andrew Eick, Mission Focus (United States); Suzanne
Yoakum-Stover, Institute for Modern Intelligence (UnitedStates)Part One- Interfaces- Implementation Challenges of Uncompressed Video3G-SDI and HDMI with HDCPARE YOU LIVING NEAR THE EDGE OF THE DIGITAL CLIFF?

For most organizations, Big Data is an ocean of suffering. In this paper we
discuss the root causes of this suffering (ambiguity and scale), methods
for reducing it (refinement and unification), and practices to stop creating
more of it (sustainable data operations and management). We also present
a fully implemented compute and storage apparatus that embodies thesemethods and practices, which NGA calls the GeoInt Data & Analytics Cloud(GDAC). We describe how GDAC and motion imagery standards, quality,
and interoperability reinforce each other to operationalize diverse data at
scale, creating an ideal platform for ABI, and thereby transform an ocean ofsuffering into Big Data happiness.

Maintaining quality of HD video and related meta-data and their associatedissues are not always apparent in the digital domain. We can no longer
just look at the video and listen to audio to determine all its signal quality
aspects. Each layer of the underlying digital technology needs to beconstantly monitored to see if you are moving closer to the “Digital Cliff”.
This presentation will explain how to make sure your content adheres to the“rules of the road” and operates within interoperability requirements. Thistutorial will be presented with a focus on the practical aspects you need toknow to better understand testing methodology.
The physical layer of HD-SDI and 3G-SDI needs to be clean and stable
for the next device in the chain to be able to read the digital signal. The
proper use of Eye Patterns and Jitter figure prints will be discussed fortroubleshooting source stability issues. CRC and Checksums also need to be
regularly monitored to check9463-12, Session 4

Collaborative real-time motion video
analysis by human observer and image
exploitation algorithms

the health of active and passive components in the chain. Coax cable bestpractices will be discussed as well as the move to optical interfaces.
HDMI interfaces with HDCP are now common place in video facilities.
Interoperability between Source and Sink is required to allow content tobe delivered to a compliant display device. This presentation will cover the
methodology and tools needed to properly approach and troubleshootimplementation challenges.

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Jutta E. Hild, Wolfgang Krüger, Stefan Bruestle, Patrick
Trantelle, Gabriel Unmüssig, Norbert Heinze, Elisabeth
Peinsipp-Byma, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany); Jürgen

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123Conference 9463: Motion Imagery:Standards, Quality, and Interoperability
Beyerer, Fraunhofer Institute of Optronics, System
Technologies and Image Exploitation (IOSB) (Germany)and Vision and Fusion Laboratory, Karlsruhe Institue ofTechnology (Germany)

simplify this process of moving into a file based workflow with automatedQuality Control.

Motion video analysis is a particularly challenging task, especially in realtime applications. On the one hand, over the last years, large progress has
been made in the development of automated image exploitation algorithms.
On the other hand, the human observer is an obligatory part of thecomplete analysis system in lots of security or safety critical applications.
Our approach strives to combine both the qualities of the human observer’s
perception and the automated algorithms, thus aiming to improve theoverall performance of a real-time video analysis system. We outline theadvantages of both human and automated video analysis capabilities andshow what benefit we expect to receive from such “collaborative” video
analysis. We build on prior work where we showed the benefits the humanobserver receives by a user interface which utilizes the human visual focus
of attention revealed by the eye gaze direction for interaction with theimage exploitation system; eye tracker-based interaction allows much
faster, more convenient, and equally precise moving target acquisition invideo images than traditional computer mouse selection [1]. We also build
on prior work on automated target detection, segmentation, and tracking
algorithms [2]. We show how and for what types of tasks the information
about the human observer’s eye gaze direction and the results computed by
the automated algorithms can be brought together in a beneficial way, anddescribe the challenges occurring with the design of such a
collaborative system.

CODEC optimization and referenced
objective evaluation[1] Hild, J., Brüstle, S., Heinze, N., & Peinsipp-Byma, E. (2013, May). Gaze
interaction in UAS video exploitation. In SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing(pp. 87400H-87400H). International Society for Optics and Photonics.

Extensive testing using this method can be refined to yield a consistentsubjective rating. However, this method of evaluating the capabilities of acompressed video system can be inefficient, taking several weeks to months
to perform the experiments. This test methodology can be extremely
expensive to complete, and often the results are not repeatable. Thus,
subjective DMOS testing with human viewers is impractical for the CODEC
design phase, and inefficient for ongoing operational quality evaluation.

9463-14, Session 5[2] Teutsch, M., & Krüger, W. (2012, September). Detection, segmentation,and tracking of moving objects in UAV videos. In Advanced Video andSignal-Based Surveillance (AVSS), 2012 IEEE Ninth International Conferenceon (pp. 313-318). IEEE.

Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)
CODEC Optimization and Referenced Objective Evaluation-- Optimizing
the configuration of a Encoder is all about getting the highest quality
at the lowest bitrate, so we need to implement a method of repeatableand objective optimization based on human vision sciences to obtainan acceptable Quality of Experience. This paper will focus on DMOS
(Differential Mean Opinion Score), but will also touch upon PSNR (Peak
Signal-to-Noise Ratio) and JND (Just Noticeable Difference) testing
scenarios to explain available testing tools.
Picture quality in a compressed system can change dynamically basedon a combination of data rate, picture complexity, and the encoding
algorithm employed. The static nature of most test signals does notprovide true characterization of picture quality. Human viewer testing has
been traditionally conducted as described in ITUR Rec. BT.500-11. A test
scene with natural content and motion is displayed in a tightly controlledenvironment, with human viewers expressing their opinion of picture quality
to create a DMOS Score.

This paper will discuss a test mythology that is fast, practical, repeatable,
and an objective measurement alternative to subjective DMOS evaluation of
picture quality. These tools include the ability to apply a Region of Interest
as well modeling for Attention, Perception, Viewing, and Display to assist in
fine tuning the Device Under Test.

9463-13, Session 4

File-based video QC and automation inenterprise and cloud implementations
Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)

9463-15, Session 5This presentation will be a tutorial on file based Quality Control for an
onsite Enterprise system and also how it applies to video technology that ismoving to a Cloud based workflow. The world of content QC has changed
from being a tape based workflow with a QC person being able to keep up
with the task of 100 percent QC to one with all content being transcoded
to multiple formats. It has become impractical for a person with the Golden
Eyes and Ears to have a one to one relationship with the ever expanding
workload. This process needs to automated to better utilize the available
QC staff allowing them to focus on files that do not meet acceptance andinteroperability criteria.

New long-zoom lens for 4K super 35mm
digital cameras

Meeting the content’s deliverable requirements is an important step in
automating the QC process. The file needs to pass baseband acceptancecriteria for blockiness, freeze frames, gamut, to also include audio level andchannel configuration requirements to name just a few of possible pass/failscenarios. Interoperability testing should be enabled to verify the wrapper
compliance as well as drilling down to the compression layer forsyntax errors.
This paper will cover transcoding, storage, and distribution in The Cloudand how to capitalize on its efficiencies. Media workflows are increasingly
being migrated in the Cloud to take advantage of the instant scalability andusage-based pricing models of Cloud platforms that allow for highly
elastic throughputs.
An automated QC process can interface with a Media Asset Management
system that includes human readable and machine readable reporting. The
human readable reports are Red Light/Green Light where the user can the
drill down into the file down to the specific frame that triggered the error todetermine a remedy. This presentation will walk thru the available tools to

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Laurence J. Thorpe, Canon U.S.A., Inc. (United States);
Fumiaki Usui, Canon Inc. (Japan); Ryuhei Kamata, Canon
U.S.A., Inc. (United States)
Contemporary large-format single-sensor digital motion imaging cameras
center largely about the image size of the Super 35mm 3-perf motion
picture film format. An extensive global inventory of prime lenses existsthat are widely deployed on these digital cameras. Zoom lenses are
slowly becoming more popular and recent designs meeting 4K optical
performance are spurring their further adoption. To date, however, the focal
ranges of these zooms have been quite limited – certainly compared to what
is presently available in the internationally standardized 2/3-inch B4 mountzoom lenses.
In the realm of broadcast television production – most especially in the
documentary and sports genres – there is an increasing plea for Super
35mm 4K ultra-telephoto zoom lenses. The realities of this form of shooting
entail the desirability of easy transportation of lens-camera-tripod systems,with the additional facility of shoulder-mount acquisition in remote andchallenging environments. It is anticipated that there are some military andhomeland security applications for this unique lens. The exhortation of themany international shooters of documentary programming was for sucha lens to also be as compact and lightweight as possible. Paradoxically,large image format size, extended zoom range, and ensuring 4K optical
performance – collectively tend to elevate overall lens size and weight.

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Conference 9463: Motion Imagery:Standards, Quality, and Interoperability
This presentation will discuss the technical challenges entailed in the designof a new 4K Super 35mm zoom lens that offers an extended 20 times zoom
range with a 1000 mm telephoto capability (augmented by a built-in 1.5x
range extender to take this to 1500 mm). The lens maintains full 4K opticalspecifications over the entire focal range. A design goal was set of no morethan 15 lbs weight and an overall length not to exceed 16 inches.

video, as well.
This hardware-software solution, in addition to capturing the movementof the physical structures also captures color and texture data. This allows
significant versatility in the use of the data, as well as allowing coloration
to be utilized to mark points for tracking on a subject. Each frame canbe utilized individually, to create a model, or as part of a 3D video scan.
The scanner configuration developed at the University of North Dakota issufficient in size for capturing scans of a group of humans.

Fulfilling 4K aspirations entailed considerations of the MTF target for theimage center and the attendant optical strategies to control the degree oflowering of that MTF toward the image extremities as well as its behavior
over the zoom range. Two image zones and the success in meeting thetarget MTF performance within each will be discussed.

The scanning process starts with synchronization, to ensure that frames
can be correlated to each other. With all frames in the same time context,
each frame can be individually modeled, in a similar way to how a single 3D
model would be created. For many applications, an ordered collection ofmodels will be sufficient or desirable. This, for example, facilitates analysis
of deformation and movement between any arbitrary points in the capture
duration. For some applications linking structural elements from frame-toframe may also be required.

4K performance also significantly elevated the challenge in curtailing opticalaberrations – both the monochromatic and the chromatic aberrations.
Minimization of focus breathing and zoom tracking errors were a special
priority. Design strategies to deal with these issues will be outlined. A major
challenge imposed by application of severe strictures on size and weight ofthe zoom lens lay in achieving an acceptable maximum relative aperture andcontrolling the degree of ramping when the lens aperture is wide open.

The paper, next, discusses the efficacy of this scanning approach. Various
areas where the scanner could be used and the scanning approach’s utility
for these areas is considered. The paper then discusses future work,
before concluding.

Achieving all of the above called for multiple new technologies andtechniques. The compensating strategies entailing combinations of different(and new) glass materials, use of aspheric lens elements, and novel element
groupings, used to minimize these distortions will be explained.

9463-17, Session 6

A separate design challenge lay in the design of the compact lens-mounted
precision servo drive system for operation of zoom, iris, and focus.

Projection of controlled repeatable realtime moving targets to test and evaluatemotion imagery quality

9463-7, Session 6

Automated content and quality
assessment of full-motion-video for thegeneration of meta data

Stephen D. Scopatz, Electro Optical Industries, Inc. (UnitedStates)The projection of controlled moving targets is a key to quantitative
testing of the video capture and post processing for Motion Imagery. This
presentation will discuss several implementations of target projectors withmoving targets or apparent moving targets creating motion to be captured
the camera under test. The targets presented are broadband (UV-VIS-IR)
and move in a predictable, repeatable and programmable way; several shortvideos will be included in the presentation. Among the technical approaches
will be targets that move independently in the camera’s field of view, as
well targets that change size and shape. The development of a rotating
IR and VIS 4 bar target projector with programmable rotational velocity
and acceleration control for testing hyperspectral cameras is discussed. A
related issue for motion imagery is evaluated by simulating a blinding flash
which is an impulse of broadband photons in fewer than 2 milliseconds toassess the camera’s reaction to a large, fast change in signal. A traditional
approach of gimbal mounting the camera in combination with themoving target projector is discussed as an alternative to high priced flight
simulators. Based on the use of the moving target projector several standard
tests are proposed to provide a corresponding test to MTF (resolution),
SNR and minimum detectable signal at velocity. Several unique metrics aresuggested for Motion Imagery including Maximum Velocity Resolved (themeasure of the greatest velocity that is accurately tracked by the camera
system) and Missing Object Tolerance (measurement of tracking ability
when target is obscured in the images). These metrics are applicable to
UV-VIS-IR wavelengths and can be used to assist in camera and algorithm
development as well as comparing various systems by presenting the exact
scenes to the cameras in a repeatable way.

Joshua D. Harguess, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr.
Pacific (United States)
Virtually all of the video data (and full-motion-video (FMV)) that is currently
collected and stored in support of missions has been corrupted to various
extents by image acquisition and compression artifacts. Additionally, video
collected by WAMI surveillance systems and UAVs and similar sources isoften of low quality or in other ways corrupted so that it is not worth storingor analyzing. In order to make progress in the problem of automatic video
analysis, the first problem that should be solved is deciding whether thecontent of the video is even worth analyzing to begin with. We address
three types of scenes which are typically found in real-world data storedin support of DoD missions: no or very little motion in the scene, large
occlusions in the scene, and fast camera motion. Each of these produce
video that is generally not usable to an analyst or automated algorithm
for mission support and therefore should be removed or flagged to theuser as such. We utilize current state-of-the-art no-reference video quality
algorithms, along with other computer vision advances in motion detection,
to automatically assess FMV for the identification and generation of metadata (or tagging) of video segments which exhibit unwanted scenarios as
described above. Results are shown on simulated video as well as real-world
video data.

9463-16, Session 6

A very low-cost system for capturing 3D
motion scans with color and texture data

9463-18, Session 6

4K, ultra HD, and 8K realities

Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)

This paper presents a technique for capturing 3D motion scans using
hardware that can be constructed for approximately $5,000 in cost. The
system utilizes 50 networked raspberry pi single-board computers andcameras which are networked together using Cisco Ethernet switches to acentral server which controls the capture process and receives the captured
data when collection is complete. This system was initially designed tocapture still images; however, it is now being expanded to also capture 3D

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4K, Ultra HD, and 8K Realities- This session will be a tutorial on the 4K, Ultra
HD, and 8K Realities with a focus on the practical aspects you need to know
to maintain video quality and avoid the dreaded digital cliff. It will cover thefundamentals of the underlying technology at a depth that will allow you tobuild a solid foundation for your understanding of this layer.

·

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Conference 9463: Motion Imagery:Standards, Quality, and Interoperability
When 720p and 1080i just are not good enough we find ourselves with newchallenges of 4K and beyond. As the industry moves toward 4K, Ultra HD,
and 8K this will bring new technology concerns. To transport the increased
data rates two new interface types are needed- Quad Link and Interleaved
video data is carried on four separate SDI cable connections. This requires
tight control of timing issues between the four connections to maintainsignal interoperability. Physical layer concerns are more important than everin systems utilizing 3Gb/S Serial Digital Interfaces. This presentation will
cover Eye and Demodulated Jitter testing of the physical layer to maintainsystem interoperability. Optical fiber implementations also bringnew challenges.
Understanding various system adjustments using test gear is critical inensuring a high quality image and preventing mistakes from occurring. This
presentation will walk thru the available tools to simplify this process. It will
cover waveforms, vectors, diamond, arrowhead, and lighting displays thathave the capability of alarming and logging errors.
These comprehensive measurement capabilities enable users to reduce
the time to isolate, diagnose and remedy system issues and design faults.
Proper testing methodology is required from the end to end of R&D,
equipment/system qualification, as well as operational troubleshooting
aspects for installation and maintenance of content higher resolution video
capture and distribution.

9463-19, Session 6

Gamut and camera shading
Karl J. Kuhn, Tektronix, Inc. (United States)
Gamut and Camera Shading-- This session will be a tutorial on the Gamut
and Camera Shading with a focus on the practical aspects you need to know
to maintain video quality and avoid the dreaded digital cliff. It will cover thefundamentals of the underlying technology at a depth that will allow you tobuild a solid foundation for your understanding of this layer.
Image quality begins at the source with gamut concerns for graphics andcamera shading The conversion of light into electrical signals involves many
processes which can affect the quality of the image. It all starts with thecorrect alignment of the camera which is used to capture the scene.
Gamut and Shading primarily deals with the luma adjustments of the signal,
but it is also important to ensure the color fidelity of the image. To achievethis, an accurate test chart is required that produces a reference pattern.
Typically the aim is to reproduce the image on a display monitor as closely
as possible to the original scene without causing any interoperability issues
in the system.
Understanding these various necessary adjustments using test gear is
critical in ensuring a high quality image and preventing mistakes fromoccurring. This presentation will walk thru the available tools to simplify thisprocess. It will cover waveforms, vectors, diamond, arrowhead, and lighting
displays that have the capability of alarming and logging errors.

9463-22, Session 6

Use of KLV to combine metadata, camerasync, and data acquisition into a single
video record
Paul Hightower, Instrumentation Technology Systems(United States)
This paper will explore how by combining recording metadata with precise
camera sync and data acquisition strobes can result in a single video record
where picture taking and data taking are all in lockstep. Lastly, metadata
enables us to record clean video while retaining the ability to later placecrosshairs, data and time during playback as desired.

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Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor
Interoperability, Integration, and Networking
for Persistent ISR VI
Monday - Wednesday 20–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9464 Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability, Integration, and Networking
for Persistent ISR VI

9464-1, Session 1

rock concert that lets out at that time. It is anomalous if it is attributed toa gathering at the city hall outside typical business hours. We developed aprototype of such a search-and-explain service. Evaluation in the context
of abnormal traffic interruptions in major California cities compares our
automatically found explanations of the interruption to ground truth(from the Department of Transportation), showing a very high successrate at correctly explaining the physical observations. Some interruptions
can thus be deemed “normal” (e.g., scheduled maintenance, footballgames, etc). Others are anomalous (e.g., bomb squad on scene). The
paper discusses experiences with using this service to explain causes ofdifferent observations in order to determine whether an anomaly is at play.
The service works by ranking social network feeds (e.g., from Twitter) by
information gain; a metric that allows microblogs that are most exclusive
to a time window of interest to be ranked on top. These high-ranking
microblogs are further filtered by location keywords to determine those thatare specific to a given locale. Finally, they are filtered by statistical credibility
metrics. The result is used to reliably explain what the social network says
about events at a given time and location. The explanation can then becompared to a database of “normal explanations” to determine if the causeof an unusual behavior is “normal” or not.

Tasking the Tweeters: obtaining actionable
information from human sensors
Alun D. Preece, William Webberley, Cardiff Univ. (United
Kingdom); Dave Braines, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United
Kingdom)
Twitter has proven itself a valuable medium for obtaining real-time
information on breaking events, as well as a tool for campaigning. When
tweeters can be characterised in terms of location (e.g. because they geotag
their updates, or mention known places) or topic (e.g. because they refer tothematic terms in an ontology or lexicon) their posts can provide actionable
information. Such information can be obtained in a passive mode, by simply“scraping” data from Twitter, but even greater value can be gained from anactive mode of operation, by engaging with particular tweeters and asking
for clarifications or amplifications. In this paper we show how this kind ofsensing can be accommodated within an existing framework for sensor-task
matching, by extending existing ontologies of sensors and mission tasks,
and accounting for variable information quality. An integrated approachallows tweeters to be “accessed” and “tasked” in the same way as physicalsensors (e.g. unmanned aerial and ground systems) and, indeed, combinedwith these more traditional kinds of source. We illustrate the approach using
a number of case studies, including field trials (e.g. obtaining eyewitnessreports from the scene of organised protests) and synthetic experiments(e.g. crowdsourced situational awareness).

9464-5, Session 1

The use of visual programming tools andtechniques for rapid in field situational
application development in a coalition
environment (Invited Paper)

9464-2, Session 1

David Conway-Jones, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United
Kingdom)

Exploring discriminative features foranomaly detection in public spaces

The use of visual programming tools and techniques for rapid in field ad-hocedge of the network situational application integration in a
coalition environment.

Archan Misra, Singapore Management Univ. (Singapore)

The recent upsurge in so called “Internet of Things” technologies, solutions
and products has brought with it a plethora of new tools to exploit them.
Among these there are some more visual tools that provide a “flow based
programming” (1) model. These would seem to be applicable to the in-fieldenvironment where integration of pre-configured “blocks” can lead to fast
results, with higher accuracy than traditional programming techniques. Oneof these, Node-RED (2) has been deployed and used in a UK MoD Land
Open Systems Architecture (LOSA) field trial (Oct 20124).

No Abstract Available

9464-3, Session 1

Detection of anomalous track patterns forlong term surveillanceThis paper describes how the use of the Node-RED visual wiring tool,
allowed very fast integration of networked assets during a field trial. These
included individual sensors, gateways to soldier systems, and access to a
Nato coalition partner’s assets (vehicle, soldiers and micro-uav).

Shuowen Hu, Prudhvi Gurram, Alex L. Chan, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow-based_programming)2) http://nodered.org

9464-4, Session 1

Experiences with an anomaly
determination services (Invited Paper)

9464-6, Session 2

Unified vision: NATO trials for ISR
interoperability technologies (Invited
Paper)

Prasanna Giridhar, Tarek Abdelzaher, Univ of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign (United States)
The paper describes experiences with a service that searches social feeds
for the most plausible explanation of a specific physical observation. A spikein traffic at midnight, for example, is not anomalous if it is explained by a

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David L. Payton, U.S. Air Force (United States)
No Abstract Available·

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Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR VI

9464-7, Session 2

Computing on encrypted data is the ability to perform computations ondata whilst it is in its encrypted form. Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE)
provides such capability.

Standards-based MASINT ISR workflow
overview
No Abstract Available

Coalition operations often invoke the sharing of information and IT
infrastructure amongst partners, but it is limited by te requirement of notrevealing classified data. Ideally, coalition partners would wish to share datathat can be used to compute specific results that are only relevant to a given
operation without revealing all of the shared information.

9464-8, Session 2

In this talk we will present the fundamentals of FHE, discuss its potential
uses and pitfalls in a coalition operations environment, and the results of apractical implementation using FPGA hardware acceleration..

Networks sensing and adaptive
processing: vision and challenges

9464-11, Session 4

Eric Chen, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Gavin Pearson, Defence Science and Technology Lab.
(United Kingdom)

The convergence of open systems andinteroperable systems

Achieving the required granularity (inc. discrimination), volume andpersistence of Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance (STAR)
will continue to rely on the co-ordinated use of a mixture of sensor types
operating across and beyond the electro-magnetic spectrum mounted ona disparate array of platforms (including bases). Exploiting such a networkof synergistic sensors whilst dealing with the volume, velocity and varietyof resulting data and time critical nature of many STAR tasks requires a
networked bi-directional adaptive, distributed data processing system.

Gavin Pearson, Defence Science and Technology Lab.
(United Kingdom); John B. Ibbotson, IBM United Kingdom
Ltd. (United Kingdom)This paper sets out the case that technical ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance
and Reconnaissance) System Interoperability is a sub-set of more general
Open and Modular Information System design; both address the samearchitectural issues associated with layers, templates, interface specification,
profiles, data models, process control and assurance.

This paper describes such a system and places it within the context ofdevelopments such as distributed tactical service buses, micro-clouds,
content based networking, model driven architecting and data mining. As
such it represents an update on an earlier paper published at SPIE DSS in2008 (6963-1). Finally the paper discusses some of the key challenges ifsuch a system is to be fully realised.

The paper illustrates its argument by reference to the UK Ministry of Defence
Land Open System Architecture (LOSA) and NATO ISR STANAGs. The paper
concludes with a framework to enable those ISR specialists concerned withinteroperability to engage with those concerned with open and modular
information system infrastructures.

9464-9, Session 3

Policy controlled access to analytics at the
network edge
Geeth de Mel, Jorge J. Ortiz, Seraphin Calo, IBM Thomas
J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States); Paul Sullivan,
Intelpoint, Inc. (United States)
Coalitions operate in dynamic environments where in-situ information
sources are distributed. Analyses performed over this data equip end-users
with improved situational awareness so they can make informed decisions
in a given context. However, due to various constraints (e.g., bandwidth,energy, and so forth), it is not prudent to assume that analyses could always
be performed centrally. Moreover, units belonging to coalitions are typicallyentrusted with specific tasks. Thus, units may typically only carry specificanalytics associated with those tasks. However, due to the dynamism in
the field, different analytics may be needed on-the-fly from the coalition
network. Thus, mechanisms to discover and execute analytics at the networkedge from coalition network, while respecting a coalition’s policy constraints
in a decentralized fashion, is necessary. Our recent work on bringing
computation to data – i.e., Microcloud – could be useful in addressing thisissue as we could move decision procedures to the edge users based on
their needs. The work presented in this document augments the Microcloudwork with policy capabilities so that coalition interoperability is enabled.

9464-10, Session 3

James R. Schoening, Danielle Duff, U.S. Army CERDECIntelligence and Information Warfare Directorate (UnitedStates); Tien Pham, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ronald Rudnicki, CUBRC (United States); Gary
H. Stolovy, Jeff Houser, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Alex James, Eric Nagler, CUBRC (United States);
Dorothy A. Hines, Keith M. Riser, U.S. Army CERDECIntelligence and Information Warfare Directorate (UnitedStates); Robert Ganger, CUBRC (United States)
Processing, Exploitation, and Dissemination (PED) requires on-board fusionof any number of disparate sensors and other data sources. This paper andpresentation reports on a series of success technology demonstrations of
how a common ontology can be used to transform intelligence data fromdisparate sources into logically consistent triples, which can then be fusedusing inferencing, entity and event resolution, and other 3rd party analytic
apps that can access and understand this normalized data via only one API.
The PED thrust in DOD is necessitated by the exponential growth in sensor
data output and the inability of slow growing tactical bandwidth to transmit
this data to higher echelons for processing, exploitation, and dissemination.
These functions must be done as close to the sensor as possible, even onboard a UAV or vehicle.

This paper and presentation introduces the I2WD Ontologies, which
describe the entities in reality sensed by sensors, and can be extended toinclude any level of detail required by current or future sensors. It reports

Flavio Bergamaschi, Graham Bent, IBM United Kingdom
Ltd. (United Kingdom)

SPIE DSS 2015

PED fusion via enterprise ontology

A key enabling technology is the automated fusion of any number of
disparate data sources. While any given UAV mission my require fusion ofjust a few sensor data sources, which can be accomplished with prior pointto-point integration, this approach does not scale, since the range of all
missions will require the combination of any number of data sources.

Computing on encrypted data and its
applicability to a coalition operations
environment

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9464-12, Session 4·

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Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR VI
how a wide variety of sensor and other data sources, including motion
video, radar, track, position-location, acoustic, natural language text, andstructured data have all been transformed (i.e. normalized) into conforming
triples. While we have demonstrated how a number of analytics can fuse
this data, the breakthrough is how small 3rd party analytic apps can access
all transformed data from all sources via just one API, and how these apps
can be selected and combined for unique objectives.

In this paper, we present an innovative new information fusion andorganizational decision making architecture—Dual Node Decision Wheels(DNDW)—that integrates PED, analysis, and C2 processes through anovel combination of goal-directed information fusion and data-driven
decision making, helping alleviate “big data” challenges through more
fluid coordination of organizations and technologies. DNDW applies
the dual node network (DNN) technical architecture for data fusion andresource management (DF&RM), and extends this architecture with explicit
associations to organizational processes and supported decision aides.
Using semantic technologies to link the operational context with available
data resources, DNDW ensures that each organizational role has access tothe information or tools that will best support the mission. This approach
represents a fundamentally new perspective on both information fusion andorganizational decision making, viewing these not as distinct phases in an
operational pipeline, but as highly interconnected processes. We describe
the technical attributes of DNDW and provide guidance for real-world
implementation. Case study analyses illustrate how DNDW can map fusion
onto any organizational structure and provide a cost-effective “plug andplay” environment for integrating new technologies.

9464-13, Session 4

The Sandia architecture for heterogeneous
unmanned system control (SAHUC)
Joshua A. Love, Wendy Amai, Sandia National Labs.
(United States); Timothy Blada, Sandia National Labs
(United States); Charles Q. Little, Jason Neely, Stephen
Buerger, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
The Sandia Architecture for Heterogeneous Unmanned System Control(SAHUC) was produced as part of a three year internally funded project
performed by Sandia’s Intelligent Systems, Robotics, and Cybernetics group(ISRC). ISRC created SAHUC to demonstrate how teams of Unmanned
Systems (UMS) can be used for small-unit tactical operations incorporated
into the protection of high-consequence sites. Advances in Unmanned
Systems have provided crucial autonomy capabilities that can be leveraged
and adapted to physical security applications. SAHUC applies thesecapabilities to provide a distributed ISR network for site security. This
network can be rapidly re-tasked to respond to changing
security conditions.

9464-15, Session 5

Acoustic sensor network for hostile fireindicator for ground bases and helicoptermounted applications
Pierre Naz, Sebastien Hengy, Martin Laurenzis, Institut
Franco-Allemand de Recherches de Saint-Louis (France)
This paper briefly describes the set-up of the sensors and the
instrumentation deployed by the French-German Research Institute of SaintLouis (ISL) during experiment trial performed during the last year.

The SAHUC architecture contains multiple levels of control. At the highest
level a human operator inputs objectives for the network to accomplish.
The heterogeneous unmanned systems automatically decide who can
perform which objectives and then decide the best global assignment. The
assignment algorithm is based upon coarse metrics that can be produced
quickly. Responsiveness was deemed more crucial than optimality for
responding to time-critical physical security threats. Lower levels of control
take the assigned objective, perform online path planning, execute thedesired plan, and stream data (LIDAR, video, GPS) back for display on
the user interface. SAHUC also retains an override capability, allowing thehuman operator to modify all autonomous decisions whenever necessary.

First we will present results gained during the last NATO/ACG3/SG2 HFIThreat Data Collection (conducted during the summer 2014 in Czech
Republic). The main purpose of this trial was the measurement of weapon
and ammunition signature for threat warning / hostile fire indicator (HFI)
system development. Weapons vary from small caliber rifles to anti-tankrockets in ground-to-ground shooting configurations. For the ISL team,the objective consisted in measuring the acoustic signals for detection andlocalization of weapon firing events. Experimental results of sound waves
obtained using ground based sensors are presented and analyzed for shotsobtained in various conditions.

SAHUC has been implemented and tested with UAVs, UGVs, and GPStagged blue/red force actors. The final demonstration illustrated how a small
fleet, commanded by a remote human operator, could aid in securing afacility and responding to an intruder.

This work is included in national/international efforts for the development of
Hostile Fire Indicator for helicopters and ground bases taking into accountsmall caliber guns, RPG, rockets and/or missiles.
For small caliber weapons, acoustic detection may provide valuable andcomplementary data to increase the protection capabilities of camps,
convoys or helicopters.

9464-14, Session 4

Dual node decision wheels: an architecture
for interconnected information fusion anddecision making

For ground bases imaging systems have been combined with acousticalsensors in order to provide complementary information and better
permanent surveillance. An experiment has been organized at the ISL
proving ground within the context of the project “IMOTEP” to test new
improvement in the detection of snipers on the battlefield (i.e. for groundsensors). Our basic approach is to combine several sources of information
for a fast and appropriate reaction when an unusual signal (e.g. a flash ora shot) is detected. The project includes several technologies developed at
ISL: acoustical detection, fusion of distributed sensor data, active imaging
and 3D audio restitution of the threat.

Amy L. Sliva, Joe Gorman, Charles River Analytics, Inc.
(United States); Christopher L. Bowman, Data Fusion Corp.
(United States); Martin Voshell, Charles River Analytics,
Inc. (United States)
As the modern information environment continues to expand with newtechnologies, military Command and Control (C2) has increasing access tounprecedented amounts of data and analytic resources to support militarydecision making. However, with the increasing quantity and heterogeneityof multi-INT data—from new collection platforms, new sensors, and new
analytic tools—comes a growing information fusion challenge. Increasingly
distributed processing, exploitation, and dissemination (PED) capabilities
and analyst resources must identify and integrate the most relevant data
sources for improving operational command and control and situation
awareness without becoming overwhelmed and potentially missing
critical information.

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129Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR VI

9464-16, Session 59464-18, Session 6

The effect of decentralization andcommunication networks on a set of ISRgathering assets

Situational awareness: a holistic
perspective your mother was afraid to tellyou (Invited Paper)

Héctor J. Ortiz-Peña, CUBRC (United States); Michael J.
Hirsch, ISEA TEK (United States) and Stetson Univ. (UnitedStates); Mark H. Karwan, Univ. at Buffalo (United States);
Moises Sudit, CUBRC (United States) and Univ. at Buffalo(United States)

Michael A Kolodny, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Synchronization of Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR)
activities to maximize the utilization of limited resources (both in quantity
and capabilities) has become critically important to military forces. In
centralized frameworks, a single node is responsible for determining anddisseminating decisions (e.g., tasks assignments) to all nodes in the network.
This requires a robust and reliable communication network. In decentralized
frameworks, processing of information and decision making occur atdifferent nodes in the network, reducing the communication requirements.
This research studies the degradation of solution quality (i.e., informationgain) as a centralized system synchronizing ISR activities moves to adecentralized framework. We extended the mathematical programming
model presented in [1] for multi-perspective optimization in which eachcollection asset develops its own decisions to support mission objectives
based only on its perspective of the environment (i.e., potential informationgain). We consider different communication network topologies. Collection
assets are part of the same communication network (i.e., a connectedcomponent) if: (1) a fully connected network exists between the assets
in the connected component, or (2) a path (consisting of one or morecommunication links) between every asset in the connected component
exists. Multiple connected components may exist among the available
collection assets supporting a mission. We assumed information is only
exchanged when assets are part of the same network. The potential locationof assets that are not part of a connected component are considered (with asuitable decay factor as a function of time) as part of the
optimization model.

9464-17, Session 5

Exploring EO Vehicle Recognition
Performance using Manifolds as a Functionof Lighting Condition Variability
Olga Mendoza-Schrock, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Mateen M. Rizki, Wright State Univ. (United States)
Novel techniques are necessary in order to improve the current state-ofthe-art for Assisted Target Recognition especially for persistent ISR. A
fundamental flaw that current Assisted Target Recognition systems makeis to assume that operating conditions stay semi-consistent between thesamples that the system was used to train with and the testing samples.
Today systems are still not robust to every day occurrences such aschanges in lighting conditions. In this work, we explore the effect on vehicle
recognition performance as lighting conditions are systematically changed.
We explore low-dimensional nonlinear representations of high-dimensional
data derived from electro-optical synthetic vehicle images using Diffusion
Maps. Diffusion maps have been shown to be a valuable tool in theanalysis of high-dimensional data and the technique is able to extract anapproximation for the underlying structure inherent to the data. Our analysis
includes examining the relationship between Euclidean pixel distanceand Euclidean diffusion distance. We present recognition performance
as a function of lighting condition. Additionally we describe a novel
methodology to exploit the pixel distance vs. diffusion distance relationshipto improve Assisted Target Recognition most importantly under situations
where the training and testing samples are not obtained under the samelighting conditions for example.

130

SPIE DSS 2015·

No Abstract Available

9464-19, Session 6

Automatic video-based classificationof small group behavior to support
situational understanding
Robert Williams, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Julie A. Skipper, Skipper Consulting (United States)
Many metropolitan cities in the United States have implemented networksof surveillance cameras to improve crime prevention and forensics, protect
public workers, and reduce the staff needs for city-wide monitoring. In
addition to their utility in documenting and prosecuting crime, the collected
data may be valuable in detecting emergent behavior. Of particular interest
are the actions of small, transient groups of people and their interactions
with other individuals, groups, and the environment. AFRL and ARL arecollaborating to develop the capability to autonomously analyze surveillance
video data and label group behavior as belonging to one of a defined
number of classes (e.g., loitering, purposeful walking, celebratory behavior,nefarious activity, etc.). Broadly, the process will consist of the following
steps: detection of groups of humans in a scene, where groups are definedas three or more people; group trajectory tracking, to include splitting and/or merging with other groups or individuals; human action recognition; andbehavior labeling. Leveraging this framework, the coded video data can thenbe compared to expected temporal and spatial norms to identify anomalous
events. Finally, these events can be combined with contextual information,
particularly from social media, to support situational understanding.

9464-21, Session 7

Ground target tracking and classification
in a unattended wireless sensor network
Benjamin Pannetier, Jean Dezert, Julien Moras, ONERA(France); Loic Canevet, Didier Cosson, Delegation
Generale Pour L’Armament (France)
In this paper, we address the problem of multiple ground target tracking
and classification with data from a unattended wireless sensor network.
A multiple target tracking algorithm, taking into account the road andvegetation information, is studied in a centralized architecture. Despite ofefficient algorithms present in literature, we must adapt to a basic approachto satisfy embedded processing. The algorithm enables tracking human andvehicles driving both on and off road. Base on previous work, we integrate
road or trail width and vegetation cover, in motion model to improve
performance of tracking under constraint. It also presents different dynamic
models, to palliate the manoeuvres of targets including a stop motion
model. In order to handle realistic ground target tracking scenarios, thetracking algorithm is integrated into an operational platform (named fusionnode) which is an autonomous smart computer abandoned in surveillancearea. After calibration step of the heterogeneous sensor network, oursystem is able to handle real data from a wireless ground sensor network.
The performance of system is evaluated in a real exercise for Forward
Operating Base (FOB) protection and road surveillance.

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Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR VI

9464-22, Session 7

also engage an autonomous UAV to provide additional data if an objectof interest has been detected. The data collected by ground sensors andthe UAV is combined by the data collected on the ground. The resulting
information is communicated to the information consumer that originally
requested the information. We use a proactive middleware ProWare for
implementing the concept of dynamic data exchange between systems in
the field. The paper presents the research results tha have been obtained by
the end of the first year of the European Defense Agency project IN4STARS,
which is concerned with information interoperability in coalition operations.

Feature extraction and classification using
neurosynaptic processing at the edge ofthe network
Flavio Bergamaschi, Graham Bent, IBM United Kingdom
Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The widespread use of sensors and sensor network, whether mobile or
static, in tactical environments has demanded new types of technologies toovercome the requirements for communication bandwidth, power, local vsremote vs distributed processing of information, difficult of access sensor
sites, local feature extraction , etc.

9464-24, Session 7

A micro services architecture for use by
microcontroller driven devices to provide
interoperability with the open lean
services architecture

Research funded under DARPA’s Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic
Scalable Electronics (SyNAPSE) program developed a new brain-inspired
neurosynaptic computational architectures named TrueNorth that is low
power and compact like an organic brain. TrueNorth comprises a scaleable
network of configurable, neurosynaptic cores that is particularly suitable for
implementing algorithms for sensor and actuator systems.

Nicholas Peach, 2iC Ltd. (United Kingdom)
In this paper we propose a technical solution that provides microcontrollerscale devices with compatibility to the open-standard lean services
architecture used in the UK MoD Land Open Systems Architecture.
The paper describes how low powered microcontrollers can achieveinteroperability by using the lean services on-the-wire binary format. We
show how the use of the micro services architecture by microcontroller
devices increases the number of systems available for integration by a factorof 20, providing interoperability from the largest enterprise system down
to tiny devices in the tactical environment using a single and consistenttechnique. We speculate on the consequences of all electronic devices
deployed in the operational and tactical space now being available for open
battlefield-wide interoperability.

In this paper we will present an introduction the the TrueNorth architecture,
the recent experimental results and discuss the uses of this technology toperform tasks like feature extraction and classification of sensor data at theedge of the network while complying with the requirements of unattended
and unmanned sensors and sensor networks.

9464-23, Session 7

UAV as a generic information provider inan ISR System of Systems

The variations between the lean services architecture and the microservices architecture are described. The rational is explained for thedecisions made in adapting to the very low computing power available
in some microcontrollers. The described technique provides; a) service
orientated architecture interoperability for microcontroller-level devices; b)compatibility with the lean services architecture; c) compatibility with LOSA
allowing microcontroller devices to interoperate with other LOSA systems
both on a local area network and across tactical radio links; d) roadmap
for future enhancements; e) software toolkits to allow manufacturers tointegrate the micro services architecture into their microcontroller
driven devices.

Jurgo Preden, Jaanus Kaugerand, Erki Suurjaak, Raido
Pahtma, Sergei Astapov, Leo Motus, Tallinn Univ. ofTechnology (Estonia)
Modern ISR systems present many challenges, which are related to what
is called the Big Data problem but also with optimal resource utilization,
especially in coalition operations. With proliferation of cost effective
technologies, ground sensor systems can be deployed in volumes, enabling
acquisition of large amounts of data, so the challenge of utilization of datarises. Optimal utilization of sensor assets is a challenge presented by highvalue sensor assets with advanced capabilities. Data to Decision (D2D) isa concept that can be applied both for managing sensor assets that arehigh value and have low availability as well as for sensor assets that areable to provide large amounts of information. The D2D concept proposesthat the information needs of the information user are propagated to thesensor systems, which adjust their behaviour (including data acquisition andprocessing) according to the information needs to deliver the requested
data with minimal resource requirements.

The architecture re-uses existing lean services techniques and leverages the
UK MoD Generic Soldier Architecture and LOSA.

9464-25, Session 7

Visibility based multi-agent surveillance
strategies in decentralized network

The paper presents an approach for coordinating sensor assets by using
information requests to the sensor system, without central coordination.
Instead the information consumers submit the requests for information to
the sensor system and the sensor assets perform necessary data acquisitionand processing, engaging additional data sources in case multi source
fusion or triggering of sensors is used. The information request is directedto the area, from where information is needed, engaging the sensor assets
in that area, which effectively means that the information needs are pushed
to the edge of the network, to the individual sensor systems. Naturally thisapproach assumes that the sensor systems are autonomous and capableenough to process the high-level information requests (e.g., detect certain
types of vehicles in a certain area, notify if movement not typical to thatarea occurs) and then deliver the requested information to the consumer.
In such a setting the temporal and spatial aspects of data become
important as the relationships between data providers and consumers are
dynamic. also information is created in the field by the sensors, instead ofcommunicating data to servers.

Rui Zou, Sourabh Bhattacharya, Iowa State Univ. (UnitedStates)In this paper, we address the problem of decentralized visibility-basedtarget tracking for a team of mobile observers trying to track a team ofmobile targets. Based on the results of previous work, we present thenotion of pursuit fields around a single corner. We use the pursuit fields togenerate navigation strategies for a single observer to track a single target
in general environments. We extend this problem to the scenario when
multiple observers and targets with incomplete communication graphare present. We propose a two level hierarchical approach. At the upper
level, each observer is allocated to a target through a local minimum costmatching. At the lower level, each observer computes its navigation strategy
based on the results of the single observer-single target problem, thereby,decomposing a large multi-agent problem into several 2-agent problems.
Finally, we evaluate the performance of the proposed strategy in simulations
and experiments.

As the specific assets available in an area are not known, the available assets
are engaged in an opportunistic manner. The ground based sensor assets

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131Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR VI

9464-26, Session 8

Bayesian hidden Markov models for
UAV-enabled target localization on road
networks with soft-hard data
Nisar R. Ahmed, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (UnitedStates); David Casbeer, Yongcan Cao, Derek B. Kingston,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
This work addresses the problem of localizing a mobile intruder on aroad network with a small UAV via fusion of event-based `hard data’,collected from a network of unattended ground sensors (UGS), and `soft
data’, provided by human dismount operators (HDOs) whose statisticalcharacteristics may be unknown. Current approaches to road network
intruder detection/tracking have two key limitations: predictions becomecomputationally expensive with highly uncertain target motions and sparsedata, and they cannot accommodate uncertain sensor parameters. This workshows that these issues can be addressed in a practical and theoreticallysound way using hidden Markov models (HMMs) within a comprehensive
Bayesian framework. A formal procedure is derived for automaticallygenerating sparse Markov chain approximations for target state dynamics
based on standard motion assumptions. This leads to efficient online
implementation for non-Gaussian localization aboard small UAV platforms
via fast matrix operations, and also leads to useful statistical insights aboutstochastic target dynamics that could be exploited by intelligent UAV
guidance and control laws. The computational efficiency of the HMM is thenleveraged to address the problems of fusing uncertain HDO soft sensor
data via hierarchical Bayesian estimation in the form of Rao-Blackwellized
particle filtering. Simulation results are provided to demonstrate the validity
and utility of the proposed Bayesian HMM tracking approaches.

9464-27, Session 8

Corrected pose data for the Wright
Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB) 2009
wide area motion imagery (WAMI) data
set
Curtis Cohenour, Ohio Univ. (United States); Rebecca L.
Price, U.S. Air Force (United States); Todd V. Rovito, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); Frank van Graas,
Ohio Univ. (United States)

9464-28, Session 8

Classification of vibrometry data

Predicting exploitation success oncompressed imagery through common
image quality metrics: an initial look
Christopher McGuinness, Univ. of Dayton ResearchInstitute (United States)
Imagery from unmanned aerial systems (UAS) needs compression prior totransmission to a remote processing station for exploitation. Exploitation
on imagery, such as frame-to-frame registration, target tracking, andtarget identification, is performed to extract information from the data. In
target-rich environments, it is often necessary that these algorithms be
performed automatically. Unfortunately, in a compress-then-analyze system,
the analysis performed on the data must contend with artifacts introducedby compression, assuming lossless transmission. Identifying metrics thatallow compression engines to predict exploitation degradation could allow
encoders the ability of tailoring compression for exploitation. This study
assesses the impact of H.264 compression on target tracking throughcommon tracking metrics while measuring image quality using common
image metrics.

Real-time algorithms for data reduction
and smart sensing with high frame rate
CMOS image sensor
Blake C. Jacquot, Nathan G. Johnson-Williams, The
Aerospace Corp. (United States)
Both CMOS image sensors and available computing resources haveadvanced in recent years to the point where new data collection methods
are possible and necessary. Possible methods include real-time algorithms
for automatic detection of targets of interest. Necessary methods include
algorithms to perform preliminary data reduction for high-frame rate
sensors. With space systems both are desirable to accommodate limited
transmission bandwidth, limited link availability, and limited storage
capacity. In particular, high-frame rate sensors produce more data than canbe transmitted to ground. Space-based high-frame rate sensing holds thepossibility of opening new sensing paradigms, but realizing the potential
requires new sensing schemes.
Real-time algorithms can address computation and bandwidth issues
for high-frame rate sensors by locally implementing algorithms andtransmitting a reduced relevant data set. Implementation requires significant
computing power and judgment in order to maintain high quality standards.
The system (FPGA and host processor) must capture, analyze, and store
every pixel according to algorithm constraints without dropping frames.
Further, the system must effectively run closed loop, where trigger events

Karmon M. Vongsy, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ashley N. Smith, Wright State Univ. (UnitedStates)Laser vibrometry provides a method to identify running vehicles’ unique

SPIE DSS 2015

9464-29, Session 89464-30, Session 9

The WPAFB 2009 Wide Area Image Data Set consists of 1537 framesof high resolution image data. The data is supplied as raw images withpose files, and also as projected images in National Imagery Transmission
Format (NITF). The georegistration performance of the NITF images is 22.3
m Root Mean Square Horizontal (RMSH). In a previous paper calibrated
camera models were developed to reduce the georegistration error to 3.3
m RMSH. In this work corrected pose files are generated to reduce the error
to 0.9 m RMSH. This is done by correcting the pose errors in a stepwise
fashion to illustrate the error sources, which are: GPS position bias, timeregistration errors, and attitude errors. The pose files are then correctedby simultaneously modifying the position and attitude to achieve the 0.9m
RMSH result. The corrected pose files are posted to allow users to perform
high accuracy projection, tracking, and other functions.

132

signatures using non-contact measurements. A vehicle’s engine, size,
materials, shape, and more vary its signature. To classify and identify thesesignatures, a robust aided target recognition (AiTR) end-to-end process
is evaluated and expanded. Several challenges arise when classifying
vehicles’ vibration signatures. Operating conditions, parameters that varysuch as weather, terrain, sensor location, sensor type, and engine speed,present the main challenge. Another challenge in vehicle classification isthe determination of signal features that can overcome the differences
created by these varying operating conditions. Eleven features taken fromautomatic speech recognition, seismology, and structural analysis were usedin this end-to-end process. Features were selected by two feature selection
methods to determine the best feature set for vehicle classification. Finally,four classifiers were used to identify vehicles’ signatures. The classifiers’
confusion matrices were used to make decisions on the end-to-end process.
The entire process was tested on two small in-house data sets: a military
vehicle collection using accelerometers and a civilian vehicle collection usinga laser vibrometer and accelerometers.

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Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR VI
determine what data is stored for transmission and what is discarded. Thissignificantly departs from standard open-loop operation for traditional
sensor systems.

system. We present the results of a series of studies on an acoustic fieldin the presence of sound speed fluctuation and steady wind profiles anddemonstrate how various terms in environment contribute to changes inbeamformer processing results.

To further understanding of how real-time algorithms can benefit highframe rate systems, we present results of real-time algorithms demonstrated
on a custom system. The system is built around a commercial CMOS image
sensor with 1280 ? 1024 format, 10-bits per pixel, global shutter, nondestructive read (NDR), and frame rates of 0.5 kHz to 100 kHz.

9464-34, Session 9

Classification of uncooperative vehicles
with sparse laser Doppler vibrometry
measurements

9464-31, Session 9

Beyond H.264: implications of next
generation video compression on
surveillance imagery

Jie Wei, Chi-Him Liu, Zhigang Zhu, The City College of
New York (United States); Olga Mendoza-Schrock, Karmon
M. Vongsy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Christopher McGuinness, Univ. of Dayton ResearchInstitute (United States)

Recently Laser Doppler Vibrometry (LDV) has been widely employed toachieve long-range sensing for the purpose of Intelligence, Surveillance
and Reconnaissance (ISR) in military applications due to its high spatialand spectral resolutions in vibration measurements that facilitateseffective analysis using signal processing and machine learning techniques.
Collaborating with researchers in the Air Force Research Laboratory in
the last several years, we have developed a bank of algorithms to classify
different types of vehicles, such as sedans, vans, pickups, motor-cycles
and buses, and identify various kinds of engines, such as Inline-4, V6,
1- and 2-axle truck engines. Thanks to the similarities of the LDV signals
to acoustic and other time-series signals, a large of body of existing
approaches in literature has been employed, such as speech coding, timeseries representation, Fourier analysis, pyramid analysis, support vector
machine, random forest, neural network, and deep learning algorithms. We
have found that the classification results based on some of these methods
are extremely promising. For instance, our vehicle engine classification
algorithm based on the pyramid Fourier analysis of the engine vibration andfundamental frequencies of vehicle surfaces over the data collected by our
LDV in the summer of 2014 consistently attained 97% precision.

Unmanned aerial systems (UAS) equipped with electro-optic (EO) fullmotion video (FMV) sensors often need to transmit the imagery over alimited communications channel, requiring either intense compression,
reduced frame rate, or downsampled imagery to reach the receiver at
adequate quality. In an attempt to improve rate-distortion performance ofcommon video compression algorithms, such as H.264/AVC, several groups
are developing compression methods to improve video quality at low
bitrates. Concepts of these “next generation” methods, including H.265/
HEVC, Google’s VP9, and Xiph’s Daala are examined in contrast with stateof the art methods, such as H.264/AVC, BBC’s Dirac, and Motion-JPEG2000
within the context of aerial surveillance. Due to many of these methods
being incomplete, it is premature to provide a full rate-distortion comparisonof these methods, but data is provided for released standards.

9464-32, Session 9

In laboratory studies or well-controlled environments, a great array of highquality LDV measured points all over the vehicles are permitted by thevehicle owners, therefore intensive classifier training can be conductedto effectively capture the innate properties of surfaces in the space andspectral domains. However, in real contested environments that are ofutmost interest and practical importance to military applications, theuncooperative vehicles are either fast moving or purposively concealed andthus not many high quality LDV measurements can be made. In this work
an intensive study is performed to compare the performance in vehicle
classifications under the cooperative and uncooperative environments via
LDV measurements based on a content-based indexing. The method uses
an iterative Fourier analysis and an artificial feed-forward neural network. As
our empirical studies have suggested, even in uncooperative and contested
environments, with adequate training dataset for similar vehicles, ourclassification approach can still yield promising recognition rates.

Binocular link for smartphone (BLINKS)
demonstration
Paul Yun, King K. Siu, Paul D. Willson, U.S. Army Armament
Research, Development and Engineering Ctr. (UnitedStates); Fred J. Fitzsimmons, Contractor (United States)
Analog binoculars lack recording capability. Linking analog binoculars withsmartphones, live images captured in binocular can be recorded digitallyas video in real time and transferred. Added capabilities, such as, additionalzoom and GPS locating, wireless communication, etc, are possible. The
linking of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) smartphones with analog
binoculars has shown enormous potential including persistent ISR capability.
The paper discusses the demonstration, results and lessons learned of
BLINKS applications.

9464-35, Session 99464-33, Session 9

Sources of uncertainty in feature-based
image registration algorithms

Phased array beamformer performance invariable environments

Paul Sundlie, Joseph Fernando, Univ. of Dayton ResearchInstitute (United States); Clark N. Taylor, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

David R. Bergman, Exact Solution Scientific Consulting
LLC (United States)

One significant technological barrier to enabling multi-sensor integrated ISR
is obtaining an accurate understanding of the uncertainty present from eachsensor. Once the uncertainty is known, data fusion, cross-cueing, and otherexploitation algorithms can be performed, but these algorithms depend on
the availability of accurate uncertainty information from each sensor.

Beamforming techniques are used to locate sources and scattering centersfrom data acquired by either passive or active phased arrays. The technique
has a wide variety of applications from far field source location and tracking
to near field imaging. The presence of inhomogeneities in the environment
will have an effect on the propagation of the field. This in turn will change
the results of a beamformer prediction. Using simulated sources andenvironments one can systematically study the effect of the atmosphereon the angle of arrival as seen by the array. From these studies attempts
at systematic corrections can be tested to evaluate their fidelity in a real

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In many traditional systems (e.g., a GPS/IMU-based navigation system), theuncertainty values for any estimate can be derived by carefully observing
or characterizing the uncertainty of its inputs and then propagating that
uncertainty through the estimation system. Using inertial measurement units·

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133Conference 9464: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR VI
as an example, the gyroscope and accelerometer sensors can be carefully
characterized for noise, yielding a covariance matrix for the inputs. This
covariance matrix, when used in a Kalman filter to combine the different
measurements, will result in a output covariance that accurately represents
the uncertainty of the output.

capability was fast-paced detection at 3mph and the ability for fullyautonomous area scanning using the UWB to ensure full coverage andaccurate digital marking.

Feature-based image registration, on the other hand, cannot have its
uncertainty characterized in this fashion. These algorithms generally
consist of three basic steps. First, features are found in both images
being registered. Second, features are matched between the two images,
yielding correspondences. Finally, a model is chosen that best fits thedifferent correspondences found. The difficulty with correctly estimating
the uncertainty in these algorithms is that the inputs are not simple sensor
measurements, so they are difficult to characterize. While the signal to noise
ratio of an imaging sensor can be observed, the relationship of this noisewith the feature location determined by feature identification algorithms
is unclear. In addition, it will depend not only on the sensor itself, but
on what data is being observed by the sensor (i.e. a smooth scene will
have more error in its feature location than a rich scene.) Therefore, theinput uncertainty for image registration is very difficult to characterize. In
addition the algorithms themselves that are typically used to perform image
registration do not propagate uncertainty in an intuitive way through thealgorithm.
In this paper, we present results of an in-depth analysis of feature-based
image registration uncertainty. We describe three sources of error in animage registration algorithm (input noise, outlier handling, and the RANSAC
algorithm). Monte Carlo results demonstrating the effect of each of thesesources of error are presented, and the impact these results have on how wemodel image registration uncertainty is discussed.

Another key element of the solution is the development of accurate
surveillance views and maps of the area of interest using low-cost camera
equipped Quadrotor UAV which provides stealthy deployment of UWB tags
which form the basis for the 3D position referenced environment. The paper
discusses the result of a demonstration using low cost UAV flying throughthe area of interest at low altitude (about 50 feet). A UAV flies a patternover the area of interest to provide a map to the control station whichcorrelates with the position of the UWB tags. A map of the area is thus
produced to within 5cm accuracy. To orchestrate the multiple UAS and UGVsystems 5D uses a common operating picture based on shared positioning.
Robots can then be deployed to the area and their movements coordinatedand intelligently controlled with respect to the UWB tags and the referenced
map.
The UWB constellation positioning also allows a second vehicle to come
precisely to the same location (or the same robot to return with a different
payload) for the purpose of confirmation or neutralization. In the Picatinny
and Camp LeJeune experiments, the ACER returned to detected hazards
in order to neutralize the detected hazard with a flail. The ACER accepts
multiple neutralization payloads and can be controlled from a simple
handheld wand. Use of a NQR or explosive sniffer could also be utilized asa means to discriminate explosives from clutter. Also, due to the accuracyof the map, it is now possible to compare and contrast multiple hazard
mappings from day to day in order to identify changes (i.e. new hazards).
This enables IED and land-mine detection even when there is significant
clutter in the environment which would normally hinder advance rate.
At Camp Lejeune, 5D demonstrated an IEDD change detection capability
that can work well even in areas with significant metal clutter. Especiallywithin the MOUT facility at Camp LeJeune, the robot found many metal
objects that were strewn throughout the area. Although it is possible toclassify landmines to discriminate them from other metal targets, IEDs are
more difficult to automatically classify because of the broad range of IED
construction methods and components. To address this, a methodology forcomparing IED scans from one day to another was developed. By using thismeans to tell what has changed in the ground the adverse effect of false
positives is greatly reduced. The two images shown here allowed the user toeasily see the new red blob indicating a buried hazard (encircled in black).

9464-36, Session 9

Ultra-wideband 3D position referenced
environment for enhanced detection,
marking, neutralization and change
detectionDavid J. Bruemmer, 5D Robotics Inc. (United States);
Robert L. Wade, U.S. Army Armament Research,
Development and Engineering Ctr. (United States);
Vince Matriciano, U.S. Army Program Executive OfficeAmmunition (United States); Jon Whetten, R. Scott
Hartley, 5D Robotics Inc. (United States)

The level of position accuracy when coupled with the consistency of thedetection algorithms provides a capability for change detection which is notpossible without accurate before and after map alignment. The potential for
vastly improved OPTEMPO and discrimination of false targets is through thiscombination of detection and positioning technologies.

This paper provides details regarding a recent study with a group of four
heterogeneous air and ground systems that collaborate using UWB RF
tags as a means for shared positioning and accurate map building anddigital marking. The system provides a significantly improved OPTEMPO byestablishing a 3D position referenced environment.

9464-37, Session 9

Working under contract from the US Army, 5D led efforts to demonstrate
a new approach to detection, marking and neutralization of land mines
and IED hazards from October 27 – October 31, 2014 at Picatinny Arsenal,
NJ and at November 2-7 at Camp LeJeune. 5D worked with a multiple
small businesses including AerialMOB, Mesa, Freewave, Geophex, Segway,
Bokam and Humanistic Robotics to create a multi-robot counter-IED systemcapable of detecting and digitally marking subsurface hazards within acorrelated aerial image from a UAS.

Andrew Thompson, Eric Balster, Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates)The goal of the effort is to provide a significantly improved operational
tempo by establishing a 3D position referenced environment which enables
more accurate and efficient navigation, automated area coverage andmarking. It also enables multiple vehicles to participate seamlessly in thesame mission either simultaneously or in serial such that a second robot
can return to a marked hazard to perform confirmation or neutralization.
This UWB positioning uses tri-lateration of time of flight position readings
to reliably navigate, perform digital marking and fuse multiple vehicle
perspectives on the fly. One of the most important features is that thesystem is not dependent on GPS. A GPS jamming system was used at Camp
LeJeune in tandem with the operation of the vehicles which shows thecapability for GPS-denied operations. Another benefit of the demonstrated

134

SPIE DSS 2015·

YUV chrominance sub-sampling
comparison using H.264

In this paper, a comparison of YUV 4:4:4, 4:2:2, and 4:2:0 video formats
and their associated chrominance QP offset values is presented, using the
H.264 standard. The goal of this paper is to determine the best video format
for image quality versus image compression. This is a point of interest due
to wireless video transmission quality and bandwidth limitations, whichgoverns transmission rates over wireless communication systems.

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Conference 9465A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX
Tuesday - Wednesday 21–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9465 Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX; and Atmospheric
Propagation XII

9465-1, Session 1

This technique allows us to improve the resolution in TOF measurement inour system by up to 4 times.

Imaging flash lidar for safe landing on
solar system bodies and spacecraft
rendezvous and docking

9465-3, Session 1

Laser safety in design of near-infrared
scanning lidars

Farzin Amzajerdian, Vincent E. Roback, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States); Alexander E. Bulyshev,
Analytical Mechanics Associates, Inc. (United States); Paul
F. Brewster, Glenn D. Hines, NASA Langley Research Ctr.
(United States); Diego F. Pierrottet, Coherent Applications,
Inc. (United States); Larry B. Petway, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States)

Xiang Zhu, Dave Elgin, Neptec Design Group Ltd. (Canada)
3D LIDARs with 1.5µm nanosecond pulse lasers have been increasingly usedin different applications, the main reason for their popularity is that these
LIDARs can be made to have high performance and at the same time canbe made eye-safe. Because the laser hazard effect on eyes or skin at thiswavelength region (>1.4µm) is mainly from the thermal effect accumulated
from many individual pulses over a period of seconds, scanning caneffectively reduce the laser beam hazard effect from the LIDARs.

NASA has been pursuing Flash lidar technology for autonomous, safe
landing on solar system bodies and for automated rendezvous and docking.
During the final stages of the landing from about 1 km to 500 m above theground, the Flash lidar can generate 3-Dimensional images of the terrain
to identify hazardous features such as craters, rocks, and steep slopes.
The onboard flight computer can then use the 3-D map of terrain to guidethe vehicle to a safe location. As an automated rendezvous and docking
sensor, the Flash lidar can provide relative range, velocity, and bearing
from an approaching spacecraft to another spacecraft or a space station.
NASA Langley Research Center has developed and demsontrated a Flashlidar sensor system capable of generating 16k pixels range images with 7
cm precision, at 20 Hz frame rate, from a maximum slant range of 1800 m
from the target area. This paper describes the lidar design and capabilities
and presents the results of recent flight tests onboard a rocket-propelled
free-flyer vehicle (Morpheus) built by NASA Johnson Space Center. The
flights were conducted at a simulated lunar terrain site, consisting of realistic
hazard features and designated landing areas, built at NASA Kennedy Space
Center specifically for this demonstration test. This paper also provides
an overview of the plan for continued advancement of the Flash lidar
technology aimed at enhancing its performance while reducing its size andmass in compliance with constraints of space environment.

Neptec LIDARs have been used in the docking application to theInternational Space Station, military helicopter landing and industrial mining
applications. We have incorporated the laser safety requirement in the
LIDAR design and conducted laser safety analysis for different operational
scenarios. While 1.5µm is normally said to be the eye-safe wavelength, inreality a high performance 3D LIDAR needs high pulse energy, small beam
size and high pulse repetition frequency (PRF) to achieve long range,high resolution and high density images. The resulting radiant exposureof its stationary beam could be many times higher than the limit for Class
1 laser device. Without carefully choosing laser parameters and scanningparameters including field-of-view, scan speed and pattern, a scanning
LIDAR can’t be eye- or skin-safe based only on its wavelength.
This paper discusses the laser safety considerations in the design of eye-safe
scanning LIDARs, including laser pulse energy, PRF, beam size and scanningparameters in two basic designs of scanning mechanisms, i.e. galvanometerbased scanner and Risley prism based scanner. The laser safety is discussed
in terms of device classification, nominal ocular hazard distance (NOHD) andsafety glasses’ optical density (OD).

9465-2, Session 1

9465-5, Session 1

Improved resolution in time-of-flightmeasurement in a multi-pulse scanningladar system

OEM fiber laser rangefinder for longdistance measurement
Alexandre Corman, Frédéric Chiquet, Thomas Avisse,
SensUp (France); Marc Le Flohic, Keopsys SA (France)

Yury Y. Markushin, Renu Tripathi, Gour S. Pati, Delaware
State Univ. (United States)

Fiber lasers have already shown a wide field of use, in particular in remotesensing where it appeared relevant for LIDAR application. Since detection
range and accuracy of measures are two of the main issue in laser range
finding, the interest for that technology in telemetry became also relevant.
In pulsed mode, fiber lasers allow huge energy storage (150µJ here, for a
10kW peak power) with a few kHz of repetition rate, against only several Hz
at the same levels of energy for solid-state lasers. That combination enables
our system to work in burst mode (typically 5kHz) on medium and longrange (typically 15km, up to 20 – 25 km) and to average the distance values
returned for each laser pulse: it thus increases significantly the measurement
accuracy (<1m @ 3?). The laser source presents also a good beam quality
at these levels of energy, a satisfying electro-optical efficiency (up to 20%)and an important reliability. But mostly, fiber sources can be adaptive,
compact and so easily integrated in environments where the weight and thedimensions constraints are essential (System weight: 700g; Dimensions: 113
x 72 x 120 mm).

The resolution in time-of-flight (TOF) measurement in a scanning-LADAR
system is typically limited by the rise time of the laser pulse used forilluminating the target. However, due to the timing jitter introduced by thesignal processing electronics and pulse amplitude fluctuations, the object
separations smaller than 20-30 cm cannot be accurately measured while
using a laser pulse with close to 1ns risetime. In out scanning-LADAR system
we use a time-to-amplitude converter (TAC) paired with two constantfraction discriminators (CFDs) to directly measure the TOF after each pixel isilluminated by a single laser pulse. Theoretically, this configuration is capableof resolving 10-15 cm separations. However, due to the above mentioned
timing jitter, the resolution is degraded to about 20 cm for a single pulse
measurement. In this presentation, I will discuss a technique that allows
to overcome this obstacle. Implementing a multi-pulse pixel illumination
technique, collecting the timing information by using a multichannel
analyzer (MCA) and extracting the TOF data using a computer software cansignificantly improve the timing resolution of the scanning-LADAR system.

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That is why our product is currently a very good balance in laser range·

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135

Conference 9465A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX
finding between range, accuracy and compactness, which makes it suitablefor optronic integrators of the Defense and Security market.

9465-40, Session 1

Medium altitude airborne Geiger-mode
mapping lidar system (Invited Paper)
William E. Clifton, Harris Corp. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9465-6, Session 2

Active and passive EO sensing for thedetection of humans and handheld objects
Ove Steinvall, Håkan Larsson, Magnus Pettersson, Swedish
Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
Some results from a low light trial are described. The purpose was tocompare imaging performance for active and passive sensors in the visible,
NIR and SWIR bands concerning detection and identification of humans
carrying certain handheld objects and performing associated activities.
Both NIR and SWIR sensors provided passive imagery down to illuminationlevels between 1-10 lux corresponding to sunset-overcast to moonlight.
The active mode gave usable imagery out to 3-4 km at much lower lightlevels. NIR and SWIR sensor images are compared concerning target tobackground contrast, cloth recognition and the detection of humans,
activities and handheld objects. The target to background contrast wasoften somewhat better in the SWIR as compared with the NIR wavelength
region. The contrast between different types of clothing was in general more
discriminative in the NIR vs the SWIR. This was especially true for the active
sensing modes. The recognition of large weapons could be done out to 6001000 m range and handguns out to the 300-600 meter range. We foundthat activities could be detected and recognized out to 1400 m at least.

9465-7, Session 2

Anomaly detection in clutter using
spectrally enhanced ladar
Puneet S. Chhabra, Andrew M. Wallace, Heriot-Watt
Univ. (United Kingdom); James R. Hopgood, The Univ. of
Edinburgh (United Kingdom)
Discrete return Laser Radar (Ladar) systems provide a series of echoes(first/last or multi-echo) that reflect from objects in a scene. On the other
hand, Full-Waveform (FW)-Ladar systems measure the intensity of lightreflected from objects continuously over a period of time. Research on
FW-Ladar is relatively recent and has not been often applied to anomaly ortarget detection.

9465-8, Session 2

Study of a dual mode SWIR active imaging
system for direct imaging and non line ofsight vision
Martin Laurenzis, Frank Christnacher, Institut FrancoAllemand de Recherches de Saint-Louis (France); Andreas
Velten, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States) andMorgridge Institute for Research (United States)
The application of non line of sigh vision and see around a corner has
been demonstrated in the recent past on laboratory level with roundtrip path lengths on the scale of 1 m as well as 10 m. This method uses a
computational imaging approach to analyze the scattered informationof objects which are hidden from the direct sensors field of view. Recent
demonstrator systems were driven at laser wavelengths (800 nm and 532nm) which are far from the eye-safe shortwave infrared (SWIR) wavelengthband i.e. between 1.4 µm and 2 µm. Therefore, the application in public or
inhabited areas is difficult with respect to international laser
safety conventions.
In the present work, the authors evaluate the application of recent eye
safe laser sources and sensor devices for non line of sight sensing and give
predictions on range and resolution. Further, the realization of a dual mode
concept is studied enabling both, the direct view on a scene and the indirectview on a hidden scene. While recent laser gated viewing sensors have highspatial resolution, their application in non line of sight imaging suffer from a
too low temporal resolution due to minimal sensor gate width of around 150
ns. On the other hand, Geiger-mode single photon counting devices havehigh temporal resolution, but their spatial resolution is (until now) limited
to array sizes of some thousand sensor elements. In this publication theauthors present detailed theoretical and experimental evaluations.

High efficiency chirped Bragg gratings forstretching and compression of ultra shortlaser pulses at 800 nm

We present a probabilistic framework that allows the detection of anomalies
in MSL data collected flying above an urban city or dense vegetation. We
define clutter as data that is neither anomalous nor an object of interest.
In the signal domain we define an anomaly as a full waveform time andspectral signature that does not conform to a prior expectation, definedusing a learnt dictionary (subspace). We propose an online optimisation
algorithm for dictionary learning based on stochastic approximations
and augmenting our objective function with a discriminative term thatSPIE DSS 2015

Our paper is divided into three sections. First, we present a multi-beammodeller for laser propagation through clutter which allows simulation ofsynthetic MSL data. The modeller allows flexible manageability of sensor
characteristics, ambient light, 3D environment and the positioning of thesensor platform. We apply this synthesis to realistic 3D scenes with naturalobjects such as trees, and a 3D terrain with man-made objects (targets).
Second, we study the backscattered Ladar returns over a wide range of
wavelengths in the EM spectrum. Finally, we present a probabilistic cueing
algorithm for dictionary learning which inheritably optimises the objectivefunction for maximum inter-class variability. We then detect anomalies in awide footprint MSL full waveform data, and hence focus on target detection
and recognition in a more densely sampled MSL-derived point cloud,resulting in reduction in target search space and improving overall efficiency
and reducing scan time.

9465-9, Session 2

Recent work in Edinburgh has focussed on both large and small footprint sensing using active multi-spectral Ladar (MSL) systems to retrieve
structural and physiological properties of vegetation. In this work, we
consider how Anomaly Detection (AD) and Automatic Target Recognition(ATR) scenarios can benefit from spectrally enhanced Ladar sensors incomplex and cluttered environments, for example, the detection of targets
hidden and camouflaged under dense foliage.

136

represents the subspace separability properties. Formally, we define
an anomaly as the change in the belief (dictionary vectors and signal
representation coefficients) upon observing the new data measurement. We
quantify the divergence by carrying out a hypothesis test (anomaly
present/absent).

·

Vadim Smirnov, Leonid B. Glebov, Alexei L. Glebov, OleksiyMokhun, Larissa Glebova, Eugeniu Rotari, Ion Cohanoschi,
Oleg Smolsky, OptiGrate Corp. (United States)
Chirped Bragg Gratings (CBGs) recorded in photo-thermo-refractive(PTR) glass have been successfully used as ultrashort pulse stretchers andcompressors in Ultra Short Pulse Lasers (USPLs). Compared to traditional
pairs of surface gratings, CBGs offer significant advantage in compactness

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Conference 9465A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX
and robustness. In a single pass configuration, CBGs provide up to 100
nm spectral bandwidth, up to 500 ps of stretching time, and stretchingrates from few ps/nm to > 500 ps/nm. It was shown that usage of amatched grating pair for stretching and compression results in a transform
limited pulse durations. All above makes this technology preferable for
manufacturing of industrial and military grade USPL systems. While
efficiency of CBGs for wavelengths exceeding 1000 nm efficiency usually
exceeded 90%, short wavelength CBGs operating in 800 nm range sufferedwith efficiency about 60%.

and allow range resolution of lesser than 15 m. The dynamical configurationof pulsewidths from 50 ns to 400 ns allows high resolution wake vortex
measurements. The lidar is integrated with a unique, user programmablehemispherical scanner unit. The scanner uses innovative liquid metal slip
ring and is built using 3D printer technology with light weight nylon. As
such, it provides continuous 360 degree azimuth and 180 degree elevation
scan angles with an incremental motion of 0.001 degree. The lidar system
is air cooled and requires 110 V for its operation. This compact and modular
system is anticipated to provide mobility, reliability, and ease of field
deployment for wind and wake vortex measurements. Currently, this windlidar is undergoing validation tests under various meteorological conditions.
Results of measurements involving wind characteristics that were recently
carried out in Colorado will be presented.

A technology of PTR glass based chirped gratings is based on holographic
recording. It was found that efficiency of gratings designed for spectral
region 700 1000 nm is deteriorated due to smeared interferometricpatterns. In order to improve contrast of interference fringes, a newrecording system has been developed. It resulted in significant enhancementof diffraction efficiency above 70%. We expect that improved efficiency atthis spectral region will boost usage of CBGs for stretching and compressionof high energy lasers such as Ti: Sapphire. Additionally, usage of gratings
with large aperture would enable stretching and compressing of pulses withenergy up to 10 mJ.

9465-13, Session 4

Dynamic voxel modeling resolution basedon quality assessments from lidar pathtracing9465-10, Session 3

Shea Hagstrom, Joshua B. Broadwater, Johns Hopkins
Univ. Applied Physics Lab., LLC (United States)

Atmospheric aerosol and molecular
backscatter imaging effects on direct
detection ladar

Airborne LIDAR instruments are capable of delivering high density point
clouds that can resolve sub-meter details. LIDAR sampling is inherently
uneven in both 2D and 3D space, due to collection patterns as well as effects
like occlusion. Taking full advantage of the detail available when creating
3D models therefore requires that resolution be adaptable to the amount oflocalized data. Voxel-based modeling of LIDAR has proven advantageous
in many situations, but the traditional use of a fixed grid size prevents full
realization of the potential resolution. By allowing the voxel size to varyacross the model using spatial subdivision techniques this limitation canbe overcome. An important part of this process is defining an appropriate
limit of resolution for different sections of a model, and we incorporate
information gained through tracing of LIDAR pulses to guide this decision
process. Real-world data are used to demonstrate our results, and we show
how dynamic resolution voxelization compares to using a fixed voxel size.

Douglas G. Youmans, Parsons Corp. (United States)
Multi-pulse waveforms are often used in laser radar systems to extend
operational range by summing the multiple pulse returns and applying
various summation + shifting algorithms. In addition to the usual lidar
analysis procedures in the lidar literature, a ladar is usually tracking an
object following a passive sensor “que,” producing a “slew” angular rotation
rate. Generally a lead-angle is applied to the transmitted laser-mode for
maximizing signal strength. Often a small “bi-static” separation of transmit
aperture and receive aperture is employed. Furthermore, the last pulseof the pulse-train leaving the transmitter may be close to the receiving
aperture when the first return pulse is expected, causing large backscatter“clutter” in the pixels of interest.

9465-14, Session 4

The imaging of a transmitted near-Gaussian laser-mode scattering off
aerosols and molecules onto the focal plane, including these effects, will beanalyzed. Methods for estimating the aerosol number density versus altitude
and the volume backscatter coefficient of the aerosols will be discussed. The
defocused backscatter images from the close pulses will be analyzed in a
simple geometrical optics approximation.

Agile-beam laser radar using
computational imaging for robotic
perception
Michael A. Powers, General Dynamics Robotic Systems(United States); Barry L. Stann, Mark M. Giza, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

9465-11, Session 3

All-fiber, compact, coherent windlidar development for environmental
monitoring applications

Our paper introduces a new concept that applies computational imaging
techniques to laser radar for robotic perception. We observe that nearly
all contemporary laser radars for robotic (i.e., autonomous) applications
use pixel basis scanning where there is a one-to-one correspondence
between world coordinates and the measurements directly producedby the instrument. In such systems this is accomplished through beamscanning and/or the imaging properties of focal-plane optics. While thesepixel-basis measurements yield point clouds suitable for straightforward
human interpretation, the purpose of robotic perception is the extractionof meaningful features from a scene, making human interpretability and its
attendant constraints mostly unnecessary. The imposing size, weight, powerand cost of contemporary systems is problematic, and relief from factorsthat increase these metrics is important to the practicality ofrobotic systems.

Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates); Steven Vetorino, Allen J. Tracy, Rich Higgins,
Russel Sibell, Sibelloptics, LLC (United States)
This paper describes an innovative, compact and eyesafe coherent lidar
system developed for wind and wake vortex sensing applications. With
all-fiber and modular architecture, the lidar system is configured to becompact and incorporates enhanced operational elegance and low power
consumption features. The all-fiber architecture is built upon fiber seed laser
coupled to uniquely configured fiber amplifier modules to provide ease ofmaintenance. The innovative features of lidar system, besides its all fiberarchitecture, include pulsewidth agility and 3D scanner unit. Operating at
1.5457 microns and with a PRF of up to 20 KHz, the lidar transmitter systemwith dimensions of 30” x 46” x60” is designed as a Class 1 system. With anoperational range exceeding 10 km, the lidar is designed to measure windvelocities greater than 120 m/s, provide velocity accuracy of +/- 0.2 m/s

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We present a system concept free from pixel basis sampling constraints that
promotes efficient and adaptable sensing modes. The cornerstone of ourapproach is agile and arbitrary beam formation that, when combined with ageneralized mathematical framework for imaging, is suited to the particularchallenges and opportunities of robotic perception systems. Our hardware
concept looks toward future systems with optical device technology closely·

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137Conference 9465A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX

9465-18, Session 5

resembling modern electronically-scanned-array radar that may be years
away from practicality.

Textured digital elevation model formationfrom low-cost UAV ladar/digital imagedata

We present the design concept and results from a prototype systemconstructed and tested in a laboratory environment using a combinationof developed hardware and surrogate devices for beam formation. The
technological status and prognosis for key components in thesystem is discussed.

Taylor C. Bybee, Scott E. Budge, Utah State Univ. (UnitedStates)9465-15, Session 4

Low-SWaP coincidence processing for
Geiger-mode lidar video
Steven E. Schultz, Noel P. Cervino, Zachary D. Kurtz, Myron
Z. Brown, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)
Photon-counting Geiger-mode lidar detector arrays provide a promising
approach for producing three-dimensional (3D) video at full motion
video (FMV) data rates, resolution, and image size from long ranges.
However, coincidence processing required to filter raw photon counts iscomputationally expensive, generally requiring significant size, weight, andpower (SWaP) and also time. In this paper, we describe a laboratory testbed
developed to assess the feasibility of low-SWaP, real-time processing for
3D FMV based on Geiger-mode lidar. First, we examine a design based onfield programmable gate arrays (FPGA) and demonstrate proof-of-concept
results. Then we examine a design based on a first-of-its-kind embedded
graphical processing unit (GPU) and compare performance with the FPGA.
Results indicate feasibility of real-time Geiger-mode lidar processing for 3D
FMV and also suggest utility for real-time onboard processing for mapping
lidar systems.

Textured digital elevation models (TDEMs) have valuable use in precision
agriculture, situational awareness, and disaster response. However,scientific-quality models are expensive to obtain using conventional aircraftbased methods. The cost of creating an accurate textured terrain model canbe reduced by using a low-cost (<$20k) UAV system fitted with LADAR andelectro-optical (EO) sensors.
A texel camera fuses calibrated LADAR and EO data upon simultaneous
capture, creating a texel image. This eliminates the problem of fusing
the data in a post-processing step and enables both 2D- and 3D-image
registration techniques to be used. This paper describes formation of TDEMs
using simulated data from a small UAV gathering swaths of texel imagesof the terrain below. Being a low-cost UAV, only a coarse knowledge of
position and attitude is known, and thus both 2D- and 3D-image registration
techniques must be used to register adjacent swaths of texel imagery tocreate a TDEM.
The process of creating an aggregate texel image (a TDEM) from manysmaller texel image swaths is described. The algorithm is seeded with therough estimate of position and attitude of each capture. Details such as therequired amount of texel image overlap, registration models, simulated flightpatterns (level and turbulent), and texture image formation are presented. In
addition, examples of such TDEMs are shown and analyzed for accuracy.

9465-16, Session 49465-19, Session 5

Real-time on-board airborne
demonstration of high-speed on-board
data processing for science instruments(HOPS)

Visualization of 3D images from multiple
texel images created from fused lidar/
digital imagery
Cody Killpack, Scott E. Budge, Utah State Univ. (UnitedStates)Jeffrey Y. Beyon, Tak-Kwong Ng, Mitchell J. Davis, JamesK. Adams, Stephen C. Bowen, James J. Fay, Mark A.
Hutchinson, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

The ability to create 3D models using registered texel images (fusedladar and digital imagery), is an invaluable tool for disaster management,
situational awareness, and even automatic target recognition (ATR). Thesemodels are automatically generated by transforming multiple texel images
into a single common reference frame. However, rendering a sequence ofindependently registered texel images often presents challenges due to the
problems caused by sensor noise and stretched triangles resulting from anddata acquired from different perspectives.

The project called High-Speed On-Board Data Processing for Science
Instruments (HOPS) has been funded by NASA Earth Science Technology
Office (ESTO) Advanced Information Systems Technology (AIST) program
since April, 2012. The HOPS team recently completed two flight campaigns
during the summer of 2014 on two different aircrafts with two different
science instruments. The first flight campaign was in July, 2014 based at
NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) in Hampton, VA on the NASA’s
HU-25 aircraft. The science instrument that flew with HOPS was Active
Sensing of CO2 Emissions over Nights, Days, and Seasons (ASCENDS)
CarbonHawk Experiment Simulator (ACES) funded by NASA’s Instrument
Incubator Program (IIP). The second campaign was in August, 2014 basedat NASA Armstrong Flight Research Center (AFRC) in Palmdale, CA on theNASA’s DC-8 aircraft. HOPS flew with the Multifunctional Fiber Laser Lidar(MFLL) instrument developed by Excelis Inc. The goal of the campaigns
was to perform an end-to-end demonstration of the capabilities of the
HOPS prototype system while running the most computationally intensive
part of the ASCENDS algorithm real-time on-board. The comparison of thetwo flight campaigns and the results of the functionality tests of the HOPS
prototype system are presented in this paper.

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SPIE DSS 2015

As a result of these defects, standard rendering techniques are not suitable
for texturing 3D texel models. Although accurately registered, the textures
are often incorrectly overlapped and interwoven. Forming a texture atlas(stitching images together) is impractical, due to the independent nature of
the underlying data sets. Consequently, corrections must be done after all
the textures have been rendered, by determining the best texture for any
given area of the model. The procedures for computing and ranking thesetextures (via geometric ‘confidence’ measures), are done in real-time. The
visual defects of a model are reduced when overlapping textures are hidden,
exposed, or blended by using the view-dependent algorithm presented inthis paper. Successful rendering examples, including those that use bothsynthetic and real-world data sets, are presented.

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Conference 9465A:
Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX

9465-20, Session 59465-22, Session 5

Modeling individual trees in an urban
environment using dense discrete return
LiDAR

Comparison of full-waveform, photon
counting and discrete analog lidar data
Scott C. Runyon, Angela M. Kim, Jeremy P. Metcalf, Richard
C. Olsen, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)

Madhurima Bandyopadhyay, Jan A. N. van Aardt, Martin
van Leeuwen, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Full-waveform LiDAR data from an AHAB Chiroptera system with a 515 nm
and 1032 nm laser (~6 pts per m^2), photon counting data from the Sigma
Space HRQLS system with a 532 nm laser (~17 pts per m^2), and discrete
analog data from and Optech Orion C200 system (~60 pts per m^2) werecollected from aerial platforms over Monterey, CA, USA in fall 2012 and fall2013. The study area contains residential neighborhoods, forested regions,inland lakes, and Pacific Ocean near-shore environment. Significant groundtruth in the form of GPS measurements and terrestrial LiDAR scans enable
the LiDAR data to be compared in terms of precision, accuracy, point clouddensity, and degree of tree canopy penetration.

The urban forest is becoming increasingly important in the contexts ofurban green space, carbon sequestration and offsets, and socio-economic
impacts. This has led to a recent increase in attention being paid tourban environmental management. Tree biomass, specifically, is a vitalindicator of carbon storage and has a direct impact on urban forest healthand carbon sequestration. Remote sensing has been used extensively
in measuring dynamics of vegetation and estimating biomass. Lightdetection and ranging (LiDAR) has proven useful to characterization of
the three dimensional (3D) structure of forests. In urban contexts however,information is frequently required at the individual tree level, necessitating
the proper delineation of tree crowns. Yet, crown delineation is challenging
especially for urban trees where a wide range of stress factors and cultural
influences affect growth. In this paper high resolution LiDAR data are used
to infer biomass based on individual tree attributes. First, a crown heightmodel (CHM), derived from LiDAR point clouds, is used to determine thecrown boundaries using a minimum-valley-following approach. Next, abest-fitting circle approach, with circles falling inside the crown boundaries,
is used to detect the individual trees by fitting geometric crown shapes.
Finally, individual tree attributes are used to estimate tree biomass and theresults are validated with associated field mensuration data. Initial results
show that detection of individual trees from mixed tree stands is over 80%
accurate, and the estimated tree attributes are in agreement with the truth
data. We wish to expand our test area to ensure the robustness of thismethod. Final results will be presented at the conference.

9465-23, Session 5

Exploitation of multi-wavelength lidar
for terrain classification and foliage
penetration
Richard C. Olsen, Naval Postgraduate School (UnitedStates); Chelsea H. Esterline, Naval Postgraduate
School (Chile); Angela M. Kim, Jeremy P. Metcalf, Naval
Postgraduate School (United States)
Full-waveform LiDAR data from an AHAB Chiroptera system with a 515 nm
and a 1032 nm laser,were collected from an aerial platform over Monterey,
CA, USA in Spring 2014. Data were acquired at 5-6 pts/m2. The study area
contains residential neighborhoods, forested regions, inland lakes, andPacific Ocean near-shore environment. Data analysis on the two-color data
are shown here for discrete return and waveform data for purposes offoliage penetration and target detection. Spectral analysis techniques areapplied for terrain classification, and distinctions in the ability of the two
wavelengths to penetrate foliage. Validation of the results are via coincident
airborne (spectral imaging) data, satellite imaging data, and in-situ
measurements. Time permitting, comparison will be made to results fromhigh-point density airborne data from the Optech system (C-200), at point
densities of 30-60 pts/m2.

9465-21, Session 5

Simulation of lidar propagation through atree canopy in 3D
Angela M. Kim, Richard C. Olsen, Naval Postgraduate
School (United States); Martin Béland, Univ. Laval(Canada)A Monte Carlo ray tracing simulation of LiDAR propagation has been
expanded to 3 dimensions, and makes use of the high-fidelity tree
voxel model VoxLAD for realistic simulation of a single tree canopy. The
VoxLAD model uses terrestrial LiDAR scanner data to determine the Leaf
Area Density (LAD) measurements for small volume voxels (~100 cm^3),
and provides a definition of the statistical distribution of leaves withineach voxel. Within the LiDAR propagation model, LiDAR energy may be
absorbed, transmitted or reflected. Information from the VoxLAD model isused to determine the probability of simulated LiDAR energy interactingwith materials at the voxel location, and the directional scattering should
an interaction occur. The high spatial fidelity of the VoxLAD models
enables simulation of small-footprint LiDAR systems. Results are presented
demonstrating the full-waveform simulation capability of the model,
and highlight potential challenges and opportunities of small-footprint
waveform LiDAR data.

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139

Conference 9465B: Atmospheric Propagation XII
Thursday 23–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9465 Laser Radar Technology and Applications XX; and Atmospheric
Propagation XII

9465-24, Session 6

Michael G. Panich, Ronald L. Phillips, Larry C. Andrews,
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States)

An updated look at tilt-removed beam
propagation in the atmosphere
Gary Baker, Lockheed Martin Space Systems Co. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

9465-25, Session 6

Wavefront sensing and phasereconstruction with multi-aperture Zernike
filterMikhail A. Vorontsov, Univ. of Dayton (United States) and
Optonicus (United States); Svetlana L. Lachinova, Mathieu
Aubailly, Optonicus (United States); Behzad Bordbar, Univ.
of Dayton (United States)
A novel wavefront sensor that is composed of a densely packed array ofphase-contrast Zernike filters, referred to as the multi-aperture Zernike(MAZ) sensor, and iterative techniques for phase retrieval from the
MAZ sensor are proposed and analyzed through wave-optics numericalsimulations. It is shown that the MAZ sensor can provide accurate
reconstruction of phase of optical fields with strongly nonuniform intensity
distribution. Due to parallel nature of optical field processing by the MAZ
sensor, retrieval of phase requires a relatively small number of iterations andcan be performed using parallel computations. The proposed MAZ sensor
can be used in wide range of applications including atmospheric and eye
aberration sensing, adaptive optics, optical metrology, andphase-contrast microscopy.

Using theory to mathematically model the atmospheric turbulence
phenomenon occurring in laser propagation, empirical data is a requirement
for the validation of such theory in the scientific community. Meteorologicaland atmospheric data is essential toward the characterization of beam
propagation through turbulence. Modern technological advancements havebrought forth diverse means of aggregating vast amounts of data throughvarious instrumentation such as sensors and detectors. However, theprocessing of such sizable data proves difficult in terms of computational
throughput and efficiency alongside with the development of proper
algorithms to learn patterns and correlations existing within the data. With
these current obstacles considered, this paper seeks to develop and assess
distributed computing architectures and machine learning algorithms
that can provide validation and understanding of turbulence for suchapplications. By implementing classification and regression algorithms, it
is hypothesized that the behavior of the beam itself may be categorized
and possibly predicted or correlated with meteorological parameter-basedvalues. Classification algorithms such as cluster analysis are examined tocategorize parameters such as Cn2 and the scintillation index into groups
that correlate with anisotropic and non-homogeneous atmosphericconditions. Regression algorithms such as logistic regression areinvestigated to provide a predictive means toward quantifying atmosphericconditions and its affect on the laser beam through cost function analysis.
Lastly, feature set extraction will be taken from laser image data to develop
features that better classify turbulent beam behavior. Correlations withbeam spot size, scintillation index, inner scale, and propagation distance will
be examined from the resulting feature set.

9465-28, Session 7

A low cost, low power, S-band radar foratmospheric turbulence studies

9465-26, Session 6

Thomas C. Farrell, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Optical turbulence with anisotropy at
different scales and its effect on laser
beam propagation along vertical paths

We present a frequency modulated continuous wave radar capable ofmeasuring atmospheric turbulence profiles within the Earth’s surface layer.
Due to the low cost and easily automated design, a number of units may
be built and deployed to sites of interest around the world. Each unit would
be capable of collecting turbulence strength, as a function of altitude, witha range of up to 50 meters above ground level. Such data is valuable todevelopers of directed energy, lasercom, imaging, and other optical systems,
where good engineering design is based on an understanding of the detailsof the turbulence in which those systems will have to operate.

Italo Toselli, Olga Korotkova, Univ. of Miami (United States)
Atmospheric turbulence can be anisotropic above the boundary layer
because a layered structure of eddies is often present. Also, the degreeof anisotropy is higher near the outer scale but it vanishes at small scales
where eddies are essentially isotropic. In this paper, we use a nonKolmogorov power spectrum with an effective anisotropic parameterto include the effect of anisotropy at different scales. By using thespectrum, we theoretically analyze the effect of anisotropy on turbulence
parameters such as long-term beam spread and scintillation for laser beams
propagating along vertical paths. Although our results are valid only for thecase of anisotropy along the direction of propagation, they are of interest
for applications such as astronomy, vertical directed energy and verticallaser communications links.

9465-27, Session 6

Scientific data analysis of atmosphericturbulence through distributed computing

The radar is based on the design described in [1]. It is FCC compliant,operating in the 2.4 GHz instrumentation, science, and medical (ISM) bandwith less than 1 watt effective isotropic radiated power. It is expected to costless than $1000 per unit and is built from commercial off the shelf parts,
along with easily constructed horn antennas. Major modifications to thedesign in [1] are the inclusion of horn antennas for directivity, and a straightforward processing software change that increases integration times to theorder of tens of seconds to a minute.
Here, the prototype system is described and preliminary data is presented.
[1] Charvat, Gregory, Jonathan Williams, Alan Fenn, Steve Kogon, andJeffrey Herd. RES.LL-003 Build a Small Radar System Capable of Sensing
Range, Doppler, and Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging, January IAP 2011.
(MIT OpenCourseWare: Massachusetts Institute of Technology), http://
ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-ll-003-build-a-small-radar-system-capable-ofsensing-range-doppler-and-synthetic-aperture-radar-imaging-januaryiap-2011

Sara B. Belichki, Christopher A. Smith, Joseph T. Coffaro,

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Conference 9465B: Atmospheric Propagation XII

9465-29, Session 79465-31, Session 7

Estimation of the path averaged
atmospheric refractive index structure
constant from time-lapse imagery

Scintillation effects of double-pass opticalbeams in atmospheric turbulence
Joseph T. Coffaro, Michael G. Panich, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States); Sara B. Belichki, Christopher A.
Smith, Ronald L. Phillips, CREOL, The College of Optics
and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States);
Larry C. Andrews, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

Santasri Basu, Jack E. McCrae, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States) and Oak Ridge Institute for
Science & Education (United States); Steven T. Fiorino, Air
Force Institute of Technology (United States)

The purpose of this research is to investigate scintillation fluctuations
resulting from a collimated laser beam at the target and in the pupil planeof the reflected optical beam during double-pass atmospheric propagation.
This paper examines the effects of scintillation on an optical beam that isreflected back along the same outgoing optical path. The scintillation effects
are obtained on the beams reflected back from two targets: a retro-reflector
and a rough surface over a propagation distance of 1km. It is from theexamination of scintillation effects that this research explores characterizing
the change in strength of atmospheric turbulence at the target and in the
pupil plane of the reflected beam through propagation along areciprocal path.

The sea level vertical refractive index gradient in the US Standard
Atmosphere Model is 2.7 x 10-8 m-1. At any particular location, the actualrefractive index gradient deviates from this value due to turbulence and also
depending upon local conditions and time of day. An imaging experimenthas been conducted to measure the variability of this gradient over time.
A tripod-mounted digital camera focused on a building 8 miles away takes
images every minute. Changes in the refractive index gradient along thepath result in position shifts between images. The camera and the building
are at nearly the same elevation; hence the path through turbulence isnearly horizontal. Shifts between the images are computed using correlation
techniques. This experiment attempts to separate two factors causing
shifts between images: atmospheric turbulence which can be expected
to cause the images to wander randomly, quickly, and isotropically; plus
a non-turbulent component where changes to the average refractive
index gradient along the path are expected to cause the images to movevertically, more slowly, and perhaps in correlation with the solar heating andother weather conditions. To isolate the camera from base disturbances,the camera and data collection system are in a ground floor temperature
controlled laboratory looking out through a window. While interference
from base disturbances hasn’t yet been ruled out, initial results indicate thepath-averaged refractive index gradient often makes excursions as large
as its mean standard value. The results from the experiment show good
agreement with numerical weather data.

9465-32, Session 7

The spectral transparency of the surface
layer marine and coastal atmosphere
Gennady A. Kaloshin, V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric
Optics (Russian Federation)
We present the results of numerical modeling of the spectral transparencyof the surface layer marine and coastal atmospheric aerosols, which are
based on the microphysical model Marine Aerosol Extinction Profiles(MaexPro). The model is created on long-term observations of size
distributions for 0.01–100 ?m particles. The fundamental feature of themodel is a parameterization of amplitudes and widths for aerosol modesof the aerosol size distribution function (ASDF) as functions of fetch andwind speed. The shape of the ASDF and its dependence on meteorologicalparameters, altitudes above the sea level (H), fetch (X), wind speed (U),and relative humidity is investigated. The model is primarily to characterizeaerosols for the near-surface layer (within 25 m). The model is also
applicable to higher altitudes within the atmospheric boundary layer,
where the change in the vertical profile of aerosol is not very large. In thiscase, it is only valid for “clean” marine environments, in the absence of air
pollution or any other major sources of continental aerosols, such desert
dust or smoke from biomass burning. The spectral profiles of the aerosol
extinction coefficients calculated by MaexPro are in good agreementwith observational data and the numerical results obtained by the wellknown Navy Aerosol Model and Advanced Navy Aerosol Model codes.
Moreover, MaexPro was found to be an accurate and reliable instrument forinvestigation of the atmospheric aerosols transparence.

9465-30, Session 7

Increasing persistence through scattering
environments by using circularly polarized
lightJohn D. van der Laan, College of Optical Sciences, The
Univ. of Arizona (United States) and Sandia National Labs.
(United States); David A. Scrymgeour, Jeremy B. Wright,
Shanalyn A. Kemme, Sandia National Labs. (United States);
Eustace L. Dereniak, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ.
of Arizona (United States)
We present both simulation and experimental results showing circularly
polarized light persists through scattering environments better than linearlypolarized light. Circularly polarized light can therefore be utilized to increase
range and contrast in these scattering environments. Specifically, we show
persistence is enhanced by up to a factor of four for circularly polarized
light in scattering environments of monodisperse polystyrene microspheresin water, modeling fog and clouds. Experimental and simulation results are
generated for the scattering environments of monodisperse polystyrene
microspheres with particle diameters of 0.1, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 microns andvarying optical thicknesses. These particle sizes represent size parameterswhich correspond to marine and continental fog particle sizes for infrared
wavelengths. Monte Carlo simulations predict a larger persistence benefit
for circular polarization versus linear polarization compared to experimental
results through an entire hemisphere. We show that angular collection
limitations, in both experiments and simulations, must be taken into
account to accurately quantify circular polarization’s persistence benefits
in scattering environments. With angular correction, circular polarization
persistence is still better than that of linear polarization, but this persistence
benefit is not as large as those for full-hemispherical simulations.

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Conference 9465B: Atmospheric Propagation XII

9465-33, Session 89465-39, Session 8

Low-SWAP lasercomm terminal
architecture for high-bandwidthcommunications under highly scintillated
links

Mid-IR free-space optical communication
with quantum cascade lasers

Juan C. Juarez, Radha Venkat, Ryan P. DiNello-Fass,David M. Brown, Hala Tomey, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab., LLC (United States)
No Abstract Available

Edward Luzhansky, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr.
(United States) and Univ. of Maryland Baltimore County(United States); Fow-Sen Choa, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States); Scott Merritt, Anthony
W. Yu, Michael A. Krainak, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr.
(United States)
Free space optical communication link with simulated atmosphericturbulence investigation using un-cooled system. Pulsed Quantum Cascade
Laser was used as transmitter and photoelectromagnetic detector as
receiver. For high photon efficiency and to eliminate QCL thermal effects
signal was modulated at 32-ary Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) scheme.
Concept enables extremely small and atmospheric propagation efficient
optical communication system.

9465-34, Session 8

Lasercomm beacon architecture forlink acquisition in highly scintillated
environments

9465-38, Session PSThu

Radha Venkat, Juan C. Juarez, Johns Hopkins Univ.
Applied Physics Lab., LLC (United States)

The effect of the aero-optic’s additional
focal length on the airborne platform laser
communication optical system

No Abstract Available

9465-35, Session 8

Yuan Hu, Changchun Univ. of Science and Technology(China) and Beijing Institute of Technology (China);
Tianyuan Gao, Changchun Univ. of Science and Technology(China); Dewen Cheng, Beijing Institute of Technology(China); Shoufeng Tong, Huilin Jiang, Changchun Univ. of
Science and Technology (China)

Demonstrating capacity-approaching FSO
communications
Thomas R. Halford, Michael P. Fitz, Cenk Kose, Jonathan
Cromwell, Steven Gordon, TrellisWare Technologies, Inc.
(United States)

The aero optics effects caused by high speed flight may have a serious
impact on the performance of space laser communication systems. In
the field of space laser communication technology engineering and its
practical application, this is a research problem that is highly significant.
For the complex flow field that is generated by the interaction between
the aircraft surface and air, the aero optics effects are usually divided into
two parts, namely, laminar flow and turbulent flow. This paper discusses
the principle of how the aero optics effect causes the image of the spacelaser communication optical system to blur and leads to a dispersed spot.
The research focuses on the additional focal length (AFL) effect causedby the laminar flow field, a simulation analysis of the relationship between
the flight altitude, speed, window shape and the system performance, andprovides solutions to the defocus phenomenon that has been observed inairborne tests. Finally it is hoped that the paper can provide a solution that
effectively compensates for the AFL effect on laser communication opticalsystems, and improves the communication between aircrafts.

No Abstract Available

9465-36, Session 8

The ONR high-bandwith Lasercom project
updateLinda M. Thomas, Christopher I. Moore, William S.
Rabinovich, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9465-37, Session 8

The ONR high-bandwidth lasercom
project: analysis of propagation data
William S. Rabinovich, Christopher I. Moore, Linda M.
Thomas, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

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Conference 9466:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security XI
Tuesday - Wednesday 21–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9466 Laser Technology for Defense and Security XI

9466-1, Session 1

9466-3, Session 1

Ring cavity surface emitting quantum
cascade laser with a near Gaussian beamprofileAlGaInN laser diode technology andsystems for defence and security
applications

Pedro N. Figueiredo, Robert E. Peale, Andrey V. Muraviev,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

Stephen P. Najda, Piotr Perlin, Tadek Suski, Lucja Marona,
Mike Bockowski, Mike Leszczynski, Przemek Wisniewski,
Robert Czernecki, TopGaN Ltd. (Poland); Robert
Kucharski, Ammono S.A. (Poland); George Tagowski,
TopGaN Ltd. (Poland); Scott Watson, Antony Kelly, Univ. of
Glasgow (United Kingdom)

We propose a vertical spiral phase corrector for ring cavity surface emitting(RCSE) QCLs. This will enable a near-Gaussian generated beam profile. A
problem with usual RCSE QCLs is their donut-shaped intensity distribution
with a node along the symmetry axis of the ring. This arises because of the
180 deg phase difference for the azimuthally polarized rays emitted from
opposite elements of the ring. We theoretically demonstrate that nearGaussian beams can be achieved with the proposed spiral phase corrector,
which adds one wavelength of additional optical path in going once aroundthe ring. Various three dimensional lithographic techniques for fabricatingsuch a phase shifter, including a grey scale mask, electron-beam resist dose
dependency, and two photon induced photopolymerization are considered.
RCSE QCLs with the proposed phase corrector will feature better beam
quality, higher intensity, and better resistance to optical damage than
traditional edge- emitting QCLs.

The latest developments in AlGaInN laser diode technology are reviewed
for defence and security applications such as display and underwatercommunications. The AlGaInN material system allows for laser diodes to befabricated over a very wide range of wavelengths from u.v., ~380nm, to thevisible ~530nm, by tuning the indium content of the laser GaInN quantum
well. Advantages of using Plasma assisted MBE (PAMBE) compared tomore conventional MOCVD epitaxy to grow AlGaInN laser structures arehighlighted. Ridge waveguide laser diode structures are fabricated toachieve single mode operation with optical powers of >100mW in the 400420nm wavelength range with high reliability. Visible light communications
at high frequency (up to 2.5 Gbit/s) using a directly modulated 422nm
Gallium-nitride (GaN) blue laser diode is reported.

9466-2, Session 1

High power operation of AlGaInN laser diodes is also reviewed. We
demonstrate the operation of a single chip, high power AlGaInN laser diode‘mini-array’ consisting of a 3 stripe common p-contact configuration at
powers up to 2.5W cw in the 408-412 nm wavelength range. Low defectivity
and highly uniform GaN substrates allow arrays and bars of nitride lasers to
be fabricated. Laser bars of up to 5mm with 20 emitters have shown opticalpowers up to 4W cw at ~410nm with a common contact configuration. An
alternative package configuration for AlGaInN laser arrays allows for eachindividual laser to be individually addressable allowing complex free-space
and/or fibre optic system integration within a very small form-factor.
TopGaN are developing a new range of high power laser array technology
over the u.v.- visible spectrum together with new packaging solutions for
optical integration.

Continuous-wave deep ultraviolet sources
for resonance Raman explosive sensing
Balakishore Yellampalle, Robert B. Martin, Mikhail Sluch,
Robert V. Ice, William B. McCormick, Brian E. Lemoff, West
Virginia High Technology Consortium Foundation (UnitedStates)A promising approach to stand-off detection of explosive traces is using
resonance Raman spectroscopy with Deep-ultraviolet (DUV) light. The
DUV region offers two main advantages: strong explosive signaturesdue to resonant and l-4 enhancement of Raman cross-section, and lackof fluorescence and solar background. For DUV Raman spectroscopy,
continuous-wave (CW) or quasi-CW lasers are preferable to high peak
powered pulsed lasers because Raman saturation phenomena and sample
damage can be avoided. In this work we present a very compact DUVsource that produces greater than 1 mw of CW optical power. The source
has high optical-to-optical conversion efficiency, greater than 5 %, as it isbased on second harmonic generation (SHG) of a blue/green laser source
using a nonlinear crystal placed in an external resonant enhancement cavity.
The laser system is extremely compact, lightweight, and can be battery
powered. Using two such sources, one each at 236.5 nm and 257.5 nm, weare building a second generation explosive detection system called DualExcitation-Wavelength Resonance-Raman Detector (DEWRRED-II). The
DEWRRED-II system also includes a compact dual-band high throughput
DUV spectrometer, and a highly-sensitive detection algorithm. The
DEWRRED technique exploits the DUV excitation wavelength dependenceof Raman signal strength, arising from complex interplay of resonant
enhancement, self-absorption and laser penetration depth. We show sensor
measurements from explosives/precursor materials at different standoff
distances.

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9466-4, Session 1

Recent progress in high-power ultrafast
thulium-doped fiber lasers and midinfrared supercontinuum sources
Jiang Liu, Hongxing Shi, Kun Liu, Fangzhou Tan, Pu Wang,
Beijing Univ. of Technology (China)
The research on high-power fiber lasers has attracted worldwide attentions
because of their essential characteristics such as excellent beam quality,
convenient heat management and compact configuration, which areconsidered as the next generation laser source for industrial, medical,
and military application field. The research on high-power ultrafast
thulium-doped fiber lasers at 2 µm wavelength and mid-infrared (mid-IR)
supercontinuum sources at 2~5 µm wavelength is one of these hot spots
because of their potential applications in eye-safe radar, material processing,and electro-optical countermeasure system, which has a irreplaceable rolecompared to other wavelength fiber lasers. Here, we will review the research
work of our group at 2 µm high-power ultrafast thulium-doped fiber lasers
and 2~5 µm high-power mid-IR supercontinuum sources. Firstly, we will
introduce a high-power picosecond-pulsed thulium-doped all-fiber MOPA,
the amplifier yielded 120 W of average output power at central wavelength·

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Conference 9466:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security XIof 1963 nm with pulse duration of 16 ps. And then, we will introduce a highpower single-frequency, single-polarization, thulium-doped all-fiber MOPA
system by using all-PM thulium-doped fiber and all-PM-fiber components.
The MOPA yielded 210 W of single-frequency, linear-polarized laser output
at central wavelength of 2000.9 nm with a polarization extinction ratioof >17 dB. Finally, we will introduce a high-power mid-IR supercontinuum
generation with up to 24.3 W average power and spectrum spanning from
1.9 to beyond 3.8 µm in a single-mode ZBLAN fiber pumped by a 2 µm
amplified picosecond pulses from a single-mode thulium-doped fiber MOPA.

9466-5, Session 2

High temperature operating diode laser
pumps for directed energy fiber lasers

9466-7, Session 2

Manoj Kanskar, Ling Bao, Zhigang Chen, Mark DeVito,
Weimin Dong, Xingguo Guan, David M. Hemenway, Walter
Sanders, Jim Zhang, Shiguo Zhang, nLIGHT Corp. (UnitedStates)Kilowatt-class fiber lasers and amplifiers are becoming increasingly
important building blocks for power-scaling laser systems in various
different architectures for directed energy applications. Currently, stateof-the-art Yb-doped fiber lasers operating near 1060 nm operate with
optical-to-optical power-conversion efficiency of about 66%. State-ofthe-art fiber-coupled pump diodes near 975 nm operate with about 50%
electrical-to-fiber-coupled optical power conversion efficiency at 25Cheatsink temperature. Therefore, the total system electrical-to-opticalpower conversion efficiency is about 33%. As a result, a 50-kW fiber
laser will generate 75 kW of heat at the pump module and 25 kW at thefiber laser module with a total waste heat of 100 kW. It is evident thatthree times as much waste heat is generated at the pump module. While
improving the efficiency of the diodes primarily reduces the input power
requirement, increasing the operating temperature primarily reduces
the size and weight for thermal management systems. We will discuss
improvement in diode laser design, thermal resistance of the package aswell as improvement in fiber-coupled optical-to-optical efficiency to achieve
high efficiency at higher operating temperature. All of these factors have a
far-reaching implication in terms of significantly improving the overall SWAP
requirements thus enabling DEW-class fiber lasers on airborne and otherplatforms.

9466-6, Session 2

Higher efficiency low weight, highbrightness fiber pump modules
David A. Irwin, DILAS Diode Laser, Inc. (United States);Andreas Bayer, Wilhelm Fassbender, Jens Biesenbach,
DILAS Diodenlaser GmbH (Germany); Steven G. Patterson,
DILAS Diode Laser, Inc. (United States)
Great advancements in fiber laser technology have brought within reach thepossibility of deployable directed energy systems. In all such systems there
remains a high premium on high efficiency and low weight. Diode pumpmodules constitute a critical element of all fiber laser systems, and while
improvements to pump diodes alone represent a direct benefit to directedenergy systems, a more fruitful approach is to review engineering tradeoffs
at the level of the whole fiber system. This paper reports on the outcomeof such a systems review and improvement effort as concerns an existing,commercial kW class fiber amplifier. Data for next generation diode pumpdevices with yet further increased power-to-weight ratio will be presented.
DILAS has delivered in volume to the US defense community the IS46, acommercial pump diode with 300W of output power from a 200?m/0.22NA
fiber-coupled module weighing in at ~300 grams. The unit provides thebest weight-to-power ratio available while retaining excellent spatial andspectral brightness. In this paper, results on improvements to the IS46 arereported. Advances in power output, wall-plug efficiency, and further weight

144

SPIE DSS 2015

reduction will be detailed. The design approach leading to the operational
enhancements will be discussed, to include a review of the system of which
the IS46 is a part. Specific areas of technical investigation include: thermal
resistance reduction through improved heatsink design, increased diodecavity length for reduction of slow-axis divergence, electrode design for the
reduction or electrical resistance, and deployment of a volume holographic
grating to improve spectral match between pump diode and fiber laser,and selection of optical components. Particular attention will be paid to theincrease of diode cavity length and reduction of heatsink thermal resistance,as they are deemed to have particularly strong effects on the module
performance, and are so connected through their fundamental effects on
the module.

·

Resonantly pumped Kerr-lens modelocked Er:YVO4 laser
Nikolay E. Ter-Gabrielyan, Viktor Fromzel, Mark Dubinskii,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Orthovanadate crystals, such as YVO4, possess a high nonlinear refractive
index which is an order of magnitude better than that of YAG. This large
nonlinearity makes it possible to develop a relatively simple self-starting
mode-locked laser. Here we report what is believed to be the first,
resonantly (in-band) pumped, self-starting Er-doped YVO4 laser, basedon the host crystal Kerr nonlinearity. An Er:YVO4 gain element was placed
between the two plano-concave mirrors (both with 100 mm radius ofcurvature) in a 63 cm long, Z-shaped laser cavity with unequal shoulder
lengths. The laser crystal was longitudinally end-pumped into one of the
major absorption lines of Er:YVO4 at 1534 nm by a CW Er-doped fiber
laser and the self-starting Kerr-lens mode-locking regime was successfully
achieved. The laser operated at 1603 nm (p-polarization). With 18 W ofincident pump power, picosecond pulses with a maximum energy of ~8 nJ
were obtained at a pulse repetition rate of ~238 MHz.

9466-8, Session 2

DBR and DFB lasers in Nd and Yb doped
photo-thermo-refractive glasses
Aleksandr I. Ryasnyanskiy, OptiGrate Corp. (United States);
Nikolai Vorobiev, CREOL, The College of Optics andPhotonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Vadim
Smirnov, OptiGrate Corp. (United States); Julien Lumeau,
Larissa Glebova, CREOL, The College of Optics andPhotonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); OleksiyMokhun, Christine Spiegelberg, OptiGrate Corp. (UnitedStates); Michael A. Krainak, NASA Goddard Space Flight
Ctr. (United States); Alexei L. Glebov, OptiGrate Corp.
(United States); Leonid B. Glebov, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates) and OptiGrate Corp. (United States)
The need of environment insensitive, compact, robust, narrow line laser
sources stimulated the development of hybrid devices such as distributed
Bragg reflector (DBR) and distributed feedback (DFB) lasers. Recent
development of photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glass for recording volume
holograms has led to the creation of high-efficiency low-loss volume Bragg
gratings (VBGs). It was found that co-doping PTR glass with such rareearth luminescent ions (Yb and/or Nd) results in a complex material thatcombines both photosensitivity and high efficiency luminescence.
The first monolithic solid state DFB laser made in Yb-doped PTR glass witha volume Bragg grating occupying the whole volume was demonstrated.
Operating in a single longitudinal mode regime it produces narrow linewidth(<250 kHz) with a power of up to 150 mW in forward and backward
directions. The DBR laser based on Yb-doped PTR glass was developed bywww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9466:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security XI(United States); Leonid B. Glebov, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates)recording 99% reflective VBGs on the ends of the active element. Both CW
and pulsed regimes were investigated and the influence of thermal effect on
beam quality was studied.
In case of Nd-doped PTR glass a DBR laser consisting of an external highreflecting conventional multilayer dielectric mirror and a reflecting VBG
within a gain element as an output coupler.

Power scaling of high power laser resonators is limited due to several
nonlinear effects. Scaling to larger mode areas can offset these effects
at the cost of allowing multiple guided modes, decreasing beam quality.
Selection of a pure transverse mode can improve the beam quality andbrightness of the laser resonator. In particular, selection of pure higher
order modes can allow for increased efficiency. Due to the known phase
distribution, a pure higher order mode can be easily converted to a single
lobe beam with high brightness. We propose a new method of transverse
mode selection using volume Bragg gratings (VBG) as an angular filteraligned to provide maximum diffraction efficiency for higher order modes.

9466-9, Session 3

High-power operation of Yb-doped
fiber laser at 976 nm: present status andapplications (Invited Paper)

VBGs recorded in photo-thermo refractive glass (PTR) have high stability,and high laser damage threshold, allowing for many applications to
the design of high power lasers. In particular, gratings recorded in thetransmitting geometry (TBG) have narrow angular selectivity. The narrow
angular selectivity allows for angular filtering in the near field, allowing forthe design of compact spatial filters. Off axis alignment of the TBG allows
for a single transverse mode to be diffracted with high efficiency, whileother modes experience high losses.

Eric Cormier, Univ. Bordeaux 1 (France)
During the past years, we have developed a technology enabling high power
operation of Yb-doped fiber lasers and amplifiers on the zero phonon line
thus emitting around 976 nm. Efficient operation requires very specific fiber
design and laser architectures. Different regimes have been investigatedat this wavelength from continuous wave to femtosecond with tens of W
output power and up to mJ energy in a diffraction limited beam. Power
scalability will be discussed and major applications such as high-brightness
optical pumping presented.

Modeling on the effect of diffraction efficiency and laser efficiency in alaser resonator are presented. Experimental results of higher order mode
selection using a ribbon fiber with core dimensions of 107.8?m x 8.3?m arepresented, showing efficiency and near field/far field measurements of thehigher order mode.

9466-10, Session 3

Advances in resonantly-pumped Tm-doped
fiber amplifiers

9466-12, Session 3

Laser beam characteristics of opticalphased arrays

Daniel Creeden, Benjamin R. Johnson, Glen A. Rines, Scott
D. Setzler, BAE Systems (United States)

Yakov G. Soskind, DHPC Technologies (United States)

We recently demonstrated high efficiency lasing in Tm-doped fiber by usinga resonant tandem pumping method. These results used core pumping
and were limited to a conventional fiber oscillator configuration at <10W
output power. In this paper, we discuss recent advancements in resonantlypumped Tm-doped fiber amplifiers. We explore the effects of pumpbleaching in these resonantly-pumped fibers and compare both core- andcladding-pumped amplifier configurations. By pumping a Tm-doped fiber
amplifier with a Tm-doped fiber laser operating at 1908nm (in the tail ofthe absorption band) and lasing in the 2000nm spectral region, we havegenerated more than 123W of output power with >91% slope efficiency,
90% optical efficiency, and >18% electrical-to-optical efficiency . This ispossible due to the low losses in the fiber as well as the high quantum
efficiency of our pump to lasing wavelength. This high optical efficiency
significantly reduces waste heating in the fiber, which has the potential toallow for power scaling of Tm-doped fiber amplifiers to the multi-kW power
levels using conventional diode technology and without relying on diodebrightness enhancements. We discuss our experimental amplifier resultswith both core-pumping and cladding-pumping; we review our numericalmodel which shows excellent agreement to the experimental results; andwe use this model to explore the power scaling potential for the resonant
tandem pumping approach.

Optical phased arrays (OPAs) are playing an important role in the next
generation of high power laser systems. The coherent combination ofseveral laser beams in tiled OPA configurations, as well as their propagation
through the atmosphere has been successfully demonstrated. At thesame time, very limited details of laser OPA beam quality can be found inscientific literature.
This paper is intended to fill the void by addressing the key laser OPA
beam characteristics. We show how diffraction phenomenon determines
the formation and propagation of laser radiation in OPAs, and defines their
key characteristics, including the cumulative beam power, horizontal andvertical power in the bucket, Strehl value, central node power, M2 parameter,
beam parameter product, etc. We also demonstrates the influence of OPA
beam properties, such as the array fill factor and the presence of phase
discontinuities, such as phase delays between the individual array apertures
onto the resulting characteristics of the OPA laser beams.

9466-13, Session 4

Thermally and mechanically enhanced
phosphate glasses for eye-safe lasers

9466-11, Session 3

Paula Vullo, Simi A. George, SCHOTT North America, Inc.
(United States)

Higher order mode selection for
power scaling in laser resonators usingtransmitting Bragg gratings

High power 1.5 µm radiation is of high interest in optical communications,military systems and medical systems. This wavelength is retina safe (alsocalled eye-safe) and coincides with the low loss window of fused silica
fibers. In recent years, the need for high beam quality for passive operationin open air applications have renewed interest in Er-doped bulk glasses as
the gain material of choice for solid-state lasers. In glasses, the phosphate
structure is known to produce high gain for Er. Unfortunately, the thermal
and mechanical properties of a typical phosphate glass structure are low
when compared to a crystal or even a silicate glass structure. In order to

Brian M. Anderson, George B. Venus, Daniel Ott, Ivan B.
Divliansky, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Jay W. Dawson,
Derrek R. Drachenberg, Michael J. Messerly, Paul H. Pax,
John B. Tassano, Lawrence Livermore National Lab.

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Conference 9466:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security XI
facilitate higher pump power levels for higher energy output, a stronger,
more thermo-mechanically robust phosphate that maintains laser efficiency
is needed.
With this target in mind, a study was initiated in order to strengthen acommercially available laser glass (SCHOTT LG940) by adding thermomechanical drivers to the starting composition. It is well known thatthe addition of certain elements in the periodic table to the amorphousglass structure will decrease the laser efficiency for other active ions in
the lanthanide series. It is also known that Er3+ emission is significantly
impacted by the host glass phonon energy. Thus, the main goal of the study
is to produce a laser gain material that would have an increased thermomechanical figure of merit (FOM), simultaneously maintaining or increasing
any laser FOM’s. Secondly, we seek to understand the impact of the glass
modifiers on Er manifolds and the resulting laser output efficiencies.
This report details a number of compositions that were designed andmelted on a small scale in order to first check the stability. The compositions
that produced a stable glass were then melted on a larger scale. All optical,
physical and laser properties were measured on these glasses. Slope
efficiencies and performance results for the glass(es) that met the targeted
results will be presented.

9466-14, Session 4

Magneto-optical properties of fluorinatedsilicate glasses doped with rare earth ions

Increasing power of new laser sources requires good isolation from harmfulback reflection, which may destabilize the laser or even damage the internallaser cavity. While optical isolators for visible and 1-1.5 µm regions are incommon use, new application require extension to long wavelength region.
For example, there are many military sensors applications that require
optical isolation at 2 micron, such as Tm and Ho-doped high-power fiber
laser systems.
Optical isolators in the visible and near-IR spectral regions are mainly
based on terbium doped gallium garnet crystal or Tb-doped bulk glasses
or fibers. Pr ions are also perspective in those regions. However, for longer
wavelength region, these ions are strongly absorptive. Limited availability of
optical isolators in mid-IR stimulates the development of new materials.
The shortest absorption bands that determine availability of most common
silicate glass matrices for IR application are absorption bands of hydroxyl
contaminations that have maxima at 2.8, 3.6 and 4.5 µm. Therefore wehave studied fluorinated silicate glasses that enable dramatic decreaseof hydroxyl absorption and the use of glasses in the spectral range up to
3-3.5 µm. We present the results of optical and magneto-optical studiesof fluorinated silicate glasses doped with different rare-earth ions suchas Ce, Nd, Dy, Er, La and Yb. Both bulk glasses and fibers were fabricatedand investigated using different dopant concentration. Verdet constantmeasurements were performed in the infrared region and the influence ofhigh power on optical isolation properties was investigated.

Frequency conversion with quasi-phasematched gallium nitride
Steven Bowman, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Christopher G. Brown, Univ. Research Foundation (UnitedStates); Jennifer K. Hite, Jaime A. Freitas Jr., Francis J. Kub,
Charles R. Eddy Jr., Jerry R. Meyer, Igor Vurgaftman, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Jacob H. Leach, Kevin
Udwary, Kyma Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Broadband transparency, high thermal conductivity, and strong nonlinearity
make gallium nitride a promising material for high power frequency
conversion. We have fabricated quasi-phase matched (QPM) devices
based on patterned inverted growth on commercial, c-axis, N-polar, GaN
substrates. The desired QPM pattern is defined using lithographic masking
and grown on using a combination of Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor
Deposition and Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy processing. High fidelity
periodically oriented GaN layers were grown on 10x10mm GaN substrates
with QPM layer thicknesses up to 530 µm. Phase matching experimentswith 32 ?m period structures are reported using a tunable nanosecond laser
source. Second harmonic resonance is compared with predicted values
based on birefringent dispersion measurements in bulk GaN samples. We
will review fabrication issues and optical experiments on the first of these
nonlinear frequency conversion devices.

9466-17, Session 4

Spectroscopic properties of Er-doped
Y2O3 ceramic related to mid-IR lasertransition
Tigran Sanamyan, Zackery D. Fleischman, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
We have recently demonstrated efficient high power CW laser operation in
Er doped Y2O3 at cryogenic temperature. The selection of laser host was
based on the low-phonon nature of Y2O3, where the 4I11/2 4I13/2 transitionis highly radiative. Further increases in mid-IR power scaling and efficiency
require in-depth study and analysis of basic spectroscopic properties of
the 4I11/2 ?4I13/2 laser transition, such as laser emission cross- sections,fluorescence quantum efficiency, fluorescence branching ratios and interionic interactions in a wide dopant-concentration and temperature range. In

9466-15, Session 4

Transition metal doped gallium nitride
laser materials
Steven Bowman, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United

SPIE DSS 2015

Transition metal doped crystals give rise to an important class of solid-statelasers. These lasers provide broadly tunable sources for many applications.
Ti:Sapphire (Ti3+:Al2O3) for example has found broad utility in both narrowline tunable and ultra-short pulse systems. We report the growth andcharacterization of GaN as a laser host for transition metals. This emerging
bulk semiconductor has several properties that make it a promising host fortunable lasers. GaN’s wide band-gap and low energy phonon spectra yielda broader transparency than most oxides, from 390 to 7000nm. GaN has ahardness comparable to SiC and has a chemically stability comparable todiamonds. It is uniaxial with an index of 2.4 and relatively weak dispersion.
Important for higher power lasers, the thermal conductivity of GaN is fifty
times higher than YAG. Its trivalent gallium site readily accommodates highlevels of metal doping. High ligand fields in GaN generate large splitting of
the 3d5 tetrahedral electronic configurations. This leads to blue-shifting of
the 3d transitions normally observed in oxides and chalcogenides. Recent
experimental GaN growths using Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy dopedwith several different transition metals will be reviewed. Spectroscopic
measurements relating to potential laser performance will be reported forsamples doped with Iron and Manganese.

9466-16, Session 4

Aleksandr I. Ryasnyanskiy, Vadim Smirnov, OptiGrate
Corp. (United States); Helene Mingareev, Axel Schülzgen,
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States); Alexei L. Glebov, OptiGrate
Corp. (United States); Larissa Glebova, CREOL, The
College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida(United States); Leonid B. Glebov, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates) and OptiGrate Corp. (United States)

146

States); Christopher G. Brown, Univ. Research Foundation(United States); Jacob H. Leach, Kevin Udwary, Kyma
Technologies, Inc. (United States)·www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9466:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security XI
this work, we report the results of experimental measurements of quantum
efficiency and branching ratio of the erbium initial laser state of 4I11/2 in
Y2O3 ceramic at the temperature range of 10 - 300 K. A series of Er:Y2O3
samples with dopant concentration between 0.2-10 at.% were used for
fluorescence and absorption measurements. The fluorescence from theenergy states corresponding to the visible, IR, and mid-IR transitions werestudied under short-pulsed diode laser excitation. Spectrally-narrowed fibercoupled semiconductor laser modules emitting at ~ 808, 980, and 1530 nmwith variable power density were used for fluorescence excitation of threedifferent Er states. The energy transfer processes for both down- and upconversion, affecting the Er:Y2O3 mid-IR laser operation, were analyzed. A
comparison between the experimental and simulation results are presented
as well.

relatively long pulse gives a several-order higher damage threshold at
the mirrors compared with a typical solid-state pulsed laser. Along with asimplicity of scalability, MJ class pulsed output is not impossible, needlessto say, without electric power supply. While within 0.05ms, a supersonicaircraft can move only a few centimeters which is roughly equal to the spot
size of the focused beam at ~30km away using a large-diameter focusing
mirror. Therefore a large COL has a potential to shoot down an enemy
fighter by a single shot without beam tracking.
Reference 1. K. Takehisa, “New concepts of realizing a chemical oxygen
laser,” SPIE Vol. 9251, (2014).

9466-32, Session PSTue

Analysis and modeling of a high-powerside diode pumped solid state laser system

9466-30, Session PSTue

Yb-fiber-MOPA based high energy andaverage power uplink laser beacon fordeep space communication operating
under Nested PPM format

Tamer Kashef, Ayman M. Mokhtar, Samy S. A. Ghoniemy,
Military Technical College (Egypt); Lawrence Shah,Martin C. Richardson, CREOL, The College of Optics andPhotonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

Doruk Engin, Ibraheem Darab, John Burton, Frank Kimpel,
Shantanu Gupta, Fibertek, Inc. (United States)

This paper summarizes the results of simulation of a module for sidepumping a Nd:YAG rod. The module consists of three laser diode arrays
separated by 120o rotation angle around the laser rod, where each array
contains 10 emitters producing a maximum output power of 15 W at 808 nm
wavelength. This high power diode pumped solid-state (DPSS) laser system
was modeled and implemented in both LASCAD and GLAD simulators.
LASCAD model was used to simulate the laser output power as a function of
the total input power and the output mirror reflectivity. The model predicted
an output power of 140 W for a total input power of approximately 400
W with optical efficiency of 35 %, which is in a good agreement with the
published experimental results and similar commercially available CW DPSS
laser systems. Simulation in GLAD enabled a detailed analysis of the beam
quality, beam size, and mode stability inside the resonator. GLAD models
were used to simulate the pumping light distribution in the Nd:YAG rod forsingle diode element, single diode array, and three diode arrays. The GLAD
shows that a stable multi-transverse mode “top hat” beam is formed after
30 passes through the resonator of the adopted high power DPSS laser
system.

High average and peak power capable (~4kW, 240kW) laser beacons areneeded for deep space optical communication uplinks to serve as absolutereference for precise pointing/tracking of the spacecraft during downlink
laser communication. High-reliability silicon avalanche photo-detectors (SiAPD) are used on the spacecraft to detect the uplink beacon. For improved
SNR in pointing/tracking, and reduced uplink laser power requirement, it
is desirable to operate at shorter wavelengths near 1030nm, where near-IR
Si-APDs have improved (>3X) spectral responsivity. Space qualifiable,highly sensitive detectors at 1064nm are also becoming available and at
Yb cladding pumped fiber amplifiers exhibit higher Raman thresholds atlonger wavelengths. Multiple apertures (~ 8 beams) are preferred to alleviate
scintillation and improve fade characteristics due to the atmosphericturbulence.
A Yb LMA fiber amplifier based, turn-key 1030nm laser transmitter capableof operating with high average power and peak power (~500W, 9kW)
is presented. The prototype, all-fiber, high TRL level laser transmitter isdesigned to meet all the single aperture requirements of an ultimate eight
aperture deep space laser beacon system including capability to operatewith Nested pulse position modulation (PPM) format. Nested PPM format
consist of an inner modulation PPM-12 with 128nsec slot size and an outermodulation PPM-4 65.5usec slot size. In implementing inner modulationstrong pre-pulse shaping is required where PPM pattern dependent pulse
energy variation is minimized. Seven gain stages in the system can support
high distributed-pre-pulse shaping losses. Outer modulation is implemented
by directly modulating VBG locked pump lasers in the final two gain stages
using ultra-fast high power diode drivers. A sophisticated multi-stage,ultra-fast loss of signal (LOS) and backward Raman/lasing protection is
implemented for reliable operation. LOS detects any missing pulses in PPM
pulse train that will cause detrimental overshooting. The modular design for
laser transmitter allows for a straightforward conversion of the operating
wavelength to 1064nm. System is expected to be capable of operating with
18kW of peak power at 1064nm.

9466-18, Session 5

Stimulated Brillouin scattering in opticalfibers with end reflections excited bybroad-band pump waves with different
spectral shapes
Mark S. Bowers, Robert S. Afzal, Lockheed Martin Aculight(United States)
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is the main limitation on achieving
high-power, narrowband laser light from fiber laser systems. One widelyused technique for SBS suppression is modulating the laser radiation tobroaden its linewidth to a value larger than the Brillouin linewidth, resulting
in an increase in the SBS threshold. In this work, we present calculations
for the first time of SBS in passive optical fibers pumped by broadband
laser fields with different spectral shapes that includes the effects of laser
feedback. The transient theory for SBS is used with the proper boundary
condition for the backward-propagating field in the time domain to include
a weak reflection of the laser field. It is shown that the spectral shape of
the incident field and its overlap with the SBS gain spectrum affects the
SBS signal. Numerical examples are presented for an incident laser fieldthat is pulsed with a continuous, filled-in spectrum and a continuous-wave(CW) field with a sinusoidal phase modulation. For the pulsed field witha continuous spectrum and a reflection of 0.01% (-40dB) from the fiber
end, the SBS threshold continuously increases as a function of the laser
spectral width, but at a reduced slope compared to the threshold without

9466-31, Session PSTue

Proposal of a defense application for achemical oxygen laser
Kiwamu Takehisa, O2 Laser Lab. (Japan)
Defense application for a chemical oxygen laser (COL) is explained.
Although a COL has not yet been successful in lasing, a potential to produce
a giant pulse may be useful as a defense application. 1) A COL oscillator
is considered to produce a giant pulse with the FWHM of ~0.05ms. This

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Conference 9466:
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end reflections. For a CW field with a sinusoidal phase modulation and an
end reflection of 0.01%, the SBS threshold drops significantly at discrete
modulation frequencies where the laser and SBS gain spectra overlap. The
implications of these results on the design of high-power fiber laser systems
that utilize spectral broadening to suppress SBS are presented.

9466-21, Session 59466-19, Session 5

Johan Nilsson, Achar V. Harish, Univ. of Southampton(United Kingdom)

Mode-locked and Q-switched fiber lasers
with graphene oxide based saturable
absorber (Invited Paper)
Pu Wang, Jiang Liu, Beijing Univ. of Technology (China)
Graphene oxide, served as the precursor for graphene, has also been widely
investigated for its own physical and chemical characteristics. The presenceof oxygen-containing functional groups makes graphene oxide stronglyhydrophilic and water soluble, which is different with graphene. In addition,although the oxygen functional groups destroy the gapless linear dispersion
of Dirac electrons in graphene and make graphene oxide insulating, it has
been demonstrated that graphene oxide also has a fast energy relaxationof hot carriers and strong saturable absorption, which is comparable withthat of graphene. These properties make graphene oxide as potential
saturable absorber material in pulsed fiber lasers. Here, we will review the
research work of our group at pulsed fiber lasers with graphene oxide
saturable absorber. Firstly, we will introduce a femtosecond erbium-doped
fiber laser mode-locked with graphene oxide saturable absorber, which
can be conveniently obtained from natural graphite by simple oxidation
and ultra-sonication process. The laser directly generated 200 fs pulses at
a repetition rate of 22.9 MHz and the average power was 5.8 mW. With thevariation of net cavity dispersion, output pulses with pulse width of 0.2~3
ps were obtained at a repetition rate of 22.9~0.93 MHz. And then, the stablepassively Q-switched operation by graphene oxide saturable absorber inthe 1 µm ytterbium-, 1.5 µm erbium-, and 2 µm thulium-doped fiber lasers
will be demonstrated as well. These results are comparable with thoseof graphene saturable absorbers and the superiority of easy fabricationand hydrophilic property of graphene oxide will facilitate its potential
applications for ultrafast photonics.

9466-20, Session 5

Narrow-band, all-fiber 100W 20-ps Ybdoped fiber laser source
Robert A. Stegeman, Q-Peak, Inc. (United States); Wenyan
Tian, Q-Peak Inc (United States); Ye Huang, Eric D. Park,
Peter F. Moulton, Q-Peak, Inc. (United States)

The laser consists of a gain-switched diode laser and three amplifiers. Highly
doped Yb-fiber has been used by minimizing fiber lengths to mitigate thenonlinear effects at high peak powers. Judicious use of spectral filtering isapplied to minimize the presence of amplified spontaneous emisison in allof the amplifiers. The laser consists solely of commercially available partsand has the capability to add up to 600 Watts of pump power to the final
amplifier stage.
Due to the high peak and average powers, in tandem with the narrow
bandwidth, this laser can be an attractive source for discrete nonlinear
optics (frequency conversion in nonlinear crystals) or broadband coherent
light (supercontinuum) generation at high average powers.

SPIE DSS 2015

We present results on the nonlinear optimization of arbitrary phase
distribution which can be used to broaden the linewidth of a laser field
to increase the stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) threshold in opticalfiber. Some practical aspects of generation of such an arbitrary signal are
discussed. The arbitrary modulation signal can be realized by an arbitrary
waveform generator with sufficient bandwidth and can be used to drive
the electro-optic phase modulator to produce top-hat shaped optical
spectrum with optimum bandwidth ideal for increasing SBS threshold.
Nonlinear optimization of the modulation signal is carried out with an
ad-hoc algorithm designed to optimize a merit function which gives thebest possible arbitrary signal which can make the optical spectrum a close
approximation to top-hat shape. The problem is deceptively simple, but
contains many pitfalls and trade-offs, which we will discuss.

9466-22, Session 6

Continuous-wave fiber Raman lasers
cladding-pumped directly by diodes(Invited Paper)
Johan Nilsson, Tianfu Yao, Achar V. Harish, Jayanta K.
Sahu, Univ. of Southampton (United Kingdom)
A fiber Raman laser emits at ~ 1019 nm when cladding-pumped directly by
spectrally combined high power multimode laser diodes at ~ 975 nm and.
With a commercial multimode graded-index fiber, we reached 20 W oflaser output power with a record slope efficiency of 80%. With an in-housedouble-clad fiber, the beam quality improved to M2 = 1.9, albeit with a lower
output power and slope efficiency due to higher fiber loss. We review ourlatest results and discuss prospects and possible improvements of this very
promising technology. We believe this is the first demonstration of a fiber
Raman laser cladding-pumped directly by diodes.

9466-23, Session 6

Diode pumped Tm/Ho composite Fiber 2.1?m laser
George A. Newburgh, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)A fully-fiberized, narrow bandwidth 1064-nm fiber laser system has been
demonstrated and achieves over 100 Watts of average power with abandwidth of 0.255 nm. The output consists of 15-ps pulses operating at
a 100 MHz repetition rate. The repetition rate can be set to an arbitrary
number. The output spectrum shows minimal amplified spontaneousemission and no additional nonlinear effects, such as Raman scattering or
self-phase modulation.

148

Arbitrary phase modulation for optical
spectral control and suppression of
stimulated Brillouin scattering

We present the results of an 800 nm diode-pumped solid Tm/Ho composite
Large Area Mode fiber laser operating at 2.1 µm. The Tm/Ho composite
laser fiber architecture consisting of a Tm doped cladding and a Ho doped
core laser glass fiber was shown to efficiently generate and convert 1.9 µm
radiation into 2.1 µm low order spatial mode radiation. Performance results
and beam quality analysis of this first time demonstration of the composite
laser fiber will be presented.

9466-24, Session 6

Extra-low Brillouin gain optical fiber
derived from Er-doped sapphire ceramicMark Dubinskii, Tigran Sanamyan, Robert Pavlacka, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Thomas W. Hawkins,
Clemson Univ. (United States); Peter D. Dragic, Univ. of·

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Conference 9466:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security XI

9466-27, Session 7

Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States); John Ballato,
Clemson Univ. (United States)

A passively q-switched compact solidstate laser

The first extra-low Brillouin gain Er-doped laser fiber was fabricated using
the rod-in-tube fiber draw process. The rod-in-tube fiber preform used
Er-doped sapphire ceramic as the preform core. Spectroscopic (bothoptical and acoustic) properties of Er in a sapphire-derived fiber core havebeen evaluated. First laser experiments in a simplified Master-Oscillator
Power-Amplifier (MOPA) setup have been performed and their results arepresented in our presentation.

Bhabana Pati, Eric D. Park, Q-Peak, Inc. (United States);
Kenneth Stebbins, Q-Peak Inc (United States)
A compact laser with a volume of < 8 cm3 and a weight of < 100 gm finds
its application in many fields from military to space based. There are several
commercial lasers such as micro-chip lasers and fiber based lasers with low
energy, ~?J per pulse at high repetition rates available at near IR wavelength.
Micro-chip lasers have demonstrated 250 ?J of energy at 1064 nm from afiber-end-pumped microchip laser with pulsewidths in the range of 100s of
ps. The actual microchip laser is small but the fiber-coupled pump laser islarge. With engineering, the fiber-coupled laser can be replaced by a diodebar with coupling optics. However, it will not be as compact as our design.

9466-25, Session 6

Power scaling of resonantly-pumped
double-clad fiber laser based on Yb-free
Er-doped silicate glass

We have developed and built a small solid-state laser that produces 1 mJof energy per pulse at a 10 -100 Hz repetition rate. The laser is passively
Q-switched using a Cr:YAG saturable absorber to generate pulses < 10 ns. A
nonlinear crystal doubles the frequency to generate green light at 523 nm.
The laser is side pumped by a single bar diode laser using a unique pumpcavity to homogenize the pump intensity in the laser rod. We designed
the laser components in order to extract the largest fundamental mode forbetter beam quality. The laser components can easily be modified to change
the output wavelength from 1.5 to 3 micron.

Jun Zhang, Radha Pattnaik, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Shibin Jiang, AdValue Photonics, Inc.
(United States); Mark Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
Silica-based fibers are well suitable for application in highly power scalable
Yb-doped lasers. Unfortunately, lasers on Er-doped silica-based fibers are
not as amenable to power scaling due to low maximum core absorption approximately an order of magnitude lower than that of Yb-doped fibers,
which prevents utilization of large pump cladding diameters. In an effort
to get around low solubility and clustering issue alternative glass systems
can be more appropriate as a host for Er doping. For example, silicate glass
has substantially richer chemical composition compared to silica glass andmore complex glass network, which is more amenable to rare-earth dopingat higher concentrations. Presented here are the results of spectroscopic
and laser investigation of double-clad fibers based on Er-doped silicate
glass. An ytterbium-free highly erbium-doped silicate glass fiber has beendeveloped for high-power fiber laser applications at an eye-safe wavelength
near 1.55-1.6 µm. We found out that Er ion concentration over eight times
that of conventional silica fibers can be doped in the developed silicate glass
without causing discernible fluorescence quenching or clustering. Due tomuch higher dopant concentration, the optimal length of Er-doped silicate
gain fiber in the laser is much shorter than that of silica fiber reference usedin our experiments. This is critically important for high-power narrow-band
operation or pulsed laser applications. Our experiments also show that laser
efficiency of over 75% can be obtained from Er-doped silicate fiber under
the resonant pumping at 1535 nm.

In this paper we will discuss the laser performance under different
environmental conditions. We will also discuss and present laser
performance at different output wavelengths by changing a few laser
components. We will present data on laser power, energy per pulse,
repetition rate, beam quality, pulse width and the dependency of theseparameters on each other. We will discuss our future improved design tofurther reduce the foot print to ~ 4.4 cm3 and weight to under 60 gm.

9466-28, Session 7

Development of a compact laser target
designator
Stephen T. Lee, Andrew G. Borthwick, Graham Morton,
Ian McRae, Norman Imlach, George Gardiner, Gordon
McKinlay, William Alexander, Mark Silver, Thales UK Ltd.
(United Kingdom)
Lasers intended for application to man-portable and hand-held laser target
designators are subject to significant constraints on size, weight, power
consumption and cost. These constraints must be met while maintaining
adequate performance across a challenging environmental specification.
This dichotomy has led a number of companies to introduce low-energy‘marker’ devices. These lasers can be used to mark a target for anothercooperative platform but lack sufficient output energy to safely performthe function of terminal guidance (as defined for NATO by STANAG 3733).
In addition the environmental performance of these marker devices isoften seriously compromised. This paper presents work on a laser sourcewith size, weight, power consumption and cost comparable to that of thelasers marketed for marking applications, while providing energy output
performance that is compatible with full designator specification.

9466-26, Session 7

Novel broadly tunable fiber laser system
Steven Bowman, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Christopher G. Brown, Univ. Research Foundation (UnitedStates)The Naval Research Laboratory is developing a source capable of rapid
tuning from the visible through the mid-infrared. The system design isbased on sum and difference frequency generation in a monolithic, fiberarchitecture. The system incorporates short pulsed lasers at 1?m, 1.5?m,and 1.9?m; based on Ytterbium, Erbium, and Thulium fiber amplifiers.
These amplifiers are injected by distributed feedback (DFB) laser diodes,
which determine the precise wavelengths and pulse durations. Switching
between multiple DFB diodes allows for rapid spectral tuning. The goal isto generate several kilowatts of peak power and 20W of average power foreach fiber amplifier. The polarized output of these single-mode fiber lasers
are combined into a novel switching nonlinear network. Sum and difference
frequencies are generated via quasi-phase matching in Lithium Niobate,
Gallium Nitride, and Gallium Arsenide crystals. This paper will review thedesign and performance of the system.

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One of the challenges of operating a Nd3+:YAG laser over a broad ambient
temperature range is that of diode-pump-tuning. Around 808nm, laser
diodes tune at approximately 0.3nm/°C. This system is specified to operateover an ambient temperature range of –46°C to +71°C, and the systemelectrical power consumption requirements preclude active temperature
control. As a result the laser must tolerate a 32.8nm pump wavelength
range. The optical absorption of Nd3+:YAG varies dramatically over thiswavelength range. This paper presents a laser that minimises the effect of
this change on laser output.
A folded U-shaped geometry laser resonator is presented, made up of acorner cube at one end and a plane mirror substrate at the other. The action·

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149

Conference 9466:
Laser Technology for Defense and Security XIof the corner cube coupled with this configuration of end mirrors results
in a resonator that is significantly less sensitive to misalignment of the end
mirror and/or the corner cube.
This U-shaped resonator is then further folded to fit the laser into asmaller volume. Insensitivity of this compact folded resonator to mirror
misalignments was analysed in Zemax via a Monte-Carlo analysis and theresults of this analysis are presented.
The resulting laser output energy, pulse duration and beam quality of thisathermally pumped, misalignment insensitive folded laser resonator arepresented. Results for performance over an ambient temperature range of–46°C to +71°C are shown.

9466-29, Session 7

20.2W CW 2.118?m Ho:YAlO3 laser
pumped by 1.915?m Tm-doped fiber laser
Ting Yu, Gang Bai, Zhongguo Yang, Weibiao Chen,
Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics (China)
The emission wavelengths of holmium lasers lie in the eye-safe bandwidth
region, and strong absorption lines of water and weak absorption lines
of atmosphere are also located in the range. Therefore, they have great
potential applications in a wide range of fields such as medical diagnoses
and therapy, photoelectric countermeasure, laser range finder and laser
radar. Furthermore, high-power quasi-continuous wave 2-?m lasers withhigh peak power are effective pump sources of optical parametricaloscillators and optical parametrical amplifications to generate radiation
further in the mid-infrared region. The 2-?m lasers based on Ho-doped
crystals end-pumped by 1.9-?m lasers can obtain high power at room
temperature.
We report on the continuous wave operation of a Ho:YAP laser pumped byan all-fiber Tm-doped fiber laser, the pump laser wavelength is 1.915-?m andthe output laser wavelength is 2.118-?m. The all fiber Tm-doped fiber laser
is pumped by three high power clad-pumped LD, which are combined by a
3*1 combiner. The maximum output power of each LD is 70w.The doubleclad Tm-doped fiber has a dimension of 25/250?m with the core/clad NA
0.09/0.46, cooling by a water cooled heat-sink. And a pair of multi-mode
FBGs is used as cavity. After striping the pump light?the max output poweris 70W with 200W pumped power, and the output laser wavelength is
1.915--?m. And this laser is used as pump laser to a Ho:YAP laser system.
The output is coupled into the Ho:YAP crystal by a pair of collimate lens.
The solid-state Ho:YAP laser uses a flat-concave cavity structure. With
30% transmission of output coupling, the compact Ho:YAP laser generated
20.2W continuous wave output for 33.3W absorbed pump power,
corresponding to a slope efficiency of 72.53%, an optic-to-optic efficiency of
60.67%. The lasing wavelength was 2118.4nm with a line-width of 0.159nm.
And the output beam quality of M2 was 1.11 at 8.83W output power level.

150

SPIE DSS 2015·

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
Monday - Friday 20–24 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9467 Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII

9467-1, Session 1

surfaces and allow for reliable, relatively long-term electronic measurementsof vital signals. A multielectrode array (MEA) coupled with an organictransistor active matrix is manufactured on an ultrathin polymeric substrateshow how this design can absorb the stress under extreme deformation.
The surface of each electrode is coated with a photopatternable adhesivegel. The MEA could be attached to the surface of a moving body, resulting
in good conformal contact for more than 3 h. We also succeed to integratewith organic amplifier and succeed to magnify the bio signal almost 100
times amplified. Furthermore, arrays of highly sensitive, stretchable strain
sensors are fabricated using a similar electronic design. These could be
attached on human skin to detect the strain induced by the motion of thejoint.

Epidermal and bioresorbable electronicsystems for clinical medicine (Invited
Paper)
John A. Rogers, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign(United States)
Recent research has established a set of foundational materials anddevice designs for integrated circuits and sensor systems that can (1)adopt the thicknesses and mechanical properties of the skin, and (2)dissolve at controlled rates in biofluids. The former, which we refer to as
epidermal electronics, can softly laminate onto the surface of the skin toprovide advanced measurements of physiological health. The latter, which
represents a subset of a technology that we refer to as transient electronics,
can insert into the body for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes in thecontext of natural processes such as wound healing. This talk describes
these core technologies, with an emphasis on examples of their clinically
relevant modes of use, as demonstrated through studies on animal models
and human subject volunteers.

9467-4, Session 1

Molecularly stretchable electronics
for mechanically robust and wearable
semiconductor devices (Invited Paper)
Darren J. Lipomi, Univ. of California, San Diego (UnitedStates)9467-2, Session 1

The term “plastic electronics” masks the wide range of mechanicalbehavior possessed by films of π-conjugated (semiconducting) small
molecules and polymers. Mechanical compliance can be influenced
strongly by differences in structure that appear minor. For example,
poly(3-heptylthiophene) (P3HpT) is an order of magnitude more elastic
than is poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT). There is also an apparent trade-off
between electronic performance and mechanical compliance in films ofsome of the best-performing conjugated polymers and polymer-fullerene
blends, which fracture at tensile strains not significantly greater thanthose at which conventional inorganic semiconductors fail. The design ofmaterials that can be deformed significantly would facilitate roll-to-roll
production, mechanical robustness for potable applications, conformal
bonding to curved surfaces (i.e., for implantable biomedical devices), andwould enable large-scale solar farms based on ultrathin organic modules
that can survive forces of the outdoor environment. This seminar describes
my group’s efforts to understand and control the structural parametersthat influence the mechanical properties of modern conjugated polymers.
Our conclusions include the strong effect of the side chain in determining
the elasticity, ductility, and adhesion of polymers and their blends withfullerenes, and how this effect can be predicted by theory. Ultra-compliant
materials are used for the first time in solar cell that can be stretched andconformed to hemispherical surfaces without damage. We also describe thesynthesis of all-conjugated, segmented copolymers, along with stretchable
fabrics of semiconducting nanowires, whose goal is to maximize bothelectronic properties and mechanical compliance. Mechanical, electronic,
and spectroscopic evidence suggest that compliance and electronic
performance need not be in competition, and could inform the engineeringof the next generation of semiconducting polymers for mechanically tough,ultra-flexible, and stretchable applications.

Edible Electronics: materials and devices
for next-generation medical implants(Invited Paper)
Christopher J. Bettinger, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (UnitedStates)Electronic medical implants serve as a key pillar in many therapeuticstrategies. Classes of implantable devices include biosensors, controlled
release systems, and tissue stimulation devices. While the sophisticationof these implants has increased over recent years, there are many
persistent challenges that may limit the prospective impact of permanent
implantable device-based therapies. These include risk of infection, chronic
inflammation, and costly surgical procedures. This talk will introduce theidea of edible electronic devices as a strategy to overcome many of thesechallenges. Two specific innovations will be discussed in this talk. First,
the performance of edible batteries fabricated from biologically-derived
melanin pigments will be examined. Second, the use of ultra-compliant
electronically active hydrogels that integrate edible devices with soft tissue
will be discussed. Prospective medical applications for edible electronic will
be highlighted.

9467-3, Session 1

A strategy for establishing stable contact
between machine/biological tissue (Invited
Paper)

9467-5, Session 1

Sungwon Lee, The Univ. of Tokyo (Japan)

Soft electronics for soft robotics (Invited
Paper)In order to precisely measure the electrical signals from the human body,
it is crucial to establish stable, soft, and nonallergic contacts between thetargeted biological tissue and the probes from the devices as well as thegood performance of the device itself. So far, it has been difficult to form astable interface between them, especially when the surface of the biologicaltissue is wet and/or the tissue exhibits motion. Here we suggest one simple
way to solve the difficulty by designing and fabricating smart, stressabsorbing electronic devices that can adhere to wet and complex tissue

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Rebecca K. Kramer, Purdue Univ. (United States)
As advanced as modern machines are, the building blocks have changed
little since the industrial revolution, leading to rigid, bulky, and complex
devices. Future machines will include electromechanical systems that aresoft and elastically deformable, lending them to applications such as soft·

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
robotics, wearable/implantable devices, sensory skins, and energy storage
and transport systems. Current “soft electronics” utilize polymeric electrodematerials, resulting in increased flexibility and decreased obscurationcompared to conventional metal electrodes. However, these conductive
polymers often have sheet resistances far in excess of metals, leading tosignificant losses and limited stretchability. The use of liquid-metal alloys
encased in hyperelastic polymers addresses both of these challenges andcompliments many flexible/stretchable applications by exploiting theinherent properties of liquid-metals, such as their metallic conductance,
deformability, and potential for self-healing and shape-reconfiguration.

9467-6, Session 1

momentum under JA Rogers’ leadership: transient or dissolvable electronics.
In such electronics after certain period electronics can be dissolved. Taking
this progress to next level we have studied polymer assisted programmableself-destruction of inorganic electronics. Moving forward we haveengineered completely CMOS compatible process technology for hybrid
integration of organic-0D nanomaterials-1D nanowires/nanotubes and 2D
atomic crystal structure materials (which are inherently flexible due to theirchemical bonding or low dimension) with ultra-thin flexible and stretchable
inorganic electronics to transform any traditional electronics into monolithic
in-plane and 3D out-of-plane electronic systems whose applications areas
are wide and previously unimaginable.

9467-8, Session 1

Liquid metals as ultra-stretchable, soft,and shape reconfigurable conductors(Invited Paper)

Low cost, high throughput cut-and-paste
manufacture of multifunctional epidermal
electronic systems (Invited Paper)

Michael D. Dickey, North Carolina State Univ. (UnitedStates)Nanshu Lu, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (United States)

9467-7, Session 1

Epidermal electronic system (EES) is a class of non-invasive and nonobstructive skin mounted sensors with mechanical properties matching
human epidermis. They are considered the most intimate and comfortable
wearable sensors for vital sign and physiology monitoring including
electrocardiogram (ECG), electromyogram (EMG), skin temperature, skinhydration and so on. Conventional manufacturing process of EES includes
photolithography, metal deposition, dry and wet etching within cleanroom
facilities. The high cost of manpower, materials, photo masks, and facilities
associated with such process greatly hinders the commercialization
potential of disposable EES. There has been little improvement of the
manufacturing method since EES was first published in 2011. Here we reporta low cost, bench top, “cut-and-paste” method to complete the manufactureof highly customized EES within minutes. This method works for all typesof thin metal, graphene, and polymeric sheets and the resulted EES can behighly multimaterial and multifunctional. Our “cut-and-paste” EES has beensuccessfully applied to measure ECG, EMG, skin temperature, skin hydration,
as well as skin deformation. Negligible or no difference in functionality andperformance was found between EES manufactured by conventional and“cut-and-paste” methods. In addition to EES, We have also extended our“cut-and-paste” method to manufacture stretchable electronics based onbrittle ceramic materials. A vast range of applications of the “cut-and-paste”
manufacturing method including the manufacture of stretchable circuitboards are anticipated.

Transformational electronics are now
reconfiguring (Invited Paper)

9467-9, Session 1

This talk will discuss work in our group to pattern and actuate liquid metals
for stretchable, reconfigurable, and transient electronics. The metal is analloy of gallium. These alloys are noted for their low viscosity, low toxicity,and negligible volatility. Despite the large surface tension of the metal, it canbe molded into non-spherical 2D and 3D shapes due to the presence of an
ultra-thin oxide skin that forms on its surface. The metal can be patternedby injection into microchannels or by direct-write techniques. Because it
is a liquid, the metal is extremely soft and flows in response to stress toretain electrical continuity under extreme deformation. By embedding themetal into elastomeric substrates, it is possible to form soft electrodes andoptical components, stretchable antennas, and ultra-stretchable wires thatmaintain metallic conductivity up to ~800% strain. The ability of the oxide
to reform instantaneously also allows the metal to self-heal in response
to damage. In addition, the ability to remove the oxide electrochemicallyprovides a new means to control the shape of the metal for reconfigurable
and transient electronics. We show that the oxide is one of the best
surfactants ever reported and can tune the surface tension of the metal overan unprecedented range by using electrochemical reactions at the surfaceof the metal.

Jhonathan Rojas, Aftab Hussain, King Abdullah Univ. of
Science and Technology (Saudi Arabia); A Arevalo, King
Abdullah Univ of Science and Technology (Saudi Arabia);
Ian G Foulds, The University of British Columbia, Okanagan
Campus (Canada); Galo Torres Sevilla, Joanna Nassar,
Muhammad M. Hussain, King Abdullah Univ. of Science andTechnology (Saudi Arabia)

Flexible phosphorene devices and circuits(Invited Paper)

For nearly two decades flexible organic electronics have been exploredfor display and sensor (such as RFID tag) applications. At the same time,
for nearly a decade JA Rogers et al. has spearheaded flexing of inorganic
electronics by making them ultra-thin. Recently new techniques have been
demonstrated including ours where bulk mono-crystalline silicon based
electronics have been flexed while retaining their inherent high performance,
ultra-large-scale-integration density, cost effectiveness and such. We
deploy two techniques: trench-protect-peel-reuse and soft etch back. These
techniques have shown maturity and reliability in process consistency anddevice characteristics. While flexible electronics is slowly approaching
mass commercialization effort, stretchable electronics based on polymericmaterial has made its move. Again JA Rogers et al. has shown fractal design
based stretching of silicon and other inorganic electronics. Recently we haveshown unprecedented 800% stretching from copper metallic interconnect.
For the last two years another area of such electronics has gained

Two dimensional atomic sheets, such as graphene and Transition Metal
Dichalcogenides (TMDs), have been widely studied as the ideal candidates
in flexible nanoelectronics applications. However, for both gapless graphene
and wide-gap TMDs, challenges for achieving high carrier mobility and highcurrent on/off ratio simultaneously seems difficult to overcome. Recently,
graphene-like few-layer black phosphorus, with high hole transport mobility
along armchair direction and thickness-dependent band gap, has become anew promising candidate for future high frequency and low power flexible
electronics.

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SPIE DSS 2015·

Weinan Zhu, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (United States);
Maruthi N. Yogeesh, Univ of Texas at Austin (UnitedStates); Deji Akinwande, The Univ. of Texas at Austin(United States)

In this work, we present the first realization of few-layer black phosphorus
field effect transistors (BP-FETs) and fundamental circuit units on flexible
substrate. Dielectric capping was applied to resolve the air stability issue ofphosphorene, resulting in strong am-bipolar transfer characters with verysmall hysteresis (<60mV). For phosphorene of 5nm to 15 nm thick, highwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
monitoring, data storage, inflammation suppression, localized drugdelivery, and hyperthermia therapy. Quantitative analyses of sensing
and actuating performances of these systems under various conditions
verify the individual components and in vivo experiments of both systems
demonstrate the validity of their system-level functions. These systems
combine the cutting edge of flexible, stretchable and transient electronics toprovide new opportunities and insights in biointegrated electronic devices.

room temperature hole-mobility and current on/off ratio are > 300 cm2/
Vs and > 104, respectively. Besides the outstanding device performance,
basic circuit units have been realized with appealing performance, including
digital inverter, frequency doubler, inverting and non-inverting amplifiers.
Our results in this work indicate that few layer black phosphorene has thepotential to be most compelling nanomaterial for flexible nanoelectronics.

9467-10, Session 1

9467-12, Session 1

Transfer printing methods for fabricating
nanowire devices on diverse substrates(Invited Paper)

Paper electronics: the next flexible,
foldable,and stretchable electronics(Invited Paper)

Xiaolin Zheng, Stanford Univ. (United States)

Jr-Hau He, King Abdullah Univ. of Science and Technology(Saudi Arabia); Der-Hsien Lien, Po-Kang Yang, National
Taiwan Univ. (Taiwan); Chun-Ho Lin, King Abdullah Univ. of
Science and Technology (Saudi Arabia)

Fabrication of nanowire (NW) electronic devices on flexible, transparent,
ultrathin, or biocompatible substrates will impact a range of technologies,
such as flexible displays, solar cells, and biosensors. Previous efforts
have successfully fabricated flexible/transparent horizontal NW devices
on plastics, glasses and thick polymer sheet by conducting lithography
directly on these substrates. However, the choice of substrates is severely
limited by their compatibility with lithography. Hence, new methods areneeded to remove these fabrication constrains such that NW devices canbe realized on more nonconventional substrates, such as paper, fabric,
and metal foils. Moreover, it is highly desirable to fabricate vertical NW
devices on diverse substrates to increase the device density and improvethe device performance such as light absorption and gating properties.
This presentation will introduce two transfer printing methods we havedeveloped toward these goals. The first method is a simple, versatile, andwafer-scale water-assisted transfer printing method (WTP) that enables
integration of NW devices onto diverse nonconventional substrates whichwere not easily accessible before, such as paper, plastics, tapes, glasses,
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Al foils, and ultrathin polymer substrates. The
WTP method relies on a phenomenon of water intervening at the interface
between two hydrophilic surfaces. The transfer yield is nearly 100%, andthe transferred devices maintain their original geometries and electronic
properties with high fidelity. The second method enables transfer of vertical
SiNW arrays with uniform length onto adhesive substrates by the assistanceof creating a horizontal crack throughout SiNWs. The crack is formed byadding a water soaking step between consecutive Ag-assisted electrolessetching processes of Si. The crack formation is related to the delamination,
redistribution and reattachment of the Ag film during the water soaking andsubsequent wet etching steps. Moreover, the crack facilitates fabrication ofvertical NW devices.

Recently, with more interests in cheap, simple and energy-saving fabrication
processes for microelectronics, much attention has been focused on making
electronic devices using printing techniques on any desired substrates,
especially those so-called flexible electronics. Printed and flexible
electronics is expected to reach $45 billion by 2016. Paper, as a flexible,
foldable, cost-efficient and mass productive substrate, has shown diverse
applications for flexible electronics to meet such demand. Recently, we
have demonstrated the first nonvolatile resistive memory using the papers
as substrates by means of all-printing techniques. Using a sequence ofinkjet and screen printing techniques, a simple metal-insulator-metal device
structure is fabricated on paper as a resistive random access memory witha potential to reach gigabyte capacities on an A4 paper. We show that the
paper memory can be labeled on electronics or living objects for multifunctional, wearable, on-skin, and biocompatible applications. Besides the
fabrication of electronics on paper, we also put the algorithm of Origami
art into the device design for the flexible electronics taking advantage ofthe foldability. For example, the concept of Miura-origami can be applied tofabricate photodetectors, which can promise super stretachability (strain >1000%), twisting capability and omnidirectionality. The concept of origami
can be applied on other devices, such as solar cells and nanogenerators, toboost their conversion efficiencies. Discovering renewable and sustainable
power sources is indispensable for the development of green electronics
and sensor networks. Recently we present the first origami triboelectric
nanogenerators (TENGs) using paper as the starting material, with highdegree of ﬂexibility, light weight, low cost, and recyclability. Slinky anddoodlebug shape TENGs can be easily fabricated by properly folding printerpapers. These findings will pave a way for future energy harvesting andsensor design, especially for the development of green flexible electronics.

9467-11, Session 1

Stretchable inorganic nanomembre
electronics for healthcare devices (Invited
Paper)

9467-13, Session 2

20 kHz ultrasound assisted treatment ofchronic wounds with concurrent optic
monitoring (Invited Paper)

Dae-Hyeong Kim, Donghee Son, Jaemin Kim, Seoul
National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
Recent advances in prosthetic and implantable devices comprising
microelectronics and nanomaterials have attracted great attention fromresearchers involved with biomedical application. However, conventional
devices integrated on inherently rigid substrate prevent from solving
unique integration challenges for implantable devices and prosthetic
skin. Here, we describe novel materials and design strategies forconstructing multifunctional prosthetic skin and bioresorbable stentwhich incorporate variety of flexible/stretchable sensors and actuators
for their unique functionalities. The multifunctional prosthetic skin is
instrumented with ultrathin, single crystalline silicon nanoribbon strain,pressure, and temperature sensor arrays as well as associated humidity
sensors, electroresistive heaters, and stretchable multi-electrode arrays(MEA) for nerve stimulation. The bioresorbable stent comprises druginfused functionalized nanoparticles to enable flow sensing, temperature

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Christopher R. Bawiec, Youhan Sunny, Drexel Univ. (UnitedStates); David Diaz, Sumati Nadkarni, Drexel University(United States); Michael S. Weingarten, Drexel Univ.
College of Medicine (United States); David J. Margolis,
Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States); Leonid A. Zubkov,
Michael T. Neidrauer, Peter A. Lewin, Drexel Univ. (UnitedStates)We report the results of a second clinical pilot study (n=17) involving
treatment of chronic venous ulcers using a novel, fully wearable, tetherfree, ultrasound applicator operating at 20 kHz and generating pressure
amplitudes close to 55 kPa (about 100 mW/cm2, ISPTP). Patients withvenous ulcers that have been documented for a minimum of 8 weeks were·

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enrolled from the Drexel Wound Healing Center according to the protocol
approved by the University IRB, and randomly assigned into treatment orcontrol groups. Patients were treated weekly (15 minutes) for a maximumof 12 visits or until wound closure. The treatments were given in addition to
standard of care compression therapy as ordered by the physician. Of thepatients attending at least 3 sessions (n=16), the ultrasound treated group
had statistically improved (p<0.04) rate of wound size change (reduction of
8.2%/wk) compared to the rate of wound size change for the control group(increase of 7.5%/wk on average). Concurrently with ultrasound treatment,
non-invasive optical diffuse spectroscopy was successfully used to monitor
the ulcers’ healing status by measuring tissue oxygenation and blood flowin the capillary network. The optical system provided an early prognosis
tool for the monitoring of healing outcomes, potentially enabling an agileintervention and customization of wound management. This study supports
the notion that active low frequency ultrasound treatment of chronic venous
ulcers combined with the current standard of care promotes the healing
process and can potentially be performed at the patient’s home, away fromthe clinical setting. Acknowledgement: NIH 5R01EB009670.

9467-14, Session 2

Guiding tissue regeneration withultrasound in vitro and in vivo (Invited
Paper)
Diane Dalecki, Univ. of Rochester (United States); Eric S.
Comeau, Carol H. Raeman, Sally Z. Child, Laura Hobbs,
University of Rochester (United States); Denise C. Hocking,
Univ. of Rochester (United States)
Developing new technologies that enable the repair or replacement of
injured or diseased tissues is a major focus of regenerative medicine. This
presentation will discuss three ultrasound technologies under developmentin our laboratories to guide tissue regeneration both in vitro and in vivo.
A critical obstacle in tissue engineering is the need for rapid and effective
tissue vascularization strategies. To address this challenge, we havedeveloped an ultrasound technology for microvascular tissue engineering.
Acoustic radiation forces associated with ultrasound standing wave
fields provide a rapid, non-invasive approach to spatially pattern cells
in three dimensions without affecting cell viability. Ultrasound-induced
patterning of endothelial cells leads to the rapid formation of microvascular
networks throughout the volumes of three-dimensional hydrogels, and themorphology of the resultant microvessel networks can be controlled bydesign of the ultrasound field. A second technology under development
uses ultrasound to noninvasively control the microstructure of collagenfibers within engineered tissues. The microstructure of extracellularmatrix proteins provides signals that direct cell functions critical to tissue
regeneration. Thus, controlling collagen microfiber structure with ultrasoundprovides a noninvasive approach to regulate the mechanical properties ofbiomaterials and control cellular responses. The third technology employs
therapeutic ultrasound to enhance the healing of chronic wounds. Recent
studies have shown increased granulation tissue thickness and collagendeposition in murine dermal wounds exposed to pulsed ultrasound (1MHz, 0.4 MPa). In summary, ultrasound technologies offer noninvasive
approaches to control cell behaviors and extracellular matrix organizationand thus hold great promise to advance tissue regeneration.

9467-15, Session 2

Ultrasound induced neurostimulation(Invited Paper)
Randy L. King, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (UnitedStates)Developments in the use of ultrasound to stimulate and modulate neuralactivity have raised the possibility of using ultrasound as a new investigative
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induced neurostimulation has a long history dating back many decades, but
until now there has been little evidence demonstrating a clearly localized
effect in the brain, a necessary requirement for the technique to become
genuinely useful. Here we report clearly distinguishable effects in sonicating
rostral and caudal regions of the mouse motor cortex. Motor responses
measured by normalized EMG in the neck and tail regions changed
significantly when sonicating the two different areas of motor cortex.
Response latencies varied significantly according to sonication locationsuggesting that different neural circuits are activated depending on the
precise focus of the ultrasound beam. Taken together our findings present
good evidence for being able to target selective parts of the motor cortex
with ultrasound neurostimulation in the mouse, an advance that should help
to set the stage for developing new applications in larger animal models andultimately humans.

9467-16, Session 2

Targeted delivery of GABA via ultrasoundinduced blood-brain barrier disruption
blocks somatosensory-evoked potentials(Invited Paper)
Nathan McDannold, Yongzhi Zhang, Chanikarn Power,
Costas Arvanitis, Natalia Vykhodtseva, Brigham and
Women’s Hospital (United States); Margaret Livingstone,
Harvard Medical School (United States)
When focused ultrasound pulses are combined with a microbubble
ultrasound contrast agent, one can temporarily disrupt the blood-brain
barrier (BBB) and enable the delivery of drugs to precisely selected targets
or volumes. This method can enable new and better treatments for brain
tumors and other CNS disorders. The method can also enable the deliveryof substances that modulate brain function. This study demonstrated thattargeted delivery of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-Aminobutyricacid (GABA), a small molecule (103 Da) that normally does not reach thebrain with systemic administration, can temporarily block brain activity after
ultrasound-induced BBB disruption.
Focused ultrasound exposures (10 ms bursts applied at 1 Hz for 60 s;pressure amplitude in water: 0.64-0.71 MPa) were delivered immediately
after the administration of Definity microbubbles (20 or 40 µl/kg) to disrupt
the BBB. The focal point was targeted to 10 overlapping targets on andaround the somatosensory motor cortex (2 mm lateral, 2 mm posterior to
bregma) under MRI guidance in 8 rats. BBB disruption was confirmed using
Gd-DTPA MRI contrast agent (Magnevist, 0.25 ml/kg). After the sonications,electrodes were implanted into the thigh muscle to electrically stimulate
the sciatic nerve (stimulation voltage: 9-20 V). Somatosensory evoked
potentials (SSEP) were recorded transcranially before and after intravenous
GABA at doses ranging from 0.8 to 519 mg/kg. The SSEP recordings wererepeated in three animals at 24h after sonication and one animal at 5 days.
SSEP measurements were obtained in four control animals who received
GABA but not ultrasound-induced BBB disruption.
The amplitude of the SSEP recordings in the animals who received GABA
and ultrasound-induced BBB disruption were reduced by 6-99%. There
was a good correlation (R?: 0.69-0.90) between the percent suppressionin SSEP magnitude and GABA dose. This suppression also correlated withthe degree of BBB disruption – for similar GABA doses, animals that had
less suppression also had weaker enhancement in MRI after Gd-DTPA
administration. For relatively small doses of GABA (0.8-64 mg/kg), theduration of the suppression lasted between 2-20 min, with higher doses
resulting in longer durations. At high doses (422 mg/kg and above)the suppression lasted the length of the recordings (up to 100 min). No
significant suppression was observed after GABA administration in control
animals or in recordings performed 24h or 5d after the sonications.
This work demonstrates an ultrasound-based method to block neuronal
function at targeted structures. It has some advantages over otherultrasound “neuromodulation” techniques: the ability to use contrast MRI
to definitively confirm where the suppression is targeted, the ability tosuppress multiple targets simultaneously, the ability to titrate the GABA

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
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dose to control the level of suppression, and the ability to recover the animal
from anesthesia and transiently block function in a freely behaving animal.
Since the effects of GABA and other neurotransmitters have been studied
for decades, the mechanisms of the suppression are well understood. We
anticipate that the use of neurotransmitters in this way can be useful for
noninvasively mapping brain function and potentially for surgical planningor novel therapies.

antimicrobial blue light successfully prevented the development of infection
in mouse burns, and successfully eradicated the infections in mouse burns
when infections developed. We concluded that antimicrobial blue light is a
viable approach against microbial wound infections.

9467-19, Session 3

Therapeutic efficacy ofphotobiomodulation for the treatment of
autoimmune demyelination (Invited Paper)

9467-17, Session 2

Ultrasound-based biomodulation
mechanisms, devices and applications inmedicine (Invited Paper)

Jeri-Anne Lyons, Univ. of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (UnitedStates)George K. Lewis, ZetrOZ, Inc. (United States)

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of thecentral nervous system (CNS) characterized by an immune-mediatedattack on CNS axons. While early disease is due to autoimmunity, diseaseprogression is due to increased oxidative stress and death of the axon.
Current therapies are only partially effective because they only target theimmune response and do not protect against oxidative stress. In addition
to destructive autoimmunity, a role of protective regulatory T cells in
preventing disease is recently recognized. Experimental Autoimmune
Encephalomyelitis (EAE) is the primary animal model for MS, sharing
clinical and histopathologic similarities with MS. The EAE model has been
instrumental in developing therapeutic strategies. Previous data from ourlab demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of photobiomodulation with
670nm light in the amelioration of EAE through down-regulation of proinflammatory mediators, up-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines, andprotection of CNS cells from apoptotic cell death. A clear understandingof the mechanism by 670 nm light induced photobiomodulation is criticalto the approval of this novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of
MS. Data will be presented that demonstrates the induction of protective
regulatory T cells by 670 nm light. These cells are expected to play a directrole in the protection against clinical disease afforded by 670 nm light. A
deeper understanding of these mechanisms may suggest other therapeutic
applications of far red/near infrared light.

An exciting area of research over the last ten years has been elucidating
the effects of low intensity mechanical forces on biological systems.
Ultrasound is an established, effective therapeutic modality for introducing
mechanical forces into the body. Static and dynamic mechanical forces canimpact cell migration, protein expression profiles, cell fate, and membrane
permeability. While high intensity mechanical forces are successfully usedin cell ablation, low intensity mechanical forces increase transport kinetics,
activate mechanically sensitive membrane proteins, and cause cells toexperience cycles of compression and rarefaction. This concept of using
low intensity ultrasound over long durations has been named “Sustained
Acoustic Medicine” (SAM). Studies of low intensity ultrasound for enhanced
drug delivery in the brain relied upon miniaturized needle-focusedultrasonic delivery technology to control diffusive and convective transportphenomena in poroelastic neuronal tissue. SAM has also been used as awearable physiotherapy to improve healing outcomes. Ultrasound has anestablished history in bone regrowth and regeneration. Recent researchhas demonstrated the ability of ultrasound to assist in tendon healing
and regrowth, as well as relieve painful muscle spasms. Ongoing research
efforts in biology and technology are expanding our knowledge about
how ultrasound can be used to treat conditions such as osteoarthritis andback pain, and the design of delivery platforms that are self-applied andwearable, respectively. Low intensity mechanical forces delivered with SAM
are a success story in the field of translational research using low intensity
energy deposition for biomodulation.

9467-20, Session 3

Red/near-infrared light-emitting diodetherapy for traumatic brain injury (Invited
Paper)

9467-18, Session 3

Antimicrobial blue light therapy for
microbial wound infections (Invited Paper)

Margaret A. Naeser, VA Boston Healthcare System(United States); Paula I. Martin, Michael Ho, Maxine H.
Krengel, Yelena Bogdanova, VA Boston Healthcare System(United States) and Boston Univ. School of Medicine(United States); Jeffrey A. Knight, VA Boston Healthcare
System (United States); Megan K. Yee, VA Boston
Healthcare System (United States) and Boston Univ.
School of Public Health (United States); Ross Zafonte,
Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital (United States) andHarvard Medical School (United States); Judith A. Frazier,
Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital (United States); Michael
R. Hamblin, Wellman Ctr. for Photomedicine (UnitedStates) and Harvard Medical School (United States); BangBon Koo, Boston Univ. (United States)

Tianhong Dai, Massachusetts General Hospital (UnitedStates) and Harvard Medical School (United States)
The threat of antibiotic resistance has necessitated the search for alternative
approaches against microbial wound infections. Antimicrobial blue lighthas been attracting increasing attention due to its intrinsic antimicrobial
effect without the involvement of exogenous photosensitizers. In thisstudy, we investigated the effectiveness, safety and mechanism of actionof antimicrobial blue light against microbial wound infections. Gramnegative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii andyeast Candida albicans were used as the representative species. In vitro
study demonstrated that antimicrobial blue light at 415 nm selectively
inactivated microbes in both planktonic cultures and biofilms over humankeratinocytes. Transmission electron microscopy revealed blue lightmediated ultrastructural damage in microbial cells. High-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) confirmed the presence of endogenous porphyrins,
which are assumed to be responsible for the antimicrobial activity of blue
light. No elevated resistance to antimicrobial blue light was observed
after 10 cycles of sublethal blue light inactivation of the microbes. In vivo
study was also carried out by using a mouse model of third degree burns
infected with above microbes. Blue light was initiated at 30 min or 48 h
after bacterial inoculation. In vivo bioluminescence imaging technique wasused to monitor in real time the extent of infections. Our results showed that

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This invited paper reviews our research with scalp application of red/near-infrared (NIR) light-emitting diodes (LED) to improve cognition inchronic, traumatic brain injury (Naeser, Zafonte, et al., 2014). Applicationof red/NIR, laser/LED light improves mitochondrial function (especially inhypoxic/compromised cells) promoting increased ATP, important for cellular
metabolism. Nitric oxide is released locally, increasing regional cerebral
blood flow (rCBF). Eleven chronic, mTBI participants with closed-head
injury and persistent cognitive dysfunction were treated for 18 outpatient·

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sessions (MWF, 6 Wks), starting at 10 Mo to 8 Yr post-mTBI (MVA, sportsrelated, IED blast injury). LED therapy is non-invasive, painless, non-thermal(FDA-cleared, non-significant risk device). Each LED cluster head (2.1”
diameter, 500mW, 22.2mW/cm2) was applied for 10 min (13J/cm2) to 11
scalp placements: midline, from front-to-back hairline; and bilaterally on
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, temporal, and parietal areas. Testing was
performed pre- and post- LED at 1 Wk, 1 and 2 Mo post- 18th treatment.
Significant linear trend was observed for LED effect over time - executivefunction- Stroop Trial 4 Inhibition Switching (p=.003); California Verbal
Learning Test-II, Long Delay (20 min later) Free Recall (p=.006). Fewer
PTSD symptoms were reported. Ongoing studies from VA Boston will
also be presented, including TBI patients treated with transcranial LED(26 J/cm2); and treated with only intranasal red, 633nm/NIR, 810nm
diodes placed in each nostril (25 min, 6.5mW, 11.4J/cm2). Intranasals arehypothesized to deliver photons to hippocampus. Results are similar to
Naeser et al. (2014). New, Actigraphy sleep data show increased sleep time(average, +1 Hr/night) post- 18th transcranial, or intranasal LED treatment.
Pre- and Post- fMRI scans in chronic stroke patients treated with transcranial
LED suggest photons are promoting increased rCBF in cortical areas wheretargeted. LED treatments may be self-administered at home (Naeser et al.,2011). A sham-controlled study with Gulf War Illness Veterans is underway.

9467-120, Session 3

Laser phototherapy: the future of medicine(Invited Paper)
Terrance L. Baker, Sollay Cosmetic Medical & Laser Ctr.
(United States)

Carbon is truly a remarkable material, for not only sustaining life on earth,but for the promising materials properties it encompasses that emerge fromits diverse and rich physical structures. Carbon based nanomaterials, suchas graphene and carbon nanotubes, have been proposed for a wide variety
of applications including beyond Si-CMOS architectures, interconnects,
field-emission displays, photo-voltaics and nano-electro-mechanicalsystems (NEMS). In particular, although graphene has been shown to
exhibit remarkable electronic, thermal, mechanical and optical properties,
the absence of a band-gap poses concerns for its attractiveness in some
applications, particularly in digital electronics where high ON/OFF ratios
are desired. While a band-gap is induced in graphene through quantum
confinement by creating graphene nanoribbons, the band gaps nonethelessare small (few hundred meV) and it is challenging to maintain pristineedge chirality due to defects that are induced during nanofabrication of
the ribbons. Recently, layered 2D crystals of other materials similar tographene have been realized which include insulating hexagonal-BN (bandgap ~5.5 eV) and transition metal di-chalcogenides which display properties
ranging from superconducting to semiconducting. The device applicationsof such van der Waals solids show promising characteristics where MoS2
transistors have been formed on flexible and transparent substrates, andtransistors derived from 2D monolayers of MoS2 show ON/OFF ratios
many orders of magnitude larger than the best graphene transistors. In thistalk, I will provide an overview of the novel properties of these layered 2D
nanomaterials, including synthesis approaches for enabling their device
applications in electronics, photonics and sensors.

9467-22, Session 4

Synthesis of Two Dimensional Materials for
Beyond Graphene Devices (Invited Paper)

The development of advanced surgical techniques and pharmaceuticals
have dramatically contributed to the improvement of global health.
However, surgical procedures and pharmaceutical agents are costly andhave the potential to create severe side effects and complications forpatients.

Kehao Zhang, The Pennsylvania State University(United States); Sarah Eichfeld, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States); Jacob Leach, Bob Metzger,
Kyma Technologies (United States); Yu-Chaun Lin, The
Pennsylvania State University (United States); Keith Evans,
Kyma Technologies (United States); Joshua A. Robinson,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

Interdisciplinary researchers are looking for non-pharmaceutical therapies
and non-surgical interventions to provide effective treatment for a broad
range of medical conditions. This presentation describes one of the mostpromising therapies - laser phototherapy.
After more than 50 years of clinical use, no serious side effects or adverse
reactions of using phototherapy as a medical treatment modality have been
observed. Phototherapy effects the natural and basic mechanism of virtually
all human cells and restores impaired function, triggering a subsequentcascade of positive therapeutic effects.
Phototherapy currently is being used in virtually every medical specialty
including dermatology, plastic surgery, family medicine, vascular surgery,thoracic surgery, ophthalmology, ENT, gastroenterology, hematology,
oncology, orthopedics, endocrinology, esthetics, urology, neurology, andneurosurgery to name a few. In general, phototherapy serves to improvewound healing, cellular function, reduction of edema, healing of neurologicalinjuries, increased microcirculation and provides intrinsic pain relief.
More than 3,000 scientific references report restorative, therapeutic andhealing result from the use of laser light. As with all kinds of scientific work,
new discoveries generate new questions. In spite of tremendous advancesin the scientific understanding of the medical effects of light we still do notknow all the optimal parameters. However, we do know enough to makephototherapy a clinical treatment modality based upon evidence.

9467-21, Session 4

Van der Waals solids: materials properties,
synthesis and device applications (Invited
Paper)
Anupama B. Kaul, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (UnitedStates)

The isolation of graphene constituted a new paradigm in next generationelectronic technologies, and even though graphene is consideredtransformational, it is only the “tip of the iceberg.” Transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDs) and their heterostructures could have aneven greater impact on next generation technologies. Transition-metal
dichalcogenides in the form of MeX2 (where Me = a transition metalsuch as Mo, W, Ti, Nb, etc. and X = S, Se, or Te) exhibit extreme flexibility,
possession of tunable band gaps, modest electron mobilities, and wide
variety of band-offsets. Synthesizing and heterogeneously combining theseatomic layered TMDs to form van der Waals (vdW) solids, where each layer
may be different from the previous, is a powerful way to develop novel
nanoscale materials. Furthermore, having the ability to tune the physics
and chemistry with atomic-level precision is the foundation for “propertieson-demand”, which can have an enormous impact on current and futuretechnologies. Furthermore, the development of devices from these novel
layered materials could lead to new transport phenomenon and ultimately
unique device arcitectures for next generation applications. This talk will
elaborate on recent breakthroughs for direct growth of two-dimensional
atomic heterostructures (MoS2, WSe2, and hBN) on a graphene template,and provide evidence that the direct growth of van der Waals solids could
be key to realizing novel device arcitectures.

9467-23, Session 4

Synthesis, properties, and applicationsof group IV graphane analogues (Invited
Paper)
Joshua Goldberger, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)

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Similar to how carbon networks can be sculpted into low-dimensional
allotropes such as fullerenes, nanotubes, and graphene with fundamentallydifferent properties, it is possible to create similar “allotropes” of Si, Ge or
Sn with unique optoelectronic properties as well. Here, we will describe
our recent success in the creation of hydrogen and organic-terminatedgermanium graphane analogues, or germananes, from the topochemical
deintercalation of CaGe2. We will discuss how the optical, electronic, andthermal properties of these materials can be controlled by substituting
either the surface ligand or via alloying with other Group IV elements.
Additionally, we have also developed an epitopotaxial approach for
integrating precise thicknesses of Germanane layers onto Ge wafers thatcombines the epitaxial deposition of CaGe2 precursor phases with the
topotactic interconversion into the 2D material. These materials represent
a new class of covalently terminated graphane analogues and have great
potential for a wide range of electronic, optoelectronic and sensing
applications, especially since theory predicts these materials to have direct
and tunable band gaps around 1.5 eV and electron mobilities that are aroundfive times higher than that of bulk Ge.

of preparing, characterizing these 2D crystals as well as pursuing theirapplications.

9467-24, Session 4

For instance, transparent, flexible and even wearable systems may become
feasible. With soldier and squad level electronic power demands increasing,
the Army is committed to developing and harnessing graphene-like 2Dmaterials for compact low size-weight-and-power-cost (SWAP-C) systems.
This talk will review breakthrough developments in 2D electronic materials
over the last five years and discuss directions for future army applications.

9467-26, Session 5

2D electronic materials for army
applications (Invited Paper)
Terrance O’Regan, Philip Perconti, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
The record electronic properties achieved in monolayer graphene andrelated 2D materials such as molybdenum disulfide and hexagonal boron
nitride show promise for revolutionary high-speed and low-powerelectronic devices.
Heterogeneous 2D-stacked materials may create enabling technology for
future communication and computation applications to meetsoldier requirements.

Phase engineering in 2D materials (Invited
Paper)
Manish Chhowalla, Rutgers, The State Univ. of New Jersey(United States)

9467-27, Session 5

Two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides (2D TMDs) — whose
generalized formula is MX2, where M is a transition metal of groups 4–7
and X is a chalcogen — exhibit versatile chemistry and consist of a familyof over 40 compounds that range from complex metals to semiconductors
to insulator. Complex metal TMDs assume the 1T phase where thetransition metal atom coordination is octahedral. The 2H phase is stable insemiconducting TMDs where the coordination of metal atoms is trigonal
prismatic. We have been studying the 1T phase in semiconducting TMDs. In
particular, we have focused on mechanisms involved in inducing the metastable 1T phase, kinetics of phase transformation and fundamental structuraland electronic properties. We have implemented phase-engineeredmaterials as hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) catalysts and as low
resistance contact electrodes in electronic devices. We have also exploitedthe metallic nature of the 1T phase to functionalize a variety of TMDs. The
attachment of functional groups leads to dramatic changes in the optoelectronic properties of the material.

Two-dimensional materials synthesis
and integration for low power and highfrequency devices (Invited Paper)
Joshua A. Robinson, Suman Datta, The Pennsylvania State
Univ. (United States)
In this work, I will discuss recent works in graphene and beyond for novel
device applications. This includes a focus on epitaxial graphene materials
and device properties, as well as “beyond graphene” opportunities that
could lead to new areas of research. I will discuss how graphene nanoribbon (GNR) devices can be utilized to achieve significantly improved RF
ambipolar mixer performance compared to conventional sheet devices,leading to 20dB improved conversion gain at a channel length of 300nm.
We study the effect of GNR geometries (50 - 100nm) on the chargetransfer region (CTR) by analyzing changes in contact resistance, symmetry
between p and n-branch, transconductance, and on-off ratio as a functionof ribbon width. We experimentally demonstrate that GNR geometries canbe utilized to reduce the impact of the CTR by enhancing the electrostatic
coupling between gate and graphene channel through increased fringing
fields, leading to improved transfer characteristics and p-n symmetry forhighly scaled graphene devices. By reducing the impact of the CTR, RF GNR
FETs are able to achieve 4.5x improved transconductance and 3x improved
current gain cutoff frequency compared to sheet based devices as well
as 4.9x improved symmetry between p and n-branch. Additionally, I will
discuss the integration of epitaxial graphene with novel 2D materials suchas molybdenum disulfide and tungsten diselenide and the existence of room
temperature negative differential resistance in these material systems.

9467-25, Session 4

Challenges and opportunities in 2D
crystals: graphene and beyond (Invited
Paper)
Huili G. Xing, Cornell Univ. (United States) and Univ. of
Notre Dame (United States)
Two-dimensional (2D) crystals such as transition metal dichalcogenides(TMDs) along with other families of layered materials including graphene,
SnSe2, GaSe, BN etc, has attracted intense attention from the scientificcommunity. One monolayer of such materials represent the thinnest“quantum wells”. These layered materials typically possess an in-planehexagonal crystal structure, and can be stacked together by interlayer
van der Waals interactions. Therefore, it is possible to create novel
heterostructures by stacking materials with large lattice mismatches
and different properties, for instance, superconductors (NbSe2), metals,
semi-metals (graphene), semiconductors (MoS2) and insulators (BN).
Numerous novel material properties and device concepts have been
discovered, proposed and demonstrated lately. However, the low internal
photoluminescence efficiency (IPE, < 1%) and low carrier mobility observedin the 2D semiconductors suggest strongly that the materials underinvestigation today most likely suffer from a high concentration of defects.
In this talk, I will share our progress and the challenges we face in terms

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9467-28, Session 5

Increasing the lego of 2D electronics
materials: silicene and germanene,graphene’s new synthetic cousins (Invited
Paper)
Guy Le Lay, Aix-Marseille Univ. (France)
The first synthesis of silicene, graphene’s silicon based analogue, in 2012,·

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has boosted research on two-dimensional materials beyond graphene,
especially elemental synthetic ones. Two years after silicene, germanene,
the germanium counterpart has been realized in 2014, while stanene (alsocoined tinene), the tin based cousin, is still awaiting for its creation. Silicene
and germanene (as might be stanene/tinene) are novel Si and Ge (Sn)allotropes created under ultra-high vacuum conditions, which do not exist innature, but which present similar electronic properties as those of graphene,
but are 2D topological insulators at practicable temperatures. They
possess the clear advantage of being directly compatible with the current
nano/microelectronic technologies. Germanane, the fully hydrogenatedgermanene sibling, a direct band gap semiconductor, has been obtained bya wet chemistry procedure. Monolayer silicene must be encapsulated to bepreserved in ambient air, while multi-layer silicene is self-protected by a verythin native oxide. This allows electrical measurements in air and prototypicaldevice fabrication. In this invited talk I will present the state-of-the-art onthese fascinating new 2D materials, their intriguing physical properties andtheir potential applications.

9467-29, Session 5

Shu-Jen Han, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (UnitedStates)Graphene has attracted much interest as a future channel material in highfrequency electronics because of its superior electrical properties. Recent
development has been shifted from the device level study to the circuit level
demonstration. I will review and discuss several key challenges for largescale graphene device fabrication, including high quality gate dielectric,large-area film transfer, and output current saturation. Furthermore,fabrication of a graphene integrated circuit without significantly degradingtransistor performance has proven to be challenging, posing one of the
major bottlenecks to compete with existing technologies. I will review
our effort of developing graphene IC in the past few years, starting with asimple 1-stage mixer built on a SiC piece, toward the recent demonstrationof a high-performance three-stage graphene IC that fully preserves
graphene transistor quality post-IC fabrication. This new circuit operates
as a radio frequency receiver performing signal amplification, filtering anddownconversion mixing. All circuit components are integrated into 0.6mm2
area and fabricated on 200mm Si wafers, showing the unprecedented
graphene circuit complexity and silicon CMOS process compatibility. Beyond
graphene, more suitable 2D materials with energy bandgap for electronics
applications are being aggressively investigated. I will discuss some recent
progress of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDC) and black phosphorus(BP) based transistors in my group. In addition, other applications suchas plasmonics and photodetectors using these novel 2D materials will bebriefly discussed.

9467-30, Session 5

Graphene and beyond: two-dimensional
materials for transistor applications(Invited Paper)Frank Schwierz, Technische Univ. Ilmenau (Germany)
During the past few years, two-dimensional materials have foundcontinuously increasing attention in the electronic device community. The
first two-dimensional material studied in detail was graphene and manygroups explored it as a material for transistors. During the early years ofgraphene research the expectations on its impact on future electronics
have been extremely high. It soon turned out, however, that the missing
bandgap of graphene causes serious problems for proper transistor
operation. Therefore, meanwhile the prospects of graphene are assessed
less optimistic.

2D materials for high-performanceelectronic, photonic and sensing
applications (Invited Paper)

Two-dimensional (2D) materials have been of tremendous interest in thelast few years due to their novel electronic and photonic properties andtheir corresponding potential to realize a wide range of novel devices. In
this talk, I will describe recent work on novel device applications of 2D
materials for electronic, photonic and sensing applications. In particular, I
will describe the potential of graphene as a high-Q variable capacitor for use
in ultra-compact wireless sensors. Graphene also has enormous potential
as a platform for integrated optoelectronics and I will detail theoretical andexperimental results that show graphene can create high-speed opticalmodulators with extremely-low energy consumption. Furthermore, I will
also demonstrate how heterostructures of 2D dichalcogenides can realize
scalable transistors for ultra-low-power logic and memory applications.
Finally, I will describe very recent results on black phosphorus that indicate
extremely promising potential of this material for creating high-performance
MOSFETs and photodetectors.

9467-32, Session 6

Nanotechnology meets biology in thecancer cell (Invited Paper)
Mostafa A. El-Sayed, Georgia Institute of Technology(United States)
A word about the reasons for the hype about nanotechnology will begiven.1 Using the Plasmonic enhancement of Rayleigh scattering by silveror gold nanoparticles, we were able to image the behavior of communities
of cancer cells as they are dying from increasing the concentration of
the nanoparticles at their cell nuclei,2,3,4. In order to gain molecular
information, we were able to record the time dependent enhanced
molecular Raman vibration spectra (SERS) of the molecules anywhere in
the cell during the full cell cycle from birth to division5 or if we give the cells
cancer drugs, we can determine the time of the cell death. The potential
future use of this new technique of “PLASMONIC ENHANCED MOLECULAR
CELL IMMAGING (PEMCI)”in molecular cell biology and in medicine ispointed out.
References:
1 Susie Eustis and Mostafa. A. El-Sayed “Why gold nanoparticles are more
precious than pretty gold: Noble metal surface plasmon resonance and its
enhancement of the radiative and nonradiative properties of nanocrystals ofdifferent shapes,” Chemical Society Reviews, 35 (3), 209-217, (2006)
2 Austin, L. A.; Kang, B.; Yen, C. W.; El-Sayed, M. A. Nuclear Targeted Silver
Nanospheres Perturb the Cancer Cell Cycle Differently than Those of
Nanogold. Bioconjugate Chemistry 2011, 22, 2324-2331.

Recently researchers have extended their work to two-dimensional
materials beyond graphene and the number of two-dimensional materials

SPIE DSS 2015

9467-31, Session 5

Steven J. Koester, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities (UnitedStates)High-speed nanoelectronics based ongraphene and beyond (Invited Paper)

158

under investigation is literally exploding. At present, several hundred ofthese materials are known, and part of them is considered to be usefulfor electronic applications. A realistic assessment of the prospects of thetwo-dimensional materials in electronics is, however, still missing. The
present contribution represents is a step in this direction. After introducing
the major classes of two-dimensional materials, we compose a wish listof material properties desirable transistor channels and examine to what
extent the two-dimensional materials fulfill the criteria of our wish list. We
review the current state-of-the-art of two-dimensional transistors, compare
it to that of competing conventional transistors, and identify potential
applications of two-dimensional materials and transistors. Finally, some of
our own results on two-dimensional materials are presented.

3 Austin, L. A.; Kang, B.; Yen, C. W.; El-Sayed, M. A. Plasmonic Imaging of·

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
Human Oral Cancer Cell Communities during Programmed Cell Death by
Nuclear-Targeting Silver Nanoparticles. Journal of the American Chemical
Society communication 2011, 133, 17594-17597.

even at nanoscale. These new computational microscopes routinely
generate >1–2 billion pixels (giga-pixels), where even single viruses can bedetected with a FOV that is >100 fold wider than other techniques. At theheart of this leapfrog performance lie self-assembled liquid nano-lenses
that are computationally imaged on a chip. These self-assembled nanolenses are stable for >1 hour at room temperature, and are composed of abiocompatible buffer that prevents nano-particle aggregation while also
acting as a spatial “phase mask.” The field-of-view of these computational
microscopes is equal to the active-area of the sensor-array, easily reaching,for example, >20 mm^2 or >10 cm^2 by employing state-of-the-art CMOS or
CCD imaging chips, respectively.

4 Bin Kang , Lauren A. Austin , and Mostafa A. El-Sayed, Real-Time Molecular
Imaging throughout the Entire Cell Cycle by Targeted Plasmonic-Enhanced
Rayleigh/Raman Spectroscopy, , Nano Lett., 2012, 12 (10), pp 5369–5375.
5 Bin Kang , Lauren A. Austin , and Mostafa A. El-Sayed, Observing RealTime Molecular Event Dynamics of Apoptosis in Living Cancer Cells using
Nuclear-Targeted Plasmonically Enhanced Raman Nanoprobes ,ACS Nano, 8(5), pp 4883–4892

In addition to this remarkable increase in throughput, another major benefitof this technology is that it lends itself to field-portable and cost-effective
designs which easily integrate with smartphones to conduct giga-pixel telepathology and microscopy even in resource-poor and remote settings wheretraditional techniques are difficult to implement and sustain, thus opening
the door to various telemedicine applications in global health. Some otherexamples of these smartphone-based biomedical tools that I will describe
include imaging flow cytometers, immunochromatographic diagnostic
test readers, bacteria/pathogen sensors, blood analyzers for complete
blood count, and allergen detectors. Through the development of similar
computational imagers, I will also report the discovery of new 3D swimming
patterns observed in human and animal sperm. One of this newly discoveredand extremely rare motion is in the form of “chiral ribbons” where the planarswings of the sperm head occur on an osculating plane creating in somecases a helical ribbon and in some others a twisted ribbon. Shedding lightonto the statistics and biophysics of various micro-swimmers’ 3D motion,these results provide an important example of how biomedical imaging
significantly benefits from emerging computational algorithms/theories,
revolutionizing existing tools for observing various micro- and nano-scale
phenomena in innovative, high-throughput, and yet cost-effective ways.

9467-33, Session 6

Superresolution imaging and SERS (Invited
Paper)
Katherine A. Willets, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (UnitedStates) and Temple Univ. (United States)
Noble metal nanostructures are well-known for their ability to support
localized surface plasmons, which lead to enhanced electromagnetic
fields at the nanoparticle surface that are the basis for surface-enhanced
spectroscopies, such as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS).
However, understanding the spectral coupling between molecular analytes
and plasmonic nanostructures is complicated by the diffraction-limit of light,
which prevents objects that are smaller than roughly half the wavelength oflight from being resolved. This talk will describe using super-resolution SERS
imaging to understand the coupling between single molecule analytes andplasmonic nanoparticles, with applications in imaging SERS “hot spots” andimaging electrochemical reactions on nanoparticle electrode surfaces.

9467-37, Session 69467-34, Session 6

Opto-electro-mechanical biosensor
enabled by graphene (Invited Paper)

Nanoplasmonic and metamaterials
concepts for broadband surface enhanced
sensing (Invited Paper)

Ertugrul Cubukcu, Alexander Y. Zhu, Fei Yi, Univ. of
Pennsylvania (United States)

Tyler R. Roschuk, Stefan A. Maier, Imperial College London(United Kingdom)

Graphene as a monolayer of carbon atoms in a honeycomb lattice has
attracted significant interest for its unique optical, electrical, mechanicalproperties for a range of applications. Metal based plasmonic devices andsensors can capitalize on graphene for unprecedented new functionalities
if synergistically integrated. One such intriguing property of graphene thatplasmonics can benefit from is its impermeability to gas molecules evenas small as a single He atom. Capitalizing on this we demonstrated thatnanoantennas made of silver, the ideal plasmonic material that tends tooxidize due to sulfur containing ambient gases, can be effectively passivatedwith a monolayer graphene. Due to its atomic thickness, graphene also
does not perturb nanoantenna near-fields significantly maintaining the fullpotential of silver nanoantennas in sensing applications.

This presentation will present recent progress in surface enhanced sensing
based on nanoplasmonic resonances. A particular focus will lie on surface
structures allowing sensing in a broad window of the electromagnetic
spectrum, encompassing the visible, near- and mid-infrared. Based onlog period antennas, such a surface allows for simultaneous enhancementof fluorescence, Raman, and mid-IR absorption. The second part of thepresentation will present a new scheme for surface enhanced sensing in theTHz window, based on spoof surface plasmon polaritons.

9467-36, Session 6

Graphene is also a very promising material as a bioactive layer due toits ability to effectively adsorb biomolecules through pi-pi stacking
interactions. If graphene is used as a monolayer functionalization layer,
lengthy sensor surface modification steps will not be necessary. We studied
the binding affinities between several different proteins and graphene andfound that adsorption can be as strong as that of a specifically binding
antigen-antibody pair.

A computational look at nano-scale towardgiga-pixel nanoscopy (Invited Paper)
Aydogan Ozcan, Univ. of California, Los Angeles (UnitedStates)

We will also discuss a new multimodal opto-electro-mechanical device
that synergistically combines a graphene field effect transistor based
nanoelectronic sensor and a nanoantenna based photonic sensor
on a mechanical resonator sensor. This hybrid approach combining
electrochemical, refractive index, and mass sensing functions on thesame device footprint opens up new directions in nano-bio-sensors with
unprecedented features. This proof-of-concept nanosensor experimentallyachieves sub-picomolar label-free detection limits across all three
independent sensing modes, and possesses a dynamic range that is 2-3
orders of magnitude larger than that of any single mode nanosensor.

My research focuses on the use of computation/algorithms to create
new optical microscopy, sensing, and diagnostic techniques, significantly
improving existing tools for probing micro- and nano-objects while also
simplifying the designs of these analysis tools. In this presentation, I will
introduce a new set of computational microscopes which use lens-free onchip imaging to replace traditional lenses with holographic reconstruction
algorithms. Basically, 3D images of specimens are reconstructed fromtheir “shadows” providing considerably improved field-of-view (FOV) and
depth-of-field, thus enabling large sample volumes to be rapidly imaged,

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII

9467-38, Session 7

will describe recent progress on on-chip graphene optoelectronic devices,
including high-speed modulators, photodetectors, and autocorrelators.
By coupling graphene to an optical cavity, we demonstrated an efficientelectro-optic modulator with a response speed exceeding 1 GHz. We also
discuss silicon waveguide-integrated photodetectors that now achievea responsivity in excess of 0.4 A/W and response in excess of 50 GHz.
Autocorrelation measurements of such detectors indicate a bandwidth inexcess of 100 GHz.

2D materials and heterostructures forapplications in optoelectronics (Invited
Paper)
Thomas Mueller, Technische Univ. Wien (Austria)
In this talk I will review our recent research activities on applications of
two-dimensional (2D) materials and heterostructures in optoelectronics. In
particular, I will present (i) a WSe2 monolayer p-n junction diode, formed byelectrostatic doping using a pair of split gate electrodes, and (ii) a MoS2/
WSe2 van der Waals type-II heterojunction. Upon optical illumination,
conversion of light into electrical energy occurs in both devices. Biasing the
p-n junctions in forward direction gives rise to light emission. We envisionthat the advantages of 2D materials, such as flexibility, high mechanicalstability and low costs of production could lead to new photovoltaic solar
cell and display technologies.

9467-39, Session 7

Plasmon excitations in low dimensionalgraphitic materials (Invited Paper)
Feng Wang, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States)
Low dimensional graphitic materials like graphene monolayer andmultilayers provide a unique system to explore plasmonics in the infrared
and teratherz frequencies. In this talk, I will discuss our recent studies oftunable plasmonic excitation in such graphitic materials and their potential
applications for nano photonics at infrared frequencies.

9467-40, Session 7

Optics and optoelectronics of 2D atomic
membranes (Invited Paper)

9467-42, Session 8

Origami: folding in nature, art andtechnology (Invited Paper)
Joycelyn S. Harrison, Air Force Office of Scientific
Research (United States)
Origami is typically valued for its artistic complexity and beauty but
the prevalence of origami forms in nature and in inspiring technology
suggest that this traditional Japanese paper folding technique has valuethat transcends art. The appeal of origami and programmed folding is its
simplicity, versatility, and ability to employ existing 2D patterning techniques(e.g., screen printing, lithography) to convert surface patterns on substrates
into stable 3D structures within seconds upon exposure to appropriate
stimuli (e.g. light, heat, electric field). Joint investments by the National
Science Foundation and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research in a 2011
Emerging Frontiers in Research and Innovation Initiative have stimulated
broad-spectrum research exploring folding and unfolding of materials andstructures at all scales (i.e. nano to macro) and across scales to create novel
designs, mechanisms, structures and devices. Much of this research has
focused on developing enabling materials, physic-based methodologies andmathematical rigor to broaden the underlying science and applicability oforigami. This presentation will highlight recent advances in the applicationof origami concepts in spurring new multidisciplinary scientific discovery
and provide perspectives on the value of exploring an ancient art-form to
invigorate novel, transformative research with far-reaching applications.

9467-43, Session 8

Xiaobo Yin, Univ. of Colorado at Boulder (United States)
Integrated nanophotonics is already the strategic capability for industry andthe key enabling technology for communication and information processing.
To cope with the ever-increasing data traffic and capacity demands, noveland disruptive techniques are required, especially for the short-reachapplications such as high performance computing and datacenters. Highly
desirable are the devices that emit, modulate and detect multi-spectral
signals with high-bandwidth and low-energy-consumption. Moreover, thesedevices shall allow efficient productions of densely packed photonic circuitsthat can be monolithically integrated with state-of-the-art semiconductor
technologies. The rise of the pristine 2D materials, including grapheneand gapped semiconducting TMDCs has been evident for the supreme
properties and exceptional applications. In this talk we will discussion theultrafast integrated graphene optical modulators, nonlinear optical devices
enabled by TMDCs and new generation of light emitting and reciving
devices that interface the spintronics and valleyoptoelectronics.

9467-41, Session 7

Graphene optoelectronic devices for
optical communications and imaging(Invited Paper)
Dirk R. Englund, Ren-Jye Shiue, Massachusetts Instituteof Technology (United States); Yuanda Gao, James Hone,
Columbia Univ. (United States)

Bringing physics into the fold: Origamiinspired mechanical meta-materials(Invited Paper)
Itai Cohen, Cornell Univ. (United States)
Tessellated patterns, realistic animals, and curved polygonal shapes are all
examples of the beautiful and amazing sculptures that can now be madeusing Origami, the art of paper folding. This art form has experienced
tremendous growth with the advent of mathematical techniques that allow
the basic structure of any new sculpture to be plotted out before any folding
occurs, and laser cutter technologies that have made it easier to create
folds in a variety of materials. In addition to their static properties, Origami
sculptures can be designed to have a wide variety of mechanical properties
making them responsive and tunable. In this talk I will describe our efforts
to bring together artists, materials scientists, engineers, mathematicians,
and yes, physicists to make meta-materials base on origami principles. Our
teams are interested in making structures with a broad range properties
including, tunable mechanical stiffness, mechanical cloaking capabilities,
and topological constraints that can be utilized to design switches. The
materials we work with range from paper models, to thermally responsive
gel sheets, and even graphene. Collectively, we strive to design material
platforms that can be used as building blocks for the nano and micro scale
mechanical devices of the future.

Graphene has many unusual optical and electrical properties that make it
an attractive material for new types of opto-electronic devices. Here, we

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII

9467-44, Session 8

Recent advances in laminate manufacturing techniques have driven thedevelopment of new classes of millimeter-scale sensorized medical devices,robots capable of terrestrial locomotion and sustained flight, and newtechniques for sensing and actuation. These devices are built upon theprinciples of iterative additive and removal manufacturing techniques which
encode a high degree of mechanical precision in two-dimensional laminate
structures, which can then be used both during assembly and operation
to create complex, user-specified motion paths. This motion is rather
inexpensive to vary, as the patterns of material retained and removed in thelaminate which determine this motion can be changed part to part within
the same production run to create mass-customizable devices suited for aparticular need, or to quickly converge on a useful set of design parameters.

Design tools for adaptive Origami devices(Invited Paper)
Philip Buskohl, Kazuko Fuchi, James J. Joo, Greg W. Reich,Richard Vaia, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Origami structures morph between 2D and 3D conformations alongpredetermined fold lines that efficiently program the form, function andmobility of the structure. The transfer of origami concepts to engineering
design shows potential for many applications including solar arraypackaging, tunable antennae, and deployable sensing platforms. However,
the enormity of the design space and the complex relationship between
origami-based geometries and engineering metrics places a severe
limitation on design strategies based on intuition. This motivates thedevelopment of design tools based on optimization to identify optimal foldpatterns for geometric and functional objectives. The present work proposes
a topology optimization method, using truss and frame element analysis, todistribute foldline properties within a reference crease pattern. By removing
unnecessary folds, an optimal topology for a specific motion, stress level,or energy distribution can be determined. The optimizer results include therecreation of known action origami structures and the Miura-Ori, as well as
new asymmetric actuator designs. This design suite offers an important step
toward systematic incorporation of origami design concepts into new, noveland reconfigurable engineering devices.

The development of these devices has been facilitated by a new design
tool called popupCAD, which seeks to automate the tasks associatedwith manufacturing, from generating support geometry, analyzing
manufacturability, removing scrap, and producing cut files. This is further
facilitated through the use of inherently-manufacturable design techniquessuch as composition from existing libraries of manufacturable parts anddesign for flat-foldability. These techniques have been implemented on
new devices such as a modular hexapod walking robot called “printapede”,
which has been designed to reduce the number of manual assembly steps
used in current designs.
So far, however, the analysis of laminate micro-devices has focused on
manufacturability concerns and not on performance issues. Considering
the nature of such devices, we draw from existing research in composites,
origami kinematics, and finite element methods in order to identify issues
related to sequential assembly and self-folding prior to fabrication as
well as the stiffness of composite folded systems during operation. These
techniques can be useful for understanding how such devices will bend andflex under normal operating conditions, and when added to popupCAD, will
give designers another means to develop better devices throughout thedesign process.

9467-45, Session 8

A novel reconfigurable Origami spiralantenna utilizing 3D printing technologies(Invited Paper)

9467-47, Session 8

Manos M. Tentzeris, Christy Saintsing, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)

HanaFlex: A Large Solar Array for Space
Applications (Invited Paper)

A reconfigurable origami-based Archimedean spiral antenna was createdusing an additive manufacturing process. In its planar configuration, thespiral antenna possesses a bidirectional pattern, which becomes more
directive as the antenna is telescoped to its conical form, thereby exhibiting
higher gain. The Japanese art of origami was the inspiration for thistelescoping feature. Recently there has been much interest in deployable
origami, which is folded in a manner that allows compression and expansionof an object. For example, a conical structure can undergo a transition to aflat state by pushing the ends together and then expand back to its original
shape by pulling the ends apart. It has to be stressed that this work relies on
the thermal properties of 3D printed shape memory polymers to achieve apartially self-actuating “origami- type” telescoping action. An Objet Connex
260 multi-material polymer printer was used to create the substrate forthe antenna. Tango Plus Black and Vero White were the inks used in thiswork. The thermomechanical properties of the matrix can be controlled byadjusting the ingredient ratio of the polymer ink. A printed prototype ofthe substrate in planar form is shown in Figure 1. By exceeding the glasstransition temperature, the structure can be telescoped and cooled tomaintain a variety of lengths as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. The planar
shape can be retrieved by repeating the above procedure and applying asmall force while cooled.

Shannon A. Zirbel, Brigham Young Univ. (United States);
Brian P. Trease, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Mark
W. Thomson, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (UnitedStates); Robert J. Lang, Lang Origami (United States);
Spencer P. Magleby, Larry L. Howell, Brigham Young Univ.
(United States)
Compliant mechanisms rely on the deflection of flexible members formobility rather than using traditional joints such as hinges or bearings.
Advantages of compliant mechanisms include dramatic reduction in the
total number of parts required to accomplish a specified task, significant
reduction in weight over their rigid-body counterparts, and the easein which they are miniaturized. This presents opportunities to replacecomplex parts of multiple materials with simplified, fewer parts that deliverequivalent mechanics. For centuries origami artists have been developing
compliant mechanisms in paper. They have invested immeasurable effort
developing origami under extreme self-imposed constraints (e.g. only
paper, no cutting or gluing, one regular-shaped sheet). The accessible andformable medium of paper has enabled swift prototyping of vast numbersof possible designs. This has resulted in stunning origami structures andmechanisms that were created in a simple medium and using a single
fabrication process (folding). The origami artists’ methods and perspectives
have created compliant mechanisms that have not previously been
conceived using traditional engineering methods. Using origami-inspired
methods, it may be possible to design origami-like systems, but using
different materials and processes to meet emerging product requirements.
The ability to start with a flat sheet and morph into other shapes offers
unique opportunities for deployable systems, particularly in space
applications. This presentation will review the connection between origami
and compliant mechanisms, and discuss applications in space systems,
including a deployable solar panel and 3D printed titanium positioning

9467-46, Session 8

popupCAD: a tool for automated design,
fabrication, and analysis of laminate microdevices (Invited Paper)
Daniel M. Aukes, Robert J. Wood, Harvard Univ. (UnitedStates) and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired
Engineering (United States)

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
mechanisms. The current state of the field and areas of future research will
also be addressed.

9467-48, Session 9

Industry-first field trial of inter-wellreservoir nanoagent tracers (Invited Paper)
Mazen Kanj, Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia)
This talk highlights the industry’s first proven reservoir nanoagent designand demonstrates a successful multi-well field trial using these agents. This
fundamental tracer template is intentionally geared towards the harsh but
prolific ARAB-D carbonate reservoir environment of 100+?C temperature,
150,000+ppm salinity, and an abundant presence of divalent ions in theconnate water. Preliminary analyses confirmed nanoparticles’ breakthroughat a producer nearly 500m from the injector at the reservoir level; thus,
proving the tracer nanoparticles’ mobility and transport capability. This isconsidered industry-first and a breakthrough achievement complementing
earlier accomplishments in regard to the nanoagents’ reservoir stability withthe first successful single well test and ease of scale up with the synthesisof one metric ton of this material. The importance of this accomplishment
is not in how sophisticated is the sensing functionalities of this design but
rather in its stability, mobility, scalability, and field application potentials.
This renders the concept of having active, reactive, and even communicative,
in-situ reservoir nanoagents for underground sensing and intervention a well
anticipated near-future reality.

9467-49, Session 9

Application of nanotechnology to drilling
fluids: How close are we? (Invited Paper)
James E. Friedheim, M-I SWACO (United States)
Nanotechnology has been successfully applied in a variety of areas including
electronics, material composites, medical applications, and consumer
goods. It is only natural that the utility of nanotechnology from thesefields is transferred to the oilfield. Universities and consortiums have madeefforts to apply nanotechnology (e.g., nanosensors, nanomarkers, and themore esoteric nanobots) to gathering valuable data from the reservoir.
This research is of great importance due to the potentially large return on
investment, but has yet to produce any substantive products. By contrast,
research of nanotechnology for drilling applications, such as drilling
fluids, is lesser known, even though numerous companies have invested
a considerable amount of time and money. These companies are now
beginning to realize both positive results and commercial products.
The traditional research and development projects continue in the areasof shale inhibition, rheology modification, wellbore strengthening, andhigh-pressure, high-temperature drilling fluids. This paper will, however,review recent works on the application of nanotechnology and further
address some of the perceived concerns (real or not) of sourcing and using
commercial “nano” products. Additionally, the paper will include a review ofcurrent health, safety and environmental (HS&E) perspectives on this newarea of oilfield chemistry.

9467-50, Session 9

Autonomous micro and nano sensors for
upstream oil and gas (Invited Paper)This paper describes the development of autonomous micro and nanoscale sensor systems for very harsh downhole oilfield conditions and

SPIE DSS 2015

9467-51, Session 9

CMOS methods for the creation of novel
sensors for down-hole and surface
applications (Invited Paper)
Sameer Walavalkar, Chieh-Feng Chang, Axel Scherer,
California Institute of Technology (United States)
Creating CMOS sensors for oil and gas applications requires thedevelopment of application specific fabrication and design. Unlike formost sensors, the material, temperature, and pressure demands for surface
or down-hole sample examination are uniquely stringent. For example,
when performing down-well ion-sensing the high-temperature (>125 oC)
and corrosive environment literally dissolves silicon and standard metallic
contacts. Fortunately, our research group has a tradition of creating novel
fabrication techniques for unique applications, including: self-terminatingoxidation for silicon luminescence and silicon-only heterostructures forquantum behavior. Using some of these methods we have been able tofundamentally alter the physical and electronic properties of silicon in waysthat can make it an appropriate material choice for the unique requirementsof oil and gas sensors. This presentation will cover the methods offabrication and design we have used to address these requirements
on a case by case basis. Techniques of note include ambipolar, dopant
free devices; full dielectric encapsulation; membrane based hollow gate
transistors; metallic reflow procedures, and all metal devices. We will cover
the fabrication and operation of: Down-hole ion-sensors, field-based ion
discriminators, diffusion sensors for spatially resolved sensitivity, channel
free electronics, and optical devices for down-hole Raman measurements.

9467-52, Session 9

Diamond photonics: towards sensing
applications in harsh environments (Invited
Paper)
Marko Loncar, Harvard School of Engineering and Applied
Sciences (United States)
Diamond possesses remarkable physical and chemical properties, and inmany ways is the ultimate engineering material. For example, diamond istransparent from the ultra-violet to infra-red, has a high refractive index (n= 2.4), strong optical nonlinearity (Kerr and Raman) and a wide variety oflight-emitting defects. These properties make diamond a highly desirable
material for many applications, including quantum optics, nonlinear optics,
magnetic and electric field sensing, and NEMS.
I will review advances in nanotechnology that have enabled fabrication ofnanoscale optical and mechanical devices in diamond. Examples include
diamond nanowires and plasmonic cavities, ring and photonic crystal
resonators, and cantilevers. As an example application, I will review our work
on diamond based on-chip frequency combs and possible applications inspectroscopy over broad wavelength range (from UV to infrared).

David Chapman, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (UnitedStates); Walter J. Trybula, The Trybula Foundation, Inc.
(United States)

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provides an overview the operational requirements necessary to survive
and make direct measurement of subsurface conditions. One of several
significant developmental challenges is selecting appropriate technologies
that are simultaneously harsh environment capable, miniaturize-able, andintegrate-able, while still operationally valuable for specific oil and gas
applications. The Advanced Energy Consortium (AEC) is employing aplatform approach to testing multi-chip, micron scale, systems in a package
at elevated temperature and pressure in API brine and oil analogs, with the
future goal of autonomous, downhole, and submicron systems on a chip,that enable the collection of previously unattainable data. The goal is todevelop subsurface nanosensors that can be injected into oil and gas wellbores to gather and report data, providing an unparalleled level of reservoir
characterization. This paper provides a status update on the research efforts
and developmental successes at the AEC from 2009-2013.

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII

9467-53, Session 10

cladding material, and thermally stabilized at 700C for high temperatureapplications. Using the chemical regenerative approach, high-temperaturestable FBG were inscribed in D-shaped fiber. The FBGs in sapphire fibers
were fabricated using the ultrafast laser direct writing scheme. The Bragg
grating peaks were used to monitor the refractive index change and opticalabsorption loss due to the redox reaction between Pd-doped TiO2 sensing
films and hydrogen from the room temperature to 800C. The fiber sensor
responses were measured with various hydrogen concentration from 0.1 vol.
% to 5 vol. % hydrogen in hydrogen/nitrogen gas mixtures. The experimental
result shows the sensor’s hydrogen response is reversible. The response timeof the hydrogen sensor is less than 8 seconds. The applications of thesehigh-temperature hydrogen sensors for energy applications such as solidoxide fuel cells are discussed.

Functional sensor material enabled harshenvironment, high temperature opticalsensors for energy applications (Invited
Paper)Paul R. Ohodnicki Jr., National Energy Technology Lab.
(United States)
Opportunities exist for increasing efficiency of utility scale fossil-based
power generation systems and enabling adoption of new technologies
through sensors and controls that would allow for embedded sensing
at the highest value locations. Relevant technologies include advanced
boilers, oxy-fuel combustion systems, gas turbines, gasifiers, and solid oxide
fuel cells, all of which involve extremely high temperatures and reducing,oxidizing, and/or corrosive environments. Similar needs can be identified
in a broad range of other applications and industries including aerospace,aviation, automotive, and manufacturing processes for semiconductors,
metals, glass, and chemicals. A number of sensor technologies are currently
under development for applications in such extreme high temperature andharsh environment conditions including chemi-resistive, electrochemical,
and surface acoustic wave based devices. Optical based sensors are also
under development and they are known to display a number of uniqueand inherent advantages which include: (1) the lack of electrical wiring
or connections at the sensing location, (2) compatibility with broadband
wavelength and distributed interrogation, and (3) the elimination ofpotential safety hazards associated with electrical sparks when deployed inflammable atmospheres.

9467-55, Session 10

Phosphor-based fiber optic temperature
sensors for harsh environments (Invited
Paper)
Nicholas Djeu, Yutaka Shimoji, MicroMaterials, Inc. (UnitedStates)Fiber optic temperature sensors based on Yb doped phosphors will be
described. Ytterbium in its trivalent form is unique among rare earth
ions because of its simple energy level structure with just a single
excited electronic state, which lies approximately 10,000 cm-1 above theground state. This large energy separation leads to a situation where themultiphonon relaxation rate of the excited state at even extremely hightemperatures can be readily measured. Then, by correlating the decay rateof the excited state with the temperature, a useful temperature sensor canbe implemented. With the use of a moderate-power diode laser as theexcitation source, temperature sensors of this type operating up to 1,600 C
have been demonstrated.

Advanced functional sensor materials can play an important role in enabling
new sensor devices of all types with unique functionality and improved
stability in harsh operating conditions. In support of this need, the in-houseresearch team at the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL)
has recently established an advanced sensor material program focusedon research and development of new sensing materials in parallel withdemonstration on fabricated sensors under relevant high temperature
conditions. The research program has placed a particular emphasis onunderstanding optical responses of materials to parameters of interest
under relevant high temperature testing conditions. A brief overview of the
program and research team capabilities will be presented and placed in thecontext of the larger sensors and controls program managed by the NETL.
Recent breakthroughs of the on-going research and development efforts of
the in-house research team will also be discussed.

We have thus far focused on YAG as the host material for the Yb ions. In
our early work, the Yb doped YAG phosphor was grown directly onto one
end of a single -crystal undoped YAG fiber using the laser heated pedestal
growth technique. In order to reduce the fabrication cost, we have recently
investigated the feasibility of incorporating the phosphor into the fiber optic
thermal probe in the form of a microsphere. The lensing effect producedby the microsphere focuses the excitation light that emerges from the leadfiber into the phosphor as well as the induced fluorescence back into thefiber. As a result, sufficient signal can be obtained even from microsphereswith diameters much less than 1 mm. With such a construction, sensors witha maximum operating temperature of 1,100 C have been demonstrated using
an LED as the excitation source.

9467-54, Session 10

Ultra-high temperature fiber opticalchemical sensors based on nano-porous
metal oxides (Invited Paper)

9467-56, Session 10

Development of Laser induced breakdown
spectroscopy (LIBS) sensor to assessgroundwater quality impacts (Invited
Paper)

Kevin P. Chen, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States)
This paper presents fiber optical gas sensors based on nano-porous metaloxide functional materials for high-temperature energy applications. A
solution-based scalable nano-manufacturing approach was used to produce
nano-porous functional metal oxide and their dopant variants using a
block-copolymer templating approach. The refractive index of the film
was tailored to adapt the optical fiber material by 3D nanostructuring inthe sub-wavelength regime (20 nm or less). Using this nanomanufacturing
scheme, this paper reports synthesis of nanoporous palladium (Pd) doped
titanium dioxide (TiO2) film and its integration on D-shaped fiber Bragg
grating (FBG) and sapphire fiber for hydrogen sensing at extremely hightemperature up to 800C.

Cantwell Carson, National Energy Technology Lab. (UnitedStates); Christian Goueguel, USDOE National Energy
Technology Laboratory (United States); Jinesh Jain, Dustin
McIntyre, National Energy Technology Lab. (United States)
The injection of CO2 into deep aquifers has the potential to affect thequality of groundwater supplies if leakage were to occur by adding
contamination from the injection formation or fluids. Therefore, thedetection of CO2 and/or entrained contaminants that migrate into shallow
groundwater aquifers is important both to assess storage permanence
and to evaluate impacts on water resources. Naturally occurring elements(i.e., Li, Sr) in conjunction with isotope ratios can be used to detect suchleakage. We propose the use of laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

Through the control of porosity of TiO2 film, the refractive indices of Pddoped TiO2 films were lowered to 1.44 for on fiber integration. The sensor isbased on the refractive index changes and optical loss through evanescentfield interaction in hydrogen sensitive metal oxide cladding. The flat sideof D-shaped fiber grating was etched to remove a residual 4micron-meter

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII(LIBS) as an analytical technique to detect a suite of elements in water
samples. LIBS has a real time monitoring capability and can be applied
for elemental and isotopic analysis of solid, liquid, and gas samples.
The flexibility of probe design and use of fiber optics make it a suitable
technique for real time measurements in harsh conditions and in hard toreach places. The laboratory scale experiments to measure Li, K, Ca, and Srcomposition of water samples indicate that the technique produces rapid
and reliable data. Since CO2 leak from saline aquifers may accompany
brine solution we studied the effect of sodium salts on the accuracy of LIBS
analysis. In addition to ground water, the applicability of the technique
to issues with injection well leakage, monitoring wells, abandoned welllocation and monitoring, location and mitigation of improperly completed
wells in the basin as well as bore holes with failed seals and wells will be
discussed. This work specifically details the fabrication and application of aminiature ruggedized remotely operated diode pumped solid state passively
Q-switched laser system for use as the plasma excitation source for a realtime LIBS analysis. This work also proposes the optical distribution of manylaser spark sources across a wide area for widespread leak detection andbasin monitoring.

9467-57, Session 10

Temperature dependence of hydrogen
related absorption in silica glass opticalfibers at high temperatures (Invited Paper)
Elizabeth A. Bonnell, Li Yu, Daniel Homa, Virginia Tech Ctr.
for Photonics Technology (United States)
This study reports on the behavior of silica based optical fibers in ahydrogen environment at high temperatures. The hydrogen response in
the form of optical loss in the wavelength range of 1000-2500 nm of threedifferent 50/125 mulitmode fibers was examined in the temperature rangeof 20-800 °C. The three fibers studied included two pure silica core stepindex fibers, one with high OH content, one with low OH content, and one
germanium doped core graded index fiber. Two hydrogen-related infraredabsorption bands were observed: ~2200 nm assigned to the combination
vibration mode of Si-OH bending and the fundamental hydroxyl stretchingmode and ~1390 nm assigned to the first overtone of the hydroxyl stretch.
With increasing temperature the absorption in the 2200 nm band decreased
in intensity while the absorption in the 1390 nm band shifted to longer
wavelengths. This temperature dependent behavior was reversible with thespectrum returning to its initial position when temperature was decreased.
The observed temperature dependent behavior is believed to be due to achange in the number of silanol groups participating in hydrogen bonding
such that at higher temperatures more silanol groups participate inhydrogen bonding.

9467-59, Session 11

Michael Dorothy, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign(United States)
We developed a simplified PD-like controller created with a spike-burstingneural network. We selected Izhikevich’s neuron model and Rabinovich’s
synapse model so that they could be implemented in hardware and topreserve the potential for behaviorally complex computing with networksof neurons. Two simple classical control-like networks were devised
which could interact with traditional robotic devices and control a simple
pendulum system. Results are given in simulation, showing the potential for
PD-like control from a minimal two-neuron network.

SPIE DSS 2015

Bio-inspired sensing and control for
disturbance rejection and stabilization(Invited Paper)
Gregory Gremillion, James S. Humbert, Univ. of Maryland,College Park (United States)
The successful operation of small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS) in
unknown, dynamic environments demands robust stability in the presenceof exogenous disturbances. Traditionally, a minimal set of inertial sensors
approximately collocated at the vehicle center of mass is used for stabilizing
control of aircraft of varying scales. Using this sensing architecture todirectly estimate the forces and torques applied to an airframe can bechallenging in free flight. Direct sensing of the forces and torques applied
to the vehicle airframe, either by actuators or external inputs, can be used
for stability and control augmentation to produce a more robust platform
with improved reference tracking and disturbance rejection. Flying insects
are characteristically sensor-rich platforms, with multi-modal and highly
redundant arrays of sensors, some sensitive to inertial states. The integrationof sensory inputs across the insect body yields diminished noise in state
estimates and encodes greater state information than could be possible withany single sensor. This work presents a novel sensing framework in which
a redundant array of accelerometers distributed away from the vehicle
center of mass is used to directly estimate the total forces and torques
applied to a rigid airframe. Distributing the sensors away from the center ofmass encodes a larger set of state information in the form of translational,
Coriolis, Euler, and centripetal acceleration states, which directly relate toapplied forces and torques. Measurements from the array of accelerometers
are linearly combined, given knowledge of their position within the bodyfixed reference frame, to estimate the full 6 degree-of-freedom force andtorque vector. As in the insect sensory system, this wide-field sensing
method provides improvements in signal-to-noise ratio when compared toa smaller or minimal subset of sensors. Furthermore, this linear estimation
scheme lends itself to an analog-VLSI implementation, which is maximallyscalable to sUAS and produces estimates at extremely high bandwidths.
The force and torque vector is estimated with this novel sensor array for asimulated vehicle for various flight conditions. The estimation performanceof the sensing mechanism is characterized via simulation. Estimate accuracy
is quantified as a function of sensor noise level, position estimate error, andsensor quantity. Analytical constraints on sensor placement is also detailed.

9467-61, Session 11

High-speed autonomous navigation of
unknown environments using learned
probabilities of collision (Invited Paper)Charles Richter, Nicholas Roy, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (United States)

A control theoretic approach toneuromorphic computing (Invited Paper)

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9467-60, Session 11·

We present a motion planning algorithm for dynamic vehicles navigating
through unknown environments. We focus on the scenario in which a
fast-moving car attempts to navigate from a start location to a set ofgoal coordinates in minimum time with no prior information about theenvironment, building a map in real time from on-board sensor data.
Whereas existing planners for exploration confine themselves to aconservative set of constraints to guarantee safety around unknown regionsof the environment, we instead learn a hazard function from data, whichmaps the vehicle’s dynamic state and current environment knowledge toa probability of collision. We perform receding horizon planning in which
the objective function is evaluated in expectation over those learned
probabilities of collision. Our algorithm demonstrates sensible emergent
behaviors, like swinging wide around blind corners, slowing down near themap frontier, and accelerating in regions of high visibility. Our algorithm iscapable of navigating from start to goal more quickly than the conservative
baseline planner without sacrificing safety. We demonstrate our algorithm
on a 1:8-scale RC car equipped with a planar laser range-finder and inertial

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
measurement unit, reaching speeds of 4m/s in unknown, indoor spaces. A
video of experimental results is available at: http://groups.csail.mit.edu/rrg/
nav_learned_prob_collision.

by controlling the acceleration of the robot. We analyzed the cost oftransport of STAR [4]including energy consumption in sliding, work against
gravity, elastic losses of the legs and the surface, and kinetic energy andcompare them to the total energy input of the actuators. We found that at aslope of 0.3, cost-of-climbing is just 2.

9467-62, Session 11

References[1] D.W. Haldane, K.C. Peterson, F.L. Garcia Bermudez, and R.S. Fearing,“Animal-inspired Design and Aerodynamic Stabilization of a Hexapedal
Millirobot,’’ IEEE ICRA, Karlsruhe, May 2013.

Characterization of small field anomaly
detection from optic flow (Invited Paper)[2] D.W. Haldane, R.S. Fearing, ``Roll oscillation modulated turning in
dynamic millirobots’’ IEEE ICRA, Karlsruhe, May 2013.

Gregory Gremillion, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States); Joseph K. Conroy, Allison M. Mathis,William D. Nothwang, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)[3] D. Zarrouk and R.S. Fearing, ``A One Actuator Steerable Autonomous
Robot (1STAR),’’ video submission to IEEE ICRA, Hong Kong, 2014
[4] D. Zarrouk and R.S. Fearing, ``Cost of Locomotion of a Dynamic
Hexapedal Robot,’’ IEEE ICRA, Karlsruhe, May 2013.

Previous implementations of wide field integration (WFI) of optic flow
for reactive obstacle avoidance have focused on detection of low spatial
frequency objects for navigation in corridor-like environments. Conversely,
robust detection of small field obstacles is a missing, but necessary
capability for reliable obstacle avoidance in the real-world environment.
We propose to characterize and quantify the efficacy of small object
and anomaly detection as a function of imager characteristics, optic flow
computation properties, and the spatio-temporal characteristics of thevisual anomaly. To this end, we simulate wide field optic flow patterns on an
imaging surface with precise control of simulated small field anomalies todetermine empirical thresholds for successful object detection. Validationof these simulation results is performed in a 2-D optic flow hardware
implementation.

9467-64, Session 12

Metastable legged locomotion in realworld environments: methods to quantify
and optimize reliability (Invited Paper)
Katie Byl, Cenk O. Saglam, Univ. of California, Santa
Barbara (United States)
Legged systems are developed to fill a niche in which they canoutperform wheeled locomotion in providing robust mobility in real-world
environments. As such, reliable performance on stochastic terrain is a criticalgoal. In this work, we provide an intuitive overview of methods we havedeveloped in recent years to capture the dynamics of a high-dimensional
legged system using an approximately 2D mesh. This tractable mesh canthen be used to optimize control at two distinct levels, (1) selecting lowlevel gait parameters for each of a family of distinct walking gaits, and (2)deriving optimal switching policies, based on noisy sensing of internal states
and upcoming terrain. Resulting walking on rough terrain is well-described
as being metastable, i.e., it exhibits very long periods of near-limit-cycle
behavior but is also guaranteed to eventually fall down for non-trivial levelsof terrain variability.

9467-63, Session 12

Dynamic legged locomotion for palm-size
robots (Invited Paper)
Ronald Fearing, Duncan Haldane, Univ. of California,
Berkeley (United States); David Zarrouk, Ben-Gurion Univ.
of the Negev (Israel)
Minimally-actuated palm-size robots are capable of running at speeds
greater than 2 meters per second (20 body lengths per second), withleg stride rates of greater than 20 Hz. In this dynamic regime, passive
stabilization is needed for roll-and-pitch instability.

Although our tools have been specifically developed to analyze a planar
model of an underactuated, point-foot walker, they are also applicable
across a wide variety of other complex dynamic systems in which thelong-term (mixing) effects of stochasticity are hard to predict and where
guarantees of absolute reliability are not possible. Our presentation
highlights several specific results, toward emphasizing the magnitude of
improvement one can achieve in system reliability, while simultaneously
focusing on an intuitive, tutorial explanation of the basic modeling steps
required, toward encouraging and enabling adoption of these techniques inbenchmarking and subsequently optimizing a variety of other system, with
an emphasis on legged robots.

However, we have found that certain roll-oscillation modes can be used forhigh speed turning. Other turning modes have also been identified, suchas modulating foot contact location through foot compliance. Interestingly,
palm-size legged robots are approximately as efficient as their larger
counterparts, and the simpler designs lend themselves to more direct
measurements of energy for cost-of-transport estimates.
The VelociRoACH [1] is a 10 cm long, 30 gram hexapedal millirobot capableof running at 2.7 m/s, making it the fastest legged robot built to date,relative to scale. By implementing an aerodynamic rotational damper, we
further reduced the rotational energy in the system, and demonstrated
that stable limit cycles with lower rotational energy are more robust to
disturbances. This method increased the stability of the system without
detracting from forward speed.

Our particular results focus on presentation of two low-level gait controllers,each of which is provably stable on constant-slope terrain. Using ourmesh-based techniques, we optimize parameters defining each low-levelgait in order to maximize the average steps-to-failure. This optimization
can also include secondary goals, such as improved energy efficiency
and/or maximizing speed, thus achieving significant improvements inthese secondary aspects with only minor reductions in reliability. More
importantly, the method provides an apples-to-apples metric that
researchers can use to compare any of a variety of competing gait control
strategies in a quantifiable way.

We analyzed the dynamic turning motion of both VelociRoACH, a C-shapelegged robot [2], and STAR, a single actuator hexapedal “whegs-style’’robot [3,4]. For VelociRoACH, we explored a family of phase locked turning
gaits where all legs of the robot move at the same speed [2]. These gaits
are highly periodic, allowing the vertical height and roll angle of the robot tobe approximated by single harmonic sinusoidal functions. We demonstrated
that oscillations in height and roll angle determine the robot’s turning
behavior, and obtained a new high speed turning gait (forward velocity: 0.4
m/s, turn rate 200 degrees per second).

At a higher level, we also demonstrate how to develop control policies toswitch among low-level controller to further improve reliability and to allow
for foothold selection based on noisy information about upcoming terrain
profile. We discuss the issue of modeling error and estimate the magnitudeof error created by using our meshing approximation. For example, we
demonstrate that results converge numerically as the mesh increases inresolution.

For STAR, we found a novel dynamic gait to control in-plane locomotion [3](forward, back, clockwise and counter clockwise rotations) of a compliant
legged hexapedal robot using a single actuator. The gait exploits thecompliance disparity between alternate stance tripods, to generate rotation

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Our most significant goal in this paper is to emphasize the fact that resulting·

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Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII

9467-121, Session 12

performance frequently varies by many orders of magnitude (e.g., millions
vs thousands of steps between failures) between competing low-levelstrategies that both generate stable limit cycle with seemingly similarenergetic and speed properties, on identical dynamic robot models. Our
work presents a tutorial guide to allow other researchers to adopt our
methods to benchmark and improve a variety of other complex dynamic
systems in which reliability is essential.

Bio-inspired principles of terrestrial
motion sciene
Robert J. Full, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States)

9467-65, Session 12

SCATTER reveals a superposition principleof robot locomotion on heterogeneous
terrain (Invited Paper)
Feifei Qian, Daniel I. Goldman, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Many flowable substrates are composed of particulates of varying size,
from fine sand to pebbles and boulders. Ambulatory locomotion on such
heterogeneous substrates is complicated in part due to fluctuations
introduced by heterogeneities. To systematically explore how heterogeneity
affects legged locomotion, we study the locomotion trajectory of a 6-legged
robot (Xplorerbot, 15 cm, 150 g, using an alternating tripod gait) in a
trackway filled with ~1 mm poppy seeds (the sand), and an embedded ~5 cm“boulder” whose shape we systematically varying by 3D printing different
regular polyhedra. We investigate how the presence of the boulder affects
trajectories using our automated “Systematic Creation of Arbitrary Terrain
and Testing of Exploratory Robots” (SCATTER) system. The robot trajectoryis straight before boulder interaction, and is scattered to an angle after theinteraction. This angle can sensitively depend on the leg-boulder contact
position (contact zone) and the boulder mobility within the fine sand.
However, the scattering pattern dependence upon limb contact zone on theboulder is insensitive to boulder shape and roughness. Analysis of the robot
trajectory indicates that the existence of a single boulder can be modeledusing a scattering potential with attractive and repulsive features. Using thisuniversal scattering rule as a prior knowledge, the robot is able to perform
anticipatory feedback control using a swing-insertion tail, reducing the
average scattering angle to 0.38°.

9467-66, Session 12

Data driven models of legged locomotion(Invited Paper)
Shai Revzen, Univ. of Michigan (United States)
Legged locomotion is a challenging regime both for experimental analysis
and for robot design. In biology we know that most rapid locomotion inlegged animals is achieved by using regular, nearly periodic leg motions.
Dynamical systems with a stable limit cycle that are subject to substantial
drift in phase are sometimes called “rhythmic” systems.
We present Data Driven Floquet Analysis (DDFA), a technique for using
observed trajectories of a rhythmic system for reconstructing both the limit
cycle and the dynamics which bring perturbed states back to it. We apply
DDFA to legged locomotion systems and present within this mathematicalframework several recent developments regarding systems withdiscontinuities in the equations of motion (“hybrid” systems) such as appear
when feet contact the ground. We also present empirical tools for thecharacterization of leg synchronization and gait transitions, and motivate
their use with examples and proofs. Taken together these results provide
both a general picture of the dynamics achievable by legged systems, and arich collection of tools for their empirical characterization.

166

SPIE DSS 2015·

Biological Inspiration is the use of principles and analogies from biology
when advantageous to generate novel designs through integration withthe best human engineering. Now more than ever before, nature caninstruct us on how to best use new materials and manufacturing processes
discovered by engineers, because these human technologies have more of
the characteristics of life. Although Biomimetics offers enormous potential
for novel designs, we must realize that nature is constrained by evolution,
development, multi-functionality and sexual selection. Principles for legged
motion systems that have emerged include self-stabilization, self-righting,self-cleaning fibrillar adhesives, self-reconfiguring antennae, robustness
in leg design, terradynamic streamlining through multi-component 3D
environments and the ability of soft bodies with legs to permit ingress into
confined spaces.

9467-67, Session 13

Real-time atmospheric imaging andprocessing with advanced adaptive optics
and algorithm acceleration systems(Invited Paper)
Jony J. Liu, Leonid A. Beresnev, John E. McElhenny, Gary
W. Carhart, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);Fouad E. Kiamilev, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
For a tactical long-range imaging and reconnaissance system, atmosphericturbulence poses significant challenge for its performance in target
identification and recognition. In our efforts to solve this problem, wedeveloped an advanced adaptive optics (AO) system, which contains
high-performance deformable mirrors (DMs) with the fast stochastic
parallel gradient decent (SPGD) control mechanism. It allows the effective
compensation of such turbulence-induced wavefront aberrations andresults in significant improvement on the image quality. In addition, weapplied a sophisticated digital synthetic imaging and processing technique,“lucky-region” fusion (LRF), to mitigate the image degradation over a large
field-of-view (FOV) region. The LRF algorithm extracts sharp regions fromeach image obtained from a series of short exposure frames and fuses theminto a final improved image. We further developed hardware electronics
and implemented such algorithm into a field programmable gate array(FPGA) processor. The system achieved real-time image/video acquisitionand processing. We will present these experimental results for combining
both AO and hardware implemented LRF processing technique over a nearhorizontal 2.3km atmospheric propagation path. Our approach can also
generate a universal camera-independent real-time imaging and processing
system.

9467-68, Session 13

Ultraspectral imaging and the snapshot
advantage (Invited Paper)
Michael W. Kudenov, Subharup Gupta Roy, Bryan D.
Maione, North Carolina State Univ. (United States)
Ultraspectral sensing has been investigated as a way to resolve terrestrial
chemical fluorescence within solar Fraunhofer lines. Referred to as
Fraunhofer Line Discriminators (FLDs), these sensors attempt to measure“band filling” of terrestrial fluorescence within these naturally dark regionsof the spectrum. However, the method has challenging signal to noise ratio
limitations due to the low fluorescence emission signal of the target, whichis exacerbated by the high spectral resolution of the sensor (<0.1 nm). To

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
now, many Fraunhofer line discriminators have been scanning sensors;
either pushbroom or whiskbroom, which requires temporal and/or spatial
scanning to acquire an image. In this paper, we attempt to quantify thesnapshot throughput advantage in ultraspectral imaging for FLD. This isfollowed by preliminary results of our snapshot FLD sensor. The system has
a spatial resolution of 280x280 pixels and a spectral resolving power ofapproximately 10,000 at a 658 nm operating wavelength.

when the common and non-common disturbances are temporally close
together.
The second algorithm is more adaptive in nature, and uses an adaptive
minimum variance lattice filter to selectively segregate the common-path
signal from the combined common and non-common path disturbancesignal. The approach effectively uses a real-time adaptive correlation
algorithm between an auxiliary measurement of the non-common path andthe mixed signal to identify the non-common-path portion of the combined
disturbance signal. Once this has been determined, the signal is negatedfrom the combined signal to extract a common-path reference sequencethat is used for a receding horizon rejection controller. Provided that theauxiliary measurement reasonably represents the non-common path
disturbance, the algorithm demonstrates adaptive behavior that can adjust
to non-common path disturbances that have non-stationary statics which
is a contrasting advantage over both the baseline and Clearbox algorithm
approach.

9467-69, Session 13

Design and characterization of a tunableopto-mechatronic system to mimic the
focusing and the regulation of illuminationin the formation of images made by thehuman eye (Invited Paper)

Overall, the two algorithms display autonomous-like behavior that canincrease the accurateness of the selective rejection process, which inresult shows better performance over the baseline method for numerous
disturbance frequency profiles.

Agustín Santiago-Alvarado, Angel S. Cruz-Félix, Arturo
Hernández Méndez, Yara Pérez-Maldonado, Cristian
Dominguez Osante, Univ. Tecnológica de la Mixteca(Mexico)9467-71, Session 13

Nowadays, tunable lenses have attracted much attention due to theirpotential applications in such areas like machine vision, laser projection,
ophthalmology, etc. In this work we present the design of a tunableopto-mechatronic system capable of focusing and to regulate theentrance illumination that mimics the performance made by the iris andthe crystalline lens of the human eye. A solid elastic lens made of PDMS
has been used in order to mimic the crystalline lens and an automatic
diaphragm has been used to mimic the iris of the human eye. Also,a characterization of such system has been performed by means ofinterferometric techniques and standard values of luminosity for the humaneye have been taken into account to calibrate and to validate the entrance
illumination levels to the overall optical system.

Beam optimization for imaging lidar(Invited Paper)
Lyle Ruppert, Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. (UnitedStates)Active remote sensing returns information of the highest value at the lowest
cost when outgoing energy can be carefully shaped and directed to thetask at hand. This paper presents results of lab and airborne testing of an
Electronically Steerable Flash Lidar (ESFL) under continuing development
by Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corp. The results highlight theadaptive nature of this and other active instruments having fine control ofillumination, and show the benefits of combining lab simulation with flighttesting in validation of algorithms and control design.

9467-70, Session 13

Selective broadband jitter mitigation for
non-common path errors (Invited Paper)

9467-72, Session 14

Photonic RF-IF wideband down conversion
using optical injection locking (Invited
Paper)

Edwin S. Ahn, Richard A. Carreras, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Steve Gibson, Univ. of California, Los
Angeles (United States)

James R. Adleman, SPAWAR Systems Ctr. (United States);
Chunyan Lin, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command(United States); Shai Barak Jester, B. Melvin L. Pascoguin,Douglass Evans, SPAWAR Systems Ctr. (United States);
Everett W. Jacobs, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr.
Pacific (United States)

Beam control systems that address optical jitter frequently experience noncommon path errors where the sensor used for feedback detects additional
measurements that are non-correlated to the disturbance of interest.
Correcting for this additional disturbance can result in overcompensation,
thus degrading overall error rejection performance. Previous methods thatwere used to curb this non-common-path error implemented notch or bandstop filters to suppress frequency content within the control signal that werecorrelated to the non-common path disturbance. Two new design methods
are introduced here that provide autonomous-like behavior within thedesign process and results in improving the accurateness of rejection.

We describe the implementation of a self-heterodyne down converting RF
photonic link as a key component of a wideband microwave signal searchand intercept system. The presented architecture uses photomixing of two
distributed feedback lasers injection locked to a master external cavity
laser. Coherent detection and digitization of the intermediate frequency
allows unambiguous recovery of full time-domain information within a
1.7 GHz bandwidth. The injection locked laser design relaxes tuning range
requirements of RF local oscillator, and provides high optical power for
efficient RF-IF conversion without the use of an erbium doped fiber
amplifier. The demonstrated link has better than 110 dB/Hz^2/3 spur freedynamic range and noise figure better than 36 dB from C to Ka band.
Analysis of the phase noise performance of the injection locked lasers andtheir impact on system sensitivity is presented. Additionally, the practicalimplementation of a packaged prototype system will be discussed,with emphasis on the system stabilization strategy and performancerequirements.

The first algorithm, which is the Clearbox algorithm, takes a system
identification perspective where both disturbance and plant dynamics areincorporated within the model. Disturbance modes within the Clearbox
model can be conveniently detected within the model itself and selectively
removed from the model based on auxiliary sensor readings which thenleaves it up to the controller to reject. Modes that are correlated to thenon-common path disturbance may be left within the Clearbox model sothat these disturbance components are not eliminated, hence providing
capabilities for selective disturbance rejection. The Clearbox algorithm
effectively treats the non-common path modes as part of the plant andbypasses potential rejection. Due to the algorithm’s disturbance identifying
capability the design process for selectively rejecting modes is autonomous
to a certain degree and displays a major benefit over the baseline approachof applying a suppressing filter to the outputting control command signal

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9467-73, Session 14

atmospheric aerosol/particulate distributions and turbulent scintillation
phenomena that cause rapid fluctuations of the amplitude and phase of thereceived signal.

Wideband RF channelizer based onparametric combs (Invited Paper)

9467-75, Session 14

Sanja Zlatanovic, Space and Naval Warfare Systems
Command (United States)
RF photonic channelizers can overcome limitations of conventional
electronic methods for analysis of wideband RF spectral content. Here, wewill present recent progress on the RF photonic channelizer systems that are
based on optical parametric combs. These systems can analyze very wide
RF bandwidths exceeding 100GHz, therefore providing essential capability
for the applications demanding a wide-bandwidth spectral analysis. The
RF channelizers being presented utilize parametric processes in the highly
non-linear fiber mixers to generate a large number of RF signal copies in the
optical domain. Two different implementations for generation of RF signal
copies will be presented and compared: one using a parametric multicasting
and another utilizing a direct comb modulation. Generation of optical combs
spanning more than 10THz will be shown. We will also present two distinct
system architectures for RF photonic channelizer system: one employing
a periodic optical filter such as Fabry-Perot etalon to select channels fromthe signal comb, and another one utilizing a coherent detection between
a frequency-locked signal comb and a parametrically generated local
oscillator (LO) comb. The second scheme gives benefit of providing bothin-phase and quadrature (I/Q) information on channelized intermediate
frequency (IF) signals. We will present a system with 32 implemented
channels using a filtered scheme and an 88-channel coherent system witha full-field detection implemented on one channel. Sensitivity and dynamic
range as well as benefits of both system architectures will be discussed.

Wavelength optimization via
retroreflection for underwater free-space
optical communication (Invited Paper)
Burton Neuner III, B. Melvin L. Pascoguin, SPAWARSYSCEN
Pacific: San Diego (United States)

9467-74, Session 14

The wireless, high-data-rate transmission of information is becoming
increasingly important for undersea applications that include defense,
environmental monitoring, and petroleum engineering. Free-space optical(FSO) communication addresses this need by providing an undersea
high-data-rate link over moderate distances (up to 100s of meters). Lighttransmission through seawater is maximal in the blue-green part of the
optical spectrum (475 nm-575 nm), but turbidity conditions, which are
dynamic, strongly influence the observed maximum. We describe thedevelopment of a laser-wavelength auto-selection algorithm and systemfor optimized underwater FSO communications. The use of a passive
corner-cube retroreflector allows all transmitter and receiver electronics
to be collocated, which will be beneficial on any fielded system. First, we
present results on creating various seawater types (from clear to turbid)
in the laboratory using particle suspensions and dyes, which will enablewavelength-dependent transmission tests. Next, we describe the laser test
bed and retroreflector system. We then show experimental results fromwater tube tests. Finally, we describe the development of the auto-selection
algorithm. This wavelength auto-selection system has the potential to
improve undersea optical link reliability for high-data-rate communications.

Optical channel characterization in
maritime atmospheres (Invited Paper)

9467-76, Session 14

Stephen M. Hammel, Dimitri Tsintikidis, John S. deGrassie,
Colin Reinhardt, Kevin M. McBryde, Eric Hallenborg, David
T. Wayne, Kristofor Gibson, Galen Cauble, Ana Ascencio,
Joshua J. Rudiger, Space and Naval Warfare Systems
Command (United States)

Preparation of novel HTS films and tunnel
junctions for advanced C3I sensor
applications (Invited Paper)

The Navy is actively developing diverse optical application areas, including
high-energy laser weapons and free-space optical communications,which depend on an accurate and timely knowledge of the state of theatmospheric channel. We have created a comprehensive program tocoalesce and extend the current capability to characterize the maritime
atmosphere for all optical and infrared wavelengths. The program goal is thedevelopment of a unified and validated analysis toolbox.
A salient feature of the maritime atmospheric propagation channel is its
highly variable nature. This variability is also multi-factorial, depending upon
geography, season, and engagement geometry. The conclusion that must be
drawn is that a successful prediction and analysis capability will necessarily
combine multiple approaches operating in ‘parallel’. Furthermore, any such
performance prediction for working optical system must evolve towards
a near-real-time channel assessment. The foundational design for thisprogram coordinates the development of sensors, measurement protocols,
analytical models, and basic physics necessary to fulfill this goal. An
overview of these core elements will be presented.
A second fundamental goal for this project is to extend the characterizationof the maritime atmospheric propagation channel throughout opticalelectromagnetic spectrum from visible(VIS) wavelengths through shortwave-infrared (SWIR), mid-wave infrared (MWIR), and long-wave infrared(LWIR). More comprehensive understanding of propagation channel
characteristics is a first-order requirement for the dominant Navy opticalsystems. Our knowledge of spectral details of optical propagation in
maritime environments is incomplete, and this project will contributeto its completion. We will gain a clearer understanding of the relevant
propagation physics by analysis of scattering and attenuation by the

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Benjamin J. Taylor, Teresa H. Emery, Susan A. E. Berggren,Anna M. Leese de Escobar, Space and Naval Warfare
Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States); Inho Jeon, M. B.
Maple, University of California, San Diego (United States)
Research is being carried out in the Cryogenic Exploitation of Radio
Frequency (CERF) laboratory at Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center
Pacific (SSC Pacific) into the development of advanced RF sensors known
as Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) arrays madefrom the high-temperature superconductor YBa2Cu3O7–.d In support ofthis, a basic scientific research effort was begun wherein fundamental
properties of the compound YBa2Cu3Ox (6 ≤ x ≤ 7) were investigated alongwith the exploration of new combinations of multilayer hetero-structures
composed of YBa2Cu3Ox and multiferroic materials. A significant result
from this project involved the invention of a novel method and subsequentdevelopment of an apparatus by which a single film could be grown witha monotonically varying oxygen content as a function of the physicaldistance along the sample, which we refer to as YBa2Cu3ODx. The purposeof this approach is to enable an examination of the evolution of? theelectronic tunneling properties as a function of oxygen content in a nearlycontinuous fashion, thereby providing an experimental resolution heretofore
unobtainable. Josephson junctions can be fabricated via many known
methods; however, a particularly useful method for our purposes involves
the use of a directed ion beam to disorder or mill away a region of the film.
Because the ion milling process is material dependent it becomes necessary
to establish whether, and to what extent, the level of oxygen affects theresulting junction formation geometry. We find a positive correlation of local
oxygen content and ordering on the depth and profile of micrometer scalewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
Technology (Russian Federation)

ion milled trenches. It appears that the change in the ion milling profile canbe used advantageously in the fabrication of Josephson junction on films of
YBa2Cu3O7–d, wherein the film is annealed such that the oxygen content
of the sample is set to an ideal level for a controlled profile result, and thenre-annealed for desired electronic properties.

The possibility of manufacturing compact accelerometer based on
prefabricated elements has been shown. Since most of the sensitive element
designs at the lowest cost possible to produce at different ranges ofsensitivity, so accelerometer design will be flexible in terms of wide range
measuring of linear accelerations. Structurally, the accelerometer consists ofa sensor (comb type), capacitance-to-voltage converter (CBC) with digitalinterface settings and microcontroller for storing CBC register values innonvolatile memory. Measuring the change of sensitive element capacitancewhen exposed to acceleration is the main circuit operation principle.
Structurally CBC glued to the microcontroller in the immediate vicinity ofthe sensitive element. Surface protected by the microcontroller mask, so theadhesive can be both conductive and non-conductive, with the tolerances
set to 100 microns. The housing is sealed by suture-seam welding, and theaccelerometer interior is filled with nitrogen. This operation is a standard
operation for encapsulation majority of chips, which gives an advantage inthe product processability. In this case, the bandwidth of the test specimen
was about 320 Hz. Process of accelerometer setting up and testing is toinstall the housing in contact device, and firmware of the microcontroller
software. This method allows you to configure the accelerometer “on thefly” directly on the centrifuge or on a vibrating table. Advantages of thisproduct are the ability to change the sensitive element, experimenting withits design and manufacturing technology, manufacturability, work in a wide
temperature range from minus 60°C to plus 85 °C.

9467-103, Session PThu

Lowering contact resistance of graphene
FETs with capacitive extension of ohmic
contacts for enhanced RF performance
Chowdhury G. Al-Amin, Mustafa Karabiyik, Raju Sinha,
Nezih Pala, Florida International Univ. (United States)
We propose a novel Graphene Field Effect Transistor (GFET) with two
Capacitively Coupled Contacts (C3) at the access regions that are shorted
to the ohmic Source/Drain. The capacitive extension of ohmic contacts
towards the Gate serves as a low impedance route for the high frequency
RF signal, in parallel to the ohmic contact. The DC bias required for signal
amplification is applied at the ohmic Source/Drain, whereas the amplified
RF signal avails both the ohmic Drain and Drain-side C3, to be received as
output. As the imaginary part of C3 impedance can be nullified by using asuitable matching network, the paralleling of Drain resistance and real partof C3 impedance results in an overall lower contact resistance. The current
gain cut-off frequency, fT is inversely dependent of contact resistance for
RF FETs and this paralleling eventually results in a higher fT of the proposed
GFET. As the C3s, starting from Source/Drain, extend towards the Gate, it
reduces the access region length and the reduction of access resistancecontributes towards the increment of fT as well.

9467-105, Session PThu

Comb structure analysis of the capacitive
sensitive element in MEMS-accelerometer
Sergey P. Timoshenkov, Andrey Shalimov, National
Research Univ. of Electronic Technology (RussianFederation); Natalia Korobova, National Research
University (MIET) (Russian Federation); Mikhail
Golovinskiy, National Research Univ. of Electronic
Technology (Russian Federation); Alexey Timoshenkov,
Egor Zuev, Svetlana Berezueva, Andrey Kosolapov,
National Research University (MIET) (Russian Federation)

As a starting point of our analysis, we simulated a baseline GFET with ohmic
Source/Drain contacts. It consists of Lg=3.0 ?m and Lgs/Lgd=1.5 ?m with
SiO2 as substrate and 24 nm thick dielectric on top of CVD Graphene. We
simulated the DC and RF characteristics of the baseline GFET using physics
based numerical device simulation tool along with analytical calculations.
The simulated DC and RF characteristics were in good agreement with thereported characteristics.
To estimate the impedance of C3, we simulated a RF TLM structure on
Graphene having two Capacitively Coupled Contacts with various inbetween distances. Graphene carrier mobility, dielectric thickness, andmaterial were considered the same as that in baseline GFET.

In this paper, an analysis of comb design for the sensing element MEMS
accelerometer with longitudinal displacement of the inertial mass under
the influence of acceleration to obtain the necessary parameters forthe further construction of an electronic circuit for removal and signal
processing has been done. Fixed on the stator the inertia mass has theability to move under the influence of acceleration along the longitudinal
structure. As a result the distance between the fixed and movable combs,
and hence the capacitance in the capacitors have been changed. Measuring
the difference of these capacitances you can estimate the value of theapplied acceleration. Furthermore, managing combs that should apply
an electrostatic force for artificial deviation of the inertial mass may be
used for the initial sensitive elements culling. Also in this case there is achange of capacitances, which can be measured by the comb and makea decision about the spoilage presence or absence. The paper establishes
the relationship between the geometrical dimensions of the comb andthe functional parameters of the final product (accelerometer). Simulation
results in the Ansys application have been presented.

Finally, we simulated our proposed GFET. We started with a capacitive
extension of 0.8 ?m. The AC simulation was performed for the DC biasingof Vds=5.0V. As the drain bias as well as the drain side C3 bias is positive,
we considered the GFET electron regime operation so that the drain side C3
bias does not deplete, rather accumulate more major carriers. A gate bias of
Vgs=2V was used to operate the GFET in electron regime. Later, the effect ofincreasing C3 length on cut-off frequency was examined and the length was
extended up to a maximum of 1.4 ?m. The simulation results were verified
through analytical calculations.
Expected similar improvement of fT for shorter channel high mobility GFET
was also estimated from simulation and analytical calculations.
In conclusion, capacitive extension of ohmic Source/Drain lowers contact
resistance and access resistance which eventually increases the current
gain cut-off frequency. Our simulation results supported by analytical
calculations show that, with a capacitive extension of 0.8 ?m, the increment
was 9.0% and for a maximum extension of 1.4 ?m, it reached up to 18.9%.
For shorter channel GFET, the improvement was even more prominentand reached up to 23.4%. The proposed Graphene FETs with improved
characteristics can be used for high frequency applications.

9467-106, Session PThu

A bimorph electrothermal actuator for
micromirror devices

9467-104, Session PThu

Sergey Evstafyev, Sergey P. Timoshenkov, Igor Britkov,
National Research Univ. of Electronic Technology (RussianFederation)

Development of small-sized accelerometer
Sergey P. Timoshenkov, Andrey Mikheev, Alexey
Timoshenkov, National Research Univ. of Electronic

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The paper presents a structure of micromechanical bimorph electrothermal·

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
actuator for use in optical systems for light beam control. The actuator isa thin structure which consists of layers of silicon dioxide and aluminum,with a polysilicon heater placed between them. The actuator is created on
the surface of a standard silicon wafer using processes and technologies of
microelectronics such as oxidation of the silicon wafer, the epitaxial growthof silicon dioxide, polysilicon deposition and deep anisotropic etching ofsilicon. Heating of electrothermal actuator structure leads to a different
linear expansion of aluminum and silicon dioxide. That bends the actuator
beam in the desired direction, thus creating a movement that could be
used in device. A mathematical model of the electrothermal actuatorand a method of calculating the movement of the beam end depending
on its geometrical, technological and electrical parameters are proposedin the paper. Proposed method takes into account the temperature
distribution along the entire length of the actuator beam and allows to get
more accurate data on the radius of curvature of the actuator comparedto models in which temperature is constant along the entire length of
the beam. Paper also describes the design and manufacturing processof a several micromirror prototypes driven by the developed actuator.
Micromirrors have dimensions of 50x50µm, 100x100µm and 200x200µm
and a large deflection angle of about ~30°. A method for experimental
testing of micromirror deflection angle is also proposed. It is establishedthat experimental results are in good agreement with themathematical model.

We investigate the properties of a fiber-based split ring resonator (SRR)
with a strong resonance in the near-IR wavelength range for application
as a sensitive IR detector and as a critical component for a negative-index
material (NIR). The fiber-based SRR allows for direct coupling of magnetic
field into the LC resonance under normal incidence, contributing to anegative magnetic permeability, which is not possible for a planar SRR array.
We systematically study the influence of resonator size, periodicity, andmetal coating thickness on the resonance properties, in which a parameterretrieval method is utilized to obtain the permittivity and permeabilityof the SRR. The diffraction, induced dipole-dipole coupling, and current
distribution are studied and used to explain these unique properties. A
simple experiment is also discussed, which employs an electrospinningtechnique to make the long fibers followed by metal deposition. Thismethod could be used for large-scale, cost-effective SRR fabrication.

9467-110, Session PThu

Thermal conductivity characterization of
in-situ fabricated polysilicon nanowires
for uncooled thermoelectric infrared
detectors
Mohammad J. Modarres-Zadeh, Univ. of Central Florida(United States); Nahida Akhter, Intel Corp. (United States);Ron Hellmer, Micheal Aragon, Amethyst Research Inc.
(United States); Reza Abdolvand, Univ. of Central Florida(United States)

9467-108, Session PThu

A novel class of MEMS accelerometers
for guidance and control of gun-fired
munitions
Jahangir Rastegar, Dake Feng, Omnitek Partners, LLC(United States); Carlos M. Pereira, U.S. Army Armament
Research, Development and Engineering Ctr. (UnitedStates)
The state of the art in shock resistant MEMS accelerometer design is to
reduce the size of the proof mass, thereby reducing the generated forces
and moments due to shock loading. Physical stops are also provided to limit
proof mass motion to prevent damage to its various moving components.
The reduction of the proof mass size reduces the sensor sensitivity. In
addition, to increase the sensor dynamic response, proof mass motion
needs to be minimally damped, resulting in a significant sensor settling timeafter experiencing a high acceleration level such as those experienced by
gun-fired munitions during firing. The settling time is particularly important
for accelerometers that are used in gun-fired munitions and mortars fornavigation and guidance.
This paper describes the development of a novel class of accelerometersthat are provided with the means of locking the sensor proof mass in its“null” position when subjected to acceleration levels above those thatare intended to sense during its normal operation, thereby protecting themoving parts of the accelerometer during very high shock loading events. In
munitions applications, the proof mass is thereby locked in its null position
during the firing and released during the flight to begin to measure flightacceleration with minimal settling time. The paper describes details of
the design and operation of the developed sensors and results of their
prototyping and testing. The application of the developed technology toother types of inertial sensors and devices is also discussed.

9467-109, Session PThu

Fiber-based split-ring-resonators:
producing strong magnetic response in the
IR through an electrospinning technique
Tao Gong, Jeremy N. Munday, Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States)

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SPIE DSS 2015·

In this work, a microstructure along with its fabrication process has beendeveloped for measuring the thermal conductivity (K) of nanowires andthin films. The nanoscale features are embedded in the device during the
fabrication process using e-beam lithography. Using this microstructure, theK of polysilicon nanowires are measured for the first time and it is shownthat for nanowires with a cross section of ~60nmx100nm, the K is ~3 W/m.K(a 10X reduction compared to the bulk value of ~30W/m.K [1]).
The K of a thermoelectric material is the most difficult material parameter
to measure. The lower the K, the higher is the thermoelectric efficiency
and hence a better infrared detector can be made. We have previously
shown high responsivity uncooled thermoelectric IR detectors [2] that were
utilizing polysilicon as the thermoelectric material. To further improve theperformance of our devices, it is required to know how the dimensions of
the wires and different deposition parameters affect the polysilicon K.
In this MEMS structure [3,4], nanowires are formed between two
membranes that are suspended from the substrate by 450um long arms
and a metallic coil is used as a heater/thermometer on each membrane.
One of the membranes is heated by passing a DC current through its coil.
The temperature of the second membrane rises due to the heat conducted
through the nanowires. Knowing the generated heat in the structure and thetemperatures of the membranes, the thermal conduction of the nanowires iscalculated. The results obtained here will be used to fabricate more sensitive
IR detectors.

9467-111, Session PThu

Two-photon absorption based optical
logic
Xiang Zhang, Wenbo Li, Hongyu Hu, Niloy K. Dutta, Univ.
of Connecticut (United States)
We have studied high speed optical logic utilizing ultrafast two-photon
absorption (TPA) induced phase change in semiconductor optical amplifiers(SOA). The Boolean logic studied are XOR, AND and NAND. The input
optical intensities to the SOA are high enough so that the fast two-photon
absorption induced phase change is the dominant phase change. We also
propose a scheme to realize high speed all-optical encryption using keystream generators and an optical XOR gate. The key used for encryptionwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
is a high speed all-optical pseudorandom bit sequence (PRBS) which is
generated by a linear feedback shift register (LFSR) together with optical
XOR and AND gates. Several key stream generators have been studied.
Results show that this scheme can realize all-optical logic and encryption atdata speeds to 250 Gb/s.

change. As well as light sensor which monitors different levels of light.
In addition to the above the Light Depending Resistor (LDR) are used todetect light brightens in shaded areas.
Research aims to make smart device that can be used to solve someproblem like temperature control or water range meter. Also, a blind stickcan be informed bout distance of objective that’s in front. Thus many
applications can be enhanced based on this research.

9467-112, Session PThu

Mode-locked fiber ring laser usinggraphene as saturable absorber

9467-116, Session PThu

Super resolution infrared light fieldimaging using single carbon nanotube
detector

Hongyu Hu, Xiang Zheng, Wenbo Li, Niloy K. Dutta, Univ.
of Connecticut (United States)
A fiber ring laser which generates ~ 3 ps wide pulses at 10 and 20 GHz
repetition rate has been demonstrated using graphene as a saturable
absorber within the ring cavity. RF spectrums show that noise is low in thepresence of the saturable absorber. The compression of these pulses to < 1ps
pulse width using a photonic crystal fiber as a nonlinear optical loop mirror(NOLM) is described. Theoretical simulation of the NOLM transmission has
been carried out using the split-step Fourier method.

Ning Xi, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
Computational photography which enhances or extends the capabilities ofdigital imaging is one of most rapidly developing research field in computer
vision, image processing and applied optics. The output of these techniques
can reconstruct information of scene which is not obtained by today’s
traditional camera. It also opens a new approach for light field sensing. In
this work, by analyzing optics of single pixel imaging system, we present a
novel design for single pixel light field camera, which allows for capturinghigh resolution light field by carbon nanotube based infrared photodetector.
The spatial light modulator reflects objects and forms a virtual image behindthe plane in which the mirror lies. It consists of millions micro scale mirror
which works as CCD array in camera and it was controlled separately so
as to project linear combination of object image on lens array. The carbon
nanotube based infrared detector, which has ultra high signal to noise ratio,
and fast responsibility, will sum up all image information on it, without
image shape effect. The proposed method will sample multiple angularimages through different pin holes so that more information is captured.
Then, a robust reconstruction algorithm is applied to recover high resolution
image. The performance of high resolution single pixel light field camera canachieve million pixels image from angular images.

9467-113, Session PThu

Characterization of planar 6x6 cm2 MCPbased picosecond photo-detectors
Jingbo Wang, Karen Byrum, Marcel Demarteau, Edward
A. May Jr., Robert G. Wagner, Dean Walters, Lei Xia, Junqi
Xie, Huyue Zhao, Argonne National Lab. (United States)
Microchannel plate (MCP)-based photo-detectors are capable of mm-levelspatial imaging and picosecond-level timing performances, making them apromising candidate for the next generation photo-detectors. Their excellent
performances allow for a replacement of the traditional photomultipliertubes (PMT), which would open a lot of possibilities for a wide variety of
applications in fields of imaging, high energy physics and astrophysics.

9467-122, Session PThu

At Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), we are currently producing 6x6
cm2, cost-effective, thin planar, glass-body, MCP-based photo-detectors
at a newly constructed production facility. We have successfully developed
a technique to make an indium vacuum seal and produced a numberof photo-detectors. The performances of these detectors have beencharacterized with a pulsed blue laser test facility. We have measured
time-of-flight resolution up to 20 ps, differential time resolution of 8 ps, andspatial resolution better than 1 mm. Here we present the experimental setup,
data acquisition, analysis tools, characterization of the photo-detectors, andtypical results demonstrating the accuracy of the test facility. A new designof the photo-detector is also being considered for optimization.

Multiple-baseline detection of ageostationary satellite with the Navy
precision optical interferometer (NPOI)

9467-115, Session PThu

The observations, carried out during the March 2015 glint season, succeeded
in detecting the DirecTV-7S satellite with interferometer baseline lengths of
8.8 m and 9.8 m and wavelengths from 850 nm to 550 nm, corresponding toa resolution of ~0.02 arcsec, or 4 m at geostationary altitude. This is the firstmultiple-baseline interferometric detection of a satellite.

Henrique R. Schmitt, J. Tom Armstrong, Ellyn K. Baines,
Sergio R. Restaino, James H. Clark, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); James A. Benson, Donald J. Hutter,
Bob T. Zavala, U.S. Naval Observatory (United States)
Using the Navy Precision Optical Interferometer (NPOI), we have made thefirst multiple-baseline interferometric detection of a satellite.

Sensors application using microcontroller
Huthaifa A. Al Issa, Univ. of Dayton (United States)
Sensors are used in everyday aspects such as touch-sensitive elevator
buttons and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There arealso innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are neveraware about. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine,manufacturing and robotics.

9467-77, Session 15

High power lasers for infrared
countermeasures, targeting andillumination, beacons and standoff
detection of explosives and CWAs (Invited
Paper)

The conducted research studies sensors types and data that’s comes out
from sensors and how can be used with microcontroller to build devices
that’s solve problem related to the need monitoring some physical variationsuch as temperature, distance and lighting control.
Sensors types planning to be used in the algorithm include:
Ultrasonic sensor which is used for measuring the distance between thedevice and an object. Temperature sensor for monitoring temperature

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C. Kumar N. Patel, Pranalytica, Inc. (United States)·

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
In the era of asymmetric warfare and ever increasing dangers of urban
terrorism, several critical needs have been identified:
1. The need for detection of potentially dangerous objects andenvironmental constituents from safe distances is becoming an urgent issue.
The required “safe” distance depends on the mode of operation. For anindividual on foot, standoff detection distance may be 25-50m, while for avehicle traveling at 40 km/hr, the standoff detection requirement may be
several hundred meters. In either of the situations, rapid and unequivocal
identification of potential danger is necessary.
2. The need for safeguarding aircraft from MANPADS (infrared
countemeasures).
Of the technologies available for detection of explosives, CWAs and TICs,
only optical technology satisfies the requirements of noncontact, nonlocal
standoff detection. Standoff detection involves illuminating a potentially
dangerous target (e.g., an IED) or a cloud of unknown gaseous composition
with optical radiation that interacts with the dangerous substance, andanalyzing the return signal from the target as a function of the optical
wavelength. The return signal necessary for detection is determined by
the available detectors and thus the standoff detection is governed by the
optical power available for illuminating the remote object. Furthermore, fordetection and identification of the danger, the optical radiation needs totunable over the broad spectral region required to cover absorption spectraof the dangerous substance. To provide the necessary information on atimely basis, we also need to be able to rapidly tune the optical radiation
over the broad spectral region. For many if not most applications of standoff
detection SWaP issues are important. Finally the optical radiation must beeye safe.
For protection of aircraft from shoulder-fired missiles, the technologicalrequirement is for broadband lasers that generate high powers in the 3.5 ?m
to 5.0 ?m range. The required power levels are in few watts to tens of watts.
Out-of-band targeting. Illumination and beacon requirements arise because
the currently used infrared systems use a spectral region where sensors andviewers are widely available, which robs the U.S. forces the advantage of
surprise. Use of longer wavelength spectral regions, where IR viewers are
not widely available, would restore the element of surprise. Here, in addition
to the power required, SWaP issues are also very important.
The above requirements can only be met using lasers that operate in the
mid wave infrared (MWIR) and long wave infrared (LWIR) regions. Quantum
cascade lasers are the only primary lasers (directly converting electricity
into optical power) that meet all the technical requirements. In this paper,
I will describe our recent progress for increasing power output from MWIR
and LWIR QCLs, and increasing tunability and speed of tuning of tunable
MWIR and LWIR systems. In particular, we expect to obtain >10 W of MWIR
power from a polarization combined QCL system. In the tunable area, weare targeting nearly one watt of tunable power in the LWIR region, withmicrosecond random access tunability.

9467-78, Session 16

2-micron ultra-short pulse lasers (Invited
Paper)
Recently fiber lasers around 2 micron wavelength have attracted significant
attention as thulium (Tm)-doped fibers exhibit excellent power scalability
and high efficiency in a wide spectrum of laser gain between 1.8-2.1 micron.
Laser sources around 2 micron are useful for a variety of applications
including eye-safe LIDAR, medicine, spectroscopy, remote sensing andmid-infrared (IR) generation. The broad gain bandwidth makes Tm fiber anappropriate gain medium for ultrashort pulse generation.
In this presentation, high efficient and highly Tm-doped silicate fibers are
first introduced. Then mode-locked Tm-doped and Tm-Ho-codoped silicate
fiber lasers are presented. ~GHz high repetition rate mode-locked thulium
fiber laser, stretched pulse mode-locking operation and normal dispersion
dominated mode-locking operation are briefly discussed. Experiment resultsof all-fiber Tm-doped silicate fiber amplifiers for mode-locked pulses will
be presented.

9467-80, Session 16

Ultrafast fiber lasers: practical applications(Invited Paper)
Igor Pastirk, TOPTICA Photonics Inc. (United States);
Alexander Sell, Robert Herda, Andreas Brodschelm, Armin
Zach, TOPTICA Photonics AG (Germany)
No Abstract Available

9467-81, Session 16

Plasmonic nanoantennas for enhanced
midwave and longwave infrared imaging(Invited Paper)David W. Peters, Thomas E. Beechem III, Stephen W.
Howell, Jin K. Kim, Darin Leonhardt, Joel R. Wendt, John A.
Montoya, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
Conversion of plane waves to surface waves prior to detection allows
key advantages in changes to the architecture of the detector pixels ina focal plane array. We have integrated subwavelength patterned metalnanoantennas with various detector materials to incorporate theseadvantages: midwave infrared indium gallium arsenide antimonide detectors
and longwave infrared graphene detectors.

Detector response to high repetition rate
ultra-short laser pulses (Invited Paper)
Jason M. Auxier, Myron P. Pauli, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Michael K. Rafailov, DHPC Technologies(United States) and Univ. of Alberta (Canada); Michael K.
Rafailov, DHPC Technologies, Inc (United States)
Optical nonlinearities in semiconductors and semiconductor detectors havebeen widely investigated and exploited for many scientific and industrial
applications. The correlation of optical and electronic characteristics inthese detector materials under exposure of ultra-short laser pulses at highpulse repetition rates is still not very well known. These effects may bequite beneficial for many applications ranging from chemical and biologicalsensing to light-induced superconductivity. In this paper, we discuss theeffect of extended bleaching in order to demonstrate sensing applicationsof such phenomenon as an example. Pump-probe measurements in bulk
semiconductors will be presented to quantify the transient absorption

SPIE DSS 2015

9467-79, Session 16

Shibin Jiang, AdValue Photonics, Inc. (United States)

3. Out-of-band targeting, illumination and beacons.

172

dynamics and relate this to the electronic response of the detector devices.
This effect is not limited semiconductors and may affect other matter statesand electronic structures, like dielectrics.

·

Nanoantennas offer a means to make infrared detectors much thinner by
converting incoming plane waves to more tightly bound and concentrated
surface waves. Thinner architectures reduce both dark current and crosstalk
for improved performance. For graphene detectors, which are only one or
two atomic layers thick, such field concentration is a necessity for usabledevice performance, as single pass absorption is insufficient.
We will discuss Sandia’s motivation for these devices. The simulation
methodology and design rules will be discussed in detail. We will alsooffer an overview of the fabrication processes required to make thesesubwavelength structures on at times complex underlying devices basedon III-V detector material or graphene. Finally, we will present our latest
characterization results for both III-V and graphene structures.

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII

9467-91, Session 16

yield ultra-compact IR and THz cameras.
While IR systems are passive and thus do not require an illumination source,
the THz system does. Thus, the THz source must be included when talking
about overall imaging system size and cost. There are a wide variety of THz
sources, from quantum cascade lasers on the optical side of the radiation
spectrum to IMPATT diodes on the electrical side. When considering asource for a given application, the output wavelength, output power, size,
weight and cost are primary factors that must be taken into account.

Mid-infrared ultrafast fiber laser (Invited
Paper)
Peng Wan, Lih-Mei Yang, Jian Liu, PolarOnyx, Inc. (UnitedStates)Ultrafast laser at mid-IR wavelength is an important light source in many
applications such as molecular identification, rapid detection of explosives,
environmental monitoring, high-order harmonic generation and thermal
imaging. High energy/high power mid-IR laser pulses have attracted
extensive research interests recently and remarkable progress has beenachieved. In this paper, the newest developments of ultrafast fiber lasers in
mid-infrared regime at PolarOnyx Inc are presented. Several techniques areused to achieve mid-IR ultrafast pulses, including mode-locked Tm-doped
fiber laser and Er:ZBLAN fiber laser, optical parametric oscillation (OPO),
optical parametric amplification (OPA) and supercontinuum generation.
These works lay out foundations for further extending the spectrum range
as well as energy and power scaling of ultrafast fiber lasers.

This paper presents a summary of results from a study of different
THz sources, each emitting at a wavelength around 750 microns. NEP
measurements were taken for each using the same IRXCAM-THz-384
camera. Discussion of the measurement set-ups and results is presented, as
well as comparison of THz images.

9467-82, Session 17

Brian A. Lail, Yuancheng Xu, Florida Institute ofTechnology (United States)

9467-84, Session 17

Collection efficiency for millimeter andsubmillimeter-wave antenna-coupled
detection (Invited Paper)

Terahertz electronics for sensing andimaging applications (Invited Paper)

The goal in the design of an efficient and low-noise antenna coupled
receiver is to achieve a maximal capture cross section for the incident
electromagnetic radiation compared to the dimensions of the subwavelength sized sensor loading the antenna. Collection efficiency
captures this concept of power output/input and is made up of several
sub-efficiencies. In the ideal case all of the available, incident power iscollected and transferred to the load. However, many of the fundamental
limits of antennas are based on theory describing the transmitting mode,
whereas certain questions remain open for receiving antennas. Textbook
antenna theory predicts that only 50% of available incident power can beabsorbed by an antenna, yet under specific conditions this limitation canbe surpassed. Two considerations are presented; (1) fundamental limits onantenna absorption, and (2) practical participation of dissipative mediain achieving impedance matching between antenna and load, and theassociated performance compromise. Specifically we seek to determine
whether antenna-coupled detectors can approach unity absorption
efficiency under matched conditions. Further, we identify practicalconditions that must be met in order to overcome fundamental limitations
that inhibit total absorption. Then antenna loss is split into radiative anddissipative terms in order to identify trade-offs between impedance
matching and radiation efficiency.

Michael Shur, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (UnitedStates)Short channel field effect transistors implemented using different materials
systems, such as silicon; III-V, III-N, graphene, and other 2D compounds
can be used to detect sub terahertz and terahertz radiation terahertz
radiation. Such detection was demonstrated in the frequency range from
0.1 to approximately 5 THz is enabled by the excitation of the wavesof the electron density – plasma waves – that are rectified due to thedevice nonlinearities. The resulting response has the spatial resolution
determined by the scale of the electric field distribution at the gateedges resulting in nanometer scale resolution. The temporal response isin the sub THz range. The operating temperatures range from cryogenic
to elevated. The detectivity values in pW/Hz1/2 have been achieved andsingle subpicosecond pulses of THz radiation have been detected. The
dynamic range is at least several orders of magnitude and is limited by
the excitation of the shock waves in the device channels. This technology
could enable a variety of sensing, imaging, and wireless communication
applications, including detection of biological and chemical hazardous
agents, cancer detection, short-range covert communications (in THz and
sub-THz windows), and applications in radioastronomy and space research.
Using silicon FINFETs and SOI transistors in plasmonic regimes is especiallyappealing because of compatibility with standard readout and image
processing silicon VLSI components.

9467-85, Session 17

CMOS mm-wave system-on-chip forsensing and communication (Invited Paper)

9467-83, Session 17

Adrian J. Tang, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States) andUniv. of California, Los Angeles (United States)

A compact THz imaging set-up at 750
microns (Invited Paper)

CMOS technology offers relatively low performance at mm-wave
frequencies compared with other III-V technologies and the high levelsof process variation further exacerbate design margins. This paper
discusses several CMOS system-on-chip (SoCs) developed by JPL throughcollaboration with UCLA that use a self-healing approach to optimize mmwave transceiver performance, as well as calibrate operation at runtime.
Several applications will be discussed for mm-wave spectroscopy, radar, andcommunication systems, with SoCs demonstrated at V, W and D band.

Linda E. Marchese, Marc Terroux, Alain Bergeron, INO(Canada)Advances in infrared (IR) detector technologies over the last decade have
led to compact low-cost thermal imaging systems that have become almost
ubiquitous. They are now used in such market applications as automotive,
security and construction. Terahertz (THz) imagers can take advantageof the state-of-the-art in the infrared domain to reduce their size andcost. Such an example is the IRXCAM-THz-384 Terahertz camera whose
electronics core is based on the IRXCAM camera core and whose detector
has been specifically designed for the THz. The 384 x 288 35-micron-sized
pixel detectors of both cameras are uncooled microbolometers. A microelectronics core is currently being developed for both platforms that will

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII

9467-86, Session 179467-102, Session 17

Applications and challenges for MMW and
THz sensors (Invited Paper)

High power MWIR quantum cascade lasers
and their use in intra-cavity THz room
temperature generation (Invited Paper)John N. Sanders-Reed, The Boeing Co (United States)

Mariano Troccoli, AdTech Optics, Inc. (United States)

MMW and THz sensors offer unique imaging capabilities and challenges.
This presentation will provide a brief discussion of some of the application
areas for these sensors, in particular imaging in Degraded Visual
Environments (DVE). Comparisons with other sensing modalities will be
provided discussing some of the relative strengths and weaknesses.
This presentation will provide a review of various DVE sensing technologies(active and passive MMW, THz, vis/IR, and obscurant penetrating lidar,
along with a prior data such as synthetic vision. It will also discuss various
applications ranging from rotorcraft landing, to nap of the earth flight andhow the strengths and weaknesses of the different sensing modalities playinto this.

9467-87, Session 17

Video rate imaging at 1.5 THz via
frequency upconversion to the near-IR(Invited Paper)

We will present our results on high power mid-IR generation from singleemitter QCL devices. Besides their use as high power sources, the large
nonlinearity associated with the inter-subband transitions of QC devices andthe multi-stage engineering of the band structure makes QCLs a perfecttool for building multi-functional devices. The high power of the mid-IR
generation, associated with the resonances built-in by design into the active
material, allow for room temperature generation of multiple wavelengths,
including frequency doubling to the lambda<3um range and difference
frequency generation into the THz region of the spectrum.
In this talk we will review our most important high power mid-IR results
across the mid and long-wave infrared (MWIR and LWIR) regions and show
how they can be applied to the room temperature generation of light at
frequencies otherwise unattainable by a standard direct-generation
QCL design.

9467-88, Session 18

Patrick F. Tekavec, Vladimir G. Kozlov, Ian McNee,
Microtech Instruments, Inc. (United States); Yun-Shik
Lee, Oregon State Univ. (United States); Konstantin L.
Vodopyanov, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
We demonstrate video rate THz imaging by detecting a frequency
upconverted signal with a CMOS camera. The source for the terahertz
radiation is a double resonant optical parametric oscillator (OPO),
synchronously pumped with pulses from a 1064 nm fiber laser. The OPO
resonates signal and idler pulses that are spectrally separated by 1.5 THz.
The high IR powers generated in the OPO cavity enable efficient difference
frequency generation of THz pulses in a quasi-phasematched gallium
arsenide (QPM-GaAs) crystal located inside the OPO cavity. The resulting
THz radiation has an average power greateer than 1 mW, a linewidth of <100
GHz, and peak power of >2 W. The narrow bandwidth and high peak power
enables nonlinear detection by upconversion to the mid-IR. By mixing theTHz pulses with a portion of the fiber laser pump (1064 nm) in a second
QPM-GaAs crystal, distinct sidebands are observed at 1058 nm and 1070
nm, corresponding to sum and difference frequency generation of the pump
pule with the THz pulse. By using a combination of polarizer and spectral
filter it is possible to isolate one of the sidebands from the strong pumplight, resulting in a nearly background free signal. For imaging, the THz
beam is collimated and is incident on a sample. The resulting diffracted
light is collected by a lens placed one focal length away from the sample.
The lens focuses the THz beam onto a quasi-phase matched GaAs sample
placed one focal length form the lens. This Fourier geometry produces
the spatial Fourier transform of the THz image at the nonlinear crystal. By
using a large diameter pump beam at 1064 nm, the spatial components
are upconverted to the near-IR, with the pump beam acting as a Gaussian
filter for the spatial components. A second lens inverse transforms theupconverted spatial components, and the image is detected with a CMOS
camera. We have obtained video rate images with spatial resolution of 1mm
and field of view ca. 20 mm in diameter without any post processingof the data.

Solution-processed chalcogenide glass:a pathway toward novel materials andarchitectures for mid-IR photonics (Invited
Paper)
Craig B. Arnold, TAG Optics, Inc. (United States)
Chalcogenide glass materials exhibit a variety of optical properties thatmake them desirable for near- and mid-infrared communications andsensing applications. However, the processing of these photorefractive
materials for thin film applications or for the direct integration with sources
or detectors is challenging. In this presentation, we discuss solution based
processing (SP) techniques for chalcogenide glass materials that provide
for a low cost, safe, and flexible method to create novel structures with
optimized properties. We will review the general process and discuss the
structural and chemical implications of producing films in this mannerwith particular emphasis on the photoresponsive behavior and creationof heterogeneous materials. Given a reliable solution based process, we
discuss the use of traditional printing and soft-lithographic methods to
produce integrated optical elements such as lenses and waveguides. A few
examples will be introduced including multimode As2S3 waveguides directly
coupled with quantum cascade lasers and single mode As2S3 waveguides
and splitters produced on flexible and non-planar substrates. These
solution-based methods enable a suite of processes that can be applied
to chalcogenide solutions to create a diverse array of mid-IR optical andphotonic structures ranging from <5 to 10’s of µm in dimension.

9467-89, Session 18

Approaches to generation of tunable
mid-IR ultrafast pulses with fiber sources(Invited Paper)
Alexander Sell, TOPTICA Photonics AG (Germany);
Igor Pastirk, TOPTICA Photonics Inc. (United States);Andreas Brodschelm, Robert Herda, TOPTICA Photonics
AG (Germany); Thomas Puppe, TOPTICA Photonics
Inc. (Germany); Armin Zach, TOPTICA Photonics AG(Germany)
Mid- infrared ultrafast pulses are of interest in different applications ranging

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
level using multi-element MOPA. Dispersive cavity enables 1900-3000 nm
tuning range with typical linewidth of 0.1 nm, efficiency 40%, output powerof 6W at central wavelength 2300-2400 nm and TEMoo mode of operation.
We significantly improved output characteristics of polycrystalline Cr:ZnS/
Se lasers in Kerr-Lens-Mode-Locked regime: 1.7 W average power at 55 fs
pulse duration, 22 nJ pulse energy and 340 kW peak power with efficiencyof 17% with regards to 1567 nm pump power from linearly polarized
Er-fiber laser.

from vibrational spectroscopy, strong field physics (stable CEP) to detectionof trace quantities of compounds. Traditional approach using solid statelasers is mature but sensitive technology that is restricted to laboratory
use due to its complexity. In real-world applications, ultrashort fiber lasers
offer a more rugged, portable and scalable platform for the generation oftunable, brilliant mid-IR femtosecond pulses. This paper will cover several
recent approaches to generation of high spectral intensity femtosecond
pulses in MID-IR region including DFG, OPO and OPCPA. DFG approach
opens a practical way for frequency comb applications and tunable absolute
optical frequency sources.

Recent progress in high power CW Cr:ZnSe lasers enabled their utilization as
effective pump sources for Fe:ZnSe lasers. In non-selective Fe:ZnSe cavity(at 85K) 1.6 W output power at 4100 nm was obtained at 35 % 2800 nm
pump efficiency. In dispersive cavity 3700-5000 nm tunability was achieved
at 140 K with output power of 0.5 W at 4100 nm. In gain-switched regime
both Fe:ZnSe and Fe:ZnS lasers operate at 300K and in nonselective cavity
when pumped by gain-switched Cr:ZnSe laser radiation they feature output
energies around 1 mJ at 1 kHz repetition rate, ~ 5-10 ns pulse duration, and~ 30 % pump efficiency at 3950 and 4350nm, respectively. We also reporta high energy free-running Fe:ZnSe laser pumped by a flashlamp pumped
Er:YAG laser. Fe:ZnSe output energy up to 0.5 J has been demonstrated witha real optical efficiency of 32% with respect to pump energy.

The power scalability of lasers with doped Thulium or Holmium fiber
amplifiers in combination with Chalcogenide or ZBLAN fibers made it
possible to generate supercontinua in the MID-IR. Generation of spectral
ranges in MID-IR along with the availability of high power components,
double clad doped gain fibers and LMA fibers for the 2?m and 1?m region
enables “all fiber” compact and robust sources that can be man-portable.

9467-90, Session 18

Long wavelength mid-infrared from mixing
two colors from a fiber amplifier (Invited
Paper)

9467-100, Session 18

Recent progress in quantum cascade
external cavity laser systems optimized for
mid-IR sensing applications (Invited Paper)

Siyuan Bian, Univ. of Waterloo (Canada); Sébastien
Loranger, Raman Kashyap, École Polytechnique deMontréal (Canada); Donna Strickland, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada)David B. Arnone, Leigh J. Bromley, David B. Caffey, William
B. Chapman, Timothy Day, Allen Priest, Daylight Solutions
Inc. (United States); Charles C. Harb, The Univ. of New
South Wales (Australia)

At Waterloo, we are developing a high power, short pulse, two-color,
Yb:fiber amplifier system to generate the long wavelength (>15µm) side of
the molecular fingerprint spectral region, by difference frequency mixing
the two colors. This spectral region is important for trace gas detection of
explosives. As an example, it has been shown that the strong spectroscopic
signatures of a peroxide-based explosive triacetone triperoxide (TATP)
occur between 15 and 20 µm. To date we have achieved a tuning range
from 16 to 20 µm with a maximum average power of 1.7 mW. On the shortwavelength side, the two colors would need to be pulled further apart,which requires a higher power seed to beat the amplified spontaneousemission that appears at the gain peak of the amplifiers between the twoseed colors. On the long wavelength side, we are limited to 20 µm by thetransparency region of the nonlinear crystals. We would like to find newnonlinear materials that have transparency from 1 to 30µm. If we could
generate wavelengths from 15 to 30 µm with sufficient power, we could
extend the spectral region to also cover 8 to 15µm by frequency doubling
the longer wavelengths. We are currently working on replacing bulk optics
in the system with fiber based optical elements to select the wavelengths
as well as stretch and recompress the pulses in order to make the systemcompact and stable.

The ability to detect, image and identify molecular species using mid-IR
quantum cascade lasers is driving a host of sensing applications for them.
As the landscape of established and emerging applications continues toexpand, so do performance requirements for laser systems addressing theseapplications. Laser application requirements include: high brightness andlow noise for high SNR; narrow linewidth for high spectral resolution forchemical specificity; fast tuning for high data acquisition rates; wide tuning
to enable multiple species to be detected with one instrument; and highpower for practical standoff distance. The high-brightness, CW or pulsed
output, broad-tuning, narrow-linewidth, and low-noise capabilities External
Cavity quantum cascade lasers (ECqcLs™)—and their compact, rugged
nature—make them ideally suited to meeting these varied requirements.
In this paper, we report on recent advances in commercial ECqcL systems
optimized for sensing applications including: wider tuning ranges, lower
Relative Intensity Noise (RIN) profiles, and fast scanning. We then discuss
how these new performance capabilities stand to benefit
different applications.

9467-92, Session 18

9467-93, Session 19

Mid-IR lasers based on transition metal
and rare-earth ion doped crystals (Invited
Paper)

Quantum cascade laser frequency combs
for spectroscopy (Invited Paper)
Jérôme Faist, ETH Zürich (Switzerland)

Sergey B. Mirov, The Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham(United States) and IPG Photonics - Mid-Infrared Lasers(United States); Vladimir V. Fedorov, Dmitry V. Martyshkin,
The Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham (United States); Igor
S. Moskalev, Mike B. Mirov, Sergey Vasilyev, IPG Photonics Mid-Infrared Lasers (United States)

The quantum cascade laser has demonstrated the ability to provide gain
over a very broad wavelength range. Recently, we have shown that suchbroadband devices, when operated in continuous wave, emit as a coherent
optical comb1 in which the phase relation between the comb modes
corresponds approximately to a FM modulated laser. By combining a
Maxwell-Bloch equations and a modal decomposition, the nature of thismode-locking has been elucidated2 . We have also recently shown thatthese comb can also be produced in the THz region of the spectrum, andeven covering a full octave in bandwidth. These new comb lasers enables
the fabrication of a dual comb spectrometer based on a quantum cascadelaser that offers a broadband, all solid-state spectrometer with no moving

Recent results on the development of Cr and Fe doped ZnSe and ZnS
polycrystals and mid-IR lasers on their basis are presented.
Cr:ZnSe/S CW lasers power scaling was realized with the use of AR coatedcrystals in linear resonator configurations. We reached 30 W output power

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175

Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
parts and a ultrafast acquisition time. We demonstrate a spectrometer andits first proof-of-principle applications.

9467-94, Session 20

Broadband mid-IR frequency comb source
for standoff chemical detection (Invited
Paper)
Konstantin L. Vodopyanov, CREOL, The College of Optics
and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
Frequency-comb-based absorption spectroscopy in the molecularfingerprint part of the spectrum (2-12 ?m) has great potential for standoff
chemical sensing because of massive parallelism of data acquisition.
Especially attractive is dual-comb Fourier transform spectroscopy, wherefull advantage is taken of temporal and spatial coherence of frequency
combs as well as of their broadband nature. The promise is high speed(1M spectral points in less than a second), broad spectral coverage (> one
octave), superior sensitivity (< 1 part per billion in gas phase), high spectral
resolution (100 MHz), and the possibility of absolute frequency calibrationof molecular resonances. Here we report a dual-comb system based on apair of near-degenerate optical parametric oscillators (OPOs) based onorientation-patterned GaAs (OP-GaAs) pumped by two mutually phaselocked femtosecond Tm-fiber lasers at 2-micron wavelength. High coherence
and broad instantaneous spectral coverage (2.5 - 7 microns) make thissystem promising for chemical detection and trace molecular sensing.

9467-95, Session 20

Standoff trace detection of explosives with
Infrared hyperspectral imagery (Invited
Paper)
Frank Fuchs, Stefan Hugger, Jan-Philip Jarvis,
Quankui K. Yang, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte
Festkörperphysik (Germany); Fabian Zaum, FraunhoferIAF (Germany); Ralf Ostendorf, Christian Schilling,
Wolfgang Bronner, Raschid Driad, Rolf Aidam,
Joachim Wagner, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte
Festkörperphysik (Germany)

9467-96, Session 20

Ozone alteration for backgroundreferences using QCL based mid infrared
standoff spectroscopy (Invited Paper)
Inseok Chae, Univ of Alberta (Canada); Charles W. Van
Neste, Thomas G. Thundat, Univ. of Alberta (Canada)
Mid infrared standoff spectroscopy using Quantum Cascade Lasers has
been a focus of on-going research for many years. When attempting todetect trace analyte residues, the greatest challenge facing this technology
is not in the lasers, but the difficulty in creating a spectroscopic backgroundreference for an unknown surface. Such techniques as Differential Location
Measurements fail when analyte concentrations are below 1 ?m/cm2. To
overcome this challenge of unknown surface backgrounds, we propose
a technique to briefly shift the IR absorption peaks of a target analyteby exposing the surface to a high intensity, alternating electric field ina standoff fashion. A spectrum of the surface with and then without
the intense electric field is taken. The field-shifted spectrum acts as thereference background and is compared against the un-shifted spectrum,
generating a differential signal used to identify the target analyte.

Toward the realization of a compact
chemical sensor platform using quantum
cascade lasers (Invited Paper)
Ellen L. Holthoff, Paul M. Pellegrino, Logan S. Marcus, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)

Reliable stand-off detection of residues of explosives is still a challenging
task. Imaging MIR backscattering spectroscopy has been shown to be a
promising technique for non-contact detection of traces of explosives on
various surfaces. This technique relies on active imaging with MIR laser
illumination at various wavelengths. Recording the backscattered lightwith a MIR camera at each illumination wavelength, the MIR backscattering
spectrum can be extracted from the three-dimensional data set recorded
for each point within the laser illuminated area. Applying appropriate image
analysis algorithms to this hyper-spectral data set, chemically sensitiveand selective images of the surface of almost any object can be generated.
This way, residues of explosives can be clearly identified on the basis ofcharacteristic finger print backscattering spectra and separated fromthe corresponding spectra of the underlying material. To achieve a highselectivity, a large spectral coverage is a key requirement. Using a MIR ECQCL with a tuning range from 7.5 µm to 9.5 µm, different explosives suchas TNT, PETN and RDX residing on different background materials, such

SPIE DSS 2015

These results clearly demonstrate the potential of QCL-based imaging
backscattering spectroscopy for the detection of trace amounts ofhazardous substances in relevant environments. There is further potential
for increasing the detection range and/or field of view via up-scaling of thetotal power emitted by the illuminating laser system.

9467-97, Session 20

Broadband tunable external cavity quantum cascade lasers (EC-QCL) haveemerged as attractive light sources for mid-infrared (MIR) “finger print”
molecular spectroscopy for e.g. detection and identification of hazardous
chemical compounds. Compared to Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectrometers EC-QCL offer the advantage of a much higher spectral
brightness, i.e. high output power within a narrow wavelength interval, as
well as a collimated low-divergence output beam, enabling e.g. stand-off
detection schemes. Here we report on the use of EC-QCL for the stand-off
detection of explosives as a prototypical case study.

176

as painted metal sheets, cloth and polyamide, could be clearly detected
and identified. For short stand-off detection distances (<3 m), residues of
explosives at an amount of just a few 10 µg, i.e. traces corresponding to asingle fingerprint, could be detected. For larger concentration of explosives,
stand-off detection over distances of up to 20 m has alreadybeen demonstrated.

·

The Army is investigating several spectroscopic techniques (e.g., infrared
spectroscopy) that could allow for an adaptable sensor platform.
Traditionally, chemical sensing platforms have been hampered by the
opposing concerns of increasing sensor capability while maintaining aminimal package size. Current sensors, although reasonably sized, aregeared to more classical chemical threats, and the ability to expand
their capabilities to a broader range of emerging threats is uncertain.
Recently, photoacoustic spectroscopy, employed in a sensor format, has
shown enormous potential to address these ever-changing threats, while
maintaining a compact sensor design.
In order to realize the advantage of photoacoustic sensor miniaturization,light sources of comparable size are required. Recent research has
employed quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) in combination with MEMSscale photoacoustic cell designs. The continuous tuning capability of QCLs
over a broad wavelength range in the mid-infrared spectral region greatly
expands the number of compounds that can be identified. Results havedemonstrated that utilizing a tunable QCL with a MEMS-scale photoacoustic
cell produces favorable detection limits (ppb levels) for chemical targets(e.g., dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP), vinyl acetate, 1,4-dioxane).
Although our chemical sensing research has benefitted from the broad
tuning capabilities of QCLs, the limitations of these sources must be
considered. Current commercially available tunable systems are still
expensive and obviously geared more toward laboratory operation, notfielding. Although the laser element itself is quite small, the packaging,www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9467: Micro- and Nanotechnology
Sensors, Systems, and Applications VII
power supply, and controller remain logistical burdens. Additionally,
operational features such as continuous wave (CW) modulation and laser
output powers while maintaining wide tunability are not yet ideal for avariety of sensing applications. In this presentation, we will discuss ourcontinuing evaluation of QCL technology as it matures in relation to ourultimate goal of a universal compact chemical sensor platform.

9467-101, Session 21

9467-98, Session 20

Antoine Müller, Richard Maulini, Stéphane Blaser, Alfredo
Bismuto, Tobias Gresch, Romain Terazzi, Alpes Lasers SA(Switzerland)

Recent results on performance
optimization of QCLs for consumption,
spectral coverage and power (Invited
Paper)

Detection of trace explosives on relevant
substrates using a mobile platform
for photothermal infrared imaging
spectroscopy (PT-IRIS) (Invited Paper)

In this presentation the results of the optimization effort performed at Alpes
Lasers SA will be presented. For applications such as hand held baterypowered apparatus, devices with total dissipation lower than one Watt arepresented. Focus will also be put on applications related to broad spectral
paterns, where devices with gain spanning over more than 250 cm-1 isuseful. Finally watt level emission power will be presented in the 4 to 5 and
8 to 12 microns region.

Christopher A. Kendziora, Robert Furstenberg, Michael
R. Papantonakis, Viet Nguyen, Jeff M. Byers, R. Andrew
McGill, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
We discuss the results of recent tests regarding standoff detection of
trace explosives on relevant substrates using a mobile platform. We aredeveloping a technology for detection based on photo-thermal infrared(IR) imaging spectroscopy (PT-IRIS). This approach leverages one or more
micro-fabricated IR quantum cascade lasers, tuned to strong absorption
bands in the analytes and directed to illuminate an area on a surface ofinterest. An IR focal plane array is used to image the surface thermal
emission upon laser illumination. The PT-IRIS signal is processed as a
hyperspectral image cube comprised of spatial, spectral and temporaldimensions as vectors within a detection algorithm. Increased sensitivity
to explosives and selectivity between different analyte types is achieved
by narrow bandpass IR filters in the collection path. We have previously
demonstrated the technique at several meters of stand-off distance indoors
and in field tests, while operating the lasers below the eye-safe intensity
limit (100 mW/cm2). Sensitivity to explosive traces as small as a single
grain (~1 ng) has been demonstrated. Analytes tested include RDX, TNT,
ammonium nitrate and perchlorates. Relevant substrates include metal,
plastics, glass and painted car panels.
References: R. Furstenberg et al. Applied Physics Letters 93, 224103 (2008),
C. A. Kendziora et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8373 83732H-1 (2012). C. Kendziora
et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8709, 87090O-1 (2013); R. A. McGill et al.; US Patent#8,101,915 B2 (2012).

9467-99, Session 20

Standoff detection of chemical andbiological threats using miniature widely
tunable QCLs (Invited Paper)
Petros Kotidis, Erik R. Deutsch, Anish K. Goyal, BlockEngineering, LLC (United States)
Block Engineering has developed products that utilize Quantum Cascade
Lasers (QCLs) and infrared spectroscopy for chemical and biologicaldetection. Chemical detection has been demonstrated for: (a) Chemical
security of large scale critical facilities, using the LaserWarn™ System,(b) Detection of surface threats, using the LaserScan™ Analyzer, and,(c) Detection of disturbed earth for buried IEDs, using the LaserScan™DE Analyzer. These applications were enabled by several key technicalaccomplishments. First, the QCLs in Block’s products tune across a spectral
range of more than 1000 cm-1 in a single unit, anywhere within the featuresrich spectral range of 5.4-13 microns. Second, the QCLs tune across that
range in a world-record speed of 40 msec, enabling real-time detection
and handheld operation. Third, the QCLs are packaged in sealed, extremelycompact modules, which dramatically reduce the overall size, weightand power consumption of the complete systems. It is also important toemphasize that all Block systems utilize eye-safe lasers. Furthermore, theLaserScan Analyzer has also been used to detect biological threats and,more specifically, it was used to identify bacteria on a variety ofbackground surfaces.

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Conference 9468:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVII
Tuesday - Thursday 21–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9468 Unmanned Systems Technology XVII

9468-1, Session 1

sources. Subsequently, the sensor system presents a new approach toangle measurements, with several key advantages over traditional crosspolarization based rotation sensors. Primarily, angular information iscoded into a complex spatiotemporal pattern, which is insensitive topower fluctuations arising from environmental factors while making theangle measurement independent of distance from the referencing sources.
Triangulation, using multiple sources, may be also used for onboard position
measurement. Both measurements are independent of GPS localization;
are direct and relative to the established local referencing system; and not
subject to drift and/or error accumulation.

Multi-modal interaction for UAS control
Glenn Taylor, Ben Purman, Paul Schermerhorn, Guillermo
Garcia-Sampedro, Robert Hubal, Soar Technology, Inc.
(United States); Kathleen Crabtree, Booz Allen Hamilton
Inc. (United States); Guillermo Garcia-Sampedro, Robert
Hubal, Soar Technology, Inc. (United States); Kathleen
Crabtree, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States); Allen
Rowe, Sarah Spriggs, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)In this paper, we present the theoretical basis and the operation of thedeveloped full position and angular orientation sensory system. Results oflaboratory tests as well as range tests are also presented.

Unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) have seen a dramatic increase inmilitary operations over the last two decades. The increased demand fortheir capabilities on the battlefield has resulted in quick fielding with userinterfaces that are designed more for engineers in mind than for UAS
operators. UAS interfaces tend to support tele-operation with a joystick orcomplex, menu-driven interfaces that have a steep learning curve. These
approaches to control require constant attention to manage a single UAS
and require increased heads-down time in an interface to search for andclick on the right menus to invoke commands. The time and attention
required by these interfaces makes it difficult to increase a single operator’s
span of control to encompass multiple UAS or the control of sensor systems.
In this paper, we explore an alternative interface to the standard menubased control interfaces. Our approach in this work was to first study how
operators might want to task a UAS if they were not constrained by a typicalmenu interface. Based on this study, we developed a prototype multi-modal
dialogue interface for more intuitive control of multiple unmanned aircraft
and their sensor systems using speech and map-based gesture/sketch. The
system we developed is a two-way interface that allows a user to draw on amap while speaking commands to the system, and which provides feedback
to the user to ensure the user knows what the system is doing. Whenthe system does not understand the user for some reason – for example,
because speech recognition failed or because the user did not provide
enough information – the system engages with the user in a dialogue togather the information needed to perform the command. With the help of
UAS operators, we conducted a user study to compare the performance ofour prototype system against a representative menu-based control interface
in terms of usability, time on task, and mission effectiveness. This paper
describes a study to gather data about how people might use a naturalinterface, the system itself, and the results of the user study.

9468-2, Session 1

Harbans S. Dhadwal, Jahangir Rastegar, Dake Feng, Philip
Kwok, Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States); Carlos M.
Pereira, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development andEngineering Ctr. (United States)
Angular orientation of an object such as a projectile, relative to the earth oranother object such as a mobile platform continues to be an ongoing topic
of interest for guidance and/or steering. Currently available sensors, which
include inertia devices such as accelerometers and gyros; magnetometers;
surface mounted antennas; radars; GPS; and optical line of sight devices,
do not provide an acceptable on-board solution for many applications,particularly for gun-fired munitions. We present a viable solution, which
combines open-aperture sensors with custom designed radiation patterns
and one or more amplitude modulated polarization scanning reference

SPIE DSS 2015

Towards contextual awareness in robot
mapping: extracting semantic hierarchy
from point cloud data
Carlos P. Nieto-Granda, Siddharth Choudhary, Georgia
Institute of Technology (United States); John G. Rogers III,
Jeffrey N. Twigg, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Varun Murali, Henrik I. Christensen, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Contextual awareness is a prerequisite for a better understanding of
the environment. It can be a useful tool in decision making for tasks like
deploying robots, planning and navigation. In this paper, we present asystem which provides contextual awareness through layered access todifferent levels of semantic hierarchy.
Hierarchical semantic map is generated by recursively merging perceptuallysimilar neighboring regions at each level. Lowest level in the hierarchy isrepresented using the discovered objects and planes. Labelled objects andplanes at the lowest level provides the bottom-up information required tolabel the corresponding segments at other levels. Probabilistic reasoning isused to infer the labels.
Object representation helps in identifying loop closure when the robot sees
the same object and for producing better object models when an object
part undersegmented in a few frames matches to the full object model.
Object recognition is done by finding the object representation with the
maximum number of inlier correspondences with the current
object. If an object does not find the minimum number of inlier
correspondences with any of the saved representations, it saves therepresentation of the current object. This follows an online learning
framework, where the robot identifies potential objects and matches toother objects in the map, if none of them matches it hypothesizes that thepotential object is a new object and therefore saves the representation.

A novel method for full position andangular orientation measurement ofmoving objects

1789468-3, Session 1·

We performed a series of experiments in simulation and real environments(MOUTs and university facilites). Our system was implemented on board two
different mobile robots and we provided a user interface which the humancan monitor and interact with the robot in real time. The visualization allows
the user to get dynamic maps with specific information acquired from thehierarchical semantic map.

9468-4, Session 1

Natural interaction for unmanned systems
Glenn Taylor, Ben Purman, Paul Schermerhorn, Guillermo
Garcia-Sampedro, Matt Lanting, Michael Quist, Chriswww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9468:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVIIKawatsu, Soar Technology, Inc. (United States)

predict and update mechanism to enhance height estimation to build a 3D
environment model. The height estimation for 3D terrain model is predictedusing IMU based pose estimation while LIDAR measurements update theposition of the vehicle. We experiment on real uneven-terrain to make 3D
environment model with 3D pose estimation of the vehicle.

Military unmanned systems today are typically controlled by two methods:
tele-operation or menu-based, search-and-click interfaces. Both approaches
require the operator’s constant vigilance: tele-operation requires constant
input to drive the vehicle inch by inch; a menu-based interface requires
eyes on the screen in order to search through alternatives and select theright menu item. In both cases, operators spend most of their time andattention driving and minding the unmanned systems rather than on being awarfighter. With these approaches, the platform and interface become moreof a burden than a benefit. The availability of inexpensive sensor systems
in products such as Microsoft Kinect™ or Nintendo Wii™ has resulted in
new ways of interacting with computing systems, but new sensors alone
are not enough. Developing useful and usable human-system interfaces
requires understanding users and interaction in context: not just what new
sensors afford in terms of interaction, but how users want to interact withthese systems, for what purpose, and how sensors might enable thoseinteractions. Additionally, the system needs to reliably make sense of theuser’s inputs in context, translate that interpretation into commands forthe unmanned system, and give feedback to the user. In this paper, we
describe an example natural interface for unmanned systems, called the
Smart Interaction Device (SID), which enables natural two-way interaction
with unmanned systems including the use of speech, sketch, and gestures.
We present a few example applications SID to different types of unmannedsystems and different kinds of interactions.

9468-7, Session 2

Motion compensation for structured lightsensors
Debjani Biswas, Christoph Mertz, Carnegie Mellon Univ.
(United States)
Structured light sensing is a common method for short range 3D
measurements. It is employed in many industrial and consumer applications(e.g. Kinect). One limitation when these sensors are used around people isthat the amount of light they can project is limited by eye-safety concerns.
This is particularly relevant in outdoor environments where the ambient
sunlight can be overwhelming. We have shown in the past that this ambient
light can be suppressed by using a combination of three methods: Laser as
illuminator with a bandpass filter, laser pulsing and synchronizing it with afast shutter of the camera, and background subtraction. A drawback of thelast method is that the sensor has to be stationary in order to take an image
with and without the illuminator on. This necessitates the sensor system
to be stationary during data taking. The contribution of this paper is amethod to compensate for the motion if the system is moving. The key idea
is to use video stabilization techniques that work even if the illuminator isswitched on and off from one frame to another. We used OpenCV functions
and modules to implement a robust and efficient method. We evaluatedit under various conditions and tested it on a moving robot outdoors. We
will demonstrate that one can not only do 3D reconstruction under strong
ambient light, but that it is also possible to observe optical properties of theobjects in the environment.

9468-5, Session 1

Fusion of lidar and radar for detection ofpartially obscured objects
Jim Hollinger, Brett Kutscher, LSA Autonomy LLC (UnitedStates); Ryan R. Close, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC
NVESD (United States)
The capability to detect partially obscured objects is of interest to many
communities, including ground vehicle robotics. The ability to findpartially obscured objects can aid in automated navigation and planningalgorithms used by robots. Two sensors often used for this task are Lidarand Radar. Lidar and Radar systems provide complementary data about theenvironment. Both are active sensing modalities and provide direct range
measurements. However, they operate in vary different portions of the radio
frequency spectrum. By exploiting properties associated with the different
frequency spectra, the sensors are able to compensate for each other’s
shortcomings. This makes them excellent candidates for sensor processing
and data fusion systems. The benefits associated with Lidar and Radarsensor fusion for a ground vehicle application, using economical variantsof these sensors, is presented. Special consideration is given to detecting
objects partially obscured by light to medium vegetation.

9468-8, Session 2

Active dictionary learning for image
representation
Tong Wu, Anand Sarwate, Waheed U. Bajwa, Rutgers, The
State Univ. of New Jersey (United States)
The study of sparse image representation with redundant dictionaries
has been a growing interest within image processing. Recent works
have demonstrated improvements in image representation by learning a
dictionary from the training data instead of using a predefined one. Usinga large training set to infer the dictionary may become computationallyexpensive. We propose a new approach, which we call pool-based active
dictionary learning, in which the algorithm selects a subset of training
samples for learning a dictionary. Our method sequentially selects samples
to add to the dictionary inference in order to improve its representation
performance. We evaluate our approach through numerical experiments
involving real-world image data; the results of these experiments
demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.

9468-6, Session 1

3D environment modeling on uneventerrain using 3D LIDAR and IMU for
unmanned ground system
Kuk Cho, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology(Korea, Republic of); Muhammad Ilyas, Univ. of Scienceand Technology (Korea, Republic of); SeungHo Baeg,
Sangdeok Park, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology(Korea, Republic of)9468-9, Session 2

RCTA capstone assessment
Craig Lennon, Barry Bodt, Marshal Childers, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Robert M Dean, General
Dynamics Land Systems (United States); Jean Oh, National
Robotics Engineering Ctr. (United States); Charles A.
DiBerardino, Terence Keegan, General Dynamics Land
Systems (United States)

This paper describes a method about 3D environment modeling on uneventerrain using 3D LIDAR and IMU for unmanned ground systems. Currently,
3D environment modeling on highly uneven terrain is difficult problem in
research community due to uncertainty of height estimation. To compute 3Dmodeling using a fusion method, all of sensors should be synchronized andproperly compensated. In this work, we suggest a Kalman filter model with

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179Conference 9468:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVIIThe Army Research Laboratory’s Robotics Collaborative Technology Alliance(RCTA) is a program intended to change robots from tools that soldiers use
into teammates with which soldiers can work. This requires the integrationof fundamental and applied research in perception, artificial intelligence, andhuman-robot interaction. In October of 2014, the RCTA assessed progress
towards integrating this research. This assessment was designed to evaluate
the robot’s performance when it used new capabilities to perform selected
aspects of a mission.

system is highly underactuated, with only one active hip torque available
for control when only one leg link is in contact with the ground. Our lowlevel gait control uses the stance leg hip torque to drive the overall body
dynamics to follow a desired, time-based reference trajectory using a simple
proportional plus derivative (PD) controller. We discuss intuitive designof the low-level control briefly, but our primary focus is on developing afamily of such controllers that facilitate switching control and on methods todevelop intelligent high-level switching policies to improve agility.

The assessed capabilities included the ability of the robot to: navigate
semantically outdoors with respect to structures and landmarks, identify
doors in the facades of buildings, and identify and track persons emerging
from those doors. We present details of the mission-based vignettes that
constituted the assessment, and evaluations of the robots performance inthese vignettes.

This work extends our previous methods on meshing hybrid dynamic
systems. A similar optimization framework both generates switchingpolicies to increase stability after perturbations compared with any single
gait control and finds the set of n-step reachable states. Solutions to these
problems also yield new metrics quantifying “agility” for legged robots byquantifying the “volumes” of initial condition states for the many-to-one(ditch-jumping) problem and of final achievable states in the one-to-many
problem formulation.

9468-10, Session 2

Semi-autonomous exploration of multifloor buildings with a legged robot

9468-12, Session 4

Garrett J. Wenger, Aaron M. Johnson, Camillo J. Taylor,
Daniel E. Koditschek, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States)
We present preliminary results of a semi-autonomous building exploration
behavior using the hexapedal robot XRHex. Stairwells are impassable formost wheeled platforms, motivating the development of this behavior for
our uniquely mobile, legged robot. This implementation uses an RGBD
camera for stair acquisition, which offers several advantages over apreviously documented detector based on a laser range finder, including
significantly reduced acquisition time. This semi-autonomous behavior uses
a human driver to provide steering input to the robot, while the transitions
to and from the stair climbing gait are entirely handled by the robot. Further
automation of the building exploration task would require a mapping
algorithm and higher level planner, which are out of the scope of this report.
The sensor package used here allows for considerable expansion of thisbehavior, including the aforementioned autonomy and on-stair obstacle
avoidance. This work is applicable to tasks including building exploration inhazardous environments and repetitive patrolling of multiple floors.

9468-11, Session 2

Stabilization and agility quantification of aflexible-spine bounding quadruped model
Katie Byl, Tom Strizic, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara(United States); Jason L. Pusey, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
One goal in developing legged robot systems is to provide a high degreeof agility. Intuitively, being agile means that future states (i.e., position andvelocity variables defining snapshots of the dynamic robot as it moves)
are not deterministically pre-ordained and can instead be controlled toa high degree. For example, a robot that repeats a constant, low-levelgait sequence arguably lacks agility, no matter how robust it is to terrain
variability. In this work, we introduce two related concepts of agility: “manyto-one” and “one-to-many” control authority. By many-to-one, we meanthat a system should be capable of arriving at the same final state (e.g.,
landing at the far side of a ditch-like obstacle) from a large set of initialconditions; similarly, the system should be capable of recovering from manydifferent perturbations to return back to one particular, nominal gait.
As a complementary notion, one-to-many agility implies that a robot
starting at one particular initial condition (e.g., sitting at rest) should be able
to reach many different states in a characteristic time, and that it should doso accurately.
In this work, we present a 4-link planar, bounding, quadruped model withcompliance in its legs and spine and design five low-level gait controllers.
In this planar model, a single link represents the pair of back legs, two links
represent a flexible spine, and the final link captures both front legs. The

180

SPIE DSS 2015·

UAV field demonstration of social media
enabled tactical data link
Christopher C. Olson, Andrew J. Newman, Da Xu, Sean R.
Martin, Jonathan C. Castelli, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab., LLC (United States)
This paper addresses the problem of enabling Command and Control (C2)and data exfiltration functions for missions using small, unmanned, airborne
surveillance and reconnaissance platforms operating autonomously andclandestinely. The authors demonstrated the feasibility of using existing
commercial wireless networks as the data transmission infrastructure
to support Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) autonomy functions such astransmission of commands, imagery, metadata, other belief data, and multivehicle coordination messages. The authors developed and integrated a C2
Android application for ground users with a common smart phone, a C2 anddata exfiltration Android application deployed on-board the UAVs, and a
web server with database to disseminate the collected data to distributed
users using standard web browsers. The authors performed a missionrelevant field test and demonstration in which operators commanded a UAV
from an Android device to search and loiter; and remote users exploitedimagery, video, and metadata via web server to identify and track a target.
Social media served as the tactical data link for all command messages,
images, videos, and metadata during the field demonstration. Imagery,video, and metadata were transmitted from the UAV to the web server via
multiple Twitter, Flickr, Facebook, YouTube, and similar media accounts. The
web server reassembled images and video with corresponding metadata for
exploitation by distributed users. The UAV autopilot communicated with the
on-board Android device via on-board Bluetooth network.

9468-13, Session 4

Fuel Cell powered small unmanned aerial
systems (UASs) for extended endurance
Deryn D. Chu, Zachary Dunbar, Rongzhong Jiang, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Kyle Grew, Joshua
McClure, Army Research Laboratory (United States)
Small unmanned aerial systems (SUASs) have been used for military
applications. They also have potential for commercial applications.
For military applications, these systems provide valuable intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities for units at the infantry
battalion and company level. The SUASs are light-weight, man-portable,
hand-launchable, and capable of carrying payloads. SUASs can be broadlyclassified by their performance characteristics such as engine type, weight,
speed, and endurance. Currently, small UASs are powered by lithium-ion orlithium polymer batteries; however, the flight endurance is usually limited
and requires frequent battery replacement. The long endurance flightwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9468:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVII

9468-16, Session 4time for SUASs have been demonstrated through propane fueled fuel cellsystems. In this presentation, we address propane fueled solid oxide fuelcell systems (SOFC) to power a ~20lbs unmanned aerial system for 8hrs (4ximprovements over state-of-the-art battery).

Cloud-Based Distributed Control of
Unmanned Systems
Kim B. Nguyen, Darren N. Powell, Charles Yetman, Michael
August, Susie Alderson, Christopher J. Raney, Space andNaval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)

9468-14, Session 4

Tactical 3D model generation using
structure-from-motion on video fromunmanned systems

Unmanned systems have become integral in modern warfare by enabling
warfighters to efficiently and safely execute dangerous missions. The
increasing use of unmanned systems have led to vast amounts of datacollected from sensors placed on unmanned vehicles. As a result, manysystems have been developed to provide the tools needed to perform oneof the following functions: controlling the unmanned vehicle or analyzing
and processing the sensory data from unmanned vehicles. These systems
are often disparate from one another limiting the ability for users to workand collaborate together. Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific(SSC Pacific) envisioned the potential benefits from “operators” – users
who control unmanned systems and “analysts” – users who process andanalyze data collaborating together as one team, and created the “UxV
to the Cloud via Widgets” project. “UxV to the Cloud via Widgets” wasarchitected to provide “operators” and “analysts” a collaborative frameworkthat enabled distributed control of unmanned systems, sensor data cloudstorage and sharing, and post-mission analysis tools within a web browser.
This paper focuses on how the “UxV to the Cloud via Widgets” system wasdesigned and implemented by leveraging the following technologies: Data
Distribution Service (DDS), Accumulo, and Ozone Widget
Framework (OWF).

Joshua D. Harguess, Mark Bilinski, Kim B. Nguyen, Darren
N. Powell, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific(United States)
Unmanned systems have been cited as one of the future enablers of all
the services to assist the warfighter in dominating the battlespace. The
potential benefits of unmanned systems are being closely investigated-- from providing increased and potentially stealthy surveillance, removing
the warfighter from harm’s way, to reducing the manpower required
to complete a specific job. In many instances, data obtained from anunmanned system is used sparingly, being applied only to the mission athand. Other potential benefits to be gained from the data are overlooked
and, after completion of the mission, the data is often discarded or lost.
However, this data can be further exploited to offer tremendous tactical,
operational, and strategic value. To show the potential value of thisotherwise lost data, we designed a system that persistently stores thedata in its original format from the unmanned vehicle and then generates
a new, innovative data medium for further analysis. The system streams
imagery and video from an unmanned system (original data format) andcan then constructs a 3D model (new data medium) using structure-frommotion. The 3D generated model provides warfighters additional situationalawareness, tactical and strategic advantages that the original video stream
lacks. We present our results using simulated unmanned vehicle data with
Google Earth providing the imagery as well as real-world data, including
data captured from an unmanned aerial vehicle flight.

9468-17, Session 5

Construction robots for Mars
Douglas W. Gage, XPM Technologies (United States)
The first humans on Mars will rely on robots, not replace them. Robots
and other unmanned systems will play many critical roles in support of ahuman presence on on Mars, including surveying candidate landing sites,
locating ice and mineral resources, establishing power, communications, andnavigations infrastructure, performing construction tasks, and transporting
equipment and supplies. Robots serving in these different roles will requiredifferent capabilities. This paper considers the technologies and capabilities
required for a system of robots that could be employed to construct anunderground base on Mars: defining a candidate baseline structure (tunnel),scoping the excavation and other tasks required to create it, defining
relevant tradeoffs between numbers of robots and bot strength/size/power,
discussing robotic functional and performance capabilities, and consideringsome approaches to providing the required power, control, navigation,and communications.

9468-15, Session 4

Aircraft path planning for optimal imaging
using dynamic cost functions
Gordon Christie, Haseeb R. Chaudhry, Kevin
Kochersberger, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
Univ. (United States)
Unmanned aircraft development has accelerated with recent technologicalimprovements in sensing and communications, which has resulted in an“applications lag” for how these aircraft can best be utilized. The aircraft
are becoming smaller, more maneuverable and have longer endurance toperform sensing and sampling missions, but operating them aggressively
to exploit these capabilities has not been a primary focus in unmannedsystems development. This paper addresses a means of aerial vehicle path
planning based on the A* method with dynamic cost functions to provide
a realistic optimal path in acquiring imagery for structure from motion(SfM) reconstructions. This method will allow SfM reconstructions to occur
accurately and with minimal flight time so that the reconstructions can be
executed efficiently.

9468-18, Session 5

Research for a multi-modal mobility andmanipulation propulsion core
Harris L. Edge, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Jason Collins, Engility (United States)
This project is part of an overall effort within the U.S. Army ResearchLaboratory to develop technologies to allow unmanned aerial systems(UAS) to fly safely and perform work in the near Earth environment. One
aspect of this effort is to perform research for airborne manipulation inwhich the aircraft is to interact with the environment. To do this, a research
aircraft has been designed with a strong light weight frame and thrust
vectoring propulsion. This paper will document design, characterization of
the platform, and initial flight control algorithm development. At the basic
research level, this platform will help expand the scope of whole bodymanipulation research. There are a number of issues in the study of airborne

Current methods of obtaining imagery for SfM reconstructions do not
attempt to find optimal camera pose to maximize image value. The
method presented here considers cost functions in image pose to guide anaircraft during an imaging mission. Furthermore, the aircraft dynamics areincorporated into the path planning algorithm as dynamic cost functions
to create optimal imaging paths in minimum time. Simulations for urban
environment mapping are shown.

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181

Conference 9468:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVII
manipulation. Developing the controls for managing the attitude andposition of an aircraft that has a shifting center of gravity and force exerted
on it through interaction with the environment will be difficult. Some ofthe difficulty may be alleviated through purposeful and intelligent designof the vehicle and the manipulators used to interact with the environment.
For example, the aircraft has been specifically designed to interact withvertical surfaces. Safe navigation of human-habitable 3-D environments has
also been addressed through design and will be further explored using thecapabilities of the platform in future research. At the present, the militaryprimarily employs UAS for reconnaissance. The primary benefit of thisresearch is to enable UAS to also perform a physical task at its destination.
This will greatly expand the types of missions that UAS can perform. This
project would seek to advance the state of the art by implementing controls
for dexterous manipulation during flight and/or when a high percentage
of a vehicle’s weight is supported by an air-based propulsion system.
Dexterous manipulation for UAS may be helpful for a number of scenarios
in which interaction with the environment is beneficial such as robust
landing techniques, bracing to enable a mobility maneuver near a surface,emplacement and retrieval of objects, physical inspection in hard to reachand dangerous locations, and gathering physical evidence, etc. In addition it
may be used to exchange materiel with an unmanned ground vehicle.

Automatic pose sensing for an IEDdetecting dog

Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Hoa G. Nguyen, Adam F. Nans, Kurt A. Talke, Paul Candela,H. R. Everett, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific(United States)
The Office of Naval Research’s Improvised Explosive Device (IED)-Detector
Dogs (IDDs) program trains and fields dogs that perform off-leash, detect
potential IEDs through their sense of smell, and perform a specific behavior
to indicate a possible IED detection. This behavior is noticed by the dog
handler, who confirms if it’s a probable IED, determines the location, andforwards it back to base or to explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) teams via
radio, email, or after-action reports.
To improve the speed and accuracy of this reporting process and better
integrate it with the EOD team’s robotic disposal operation, SPAWAR
Systems Center Pacific has designed and prototyped an electronic dog
collar that automatically tracks the dog’s location and attitude, detects theindicative behavior, and automatically records the data. To account for thedifferences between dogs, a 5-minute training routine can be executed
before the mission to establish initial values for the K-mean Clustering
algorithm that classifies the dog’s behavior.
The recorded data include GPS location of the suspected IED, the path the
dog took to approach the IED, and a video clip surrounding the detection
event. The dog handler confirms the data before forwarding it on to the
EOD team. The EOD team uses the video clip to better identify the IED and
for awareness of the surrounding environment before they arrive at thescene. Before the robotic bomb-disposal operation commences at the site,
the location and path data (which are supplied in a format understandable
by the next-generation EOD robots—the Advanced EOD Robotic System)
can be loaded into the robotic controller to automatically guide the robot tothe location of the IED.
This paper describes the project, with emphasis on the dog-collar hardware,
behavior-classification software, and testing.

9468-20, Session 5

Incremental learning in trust-based vehicle
control
Dariusz G. Mikulski, Robert E. Karlsen, U.S. Army Tank
Automotive Research, Development and Engineering Ctr.
(United States)

SPIE DSS 2015

9468-21, Session 5

Differences in cyber security
considerations for remotely piloted andautonomous unmanned aerial vehicles

9468-19, Session 5

182

In many multi-agent systems, robots within the same team are regarded as
being fully trustworthy for cooperative tasks - usually due to the complexity
involved in producing robust, autonomous multi-robot solutions. However,since military robots have unique vulnerabilities related to the threat ofcyber attacks, the assumption of trustworthiness may not only increase therisk of mission failure, but also endanger the lives of friendly forces. In prior
work, we addressed this issue by using RoboTrust to dynamically adjust to
observed behaviors or recommendations, in order to mitigate the risks ofillegitimate behaviors. However, at present, RoboTrust can only respond toobserved performance and does not dynamically learn agent behavior. As
such, in this paper, we incorporate an adaptive agent-specific bias into the
RoboTrust algorithm that modifies its trust dynamics. This bias is learned
incrementally from agent interactions, allowing good agents to benefit fromfaster trust growth and slower trust decay and bad agents to be penalizedwith slower trust growth and faster trust decay. We then integrate this newtrust model into a trust-based controller for decentralized autonomous
convoy operations and evaluate its performance in the presence of malicious
vehicles during a mission.

·

Unmanned aerial vehicles can utilize a variety of control methodologies. On
one end of the spectrum are vehicles that are largely manually controlledwith a human operator remotely piloting the aircraft in a manner similar to
how an onboard pilot would fly an aircraft. This type of UAV will generally
have an autonomous system to respond to link failure (and bring the aircraft
back to the last point of communications or, failing that, to a designatedlocation). On the other end of the spectrum are UAVs that are largely
autonomous where controllers provide high-level tasking but do not makethe maneuver-by-maneuver decisions of piloting the craft. This paper
considers the differences between securing these two different types of
UAV systems. It presents two different system architectures (one for theautonomous and one for the remotely piloted system) and discusses whattypes of security considerations are present.
Using these two architectures, prospective security and assurance strategies
for the two systems are presented and contrasted. Need analysis for the
security/assurance decisions is presented and discussed. A particular focus
is paid to the assurance and security considerations of the autonomous
system. This includes identifying multiple classes of prospective
vulnerability, based on considering system operating assumptions. From
this, one particular class of attack – of particular interest – that attempts to
exploit the confusion of the autonomous control system to produce desired
actions is considered. A variety of prospective strategies for hardening thecontrol software against this type of attack, as well as responses to it are
discussed, before concluding.

9468-22, Session 5

Design and experimental validation ofa simple controller for a multi-segment
magnetic crawler robot
Leah Kelley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Saam Ostovari, Aaron B. Burmeister, Kurt A.
Talke, Narek Pezeshkian, Hoa G. Nguyen, Space and Naval
Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)
A novel, multi-segmented magnetic crawler robot has been designed forship-hull inspection. In its simplest version, passive linkages that provide
two degrees of relative motion connect front and rear driving modules,
so the robot can twist and fold. This permits it to navigate over surface
discontinuities while maintaining adhesion with the hull. During operation,www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9468:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVII
the magnetic crawler receives forward and turning velocity commands fromeither a tele-operator or high-level, autonomous control computer. A lowlevel, embedded microcomputer handles the commands to thedriving motors.

The autonomic nature and pervasive (shared between all spacecraft) data
context enables a single factual view. Thus, from a user’s or application
developer’s perspective it doesn’t matter (except, of course, for the local
hardware, sensing capabilities and other resources available) whether theapplication runs within a single space craft or across a few in similar orbitd.
Moreover, excepting sensing requirement foufilment, it does not matter,what the trajectories of these spacecraft are. It is a known fact a Nano
Satellite or CubeSat has rather limited lifespan. In addition to scheduled
mission conclusion point, an unknown peril, such as a collision with spacedebris or some other object might terminate the mission of this small space
craft or damage or destroy the equipment used to capture, process andtransmit data.

This paper presents the development of a simple, low-level, leader-follower
controller that permits the rear module to follow the front module. The
kinematics and dynamics of the two-module magnetic crawler robot aredescribed. The robot’s geometry, kinematic constraints and the usercommanded velocities are used to calculate the desired instantaneous
center of rotation, and the corresponding central linkage angle necessary forthe back module to follow the front module when turning. The commands to
the rear driving motors are determined by applying PID control on the error
between the desired and measured linkage angle position. The controller
is designed and tested using Matlab Simulink. It is then implemented andtested on an early two-module magnetic crawler prototype robot. Results ofthe simulations and experimental validation of the controller design are
also presented.

Communication to and from a small spacecraft can be at an extremely
slow Baud rate, means both sending and receiving any communication willtake some time to egress and ingest, the ETL (Extract, Transform & Load)
tools designed to transmit and receive data needs to have a base protocol,
which is flexible. The Open Space Box (OSB) model provides this base forsmaller spacecraft to provide users data in a fashion that is pervasive withinsatellites as well as the ground stations. It also autonomically distinguishs
between data streams and disseminates relevant information to the related
end users. Request and Response messages are sent in batch mode andcommunications are done using MapReduce.

9468-23, Session 5

The role of C4ISR (command, control,
communications, computers, intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance) inexpedited deployment of autonomous
UGV’s

9468-25, Session PThu

Stealth Technology: the potential to makethe visible, invisible

Charles M. Shoemaker, U.S. Army CommunicationsElectronics Research Development and Engineering
Command (CERDEC) (United States)

Laura Samso Pericon, Consultant (Spain)
Sun Tzu broadly defined the art of war as stealth: “O divine art of subtlety
and secrecy! Through you we learn to be invisible, through you inaudible;and hence we can hold the enemy’s fate in our hands.” to conquer
the enemy without their even realizing it. Stealth or ‘low-observable’technology, is currently defined as a complex blend of radar, infrared (IR),visual, acoustic signature, radio frequency (RF) emissions reduction andother techniques. It is the potential to make something visible invisible,
not detectable.

The new program described has 4 major themes:a. Use of new sources of superior a priori information obtained byintegrating the robot with the “Tactical Network” through which a moredetailed representation of the robot’s “world model “ can be built andenriched through the mission, this integration with the network will also
make available the data gathered by the bots to a much larger
tactical audience.

Unmanned stealth aircrafts could be used for different purposes suchterrorism incident prevention and recovery. After the 9/11, there was a
campaign against terrorist organizations and regimes resulting in a measurethat authorized the use of the necessary force, in the US, to prevent any
international terrorism.

b. Provide autonomous robots a new option to send and receive highly
compressed, very low data rate information, beyond line of sight to theautonomous system supervisor who can attempt to “extract” a robot from a
problematic mobility location where it is computationally “stuck” as a viable
alternative to “Mission End.”

Some of the first developments began in the early 1900s when Germany
and the URSS (USSR) built planes using transparent materials such emaillit,
cellon, rodoid. However, the advent of radar during WWII changed therules and led to the development of new stealth technologies: the Horten
Ho 229. The first manned aircraft with pure stealth design was the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)/US Air Force (USAF)
research program code-named HAVE BLUE (1973) that resulted in the
Lockheed F-117A fighter.

c. Integrate b. (above) to appropriate, existing BLOS communications link.
d. Evaluate new sensing/processing options to enable an increase in robot
speeds expanding the range of new applications enabled by this improved
match with unit “optempo”.

9468-24, Session PThu

New developments in optics (metamaterials) could lead to an operative‘nearly perfect lens’, enhancing system target tracking capabilities andgeospatial data collection capabilities; hypersonics research being
conducted under DARPA would allow a responding nationality to be
anywhere in the world in less than 1 h. Some ongoing unmanned stealthprojects are the X-47B, the Taranis aircraft from UK, among others.

Open Space Box: communication to
support big data in orbit
Atif F. Mohammad, Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North
Dakota (United States)

This paper will cover how this technology could help different law
enforcement and intelligence in areas such terrorism.

Big Data is the reality created by the fusion of computers and progressively
improving sensor technology. The data created by the use of sensors,scanners and in general, which is needed for a mission or operations, isgrowing dramatically, on an annual basis.

9468-27, Session PThu

The idea of denormalization applies to all sorts of data now. Open Space
Box presents a novel model of communications to support future datatransmission needs. This Big Data processing technique facilitates theanalysis, storage and processing for needs that we presently have andpotential future needs. Open Space Box provides direct NoSQL to NoSQL
data transmission, allowing a single virtual database to span multiple orbital
and terrestrial locations.

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Mathematical modeling and system
identification of an unmanned aerial
systemJacob Goodman, Jinho Kim, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore·

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Conference 9468:
Unmanned Systems Technology XVIICounty (United States); Stephen Wilkerson, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); S. Andrew Gadsden, Univ.
of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
Unmanned aerial systems (UAS) are becoming increasingly visible in ourdaily lives; and range in operation from search and rescue, monitoring
hazardous environments, and to the delivery of goods. One of the mostpopular UAS are based on a quad-rotor design. These are typically small
devices that rely on four propellers for lift and movement. Quad-rotors are
inherently unstable, and rely on advanced control methodologies to keepthem operating safely and behaving in a predictable and desirable manner.
The control of these devices can be enhanced and improved by making
use of an accurate dynamic model. In this paper, mathematical models andsystem identification techniques are used to create and study an accurate
system model for a quad-rotor. Other popular models are also comparedand discussed.

9468-28, Session PThu

Establishing a disruptive new capability
for NASA to fly UAV’s into hazardous
conditions
Jay J. Ely, Truong X. Nguyen, NASA Langley Research
Ctr. (United States); Jennifer G. Wilson, Robert G. Brown,
NASA Kennedy Space Ctr. (United States); Sean A.
Laughter, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Allen R. Parker Jr., Hon M. Chan, Edward H. Teets Jr., Lance
Richards, NASA Armstrong Flight Research Ctr. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

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Conference 9469:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VIII
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9469 Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VIII

9469-1, Session 1

in real-time computational processing requirements compared toconventional HSI. The simulation approach utilizes real scene data fromthree different hyperspectral sensors: ACES-Hy, SpecTIR, and AVIRIS. In
the implementation modeled, the matched filter detection is derived fromsimultaneously capturing positive and negative matched filter images ona dual linear TDI array and subsequently subtracting and thresholding.
The TDI arrays are co-located on the same die substrate which provides
extremely precise spatial and temporal alignment with a small time delay
and stable calibration.

Correction of active space telescope
mirror using woofer-tweeter adaptive
opticsMatthew R. Allen, Jae Jun Kim, Brij N. Agrawal, Naval
Postgraduate School (United States)
Future large aperture space telescopes may use lightweight correctable
active mirrors.

9469-3, Session 1

The Naval Postgraduate School’s Segmented Mirror Telescope (SMT)
test bed uses 1-meter silicon carbide (SiC) active mirror segments toform a six-segment deployable 3-meter telescope. The active segments
suffer from residual surface figure errors after a correction is applied.
This research proposes using woofer-tweeter adaptive optics to actively
compensate for segment surface figure error, and external disturbances. An
additional deformable mirror is added to the SMT test bed to include two
deformable mirrors in the optical path. This optical configuration can reduce
manufacturing and testing cost by reducing stringent optical performancerequirements of the active primary segments. The addition of anotherdeformable mirror also provides a robust correctable design.

Characterizing point spread function (PSF)
fluctuations to improve resident space
object detection (RSO)
Tyler Hardy, Stephen C. Cain, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States)
This research paper deals with methods for improving the performance ofElectro-optical detection systems designed to find Resident Space Objects(RSOs). Some methods for detecting RSOs rely on accurate knowledgeof the system Point Spread Function (PSF). The PSF is a function of thetelescope optics, the atmosphere, and other factors including object
intensity and noise present in the system. Due to the random photon arrival
times any observed data will contain Poisson noise. Assuming that othernoise sources such as dark current and readout noise do not contributesignificantly, the final source of intensity fluctuations in the data is theatmosphere. To quantify these fluctuations, an optical model of a telescope
system is developed and its PSF is simulated. In a long exposure image, theeffects of the atmosphere are well characterized with the long exposure
atmosphere Optical Transfer Function (OTF). In contrast, a short exposure
image does not average the fluctuations as effectively. To model theatmosphere, random phase screens with Kolmogorov statistics are added tothe optical model to observe PSF fluctuations in short exposure telescopedata. The distribution of the peak intensity is analyzed for varying exposure
times and atmospheric turbulence strengths. This distribution is combinedwith the Poisson random arrival times of photons to create a combinedmodel for received data, which is then used to design a new detection
algorithm. The performance of the new space object detection algorithm
will be compared to a traditional algorithm using simulated and measured
telescope data.

The residual surface error of the SMT segment primarily consists of printthrough and dimpling caused by the manufacturing process. This results
in an uncorrectable high spatial frequency surface figure error. A woofertweeter architecture can improve the surface figure error of segmented
mirror by increasing stoke and actuator density. Additionally the woofer andtweeter can work together to correct for external disturbances like thermal
drift and structural disturbances of the large mirror.
The large active SMT segment is configured as the woofer, and a small
continuous micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) deformable mirror isconfigured as the tweeter. An interferometer measures the surface figure
error and provides feedback to a closed loop woofer-tweeter constrained
optimization control laws. Closed loop surface figure error improvement isdemonstrated by simulation and experiment. Simulation and experimental
results are presented.

9469-2, Session 1

Adaptive, realtime spectral imaging
system with a digitally programmable
matched filter function

9469-4, Session 1

J. Daniel Newman, Andrew P. Sacco, Angela M. D’Orazio,
Eskandar Ensafi, Exelis Geospatial Systems (UnitedStates); Yves Conturie, Exelis Inc. (United States); Steven
Chien, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Marek Kowarz,
MicroAdventure Technologies LLC (United States); PaulP. K. Lee, George S. Brown, Exelis Geospatial Systems(United States); Ralph C. Short, Jeffrey Czajka, ITT Exelis(United States)

High-resolution infrared detector and its
electronic unit for space application
Mustapha Meftah, LATMOS (France); Franck Montmessin,
CNRS - LATMOS (France); Oleg Korablev, Alexander
Trokhimovskiy, IKI (Russian Federation); Germain Poiet,
CNRS - LATMOS (France); Jean-baptiste Bel, SOFRADIR(France)

We describe a novel MEMS display-based imaging spectrometer thatsynthesizes and projects optically matched filtered line images onto a highspeed scanning TDI array via a digitally programmable filter generation
method. The spectrometer operates in the VNIR/SWIR optical bands witha 5000:1 contrast ratio and has >1MHz optical switching speed capability.
Detailed image science simulations have been performed validating that thistechnology approach is capable of achieving comparable target detection
performance to best in class hyperspectral imaging while simultaneously
providing over 100x increase in area coverage rate with a 220x decrease

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High-resolution infrared detector is used extensively for military and civilian
purposes. Military applications include target acquisition, surveillance,night vision, and tracking. Civilian applications include, among others,scientific observations. For our space systems, we want to use theproducts developed by Sofradir company. Thus, we have developed aspace electronic unit that is used to control the high-resolution SCORPIOMW-K508 infrared detector, which has a format of 640x512 and pixel pitchof 15 µm. The detector within microelectronics based on infrared mid-wave·

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Conference 9469:
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(MW) complementary metal oxide semiconductors (CMOS) uses a microcooler (K508) in order to keep its temperature around 100 K. The standard
wavelength range (3 to 5 ?m) is extended to the 2 to 5 ?m wavelength range
thanks to adaptation of the optical interface of the detector and with anantireflection coating. With our electronic system, we can acquire 3 images
per second. To increase the signal to noise ratio, we have the opportunity
to make a summation of 15 frames per image. Through this paper, we will
describe the space electronic system that we have developed in order toachieve space observations (e.g. Atmospheric Chemistry Suite package for
ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter).

9469-5, Session 1

Anomalous cases of astronaut helmet
detection
Chester Dolph, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates) and Old Dominion Univ. (United States); Andrew J.
Moore, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States); Matt
Schubert, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States) andChristopher Newport Univ. (United States); Glenn Woodell,NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
An astronaut’s helmet is an invariant, rigid image element that is well suitedfor identification and tracking using current machine vision technology.
Future space exploration will benefit from the development of astronautdetection software for search and rescue missions based on EVA helmet
identification. However, helmets are solid white, except for metal brackets
to attach accessories such as supplementary lights. We compared theperformance of a widely used machine vision pipeline on a standard-issue
NASA helmet with and without affixed experimental feature-rich patterns.
Performance on the patterned helmet was far more robust. We found thatfour different feature-rich patterns are sufficient to identify a helmet anddetermine orientation as it is rotated about the yaw, pitch, and roll axes.
During helmet rotation the field of view changes to frames containing partsof two or more feature-rich patterns. We took reference images in theselocations to fill in detection gaps. These multiple feature-rich patterns
references added substantial benefit to detection, however, they generated
the majority of the anomalous cases. In these few instances, our algorithm
keys in on one feature-rich pattern of the multiple feature-rich pattern
reference and makes an incorrect prediction of the location of the otherfeature-rich patterns. We describe and make recommendations on ways tomitigate anomalous cases in which detection of one or more feature-richpatterns fails. While the number of cases is only a small percentage of thetested helmet orientations, they illustrate important design considerations
for future spacesuits. In addition to our four successful feature-rich patterns,
we present unsuccessful patterns and discuss the cause of their poor
performance from a machine vision perspective. Future helmets designedwith these considerations will enable automated astronaut detection andthereby enhance mission operations and extraterrestrial search and rescue.

9469-6, Session 1

Program technical baseline framework for
future space systems: a combined DoD
acquisition, OSA and integrated program
management perspective (Invited Paper)
Tien M. Nguyen, Andy T. Guillen, Sumner S. Matsunaga,
The Aerospace Corp. (United States)
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) recently focused on themodernization (Ref. 1) and development of existing and future spacesystems, respectively, using mandated DoD and Congressional Acquisition
reform initiatives (Ref. 2) to improve acquisition efficiency. The initiatives
impose three key requirements on the development of future space systems,
including making affordability a requirement, increasing competition,

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and decreasing the time it takes to acquire a system. On the other
hand, as indicated in the Space Modernization Initiative (SMI) Strategy(Ref.1), the modernization of existing space systems shall meet threestrategic objectives (Ref. 1), namely, design for low Life Cycle Cost (LCC)
for affordability, provide desired system capability to meet warfighter
needs, and achieve resiliency to operate in contested environments.
In order to meet both strategic objectives and acquisition initiatives, asolid Program Technical Baseline Framework (PTBF) will be required toenable the government and industry partners to effectively manage thesedevelopments; improving the basis for competition, assisting government
source selection authorities to effectively select among proposed technicalsolutions, and enabling government-industry partners to effectively manage
the system life cycle through development, operations, and sustainment.
The proposed PTBF provides a framework to show how the technicalbaseline can be generated from the key program components (Ref. 3)
using the Integrated Program Management (IPM) approach for integrating
the program components with System Engineering (SE) process/tools,
SE Cost tools, DoD Architecture Framework (DoDAF) tools, Open System
Approach (OSA) process/tools, Risk Management process/tools, Critical
Chain Program Management (CCPM), and Earned value Management
System (EVMS) process/tools. Based on the proposed framework, the paper
provides a matrix that captured the required tools/processes vs. technicalfeatures for a “good” reference U.S. DoD “owned” technical baseline. In
addition, the paper also discusses the impacts of U.S. DoD acquisition
system and the Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System(JCIDS) process on the generation of a program technical baseline, anddescribes how Open System Approach (OSA) and IPM can help U.S. DoD
achieve acquisition reform and system modernization requirements.
References:Ref. 1: USAF, Report to Congressional Committees: Space Modernization
Initiative (SMI) Strategy and Goals, April 2014.
Ref. 2: Moshe Schwartz, “Defense Acquisitions: How DOD Acquires
Weapon Systems and Recent Efforts to Reform the Process,” May 23, 2014,
Congressional Research Service, 7-5700, www.crs.gov, RL34026.
Ref.3: Key program components include Program Requirements, System
Architecture Design, Program Risks, Program Cost, and Program Schedule.

9469-7, Session 2

Towards an integrated defense system forcyber security situation awareness
Hanlin Zhang, Zhijiang Chen, Wei Yu, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates); Sixiao Wei, Dan Shen, Genshe Chen, Intelligent
Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Khanh Pham, Erik
Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Computer and communication technologies have given rise to today’s
worldwide social, business, military, and commercial networks. These
networks are vulnerable to various types of cyber-attacks, which
necessitates and urgent need for cyber security. Defending against thesecyber-attacks requires network security situation awareness throughdistributed collaborative monitoring, detection, and mitigation. In thispaper, we demonstrate an integrated defense system for conducting
Cyber Situation Awareness (CSA). Our developed CSA system consistsof distributed passive and active network sensors designed to effectively
capture suspicious information associated with cyber-attacks, effective
detection algorithms to accurately detect cyber-threats, and network actors
to rapidly mitigate cyber-attacks. Particularly, passive network sensors canbe deployed at both end-hosts and network nodes to capture activities
associated with cyber-attacks and active network sensors can interact withcyber-attacks directly and capture the insightful information associated with
attacks (e.g., malware signatures). Based on collected data from network
sensors, we develop effective machine learning based detection techniques
to detect cyber-attacks accurately. To mitigate cyber-attacks, network
actors deployed at both end-hosts and network nodes will dynamically use
updates from detection algorithms and block cyber-attacks. Finally, wedemonstrate scenarios to show the effectiveness of our integrated
defense system.

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Conference 9469:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VIII

9469-8, Session 2

Game Approach for Cyber Security,” SPIE Newsroom, July. 2007.

Internet threat monitoring (ITM) against
localization attack using random delay
addition

9469-9, Session 3[8] G. Chen, H. Chen, E. Blasch, M. Kruger, and J. Cruz, “Information Fusion
and Visualization of cyber-attack graphs,” SPIE Newsroom, June 2007.

Sixiao Wei, Dan Shen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc.
(United States); Wei Yu, Chao Lu, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates); Erik Blasch, Khanh Pham, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion
Technology, Inc. (United States)

Quantum key distribution for QoS
guarantee in satellite networks
Ping Wang, Xi Zhang, Texas A&M Univ. (United States);
Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates); Khanh Pham, Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)

There are a variety of dangerous and widespread threats (e.g., botnet andmalware propagation) over cyber space. To deal with cyber-attacks, thedeployment of collaborative monitoring and defense systems over the
global Internet is important. Internet Threat Monitoring (ITM) is one kind of
defense system, which has been widely deployed to detect and characterize
dangerous Internet global threats such as botnet and malware propagation.

Quantum-based techniques have attracted significant research attention
because of its unique advantages on satellite communications, especiallyfor security problem. Security guarantee is one of the most important
requirements in QoS-driven 3D satellite networks. Quantum key distribution(QKD) is a methodology for generating and distributing random encryption
keys using the principles of quantum physics, which enables two distantcommunications parties to securely communicate in a way that cannot beeavesdropped on without being detected. Although the QKD method canensure the absolute security transmission over 3D satellite networks, it
imposes many new implementation challenges due to the various limitations
on quantum communication over long distances via 3D free space, including
quantum channel attenuation, photon-state disruption and vulnerability
to noise/interference, laser-beam widening, and constrained security-key
generation rate. These problems get even more challenging when QoS
provisioning is required for the applications over the 3D satellite networks.
To overcome the aforementioned difficulties, we propose the frameworkto efficiently implement the QKD for security guarantees over quantumrepeater-based QoS-driven 3D satellite networks we propose to employ
the intermediate nodes to relay the unconditional keys and guarantee theQuantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) for security requirement over 3D satellite
networks. We also propose the communication model for QKD securityQuality of Service (QoS) guarantee and an adaptive cooperative routing
selection scheme to optimize the throughput performance of QKD-based
satellite communications networks. The obtained simulation results verify
our proposed schemes.

Nonetheless, the effectiveness of ITM systems largely depends on theconfidentiality of their monitor locations. The reason is that if an adversary
discovers the internet protocol (IP) addresses covered by network sensors,
it can easily avoid the detection by bypassing the managed/monitored IP
addresses and directing attacks to the much larger space of unmonitored
IP addresses. Pragmatically, the ability of identifying network sensor IP
addresses from sensor traffic reports has important implications to thesuccessful deployment of network sensor based defense systems. A cyber
network defensive infrastructure must detect and mitigate various cyberthreats. To improve the security of ITM systems, we have investigated thevulnerability of the defense system, which enables the adversary to identify
the IP addresses of detection sensors. Using a frequency based modulation
technique with both time and space hopping (FH) effectively achieved ahigh attack accuracy and invisibility [1].
We extend the FH technique to defend against attacks and make the
ITM system secure by using countermeasures. In this paper, we present a
novel random delay addition (RDA) technique that significantly reduces
the accuracy, efficiency, and secrecy of ITM localization attacks. RDA
first identify network protocol and analyze initialized preamble signal
to ensure that all systems are interpreting the start of the informationtransfer correctly. Then it efficiently embeds a randomized time sequence
to background traffic when monitors are uploading traffic data to a data
center. As a result, it challenges an adversary to recognize and recoverits probing signal. RDA uses countermeasures to cause an intruder tomistakenly identify the location of the deployed sensors. Furthermore, we
derive closed formulae for the performance analysis of the RDA techniqueand conduct extensive simulations. Results validate our theoreticalfindings and demonstrate that RDA reduces the accuracy and invisibility of
localization attack.

9469-11, Session 3

Multi-carrier transmission for hybrid
radio frequency with optical wirelesscommunications[1] Wei Yu, Xinwen Fu, Erik Blasch, Khanh Pham, Dan Shen, and Genshe
Chen, “On Effectiveness of Hopping-Based Techniques for Network Forensic
Traceback,” Int’l J. of Networked and Distributed Computing, Vol. 1, No. 3,
2013.

Gang Wang, Genshe Chen, Dan Shen, Intelligent Fusion
Technology, Inc. (United States); Khanh Pham, Erik Blasch,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Tien Nguyen,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)[2] W. Yu, G. Xu, K. Pham, E. Blasch, G. Chen, D. Shen, and P. Moulema,“A Framework for Cyber-Physical System Security Situation Awareness,”
Principles of cyber-physical systems, Eds. W.Yu and Sajal Das (eds) ,Cambridge University Press, 2014.

Radio frequency (RF) wireless communication is reaching its capability
to support big data rate transmission due to (i) hardware constraints(e.g., silicon processes), software strategies (e.g., information theory),(ii) spectrum availability, and (iii) consumer desire for timely large
file exchanges (e.g., big data and mobile cloud computing). The hightransmission rate must be kept in pace with the generated huge volumesof data for real-time processing. Integrated RF and Optical WirelessCommunications (RF/OWC) could be the next generation transmission
technology to satisfy both the increased data rate exchange and thecommunications constraints. However, with the promising benefits of
RF/OWC, challenges still remain to fully develop operational hybrid RF
with wireless optical communications such as uniform waveform designfor information transmission and detection. In this paper, an Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) transmission scheme, which widely
employed in RF communications, is developed for OWC. The traditional highPeak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM is reduced to improve system[3] E. Blasch, Y Al-Nashif, and S. Hariri, “Static versus Dynamic Data
Information Fusion analysis using DDDAS for Cyber Trust,” International
Conference on Computational Science, Procedia Computer Science, 2014.
[4] G. Chen, D. Shen, C. Kwan, J. Cruz, M. Kruger, and E. Blasch, “Game
Theoretic Approach to Threat Prediction and Situation Awareness,” Journalof Advances in Information Fusion, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1-14, June 2007.
[5] D. Shen, G. Chen, E. Blasch, and G. Tadda, “Adaptive Markov Game
Theoretic Data Fusion Approach for Cyber Network Defense,” IEEE MILCOM,
Oct., 2007.
[6] D. Shen, G. Chen, L. Haynes, and E. Blasch, “Strategies Comparison for
Game Theoretic Cyber Situational Awareness and Impact Assessment,“ Int.
Conf. on Info Fusion, 2007.
[7] D. Shen, G. Chen, L. Haynes, J. Cruz, M. Kruger and E. Blasch, “A Markov

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performance while reducing harmful effects to human. The proposed multicarrier OFDM waveform is evaluated using a Monte-Carlo ray tracing (MCRT)
analyzed channel, which incorporates the effects of cloud and atmosphericturbulence. It demonstrates that Bit Error Rate (BER) performance of our
proposed transmission technique outperforms the traditional On-Off Keying(OOK) transmission scheme.

9469-12, Session 3

RFI modeling and prediction approach for
SATOPS Applications
Tien M. Nguyen, The Catholic Univ. of America (UnitedStates); Hien T. Tran, North Carolina State Univ. (UnitedStates); Zhonghai Wang, Genshe Chen, Gang Wang,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Steven
A. Lane, Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)window for automated position-keeping, which can be applied in Ballistic
Missile Submarine (SSBN) escorting, offshore support vessel servicing the
deepwater drillship, etc. The MIMO SAR radar sensor predefines a specialpart of the target (i.e., the drillship, ship or submarine) as the measurementtarget and does not need special assistant devices/targets installed on thetarget vessel, so its application is convenient. In the measurement process,the sensor scans the target, forms the target image, in the image detects
the measurement target, and then obtains the range and angle of themeasurement target. The MIMO SAR radar has N transmitting antennas
and M receiving antennas. All transmitting antennas share a transmitterand all receiving antennas share a receiver using switches, thus the system
is low cost. The MIMO SAR radar has N·M (at most) effective SAR phasecenters, and the azimuth angle resolution is ?_0.5/NM (finest, ?_0.5 is theantenna element’s 3dB beamwidth). The transmitter transmits a frequency
modulated continuous wave (FMCW) signal, and the receiver only process
the signal limited in the beat frequency region determined by the distancefrom the measurement target to the sensor and the interested measurementtarget extension. With the sliding range window, the sensor covers a large
range, and at the short distance, provides high accuracy measurements.

9469-27, Session 3

This paper describes our approach for the development of RFI modelingand detection tool for (i) evaluating effectiveness of the existing Telemetry
and Tele-Command (T&TC) waveforms employed by civil, commercial andmilitary SATOP centers, and (ii) predicting the impacts of RFI on existing
TT&C systems.

Multi-entity Bayesian network for thehandling of uncertainties at SATCOM

Currently, there are many RFI analysis tools available to analyze theimpacts of RFI on SATOP systems. Most of RFI tools do not consider theTime Factor (TF) when calculate Bit or Carrier SNR degradation due tointerferences. Some RFI tools incorporate TF by incorporating the SATOP
schedules along with IPC to identify the blockage due to RFI. These tools
have assumed that RFI would increase receivers’ noise floors. None of thesetools has considered the effects of the RFI on the receiver synchronization
loops. Our approach will incorporate (i) the receiver sync loops including
carrier and subcarrier tracking, and symbol timing loops, and thereby
evaluating the interfering TF at the synchronization loop-level, (ii) statisticaltechnique to estimate the type of interference and predict its impact on thesynchronization loops, and (iii) statistical technique to optimize the SNR of
the transmitted T&TC signal to overcome the synchronization errors caused
by RFI sources.
The approach proposed in this paper will allow the communications
designer to predict and evaluate the impacts of RFI on civil, commercial andmilitary SATOP systems. In addition, the proposed approach also allows thedesigner to estimate the optimum transmitted SNR to maintain a required
T&TC Quality-of-Service (QoS) in the presence of both friendly and unfriendly RFI sources.
Note:
RFI = Radio Frequency Interference
SATOP = SATellite OPeration includes Telemetry, Tracking andtelecommanding performed by satellite ground control station.
SNR = Signal-to-Noise Ratio
IPC is Interference Protection Criteria recommended by National
Telecommunication and Information Administration (NTIA) and International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).

9469-13, Session 3

A TDMA MIMO SAR radar for automatedposition-keeping
Zhonghai Wang, Xingping Lin, Intelligent Fusion
Technology, Inc. (United States); Khanh Pham, Erik
Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Genshe
Chen, Dan Shen, Bin Jia, Gang Wang, Intelligent Fusion
Technology, Inc. (United States)

Xin Tian, Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc.
(United States); Kuochu C. Chang, Todd Martin, George
Mason Univ. (United States); Tien Nguyen, Intelligent
Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Khanh Pham, Erik
Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9469-14, Session 4

A benchmark for vehicle detection on wide
area motion imagery
Joseph Catrambone, Ismail Amzovski, Temple Univ.
(United States); Erik Blasch, Carolyn Sheaff, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States); Genshe Chen, Intelligent
Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Haibin Ling,
Temple Univ. (United States)
Wide area motion imagery (WAMI) has been attracting an inreased amountof research attention due to its large spatial and temporal coverage. An
important application includes moving target analysis, where vehicle
detection is often one of the first steps before advanced activity analysis.
While there are exist many vehicle detection algorithms, a thoroughevaluation of them on WAMI data still remains a challenge mainly due tothe lack of an appropriate benchmark. In this paper, we address this issue
by presenting a new benchmark for wide area motion imagery vehicle
detection data. The benchmark is based on the recently available Columbus
Large Image Format (CLIF) WAMI dataset and the Temple Resolved
Uncertainty Target History (TRUTH) associated target annotation. Trajectoryannotations were provided in the original release of the CLIF dataset, but
detailed vehicle annotations remain unavailable. In addition, annotationsof static vehicles, e.g., in parking lots, are also not identified in the original
release. Addressing these issues, we re-annotated the whole dataset withdetailed information for each vehicle, including not only its location but
its pose and size. We also run detection algorithms on the dataset, andsuch algorithms can serve as baselines for future research along the line.
Together, the baseline methods, truth, images, and metrics constitute thedata set.

This paper presents a TDMA MIMO SAR Radar with a slideable range

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Conference 9469:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VIII

9469-15, Session 49469-17, Session 5

Multi-target detection and estimation withthe use of massive independent identicalsensors

Review of game theory applications forsituation awareness
Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Dan
Shen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates)Tiancheng Li, Univ. de Salamanca (Spain) andNorthwestern Polytechnical Univ. (China); Juan M.
Corchado, Univ. de Salamanca (Spain); Javier Bajo, Univ.
Politécnica de Madrid (Spain); Genshe Chen, Intelligent
Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)

Game theoretical methods have been used for Space situational awareness(SSA), Cyber situational awareness (CSA), and Intelligence, Surveillance, andreconnaissance situation awareness (ISA). Each of these cases, awarenessis supported by sensor estimation for assessment and the situation isdetermined from the actions of multiple players. Game theory assumes
rational actors in a defined scenario; however, variations in social, culturaland behavioral factors include the dynamic nature of the context. In a
dynamic-data driven application system (DDDAS), modeling must include
both the measurements but also how those models are used by different
actors with different priorities. In this paper, we highlight the fundamentals
of game theory by reviewing applications to determine the current stateof the art and future needs. We highlight the future needs of information
technology (e.g., data aggregation, access, and indexing); multiscale
analysis (e.g., space, time, and frequency), and software methods (e.g., SOA,
cloud computing).

With the rapid development of sensors, massive sensors are commonly
available in practice that can provide us very rich information for a specifictask such as target tracking. This paper presents a novel multi-object
detection and estimation (MODE) approach for the particular application
with a large number of independent identical sensors. The key is theso-called multi-sensor observation-only inference in which unsupervised
learning is employed for multi-sensor data fusion. The present solution
comprises three primary steps: 1) map all the observations reported
from multiple independent identical sensors in the same state space; 2)cluster these observations according to their spatial distribution: the onethat concentrate in the same local area correspond to the same target(s)while scattered points will be identified as clutter (and discarded); 3) the
observations that are identified to belong to the same target will be fused,generating the estimate of the state via the so-called observation-only(O2) inference.
Taking advantage of massive sensors, the present approach needs neither
to assume the target/clutter model nor to know the level of the system
noises; the problem of parameter estimation is not involved for the unknown
background. Therefore it can handle very challenging scenarios involving
with e.g. maneuver/splitting/merging targets, unknown system noises andclutter density, etc. and is computationally fast. To demonstrate the validity
and advantage of the proposed approach, simulations will be presented
on typical existing models with comparison of the state-of-the-art MODE
solutions and on a very challenging maneuver multi-target tracking of
unknown background.

9469-18, Session 5

Pursuit-evasion games with information
uncertainties for elusive orbital maneuverand space object tracking
Dan Shen, Bin Jia, Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion
Technology, Inc. (United States); Erik Blasch, Khanh Pham,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
This paper develops and evaluates a pursuit-evasion (PE) game approachfor elusive orbital maneuver and space object tracking. Unlike the PE gamesin the literature, where either assume both players have perfect knowledgeof the opponents’ positions or use primitive sensing models, the proposed
PE approach will solve the realistic space situation awareness (SSA) problem
with imperfect information, where the evaders will exploit the pursuers’
sensing and tracking models to confuse their opponents by maneuvering
their orbits to increase the uncertainties, which the pursuers perform orbital
maneuvers to minimize. In the game setup, each game player P (pursuer)and E (evader) has its own motion equations with a small continuous lowthrust. The magnitude of the low thrust is fixed and the direction can becontrolled by the associated game player. The entropic uncertainty is used
to generate the cost functions of game players. The Nash or mixed Nashequilibrium is composed of the directional controls of low-thrusts. Numericalsimulations are emulated to demonstrate the performance. Simplified
perturbations models (SGP4/SDP4) are exploited to calculate the groundtruth of the satellite states (position and speed).

9469-16, Session 4

A suborbital IMU test mission
Adam R. Lawman, Jeremy Straub, Scott Kerlin, Univ. ofNorth Dakota (United States)
This paper presents work conducted for a suborbital test flight tocharacterize an inertial measurement unit’s (IMU’s) ability to serve asa position determination mechanism in a GPS-denied environment. In
particular, this work is seeking to characterize whether the launch disrupts
the IMU to such an extent as to render it unusable.
A CubeSat-size payload has been developed for launch on an engine test
mission of a suborbital rocket. This rocket will ascend during the burn phase
and, after engine cut-off, fall with a parachute back to the ground. It willthen be recovered and the data stored therein will be retrieved
for assessment.
To assess the utility of the IMU for positioning across a launch, the trajectoryof the rocket from launch to termination is plotted utilizing data stored
on the onboard IMU/GPS hardware-software system. Google maps will be
used to visualize the IMU trajectory relative to the GPS logs; this data will
also be compared quantitatively. The data (from both the IMU and GPS)will also be utilized to characterize the performance of the rocket and todemonstrate the efficacy of using an IMU (without a GPS unit) for this typeof characterization in the future.

9469-19, Session 5

Distributed sensor management for space
situational awareness via a negotiation
game
Bin Jia, Dan Shen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc.
(United States); Khanh Pham, Erik Blasch, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States); Genshe Chen, Intelligent
Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)

A description of the hardware and software used is provided. A discussionof the data logging mechanism and the onboard and post-flight processing
which is required to compare the GPS fixes and IMU-generated positions ispresented. The utility of an IMU capable of maintaining position awarenessduring launch is discussed before concluding with a discussion offollow-on work.

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Conference 9469:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VIIISpace situational awareness (SSA) is critical to many space missions serving
weather analysis, communications, and navigation. However, the number of
sensors used in space situational awareness is limited which hinders collision
avoidance prediction, debris assessment, and efficient routing. Hence, it iscritical to use such sensor resources efficiently. In addition, it is desired todevelop the SSA sensor management algorithm in a distributed manner. In
this paper, a distributed sensor management approach using the negotiation
game (NGDSM) is proposed for the SSA. Specifically, the proposed
negotiation game is played by each sensor and its neighboring sensors. The
bargaining strategies are developed for each sensor based on negotiating
for accurately tracking desired targets (e.g., satellite, debris, etc.) . The
proposed NG-DSM method is tested in a scenario which includes eightspace objects and three different sensor modalities which include a space
based optical sensor, a ground radar, or a ground Electro-Optic sensor. The
geometric relation between the sensor, the Sun, and the space object isalso considered. The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness ofthe proposed NGDSM sensor management methods, which facilitates anapplication of multiple-sensor multiple-target tracking for space
situational awareness.

9469-20, Session 5Size distribution for orbital debris
measured with the NASA-WISE Instrument
Emily Nystrom, Clemson Univ. (United States); Jeremy
Murray-Krezan, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
From December 2009 thru 2011 the NASA Wide-Field Infrared Survey
Explorer (WISE) gathered radiometrically exquisite measurements of debris
in near Earth orbits. Assuming grey-body emissivity, the apparent size ofdebris objects may be inferred, adding substantially to the current catalog
of known debris. This report describes a general model for debris size
distributed near the GEO belt. Linear and nonlinear regression models were
fit to data from the WISE orbital debris catalog. We found that our results
were statistically different from previously published debris distributions,suggesting the need for updates to collision probability models.

9469-21, Session 5

Enabling direct feedback between initialorbit determination and sensor dataprocessing for detection and tracking ofspace objects(ICART). The ICART tool initializes a particle filter with an Admissible Region(AR) containing all feasible orbits consistent with the original observation.
By using a particle filter, the algorithm provides online orbit determination
with a non-Gaussian final distribution. Online orbit knowledge from the
ICART process feeds back into the GEODETICA software through a Matched
Filter. Based on the preliminary orbital estimate, the software predicts theappearance of the RSO in the next frame. By correlating this predicted RSO
optical signature with the next image in sequence, measurements have beentaken on objects with SNR nearing the theoretical limit of 0.2 in simulated
scenarios. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT F: Further dissemination only as
directed by AFRL/RVSV, 3550 Aberdeen Ave SE, Kirtland AFB, NM 871175776, (20140718), or higher DoD authority.

9469-22, Session 5Space situational awareness applications
for radio astronomy assets
Galen Watts, National Radio Astronomy Observatory(United States); John M. Ford, National Radio Astronomy
Obseravtory (United States); H. Alyson Ford, National
Radio Astronomy Observatory (United States)
The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) builds, operates, andmaintains a suite of premier radio antennas, including the 100m aperture
Green Bank Telescope, the largest fully-steerable antenna in the world. For
more than five decades the NRAO has focused on astrophysics, providing
researchers with the most advanced instruments possible: large apertures,
extremely low-noise receivers, and signal processors with high frequency
and time resolution. These instruments are adaptable to Space Situational
Awareness (SSA) tasks such as radar detection of objects in near-Earth andcis-Lunar space, high accuracy orbit determination, object surveillance with
passive methods, and uplink and downlink communications. We present
the capabilities of antennas and infrastructure at the NRAO Green Bank
Observatory in the context of SSA tasks, and discuss what additions andmodifications would be necessary to achieve SSA goals while preserving
existing radio astronomy performance. We also discuss how Green Bank
Observatory’s surrounding topography and location within the National
Radio Quiet zone will enhance SSA endeavors.

9469-23, Session 5

The Joint Space Operations Center(JSpOC) Mission System (JMS) and
Advanced Research, Collaboration, andApplication Development Environment(ARCADE): a test bed for space situationalawareness algorithms (Invited Paper)

Bradley Sease, Virginia Polytechnic Institute (UnitedStates); Timothy S. Murphy, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States); Brien R. Flewelling, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States); Marcus Holzinger, Georgia
Institute of Technology (United States); Jonathan Black,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute (United States)

Jeremy Murray-Krezan, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)This paper presents an automatic Resident Space Object (RSO) detection
and tracking scheme operating at the optical system sensor level. We showthat continuous RSO tracking can be made more sensitive and robust withan initial orbit estimate generated on-line and in real-time.
The General Electro-Optical DEtection, Tracking, Identification, andCharacterization (GEODETICA) software is intended as a pipeline forprocessing ground or space-based imagery. The tool is composed of several
sub-algorithms which process ingested imagery, detect and discriminate
RSO’s from non-star objects, and associate observations over time. This tool
operates on a Kalman filter bank based on linearized image-plane dynamics.
Two motion model hypotheses provide initial discriminators for non-starbehavior, followed by online computation of the sensor attitude motion.
Outliers in the secondary process indicate non-star behavior.

The Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) Mission System (JMS) is amodern service-oriented architecture infrastructure with increased process
automation and improved tools to enhance Space Situational Awareness(SSA) for the United States and allied Nations. The first installment of
JMS has been delivered. The second installment is currently in progress,
modernizing much of the JSpOC’s core information systems, with final
delivery scheduled for 2016. Post 2016, new installments of JMS willcontinue to provide additional SSA and Command and Control capabilities
that will require development of new applications and procedures as wellas the exploitation of new data sources with greater agility. Although thegeneral concepts for new JMS capabilities are notionally defined, it is also
recognized that significant technical development is needed in order tocreate the required new applications, procedures, and data sources.

The GEODETICA software reports angle data for likely RSO signals toa secondary tool, the Iterative Constrained Admissible Region Tracker

The Advanced Research, Collaboration, and Application Development
Environment (ARCADE) was established in 2012 in order to meet the190

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Conference 9469:
Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VIII
future needs for new algorithms and procedures for JMS. The purposeof the ARCADE is to: (1) serve as a centralized testbed for all researchand development (R&D) activities related to JMS applications, including
algorithm development, data source exposure, service orchestration, andsoftware services, and provide developers reciprocal access to relevant
tools and data to accelerate technology development, (2) allow the JMS
program to communicate user capability priorities and requirements todevelopers, (3) provide the JMS program with access to state-of-the-art
research, development, and computing capabilities, and (4) support JMS
Program Office-led market research efforts by identifying outstanding
performers that are available to shepherd thru the formal transition process.
In addition to providing JMS with a modern test-bed environment, ARCADE
is exploring new business processes for how the U.S. acquires and upgrades
its operational information systems.

elements in the field of warfare contiuonusly searching for technologicaland tactical improvements in order to outmaneuver against each other. In
the result of this quest , the crucial changes occured. One of these is theusing of air power with the aim of war. The airplanes firstly emerge with 1911
Ottoman-Italy war in warfare scene. In this date, the airplanes are painted
various color in order to able approach their targets, the aim of this method
is to make difficult the detection of the airplanes by the enemy observer.
With the using the airplanes in the field of warfare, the strategic superiorityof the assailment? side is decreased by using and evolving the radar system.
As a result of the decreasing superiority of the assailment with the
beginning of using radar system , new approaches are looked for. Theseseekings directed the development of the low observable technology.
In this study, Resource search about the history and the context of the low
observable technology is arranged. The based on these information thatare obtained, the changes that are generated by this technology in thefield of warfare are evaluated by examining operations that low observable
technology is used. Finally, low observable technology will be one of themost important elements in the field of warfare in the future. Also, otherpossible development is making a radical change in present air defense
systems, and this change is evaluated that being towards passive radarsystems and the development sensor system that monitor optically fromspace or earth.

9469-24, Session 6

Economic analysis of open space box
model utilization in space craft
Atif F. Mohammad, The Univ. of North Dakota (UnitedStates); Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (UnitedStates)9469-26, Session 6

It is a known fact that the amount of data about space that is stored isgetting larger on an everyday basis. However, the utilization of Big Data andrelated tools to perform ETL (Extract, Transform & Load) applications willsoon be pervasive in the space sciences.

The Thermal Infrared Compact Imaging
Spectrometer (TIRCIS): a follow-on to
the Space Ultra-Compact Hyperspectral
ImagerWe have entered in a crucial time where using Big Data can be
the difference (for terrestrial applications) between organizations
underperforming and outperforming their peers. The same is true forNASA and other space agencies, as well as for individual missions and thehighly-competitive process of mission data analysis and publication. In mostindustries, conventional opponents and new candidates alike will influence
data-driven approaches to revolutionize and capture the value of Big Dataarchives. The Open Space Box Model is poised to take the proverbial “giantleap”, as it provides autonomic data processing and communications
for spacecraft.

Sarah T. Crites, Robert Wright, Paul G. Lucey, Univ. of
Hawai’i (United States); Jeremy Chan, Univ. of Hawai’i atManoa (United States); Harold Garbeil, Amber Imai, Eric J.
Pilger, Mark Wood, L. Yoneshige, Univ. of Hawai’i (UnitedStates)The Thermal Infrared Compact Imaging Spectrometer (TIRCIS) is a longwave infrared (LWIR, 8-14 microns) hyperspectral imager designed as
the follow-on to the University of Hawaii’s SUCHI (Space Ultra Compact
Hyperspectral Imager). SUCHI is a low-mass (<9kg), low-volume(10x12x40cm3) LWIR spectrometer designed as the primary payload on
the University of Hawaii-built ‘HiakaSat’ microsatellite. SUCHI is basedon a variable-gap Fabry Perot interferometer employed as a Fouriertransform spectrometer with images collected by a commercial offthe-shelf microbolometer contained inside a 1-atm sealed vessel. The
sensor has been fully integrated with the HiakaSat microsatellite andis awaiting launch in 2015. The TIRCIS instrument is based on the same
principles but takes lessons learned from SUCHI and applies them to a
new design with improvements in spatial resolution, spectral resolution
and spectral responsivity. The TIRCIS instrument is based on an uncooled
microbolometer array with custom detector coatings to enhance
responsivity towards 7 microns. Like SUCHI, TIRCIS utilizes a variablegap Fabry Perot interferometer to create the spectra, but three different
interferometer wedges with varying slopes resulting in spectral resolution
ranging from 44 cm-1 to 6.5 cm-1 will be tested to explore tradeoffs between
spectral resolution and sensitivity. TIRCIS is designed to achieve 120 m
spatial resolution from a theoretical 500 km orbit. It will be used for groundand aircraft data collection but will undergo environmental testing todemonstrate its relevance to the space environment. TIRCIS has been fully
designed and is entering fabrication, with an operational instrument to bedelivered in April 2015.

We can find economic value generated from such use of data processingin our earthly organizations in every sector, such as healthcare, retail.
We also can easily find retailers, performing research on Big Data, by
utilizing sensors driven embedded data in products within their stores andwarehouses to determine how these products are actually used in the realworld. This paper assesses the value that can be gained by utilize similar
techniques in space. Following a similar analysis path, we assess the types
and amount of data that is being (and could be generated) and the amountthat is being actually effectively used. We estimate a value for that data is
not currently being processed. From this, we contend that the relative valueof utilizing big data techniques (such as Open Space Box) is as pronounced
in orbit (if not more so) as on Earth’s surface.
The Open Space Box framework’s Data Recharging Model, for example, canhelp in the creation of new data products associated with space mission
planning and enable data processing onboard spacecraft, which are forresearch purposes and have no human onboard.

9469-25, Session 6

The effects of developments in the stealthtechnology, passive radars and optic
sensors on the future
Asim Göktas, Turkish War College (Turkey)
There is a cutthroat competition between chase and hunter in nature. The
chase want to diagnose the hunter as early as possible, also the hunter want
to approach its chase as invisible.
In the same way, this essential principle is valid in the field of warfare. The

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Conference 9470A: Display Technologies andApplications for Defense, Security, and Avionics IX
Wednesday - Thursday 22–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9470 Display Technologies and Applications for Defense, Security, andAvionics IX; and Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XX

9470-1, Session 1

Diver’s full face mask head-up display
using waveguide optical display
technology
Dennis Gallagher, Richard Manley, Naval Surface Warfare
Ctr. Panama City Div. (United States)
Military, public safety, and science divers conduct operations in one of themost extreme environments on the planet. Extremes of depth, temperature,and pressure are routine – as well as extremely poor visibility. Historically,
this has been a serious operational and safety limitation since handheld
visual displays and gauges can be virtually useless in this environment.
Recently developed near-to-eye (NTE) diver display systems using micro
displays and custom designed optical systems have made a positive impact,
but they are still very limiting due to their large size, weight, and narrow
field-of-view. Transforming the diver’s faceplate itself into a see-throughhead-up display would eliminate the need for externally attached displays
and multiple display systems for different sensors, while increasing field-ofview and situational awareness, significantly reducing size, and providing atrue augmented reality display capability for divers.
Emerging Waveguide Optical Display Technology holds the promise ofbeing the break-through technology for providing this see-through head-up
display capability for divers. Waveguide optical display technology opticallycouples images from a high resolution micro display into a waveguide optic,translates the image through a series of internal reflections, finally exiting
toward the eye resulting in a magnified, see-through virtual display image ata specific distance in front of the diver.
Under a recent international government sponsored program, the Naval
Surface Warfare Center-Panama City Division (NSWC PCD) developed aconcept prototype binocular see-through head-up display inside a diver’s
full face mask using waveguide optical display technology.
The paper will describe diver NTE display systems, waveguide opticaldisplay technologies, development of the concept prototype, results of diverevaluations, and recommendations for follow-on research and development.

9470-2, Session 1

Augmented reality technology for headsup, day/night situational awareness for the
dismounted soldier
Eric Gans, David C. Roberts, Matthew Bennett, Alberico
Menozzi, Herman Towles, James Cook, Applied Research
Associates, Inc. (United States)
This paper describes Applied Research Associates’ (ARA) recent advancesin soldier augmented reality (AR) technology. Our AR technology (ARC4)
delivers heads-up situational awareness to the dismounted warfighter,enabling non-line-of-sight team coordination in distributed operations.
ARC4 combines compact head tracking sensors with advanced pose
estimation algorithms, network management software tools, and an intuitive
AR visualization interface to overlay tactical iconic information accurately on
the user’s real-world view. The technology supports heads-up navigation,
blue-force tracking, target handoff, image sharing, and tagging featuresin the environment. It integrates seamlessly with established network
protocols (e.g., Cursor-on-Target) and Command and Control software tools(e.g., Nett Warrior, Android Tactical Assault Kit) and interfaces with a wide
range of daytime see-through displays and night vision goggles to deliver
real-time actionable intelligence, day or night. We detail current research

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and development efforts toward helmet-based and handheld AR systems
and discuss key metrics used to assess an effective AR experience, including
those related to pose estimation, through-sight display, and computer
processing. Details of the pose estimation technology include an overview
of our data fusion process that incorporates inertial data, magnetometer
data, GPS and DTED with real-world imagery to provide measurementsof the operator’s precise orientation. These measurements leverage
mountainous terrain horizon geometry, known landmarks, and sun position,
enabling ARC4 to achieve significant improvements in accuracy compared
to conventional INS/GPS solutions of similar size, weight, and power. We
report recent performance results during outdoor on-the-move operationaluse cases and describe extensions of the AR technology to immersive
training applications.

9470-3, Session 1

Operational feedback on night vision withhyperstereoscopic HMD
Jean-Michel Francois, Thales Avionics S.A. (France); Daniel
Maulet, Thales Angénieux S.A. (France); Joel Baudou,
Thales Avionics S.A. (France)
The hyperstereopsis design for night vision function has been used forthe benefit of a see-through display and several examples of this kindof design have been implemented: TopOwl from Thales, KnightHelm
from Baé and Midash from Elbit. Many discussions occur on the usageof hyperstereoscopic system for highly complex operational use and thebalance of advantages and drawbacks. This paper will cover hyperstereopsis
experience through the TopOwl history from development to fulloperational use.
During development, emphasis of the see-through advantage shall be
the priority and during integration special attention shall be taken for the
installation in the cockpit and the visibility through helicopter struts.
Human factors explains several changes in the perception of the world andwhich adaptation is needed through the training of the pilot. Training has
occurred for more than 500 pilots on very different platforms such as Tiger
attack helicopter and Caiman NH90 transport helicopter. The synthesis of
the use of a hyperstereopsis design with very different users as Marines/
Army from more than 16 countries and with very different missions as Reco/
Support/Destroy.
Operational use of TopOwl is well known and exists for the more complex
missions in different theaters. The comparison between standard Night
Vision Goggle and see-through hyperstereopsis Night Vision system isdone based on the experience coming from training school process andadaptation of the different pilot trainees and from the experience feedbackon three different operational theaters.

9470-4, Session 2

Review and current status of headmounted display technologies (Invited
Paper)
Hong Hua, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of
Arizona (United States)
Head-mounted display (HMD) technologies enable a wide range ofapplications, from military simulation and training to entertainment andinformation displays. In this talk, I will provide a review on past and current

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Conference 9470A: Display Technologies andApplications for Defense, Security, and Avionics IX
technological advancements, with more emphasis on optical see-through
HMDs for augmented reality applications. I will demonstrate examples of
HMD systems developed in my group based on emerging freeform optics,
and discuss key technical challenges and opportunities for
future developments.

stability and connection with the EUD. A rubber gasket channel andinnovative locking feature allows for improved water seal. Surrounding
the polycarbonate base shell is a PAXCON® force-resistant - Line-X TM
protective coatings that smoothes over the base layer’s hard edges andcreates another level of shock protection for drop resistance, fire protection
and durability. The layered design with PAXCON® - Line-X TM coating willallow the ruggedized EUD case to survive high G-Force impacts, water
submersion, dirt, fire and high or low temperature extremes. The improved
Human Factors include, a clamshell design that reduces the number ofpieces to assemble. And the opposable “clip-notch” design for improved
thumb-hold to open the clamshell and compression force to keep thecase closed.

9470-5, Session 2

Keeping display visibility in outdoor
environment
Ariela Donval, Ido E. Dotan, Noam Gross, Eran Partouche,
Ofir Lipman, Moshe Oron, KiloLambda Technologies, Ltd.
(Israel)

9470-8, Session 3

3D display considerations for rugged
airborne environments

Augmented reality (AR) is a live direct or indirect view of a physical,
real-world environment whose elements augmented (or supplemented)
by computer-generated sensory input such as sound, video, graphics or
GPS data. As a result, the technology functions by enhancing one’s current
perception of reality. Artificial information about the environment and its
objects can be overlaid on the real world, using a special optics and display.
An example for such optic is a typical Head Mounted Display (HMD) which
has either one or two small displays with relevant optics embedded in ahelmet, eye-glasses (also known as data glasses) or visor. Some HMDs allow
the computer generated image (CGI) to be superimposed on a real-world
view. This method is often called Optical See-Through. In see-through
HMD the background illumination is a crucial factor influence the ability ofviewing the display. When using the HMD at a very bright day, the display
image risks vanishing due to the sun illumination. However, at a very cloudy
day, one needs all the light to pass through the display to the user eye. The
need to control the amount of sunlight passes through the HMD was thetrigger for our effort in developing Dynamic Sunlight Filter (DSF), which is apassive solution dedicated to regulate sunlight overpower events.

Tracy J. Barnidge, Joseph L. Tchon, Rockwell Collins, Inc.
(United States)
The KC-46 is the next generation, multi-role, aerial refueling tanker aircraft
being developed by Boeing for the United States Air Force.
Rockwell Collins has developed the Remote Vision System (RVS) that
supports aerial refueling operations under a variety of conditions.
The system utilizes large-area, high resolution 3D displays linked withremote sensors to enhance the operators visual acuity for precise aerial
refueling control. This paper reviews the design considerations, trade-offs
and other factors related to the selection and ruggedization of the 3D
display technology for this military application.

9470-9, Session 3

KiloLambda’s Dynamic Sunlight Filter (DSF), is a passive solution dedicatedfor sunlight controlling and regulating applications. The DSF is a passive(self-adaptive), solid-state, free-space filter, which attenuates visible lightvariably according to its intensity. The DSF’s transmittance is inversely
proportional to the amount of solar light impinging on it. When light levelis low, such as in the case of cloudy sky, the DSF remains transparent, withhigh transmission functionality.

A guide for human factors research withstereoscopic 3D displays
John P. McIntire, Paul R. Havig II, Alan R. Pinkus, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

As the light level is increased and gets more intense, such as in the case of
direct sun, the DSF transmission decreases, eventually reaching a darkened
state. This process is reversible and the filter returns to its transparent
state once the intensity of light decreases to its normal level. When placingsuch a DSF at the outer face of the HMD, it provides the benefit of keeping
background illumination at the desired level, regardless of the real weather
conditions, such as bright sun or clouds. We present at this talk the DSF
functionality including new capabilities as were developed within the lastyear to be adapted mostly for avionic applications. We discuss also thebenefits for avionic and non-avionic HMD applications.

In this work, we provide some common methods, techniques, information,
concepts, and relevant citations for those conducting human factors-related
research with stereoscopic 3D (S3D) displays. We give suggested methods
for calculating binocular disparities, and show how to verify on-screen
image separation measurements. We provide typical values for interpupillary distances that are useful in such calculations. We discuss the pros,cons, and suggested uses of some common stereovision clinical tests. We
discuss the phenomena and prevalence rates of stereoanomalous, pseudostereoanomalous, stereo-deficient, and stereoblind viewers. The problems ofeyestrain and fatigue-related effects from stereo viewing, and the possible
causes, are enumerated. System and viewer crosstalk are defined anddiscussed, and the issue of stereo camera separation is explored. Typicalbinocular fusion limits are also provided for reference, and discussed inrelation to zones of comfort. Finally, the concept of measuring disparity
distributions is described. The implications of these issues for the humanfactors study of S3D displays are covered throughout.

9470-41, Session 2

Ruggedized EUD case design
Dave Silvestris, DS Ultra Wireless LLC (United States)
Today our war fighters are using mobile computer communication deviceson the battle field and the U.S. military have new requirements to protect
their smart phones, tough pads and tablets. The DS Ultra Wireless ruggedized End-User Device (EUD) case protects all mobile communication
devices that include the benefits of improved human factors, and use theexisting system cables with no EMI impacts to the existing system.

9470-10, Session 4

Exploring immersive environments to
aid urban intelligence, surveillance andreconnaissance operations

The effectiveness of the ruggedized (EUD) case comes from its layered
design. Instead of a simple plastic or rubber case that clips around thesmart phone or tough pad. The ruggedized EUD case unique features
combine a polycarbonate “clamshell” skeleton with protective coating. The
polycarbonate shell clips snugly around the EUD with internal fabricatededges to create a micro-USB “pocket” for consistent micro-USB cable

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Jason Roll, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Peter
Venero, Infoscitex Corp. (United States); Donald Adkins,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Sarah Lampke,
Timothy MtCastle, Infoscitex Corp. (United States)·

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Conference 9470A: Display Technologies andApplications for Defense, Security, and Avionics IXIntelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) operations in urban
environments can be challenging due in part to the physical proximity andheight of the buildings which can cause occlusions of sensors. A potential
avenue to overcome the problems presented by the urban environment
could be the exploitation of immersive environments. An immersive
environment would increase an analyst’s situation awareness to correctly
select and position sensors for intelligence gathering. In completing a sensor
management task, the operator must perform three basic actions: navigate
through the environment, select sensors in the environment, and manipulate
those selected sensors. The goal of this experiment was to investigate theimpact that different fields of view (FOV) and different control devices hadon those operator actions. While the FOV did not show a significant impact,significant differences were seen between the two control devices tested.

The proposed technology works by introducing a mechanism to combine
the output of multiple LCD panels and the changing of the configuration of
the pixels at a higher rate than the desired frame rate, to allow aggregation
across time as well as spatial aggregation. This approach visually combines
the coloration of adjacent pixels to create an approximation of what would
be projected by a higher resolution screen. By increasing the frame rate, thiscreates the impression of a higher resolution image to the viewer.

9470-11, Session 49470-13, Session 5

Augmented reality enabling intelligence
exploitation at the edge

A virtual pixel technology to enhance
the resolution of monitors and for otherpurposesSue E. Kase, Elizabeth K. Bowman, Heather E. Roy, Debra
Patton, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Today’s Warfighters need to make quick decisions while interacting indensely populated environments comprised of friendly, hostile, and neutral
host nation locals. Enabled by ubiquitous mobile devices, social media has
emerged as the local populace’s dominant form of communications. The
unprecedented speed social media enables many-to-many interactions
coupled with the volatile nature of these environments, makes social
media a critical intelligence source for the edge Soldier. However, there
is a gap in the real-time processing of big data social media streams foredge intelligence. We introduce a big data processing pipeline that ingests,
monitors, and performs a variety of analytics including noise reduction,
pattern identification, and trend and event detection in the context ofan area of operations (AOR). Results of the analytics are presented to
the Soldier via an alerting framework and augmented reality (AR) device(Google Glass) when network connectivity to the pipeline is available, or
pre-loaded to Glass prior to a mission using a powerful wearable computing
device when pipeline connectivity is limited. Non-intrusive AR devices such
as Glass can visually communicate contextually relevant alerts to the Soldier
based on the current mission objectives, time, location, and observed or
sensed activities. This real-time processing and AR presentation approach
to knowledge discovery flattens the intelligence hierarchy enabling theedge Soldier to act as a vital and active participant in the analysis process.
We report preliminary observations testing Glass in a person of interest
detainment scenario simulating edge Soldier participation in the intelligenceprocess in disconnected deployment conditions.

A virtual pixel software and hardware
technology to increase projector
resolution
Jeremy Straub, Benjamin M. Kading, Univ. of North Dakota(United States)
This paper proposes an approach to increasing projector resolution andminimizing projector size and weight. Increasing the resolution of the
LCD (or similar) display used in projectors (in conjunction with increased
light emissions, etc.) increases the resolution of the projected image and/or the distance that the projector can be from its screen. While increasing
the size of the LCD panel represents one approach to producing increased
resolution, this increases projector size and weight (particularly when thelarger optics required to support this larger panel are considered). This
paper proposes the incorporation of a mechanism to allow multiple pixels
to be combined to create a higher resolution output image than the LCD(or similar) display used to create virtual pixels. This increases the effective
resolution of the projector without necessitating a significant increase in thesize of the LCD (or similar) display.

SPIE DSS 2015

Benjamin M. Kading, Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota(United States)
Current monitor and television displays utilize pixels to display a digitizedapproximation of the real world collected by a camera or generated
computationally. The resolution of the camera (or generation technology)
and the display determines how well this facsimile approximates reality.
Technologies, such as the Retna display sold by Apple Computer, haveproduced a level of pixel density that exceeds the level of resolution
perceptible by humans. These technologies, however, are still very
expensive. This paper proposes a virtual pixel technology which utilizes apixel combination function to average the output of multiple pixels to create
a greater number of different virtual pixels, as compared to the numberof emitting LCDs (or similar). This allows lower pixel density displays to
produce the approximation of a higher pixel density display, while lowering
overall production costs.
This technology works as follows. A computer or other device sends a signal
to the display device to be projected that exceeds the hardware display
fidelity. This signal is pre-processed by an in-monitor processing unit which
is aware of the virtual pixel creation function and creates a series of pixel
configurations to be displayed on the low resolution display to produce anapproximation of the high-resolution image to the viewer.
This technology breaks the barrier between the pixels, allowing for morevirtual pixels to be displayed than there are physical pixels. Each physicalpixel’s configuration is based on a weighted average of the virtual pixels thatit contributes to.
This display technique, which is based on reversing the principles typicallyused in computer image super-resolution, utilizes a combination ofsoftware and hardware components. This paper provides an overview of the
proposed technology, discusses its application to monitors and prospective
extensions to other areas and concludes with a discussion of prospective
next steps to its development.

9470-12, Session 5

194

The paper describes the approach in detail and the principles upon which
it is based. Existing work demonstrating the proposed technique, using
existing hardware, is presented. The potential for utilizing this techniquebeyond the proposed spatial-temporal aggregation approach that has been
demonstrated is also discussed. The paper concludes by describing theprospective benefits provided by this technology.

·

9470-14, Session 6

Review of the evolution of display
technologies for next generation aircraft(Invited Paper)
Joseph L. Tchon, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States)
Advancements in electronic display technologies have provided many
benefits for military avionics. The modernization of legacy tanker transport
aircraft along with the development of next-generation platforms, suchas the KC-46 aerial refueling tanker, offers a timeline of the evolution ofavionics display approaches. The adaptation of advanced flight displays
from the Boeing 787 for the KC-46 flight deck also provides examples ofwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9470A: Display Technologies andApplications for Defense, Security, and Avionics IX

9470-16, Session 6

how avionics display solutions may be leveraged across commercial andmilitary flight decks to realize greater situational awareness and improveoverall mission effectiveness. This paper provides a review of the display
technology advancements that have led to today’s advanced avionics
displays for the next generation, KC-46 tanker aircraft. In particular, progressin display operating modes, backlighting, packaging and ruggedization will
be discussed along with display certification considerations across militaryand civilian platforms.

A practical definition of eye-limited
display system resolution
Charles J. Lloyd, Visual Performance, LLC (United States)
Please see attached document
The use of the term “eye limited resolution” (ELR) has increased over the
past few decades, apparently due to the fact that modern display systems
are capable of achieving resolutions that are nearer this limit than everbefore. Examination of many papers that employ this term reveals several
distinct definitions of ELR and a wide range of estimates of the pixel pitch
required to achieve it. Many authors simply assert that ELR corresponds with
20/20 vision which is produced with a pixel pitch of 1 arcmin and provide
no supporting discussion or citations. Others have explained that 1 arcmin is
the stroke and gap width for the symbols on Snellen acuity charts for 20/20
vision and conclude that a pixel pitch of one arcmin is required. Spencer(2013) concluded that image artifacts can be visible for pixel pitches finer
than 0.3 arcmin for images that have not been properly band-limited prior
to spatial sampling. Hopper (2000) and his colleagues have asserted thatthe human visual system is many orders of magnitude more capable thancurrent display technologies and conclude that a pixel pitch no larger than a
few arcSEC will improve warfighter productivity.

9470-15, Session 6

A neuroergonomic quasi-experiment:
Predictors of situation awareness anddisplay usability while performing complex
tasks
Steven D. Harbour, U.S. Air Force (United States); James C.
Christensen, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Situation awareness is the psychological ability to perceive information andact on it appropriately. This ability is central to human behavior, with boththeoretical and practical implications. Existing theoretical models explain
many aspects of situation awareness; however, the development of situation
awareness out of basic perceptual abilities is largely unexplored. Thisquantitative research examined basic neurocognitive factors including visualabilities and working memory in order to identify their specific contributions
to the formation of cognitive situation awareness, to in turn address thisgap in situation awareness (SA) theory that must be linked before progress
can be made. Aircraft piloting was used as a task where situation awarenessis critical; trained USAF pilots represent a relatively homogenous, alreadyexpert population that reduced nuisance variance. This study assessed
the predictive value of visual attentiveness (Va), perceptiveness (Vp), andspatial working memory (Vswm) as predictors of situation awareness inflight under varying task difficulty using repeated-measures comparisons.
Repeated-measures ANOVAs, (Pearson) correlation and linear multiple
regression modeling were used to assess the effects of the independent
variables (three visual abilities) on the dependent variable SA and theinteractions among the independent variables. The study participants were
19 C-27J pilots between the ages of 31 and 47, 1 female (6%) and 18 male(94%), selected from the Ohio Air National Guard. The IVA+ and N-backmeasure was administered to the participants prior to flight. In-flightsituation awareness was both objectively and subjectively assessed for 24
flights. At the completion of this field experiment the data was analyzed
and the tests were statistically significant for the three predictor visualabilities Vp, Va, and Vswm as task difficulty was varied, F(3,11) = 8.125, p= .008. In addition, multiple regression analyses revealed that the visualabilities together predicted a majority of the variance in situation awareness,
R2 = 0.753, p = .008. Moreover, the Pearson correlation results indicatedthat Vp (r[12] = -0.816, p = .001) had the strongest relationship of the threeneurocognitive factors for the overall flight. Post-Hoc hoc tests revealeda Cohen’s f^(2 )=3.05 yielding statistical power to be 0.98. This reveals
that possessing the ability to have perceptivity, to be insightful, and tohave discernment - to perceive that which is obscure, is most important.
Interestingly during high task difficulty Va (r[12] = -0.583, p = .023) had thestrongest correlation with SA, while during low task difficulty Vswm (r[12]= -0.634, p = .013) had the strongest correlation; this suggests that underhigh demand possessing the ability to concentrate and be devoted, to bedetailed, and responsive becomes the largest determinant. While under
low task demand responsiveness and insightfulness is less essential, thepilot seems to operate in an automatic manner only processing small bitsof information using working memory that is responsible for the spatial
orientation of one self and the environment. Allowing, Vswm to become
the largest determinant of SA by simply being exposed. This work results
in a significant addition and expansion to the existing theoretical model ofsituation awareness. There are practical implications as well, as this study
highlights the potential for improved cockpit design and enhancing training
by targeting attentional, perceptual, and visuospatial working memory
skill learning.

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Today the definitions and estimates of ELR vary wildly. Given that resolution
is a primary driver of the performance, cost, and complexity of militaryimaging systems, a practical definition and a defensible estimate of ELR
are needed.

9470-17, Session 6

Just noticeable color difference:
implications for display systems
Daniel D. Desjardins, Northrup Grumman (United States)
According to MIL-HDBK-87213, the goal in full color displays is to have thecolor primaries widely separated (per CIE chromaticity coordinates) and/or
provide filtering such that they will stay widely separated when exposed to,and mixed with, ambient light. Modern color displays boast of a phenomenal
number of colors, typically based on the number of luminance (gray) levels
per color sub-pixel raised to a power determined by the number of distinct
color sub-pixels. But what do various studies tell us regarding an observer’s
ability to discriminate color differences and how this varies across the visual
spectrum given the eye’s non-linear efficiency relative to wavelength?
Because display color should (“must” per the given handbook) be evaluatedto assure that it is fully usable and aesthetically acceptable, this paper shallreview existing studies regarding chrominance just noticeable differences to
identify and characterize the number and spread of colors that arehumanly perceivable.

9470-18, Session 7

Recent advances in OLED and flexible
displays and their potential for application
to aerospace and military display systems(Invited Paper)
Kalluri R. Sarma, Honeywell Technology (United States)
Organic light emitting diode (OLED) display technology has advanced
significantly in recent years and it is increasingly being adapted in consumer
electronics products with premium performance, such as smart phones,
Tablet PCs and TVs. Even flexible OLED displays are being commercializedin consumer electronic devices such as smart phones. In addition to display
media (I.e., OLED versus LCD), successful adoption of OLED displays forpremium performance applications depends on the advances in a host of
new enabling technologies including backplanes, pixel drive electronics,·

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Conference 9470A: Display Technologies andApplications for Defense, Security, and Avionics IX
pixel patterning technologies, encapsulation technologies and system levelengineering. In this paper we will discuss the impact of the recent advancesin LTPS and AOS TFTs, R, G, B and White OLED with color filter pixel
architectures, encapsulation and system level engineering on the successof the OLEDs in consumer electronic devices. We will then discuss potentialof these advances in addressing the requirements of OLED and flexible
displays for the military and avionic applications.

9470-19, Session 7

Flexible displays for military applications
Jason T. Holmstedt, Physical Optics Corp. (United States)
Flexible displays have the potential for improved durability whileaccommodating new form-factors not achievable using traditional flat glass
displays. This includes elimination of display fractures due to severe shockor impacts and the unique ability to conforming to arms or legs. As a result,flexible displays can be packaged with less mechanical protection thanglass liquid crystal display (LCD) counterparts, especially when consideringhigh pressure differential environments such as underwater applications. In
this paper Physical Optics Corporation (POC) reviews the current state ofcommercial flexible display technologies including electrophoretic displays(EPDs) and organic light emitting diode (OLED) displays. We discuss thetrade-offs of each in the context of wearable applications while addressing
the broader military need for flexible display technology. We present
POC’s flexible display system architecture including stand-alone battery
powered processing electronics, customized Android operating system,and demonstration packaging. Finally, we review the results of testing andevaluation of POC’s flexible displays systems including use under various
lighting conditions and with a variety of screen content ranging frommapping to tactical video feeds. We conclude with recommendations for
future display system enhancements and a roadmap for transitioning thetechnology for tactical applications.

9470-20, Session 8

Analog video to ARINC 818
Paul Grunwald, Great River Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates)

IST has addressed these issues by developing and reducing to practice thecritical technologies needed to integrate large-scale cross-seam electricalfunctionality into a variety of textile systems. These technologies form thebasis of IST’s SEWit (Selectively Enabled Wiring in Textiles) toolkit. The
product of over eight years of development, this toolkit is highly adaptable
and can be used with any woven fabric. All aspects of this toolkit, fromthe computer-aided design tools, to the conductive yarns, to the weaving
process, and the assembly and activation of the final product, involve little
or no alteration to established textile production methods. In many ways thedevelopment of this toolkit has paralleled that of the modern circuit board,and like the circuit board it will greatly streamline the development time andcost of all subsequent products. Using IST’s SEWit technology unobtrusiveelectrical networks can be created in a variety of textile products including
garments, plate carriers, backpacks and tents, without the need forconventional wires or cables. This change will eliminate the shortcomings
associated with previous e-textile and wearable-electronic products andreduce overall system bulk and weight. Using this technology IST is able
to develop textile products that do not simply support or accommodate a
network but are the network.

Interoperabilty, speaking the samelanguage via tactical data link systems
Erdem Hekimhan, Savas Ozkaynak, Turkish Air War
College (Turkey)

9470-21, Session 8

Electro-textile garments for power anddata distribution
Jeremiah Slade, Infoscitex Corp. (United States);
Carole Winterhalter, U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research,
Development and Engineering Ctr. (United States)
Historically, wearable electronic networks have been formed using either
wireless modules or cables. One of the principal drawbacks of purely
wireless networks is that they are typically not able to efficiently, securelyor discreetly transmit power and are therefore reliant on batteries to powereach device. Cables address this problem by enabling discreet point-topoint transmission of both power and data. However, most of these options

SPIE DSS 2015

The solution to these issues is to integrate the transmission media at the
fabric’s yarn level using conventional textile production processes andequipment. While the integration of electrically conductive media into
conventional broadloom fabrics is not entirely new, much of the work done
to-date has utilized materials that are so dissimilar from conventional yarns
that they significantly degrade the comfort and performance of the finishedproduct. Even more problematic is the fact that these conductive pathways
are lost when pattern pieces are cut and sewn together to form a garment.

9470-23, Session 8

Many aircraft, both commercial and military, are still using analog video
such as RS-170, RS-343, or STANEG 3350. Though the individual digitalcomponents many be inexpensive, the cost to certify and retrofit anentire older aircraft fleet may be prohibitively expensive. A partial or
incremental upgrade program where analog cameras remain in use but thedata is converted and processed digitally is a proven option. This paper
will describe Great River Technology’s experience in converting multiple
channels of RS-170 and multiplexing them through a concentrator to put
them on a single fiber. The paper will also discuss alternative architecturesand how ARINC 818 can be utilized with legacy systems.

196

are relatively bulky and can be difficult to integrate into textile products
without discomforting the wearer or creating snag hazards. They also
provide limited design flexibility in terms of where, and in which types ofgarments, they can be placed since they typically require that the integrator
route them through available channels in the garment such as inside seams
or between layers of fabric. The fundamental problem with these cabling
approaches is that even the most flexible and ergonomic transmission media
are inherently different from the fabric used to construct the garment andmust be applied either during or after garment assembly. Incorporationof the networks at these late stages of garment fabrication has been
repeatedly shown to produce a number of performance, comfort, andwearability problems.

·

Today, well improved technology and the knowledge ingredients ofthis technology has just given the name of this era. In the near futuretechnological researches and developments will form the bases of militaryand civil technological developments. The foundations of civil and militarytechnological developments depends on the information in shaping
precision, speed and accuracy, high reliability, real-time informationtransmission speed and to maintain the information securely. In addition toland, sea and air platforms there will be space and cyber platforms when
the operational environment of there future is imagined. These spaces
will change the aim of the war and military operation areas will becomea dynamic battlefield. To keep up with this pace, establishing common
operational picture through interoperability and the real-time/near-real timetransmission of this picture will change the course of operation. In order toincrease situational awareness of performing operation platforms required
to owned national use of information technology. The objective of Tactical
Data Link (TDL) Systems are real-time or near real-time data transmission
between friendlies, allies and the combined forces by C4ISR platforms andthe systems. This paper was written with in the framework of informationand data sharing needs. Tactical Data Link Systems which was developedin the early 1950s will be considered by technological developments, use
in operations, joint force dynamics improvements. In this context, Tactical
Data Link Systems, will be examined under the joint operations and central

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Conference 9470A: Display Technologies andApplications for Defense, Security, and Avionics IX

9470-39, Session 8

command via interoperability. Tactical Data Link Systems, which is a partof Network-Centric Warfare, are considered to be successful to today’s andtomorrow’s modern operations.

LCOS-based digital rifle scope display
William P. Bleha Jr., HOLOEYE Systems Inc. (UnitedStates); Paul L. Wisely, HOLOEYE Systems Inc. (United
Kingdom)

9470-24, Session 8

Can unmanned aerial vehicles radicallychange the border security?

A rifle scope with a compact digital integrated display based on highresolution reflective LCOS technology has been developed, allowing
information overlay in the direct view optic field. The HOLOEYE 0.37”
diagonal, HED 7200 microdisplay image source with a resolution of 1280
x 720 pixels has been incorporated into a high performance Night Force
Optics rifle scope. The system displays monochrome, hyper red, text andsymbology to provide the user clear, high contrast imagery from bright
daytime to dark nighttime conditions. The advantages of LCOS for thisapplication are: high contrast ratio (>500:1) so that there is no imaged redbox; high illumination efficiency due to the 60+% reflectivity of the LCOS
panel; and high brightness up to 8000 ftL for use in high ambient
light environments.

Abdullah Erkan, Turkish Air Force (Turkey)
In this study the utulization of UAV’s in border security is analysed and thecapabilities of available UAV’s are examined from a warfighter point of view.
It is concluded that, governments will revise their border security policies tochallenge drug dealers, arms and human trafficking, terrorist activities andillegal immigration and the combat proven UAV’s will increasingly be used inborder security.

9470-37, Session 8

Augmented reality: the applications ofaugmented reality in military area andmilitary schools

9470-40, Session 8

Isa Haskologlu, Kara Harp Okulu (Turkey); Mehmet Sisman,
Enes Erol, Turkish Military Academy (Turkey)

Adrian Miscovich, Haim Waksman, Adi Holzman,
Astronautics CA (Israel)

The development of a new custom 3 ATI
display

Recently, as a new technology, Augmented Reality is used in several aspectsof life, such as architecture, education, publishing, military, shopping,
medicine, social life, etc. In this paper, Augmented Reality and its application
fields are summarized, some new aspects are offered in using Augmented
Reality in military schools since the education of a soldier is ofgreat importance.

This paper presents the development, the challenges, the achievements andthe performance of a custom 3ATI Display Head Assembly (DHA) to be usedin avionic applications. The DHA includes a new custom LCD developed
specifically for this application, a new high performance backlight (NVIS
compatible) and the mechanical packaging of the DHA. Technologicalachievements are highlighted such as optical design to achieve low sunlightreflections, saturated colors even with NVIS compatibility and the design
to meet severe environmental conditions. The paper describes additional
important achievements such as low cost and very fast development time.
This development opens the door to the fast development of low cost DHAs
having any size and which meet avionic requirements.

9470-38, Session 8

Performance and lifetime enhancements tolegacy analog head up displays systems, inmilitary applications, through affordable
digital upgrades
William P. Bleha Jr., HOLOEYE Systems Inc. (UnitedStates); Paul L. Wisely, HOLOEYE Systems Inc. (United
Kingdom)
Large numbers of military aircraft that were designed and manufactured in
the last century remain in service today; world economics indicate that they
are unlikely to be replaced in the foreseeable future. As their avionic systems
age, in service support becomes increasingly expensive, hence ways need tobe identified to control and reduce these costs.
This paper describes an affordable approach to reducing the costs
associated with head up display pi-lots’ display units, through novel designconcepts; these concepts replace the cathode ray tubes and their associatedelectronics with an all-digital system that seamlessly interfaces, both
optically and electronically, with the legacy components of the HUD
display unit.
Though such schemes have been explored by several manufacturers in thepast, they have struggled to achieve an ideal solution that would enable
the HUDs to fully meet their original system design specifi-cations; thechallenges involved in achieving this goal are further discussed in this paper,and ap-proaches to realize the ideal solution described.

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Conference 9470B:
Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XX:
Design and Applications
Wednesday 22–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9470 Display Technologies and Applications for Defense, Security, andAvionics IX; and Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XX

9470-36, Session PSTue

9470-26, Session 9

Development of a helmet/helmet-displayunit alignment tool (HAT) for the Apachehelmet and display unit

The impact of human factors,
crashworthiness and optical performance
design requirements on helmet-mounted
display development from the 1970s to thepresent (Invited Paper)

William E. McLean, Jonathan K. Statz, Victor A Estes,
Shawn M Booms, John S Martin, Thomas H. Harding,
Clarence E. Rash, U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Lab.
(United States)
Program Manager (PM) Apache Block III, contacted the U.S. Army
Aeromedical Research Laboratory (USAARL) requesting assistance toevaluate and find solutions to a government developed Helmet Display Unit
(HDU) device, called the Mock HDU for helmet alignment of the Apache
Advanced Integrated Helmet (AAIH). The AAIH is a modified HGU-56/P
to replace the current Integrated Helmet and Sighting System (IHADSS).
The current flashlight based HDU simulator for helmet/HDU alignment
was no longer in production or available. Proper helmet/HDU alignment is
critical to position the right eye in the small HDU eye box to obtain imagealignment and full field of view (FOV). The initial approach of the PM todeveloping a helmet/HDU fitting device (Mock HDU) was to duplicate theoptical characteristics of the current tactical HDU using less complex optics.
However, the results produced questionable alignment, FOV and distortion
issues, with cost and development time overruns. After evaluating the Mock
HDU, the USAARL proposed a cost effective, less complex optical design
called the Helmet/HDU Alignment Tool (HAT). This poster will show thedevelopment, components, and evaluations of the HAT compared to thecurrent flashlight HDU simulator device. The laboratory evaluations included
FOV measurements and alignment accuracies compared to tactical HDUs.
The Apache helmet fitter technicians and Apache pilots compared the HAT
to the current flashlight based HDU and ranked the HAT superior.

9470-25, Session 9

A history of helmet mounted displays(Invited Paper)

In the blink of an eye: head mounted
displays development within BAE Systems(Invited Paper)

Helmet Mounted Displays (HMD) were introduced as simple sight in theMirage F1AZ by the South African Air Force to aid in the targeting of heatseeking missiles in the 1970s. In more than 40 years of development the
HMD has become an integral part of the pilot and soldier arsenal, proving
to be a key force multiplier and reducing user workload. Rockwell Collins
has been a key player in the development of modern Helmet Mounted
Display technology and currently is fielding 4 major HMDs supporting
pilots around the world. This paper will outline the history of HMDs over thelast 40 years for fixed wing, rotorcraft and soldiers. We will walk throughthe developments, and testing required for introduction of HMDs into themodern pilot environment. Within the paper we will point out some of the
misconceptions, facts and legends of HMDS. We will include impacts ofcommercial devices on the current military market. The paper will conclude
with our vision of a potential future for HMDs in the next 40 years.

SPIE DSS 2015

Driven by the operational needs of modern warfare, the helmet-mounted
display (HMD) has matured from a revolutionary, but impractical, WorldWar I era idea for an infantry marksman’s helmet-mounted weapon delivery
system to a sophisticated and ubiquitous display and targeting systemthat dominates current night warfighting operations. One of the mostdemanding applications for HMD designs has been in Army rotary-wing
aviation, where HMDs offer greater direct access to visual informationand increased situational awareness in an operational environment where
information availability is critical on a second-to-second basis. However,
over the past 40 years of extensive HMD development, a myriad of humanfactors, crashworthiness, ergonomic, and image quality issues have both
frustrated and challenged designers. While it may be difficult to attain a fullconsensus on which are the most important HMD design factors, certainly
head-supported weight, exit pupil size, field-of-view, image resolution andphysical eye relief have been among the most critical. A confounding factor
has been the interrelationship between the many design factors, such as
early attempts to use non-glass optical elements to lower head-supported
weight, but at the cost of image quality. This paper traces how the role ofthe demanding performance requirements placed on HMDs by the Armyaviation community has impacted the progress of HMD designs towards theHoly Grail of HMD design: a wide field-of-view, high resolution, binocular, fullcolor, totally crashworthy system.

9470-27, Session 9

Bobby D. Foote, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States);
James E. Melzer, Rockwell Collins Optronics (UnitedStates)

198

Thomas H. Harding, Clarence E. Rash, William E. McLean,
John S. Martin, U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Lab.
(United States)·

Alexander A. Cameron, BAE Systems (United Kingdom)
There has been an explosion of interest in head worn displays in recent
years, particular for consumer applications with an attendant ramping up
of investment into key enabling technologies to provide what is essence a
mobile computer display. However, head mounted system have been aroundfor over 40 years and today’s consumer products are building on a legacyof knowledge and technology created by companies such as BAE Systems
who have been designing and fielding helmet mounted displays (HMD) fora wide range of specialist applications. Although the dominant application
area has been military aviation, solutions have been fielded for solider,ground vehicle, simulation, medical, racing car and even subsea
navigation applications.
What sets these HMDs apart is that they provide the user with accurate
conformal information embedded in the users real world view where theinformation presented is intuitive and easy to use because it overlays thereal world and enables them to stay head up, eyes out, - improving theireffectiveness, reducing workload and improving safety.

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Conference 9470B: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XX:
Design and Applications
Such systems are an enabling technology in the provision of enhanced
Situation Awareness (SA) and reducing user workload in high intensity
situations. Safety Is Key; so the addition of these HMD functions cannot
detract from the protection functions of helmets which may also include life
support and audio communications. Their development embraces a wide
range of technologies and design know how so the developed of successful
HMDs embrace an exotic mix of technologies and capabilities ranging fromoptical system and display technology, image processing, helmet tracking,human factors, physical protection, information management, audio
communications, night vision sensors and many others.

with airplane equipage of a HUD or an “equivalent”’ display combinedwith Enhanced Vision (EV). If successful, a HWD may provide the same
safety and operational benefits as current HUD-equipped aircraft but forsignificantly more aircraft in which HUD installation is neither practicalnor possible. A flight test was conducted to evaluate if the HWD, coupledwith a head-tracker, can provide an equivalent display to a HUD. Approachand taxi testing was performed on board NASA’s experimental King Air
aircraft in simulated IMC conditions. Analysis of HWD performance and pilotcomments will be discussed.

These capabilities are finding much wider application in new types ofcompact man mounted audio/visual products enabled by the emergenceof new families of micro displays, novel optical concepts and ultra-compact
low power processing solutions. This paper therefore provides a summaryof BAE Systems journey in developing and fielding Head Mounted systems,
their applications and the key enabling technologies. It also attempts tolook forward to provide a vision on the future for head worn system theircapabilities and applications.

9470-30, Session 10

Dynamic registration of an optical seethrough HMD into a wide field-of-view
rotorcraft flight simulation environment
Franz Viertler, Manfred Hajek, Technische Univ. München(Germany)

9470-28, Session 9

To overcome the challenge of helicopter flight in degraded visualenvironment current research considers head-mounted displays with
3D-conformal (scene-linked) visual cues as most promising display
technology. For pilot-in-the-loop simulations with HMDs a highly accurate
registration of the augmented visual system is required. In rotorcraft flight
simulators the outside visual cues are usually provided by a dome projection
system, since a wide field-of-view (e.g. horizontally > 200° and vertically> 80°) is required, which can rarely be achieved with collimated viewing
systems. But optical see-through HMDs mostly do not have an equivalentfocus compared to the distance of the pilot’s eye-point position to thecurved screen, which is also dependant on head motion. Hence a dynamic
vergence correction has been implemented to avoid binocular disparity. In
addition, the parallax error induced by even small translational head motions
is corrected with a head-tracking system to be adjusted onto the projected
screen. For this purpose two options are presented. The correction can beachieved by rendering the view with yaw and pitch offset angles dependanton the deviating head position from the design eye-point of the sphericalprojection system. Furthermore it can be solved by implementing a dynamic
eye-point in the multi-channel projection system for the outside visualcues. Both options have been investigated for the integration of a binocular
HMD into the Rotorcraft Simulation Environment (ROSIE) at the Technische
Universitaet Muenchen. Pros and cons of both possibilities with regard to
integration issues and usability in flight simulations will be discussed.

A review of head-worn display researchat NASA Langley Research Center (Invited
Paper)
Jarvis J. Arthur III, Randall E. Bailey, Steven P. Williams,
Lawrence J. Prinzel III, Kevin J. Shelton, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States); Denise R Jones, NASA
Langley Research Ctr (United States); Vincent E. Houston,NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
NASA Langley has conducted research in the area of helmet-mounted/
head-worn displays over the past 20 years. Though military aviators haveextensive experience in helmet-mounted displays, a helmet is untenable
for commercial operations. Initially, NASA Langley’s research focused onmilitary applications, but recently has conducted a line of research in thearea of head-worn displays for commercial and business aircraft. This work
has revolved around several simulation experiments as well as flight tests
to develop technology and data for industry and regulatory guidance. The
research lends credence that a small, sunglasses-type form factor of thehead-worn display would be acceptable to commercial pilots. The research
further suggests that a small, light head-worn display may serve as an“equivalent” head-up display (HUD) with safety, operational, and costbenefits. The present paper shall summarize the results of NASA’s helmetmounted/head-worn display research and discuss future research directions.
Of note, the work will track progress in wearable collimated optics, withimproved head tracking, reduced latency, and lighter weight, whereby, asunglasses form-factor is becoming technologically feasible.

9470-31, Session 10

Visibility of monocular symbology intransparent head-mounted display
applications
Marc Winterbottom, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine(United States); Robert Patterson, 711 HPW/RHX(United States); Byron Pierce, Certified Human Factors
Professional (United States); James Gaska, Steven Hadley,
USAF School of Aerospace Medicine (United States)

9470-29, Session 10

Flight test of a head-worn display as anequivalent-HUD for terminal operations
Kevin J. Shelton, Jarvis J. Arthur III, Lawrence J. Prinzel III,Stephanie N. Nicholas, Steven P. Williams, Randall E. Bailey,NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

With increased reliance on head-mounted displays (HMDs), such as with
the JHMCS and F-35 HMDS, research concerning factors affecting visualperformance has also increased in importance. Although monocular HMDs
have been used successfully for many years, a number of authors havereported significant problems with their use. Certain problems have been
attributed to binocular rivalry when differing imagery is presented to thetwo eyes.

Research, development, test, and evaluation of flight deck interface
technologies is being conducted by NASA to proactively identify, develop,
and mature tools, methods, and technologies for improving overall
aircraft safety of new and legacy vehicles operating in Next Generation
Air Transportation System (NextGen). Under the Vehicle Systems Safety
Technologies (VSST) project in the Aviation Safety Program, one specificarea of research is the use of small Head-Worn Displays (HWDs) as anequivalent display to a Head-up Display (HUD). Title 14 of the US CFR
91.175 describes a possible operational credit which can be obtained

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With binocular rivalry, the visibility of the images in the two eyes fluctuates,with one eye’s view becoming dominant, and thus visible, while the othereye’s view is suppressed, which alternates over time. Rivalry is almost
certainly created when viewing an occluding monocular HMD with one
eye while the other eye views a real-world scene. For semi-transparent·

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Conference 9470B: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XX:
Design and Applications

9470-33, Session 11

monocular HMDs, however, much of the scene is binocularly fused, withadditional imagery superimposed in one eye. Binocular fusion is generally
thought to prevent rivalry.
The present study was designed to investigate differences in visibility
between monocularly- and binocularly-presented symbology at varying
levels of contrast, and while viewing simulated flight over terrain at various
speeds. Visibility was estimated by measuring the time required to identify
a test probe (tumbling E) embedded within other static symbology. Results
indicated that there were large individual differences, but that visibility ofthe target decreased with increased speed or decreased contrast undermonocular viewing relative to binocular viewing conditions. These results
provide a starting-point for further research at USAFSAM concerning visualperformance with the use of HMDs such as the JHMCS and F-35 HMDS.

9470-32, Session 10

Visual fatigue induced by opticalmisalignment in binocular devices:
application to night vision binoculardevicesHead and helmet-mounted displays utilize pixels to display a digitizedapproximation of the real world. The resolution of the source imagery
and the head / helmet-mounted display determines how well the image
approximates reality. Head and helmet-mounted displays must have ahigher pixel density (as compared to a monitor or projected image) tocreate the same level of perceived resolution. This paper proposes a virtual
pixel technology which incorporates a mechanism to allow multiple adjacentpixels to be aggregated both spatially and temporally to create a higher
resolution output from the head/helmet-mount display. This allows current
display pixel density levels to produce a higher effective resulting resolution.

This technique requires a hardware-software system, which is presented inthis paper. It begins by providing an overview of the proposed technology. Itthen discusses its application of the base technology to head and helmetmounted displays. Finally, it concludes with a discussion of how to advancethe technology’s development.

The additional and perhaps unnatural eye-movements required to fusebinocular images that are misaligned can lead to visual fatigue anddecreased task performance. The eyes have some tolerance to opticalmisalignment. However, a survey of scientific literature reveals a wide
range of recommended tolerances but offers little supporting experimental
evidence. Most experimental studies are based on small numbers ofparticipants exposed to brief periods of optical misalignment. Therefore
these published tolerance limits might have limited relevance for longduration exposure to misaligned binocular devices.

9470-34, Session 11

Polymer prisms for head hounted opticalsystems
Dave Schmidt, Howard Wong, Robert Benson, Rochester
Precision Optics, LLC (United States)

Prolonged use of binocular devices may cause visual fatigue irrespectiveof binocular alignment. This study attempts to identify measures mostsensitive to misalignment in order to establish relevant tolerance limits.
Firstly, we developed a rugged and deployable test bench that can measurebinocular alignment with a reproducibility error of less than one arcminute.
The bench was used to identify and investigate major factors affecting thestability of the optical misalignment over time. Our results indicated that the
optical misalignment of a given device changed over time as a function of
the operational usage and thermal history of the device.
Secondly, participants were exposed to experimentally controlled levelsof optical misalignment typical of those measured on in-service binocularnight vision devices. The visual fatigue of each participant was assessed via
a set of oculomotor parameters. The oculomotor parameters showing highsensitivity to optical misalignment were compared for subjects exposed
to extended periods of misalignment in a baseline reading task and a taskusing an actual night vision device.

SPIE DSS 2015

Benjamin M. Kading, Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota(United States)

This technology begins with a video source sending a signal to the head /helmet-mounted display device that exceeds the hardware display fidelity.
The signal is pre-processed by an internal processing unit which is aware of
the virtual pixel creation function. This pre-processor creates a series of pixel
configurations to be displayed at a refresh rate higher than the target frame
rate. Each physical pixel’s configuration is determined from the weighted
average of the virtual pixels that it contributes to.

Maria Gavrilescu, Defence Science and Technology
Organisation (Australia); Josephine Battista, Michael R.
Ibbotson, National Vision Research Institute (Australia);
Peter Gibbs, Defence Science and Technology
Organisation (Australia)

200

Enhancing head and helmet-mounted
displays using a virtual pixel technology·

Prisms are commonly used in in head mounted displays as image combiners
and mirrors. Reduction of weight is of paramount importance in thesedevices. Polymer materials are ideal for the reduction of weight. In addition,
the complexity in the optical and mechanical design of these systems canbe reduced via the use of curved, even free form aspheric, optical surfaces
and integral mounting features that are part of the prism. While polymer
materials reduce weight, reduce complexity and may be produced at very
low cost when the production volume is large, they do not have the internal
optical quality of glass. Also the quality of the optical surfaces may suffer
in comparison with conventionally polished glass optics. In this paper the
relative merits of the available materials, optical design opportunities,
mechanical mounting concepts and manufacturing approaches are
discussed. For the material properties, the refractive index homogeneity andenvironmental durability of the various polymers are discussed in relation to
the selection of an appropriate polymer for the particular application. The
notion of a balance of properties in polymer selection will be presented. For
manufacturing the relative advantages and disadvantages of single point
diamond turning and injection molding are discussed. Some results from
actual prisms will be given.

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Conference 9470B: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XX:
Design and Applications

9470-35, Session 12

The impact of coloured symbology on
cockpit eyes-out display effectiveness: asurvey of key parameters
Maha Fares, Derek R. Jordan, BAE Systems (United
Kingdom)Colour is becoming a baseline requirement in the avionic displays market.
Implemented for decades in Head Down Displays (HDD), it is thought toenhance Situational Awareness and minimise errors in decision making. Even
though a wide colour gamut can be achieved in eyes-out display devices,
its application and its usefulness for symbology effectiveness remains
debatable. Reconciling these two issues would significantly improve thestandardisation of eyes-out displays, enhancing safety while reducing costsof ownership.
However, designing a robust set of colour symbology, for all eyes-out
display types and in all conditions of operation - in particular Degraded
Visual Environments (DVE) - is less straightforward than in HDD. In fact, thetransparency dimension of the display can cause a divergence between theintent of the coloured symbology and its recognition/discrimination by theuser.
The effectiveness of colour as an attention getter and the associated design
constraints for real situations are investigated. This report summarises themain features to take into account when assigning colour to an eyes-out
display, including a discussion on the Green/Amber/Red code. The approachsuggested aims at developing a model that uses colour symbology
effectively in both the aircraft space- and time- frames simultaneously.
In colour eyes-out displays, mission performance is clearly dependent on:- Display transparency- Information categorisation- Colour perception by the pilot
The interaction between these elements is key to designing a coherent setof colour design rules and the paper ends with a set of recommendations
for good practice in eyes-out symbology design.

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201

Conference 9471: Degraded Visual Environments:
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 2015
Tuesday 21–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9471 Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced, Synthetic, and External
Vision Solutions 2015

9471-1, Session 1

Subjective evaluation of a prototype nightvision goggle
Gregory J. Hardy, The Boeing Co. (United States); Bobby
D. Foote, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States)
ABSTRACT: Digital Night Vision sensor technology has the potential toprovide significant new night vision capabilities for military aviators. Before
new capabilities can fielded, however, the combined sensor-processordisplay chain must achieve a level of night vision performance on-parwith current-generation photo-multiplier tube (PMT) -based night vision
goggles across the entire range of lighting conditions. This paper provides
an overview of Rockwell Collins’s ISIE-11 based Digital Night Vision Goggle(DNVG) intended to eventually replace traditional PMT goggles in a varietyof military aviation and infantry applications. It also reports on an initialseries of evaluations performed by Boeing aircrew in laboratory and flightenvironments. Laboratory lighting levels ranged from “overcast starlight”
to “full moon”, and airborne evaluations in a light aircraft were conductedunder “starlight” and “half-moon” conditions at a realistic tactical altitude.
Each evaluation provided a direct, subjective comparison between a modern
PMT NVG and the DNVG prototype. The paper concludes with a general
discussion of future capabilities that are enabled on a DNVG platform.

9471-3, Session 1

Passive real-time millimeter wave
imaging for degraded visual environment
mitigation

This paper discusses the optical testing and imaging performance of the
improved passive mm-wave imager design for use in degraded visualenvironments for base security and helicopter navigation reported in the2014 conference.
The testing regime starts with optical component testing, to show whether
each optical component conforms to its specification, and predict what
effect each component will have on system performance. The testing
described includes metrology of surface profiles, measurements of loss foreach component, measurements of point spread functions and encircled
energy of each component with optical power, and measurements ofpolarising efficiency on the polarising material and quarter–wave plate usedin the system. The performance of the receivers is also measured in terms ofnoise equivalent temperature difference, frequency response and receiver
feed horn beam pattern. Also described is the design of two corrector test
lenses which allow either imager component with optical power to forma sharp image without the presence of the other component, and thus betested individually.
Testing of the full optics is described, both using a single scanned receiverand later the full receiver array. The former gives better sampled point
spread functions; the latter better represents the full system. The loss,
effective aperture, field of view, depth of field, narcissus, thermal and fixedpattern noise are also measured. Iterative methods to set the tolerancecompensation and optimise the scan conversion look up tables
are described.
Finally testing of the system imaging performance on bar targets and simple
scenes is described.

Thomas E. Dillon, Christopher A. Schuetz, Richard D.
Martin, Daniel G. Mackrides, Charles Harrity, Phase
Sensitive Innovations, Inc. (United States); Dennis W.
Prather, Univ. of Delaware (United States)

9471-5, Session 1

Degraded visual environments create life-threatening situations for aircraft
pilots due to loss of ground reference, which can result in accidents during
navigation or landing. Imaging in millimeter wave spectral bands presents
the opportunity to maintain pilot’s situational awareness despite DVE.
Millimeter waves suffer low atmospheric attenuation as well as minimal
scattering loss due to airborne particulates, e.g. blowing sand, dust,
fog, and other visual obscurants. As such, Phase Sensitive Innovations
has developed a passive, real-time mmW imager to address brown-out
situations for rotorcraft. Our imager is based on a distributed aperture arraywith conversion of detected RF signals to optical frequencies for processing
and image formation. Recently we performed operationally representative
field testing of our sensor while imaging various natural and man-madeobjects. We will present the results of these tests as they demonstrate thephenomenology encountered in this spectrum as well as the capabilities of
our imaging technology.

LandSafe precision flight instrumentation
system for rotorcraft operations indegraded environments
Pri Mamidipudi, Elizabeth Dakin, Optical Air Data Systems,
LLC (United States)
Helicopter hover, landing, and take-off operations in darkness, dust, fog,
rain, snow, and high winds is an integral part of military and commercial
flight operations. OADS has developed and flight-tested a standalone LDVbased optical sensor suite capable of precisely measuring and reportingheight above ground, groundspeed, ground drift, and air data at an FCS
capable data rate from a helicopter platform under all environmental
conditions. Details about the sensor and recent flight test results frommultiple platforms will be presented.

9471-7, Session 2

9471-4, Session 1

Three-dimensional landing zone joint
capability technology demonstration
results

Testing of an improved passive millimeterwave imager for degraded visualenvironments applications

James C. Savage, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Colin D. Cameron, Rupert N. Anderton, QinetiQ Ltd.
(United Kingdom); John N. Sanders-Reed, The Boeing Co.

202(United States); Dennis J. Yelton, Boeing-SVS, Inc. (UnitedStates); Gordon N. Sinclair, James G. Burnett, Philip J.
Kent, QinetiQ Ltd. (United Kingdom); Jeff J. Güell, The
Boeing Co. (United States)

SPIE DSS 2015·

The Three-Dimensional Landing Zone (3D-LZ) Joint Capability Technology
Demonstration (JCTD) was a United States Central Command sponsored

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Conference 9471: Degraded Visual Environments:
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 2015
dust artefacts out of the collected 3D data in real-time was employed. The
results proved that this ladar sensor is capable to detect obstacles throughbrownout dust clouds with a depth extending up to 300 meters from thelanding helicopter.

27-month technology development program to develop an integrated
Ladar and FLIR capability upgrade for the US Air Force Combat Searchand Rescue (CSAR) HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters through a retrofit of
the current AN/AAQ-29 FLIR turret systems. The 3D-LZ JCTD built upon ahistory of LADAR technology development programs for brownout. While
preserving legacy FLIR capability, 3D-LZ will integrate a high-resolution,
imaging LADAR to address helicopter approach and landing in degradedvisual environments with emphasis on brownout; cable warning andobstacle avoidance; and controlled flight into terrain via Helicopter Terrain
Awareness and Warning System (HTAWS). The LADAR subsystem provides
real-time geo-referencing, dust rejection and penetration, automatic cableand obstacle detection and warning, fusion of real-time LADAR data with aterrain database, and visual/audible aircrew warnings for terrain avoidance.
This paper summarizes the significant ladar technology development
milestones leading to the JCTD, describes the LADAR and associatedtechnologies within 3D-LZ, and summarizes the results of the flight testing
conducted at Yuma Proving Ground in 2014.

9471-10, Session 2

DVE flight test results of a sensor
enhanced 3D conformal pilot support
systemThomas R Muensterer, Philipp Voelschow, Bernhard Singer,
Michael Strobel, Patrick Kramper, Airbus Defence andSpace (Germany)
The paper presents results and findings of flight tests of the Airbus
Defence and Space DVE system SFERION performed at Yuma Proving
Grounds. During the flight tests ladar information was fused with a priori
DB knowledge in realtime and 3D conformal symbology was generated
for display on an HMD. The test flights included low level flights as well as
numerous brownout landings.

9471-8, Session 2

An investigation in processing techniques
for sidelobe suppression in millimeterwave DVE radars for imagery

9471-11, Session 3

Janeen Winne, U.S. Army Communications-Electronics
Research Development and Engineering Command(United States); Antoinette Beasley, Lee Moyer, EOIRTechnologies (United States)

Fusion of synthetic and live imagery in a
two view domain
Larry Schaffer, GE Intelligent Platforms (United States)

Degraded visual environment (DVE) conditions, such as dust, snow, andsmog, increase the susceptibility of rotary winged aircraft to crashes dueto the pilot’s inability to properly detect objects, other aircraft, cables,
and terrain that pose a threat when flying or landing. As such, DVE andapplicable solutions have been a focus of various military programs in the
Army. These solutions often include multifunction sensor technology, thefusing of sensor and terrain database data, navigation solutions, and 2D and3D synthetic visualization. The use of mmW radar has been shown to be avaluable part of the sensor solution in a DVE environment, as it enhances
pilot situational awareness in all DVE conditions and provides additional
functionality such as the detection of moving targets at significant standoff
ranges. However, real beam imaging using mmW radar sensors often results
in an image that is not intuitive for pilotage. This paper focuses on the useof a W-band mmW radar sensor, which is known to suffer from high azimuthand elevation sidelobes operating in DVE mode in an operationally relevant
environment, and investigates data post-processing techniques that canbe applied to collected sensor data for improved sensor performance. The
investigation will apply a simplified, one-dimensional version of the CLEAN
algorithm to the data in azimuth and in elevation to study the improvement
offered when utilizing sidelobe suppression techniques with the goal of
improving radar imaging for pilotage.

The paper examines the considerations required when merging video ofdifferent formats, resolutions, FoVs and PoVs, particularly when Steered
sensors are employed with HMDs. Adaptive Fusion methodology is
discussed and representations of resulting visualizations are presented.

9471-12, Session 3

Data Fusion for a DVE Solution
Noah Baird, Michael Crisafulli, ENSCO Avionics, Inc.
(United States)
An effective Degraded Visual Environment (DVE) solution integrates anddisplays data from a number of complimentary sources. The visualization
backbone is a Synthetic Vision System (SVS) using an up-to-date synthetic
terrain database with high resolution elevation data for the immediate
DVE area, enhanced by recent high-resolution photo imagery of the area
draped over the 3D terrain. Effectiveness is further enhanced by displaying
3D structure and vegetation models derived from on-board sources suchas cultural features and obstacle databases, or in real-time from off-board
sources such as data linked traffic and reconnaissance or forward-observerreports. The full solution incorporates real-time sensor data processed to
identify vertical obstacles (such as towers), horizontal obstacles (wires),and three-dimensional obstacles (buildings), positioned on the synthetic
terrain in their detected positions. The sensors may be on board the aircraft,
but such interpreted data may also be relayed from a remote source thatis viewing the DVE area. Actual sensor imagery can be merged with thesynthetic view so that the sensor imagery and underlying SVS terrain
are viewed together. Lastly, how the fused data is presented affects theaircrew’s ability to intuitively grasp the situation in the DVE area. An external
wingman view shows the situation all around the aircraft rather than just in
front. When the SVS is integrated with a helmet-mounted display system, it
is possible to provide virtual “x-ray” vision by providing the fused synthetic
view even when the actual view is obscured by the airframe.

9471-9, Session 2

Flight test results of ladar brownout lookthrough capability
Stephen Stelmash, Fairchild Controls Corp. (UnitedStates); Thomas R. Muensterer, Patrick Kramper, Christian
Samuelis, Daniel Buehler, Matthias Wegner, Airbus Defence
and Space (Germany); Sagar Sheth, Ferchau Engineering(Germany)
The paper discusses recent results of flight tests performed with the Airbus
Defence and Space ladar system at Yuma Proving Grounds. The ladar under
test was the SferiSense® system which is in operational use as an in-flightobstacle warning and avoidance system on the NH90 transport helicopter.
Just minor modifications were done on the sensor firmware to optimize its
performance in brownout. Also a new filtering algorithm fitted to segment

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203Conference 9471: Degraded Visual Environments:
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 2015

9471-13, Session 39471-16, Session 4

Is OpenSceneGraph an option for ESVS
displays?

Introduction of a 3D perspective view inthe navigation display: featuring pilot’s
mental model

Niklas Peinecke, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany)
Modern Enhanced and Synthetic Vision Systems (ESVS) usually incorporate
complex 3D displays, for example, terrain visualizations with color-coded
altitude, obstacle representations that change their level of detail basedon distance, semi-transparent overlyays, dynamic labels, etc. All of theseelements can be conviniently implemented by using a modern scene graphimplementation. OpenSceneGraph (OSG) offers such a data structure.
Furthermore, OSG includes a broad support for industry-standard fileformats, so that 3D data and models from other applications can be used.
OSG has a large user community and is driven by open source development
thus a selection of visualization techniques is available and often solutions
for common problems can be found easily in the communities discussion
groups. On the other side, documentation is sometimes out-dated or nonexisting. We investigate which ESVS applications can be realized using OSG
and on which platforms this is possible. Furthermore, we take a look attechnical and legal limitations.

9471-14, Session 3

Combining IR imagery and 3D lidar-based
symbology for a helicopter DVE support
Thomas R. Muensterer, Martin J. Kress, Airbus Defence andSpace (Germany); Mark C. Lupton, Graham Passey, SELEX
ES (United Kingdom); Dennis Fadljevic, Airbus Defence
and Space (Germany); Tony Lamb, SELEX ES (United
Kingdom)This paper describes the results of an HMI development and ground tests
related to the combination of a distributed aperture imagery with a lidar
based fused 3D symbology. The combined system was evaluated in asimulator environment and on a vehicle based ground demonstrator for its
capability to significantly mitigate DVE conditions, especially night level 5.

Synthetic vision systems (SVS) appear as spreading technology in theavionic domain. Several studies prove enhanced situational awarenesswhen using synthetic vision. Since the introduction of synthetic vision (SV)
aspects a steady change and evolution started concerning the primary flight
display (PFD) and the navigation display (ND). The main improvementsof the ND comprise the representation of the colored ground proximity
warning (EGPWS), the weather radar, and the TCAS information. Before theintegration into one multi-purpose display those safety critical systems havebeen scattered standalone systems in earlier avionics systems. Synthetic
vision seems to offer high potential to further enhance cockpit display
systems. Especially, concerning the current trend having a 3D perspective
view in a SVS-PFD while leaving the navigational content as well as methodsof interaction unchanged the question arouses if and how the gap between
both displays might evolve to a serious problem. This issue becomes
important in relation to the transition and combination of strategic andtactical flight guidance. Hence, pros and cons of 2D and 3D views generally
as well as the gap between the egocentric perspective 3D view of the PFD
and the exocentric 2D top and side view of the ND will be discussed. Further
a concept for the integration of a 3D perspective view, i.e., bird’s eye view, insynthetic vision ND will be presented. The combination of 2D and 3D viewsin the ND enables a better correlation of the SVS-ND and the SVS-PFD.
Different views will show what the pilot will see in future outside and the
SVS-PFD. Additionally, this supports the generation of pilots mental model. The authors believe it will improve the situational and spatial awarenessduring all flight regimes. It might prove to further raise the safety marginwhen operating in mountain areas.

9471-17, Session 4

Drift indication for helicopter approachand landing
Sven Schmerwitz, Patrizia M. Knabl, Thomas Lueken,
Hans-Ullrich Doehler, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany)

9471-15, Session 3

Seamless situational awarenessHoward W. Wiebold, Honeywell (United States)
The focus is providing pilots an edge in high-density, low-visibility
operations. Of primary interest are taxi, takeoff, approach and landing
operations, for which Honeywell is increasingly using designs that transformcomputationally intensive tasks into visually simple graphical solutions withdisplays and symbology that communicate directly with the visual cortex of
the brain. The idea is to eliminate mental calculations that can delay action
or prompt the wrong response.
The software suite includes prototype Primus Epic software, including 2-D
and 3-D airport moving maps (AMM), cockpit display of traffic information(CDTI), Synthetic Visions Guidance System (SVGS) and a combinedsynthetic and infrared-based enhanced vision system (CVS). Applications
will be available as options for the entire Primus Epic-based cockpits fleet assoon as 2016.
The approach is being tested in both commercial fixed wing aircraft androtorcraft with plans for insertion into military rotorcraft. The combinedsynthetic vision system was the foundation for Honeywell’s Synthetic Vision
Avionics Backbone (SVAB) effort as part of the recently completed DARPA
Multi-Function RF (MFRF) Technical Area 2.

204

Lars Ebrecht, Sven Schmerwitz, Deutsches Zentrum für
Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany)

SPIE DSS 2015·

Helicopter operations require a well-controlled and minimal lateral drift
shortly before ground contact. Any lateral speed exceeding this small
threshold can cause a dangerous momentum around the roll axis, which
may cause a total roll over of the helicopter. As long as pilots can observe
visual cues from the ground, they are able to easily control the helicopter
drift. But whenever natural vision is reduced or even obscured, e.g. due
to night, fog, or dust, this controllability diminishes. Therefore helicopter
operators could benefit from some type of “drift indication” that mitigates
the influence of a degraded visual environment.
With continuous technology advancement helmet-mounted displays (HMD)
will soon become a spreading technology. At the present state those HMDs
are still expensive and are mostly reserved for special military operations.
The symbol sets implemented are designed for very specialized staff andagain special missions. Investigating some of those symbol sets revealed
that lateral drift indication doesn’t live for what it promises.
Generally humans derive ego motion by the perceived environmental
object flow. To enhance this perception a pattern motion was implemented
in a conformal HMD symbol set which amplifies the measured own ship
movement. The paper presents results from an experimental study with 18
pilots from civil and military operators. In this study the forward landingzone border was replaced by an animated dashed line for indicating theamplified ego motion.

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Conference 9471: Degraded Visual Environments:
Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 2015

9471-18, Session 49471-20, Session 5

Virtual aircraft-fixed cockpit instruments

Sensor modeling for precision ship-relative
navigation in degraded visual environment
conditions

Hans-Ullrich Doehler, Johannes M. Ernst, Thomas
Lueken, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
(Germany)

Sanjiv Singh, Gary W. Sherwin, Regis M. Hoffman,
Near Earth Autonomy, Inc. (United States); Benjamin
P. Grocholsky, Volker Grabe, Samuel Nalbone, Lyle
Chamberlain, Spencer Spiker, Near Earth Autonomy, Inc.
(United States); Marcel Bergerman, Near Earth Autonomy,
Inc. (United States); Colin H. Wilkinson, David Findlay,
Naval Air Systems Command (United States)

The availability of new technologies for helmet- and head mounted displays
facilitates the design of innovative cockpit layouts like a completely virtual
flight deck. After the introduction of the so-called “glass cockpit”, where
formerly mechanical instruments have been converted digitally onto large
panel screens, the virtual flight deck could be the logical next step into the
future. Obviously, such a concept will save installation cost of conventional
display hardware. Furthermore, and probably of greater importance,stressful and time-consuming accommodation changes for the pilots’ eyes
between outside- and inside-view can be avoided.

Unmanned aerial vehicles will soon become an integral part of the US
Navy’s operations, requiring these vehicles to be capable of taking off fromand landing on ships at sea. Precision ship-relative navigation (PS-RN) in
degraded visual environment conditions, possibly in the absence of GPS, isa key enabling technology to realize this capability. This paper describes theexperimental modeling of vision and range sensors, including visible and IR
cameras, scanning and flash lidar, and radar, with the ultimate purpose ofdeveloping sensor filtering techniques for the PS-RN problem. The sensors
are modeled by (1) imaging a collection of standard targets and a scale ship
deck under quantitatively measured, outdoor environmental conditions(clear, fog, rain, snow, etc.), (2) recording each sensor’s response to thetargets, and (3) determining each sensor’s performance in the various
conditions tested. The paper also describes the physical and software
infrastructure of targets and ship deck built to support the modeling work,and directions for future work.

During the last months we have developed a concept for virtual cockpit
instrumentation. Our implementation is based onto the “looking-through”
JEDEYE™ monochrome green HMD, which offers a resolution of more than
HD-TV, good enough to show detailed information as on presently installed
head-down instruments. Our approach augments our latest “3D helicopter
landing symbol format” with some basic virtual instruments (PFD, ND,
knee-board) in the near field of the cockpit environment in “no-window”
areas. Besides, we have implemented a “drag and drop” mechanism, whichenables pilots to arrange instrumentation on their personal preference. Tests
in our Generic Cockpit Simulator (GECO) are currently conducted. As firstpilots’ feedback show, our concept offers a great potential to be introduced
into the future flight deck.
The contribution describes the basic principle of our approach and presents
first pilots’ feedback.

9471-21, Session 59471-19, Session 4

Real-time processing of dual-band
HD video for maintaining operational
effectiveness in degraded visualenvironments

HMI aspects of the usage of ladar 3D datain pilot DVE support systems
Thomas R Muensterer, Philipp Voelschow, Bernhard Singer,
Michael Strobel, Patrick Kramper, Daniel Buehler, Airbus
Defence and Space (Germany)

Steve C. J. Parker, Duncan Hickman, RFEL Ltd. (United
Kingdom); Moira I. Smith, Tektonex Ltd. (United Kingdom)

The paper discusses specifics of high resolution 3D sensor systems
employed in helicopter DVE support systems and the consequences forthe resulting HMI. 3D sensors have a number of specifics making them acornerstone for helicopter pilot support or pilotage systems intended foruse in DVE. Retrieving the depth information gives specific advantages over
2D imagers. On the other hand certain technology and physics inherent
specifics require a more elaborate visualization procedure compared to 2D
image visualization. The goal of all displayed information has to be to reduce
pilots workload in DVE operations. Therefore especially for displaying theprocessed information on an HMD as 3D conformal data requires thoroughHMI considerations.

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Effective reconnaissance, surveillance and situation awareness requires thatsalient features from dual band video are enhanced and presented to theuser in a familiar manner. An optimum solution must consider the humanvisual requirement, while choosing signal processing algorithms that can be
implemented efficiently. The resulting system must be inexpensive and low
size, weight and power, while improving DRI, minimising operator fatigue
and reducing reaction times in complex and highly dynamic situations. This
paper begins with an overview of video fusion technology. The respective
merits of competing approaches are discussed, with performance measured
using a range of established metrics. Trials video is used to investigate
the performance and robustness of candidate algorithms in diverse
degraded visual environments. Subsequently, a system architecture andimplementation based on the Xilinx Zynq 7020 system-on-a-chip (SoC) is
presented. Bespoke firmware within the Artix-7 FPGA fabric of the device
is used to accelerate computationally intensive operations, while the userinterface, system configuration and flexible adaption are implemented using
the embedded dual-core A9 ARM CPU. In addition to the high processing
bandwidth facilitated by the Zynq 7020, the low power consumption makes
the system appropriate for mobile, power critical, applications such as for
UAVs and Special Forces. Results are presented for the platform, which
demonstrate the exemplary performance, low processing latency and highpower efficiency.

·

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2059471-22, Session 5

Mathematical principles of settings for
extremely high resolution in multi beams
systems
Evgeni N. Terentiev, Lomonosov Moscow State Univ.
(Russian Federation)
Mathematical Principles of Settings and regularization method are comparedin the modeling of multi beams measuring and signal processing systems.
MPS gives us the invertible solutions with the controlled maximum precisionand extremely high resolution. When the antenna pattern has the large side
lobes or is the comb-beams we have the greater distortions in the receiving
images from such Apparatus Functions. MPS gives us the corresponding
resolving functions for inversion AF or compensation of distortion problem.
Note in that instances, in addition we have resolving functions with the small
norm or small reaction to noise. This is similar to the formation of images on
the retina of the eye and in the brain. In regularization method we have theirreversible and smoothness solutions with the low precision. MPS extremely
high resolution and regularization ultra resolution with 3D delta indication of
object by point [1-2] are compared.
1. E.N. Terentiev, N.E. Terentiev, “Application of pointed ultra-resolution
method in microwave imaging”, Proc. SPIE Vol. 5789, 167-177 (2005).
2. E.N. Terentiev, N.E. Terentiev, “Ultra-resolution and indication of objects”,
Proc. SPIE Vol. 6211, 135-144 (2006).

206

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI
Tuesday - Thursday 21–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9472 Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, andUltraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-1, Session 1

Identification of chemical agents is a critical task of practical standoff
chemical detection systems. In this paper, we develop a metric specifically
adapted for evaluating chemical identifier performance and use it tocompare several identification algorithms. In the system we analyze, a bankof single gas detectors passes hit pixels to the identifier, which produces
a list of gases found in each pixel. Comparing the output to the truth in a
confusion matrix describes in detail how the identifier performed. However,interpretation of the confusion matrix becomes difficult even for moderately
sized gas libraries. We propose summarizing the confusion matrix using
simple scalar metrics tailored for specific practical applications.

Chemical agent resistant coating (CARC)
detection using hyperspectral imager(HSI)
Hai-Wen Chen, Michael McGurr, Mark Brickhouse, Booz
Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States)
We are interested in detecting target materials potentially associated withthe transport and handling of explosives and chemical and biological (CB)weapons, or non-traditional signatures of potential CB use that are more
readily detected because of their size and environmental exposure, relative
to the weapons materials themselves. Chemical Agent Resistant Coating(CARC) is the term for the paint commonly applied to military vehicles
which provides protection against chemical and biological weapons. There
are different CARC colors. In this paper, we present results for detecting
CARC with two different colors (Green and Beige). A High-Fidelity Target
Insertion Method has been developed. This method allow one to insert
the target radiance into any HSI sensor scene, while still to preserve thesensor spatio-spectral noise at all the pixel positions. We show that the
reduced (400-1,000nm) spectral range is good enough for Beige CARC,
and Green CARC Type I and II detection. Different CARC types have been
inserted to a DC Mall scene with the high fidelity target insertion tool. CARC
detection has also been tested using real out-door measurements. All
the tests showed promising CARC detection results using several current
state-of-the-art HSI target detection methods such as Matched Filter (MF),Constrained Energy Minimization, Adaptive Coherence Estimator (ACE),
Constrained Energy Minimization (CEM), and Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM).

Ideally, an identifier should output exactly which gases are in the plume, but
in many applications it is acceptable for the output to contain additional
gases or lack some constituent gases. A performance metric should countthese partially correct results with lower weights than completely correct
results. The metric we propose, the Dice metric, weighs each result by its
similarity with the list of gases in the plume, thereby giving less importanceto partially correct outputs, while giving full scores only to exactly
correct results.
Using the Dice metric we compared several algorithms including stepwise selection, a detector bank approach, Bayesian model selection, andBayesian model averaging (BMA). Our analysis used data with real plumes
as well as real background data with synthetically embedded plumes. In our
experiments, we found that BMA performed well compared toother algorithms.

9472-3, Session 1

Pattern recognition in hyperspectral
persistent imaging

Furthermore, we will present a newly developed Feature Transformation(FT) algorithm. In essence, the FT method, by transforming the original
features to a different feature domain (e.g., the Fourier, wavelet packets, andlocal cosine domains), may considerably increase the statistic separation
between the target and background probability density functions, andthus may significantly improve the target detection and identification
performance, as evidenced by the test results in this paper. In our test,
we used signatures for Green and Beige CARCs in original measured
reflectance value units against 433 background material signatures thatare frequently encountered such as paints, green trees and forests, metal,
shingle, concrete, brick, sand, tar, asphalt, limestone, snow, and water, etc. In
the original spectral feature domain, the Beige and Green CARC have large
overlaps with the background materials/objects across the whole spectral
bands (400nm–2500nm), leading to bad detection result. On the other
hand, by observing the CARC and background signature curves, we noticed
that the curve slops are quite different at a few spectral bands, and thus wehave conducted a feature transformation by differentiating the originallymeasured reflectance features. We show that by differentiating the original
spectral features (this operation can be considered as the 1st level Haar
wavelet high-pass filtering), we can completely separate Beige CARC fromthe background using a single band at 645nm, and completely separate
Green CARC from the background using a single band at 1180nm, leading toperfect detection results.

Dalton S. Rosario, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Joao M. Romano, U.S. Army Armament Research,
Development and Engineering Ctr. (United States);
Christoph C. Borel-Donohue, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States)
We give updates on a persistent imaging experiment dataset, being
considered for public release in a foreseeable future, and present additional
observations analyzing a subset of the dataset. The experiment is a longterm collaborative effort among the Army Research Laboratory, Army
Armament RDEC, and Air Force Institute of Technology that focuses on
the collection and exploitation of longwave infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral
imagery. We emphasize the inherent challenges associated with using
remotely sensed LWIR hyperspectral imagery for material recognition,and show that this data type violates key data assumptions conventionallyused in the scientific community to develop detection/ID algorithms, i.e.,
normality, independence, identical distribution. We treat LWIR hyperspectral
imagery as Longitudinal Data and aim at proposing a more realistic
framework for material recognition as a function of spectral evolution
through time, and discuss limitations. The defining characteristic of alongitudinal study is that objects are measured repeatedly through timeand, as a result, data are dependent. This is in contrast to cross-sectional
studies in which the outcomes of a specific event are observed by randomly
sampling from a large population of relevant objects in which data are
assumed independent. Researchers in the remote sensing community
generally assume the problem of object recognition to be cross-sectional.
But through a longitudinal analysis of a fixed site with multiple material
types, we quantify and argue that, as data evolve through a full diurnal
cycle, pattern recognition problems are longitudinal in nature and that by
applying this knowledge may lead to better algorithms.

9472-2, Session 1

Metrics for the comparative evaluation ofchemical plume identification algorithms
Eric Truslow, Northeastern Univ. (United States); Steven E.
Golowich, Dimitris G. Manolakis, MIT Lincoln Lab. (UnitedStates); Vinay K. Ingle, Northeastern Univ. (United States)

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-5, Session 1

9472-53, Session 1

Burn injury diagnostic imaging device’s
accuracy improved by outlier detection
and removal

Hyperspectral image-based methods forspectral biodiversity

Weizhi Li, Weirong Mo, Xu Zhang, Yang Lu, Eric W. Sellke,
Wensheng Fan, J. Michael DiMaio, Jeffery E. Thatcher,Spectral MD, Inc. (United States)

Alejandro Sotomayor, Juan Carlos Santos Ferrer, David M.
González Chévere, Ollantay Medina, Jesus Danilo Chinea,
Vidya B. Manian, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (UnitedStates)

We utilized multi-spectral imaging (MSI) to develop a burn diagnostic
device that would assist burn surgeons in planning and performing burndebridement surgery. In order to build a model, training data that accurately
represents the burn tissue is needed. Acquiring accurate training data isdifficult, in part because the labeling of raw MSI data to the appropriate
tissue classes is prone to errors. We hypothesized that these difficulties
could be surmounted by removing the outliers from the training dataset
which would lead to an improvement in the classification accuracy. We
developed a pig burn model to build an initial MSI training database andstudy our algorithm’s ability to classify clinically important tissues present
in a burn injury. Once the ground-truth database was generated from thepig images, we then developed a multi-stage method based on Z-test andunivariate analysis to calculate outliers in our training dataset. Using 10fold cross validation, we compared the algorithm’s accuracy when trainedwith and without the presence of outliers. We demonstrated that ouroutlier removal method reduced the variance of the training data using theminimum covariance determinant estimator. Once outliers were removed
from the training dataset, the averaging training accuracy improved from72 to 90 %, and test accuracy improved from 63 to 76 %. Establishing thissimple method of conditioning for our training data improved the accuracyof our algorithm to be as good as the current standard of care in burn injury
assessment. Given that there are few burn surgeons and burn care facilities
in the country; this technology is expected to improve the standard of burncare for burn patients with less access to specialized facilities.

Hyperspectral images are an important tool to assess ecosystem biodiversity
including terrestrial and benthic marine habitats. To obtain more precise
analysis of biodiversity indicators that agree with indicators obtained using
field data, improvements in spectral and spatial sensors resolution areneeded. One of the advantages of developing more accurate analysis tools
would be the extension of the analysis to larger zones using hyperspectral
image processing. Another advantage is that it helps to plan more efficiently
the collection of field data. The plant species richness is one of the mostimportant indicators of biodiversity. This indicator can be measured in
hyperspectral images considering the Spectral Variation Hypothesis (SVH),
this states that the spectral heterogeneity is related to spatial heterogeneity
and thus to species richness. The goal of this research is to capture spectral
heterogeneity from hyperspectral images for terrestrial and benthic marine
habitats using vector quantization (VQ) method and then use the result forprediction of plant species richness. The terrestrial habitats include all plant
species in a chosen study site. Benthic marine habitats include all biologicalcommunities associated with the sea floor, from the top of the intertidal
zone and inner reaches of estuaries down to the deep sea. The validationof the spectral index is done calculating the Pearson correlation coefficient
between the Shannon entropy of actual field data and the Shannon entropy
computed in the images using the vector quantization method. The
experimental results for both cases show positive correlation between the
Shannon entropy of the actual field data and the one computed using the
proposed method.

9472-6, Session 1

9472-7, Session 2

Person detection in hyperspectral images
via skin segmentation using an active
learning approach

Multi-pass encoding of hyperspectral
imagery with spectral quality control
William Walker, Steven R. Wasson, Applied Technology
Associates (United States)

Ion Marques, Manuel Graña, Univ. del País Vasco (Spain);
Stephanie M. Sanchez, Mohammed Q. Alkhatib, Miguel
Velez-Reyes, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States)
Determining what hyperspectral image pixels belong to skin regions isa first necessary step in process of people detection in an image. Image
segmentation is the process of partitioning visual data into meaningfulpieces. It is one of the big challenges that remain open in computer
vision. The performance of any method will be measured by comparing
the segmentation results with that ideal segmentation created by thehuman. This approach is addressed in the literature as interactive image
segmentation. This supervised machine learning problem can be addressedusing Active Learning. It is a useful tool when dealing with data containing
scarce labeled samples, making the application of conventional learningtechniques based on a static dataset unusable. The methodology proposedon this article segments the image iteratively, not requiring the input of theuser on every step. In our case, we previously labeled all the data manually.
We have therefore assessed the validity of our method substituting thehuman interactor with an uncertainty-based query-by-commitee Active
Learning setting. The algorithm uses an uncertainty measure as anindicator of which di cult pixels should it focus on the next iteration. The
experimental framework presented in this article enabled the explorationof diverse computational aspects when dealing with skin detection.
Firstly, it was shown that it is possible to segment skin in hyperspectral
images, even in situations where noise is very present. Secondly, an Active
Learning methodology was proposed to label and segment the images.
Lastly, the accuracy of the proposed system was tested with varying image
preprocessing steps.

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SPIE DSS 2015·

Multi-pass encoding is a technique employed in the field of video
compression that maximizes the quality of an encoded video sequence
within the constraints of a specified bit rate. This paper presents researchwhere multi-pass encoding is extended to the field of hyperspectral image
compression. Unlike video, which is primarily intended to be viewed bya human observer, hyperspectral imagery is processed by computationalalgorithms that generally attempt to classify the pixel spectra within theimagery. As such, these algorithms are more sensitive to distortion in the
spectral dimension of the image than they are to perceptual distortion in thespatial dimension. The compression algorithm developed for this research,which uses the Karhunen-Loeve transform for spectral decorrelation
followed by a modified H.264/AVC encoder, maintains a user-specified
spectral quality level while maximizing the compression ratio throughout theencoding process. The compression performance may be considered nearlossless in certain scenarios. For qualitative purposes, this paper presents
the performance of the compression algorithm for several AVIRIS andHyperion datasets using spectral angle as the spectral quality assessment
function. Specifically, the compression performance is illustrated in the formof rate-distortion curves that plot spectral angle versus bits per pixel perband (bpppb).

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-8, Session 2

molecular clusters of H2O using time-dependent density functional theory(TD-DFT). Calculation of excited state resonance structure using TD-DFT
can provide interpretation of absorption spectra with respect to molecular
structure for excitation by electromagnetic waves at frequencies within
UV-visible range. The absorption spectrum corresponding to electronic
excitation states of a molecular cluster consisting of a relatively small
number of water molecules should be associated with response featuresthat are intermediate between that of isolated molecules and that of abulk lattice. TD-DFT calculated absorption spectra represent quantitative
estimates that can be correlated with additional information obtained fromlaboratory measurements and other types of theory based calculations.
The DFT software GAUSSIAN was used for the calculations of electronic
excitation states presented here.

SLIC superpixels for efficient graph-based
dimensionality reduction of hyperspectral
imagery
Xuewen Zhang, Selene E. Chew, Zhenlin Xu, Nathan D.
Cahill, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
Dimensionality reduction is commonly applied to hyperspectral image
data as a preprocessing step in algorithms for clustering, segmentation,
classification, target detection, and anomaly detection. Nonlinear graphbased dimensionality reduction algorithms such as Laplacian Eigenmaps(LE) and Schroedinger Eigenmaps (SE) have been shown to be very
effective at yielding low-dimensional representations that reflect thestructure of the manifolds in high-dimensional space on which the original
data reside. However, the steps of graph construction and eigenvector
computation required by LE and SE can be prohibitively costly as thenumber of hyperspectral image pixels increases.

9472-11, Session 3

Comparison of microfacet BRDF model
elements to diffraction BRDF model
elements

To address this computational burden, we propose pre-clustering thehyperspectral image into SLIC (Simple Linear Iterative Clustering)superpixels. Each superpixel may represent tens, hundreds, or eventhousands of original image pixels. Performing LE or SE-based
dimensionality reduction with the superpixels as input significantly reduces
the computational effort required both for graph construction and foreigenvalue computation. However, it may come at the cost of generating
low-dimensional representations that are inferior to those generated from all
pixels if the superpixels are too large or regular to capture the heterogeneity
present in the original data.

Samuel D. Butler, Stephen E. Nauyoks, Michael A.
Marciniak, Air Force Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Since the development of the Torrance-Sparrow bidirectional reflectance
distribution function (BRDF) model in 1967, several models for BRDF havebeen developed. One of the most popular classes of BRDF models is the
microfacet model, where physical optics effects are neglected, resulting in a
simple approximation to the reflectance of realistic surfaces. However, thisomission of physical optics does not lend well to BRDF applications in areas
like Hyper-Spectral Imagery (HSI), where wavelength-dependent effects are
critical to model. At the other extreme, physical optics models such as theHarvey-Shack model use diffraction theory to accurately predict the BRDF,
but the calculation is time-consuming and requires detailed knowledgeof the surface. In this paper, the two different approaches are comparedin detail. The Harvey-Shack ? – ?0 space is compared to microfacet
coordinates. Additionally, the Harvey-Shack model contains an energy
conservation term (K), Fresnel term (Q), Power Spectral Density function tocharacterize the surface parameters, and other geometric and wavelengthdependent terms. These terms are compared to the microfacet model’s main
components: a simplified Fresnel reflection in microsurface coordinates,
a conversion from scattering cross section to BRDF, the microsurface
distribution function, and a geometric attenuation term. Similarities
and differences in these terms are highlighted to bridge these disparate
perspectives. It is hoped that such a comparison may generate ideas on how
to develop BRDF models for applications such as HSI that balance the needfor a simple, fast model with the requirement to more precisely account forphysical optics effects such as wavelength scaling.

Using publicly available hyperspectral images (Indian Pines and Pavia
University), we investigate this trade-off by exploring various choices ofsize/regularity parameters in the SLIC superpixels and their impact on (a)improvements in computational efficiency of the graph construction andeigenvector computation steps of LE and SE, and (b) potential reductions inaccuracy or precision of subsequent SVM (Support Vector Machine) basedclassification of the image pixels using the resulting
low-dimensional representations.

9472-9, Session 2

A concept for hyperspectral imaging withcompressive sampling and dictionary
recovery
Robert R. Muise, David Twede, Lockheed Martin Missiles
and Fire Control (United States)
We postulate an optical configuration which takes a multispectral/
hyperspectral scene and collects a multiplexed spectral sample on the
Focal Plane Array (FPA). From such a measurement paradigm, the data isthen processed with compressive imaging techniques and we recover thefull multispectral cube from a single frame of imagery. We use a trained
dictionary prior assumption along with a greedy reconstruction algorithm
for local multispectral reconstruction.

9472-12, Session 3

Development of land surface reflectancemodels based on multiscale simulation
Adam A. Goodenough, Scott D. Brown, Rochester Instituteof Technology (United States)

9472-10, Session 3

Modeling and simulation of Earth imaging sensors with large spatial
coverage necessitates an understanding of how photons interact withindividual land surface processes at an aggregate level. For example, theleaf angle distribution of a deciduous forest canopy has a significant impact
on the path of a single photon as it is scattered among the leaves and,
consequently, a significant impact on the observed bidirectional reflectance
distribution function (BRDF) of the canopy as a whole. In particular,
simulation of imagery of heterogeneous scenes for many multispectral/
hyperspectral applications requires detailed modeling of regions of thespectrum where many orders of scattering are required due to both highreflectance and transmittance. Radiative transfer modeling based on ray

Calculation of electronic-excited-state
absorption spectra of water clusters using
time-dependent density functional theory
Lulu Huang, Samuel G. Lambrakos, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Andrew Shabaev, George Mason Univ.
(United States); Lou Massa, Hunter College (United States)
Calculations are presented of electronic-excited-state absorption spectra for

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209Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI
tracing, hybrid Monte Carlo techniques and detailed geometric and opticalmodels of land cover means that it is possible to build effective, aggregate
optical models with parameters such as species, spatial distribution, andunderlying terrain variation. This paper examines the capability of the Digital
Image and Remote Sensing Image Generation (DIRSIG) model to generate
BRDF data representing land surfaces at large scale from modeling at amuch smaller scale. We describe robust methods for generating opticalproperty models effectively in DIRSIG and present new tools for facilitating
the process. The methods and results for forest canopies are described
relative to the RAdiation transfer Model Intercomparison (RAMI) benchmark
scenes, which also forms the basis for an evaluation of the approach.
Additional applications and examples are presented, representing different
types of land cover.

compared along a gradient of densities for optically contrasting materials.
Systematic analysis of angular and material dependence will be used todetermine the best means to better model multiple scattering effects ofthe granular materials. The measurements in this experiment will be takenusing the newly constructed, laboratory and field-deployable Goniometerof the Rochester Institute of Technology (GRIT), which measures BRDF forgeometries covering 360 degrees in azimuth and 65 degrees in zenith. In
contrast to the previous studies limited to the principal scattering plane,
GRIT provides a full hemispherical measurement.
References:
C. M. Bachmann, W. Philpot, A. Abelev, D. Korwan, 2014. “Phase angle
dependence of sand density observable in hyperspectral reflectance,”
Remote Sensing of Environment, 150:53-65, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
rse.2014.03.024.

9472-13, Session 3

Advances in simulating radiance signatures
for dynamic air/water interfaces
Adam A. Goodenough, Scott D. Brown, Aaron D. Gerace,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
The air-water interface poses a number of problems for both collecting andsimulating imagery. At the surface, the magnitude of observed radiance canchange by multiple orders of magnitude at high spatiotemporal frequency
due to glinting effects. In the volume, similarly high frequency focusingof photons by a dynamic wave surface significantly changes the reflectedradiance of in-water objects and the scattered return of the volume itself.
These phenomena are often manifest as saturated pixels and artifacts incollected imagery (often enhanced by time delays between neighboring
pixels or interpolation between adjacent filters) and as noise and greater
required computation times in simulated imagery. This paper describes
recent advances made to the Digital Image and Remote Sensing Image
Generation (DIRSIG) model to address the simulation issues to better
facilitate an understanding of a multi/hyper-spectral collection. Glint
effects are simulated using a dynamic height field that can be driven by
wave frequency models and generates a sea state at arbitrary time scales.
The volume scattering problem is handled by coupling the geometry
representing the surface (facetization by the height field) with the single
scattering contribution at any point in the water. The problem is constrained
somewhat by assuming that contributions come from a Snell’s window
above the scattering point and by assuming a direct source (sun). Diffuse
single scattered and multiple scattered energy contributions are handled
by Monte Carlo techniques employed previously. The model is compared
to existing radiative transfer codes where possible, with the objective ofproviding a robust movel of time-dependent absolute radiance atmany wavelengths.

9472-15, Session 3

Development and comparison ofdata reconstruction methods forchromotomographic hyperspectral
imagers
Michael R. Hawks, Air Force Institute of Technology(United States) and Oak Ridge Institute for Science &Education (United States); Alan L. Jennings, Air ForceInstitute of Technology (United States); Ryan Tervo, U.S.
Air Force (United States)
Chromotomography is a form of hyperspectral imaging that uses a prism
to simultaneously record spectral and spatial information, like a slitless
spectrometer. The prism is rotated to provide multiple projections of the 3D
data cube on the 2D detector array. Tomographic reconstruction methods
are then used to estimate the hyperspectral data cube from the projections.
This type of system can collect hyperspectral imagery from fast transient
events, but suffers from reconstruction artifacts due to the limited-angle
problem. Several algorithms have been proposed in the literature to improvereconstruction, including filtered backprojection, projection onto convex
sets, subspace constraint, split-Bregman iteration and total variation.
Here we present the first direct comparison of multiple different methods
against measured and simulated data sets. Results are compared based on
both image quality and spectral accuracy in the reconstruction, where theprevious literature has emphasized imaging only. In addition, new algorithms
and HSI quality metrics are proposed. We find the quality of the results
depend strongly on the spatial and spectral content of the scene, and no
single algorithm is consistently superior over a range of scenes.

9472-14, Session 39472-16, Session 4

Influence of density on hyperspectral
BRDF signatures

Target detection assessment of the SHARE
2010/2012 hyperspectral data collection
campaign

Douglas S. Peck, Malachi J. Schultz, Charles M. Bachmann,
Brittany Ambeau, Justin Harms, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Recent hyperspectral measurements of composite granular sediments ofvarying densities conducted have revealed phenomena that contradict
what radiative transfer theory would suggest (Bachmann et al., 2014).
In high-density sands where dominant constituents are translucent
and supplementary, darker grains are present, bidirectional reflectance
distribution function measurements showed reduced intensity whencompared to lower density counterparts. It is conjectured that this is dueto the result of diminished multiple scattering from the darker particles
which more optimally fill pore space as density increases. The goal ofthese experiments is to further expand upon these earlier results that wereconducted primarily in the principle scattering plane and only at minimum
and maximum density. In these studies the BRDF of granular composites is

210

SPIE DSS 2015

Emmett J. Ientilucci, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States)
It has been over four years (2010) since the first SpecTIR Hyperspectral
Airborne Rochester Experiment (SHARE) was conducted. Similarly, asecond SHARE experiment was performed, with the same HSI sensor, in2012 with the exact same deployed target panels. A suite of sensors were
flown over the target areas including multi- and hyperspectral imagers,
as well as a LiDAR sensor. Experiments were conducted to examine topics
such as pixel unmixing, subpixel detection, forest health, and in-watertarget detection, to name a few. This paper’s focus is on target detectionof different colored panels deployed on different backgrounds viewed
under different illumination conditions collected two years apart. Detection
includes utilization of LiDAR, reflectance and calibrated radiance imagery·

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI
with standard and non-standard detection schemes. Results are illustrated
in the form of, detection maps, histogram plots (i.e., background vs. target
scores) and ROC curves. Analysis was performed on (many) red and blue
panels on backgrounds such as grass, gravel, and roof tar paper. The targets
were in the open (i.e., fully illuminated), as well as heavy and light shadow.
Discussion of where to obtain the free data is included.

spaces but did not consider the possible benefits of the SWIR portion of
the spectrum. In this paper, we evaluate the tradeoffs in spatial and spectral
resolution and spectral coverage between the two imagery collections for
a common set of targets in terms of their effects on spatial-spectral target
detection performance.

9472-19, Session 49472-17, Session 4

Locating the shadow regions in LIDAR
data: results on the SHARE 2012 Dataset

An analysis task comparison of
uncorrected vs. geo-registered airborne
hyperspectral imagery

Mustafa Boyaci, ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey); Seniha E. Yuksel,
Hacettepe Univ. (Turkey)

Yihang Sun, John Kerekes, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)

In hyperspectral imaging, shadowy areas present a major problem astargets in shadow show decreased or no spectral signatures. One way tomitigate this problem is by the fusion of hyperspectral data with LIDAR
data; since LIDAR data presents excellent information by providing elevation
information, which can then be used to identify the regions of shadow.
Although there is a lot of work to detect the shadowy areas, many are
restricted to distinct platforms like ARGCIS, ENVI etc.

The SHARE 2012 multisensor remote sensing data collection experiment
provided an unprecedented set of freely available remote sensing dataand ground truth for a variety of experiments. In particular, the subpixel
detection and unmixing experiments provided the opportunity to test
hyperspectral image detection and unmixing analysis algorithms andinvestigate quantitative performance on empirical data. In the case of
the subpixel detection experiment, two sets of 50 subpixel objects were
deployed to overcome limitations of small sample sizes occurring in previous
empirical data collections. The unmixing targets were specifically designed
to provide highly accurate truth of the endmembers and their pixel fractions,
independent of the pixel sampling.

In addition, this work has identified subsets of the overall data collection
particular for these experiments. These subsets are being made available tothe community for common research comparisons.

The purpose of this study is to (i) detect the shadow areas and to (ii) givea shadowiness scale in LIDAR data with Matlab in an efficient way. For thiswork, we designed our Line of Sight (LoS) algorithm that is optimized to
run in a Matlab interface. The interface first converts the .las file format
to the ASCII format. Then, it detects the shadows with an efficient Line ofSight (LoS) algorithm. The LoS algorithm uses the sun angles (altitude andazimuth) and elevation of the earth; and marks the pixel as “in shadow” ifthere lies an object of higher elevation between a given pixel and the sun.
This is computed for all pixels in the scene and a shadow map is generated.
Further, if a pixel is marked as a shadow area, the algorithm assigns a
different darkness level which is inversely proportional to the distance
between current pixel and the object that causes the shadow. With thisshadow scale, it is both visually and computationally possible to distinguishthe soft shadows from the dark shadows; an important information for
hyperspectral imagery. The algorithm has been both tested on a synthetic
dataset with objects of known heights, and also on the SHARE 2012 Avon
AM dataset.

9472-18, Session 4

Our work is ongoing to match these shadowy regions to the hyperspectral
images so as to show the effect of the scales of shadow on the
spectral signatures.

These data have been comprehensively analyzed to gain insight into
achievable performance for subpixel detection and unmixing, and thesensitivity to many system and processing aspects. Results are presented foranalysis choices such as which spectral bands and regions to use, whether
or not to apply atmospheric compensation, which algorithms, source oftarget or endmember spectra, and the impact of georegistration. Insights
into the impact on performance of these choices are presented.

On the effects of spatial and spectral
resolution on spatial-spectral target
detection in SHARE 2012 and Bobcat 2013
hyperspectral imagery

9472-20, Session 4

Effect of endmember clustering on
proportion estimation: results on the Share2012 Dataset

Jason R. Kaufman, Exelis Space Computer Corp. (UnitedStates); Michael T. Eismann, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States); Bradley M. Ratliff, Exelis Space Computer
Corp. (United States); Mehmet Celenk, Ohio Univ. (UnitedStates)Seniha E. Yuksel, Hacettepe Univ. (Turkey); Erdinc Gunes,
ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey)
Estimating the number of endmembers and their spectrum is a challenging
task. For one, endmember detection algorithms may over or underestimate
the number of endmembers in a given scene. Further, even if the numberof endmembers are known beforehand, result of the endmember detection
algorithms may not be accurate. They may find multiple endmembers
representing the same class, while completely missing some of theendmembers representing the other classes. This hinders the performanceof unmixing, resulting in incorrect endmember proportion estimates.

During the SHARE 2012 campaign, the ProSpecTIR-VS sensor captured
airborne visible to shortwave infrared (VIS/SWIR) hyperspectral imagery(HSI) over a set of specially-shaped vinyl tarp targets designed tosupport spatial-spectral algorithm development. A superset of thesetargets was later imaged by the Civil Air Patrol’s Airborne Real-time
Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER) sensor for
the Bobcat 2013 collection, yielding coincident visible to near infrared(VNIR) hyperspectral and broadband visible high resolution imagery(HRI). ProSpecTIR-VS sampled a wider spectral range that was inclusiveof ARCHER’s at a higher rate than ARCHER over the spectral regioncommon to both sensors. However, the ground sampling distance (GSD)of the Bobcat 2013 ARCHER imagery was 40cm while the SHARE 2012
ProSpecTIR-VS imagery’s GSD was 100cm. Previous work with the Bobcat
2013 data set showed that increasing the apparent spatial resolution of
VNIR HSI data led to better target separability in spatial-spectral feature

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In this study, only the SHARE-2012 AVON data pertaining to the unmixing
experiment was considered, i.e., it was cropped to include only the eightpieces of cloth and a portion of the surrounding asphalt and grass. Thisdata was used to evaluate the performance of five endmember detection
algorithms, namely the PPI, VCA, N-FINDR, ICE and SPICE; none of whichfound the endmember spectra correctly. All of these algorithms generated
multiple endmembers corresponding to the same class or they completely
missed some of the endmembers. Hence, an algorithm was devised to groupthe endmembers of the same class so as not to over or under-estimate the·help@spie.org

211Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI
true endmembers. The algorithms were run with twice the number of thetrue endmembers. Then, similar spectra based on the SAM distance wereclustered together and a representative endmember was found for eachclass. These endmembers were (i) compared to the ground truth and (ii)also used in a quadratic unmixing algorithm and compared in terms of theperformance in proportion estimation. Also, a further refinement was madeby considering the spatial distances and eliminating the highly unused
endmembers. The comparisons with or without this refinement for the fivealgorithms and the effect of the spatial corrections will be presented.

spectrum (400-2,500nm), we can still successfully detect most of the Tyvek
and ammonium salts with high Pd and low false detections.

9472-21, Session 5

Amanda K. Ziemann, David W. Messinger, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)

Incorporating signal-dependent noise for
hyperspectral target detection
Christopher J. Morman, Russell C. Hardie, Univ. of Dayton(United States); Joseph Meola, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
The majority of hyperspectral target detection algorithms are developed
from statistical data models employing stationary background statistics orwhite Gaussian noise models. Stationary background models are inaccurate
as a result of two separate physical processes. First, varying backgroundclasses often exist in the imagery that possess different clutter statistics.
Many algorithms can account for this variability through the use ofsubspaces or clustering techniques. The second physical process, which isoften ignored, is a signal-dependent sensor noise term. For photon counting
sensors that are often used in hyperspectral imaging systems, sensor noise
increases as the measured signal level increases as a result of Poisson
random processes. In this work, a linear noise model is developed describing
sensor noise variance as a linear function of signal level. The linear noisemodel is then incorporated for detection of targets using data collected atWright Patterson Air Force Base.

9472-23, Session 5

An adaptive locally linear embedding
manifold learning approach for
hyperspectral target detection

Algorithms for spectral analysis commonly use parametric or linear models
on the data. Research has shown, however, that hyperspectral data —particularly in materially cluttered scenes — are not always well-modeled bystatistical or linear methods. Here, we propose an approach to hyperspectral
target detection that is based on a graph theory model of the data anda manifold learning transformation. An adaptive nearest neighbor (ANN)graph is built on the data, and then used to implement an adaptive versionof locally linear embedding (LLE). We artificially induce a target manifold
and incorporate it into the adaptive LLE transformation. The artificial
target manifold helps to guide the separation of the target data from thebackground data in the new, transformed manifold coordinates. Then, target
detection is performed in the manifold space using a matched filter. Thismethodology is an improvement over previous iterations of this approachdue to the incorporation of ANN, the artificial target manifold, and the
choice of detector in the transformed space. We implement our approachin a spatially local way: the image is delineated into square tiles, and thedetection maps are normalized across the entire image. Target detection
results will be shown using laboratory-measured and scene-derived target
spectra across two different hyperspectral data sets.

9472-24, Session 59472-22, Session 5

Ellipsoids for anomaly detection in remotesensing imagery

Robust Chemical and Chemical-ResistantMaterial Detection Using Hyper-Spectral
Imager and a New Bend Interpolation andLocal Scaling HSI Sharpening Method

Guenchik J. Grosklos, James P. Theiler, Los Alamos
National Lab. (United States)

Hai-Wen Chen, Michael McGurr, Mark Brickhouse, Booz
Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States)
Reliable chemical threat detection is critical for protecting our people
from deadly chemical attacks. In this paper, we present new results fromour ongoing research activity for chemical threat detection using hyperspectral imager (HSI) detection techniques by detecting nontraditional
threat spectral signatures of agent usage, such as protective equipment,
coatings, paints, spills, and stains that are worn by human or on trucks orother objects. We have applied several current state-of-the-art HSI target
detection methods such as Matched Filter (MF), Adaptive Coherence
Estimator (ACE), Constrained Energy Minimization (CEM), and Spectral
Angle Mapper (SAM). We are interested in detecting several chemical
related materials: (a) Tyvek clothing is chemical resistance and Tyvek
coveralls are one-piece garments for protecting human body fromharmful chemicals, and (b) ammonium salts from background could
be representative of spills from scrubbers or related to other chemical
activities. The HSI dataset that we used for detection covers a chemical test
field with more than 50 different kinds of chemicals, protective materials,
coatings, and paints. Among them, there are four different kinds of Tyvek
material, and three types of ammonium salts. The imagery cube data
were collected by a HSI sensor with a spectral range of 400–2,500nm.
Preliminary testing results are promising, and very high probability ofdetection (Pd) and low probability of false detection are achieved with theusage of full spectral range (400–2,500nm). We have also conducted target
detection using reduced spectral range of 400-1,000nm. Although theperformance (with 400-1,000nm) are worse than the performance with full212

SPIE DSS 2015·

For many target and anomaly detection algorithms, a key step is theestimation of a centroid (relatively easy) and a covariance matrix (somewhat
harder) that characterize the background clutter. For a background thatcan be modeled as a multivariate Gaussian, the centroid and covariancelead to an explicit probability density function that can be used in likelihood
ratio tests for optimal detection statistics. But ellipsoidal contours cancharacterize a much larger class of multivariate density function, and theellipsoids that characterize the outer periphery of the distribution are mostappropriate for detection in the low false alarm rate regime. Traditionally the
sample mean and sample covariance are used to estimate ellipsoid locationand shape, but these quantities are confounded both by large lever-arm
outliers and non-Gaussian distributions within the ellipsoid of interest.
This paper compares a variety of centroid and covariance estimation
schemes with the aim of characterizing the periphery of the background
distribution. In particular, we will consider a robust variant of the Khachiyan
algorithm for minimum-volume enclosing ellipsoid. The performance of
these different approaches is evaluated on multispectral and hyperspectral
remote sensing imagery using coverage plots of ellipsoid volume versus
false alarm rate.

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-25, Session 59472-27, Session 6

Video rate multispectral imaging forcamouflaged target detection

Spatial-spectral dimensionality reductionof hyperspectral imagery with partial
knowledge of class labels

Samuel T. Henry, Surface Optics Corp. (United States)

Nathan D. Cahill, Selene E. Chew, Paul S. Wenger,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)

The ability to detect and identify camouflaged targets is critical in combat
environments. Hyperspectral and Multispectral cameras allow a soldier to
identify threats more effectively due to both increased color resolution
and ability to see past visible light. Static imagers have proven success [1],however the development of a video rate imager allows for continuous realtime target identification and tracking. This paper presents a video rate
multispectral light field imager in the visible and near infrared (VNIR) range
and discusses suitable detection algorithms. This allows for both automateddetection of targets and interactive target tracking. The instrument andtechniques are discussed and results are shown using a sample data set.

Dimensionality reduction algorithms have been used in a variety ofhyperspectral imaging analysis applications to provide low-dimensional
representations of the image data. Since the original image data may
implicitly reside on a nonlinear manifold in a high-dimensional space, it isimportant that dimensionality reduction algorithms yield representations
that preserve the structure of the manifold. Nonlinear dimensionality
reduction algorithms such as Laplacian Eigenmaps (LE) and Schroedinger
Eigenmaps (SE) are capable of integrating both the spatial and spectral
information inherent in the image and have been shown to provide lowdimensional representations that can be effectively used as input forclustering, segmentation, and classification of hyperspectral imagery.

9472-26, Session 5

Evaluating backgrounds for subpixel
target detection: when closer isn’t betterIn this paper, we consider how to extend LE- and SE-based spatial-spectral
dimensionality reduction algorithms to situations where partial knowledgeof class labels exists, for example, when a subset of pixels has been
manually labeled by an expert user. This partial knowledge is incorporated
through the use of cluster potentials, turning each underlying algorithm into
an instance of SE.

Nofar Hasson, Shmual Asulin, Dan G. Blumberg, Stanley R.
Rotman, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel)

Using publicly available hyperspectral images (Indian Pines and Pavia
University), we manually identify small subsets of pixels with ground-truthlabels to be incorporated as partial knowledge in various spatial-spectral
dimensionality reduction algorithms. With the resulting low-dimensional
representations (generated both with and without the partial knowledge),
we carry out Support Vector Machine (SVM) based classification to predict
class labels for all pixels. Our analysis shows that incorporating partial
knowledge of class labels in the low-dimensional representations yields
classification results that are competitive with or superior to those based onusing low-dimensional representations generated without
partial knowledge.

When performing hyperspectral subpixel detection, one wishes to estimate
the spectral signature of the background; if we assume that the target isadditive with the background, subtracting out the background will allow thetarget to remain with the noise.
The first step of target detection is the background estimation; in that phase
we would like to estimate the value of the test pixel assuming it does notcontain a target. The estimation would be based on the knowledge of therest of the pixels in the image (assuming they do not contain a target) while
ignoring the current value of the test pixel.
There exist many methods and algorithms in order to estimate a value ofa single pixel; some of them are local using information from the pixels
surrounding the tested pixel while others are non-local using informationfrom the overall image in order to estimate the value of the requested pixel.
It has been seen in previous studies that the local estimators can lead tovery good results in the detection of point targets in hyperspectral images,
but their efficiency is lowered in areas where two or more different materials
meet1. These edge transition zones violate the basic assumption that the
distribution of the pixels is stationary; the edges cause large difference
between the values of neighboring pixels. The non-local estimators are
believed to be able to overcome this difficulty because the estimation isbased on pixels with similar surroundings to the examined pixel, whichenables us to find similar edge areas and base the estimation on them.

9472-28, Session 6

Applications of direction-sensitive sparse
representations to hyperspectral image
analysis
Julia Dobrosotskaya, Case Western Reserve Univ. (UnitedStates)As the modern signal acquisition techniques rapidly evolve, the methodsof signal analysis and processing have to catch up - by accounting for
multiple factors affecting the type and accuracy of the recorded signal
representation, taking care of possible distortions or incompleteness,and utilizing signal redundancy whenever possible. Effective ways ofdata analysis require models that incorporate effective mathematicalrepresentation for multidimensional (and possibly heterogeneous data) andadaptive tunable tools with mimimal supervision.

In our research, we examined three different estimation methods, twolocal and one non-local. The local estimators are the mean and median; inthose methods the estimated value for the test pixel is the mean or median(respectively) of its eight surrounding pixels. For the non-local estimator
we used the K-patches algorithm3. In this method, we define a patch ofa pixel by the NxN pixels surrounding it; we seek the K patches that are
most similar to that of the tested pixel, where the similarity is base on the
Euclidean distance. The estimation is then calculated by taking the meanof the K pixels whose patches were found to be the most suitable, in our
implementation we used K=3 and N=3.

Hyperspectral imagery analysis has benefited from a vast variety ofmathematical approaches over the past decade. In this talk we discuss thepossibilities of combining the classical hyperspectral methods with theadvantages of multiscale directional sparse signal representations (such ascomposite wavelets) within adaptive computational models. The main goalin our model design is utilizing the edge and regularity information from 3D
mutiscale sparse decomposition of the hyperspectral signals to modify andempower well-established hyperspectral classification and analysis methods
without increasing their computational complexity.

It is almost axiomatic that the better the estimate, the less noise ispresent and the easier it is to find the target. Little thought is made to
the distribution of the noise since the inverse covariance matrix should
convert this noise (if multi-variate normal) to an isotropic distribution.
Nevertheless, in this paper, we will show that the distribution of the noise
can be crucial for determining the efficacy of an estimator. In particular, themean estimator will be superior to two other estimators when evaluating
the background.

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213Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-29, Session 69472-31, Session 6

Transitioning from semi-supervised tounsupervised feature extraction using
Schrödinger Eigenmaps

Modeling and mitigating noise ingraph and manifold representations ofhyperspectral imagery

Timothy Doster, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Charles M. Bachmann, Can Jin, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)

Schrödinger Eigenmaps, first developed for the analysis of biomedical
data, has recently been successfully applied to hyperspectral data forclassification, segmentation, and target detection. This semi-supervisedmachine learning method, which can be characterized as a dimension
reduction or feature extraction algorithm, builds upon Laplacian Eigenmaps
by including semi-labeled data in a potential matrix. A difficulty, especiallywhen dealing with large quantities of data, is the reliance on an expert tochoose where to place potentials. We study here graph and information
theoretic concepts as well as classical remote sensing image analysis
techniques to choose autonomously where to place potentials and what
the effect of the placement of these potentials has on the problems ofclassification, segmentation, and target detection. Specifically we examine:(1) the use of endmember selection algorithms to build potentials of pureor mixed pixels, (2) edge detection algorithms to build potentials to further
separate adjacent classes, (3) potentials defined by local structures within
patches to include spatial information, (4) wavelength ratio measures suchas NVDI to create potentials from a priori spectral knowledge, (5) potentials
constructed from purely linear feature extraction methods and (6) anomaly
detection algorithms to mitigate anomalous pixel effects on
manifold structure.

9472-30, Session 6

Detecting plumes in LWIR using robust
nonnegative matrix factorization withgraph-based initialization

9472-32, Session 6

Algorithms for retrieving temperatureand emissivity from hyperspectral data incomplex environments

Jing Qin, Univ. of California, Los Angeles (United States);Thomas Laurent, Loyola Marymount Univ. (United States);
Kevin Bui, Univ. of California, Los Angeles (United States);
Ricardo V. R. Tan, Jasmine Dahilig, Loyola Marymount
Univ. (United States); Shuyi Wang, Univ. of California,
Los Angeles (United States); Jared L. Rohe, Univ. of
San Francisco (United States); Justin Sunu, California
State Univ. (United States); Andrea L. Bertozzi, Univ. of
California, Los Angeles (United States)

Christoph C. Borel-Donohue, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States); Dalton S. Rosario, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Joao M. Romano, U.S. Army
Armament Research, Development and Engineering Ctr.
(United States)

The detection of chemical gas plumes is of great importance in security
and homeland defense, especially in cases of industrial accidents or
terrorist attacks. Because chemical gases are diffusive and hard toobserve in the visible spectrum, long-wave infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral
imaging provides a means of detecting them. Since the obtained data is
contaminated by excessive noise, it becomes challenging to generate aclear distinction between objects in a scene from hyperspectral imaging
data. The processing of high-dimensional data increases computational
complexity which requires efficient detection algorithms. In this paper, we
propose a novel method relying on nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF)
and graph-based algorithms to segment hyperspectral images. Because
its optimization objective is highly non-convex, NMF is very sensitive toinitialization. With a good initialization, it will however provide high quality
segmentation results that are able to capture the more diffusive chemicalgases due to its ability to separate different spectral signatures from objects
in a hyperspectral image. We demonstrate how the graph-based algorithms,
such as label propagation, spectral clustering and Nystrom extension, canbe used to regularize the problem and provide good prior information to
the NMF algorithm. We precede our method by applying Robust Principal
Component Analysis (Robust PCA) to the raw images as a preprocessing
step. Experimental results on real hyperspectral video sequence of chemical
plumes show that the proposed approach is promising in terms of detection
accuracy and computational efficiency.

214

SPIE DSS 2015

Over the past decade, manifold and graph representations of hyperspectral
imagery (HSI) have been explored widely in HSI applications. There are alarge number of data-driven approaches to deriving manifold coordinate
representations including Isometric Mapping (ISOMAP), Local Linear
Embedding (LLE), Laplacian Eigenmaps (LE), Diffusion Kernels (DK), andmany related methods. Improvements to specific algorithms have beendeveloped to ease computational burden or otherwise improve algorithm
performance. For example, the best way to estimate the size of the locallylinear neighborhoods used in graph construction have been addressed
as well as the best method of linking using the manifold representation
with classifiers in applications. However, the problem of how to modeland mitigate noise in manifold representations of hyperspectral imagery
has not been well studied and remains a challenge for graph and manifold
representations of hyperspectral imagery and their application. It isrelatively easy to apply standard linear methods to remove noise from thedata in advance of further processing, however, these approaches by andlarge treat the noise model in a global sense, using statistics derived fromthe entire data set and applying the results globally over the data set. Graphand manifold representations by their nature attempt to find an intrinsic
representation of the local data structure, so it is natural to ask how can one
best represent the noise model in a local sense. In this paper, we explore
several approaches to modeling and mitigating noise at a local level.

·

This paper will use data measured under different weather conditions froma tower based at Picatinny arsenal in New Jersey. It will show the variabilityof the measured radiance with environmental changes and highlight thechallenges this creates for retrieving desired quantities such as temperatureand emissivity. Models that deal with reflections from the environment,
e.g. nearby surfaces and the sky which maybe clear, partly cloudy or cloud
covered will be used to try to retrieve spectral signatures. The effects ofspectral resolution and instrument signal-to-noise ratio will be discussed.

9472-33, Session 7

Classification of multi-modality sensor
data with limited labeled data
Melba M. Crawford, Purdue Univ. (United States); Saurabh
Prasad, Univ. of Houston (United States); Hsiuhan Yang,
Purdue Univ. (United States); Xiong Zhou, Univ. of Houston(United States); Zhou Zhang, Purdue Univ. (United States)
Classification of multi-sensor remote sensing data has been a topic ofrecent interest as complementary technologies have been developed, anddata from advanced sensors are more widely available. Unfortunately, theperformance of supervised learning models is heavily dependent on the

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI
availability of representative labeled data for training, which are usuallylimited relative to the dimensionality of the data from multi-sensor systems.
Active learning provides capability to exploit unlabeled samples, selecting,labeling, and inducting informative samples into the training set, but iscomputationally intensive. This research extends the traditional single
sensor active learning strategy to a multi-sensor framework, where samples
are selected for inclusion into the training set via multi-sensor, multi-scale
criteria that exploit both pixel-level and local spatial information. The
approach is demonstrated on a hyperspectral and LIDAR data set, using
two strategies for representing spatial-spectral relationships: a Redundant
Discrete Wavelet Transform decomposition and HSEG, and spatial-spectral
segmentation, which are incorporated into an AL framework. Results arecompared in terms of classification accuracy and computational overhead.

to some degree of accuracy using only these spectra. Single pixels or
aggregate measures of pixels (e.g. mean and variance of spectra measured
on tree crowns) can be used as input data to a classifier. In any case, we
think of classes as probability distributions and the input data as samples
from those distributions. This is more for streamlining the discussion that
follows rather than explicit use of probability distributions.
There are two properties of classifiers that are important in fielded systems:(1) Robustness to operational outliers. Operational systems will almost
certainly produce measurements on materials that are extremely unlikely
to be generated by any of the classes used for training. (2) Ambiguity
representation. Samples from different classes can be almost identical.
This implies that the true class is not knowable using only the spectral
measurements as presented. The classifier needs to properly represent the
ambiguities in spectra in the hope that additional information can be used
to resolve the ambiguity. In addition, classifications in operational systems
are often part of a sequence of systems and do not make a final decision
for all samples. Therefore, binary (0-1) outputs are inappropriate since
information important for decision-making is lost. Operational classifiers
produce values in the range [0,1] for each class so that class assignment,
outlier confidence, and ambiguity can be represented by a uniform system.
Possibility distributions (which are as rigorously defined as probability
distributions) are well-suited for such representations.

9472-34, Session 7

LWIR HSI target detection in the urban
canyonAmit Banerjee, Joshua B. Broadwater, Johns Hopkins Univ.
Applied Physics Lab., LLC (United States)
There is an increase in ISR operations in urban areas, which are ideal
battlefields for asymmetric threats to negate U.S. technological superiority.
Many ISR sensors, including long-wave infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral
imagers, require line-of-sight to the target, which is often difficult in an
urban canyon. Furthermore, the LWIR spectra of targets are corrupted by
downwelled radiation emitted by nearby objects such as buildings and trees.
This downwelling phenomenon degrades the performance of LWIR HSI
target detectors, leading to missed detections and high false alarm rates.

Support Vector Machines (SVM) are often used for classification in remotesensing. SVM trained classifiers are very accurate when they are tested only
on samples from classes that were used in training. Unfortunately, they are
generally poor at outlier detection and ambiguity representation. In thistalk, a number of approaches to real problems are presented. We showthat the best approaches use self organizing feature maps (SOFM) and/or
nearest prototype algorithms. This is analogous to learning a manifold andusing local neighborhood information in feature space. We discuss thesealgorithms in the context of hyperspectral classification.

Recent work by Briottet [1] and Fontanilles [2] has focused on developing
several mathematical and physical models for downwelling in urban canyon.
This paper outlines one approach to incorporate these models into practicalalgorithms to detect targets in the presence of downwelling. Key steps in
the approach include:9472-36, Session 7

Schrodinger Eigenmaps for spectral target
detection- Deriving first-order approximations to the latest models for thermal
propagation in urban canopy developed in [1,2]Leidy P. Dorado-Munoz, David W. Messinger, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)- Using these models to develop algorithms to predict or mitigate theeffects of thermal downwelling on the target emissivity signature.
- Apply LWIR HSI detection algorithms using the modified target emissivity
signature to evaluate target detection in open areas and urban canyons.

Spectral imagery such as multispectral and hyperspectral data set could beseen as a set of panchromatic images stacked as a 3d cube, with two spatial
dimensions and one spectral. For hyperspectral, the spectral dimension ishighly sampled, which implies redundant information and a high spectral
dimensionality. Therefore, it is necessary to use transformations on thedata not only to reduce processing costs, but also to reveal some featuresor characteristics of the data that were hidden in the original space.
Schrodinger Eigenmaps (SE) as a novel mathematical method for non-linear
representation of a data set attempts to preserve the local structure while
the spectral dimension is reduced. SE could be seen as an extension of
Laplacian Eigenmaps (LE), where the diffusion process could be steered incertain directions determined by a potential term. SE was initially introduced
as a semi supervised classification technique and most recently, it has
been applied to target detection showing a promising performance. In
target detection, only barrier potential has been used, so different forms
to define barrier potentials and its influence on the data embedding arestudied here. In this way, an experiment to assess the target detection vs.
how strong it is the influence of potentials and how many eigenmaps areused in the detection, is proposed. The target detection is performed usinga hyperspectral data set, and several targets and scenes with different
complexity are also used, in order to have a wide framework of assessment.

Results on real LWIR hyperspectral imagery using groundtruthed targets
with and without downwelling are presented.
[1] X. Briottet, et al, “Intercomparison exercise of infrared radiative transfer
models in the urban canopy.”[2] G. Fontanilles, et al, “Aggregation process of optical properties andtemperature over heterogeneous surfaces in infrared domain.”9472-35, Session 7

Self-organization, neighborhoods, andpossibilistic classification
Paul D. Gader, Leila Kalantari, Ron Fick, Univ. of Florida(United States)
Air and space borne imaging spectrometers produce images with measured
spectra at each pixel. Materials in the measurement area can be classified
to some degree of accuracy using only these spectra. Single pixels or
aggregate measures of pixels (e.g. mean and variance of spectra measured
on tree crowns) can be used as input data to a classifier. In any case, we
think of classes as probability distributions and the input data as samples
from those distributions. This is more for streamlining the discussion that
follows rather than explicit use of probability distributions.
Air and space borne imaging spectrometers produce images with measured
spectra at each pixel. Materials in the measurement area can be classified

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9472-37, Session 7

Functions of multiple instances for
sub-pixel target characterization in
hyperspectral imagery
Alina Zare, Changzhe Jiao, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States)
In this presentation, the Functions of Multiple Instances (FUMI) approach
for learning target and non-target signatures is introduced. FUMI is a
generalization of the Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) approach forsupervised learning. FUMI differs significantly from standard MIL andsupervised learning approaches because only data points which arefunctions of class concepts/signatures are available. In particular, this paper
addresses the problem in which data points are linear combinations oftarget and non-target signatures. Multiple versions of the FUMI approach,including the Convex-FUMI (cFUMI) and Extended FUMI (eFUMI) algorithms
are presented and applied to the problem of hyperspectral unmixing andsub-pixel target detection. cFUMI learns target and non-target signatures(i.e., target and non-target endmembers), the number of non-target
signatures, and the proportion of each signature for every data point.
The eFUMI algorithm extends cFUMI to allow for additional ``bag-level’’uncertainty in training labels. For these methods, training data need only
binary labels indicating whether a data point (or some spatial area in thecase of $e$FUMI) contains or does not contain some proportion of target;
the specific target proportions for the training data are not needed. Afterlearning the target signature using the binary-labeled training data, target
detection can be performed on test data. Results for sub-pixel target
detection on simulated and real airborne hyperspectral data are shown.

9472-38, Session 7

Anisotropic representations forsuperresolution of hyperspectral data
James M. Murphy, Wojciech Czaja, Daniel Weinberg,
Edward Bosch, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates)
The analysis of hyperspectral imagery is a crucial problem at theintersection of the earth sciences, image processing, and appliedmathematics. Often, hyperspectral images have poor resolution, due tosensor design or environmental effects. The technique of super-resolution
improves the resolution of images by manipulating the image data, and is ofgreat significance in the analysis of hyperspectral data.
We propose a novel technique for super-resolution, based on anisotropic
representation systems in harmonic analysis. The recent innovations ofshearlets and composite wavelets, which have strong directional sensitivity,
shall be investigated. These representation systems are known to optimallyrepresent edge-like features in images, and are thus natural candidates forsuper-resolution algorithms based on edge features. Our algorithms shall becompared to known super-resolution techniques based on wavelets.

9472-39, Session 8

The development of a DIRSIG simulation
environment to support instrument tradestudies for the SOLARIS sensor

mission that addresses the need to make highly accurate observations oflong-term climate change trends. The SOLARIS instrument will be designed
to support a primary objective of CLARREO, which is to advance theaccuracy of absolute calibration for space borne instruments in the reflectedsolar wavelengths. This work focuses on the development of a simulated
environment to facilitate sensor trade studies to support instrument design
and build of the SOLARIS sensor. Openly available data are used to generategeometrically and radiometrically realistic synthetic landscapes to serve as
input to an image generation model, specifically the Digital Imaging andRemote Sensing Image Generation (DIRSIG) model.
Recent enhancements to DIRSIG’s sensor model capabilities have madeit an attractive option for performing sensor trade studies. This researchtakes advantage of these enhancements to model key sensor characteristics(e.g., sensor noise, relative spectral response, spectral coverage, etc.)
and evaluate their impact on SOLARIS’s stringent 0.3% error budget
for absolute calibration. A SOLARIS sensor model is developed directlyfrom measurements provided by NASA Goddard and various synthetic
landscapes generated to identify potential calibration sites once theinstrument achieves orbit. The results of these experiments are presented
and potential sources of error for sensor inter-calibration are identified.

9472-40, Session 8

Empirical measurement and model
validation of infrared spectra ofcontaminated surfaces
Sean Archer, Michael G. Gartley, John Kerekes, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States); Bogdon R.
Cosofret, Jay P. Giblin, Physical Sciences Inc. (UnitedStates)Liquid-contaminated surfaces generally require more sophisticatedradiometric modeling to numerically describe surface properties. The
Digital Imaging and Remote Sensing Image Generation (DIRSIG) Modelutilizes radiative transfer modeling to generate synthetic imagery. Within
DIRSIG, a micro-scale surface property model (microDIRSIG) was used to
calculate numerical bidirectional reflectance distribution functions (BRDF)
of geometric surfaces with applied concentrations of liquid contamination.
Simple cases where the liquid contamination was well described by opticalconstants on optically flat surfaces were first analytically evaluated by ray
tracing and modeled within microDIRSIG. More complex combinations ofsurface geometry and contaminant application were then incorporated
into the micro-scale model. The computed microDIRSIG BRDF outputs
were used to describe surface material properties in the encompassing
DIRSIG simulation. These DIRSIG generated outputs were validated with
empirical measurements obtained from a Design and Prototypes (D&P)
Model 102 FTIR spectrometer. Infrared spectra from the synthetic imagery
and the empirical measurements were iteratively compared to identify
quantitative spectral similarity between the measured data and modeled
outputs. Several spectral angles between the predicted and measured
emissivity spectra differed by less than 1 degree. Synthetic radiance spectra
produced from the microDIRSIG/DIRSIG combination had a RMS error of
0.21-0.81 watts/(m^2-sr-? m) when compared to the D&P measurements.
Results from this comparison will facilitate improved methods for identifying
spectral features and detecting liquid contamination on a variety ofnatural surfaces.

9472-41, Session 8

Aaron D. Gerace, Jie Yang, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States); Joel McCorkel, NASA
Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States)

Spectral analysis of water samples
using modulated resonance features formonitoring of public water resources

NASA Goddard’s SOLARIS (Solar, Lunar for Absolute Reflectance Imaging
Spectroradiometer) sensor is the calibration demonstration system for
CLARREO (Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory), a

Samuel G. Lambrakos, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Constantine Yapijakis, The Cooper Union for the
Advancement of Science and Art (United States); Daniel

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI
Aiken, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Andrew
Shabaev, George Mason Univ. (United States); Scott A.
Ramsey, Joseph E. Peak, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)9472-44, Session 8

Hyperspectral analysis of water samples taken from public water resourcesin the New York City metro area, has demonstrated the potential applicationof this type of analysis for water monitoring, treatment and evaluation
prior to filtration. Hyperspectral monitoring of contaminants with respect
to types and relative concentrations requires tracking statistical profilesof water contaminants in terms of spatial-temporal distributions ofelectromagnetic absorption spectra ranging from the ultraviolet to infrared,
which are associated with specific water resources. To achieve this, itis necessary to establish correlation between hyperspectral signatures
and types of contaminants to be found within specific water resources.
Correlation between absorption spectra and changes in chemical andphysical characteristics of contaminants requires sufficient sensitivity ofspectral features with respect to these changes. The present study examines
the sensitivity of modulated resonance features of spectra with respect tocontaminant characteristics for hyperspectral analysis of water samples.

Jean-Claude Thelen, Stephan Havemann, Gerald J. Wong,
Met Office (United Kingdom)

Surface retrievals from Hyperion EO1 using
a new, fast, 1D-Var based retrieval code

Here, we present a new prototype algorithm for the simultaneous retrievalof the atmospheric profiles (temperature, humidity, ozone and aerosol) andthe surface reflectance from hyperspectral radiance measurements obtained
from air/space-borne, hyperspectral imagers such as the ‘Airborne Visible/
Infrared Imager (AVIRIS) or Hyperion on board the Earth Observatory 1.
The new scheme, proposed here, consists of a fast radiative transfer code,
based on empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs), in conjunction with a
1D-Var retrieval scheme. The inclusion of an ‘exact’ scattering code based on
spherical harmonics, allows for an accurate treatment of Rayleigh scatteringand scattering by aerosols, water droplets and ice-crystals, thus making it
possible to also retrieve cloud and aerosol optical properties, although here
we will concentrate on non-cloudy scenes. We successfully tested this new
approach using two hyperspectral images taken by AVIRIS, a whiskbroom
imaging spectrometer operated by the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

9472-42, Session 89472-45, Session 9

An accelerated line-by-line option
for MODTRAN combining on-the-fly
generation of line center absorption within
0.1 cm-1 bins and pre-computed line tails

Imaging polarization heterodynedinterferometry using savart plates
Bryan D. Maione, Michael W. Kudenov, North Carolina State
Univ. (United States)

Alexander Berk, Patrick F. Conforti, Lawrence S. Bernstein,
Prabhat K. Acharya, Chona S. Guiang, Raphael Panfili,
Spectral Sciences, Inc. (United States)

Polarization spatial heterodyne interferometry (PSHI) allows for thedevelopment of compact, vibration insensitive, high spectral resolution
sensors. Introducing the imaging qualities of a lenslet array extends
the advantages of PSHI to imaging interferometers. The use of Savart
plates enables a birefringent interferometer that obtains higher spectral
resolution with fewer optical aberrations when compared to alternative
designs. In this paper, we describe the design and Zemax-based simulationof an imaging polarization heterodyned interferometer (IPHI), based on
Savart plates, along with its associated theoretical model. Additionally, weoutline the preliminary results associated with its calibration. This sensor
is advantageous for spectral imaging in the areas of remote sensing,biomedical imaging and machine vision.

A Line-By-Line (LBL) option has been developed for MODTRAN6. The
motivation for this development is two-fold. Firstly, when MODTRAN is
validated against an independent LBL model, it is difficult to isolate thesource of discrepancies. One must verify consistency between pressure,temperature and density profiles, between column density calculations,
between continuum and particulate data, between spectral convolution
methods, and more. Introducing a LBL option directly within MODTRAN
will insure common elements for all calculations other than those used
to compute molecular transmittances. Thus, the new option will facilitate
testing and subsequent refinement of the MODTRAN band model.
The second motivation for the LBL upgrade is that it will enable users tocompute high spectral resolution transmittances and radiances not only
for the full range of current MODTRAN applications, but also for radiativetransfer problems outside of current purview of MODTRAN. In particular,
MODTRAN current applications include methods for solving the multiple
scattering problem. Introducing the LBL feature into MODTRAN will enable
first-principle calculations of scattered radiances, an option that is often notreadily available with LBL models.

9472-46, Session 9

Passive standoff imaging using spatialspectral multiplexing
Ethan Woodard, Michael W. Kudenov, North Carolina State
Univ. (United States)

MODTRAN will compute LBL transmittances within one 0.1 cm-1 spectral bin
at a time, marching through the full requested band pass. The LBL algorithm
will use the highly accurate, pressure- and temperature-dependent
MODTRAN Padé approximant fits of the contribution from line tails to define
the absorption from all molecular transitions centered more than 0.05 cm-1
from each 0.1 cm-1 spectral bin. The beauty of this approach is that theon-the-fly computations for each 0.1 cm-1 bin will only require explicit LBL
summing of transitions centered within a 0.2 cm-1 spectral region. That is,the contribution from the more distant lines will be pre-computed via the
Padé approximants. The status of the LBL effort will be presented. This will
include initial thermal and solar radiance calculations, validations against the
LBLRTM model, and self-validations of the MODTRAN band model against
its own LBL calculations.

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The concept and model of a passive superresolution imaging system, withpotentially unlimited spatial resolution, is detailed. While conventional
lenses lead to diffraction limited systems with restricted spatial resolution,
the described Spatial-Spectral Multiplexing (SSM) technique exploits
a traditional Michelson interferometer (MI) and nonlinear dispersion
characteristics to multiplex a scene’s angular spectrum onto a scene’s power
spectrum. Conventional lenses create an image using transverse interference
and are therefore fundamentally limited in spatial resolution. However,by multiplexing the transverse spatial information onto the longitudinalinterference fringes of an optical beam, a detector can be used to measure
the fringes, to a theoretically arbitrarily high precision, by adjusting therelative phase. To this end, a theoretical model of the MI-based system isdeveloped and validated with data from proof of concept experiments.
Additional modeling is incorporated to characterize non-ideal effects andto quantify the temporal, spatial, and spectral resolution tradespace ofthe system. Applications for this imaging system primarily include remotesensing and target identification, with future possibilities in medical or
astronomical imaging depending on radiometric efficiency.

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-47, Session 9

Postgraduate School (United States); Meryl L. McDowell,
Naval Postgraduate School (United States) and Scitor
Corp. (United States)

Automated turbulence and jitterscorrection with a dual port imaging
Fourier-transform spectrometer
Florent M. Prel, Louis M. Moreau, Stéphane M. Lantagne,
Claude B. Roy, ABB Analytical Measurement (Canada)
When the scene observed by an imaging Fourier-Transform Spectrometer
is not stable in amplitude or in position during the time it takes to acquireto spectrum, spectro-radiometric artifacts are generated. These artifacts
reduce the radiometric accuracy and may also damage the spectral line
shape. The displacements of the scene in the field of view can be due to air
turbulence, platform jitters or scene jitters.
We describe an automated correction process based on the information
provided by the second output port of a two-port imaging FTS. Corrected
and uncorrected data will be compared.

9472-54, Session 10

Integrated visible to near-infrared,
shortwave infrared, and longwave infrared
spectral analysis for surface composition
mapping near Mountain Pass, California
Meryl L. McDowell, Scitor Corp. (United States) and Naval
Postgraduate School (United States); Fred A. Kruse, Naval
Postgraduate School (United States)
The utility of visible to near infrared (VNIR), short wave infrared (SWIR)
and long wave infrared (LWIR) spectral remote sensing for compositional
analysis is well established, though not commonly used to full advantage.
Most previous research and applications have focused on individual spectral
ranges. We have developed new methods for enhanced identificationand mapping that integrate VNIR-SWIR and LWIR multispectral andhyperspectral imagery, taking advantage of the complementary information
available when the full range is considered.
The primary dataset used in this research combines hyperspectral Airborne
Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data (VNIR-SWIR, 0.4 – 2.5µm, 224 spectral bands) and multispectral MODIS/ASTER airborne simulator(MASTER) data (LWIR, 7.8 – 12.8 ?m, 10 spectral bands) of the Mountain
Pass, California area. An additional dataset combining AVIRIS with the
Aerospace Corporation’s hyperspectral LWIR Mako instrument (7.6 – 13.2
µm, 128 spectral bands) was used to test the benefit of hyperspectral
LWIR data. The VNIR-SWIR and LWIR spectra were corrected to surface
reflectance and emissivity, respectively.
Spectral analysis was conducted in two main stages. An initial analysis was
performed independently for each spectral range. The spectral and spatial
dimensions were reduced using a minimum noise fraction transformation
and “pure-pixel” extraction approach to select image endmembers, anda partial unmixing technique was used for abundance determination.
Integrated analysis and classification were used in the second stage to
produce a final map derived from the full spectral range. Analyses of
the individual spectral ranges detect different materials, and integrated
classification exhibits aspects from each range.

9472-55, Session 10

Exploration of integrated visible to near, shortwave-, and longwave-infrared (fullrange) hyperspectral data analysis

Visible to near-, shortwave-, and longwave-infrared (VNIR, SWIR,
LWIR) remote sensing data are typically analyzed in their individual
wavelength regions, even though theory suggests combined use wouldemphasize complementary features. This research explored the potential
for improvements in material classification using integrated datasets.
Hyperspectral (HSI) VNIR and SWIR data from the MaRSuper Sensor System(MSS-1) were analyzed with HSI LWIR data from the Spatially Enhanced
Broadband Array Spectrograph System (SEBASS) to determine differences
between individual (baseline) and combined analyses. The first integration
approach applied separate minimum noise fraction (MNF) transforms to
the three regions and combined only non-noise transformed bands fromthe individual regions during analysis. The second approach integrated over
470 hyperspectral bands covering the VNIR, SWIR, and LWIR wavelengths
before using MNF analysis to isolate linear band combinations containing
high signal to noise. Spectral endmembers isolated from data were
unmixed using partial unmixing. The feasible and high abundance pixels
were spatially mapped using a consistent feasibility ratio threshold. Bothintegration methods enabled straight-forward and effective identification,
characterization, and mapping of the scene because higher variability
existed between endmembers and background. Results were comparedto the baseline analysis. Material identification was more conclusive whenanalyzing across the full spectrum.

9472-56, Session 10

Analysis of multispectral andhyperspectral longwave infrared (LWIR)
data for geologic mapping
Fred A. Kruse, Naval Postgraduate School (United States);
Meryl L. McDowell, Naval Postgraduate School (UnitedStates) and Scitor Corp. (United States)
Multispectral MODIS/ASTER Airborne Simulator (MASTER) data andHyperspectral Thermal Emission Spectrometer (HyTES) data covering the
8 – 12 micrometer spectral range (longwave infrared or LWIR) were analyzed
for an area near Mountain Pass, California. Decorrelation stretched images
were initially used to highlight spectral differences between geologic
materials. Both datasets were then atmospherically corrected using the
ISAC method, and the Normalized Emissivity approach was used to separate
temperature and emissivity. The MASTER data had 10 LWIR spectral bands
and approximately 35m spatial resolution and covered a larger area thanthe HyTES data, which were collected with 256 narrow (approximately
18nm-wide) spectral bands at approximately 2.3m spatial resolution. Spectra
for key spatially-coherent, spectrally-determined geologic units for overlap
areas were overlain and visually compared to determine similarities anddifferences. Endmember spectra were extracted from both datasets using
n-dimensional scatterplotting and compared to emissivity spectral libraries
for identification. Endmember distributions and abundances were thenmapped using Mixture-Tuned Matched Filtering (MTMF), a partial unmixing
approach. Multispectral results demonstrate separation of silica-rich vs nonsilicate materials, with distinct mapping of carbonate areas. Hyperspectral
results illustrate refined mapping of silicates with distinction between similar
units based on the position, character, and shape of high resolution emission
minima near 9 micrometers. Calcite and dolomite were separated, identified,and mapped using HyTES based on a shift of the main carbonate emissivity
minimum from approximately 11.3 to 11.2 micrometers respectively. Bothdatasets demonstrate the utility of LWIR spectral remote sensing for
geologic mapping.

Shelli R. Cone, Scitor Corp. (United States) and Naval
Postgraduate School (United States); Fred A. Kruse, Naval

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-57, Session 109472-49, Session 11

Comparative analysis of Airborne Visible/
Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS),
and Hyperspectral Thermal Emission
Spectrometer (HyTES) longwave infrared(LWIR) hyperspectral data for geologic
mapping

A comparison of directed search andin scene search target detection in
Worldview-2 datasets
Stanley I Grossman, National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency (United States)
Since the events of September 11, 2001, the intelligence focus has moved
from large order-of-battle targets to small targets of opportunity. Thisrequires finer spectral and spatial fidelity to recognize those targets. This
work hypothesizes that directed searches using calibrated data performbetter than in-scene manually intensive target detection searches.
Worldview-2 multispectral imagery was used with Non-conventional
Exploitation Factors (NEF) data system generated signatures and standard
detection algorithms to compare bespoke directed search capabilities
against ENVI™ in-scene search capabilities. Multiple iterations were
performed at increasing algorithm detection thresholds to generate
detection rates. These rates are plotted and statistically analyzed. Whileindividual head-to-head comparison results vary, 88% of the directed
searches outperformed in-scene searches. When the results are averaged
into meaningful groups, the generalized results universally indicate better
directed search performance. The results strongly support the premise that
directed searches out perform comparable in-scene searches.

Fred A. Kruse, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)
Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) and Hyperspectral
Thermal Emission Spectrometer (HyTES) data were used to map geology
and alteration for a site in northern Death Valley, California and Nevada,USA. AVIRIS, with 224 bands at 10nm spectral resolution over the range
0.4 – 2.5 micrometers were converted to reflectance using an atmosphericmodel. Key mineral endmembers were extracted and identified, and theirlocation and abundances were mapped. HyTES data with 256 bands atapproximately 17nm spectral resolution covering the 8 – 12 micrometer
range at 5m spatial resolution were atmospherically corrected using theempirical ISAC correction. These were further converted to approximate
emissivity using an emissivity normalization temperature-emissivity
separation approach. Spectral endmembers were again extracted andmapped. Field and laboratory spectral measurements of selected rockand alteration samples validate the AVIRIS and HyTES measurements.
Spatial analysis of the distribution of endmembers separately mappedusing the AVIRIS and HyTES data in geologic context illustrates thatthe HyTES endmembers are principally associated with primary rockforming silicates and carbonates while the AVIRIS endmembers mostly
represent hydrothermal alteration. AVIRIS mapped clays, mica, sulfates,and silicification, and the difference between calcite and dolomite. HyTES
was used to separate and map several igneous phases (not separable using
AVIRIS) and to validate separation of calcite from dolomite. Together, thesetwo datasets provide an improved picture of the distribution of geologic
units and subsequent alteration and weathering. Combined, integrated
analysis is in progress.

9472-50, Session 11

Evaluation techniques and metrics
for assessment of pan+MSI fusion(pansharpening)
Ryan A. Mercovich, Vencore, Inc. (United States)
Fusion of broadband panchromatic data with narrow band multispectral
data – pansharpening – is a common and often studied problem in remotesensing. Many methods exist to produce data fusion results with the best
possible spatial and spectral characteristics, and a number have beencommercially implemented. This study examines the output products of
4 commercial implementations with regard to their relative strengths andweaknesses for a set of defined image characteristics and analyst usecases. Image characteristics used are spatial detail, spatial quality, spectral
integrity, and composite color quality, and analyst use-cases included avariety of object detection and identification tasks. The imagery comescourtesy of the RIT SHARE 2012 collect. Visual analyst evaluation results
are compared with metric results to characterize the metrics and determine
which are best suited to measure the defined image characteristics andimage product use-cases. Because pansharpening represents a trade
between adding spatial information from the panchromatic image andretaining spectral information from the MSI channels, the metrics examined
are grouped into spatial improvement metrics and spectral preservation
metrics. A single metric to quantify the quality of a pansharpening method
would necessarily be a combination of weighted spatial and spectral metrics
based on the importance of various spatial and spectral characteristics
for the primary task of interest. Appropriate metrics and weights for sucha combined metric are proposed here, based on the conducted analyst
evaluation. Additionally, during this work, a new metric was developed
specifically focused on assessment of spatial structure improvement relative
to a reference image and independent of scene content. Using analysis of
Fourier transform images a measure of high-frequency content is computedin small sub-segments of the image. The average improvement acrossthe image is used as the metric, and the averaging across sub-segments
combats the scene dependent nature of typical image sharpness techniques.
This metric had improved dynamic range in the test set relative to othercommon spatial structure metrics.

9472-48, Session 11

Symmetrized regression for multispectral
background estimation
James P. Theiler, Brendt E. Wohlberg, Los Alamos National
Lab. (United States)
We propose to improve the detection of targets and anomalies in a cluttered
background by more effectively estimating that background. If one has agood estimate of what the target-free radiance should be at a pixel, thatprovides a point of comparison with the actual measured value at that pixel.
Pixels with large discrepancies are candidates for target locations.
It is common to make this estimate using the mean of pixels in an annulus
around the pixel of interest. But instead of the simple mean, one can employ
more complicated functions that are learned from the rest of the image.
Basically, this is a multivariate regression of the value at a central pixel as afunction of the values of the pixels in the surrounding annulus. One can dothis on a band-by-band basis, or with multiple bands simultaneously.
For overhead remote sensing imagery, there is an eightfold symmetry in thesurrounding annulus, corresponding to reflection and rotation. Turning animage ninety degrees does not change its essential nature nor, to a good
approximation, does it change its spatio-spectral statistics. (Nominally there
is symmetry to arbitrary rotation, but the discreteness of square pixels limits
the strict symmetry to rotations that are multiples of ninety degrees.) One
can use this symmetry to effectively multiply the training set size by eight,
or else one can impose symmetry on the feature set and thereby reduce thesize of the training space. This paper will investigate the extent to which thissymmetry can be exploited.

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-51, Session 119472-4, Session PSThu

Snapshot imaging Fraunhofer line
discriminator for detection of plant
fluorescence

Imaging white blood cells using a snapshot
hyperspectral imaging system
Christopher J. Robison, Christopher J. Kolanko,
Thirimachos Bourlai, Jeremy M. Dawson, West Virginia
Univ. (United States)

Subharup Gupta Roy, Michael W. Kudenov, North Carolina
State Univ. (United States)

Assessing the impact of sub-pixel
vegetation structure on imaging
spectroscopy via simulation

A white blood cell count is used for detecting auto-immune symptoms,
radiation/chemical exposure, or other health related issues in medical andpoint-of-care defense applications. This process often requires a significant
amount of time, including physically drawing the blood and additional
sample processing, such as staining. Methods of counting white blood
cells on blood smear slides typically take from 15 min (in an emergency)
up to 1 hour to complete in a lab setting and require a blood draw andsample staining. Snapshot Hyper-Spectral imaging systems are capableof capturing several spectral bands simultaneously, offering co-registeredimages of a target. With an appropriate optics, these systems are potentiallyable to image blood cells in vivo as they flow through a vessel, eliminating
the need for a blood draw and sample staining. Our group has evaluatedthe capability of a commercial Snapshot Hyper-Spectral imaging system,
the Arrow system from Rebellion Photonics, in differentiating between
white and red blood cells both for traditional blood smear slides andblood samples sealed inside capillary tubes. We evaluated the imaging
performance of the hyperspectral camera attached to a microscope atvarying objective powers and illumination intensity. Hyperspectral dataconsisting of 40 hyperspectral bands with ~5nm spacing were captured
over the range of 419 to 641nm. Open-source hyper-spectral data cube
analysis tools, used primarily in Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
applications, indicate that white blood cells features are most prominent
in bands ranging from 428 to 442nm for blood samples viewed under 20x
and 50x magnification over a varying range of illumination intensities. These
images could potentially be used in subsequent automated white blood cellsegmentation and counting algorithms for performing in vivo white blood
cell counting.

Wei Yao, Jan A. N. van Aardt, Paul Romanczyk, David
Kelbe, Martin van Leeuwen, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)

9472-58, Session PSThu

Non-invasive quantification of plant health is traditionally accomplishedusing reflectance based metrics such as the normalized difference
vegetative index (NDVI). However, measuring plant fluorescence (bothactive and passive) to determine photochemistry of plants has gained
importance. Due to better cost efficiency, lower power requirements,and simpler scanning synchronization, detecting passive fluorescenceis preferred over active fluorescence. In this paper, we propose a novel
approach towards measuring plant fluorescence, within the hydrogenalpha Fraunhofer line at ~656 nm, using a Snapshot Imaging FraunhoferLine Discriminator (SIFOLD). For the first time, the advantage of snapshot
imaging for high throughput Fraunhofer Line Discrimination (FLD) is
cultivated by our system, which is based on a multiple-image Fouriertransform spectrometer and a spatial heterodyne interferometer (SHI).
The SHI is a Sagnac interferometer, which is dispersion compensated using
blazed diffraction gratings. We present data and techniques for calibrating
the SIFOLD to any particular wavelength. This technique can be applied toquantify plant fluorescence at low cost and reduced complexity ofdata collection.

9472-52, Session 11

Consistent and scalable estimation of vegetation structural parameters fromimaging spectroscopy is essential to remote sensing for ecosystem studies,given the proven utility of such systems for more typical physiologicalassessments. The Hyperspectral Infrared Imager (HyspIRI) mission proposes
an imaging spectrometer, which measures the 380-2500nm radiance in
10nm contiguous bands with 60m GSD. This platform is intended to function
as a global imager, thus it would be beneficial to assess both vegetation
physiology and structure from a single modality. This research therefore
evaluates and attempts to confirm the link between vegetation structure
and imaging spectroscopy.
To achieve the objective, three virtual scenes were constructed, whichcorrespond to the actual vegetation structure of the National EcologicalObservation Network (NEON) Pacific Southwest site (Fresno, CA). Secondly,
the HyspIRI data (60m GSD) were simulated by the Digital Imaging andRemote Sensing Image Generation Model, a first-principles synthetic image
generation model developed by the Rochester Institute of Technology.
AVIRIS and NEON high-resolution spectrometer data were used to verify
the geometric parameters and physical models. Thirdly, multiple simulated
HyspIRI data sets were generated by varying within-pixel structuralvariables, such as forest density, the position and distribution of trees,crown size, etc. Finally, statistical significant differences among a series ofnarrow-band vegetation indices were used to assess the impact of sub-pixel
vegetation structure on spectral response.
Early results indicate that HyspIRI is sensitive to sub-pixel vegetation
structural variation in the blue and red spectral regions due to pigmentchanges, as well as the SWIR region due to water content variation.
Therefore, the system’s suitability for consistent global vegetation structuralassessments could be improved by adapting calibration strategies toaccount for this sub-pixel variation. More detailed results will be presented
at the conference.

220

SPIE DSS 2015·

Cooperative spectral and spatial featurefusion for camouflaged target detection
Sungho Kim, Min-Sheob Shim, Yeungnam Univ. (Korea,
Republic of)
The detection of camouflaged objects is important for industrial inspection,
medical diagnoses, and military applications. Conventional supervised
learning methods for hyperspectral images can be a feasible solution. Suchapproaches, however, require a priori information of a camouflaged object
and background. This paper proposes a fully autonomous feature selection
and camouflaged object detectionmethod based on the online analysis ofspectral and spatial features.The statistical distancemetric can generate
candidate feature bands and further analysis of the entropy-based spatial
grouping property can trim the useless feature bands.
In the first stage of spectral feature analysis, a new statistical distancemeasure in the ranking-based method instead of the band clustering
method was proposed due to the high computational complexity. Spectral
analysis can generate candidate bands that maximize the statisticaldistance. In the second stage, an entropy-based measure was proposed toquantify the uncertainty of spatial segmentation. The bands that generatehigh entropy value (noisy spatial segmentation) can be reduced. Therefore,
the first contribution is the proposition of a novel band selection methodby considering both spectral and spatial analysis without prior knowledge.
The second contribution is the automatic detection of a camouflaged orabnormal region without a training process. Therefore, the detected results
can be obtained without human intervention if any kinds of hyperspectral
test images are applied to the inspection system. Camouflaged objects canbe detected better with less computational complexity by optical spectralspatial feature analysis.

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Conference 9472: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XXI

9472-59, Session PSThu

9472-61, Session PSThu

On the response function separability ofhyperspectral imaging systems

Skin detection in hyperspectral imagery
Stephanie M. Sanchez, Miguel Velez-Reyes, The Univ. of
Texas at El Paso (United States)

Jurij Jemec, Univ. of Ljubljana (Slovenia); Franjo Pernus̆,Bos̆tjan Likar, Univ. of Ljubljana (Slovenia) and Sensum
d.o.o. (Slovenia); Miran Bürmen, Univ. of Ljubljana(Slovenia)

Hyperspectral imagers collect information of the scene being imaging at
nearly contiguous bands in the electromagnetic spectrum at high spectral
resolution. Hyperspectral images are organized in a data cube where the x
and y axes contain spatial information and the z-axis spectral information.
These imagers are use in various application fields (i.e. agriculture,
surveillance, chemical imaging, environmental, medical, etc.). Combining
hyperspectral imaging with skin optics principles will allow detection ofhuman’s presence in a scene based on skin detection. Due to similarityof skin pigmentation to several objects, standard three band digital RGB
cameras are sometimes unable to detect skin and non-skin accurately, as
false alarms typically appear with objects that have colors similar toskin tones.

Hyperspectral imaging is a 3D imaging modality comprising one spectral
and two spatial dimensions. Hyperspectral imaging systems consistof three main units: the front lens, the light-diffraction element and acamera. Imperfections in these components introduce spectral and spatial
dependent distortions in the recorded 3D image. These can be characterized
by a 3D response function that is subsequently used to remove distortions
and enhance the resolution of the recorded images by deconvolution. The
majority of existing characterization methods assume spatial and spectral
separability of the 3D response function. In this way, the complex problem
of 3D response function characterization is reduced to independent
characterization of the three orthogonal response function components.
However, if the 3D response function is non-separable, such characterization
can lead to poor results of the deconvolution-based image enhancement.
In this paper, we examine the separability of the 3D response function in
the spatial plane. A direct measurement procedure is used to estimate
the spatial 2D response function. To study the effect of non-separabilityon the quality of deconvolved images, deconvolution with separable andnon-separable response function estimates obtained in the characterization
process is performed on a set of recorded test images. The quality ofdeconvolved images is assessed in terms of rise width and step edge
overshoot in the images after performing deconvolution. Results indicatethat there are cases, when non-separability of the system response function
should be considered.

In our work, we study published and develop feature extraction methods
that are focused on skin detection over different background using
hyperspectral imaging. Spectral signatures in the 400 to 2500 nm spectral
region are collected from skin and different objects with a spectrometerand used to create a database to evaluate the performance of different
features. Hyperspectral images in the 400 to 1000 nm spectral region
with people over different backgrounds are collected and used to test the
proposed features. Data is analyzed using the MATLAB software. A newnormalized differential index is proposed using bands around 800 nm and
980 nm. Results from spectral analysis show that combinations of different
normalized indexes have different discrimination performance for the
proposed skin detection task.

9472-62, Session PSThu

Can we match ultraviolet face images
against their visible counterparts?

9472-60, Session PSThu

Evaluation of rainfall and NDVI anomalies
using distributed lag models

Neeru Narang, Thirimachos Bourlai, West Virginia Univ.
(United States); Lawrence A Hornak, University of Georgia(United States)

Worku Zewdie Gebrehiwot, Elmar Csaplovics, Technische
Univ. Dresden (Germany)

In law enforcement and security applications, the acquisition of face images
is critical in producing key trace evidence for the successful identification ofpotential threats. However, face recognition (FR) for face images captured
from different camera sensors, illumination conditions, and expressions
is very challenging. In this paper, we investigate the advantages andlimitations of the heterogeneous problem of matching ultra violet (from10 nm to 400 nm in wavelength) or UV, face images against their visible
counterparts, when all face images are captured undercontrolled conditions.

Climatic variability and human impacts have caused major environmental
changes in the sub-Saharan Africa. The semiarid regions of northwestern
Ethiopia are exposed to this anthropogenic and natural calamity. There isa cloud of haze originating in the border of Sudan and Ethiopia resulted
from land degradation.However the extent and degree of changes were notthoroughly analyzed.In this study we assessed the relationship between
Tropical Applications of Meteorology using Satellite data(TAMSAT) rainfall
data and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(eMODIS)Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data for the period from2000 to 2014 on decadal and annual basis using multivariate distributedlag (DL) models.The decadal growing seasons (June to September) values
were calculated from MODIS NDVI data. A regression analysis using DL
model was performed to evaluate time-lagged effects of rainfall amountand mean surface temperature on the biomass productivity. The growing
season NDVI values are highly correlated with the precipitations during
the whole study period. A lag of up to 30 days observed in most parts ofour study region. The higher lagged correlation was observed in woodland
regions that suffered a severe deforestation due to cropland expansion andpopulation growth. The loss in vegetation cover contributed to low biomass
production due to extended loss in vegetation cover. In spite of the effects
of climatic factors, the impact of human activities is a significant contributor
for changes of environment and vegetation loss.

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The contributions of our work are three-fold; (i) We used a camera sensor
designed with the capability to acquire UV images at short-ranges, andgenerated a dual-band (Visible and UV) database that is composed ofmultiple, full frontal, face images of 50 subjects. Two sessions were collectedthat span over the period of 2 months. (ii) For each dataset, we determinedwhich set of face image pre-processing algorithms are more suitablefor face matching, and, finally, (iii) We determined which FR algorithm
better matches cross-band images, resulting in high rank-1 identification
rates. Experimental results show that our cross spectral matching (theheterogeneous problem, where gallery and probe sets have face images
acquired in different spectral bands) algorithms achieve sufficient
identification performance. However, we also conclude that the problem
under study, is very challenging, and it requires further investigation toaddress real-world law enforcement or military situations. To the best of ourknowledge, this is first time in the open literature the problem of crossspectral matching of UV against VIS band face images is being investigated.

·

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221Conference 9473:
Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9473 Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V

9473-1, Session 1

RS effect, motion blur as well as non-global illumination differences. We
formulate an optimization problem where each row of the distorted image
is approximated as a weighted sum of the corresponding rows in warped
versions of the reference image due to camera motion within the exposure
period to account for geometric as well as photometric differences. The
method will be validated on synthetic and real data.

Streaming analysis of track data from
video
Jiangqin Sun, David W. Messinger, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
A vast amount of temporal information are collected and stored, which calls
for techniques to extract useful high-level information, such as recognizable
activities or events. This paper proposes a framework for streaming analysisof time series data, in this case track data from video sequences, which canrecognize events without supervision and memorize them by building the
temporal contexts. The memorized historical data is then used to predict
the future and detect anomalous activities or events. An incremental
clustering method is used to recognize and learn the event without training.
A memorization method of double localization, including relative andabsolute localization, is proposed to model the temporal context. The firstorder Markov chain is used as an example to relatively localize an event in
the temporal space, while a temporal map is used to absolutely localize an
event. By setting proper coordinates for the temporal map, prior temporal
patterns can be included before building more delicate models to findsubtle patterns. Finally, the predictive model is built based on the methodof memorization. The “Edinburgh Informatics Forum Pedestrian Data set”,
which offers about 1000 observed trajectories of pedestrians detected incamera images each working day for several months, is used as an example
to illustrate the framework. The trajectories are incrementally recognized
as activities, and the activities are further used to describe the situation(event) in the scene. By using the proposed framework, we not only getcurrent high level information of the scene, such as activities and eventsoccurring in the scene, but also we can reason whether current activities
or events are normal by referring to the temporal context learned from
historical data. In the end, a total of 92,000+ observed trajectories and theirtemporal patterns over one year can be summarized by a temporal map of
16 events and a probability (transition) matrix between them. Our proposed
framework offers an effective method of extracting useful and manageable
information from a huge amount of raw data trajectories.

9473-3, Session 1

Cueing motion blur for registration of
inclined planar scenes
Arun A. Nair, Indian Institute of Technology Madras(India); Purnachandra Rao Makkena, IIT Madras (India);
Ambasamudram N. Rajagopalan, Indian Institute ofTechnology Madras (India); Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)

9473-2, Session 1

Motion blur is an omnipresent phenomenon observed in most images wecapture in low-light conditions, or with light-weight cameras mounted
on moving platforms. While existing methods that deal with motion blur
typically assume a fronto-parallel scene, this need not always be the case,especially in applications such as remote sensing. While most methods treat
motion blur as nuisance, we show how the blur itself can be harnessed as acue to infer the normal of the plane. We then show how this information canbe incorporated in the important low-level vision task of change detection
with respect to a reference image. The interesting and novel challenge wetackle in our work is that the blurred image can correspond to any unknown
inclination depending on the relative orientation of the camera with respect
to the scene. The proposed method mainly comprises of two stages. In
the first stage, we determine the orientation of the plane from the motionblurred image by establishing correspondences among the extremities ofthe blur kernels at different locations in the image. In the second stage, we
identify the changes with respect to the reference image by employing a
projective motion blur model which also factors-in the estimated normal of
the plane. After reorientation, we employ a reblur-difference framework to
detect the occlusions. In the experimental section, we validate our method
on synthetic as well as real images along with comparisons to the state-ofthe-art.

Illumination robust change detection withCMOS imaging sensors

9473-4, Session 1

Vijay Rengarajan, Sheetal B. Gupta, Ambasamudram N.
Rajagopalan, Indian Institute of Technology Madras (India);
Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Change detection between two images in the presence of degradations is an
important problem in the computer vision community, more so for the aerial
scenario which is particularly challenging. Cameras mounted on moving
platforms such as aircrafts or drones are subject to general six-dimensionalmotion as the motion is not restricted to a single plane. With CMOS cameras
increasingly in vogue due to their low power consumption, the inevitabilityof rolling-shutter (RS) effect adds to the challenge. This is caused bysequential exposure of rows in CMOS cameras unlike conventional global
shutter cameras where all pixels are exposed simultaneously. The RS effectis particularly pronounced in aerial imaging since each row of the imaging
sensor is likely to experience a different motion. For fast-moving platforms,
the problem is further compounded since the rows are also affected bymotion blur. Moreover, since the two images are shot at different times,
illumination differences are common. In this paper, we propose a unified
computational framework that elegantly exploits the sparsity constraint
to deal with the problem of change detection in images degraded by

222

SPIE DSS 2015·

Object and activity detection from aerial
video
Stephen Se, Feng Shi, Xin Liu, Mohsen Ghazel, MacDonald,
Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. (Canada)
Aerial video surveillance has advanced significantly in recent years,
as inexpensive high-quality video cameras and airborne platforms are
becoming more readily available. Video has become an indispensable partof military operations and is now becoming increasingly valuable in thecivil and paramilitary sectors. Such surveillance capabilities are useful forbattlefield intelligence and reconnaissance as well as monitoring major
events, border control and critical infrastructure. However, monitoring suchgrowing flood of video data requires significant effort from increasingly
large numbers of video analysts.
We have developed a suite of aerial video exploitation tools that canalleviate mundane monitoring from the analysts, by detecting and alerting
objects and activities that require analysts’ attention. These tools can beused for both tactical applications and post-mission analytics, so that thevideo data can be exploited more efficiently and timely.

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Conference 9473:
Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V
A feature-based approach and a pixel-based approach have been developedfor Video Moving Target Indicator (VMTI) to detect moving objects at realtime in aerial video. Such moving objects can then be classified by a person
detector algorithm which was trained with representative aerial data. We
are also developing an activity recognition tool that can recognize activities
of interests in aerial video, such as person-vehicle interaction.

The system learns new events using a programming by example paradigm.
With this technique, an analyst teaches the software tool new events bydemonstrating actions on concrete examples.
During the training phase, an analyst defines the attributes that constitutean event of interest in the video.

We have implemented a flexible framework so that new processing modules
can be added easily. The Graphical User Interface (GUI) allows the user
to configure the processing pipeline at run-time to evaluate different
algorithms and parameters. Preliminary results are promising and moredetailed performance evaluation is on-going.

The attributes include the actors (or targets) and the time duration of theevent.

9473-5, Session 1

A machine learning algorithm then learns event models from these features.

The system analyzes the targets over the duration of the event to generate a
set of characteristic features that describe the event.
These features yield a time-series representation of the orientation andvelocity of targets in relation to other targets.
Once trained, the system processes incoming video and identifies userdefined events in real time while also indexing the video to simplify forensic
analysis.

Application of VNIIRS for target tracking
Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

The online event detection software is comprised of algorithms for video
stabilization, target detection, target tracking and event detection.

The Motion Imagery Standards Board (MISB) has created the Video National
Imagery Interpretability Rating Scale (V-NIIRS). VNIIRS extends NIIRS toscene characterization from streaming video to include object recognitionof various targets for a given size. To apply VNIIRs, there is a need tounderstand the operating conditions of the sensor type, environmental
phenomenon, and target behavior (SET). Given the general definitions of
NIIRS, there is a need to understand the approach towards rating the abilityof target tracking methods to instantiate the method. In this paper, we
explore VNIIRS for different target tracking techniques given the resolutionof the sensor that supports the relative performance of the sensor to target
resolution in the image. The relative assessment can be used in relation to
the absolute target size associated with the VNIIRS. In a notional analysis,
we determine the issues and capabilities of using VNIIRS in rating theperformance of methods to achieve the various ratings. The outcome ofthe study is an experiment to understand how to use VNIIRS as method oftarget tracking evaluation

The video stabilization algorithm registers successive video frames using
planar homography.
The is effective for aerial video sequences in both land and maritime
scenarios.
Target detection is accomplished using model-free and model-based
methods.
Model-free methods include motion segmentation algorithm to segment animage into regions such that the motion of all pixels (optical flow) within aregion is consistent.
Model-based methods train an object detector to distinguish objects ofinterest from background structures.
Given target detections, the multi-target tracking algorithm uses a dataassociation approach to produce long duration trajectories by temporally
sequencing the per-frame detections.
Dynamic Time Warping (DTW) and Hidden Markov Model (HMM)
approaches are formulated for modeling spatio-temporal events.

9473-6, Session 1

DTW relies on matching incoming trajectory sequences with examples in the
training set while the HMM computes a succinct probabilistic representationfor each event class.

AESOP: adaptive event detection software
using programming by example

HMM’s advantages over DTW include the ability to generalize to unseen
scenarios and the ability to model complex and composite events.

Ashwin Thangali, Neal Checka, Harsha Prasad, Sai
Kethamakka, Vecna Technologies, Inc. (United States)

The performance of event detection approaches are evaluated on standard
datasets (e.g., VIVID, VIRAT) as well as on data collected in-house.

Currently, human operators must closely monitor video for simultaneous
situational awareness and threat assessment.

Promising event detection results are demonstrated on maritime sequencescollected from a point-tilt-zoom camera installed on a FireScout UAV.

Environments in a state of constant activity generate numerous visual cues,each of which must be examined so that potential security breaches do not
go unnoticed.

In addition to real-time monitoring for improved situational awareness, thesystem can also be employed in forensic applications where the software
can quickly search a large video archive for specific events of interest.

The need for constant vigilance places a significant burden on the operator,
invariably leading to fatigue and lapses in attention span.

9473-7, Session 1

Previous event recognition approaches relied on change detection
algorithms to identify pixels that differ between successive frames in theimage sequence.

Textured object video segmentation using
temporal coherency

These algorithms do not model the nuances of object interaction required
for robust event detection.

V. B. Surya Prasath, Rengarajan Pelapur, Raphael Viguier,Kannappan Palaniappan, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States); Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

In addition, these algorithms were designed for applications involving
minimal camera motion.
Changes in, viewing angle, scale, and illumination present additional
complexity; currently, systems cannot reconcile the same scene viewed fromdifferent vantage points.

Deformable and articulated objects are hard to segment and track overtime. Purely motion based techniques such as optical flow can produce
good results in terms of segmenting motion, however they do notincorporate salient object features. In this work, we propose a textured
object segmentation method using temporal coherency in videos. We
utilize color and texture feature fusion within a fast globally convex active
contour method to obtain multi-scale intra frame segmentations. A long
distance optical flow based point trajectories is then combined with frame

Therefore, an adaptive system that can detect events of interest
automatically regardless of operating scenario is necessary for addressingthese issues.
This paper introduces AESOP (Adaptive Event detection SOftware using
Programming by example), a video event detection software tool that
automatically detects time-critical events in real time.

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223

Conference 9473:
Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V
segmentations to obtain label propagation along the temporal direction.
Total variation regularization is applied to obtain well-defined object
boundaries and a dual minimization implementation is undertaken forsolving the overall energy minimization. Experimental results are given tohighlight our method and shows that we obtain dense segmentations evenwith sparse and noisy initial label set.

compute detection failure, false alarms, background, foreground regions,split of foreground regions, and merge of foreground regions. AIM-VIS willthen compute statistics such as Mutual Information (MI), entropy, Structural
Similarity Index (SSIM) for each of the above said errors in multiscale
fashion. The segmentation algorithm metrics in AIM-VIS will be analyzed
and performance described. The experimental results demonstrate theeffectiveness of the proposed methodology in object and activity detectionand exploitation for CBIR.

9473-8, Session 2

Pedestrian dead reckoning using a novel
sensor module that interfaces with modern
smart devices
Gregory F. S. Hewitt, Phil J. Stimac, Mark J. McKenna, Matt
Fordham, Richard Demar, Applied Research Associates,
Inc. (United States)
Tracking individuals in areas such as dense urban environments and building
interiors is desirable for numerous critical applications, but has been
problematic mainly because of the unreliability or unavailability of GPS inmany locations of interest. To date, tracking applications that utilize theinertial sensors on a smart device (i.e., pedestrian dead reckoning) have hadvaried degrees of success: accuracy typically dips below that of standard
GPS within minutes and depends strongly on the quality of the sensors in
the device, as well as the location that the device is carried on the body.
To address these issues, in this paper we present a sensor module thatinterfaces with any modern smart device and which utilizes an innovative‘dual 9-axis IMU’, a pressure sensor, and an ultra-high sensitivity GPS
receiver to provide an advanced pedestrian dead reckoning solution. The
sensor module is designed to communicate with a smart device (e.g., iOS,
Android or Windows) via the audio jack and is intended to be belt-mounted
or located in the pocket of the user. In addition to describing the sensor
module’s hardware and functionality, we present our approach to processing
the sensor module’s data streams to determine a user’s real-time position.
Results for the prototype sensor module, tested in operationally relevant
scenarios, will also be presented and discussed.

9473-9, Session 2

Information fusion performance evaluation
for motion imagery data
Soundararajan Ezekiel, Indiana Univ. of Pennsylvania(United States)
As technology and internet usage grows at exponential rates; video andimagery data has become increasingly important for security, surveillance,and response recovery. Wide Area Motion imagery (WAMI), Full Motion
Video (FMV), and Hyper Spectral Imaging (HSI) are data sources that arecollected as still or motion imagery. The imagery, along with extracted
relevant information provides contextual updates. Computer vision
exploitation applications include detecting and identifying a particular
object in imagery data which is useful for content based image retrieval(CBIR). For example, finding all video clips that contain a certain object(e.g., garden rake), or classes of people, automobiles, buildings, would bedesirable. Each imagery data is segmented, automatically analyzed andstored in a dynamic and robust database. Blasch et al. proposed an Artificial
Intelligence based event-Modeling and Video Imagery Segmentation(AIM-VIS) methodology which will fulfills the urgent need of building
a common and imagery database. The AIM-VIS dynamic database willfurther support Information Fusion (IF) methods). Many IF algorithms
have been proposed based on different assumptions such as statistical,
Gaussian, MinMax distributions, but only few metrics are used to evaluate
the performance of these algorithms. In this paper, we propose a robust
novel objective metric to evaluate the performance of image fusion which
compares the outcome of a given algorithm with ground truth along withseveral types of errors. The main feature of this proposed methodology
is as follows: given the ground truth of motion imagery data, AIM-VIS will

224

SPIE DSS 2015·

9473-10, Session 2

Video rate 3D registration of airborne
videoDavid Bottisti, Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control(United States); Suresh Subramaniam, The George
Washington Univ. (United States)
Geo-registration of airborne image or video data provides a mapping of
focal plane array pixels to inertial latitude and longitude coordinates. The
airborne image is compared with a reference map using correlation methods
in order to estimate an invertible projective transformation from pixel toinertial space. While registration to a two dimensional map is adequate forflat earth conditions, this can produce unacceptable errors in non-planar
terrains. In this paper, we describe an alternative method whereby thegeo-referenced database is augmented with altitude information in orderto enable 3-dimensional rendering of the approximate area surrounding the
subject image. We utilize OpenGL to assist in the 3-dimensional renderingand take advantage of several terrain and data compression algorithms toenable efficient storage and transmission of raster data. Our approach paves
way for video rate 3D registration.

9473-11, Session 2

Incorporating structure from motion
uncertainty into image-based pose
estimation
Ben Ludington, Andrew P. Brown, Michael Sheffler, Toyon
Research Corp. (United States); Clark N. Taylor, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States); Stephen Berardi, Northrop
Grumman Navigation Systems (United States)
A method for generating and utilizing structure from motion (SfM)
uncertainty estimates within image-based pose estimation is presented.
The method is applied to a class of problems in which SfM algorithms are
utilized to form a reference model of a particular ground area using imagery
gathered during flight by a small unmanned aircraft. The model is thenused to form pose estimates in near real-time from imagery gathered later.
The resulting pose estimates can be utilized by any of the other onboard
systems (e.g. as a replacement for GPS data). However, many of theconsumers of pose estimates require an assessment of the pose accuracy.
The method for generating the accuracy assessment is presented.
First, the uncertainty in the reference model is constructed. Sparse Bundle
Adjustment (SBA) is utilized for model generation. While the high-levelapproach for generating a covariance matrix of the SBA parameters is
straightforward, typical computing hardware is not able to support therequired operations due to the scale of the optimization problem within
SBA. Therefore, a series of sparse matrix operations is utilized to form
an exact covariance matrix for only the parameters that are needed at aparticular moment. Once the uncertainty in the model has been determined,
it is used to augment Perspective-n-Point pose estimation algorithms to
improve the pose accuracy and to estimate the resulting pose uncertainty.
The implementation of the described method is presented along with results
including results gathered from flight test data.

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Conference 9473:
Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V

9473-12, Session 2(United States)

Full motion video geopositioning
algorithm integrated test bed

Recent advances in distributed databases and computing have transformed
the landscape of spatio-temporal machine learning. This paper presents
GeoMesa, a distributed spatio-temporal database built on top of Hadoop,
Accumulo, and HBase and a suite of tools for analyzing vector and rasterdata. GeoMesa addresses the problem of indexing and distributing vector
and raster spatio-temporal data across a cluster of compute and storage
resources in a manner suitable for analytics. The indexing techniqueutilizes space filling curves to optimally map multi-dimensional data to thesingle lexicographic dimension dictated by the distributed database. Thisapproach of linearizing the keyspace and distributing the index and data
effectively optimizes query processing by parallelizing the data traversal
while simultaneously reducing the number of false positives that have tobe pruned. In contrast to traditional non-distributed RDBMS, GeoMesa iscapable of scaling horizontally by adding more resources at runtime; theindex rebalances across the additional resources. In the raster domain,
GeoMesa leverages Accumulo’s server-side iterators and aggregators to
perform raster interpolation and associative map algebra operations inparallel at query time. The paper concludes by describing the applicationand deployment of GeoMesa in support of georegistration for draping FMVover terrain.

John T. Dolloff, Bryant M. Hottel, Peter J. Doucette,
Aaron Braun, Henry J. Theiss, Adam Gurson, Integrity
Applications, Inc. (United States)
In order to better understand the issues associated with Full Motion
Video (FMV) geopositioning and to develop corresponding strategies andalgorithms, an integrated test bed is required. It is used to evaluate theperformance of various candidate algorithms associated with registrationof the video frames and subsequent geopositioning using the registered
frames. Major issues include reliable error propagation or predicted solution
accuracy, optimal vs. suboptimal vs. divergent solutions, robust processingin the presence of poor or non-existent a priori estimates of sensor
metadata, difficulty in the measurement of tie point between adjacentframes in the presence of noisy data and few discernable features, poor
imaging geometry including small field-of-view and little vertical relief, andno control (points). Depending on the operational scenario, any combinationof the above is possible and an FMV geopositioning system must be able toaddress them. The development and appropriate use of an integrated test
bed is an essential early step. It must be integrated in that major processing
modules are interconnected with appropriate data flows between them.
It must be able to handle both simulated and real data and evaluate
performance based on module-internal metrics as well as comparisons tosimulated or real “ground truth’. Selection of the appropriate modules andalgorithms must be both operator specifiable as well specifiable automatic.
An FMV test bed has been developed and continues to be improved withthe above characteristics. The paper describes its overall design as well key
underlying algorithms. Performance of tested scenarios is also summarized.

9473-15, Session 3

Addressing fundamental architectural
challenges of an activity based intelligence
and advanced analytics (ABIAA) system
Matthew F. Pellechia, Kevin C. Yager, Thomas A. Albert,
Bernard V. Brower, Shiloh L. Dockstader, Exelis Inc. (UnitedStates)9473-13, Session 2

The domain of Geospatial Intelligence Analysis is rapidly shifting toward
a new paradigm to enable Activity Based Intelligence (ABI) and toward
information-based Tipping and Queuing. System level requirements that
describe an advanced ABIAA system translate into significant challenges insystems design, computing resources, data volumes, workflow efficiency,
imaging algorithms and database science. In one example, ABI softwaresystems will have advanced algorithms with logic to automatically flag
activities that humans don’t have time to find, and in places that humans
would not have been looking, while maintaining geospatial data accuracy
Approaching an ABIAA system in an architectural serial workflow (tasking,collection, processing, exploitation and dissemination) may produce shortterm concept implementations, however, can present longer-term barriers
in realizing the intent of the true ABIAA system. This paper provides an
overview of an ABIAA system, with an assessment of the differentiation
against legacy systems. ABIAA architectural considerations will be
discussed, exploring the trades and issues between the hardware computing
environment and advanced software processing components. Examplesof several architectural components will be demonstrated and measured
against requirements. This paper concludes with a recommended strategy
and incremental approach to the research, development and delivery of an
operational ABIAA system.

Geostatistical modeling of uncertainty,
simulation, and proposed applications in
GISciencePeter J. Doucette, John T. Dolloff, Integrity Applications,
Inc. (United States)
Geostatistical modeling of spatial uncertainty has its roots in the mining,water and oil reservoir exploration communities, and has great potential
for broader applications as proposed in this paper. This paper describes
the underlying statistical models and their use in both the estimation ofquantities of interest and the Monte-Carlo simulation of their uncertainty
or errors, including their variance or expected magnitude and their spatial
correlations or inter-relationships. These quantities can include 2D or 3D
terrain locations, feature vertex locations, or any specified attributes whose
statistical properties vary spatially. The simulation of spatial uncertainty or
errors is a practical and powerful tool for understanding the effects of error
propagation in complex systems. This paper describes various simulation
techniques and trades-off their generality with complexity and speed. One
technique recently proposed by the authors, Fast Sequential Simulation, has
the ability to simulate millions of errors with specifiable variance and spatial
correlations in a few seconds on a lap-top computer. This ability allows
for the timely evaluation of resultant output errors or the performance ofa “down-stream” module or application. It also allows for near-real timeevaluation when such a simulation capability is built into theapplication itself.

9473-16, Session 3

Technologies for on-the-move standoff
explosive hazard detection
Sanjeev Agarwal, Ronald R. Rupp, U.S. Army Night Vision& Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Bruce
Swett, Chris Burnett, EOIR Technologies (United States)

9473-14, Session 3

GeoMesa: a distributed architecture formulti-source spatio-temporal fusion

The U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC Night Vision and Electronic Sensors
Directorate have developed a flexible and modular testbed system byintegrating vehicle mounted forward-looking EO-IR and down-looking
airborne sensors along with an algorithm development framework built on

Anthony Fox, Commonwealth Computer Research, Inc.

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Conference 9473:
Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V
gstreamer to research, develop and evaluate on-the-move forward-looking
explosive hazard detection capabilities.
The primary emphasis of the effort has been to develop a testbed systemwith a flexible and modular sensor integration architecture and unified
processing and exploitation framework for algorithm development whichallows easy integration and evaluation of new sensors, sensor subsystems
and algorithms from different providers. The effort seeks to develop groundvehicle mounted stabilized multi-band sensors to detect in-road threats withadequate standoff and processing workstation and cueing algorithms andfor automated and aided detection of buried IEDs and ambush indicatorsfrom ground and airborne standoff sensors.
The forward-looking explosive hazard detection system completed initialintegration and implementation of the end-to-end system for on-the-movereal-time aided inroad threat detection using forward looking EO/IR sensors.
The system includes service based sensor integration architecture, Video
Processing and Exploitation Framework (VPEF) based detection and acommon user interface. The system demonstrated the capability to handoff
threat cues detected by the vehicle mounted forward looking sensor toother confirmation and situational awareness sensors. The system is being
used to collect target signatures in multiple environments to help improvedetection performance with multi-sensor fusion algorithms.

derived from GIS information and SIFT-like features derived from imagery.
The geospatial context corpus was generated from the GIS-derived network
graph and was then passed through a Word2Vec-based pipeline to produce
vector representations for each word. The GIS data layer also contributed
to large area segmentation and training data generation. The embedding
model ultimately generated by this process is also able to be transferred
and applied to areas of interest where detailed GIS or feature level
information is unavailable. Additional advantages of this approach is theability to disambiguate between similar labels and the capability to produce
additional training sets on the fly that can be run as new classifiers. The tool
leveraging this technology, Spookfish, is deployed on a computing cloud,backed by both Accumulo and GeoMesa, and is accessible by a user via a
simple webapp to ensure scalability.

9473-18, Session 4

Effects of camera location on thereconstruction of 3D flare trajectory withtwo cameras

The paper will present details of the sensor integration and algorithm
development frameworks, broad performance results from on-going test
and evaluations, and identification of the technology challenges for further
development and performance improvements.

Seçkin Özsaraç, Muhammed Ye?ilkaya, TÜB?TAK B?LGEM?LTAREN (Turkey)

9473-17, Session 3

Reconstruction of the three dimensional (3D) position of a point, which
is seen by multiple cameras, is a common problem. Camera placement,
camera calibration, corresponding pixel determination in between theimages of different cameras and also the triangulation algorithm affect theperformance of 3D position estimation.

Flares are used as valuable electronic warfare assets for the battle against
infrared guided missiles. The trajectory of the flare is one of the mostimportant factors that determine the effectiveness of the counter measure.

Semantically enabled image similarity
searchMay V. Casterline, Timothy Emerick, Kolia Sadeghi, C. Alec
Gosse, Commonwealth Computer Research, Inc. (UnitedStates); Brent D. Bartlett, Eidetic Technologies, LLC(United States); Jason T. Casey, Eiretic Technologies, LLC(United States)
High spatial resolution satellite or aerially collected imagery offer an
extensive, detailed, and instantaneous viewpoint of large geospatial extents.
For an analyst to effectively search for a target in these images both thetarget signature and the imagery need to occupy the same data space.
Depending on the acquisition modality, the methodology to both conditionand process the data to execute any type of search functionality can becomplex and requires either domain expertise or considerable training. To
date, object-based feature extraction techniques, built on top of machinelearning algorithms, have shown the most promise for accurate and robust
image search. Despite these advances, searching for targets of interest in
overhead imagery datastores remains computationally expensive and reliant
on expertise.
Arguably, the simplest way to formulate a search request against imagery
is through either language or example imagery. For example, find all the
shipping containers in a given scene, or find all the areas of this image
that contain content similar to a sample image of a shipping container.
While image comparison via object-based feature extraction methods
can be executed in the image domain, the ability to search for objects
semantically with respect to their labels or geospatial context requires asemantic embedding model. Traditionally, semantic embedding models
have been used to represent the individual words from a corpus of text
as high-dimensional vectors in a space where semantically similar words
are embedded near one another. Through these means, words of similar
contextual meaning are represented by similar vectors, yielding a data space
ideal for classification, clustering, and similarity search.
The methodology presented here demonstrates the capability to performsemantically enabled wide-area image search in a distributed processing
environment. The approach enables an analyst to search a large datastoreof overhead imagery from either a simple language query or example
imagery. To facilitate the mapping between language and imagery, a unified
embedding space was created by exploiting a geospatial network graph

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SPIE DSS 2015·

In this paper, we specifically investigate the effects of camera placementon the flare trajectory estimation performance by simulations. Firstly, 3D
trajectory of a flare and also the aircraft, which dispenses the flare, aregenerated with simple motion models. Then, we place two virtual ideal
pinhole camera models on different locations. Assuming the cameras
are tracking the aircraft perfectly, the view vectors of the cameras arecomputed. Afterwards, using the view vector of each camera and also
the 3D position of the flare, image plane coordinates of the flare on both
cameras are computed using the field of view (FOV) values. To increase thefidelity of the simulation, we have used two sources of error. One is used tomodel the uncertainties in the determination of the camera view vectors, i.e.
the orientations of the cameras are measured noisy. Second noise source isused to model the imperfections of the corresponding pixel determinationof the flare in between the two cameras. Finally, 3D position of the flare isestimated using the corresponding pixel indices, view vector and also the
FOV of the cameras by triangulation. All the processes mentioned so far
are repeated for different relative camera placements so that the optimum
estimation error performance is found for the given aircraft andflare trajectories.

9473-19, Session 4

Learning Based Roof Style Classification in
2D Satellite Images
Andi Zang, Xi Zhang, Illinois Institute of Technology(United States); Gady Agam, Illinois Institute ofTechnology (United States); Xin Chen, Nokia Here.com(United States) and Illinois Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Accurately recognizing building roof style leads to a much more realistic 3D
building modeling and rendering. In this paper, we propose a novel system
for image based roof style classification using machine learning technique.
Our system is capable of accurately recognizing four individual roof styles
and a complex roof which is composed of multiple parts. We make several

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Conference 9473:
Geospatial Informatics, Fusion, and Motion Video Analytics V

9473-22, Session 4

novel contributions in this paper. First, we propose an algorithm thatsegments a complex roof to parts which enable our system to recognize theentire roof based on recognition of each part. Second, to better characterizea roof image, we design a new feature extracted from a roof edge image.
We demonstrate that this feature has much better performance compared
to recognition results generated by Histogram of Oriented Gradient (HOG),
Scale-invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) and Local Binary Patterns (LBP).
Finally, to generate a classifier, we propose a learning scheme that trains theclassifier using both synthetic and real roof images. Experiment results showthat our classifier performs well on several test collections.

Real-time automated detection, tracking,classification, and geolocation of
dismounts using EO and IR FMV
Justin Muncaster, Gaemus E. Collins, Jon Waltman, Toyon
Research Corp. (United States)
The VideoPlus-Aware infrastructure security system is described. An
evaluation the system was performed at the Y-12 National Security Complex
and McGhee Tyson Air Base in partnership with the Toyon Research
Corporation. The system is designed to enable autonomous video-based,moving target detection, tracking and classification. Additionally, the system
has the ability to classify basic actions such as the breaching of or entry into
a secure area.

9473-20, Session 4

Context exploitation in intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance fordetection and tracking algorithms

Robust systems performing detection, tracking, and classification of targets
at a distance have been elusive due to the immense computation required toobtain satisfactory performance. Toyon Research Corporation has developed
algorithms that enable the real-time automated classification of humans
in video that are as small as 25-pixels tall. This substantially improves theapplicability of such systems by widening the permissible camera field-ofviews and increasing the permissible ranges at which targets can be tracked
and classified. Toyon’s algorithms are able to do this with high detection
rates and minimal false alarms.

Jonathan D. Tucker, Lockheed Martin Corp. (UnitedStates); Robert Stanfill, Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire
Control (United States)Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) missions involve
complex analysis of sensor data that can benefit from the exploitation ofgeographically aligned context. In this paper we discuss our approach toutilizing geo-registered imagery and context for the purpose of aiding ISR
detection and tracking applications. Specifically this includes renderingcontext masks on imagery, increasing the speed at which detection
algorithms process data, providing a way to intelligently control detection
density for given ground areas, identifying difficult traffic terrain, refining
peak suppression for congested areas, reducing target center of mass
location errors, and increasing track coverage and duration through track
prediction error robustness.

The system is composed of real-time algorithms for stabilization, movingtarget detection, stationary-target detection, target classification, target
tracking, and target geo-location. The system requires minimal, one-time
calibration and works on EO video streams as well as multiple IR bands.
A subset of these algorithms, including the data-reduction and machinelearning techniques that enabled real-time execution and classification ofvery-small targets will be discussed.
An evaluation occurred in operational environments on the Department ofEnergy Oak Ridge Reservation and the McGhee Tyson Air Base. The system
was tested at varying ranges from 20 to 700 meters, during day and night
operation and using both thermal and visual cameras. Test subjects included
canines and humans walking and breaching a secure area. Testing included
single and multiple human and canine targets in a variety of profiles andpaths. The testing environment included tree lines, short and long mowed
grass fields, asphalt paved roads, gravel beds, fences, power lines andadditional items of interest/movement.

9473-21, Session 4

Mosaicing with Poisson blending
regularization for wide area motion
imagery
V. B. Surya Prasath, Raphael Viguier, Kannappan
Palaniappan, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States);
Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)

The evaluation quantified the system’s abilities to detect, classify, track
humans and transmit the information to external applications. The
evaluation provided 811 separate data points gathered over a period offour days with an overall probability of sensing of 99.9%. The probabilityof detection was 86.2% and the percentage of correct action classification
was 82%. The data provided a False Alarm Rate of 0 per hour and Nuisance
Alarm Rate of 0.72 per hour.

We study mosaicing for wide area motion imagery (WAMI) data using
poisson blending regularization. Exploitation of full motion video and
WAMI data is crucial for change detection, target tracking, activity-based
recognition and 3D reconstruction. Creating a mosaicing of WAMI data
is challenging due to problems such as blurring, ghosting due to parallax
and varying image exposures. In this work we review image alignment andpanoramic mosaicing techniques for WAMI data and identify corresponding
challenges for these existing methods. We describe mosaicing with Poisson
blending based regularization which helps avoid blending of colors fromdifferent frames. Experimental results show that we obtain seamlessmosaics from full motion videos without artifacts associated withexisting approaches.

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
Monday - Wednesday 20–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9474 Signal Processing, Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition
XXIV

9474-1, Session 1

potential targets in a sequence of frame in a bearing-elevation grid andascertain kinematic parameters. In contrast to other sensors, such as radar,
extensive work on tracking from airborne EO/IR sensor has not be publishedextensively.

Comparison of the performance of somemultiple target tracking algorithms withexperimental airborne radar data
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development
Canada (Canada); Kai Wang, MacDonald, Dettwiler andAssociates Ltd. (Canada); Anthony Damini, Defence
Research and Development Canada (Canada)
The problem of automatic track formation and maintenance in the presenceof clutter and false alarms is a particularly challenging problem for airborne
ground moving target indication (GMTI) radars, due to the spread in clutter
Doppler caused by platform motion. In order to be able to detect and track
slow ground moving targets, it is essential to cancel clutter adaptively using
techniques such as space-time adaptive processing (STAP). This is basedon combining the received signals from multiple apertures and pulses, andperforming an adaptive estimation of the clutter covariance matrix. STAP
enables cancellation of clutter down to the noise level, enabling detection ofslow ground-moving targets.
The outputs from STAP include parameter estimates, that are the inputs ofa multi-target tracker (MTT). The problem of MTT is to automatically form
and maintain tracks of multiple, time-varying targets. While the extended
Kalman filter (and variants) is often adequate for the filtering component for
GMTI applications, the MTT is made challenging due to measurement origin
uncertainty. The contributing factors to the data association problem include
low SNR, false alarms due to inadequate clutter cancellations, as well as thepresence of multiple targets in the vicinity of the target of interest.
There are several approaches to tackling this, that have been investigatedin the literature. A particularly popular class of algorithms is based on theprobabilistic data association (PDA), which approximates the conditional
probability density by a uni-modal Gaussian probability density function, by
virtue of its simplicity and ease of implementation. A more modern solution
is the Gaussian mixture probabilistic hypothesis density (GM-PHD) filter.
In this paper, we will compare the performance of several trackers. In
particular, we will consider the independent PDA (where the initiated tracks
are evolved independently), the joint probabilistic data association (JPDA)
algorithm and variants that include target existence probability for eachtrack ---the integrated PDA (IPDA) and joint integrated PDA (JIPDA) --- andthe GM-PHD filter. We compare the performance of these algorithms withsimulated as well as real data.

9474-2, Session 1

Aspects of detection and tracking of
surface targets from an airborne EO/IR
sensorBhashyam Balaji, Zahir Daya, Rajiv Sithiravel, Defence
Research and Development Canada (Canada);
Thiagalingam Kirubarajan, McMaster University (Canada)
Commercial off-the-shelf EO/IR sensors are often a part of a multi-sensor
suite of sensors on military as well as civilian aircraft. The camera system
can be used to scan large swaths of area (perhaps being cued by a radaror ESM sensor), and detect potential targets of interest. It is of interest to
detect and track and identify potential targets, and potentially fuse theoutputs with those of other sensors.

SPIE DSS 2015

The EO/IR sensor comprises of a suite of sensors, such as a narrow andwide field of view EO sensor and and IR sensor. Thus, there is a need for acapability to fuse the outputs from the individual sensors. The benefits of
the kinematic fusion is also investigated.

9474-3, Session 1

Computationally efficient angles-onlytracking with particle flow filters
Russell Costa, Thomas A. Wettergren, Naval Undersea
Warfare Ctr. (United States)
We examine a problem of tracking a four-state target using only angles-only
information. The conventional state-of-the-art for such a tracking problem
is to use a particle filter, as they provide a robust solution technique fornonlinear non-Gaussian filtering. However, the use of particle filters suffersfrom the curse of dimensionality as the problem dimensionality grows.
Recently, Daum and Huang have developed a related approach that avoids
the dimensionality restrictions of particle filters. Their new method, called aparticle flow filter, is a deterministic alternative that replaces the sampling
and re-sampling steps of a particle filter with a homotopy filter leading to apartial differential equation across the states. We examine the use of these
new filters on a problem of angles-only tracking, in which target state isrecursively estimated on a dynamic set of angles-only measurements ofrelative target position. We apply the exact particle flow method, in which
we assume a Gaussian prior and likelihood function of the unknown target
states. We compare the performance and computational burden for theparticle flow approach with that obtained from a standard particle filter.
The example problems we look at assume a simple target motion problem
with angles-only measurements of target location that are corrupted byadditive Gaussian noise of unknown variance. While the historical solution ofsuch problems is to apply the extended Kalman filter, the current state-ofthe-art is the particle filter. In our comparisons of the performance of thenewer particle flow filter to both the extended Kalman filter and the regularparticle filter, we show both the computational benefits and the potential
implementation pitfalls. We conclude with some suggestions on future
investigations for improving the implementation of these new filters inangles-only tracking.

9474-4, Session 1

Multisensor fusion for 3D target tracking
using track-before-detect particle filter
Nima Moshtagh, Paul M. Romberg, Moses W. Chan,

From a detection and tracking perspective, the problem is to detect

228

In this paper, the filtering model for tracking surface targets is formulated.
We begin by first using some standard single-frame and multiple frame
moving target detection and estimation algorithms. The centroids, inthe bearing-elevation grid are then used as input to tracking filter. The
nonlinear filtering problem is then formulated as the problem with statemodel described by jump Markov processes and the measurement model
described by bearing and elevation measurements. The performance ofstandard filtering algorithms, such as the variable state interacting multiple
model with extended Kalman filter and the unscented Kalman filter, isassessed in simulated and real data. The performance of the tracking filter iscompared to the posterior Cramer-Rao lower bound.

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
Lockheed Martin Space Systems Co. (United States)

9474-6, Session 2

We have developed a novel fusion mechanism to track and estimate thethree-dimensional trajectory of a moving target using images collectedby multiple EO/IR sensors. The proposed fusion engine avoids the explicit
target detection stage prior to fusion. Instead, a centralized particle filter
implements multiple track-before-detect filters on each individual image
collection. In the central processing center the images are collected andregistered given the known pointing information of the sensors, and using
a perspective projection of the particles onto the images, intensity values
from multiple sensors are directly used as measurements. The particles
states (and weights) are updated using the joint likelihood computed fromall the collections onto which the particles are projected. The 3D trajectoryof target (“system track”) is then generated from the states of the particles.

Robust approach for space-based sensor
bias estimation in the presence of dataassociation uncertainty
Djedjiga Belfadel, Richard Osborne, Yaakov Bar-Shalom,
Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
In this paper, a robust approach to bias estimation in the presence ofmeasurement association uncertainty using common targets of opportunity,
is developed. Data association is carried out before the estimation of
sensor angle measurement biases. Consequently, the quality of dataassociation is critical to the overall tracking performance. Data association
becomes especially challenging if the sensors are passive. Mathematically,
the problem can be formulated as a multidimensional assignment
problem (MDA) where the objective is to maximize the likelihood that theassociations measurements correspond to common targets. Applying gating
techniques reduces significantly the size of this problem. First the k-best(ranked) solutions, based on the associated likelihoods, are determinedusing an exhaustive search algorithm, then, an acceptance test (which takes
into account the estimation of the 3D Cartesian locations of the targets ofopportunity and the angle measurement biases of the sensors) is applied
to each of k-best solutions in order to discriminate the optimal (correct)
solution.

The performance of this centralized fusion method is compared withthat of a track-to-track fusion (T2TF) algorithm. The T2TF algorithm isconsidered a distributed fusion mechanism because the 2D sensor tracks
are separately generated and transmitted to a fusion center, where they areconverted into line-of-sight (LOS) measurements. The LOS measurements
are then registered in the geo-coordinates and fused to reconstruct the
3D system track. A realistic synthetic scenario with a dim target is used for
performance comparison. The advantages and drawbacks of each method
are discussed.

9474-5, Session 1

We demonstrate the merits of this robust approach by applying it to asimulated tracking system, which consists of two or more satellites tracking
a ballistic target. We assume the sensors are synchronized, their locations
are known, and we estimate their orientation biases.

Target visibility for multiple maneuveringtarget tracking
Madeleine G. Sabordo, Elias Aboutanios, The Univ. of New
South Wales (Australia)

9474-7, Session 2

We present a recursion of the probability of target visibility and its
applications to analysis of track life and termination in the context of
Global Nearest Neighbour (GNN) approach and Probability Hypothesis
Density (PHD) filter. In the presence of uncertainties brought about by
clutter; decisions to retain a track, terminate it or initialise a new track
are based on probability, rather than on distance criterion or estimation
error. The visibility concept is introduced into a conventional dataassociation-oriented multi-target tracker, the GNN; and a random finite set
based-tracker, the PHD filter, to take into account instances when targets
become invisible or occluded by obstacles. The presence of clutter in thesignal environment poses challenges to researchers in resolving the dataassociation problem. Clutter consists of noise and false alarms which may
present themselves in the form of moving and stationary objects as well as
electronic countermeasures like jammers, chaffs, flares and decoys (to namea few). We assume that target detection is independent of clutter detection
and clutter returns received at different sampling times are independent.
Associating measurements to targets forms the bulk of computational
requirements in many conventional multi-target tracking systems. The
target visibility concept takes into account these association probabilities
and measurement likelihoods to predict and update the probability ofvisibility. An elegant alternative to the data association tracking approachis the Random Finite Set (RFS) paradigm, popularised by Mahler. The PHD
filter is an example of this paradigm. It propagates the first-order statistical
moment of the RFS of states in time. The visibility concept takes into
account this intensity moment in predicting and updating the probabilityof visibility. We assume that not all tracks correspond to a valid target as
moving objects may move out of the surveillance region, aircraft land or
targets may be occluded by physical barriers or electronic warfare systems.
We use the GNN and PHD trackers to estimate the states of multiple
manoeuvring targets. The Dynamic Error Spectrum is then used to assess
the performance of the trackers with and without probability of visibility
incorporated. Simulation results show that the performance of trackers withvisibility concept incorporated is significantly enhanced.

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Square-root formulation of the SVSF withtarget tracking applications
Stephen A. Gadsden, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)
The smooth variable structure filter (SVSF) is a state and parameter
estimation strategy based on sliding mode concepts. It has seen significant
development and research activity in recent years. In an effort to improveupon the numerical stability of the SVSF, a square root formulation isderived. The square root SVSF is based on Cholesky factorization and U-D
decomposition. The proposed formulation is computationally more efficientand reduces the risks of failure due to numerical instability. The new strategy
is applied on target tracking scenarios for the purposes of state estimation.
The results are compared with the popular Kalman filter.

9474-8, Session 2

Minimum-variance smoother based on the
SVSF estimation strategy
Stephen A. Gadsden, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States); Thia Kirubarajan, McMaster Univ. (Canada)
The smooth variable structure filter (SVSF) has seen significant development
and research activity in recent years. It is based on sliding mode concepts,
which utilizes a switching gain that brings an inherent amount of stability to
the estimation process. In this paper, the SVSF is reformulated to present aminimum-variance smoother based on the SVSF gain. The proposed method
is applied on a variety of target tracking scenarios, and the results arecompared with other popular smoothers.

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV

9474-9, Session 2

generators are insufficiently complex to model real-world clutter with highaccuracy because they are statistically first-degree. This paper addresses
the derivation and implementation of CPHD filters when first-degree
Bernoulli clutter generators are replaced by second-degree quadratic clutter
generators. These filters are combinatorially second-order, but are moreeasily approximated and can be implemented in exact closed form using
beta-Gaussian mixture (BGM) or Dirichlet-Gaussian mixture(DGM) techniques.

Orchestrated management ofheterogeneous sensors incorporating
feedback from intelligence assets
Yugandhar Sarkale, Edwin K. P. Chong, Colorado State
Univ. (United States)
We develop a method for autonomous management of multiple
heterogeneous sensors for a multiple target tracking problem. We adopt
a non-myopic (long-term) method known as partially observable Markov
decision process (POMDP) to formulate the problem. POMDP incorporates
long-term decision making, effective for managing limited resources(sensors), and accounts for uncertainties arising from noisy measurements.
The main contribution of the paper is incorporation of feedback received
from intelligence assets (humans) on priorities assigned to specific targets
into the decision making process. Information received from assets ismodeled as a penalty on the cost function. The resulting constrained
optimization problem is solved using an augmented Lagrangian method.
The cost function is the mean squared error between the tracks and target
states. The suite of sensors consists of ground-based platforms and sensors
on board multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Each sensor collects
measurements of the locations of multiple targets and each sensor has
one or more controllable aspects, e.g., on/off activation for ground-based
sensors, location for sensors mounted on UAVs, and sensing direction
for sensors with limited field-of-view. Information obtained from sensors
and assets is fused together centrally for guiding the UAVs to track thesetargets. We impose dynamic constraints on the motion of the UAVs andthere is a spatially varying error associated with the measurements of thesensors. POMDPs are intractable to solve exactly. We use an approximation
technique known as nominal belief state optimization (NBO), which is
known to be computationally efficient and well suited for target
tracking applications.

9474-12, Session 39474-10, Session 2

Distributed fusion of multitarget densities
and consensus PHD filters

Probabilistic track-to-track association
Tim Zajic, Raytheon Co. (United States)
Track-to-track association remains a challenging problem and is a criticalingredient when performing fusion in the presence of multiple targets.
Successful association depends both on an appropriate model for the
problem setting at hand as well as a tractable algorithm for the model given
the available computing resources. In this work we first provide a discussionof the track-to-track association problem and a brief review of classicaland recent approaches to the problem, as well as some recent works in therelated area of data-to-track association. A new model is then put forth
for performing probabilistic track-to-track association, in particular when
attribute data is available which is to be fused. The model is tailored to thesetting in which the track data is dense enough to warrant foregoing hard
association and is developed with the requirements of computational timerequirements in mind. The results of numerical experiments illustrate theperformance of the approach.

9474-11, Session 3

CPHD filters with unknown quadratic
clutter generators
Ronald P. S. Mahler, Consultant (United States): Previous research has produced CPHD filters that can detect and track
multiple targets in unknown, dynamically changing clutter. The firstsuch filters employed Poisson clutter generators and, as a result, werecombinatorially complex. Recent research has shown that replacing
the Poisson clutter generators with Bernoulli clutter generators resultsin computationally tractable CPHD filters. However, Bernoulli clutter

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SPIE DSS 2015·

On multitarget pairwise-Markov models
Ronald P. S. Mahler, Consultant (United States)
Both single- and multi-target tracking are typically based on strong
independence assumptions in regard to both the target states and sensor
measurements. The motion(s) of the target(s) at the current time areassumed to independent of all but the immediately previous motion(s)of the target(s)—the Markov assumption. Likewise, current sensor
measurement(s) are assumed to be independent of all but the current
target state(s). Stated more formally, the theoretical basis of both singleand multi-target tracking is the hidden Markov chain (HMC) model. Thatis, the target process is a Markov chain that is indirectly observed via
an independent observation process. It is desirable to relax the strong
independence assumptions associated with HMC models. One approach thathas been proposed for single targets is the pairwise Markov chain (PMC)model, in which the target state and the measurement jointly form a Markov
chain. The HMC model can be directly generalized to multitarget problems,
but the resulting tracking filters are computationally intractable. This paper
investigates the possibility of developing PHD/CPHD filter approximations ofmultitarget HMC filters.

9474-13, Session 3

Giorgio Battistelli, Luigi Chisci, Claudio Fantacci, Univ.
degli Studi di Firenze (Italy); Alfonso Farina, SELEX ES
S.p.A. (Italy); Ronald P. S. Mahler, Consultant (UnitedStates)Multi-target tracking is of great practical relevance for military situation
awareness. Recent advances in wireless sensor technology have opened
up the possibility to develop efficient surveillance systems consistingof the radio interconnection of multiple devices with built-in sensing,communication and processing capabilities. For effective exploitationof this emerging technology it is, however, fundamental to redesign thearchitecture and algorithms of multi-target trackers taking into accountthat: (1) any individual node has limited sensing capabilities; (2) processing
must be carried out in a distributed fashion with no coordination of afusion center; (3) each node is unaware of the correlations between its own
information and the incoming information from other nodes. The primary
goal of this paper is to present a theoretical approach to the distributed
fusion of multi-target densities based on the information-theoretic conceptof Kullback-Leibler average as well as on the use of consensus employed for
performing a global fusion of multi-target densities over the whole networkby iterating regional fusions over subnetworks of neighboring nodes. In
particular, it is shown how the proposed distributed fusion is inherently
immune to double-counting of data. When the information available in eachnode can be expressed as a (possibly cardinalized) Probability Hypothesis
Density (PHD), application of the proposed distributed fusion rule leads toa consensus PHD filter which can be conveniently implemented by resorting
either to particle or Gaussian mixture representations. In particular, theGaussian mixture consensus PHD filter is characterized by a parsimonious
representation of the multi-target information, and hence is well-suited tobeing applied also when the individual nodes have limited computational
capabilities and must possibly limit data transmission so as to reduce energy
consumption and prolong network lifetime.

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV

9474-14, Session 3

on its objective, but the decision process to determine the best course ofactions is the same. We use Partially Observable Markov Decision Process(POMDP) as the decision mechanism. To reduce computational load,
we apply the finite horizon Model Predictive Control (MPC) algorithm toimplement POMDP. Compared with open-loop systems, this produces adramatic improvement in ATR performance.

A distributed general multisensor
cardinalized probability hypothesis density(CPHD) filter for sensor networks
Syamantak Datta Gupta, Santosh Nannuru, Mark Coates,
Michael Rabbat, McGill Univ. (Canada)9474-18, Session 3

The cardinalized probability hypothesis density (CPHD) filter has provento be an extremely effective method for tracking multiple targets basedon measurements recorded by a single sensor; computationally tractablealgorithms based on Gaussian mixtures or particle filters have been
applied successfully in multiple practical settings. There has been less work
extending the filter to the multi-sensor and sensor network settings. For
the case of centralized computation, two major approaches have been
proposed: the heuristic iterated-corrector approximation and the multisensor product approximation. If computation is distributed throughout
the network, most existing algorithms involve individual sensor nodes
performing local CPHD filter updates using only the measurements
recorded by that sensor. The nodes then exchange data to fuse their local
intensity functions and cardinality distributions. Recently, we derived
update equations for the general multi-sensor CPHD filter and proposed
a computationally tractable implementation. The algorithm involves agreedy search procedure that identifies subsets of measurements thathave substantial likelihood of being derived from the same target. In its
current form, the implementation relies on a fusion centre having accessto the measurements recorded by all sensors. In this paper, we describe
how the algorithmic computation can be distributed throughout a sensor
network to avoid the exchange of raw measurements. We report theresults of simulations that examine the trade-off between accuracy andcommunication overhead for the proposed algorithm and compare it withexisting CPHD fusion techniques.

Random Finite Set Multi-Target Trackers:
Stochastic Geometry for Space Situational
Awareness
Ba-Ngu B. Vo, Ba-Tuong Vo, Curtin Univ. (Australia)
This paper introduces a systems theoretic framework for SSA using
stochastic geometry. Random finite set is the most natural and elegant
model for the collection of orbital space objects, since it captures theuncertainty in the number of objects, their states and interactions suchas repulsion (from evasive manoeuvres) and spawning (from collisions
that generate more objects). Moreover, Stochastic geometric constructs
such as intensity function, void probabilities, Palm distribution etc. are theideal tools for many key SSA tasks such as conjunction analysis, collision
warning, evasive manoeuvre planning, etc. This formulation encapsulates
the uncertainty in the collection of orbital objects, the orbital spaceenvironment, and the dynamic network of sensors as a whole, and provides
the tools for analysis of such complex system.

9474-19, Session 4

Proof that particle flow corresponds
to Bayes’ rule: necessary and sufficientconditions

9474-15, Session 3

Frederick E. Daum, Raytheon Co. (United States)

Integrate knowledge acquisition withtarget recognition through closed-loop
ATR

We prove that particle flow corresponds to Bayes’ rule, subject to certain
regularity conditions (nowhere vanishing and smooth probability densities)
using a clever method of Moser & Dacorogna. It is easy to show thatparticle flow is a necessary condition for Bayes’ rule, but the proof that
it is sufficient is substantially more complex, and it requires an additional
condition, namely that the Jacobian of the flow is non-singular. Our theory
can be applied to essentially any decision or estimation problem, such as:
sensor fusion, tracking, Bayesian decisions and learning, communications,predicting the stock market and the weather.

Ssu-Hsin Yu, Pat McLaughlin, Aleksandar Zatezalo,
Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (United States); Kai-yuh Hsiao,
Jovan Boskovic, Scientific Systems Co Inc (United States)
ATR algorithm performance is highly dependent on the sensing conditions(e.g. orientation, distance, sensor type) under which the input data iscollected. Open-loop fly-bys often produce poor results due to less thanideal measurement conditions. Instead of improving target classification
performance only through better ATR algorithms, our approach, closedloop ATR (CL-ATR), focuses on improving the quality of information
inputs to ATR algorithms by optimizing motion, sensor settings and teamcollaboration to dramatically improve ATR accuracy. By managing the datacollection guided by predicted ATR performance gain through, we increase
the information content of the data and thus dramatically improve ATR
performance with existing ATR algorithms.

We have invented a new nonlinear filter theory that is many orders ofmagnitude faster than standard particle filters for the same accuracy.
Moreover, our filter beats the extended Kalman filter accuracy by several
orders of magnitude for difficult nonlinear problems. This theory canbe applied to essentially any estimation or decision problem, including:
tracking, guidance and navigation, control, robotics, Bayesian decisions,predicting the weather and the stock market, as well as transport problems
with smooth nowhere vanishing densities. We show many numericalresults for various nonlinearities, with both stable and unstable plants,
varying process noise, measurement noise, initial uncertainty of the statevector, and dimension of the state vector from d = 1 to 42. Our theory uses
particle flow (like physics) to compute Bayes’ rule, rather than a pointwise
multiply. We do not use resampling of particles or proposal densities orimportance sampling or any Markov chain Monte Carlo method. But rather,
we design the particle flow with the solution of a linear first order highly
underdetermined PDE, like the Gauss divergence law in electromagnetics.
We solve our PDE analytically as a formula, rather than using numericalmethods, in order to reduce computational complexity. We show 26 distinct
methods for solving this PDE. We explain why engineers like particle filters,
but we also show that particle filters generally suffer from the curse ofdimensionality. We explain the root cause of particle degeneracy with asimple cartoon, and we show how to solve it using particle flow. Recent
results include a new algorithm for particle flow that uses the same formula

CL-ATR begins with ATR utility function, which represents the performancesensitivity of ATR-produced classification labels as a function of parametersthat correlate to vehicle/sensor states. This utility function is developed
off-line and is often available from the original ATR study, for example, asa confusion matrix, or it can be derived through simulation without directaccess to the inner working of the ATR algorithm. The utility function isinserted into our CL-ATR framework to autonomously control the vehicle/
sensor. Because we only require the utility function on-board, we canactivate any ATR algorithm onto a UAV platform.
Our approach uses ATR information gain as the primary driver for UAV
actions. We apply Bayesian state posterior updates to fuse prior and on-line
information. The utilities to measure effectiveness of an action as well as
what actions are feasible may vary from behavior to behavior depending

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
as maximum likelihood estimation but for each particle rather than only
for the point estimate of the state; this formula uses the observed Fisher
information matrix and the score, both well known in classical statistics. The
resulting ODE for the flow can be very stiff, but we show several methods
to mitigate stiffness at a small cost in computational complexity. Finally, we
compare particle flow with standard transport algorithms. This talk is fornormal engineers who do not have nonlinear filters for breakfast.

including quantum field theory and string theory and led to several deep
conjectures in many areas of pure mathematics.

9474-20, Session 4

However, except for certain special cases, the FPI cannot be solved exactly.
Thus, one needs to resort to numerical approximation methods. The FPI isparticularly suitable for solution via numerical methods. In fact, in quantum
field theory, the numerical implementation of the FPI has led to substantial
progress in calculating quantities of interest that are otherwise incalculable,
such as masses of composite particles, from the underlying fundamental
quantum field theory of strong interactions, the field of lattice quantum
chromodynamics (QCD).

A baker’s dozen of new particle flows fornonlinear filters, Bayesian decisions andtransport

Monte-Carlo methods form the basis for solving FPIs numerically. However,a naive implementation is highly inefficient. An interesting fact is thatconsiderable progress in lattice QCD has been made by using effective
actions that has much improved numerical properties, in particular a much
faster convergence via improved discretizations.

Frederick E. Daum, Jim Huang, Raytheon Co. (UnitedStates)

The applicability of some of the techniques developed in the quantum
field theoretical context is investigated. Since there is a close relationshipbetween nonlinear filtering and quantum mechanics, many techniques arepotentially useful in filtering theory. However, there are some significant
differences in the types of quantities that are of interest in quantum
mechanics and nonlinear filtering. The ideas and methods are illustrated via
some numerical examples.

We have invented eight new particle flow algorithms to compute Bayes’rule for nonlinear filters, Bayesian decision & learning as well as transport
problems: (1) Moser’s coupling applied to particle flow for Bayes’ rule; (2)Gibbs sampler like flow; (3) non-singular Jacobian flow; (4) suboptimal
Monge-Kantorovich flow; (5) exponential family flow with non-zerodiffusion; (6) Gaussian flow with non-zero diffusion; (7) maximum entropy
flow; and (8) maximum relative entropy flow. We have invented a new
nonlinear filter theory that is many orders of magnitude faster than standard
particle filters for the same accuracy. Moreover, our filter beats the extended
Kalman filter accuracy by several orders of magnitude for difficult nonlinear
problems. This theory can be applied to essentially any estimation ordecision problem, including: tracking, guidance and navigation, control,
robotics, Bayesian decisions, predicting the weather and the stock market,
as well as transport problems with smooth nowhere vanishing densities.
We show many numerical results for various nonlinearities, with both stableand unstable plants, varying process noise, measurement noise, initial
uncertainty of the state vector, and dimension of the state vector from d =1 to 42. Our theory uses particle flow (like physics) to compute Bayes’ rule,rather than a pointwise multiply. We do not use resampling of particles or
proposal densities or importance sampling or any Markov chain Monte Carlo
method. But rather, we design the particle flow with the solution of a linear
first order highly underdetermined PDE, like the Gauss divergence law inelectromagnetics. We solve our PDE analytically as a formula, rather thanusing numerical methods, in order to reduce computational complexity. We
show 34 distinct methods for solving this PDE. We explain why engineers
like particle filters, but we also show that particle filters generally sufferfrom the curse of dimensionality. We explain the root cause of particle
degeneracy with a simple cartoon, and we show how to solve it using
particle flow. Recent results include a new algorithm for particle flow thatuses the same formula as maximum likelihood estimation but for eachparticle rather than only for the point estimate of the state; this formula uses
the observed Fisher information matrix and the score, both well known inclassical statistics. The resulting ODE for the flow can be very stiff, but weshow several methods to mitigate stiffness at a small cost in computational
complexity. Finally, we compare particle flow with standard transport
algorithms. This talk is for normal engineers who do not have nonlinear
filters for breakfast.

Feature-aided multiple hypothesis tracking
using topological and statistical behavior
classifiersDavid M. Rouse, Johns Hopkins Univ Applied Physics Lab.
(United States); Adam S. Watkins, Jonathan T. DeSena,
Jesse C. Clarke, David W. Porter, Jeffrey Gilbert, Johns
Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab., LLC (United States);Paul Bendich, Nathaniel Strawn, Elizabeth Munch, John
Harer, Duke Univ. (United States); Peter Chin, Draper Lab.
(United States); Andrew J. Newman, Johns Hopkins Univ.
Applied Physics Lab., LLC (United States)
This paper introduces a unified theory for target tracking using Multiple
Hypothesis Tracking, Topological Data Analysis, and machine learning.
The innovations of the approach are: using robust topological features to
encode target behavior information; fitting statistical models to distributions
over these topological features; and exploiting target type classification
likelihoods derived from topological features within the tracker’s hypothesis
scoring procedure. The approach is tested and demonstrated on synthetic
vehicular data generated by the Simulation of Urban Mobility package.
Simulation results show that persistence, combined with learning, canprovide an effective tool to measure and exploit target activity for improved
image-based tracking.

9474-23, Session 5

OCULUS Sea track fusion service

9474-21, Session 5

Stylianos C. Panagiotou, Constantinos Rizogiannis, Stavros
Katsoulis, Vassilis Lampropoulos, Sotirios Kanellopoulos,
Stelios C. A. Thomopoulos, National Ctr. for Scientific
Research Demokritos (Greece)

Feynman path integral and Monte Carlo
methods for nonlinear filtering
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development
Canada (Canada)
The continuous-time nonlinear filtering problems can be formulated andsolved in terms of a Feynman path integral(FPI). The FPI formulation has
several advantages over other methods. In particular, it can be shown that
the FPI in nonlinear filtering is closely related mathematically to the FPI inquantum mechanics, even though conceptually they are far from similar.
Furthermore, the FPI has had a deep impact on modern theoretical physics,

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9474-22, Session 5

SPIE DSS 2015·

Oculus Sea is a complete solution regarding maritime surveillance andcommunications at Local as well as Central Command & Control level
which was tested under real scenarios in the context of the PERSEUSFP7-SEC-2010-1 EU research project. Oculus Sea includes a robust andindependent track fusion service whose main functions include:
1) Interaction with the user to suggest the fusion of 2 or more Tracks,
confirm Target ID and Target Metadata creation for the fused Track, andwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
suggest de-association of 2 Tracks (earlier fused).

to check robustness of the algorithm and its ability in the track-to-track
association process, it is also considered the extreme case of fusion between
IRST and two-dimensional Radar where there is only one common measure.
Simulation results, demonstrating the effectiveness of the algorithm asregards the fusion process tracking and correctness of association between
tracks from different sensors, are then provided.

2) Fusion of same target tracks arriving simultaneously from multiple radar
sensors featuring Track Association (metrics that measure if tracks fromdifferent sensors can be fused), Track Fusion (combine associated tracks to
produce the most accurate track), and Multiple tracking filters and fusion
algorithms.

The paper describes an extension of the data fusion algorithm described ina previous work published by OE (“Technique for radar and infrared searchand track data fusion”, 2013)

3) Unique ID Track Generator for each fused track4) Track Dissemination Service.
Oculus Sea track fusion service adopts a system architecture where eachsensor is associated with an estimator/tracker that obtains an estimate of
the state vector and its respective error covariance. For the tracker, either a
Kalman filter or a Particle filter algorithm can be selected depending on the
kinematic model and the noise processes distribution. Finally, at the fusion
center, association and track state estimation fusion are carried out.

The paper will be structured trough the following topics/indexes:
General definition of the Context for Data Fusion of two tactical airborne
sensors
Detailed description of the measures available from IRST and from RADAR
Minimum set of data suitable for data fusion.

The expected benefits of this system include Multisensor information fusion,
enhanced spatial resolution, and improved target detection.

Optimum set of data for data fusion
Algorithm description and simulations
Read across the results

9474-24, Session 5

Note: the request for company’s clearance to publication is in progress

OCULUS Sea: integrated maritime
surveillance platform

9474-26, Session 6

Sotirios Kanellopoulos, Stavros Katsoulis, Dionysis Motos,
Vassilis Lampropoulos, Christos Margonis, Kostantinos
Dimitros, Stelios C. A. Thomopoulos, National Ctr. for
Scientific Research Demokritos (Greece)

Grid Occupancy Estimation forEnvironment Perception Based on Belief
Functions and PCR6
Julien Moras, Jean Dezert, Benjamin Pannetier, ONERA(France)

OCULUS Sea Platform is a complete solution for Maritime Surveillance. It
picks-up on the EUROSUR guidelines and CISE vision architecture to offer
a “distributed” platform of National/ Regional/ Local Command & Control
Centers (CCCs) that is “centrally governed”. “Distributed” (or “loosely
coupled”) as CCCs are located separately – far from each other, share theirSituational Pictures via a Message Oriented Middleware but preserve their
Administrational and Operational capabilities. Practically this means that in
the unlike event that the network communication with upper or neighboring
CCCs fails, the local Situation Picture is not shared but all other operational
capabilities work seamlessly. We say “centrally governed” as there exists
an OCULUS central governance mechanism that: registers, authenticates,
authorizes and monitors Regional & Local CCCs plus imposes dissemination
rules to assure “Situational Awareness” meaning that Situation Pictures areseamlessly “shared” along the platform.

In this contribution, we propose to improve the grid map occupancy
estimation method developed so far based on belief function modelingand the classical Dempster’s rule of combination. Grid map offers a usefulrepresentation of the perceived world for mobile robotics navigation. It willplay a major role for the security (obstacle avoidance) of next generationsof terrestrial vehicles, as well as for future autonomous navigation systems.
In a grid map, the occupancy of each cell representing a small piece of thesurrounding area of the vehicle must be estimated at first from sensors
measurements (typically lidar, or laser), and then it must also be classified
into different classes in order to get a complete and precise perception of
the dynamic environment where the vehicle moves. So far, the estimationand the grid map updating have been done using fusion techniques
based on the probabilistic framework, or on the classical belief function
framework thanks to an inverse model of the sensors. Mainly because thelatter offers an interesting management of uncertainties when the qualityof available information is low, and when the sources of information appear
as conflicting. To improve the performances of the grid map estimation,
we propose in this paper to replace Dempster’s rule of combination by the
PCR6 rule (Proportional Conflict Redistribution rule #6) proposed in DSmT
(Dezert-Smarandache) Theory. As an illustrating scenario, we consider acar moving in an urban zone and we compare our new realistic simulation
results (based on a 4-layers lidar sensor) with those obtained by theprobabilistic and the classical belief-based approaches.

OCULUS Sea Platform offers “ingestion” and “fusion” services for vessels
tracks. The “ingestion” service is compatible with most off-the-shelfsurveillance track sensors (AIS- radar) plus major standardized trackformats: NMEA, I-VEF, ASTERIX, other. On the other hand the track “fusion”
service associates ingested tracks of the same vessel but from different
sensors, and produces fused tracks in terms of geometry andvessel metadata.
OCULUS sea platform offers operators a powerful UI with a set of decision
support services that assist them to perform accurately and on-time theappropriate operation flows depending on the incident.

9474-25, Session 59474-27, Session 6

A technique for sensors fusion with limited
number of common measures

Issues and challenges of information
fusion in contested environments panel

Carlo Quaranta, Giorgio Balzarotti, SELEX ES S.p.A. (Italy)

Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Ivan
Kadar, Interlink Systems Sciences, Inc. (United States);
Chee-Yee Chong, Independent Consultant (United States);
Eric K. Jones, Systems & Technology Research (UnitedStates); Laurie H. Fenstermacher, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); John D. Gorman, Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (United States); Georgiy M.

An algorithm is proposed here that overcomes the problem of the notexhaustive number of common measures from sensors of different type.
As a matter of fact, in the presence of a suite of heterogeneous sensors
the data fusion process has to deal with the problem of measuring
different types of quantities, the latter mostly not comparable. The
analysis of the mathematical model is carried out considering a data
fusion system between Radar and IRST (Infrared Search and Track) where
the measurement of the range is did by Radar only. In particular, in order

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
Levchuk, Aptima, Inc. (United States); Jorge E. Tierno,
Barnstorm Research Corp. (United States)
With the plethora of information, there are many aspects to contested
environments such as the protection of information, network privacy,
and restricted observational and entry access. In this paper, we review
and contrast the perspectives of challenges and opportunities for
future developments in contested environments. The ability to operate
in a contested environment would aid societal operations for highly
congested areas with limited bandwidth such as transportation, thelack of communication and observations after a natural disaster, or
planning for situations in which freedom of movement is restricted.
Different perspectives were presented, but common themes included
communications, control, social networks, information fusion for
applications in cyber, surveillance, command and control, as well as situation
awareness. The paper serves as a summary and organization of the panel
discussion as towards future concerns for research needs incontested environments.

to go over significant amounts of ambiguous evidence, perform complicatedgeolocation tasks, and connect the event mentions across multiple sources.
The reconstruction of the overall situation was complicated by presenceof myriads of reports, many of which contained false statements andgeolocation claims. This type of situation is similar to investigations that U.S.
intelligence analysts may need to perform to discover the movements andactivities of particular adversarial groups, including possession and use ofmobile missile systems such as SA11 ground-to-air system (BUK) suspectedin downing MH17. For many situations, the data from U.S. National assets
may be available and could be combined with open-source data.

9474-28, Session 6

When combining multi-source data, it is critical to identify the claims
from factual content. While many media sources have complementary
information contained in text and imagery, oftentimes the images are stock
photos, or photos taken from different locations and times, or the text
in the sources misrepresents the context in the pictures. The analysis of
Russian government controlled media revealed wide-spread misinformation,
including information manipulation, misuse of the imagery and video
evidence, and one-sided reports with unsubstantiated claims. Whendiscovering deceptions and misinformation, it is thus critical to accurately
characterize the sources, their posts, and associations between the imagery
and textual knowledge in the posts.

Multi-intelligence critical ratingassessment of fusion techniques(MiCRAFT)

In addition to analyzing the data fusion challenges in such an environment,
we present the model for multi-source multi-modal data fusion, which
can assist analysts in reconstructing the true state of the situation by
aggregating the fragments of similar knowledge across text and imagery
modalities and discarding deceptive information.

Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Assessment of multi-intelligence fusion techniques includes reliabilityof algorithm performance, quality of results against mission needs, andusability in a work-domain context. Situation awareness (SAW) brings
together low-level information fusion (tracking and identification), high-level
information fusion (threat and scenario-based assessment), and Level 5 User
refinement. To measure SAW, we utilize the SAGAT (Situational AwarenessGlobal Assessment Technique) technique for a multi-Intelligence assessmentthat focuses on the advantages of MIF against single INT. The analysis
includes SAGAT probes, SART (Situational Awareness Rating Technique)questionnaire, NASA TLX (Task Load Index), CDM (Critical Decision
Method) with a focus on timeliness, accuracy, confidence, workload (cost),
and attention (throughput). A key component of user analysis includes
correlation, association, and summarization of data, so we also havemeasures of aesthetics of product quality. Notional results highlight the useof the MiCRAFT for verification and validation of multi-intelligence tools.

9474-29, Session 6

Data fusion, association, and retrieval inopen-source multimedia
Georgiy M. Levchuk, Aptima, Inc. (United States)
The U.S. intelligence has an increasing need to fuse available data from
National assets with existing open-source intelligence (OSINT) from local
news, blogs, and social networks. The OSINT sources often contain bothtext and imagery that may be complementary, redundant, ambiguous, andintentionally deceptive. To understand the situation, the intelligence analysts
must combine multiple sources and connect the events in time. During thisprocess, it is critical to identify and discard misinformation while avoiding
double-counting the redundant reports. To reconstruct the full state of
the situation and track its evolution in time, the analysts must connect theevents and entity mentions across time and multiple sources.
To understand the challenges association with OSINT exploitation,
we analyzed the situation unfolding around downing of the Malaysianpassenger airplane MH17 over Eastern Ukraine. This investigation, which
did not come through traditional media or statements from intelligenceagencies, was conducted mostly by crowd sourcing and journalists
combining evidence from multiple non-traditional sources, including Twitter,
Facebook, and Ukrainian and Russian social media platforms . All reports ofvalue regarding MH17 contained the imagery and often video data critical in
supporting the stated claims. The participants in different investigations had

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SPIE DSS 2015·

9474-31, Session 6

Weighted Kullback-Leibler average-based
distributed filtering algorithm
Kelin Lu, Beihang Univ. (China); Kuochu C. Chang, George
Mason Univ. (United States); Rui Zhou, Beihang Univ.
(China)In this paper, a novel data fusion solution to distributed filtering problem
over multi-sensor network with unknown correlation between local
estimations is proposed. The fusion rule is formulated by calculating theweighted Kullback-Leibler average of local estimates with consensus
algorithms for distributed averaging, where the weighted Kullback-Leibler
average is defined as an averaged probability density function thatminimizes the sum of weighted Kullback-Leibler divergences from original
probability density functions. In this sense, it is shown that the derived
fusion rule actually coincides with the generalized covariance intersection
algorithm, which is robust with respect to the unknown cross-covarianceof local estimation errors. The main difference between the above twoalgorithms is that the former can be calculated in a distributed mannerwith consensus algorithms while the latter requires all local estimates to
be available. Furthermore, in order to avoid obtaining a fused estimatethat is too conservative, a novel consensus based distributed weighting
coefficients selection scheme is developed to improve the fusion accuracy,
where the weight associated with each sensor is adjusted based on the local
estimation error covariance and the ones received from neighboring sensors
so that larger weight values will be assigned to a sensor with higher belief.
Finally, a Monte-Carlo simulation example for 2D tracking system validates
the effectiveness of the proposed distributed filtering algorithm.

9474-32, Session 6

Categorification of the Dempster Shafer
theory (Invited Paper)
Joseph J. Peri, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.,
LLC (United States)
This paper contains preliminary steps in demonstrating how the Dempster
Shafer theory can be placed into the framework of category theory. In

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
the Dempster Shafer setting, the elements of the base set of a probability
space are, typically, subsets of some set. Consequently, the elements of thecorresponding sigma algebra are not subsets of a set, but rather, subsets
of subsets of a set. A probability function, in this case, no longer has theclassical meaning. This situation lends itself to the more general notionsof inner and outer measures, which Shafer calls belief and plausibility,
respectively. The categorical approach attempts to unify classical andnon-classical concepts into a setting, so that, depending on the nature of
the stochastic problem at hand, a general framework may be specialized
appropriately to attack the problem.

3D scanning, the receiver or egress application to prepare data needs tobe designed to transmit and receive data via an application with a flexible
protocol base. We consider the amount of data that could be generated byusing the system for astronaut health monitoring, human experiments, nonhuman experiments and space station (or experiment, etc.) maintenance.

9474-52, Session PSTue

We discuss the efficacy of the Open Space Box approach for serving thisneed and discuss the particulars of the communications process. Serving
these needs is enabled by the Open Space Box design. Under this, therequest response happens in batch mode and the communication from 3D
Scanner to the database, which is a NoSQL to store any type of data is doneusing YARN and MapReduce over a Hadoop cluster. The cost, reliability andefficacy of this approach are assessed and compared toconventional approaches.

Obstacle detection for unmanned groundvehicle in outdoor environment

9474-56, Session PSTue

On an efficiency and effective intelligent
transportation system (ITS) safety
and traffic efficiency applications withcorresponding driver’s behavior

Tok Son Choe, Jin-Bae Park, Yonsei Univ. (Korea, Republicof); Sang Hyun Joo, Yong Woon Park, Agency for Defense
Development (Korea, Republic of)
An obstacle detection method for unmanned ground vehicle in outdoor
environment is proposed. The proposed method uses range data acquiredby laser range finders (LRFs) and FMCW radars. LRFs are used for
distinguishing ground and obstacles on uneven terrain. The FMCW radars
are used for detecting obstacles in dusty environment. The proposed
obstacle detection algorithm is broadly composed by three steps: 1) 1D
virtual range data generation which ground information is removed byrange data of LRFs. The key ideas of step 1) is the use of two layers range
data acquired by multiple or multi-layer LRFs to calculate the gradient ofa target object. The target falls into ground or obstacles by the calculated
gradient. The processed obstacle information is generated in the form of
1D range data. 2) 1D virtual range data generation acquired by fusion ofmultiple FMCW radars. In step 2), 1D range data which is virtually locatedon the same position of an LRF are generated. 3) 1D virtual range data
generation which dust information is removed by range data fusion of step
1) and 2). In step 3), distance difference of range data acquired by LRFs
and FMCW radars are compared with the reference value according to eachhorizontal angle. If distance difference is bigger than the reference value, it
is determined that the environment is dusty. The range data generated by
FMCW radars with respect to the corresponding angle is stored in the 1D
virtual range data. The proposed method is verified by a real experiment.

Nnanna N. Ekedebe, Nicolas Dolphin, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates)Many studies concur with the assertion that intelligent transportation
systems (ITS)/vehicular ad hoc networks engender improvements
respecting safety, and traffic efficiency applications. However, few have
tried to evaluate these reported improvements in a heterogeneous driving
environment with respect to human factor challenges.
Consequently, in this paper, we ascertain the effects of driver’s behavior,concentration/distraction levels, age, etc. on reactions or responses topromptings/received messages displayed on a vehicles onboard unit (OBU)
via the human machine interface (HMI) display. Our simulation input consistsof six weeks realistic traffic data from the Maryland (MD)/Washington DC
and Virginia (VA) areas from August 2012 to September 2012.
On very high level, our results show that the reported safety, and traffic
efficiency improvements in ITS by several studies is mostly contingent on
the alertness/concentration levels of the vehicle driver. Besides, our results
can be used by transportation planning authorities and other concerned
stakeholders in our reference study area to better comprehend theramifications of full/partial ITS deployments in a realistic scenario.

9474-54, Session PSTue

Use of open space box: supporting telemedicine in space through efficient datatransmission

9474-57, Session PSTue

Atif F. Mohammad, Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North
Dakota (United States)

Bhashyam Balaji, Bradley J. Nelson, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada (Canada)This paper presents a framework for a denormalized data ingestion andegress method which can be used among several types of in-space devices.
Open Space Box is a novel model of communication that supports the dataprocessing required to transform this data into products for utilization by
the requesting stakeholders. One such set of data is the data that could
be generated from a space-based 3D scanner. We provide an overview of
3D scanning technologies and discuss the storage/transmission needs andtypes of data generated by an optical 3D scanner developed and deployedat the University of North Dakota. Prospective usage patterns are discussed,
as might be applicable to its use for regularly assessing astronauts’ healthand performing scientific experiments.

The magnetic signature of a ferromagnet at large distances can be modelled
as a magnetic dipole. This induces an anomaly in the Earth’s ambient
magnetic field. By using magnetic sensors (magnetometers), it is possible
to measure some function of the magnetic signature as a function oftime. A scalar magnetometer measures the overall magnitude of the field,
including the contribution of the ambient Earth magnetic field. Provided the
SNR is large enough, it is possible to detect and localize the dipole using
techniques such as the orthonormal basis function decomposition method
and the high-order crossing method.

Magnetic dipole parameter estimation andtracking using extended Kalman filter

The measured magnetic signatures are functions of the relative position,
velocity, and magnetic moment vector of the target. This leads one toconsider the problem in terms of the Bayesian state vector, assuming one
knows the function(s) that relate the measured magnetic signature to
the unknowns.

Communication of this sort of data may be critical to the health ofastronauts and to scientific mission goals and ongoing operations.
Some of this data may be processed even before it is transmitted to theattending healthcare provider or requesting scientist. Given that the data
communications to and from a spacecraft or space station happens at alimited rate and the massive amounts of data that could be generated fromReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

In prior work, the measurement model was reviewed and it was shown insimulated data that the extended Kalman filter can be used to solve theproblem for the scalar case (provided the initialization was appropriate). In·

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
this paper, the algorithm is tested with real data collected with an airborne
MAD sensor.
In order to work with real data, significant pre-processing is required. In
particular, magnetic noise from platform motion must be modelled andremoved, and a bandpass filter used to remove magnetic noise due to theunderlying geology and temporal variations in the Earth’s geomagnetic fieldin order to automate the detection processing. To apply the localization
algorithm, however, one can either work with these bandpass filtered signals
and band-pass filtered versions of the equations relating the measured MAD
signature to the unknowns, or one can de-trend the unfiltered platformnoise reduced MAD signature and work with the unfiltered equations. In
this work, the latter method has been used to provide the pre-processedsignals for input to tracking filter. We investigate the performance of theinteracting multiple model for a below-water dipole moving in a straight line
at a constant speed whose signature is measured from a moving airborne
platform equipped with a scalar magnetometer.

9474-58, Session PSTue

Bearing and frequency estimation using
Cardiod sensors
Bhashyam Balaji, Rajiv Sithiravel, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada (Canada)
A cardiod sensor consists of two matched dipoles arranged orthogonallyin the horizontal plane as well as a colocated omnidirectional sensor. The
directional nature of the dipoles makes it possible to estimate the bearing toa source. The bearing and frequency estimates are then input to the tracker.
This is widely used in underwater acoustics applications.
Many standard solutions for target detection and bearing estimation
are based on spectral analysis and batch processing. For instance, thearctangent estimator utilizes the time-averaged products of the observation
data blocks to form the bearing estimate. Such techniques are adequate forhigh signal to noise ratio as well as stationary data collection scenarios.
The non-stationary case naturally leads one to consider a Bayesian statespace formulation of problem of estimating the nonstationary parameters.
This is particularly important when considering the problem of parameter
estimation of dim and highly manoeuvering targets. Furthermore, it
incorporates the correlation structure of the source signal. In recent work,
this has been investigated using the augmented complex extended Kalmanfilter. The measurement model is specified are given by the three observed
waveforms, in the presence of uncorrelated, zero-mean observation noises.
This work is further extended by considering non-stationary bearings as well
as frequency. The results using filters, such as the extended Kalman filterand unscented Kalman filter, are compared with the results obtained using
the standard estimators, such as the arctangent estimator as well as theposterior Cramer-Rao lower bound.

9474-33, Session 7

Learning representations for improved
target identification, scene classification,and information fusion
Arjuna Flenner, Jennifer Flenner, Naval Air Warfare Ctr.
Weapons Div. (United States); Michael Culp, Ryan McGee,
Navy (United States); Cristina Garcia-Cardona, Los Alamos
National Lab (United States)
The representation of an object is one of the crucial elements of AutomatedTarget Recognition (ATR), and many approaches choose a basis, such asa wavelet or Fourier basis, to represent the target. Recent advancements
in Image and Signal processing have shown that object recognitionand denoising can be improved if a learned data representation is usedrather than assuming a specific set of basis vectors. We discuss learning
representations using Non-parametric Bayesian topic models, anddemonstrate that the learned basis can improve ATR performance by
8% for vehicle identification. Non-parametric Bayesian analysis infers adata representation by assuming an infinite dimensional parameter spacecoupled with a clustering probability model that promotes a sparse set oflearned basis vectors. Since the parameter space is infinite dimensional,
the representation complexity can grow with new data, but the clustering
probability model forces a reduced set of dictionary elements. In ourparticular object recognition problem, we use a bag of words model
to represent images coupled with Poisson factor analysis. The bag ofwords model clusters image patches to generate image words in a vector
quantization step and a histogram of image words is identified for each
image, and the non-parametric Bayesian Chinese Restaurant process isused to identify the clusters. A non-parametric Bayesian approach to
Poisson factor analysis is then used to learn a dictionary representation
for these histograms. Poisson factor analysis exploits an additive propertyof the Poisson distribution to represent count data in the form of a basis
vector and basis weights. Furthermore, we demonstrate how to generatemodels that integrate information from other sources without the needfor registration. We apply the non-parametric technique to vehicle target
identification and scene classification where we can improve identification
by 4% if we integrate EO and IR information rather than using either
modality separately. Furthermore, we demonstrate that we can integrate
text and imagery to direct the representation for mission specific tasks andimprove performance by 8%.

9474-34, Session 79474-59, Session PSTue

The cubature smooth variable structure
filter application into a quad-copter
Mohammad Al-Shabi, Philadelphia Univ. (Jordan); Stephen
A. Gadsden, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore (United States)
Nowadays, Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) become increasingly popular
in industrial, militarily and social applications. Many UAVs are available
in stores with various kits including several frames, motors, sensors,
controllers, and accessories. To have a UAV with good, stable, and robust
performance, a higher price should be paid. To improve the response andaccuracy of the UAV’s performance while reducing the cost, an observer
and/or a filter could be used. The observer/filter reduces the number ofrequired sensors. Moreover, it improve the controller performance. As thesystem -under study- is highly nonlinear, deriving the filter becomes very
challenging. In this paper, a new online state estimation algorithm thatcombines the Smooth Variable Structure Filter (SVSF) with the Cubature

236

Kalman Filter (CKF) is proposed. The proposed method has robust, stable,
and less sensitive to noise performance. A simulation study is used toestimate the states of a quad-copter demonstrating the results of the
proposed method.

SPIE DSS 2015

Effects of the experimental manipulationof Fourier components of naturalistic
imagery on search performance and eyetracking behavior
Alan R. Pinkus, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
James S. Garrett, Tiffany M Paul, Consortium Research
Fellows Program (United States); Allan J. Pantle, Miami
Univ. (United States)
Historically, visual search experiments used artificial stimuli (simple shapes)
as targets and distractors arranged in an imaginary array of cells on a blankbackground. Little research on search behavior has been conducted withmore naturalistic stimuli within a frequency-domain framework. With acommon metric provided by Fourier analysis, it is possible to compare theeffects of various frequency-domain components on search efficiencies
with a variety of imagery, both artificial and naturalistic (Pinkus, Poteet,·www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV

9474-38, Session 7

and Pantle, 2013). In the current study, we experimentally manipulated
the spectral content of target and distractor (background) cells filled withspatially filtered segments of real-life scenes. Our experimental design
included two types of band-pass filters, orientation (some frequency overlap
between target and distractors) and spatial frequency (no overlap), andtwo types of distractor compositions, uniform distractor (target and all
distractors filtered similarly) and mixed distractor (only half of distractors
filtered similar to the target) conditions. As predicted, subjects found thetarget more quickly and were more confident in their performance in themixed condition. Subjects spent less time (fixation duration) and effort(fixation frequency) examining dissimilar distractors. Furthermore, subjects
were faster, more accurate, and more confident in the spatial filter condition
than in the orientation filter condition. The filter effect was magnified in themixed distractor condition, likely due to the lack of frequency overlap in thespatial filter condition.

Change detection by extended image
differencing applied to IR video
Günter Saur, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)
Change detection is one of the most important tasks when applying
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) for video reconnaissance and surveillance.
Here we address changes of short time scale, i. e. the observations are taken
in time distances from several minutes up to few hours. Each observation
is a short video sequence corresponding to the near-nadir overflight of the
UAV over the interesting area and the relevant changes are e. g. recently
parked or moved vehicles.
In this paper we apply our previous approach of extended image
differencing for single video frames to video mosaics. A precise image-toimage registration combined with a robust matching approach is needed
to stitch the video frames together to a mosaic. Additionally this matchingalgorithm is applied to mosaic pairs in order to align them to a common
geometry. The resulting registered video mosaic pairs are the input of
the change detection procedure based on extended image differencing.
A change mask is generated by an adaptive threshold applied to a linear
combination of difference images of intensity and gradient magnitude. Thechange detection algorithm has to distinguish between relevant and nonrelevant changes. Examples for non-relevant changes are stereo disparity at
3D structures of the scene, changed length of shadows, and compression ortransmission artifacts. The special effects of video mosaicking like geometricdistortions and artifacts at moving objects, have to be considered too.

9474-36, Session 7

An infrared-visible image fusion scheme
based on NSCT and compressed sensing
Qiong Zhang, Xavier Maldague, Univ. Laval (Canada)
Image fusion, as a research hot point nowadays in the field of infraredcomputer vision, has been developed utilizing different varieties of methods.
Traditional image fusion algorithms are inclined to bring problems, suchas data storage shortage and computational complexity increase, etc.
Compressed sensing (CS) uses sparse sampling without knowing the priori
knowledge and greatly reconstructs the image, which reduces the cost andcomplexity of image processing.
In this paper, an advanced compressed sensing image fusion algorithm
based on non-subsampled contourlet transform (NSCT) is proposed. NSCT
provides better sparsity than wavelet transform in image transformation.
Throughout the NSCT decomposition, the low-frequency and highfrequency coefficients can be obtained respectively. For the fusion
processing of low-frequency coefficients of infrared and visible images, the adaptive regional energy weighting rule is utilized. Thus only thehigh-frequency coefficients are specifically measured. Here uses sparse
representation and random projection to obtain the required values ofhigh-frequency coefficients, afterwards, the weights of each image block arecalculated via adaptive standard deviation (ASD) method and are combined
via weighted averaging. In the reconstruction, OMP (orthogonal matching
pursuit) algorithm and TV (total variation) algorithm can be utilized torecover the high-frequency coefficients. Eventually, the fused image isrecovered by inverse NSCT.

9474-39, Session 8

Search by photo methodology forsignature properties assessment by humanobservers
Gorm K. Selj, Daniela H. Heinrich, Norwegian Defence
Research Establishment (Norway)
Reliable, low-cost and simple methods for assessment of signature
properties for military purposes are very important. In this paper we
present such an approach that uses human observers in a search by
photo assessment of signature properties of generic test targets. The
method was carried out by logging a large number of detection timesof targets recorded in relevant terrain backgrounds. The detection times
were harvested by using human observers searching for targets in scene
images shown by a high definition pc screen. All targets were identicallylocated in each “search image”, allowing relative comparisons (and not justrank by order) of targets. To avoid biased detections, each observer only
searched for one target per scene. Statistical analyses were carried out
for the detection times data. Analysis of variance was chosen if detection
times distribution associated with all targets satisfied normality, andnon-parametric tests, such as Wilcoxon’s rank test, if otherwise. The new
methodology allows assessment of signature properties in a reproducible,
rapid and reliable setting. Such assessments are very complex as they mustsort out what is of relevance in a signature test, but not loose informationof value. We believe that choosing detection times as the primary variable
for a comparison of signature properties, allows a careful and necessary
inspection of observer data as the variable is continuous rather than
discrete. Our method thus stands in opposition to approaches based on
detections by subsequent, stepwise reductions in distance to target, orbased on probability of detection.

Both the visual effect and the numerical calculation after experiments
indicate that the presented approach achieves high quality of image fusion,
enhances targets and extracts more useful information.

9474-37, Session 7

Model-based detection, segmentation, andclassification of compact objects
Mark J. Carlotto, General Dynamics Advanced Information
Systems (United States)
A unified model-based approach to ATR that uses 3D models to control
detection, segmentation, and classification is described. Objects aremodeled by rectangular boxes whose dimensions are Gaussian randomvariables. A fast predictor estimates the size and shape of expected objects
in the image, which controls detection and segmentation algorithms.
Segmentation fits oriented rectangles (length x width @ pose) to object-likeregions detected using a multi-level thresholding/region tracking approach.
Detections are classified by comparing measured to predicted region length
and width in the pose direction. The method is fast and requires only acoarse characterization of objects/object classes.

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV

9474-40, Session 89474-43, Session 8

Cross-modal face recognition using multimatcher face scores

Muzzle flash localisation for the
dismounted soldier

Yufeng Zheng, Alcorn State Univ. (United States); Erik
Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

William J. Kennedy Scott, QinetiQ Ltd. (United Kingdom)

The performance of face recognition can be improved using information
fusion of multimodal images and multiple algorithms. When multimodal
face images are available, cross-modal recognition is meaningful for security
and surveillance applications. For example, a probe face is a thermal image(especially at nighttime), while only visible face images are available in thegallery database. Matching a thermal probe face onto the visible gallery
faces requires cross-modal matching algorithms. A few such studies were
implemented in facial feature space with medium recognition performance.
In this paper, we propose a cross-modal recognition approach in face scorespace. In the proposed scenario, there are two face modalities (visible andthermal images) and three recognition algorithms (circular Gaussian filter,
face pattern byte, linear discriminant analysis). A score vector is formed withthree face scores from the aforementioned three algorithms. The crossmodal matching is implemented by a classifier (e.g., k-nearest neighbor[KNN], support vector machine, binomial logical regression) trained with thescore vectors from thermal images while tested with the score vectors fromvisible images (or vice versa). The proposed approaches will be validatedwith a multispectral stereo face dataset from 105 subjects. Our preliminary
experiments show very promising results: ACR (accuracy rate) = 97.72%, FAR(false accept rate) = 0.84% when cross-matching thermal face scores onto
visible face scores using a KNN classifier. In the full paper, we will report thecross-matching performance after image fusion and feature fusion with thestereo images in our database.

The ability to accurately and rapidly know the precise location of enemy firewould be a substantial capability enhancement to the dismounted soldier.
Acoustic gun-shot detections systems can provide an approximate bearing
but it is desired to precisely know the location (direction and range) of
enemy fire; for example to know from ‘which window’ the fire is coming
from. Funded by the UK MOD (via Chemring TS) QinetiQ is developing an
imaging solution built around an InGaAs camera. However, providing sucha capability to the dismounted soldier presents substantial challenges todevelop a sensor that is sufficiently small, lightweight and low power butthat has the required detection performance and all at an affordable cost.
This paper presents work that QinetiQ has undertaken on the Muzzle Flash
Locator system.
Key technical challenges that have been overcome are explained anddiscussed in this paper. They include; the design of the optical sensor andprocessing hardware to meet low size, weight and power requirements;
the algorithm approach required to maintain sensitivity whilst rejecting
false alarms from sources such as close passing insects and sun glint fromscene objects; operation on the move; and constraining the algorithm
design to exploit pipeline style processing. A real-time detection system
which includes clutter rejection algorithms has been developed and has
recently been demonstrated in a live fire trial. A summary of these results ispresented and some interesting examples given. Next steps are discussed
and include further algorithm development and integration with an acoustic
gun-shot detection system.

9474-41, Session 89474-44, Session 8

Dimensionality analysis of facial signaturesin visible and thermal spectra

The Locus analytical framework for indoor
localization and tracking applications

Nathaniel Short, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States);
Shuowen Hu, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Prudhvi Gurram, MBO Partners (United States)

Olga E. Segou, Stelios C. A. Thomopoulos, National Ctr. for
Scientific Research Demokritos (Greece)

Face images are an important source of information for biometricrecognition and intelligence gathering. While face recognition research has
made significant progress over the past few decades, recognition of faces at
extended ranges is still highly problematic. Recognition of a low-resolution
probe face image in a gallery database, typically containing high resolution
facial imagery, leads to low performance using traditional methods. Learningand super-resolution based approaches have been proposed to improve
face recognition at extended ranges; however, the resolution threshold forface recognition has not been examined extensively. Establishing a threshold
resolution corresponding to the theoretical and empirical limitations of low
resolution face recognition will allow algorithm developers to avoid focusing
on improving performance where no distinguishable information for
identification exists in the acquired signal. This work examines the intrinsic
dimensionality of facial signatures and seeks to estimate a lower boundfor the size of a face image required for recognition. We estimate a lower
bound for face signatures in the visible and thermal spectra by conducting
eigenanalysis using principal component analysis (PCA) (i.e., eigenfaces
approach). We estimate the intrinsic dimensionality/lower bound of facialsignatures, in terms of reconstruction error, by maximizing the amount ofvariance retained in the reconstructed dataset while minimizing the numberof reconstruction components. Extending on this approach, we also examine
the identification error to estimate the intrinsic dimensionality with respect
to low-resolution to high-resolution face recognition performance. Two
multimodal face datasets are used for this study to evaluate the effects ofdataset size and diversity on the underlying intrinsic dimensionality: 1) a
50-subject face dataset (containing visible, MWIR, LWIR face imagery) and2) a 170-subject face dataset (containing visible and MWIR face imagery).

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SPIE DSS 2015·

Obtaining location information can be of paramount importance in thecontext of pervasive and context-aware computing applications. Manysystems have been proposed to date, e.g. GPS that has been proven tooffer satisfying results in outdoor areas. The increased effect of large andsmall scale fading in indoor environments, however, makes localizationa challenge. This is particularly reflected in the multitude of different
systems that have been proposed in the context of indoor localization(e.g. RADAR, Cricket etc). The localization accuracy of such systems
is often validated on vastly different test beds and conditions, making
performance comparisons difficult and often irrelevant. The Locus analyticalframework incorporates algorithms from multiple disciplines such as
channel modeling, non-uniform random number generation, computational
geometry, localization, tracking, probabilistic modeling, exploratory
data analysis, graph theory etc. in order to provide: (a) fast and accurate
signal propagation simulation in a clearly defined spatial scenario, (b)fast experimentation with localization and tracking algorithms and (c) an
in-depth analysis methodology for estimating the performance limits of
any Received Signal Strength (RSS) localization system. Simulation results
for the well-known Fingerprinting and Trilateration algorithms are hereinpresented and validated with experimental data collected in real conditions
using IEEE 802.15.4 ZigBee modules, operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. The
analysis shows that the Locus framework accurately predicts the underlying
distribution of the localization error and produces further estimates ofthe system’s performance limitations in a best-case/worst-case scenario
basis, focusing on various metrics of localization accuracy and precision.
Thus, the proposed solution enables experimentation in both controlled
simulated conditions and in near-real conditions, using external input of
RSS measurements to properly model the propagation characteristics of thesurrounding environment.

www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV

9474-47, Session 8

find themselves in situations where they have fallen and need assistance.
To improve SCD’s robustness, we begin by introducing a new fall modulethat handles partial fall cases, a special-case not handled by our previous
detectors. Next, we discuss the issue of how to find the optimal decision
factors for determining falls, and present testing results of our optimized
search algorithm. We then demonstrate the completed emergency response
system for SCD which integrates speech recognition, text to speech, email,and SMS technologies. A problem with all vision systems is occlusion, andwe discuss the problem as well as an initial attempt at efficiently handlingone form of occlusion. Further results in a home environment will be given
including test cases with supportive devices like “walkers” and canes areshown. The U.S. is entering a time in history when the number of seniors
is far larger than before, with the now retiring “Baby Boomers”. These
individuals are looking to stay in their own home environment, often living
alone for longer times, and this system could be one solution to the ensuing
problems of senior collapse.

Range resolution improvement in passive
bistatic radars using nested FM channels
and least squares approach
Musa T. Arslan, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey); Mohammad Tofighi,
Bilkent Univ. (Turkey) and Bilkent University (Turkey);
Rasim A. Sevimli, Ahmet E. Cetin, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey)
Passive Bistatic Radar (PBR) systems use illuminators of opportunity,
such as FM, TV and DAB broadcasts. The most common illuminator ofopportunity for the PBR systems is the FM radio stations. Single FMchannel based PBR systems do not have high range resolution. In order toenhance the range resolution of the PBR systems algorithms using several
FM channels at the same time are proposed [1, 2]. In standard methods,
consecutive FM channels are translated to baseband as is and fed to thematched filter to compute the range-Doppler map. Multichannel FM based
PBR systems have better range resolution than single channel systems.
However superious side-lobe peaks occur as a side effect. Superious sidelobes are due to the cross-terms at the matched filter output. In this paper,
we propose a new multichannel method based on both non-overlapping andoverlapping baseband FM channels and deconvolution. We construct a new
surveillance signal using both non-overlapped and overlapped baseband
spectra of several FM channels using discrete-time processing. Following
the rearrangement of FM channels in discrete domain, we construct therange-Doppler map using cross correlation based ambiguity function. In
addition to this, we also construct another range-Doppler map using the
autocorrelation of the constructed multi channel reference signal. Then
using the range-Doppler map of crosscorrelation and autocorrelation, we
estimate the positions of the targets by solving a deconvolution problem.

9474-46, Session 9

Design for a source-agile automatic
direction finder (ADF)
Harley R. Myler, Lamar Univ. (United States)
The design is intended for aircraft although any vehicle or even a manmobile system could use the concept. An automatically reconfigurable
antenna using MEMS RF switches is driven to seek signals consistent withthe current location of the system. The antenna feeds a Software DefinedRadio (SDR) that scans for signals and when a signal is found, it is identified
and then the azimuth to the signal is used, along with a signal strengthparameter, to confirm the location of the system. This is an extension of the
now obsolete ADF aircraft navigation tool that used AM broadcast nondirectional beacons (NDB), many of which are still in service. The current
system can access any radio signal within the limits of the reconfigurable
antenna and the SDR.

The proposed deconvolution algorithm is based on minimizing the distance
between channel impulse response vector and the epigraph set of a convex
cost function such as the l_1 norm [3]. Deconvolution with overlapping typemultichannel FM signals is able to produce isolated peaks corresponding
to the actual positions of the targets. However, deconvolution with nonoverlapping type multichannel FM signals produces some superious peaks
around the actual peak. In order to overcome the superious peaks, we
relaxed the regularization term of the deconvolution algorithm. Both theoverlapping ambiguity function approach and the modified least squares
approach improve the range resolution and produce lower sidelobes thanthe ordinary multi-channel approach. Extensive simulation examples will bepresented in the final form of the paper.

9474-48, Session 9

Engine classification using vibrations
measured by laser Doppler vibrometer on
different surfaces

References: [1] Olsen, Karl Erik, and Karl Woodbridge. “Performance of amultiband passive bistatic radar processing scheme-Part II.” IEEE Aerospaceand Electronic Systems Magazine, 27.11 (2012): 4-14. [2] A. S.

Jie Wei, Chi-Him Liu, Zhigang Zhu, The City Collegeof New York (United States); Karmon M. Vongsy, Olga
Mendoza-Schrock, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Tasdelen, “Range resolution improvement in passive coherent location radarsystems using multiple fm radio channels,” Master’s thesis, Bilkent University,
2007. [3] A. Enis Cetin and Mohammad Tofighi, “Denoising using wavelets
and projections onto the l1-ball,” Available online at http://signal.ee.bilkent.
edu.tr/denoising.

In our previous studies, vehicle surfaces’ vibrations caused by operating
engines measured by Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV) have been effectively
exploited in order to classify vehicles of different types, e.g., vans, 2-door
sedans, 4-door sedans, pick-ups and buses, and different types of engines,
such as Inline-four engines, V-6 engines, 1-axle diesel engines and 2-axle
diesel engines. The results are achieved by employing methods based ona great array of machine learning classifiers such as AdaBoost, random
forests, neural network and support vector machines. However, to achieveeffective Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) in utmost
interest to military applications, signals directly picked up from vehicle
surfaces are problematic: in a contested environment, enemies canintentionally change or conceal vehicle surfaces and thus compromising thevibration signals taken by the LDV thus counter-measuring the efficacy of
the LDV’s remote sensing prowess. We hence need a more reliable approachto pick authentic vibrations of vehicle engines from a trustworthy surface,
not the ones fully controlled by enemies.

9474-45, Session 9

Occlusion, optimization, emergency
response and partial falls in a seniorcollapse detection system
Lynne L. Grewe, Steven Magaña-Zook, California State
Univ., East Bay (United States)
We discuss the further development of Senior Collapse Detection(SCD), a system that uses cyber-physical techniques to create a “smart
home” system detect the falling of senior/geriatric participants in homeenvironments. Specifically, we address the issues of Emergency Response
to fall events, Optimization of Decision Factors, and also present techniques
and testing to deal with occlusion. This software application addresses theneeds of millions of senior citizens who live at home by themselves and can

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Toward this end, we propose to pre-plant a number of retro-reflective andwell-vibrating small objects such as flat metal sheets/bars along the road,so that when the vehicles move close to these objects their engines willcause the objects’ surface to vibrate, which in turn will be picked up by
the LDV. Compared with vibrations directly taken from the uncooperative
vehicle surfaces that are rigidly connected to the engines, these vibrations·

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Conference 9474: Signal Processing,Sensor/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXIV
are much weaker in magnitudes. However, the fact that they are difficult tobe contaminated by enemies makes it an exceedingly appealing approach.
In this work we conducted a systematic study on different types of objects
that could be pre-planted in the environment. We tested different typesof engines ranging from shavers, electric fans, and coffee machines overdifferent surfaces such as white board, cement wall, and steel cases toinvestigate the characteristics of the LDV signals on these surfaces, in boththe time and spectral domains. Preliminary results in engine classification
using several machine learning algorithms point to the right direction on
the choice of type of object surfaces to be planted for LDV measurements.
This method has great potential to be exploited in contested, uncooperativeenvironment for a more effective ISR.

algorithm can not only be used in the field of image fusion, in order toimprove the fusion effect, but also be used in security surveillance, nightvision surveillance and other civil and military fields.

9474-55, Session 9

The challenges of implementing andtesting two signal processing algorithms
for high rep-rate coherent Doppler lidar
for wind sensing
Sameh Abdelazim, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. (UnitedStates); David Santoro, Mark F. Arend, Fred Moshary, Samir
Ahmed, The City College of New York (United States)

9474-49, Session 9

Exploitation of vibrometry data
Karmon M. Vongsy, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ashley N. Smith, Wright State Univ. (UnitedStates)Laser vibrometry provides a method to identify running vehicles’ uniquesignatures using non-contact measurements. A vehicle’s engine, size,
materials, shape, and more vary its signature. To classify and identify thesesignatures, a robust aided target recognition (AiTR) end-to-end process
is evaluated and expanded. Several challenges arise when classifying
vehicles’ vibration signatures. Operating conditions, parameters that varysuch as weather, terrain, sensor location, sensor type, and engine speed,present the main challenge. Another challenge in vehicle classification isthe determination of signal features that can overcome the differences
created by these varying operating conditions. Eleven features taken fromautomatic speech recognition, seismology, and structural analysis were usedin this end-to-end process. Features were selected by two feature selection
methods to determine the best feature set for vehicle classification. Finally,four classifiers were used to identify vehicles’ signatures. The classifiers’
confusion matrices were used to make decisions on the end-to-end process.
The entire process was tested on two small in-house data sets: a military
vehicle collection using accelerometers and a civilian vehicle collection usinga laser vibrometer and accelerometers.

9474-51, Session 9

An eye-safe all-fiber 1.5 µm wavelength Coherent Doppler wind Lidar system
has been developed and tested at the Optical Remote Sensing Laboratoryof the City College of New York. The pulse energy is approximately
12µJ, the pulse repetition rate is 20 Khz and the data acquisition rate is
400 MHz so that sufficient signal integration is needed to make reliablevelocity estimates with sub m/s resolution, assuming typical atmosphericbackscatter conditions. Such constraints put demands on the digital signal
processing (DSP) methods and techniques that are solved by implementing
much of the DSP using a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA).
In this paper, we present two signal processing algorithms implemented
using the FPGA. The first algorithm involves explicate time gating ofreceived signals that correspond to a desired spatial resolution, performinga Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) calculation on each individual time gate,
taking the square modulus of the FFT to form a power spectrum and thenaccumulating these power spectra over 10k return signals. The second
algorithm involves calculating the autocorrelation of the backscatteredsignals and then accumulating the autocorrelation for 10k pulses. Efficient
implementation of each of these two signal processing algorithms on an
FPGA is challenging because it requires there to be tradeoffs between
retaining the full data word width, managing the amount of on chip memory
used and respecting the constraints imposed by the data width of the FPGA.
A description of the approach used to manage these tradeoffs for each of
the two signal processing algorithms are presented and explained in thisarticle. Results of atmospheric measurements obtained through these two
embedded programing techniques are also presented.

Infrared small target detection algorithm
based on multiscale codebook model
Lei Liu, Yayun Zhou, Nanjing Univ. of Science andTechnology (China)
With the continuous development of science and technology, infrared
sensor technology has played an important role in national defense, medical,
transportation and other areas. The tracking technology of small infrared
target is an important branch of infrared imaging technology, which has not
only very important scientific research value, but also has broad application
prospect in the military and civil area.
Nowadays, different algorithms have been proposed for infrared target
tracking. However, under complex backgrounds, such as clutter, varying
illumination, and occlusion, the traditional tracking method often loses thereal infrared small target.
To cope with these problems, in this paper we have present a novel infrared
moving target detection algorithm based on multiscale codebook modelaccording to the characteristics of small target in infrared images. The
basic principles and the implementing procedure of these algorithms fortarget tracking are described. Firstly, the infrared video is stratified by
Gauss Pyramid. Secondly, codebook model is built for each layer image
and the moving target in infrared video is detected according to model.
Finally, each layer results are combined and the final detection result is get.
The experimental results show that, compared with traditional detection
algorithms, the result of multiscale codebook model has better detection
effects, richer target information and lower false detection rate. This

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Conference 9475:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXII
Thursday 23–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9475 Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXII

9475-1, Session 1sparsity structure in the reconstruction of the reflectivity function to arrive
at a sharper more focused image.

SAR imaging using low-rank matrix
recovery techniques

The theory of compressive sensing allows us to transform the usually
intractable sparse recovery problem into a tractable one and gives theconditions under which one can achieve exact recovery [1], [2]. For noiselesscase, one can solve an equivalent linear programming problem (i.e.,
convex relaxation of l0 to an l1 problem with linear constraints). For sparsereconstruction from noisy data, one can replace the linear constraints withconstraints on the l2-norm of the residuals. The problem is then equivalent
to the well-known Lasso regression problem [3] where an MMSE problem
is regularized by a sparsity promoting l1-norm on the unknown vector.
However, because the l1 regularization introduces bias, especially for highdimensional problems, it is usually difficult to get an accurate handle on
the distribution of the reconstructed image and hence difficult to analyze
it statistically. Recent work by Javanmard et. al. [4] studied a new methodfor “debiasing” the Lasso solution that theoretically guarantees to give
asymptotically unbiased results under sparsity assumption, provided certain
conditions are met by the forward operator. Our goal in this study is to
apply this technique for the radar imaging problem.

Eric Mason, Birsen Yazici, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute(United States); Uttam Majumder, Edmund G. Zelnio, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)
In this paper we consider a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) transmitting. We
present an image reconstruction method based on low-rank matrix recovery
techniques. Numerical simulations show that low rank matrix recovery
methods suppress the sidelobes of the point spread function better thanconventional backprojection-based methods.
SAR scenes are often composed of a small number of strong scatterers or
discontinuities, making SAR reflectivity function as sparse or low cardinality.
These features make sparse signal recovery techniques suitable for SAR
image reconstruction [5]. In this paper, we take an alternative approachand view SAR scenes as low-rank matrices and use matrix completion
techniques to reconstruct SAR images. Matrix completion techniques werepreviously used in SAR imaging as a preprocessing step to synthesize
measurements [1] and in array signal processing [3].

To this end, we explore the radar image reconstruction from limited datausing sparse recovery techniques and leverage the recent theoreticalresults from Javanmard et. al. [4] to provide statistical analysis of thereconstruction in terms of confidence intervals. With the confidence
intervals, we are able to assess the quality of the reconstruction without apriori knowing the true value of the reflectivity. Furthermore, by utilizing
the p-value from the statistical analysis, we can perform spatially resolved
detection on the reconstructed reflectivity function. We consider suchdebiased Lasso based reconstruction method for distributed sensors
scenario, along with monostatic and bistatic SAR. We compare the resultswith conventional reconstruction methods and provide simulation results
for comparison with the theoretical analysis. Namely we build confidence
intervals for several realizations of the data with varying SNR and analyze
the non-asymptotic bias term and compare with what is expected by
the theory.

Imaging methods based on compressed sensing or low-rank matrix recovery
techniques offer several advantages, they require far less measurements
than conventional methods and produce better quality images.
We perform image formation using low-rank matrix recovery techniques.
The methods rely on minimizing the rank instead of the cardinality of theimage. We use the imaging operator presented in [2] to design the forward
operator and a convex optimization program to minimize the nuclear norm,
heuristic for the rank function.
In the final paper, we will present our problem formulation and image
reconstruction in detail. We will present numerical simulations todemonstrate the performance of our imaging method.

References

References:[1] E. J. Candes, J. Romberg, and T. Tao, “Robust uncertainty principles:
exact signal reconstruc- tion from highly incomplete frequency information,”
Information Theory, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 489–509, 2006.

1. Dong Yang, Guisheng Lia, Shenqi Zhu, Xi Yang, Xuepan Zhang, “SAR
Imaging With Undersampled Data via Matrix Completion,” IEEE Geoscieneand Remote Sensing Letters, vol 11, 1539 - 1543, Sept. 2014.

[2] E. J. Candes, “The restricted isometry property and its implications forcompressed sensing,” C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Ser. I, vol. 346, pp. 589–592,
2008.

2. Ling Wang, Birsen Yazici, “Bistatic Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging
Using UltraNarrowband Continuous Waveforms,” IEEE Transactions on
Image Processing, vol 21, 3673 - 3686, Aug. 2012.

[3] R. Tibshirani, “Regression shrinkage and selection via the lasso,” Journalof Royal Statistical Society. Series B, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 267–288, 1996.

3. Zhiyuan Weng, Xin Wang, “Low-Rank Matrix Completion for Array Signal
Processing,” IEEE Int. Conf. on Acoustics, Speech, Signal Processing, vol2012, 2697 - 2700, Mar. 2012.

[4] A. Javanmard and A. Montanari, “Confidence intervals and hypothesis
testing for high-dimensional regression,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1306.3171, 2014.

4. Benjamin Recht, Maryam Fazel, Pablo A. Parrilo, “Guaranteed MinimumRank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations via Nuclear Norm Minimization,”
SIAM Rev., vol 52 471–501, 2010.

9475-4, Session 1

5. Ivana Stojanovic, Mujdat Centin, W. Clem Karl, “Compressed Sensingof Monostatic and multistatic SAR,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience andRemote Sensing Letters, vol 10, 1444-1448 2013

Gradient projection for interrupted SAR
using the polar format algorithm
Ross W. Deming, Solid State Scientific Corp. (UnitedStates); Chad Knight, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States)
and Utah State Univ. (United States)

9475-2, Session 1

Analysis and sharpening of radar image
reconstruction via debiasing the lasso

We present an efficient and computationally simple approach for synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) imaging in cases where the radar data have gaps
due to missing pulses and/or notches in the frequency band. Gaps in thedata will typically produce bright streaks and other artifacts when using
standard SAR algorithms. Mathematically, gaps in the data cause theimaging problem d = Ax to be underdetermined (fewer data samples dthan image pixels x), so there are many image solutions x that will yield

Il-Young Son, Birsen Yazici, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute (United States); Edmund G. Zelnio, Uttam
Majumder, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
In radar imaging, the scatterers of interest are usually assumed to bespatially sparse. Thus, in a clutter-free environment, we can leverage thisReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290·

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241Conference 9475:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXII
the measured data d given the forward model A. A well-known strategy
is to seek the solution x having minimum L1 norm, which increases image
sparsity, and thus reduces bright streaks and other gap-related artifacts. The
key is to choose a minimization scheme that converges quickly and avoids
the storage and manipulation of large matrices. Various schemes include
linear programming, Quasi-Newton methods, and gradient projection,
among others. Our method is a computationally efficient version ofgradient projection, in which the search path in each iteration is obtainedby projecting the negative gradient of the L1 norm onto a hyperplane thatdefines solutions which are consistent with the data. The computations are
not complicated since the L1 gradient is simply equal to the sign() of the
pixels x in the image. Computational efficiency is obtained by incorporating
the polar format algorithm, which projects intermediate images onto thesolution hyperplane using a fast Fourier transform. Sample results arepresented using the Air Force Research Laboratory’s Gotcha airborne radar
data set.

9475-5, Session 1

Back projection based Bistttic SAR DCPA
for moving target imaging
Kaan Duman, Birsen Yazici, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute (United States)for ATI are often chosen by convenience and are not necessarily configured
for optimal ATI/SAR performance. In this paper we focus on the ATI/SAR system configuration and the corresponding trade space whereemphasis is given to the resource-constrained (e.g., UAV) environment.
SDL has developed a simulation package and a flexible radar system called
FlexSAR that allows for easy adjustment of the channels, channel baselines,
waveforms, bandwidths, sampling, etc. This enables the simulation andcollection of multi-static ground moving target indicator (GMTI) data. The
multi-static configuration provides additional effective apertures and thesecollections therefore result in a larger effective baseline than standard(single transmitter) data collections using the same physical array. For
example, a multi-static configuration with only two-physical antennas
provides three effective apertures. This facilitates improved minimum
detectable velocity (MDV) for both displaced phase center antenna (DPCA)
and ATI processing, and also allows for clutter-suppression interferometry(CSI), which is critical for accurate cross-range estimation and improved
results for endo-clutter geo-location. We discuss how these principles
extend to higher dimensions, where N channels can provide (N/2)*(N+1)
effective apertures, and consider the required system configuration. We
initially examine several high fidelity time-domain SAR/ATI simulations toillustrate the trade space. We then examine actual multi-static GMTI resultsthat were collected using the Space Dynamics Laboratory’s (SDL’s) FlexSAR
system to illustrate the advantage of the proposed system configuration
regarding target detectability and geo-location estimation.

No Abstract Available

9475-8, Session 1

9475-6, Session 1

Geolocation of moving targets in gotcha
data using multimode processing

Knowledge-aided GMTI in a Bayesianframework

Unnikrishna Pillai, New York Univ. (United States); Ke
Yong Li, C&P Technologies, Inc. (United States); Steven M.
Scarborough, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Michael Riedl, The Ohio State University (United States);
Lee C. Potter, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)

No Abstract Available

Traditional ground moving target indicator (GMTI) processing attempts toseparate moving objects in the scene from stationary clutter. Techniquessuch as space-time adaptive processing (STAP) require the use of an
unknown covariance matrix of the interference (clutter, jamming, andthermal noise) that must be estimated from the remaining data notcurrently under test.

9475-10, Session 2

SAR image statistics and adaptive signal
processing for change detection

Many problems exist with estimating the interference covariance including:heterogeneous, contaminated, and/or limited training data. There are many
existing techniques for obtaining an interference covariance matrix estimate,most of which incorporate some kind of prior knowledge to improve theestimate. We propose an approach that incorporates the knowledge of an
approximate digital elevation map (DEM) and platform kinematics (platform
velocity, crab angle, and antenna spacings) into a Bayesian framework that
estimates both clutter and movers on a range by range basis without the
explicit estimation of an interference covariance matrix. The signal modeland required processing steps are detailed. We test our approach using the
KASSPER I dataset and compare the results to other current approaches.

9475-7, Session 1

Clutter Suppression Interferometry System
Design and Processing
Chad Knight, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States); Ross
W. Deming, Solid State Scientific Corp. (United States);
Jake Gunther, Utah State Universiy (United States)
Along track interferometry (ATI) processing has received extensive attention
for its multi-modal capabilities. ATI has the ability to generate high-quality
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images and concurrently detect and estimate
the positions of slow-moving targets with moderate processing. Previously
demonstrated results have been impressive. However, radar systems used

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SPIE DSS 2015·

Viet T. Vu, Renato Machado, Mats I. Pettersson, BlekingeInstitute of Technology (Sweden); Patrik Dammert, Hans
Hellsten, Saab Electronic Defence Systems (Sweden)
The paper gives a research on SAR image statistics and adaptive signal
processing for change detection.
Histograms are used to investigate SAR image statistics. A histogramprovides us the information on the distribution of SAR image amplitudes
or in other words the number of repetitions of SAR image amplitudes. The
investigation shows that the distribution of SAR image amplitudes arequite close to the probability density function of the Rayleigh distribution.
However, if two SAR images, which are subjects to detect changes,
are combined with a simple linear subtraction, the distribution of thiscombination is approximately matched with the probability density functionof the Gaussian or normal distribution.
This finding suggests that the Gaussian process dominates in the dataobtained from the subtraction of two SAR images. The changes can beeasier to be detected if the Gaussian process is removed from the data. The
elimination can be simply based on any common adaptive noise cancellation
mechanism. Adaptive line enhancer (ALE) is one example among adaptivenoise cancellation mechanisms and does not require a separate
reference signal.
In the experiment with the CARABAS data to illustrate the performanceof ALE, a simple SAR scene with the known changes between two
measurements is selected. Namely , 25 terrain vehicles concealed by foliage
had been deployed in different parts of the SAR scene in the measurements.

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Conference 9475:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXIIThe experimental results indicate that 19 among 25 terrain vehicles
concealed by foliage can be securely detected using a simple adaptive
signal processing mechanism like ALE. The performance of ALE for change
detection depends strongly on how to select the parameters for ALE andthe adaptive algorithm for ALE. There still exists the false alarms caused by,for example power lines, which need to be solved.

Parametric spectral estimation in each dimension allows sub-pixel
localization of point scatterers in some cases additionally exploiting themultiple samples in each cross dimension. The accuracy of parametricestimation is increased when several azimuth passes or elevations(snapshots) are summed to mitigate measurement noise. Inherent range
curvature across the aperture however limits the accuracy in the range
dimension to that attained from a single pulse. Unlike the stationary casewhere radar returns may be averaged for better range estimates the
movement necessary to create the synthetic aperture is only approximately(to pixel level accuracy) removed to form SAR images.

9475-11, Session 2

Signature predictions of surface targets
undergoing turning maneuvers in spotlight
synthetic aperture radar imagery

In parametric estimation increased accuracy is attained when two
dimensions are used to jointly estimate locations. This paper involves jointly
estimating azimuth and elevation to attain increased accuracy 3D location
estimates. In this way the full 2D array of azimuth and elevation samples isused to obtain the maximum possible accuracy. In addition the independent
dimension collection geometry requires choosing which dimension azimuth
or elevation attains the highest accuracy while joint estimation increases
accuracy in both dimensions.

David A. Garren, Naval Postgraduate School (UnitedStates)This paper investigates methodologies for predicting the smear signaturesin broadside spotlight synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery collections
due to surface targets that are undergoing turning maneuvers. Analytic
computation of a power series expansion of the subaperture phase function[Ref. 1] is used to compute a generic expression for the down-range andcross-range components of the predicted mover signature.

Use of a 2D parametric estimation method attains the best accuracy
possible in both dimensions. When in some scenarios, particularly the orbital
case, where the azimuth dimension is only approximately linear the fullaccuracy increase of linear joint azimuth and elevation is not fully attained.
Images and point cloud estimates are shown for several linear and orbital
SAR scenarios. Images provide a visual representation of the data while thequantitative point cloud data is a direct input for the multiple analyzes
listed earlier.

Studies of moving target signatures in SAR have revealed that the primary
component of the smearing lies in the radar cross-range direction. However,there is also a slight component in the radar down-range direction, yielding
moving target signatures that frequently have a curved or bowed shape. In
fact, the details of the target motion and the radar collection contribute to
the resulting location, extent, and shape of the resulting smear. One of theelements of the smear shape is whether the signature is curved upwards likea bowl towards near range or curved downwards like a hill towards
far range.

9475-13, Session 2

Impact of ground mover motion andwindowing on stationary and moving
shadows in synthetic aperture radar
imagery

The analytic expressions for the signature contours of turning targets are
considered for typical SAR collections. The turning motion of a surface
target introduces additional terms into the signature equations that can
induce significant effects upon the resulting smear. In fact, these effects canreverse the concavity of a curved smear relative to a target that is moving
with constant speed and heading. Numerous examples are presented todemonstrate that these signature prediction equations yield excellent
agreement with simulated SAR smears. Therefore, these general signature
prediction equations can provide an effective tool in predicting the shape,
extent, and location of signature smears due to turning surface targets.

John Miller, Edward Bishop, General Atomics Aeronautical
Systems, Inc. (United States); Armin W. Doerry, Ann M.
Raynal, Sandia National Labs. (United States)
This paper describes the impact of ground mover motion and windowing
on stationary and moving shadows in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
and video SAR mode imagery. The technique provides a foundation for
optimizing algorithms that detect ground movers in SAR imagery. The video
SAR mode provides a persistent view of a scene centered at the Motion
Compensation Point (MCP). The radar platform follows a circular flightpath. Detecting a stationary shadow in a SAR image is important because
the shadow indicates a detection of an object with a height component
near the shadow. Similarly, the detection of a shadow that moves fromframe to frame indicates the detection of a ground mover at the locationof the moving shadow. An approach analyzes the impact of windowing
in calculating the brightness of a pixel in a stationary, finite-sized shadow
region. An extension of the approach describes the pixel brightness for amoving shadow as a function of its velocity. The pixel brightness provides
an upper bound on the Probability of Detection (PD) and a lower bound on
the Probability of False Alarm (PFA) for a finite-sized, stationary or moving
shadow in the presence of homogeneous, ideal clutter. Synthetic data
provides shadow characteristics for a radar scenario that lend themselves
for detecting a ground mover. The paper presents 2011-2014 flight datacollected by General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (GA-ASI).

[1] Garren, D. A., “Smear signature morphology of surface targets with
arbitrary motion in spotlight synthetic aperture radar imagery,” IET Radar,
Sonar & Navigation; Vol. 8, Issue 5, June 2014, pp. 435-448.
DoD Distribution Statement A: Unlimited Distribution.
The views expressed in this document are those of the author and do notreflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the
U.S. Government.

9475-12, Session 2

Joint azimuth and elevation localization
estimates in 3D synthetic aperture radar
scenarios
Matthew P. Pepin, Sandia Staffing Alliance, LLC (UnitedStates)9475-14, Session 2

The location of point scatterers in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data is
exploited in several modern analyzes including persistent scatter tracking,terrain deformation, and object identification. The changes in scatterers
over time (pulse to pulse including vibration and movement, or pass topass including direct follow on, time of day, and season), can be used to
draw more information about the data collection. Multiple pass and multiple
antenna SAR scenarios have extended these analyzes to location in three
dimensions. Either multiple passes at different elevation angles may be
flown or an antenna array with an elevation baseline preforms a single pass.

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Asymptotic modeling of synthetic aperture
ladar sensor phenomenology
Robert Neuroth, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ. (United States);
Edmund G. Zelnio, Air Force Research Lab. (United·

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243Conference 9475:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXIIStates); Edward A. Watson, Univ. of Dayton ResearchInstitute (United States); Vincent J. Velten, Todd V. Rovito,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Interest in the use of active electro-optical sensors for non-cooperative
target identification has steadily increased as the quality and availability of
EO sources and detectors have improved. A unique and recent innovation
has been the development of an airborne synthetic aperture imaging
capability at optical wavelengths. To effectively exploit this new data source
for target identification, one must develop an understanding of targetsensor phenomenology at those wavelengths. Current high-frequency,
asymptotic EM predictors are computationally intractable for suchconditions, as their ray density is inversely proportional to wavelength. As
a more efficient alternative, we have developed a geometric optics based
simulation for synthetic aperture ladar that seeks to model the second order
statistics of the diffuse scattering commonly found at those wavelengths
but with much lesser ray density. Code has been developed, ported to highperformance computing environments, and tested on a variety oftarget models.

9475-15, Session 2

Layover analysis in synthetic apertureradar images
Ling Wang, Nanjing Univ. of Aeronautics and Astronautics(China); Birsen Yazici, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute(United States)
Layover is a phenomenon observed in range-based synthetic aperture radar(SAR) imaging due to unknown ground topography. For a fixed range, thescatterers at unknown elevation or height are “laid over” the scatterers
that are at known heights in the image reconstruction process. Hence,
the layover phenomenon prevents correct geocoding or positioning of
scatterers at true two-dimensional map coordinates.
The analysis and impact of layover in SAR images have received significant
attention [1-11]. However, the existing work in the literature is limited tocertain imaging geometries and assumptions, such as straight linear antenna
trajectories, relatively short synthetic apertures and far-field assumption.
In this paper, we present a layover analysis applicable to arbitrary imaging
geometries, monostatic and bistatic configurations, wide aperture imaging
and curved wavefronts. Our work is based on microlocal analysis andprovides explicit positioning errors in the reconstructed images due tounknown topography. While we consider backprojection (BP) type image
formation [12-26], the analysis and results are also applicable to other SAR
image formation methods. Under monostatic configuration, linear straightantenna and short aperture assumptions, our results reduce to the ones
reported in [5, 6].
In the final paper, we will outline the theory in detail and present numericalsimulations to demonstrate our analysis. While our analysis focuses on the
layover phenomena observed in conventional SAR imaging, the analysis
framework and methodology can be applied to understanding positioning
errors due to unknown height error in other SAR modalities as well.

Artech House, Boston-London (2000).
7. Willis, N. and Gri_ths, H., [Advances in Bistatic Radar], SciTech PublishingInc., Raleigh, North Carolina (2007).
8. Desai, M. D., “Spotlight mode sar stereo for height computation,” IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing 6, 1400-1411 (October 1997).
9. Rigling, B. D. and Moses, R. L., “Three-dimensional surface reconstruction
from multi-static SAR images,” in [Proceedings of SPIE Defense, Security
and Sensing Symposium], 5095, 75{85 (April 2003).
10. Yigit, E., Demirci, S., Yilmaz, B., and Ozdemir, C., Short-range groundbased SAR imaging experiments: Application of back-projection algorithm,”in [Progress In Electromagnetics Research Symposium Proceedings], 872{875 (August 2013).
11. Demirci, S., Yigit, E., Yilmaz, B., and Ozdemir, C., “Wide-field circular
SAR imaging studies based on ground-based experiments,” in [Progress
In Electromagnetics Research Symposium Proceedings], 863-866 (August2013).
12. Charles V. Jakowatz, J. and Doren, N., “Comparison of polar formatting
and back-projection algorithms for spotlight-mode SAR image formation,”in [Proceedings of SPIE Defense and Security Symposium], 6237, 0H1{7(April 2006).
13. Wahl, D. E., Yocky, D. A., and Charles V. Jakowatz, J., “An implementationof a fast backprojection image formation algorithm for spotlight-mode
SAR,” in [Proceedings of SPIE Defense and Security Symposium], 6970,
0H1-8 (April 2008).
14. Rodriguez-Cassola, M., Prats, P., Krieger, G., and Moreira, A., “Efficient
time-domain image formation with precise topography accommodation forgeneral bistatic SAR configurations,” in [The 8th European Conference on
Synthetic Aperture Radar], 1050-1053 (June 2010).
15. Ribalta, A., “Time-domain reconstruction algorithms for FMCW-SAR,”
IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 8, 396-400(May 2011).
16. Moses, R. L. and Ash, J. N., “An autoregressive formulation for SAR
backprojection imaging,” IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic
Systems 47, 2860-2873 (October 2011).
17. Shao, Y., Wang, R., Deng, Y., Liu, Y., Chen, R., Liu, G., and Loffeld, O., “Fastbackprojection algorithm for bistatic SAR imaging,” IEEE Geoscience andRemote Sensing Letters 10, 1080-1084 (May 2013).
18. Moon, K. and Long, D. G., “A new factorized backprojection algorithm forstripmap synthetic aperture radar,” Positioning, 42-56 (February 2013).
19. Yazici, B., Cheney, M., and Yarman, C. E., “Synthetic-aperture inversion in
the presence of noise and clutter,” Inverse Problems 22, 1705-1729 (2006).
20. Yarman, C. E., Yazici, B., and Cheney, M., “Bistatic synthetic apertureradar imaging for arbitrary flight trajectories,” Image Processing, IEEE
Transactions on 17, 84-93 (Jan. 2008).
21. Yarman, C. and Yazici, B., “Synthetic aperture hitchhiker imaging,” IEEE
Transactions on Imaging Processing 17, 2156-2173 (Nov. 2008).
22. Krishnan, V., Yarman, C. E., and Yazici, B., “Multistatic synthetic apertureradar image formation,” IEEE Trans. on Image Processing 19, 1290-1306 (May2010).
23. Yarman, C. E., Wang, L., and Yazici, B., “Doppler synthetic aperture
hitchhiker imaging,” Inverse Problems 26 (065006(26pp) 2010).

1. Gelautz, M., Leberl, F., and Kellerer-Pirklbauer, W., “Image enhancement
and evaluation: SAR layover and shadows,” in [European Conference on
Synthetic Aperture Radar], 71-76 (March 1996).

24. Yanik, H. C., Li, Z., and Yazici, B., “Computationally efficient FBP-type
direct segmentation of synthetic aperture radar images,” in [Proceedings of
SPIE Defense and Security Symposium], 8051, 0C1-8 (April 2011).

2. Li, X., Guo, H., and Li, Z., DEM generation and analysis on rugged terrain
using ENVISAR/SAR multi-angle INSAR data,” in [Proceedings of ENVISAT
Symposium 2007], 1-6 (April 2007).

25. Wang, L., Yarman, C. E., and Yazici, B., “Doppler hitchhiker: A novel
passive synthetic aperture radar using ultranarrowband sources ofopportunity,” IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 49, 3521-3537(October 2011).

3. Franceschetti, G. and Lanari, R., [Synthetic Aperture Radar Processing],
CRC Press (1999).

26. Wang, L. and Yazici, B., “Bistatic synthetic aperture radar imaging using
ultra-narrowband continuous waveforms,” IEEE Trans. on Image Processing
21, 3673-3686 (August 2012).

4. Stilla, U., “High resolution radar imaging of urban areas,” in [51st
Photogrammetric Week], 149-158 (September 2007).
5. Jakowatz, C. V., Wahl, J. D. E., Eichel, P. H., Ghiglia, D. C., and Thompson,
P. A., [Spotlight-ModeSynthetic Aperture Radar: A Signal Processing
Approach], Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers (1996).
6. Sullivan, R. J., [Microwave Radar: Imaging and Advanced Concepts],

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Conference 9475:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XXII

9475-16, Session 29475-18, Session 2

Deep convolutional neural networks for
ATR from SAR imagery

Sensitivity to number of quantizationlevels on quantization based ATR
algorithm

David A. E. Morgan, BAE Systems (United Kingdom)

Matt S. Horvath, Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ.
(United States)

Deep architectures for classification and representation learning have inrecent years advanced the state-of-the-art across a diverse collectionof problem sets including imagery, speech and text. In this study webenchmark the performance of a Deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
based approach to the classification of Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery.
Furthermore, we explore how a machine learning approach to feature
extraction could form the basis of a flexible Automatic Target Recognition(ATR) system that can be quickly adapted to incorporate previously unseen
target types.

Previous SAR ATR efforts have yielded a class of algorithms that firstquantize SAR images into N discrete bins. It is hypothesized that thisprocess reduces the sensitivity of algorithm performance to nuisanceparameters which are difficult to account for a priori. Additionally, thesealgorithms are simple in the sense that few tuning parameters are available,
allowing for analytic analysis, and making these algorithms good candidates
as ‘baseline’ algorithms to which more complex ATR solutions can becompared. Here we focus on two such algorithms: Multinomial Pattern
Matching and Quantized Grayscale Matching.

Training an ATR classification algorithm is typically a two stage process,the first being feature extraction and the second classification using thefeatures. Whilst the use of either bespoke or generic features (e.g. wavelets)
in classification can perform well, the former may not generalise well to
new target types and the latter encodes no problem specific informationand therefore performance depends entirely on the classifier. A Deep CNN
approach blurs the distinction because relevant, discriminative features are
elicited as part of the training process rather than being supplied as inputs
to it.

These algorithms are known as model-based ATR algorithms, where eachtarget/pose is class is assumed to be a generative statistical distribution andtraining the algorithm involves estimating the class-conditional parameter of
each distribution using a set of truthed training images. MPM assumes thateach image pixel is IDD according to a Dirichlet-Multinomial model and QGM
assumes a simpler model where each pixel is an IID realization of only N IDD
Multinomial random variables and hence the choice of N will affect eachalgorithm differently.

We use recent concepts in Deep Learning, such as rectified linear units(ReLu), stochastic gradient descent training with momentum and dropout
to train a CNN against the public release MSTAR data set. Results obtained
for the 3-way and 10-way classification problems are competitive withexisting, mature approaches in SAR literature. In addition, results obtainedusing a leave-one-out scheme show that a Deep CNN classifier trained
against a 9-way classification problem can be quickly adapted to identify
the previously unseen target.

Here we investigate the issues arising for each algorithm based on
the choice of N and attempt to derive an optimal choice based on
maximizing the ATR performance as a function of the training datasets andsubsequently the parameters for each in-class model.

9475-17, Session 2

Mixture of factor analyzers models of
appearance manifolds for resolved SAR
targets
Tarek Abdelrahman, Emre Ertin, The Ohio State Univ.
(United States)
We study the problem of target identification from Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR) imagery. SAR image classification is a challenging problem
due to large variations of target signature as a function of aspect. Previous
work on modeling wide angle SAR imagery have shown that point featuresderived from scattering center locations lie on a low dimensional manifold
in high dimensional ambient space. We use rich probabilistic models of
the target manifold for two key research tasks: first, for the analysis oftarget classification performance as a function of operating conditions andsecond, for the design of practical, scalable algorithms that can close thegap between existing algorithms and performance bounds. We employ
Mixture of Factor Analyzers (MoFA) to provide probabilistic description of
the manifold that can be used for both analysis and design. We optimize
projection matrices to minimize probability of error in the projected space
using high Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) approximations and compare it to theempirical performance of Nearest Neighbor classification using data from
Civilian Vehicle (CV) domes.

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV
Monday - Thursday 20–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9476 Automatic Target Recognition XXV

9476-1, Session 1

9476-3, Session 1

Target classification strategies

The effect of contrast in camouflage
patterns on detectability by humanobservers and CAMAELEON

Bruce J. Schachter, Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems(United States)
Target classification algorithms have generally kept pace with developmentsin the academic and commercial sectors since the 1970s. However, mostrecently, investment into object classification by internet companies andvarious Human Brain Projects have far outpaced that of the defense sector.
Implications are noteworthy.
There are some unique characteristics of the military classification problem.
Target classification is not solely an algorithm design problem, but is partof a larger system design task. The design flows down from a concept ofoperations (ConOps) and key performance parameters (KPPs). Inputs areimage and/or signal data and time-synchronized metadata. The operationis real-time. The implementation minimizes size, weight and power (SWaP).
The output must be conveyed to a time-strapped operator who understands
the rules of engagement. It is assumed that the adversary is actively
trying to defeat recognition. The target list is often mission dependent,
not necessarily a closed set, and may change on a daily basis. It is highly
desirable to obtain sufficiently comprehensive training and testing data sets,
but costs of doing so are very high and data on certain target types are
scarce. The training data may not be representative of battlefield conditions
suggesting the avoidance of highly tuned designs. A number of traditionaland emerging feature extraction and target classification strategies are
examined in the context of the military target classification problem.

9476-2, Session 1

Mutual information for enhanced feature
selection in visual tracking

Evaluation methodology for query-based
scene understanding systems

In this paper we investigate the problem of fusing a set of features for a
discriminative visual tracking algorithm, where good features are thosethat best discriminate the object from the local background. This may beposed as a two-class object versus background classification problem.
Discriminability may then be evaluated by using the Variance Ratio [1],which rewards features with small intra-class variances and large inter-classvariance. Alternatively, discriminability may be evaluated using the Mutual
Information between the class-conditioned feature responses and theircorresponding classes [2]. However, an outstanding problem is that there
may exist redundant information between any pair of feature responses
within the selected subset of discriminative features. This effectively reduces
the number of features within the subset, which in turn can reduce tracking
robustness. Using a principled Mutual Information approach, we introduce
a novel online feature selection algorithm that preserves discriminative
features while reducing redundant information. Applying this algorithm
to a discriminative visual tracking system, we experimentally demonstrate
improved performance in tracking multiple objects using standard data sets.
[1] R. Collins, Y. Liu and M. Leordeanu, “Online selection of discriminative
tracking features”, IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,
27(10), 1631–1643, October 2005.
[2] V. Mahadevan and N. Vasconcelos, “Saliency-based discriminant
tracking”, In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,
2009, CVPR 2009, 1007–1013, June 2009.

SPIE DSS 2015

Evaluation of signature properties of military equipment is very important.
It is crucial to apply the proper method out of many possible approaches,
based on amongst others ranking by probability of detection, detection
time, and distance to target, which have been carried out by various
countries. In this paper we present results from camouflage patternassessments utilizing two different approaches, based on i) humanobservers (detection time) and ii) simulations (CAMAELEON). CAMAELEON
is a licensed tool that ranks camouflaged targets by their statistical overlap
with the local background. The overlap is estimated through the parameters
local contrast, orientation of structures in the pattern and spatial frequency,
by mimicking the response/signal processing in the visual cortex of thehuman eye. In our camouflage tests, human observers were asked to search
for targets (in natural settings) presented on a high resolution pc screen,
and the corresponding detection times were recorded. In our study we finda good correspondence between the camouflage properties of the targets
in most of our unique tests (scenes), but in some particular cases we foundan interesting deviation. For two near-similar camouflage patterns (bothwere random samples of the local background) it seemed that the results
depended on the way the pattern was assimilated to the test subject. Moreprecisely, it may seem that high-contrast colored patches in the target
outline were significantly different detected by humans compared to
CAMAELEON. In this paper we discuss this deviation in the two signatureevaluation methods and look at potential risks.

9476-4, Session 1

Victor Stamatescu, Anthony Milton, Univ. of South
Australia (Australia); Sebastien Wong, Defence Scienceand Technology Organisation (Australia); Ivan Lee, David
Kearney, Univ. of South Australia (Australia)

246

Daniela H. Heinrich, Gorm K. Selj, Norwegian Defence
Research Establishment (Norway)·

Todd P. Huster, Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. (UnitedStates) and Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Timothy D. Ross, Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. (UnitedStates) and Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Jared
L. Culbertson, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
In this paper, we are proposing a method for the principled evaluation ofscene understanding systems in a query-based framework. We can thinkof a scene understanding system as a generalization of typical sensor
exploitation systems where instead of performing a narrowly definedtask (e.g., detect, track, classify, etc.), the system can perform generaluser-defined tasks specified in a query language. Examples of this type ofsystem have been developed as part of DARPA’s Mathematics of Sensing,
Exploitation, and Execution (MSEE) program. There is a body of literature on
the evaluation of typical sensor exploitation systems, but the open-ended
nature of the query interface introduces new aspects to the evaluation
problem that have not been widely considered before, including an
unbounded query space from which we must draw our samples.
In this paper, we state the evaluation problem and propose an approachto efficiently learn about the quality of the system under test (SUT). We
consider the objective of the evaluation to be to build a performance modelof the SUT. We use Herbrand semantics to bound query space, and we relyon the principles of Bayesian experiment design to help construct and selectoptimal queries for learning about the parameters of the SUT performancemodel. Our methodology helps identify a) the atomic building blocks thatwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV

9476-8, Session 2

make up knowledge about the scene, b) new operating conditions thatarise from the query-based paradigm, c) an outline of a proposed SUT
performance model, d) query selection and update equations for the model,
and e) a practical approach to generating and truthing queries.

Sparsity-driven anomaly detection for ship
detection and tracking in maritime video
Scott Shafer, Joshua D. Harguess, Pedro Forero, Space andNaval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)

9476-5, Session 2

Ambiguities of instantaneous frequency,
and complex signal representations
through pole-zero manipulations (Invited
Paper)

This work examines joint anomaly detection and dictionary learning
approaches for identifying anomalies in persistent surveillance applications
that require data compression. We have developed a sparsity-driven
anomaly detector that can be efficiently used for learning dictionaries online to address these challenges. In our approach, each training datum ismodeled as a sparse linear combination of dictionary atoms with noise. The
noise term is modeled as additive Gaussian noise and a deterministic term
models the anomalies. However, no model for the statistical distributionof the anomalies is made. We postulate an estimator for the dictionarythat exploits the fact that since anomalies by definition are rare, when
considering the entire dataset only a few anomalies will be present. From
this vantage point, we endow the deterministic noise term (anomalyrelated) with a group-sparsity property. A robust dictionary learning
problem is postulated where a group-lasso penalty is used to encourage
most anomaly-related noise components to be zero. The proposed estimatorachieves robustness by both identifying the anomalies and removing theireffect from the dictionary estimate. Our approach is applied to the problemof ship detection and tracking from full-motion video with promising results.

Patrick J. Loughlin, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States)“Instantaneous frequency’’ is commonly defined as the derivative of thephase of a signal, which presupposes that we know the phase of the signal.
But, there is an unlimited number of different amplitude-phase pairs thatcan generate the same real signal. Given the signal, which pair do we pick,
and why? One procedure for obtaining a particular amplitude-phase pairof the real signal was given by Gabor, who associated a specific complex
representation, called the analytic signal, to the real signal by suppressing
the negative frequencies in the Fourier spectrum of the real signal. Fromthe complex representation, the amplitude, phase and instantaneous
frequency follow unambiguously. While the analytic signal is perhaps themost common method for obtaining “the’’ instantaneous frequency ofa signal, many other methods, which yield different results, have beendeveloped before and since. Of note is the approach of Poletti (IEEE TSP,
1997), who obtained complex representations not by direct manipulationof the spectrum of the real signal, but by manipulating the poles and zerosof the real signal in the complex time plane. Related work on instantaneous
frequency and pole-zero manipulations in the complex time plane wasdone by Kumaresan and colleagues (JASA 1999, 2001). We discuss thebasic issues and methods, and we extend the pole-zero approach toobtain complex signal representations by manipulating the poles andzeros not in the complex time plane, but in the complex frequency plane.
We also discuss a common but fundamentally flawed way often used tocompare and contrast various methods (namely by generating a signal via
a particular a priori choice of amplitude-phase pair, and seeing how closethe methods come to yielding that amplitude-phase pair); we suggest,
instead, that the choice of a particular method must be driven by physical(or mathematical or physiological) properties. Some properties and theirimplications on the particular method used to obtain the instantaneous
amplitude and frequency of a signal are discussed and illustrated.

9476-9, Session 3

Vessel classification in overhead satellite
imagery using weighted “bag of visual
words”
Shibin Parameswaran, Katie Rainey, Space and Naval
Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)
Vessel type classification in maritime imagery is a challenging problem
and has applications to many military and surveillance applications. The
ability to classify a vessel correctly varies significantly depending on its
appearance which in turn is affected by external factors such as lighting
or weather conditions, viewing geometry and sea state. The difficulty inclassifying vessels also varies among different ship types as some typesof vessels show more within-class variation than others. In our previous
work, we showed that the “bag of visual words” was an effective feature
representation for this classification task in the maritime domain. The bagof visual words (V-BoW) feature representation is analogous to the bag ofwords representation used in information retrieval (IR) application in text or
natural language processing (NLP) domain. It has been shown in the textual
IR applications that the performance of the bag of words (BoW) feature
representation can be improved significantly by applying appropriate
term-weighting and feature selection methods such as log term frequency,
inverse document frequency etc. Given the close correspondence between
textual BoW (T-BoW) and V-BoW feature representations, we propose to
apply several well-known term weighting schemes from the text IR domain
on V-BoW feature representation to increase its ability to discriminate
between ship types. The impact of these feature weighting and selection
methods on vessel type classification will be evaluated using different
classification techniques.

9476-6, Session 2

A novel method for determining target
detection thresholds
Stanley I. Grossman, National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency (United States)
Target detection is the act of isolating objects of interest from thesurrounding clutter, generally using some form of test to include objects
in the found class. However, the method of determining the thresholdis overlooked relying on manual determination either through empiricalobservation or guesswork. The question remains: how does an analyst
identify the detection threshold that will produce the optimum results?
This work proposes the concept of a target detection sweet spot where themissed detection probability curve crosses the false detection curve; thisrepresents the point at which missed detects are traded for false detects
in order to effect positive or negative changes in the detection probability.
Sensitivity curves are used to characterize detection probabilities and false
alarm rates based on empirically derived data. It identifies the relationshipbetween the empirically derived results and the first moment statistic of thehistogram of the pixel target value data and then proposes a new method of
applying the histogram results in an automated fashion to predict the target
detection sweet spot at which to begin automated target detection.

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9476-10, Session 3

Segmentation and tracking ofelectrokinetic particles in microscopic
video
Qiang Le, Hampton Univ. (United States); Shizhi Qian, Old
Dominion Univ. (United States)·

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV
Particle (both biological and synthetic) separation is a fundamental
operation in many areas. Electrokinetics-based particle separation in
microfluidic devices has been widely used for separating particles. To
understand the electrokinetic particle motion in a microchannel, one could
record the particle motion inside the microchannel as a video. The goal of
the work is to segment the foreground particles and obtain their trajectories
and velocities. Some of the challenges in our problem are the dataassociation of particle targets due to the false alarms caused by the image
segmentation, and the environmental noise.
In this work, we study two microscopic videos. Video 1 is 11 seconds with
290 frames where a typical frame consists of twelve particles moving insidea single microchannel and the motion of a particle lasts about 60 frames.
Video 2 is 40 seconds where a frame consists of up to twenty particles
moving in two separated microchannels. We aim to obtain the trajectoryand velocity of our interested particles from the movies.
The framework we propose to track the particles consists of the target
segmentation and the multiple- target tracking filter. In the segmentation,
we use the morphological operations (a bundle of dilation, erosion andconnected component based region analysis) to segment the foregroundparticles. As a result, a binary image of highlighted particles is generated.
Then the centroids of particles are used as the measurements per frame in
the multiple-target tracking filter. Finally, the multiple hypothesis tracking(MHT) coupled with the kalman filter (KF) is used to tackle the dataassociation and obtain the particle trajectories. The global hypothesis isdefined as a set of disjointed particle tracks that do not share the samemeasurements. We use the integer linear programming technique to obtain
the best hypothesis that minimizes the accumulated distance cost in atime window. In addition, new target appearance and target termination
management will be considered in the paper.

9476-12, Session 3

An approach to automatic detection of
suspicious individuals in a crowd
Stephen Lucci, Satabdi Mukherjee, Izidor Gertner, The City
College of New York (United States)
This paper describes an approach to detect individuals with suspicious
objects in a crowd. It is based on a well-known image retrieval problem asapplied to mobile visual search. In many cases, the process of building ahierarchy tree uses k-means clustering followed by a geometric verification.
However, the number of clusters is not known in advance, and sometimes it
is randomly generated. This may lead to a congested clustering which cancause problems in grouping large real-time data. To overcome this problem
we have applied the Indian Buffet stochastic process approach in this paper
to the clustering problem. We present examples illustrating our method.

9476-13, Session 49476-11, Session 3

Empirical evaluation of standard
tracking process models and proposed
enhancements

Shape distance transform formorphological filtering and landing site
selection
Bing C Li, Lockheed Martin Systems Integration-Owego(United States)
Morphological filtering, erosion and dilation on images, has beensuccessfully applied to many image processing and pattern recognition
applications. Landing site selection, finding the best (safest) point to landwith given obstacle distributions and aircraft shapes, has significant value
for landing aircraft in tight environments. In this paper, we derive theshape transform theory, and use this theory to build a connection between
morphological filtering and landing site selection which seem to be different
problems. By developing a fast implementation of the shape distancetransform, we propose new techniques for both fast morphological filteringand fast computation of landing site selection.
First, we derive the shape distance transform theory, and show that the
distance between two points is determined by a predefined shape and its
scale factor (zoom in and zoom out). We then demonstrate the relationshipof the shape distance transform theory to some popular distancetransforms, and show that those popular distance transforms are the shapetransform with specific shapes. For example, when circles are chosen as
the predefined shape, the shape distance transform is equivalent to the
Euclidean distance transform, while when choosing square shapes, we canuse the chessboard distance transform. When we choose other shapes, wewill obtain other different distance transforms.
Next, we show that morphological filtering and best landing site selection
can be converted into the shape distance transform. Morphological filteringof a binary image can be generated by thresholding its shape distancetransform image while the optimal landing site is at the maximum distancepoint. Then we discuss a special type of shape distance transform, convex
polygon shape distance transform. In this transform, convex polygons arechosen as the base shapes. Since any convex shape can be approximatedby convex polygons, the convex polygon shape distance can be used toapproximately implement morphological filtering or optimal landing site
selection with any convex shapes including convex polygons.

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In order to improve the computational efficiency, we propose a line
distance propagation approach to compute the convex polygon shapedistance transform. With this new implementation, we develop a mask size
independent implementation of morphological filtering that reduces thecomputational complexity for calculating each pixel value from O(N) toO(1) where N is the number of pixels for a filtering mask. Finally, we apply
the shape distance transform to morphological filtering and landing site
selection, and show that the new implementation significantly reduces their
computational cost.

SPIE DSS 2015·

Bhargav R. Avasarala, Northrop Grumman Corp. (UnitedStates); Ryan Turner, Steven Bottone, Northrop Grumman
Corp. (United States); Clay J. Stanek, Northrop Grumman
Corp. (United States)
Kalman filters and their nonlinear extensions (extended Kalman filterand unscented Kalman filter) have been successfully utilized in many
practical applications for performing efficient state estimation. However,most implementations make use of ad-hoc or apriori knowledge to set
the necessary tuning parameters, such as those describing the process
noise, which may not generalize to other applications. We employ modern
statistical machine learning techniques to intelligently select theseparameters using all available data. We also explore whether the standard
Kalman filter approach is the most empirically appropriate model byconsidering other time series models, such as Gaussian processes, andbenchmark their performance. We evaluate our techniques using a large
volume of commercially available, high-resolution automatic dependent
surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) and aircraft situation display to industry(ASDI) data, consisting of thousands of flight trajectories.

9476-14, Session 4

Aided target recognition using
hyperdimensional manifolds
Shih-Chi K. Chen, Robert Stanfill, Abhijit Mahalanobis,
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control (United States)
We explore the use of hyperdimensional manifolds on Aided Target
Recognition (AiTR) using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery. Data
that occupies within a hyperdimensional space can be exploited using
measures constrained along the inherent structure (manifold). When
compared to multiple manifolds representing different classes, associations

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV

9476-17, Session 5

can be made by utilizing these constrained measures and data clusters toassign to the closest class. We also explore the use of sparsely estimatedmanifolds (limited training data) and its impact on AiTR results on
SAR imagery.

Stereo image segmentation withapplication in underwater fish detection
and tracking

9476-44, Session 4

Dimitrios Charalampidis, Madhuri Gundam, George E. Ioup,
Juliette W. Ioup, Univ. of New Orleans (United States);Charles H. Thompson, National Marine Fisheries Service(United States)

Recognizable 3D scene reconstruction
from 2D imagery with deep learning
Timothy S. Khuon, Michael J. Laielli, Robert S. Rand,
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)

Most often, background subtraction and image segmentation methods use
images or video captured using a single camera. However, segmentation
can be improved using stereo images by reducing errors caused due
to illumination fluctuations and object occlusion. This work proposes abackground subtraction and image segmentation method for images
obtained using a two camera stereo system. Stereo imaging is often
employed in order to obtain depth information. On the other hand, theobjective of this work is mainly to extract accurate boundaries of objects
from stereo images, which are otherwise difficult to obtain. Improving theoutline detection accuracy is vital for object recognition applications. An
application of the proposed technique is presented for the detection andtracking of fish in underwater image sequences. Outline fish detection isa challenging task since fish are not rigid objects. Moreover, color is notnecessarily a reliable means to segment underwater images, therefore,gray scale images are used. Due to these two reasons, and due to the factthat underwater images captured in non-controlled environments are often
blurry and poorly illuminated, commonly used local correlation methods are
not sufficient for stereo image matching. The proposed algorithm improves
segmentation in several scenarios including cases where fish are occluded
by other regions, when fish have gray scale intensities similar to thebackground, and for cases of non-stationary background such the moving
sea-weed. Although the work concentrates on fish detection and tracking,it can be employed for other underwater image segmentation applications
where visible-light cameras are used.

Light that enters the human eye is refracted as it passes through the cornea
and then passes through the pupil. The cornea and lens act together as acompound lens to project an up-side-down image onto the retina. The scene
obtained on the retina is 2D imagery. However, the visual system, being apart of the central nervous system, gives organisms the ability to processvisual detail. It detects and interprets information from light spectrum tobuild a representation of the surrounding environment in 3D imagery.
In the current study, we attempt to simulate the mechanism as describedabove. With a given photograph in 2D imagery, we utilize the Deep Learningas the visual system to transform it into a 3D imagery. Furthermore,
all objects in the imagery are extracted, analyzed and recognized for acomprehensive scene reconstruction. For a man-made object in the scene
such as building or sport complex, it can be extracted for 3D modeling. For
single-modal data, target recognition and classification in an imagery is a
non-trivial process due to the nature of the data collected from a sensor
system where the signal can be corrupted by noise from the environment,
electronic system. Therefore, an adaptive system with a specific desired
tolerance is required to perform classification and recognition optimally.
A Deep Learning-based feature-based pattern recognition algorithm isgeneralized for solving a particular global problem without lossof generality.
This study combines the adaptive deep learning and automatic target
recognition. The Boltzmann Machine class is used for the non-linear andadaptive learning machine; particularly, the restricted Boltzmann machine(RBM), which is a generative stochastic artificial neural network that canlearn a probability distribution over a set of inputs. The RBM applications
includes dimensionality reduction, classification, and feature learning. They
can be trained in either supervised or unsupervised ways, depending on
the task.

9476-18, Session 5

Types and classification of noises (Invited
Paper)
Leon Cohen, Hunter College (United States)
There are many types of noises that have been studied, the most famous
being white Gaussian noise. Knowing the statistics of a noise is crucial forthe detection problem. We develop a method to generate and classify
noises in a systematic way and in particular we study noises that change
in both space and time (reverberation noise for example). Of particularimportance is noise in a waveguide with dispersion. We discuss themathematical characterization of non-Gaussian noises and under whatcircumstances they are generated.

9476-16, Session 5

Enhanced target versus clutter
discrimination using time-frequency (LTV)
filters (Invited Paper)
Vikram T. Gomatam, Patrick J. Loughlin, Univ. of Pittsburgh(United States)

9476-19, Session 5

In active sensing such as in sonar and radar, target recognition is adversely
impacted by target-like returns from non-target objects (i.e. clutter). While
optimal classifiers can be designed to differentiate targets from clutter, thestatistics of the return echoes may not always adhere to the assumptions
underlying optimality (e.g., Gaussian PDFs). We implemented a minimum
probability of error (MPE) classifier with linear time-varying (LTV) prefilters to distinguish targets from clutter in active sonar data. Classification
performance was substantially improved compared to applying the MPE
classifier to the non-LTV filtered data.

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Why the inverse scattering by topologicalsensitivity may work
Bojan Guzina, Fatemeh Pourahmadian, Univ. of Minnesota,
Twin Cities (United States)
This study deciphers the topological sensitivity as a tool for imaging
anomalies in the high-frequency regime, where the germane wavelengthis surpassed by the remaining length scales in the problem. It is assumed
that the anomaly i.e. obstacle is convex and impenetrable, and that themeasurements of the scattered field are taken over a sphere whose radius
is large relative to the size of the interrogated region. In this setting, theformula for topological sensitivity – which quantifies the perturbation of acost functional due to introduction of a point- like scatterer – is expressed·

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV
as a pair of nested surface integrals: one taken over the boundary of ahidden obstacle, and the other over the measurement surface. Using
multipole expansion, the latter integral is reduced to a set of antilinear forms
featuring the Green’s function and its gradient. The remaining expression
is distilled by evaluating the scattered field on the surface of an obstacle
via Kirchhoff approximation, and pursuing the asymptotic expansion of theremaining Fourier integral. In this way the topological sensitivity is foundto survive upon three asymptotic lynchpins, namely i) the near-boundary
approximation for sampling points close to the “exposed” surface of an
obstacle; ii) uniform expansions synthesizing the diffraction catastrophes
for sampling points near caustic surfaces, lines, and points; and iii) nonuniform (stationary phase) approximation. Within the framework of thecatastrophe theory it is shown that, in the case of the full source aperture,
the topological sensitivity is asymptotically dominated by the (explicit)
near-boundary term – which explains the previously reported reconstruction
capabilities of this class of indicator functionals. The analysis is illustrated bynumerical results and an application to a recent set of experimental data.

9476-20, Session 5

Knowledge-directed adaptive automatedunderwater sonar mine detection andclassification
Firooz A. Sadjadi, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)
This paper addresses the issue of underwater automatic object detection
and classification of mine-like objects by means of a sonar sensor. The
proposed method adaptively selects the optimum algorithms and theirparameters as sensor parameters and environmental conditions change. For
adaptation, the method exploits predictive performance models of target
detection and classification in terms of sea state, sensor and environmental
parameters, target detection and classification algorithms and their internalparameters. The results of the application of the method on real andphysics-based simulated data will be presented.

Performance of Peaky Template Matching
Under Additive
White Gaussian Noise and Uniform
Quantization
Matt S. Horvath, Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ.
(United States)
Typical ATR performance evaluation methodologies usually require
empirically evaluating algorithm performance using a baseline trutheddataset. Accounting for the wide variety of operating conditions thealgorithm may encounter in an operational capacity in this dataset is
intractable, leaving the potential for unknown performance. Additionally,
this type of performance analysis does not yield insight into why thealgorithm performed either poorly or acceptably.

9476-22, Session 6

Performance and time requirement
analysis of top-hat transform based small
target detection
Ozan Yardımcı, Seyit Tunc, Roketsan Roket Sanayii ve
Ticaret A.S. (Turkey); Ilkay Ulusoy Parnas, Middle East
Technical Univ. (Turkey)
With the rapid development of digital image acquisition and processing
technology, automatic target detection has become applicable in civilian
and military fields such as guidance and automatic control. Automatictarget detection can be done by processing a single frame or by processing
successive frames in a moving camera system. These two approaches
have some advantages and disadvantages when compared to eachother. Algorithms related to single frame target detection from cluttered
background usually starts with image enhancement. Max-mean filter, maxmedian filter, frequency filter, wavelet filter and mathematical morphology
have been used for target enhancement. In this paper, we focused onmathematical morphology and especially the Top-Hat transform, which has
been proved to be very useful for small target detection. There are somechallenging problems that need to be solved in the Top-Hat transform based
methods. For example, it is difficult to find a correct structure element sizeand shape, without knowing the possible target size and shape. Also, false
alarm rate can be very high and various pre-processing or post-processing
should be applied to prevent this.

9476-23, Session 6

An evaluation of open set recognition for
FLIR images

In order to overcome these shortcomings, we focus on deriving analytic
approximations to the performance of two quantization based ATR
algorithms, Multinomial Pattern Matching (MPM) and Quantized Grayscale
Matching (QGM), under the AWGN OC. These algorithms have demonstrated
utility in SAR ATR due to hypothetically reducing the performancesensitivity to nuisance parameters that are difficult to account for. Here wefocus specifically on the AWGN operating condition, which is not a major
issue in SAR ATR performance, however is a consideration for other sensor
modalities such as FLIR and LADAR.
To these ends, we develop analytic performance approximations to the MPM
and QGM image-to-template and template-to-template match scores forboth the the binary classification problem as well as the detection problem.
These algorithms are known as model-based ATR algorithms, where eachtarget/pose is class is assumed to be a generative statistical distribution and

SPIE DSS 2015

We verify the results of our analysis using Monte Carlo simulations with the
ARL Comanche dataset.

In this paper, we investigate various different Top-Hat transformation
based small target detection approaches which are compared using thesame test images. The comparison among them is done in terms of threeissues: 1. the detection performance (precision and false alarm rate), 2. thetime requirement of the method and its usability for real time applications,
3. the number of parameters, which need to be tuned manually. Results
show that knowing the possible target size a priori is very important for ahigh performance. This information may be used either as the structuring
element size or as the threshold for post processing. Automatic approaches
to estimate the parameters may not be generic enough to be applied tovarious images. But adaptive approaches for estimating the image specificthreshold value, perform better than the others.

9476-21, Session 6

250

training the algorithm involves estimating the class-conditional parameter of
each distribution using a set of truthed training images. MPM assumes thateach image pixel is IDD according to a Dirichlet-Multinomial model and QGM
assumes a simpler model where each pixel is an IID realization of only two
IDD Multinomial random variables.

·

Matthew Scherreik, Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ.
(United States)
Typical supervised classification algorithms label inputs according to what
was learned in a training phase. Thus, test inputs that were not seen intraining are always given incorrect labels. Open set recognition algorithms
address this issue by accounting for inputs that are not present in training
and providing the classifier with an option to “reject” unknown samples.
A number of such techniques have been developed in the literature, manyof which are based on support vector machines (SVMs). One approach,the 1-vs-set machine, constructs a “slab” in feature space using the SVM
hyperplane. Inputs falling on one side of the slab or within the slab belong
to a training class, while inputs falling on the far side of the slab are rejected.
We note that rejection of unknown inputs can be achieved by thresholdingclass posterior probabilities. Another recently developed approach, thewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV
Probabilistic Open Set SVM (POS-SVM), empirically determines good
probability thresholds. We apply the 1-vs-set machine, POS-SVM, andclosed set SVMs to FLIR images taken from the Comanche SIG dataset.
Vehicles in the dataset are divided into three general classes: wheeled,armored personnel carrier (APC), and tank. For each class, a coarse pose
estimate (front, rear, left, right) is taken. In a closed set sense, we analyze
these algorithms for prediction of vehicle class and pose. To test open set
performance, one or more vehicle classes are held out from training. By
considering closed and open set performance separately, we may closely
analyze both inter-class discrimination and threshold effectiveness.

The methods presented are based on a model of ship-borne transmitters,such as radar signals and the maritime AIS signal. We have previously
reported methods for geolocating communication signals, such as analog
FM speech and binary phase shift keyed (BPSK). Unlike our previously
reported methods, the signals considered for this effort are transmitted
in short bursts that may be sparsely transmitted. These signals may havesignificant co-channel interference and are difficult to accurately frequency
track due to the short pulse (burst) duration. The methods presented are
based on the previously demonstrated ability to estimate and track thecarrier, even in co-channel interference.

9476-24, Session 6

Geolocation methods have been tested and evaluated on data collectedfrom cooperative tests and on high quality simulations that model test
conditions involving multiple transmitters and receivers in arbitrary
configurations.

Automatic solar panel recognition anddefect detection using infrared imaging

9476-26, Session 7

Xiang Gao, Eric Munson, Arizona State Univ. (UnitedStates); Glen Abousleman, General Dynamics C4 Systems(United States); Jennie Si, Arizona State Univ. (UnitedStates)Multisensor fusion with the ramification
algorithm (Invited Paper)
Andre U. Sokolnikov, Visual Solutions and Applications(United States)

Failure-free operation of solar panels is of fundamental importance for amodern commercial solar power plant. To achieve higher efficiency in power
generation and longer life of the panels a simple and reliable evaluation
method is required. By using thermal infrared imaging, anomalies can bedetected when the panels are under normal operation. In this paper we
propose a solar panel defect detection system which greatly automatesthe inspection process. Infrared video sequences are first collected from an
infrared camera mounting on a moving cart which is driving from row to row
in a solar farm. Then the image processing algorithm running on a laptop
computer segments the solar modules from the background in real-time.
Prior information of a solar array, like how many rows in that array, need to
be specified before segmentation because position of missing rows need tobe estimated if the feature detection fails due to low image quality. In order
to continually number the modules, frame-to frame module association isestablished by optical flow. Local anomalies in a single module like hotspots
and cracks will be immediately detected and labelled as soon as themodule is recognized in the field of view. After the data of the whole arrayis collected, hot modules are detected using DBSCAN clustering. Solutions
to several challenging scenarios like occlusions, motion blur, shadows andsun reflection on the panels are also discussed and proposed. This system
has been tested on a real dataset which contains over 12,000 solar modules
and demonstrates desired ability to detect the anomalies. Over 98% of all
modules are recognized and correctly numbered, and 92% of all types ofdefects are identified by the system. We find that it can greatly mitigate thetedious routine of panel inspection in a large solar farm.

The present approach combines data fusion from several sensor types toenhance the overall detection and classification performance. The fusion ofdifferent sensors is implemented at data and feature levels that results inenhanced target identification by the means of spatial-spectral analysis.

9476-27, Session 7

Distributed estimation of a parametricfield with random sensor placements(Invited Paper)
Marwan Alkhweldi, Zhicheng Cao, Natalia A. Schmid, West
Virginia Univ. (United States)
This paper considers a problem of distributed function estimation in thecase when sensor locations are modeled as Gaussian distributed randomvariables. We consider a scenario where sensors are distributed in clusters
with cluster centers known a priori (or estimated by a high performanceGPS) and the average quadratic spread of sensors around the cluster center
also known. Distributed sensors make noisy observations about an unknown
parametric filed generated by a physical object (for example, magnetic field
generated by a ferrous object and sensed by a network of magnetometers).
Each sensor will then perform local signal processing of its noisy observationand sends it to a central processor (often called fusion center) in thewireless sensor network over parallel channels corrupted by fading andadditive noise. The central processor combines the set of received signals toform an estimate of the unknown parametric field. In our numerical analysis,
we involve a filed shaped as a Gaussian bell. We experiment with the size of
sensor clusters and with their number. It can be shown that a relatively good
estimate of the field can be obtained with a single cluster. As the number ofclusters increases, the estimation performance steadily improves. The results
also indicate that, in the average, the number of clusters has more impact
on the performance than the number of sensors per cluster, given the same
size of the total network. Numerically evaluated mean square error between
the estimated parameters of the field and the true parameters used insimulations are compared to values of Cramer Rao Lower Bound.

9476-25, Session 7

Estimation, tracking and geolocationof maritime burst signals from a single
receiver (Invited Paper)
Douglas J. Nelson, National Security Agency (UnitedStates); Jeffrey N. Townsend, U.S. Dept. of Defense (UnitedStates)We present methods for estimating the source locations of a narrowband
signals in a multi-signal environment. These methods require only a single
receiver and are based only on the estimated frequencies of the received
signals. These methods may be used to estimate the emitter location inthree dimensions, making it possible to locate the target without DTED
elevation data. Frequency estimation and tracking is accomplished using
cross-spectral frequency estimation and polynomial tracking methods
previously presented. We further demonstrate that multiple received signals
may be deinterleaved and tracked by statistical methods based on received
frequency and rate of change of frequency.

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251Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV

9476-28, Session 7(United States)

Inferential statistics for transient signal
detection in radio astronomy phasedarrays (Invited Paper)

In the present paper we study the problem of weapon identification andthreat assessment from a single image with partially occluded weapon.
This problem poses very severe restrictions and requires sophisticatedmethods to reach a solution. To successfully identify a weapon from its
parts we extend the first firearm ontology with the meronymic (partonomic)
principles which will let us distinguish functionally defined parts as wellas parts that are essential to a gun (lock, barrel) from parts that are notessential (stock, scope). These distinctions are relevant for assessing thethreat that a disassembled or assembled gun may pose, as well as for
identifying a gun that is partially occluded in an image. Adding classes ofmeronymic information which provides meta-information (necessary forthreat assessment) and allows for fast and accurate search an appropriate
labeling of the ontology nodes is necessary. An active contour andmorphological techniques will be applied to partition weapons and extract
boundaries and convex hulls from their parts. Finite numerical sequences
will be generated to label partonomic nodes. Visual and conceptual
hierarchy trees will be derived from the firearm ontology’s meronymy.
The visual hierarchy tree is used for the purpose of weapon identification
using their parts. The conceptual hierarchy will serve as meta-information
depository. Links will be developed to transfer the search result from thevisual to the conceptual hierarchy. The paper will report: the meronymic
ontology along with its conceptual and visual hierarchies; experimental
results on weapons partitioning and search.

Natalia A. Schmid, West Virginia Univ. (United States);
Richard M. Prestage, National Radio Astronomy
Observatory (United States); Marwan Alkhweldi, West
Virginia Univ. (United States)
In this paper we develop two statistical rules for the purpose of detecting
pulsars and transients using signals from phase array feeds installed on aradio telescope in place of a traditional horn receiver. We assume a known
response of the antenna arrays and known coupling among array elements.
We briefly summarize a set of pre-processing steps applied to raw arraydata prior to signal detection and then derive two detection statistics
assuming two models for the unknown radio source astronomical signal: (1)signal is deterministic and (2) signal is a random process. The performanceof both detectors is analyzed using simulated data.

9476-29, Session 7

Composite multi-lobe descriptor for crossspectral face recognition: matching active
IR to visible light images (Invited Paper)

9476-31, Session 7

Ramification algorithm for graphenesample-defect localization (Invited Paper)

Zhicheng Cao, Natalia A. Schmid, West Virginia Univ.
(United States)
Matching facial images across electromagnetic spectrum presents achallenging problem in the field of biometrics and identity management. An
example of this problem includes cross spectral matching of active infrared(IR) face images or thermal IR face images against a dataset of visible lightimages. This paper describes a new operator named Composite Multi-Lobe
Descriptor (CMLD) for facial feature extraction in cross spectral matchingof near infrared (NIR) or short wave infrared (SWIR) against visible lightimages. The new operator is inspired by the design of ordinal measures. The
operator combines Gabor filter, Local Binary Pattern (LBP) and generalized
LBP (GLBP), Weber Local Descriptor (WLD) and modifies them into multilobe functions with smoothed neighborhoods. The new operator encodes
both magnitude and phase responses of the Gabor filter. The combiningof LBP and WLD utilizes both the orientation and intensity information ofedges. Introduction of multi-lobe functions with smoothed neighborhoods
further makes the proposed operator robust against noise and poor image
quality. Output templates are transformed into histograms and thencompared by means of a symmetric Kullbuck-Leibler metric resulting in amatching score. The performance of the multi-lobe operator is comparedwith that of other operators such as LBP, WLD, HOG, ordinal measures,and their combinations. The experimental results show that in many cases
the proposed method, CMLD, outperforms the other operators and their
combinations. In addition to different infrared spectrum, various standoff
distances from close-up (1.5 m) to intermediate (50 m) and long (106 m)
are also investigated in this paper. Performance of CMLD is evaluated for ofeach of the three cases of distances.

9476-30, Session 7

Identification of partially occluded
firearms through partonomy (Invited
Paper)
Abdullah N. Arslan, Christian F. Hempelmann, Salvatore
Attardo, Grady P. Blount, Texas A&M Univ.-Commerce(United States); Nona N Sirakova, Redmond (UnitedStates); Nikolay M Sirakov, Texas A&M Univ.-Commerce

252

SPIE DSS 2015·

Andre U. Sokolnikov, Visual Solutions and Applications(United States)
Recent development of a new 2D material graphene necessities sample
characterization (in particular localization and distribution of defects). The
presence of defects is unavoidable, however, it is possible to determine andpredict defect distribution in graphene sample prior to the actual device
making. A ramification algorithm is used for the above purpose.

9476-32, Session PTue

An estimation of distribution method for
dynamic programming algorithm based on
Copulas
Shuo Wang, Yiqun Zhang, China Aerospace Science &Industry Corp. (China); Zhiguo Wang, Beijing Institute ofElectronic System Engineering (China)
Track-before-detect (TBD) based target detection involves hypothesis
testing of merit functions which measure each track as a possible target
track. Its accuracy depends on the precision of the distribution of merit
functions, which determines the threshold for a test. Generally, merit
functions are regarded Gaussian, and on this basis the distribution isestimated, which is true for most methods such as the multiple hypothesis
tracking (MHT). However, merit functions for some other methods suchas the dynamic programming algorithm (DPA) are non-Gaussian andcross-correlated. Since existing methods cannot reasonably measure thecorrelation, estimating the exact distribution remains difficult. If merit
functions are assumed Gaussian and independent, the error between
an actual distribution and its approximation may reach over 30 percent
occasionally, and is divergent by propagation. Hence, in this paper, we
propose a novel estimation of distribution method based on Copulas,by which the distribution can be estimated precisely, where the error isless than 1 percent without propagation. Moreover, the estimation merely
depends on the form of merit functions and the structure of a tracking
algorithm, and is invariant to measurements. Thus, the distribution can bewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV

9476-35, Session PTue

estimated in advance, greatly reducing the demand for real-time calculationof distribution functions.

Spherical Gaussian mixture model andobject tracking system for PTZ camera

9476-33, Session PTue

Hwangbo Seok, Chan-Su Lee, Yeungnam Univ. (Korea,
Republic of)

Fast algorithm of infrared small target
detection in jitter background

Recently, pan-tilt-zoom(PTZ) camera is widely used in extensive-areasurveillance applications. A number of background modeling methods
have been proposed within existing object detection and tracking systems.
However, conventional background modeling methods for PTZ camera havedifficulties in covering extensive field of view(FOV). This paper presents a
novel object tracking system based on a spherical background model for
PTZ camera. The proposed system has two components: The first one is thespherical Gaussian mixture model(S-GMM) that learns background for all
the view angles in the PTZ camera. Also, Gaussian parameters in each pixelin the S-GMM are learned and updated. The second one is object tracking
system with foreground detection using the S-GMM in real-time. The S-GMM
is generated off-line from projection to a spherical coordinate for the c!
aptured image at fixed offset pan-tilt angle. The spherical coordinate isestimated from the known pan-tilt angle of the PTZ camera and image
size by assuming that the center line of sight passes the middle of thecaptured image and the corner of the rectangle of the image is contacted
to the virtual spherical coordinate with radius R. By updating the Gaussiancomponents which are the weight, mean and covariance of the generated
spherical background model, the S-GMM classifies foreground area fromthe background model in real-time. At the same time, moving object is
detected and is tracked based on extended Kalman filter(EKF). Finally, we
estima! te and analyze the target’s trajectory from the estimated center ofthe foreground area. The proposed system is suitable to cover wide FOV andis able to exactly track moving objects. We demonstrate the advantages ofthe proposed S-GMM for object tracking system using PTZ camera. Also, we
expect to build a more advanced surveillance applications via the
proposed system.

Weiping Yang, Xinping Lu, Jicheng Li, National Univ. of
Defense Technology (China); Zhilong Zhang, National Univof Defense Technology (China)
In the high technical local battles, it is required that the weapon system havea fast reaction, a long target detection distance. Namely, the weapon systemhave to detect the target at a long distance in real-time. However, when
the distance between the target and the weapon is long, the target image
in infrared sensor is of a small size with only one or a few pixel’s area while
the interferences of noise and clutter background remain strong. Therefore,
the detection of small targets with low signal-noise-ration (SNR) becomesa difficult task and a hot research field. In this paper, a fast algorithm isdeveloped. After analyzing signal models of infrared small targets, noiseand clutter, we use a small window median filter to estimate the infrared
background. Then using background cancelling method, that is, subtracting
the estimated background from the source image, the resident image canbe obtained. Finally, an adaptive threshold is used to segment the resident
image to obtain the potential targets. Considering the computationalload, the two-dimensional filter is simplified into a one-dimensional filter.
Experimental results show that the algorithm achieved good performanceand satisfy the requirement of big size image’s real-time processing.

9476-34, Session PTue

Image feature extraction based multiple
ant colonies cooperation

9476-36, Session PTue

Zhilong Zhang, Weiping Yang, Jicheng Li, National Univ. of
Defense Technology (China)

BMVT-M based IR ground target detection

Feature extraction is a fundamental task in the field of remote sensing
image analysis as well as image registration, target recognition and cloudrecognition. A perfect feature extraction algorithm should be robust to
image noise and clutter and extract meaningful image features.

Yun-Ji Lim, Sungho Kim, Yeungnam Univ. (Korea, Republicof); Yoeongrae Jo, Ujin Song, POSTECH (Korea, Republicof); Sohyun Kim, ADD (Korea, Republic of)

Gradient magnitude is a basic image feature. Its excellent properties
include high edge locating accuracy and low computational burden. But it
is sensitive to noise and intensity change. However, phase congruency isimmune to intensity change and noise, and sensitive to salient geometricfeature in images.

Target detection is one of the key technologies in military applications andinfrared (IR) sensors are frequently used for small target detection. However,IR sensor has limitations of passive sensor such as low detection capability
to weather and atmospheric effects. In recent years, sensor fusion is active
research topic to overcome the limitations. We choose additional active SAR
sensor for sensor fusion because SAR sensor is robust to various
weather conditions.

This paper presents a novel image feature extraction algorithm basedon multiple ant colonies cooperation. Firstly, a low resolution version of
the input image is created using Gaussian pyramid algorithm, and two
ant colonies are spread on the source image and low resolution image
respectively. The ant colony on the low resolution image uses phase
congruency as its inspiration information, while the ant colony on the source
image uses gradient magnitude as its inspiration information. These two
ant colonies cooperate to extract salient image features through sharinga same pheromone matrix. After the optimization process, image features
are detected based on thresholding the pheromone matrix. Since gradientmagnitude and phase congruency of the input image are used as inspiration
information of the ant colonies, our algorithm shows higher intelligence andis capable of acquiring more complete and meaningful image features thanother simpler edge detectors.

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Boolean Map visual theory based target detection method (BMVT) is
the state-of-the-art method of small IR target detection. Conventional
BMVT has good performance in clear environment such as sky and sea
background for small target. However, it shows poor performance when thetarget has extended size or the target is located in complex backgroundsuch as ground-background with a lot of clutters. Therefore, we presents
an improved ground target detection method based on the BMVT and
Morphology filter (BMVT-M). The proposed algorithm consists of two parts:
The first part is target enhancement based on the BMVT. The second partis clutter rejection and target enhancement based on the Morphology
filter. In addition, conventional BMVT is not suitable to SAR image fortarget detection because SAR image has so many of shot noise. Therefore
we apply median filter before the BMVT in SAR image to suppress shotnoise. According to the BMVT, multiple feature channels can be fused by
set operations such as AND, OR and NOT. This means that it is possible toproduce a variety of features from a set of basic features. In addition, we
can fuse various sensors features using the algorithm. For the verification of
the performance, experiments performed in various cluttered backgrounds,
such as ground, sea, sky generated by the OKTAL-SE tool. The proposed·

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXVof New York (United States); Michael S Shur, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute (United States)

algorithm showed upgraded detection performance than conventional
method in most of cases in terms of detection rate and false alarm rate.
Moreover, we discuss the applicability of the proposed method to the SAR
and IR sensor fusion research.

9476-37, Session 8

Metal-organic hybrid metamaterial THz
imaging detectors etching, dramiticallyincreasing the speed and lowering the costof production of such FPAs (Invited Paper)

9476-40, Session 8

Dragoslav Grbovic, Fabio Alves, Gamani Karunasiri, Naval
Postgraduate School (United States)
We investigate the feasibility of using SU-8 negative photoresist as astructural material in metal-organic hybrid THz imaging detectors. We will
discuss characterization of metal-organic hybrid metamaterials for MEMSbased terahertz (THz) thermal sensors and design and microfabrication
process for building SU8-based MEMS THz focal plane arrays. Metamaterialsof this kind, exhibiting absorption properties comparable to those ofresonant metamaterials made using traditional thin films, coupled with theapplicability of SU-8 as a structural material, offers possibilities for quick,simple microfabrication of focal plane arrays of THz imaging detectors. SU-8
is a low-cost material that can quickly be spun onto a substrate at a wide
range of thicknesses and photolithographically patterned into a variety ofstructures. This removes the need for both PECVD deposition and plasma.

9476-38, Session 8

THz devices based on 2D electron systems(Invited Paper)
Huili Grace Xing, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States)
In two-dimensional electron systems with a mobility on the order of 1,000– 10,000 cm2/Vs, the electron scattering time is about 1 ps. For the THz
window of 0.3 – 3 THz, the THz photon energy is in the neighborhood of 1
meV, substantially smaller than the optical phonon energy of solids wherethese 2D electron systems resides. These properties make the 2D electron
systems interesting as a platform to realize THz devices. In this talk, I will
review 3 approaches investigated in the past few years in my group toward
THz devices. The first approach is the conventional high electron mobility
transistor based on GaN toward THz amplifiers. The second approach is toemploy the tunable intraband absorption in 2D electron systems to realize
THz modulators, where I will use graphene as a model material system. The
third approach is to exploit plasma wave in these 2D electron systems thatcan be coupled with a negative differential conductance element for THz
amplifiers/sources/detectors.

Terahertz nonlinear optics of graphene and
3D topological insulators (Invited Paper)
Alexey A. Belyanin, Texas A&M Univ. (United States);
Xianghan Yao, Mikhail D. Tokman, Institute of Applied
Physics (Russian Federation)
Recently there has been a surge of interest in emergent 2D materials
with chiral symmetry andgapless linear spectrum of free carriers near
the Dirac point where the energy bands form a cone in the momentum
space. Most notable examples include graphene and surface states in 3D
topological insulators such as Bi2Se3 and Bi2Te3. So far the main effort was
directed at studying their topological properties and carrier transport. In
this talk we show that the systems with massless Dirac electrons possessa giant mid/far-infrared optical nonlinearity, perhaps the highest among
known materials. Both third-order and second-order nonlinear responses
are possible. Although graphene is an isotropic medium for low-energy
electron excitations, the second-order nonlinear susceptibility becomes
non-zero when its spatial dispersion is taken into account. In this case theanisotropy is induced by the in-plane wave vectors of obliquely incident orin-plane propagating electromagnetic waves. The nonlinear response canbe enhanced by applying a magnetic field or coupling to surface plasmons.
The dispersion curves of surface plasmons supported by a massless Diracfermion layer stronglydeviate from the photon dispersion already at THz
frequencies, leading to a tight vertical confinement and large in-plane wave
vector which can be matched to the sum of the photon wave vectors at
mid- or even near-IR frequencies. This enables phase-matched differencefrequency generation (DFG) of THz plasmons with counter-propagating
pump fields. The DFG process can reach efficiencies of 0.1 W/W2 and isbroadly tunable by gating or varying an angle of incidence. Strong opticalnonlinearity of materials with massless Dirac fermions enables efficient
generation of coherent THz radiation, generation of entangled photon
states, and control of electron quantum states by means of nonlinear optics.

9476-41, Session 8

Electronics above 100 GHz (Invited Paper)

9476-39, Session 8

William D. Palmer, Microsystem Technology Office (UnitedStates)Graphene active plasmionics for terahertz
device applications (Invited Paper)
Taiichi T Otsuji, Research Inst. of Electrical Communication,
Tohoku Univ. (Japan); Alexander Dubinov, Inst. for Physics
of Microstructures, RAS; Lobachevsky State Univ. of
Nizhny Novgorod (Russian Federation); Maxim Ryzhii,
Complex Systems Modeling Laboratory, University of
Aizu (Japan); Stephane Boubanga Tombet, Tohoku Univ.
(Japan) and Research Inst. of Electrical Communication,
Tohoku Univ. (Japan); Akira Satou, Research Inst. ofElectrical Communication, Tohoku Univ. (Japan); Vladimir
Mitin, Dept. of EE, University at Buffalo, State University

254

This paper reviews recent advances in graphene plasmonic heterostructures
for terahertz (THz) device applications. A double graphene-layer (DGL)
core-shell structure with a thin tunnel barrier layer is sandwiched between
the outer gate stack layers at both sides. When the band offset is aligned
to the THz photon energy, the DGL structure can mediate photon-assisted
resonant tunneling, resulting in resonant emission or detection of the THz
radiation. The cooperative double-resonant excitation with structuresensitive graphene plasmons gives rise to various functionalities in the THz
device implementations.

SPIE DSS 2015·

The US Department of Defense Research and Engineering Enterprise funds
leading-edge research to continually expand the boundaries of humancapability. Over the past several years there has been an increasing levelof research focused on the sub-millimeter wave or THz region of theelectromagnetic spectrum, typically defined as 300 GHz to 3,000 GHz. As
solid-state electronics approach this range from lower frequencies, device
scaling, carrier mobility, and parasitics severely limit performance. Fromhigher frequencies, the output power and efficiency of quantum-cascadelasers and sources based on optical mixing drop off dramatically. Theseissues create the well-known “THz gap” where signal generation andamplification technology is lacking. A number of recent US DoD research
programs have created vacuum electronic and solid-state devices capable ofclosing the THz gap. This talk will place these research programs in context,
describe the program goals, and highlight selected breakthroughs.

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Conference 9476:
Automatic Target Recognition XXV

9476-42, Session 8

Toward low-loss, infrared and THz
nanophotonics and metamaterials: surface
photon polariton modes in polar dielectric
crystals (Invited Paper)
Joshua D. Caldwell, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)
The field of nanophotonics is based on the ability to confine light to subdiffractional dimensions. Up until recently, research in this field has been
primarily focused on the use of plasmonic metals. However, the high opticallosses inherent in such metal-based surface plasmon materials has led to anever-expanding effort to identify, low-loss alternative materials capable ofsupporting sub-diffractional confinement. One highly promising alternative
are polar dielectric crystals whereby sub-diffraction confinement of light
can be achieved through the stimulation of surface phonon polaritons within
an all-dielectric, and thus low loss material system. Both SiC and hexagonal
BN are two exemplary SPhP systems, which along with a whole host ofalternative materials promise to transform nanophotonics and metamaterials
in the mid-IR to THz spectral range. In addition to the lower losses, thesematerials offer novel opportunities not available with traditional plasmonics,
for instance hyperbolic optical behavior in natural materials such as hBN,
enabling super-resolution imaging without the need for complex fabrication.
This talk will provide an overview of the SPhP phenomenon, a discussionof what makes a ‘good’ SPhP material and recent results from SiC and thenaturally hyperbolic material, hBN from our research group.

9476-43, Session 8

Terahertz science and technology ofcarbon nanomaterials (Invited Paper)
Junichiro Kono, Rice Univ. (United States)
The field of nanophotonics is based on the ability to confine light to subdiffractional dimensions. Up until recently, research in this field has been
primarily focused on the use of plasmonic metals. However, the high opticallosses inherent in such metal-based surface plasmon materials has led to anever-expanding effort to identify, low-loss alternative materials capable ofsupporting sub-diffractional confinement. One highly promising alternative
are polar dielectric crystals whereby sub-diffraction confinement of light
can be achieved through the stimulation of surface phonon polaritons within
an all-dielectric, and thus low loss material system. Both SiC and hexagonal
BN are two exemplary SPhP systems, which along with a whole host ofalternative materials promise to transform nanophotonics and metamaterials
in the mid-IR to THz spectral range. In addition to the lower losses, thesematerials offer novel opportunities not available with traditional plasmonics,
for instance hyperbolic optical behavior in natural materials such as hBN,
enabling super-resolution imaging without the need for complex fabrication.
This talk will provide an overview of the SPhP phenomenon, a discussionof what makes a ‘good’ SPhP material and recent results from SiC and thenaturally hyperbolic material, hBN from our research group.

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Conference 9477:
Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI
Wednesday - Thursday 22–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9477 Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI

9477-1, Session 1

Holographic 3D tracking of microscopic
tools (Invited Paper)
Jesper Glückstad, Mark Villangca, Andrew Bañas, Darwin
Palima, Technical Univ. of Denmark (Denmark)
Recently, we pioneered the concept of free-floating waveguides that can be
optically trapped and “remote-controlled” in a volume, hence coined Waveguided Optical Waveguides (WOWs). To be exploring the full potentialof this new structure-mediated approach in challenging microscopic
geometries requires a versatile 3D light coupling that can dynamicallytrack a plurality of WOWs to ensure continuous optimal light coupling on
the fly. We have integrated computer generated holography to maintainhigh light throughput for the WOWs, so that we can dynamically control
the 3D focus position of the coupling beams. Our results show that we
can simultaneously maneuver the WOWs in 3D space while dynamicallycoupling light through them. The design possibilities offered by 3D-printed
WOWs, the augmented holographic light coupling combined with theadvanced 3D micromanipulation opens the possibility for performing
exciting precision engineered light-matter interaction where it is needed.

Recent imaging results of a prototype medium wave infra-red (MWIR)
compressive imaging sensor are presented. We experimentally confirm that
information at high spatial resolution can be successfully recovered frommeasurements made with a small FPA beyond its own native resolution.
Based on our previous work, we address the issues of signal loss, pose
estimation between the image planes of the spatial light modulator (SLM)and FPA, modeling of compressive codes subject to the sensor, andpost-processing techniques for removal of reconstruction artifacts. We
experiment with the variable acuity super-pixeling feature on the FPA that
lends itself well to compressive imaging. We further describe the design ofcompressive codes applied for target detection using adaptive techniques
based on orthogonal matching pursuit and give initial results.

9477-4, Session 1

Advanced big data research throughmeasurements and multi-stakeholder
evaluations (Invited Paper)
Ashit Talukder, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)
No Abstract Available

9477-2, Session 1

Efficient live face detection to counter
spoof attack in face recognition systems(Invited Paper)

9477-5, Session 2

Bikram K. Biswas, Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South
Alabama (United States)
Face recognition is used as an effective biometrics tool in almost all major
modern security systems. However, the recognition, authentication andliveness detection of the face of an actual user is a major challenge because
any imposter or a non-live face of the actual user can spoof the security
system. In this research, we propose a robust technique which detects
liveness of faces to counter a spoof attack using a three-dimensional fast
Fourier transform based technique. The proposed technique compares
average energies of live face sequences and fake face sequences fromtheir recorded videos by evaluating energies of selective high frequency
bands of average power spectrum of both live and non-live faces. To dothis, average energy spectrums should be multiplied by a bandpass filter.
Bandpass filter will eliminate low frequency components. The rest of thespectrum will be divided into some circular bands. Energies of those circular
bands will be calculated thereafter. The difference of energies in thosebands will differentiate live faces from fake faces. Various types of fakefaces will be tested in this research. It also carries out proper recognition
and authentication of the face of actual user using the fringe-adjusted
joint transform correlation technique. Experimental results show that the
proposed technique effectively identifies the live faces, thus preventing
spoof attacks.

9477-3, Session 1

Recent results of a medium wave infraredcompressive imaging sensor (Invited
Paper)

Comparison of spatial domain optimal
trade-off maximum average correlation
height (OT-MACH) filter with scale
invariant feature transform (SIFT) using
images with poor contrast and large
illumination gradient (Invited Paper)
Akber A. Gardezi, COMSATS Institute of Information
Technology (Pakistan) and Univ. of Sussex (United
Kingdom); Tabassum-Ur-Razaq Qureshi, Ahmad T.
Alkandri, Rupert Young, Philip Birch, Christopher Chatwin,
Univ. of Sussex (United Kingdom)
A spatial domain optimal trade-off Maximum Average Correlation Height(OT-MACH) filter has been previously developed and shown to haveadvantages over frequency domain implementations in that it can be madelocally adaptive to spatial variations in the input image background clutter
and normalised for local intensity changes. In this paper we compare theperformance of the spatial domain (SPOT-MACH) filter to the widely applied
data driven technique known as the Scale Invariant Feature Transform(SIFT). The SPOT-MACH filter is shown to provide more robust recognition
performance than the SIFT technique for demanding images such as poor
contrast thermal imagery and images in which there are large illumination
gradients. The SIFT method depends on reliable local edge-based featuredetection over large regions of the image plane which is compromisedin some of the demanding images we examined for this work. The
disadvantage of the SPOT-MACH filter is its numerically intensive naturesince it is template based and is implemented in the spatial domain. Thus
efficient hardware configurations are also briefly considered that would
allow effective real-time implementation of the SPOT-MACH filter.

Richard Shilling, Robert R. Muise, Lockheed Martin Missiles
and Fire Control (United States)

256

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Conference 9477:
Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI

9477-6, Session 29477-9, Session 3

A robust fringe-adjusted joint transform
correlator for efficient object detection

Simulation of pattern and defect detectionin periodic amplitude and phase structuresusing photorefractive four-wave mixing

Paheding Sidike, Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates); Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South Alabama(United States)

Georges T. Nehmetallah, The Catholic Univ. of America(United States); Partha P. Banerjee, Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates); Jed Khoury, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)

The fringe-adjusted joint transform correlation (FJTC) technique has
been widely used for real-time optical pattern recognition applications.
However, the classical FJTC technique suffers from distortions due to noise,scale, rotation and illumination variations of the targets in the input scene.
Several improvements of the FJTC have been proposed in the literature toaccommodate these problems. Some popular techniques such as synthetic
discriminant function (SDF) based FJTC was designed to alleviate theproblems of scale and rotation variations of the target, while wavelet based
FJTC has been found to yield better performance for noisy targets in the
input scenes. While these techniques integrated with specific features toimprove performance of the FJTC, a unified and synergistic approach toequip the FJTC with robust features is yet to be done. Consequently, inthis paper, a robust FJTC technique based on sequential filtering approachis proposed. The proposed method is constructed in such a way that it isinsensitive to rotation, scale, noise and illumination variations of the targets.
Specifically, local phase (LP) features of monogenic signal is utilized toreduce the effect of background illumination thereby achieving illumination
invariance. The SDF is implemented to achieve rotation and scale invariance,
whereas the logarithmic fringe-adjusted filter (LFAF) is employed to reduce
the noise effect. The proposed technique can be used as a real-time regionof-interest detector in wide-area surveillance for automatic object detection.
The feasibility of the proposed technique has been tested on a set of aerial
data and has observed promising performance in detection accuracy.

The nonlinearity inherent in four-wave mixing in photorefractive (PR)materials is used for adaptive filtering. Examples include script enhancement
on a periodic pattern, scratch and defect cluster enhancement, periodic
pattern dislocation enhancement, etc. through intensity filtering image
manipulation. Organic PR materials have large space-bandwidth product,
which makes them useful in adaptive filtering techniques in quality control
systems. For instance, in the case of edge enhancement, phase conjugation
via four-wave mixing suppresses the low spatial frequencies of the Fourier
spectrum of an aperiodic image and consequently leads to image edge
enhancement.
In this work, we model, numerically verify, and simulate the performanceof a four wave mixing setup used for edge, defect and pattern detection
in a periodic amplitude and phase structures. The results show that thistechnique successfully detects the slightest defects clearly even with noenhancement. This technique should facilitate improvements in applications
such as image display sharpness utilizing edge enhancement, production
line defect inspection of fabrics, textiles, e-beam lithography masks, surface
inspection, and materials characterization.

9477-10, Session 3

Efficient thermal image segmentation
through integration of nonlinear
enhancement with unsupervised active
contour model

9477-7, Session 2

Human detection in sensitive security
areas through recognition of omega
shapes using MACH filters

Fatema A. Albalooshi, Evan Krieger, Paheding Sidike,
Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton (United States)

Saad Rehman, Farhan Riaz, Ali Hassan, Muwahida Liaquat,
National Univ. of Sciences and Technology (Pakistan);
Rupert Young, Univ. of Sussex (United Kingdom)

Thermal images have been exploited in many areas of pattern recognition
applications. Infrared thermal image segmentation can be used for object
detection by extracting regions of abnormal temperature from the image.
However, lacking of texture and color information, and introducing blurring
effect of the thermal image, segmenting infrared heat pattern has become achallenging task. Furthermore, many segmentation methods used in visible
images may not be suitable for thermal imagery mainly due to its dissimilarintensity distribution compared to visual images. In this paper, a new
method is proposed to improve the performance of image segmentation inthermal imagery. The proposed scheme efficiently fuses nonlinear intensity
enhancement and Unsupervised Active Contour Models (UACM) to generaterobust object region and boundary extraction in thermal imagery. The
nonlinear intensity enhancement improves visual quality by combining
dynamic range compression and contrast enhancement in thermal imagery,while the UACM incorporates active contour evolutional function andartificial neural networks. The nonlinear image enhancement techniqueallows enriched image features to be utilized by UACM to automaticallydirect evolutional contour towards the region of interest, and thus improves
segmentation process. The algorithm is tested on segmentation of different
objects in real world thermal images and it is observed that the nonlinear
enhancement has significantly improved the segmentation performance.
The evaluation is done by comparing the segmentation results with theground truth. In addition, we integrate the UACM with some common image
enhancement techniques to find the most effective combination in thesegmentation process.

Crowd detection has gained a considerable importance for use inaggravated security scenarios over recent times. An effective security
application relies strongly on detailed information regarding the scene
under consideration. A larger accumulation of humans than the number of
personal authorized to visit a security controlled area must be effectively
detected, amicably alarmed and immediately monitored. A framework
involving a novel combination of some well-known techniques enables
an immediate detection of a crowd in a region under observation. The
Canny edge detector provides robust sets of edges in real-time fromframes grabbed by a camera. Hysteresis thresholding removes unnecessary
information in the image and delivers only the edge map of objects
requiring attention. These edges can be conveniently translated into
number of closed shapes present in the scene. Training of advanced
correlation pattern recognition based filters, such as the E-MACH filter,on desired shapes such as elliptical representations of human faces yields
effective detections. The inherent ability of advanced correlation patternrecognition filters caters for angular rotations in the target object and allows
a decision regarding the existence of number of faces exceeding an allowed
figure in the monitored area. Examples are presented to demonstrate theeffectiveness of the technique in monitoring crowds of people inrestricted scenarios.

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Conference 9477:
Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI

9477-11, Session 39477-13, Session 4

An improved algorithm for pedestrian
detection

Volume component analysis forclassification of LiDAR data

Amr Yousef, Univ. of Business and Technology (Saudi
Arabia); Prakash Duraisamy, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States); Mohammad Ataul Karim, Univ.
of Massachusetts Dartmouth (United States)

Nina M. Varney, Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates)In this paper we present a technique to detect pedestrians surveillance
video cams. Histogram of gradients (HOG) and Haar wavelets with the aidof support vector machines (SVM) and AdaBoost classifiers show good
identification performance on different objects classification including
pedestrians. We propose a new shape descriptor derived from the intrarelations between gradient orientations in a way similar to the HOG. The
proposed descriptor is a two 2-D grid of orientation connections measured
at different offsets. The gradient magnitudes and offsets derived from asliding window with different scales and sizes are used to construct two 2-Dsymmetric grids with their horizontal and vertical vertices are the quantizedorientation values. The first grid identifies the repetition of the different
orientation pairs for a given offset while the second gird measures thepercentage of magnitudes for the corresponding pairs. Since the resultant
matrices will be symmetric, the feature vector is formed by concatenating
the upper diagonal grid coefficients collected in a raster way. The training
and testing data are collected from the video cam feeds in Hampton roads
area, United States. Classification is done using SVM classifier with radialbasis kernel. Experimental results show improved performance compared tothe current state-of-art techniques.

9477-12, Session 4

Gaussian-weighted neighborhood
connectivity of nonlinear line attractor forlearning complex manifolds

The LiDAR point cloud can be represented as a series of voxels whose
values correspond to the point density within that relative location. From
this voxelized space, block-based PCA is used to analyze sections of thespace where the sections, when combined, will represent features of theentire 3-D object. These features are then used as the input to a multi-class
support vector machine which is trained to identify five classes of objects
such as ground, vegetation, vehicles, buildings and barriers with an overall
accuracy of 95.06%.

Machine vision for airport runway
identification

The human brain has the capability to process high quantities of data
quickly for detection and recognition tasks. These tasks are made simpler by
the understanding of data, which intentionally removes redundancies foundin higher dimensional data and maps the data onto a lower dimensional
space. The brain then encodes manifolds created in these spaces, which
reveal a specific state of the system. We propose to use a recurrent neuralnetwork, the nonlinear line attractor (NLA) network, for the encoding ofthese manifolds as specific states, which will draw untrained data towards
one of the specific states that the NLA network has encoded. We propose
a Gaussian-weighted modular architecture for reducing the computational
complexity of the conventional NLA network. The proposed architectureuses a neighborhood approach for establishing the interconnectivity ofneurons to obtain the manifolds. The modified NLA network has been
implemented and tested on the Electro-Optic Synthetic Vehicle Model
Database created by the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), whichcontains a vast array of high resolution imagery with several different
lighting conditions and camera views. It is observed that the NLA network
has the capability for representing high dimensional data for the recognitionof the objects of interest through its new learning strategy. A nonlinear
dimensionality reduction scheme based on kernel discriminant analysis has
found to be very effective in providing a low dimensional representationof the dataset. Application of the modified NLA algorithm on this reduced
dimensional space would provide fast and more accurate recognition
performance for real time applications.

SPIE DSS 2015

The proposed VCA approach is based on principle component analysis(PCA) in a 3-dimesional perspective. PCA is a feature extraction methodthat computes a covariance matrix from the original input vectors. The
eigenvectors corresponding to the largest eigenvalues of the covariancematrix are used to describe an image. Block-based PCA is an adapted
method for feature extraction in facial images because PCA, when
performed in local areas of the image, can extract more significant features
than can be extracted when an entire image is considered. The image spaceis split into several of these blocks, and PCA is computed individually foreach block.

9477-14, Session 4

Theus Aspiras, Univ. of Dayton (United States); Wesam A.
Sakla, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Vijayan K.
Asari, Univ. of Dayton (United States)

258

LiDAR data is a set of geo-spatially located points that contain X, Y, and Z
location data. Currently, most LiDAR feature extraction relies on geometricalfeatures specific to the point cloud of interest. These geometrical featuresare scene-specific, and often rely on the scale and orientation of theobject for classification. This paper proposes a robust method for reduced
dimensionality feature extraction of three-dimensional (3-D) objects using a
volume component analysis (VCA) approach.

·Matt Schubert, Andrew J. Moore, Chester Dolph, Glenn
Woodell, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
For rigid objects and fixed scenes, current machine vision technology
is capable of identifying imagery rapidly and with specificity over amodest range of camera viewpoints and scene illumination. We appliedthat capability to the problem of runway identification using video of
sixteen runway approaches at nine locations, subject to two simplifying
assumptions. First, by using approach video from just one of the several
possible seasonal variations (no snow cover and full foliage), we artificiallyremoved one source of scene variation in this study. Secondly, by notusing approach video at dawn and dusk, we limited the study to twoillumination variants (day and night). We did allow scene variation due toatmospheric turbidity by using approach video from rainy and foggy days
in some daytime approaches. With suitable ensemble statistics to accountfor temporal continuity in video, we observed high location specificity(>90% Bayesian posterior probability). We also tested repeatability, i.e.,
identification of a given runway across multiple videos, and observed
robust repeatability only if illumination (day vs. night) was the same andapproach visibility was good. Both specificity and repeatability degradedin poor weather conditions. The results of this simplified study show thatgeolocation via real-time comparison of cockpit image sensor video to a
database of runway approach imagery is feasible, as long as the database
contains imagery from the same time of day and the weather is clear at thetime of the flight.

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Conference 9477:
Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI

9477-15, Session 4

this objective using dynamic programming, starting from the FT associatedwith the smallest ring and moving outwards to the FT of the largest ring.
The objective is to find the two paths corresponding to the two largest
sums of FT magnitudes computed from the individual FTs, and therefore,
the directional properties of the two patterns. The intuition behind thisapproach is that since the rings are not necessarily aligned in the samemanner for the two patterns, their ring FTs may also be rotated with respect
to each other. Simulations illustrate the effectiveness of the
proposed technique.

Road sign recognition using Viapix moduleand correlation
Yousri Ouerhani, ISEN Brest (France) and ACTRIS (France);
M. Desthieux, ACTRIS (France); Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest(France)
In this paper, we propose an optimized approach for the road sign
recognition and identification. The proposed approach consists in using
panoramic images provided by the device, VIAPIX [1], developed by ourcompany ACTRIS [2]. Besides, we have used the correlation technique forthe road sign recognition in images.

9477-17, Session 4

An empirical comparison of K-SVD and
GMRA for dictionary learning

Currently used by road engineering companies and road managers, VIAPIX®
enables to reference, inventory and measure road assets in order to produce
data for GIS (Geographic Information System). Composed of an innovativeacquisition device and a powerful processing software, VIAPIX® is theessential solution for road network management. Using the three cameras
which composed the acquisition device, VIAPIX provides panoramic images
with an angle of view of 180°.

Vipin Vijayan, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States); Wesam
A. Sakla, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The field of dictionary learning has gained much attention over the past
decade. The K-SVD algorithm is a dictionary learning algorithm basedon work from the compressive sensing field and uses sparsity-based
optimization techniques. Geometric multi-resolution analysis (GMRA) is amulti-scale technique that is based on work from the applied mathematics
field and is used for manifold approximation of high-dimensional data.
GMRA partitions the data into a tree structure and then estimates affine
subspaces in every node of the tree using SVDs. In this work, we compare
the ability of these fundamentally different approaches to learn dictionaries
and reconstruct images using the same number of coefficients.

The proposed approach consists in using these panoramic images in order
to identify all road signs existing in these images. To do so, on the one
hand, we propose to use correlation technique based on adaptative filters.
In fact, all objects with the same features as road signs are detected [3].
Then, the VLC correlation technique is applied to these objects using filters
manufactured from reference images in an offline way. These filters are
adapted to the size of detected objects.
On the other hand, in order to reduce computing time, we propose to
reduce the number of correlations to realize for each detected object. In
fact, correlation is done using only filters manufactured from reference
images with the same features as the detected object (shape and color) [4].

These algorithms have been comparatively evaluated on vehicle images
from the Electro-Optic Synthetic Vehicle Model Database created by the
Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), which contains a vast array of highresolution imagery with variable lighting conditions and camera views.
Extensive experiments were conducted on training and testing partitions of
the imagery to sweep through the relevant parameters of both dictionary
learning algorithms and record the RMS error as a function of the dictionary
coefficients used to reconstruct the images. Preliminary conclusions revealthat the GMRA technique tends to outperform the K-SVD technique on
training data, while the K-SVD technique may generalize better by providing
lower reconstruction error on test data.

[1] ACTRIS VIAPIX solution. For more details, please consult: http://www.
viapix.eu/[2] ACTRIS Technologie & Innovation. For more details, please consult:
http://www.actris.com/[3] Thongchai S., Supot N., and Elvin J. M., Traffic Sign Recognition System
for Roadside Images in Poor Condition, International Journal of Machine
Learning and Computing vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 121-126, 2013[4] Y. Ouerhani, M. Jridi, A. Alfalou and C. Brosseau, « Optimized preprocessing input plane GPU implementation of an optical face recognition
technique using a segmented phase only composite filter », Opt. Comm.
289, 33–44 (2013).

9477-18, Session 59477-16, Session 4

Numerical implementation of the multiple
image optical compression and encryption
technique

Fourier transform-based method forpattern matching: affine invariance andbeyondYousri Ouerhani, ACTRIS (France) and ISEN Brest(France); Mohammed R. Aldossari, Ayman Alfalou, ISEN
Brest (France); Christian Brosseau, Univ. de Bretagne
Occidentale (France)

Madhuri Gundam, Dimitrios Charalampidis, Univ. of New
Orleans (United States)

We propose an optimized encryption level applied to our multipleimage compression and encryption method. First, we introduce a double
optimization procedure for spectrally multiplexing multiple images. This
technique is adapted, for a numerical implementation, from a recently
proposed optical setup implementing the Fourier transform (FT) [1]. The
new analysis technique is a combination of spectral fusion based on theproperties of FT, specific spectral filtering, and quantization of the remaining
encoded frequencies using an optimal number of bits. The spectral plane(containing the information to send and/or to store) is decomposed inseveral independent areas which are assigned according a specific way. In
addition, each spectrum is shifted in order to minimize their overlap. The
dual purpose of these operations is to optimize the spectral plane allowing
us to keep the low- and high-frequency information (compression) and to
introduce an additional noise for reconstructing the images (encryption).
Our results show that not only can the control of the spectral plane enhance
the number of spectra to be merged, but also that a compromise between
the compression rate and the quality of the reconstructed images canSeveral pattern matching techniques have focused on affine invariant
pattern matching, mainly because rotation, scale, translation, and shear arecommon image transformations. However, transformations in addition toaffine ones are also common. Such transformations may be approximated asa small deformation on top of an affine transformation. In order to achieve
this goal, we propose an improved Fourier Transform (FT)-based patternmatching technique. The spatial domain image consisting of the pattern isfirst decomposed into concentric circular rings, which are centered in middleof the image. Next, the FT of each ring is computed. Apparently, adding
the individual complex-valued FT essentially provides the FT of the original
image. Past techniques used the FT to identify the parameters of the affine
transformation between two patterns. However, assuming that the rings
can be rotated with respect to each other, parameters of transformations
beyond the affine ones can be computed. The proposed technique achieves

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259

Conference 9477:
Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI
be tuned. Spectrally multiplexing multiple images defines a first level ofencryption. A second level of encryption based on a real key image is used
to reinforce encryption. Firstly, we shall be concerned with optimizing thecompression rate by adapting the size of the spectral block to each target
image and decreasing the number of bits required to encode each block.
This size adaptation is realized by means of the root-mean-square (RMS)
time-frequency criterion [2]. We have found that this size adaptation
provides a good tradeoff between bandwidth of spectral plane and numberof reconstructed output images [3]. Secondly, the encryption rate isimproved by using a real biometric key and randomly changing the rotation
angle of each block before spectral fusion. A numerical implementation ofthis method using two numerical devices (CPU and GPU) is presented [4].
References[1] M. Aldossari, A. Alfalou, and C. Brosseau, “Simultaneous compression andencryption of closely resembling images: application to videosequences andpolarimetric images,” Opt. Express 22, 22349-22368 (2014).
[2] A. Alfalou and C. Brosseau, “Optical image compression and encryption
methods”, Adv. Opt. Photon. 1, 589-636 (2009).

9477-22, Session 6

Alignment-free all solid state multiplexed
holographic memory systems andapplications (Invited Paper)
Stuart Yin, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States);
Claire Luo, General Opto Solutions, LLC (United States)
In this paper, an alignment-free all solid state angularly multiplexed
holographic memory system is presented, in which the beam scanningdevice and angularly multiplexed holograms are integrated into the same
piece of KTN crystal. It offers the advantages of both fast access speed (onthe order of microsecond) and free of alignment. The applications of thisunique holographic memory systems to automatic target recognition as well
as real time 3-dimensional imaging and display are also discussed.

[3] A. Alfalou and C. Brosseau, “Exploiting root-mean-square timefrequency structure for multiple-image optical compression and encryption,”Opt. Lett. 35, 1914-1916 (2010).

9477-23, Session 6[4] Y. Ouerhani, M. Jridi, A. Alfalou, and C. Brosseau, “Optimized preprocessing input plane GPU implementation of an optical face recognition
technique using a segmented phase only composite filter,” Opt. Commun.
289, 33-44 (2013).

Tien-Hsin Chao, Thomas T. Lu, George F. Reyes, Jet
Propulsion Lab. (United States)

9477-19, Session 59477-28, Session 6

Night time monitoring using registration of
RGB cameras and infrared cameras

Detection of weak edges using image
registration

No Abstract Available

Prakash Duraisamy, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States); Amr Hussein Yousef, Univ. of Business andTechnology (Saudi Arabia); Mohammad Ataul Karim, Univ.
of Massachusetts Dartmouth (United States)
Monitoring open areas at night time is a challenging task. It requires a lot of
human intervention and is a tedious task. In this paper, we introduce a novel
technique (based on the techniques we have developed in another context)
by registering infrared camera information with day time RGB camera
information. This algorithm will be useful for monitoring open areas without
much human interaction, under poor illumination and within a shorttime period.

9477-21, Session 5

Adaptive threshold and error-correction
coding for robust data retrieval in optical
media

Prakash Duraisamy, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States); Amr Hussein Yousef, Univ. of Businessand Technology (Saudi Arabia); Shagan Sah, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States); Steve Jackson,
Xiaohui Yuan, Univ. of North Texas (United States)
Edge detection is an important tool in computer vision and image
processing applications. In specific, it is employed in feature detection andextraction for identifying changes in image gradient or discontinuities.
The traditional edge detection algorithms work well under sufficient
illumination and fail under poor illumination, i.e., weak edges. This paper
focuses on extracting weak edges. We detected the weak edges by using
image registration algorithm. Images which depict different views of weakedges are registered using camera matrix. The registered view reinforce
the weak edges. Experiments on a different weak edge images show thatthe our algorithm can actually overcome the drawbacks of traditional edge
detection algorithm.

9477-30, Session 6

Thomas T. Lu, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Colin
Costello, California State Polytechnic Univ., Pomona(United States); Matthew Ginley-Hidinger, Occidental
College (United States); Tien-Hsin Chao, Jet Propulsion
Lab. (United States)

Real-time holographic heterodyne spatial
filtering
Jed Khoury, Lartec, Inc. (United States)
Traditionally, homodyne and heterodyne are a combination of a frequency
mixer followed by a low-pass filter. Mixing two signals of frequencies f1
and f2, generates signals of frequencies f1 + f2 and f1- f2 and their integer
multiples. Both multiplication heterodyne and phase sensitive detection
have been demonstrated optically by using photorefractive, four-wave
mixing (FWM). The multiplicative characteristic of FWM was used for
mixing, and the response time of the photorefractive medium is used for
low-pass filtering. If one of the input beams is both spatially and temporally
modulated using wobble rotating mirror, depends on which mode isheterodyned, one can generates orthogonal set of Bessel band pass filters.

No Abstract Available

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Holographic content addressable storage

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Conference 9477:
Optical Pattern Recognition XXVI

9477-29, Session PSThu

This scheme can be integrated part within parallel data acquisition systems
for applications involved nondestructive testing.

Invariant correlation filters with peakstability parameter in problem of scaled
objects recognition

References
J. Khoury, Vincent Ryan, Mark Cronin-Golomb, and Charles Woods“Photorefractive frequency converter and phase-sensitive detector,” JOSA B,
Vol. 10, Issue 1, pp. 72-82 (1993)

Petr A. Ivanov, Yaroslavl State Univ. (Russian Federation)

9477-26, Session PSThu

The presented paper is of PC modeling of scaled object recognition withthe help of invariant correlation filters for optical correlators. The object
database consists of objects of true and false classes with differentchanges of scale. The recognition process consits of two stages-multiclassrecognition and geometrical change recognition with the help of filtersof different types. The results of modeling present data on comparison ofdifferent combination of filter types.

Pose estimation of non-cooperative
targets without feature tracking
Jie Liu, Huazhong Univ. of Science and Technology(China); Zongming Liu, Shan Lu, Shanghai Key Lab. of
Aerospace Intelligent Control Technology (China) and
Shanghai Academy of Space Flight Technology (China);
Nong Sang, Huazhong Univ. of Science and Technology(China)Pose estimation is playing the vital role in the final approach phase of two
spacecraft, one is the target spacecraft and the other one is the observation
spacecraft. Traditional techniques are usually based on feature tracking,which will not work when sufficient features are unavailable. To deal withthis problem, we present a stereo camera-based pose estimation method
without feature tracking. First, stereovision is used to reconstruct 2.5D of
the target spacecraft and a 3D reconstruction is presented by merged all the
point cloud of each viewpoint. Then a target-coordinate system is built using
the reconstruction result. Finally, point cloud registration algorithm is used
to solve the current pose between the observation spacecraft and the target
spacecraft in real time. Experimental results show that both the position
errors and the attitude errors satisfy the requirements of pose estimation.
The method provides a new solution for pose estimation without knowing
the information of the target and this algorithm is with wider application
range compared with the other algorithms based on feature tracking

9477-27, Session PSThu

Pose estimation of non-cooperative
targets based on docking surface
Wenkai Du, Huazhong Univ. of Science and Technology(China); Zongming Liu, Yu Zhang, Shuqing Cao, Shanghai
Academy of Space Flight Technology (China); Nong Sang,
Huazhong Univ. of Science and Technology (China)
In space rendezvous and docking missions, pose estimation of noncooperative targets is challenging as priori information about motion andstructure are unknown. The extraction and recognition are far more difficult
conducted on a whole target. The docking surfaces of the target have moresophisticated structure with similar appearance among different countries
than other surfaces. So docking surface is easy to automatically recognize
or manually mark in images. In this paper, the mentioned problem is solved
by using only visual sensors. Using two cameras mounted on a chaser
satellite, when the docking surface is in the visual field, 3-D coordinates ofthe four vertices can be calculated with the stereoscopic vision method.
Coordinate system is established on the docking surface to describe thepose of the target. Firstly, a novel framework is proposed to detect edgesof the docking surface in each image. Specifically, we detect lines in animage and group them according to the slopes. A control point representing
mark information is utilized to pick out the edges from the lines detected.
Then, the pose of the target is calculated by the four vertices of the docking
surface. Simulation result shows that the position errors and attitude errors
meet the requirement of pose estimation. The method provides a new
solution for pose estimation of the non-cooperative target, and has potential
significance for space rendezvous and docking technology.

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Conference 9478: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications X
Tuesday 21–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9478 Modeling and Simulation for Defense Systems and Applications X

9478-1, Session 1

9478-4, Session 1

Secure communication systems usingsynchronized Lorenz strange attractor onreconfigurable hardware

Investigating Weaknesses in Android
Certificate Security
Daniel E. Krych, Stephen Lange-Maney, Patrick McDaniel,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); William
Glodek, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Marc M. Sepantaie, The Catholic Univ. of America (UnitedStates); Vy Bui, Catholic Univ of America (United States);
Esam El-Araby, Amir M. Sepantaie, Georges Nehmatallah,
Nader M. Namazi, The Catholic Univ. of America (UnitedStates)The design and implementation of an analog circuit for a synchronizedchaotic communication system has been previously investigated. The
approach uses the output of a drive system (transmitter) to bring in-line theresponse system (receiver) so they can securely and harmoniously oscillate
in a synchronized fashion [1]. In this paper, we extend the work presented
by Cuomo and Oppenheim [1] by utilizing their proposed drive/response
system and augmenting it with Haar filtering and appropriate thresholding
in order to detect a transmitted random binary message. Using the Lorenzchaotic attractor to obscure the message, we pass it through an Additive
White Gaussian (AWG) channel and successfully retrieve the original
random binary data. Two distinct communication topographies, Chaotic
Masking, and Chaotic Parameter Modulation are simulated using Matlab
and implemented using a reconfigurable hardware prototyping tool, namely
System Generator for DSP from Xilinx [2].
[1] K. M. Cuomo, and A.V. Oppenheim, “Circuit Implementation of
Synchronized Chaos with Applications to Communications”, Physical Review
Letters, Vol. 71, No. 1, July 1993.
[2] Xilinx Inc., “System Generator for DSP Reference Guide”, January 2012.

Android’s application market relies on secure certificate generation toestablish trust between applications and their users; yet, cryptography isoften not a priority for application developers and many fail to take thenecessary security precautions. Indeed, there is cause for concern: several
recent high-profile studies have observed a pervasive lack of entropy on
Web-systems leading to the factorization of private keys [1]. Sufficiententropy, or randomness, is essential to generate secure key pairs andcombat predictable key generation. In this paper, we analyze the security ofAndroid certificates. We investigate the entropy present in 550,000 Android
application certificates using the Quasilinear GCD Finding Algorithm [1].
Our results show that while the lack of entropy does not appear to be as
ubiquitous in the mobile markets as on Web-systems, there is substantial
reuse of certificates—only one third of the certificates in our dataset
were unique. In other words, we find that organizations frequently reusecertificates for different applications. While such a practice is acceptable
under Google’s specifications for a single developer, we find that in somecases the same certificates are used for a myriad of developers, potentiallycompromising Android’s intended trust relationships. Further, we observed
duplicate certificates being used by both malicious and non-malicious
applications. The top 3 repeated certificates present in our dataset
accounted for a total of 11,438 separate APKs. Of these applications, 451, orroughly 4%, were identified as malicious by antivirus services.

9478-3, Session 1[1] N. Heninger, Z. Durumeric, E. Wustrow, and J. A. Halderman, “Mining
your ps and qs: Detection of widespread weak keys in network devices,”in Proceedings of the 21st USENIX Conference on Security Symposium,ser. Security’12. Berkeley, CA, USA: USENIX Association, 2012, pp. 35–35.
[Online]. Available: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2362793.2362828

Certificate based key agreement among
LTE entities for secure handover

9478-12, Session 1

Divya Mohan, B. Sridevi, Velammal College of Engineeringand Technology (India)
The increasing popularity of wireless technologies and their application is
captivating the attention of users day by day. The latest development in
mobile telecommunications is the 4G architecture. LTE (long term evolution)is the candidate of next generation towards 4G in mobile broadband
technology which provides a data rate of 100 Mbps and works with IP. It isa newly emerging technology and it offers enhanced speed, coverage andcapacity for current mobility networks. As this is with IP based network,
ensuring network security during handover is of vital importance. LTE
there by presents challenges in the design of security mechanisms due
to its distinctive features especially during handover. Hence in this paper,
we propose an improved approach such as device certificate based key
agreement among the LTE entities. The main objective is to increase
the security levels primarily between evolved Node B(eNB) and Mobile
Management Entity(MME) and the same status should be followed for
MME and Home Subscriber Server(HSS), whenever User Equipment(UE)moves from one eNB to another. The LTE entities should possess certificate
provided by Certificate Authority(CA) before communicating with anotherentity. Thus the communication between the LTE entities is made secure.
The proposed technique for fast and secure access by key management issimulated using NS-3.

262

SPIE DSS 2015·

The effectiveness of the jammer signal
characteristics on Conical-Scan systems
Mehmet C. Sahingil, Murat S. Aslan, TÜB?TAK B?LGEM?LTAREN (Turkey)
The infrared guided missiles (IRGM) are among the most important threatsagainst air platforms. The IRGM’s with seeker which has conical-scansystem are one of the most abundant threats. As hard-kill electronic attack(EA) techniques can be used to deceive this type of IRGM’s, soft-kill EA
techniques can also be used. One of the most effective soft-kill techniques isusing jammers.
The conical-scan systems are using modulated signals to find the target
location. At the same time, jammers are the systems which emit modulated
signals. Because the conical-scan systems are modulating and demodulating
the emitted radiation from the target platform, the modulated signals
from the jammer will upset the emitted signals from the target platform.
Therefore, the jammer systems which emit modulated signals are used tobreak the tracking lock of the IRGM’s seeker.
Nonetheless, to determine the signal characteristics of the jammer is not atrivial issue. To accomplish this, lots of simulations must be run, experiments
must be done in hardware in the loop (HIL) laboratories, and even trials
must be done where real platforms are used. In this work we present
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Conference 9478: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications X
typical engagement scenarios between an IRGM with conical-scan seeker
and a platform with jammer are run. In the scenarios, the jammer signals
are generated and its effectiveness values on seekers were investigated.
By using Monte-Carlo batch runs in a pre-determined parameter space,to determine the optimum jammer signal characteristics against specificconical-scan seekers is aimed.

9478-7, Session 2

9478-5, Session 2

Mark H. Van Benthem, Drew P. Woodbury, Sandia National
Labs. (United States)

An evaluation of algorithms and methods
for compressing and decompressing
atmospheric transmission data for use in
at-sensor measurements

Adaptive OpenCL libraries for platform
portability

In this paper, we describe the use of various methods of one-dimensional
spectral compression by variable selection as well as principal component
analysis (PCA) for compressing multi-dimensional sets of spectral data. We
have examined methods of variable selection such as wavelength spacing,
spectral derivatives, and spectral integration error. After variable selection,
reduced transmission spectra must be decompressed for use. Here we
examine various methods of interpolation, e.g., linear, cubic spline andpiecewise cubic Hermite interpolating polynomial (PCHIP) to recover the
spectra prior to estimating at-sensor radiance. Finally, we compressed multidimensional sets of spectral transmittance data from moderate resolution
atmospheric transmission (MODTRAN) data using PCA. PCA seeks to finda set of basis spectra (vectors) that model the variance of a data matrix
in a linear additive sense. Although MODTRAN data are intricate and areused in nonlinear modeling, their base spectra can be reasonably modeledusing PCA yielding excellent results in terms of spectral reconstructionand estimation of at-sensor radiance. The major finding of this work is that
PCA can be implemented to compress MODTRAN data with great effect,
reducing file size, access time and computational burden while producing
high-quality transmission spectra for a given set of input conditions.

Paul A. Fox, Allyssa L. Batten, Stephen Kozacik, Eric J.
Kelmelis, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States)
The OpenCL API provides an abstract mechanism for massively parallel
programming on a very wide range of hardware, including traditional CPUs,
GPUs, accelerator devices, FPGAs, and more; however, these different
hardware architectures and platforms function quite differently. Because of
these differences, coding OpenCL applications that are usefully portable ischallenging. Certain considerations are therefore required in developing aneffectively portable OpenCL library in order to enable parallel application
development without requiring fully separate code paths for each target
platform. By making use of device detection and characterization provided
by the OpenCL API, valuable information can be obtained to make runtime
decisions for optimization; in particular, the effects of memory affinitychange depending on the memory organization of the device architecture.
Work partitioning and assignment depend on the device execution model,such as the types of parallel execution supported by the architecture andavailable synchronization primitives. These considerations, in turn, affectthe selection and invocation of kernel code. For certain devices, platformspecific libraries are available, while others can benefit from generated
kernel code based on the specified device parameters. By parameterizing
an algorithm based on how these considerations affect performance, acombination of device parameters can be used to produce an execution
strategy that will provide improved performance for that device or collectionof devices.

9478-8, Session 2

Power aware computing: a directive-based
approachPaul A. Fox, Stephen Kozacik, James Bonnett, Eric J.
Kelmelis, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States)

9478-6, Session 2

In recent years, powerful and inexpensive mobile processors, originallydesigned for consumer devices, have opened up opportunities forinexpensive field-deployable systems. A key consideration for systems in
the field, however, is endurance. Although increasingly high-performancesystems have become available, battery technology has not kept pace.
Consequently, the ability to monitor and control power consumption ofthese embedded systems is highly desirable. With vendor-provided Linuxkernel support, a degree of control over power consumption is available;
however, the various frameworks affecting power consumption (cpufreq,
cpuidle, hotplug, etc.) are not well-integrated and thus not readily usable
by application developers. In this paper we detail an approach to unifying
these control mechanisms into a single, directive-based interface. In thissystem, based on a modified Clang compiler, directives can be added tocode in similar fashion to OpenMP in order to steer power consumption.
These interact with a user-space runtime that then communicates with thevarious kernel subsystems via the sysfs interface. This system allows code
to be easily annotated to steer power consumption in various regions ofcode without requiring intrusive modification of the underlying code orloss of compatibility with unsupported systems. The runtime can then use
the provided policies to optimize performance and power consumption as
directed, using both static and dynamic criteria, including performance andpower-consumption goals.

Enhanced NVESD EO/IR sensor acquisition
life cycle test and evaluation process
Jonathan G. Hixson, Christopher May, U.S. Army Night
Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
The new testing and evaluation process developed by the NVESD Modelingand Simualtion Division provides end to end systems evaluation andtesting of EO/IR sensors. By combining NV-LabCap, NV-IPM, NVIG and
OneSAF input sensor file generation, NVESD provides confidence to the
M&S community that EO/IR sensor developmental and operational testingand evaluation are accurately represented throughout the lifecycle of an
EO/IR system. This new process allows for both theoretical and actual
sensor testing. A sensor can be theoretically designed in NV-IPM, modeledin NV-IPM and then seamlessly input into the wargames for operational
analysis. After theoretical design, prototype sensors can then be measured
by using NV-LabCap then modeled in NV-IPM and input into wargames forfurther evaluation. The measurement process to high fidelity modeling andsimulation can then be repeated again and again throughout the entire life
cycle of an EO/IR sensor as needed, to include LRIP, Full rate production,and even after Depot Level Maintenance. This is a prototypical exampleof how an engineering level model and higher level simulations can sharemodels to mutual benefit. NVESD has demonstrated the experience in thisarea can benefit other similar modeling efforts.

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9478-9, Session 39478-11, Session 3

A Reference Model for Model-Based
Design of Critical Infrastructure Protection
Systems

Focus on connections for successfulorganizational transformation to model
based engineering

YoungDon Shin, Samsung Thales Co., Ltd. (Korea, Republicof); Cheol-Young Park, George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates); Jae-Chon Lee, Ajou Univ. (Korea, Republic of)

Guy Babineau, Northrop Grumman Corp. (United States)

Today’s war field environment is getting versatile as the activities of
unconventional wars such as terrorist attacks and cyber-attacks havenoticeably increased lately. The damage caused by such unconventional
wars has also turned out to be serious particularly if targets are major
facilities related to banking and finance, transportation, power, informationand communication, government, and so on. Such facilities called criticalinfrastructures are vulnerable to attack and interconnected to each otherin many cases. As such, to ensure the security of critical infrastructures isvery important and thus the concept of critical infrastructure protection(CIP) has come. The program to realize the CIP at national level becomesthe form of statute in each country. On the other hand, it is also needed toprotect each individual critical infrastructure. The objective of this paper is
to study on an effort to do so, which can be called the CIP system (CIPS).
There could be a variety of ways to design CIPS’s. Instead of considering thedesign of each individual CIPS, a reference model approach is taken in thepaper. The reference model represents the design of all the CIPS’s that have
many design elements in common. In addition, a model-based approach isadopted in the development of the reference model. The modeling language
used is the systems modeling language (SysML), which is proposed andmanaged by Object Management Group (OMG) and a de facto standard.
Using SysML, the structure and operational concept of the reference modelare designed to fulfil the goal of CIPS’s, resulting in the block definition andactivity diagrams. As a case study, the operational scenario of the nuclear
power plant while being attacked by terrorists is studied using the reference
model. The effectiveness of the results is also analyzed using multiple
analysis models. It is thus expected that the approach taken here has somemerits over the traditional design methodology of repeating requirements
analysis and system design.

9478-10, Session 3

Modeling and simulation of infrastructure
resiliency against man-made hazards
Yahia Al-Smadi, Texas A&M Univ.-Kingsville (United States)
The increasing threat of terrorist attacks on sensitive facilities and structuresin the US has sparked great interest to investigate how to design structures,
building and military vehicles, to withstand blasts. In order to overcome
negative consequences of a disaster, buildings and infrastructures need
to be resilient. After a disaster occurs, they must get back to their normal
operations as quickly as possible. Buildings and infrastructures shouldincorporate both pre-event (preparedness and mitigation) and post-event(response and recovery) resilience activities to minimize negative effects ofa disaster.
Quantification of resilience can be achieved through the use of loss
estimation models. These models have gained considerable attention inrecent years, and they have become better established and increasingly
practical. New approaches emphasize that loss estimation models could be
useful in quantifying resilience. The methodology will be used to different
types of buildings to calculate resilience of buildings against man-madehazards by using different types of recovery models. The formulation for
the resilience quantification is based on a model embedding several distinct
parameters (for example, structural loss ratios, conditional probabilities of
exceeding for damage states, estimated and actual recovery times, charge
mass probability). A robust three-dimensional computational model willbe created using the finite-element software ANSYS combined with ablast analysis using the LS-DYNA software. In addition, a semi-analytical
approach will be used, in which the air-blast pressure load simulation from
LS-DYNA will be loaded to analytical models of designated structures.

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Organizational Transformation to a Model Based Engineering Culture
is a significant goal for Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems in orderto achieve objectives of increased engineering performance. Whileorganizational change is difficult, a focus on connections is creating success.
Connections include model to model, program phase to program phaseand organization to organization all through Model Based techniques. This
presentation will address the techniques employed by Northrop Grumman
to achieve these results as well as address continued focus and efforts.
Model to model connections are very effective in automating implicit
linkages between models for the purpose of ensuring consistency acrossa set of models and also for rapidly assessing impact of change. Programphase to phase connections are very important for reducing development
time as well as reducing potential errors in moving from one program phaseto another. Organization to organization communication is greatly facilitatedusing model based techniques to eliminate ambiguity and drive consistency
and reuse.

9478-13, Session 3

Understanding the impact of blasts from
explosions on MEMS
Yahia Al-Smadi, Texas A&M Univ.-Kingsville (United States)
The objective of the proposed works is to advance knowledge andunderstanding of the mechanical response of Microelectromechanical
MEMS devices and their structural components to air blast loading due toexplosions. The increasing threat of terrorist attacks on sensitive facilities
and structures in the US has sparked great interest to investigate how
to design structures, building, soldier helmets and clothes, and military
vehicles, to withstand blasts. While microscale sensors are known for their
many attractive features, such as low cost, compactness, stability, andaccuracy, their use in harsh environment has been limited due to lack ofknowledge on their survivability and response and due to concerns about
their reliability and survivability in such conditions. This project will present
different design guidelines in order to improve the response of MEMS
devices against blast. Data on the impact of blast will be acquired throughdetailed finite-element models, which will then be imported to be used
for MEMS simulations. A robust three-dimensional computational model
will be created using the finite-element software ANSYS combined with ablast analysis using the LS-DYNA software. In addition, a semi-analytical
approach will be used, in which the air-blast pressure load from LS-DYNA
will be loaded to analytical models of MEMS devices.

9478-14, Session 3

Target detection and tracking in maritime
surveillance mission
Madeleine G. Sabordo, Elias Aboutanios, The Univ. of New
South Wales (Australia)
Target detection and tracking is an important element of military operations.
Military commanders and personnel have been allocating and continue
to allocate resources into the assessment of platforms’ performances
in target detection, tracking, identification and classification to assist indecision making regarding the allocation of military assets for surveillance
missions. We present an application of target detection and tracking by
military aircraft in maritime operations. We investigate the performances ofUnmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) tiers in a joint operation with a helicopterin maritime surveillance mission. Information about the capabilities of thewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9478: Modeling and Simulation for
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platforms are taken from the Wikipedia and are therefore ‘unclassified’.

Microsoft Kinect which has capability of depth-sensing a 3D model isnecessary. So we define a Virtual Sensor which allows to aggregate various
thresholds for motion detection, tracking convergence and noise floor
compensation. The pre-pre-processing using practical Byzantine algorithms
allows to decrease jitters, false positives and miss-classification during realtime tracking. Our model uses a robust data-cleaning to mitigate outliers:
by pre-processing for suppressing the outlier; filtering false positives byusing predictive analytics of known actions defined by the model (ACCV2014) to achieve 50% higher accuracy. The virtual sensor model pipe-lining
net results can then be shown to aggregate reliable streams : by sensor
data-cleaning of spatial data (moving average filtering + Bagging 30%),
combining of temporal features over multiple frames (fusion of several
sensors reading 10%), and the use of predictive models (Randomforest +Boosting 10%) to compensate outliers.

The helicopter and UAV are initially embarked on board a military warship.
At the commencement of the mission the aircraft will take off, aim toward
their altitude and travel at their corresponding optimal speed to the mission
first position (waypoint). The helicopter and UAV fly at different altitudes
as they perform detection and classification of targets. There is a radar
stationed on the warship that tracks the movement of the aircraft. The
targets are vessels traversing the region of interest. They vary in size, speed
and type of activities. Initial positions and directions of travel of the vessels
are randomly generated. It is assumed that the vessels travel at constant
speed throughout the duration of the simulation. The aircraft will return to
the warship on completion of the mission.
The performances of the aircraft are evaluated based on three metrics:
mission time, that is, the time difference between take off and mission
completion; percentage of targets detected; and extent of area covered by
the aircraft on completion of the mission. The performance of the tracker
stationed on the warship is evaluated using the root mean square position
errors. Results indicate that the joint operation of the helicopter and the
UAV in surveillance mission contributes to better detection of targets andthat the tracker is effective in monitoring the motion of the aircraft.

9478-16, Session 4

Metamaterial based narrowband perfectabsorbers
Ahmed S. Sharkawy, Mathew Zablocki, Lumilant, Inc.
(United States)

9478-2, Session 4

Current bolometers are broadband detectors and tend to absorb broad
IR spectrum for thermal imaging. A key issue with these systems is thelack of sensitivity of the sensors in target detection due to blackbody
radiation limit. As a result, one of the many important applications such as
low concentration chemical detection cannot be performed. A solution tothis problem is to employ cryogenic systems where the sensors are cooled
either thermoelectrically or with liquid nitrogen which can lead to higher
sensitivity in detection. However, one major drawback of these systems isthe size, weight and power (SWaP) issue as they tend to be rather bulky andcumbersome which have largely challenged their use in UAV’s.

Dynamic fair node spectrum allocation forad hoc networks using random matrices
Mark D. Rahmes, George Lemieux, Dave Chester, Harris
Corp. (United States); Jerome Sonnenberg, Harris Corp.
GCSD (United States)
Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA) is widely seen as a solution to the problemof limited spectrum, because of its ability to adapt the operating frequency
of a radio. Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) can extend high-capacity
mobile communications over large areas where fixed and tethered-mobile
systems are not available. In one use case with high potential impact,cognitive radio employs spectrum sensing to facilitate the identification of
allocated frequencies not currently accessed by their primary users. Primaryusers own the rights to radiate at a specific frequency and geographic
location, while secondary users opportunistically attempt to radiate at a
specific frequency when the primary user is not using it. We populate aspatial radio environment map (REM) database with known informationthat can be leveraged in an ad hoc network to facilitate fair path use of the
DSA-discovered links. Utilization of high-resolution geospatial data layers
in RF propagation analysis is directly applicable. Random matrix theory(RMT) is useful in simulating network layer usage in nodes by a Wishart
adjacency matrix. We use the Dijkstra algorithm for discovering ad hoc
network node connection patterns. We present a method for analysts todynamically allocate node-node path and link resources using fair division.
User allocation of limited resources as a function of time must be dynamic
and based on system fairness policies. The context of fair means that firstavailable request for an asset is not envied as long as it is not yet allocatedor tasked in order to prevent cycling of the system. This solution may also
save money by offering a Pareto efficient repeatable process. We use awater fill queue algorithm to include Shapley value marginal contributions
for allocation.

With this in mind, in this effort we aim to develop wavelength selective
uncooled sensors that can exceed the sensitivity imposed by the blackbody
radiation limit. For this purpose, we will design narrowband absorbers or
uncooled focal plane arrays (FPAs) whose sensitivity will be comparable
to cryogenic arrays based on Metamaterials (Mtms). More importantly,
these newly designed sensors will be able to carry out low concentration
biological and chemical detection with reduced SWaP and also perform
hyperspectral imaging –critical to many military missions.

9478-17, Session 4

The use of a low-cost visible light
3D scanner to create virtual reality
environment models of actors and objects
Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
This paper discusses the use of a low-cost 3D scanner that has beendeveloped with a parts cost of approximately USD $5,000 for the creationof actor and object models for use in a virtual reality environment (VRE).
The scanner uses visible light sensing to capture both structural as wellas texture and color data of a subject. It is comprised of fifty Raspberry
Pi single board computers and cameras which are interlinked by Ethernet
switches to a central file and control server. This paper discusses the useof this type of scanner to create 3D models for incorporation into a virtual
reality environment. It describes the basic scanning process (which takes
under a minute – inclusive of system power up time – for a single scan),which can be repeated to collect multiple positions, if needed for actor
model creation.

9478-15, Session 4

Virtual sensor tracking using byzantine
fault tolerance and predictive outlier
model for complex tasks recognition

Following a brief discussion of the requisite quality for VRE incorporationand consideration of whether the low-cost visible light scanner can
provide sufficient quality, the paper considers the utility of this approach.
First, the efficacy of visible light versus other scanner types is discussed.
Particular benefits, such as the ability to capture color and texture data, anddrawbacks (such as potentially reduced accuracy, as compared to laser or

Vasanth Iyer, Sachin Shetty, Tennessee State Univ. (UnitedStates)In my current research at TSU-TIGER Institute we have used many datacleaning (FIU-2013 Thesis) algorithms from custom sensors which needpre-processing before a quality value can be read. In a virtual system like

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265Conference 9478: Modeling and Simulation for
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blue light projection scanners) are considered. Next, the benefits of wider
access to the technology (due to the low cost level) are discussed. Potential
for small business and educational use, as well as use in other environments
are considered. Finally, the paper discusses prospective next steps to makethe technology more widely available, before concluding.

Physical environment virtualization test
bed for human activities recognition
Azin Poshtkar, Vinayak Elangovan, Amir Shirkhodaie,
Tennessee State Univ. (United States); Alex L. Chan,
Shuowen Hu, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Human activity recognition research relies heavily on appropriate datasets
to verify and validate performance of activity recognition algorithms.
Obtaining real datasets, however, are expensive and highly time consuming.
A physics-based multi-sensor virtual simulation can accelerate thedevelopment of human activity recognition algorithms and techniques bygenerating relevant training and testing scenarios under various operational
conditions. In this paper, we present and demonstrate a newly developed
virtual simulation modeling (VSM) architecture, called IRIS, to generatecalibrated multi-source imagery datasets suitable for development andtesting of recognition algorithms for context-based human group activities
taking place in the virtual world space. This architecture serves as aversatile testbed to generate a vast amount of photo-realistic data for the
training and testing of sensor processing algorithms. This paper presents
the framework of VSM, including the emplacement of various imagery
sensors within a simulated environment, and describes its effectivenessand efficiency in generating high fidelity imagery data for in-vehicle humanactivity recognition under different operational contexts and from a broad
range of camera viewing perspectives, as well as operating under various
simulated environmental conditions. Finally, we demonstrate several image
processing techniques for the recognition of in-vehicle human activity using
the datasets generated by the VSM architecture.

SPIE DSS 2015

Building GSM network in Extreme
Conditions
Martin Mikulec, Miroslav Voznak, Marcel Fajkus, Pavol
Partila, Jaromir Tovarek, Zdenka Chmelikova, V?BTechnical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)

9478-18, Session 4266

9478-19, Session PSTue·

The paper deals with presentation of own mobile network solution basedon open source software and low-cost hardware. The created BaseTransmission Station (BTS) can be deployed and put into operation in a
few minutes in a required area to ensure private communication between
connected GSM mobile terminals. The BTS station works on a standard GSM
frequency bands, so the traditional cell phones can be used as themobile terminals.
Convergence between BTS station and other networks is possible through IP
network. Paper tries to define connection parameters to provide sufficientquality of voice service between connected networks. The most influenceconnection parameters are availability, latency, packet loss, jitter and delay.
Paper brings practical results of voice calls simulations between users inside
BTS station network and users inside IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
system network.
Paper, apart from the quality measurement section, describes technicalrequirements for successful interconnection between BTS and IMS networks.
End users need to be authenticated, authorized and accounted for theprovided services.
The communication between BTS station and connected networks has tobe secured against interception of the third party. There are many solutions,
how to secure the communication channel. Paper tries to compare thesesecuring methods according to their influence to the quality of thevoice service.
The calls are simulated by low-cost embedded solution for speech quality
measurement in GSM network. This tool is under development of ourlaboratory and allows automatic speech quality measurement of any GSM or
UMTS mobile network. The Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality (PESQ)
method is used to get final comparable results.

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Conference 9479: Open Architecture/Open Business
Model Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2015
Tuesday - Thursday 21–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9479 Open Architecture/Open Business Model Net-Centric Systems andDefense Transformation 2015

9479-1, Session 1

9479-4, Session 1

Reconfigurable technologies andarchitectures for phased array antennas:
an overview of the DARPA ACT program(Invited Paper)

Optically controlled GeTe phasechange switch and its applications inreconfigurable antenna arrays
Loc Chau, James Ho, Xing Lan, Northrop Grumman
Aerospace Systems (United States); Robert M. Young,
Doyle Nichols, Nabil El-Hinnawy, Northrop Grumman
Electronic Systems (United States); Nima Ghalichechian,John Volakis, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)

Roy H. Olsson III, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)
No Abstract Available

No Abstract Available

9479-2, Session 1

Methodologies to analyze and explore theimpact of technological and operationalchanges on the fully burdened cost
structure of the global force structure(Invited Paper)

9479-5, Session 1

Impact: a low cost reconfigurable digital
beamforming common module building
block for next generation phased arrays
Lee Paulsen, Ted Hoffmann, Charlie Nguyen, Rockwell
Collins, Inc. (United States)

Mitchell W. Kossar, Benjamin Rogers, First Principles
Advisory Group (United States)

No Abstract Available

Given today’s austere economic environment and the rapid pace oftechnological change, it is more important than ever to be able to costout affordable systems and at the same time determine the impact thesystem has on the entire force structure in which it operates. First Principles
Advisory Group has developed a methodology to analyze and explore theimpact of technological and operational changes on the fully burdened
cost structure of the global force structure. Our analysis is rooted in firstprinciples on the physical parameters of the operating concepts and how
technology unleashes or creates new concepts within those physicalbounds. In this paper, we discuss our methodology and provide examples of
how our analysis provides clarity and insight into high leveltechnology decisions.

9479-6, Session 1

Higher-order N-path filters and active
cancellation techniques for interference
mitigation and STAR in digital arrayreceivers
Harish Krishnaswamy, Jin Zhou, Negar Reiskarimian,
Columbia Univ. (United States)

9479-3, Session 1

No Abstract Available

GTRI software defined modular array
antenna9479-7, Session 1

Vanadium dioxide phase change switches

Richard T. Lee, Ryan S. Westafer, Georgia Tech ResearchInstitute (United States)

Mark Field, Christopher Hillman, Philip Stupar, Jonathan
Hacker, Zachary Griffith, Teledyne Scientific Co. (UnitedStates); Kang-Jin Lee, Teledyne Scientific & Imaging, LLC(United States)

No Abstract Available

We have built RF switches using vanadium dioxide thin films fabricatedwithin a section of inverted transmission line with integrated on chipheaters to provide local thermal control. On heating the films above themetal insulator transition we obtain record low switch insertion loss of -0.13
dB at 50 GHz and -0.5 dB at 110 GHz. We investigate the device physics
of these switches including the effect of a deposited insulator on the VO2
switching characteristics, the self-latching of the devices under high RF
powers and the effect of resistance change with temperature on the device
linearity. Finally we show how these devices can be integrated with silicon
germanium RF circuits to produce a field programmable device where theRF signal routing can be selected under external control.

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267

Conference 9479: Open Architecture/Open Business
Model Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2015

9479-8, Session 2

9479-11, Session 2

DOD product lines: a holistic strategy for
defense open business models (Invited
Paper)

Open architecture design and approach forthe integrated sensor architecture (ISA)
Christine L. Moulton, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States); Jared J. Hepp, John
Harrell, Oakwood Controls (United States); Michael Kogut,
SAIC (United States); Alan T. Krzywicki, U.S. Army NVESD(United States)

Robert Matthews, Naval Air Systems Command (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available

In the Army there is a pressing need to effectively enhance the Soldiers’situational awareness by accessing modern sensing capabilities. This needleads to numerous integration efforts to tie a selection of sensors together
to create a coherent picture of the battlefield. Sadly, these efforts often
rely on stove-piped solutions where the software pieces are designed tocommunicate using the specific protocols of the selected systems. Thisapproach does not allow for much flexibility in deployment and futureenhancement requires significant investment. Often, any plug-and-playcapability comes not from design but from luck that one of sensors uses amore common protocol.

9479-9, Session 2

A systems approach to achieving thebenefits of open and modular systems
Gavin Pearson, Defence Science and Technology Lab.
(United Kingdom); Richard Smith, IBM United Kingdom
Ltd. (United Kingdom); Howard Tripp, Chemring EOD Ltd.
(United Kingdom)
The ability to evolve Communication and Information Systems (CIS)
effectively and affordably is enhanced by the adoption of open and modular
system architectures. However, there are a number of issues with actuallyachieving these benefits in practice.
This paper presents the results of an initial system study into blockers to theachievement of the benefits of open and modular systems. In particular, thestudy and this paper, focuses on the issues associated with:• the rapidly evolving Information & Communications Technology landscape;• the commercial approach to the procurement of CIS systems;

Integrated Sensor Architecture (ISA) is designed in response to these stovepiped systems. The design, based on the principals of Service Oriented
Architectures (SOA) and Open Architectures, addresses the problem ofintegration itself, and is not designed for specific sensors or systems.
The use of SOA and Open Architecture approaches has led to a flexible,
extendable architecture.
Using these approaches, and supported with common data formats, open
protocol specifications, and DODAAF system architecture documents, anintegration focused architecture has been developed. ISA can help move theArmy from stove-pipe and costly solutions to a more cost-effective, plugand-play design.

• the evolution of such systems in safe and secure manner.

9479-12, Session 2

9479-10, Session 2

Q-learning and p-persistent CSMA based
MAC protocol for cognitive radio networks
operating with shared spectrum activity
Clifton L. Watson, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Subir Biswas, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
Cognitive radio (CR) technology can provide the additional spectrum
required to support the growing need for spectral bandwidth. Based on
software-defined technology, CRs are capable of sensing the spectrum
environment and identifying opportunities for spectrum access. Under apolicy known as dynamic spectrum access (DSA), CRs operate as unlicensed
secondary users that can temporarily access the idle portions of licensed
spectrum on the condition that minimal to no interference is caused tolicensed primary users (PUs). In a multi-channel DSA environment, the goalof CR networks is to attain the highest possible throughput achievable
while preventing or minimizing PU interference (PUI). This is a very
challenging problem due to the unpredictable behavior of PUs. This problem
is further exacerbated by collisions among nodes. Thus, to achieve thisgoal, CR networks must rely on a medium access control (MAC) protocol
to dynamically allocate the set of available channels and coordinate thechannel access of CR nodes, such that: (1) network throughput is maximized,(2) PUI is minimized, and (3) collisions are minimized. We propose a MAC
protocol based on Q-learning and the p-persistent channel access scheme.
The proposed protocol utilizes Q-learning to learn which channels are
more favorable for a higher network throughput and thus allocates thosechannels accordingly. The protocol also adapts the transmission probability
p of CR nodes to minimize collisions and PUI. We demonstrate throughsimulation that the proposed protocol provides greater spectrum efficiency
and utilization than existing protocols for DSA environments with varying
dynamics of PU activity.

268

SPIE DSS 2015·

Architecting open AUV systems
Dani Goldberg, Bluefin Robotics Corp. (United States)
As Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) systems increase insophistication, there is a corresponding increase in the number andcomplexity of integrated subsystems. Modern AUV systems containhardware and software components from a myriad of different
manufacturers and sources, organized and integrated into major subsystems
that provide a useful level of functionality to users (or operators) of thesesystems. At the top-level, an AUV system architecture may be described interms of three major subsystems: vehicle, advanced autonomy, and payload.
In order to ease integration of these subsystems, it is highly desirable tohave open interfaces between them that are well-described, well-behaved
and standardized, if possible. Lacking such open interfaces not only leads to
added cost and complexity in integration, but also results in an AUV systemthat is more difficult to maintain and less flexible for end users. The factthat each subsystem (vehicle, advanced autonomy, payload) often includes
a degree of autonomy places even greater onus on the architecture andinterfaces in creating a well-behaved system.
In this paper, we provide a top-level view of the autonomy architecture of
an AUV, both within and between the three major subsystems -- vehicle,
advanced autonomy, and payload. For each element, we highlight theneed for architecture/interface openness and indicate the current stateof practice. Finally, by way of example, we describe how Bluefin Robotics
Corporation is architecting open AUV systems.

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Conference 9479: Open Architecture/Open Business
Model Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2015

9479-13, Session 2

9479-17, Session 4

Modular open RF architecture: extending
VICTORY to RF systems

Open architecture flexible weapons(Invited Paper)

Jason Dirner, Vistronix (United States)

Jonathan Shaver, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Radio frequency products spanning multiple functions have become
increasingly critical to the warfighter. Military use of the electromagnetic
spectrum now includes communications, electronic warfare (EW),
intelligence, and mission command systems. Due to the urgent needs ofcounterinsurgency operations, various quick reaction capabilities (QRCs)
have been fielded to enhance warfighter capability. Although these QRCs
were highly successfully in their respective missions, they were designed
independently resulting in significant challenges when integrated on acommon platform.

No Abstract Available

9479-18, Session 5

Executable architecture management
system (Invited Paper)
Jeff Monroe, Metron, Inc. (United States)

This paper discusses how the Modular Open RF Architecture (MORA)
addresses these challenges by defining an open architecture formultifunction missions that decomposes monolithic radio systems into
high-level components with well-defined functions and interfaces. The
functional decomposition maximizes hardware sharing while minimizing
added complexity and cost due to modularization. MORA achieves
significant size, weight and power (SWaP) savings by allowing hardware
such as power amplifiers and antennas to be shared across systems. By
separating signal conditioning from the processing that implements theactual radio application, MORA exposes previously inaccessible architecture
points, providing system integrators with the flexibility to insert third-party
capabilities to address technical challenges and emerging requirements.

No Abstract Available

9479-19, Session 8

Challenges in RF convergence (Invited
Paper)
Vincent Sabio, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)

MORA leverages the Vehicular Integration for Command, Control,
Communication, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance(C4ISR)/EW Interoperability (VICTORY) framework. This paper concludes bydiscussing how MORA, VICTORY and other standards such as OpenVPX are
being leveraged by the U.S. Army Research, Development, and Engineering
Command (RDECOM) Communications Electronics Research, Development,
and Engineering Center (CERDEC) to define a converged architecture
enabling rapid technology insertion, interoperability and reduced SWaP.

No Abstract Available

9479-20, Session 8

Development of a video SAR for FMV
through clouds (Invited Paper)
H. Bruce Wallace, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)

9479-14, Session 4

DARPA perspective on open architectures(Invited Paper)

No Abstract Available

9479-22, Session 8

John Shaw, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)

A common open systems architecture for
ISR sensor payloads (Invited Paper)

No Abstract Available

Gibbs Dickson, U.S. Air Force (United States)

9479-15, Session 4

No Abstract Available

Open mission system overview (Invited
Paper)
Eric Koper, U.S. Air Force (United States)
No Abstract Available

9479-16, Session 4

Overview of DARPA CODE program(Invited Paper)
Jean-Charles Lede, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)
No Abstract Available

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269

Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII
Wednesday - Thursday 22–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9480 Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII

9480-1, Session 1

9480-44, Session 1

Fiber optic sensors for structuralmonitoring: a 30 year perspective (Invited
Paper)

In-situ monitoring of drug release fromtherapeutic eluting polyelectrolyte
multilayers under static and dynamic
conditions

Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge Research LLC (United States)

Fei Tian, Stevens Institute of Technology (United States);
Jouha Min, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Jiri Kanka, Institute of Photonics and Electronics
of the ASCR, v.v.i. (Czech Republic); Paula T. Hammond,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States);
Henry H. Du, Stevens Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)This paper reviews fiber optic smart structure developments associatedwith the authors experience at McDonnell Douglas, Blue Road Researchand Columbia Gorge Research over a 30 year period. The work described
involves participation by those organizations as well as cooperatingorganizations and sponsors.

9480-2, Session 1

Fiber optic sensing goes mainstream(Invited Paper)
Tom W. Graver, Micron Optics, Inc. (United States)
Since the mid-nineties, fiber optic sensing applications have sprouted inniches from aerospace vehicles to oil wells and marine vessels to medical
devices. But the broader adoption of FOS has been slow. That’s changing
now. More polished interrogators, comprehensive software, and packaged
sensors are being combined and deployed as specific solutions rather than
general tools. This presentation will unveil what technologies have changed
to make this possible and will provide a view into applications that are
turning from niche to mainstream.

9480-3, Session 1

Insight into fiber Bragg sensor response at
100-MHz interrogation rates under various
dynamic loading conditions (Invited Paper)George Rodriguez, Marcelo Jaime, Laura Smilowitz, Bryan
F Henson, Chuck H Mielke, Fedor F Balakirev, Ross D
McDonald, Richard L Sandberg, Abul Azad, Los Alamos
National Lab. (United States); Bruce R Marshall, Brandon
M La Lone, National Security Technologies, LLC (UnitedStates)SPIE DSS 2015

9480-4, Session 2

Distributed Rayleigh scatter dynamic
strain sensing above the scan rate with
optical frequency domain reflectometry
Stephen T. Kreger, Justin Klein, Nur Aida Abdul Rahim,
Joseph J. Bos, Luna Innovations Inc. (United States)
Luna recently demonstrated a novel optical phase-based algorithm forremoving the adverse effects of fiber motion at frequencies far above
the scan rate on high-resolution measurements of Rayleigh scatter using
Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry (OFDR) for static strain andtemperature measurements. By comparing dynamic OFDR Rayleighscatter measurements to a static reference, it is possible to extract the
time-varying phase signal in real time. The same algorithm, applied tosuccessive segments along an unbonded single mode fiber, is an effectivemeans of monitoring the spatial distribution of high frequency opticalphase perturbations caused by vibration and acoustic wave propagationin the fiber. We will discuss tradeoffs between scan speed, scan duration,
range, spatial resolution, vibration sensitivity and vibration frequency range,
provide measurement examples, predict limiting specifications for practicalsystem performance based on current commercial OFDR products, andcompare these limits to those of distributed acoustic sensing techniques
based on Optical Time Doman Reflectometry.

A coherent pulse time domain approach is used to interrogate fiber Bragg
grating response to stress at a 100 MHz rate. The approach is quite usefulfor ultra high speed dynamic events where nanosecond level response
to dynamic stress loading conditions are desired. In this presentation, I
highlight the approach and its advantages over traditional incoherent
interrogation systems. The presentation will include examples using thisnew approach where fast system response is required: pressure sensingof thermal ignition and burn in high explosives, high pressure shock wave
sensing, and material strain sensing in ultra-high pulsed magnetic fields.
All of these examples require sensing with a time resolution below one
microsecond, and the system is proving to be useful for development offiber Bragg grating based sensing in extreme environments.

270

The release profiles of gentamicin sulfate (GS) from [chitosan (CHI)/
poly(acrylic acid) (PAA)/GS/PAA]n polyelectrolyte multilayers were
investigated in situ using an innovate lab-on-fiber (LOF) optofluidic platformthat mimics physiologically relevant fluid flow in a microenvironment. The
LOF was constructed by enclosing in a flow-enabled and optically coupledglass capillary a long-period fiber grating both as a substrate for LbL growthof [CHI/PAA/GS/PAA]n and a measurement probe for GS release. We showthat the LOF is very robust in monitoring the construction of the [CHI/PAA/
GS/PAA]n multilayers at monolayer resolution as well as evaluating the rateof GS release with high sensitivity and high speed. The release processes
in the LOF under static and a range of dynamic conditions are evaluated,showing a faster release under dynamic condition than that under static
condition due to the varying circumstance of GS concentration gradientand the effect of flow-induced shear at the medium-multilayer interface.
The LOF platform has the potential to be a powerful test bed to facilitate
the design and evaluation of drug-eluting polyelectrolyte thin films for theirclinical insertion as part of patient care strategy.

·

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Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII

9480-5, Session 2

9480-7, Session 3

Interrogating adhesion using fiber Bragg
grating sensing technology

Influence of dynamic thermal effects on
durability of optical fiber in the fiber optic
temperature sensor

Roger D. Rasberry, Garth D. Rohr, William K. Miller, Sandia
National Labs. (United States); Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge
Research LLC (United States); Noah T. Blach, U.S. Air Force
Academy (United States); Ryan A. Davis, Sandia National
Labs. (United States); Walter R. Olson, Sandia NationalLabs (United States); David Calkins, R. Allen Roach, David
S. Walsh, James R. McElhanon, Sandia National Labs.
(United States)

Alexandre V. Polyakov, Belarusian State Univ. (Belarus)
Fiber-optic sensors (FOSs) have ability to work at influence of intensive
electric and magnetic fields, firmness to excited environments, explosion
safety, not less important advantage is possibility of creation of the
distributed (multi-point) measuring systems on their basis. It means that thesame fiber-optic sensor can be used for performance of measurements in aconsiderable quantity of space points. Thus the obtained data is transferredin the form of spatial distribution of the corresponding measured value.

The assurance of the integrity of adhesive bonding at substrate interfaces isparamount to the longevity and sustainability of encapsulated components.
Unfortunately, it is often difficult to non-destructively evaluate thesematerials to determine the adequacy of bonding after manufacturing andthen later in service. A particularly difficult problem in this regard is thereliable detection/monitoring of regions of weak bonding that may result
from poor adhesion or poor cohesive strength, or degradation in service.
One promising and perhaps less explored avenue we have recently begun
to investigate for this purpose centers on the use of fiber Bragg grating
sensing technology. In this scenario, a grating is patterned into a fiber optic
such that a broadband spectral reflectance is observed. The sensor is highly
sensitive to local and uniform changes across the length of the grating. Our
initial efforts to evaluate this approach for measuring adhesive bonding
defects at substrate interfaces will be presented.

The new structure of the multi-point fiber-optic temperature sensor
intended for in-situ thermometry at extraction of high-viscosity oil ispresented. We consider that high sensitivity of recirculation frequency inclosed optoelectronic system to small external influences on fiber optic
path will allow to realize a new principle of frequency representation of
the information. The principle of measurements is based that temperature
influence leads to change of length and refraction index of a fiber. The
action principle is based on registration recirculating frequency of single
pulses with their periodic regeneration on various wavelengths. Sensitiveelements are sections of an optical fiber with the metal covering, divided
spectral-selective reflecting elements.
At high temperatures in the optical fiber mechanical stress will occur
because the thermal expansion coefficient of the metallic coating issignificantly greater then coefficient of the optical fiber. Under conditionsof high temperature, dynamically changing and acting years, there will
occur a gradual destruction. This phenomenon, called static fatigue ofglass, is explained by the growth of existing defects in glass, and it leads tothe decrease of durability of the fiber. In this regard, there is the problem
assessing the impact of time-varying high temperature on the strength ofthe optical fiber.

Sandia National Laboratories is a multi-program laboratory managed andoperated by Sandia Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed
Martin Corporation, for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear
Security Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.

9480-6, Session 2

The method of a theoretical estimation of optical fiber durability usedin optical fiber sensors as a sensitive element, depending on the strain
arising at dynamic changes of temperature, pressure and other mechanicalinfluences is offered. The developed analytical model takes into accountdesign features of a fiber (diameters of a core and cladding, a metal or
polymeric covering), doping types, relative humidity of an environment.
Numerical modeling of optical fiber’s lifetime at dynamic influences ofmeasured temperature and comparison with experimental data iscarried out.

Residual internal stress optimization for
EPON 828/DEA thermoset resin using fiber
Bragg grating sensors
Garth D. Rohr, Amy L. Kaczmarowski, Mark Stavig, Cory
Gibson, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Eric Udd,
Columbia Gorge Research LLC (United States); R. Allen
Roach, Roger D. Rasberry, Sandia National Labs. (UnitedStates); Brendan Nation, Sandia National Labs (UnitedStates)9480-8, Session 3

Fiber optic anemometer based on silicon
Fabry-Perot interferometer

Internal residual stress and overall mechanical properties of thermoset
resins are largely dictated by the curing process. It is well understood thatfiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors can be used to evaluate temperatureand cure induced strain while embedded during curing. Herein, is anextension of this work whereby FBGs are used to identify a curing processthat leads to minimized stress in an unfilled and filled Epon 828/DEA resin.
Variables affecting stress including cure cycle, mold (release), and adhesion
promoting additives will be discussed and stress measurements from astrain gauge pop-off test will be used as comparison.

Ming Han, Guigen Liu, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln (UnitedStates); Weilin W. Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Anemometers have been finding vast applications in all kinds of industrial
processes, such as process control, food quality surveillance, wind turbines,
environment monitoring, etc. In this paper, we propose a new anemometer
which consists of a tiny silicon Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) mounted on
the end of an optical fiber. The anemometer takes advantage of the superior
thermal and optical properties of silicon. Silicon is transparent within
infrared wavelength range, while it absorbs visible light. Thus, the silicon FPI
can be heated by a beam injected from a red diode laser while the infrared
signals go through it without any influence. The heat flux flowing out of thesilicon film will increase when the sensor is placed in wind, which induces
decrease in the optical path of the silicon FPI and thus blue shifts the output
spectrum. Such a anemometer is theoretically analyzed and experimentallydemonstrated. A higher wind speed corresponds to a larger wavelength
shift. By tuning the heating power, the response range of the anemometer ischanged. The proposed sensor features simple structure and low cost.

Sandia National Laboratories is a multi-program laboratory managed andoperated by Sandia Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed
Martin Corporation, for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear
Security Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.

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Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII

9480-9, Session 39480-11, Session 4

High-resolution wavelength shift detectionof optical signals with low-cost compact
readouts

Operational verification of a blow out
preventer (BOP) utilizing fiber Bragg
grating based strain gaugesPeter Kiesel, Alex Hegyi, Ajay Raghavan, Alexander
Lochbaum, Julian Schwartz, Bhaskar Saha, Anurag
Ganguli, Kyle Arakaki, PARC, a Xerox Co. (United States)

Alan Turner, Dan Thibodeau, Philippe Loustau, Lloyd’s
Register Energy-Drilling (United States)

Fiber-optics (FO) have shown great potential for distributed sensing invarious harsh environment applications. They have a number of advantages
in terms of high-resolution capabilities, inherent EMI immunity, low weight/
volume of FO, and multiplexing capabilities. However, their widespread
adoption in commercial applications has been considerably limited by thehigh cost, size, weight, and lack of capabilities of the readout unit used tointerpret the FO signals. PARC has developed a breakthrough wavelength
shift detection (WSD) technology that is capable of reading out signals fromwavelength-encoded FO and other optical sensors with high sensitivity
using a compact, low-cost unit. An initial prototype demonstrated theability of this technology to resolve optical wavelength shifts as small as
5 fm at 10 Hz in the C-band, which is substantially better than the stateof-the-art. Recently, the PARC WSD capabilities have been extended withrespect to three different performance metrics: a) multiplexed WSD of
multiple sensors (10s-100s); b) high bandwidth WSD (1 MHz); and c) WSD
in broadband visible spectra (1 pm shifts over 100 nm bandwidth). All thesehave been achieved while retaining the cost (few 100 dollars when massmanufactured) and size advantages and comparable resolution of the WSD
technology. These interesting developments will be described in the context
of an ongoing project where we are exploring fiber-optic sensing for nextgen battery management systems.

9480-10, Session 49480-12, Session 4

Applications for fiber optic sensing in the
upstream oil and gas industry

Optical fiber sensor based on MachZehnder interferometer for monitoring
CO2 in carbon sequestration application

Christopher S. Baldwin, Weatherford International Ltd.
(United States)
Fiber optic sensing has been used in an increasing number of applicationsin the upstream oil and gas industry over the past 20 years. In somecases, fiber optic sensing is providing measurements where traditional
measurement technologies could not. This paper will provide a general
overview of these applications and describe how the use of fiber optic
sensing is enabling these applications. Technologies such as Bragg gratings,
distributed temperature and acoustic sensing, interferometric sensing, andBrillouin scattering will be discussed.
Applications for optic sensing include a range of possibilities from a single
pressure measurement point in the wellbore to multizone pressure and flow
monitoring. Some applications make use of fully distributed measurements
including thermal profiling of the well. Outside of the wellbore, fiber optic
sensors are used in applications for flowline and pipeline monitoring alongwith riser integrity monitoring.
Applications to be described in this paper include in-flow profiling, wellintegrity, production monitoring, and steam chamber growth. These
applications will cover well types such as injectors, producers, hydraulicfracturing, and thermal recovery. Many of these applications use themeasurements provided by fiber optic sensing to improve enhanced oil
recovery operations. The growing use of fiber optic sensors is providing
improved measurement capabilities leading to the generation of actionable
data for enhanced production optimization. This not only increases therecovered amount of production fluids but can also enhance wellbore
integrity and safety.

272

SPIE DSS 2015

Ultra-deep water BOP operation poses numerous challenges in obtaining
accurate knowledge of current system integrity and component condition- asalient example is the difficulty of verifying closure of the pipe and shearing
rams during and after “kick” events. Ascertaining the integrity of thesefunctions is currently based on a manual gallon count performed with astop watch. Advances in sensor technology now permit more accurate
methods of BOP condition monitoring. Fiber optic sensing technology andparticularly fiber optic strain gauges have evolved to a point where wecan derive a good representation of what is happening inside a BOP byinstalling sensors on the outside shell. Function signatures can be baselined
to establish thresholds that indicate successful function activation. Basedon this knowledge base, signal variation over time can then be utilized toassess degradation of these functions and subsequent failure to function.
Monitoring the BOP from the outside has the advantage of gathering data
through a system that is independent of the OEM, which could then beinterfaced with risk based integrity management software and/or a smart
monitoring system that analyzes BOP control redundancies. The paper
will present the results of ongoing work on a fully instrumented 3’1/2”
pipe ram. Instrumentation includes electrical based pressure transducers,
accelerometers, flow meters, and optical strain gauges. Correlation will bepresented between flow, pressure, acceleration signatures and the fiber
optic strain gauge’s response as it relates to functional verification andcomponent level degradation trending.

·

Luis B. Melo, Geoff Burton, Peter Wild, Univ. of Victoria(Canada)The utilization of a fiber optic sensor to monitor dissolution of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in aqueous solutions at geological sequestration pressures
is presented. Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) has been identified
as an attractive solution for large-scale reduction of CO2 emissions. CCS
consists of capturing CO2 from major emission facilities, such as coal power
plants, and subsequent injection for long term storage in undergroundstorage reservoirs.
Saline aquifers are currently the most attractive option for CCS due thehigh number of available sites, relative proximity to the major CO2 emission
sources and large storage potential. Liquid CO2 injected into a saline aquifer
is expected to migrate as a plume and slowly dissolve in the formationwater. Concerns associated with geological storage of CO2 include sealing
properties of the caprock layer located above saline aquifers, potential
leakage from the storage site into shallow aquifers and consequentdegradation of ground water quality, and potential leakage into the land
surface leading to the increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Therefore,
development of reliable technology for monitoring, verification andaccounting (MVA) geological CO2 storage is a critical aspect ofcarbon sequestration.
This article presents the investigation of a fiber optic sensor based on a
Mach-Zehnder interferometer configuration for monitoring dissolutionof liquid CO2 in water at 1400 psi. The Mach-Zehnder interferometer isdeveloped by splicing a segment of 35 mm of a photonic crystal fiber
between standard single mode fibers. The mechanism of detection of CO2
is based on the sensitivity of the sensor to the surrounding refractive index.
The wavelength shift of the interference pattern of the Mach-Zehnderinterferometer is monitored as liquid CO2 is injected in a custom-built highpressure vessel.

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Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII

9480-13, Session 49480-42, Session 4

Adapting long gauge vibrofibre tomeasure fracking activities down well for
successful oil and gas exploration andproduction

Novel sensing materials for harshenvironment subsurface pH sensing
applications (Invited Paper)
Congjun Wang, Xin Su, Thomas Brown, Paul R. Ohodnicki
Jr., National Energy Technology Lab. (United States)Peter Kung, QPS Photronics Inc. (Canada); Maria I.
Comanici, McGill Univ. (Canada)

Unconventional, deep, and ultradeep oil and natural gas resources havebecome an increasingly important part of the domestic US energy supply
requiring harsh environment compatible sensors that can provide realtime information about parameters relevant for monitoring of drilling andfracking processes, well-bore integrity, and environmental monitoring.
Parameters of interest include temperature, pressure, flow, and chemistrywith the latter being particularly challenging under high pressure and hightemperature conditions. This presentation will outline a recently establishedeffort at the National Energy Technology Laboratory targeted at researchand development of functional sensor material enabled optical fiber sensors
for aggressive subsurface sensing applications.

The long Gauge Vibrofibre, a newly developed distributed vibration sensor
which involves terminating a long length of ordinary Telecom fiber of up to
one kilometer with an in-fiber cavity structure, shows the entire structure
can detect vibrations over a wide frequency range of 5 Hz to 2,000 Hz. The
sensing fiber muse be packaged loosely in a 900 micron Teflon tube toprotect the sensor. QPS has performed further experiment and adapt thesensing fiber to be a germanium free, pure core fiber and the terminating
cavity on the same fiber type. The cavity is written with Femto second
laser creating damaged gratings which works well up to 500 degrees C. If
both sensing fiber and cavity involves polyimide fiber, the solution would
be ready for down well application, where there is high temperature andpressure. Additional refinement was performed on the laser transmitter:first we optically locked the laser to reduce its line width and achieve longer
coherent length. The sensing fiber can therefore be extended to several
kilometers. The performance of this new solution will not be affected byphoto darkening due to hydrogen ingress; there is no germanium doping
usually found in standard Telecom fiber for hydrogen to react, causing
optical loss. The power of the laser can also be optimized to reduce detector
saturation resulting in improved signal to noise. This new technology relies
on analysis of the vibration spectrum to indicate production activities. The
terminating cavity can be used to monitor the worst case temperature down
the well. A simpler and lower cost version of the solution can be introduce
to monitor the vibration of the wind turbine Generator, the gear box and theblade, the fiber simply becomes routed through all the critical components
and record vibration signature giving diagnostic information.

9480-15, Session 5

Specialty fiber optic applications for harshand high radiation environments (Invited
Paper)
Brian G Risch, Prysmian Group (United States)
Since the first commercial introduction in the 1980s, optical fiber technology
has undergone an almost exponential growth. Currently over 2 billion fiber
kilometers are deployed globally with 2014 global optical fiber production
projected to exceed 300 million fiber kilometers. Along with the staggering
growth in optical fiber production and deployment, an increase in opticalfiber technologies and applications has also followed. Although the mainuse of optical fibers by far has been for traditional data transmission andcommunications numerous new applications are introduced each year.

9480-14, Session 4

Initially the practical application of optical fibers was limited by cost andsensitivity of the optical fibers to stress, radiation, and other environmental
factors. Tremendous advances have taken place in optical fiber design
and materials allowing optical fibers to be deployed in increasingly harshenvironments with exposure to increased mechanical and environmental
stresses while maintaining high reliability. With the increased reliability,
lower cost, and greatly expanded range of optical fiber types now available,
new optical fiber deployments in harsh and high radiation environments isseeing a tremendous increase for data, communications, andsensing applications.

Sub-Hz C-band diode laser for oil
exploration
Wei Liang, Vladimir S. Ilchenko, Elijah B. Dale, Danny
Eliyahu, Anatoliy A. Savchenkov, Andrey B. Matsko, David
J. Seidel, Lute Maleki, OEwaves, Inc. (United States)
Fiber-optic sensors are widely used for remote and in-situ explorationin the oil and gas industry. These include distributed temperature profile
monitoring, distributed dynamic strain measurements, and probing of multiphase flows. Sensing is usually performed at low, nearly acoustic, spectral
frequencies, where the achievable signal to noise ratio and sensitivity
affected by frequency fluctuations of the optical source. Historically, fiber
lasers have been used as the optimal coherent light sources becauseof their excellent low noise at small Fourier frequencies. Conventional
semiconductor lasers, by contrast, have significantly larger frequency
noise, and cannot serve the needs of advanced optical sensors. Given theirrelatively low cost, and their immunity to environmental perturbations
such as temperature and vibration, semiconductor lasers with noise at thelevel of fiber lasers are highly desired for optical sensor applications. In
this presentation, we show a heterogeneously-integrated semiconductor
laser system based on coupling with a whispering gallery mode resonator.
The large quality factors of WGM resonators can be utilized to reduce
the linewidth of the semiconductor laser by a factor of a million. A laser
based on this scheme is shown to outperform existing fiber lasers, witha demonstrated instantaneous linewidth of 500 mHz and an integrated
linewidth of 100 Hz. The laser exhibits frequency drift of less than 10 MHz
over many days. Furthermore, the frequency of the laser can be modulated
at a GHz span with 100 kHz rate using the laser’s integrated tuning element.
This is a significantly higher performance than achievable modulation withfiber lasers.

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An overview of key optical fiber applications in data, communications, andsensing for harsh environments in industrial, energy exploration, energy
generation, energy transmission, and high radiation applications will bepresented. Specific recent advances in new radiation resistant optical fiber
types, other specialty optical fibers, optical fiber coatings, and opticalfiber cable materials will be discussed to illustrate long term reliability for
deployment of optical fibers in harsh and high radiation environments.
1 Patrick J. Fay, CRU International, “Market Update on Global Optical Cable
Demand”, 63rd International Wire and Cable Symposium, 2014, Providence,
RI.

9480-16, Session 5

A polarization maintaining fiber optimized
for high temperature gyroscopes
Frank Tutu, Fibercore Ltd. (United Kingdom); Mark D Hill,
Fibercore Limited (United Kingdom); Judith Hankey, Andy
M. Gillooly, Fibercore Ltd. (United Kingdom)·

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Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII
Fiber optic gyroscopes (FOGs) are being used within increasingly severe
environments, requiring operational temperatures in excess of the standard
operating range for FOGs. Applications requiring these higher temperatures
include: directional drilling of wells in oil and gas fields, space applications
and military FOG applications. This paper will describe the relative merits of
two high temperature acrylate coatings for an optical fiber designed for a
FOG in such operating environments.
Results for two high temperature acrylates are presented, tested in a 200m
length of loose wound fiber, coiled and supported at 75mm diameter, in linewith TIA/EIA-455-192 (FOTP-192). It can be seen that both coating types
give very good polarization extinction ratio (PER) performance at hightemperature up to 180oC, with better performance shown by one coatingtype on the low temperature side, since it does not harden to the same
extent below 0oC.
The long term thermal exposure effects will be discussed and experimental
results presented which include testing the PER performance overtemperature both before and after an extended period of high temperature
endurance. This will demonstrate the relative merits of different styles of
coatings. From the PER performance, the h-parameter of the fiber can becalculated and hence the preferred coating type selected and recommended
for the customer operating environment.

9480-17, Session 5

Compression of quantum data using
compressed sensing
Marcin Kowalski, Marek Zyczkowski, M. Karol, Military Univ.
of Technology (Poland)
Current quantum key distribution systems (QKD) offer low bit rate of up to
single MHz. Compared to conventional optical fiber links with multiple GHz
bitrates, parameters of recent QKD systems are significantly lower.
Low bitrates of quantum systems are the result of the current state oftechnology as well as the physical principles of operation of distributionof a quantum key. The main technological limitation are the parametersof currently available single-photon laser sources and detectors. Currently
available commercial single-photon laser sources offer the possibility ofgeneration of single photons with the maximum repetition of 500MHz, while
the maximum repetition of single-photon detectors working in this spectral
range is 100MHz.
Due to the limited throughput of quantum links and because of lack of
hardware techniques of eliminating problems an approach of improving
data rate of QKD systems using the Compressed Sensing method for datacompression is proposed. In this method, a signal (key) is multiplied witha series of filters ranked in the specific order. In order to reconstruct thesignal, it is necessary to have a particular portion of the compressed signal
as well as filters used for the compression. For compression purposes thefilter set can be generated once and can be public.

Biomimetic optical sensor for aerospace
applications
Susan A. Frost, NASA Ames Research Ctr. (United States);
George E. Gorospe, SGT, Inc. (United States); Cameron
H. G. Wright, Steven F. Barrett, Univ. of Wyoming (UnitedStates)We report on a fiber optic sensor based on the physiological aspects ofthe eye and vision-related neural layers of the common housefly (Musca
domestica) that has been developed and built for aerospace applications.
The intent of the research is to reproduce select features from the fly’s visionsystem that are desirable in image processing, including high functionality
in low-light and low-contrast environments, sensitivity to motion, compact
size, lightweight, and low power and computation requirements. The fly
uses a combination of overlapping photoreceptor responses that are wellapproximated by Gaussian distributions and neural superposition to detect
image features, such as object motion, to a much higher degree thanjust the photoreceptor density would imply. The Gaussian overlap in thebiomimetic sensor comes from the front-end optical design, and the neuralsuperposition is accomplished by subsequently combining the signals
using analog electronics. The fly eye sensor is being developed to perform
real-time tracking of a target on a flexible aircraft wing experiencing
bending and torsion loads during flight. Additionally, we are exploring
how the sensor can be leveraged to improve situational awareness on
unmanned aerial systems (UASs), contributing to the utilization of higher
levels of automation and autonomy across the aviation system. Feasibility
studies using the fly eye sensor to maintain awareness of the horizon andto sense utility wires in a scene that would otherwise be undetected bytraditional cameras have been performed. We report on results of laboratory
experiments using the fly eye sensor to accomplish these tasks.

Multicore fiber strain sensor with increased
sensitivity
Amy Van Newkirk, Jose E. Antonio-López, CREOL, The
College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida(United States); Guillermo Salceda-Delgado, Ctr. de
Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C. (Mexico); Mohammad
Umar Piracha, FAZ Technology Research Inc. (UnitedStates); Rodrigo Amezcua-Correa, Axel Schülzgen,
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States)

9480-18, Session 5

A miniature turn-around for distributed
temperature sensing
Xiaoguang Sun, David T. Burgess, Kyle Bedard, Jie Li, Mike
Hines, OFS (United States)
In many fiber optic distributed temperature sensing (DTS) systems, adual-ended configuration can correct the temperature measurement
error associated with wavelength the dependent loss (WDL) of the

SPIE DSS 2015

9480-19, Session 59480-20, Session 6

In the article we present the conception of application of the Compressed
Sensing method for compression of quantum information. The presented
method is expected to give 20% increase of the throughput of data. The
compression methodology as well as the signal reconstruction method andinitial results of improving the throughput of quantum information linkare presented.

274

optical fiber, resulting in a more accurate temperature measurement. In
this configuration, two optical fibers are laid parallel to each other andconnected in the distal end by a turn-around device, creating an optical paththat can be interrogated bi-directionally. In many applications, where fully
distributed temperature measurements are desired, tightly confined spaces
limit the fiber bend diameter and thus the size of the turn-around device.
In this paper we will report a miniature turn-around device measuring
less than 300um in diameter and less than 2mm long. The insertion lossof the miniature turn-around is measured and will be compared with thetheoretical simulations.

·

We demonstrate a strain sensor consisting of a multicore fiber (MCF)
spliced between two single mode fibers (SMF). The MCF contains 7 strongly
coupled single mode cores. Multiple supermodes are excited in the MCF by
the SMF input, creating a multimode interference pattern in transmission,consisting of sharp spectral features with up to 45 dB resolution. Strain
induces a wavelength shift of these features due to the elongation of thefiber and the change in refractive index according to the photoelastic effect.
Increasing of the sensitivity is achieved through reducing the cladding

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Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII
diameter of the MCF, with an overall sensitivity enhancement of 7x that of a
125 ?m outer diameter MCF device, and 12x that of a standard FBG in 125 µm
fiber. The maximum sensitivity achieved was about 16 nm/N of longitudinal
force. The sensor has a simple design and inexpensive fabrication, consistingof only two splices between the MCF and the SMF. The splice losses are very
low, less than 0.1 dB, allowing for multiplexing of multiple sensors within asingle measurement chain. Additionally, this device has previously shown
robust operation up to 1000 °C, making it more suitable than FBGs for
extreme environment strain measurements.

Sapphire optical fiber possesses inherent thermal and chemical stability,
which makes it an excellent alternative to harsh environment sensing,where silica-based fiber is not suitable for. Development of robust cladding
on sapphire fiber to impart new properties and functions has remained
elusive due largely to challenges associated with suitable materials andtheir deposition. We present a theoretical and experimental study that
explores an innovative concept of all-alumina Nanostructured Sapphire
Fiber: single-crystal sapphire fiber as the waveguide core and nanoporous
anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) coating with highly organized pore channels
vertically aligned to the fiber surface as cladding for high temperaturechemical sensing. We reveal the feasibility of Ag nanoparticles (NPs)enabled Nanostructured Sapphire Fiber for surface-enhanced Raman
scattering (SERS) sensing of 10-6 M Rhodamine 6G (R6G) after thermal
treatment at 500 °C for 6 hr by taking advantage of porous AAO structure
to stabilize the Ag NPs. We also conduct numerical and analyticalsimulation to investigate the evanescent-field interaction on AAO-cladded
sapphire fiber for a group of modes, as well as the AAO porosity effecton evanescent decay for potential optimization. The development of
this novel Nanostructured Sapphire Fiber sensing platform will lead to atransformative new frontier for next generation of photonic devices
and sensors.

9480-21, Session 6

Few-mode fiber based sensor inbiomedical application
Jing Zhang, A*STAR National Metrology Ctr. (Singapore)
A novel few-mode fiber based sensor for monitoring the vital signs of pulse(heart rate), and breathing rate (respiratory rate) was developed. The sensor
unit consisted of a piece of few-mode fiber spliced in between two pieces
of normal single mode fiber. One piece of single mode fiber was the lightlaunching fiber. The other piece was the output fiber. Due to the fact thatthe stress or strain would affect the coupling between the modes in the
few-mode fiber, and more than one modes existing in the few-mode fiber,
the output optical power was subject to the stress or strain on the fewmode fiber and the interference between the higher order modes and thefundamental mode in the few-mode fiber. The sensor unit was applied on
the wrist near the artery, and obvious heart beat signal was obtained as thestrain on the few-mode fiber changed with the pulses. Three sensor units
were cascaded and embedded in a chair pad to enlarge the sensing area.
The pulse and breathing rate signals of the person sitting on the chair padwere obtained. Besides the pulse and breathing signals, the body movement
signal was also recorded. This sensor has simple structure and is easy tofabricate. Its signal is easy to monitor and analyze. It can be used in the
medical equipment in what situation non-invasive realtime monitoring andmeasurement of pulse rate, and respiratory/body movement pattern ofhealthy subjects are required (eg. MRI).

9480-24, Session 7

In-line fiber optic sensors for absolutemeasurement of high temperature using
gas as sensing element (Invited Paper)
Ming Han, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln (United States)
All current temperature sensors, no matter electrical or optical, usesome temperature-dependent properties of solid materials for sensing.
These properties tend to degrade or exhibit unpredictable behaviors
over extended period of time in high-temperature environment. In our
technology, instead of using “solids”, the sensing material is “gas”.
Specifically, we make use of the fact that the refractive index of a gas isdependent on temperature and pressure. During operation, the gas pressure
in a small in-line fiber Fabry-Perot (FP) cavity is varied and the spectral shiftof the FP cavity as a function of pressure is recorded. Using the slope ofthe spectral shift vs. pressure curve, absolute temperature can be deduced.
This novel temperature method eliminates all limitations associated withsolid such as nonlinearity, long-term stability, and low survivability at
high-temperature. In addition, our technology has the unique capability of
perform calibration free and absolute measurement of temperature, whichmeans that the mapping of the sensor signal to temperature is independent
on the sensor structure and does not require the calibration curve.

9480-22, Session 6

Fiber Bragg grating interrogation using
a micro-ring resonator tunable filter withpeak wavelength detection enhancement
German Vargas, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral(Ecuador)

9480-25, Session 7

This work presents a demodulation technique using a silicon micro-ringresonator that extracts wavelength information from a FBG sensor. The
device implements an interrogation system employing a signal processing
technique that translates the peak wavelength position of a FBG spectralline into a time interval measurement. To determine the peaks, threetechniques were applied. One was based on a simple maximum detection
algorithm, and the other two, enhanced a detected signal by applying
a finite impulse filter (FIR) and a smoothing filter. Results show an
improvement of the wavelength measurement using the filtering techniquecompared to the maximum peak detection.

Optimization of detonation velocity
measurements using a chirped fiber Bragg
grating
Yohan Barbarin, Alexandre S. Lefrançois, Jérôme Luc,
Guillaume Zaniolo, Vincent Chuzeville, Laurent Jacquet,
CEA Gramat (France); Sylvain Magne, CEA LIST (France);
Antoine Osmont, CEA Gramat (France)
Dynamic measurements of detonation velocity profiles are performed
using long Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings (CFBGs). Such thin probes, witha diameter of typically 150 µm, are inserted directly into an explosive or
simply positioned laterally. During the detonation, the width of the reflected
optical spectrum is continuously reduced by the propagation of the wavefront which physically shortens the CFBG. The optical intensity reflected
delivers a ramp down type of signal which is relative to the detonation
velocity profile. Experimental detonation velocity measurements werecompleted on the side of three different high explosives (TNT, B2238 andV401) in a bare cylindrical stick configuration (diameter 2 inches, height: 10

9480-23, Session 6

Nanostructured sapphire fiber for hightemperature chemical sensing
Hui Chen, Fei Tian, Stevens Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Jiri Kanka, Institute of Photonics and Electronics
of the ASCR, v.v.i. (Czech Republic); Henry H. Du, Stevens
Institute of Technology (United States)

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275

Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII
inches). The detonation velocity range covered was 6800 to 9000 m/s. The
extraction of the detonation velocity profiles requires a careful calibration of
the system and of the CFBG used. A calibration procedure was developed,with the support of optical simulations, to cancel out the optical spectrum
distortions from the different optical components and to determine thewavelength-position transfer function of the CFBG in a reproducible way.
The 40-mm long CFBGs were positioned within the second half of thethree high explosive cylinders. The excellent linearity of the computed
position-time diagram confirms that the detonation was established forthe three high explosives. The fitted slopes of the position-time diagram
give detonation velocity values which are in very good agreement with theclassical measurements obtained from discrete electrical shorting pins.

9480-26, Session 7

Nikola Stan, Brigham Young Univ. (United States); Legrand
Shumway, Frederick Seng, Rex King, Brigham Young
University (United States); Richard H. Selfridge, Stephen
M. Schultz, Brigham Young Univ. (United States)
Slab-coupled optical fiber sensors (SCOS) have found use in applications
like testing rail-guns, Marx generators and ion-traps. These and similar
applications require non-intrusiveness of electric field measurement,
directional sensitivity and localization in a small region of space. SCOS
technology meets the requirement of non-intrusiveness because SCOS isan all-dielectric optical fiber sensor with no metallic parts. Its operation
relies on coupling light from a D-fiber into a lithium-niobate (LiNbO3) slab
and, since the coupling conditions depend dominantly upon the transverse
component of electric field across the crystal, SCOS is directionally sensitive
to a single electric field component rather than the total field magnitude.
Slab dimensions are below 1 mm allowing SCOS to be fitted inside verysmall cavities within the system under test. High power applications, suchas exist in defense or nuclear research programs, require measurement ofhigh electric fields. For electric fields above 1 MV/m, the SCOS interrogatorgoes outside of linear operation mode and correct measurement calls for
non-linear calibration method. While linear calibration requires knowledgeof slope sensitivity at only the operating point of the interrogator, nonlinear calibration requires knowledge of slope sensitivity at multiple points
on the SCOS transmission spectrum. Non-linear calibration also requires
information about the spectrum wavelength shift rate as a function of theapplied electric field. We present measurements of electric fields up to 20
MV/m with sub-10 ns pulse rise time measured using non-linear
calibration method.

9480-28, Session 8

Measurements of UV-A radiation andhazard limits from some types of outdoor
lamps
Essam Elmoghazy, Dr.Alaa–Eldin Abd-Elmageed, Dr.SamehReda, National Institute For Standards (Egypt)
Illumination using artificial light sources is common in these days. Many
manufactures are paying for the design of lamps depending on high efficacy
and low UV hazards. This research is focusing on the most useable lamps
in the Egyptian markets; High Pressure Mercury (HPM), Metal Halide (MH),and High Pressure Sodium (HPS). A set up for relative spectral power
distribution based on single monochromator and UVA silicon detector for
absolute irradiance measurements are used. The absolute irradiance in (W/m2) in UVA region of the lamps and their accompanied standard uncertainty
are evaluated.

SPIE DSS 2015

Real-time distributed DAS and DTS opticalsensing advantages and data compression
techniques for the application of hydraulicfracture monitoringPeter Hayward, Deep Desai, Ifie Nyerhovwo, Fotech
Solutions Ltd. (United Kingdom)
Details are provided of the successful implementation of optical-fibre based
distributed acoustic and temperature sensing (DAS & DTS) systems, for theapplication of real-time monitoring of hydraulic fracturing operations in an
unconventional gas well.
Rayleigh based DAS and Raman based DTS interrogators were connected
to standard single- and multi-mode optical fibres respectively, which were
deployed along the entirety of the wellbore casing.

High electric field measurement with slab
coupled optical sensors using nonlinear
calibration276

9480-29, Session 8·

Results are presented for all aspects of the fracture operations, fromperforation creation to fracture stage completion. Examples are provided forboth successful and unsuccessful stage operations. Evidence of unsuccessful
operation is provided by way of results identifying, incorrect valve operation,plug failures, and cement washout. Each of which are shown to exhibit aunique sequence of acoustic signals and thermal profiles. Evidence andeffectiveness of successful stage operation is provided by way of evaluationof the frequency-domain acoustic data and warm-back evaluation of thethermal data. Detailed spectral analysis of the acoustic data further aids
assessment of the relative effectiveness of the individual phases of fracture
operations as a function of cluster number.
Data compression techniques, as applied to the DAS data, are presented
that reduce data volumes by a factor of 7.5e6 whilst retaining pertinent
signal information.
This paper thus highlights potential benefits of utilising a combinationof DAS & DTS solutions for real-time fracture monitoring. With realtime information provided to an operator that potentially allows for the
optimisation of fracturing parameters on an ongoing basis, thus potentiallyminimising resources required on each stage of operation.

9480-30, Session 8

Near-infrared absorption fiber optic
sensors for ultra-sensitive CO2 detection
Xinyuan Chong, Ki-Joong Kim, Oregon State Univ. (UnitedStates); Paul R. Ohodnicki, National Energy Technology
Lab. (United States); Chih-Hung Chang, Alan X. Wang,
Oregon State Univ. (United States)
IR absorption spectroscopy is widely used as a simple and reliable techniquefor both detection and identification of hazardous and greenhouse gases.
Various mid-IR (2.5-10?m wavelength) methods that work at the highly
sensitive fundamental vibration bands, such as Fourier transform IR (FTIR) spectroscopy that detect gases through spectroscopic signatures, areavailable commercially. However, most commercial mid-IR spectrometers
are large, expensive, and heavy tabletop instruments. On the other hand,near-infrared (NIR ~ 0.6-2.5?m wavelength) optoelectronic devices areminiaturized, low cost, and highly reliable. The biggest challenge is thatmost gases do not have fundamental vibration bands at NIR regions, andhence it has relatively low detection sensitivity. In this research, we present afiber-optic sensor working at 1.57?m for CO2 detection. In order to increase
the NIR absorption, we grow functional sensor materials on the surface ofthe core of a multimode-fiber. First, the cladding of the multimode fiber wasetched away by buffered oxide etchant. Then, we used the layer-by-layer
method to grow various sensor materials on the exposed core of the fiber.
The fiber was then placed in a gas cell to detect CO2 absorption by mixing
with nitrogen. The selected sensing layer demonstrated excellent adsorption
capacity of CO2 and significantly increased the detection sensitivity down
to a few hundred ppm with only 8-centimeter absorption length. The sensor
also has a very rapid response time of ~10 seconds to the CO2 concentration
change due to the thin film of only 100 nm.

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Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII

9480-31, Session 8

arrayed waveguide gratings. Light power fluctuations are suppressed by adifferential data evaluation, leading to a reduced signal-to-noise ratio anda low strain detection limit. The measurement system is used, inter alia, todetect wire breaks in steel wire ropes for dockside cranes.

A fiber optic current sensor for lightningmeasurement applications
Truong X. Nguyen, Jay J. Ely, George N. Szatkowski, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

9480-33, Session 8

Fiber-optical sensors for enhanced battery
safetyAn optical-fiber sensor based on Faraday Effect is developed for measuring
total lightning current. Designed for aircraft installation, it is light-weight,
non-conducting, structure conforming, and is immune to electromagnetic
interference, hysteresis and saturation. It can also be used on windmills,
lightning towers, and can help validate lightning detection network
measurements.

Jan Meyer, Antonio Nedjalkov, Technische Univ. Clausthal(Germany); Alexander Doering, Martin Angelmahr,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Nachrichtentechnik HeinrichHertz-Institut (Germany); Wolfgang Schade, Technische
Univ. Clausthal (Germany) and Fraunhofer-Institut fürNachrichtentechnik Heinrich-Hertz-Institut (Germany)

Faraday Effect causes light polarization to rotate when the fiber is exposed
to a magnetic field in the direction of light propagation. Thus, the magnetic
field strength can be determined from the light polarization change. By
forming closed fiber loops and applying Ampere’s law, measuring the total
light rotation yields the total current enclosed. The broadband, dualdetector, reflective polarimetric scheme allows measurement of both DC
component and AC waveforms with a 60 dB dynamic range.

Over the last years, battery safety became more and more importantdue to the wide spread of high-capacity Lithium ion batteries applied ine.g. consumer electronics and electrical power storages for vehicles or
stationary energy storage systems. However, for these types of batteries,
malfunctions could be highly dangerous and all aspects of safety issues are
not sufficiently considered, yet. Therefore the improvement of the battery
safety behavior is one of the most important issues discussed in present
research projects.

Three sensor systems were built with different sensitivities from different
laser wavelengths. The first system operates at 1310nm, uses spunpolarization maintaining fiber, and can measure approximately 300 A 300 KA. High current measurements up to 200 KA were demonstrated at
a commercial lightning test facility. The system was recently installed onan aircraft and flown near icing weather conditions. Operating at 850nm,
the second system uses twisted single-mode fiber and has a 150 A – 150
KA range. The third system operates at 1550nm, uses spun polarization
maintaining fiber, and can measure 400 A - 400 KA. Both systems werevalidated with rocket-triggered lightning measurements and achieved
excellent comparison results when compared to a resistive shunt.

In this paper the application of fiber-optical sensors for an enhanced
battery safety is presented. The temperature is one of the most criticalparameters indicating a failure of the cell, but even state-to-the-art battery
management systems (BMS) are not able to monitor and interpret the
distributed temperature field of a whole battery storage system sufficiently.
Furthermore, the volume expansion of the battery cell, which could bemonitored by the strain on the cells’ surface, is one additional parameter notconsidered up to now. Both parameters can be simultaneously monitored byfiber optical sensor arrays, consisting of discrete fiber Bragg grating (FBG)
elements. The FBG sensors are directly attached on the surface of the cell,recording the temperature as well as the strain distribution highly accurate
and close mesh. Failures and malfunction such as overcharging, gassing, andthermal runaway can be early predicted and avoided to extend the battery
lifetime and enhance the operational battery safety. Moreover, battery aging
effects lead to variations in the volume change behavior which can bedetected additionally.

The fiber-optic sensor provides many unique lightning measurement
capabilities not possible with traditional sensors. It represents an important
new tool where low-weight, large structure dimension, large total current,
and low frequency capabilities are important considerations.

9480-32, Session 8

High frequency strain measurements withfiber Bragg grating sensors

Hence, a battery fully equipped with fiber optical sensor arrays in
combination with an appropriate BMS enables a safe and continuous
utilization of the energy storage system even under harsh conditions like
rapid charging.

Jan Koch, Fraunhofer-Institut für Nachrichtentechnik
Heinrich-Hertz-Institut (Germany) and Technische Univ.
Clausthal (Germany); Martin Angelmahr, FraunhoferInstitut für Nachrichtentechnik Heinrich-Hertz-Institut(Germany); Wolfgang Schade, Fraunhofer-Institut fürNachrichtentechnik Heinrich-Hertz-Institut (Germany) and
Clausthal University of Technology (Germany)

9480-34, Session 8

New design for a wavelength
demultiplexing device

In recent years fiber Bragg grating sensors gained interest in structural
health monitoring and concepts for smart structures. They are small,lightweight, and immune to electromagnetic interference. Using
multiplexing techniques, several sensors can be addressed by a single fiber.
Therefore, well-established structures and materials in industrial applications
can be easily equipped with fiber optics sensors with marginal influence on
their mechanical properties. In return, critical components can be monitored
in real-time, leading to reduced maintenance intervals and a great reductionof costs. Beside of general condition monitoring, the localization of failuresin a structure is a desired feature of the monitoring system. Detecting theacoustic emission of a sudden event, its place of origin can be determinedby analyzing the delay time of distributed sensor signals. To achieve highlocalization accuracies for the detection of cracks, breaks, and impacts highsampling rates combined with the simultaneous interrogation of several
fiber Bragg grating sensors are required.

Konrad Bethmann, Elke Pichler, Technische Univ. Clausthal(Germany); Urs Zywietz, Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V.
(Germany); Thomas Schimdt, Uwe Gleissner, Univ. of
Freiburg (Germany); Ulrike Willer, Technische Univ.
Clausthal (Germany); Wolfgang Schade, FraunhoferInstitut für Nachrichtentechnik Heinrich-Hertz-Institut(Germany) and Technische Univ. Clausthal (Germany)
Arrayed waveguide gratings (AWG) originally designed as demultiplexing
device and manufactured with well established silicon wafer technology are
already used successfully as compact spectrometers with high resolution [1].
In this paper, the concept of a new design for a wavelength demultiplexing
device based on tailor-made polymers is presented. The motivation for
a new design is a smaller footprint of the device and the avoidance ofbended waveguides and the associated losses. Extensive simulations

In this article a fiber Bragg grating interrogator for high frequency
measurements up to the megahertz range is presented. The interrogatoris based on a passive wavelength to intensity conversion applying

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Conference 9480:
Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XII
were performed to optimize the design. Using microscope projection
lithography and hot embossing a first polymer based device was realized.
Its characterization and the achieved performance in terms of resolution andcovered wavelength range will be discussed.
The project is part of the German collaborative research centre “Planar
Optronic Systems” (Sonderforschungsbereich, Transregio 123) funded by
the DFG. The aim is to realize a sensor network in a large-scale polymer filmwith integrated and distributed optical sensors which partly rely on the useof a planar spectrometer.
[1] J. Koch, M. Angelmahr and W. Schade. Arrayed waveguide gratinginterrogator for fiber Bragg grating sensors: measurement and simulation.
APPLIED OPTICS, 51, 7719-7723, (2012)

9480-35, Session 8

Femtosecond laser processing ofevanescence field coupled waveguides
in single mode glass fibers for optical 3D
shape sensing and navigation
Christian Waltermann, Anna Lena Baumann, Fraunhofer
Heinrich Hertz Institute (Germany) and Photonik Inkubator
GmbH (Germany); Konrad Bethmann, Fraunhofer Heinrich
Hertz Institute (Germany); Alexander Doering, Fraunhofer
Heinrich Hertz Institute (Germany) and Photonik
Inkubator GmbH (Germany); Jan Koch, Martin Angelmahr,
Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz Institute (Germany); Wolfgang
Schade, Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz Institute (Germany)and Clausthal University of Technology (Germany)
Fiber Bragg Grating based optical shape sensing is a new and promising
approach to gather position and path information in environments whereclassical imaging systems fail. Especially a real time in-vivo navigation ofa medical catheter or endoscope without any further requirements (suchas the permanent exposure to x-rays) could provide a huge advantage incountless areas in medicine.
Multicore fibers or bundles of glass fibers have been suggested for realizing
such a shape sensor, but multicore fibers need a compatible connector for
addressing each core separately which would have to be custom-made andglass fiber bundles are limited in their mechanical flexibility and minimum
detectable bending radius.
We present the realization of a third approach. With femtosecond laser
pulses local waveguides have been inscribed into the cladding of astandard single mode glass fiber. The evanescent field of the main fibercore couples to two S-shaped waveguides, which carry the light to highreflective fiber bragg gratings located 25 µm away from the centre in an
orthogonal configuration. Part of the reflected light is coupled back to
the fiber core and can be read out by a fiber bragg grating interrogator. A
typical spectrum is presented as well as the sensor signal for bending inall directions and different radii. The entire sensor plane has an elongationof less than 5 mm and therefore enables even complicated and localized
navigation applications such as medical catheters.

278

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II
Wednesday - Thursday 22–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9481 Image Sensing Technologies: Materials, Devices, Systems, andApplications II

9481-1, Session 1

We have shown two-color plasmon absorption peaks due to Al and Au NPs
with a nanometer-scale separation between them. The position and peakheight of the coupled plasmon curves are different from the individual peaksof Al and Au NPs, respectively.

Integration of optical functionality forimage sensing through sub-wavelength
geometry design (Invited Paper)

References:
1H. Haken, H. C. Wolf, In Molecular physics and elements of quantum
chemistry; Springer: Berlin, (2003).

Peter B. Catrysse, Stanford Univ. (United States)

2 M. Kauranen and A. V. Zayats, Nature Photonics, 6, 737, (2012).

Integration and pixel scaling are enabling trends for low-cost, small formfactor, light-weight, and low-power camera systems across all opticalfrequency bands. Integration allows on-chip implementations of optical
functionalities, e.g., polarization, color and spectral selectivity, which werepreviously achieved using bulky external components (e.g., prisms, filter
wheels). Wavelength-size pixels require focusing and guiding of light at
the pixel-level (e.g., microlenses, light guides), which was not necessary
for larger pixels. On-chip integration of optical functionalities and pixellevel light control is often based on miniaturized versions of conventional
optical components. These components derive their functionality frommaterial properties (e.g., absorption/reflection) or shapes (e.g., dielectric
domes), but they do not lend themselves well to integration or do notscale to wavelength-size pixels. Here, I present an overview of innovative
integrated optical devices that overcome the problems associated with
the integration and scaling of conventional components. They are enabled
by scaling of imager and focal plane array technology, and by advanced
nanofabrication. Wafer-scale processing and nanofabrication have madenano-scale patterning possible, while recent discoveries regarding theoptical properties of nano-patterned structures have opened up important
opportunities to develop ultra-compact photonic devices. I discuss suchdevices showing design implementations for the visible and infrared bands,
including VIS integrated color pixels in CMOS technology with geometrybased color filters, microlens functionality based on planar nano-aperture
designs, and metal-based spectral filters for MWIR multispectral imaging
implemented using standard nanofabrication methods. All devices areplanar and ultra-thin, rely on process-compatible materials only, and derive
their functionality from sub-wavelength geometry design.

3N.C. Das, Journal of Applied Physics, 110, 046101 (2011).

9481-3, Session 1

CMOS compatible silicon photonics for
mid-IR optical sensing
Pao T. Lin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)CMOS compatible mid-Infrared (mid-IR) microphotonics are demonstratedusing silicon on oxide undercladding pedestal waveguides as well as mid-IRtransparent chalcogenide glass waveguides that monolithically integrated
with a PbTe thin film photodetector. Using a pedestal undercladding
geometry the optical loss for our Si waveguide is 10 dB/cm lower comparedto other waveguides using planar SiO2 cladding at l = 5 µm, and afundamental mode is observed over a broad mid-IR spectral range. To
realize a fully integrated mid-IR on-chip system, in parallel, we develop
PbTe thin film detectors that can be deposited on various mid-IR platforms
through a thermal evaporation technique, offering high photoresponsivityof 25 V/W from l = 1 µm to 4 µm. Our results of low loss waveguides andintegrated thin film detectors enable Si-CMOS microphotonics for
mid-IR applications.

9481-4, Session 1
9481-2, Session 1

Development of high performance SWIR
InGaAs focal plane array

Interaction of two nano particle plasmons
for sensor application

Richie S. Nagi, Jeremy Bregman, Genki Mizuno, Robert
Olah, Achyut K. Dutta, Banpil Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Nibir K. Dhar, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States)

Naresh C. Das, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The area of creating artificial molecules by combining more than one
nanoparticle (NP) has received significant interest recently. Similar to theway atoms join together in different combination to form all the substancesin the universe, we too can make groups of new materials by combining
artificial atoms or NPs1. The strong interaction of plasmon waves fromdifferent NPs can render many applications possible, including sensors2,
and enhanced electro catalytic reactions3. We used an electron beamlithography process along with angle evaporation techniques to achieve
nanometer-scale metallic particles with very close proximity. Gold (Au)and aluminum (Al) metal particles were chosen for the plasmonic coupling
experiment because of their distinguished plasmonic behavior withpeak wavelengths separated by few 100 nm. We used a variable angle
ellipsometer model M-200 from J. Wolman and Company to measurechange in phase difference, D, due to plasmonic NPs. The peak resonancewavelength for different plasmonic material was determined.

Banpil Photonics has developed a novel InGaAs based photodetector arrayfor Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR) imaging, for the most demanding security,
defense, and machine vision applications. These applications require low
noise from both the detector and the readout integrated circuit arrays. In
order to achieve high sensitivity, it is crucial to minimize the dark current
generated by the photodiode array. This enables the sensor to function in
extremely low light situations, which enables it to successfully exploit thebenefits of the SWIR band. In addition to minimal dark current generation,
it is essential to develop photodiode arrays with higher operating
temperatures. This is critical for reducing the power consumption of thedevice, as less energy is spent in cooling down the focal plane array (inorder to reduce the dark current).
We at Banpil Photonics are designing, simulating, fabricating and testing
640 x 512 SWIR InGaAs arrays with 15 micron pitch, and have achieved low
dark current density at room temperature. This paper describes Banpil’s
development of the photodetector array. We also highlight the fabrication
technique used to reduce the amount of dark current generated by thephotodiode array, in particular the surface leakage current. This technique

Two metallic NPs were deposited using different angles of evaporationof substrate with respect to metal crucible. We observed two peaks: one
narrow plasmon peak at 525 nm showing a contribution from the Al NPs
and another broad plasmon peak at 650 nm due to the Au NPs.

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II
involves the deposition of strongly negatively doped semiconductormaterial in the area between the pixels. This process reduces the numberof dangling bonds present on the edges of each pixel, which prevents
electrons from being swept across the surface of the pixels. This in turndrastically reduces the amount of surface leakage current at each pixel,
which is a major contributor towards the total dark current. We alsopresent the characterization data and analysis that illustrates the darkcurrent mechanisms, and also discuss the improvements of our array overother available devices. Also highlighted are the challenges and potential
opportunities for further reduction of dark current, while maintaining otherparameters of the photodiode array, such as size, weight, temperature ofpeak performance (lowest dark current), and power consumption. Finally, abrief overview of emerging military, commercial, and industrial applications
that will benefit from this high performance InGaAs photodiode arrayis presented.

9481-5, Session 1

Functionalized fluorescent silver
nanoparticle surfaces for novel sensing
and imaging techniques

Fraunhofer IAF has recently started the development of InGaAs-based
SWIR detectors. We report on the current development status covering
design considerations, epitaxy, process technology and electro-opticalcharacterization. Detector structures based on both, classical InGaAs
PIN homojunction diodes as well as InGaAs/InAlAs APDs in separatedabsorption-grading-charge-and-multiplication layer heterostructures,
have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy on InP. Diodes structures
were fabricated with a dry-etch mesa process and a subsequent dielectricpassivation of the mesa sidewalls. High-resolution FPAs with 640 x 512
pixels and a 15 µm pixel pitch based on PIN diodes have been assembled
to a camera test setup in cooperation with AIM Infrarot-Module GmbH.
Design variations, in particular for the APDs, were assisted by band-edgeprofile simulations. APD test structures as well as fan-out hybrids have beencharacterized, revealing gain values larger 300 at room temperature.

9481-7, Session 2

Kyle M. Culhane, Kathrin Spendier, Anatoliy O. Pinchuk,
Univ. of Colorado at Colorado Springs (United States)
A deposition technique has been developed to create thin metal surfaces
composed of functionalized fluorescent silver nanoparticles on top ofglass or plastic substrates. Deposition is controlled through excitationof nanoparticles via a confocal microscope, allowing for rapid surface
formation, high resolution patterning and convenient imaging. No significant
photobleaching of these fluorescent structures was observed duringcontinuous excitation experiments, which lasted over three minutes. The
wavelength of the laser which drives the deposition is close to the surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) wavelength of the nanoparticles, highlighting
the crucial role of an induced dipole moment in the nanoparticles. This SPR
enhancement was confirmed through total internal reflection fluorescencemicroscopy and has not previously been reported. Longer wavelength lasers
did not cause sizeable deposition of these nanoparticles, which shows
the size dependence of their SPR wavelength, ultimately allowing for theselective placement of different sized particles based on the deposition
laser line selected. Fluorescent microstructure assemble can be achieved inless than one minute and precise control of the deposition area is possible.
The functionalization of these nanoparticles can be tailored to a desired
application and no substrate pretreatment or modification is necessary.
Sensing and imaging techniques which employ fluorescent nanoparticle
deposits with customizable surface functionality can be conceived. Initialinvestigations have demonstrated that surfaces can be designed to mimic
the glucan and mannan layers of a fungal cell wall. This surface functionality
will allow for the study of immune cell response and interaction withthese fungal cell wall mimics. Other possible applications which will becommented on include but are not limited to; sensing and imaging of
membrane curvature through confocal and TIRF microscopy, study of thecellular up take of fluorescent nanoparticles and the molecules of theirfunctionalized surfaces, investigations into the effect of changing dielectric
environments on properties of fluorescent structures and studying cellularinteractions with these surfaces.

UV/VIS/NIR imaging technologies:
challenges and opportunities (Invited
Paper)
Rihito Kuroda, Shigetoshi Sugawa, Tohoku Univ. (Japan)
No Abstract Available

9481-8, Session 2

InAs1-xSbx nanopillar photodetectors on
GaAs (111)b substrates
Chung Hong Hung, Nanopixel Technologies, LLC (UnitedStates); Pradeep N. Senanayake, Univ. of California, Los
Angeles (United States); Wook-Jae Lee, Univ. of California,
Davis (United States); Alan Farrell, Univ. of California,
Los Angeles (United States); Baolai L. Liang, Integrated
NanoMaterials Core Lab. (United States); Diana L. Huffaker,
Univ. of California, Los Angeles (United States)
In this talk I will overview the growth, fabrication and characterization of
InAsSb nanopillar photodetectors on GaAs (111) B substrates. Fully relaxed
InAs buffer layers were grown by MBE on GaAs substrates followed by
InAsSb nanopillars grown by MOCVD. Both the InAs epi layer and InAsSb
nanopillar were characterized by photoluminesce measurements. Front sideilluminated photodetectors were fabricated and characterized using FTIR
spectral measurements and temperature dependent current
voltage measurments.

9481-9, Session 2

9481-6, Session 1

Improved optical resonance in midinfrared GaAs-based modulating retroreflectors

SWIR photodetector development at
Fraunhofer IAF
Frank Rutz, Philipp Kleinow, Rolf Aidam, Matthias Wauro,
Lutz Kirste, Wolfgang Bronner, Fraunhofer-Institut fürAngewandte Festkörperphysik (Germany); Alexander
Sieck, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany);
Martin Walther, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte
Festkörperphysik (Germany)280

For surveillance and reconnaissance applications in the short-wave infrared(SWIR) spectral range, the imaging systems have to cope with usually very
low photon flux densities. Thus, dark-current and noise characteristics of the
focal plane array (FPA) are demanding. On the other hand, the challenge
of detecting extremely low photocurrents can be mitigated by utilizing aninternal gain as provided by avalanche photodiodes (APDs).

SPIE DSS 2015

Gregory E Triplett, Univ of Missouri-Columbia (UnitedStates); Stanley Ikpe, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (UnitedStates)In this work, we studied a mid-infrared modulating retro-reflector (MRR)
design that is GaAs-based because of the flexibility to monolithically·www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II
The passive athermalization does not need any active readjustment of thesensor, but uses a passive thermal compensation benefiting from tailoredmaterials for spacers and housing as well as an optimization of the choice ofthe glass materials for the lens elements. The optical design uses sphericaland aspherical lens elements to maximize the MTF over a large field. Several
techniques are used to reduce crucial centering errors including a radialcompensator unit. A special thermal chamber has been built that allows
automated measurements in a commercially available MTF measurement
device at various temperatures. FISBA has designed and produced sucha lens system and MTF measurements for the entire wavelength range atvarious temperatures will be presented as well as other performance data.

incorporate reflective optics along with quantum well modulator region.
Using solid-source molecular beam epitaxy, we produced MRR devices
where the GaAs quantum well(s) in the modulator region contained AlGaAs
barriers to tune the wavelength selectivity beyond three microns. The widthof the quantum well was also adjusted in order to achieve free electron
absorption within the confined energy subbands, and modified by way ofthe quantum confined Stark effect. When the applied electric field varies inpolarity, intensity, or frequency, the fabricated MRRs behave as an optional
shutter--absorbing or transmitting the incident wavelength(s) energy
dependent on the applied field. Our work shows that the ability for the midinfrared modulating region to effectively act as a shutter device depends on
the number of cascading quantum wells, though increasing the number ofwells directly increases the overall thickness of the modulating region andadversely affects the reflected power of the mid-infrared modulated beam.
The shutter operation was achieved by applying an alternating square bias
across the QWM region, and the speed at which the quantum wells switchfrom absorbing to non-absorbing was dependent on the physical size ofthe device. Increasing the physical size increases the associated device
capacitance. The maximum achievable contrast ratio for these devices iscalculated to be 1.6:1 for applied voltages between 12V and 25 V.

9481-12, Session 3

Image sensor conversion gain
determination in data constrained
environment: blending temporal andspatial information for a mean-variancemeasurement9481-10, Session 2

Blake C. Jacquot, Sean Maguire, Brett Bolla, The
Aerospace Corp. (United States)

Germanium/zinc sulfite distributed Braggreflectors for large size MOEMS FabryPerot interferometers

This paper presents a hybrid technique for measuring conversion gain thatblends spatial and temporal information, allowing users to quickly arriveat an accurate conversion gain with little knowledge of sensor defects.
It blends single pixel methods with multiple pixel methods. We present
measured data from a visible CMOS image sensor using three methods:
single pixel, multiple pixel, and hybrid method. Additionally, we provide
statistical reasoning arguing for validity of the hybrid method. To ourknowledge, this is the first report of this hybrid technique.

Julian L. Chee, EPIR Technologies, Inc. (United States);
Neelam Gupta, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Silviu Velicu, EPIR Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Commercial Micro Opto-Electro-Mechanical System (MOEMS) Fabry-Perot
Interferometer (FPI) devices are currently available for single element(SE) infrared photo detectors (IR-PD) devices. Existing FPI designs are
between 500 µm by 500 ?m to 2 mm by 2 mm in size to satisfy 30 ?m by
30 ?m square to 500 µm by 500 ?m IR-PD filtering requirements. With thegrowing trend of hyperspectral thermal imaging and chemical detection
using IR focal plane arrays (FPAs), the planar mirror size of MOEMS FPI must
scale upwards to 12 mm by 12 mm square to ensure full coverage for 9.6mm x 7.7 mm sized (640 x 512 format, 15 ?m pitch) FPAs. In this paper, we
present the process metrology and infrared (IR) transmissivity of our large
size germanium/zinc sulfite dielectric Bragg mirror for short-, mid-, andlong wavelengths filtering. We deposit the dielectric stacks in various 2N+1
combination using our shadow mask deposition technique which enables us
to bypass the need to perform post-deposition chemical etching. This paper
will describe the principle of the shadow mask deposition technique and thefabrication process. We will characterize and report the surface roughness1of both germanium and zinc sulfite, which will provide a numerical value
for the thickness of the dielectric interface layer. The residual stress of eachdielectric layer will also be measured, which will lead up to quantifying theradius of curvature of the final Bragg mirror.

Conversion gain (e-/DN) directly relates measured digital numbers (DN) to
input-referred electrons (e-) for the unit cell of an image sensor. Conversion
gain can be directly measured by considering the sensor under varying
illumination levels in coordination with Poisson statistics. Typically, there
are two approaches: measure a single pixel over time or measure a groupof pixels at one point in time after correcting for gain non-uniformity. The
plotted statistics from these measurements are typically called either
mean-variance or photon-transfer curves. The measurement of a single pixel
is relatively straightforward and requires collection of many consecutive
frames in order to get meaningful statistics not dominated by noise of themeasurement. The data volume for an accurate single-pixel measurement
can become unwieldy. In contrast, the measurement of a group of pixels
requires fewer consecutive frames, but unfortunately requires nonuniformity adjustments to correctly calculate statistics. This adjustment
requires considerable judgment on the part of the analyst and will yield poor
results if applied incorrectly.

9481-13, Session 3

Advanced computational sensors
technology

9481-11, Session 2

High NA, VIS+IR, and athermal low-lightcamera objective

Charbel G. Rizk, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.,
LLC (United States)

Markus Lipp, Frank Saupe, Matthias Falk, Martin Forrer,
FISBA OPTIK AG (Switzerland)

The Advanced Computational Sensors Team at JHU APL and ECE has beendeveloping advanced readout integrated circuits (ROIC) technology forover 10 years with a particular focus on the key challenges: dynamic range,
sampling rate, system interface and bandwidth, and detector materials orband dependencies. Because the pixel array offers parallel sampling by
default, the team successfully demonstrated that adding smarts in the pixel
and the chip can increase performance significantly. Each pixel becomesa smart sensor and can operate independently in collecting, processing
and sharing data. In addition, building on the digital circuit revolution, theeffective well size can be increased by orders of magnitude within the same
pixel pitch over analog designs. This research has yielded an innovative

Low-light cameras are an important tool e.g. for defense, security, andsensing applications. Specialized sensors are commercially available.
However, the challenge is to design a lens system that meets threeimportant conditions at the same time: high NA for maximum speed(f#<1.25), broadband color correction from VIS to NIR (400-1100 nm), anda passively athermal design suitable within the typical defense temperature
range, i.e. minimal shift of the focal length and no degradation of the MTF.
The entire design makes the lens compact and robust with low weight.

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications IIclass of a system-on-chip concept: the Flexible Readout and Integration
Sensor (FRIS). All key parameters are programmable and/or can be adjusted
dynamically. The following functionality has been demonstrated:• Pixel level A/D conversion• Pixel level NUC (gain and offset)• Background level• Individual pixel and non-contiguous sub-array addressability• Very large effective well depth (up to 26 bits)• Variable LSB equivalent in e, from ~1e up to the integrating capacitor• Auto detection, only pixels or regions of interest (e.g. targets) are readout• High sampling rate (50+ KHz) without windowing• Potentially detectors, wavelength, and polarity agnostic• Active and passive imaging
Another aspect of this promising technology is the ability to support
ranging on selected targets in the scene with a pulsed laser. Such capability
is likely to allow an improved SWaP-C solution for imaging andranging systems.
This paper reports on the latest development and testing for 1-color (either
polarity) and 2-color applications and one vertically integrated designusing TSV’s. One prototype, with the most on-chip functionality, has been
demonstrated with visible and LWIR and is currently being evaluated for
SWIR and extended SWIR.

9481-14, Session 3

360-degree scanning light scatteringprofiler (SLSP) to quantitatively
characterize the front and back lightscattering from intraocular lenses (IOLs)

The present generation of mobile handheld devices come equipped with alarge number of sensors. The key sensors include the Ambient Light Sensor,
Proximity Sensor, Gyroscope, Compass and the Accelerometer. Many mobile
applications are driven based on the readings obtained from either one or
two of these sensors. However the presence of multiple-sensors will enable
the determination of more detailed activities that are carried out by theuser of a mobile device, thus enabling smarter mobile applications to be
developed that responds more appropriately to user behaviour and device
usage. In the proposed research we use recent advances in machine learning
to fuse together the data obtained from all key sensors of a mobile device.
We propose the use of bagging and ensemble classifier based approaches
to identify a mobile device’s behaviour in the space it is present. Feature
selection algorithms are used to remove non-discriminant features that
often lead to poor classifier performance. As the sensor readings are noisy
and include a significant proportion of missing values and outliers, we
use machine learning based approaches to clean the raw data obtained
from the sensors, before use. Based on selected practical case studies, wedemonstrate the ability to accurately recognise device behaviour based on
multi-sensor data. Accuracy values of above 0.95 measured in terms of aR-squared test is reported.

9481-16, Session 4

Uncooled LWIR imaging: applications andmarket analysis (Invited Paper)
Satomi Takasawa, Techno Systems Research Co., Ltd.
(Japan)Bennett N. Walker, Robert H. James, Don Calogero M.D.,
Ilko K. Ilev, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (UnitedStates)Intraocular lens (IOL) implantation is the most common surgical procedurein the United States, averaging over 3 million surgeries per year. As a result,
new IOL designs are constantly emerging with modified components,
materials, and functionalities. Each modification made has the potential toimpact the light-surface interactions that potentially lead to an increase or
decrease of front and back scattered light, resulting in various unwanted
negative effects (e.g. halos, glistenings and glare). For example, theintroduction of multifocal IOLs (MIOLs) has resulted in an increase ofpatients reporting halos and glare, particularly when driving at night. To
help avoid implanting IOLs prone to unwanted light scattering, preclinicalstudies can be conducted to better evaluate these effects. Recently, we
have introduced a novel Scanning Light Scattering Profiler (SLSP) to
quantitatively observe IOL light scattering patterns with a 360-degreeview. If a correlation between these preclinical studies can be made withclinically reported incidences, IOLs that are prone to produce unwanted
light scattering can be identified before implantation occurs. In addition,by manipulating the wavelength of light, laser beam profile, and angle
of incidence a better understanding of the environment that causes
problematic scattering of light can be achieved, potentially leading to better
IOL designs that minimize unwanted glare. These studies, as well as others,
can significantly improve the proficiency of preclinical evaluations of IOL
safety and efficacy which can ultimately improve the health of millions ofAmericans every year.

SPIE DSS 2015

The application of machine learning
in multi sensor data fusion for activity
recognition in mobile device space
Asmaa H. Marhoubi, Sara Saravi, Eran A. Edirisinghe,
Loughborough Univ. (United Kingdom)• Pixel management (disabling pixels, local/global reset)282

9481-15, Session 3·

Uncooled Long-Wave Infrared (LWIR) Imaging Market is changing
dynamically due to its prospective dual applications in both commercial anddefense sectors. Manufacturers have been deploying practical strategies
to expand its common footprint in the consumer market. Although thevolume of the existing markets especially in scientific and security sectors
have been about 300 thousand pcs worldwide and limited so far. However,automotive night vision, mainly in Europe, has now become a promising
new market for thermal cameras and the market is expected to expand
from around 2018 by entering into mass production phase. In recent year,
besides this trend, some distinct actions to approach to the volume market
have been taken by several manufacturer, especially introducing consumer
products such as smartphone add-on cameras , and Smart Building projects
for energy management. These actions are to promote an economy of scale
and aim to increase the market size.
Reviewing overall LWIR applications and their markets, this is the time forall manufacturers, including component suppliers such as image sensors
and lenses, to determine a strategy towards a market expansion phasefrom around 2017 and carry it into action. For example, there are still many
challenges to be overcome to enter into new applications, including making
small-form factor module, cost reduction etc. We conceive that there canbe more technological innovations in material and more chances for new
entries. In this presentation, uncooled LWIR Imaging applications and theirmarket trends especially in consumer sector, and the major components
market trends will be addressed.

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II

9481-17, Session 4

We have developed a process and method of monitoring surface thermal
expression intensity and trending. MapTemp software was created by
Aerial Thermal Imaging to solve a problem with the way users are able tounderstand and interpret deliverables. The basic operation of MapTemp is
to allow users to instantly know the actual temperature and GPS location ofa deliverable at the click of a mouse. This includes users who have no GIS
skills. Users are able to select a temperature range, such as temperatures
between 70F as low to 90F as high, then highlight just that area with thecolors red as maximum temperature and blue as minimum temperatures.

Advanced illumination control algorithm
for medical endoscopy applications
Ricardo M. Sousa, AWAIBA Lda. (Portugal) and Univ. da
Madeira (Portugal); Martin Wäny, Pedro Santos, AWAIBA
Lda. (Portugal); Morgado Dias, Univ. da Madeira (Portugal)and Madeira Interactive Technologies Institute (Portugal)

Gradients are applied to the high and low to allow users to focus on therange of highlighted temperatures. A specific surface thermal expression
can be located on the deliverable and the user can zoom in for more details.
Once the user has found an area of interest, software tools can thenbe implemented.

CMOS image sensor manufacturer, AWAIBA, is providing the world’s
smallest digital camera modules to the world market for minimally invasive
surgery and one time use endoscopic equipment. Based on the world’s
smallest digital camera head and the evaluation board provided to it, theaim of this paper is to demonstrate an advanced fast response dynamic
control algorithm of the illumination LED source coupled to the camera
head, over the LED drivers embedded on the evaluation board. Cost
efficient and small size endoscopic camera modules nowadays embed
minimal size image sensors capable of not only adjusting gain and exposure
time but also LED illumination with adjustable illumination power. The
LED illumination power has to be dynamically adjusted while navigating
the endoscope over changing illumination conditions of several orders ofmagnitude within fractions of the second to guarantee a smoothviewing experience.

9481-19, Session 4

Information content capabilities of very
high resolution optical space imagery for
updating GIS database
Mehmet Alkan, Yildiz Technical Univ. (Turkey); Karsten
Jacobsen, Leibniz Univ. Hannover (Germany)

The algorithm is centered on the pixel analysis of selected ROIs enabling
it to dynamically adjust the illumination intensity based on the measured
pixel saturation level. The control core was developed in VHDL and tested
in a laboratory environment over changing light conditions. The obtained
results show that it is capable of achieving correction speeds under 1 s while
maintaining a static error below 3% relative to the total number of pixels
on the image. The result of this work will allow the integration of millimeter
sized high brightness LED sources on minimal form factor cameras enablingits use in endoscopic surgical robotic or micro invasive surgery.

Nowadays, the number and capacity of very high resolution optical satellites
grows permanently, so the access to very high resolution space images is
not any more a problem. The use of Geographic Information Systems (GISs)
together with Remote Sensing became important. With the increased
ground resolution a competition to aerial images exist. For the generation of
topographic maps, today available as GIS, the accuracy and the information
content - what elements can be identified in the image - are important.
Both may limit the presentation scale of topographic maps. As horizontal
accuracy 0.25mm up to 0.3mm in the map scale are accepted. The required
information content is more complicate. The object details to be presented
in topographic maps vary from area to area which is based on the planned
and unplanned areas. In this study, images from IRS-1C, Kompsat-1, SPOT
5, OrbView-3, IKONOS, QuickBird and WorldView-1 have been used for
topographic mapping. For this reason, Zonguldak test field is an importantarea for applications of the high resolution imageries. The details which canbe identified in the space images dominantly depends upon the ground
resolution, available as ground sampling distance (GSD). In this study,
high resolution imageries have been tested depending on the GSD andcorresponding to the map scales for updating GIS database.

9481-18, Session 4

How thermographic mapping can help
with enhanced oil recovery
Eric Olsen, Aerial Thermal Imaging (United States)
Today, oil companies are using our technology to understand more about
the overburden and sealing rock that can allow steam to make its way
towards the surface. When cyclic steam stimulation occurs, subsidence
can weaken the ground, creating the possibility of sinkholes or blowouts.
We assist oil companies by monitoring their grounds and infrastructure
thermographically, thereby helping provide safety and efficiency data.

9481-20, Session PThu

Aliasing removing of hyperspectral image
based on fractal structure matching

Our thermographic maps are more commonly known as deliverables. A
deliverable often is made of thousands of individual thermal images. Every
single image in a survey that makes a complete deliverable is georeferenced
and orthorectified. Individual images are stored in an enhanced GeoTiff
format containing GPS data, aircraft yaw, pitch and roll data, andradiometric temperature data. This data is used to complete the deliverable,translating it into a thermographic map in terms of a visual color gradient
representing temperature intensity and radiometric temperature, where
every pixel contains temperature data.

Ran Wei, Ye Zhang, Junping Zhang, Harbin Institute ofTechnology (China)
Due to the richness on high frequency components, hyperspectral image(HSI) is more sensitive to distortion like aliasing. Many methods aiming
at removing such distortion have been proposed. However, seldom ofthem are suitable to HSI, due to low spatial resolution characteristic of
HSI. Fortunately, HSI contains plentiful spectral information, which can be
exploited to overcome such difﬁculties. Motivated by this, we proposed analiasing removing method for HSI. The major differences between proposedand current methods is that proposed algorithm is able to utilize fractal
structure information, thus the dilemma originated from low-resolution of
HSI is solved. Experiments on real HSI data demonstrated subjectively andobjectively that proposed method can not only remove annoying visual
effect brought by aliasing, but also recover more highfrequency component.

When we think of thermal imaging, we think of multiple colors or black
and white palettes representing intensity of a surface temperature. Often,
important aspects of a deliverable can go unseen. We now have two majoradvances in the development of the new technology. The first is providing
users the ability to see a grand view of the oil field without false visual
data stemming from contrasting artifacts. We achieve this with our global
contrasting software. This grand view is created by multiple images to be
globally contrasted without altering the radiometric or thermal data.
The second major advance is the ability to use radiometric data collectedby the infrared detector and ground placed data loggers to increase
ground temperature accuracy, and then implement that data into GIS,
georeferenced or orthorectified deliverables.

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II

9481-21, Session PThu

9481-23, Session PThu

A low noise low power 512x256 ROIC for
extended wavelength InGaAs FPA

Reconstruction the system PSF by using
the sub pixel technique

SongLei Huang, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)Xiaofeng Su, Fansheng Chen, Shanghai Institute ofTechnical Physics (China)

A low noise low power 512x256 readout integrated circuit (ROIC) basedon Capacitance Trans-impedance Amplifier (CTIA) was designed in thispaper. The ROIC with 30µm pixel-pitch and conventional 72 fF integrated
capacitance and test structure capacitance from 5 to 60 fF, was fabricatedin 0.5µm DPTM CMOS process. The results showed that output voltage
was 2.0V and power consumption was about 150mW, conventional output
noise was about 3.6E-4V which equivalent readout noise was 160e-, andthe test structure noise was from 20e- to 140 e-. Through the comparisonof readout noises in Integration Then Readout (ITR) mode and Integration
While Readout (IWR) mode, it indicated that in IWR mode, readout noise
comes mainly from both integration capacitance and sampling capacitance,
while in ITR mode, readout noise comes mostly from sampling capacitance.
Finally the ROIC was flip-chip bonded with Indium bumps to extended
wavelength InGaAs detectors with cutoff wavelength 2.5µm at 200K. The
peak detectivity exceeded 5E11cmHz1/2/w with 72nA/cm2 dark current
density at 200K.

Point spread function (PSF) is a very important indicator of the imaging
system; it can describe the filtering characteristics of the imaging system.
The image is fuzzy when the PSF is not very well and vice versa. In the
remote sensing image process, the image could be restored by using thePSF of the image system to get a clearer picture. So to measure the PSF of
the system is very necessary. Usually we can use the knife edge method,line spread function (LSF) method and streak plate method to get themodulation transfer function (MTF), and then use the relationship of theparameters to calculate the PSF of the system. In the knife edge method,
the non uniformity (NU) of the detector would lead an unstable precision of
the edge angle; using the streak plate could get a more stable MTF, but it is
only at one frequency point in one direction, so it is not very helpful to get ahigh-precision PSF. In this paper, we measured the impulse response directly
by using the image of the point target and combined with the energy
concentration to calculate the PSF. First we made a point matrix target
board and make sure the point can image to a sub pixel position at thedetector array; then we used the centre of gravity to locate the point targets
image to get the energy concentration; then we fusion the targets image
together by using the characteristics of sub pixel and got a stable PSF of thesystem. Finally we used the simulation results to confirm the accuracy ofthe method.

9481-22, Session PThu

A telephoto camera system with shooting
direction control by gaze detection

9481-24, Session PThu

Daiki Teraya, Takumi Hachisu, Tomohiro Yendo, Nagaoka
Univ. of Technology (Japan)
For safe driving, it is important for driver to check traffic conditions such as
traffic lights, or traffic signs as early as soon.
If on-vehicle camera takes image of important objects to understandtraffic conditions from long distance and shows these to driver, driver canunderstand traffic conditions earlier.
To take image of long distance objects clearly, the focal length of camera
must be long.
When the focal length is long, on-vehicle camera doesn’t have enough fieldof view to check traffic conditions.
Therefore, in order to get necessary images from long distance, camera
must have long-focal length and controllability of shooting direction.
In previous study, driver indicates shooting direction on displayed image
taken by a wide-angle camera, a direction controllable camera takes
telescopic image, and displays these to driver.
However, driver uses a touch panel to indicate the shooting direction inprevious study. It is cause of disturb driving.
So, we propose a telephoto camera system for driving support whoseshooting direction is controlled by driver’s gaze to avoid disturbing drive.
This proposed system is composed of a gaze detector and an active
telephoto camera whose shooting direction is controlled.
We adopt non-wear detecting method to avoid hindrance to drive.
The gaze detector measures driver’s gaze by image processing.
The shooting direction of the active telephoto camera is controlled bygalvanometer scanners and the direction can be switched within a
few milliseconds.
We confirmed that the proposed system takes images of ahead of subject’s
gaze by experiments.

A bionic multi-band polarimetric imaging
systemYong Liu, Jingxiang Yang, Yongqiang Zhao, Northwestern
Polytechnical Univ. (China); Qingyong Zhang,Northwestern Polytechnical University (China)
Multi-band polarimetric imaging technology can be applied in many fields
such as classification, target detection, 3-D surface reconstruction, glare andshadow removing [1][2]. However, conventional multi-band polarimetric
imaging technologies are based on dispersion, beam split or interference
to obtain spectral information. Polarimetric information is measured byrotating polarizer. It can not capture image of large field of view (FOV) fast.
The researches on biology show that some aquatic organisms (e.g., mantis
shrimp) have multi-band polarimetric vision. The FOV of their compounds
is nearly 360°, each ommatidium sense information of one spectral bandor polarimetric angle in a parallel way [3][4]. In this paper, based on theanalysis of the spectral and polarimetric sensing mechanism of mantis
shrimp, a bionic isomeric multi-band polarimetric vision model is built.
Images of different spectral bands or polarimetric angles are captured
by different ommatidia, after the information processing, multi-bandpolarimetric image of large FOV can be reconstructed. Then we establish
bionic multi-band polarimetric imaging system using camera array. There
are nine CCDs in the proposed imaging system, they are arranged by
3?3 in rectangle. Polarizer of different angles (0°, 45°, 90° and 135°) andspectral filters of different bands (red, green, blue, yellow and orange) are
fixed before the lens. The disparity between the viewing angles of eachcomponent camera leads to information loss in the expanded FOV. By
exploiting the redundancy and correlation (RAC) of images among different
bands and angles [5][6], we estimate the missing information using the lowrank matrix recovery method. The FOV and size of the reconstructed image
are greater than those of the images captured using single CCD camera.
Reference
1. Y. Zhao, Q. Pan, Y. Cheng, Image spectropolarimetric remote sensing andapplication, Beijing: National Defense Industry Press, 2011
2. I. Ibrahim, P. Yuen, K. Hong, et al, “Illumination invariance and shadow
compensation via spectro-polarimetry technique,” Optical Engineering,51(10), pp. 107004-1, 2012

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II
3. V. Pignatelli, S. E. Temple, T. H. Chiou, et al, “Behavioral relevance ofpolarization sensitivity as a target detection mechanism in cephalopods
and fishes,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences, 366, pp. 34-741, 2011

remove their negative effects on modelling. The prediction accuracy for allmodels were found to be above 0.99 when measured using R-Squared testwith the best performance being from Smoothing Spline. In this paper wewill discuss mathematical complexity of each model and investigate how tomake compromises in finding the best model.

4. H. H. Thoen, M. J. How, T.-H. Chiou, et al, “A different form of color visionin mantis shrimp,” Science, 343(6169), pp. 411-413, 2014
5. Y. Zhao and J. Yang, “Hyperspectral image denoising via sparsity and low
rank.,” IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 2014

9481-27, Session PThu

6. Y. Zhao, J. Yang1, Y. Liu, Expansion of FOV for a Biological Multi-band
Polarization Imager with Low Rank Matrix Recovery, submitted to Optic
Express

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) in achemically etched ZnSe substrate and its
effect on the Raman signal enhancement9481-25, Session PThu

Syed K Islam, City College, City University of New York(CUNY) (United States); John Lombardi, Maria Tamargo,
Richard Moug, The City College of New York (UnitedStates)Imaging by electromagnetic induction withresonant circuits
Roberta Guilizzoni, UCL (United Kingdom); Joseph
Watson, AWE (United Kingdom); Paul Bartlett, Ferruccio
Renzoni, UCL (United Kingdom)

The proximity of a metal nanoparticle to a molecule has been found to
considerably enhance the Raman intensity by factors in the range of10^6 to 10^12. This phenomenon, known as surface-enhanced Raman
spectroscopy (SERS), has been shown to be caused by several resonancesin the molecule-metal system, including the surface plasmon of themetal conduction band, molecular resonances, as well as charge-transfer
resonance between the molecule and nanoparticle. In semiconductors,
according to Mie scattering theory, the plasmon resonance which lies inthe visible region of the spectrum originates in the valence band when theparticle size is adjusted to be on the order of 100-200 nm. This resonancein conjunction with charge transfer, molecular resonance and an additional
exciton resonance are responsible for large enhancements observedin semiconductors.

2D imaging of metallic samples by means of resonant frequency
measurements has been demonstrated. The experiment is based on aresonating system made up of a coil connected to a capacitor bank to forma parallel LCR circuit. The presence of a metallic object produces a change
in the parameters of the equivalent LCR circuit with respect to the values ofthe system in air. The change in the system resonant frequency and Q-factor
was measured by means of an impedance analyser. Two imaging techniques
based on position-resolved measurements of the resonant frequency
and the Q-factor, respectively, were developed and compared. Squared
and circular samples (1-2 mm thickness) made of metals having different
values of electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability were coupledto cylindrical shaped ferrite-cored coils and air-cored coils. The positionof each metallic sample was controlled by an XY stage. A position scan
was performed by moving the sample to be imaged on a plane which wasparallel to the plane of the coil. The resonant frequency and the Q-factor
values were measured at each position of the scan. Both the developed
techniques allowed imaging of different metallic samples. In particular,
the imaging technique based on Q-factor measurements successfully
distinguished between samples with different conductivity.

We report the observation of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)
from a chemically etched ZnSe surface using 4-mercaptopyridine (4-MPy)as probe molecules. A thin film of ZnSe is grown by molecular beam epitaxy(MBE) and then etched using a strong acid. A layer of hemi-ellipsoidal
nanoparticles is obtained on the surface. Using the results of the Mietheory, we controlled the size of the nanoparticles to overlap significantlywith maximum efficiency of near-field plasmon enhancement. Our Raman
spectra show an enhancement factor of (2x10^6) of the intensity of 4-MPy
normal modes when 4-Mpy molecules are adsorbed on the surface using
a 514.5 nm laser for excitation. We believe this large enhancement factor
is an indication of the coupled contribution of several resonances. We
propose that some combination of surface plasmon, charge transfer, band
gap resonances are most likely the contributing factors in the observed
Raman signal enhancement, since all three of these resonances lie close
to the excitation wavelength. Future research involves designing different
type semiconductor nanoparticles using the Mie theory and exploring theapplication of surface plasmons in semiconductor SERS.

9481-26, Session PThu

Enhancing the quality of experience of a
portable device by creating an illumination
model based on the ambient light sensor
readings

9481-28, Session PThu

Asmaa H. Marhoubi, Helmut E. Bez, Eran A. Edirisinghe,
Sara Saravi, Loughborough Univ. (United Kingdom)

Effect of high energy proton implantationon the device characteristics of InAlGaAscapped InGaAs/GaAs quantum dot based
infrared photodetectors

The present generation of Ambient Light Sensors (ALS) of a mobile
handheld device suffer from two practical shortcomings. The ALSs are
narrow angle, i.e. they respond effectively only within a narrow angle ofoperation and there is a latency of operation. As a result mobile applications
that operate based on the ALS readings could perform sub-optimallyespecially when operated in environments with non-uniform illumination.
The applications will either adopt with unacceptable levels of latency or/andmay demonstrate a discrete nature of operation. In this paper we propose aframework to predict the ambient illumination of an environment in whicha mobile device is present. The predictions are based on an illumination
model that is developed based on a small number of readings taken during
an application calibration stage. We use a machine learning based approachin developing the models. Five different regression models were developed,
implemented and compared based on Polynomial, Gaussian, Sum of Sine,
Fourier and Smoothing Spline functions. Approaches to remove noisy
data, missing values and outliers were used prior to the modelling stage toReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Sourabh Upadhyay, Arjun Mandal, Hemant J. Ghadi,
Dinesh Pal, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (India);
Nagaraju B. V. Subrahmanyam, Pitamber Singh, Bhabha
Atomic Research Ctr. (India); Subhananda Chakrabarti,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (India)
Self-assembled In(Ga)As/GaAs based quantum dot infrared photodetectors(QDIPs) have shown promise for military, medical diagnosis etc.
applications. In this report, we are studying the effect of proton implantation
on QDIP device heterostructure with variable fluence, with an idea topassivate defects and trap levels present in the active region, inorder to·help@spie.org

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II
reduce the dark current. A 10-layer QDIP structures were grown by solidstate molecular beam epitaxy, with each layer consisting of 7 Monolayer(ML) In0.5Ga0.5As QDs along with a combination of 30Å quaternary(In0.21Al0.21Ga0.58As) and 500Å GaAs capping. To investigate effect of
implantation on device performance, the heterostructures were further
implanted with 3 MeV protons with varying fluence between 2.0 x 1012 to 1.0
x 1013 ions/cm2 (A- asgrown, B-2.0 x 1012 , C-4.0 x 1012, D-6.0 x 1012, E-8.0
x 1012 and F-1.0 x 1013 ). Single pixel detectors were fabricated by using
two step photolithography, wet etching and metal evaporation technique.
Minimum dark current density at 77K with -0.75V applied bias was observed
in device F(2.0 x 10-7 A/cm2) which was almost 3 order lower than theasgrown device sample (7.0 x 10 -4 A/ cm2) indicating improvement indevice performance with implantation. Implantation results in suppression offield assisted tunneling process of carriers, and so compared to an asgrownsample others exhibited lower dark current densities. All the devices at 77K
exhibited multi-color spectral responses with peak wavelength around 7.0
and 5.5 µm. At 77 K, increment in peak detectivity (D*) up to two ordersof magnitude from 3.9 x108 to 1.0 x 1010 cm-Hz1/2/W was obtained fromthe implanted devices at a bias of -1.6 V . This is probably the first reportin which high energy proton implantations is proven to enhance QDIP
performances. DST, India and Riber are acknowledged.

9481-29, Session PThu

A detail investigation on quaternary andternary capped strain coupled quantum
dots based infrared photodetectors
and effect of rapid thermal annealing
temperature
Subhananda Chakrabarti, Hemant J. Ghadi, Sourav
Adhikary, Saikalash Shetty, Akshay Balgarkashi, Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay (India)
Quantum dot infrared photodetector (QDIP) based thermal cameras
have various applications in the field of military, astronomy and medical
science. Though researches use this technology widely from last decade,but it suffers certain disadvantages like reduced absorption co-efficientand in-homogeneities in dot size distribution. To overcome the above
disadvantages multilayer stacking of coupled quantum dots (QD) areused. In multilayer stacking elastic strain propagating from underlying
layers will result in uniform dot size distribution with a possibility ofachieving higher device efficiency. In this report, we are comparing two
different QDIP architectures capped with quaternary and ternary layerof different barrier thicknesses and effect of rapid thermal annealing on
the device performances. In these heterostructures, fixed quaternary andternary capping of 3 nm and varying GaAs thickness from 12-18 nm isused (Quaternary device Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 and similarly ternary T1, T2,
T3 and T4 with 12, 15, 18 and 21 nm respectively). Low temperature power
dependent PL spectra exhibit a multimodal distribution of the QDs in all
the heterostructures which has been confirmed by XTEM. High thermal
stability upto 800°C i.e. minimum PL peak shift in terms of wavelength wasobserved in all quaternary coupled devices with annealing compared toternary (it was up to 700°C) capped QDIP. The vertical strain propagatingfrom underlying QDs prevents the inter-diffusion by maintaining a strain
relaxed state. Minimum Dark current density was observed in quaternary
capped QDIP (Q2) and one order enhancement in detectivity compared
to ternary. Q1 was most red shifted with peak spectral response observed
at 7.3 µm and compared to ternary all quaternary devices showed narrowspectrum with less than 20% spectral line-width. Q2 was annealed anddevices were fabricated using 2 step lithography process. For 750°C
annealed a maximum operating temperature of 140K with 5 times increasein photocurrent compared to other was observed. DST, India and Riber,
France are acknowledged.

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9481-30, Session PThu

Studies on abrupt and gradual
heterostructured hole barriers in barrierenhanced InAs/GaSb superlattice longwavelength photodetectors
Yi Zhou, Jianxin Chen, Fangfang Wang, Zhicheng Xu, Li
He, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (China)
InAs/GaSb strained type-II superlattices (SLs) are the III-V counterpart tothe established HgCdTe (MCT) infrared (IR) detection technology thanks
to its theoretic advantages by D. L. Smith et al. However, the issues of
unwanted high dark currents and low R0A values still exist for the type
II technology, especially for long wavelength detectors. One of the mostimportant features of InAs/GaSb superlattice system is the freedom ofband structure tunability. Advanced heterostructure detectors have shown
significant dark current reduction over the conventional PIN photodiode.
Our earlier work showed that a PBIN structure with an electron barrier
inserted between P type contactor and absorption region significantly
improved the electrical performances compared to a PIN structure. The R0A
product of the PBIN detector was measured to be 104 Wcm2 at 80K and
7360 Wcm2 at 50K.
In this work, studies were first conducted to P-type doped PBπN structures(where π stands for the doped absorption region). Be-doping was
employed to convert the conductivity of the long wavelength SL structure,
the PN junction moves away from the B-I hetrostructure to the π-Ninterface where the materials on sides are long wavelength SL structure.
And therefore, it loses the barrier effect and a hole barrier is also needed
to form a PBπBN structure. The long wavelength SL structure was madeof periodic 15 monolayers (MLs) InAs and 7 MLs GaSb with 50% cutoff
wavelength around 11 ?m. The electron barrier consisting of 7 ML InAs/ 7 ML
GaSb and the hole barrier used in our structure consists of 8 ML InAs/ 3.5
ML GaSb. Both of the abrupt and gradual heterojuncton will be studied inour experiments. The gradual band gap structure was designed to inserted
between the absorber region and the hole barrier to avoid the peak barrierin the band structure which could block the photo-generated current of
the detector. Our initial result demonstrated that the PBπBN structurewith an abrupt heterojunction showed significantly improved electricalperformances compared to PBπN structure and also the high quantum
efficiency. The R0A product of the PBπBN detector was measured to be
17.5 Wcm2 and the dark current density under -0.05V bias was measured
to be 8.8x10-4A/cm2 at 80K. The peak current responsivity at 9.8 µm was
2.15A/W and the quantum efficiency was 26.7%.
Further work will conduct to the comparison of the electric and optic
performance of different hole barrier structures with or without Al element.

9481-31, Session PThu

Automated optical system alignment andlow order wavefront sensing
Joyce Fang, Dmitry Savransky, Cornell Univ. (UnitedStates)Good optical alignment systems provide us with high precision images,
efficient detecting methods, and superior sensing techniques in
optical instruments. The benefits of such a system will address threemajor considerations in optical instrumentation: First, with the myriad
reconfigurable systems, each with moving parts, aligning the opticalcomponents manually is very time and energy consuming. Second, somesatellites and aerospace instruments cannot be serviced after their launch. A
slight inaccuracy in the engineering design or disturbance during launch or
on orbit might cause optical misalignment. Finally, automated misalignment
can greatly aid in the deployment of all kinds of distributed optical systems
that require a quick set up. A self-aligning optical system improves theperformance of multiple optical instruments. The innovation of this researchis that the automated optical alignment systems can self-align and self-healwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II

9481-34, Session PThu

by using low-order sensing without wavefront sensors. A single lens systemwith four degrees of freedom is discussed. The goal is to calibrate the shiftsof the lens in two directions, and calibrate the tip and tilt of the lens. The
laser beam goes through the lens mounted on the stages and outputs a final
image on the CCD camera. The final image is then sent to the measurement
system where the algorithm is executed to get the measurement result.
We use center of mass (COM), principal component analysis (PCA), andGaussian ellipse fitting for feature detection. Besides the shift of image
center, the shape of the image will deform from a circle to an ellipse-likeshape when applying tip and tilt misalignments on the lens. We use theaspect ratio of the semi-major and minor axes, together with the rotation of
the ellipse, to find the tip-tilt misalignments, and decouple tip-tilt and shift
misalignments. Finally, the system feeds back the detected misalignments
and the control loop is established. An estimation process is designed tominimize the measurement error. We set up an experiment based on our
simulation. We constantly revise the measurement and estimation methods
to improve the result. The modeling, simulation, together with the physicalexperiment, demonstrate the concept of our automated alignment design.

Random laser action in al nanoparticle/
Rh6G-doped silica gel
Chao Yang, Guoying Feng, Hong Zhang, Jiayu Yi, Jiajia Yin,
Shouhuan Zhou, Sichuan Univ. (China)
We report the first observation of random laser action in metal
nanoparticle/laser dye-doped bulk material. Al nanoparticles with anaverage particle size of 100 nm are provided as the scatters and Rh6G
doped silica gel as the gain medium. A significant lasing mode centeredat 559.7 nm has been observed above the threshold. The intensity of laser
emission varies from different directions. The specific output wavelengthand remarkable machinability as well as the physical and chemical stability
both make it a novel random laser source for potential applications
in biosensors.

9481-35, Session PThu

9481-32, Session PThu

Maximum allowable low-frequency
platform vibrations in high resolution
satellite missions: challenges and look-up
figures

Fluorescence of quantum dots on e-beampatterned and DNA origami substrates
Timothy C. Corrigan, Matthew Kessinger, Ina Nikolli,
Concord Univ. (United States); Michael L. Norton, David
Neff, Marshall Univ. (United States)

Javad Haghshenas, Satellite Research Institute (Iran,
Islamic Republic of)

Attachment of quantum dots or fluorescent molecules to gold nanoparticles
has a variety of optical labeling and sensing applications. In this study, weuse both e-beam lithography and DNA origami to examine the fluorescenceenhancement of fluorescent molecules and quantum dots with a systematic
approach to understanding the contribution of gold nanoparticle size andinterparticle spacing. The unique design of our e-beam patterns allows us
to study the effects of size and spacing of the gold nanoparticles on theenhancement of fluorescence in single, rapid, parallel on chip studies withconstant conditions – removing undesirable effects such as differencesin concentration of quantum dots or other chemistry differences that
plague multiple experiments. Our use of DNA origami allows us to study
sizes and spacings difficult to achieve with lithography. We further
discuss the fluorescence and bonding of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots to bothgold as well as DNA for use in self-assembled DNA constructs. We will
present fluorescent images showing results of optimal size and spacing
for fluorescence from the patterned samples as well as AFM images
demonstrating attachment chemistry of the quantum dots to the DNA/
gold substrates.

Performance of high resolution remote sensing payloads is often limited
due to satellite platform vibrations. Effects of Linear and high frequency
vibrations on the overall MTF are known exactly in closed form but the low
frequency vibration effect is a random process and must be considered
statistically. It should be considered in system level payload designing
to know whether or not the overall MTF is limited by the vibration
blur radius. Usually the vibration MTF budget is defined based on the
mission requirements and the minimum resolvable contrast. With a goodunderstanding of harmful vibration frequencies and amplitudes in thesystem preliminary design phase, if the satellite platform vibrations are more
severe than the allowed quantity, their effects could be removed totally or
partially considering a stabilization mechanism in the system level payload
designing procedure. This procedure is cost effective and let designer to justeliminate the harmful vibrations and avoids over-designing.
In this paper we have analyzed the effects of low-frequency platform
vibrations on the payload’s modulation transfer function. We have used astatistical analysis to find the probability of imaging with a MTF greater or
equal to a pre-defined budget for different missions. After some discussions
on the worst and average cases, we have proposed some “look-up figures”
which would help the remote sensing payload designers to avoid thevibration effects. Using these figures, designer can choose the electrooptical parameters in such a way, that vibration effects be less than its
pre-defined budget. Furthermore, using the results, we can propose a
damping profile based on which vibration frequencies and amplitudes mustbe eliminated to stabilize the payload system9481-33, Session PThu

Analysis for simplified optics coma
effection on spectral image inversion ofcoded aperture spectral imager
Yangyang Liu, Qunbo Lv, Linlin Pei, Jianwei Wang,
Academy of Opto-Electronics (China)

9481-36, Session PThu

As a novel spectrum imaging technology was developed recent years,
push-broom coded aperture spectral imaging(PCASI) has the advantages ofhigh throughput, high SNR, high stability etc. This coded aperture spectral
imaging utilizes fixed code templates and push-broom mode, which canrealize the high-precision reconstruction of spatial and spectral information.
But during optical lens designing, manufacturing and debugging, it isinevitably exist some minor coma errors. Even minor coma errors can reduce
image quality. In this paper, we simulated the system optical coma error’s
influence to the quality of reconstructed image, analyzed the variant of
the coded aperture in different optical coma effection, then proposed an
accurate curve of image quality and optical coma quality in code template,which provide important references for the design and development of
push-broom coded aperture spectrometer.

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Choosing the right video interface formilitary vision systems
John Phillips, Edward Goffin, Pleora Technologies Inc.
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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II
This presentation will discuss how standards-based video interfaces – thetechnology used to transfer data from a camera or image sensor to a
mission computer or display – can help military imaging designers reduce
size, weight, power, cost, and complexity while increasing usability
and intelligence.

recognition system. Also, preliminary chemosensory work was conducted onfour signature vapor components of RDX explosive. Sensor data from these
individual detection methods was assessed by their own individual merits,
after which they were amalgamate and reclassified to present each vapor
as a unique data point on a 2-dimensional map and with a minimum loss of
information. Extensive characterizations on the properties of these materials
were carried out using various spectroscopic and electrical techniques toassess the usefulness of functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes. It
was found that the conductivity of two functionalized materials were more
conductive than the pristine SWNT.

This presentation will introduce the GigE Vision standard, which regulates
video transfer and device control over Ethernet networks. Traditionally,
military imaging systems have used interfaces based on analog, Camera
Link, or LVDS standards, which limit component choice, increase costs, andresult in more complex systems.
In comparison, GigE allows designers to support required point-to-pointconnections while gaining the flexibility of video networking, the ability tointerwork with a range of different computing platforms, and the benefits oflight-weight, low-cost cabling. Moreover, these interfaces have been fieldhardened in demanding industrial applications.
Using military vetronics as an example, we’ll highlight how designers canemploy GigE Vision interfaces, including GigE cameras or external frame
grabber that convert feeds from existing cameras into more manageable
video . We will also discuss new vision technologies for military imaging.
This includes GigE over wireless to eliminate cabling complexity, andtranscoding technology that compresses GigE Vision video in a widely
available format and wirelessly transmits feeds to playback devices,
including laptops, tablets, and smartphones, or recording devices.

The development of consistent and successful functionalization techniquesthat allows for the construction of CNTs-based species of great usefulness,reversibility and selectivity for the use as sensing element, were
demonstrated. Further studies into electronic and electrochemical detection
methods will provide more unique systems for R&D on the applicability ofthese materials to future technology.

9481-54, Session PThu

Non-uniformity correction withtemperature influence compensation in
microbolometer detector

Hosted by member of Pleora’s product management team, designersof vision systems for defense and security applications will leave thispresentation with a greater technical understanding on how the videointerface can influence the cost, complexity, usability and performance ofend-systems.

Michal Krupinski, Grzegorz Bieszczad, S?awomir Gogler,
Henryk Madura, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland)9481-37, Session PThu

Nanomolecular gas sensor architectures
based on functionalized carbon nanotubes
for vapor detection
Deon Hines, Henan Zhang, The City College of New York
(United States); Mark Ruemmeili, IBS Center for Integrated
Nanostructure Physics, Institute for Basic Science(IBS) (Korea, Republic of); David Adbimpe, PolymathInterscience, LLC (United States); Daniel L Akins, The
Graduate School of the City University of New York and
CASI, The City College of New York (United States)
Specifically, the project involves the development of a diversified arrayof nanostructured gas-sensors comprised of selectively, novel surfacefunctionalized carbon nanotubes (for analyte selectivity by virtue offunctionality). Harnessing carbon nanotubes with various electron
withdrawing and donating groups help in determining their affinity towardcertain prognostic gaseous markers thus increasing specificity of suchcreated sensors. We have devised synthetic routes that have led to thefacile production of covalently polyfunctionalized nanotubes in high yield.
Seven carbon nanotube analogues were systematically considered and thenchemically synthesized, from pristine single-walled nanotubes (SWNT’s), foruse as the main component of sensory units that was used for this study.
The ability to manufacture total organic sensors was demonstrated using
carbon nanotube based architectures.

Because of a significant impact of the microbolometer array temperatureon the infrared image quality, it is necessary to compensate the influence ofthe temperature on the NUC process. In the most common applications two
approaches are used: the first is a stabilization of the microbolometer arraytemperature by a thermoelectric cooler, the second is updating correction
coefficients obtained from reference source, for example a shutter. Bothof the most common approaches have theirs disadvantages. The first caseneeds a considerable amount of energy for temperature stabilisation. The
second one needs a reference target and a mechanical procedure to place
the target at the front of the detector. Additionally, during calibration thereference target is blocking radiation from the scene, thus interrupting
measurements with the thermal camera. In the article a non-uniformity
correction method is presented which allows to compensate for the
influence of detector’s temperature drift. For this purpose, dependency
between output signal value and the temperature of the detector array
was investigated. Additionally the influence of the temperature on theOffset and Gain coefficients was measured. Presented method utilizes
estimated dependency between output signal of detectors and theirtemperature. In the presented method, the dependency between output
signal value and the temperature of the detector is estimated during timeof starting detector. The coefficients are estimated for every pixel. In thearticle proposed method allows to compensate the influence of detectors
temperature fluctuation and increase a time between shutter
actuation process.

These derivatized-nanotube-based materials are designed to serve as
chemoreceptors that can facilitate the development of highly selective
and sensitive chemical and biological sensor arrays through an “electronicnose” approach which mimics the mammalian olfactory system.
Functionalized SWNTs (f-SWNTs) were dispersed in dimethyl formamide(DMF) and mCresol and spun-applied to the interdigitated regions of
micro-lithographically fabricated, pre-cleaned interdigitated microsensor
electrodes. Measured changes in the electrical conductivities of an array ofgas sensors upon exposure to selected vapors and inert explosive materials
were monitored. These changes are transduced into electrical signals,
which are preprocessed and conditioned before identification by a pattern

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Conference 9481: Image Sensing Technologies:
Materials, Devices, Systems, and Applications II

9481-55, Session PThu

High-sensitivity active pixel sensor withvariable-threshold photodetector
Sung-Hyun Jo, Myunghan Bae, Byoung-Soo Choi,
Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); HongKun Lyu, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of); Jang-Kyoo Shin,
Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
CMOS image sensors (CISs) are increasingly used in low-level lightdetection systems such as fluorescence imaging, biomedical and chemical
experiments. Many photodetector elements are available in CMOS, such
as n+/p-well, p+/n-well, and n-well/p-sub junctions for the application ofimagers. However, the photodetectors for low light levels require very highresponsivity, which is difficult to implement by using CMOS technologies,
because the noise and quantum efficiency degrade due to CMOS scaling
into nanometer region. The avalanche photodiode (APD) is an alternative
device that can simultaneously achieve high responsivity and high speed,
when operating as a single-photon counter. However, the avalanche charge
multiplication requires higher operational voltages. Higher bias voltages of
APDs are not compatible with the peripheral circuits in a standard
CMOS technology.
A novel high-sensitivity active pixel sensor (APS) with variable-thresholdphotodetector using standard CMOS technology has been presented. The
proposed APS has a gate/body-tied PMOSFET-type photodetector with anoverlapping control gate that makes it possible to control the sensitivityof the proposed APS. It is a hybrid device composed of a metal-oxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), a lateral bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) and a vertical BJT. Using sufficient overlapping control
gate bias to operate the MOSFET in the inversion mode, the variablethreshold photodetector allows for increasing the photocurrent gain by
105 at low light intensities. Thus, the proposed APS with variable-thresholdphotodetector has a better low-light-level sensitivity than the conventional
APS, and it has a variable sensitivity which is dependent on the control gatebias. Maximum sensitivity of the proposed APS is 50 V/lux•s. The proposed
sensor has been fabricated by using 0.35 ?m 2-poly 4-metal standard
complementary MOS (CMOS) process and its characteristics havebeen evaluated.

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
Monday - Wednesday 20–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9482 Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII

9482-2, Session 1

9482-5, Session 1

A perspective on the development of
portable and hand-held Fourier transform
infrared (FT-IR) spectrometers and theirapplication (Invited Paper)

A new point of care device for thedetection of transcutaneous bilirubin index
based on a novel optical probe
Hasan B. Celebi, Yunus Karamavus, Yildiz Uludag, TÜBITAKNational Research Institute of Electronics and Cryptology(Turkey)David W. Schiering, Josep Arnó, Smiths Detection Inc.
(United States)
We will discuss the development of portable and hand-held FT-IR
spectrometers primarily from the perspective of defense and security
applications. The technological and instrumental methods development will
be emphasized with selected example applications.

9482-3, Session 1

Chromium speciation using batteryoperated microplasmas-on-chips andoptical emission spectrometry
Jenisse German, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada)Speciation is generally defined as the determination of the concentrationof an analyte (such as Chromium) in a given oxidation state. Determinationof the concentration of an analyte in the oxidation state that it exists inthe environment is important for toxicity reasons. Consider Chromium (Cr)as an example. Although Cr can exist in as many as 11 oxidation states, inthe environment only two oxidation states are thermodynamically stable,that is Cr(III) and Cr(VI). In terms of toxicity, Cr(III) is an essential micronutrient but Cr(VI) is carcinogenic. For Cr speciation, samples are collectedin the field, where they are acidified prior to their shipment in a lab forconcentration determinations (typically, by using an Inductively Coupled
Plasma (ICP) spectrometer. Acidification may alter the oxidation state.
Further changes in the oxidation state can occur due to possible storageprior to analysis. It appears that it would be ideal if Cr-speciation took place
on-site. But ICPs are large and heavy and cannot be brought to the field.

In neonatal jaundice, excess bilirubin in the blood diffuses into thesurrounding tissue causing yellowing of the skin. Diffuse reflectancespectroscopy is a non-invasive spectroscopic technique for studying theoptical properties of a biological tissue and hence can be used to detect
ihe infants’ transcutaneous bilirubin index (TcB) from the skin tissue. Here,a novel point-of-care device is presented for the determination of the TcB
that utilizes diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. The proposed device contains
an optical plexyglass head that is easier to manufacture, more compact andmore affordable than the optical fiber probes. This optical head consists of
two nested plexyglass rods. The outer rod is used to expose the skin surface
with a white light produced by a LED. And the reflected light emerging fromthe various layers of the tissue is collected by the inner rod, which is coupled
to a spectrometer. The spectral information that is obtained by the scanof the skin is processed with an effective algorithm enabling theaccurate
calculation of the TcB.

9482-6, Session 1

A full featured handheld LIBS analyzer
with early results for defense and security
David R. Day, Brendan Connors, Morgan Jennings, SciAps,
Inc. (United States); John Egan, Konstantin Derman,
Paul Soucy, Suzanne Moller, SciAps (United States); Don
Sackett, SciAps, Inc. (United States)

For the last several years we have been developing and characterizing
battery-operated microplasmas-on-chips. Their intended application is forchemical analysis on-site (i.e., in the field). In this presentation, Cr-speciation
will be discussed and preliminary results for Cr-speciation will be presented.

A handheld LIBS instrument has been designed that includes most features
found in large bench-top systems including variable gating, argon purge,
good resolution, sample rastering and video targeting. In this presentation
we will discuss the feature selection, trade-off decisions and new
developments that made this kind of size reduction possible. Early results
will be presented for elemental presence detection and quantification withspecific emphasis on defense and security.

9482-4, Session 1

9482-7, Session 1

Review and recent progress of handheld
spectrometry at Thermo Fisher Scientific(Invited Paper)

Security and defense applications with anovel handheld mass spectrometer
Christopher D. Brown, 908 Devices Inc. (United States)

Peidong Wang, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. (UnitedStates)
We will describe the history and background of portable and handheld
spectrometry at Thermo Fisher Scientific. The handheld instruments
range from elemnetal detections based on enegy-dispersive XRF tomolecular identifications using Raman, NIR and FTIR and their combinatory
techniques. We will also discuss our recent progresses andtheir applications.

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SPIE DSS 2015·

We report on development progress and evaluation of a high-pressure
handheld mass spectrometer designed for multiphase analysis of safety/
security oriented materials such as warfare agents/precursors, toxic
industrial chemicals and explosives. Hostile environment testing, ROC
analysis and limits of detection will be discussed, along with the engineering
challenges associated with operating a highly miniaturized mass
spectrometer in such applications.

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII

9482-8, Session 1

9482-11, Session 2

Towards a chip-scale integrated-optic
TDLAS methane sensor

Characterization of ion-assisted induced
absorption in A-Si thin-films used for
multivariate optical computing

Michael B. Frish, Matthew C. Laderer, Physical Sciences Inc.
(United States)

Aditya B. Nayak, Jimmy Price, Bin Dai, David Perkins, Ding
Ding Chen, Christopher M. Jones, Halliburton (UnitedStates)Natural gas leaks from pipelines are potential safety risks as well as
greenhouse gas sources. With increasing emphasis on natural gas as anenergy resource, there is concomitant emphasis on improving leak detection
using cost-effective methane sensor networks, yet suitable sensors
are lacking.

Multivariate optical computing (MOC), an optical sensing technique foranalog calculation, allows direct and robust measurement of chemical andphysical properties of complex fluid samples in downhole environments ofhigh temperature and pressure.

This paper describes progress towards developing miniature methane
sensors, based on integrated optics and Tunable Diode Laser Absorption
Spectroscopy (TDLAS), intended for low-cost mass production and low
power consumption in a cell-phone style package. TDLAS is a configurable,robust, and reliable gas sensing technology. TDLAS methane sensors areinsensitive to ambient gases other than methane. While current stateof-the-art compact near-IR TDLAS methane sensors achieve the basic
performance and goals for networks (sensitivity ~200 ppm methane,
insignificant cross-sensitivity to other vapors, 60 second response toabnormal methane), their cost (exceeding $5,000 per unit) and power
demand (~1W) must both diminish by at least an order-of-magnitude topractically serve the envisioned need.

The core of this MOC technology is the integrated computational element(ICE) optical computing element, an optical filter with a transmission
spectrum designed to allow the detector to respond sensitively andspecifically to the analytes of interest. A key differentiator of this technology
is that it uses all of the information present in the broadband optical
spectrum to determine the proportion of analytes present in a complex fluid
mixture. The detection methodology is photometric in nature; therefore,
this technology does not require a spectrometer to collect a spectrum or acomputer to perform calculations on the optical spectrum.
The integrated computational element is a thin-film optical element witha specific optical response function designed for each analyte. The opticalresponse function is achieved by fabricating alternating layers of high-index(a-Si) and low-index (SiO2) thin films onto a transparent substrate using an
ion-assisted e-beam vacuum deposition process. A proprietary software andprocess are used to control the thickness and material properties, including
the optical constants of the materials during deposition to achieve thedesired optical response function. The ion-assisted deposition is very usefulfor controlling the densification of the film, stoichiometry, and material
optical constants, as well as to achieve high deposition growth rates andmoisture-stable films. However, the ion-source can induce undesirable
absorption in the film and subsequently modify the optical constants ofthe material during the ramp-up and stabilization period of the e-gun andion-source, respectively. This paper characterizes the unwanted absorption
in the a-Si thin-film using advanced thin-film metrology methods, including
spectroscopic ellipsometry, cross-section scanning electron microscope(SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM), and X-ray diffraction(XRD). The resulting analysis identifies a fundamental mechanism
contributing to this absorption and a method for minimizing unwanted
absorption in the thin-film such that the exact optical response function canbe achieved.

To this end, we have built and demonstrated a simplified TDLAS package
having no macro optics or TEC, intended for low-cost mass production
and low power consumption. It utilizes a silicon substrate for supporting
the laser chip, detector photodiode, and thermal control components.
By eliminating the TEC and operating the laser in heated mode, precise
temperature stabilization is maintained with a simple resistive heater,
reducing system power consumption for thermal control by more than80%. Bulk optical components are eliminated while maintaining sensor
performance suitable for detecting methane at the concentrationsof interest.

9482-9, Session 1

Interband cascade laser spectroscopic
sources with extremely low power budgets
Jerry R. Meyer, Chul Soo Kim, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Mijin Kim, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc.
(United States); William W. Bewley, Charles D. Merritt,
Chadwick L. Canedy, Igor Vurgaftman, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States)

9482-12, Session 2

Photoacoustic sensing with micro-tuning
forks (Invited Paper)

Interband cascade lasers (ICLs) emitting in the midwave infrared haveadvanced dramatically in recent years, mostly due to improved designsof the active and optical confinement regions of the GaSb-based
heterostructures. While the more mature intersubband-based quantum
cascade laser (QCL) has received considerable attention as a source for new
IR spectroscopy systems, ICLs will be advantageous in most applications
requiring < 20 mW of single-mode output power at any wavelength in therange ≈ 3-6 microns. This is because ICLs have lower threshold current
densities and also much lower operating voltages than QCLs, making
their typical drive powers at least an order of magnitude smaller. Besides
extending battery lifetimes, the implication is a substantial reductionof the overall footprint and weight of the source component of fielded
spectroscopic sensing systems. With demonstrated drive powers as low as
30 mW, and the potential to reduce that metric by another factor of 3-10,
one can envision using solar panels to power unattended ICL-based sensors.

Ulrike Willer, Clausthal University of Technology(Germany); Michael Köhring, Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz
Institute (Germany); Mario Mordmüller, Clausthal Universityof Technology (Germany); Wolfgang Schade, Fraunhofer
Heinrich Hertz Institute (Germany) and Clausthal
University of Technology (Germany)
Photoacoustic spectroscopy is an established method for sensitive
detection of trace gases. With the invention of QEPAS – quartzenhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy – at Rice University, photoacoustic
spectroscopy gained even more acceptance since this method provides
enhanced noise immunity and a high sensitivity due to the use of a quartz
micro tuning fork as photoacoustic transducer at its resonance frequency.
Addition of acoustic micro-resonators leads to further signal enhancement.
Different schemes of their arrangement are now known as on-beam andoff-beam QEPAS. Trace detection of important gases for industrial andenvironmental sensing has been demonstrated with detection limits ranging
from ppm to ppt range, depending on pressure, excitation wavelength,

This talk will review the current status of ICL development at NRL. Recent
advances include the observation of up to 18% cw wallplug efficiency at 25°C, cw output powers up to 464 mW with beam quality M2 = 1.9, obtainedby corrugating the ridge sidewalls to suppress higher-order transverse
modes, and the demonstration of interband cascade LEDs whose maximum
cw output power of 1.6 mW at 25 °C is higher than for any previous
mid-IR LED. Limits on the minimum practical drive power and maximum
wavelength tuning by a single element will be discussed.

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Conference 9482:
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absorption strength, laser power and molecular parameters. Also thesurrounding gas mixture, e.g. humidity influences the signal by promoting ordelaying de-excitation and vibrational-translational-transfer.
Even though sensitivity depends linearly on exciting power, we could also
demonstrate QEPAS using LEDs, setting up cost efficient and small
sensing devices.
Using quartz tuning forks, the motion of the prongs is monitored bymeasuring the piezo current that is induced within quartz as piezoelectricmaterial. This property can also be used to drive the tuning fork into motion
by electrical excitation. New sensing schemes relying on the simultaneousor alternate electrical and photoacoustic excitation of the tuning fork will bepresented and discussed.
Quartz micro tuninig forks are readily available because of their use withinwatches. However, their design and the resulting resonant frequency of
32 kHz are not ideal for the detection of slowly relaxing molecules. Usingtuning fork structures in other materials provides new possibilities regarding
the choice of material parameters and geometry, however at the expenseof the ease of using the piezo-electric readout for monitoring the induced
motion. Here, interferometric readout can circumvent this drawback andprovides new possibilities for the setup of integrated sensors.
QEPAS as sensing technology will be reviewed and new developments
regarding further miniaturization, different readout mechanisms anddetection schemes will be discussed.

using this training set was validated using a test set of six samples (mixturesin 8:1:1 and 5?:2?:2? ratios), giving a root-mean square error of prediction(RMSEP) of 1.3, 2.2 and 2.1 weight% for caffeine, paracetamol and cellulose
respectively. The model also showed some capability to predict amounts ofparacetamol and/or caffeine in over-the-counter medicines, even thoughconstituents not included in the calibration were present.
These initial results are promising, with RMSEP values on a par with thosereported in the ADXRD literature. The impacts of this work will be discussed.

9482-15, Session 2

Long-wave infrared spectroscopy fortrace chemical agent detection using
hypersorbent materials
Dmitry A. Kozak, R. Andrew McGill, Todd H. Stievater, Viet
Nguyen, Robert Furstenberg, Marcel W. Pruessner, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
We report long-wave infrared (LWIR, 5-15 micron) differential absorption
spectra of several chemical warfare agent simulants reversibly sorbed to an
NRL hypersorbent coating. A sorbent coated zinc-selenide crystal served
as the evanescent surface for attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform
spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) . In this work a custom hydrogen-bond (HB)
acidic carbosilane polymer sorbent with pendant hexafluoroisopropanol(HFIP) groups, HCSFA2, was employed. HCSFA2 exhibits a high but
reversible affinity for hazardous vapors with HB basic properties such as thephosphonate ester G-nerve agents.

9482-13, Session 2

Latest developments in DLP based NIR
spectrometers enable the next generationof compact, portable systems
Eric Pruett, Pedro Gelabert, Texas Instruments Inc. (UnitedStates)Designing the next generation of compact, portable NIR spectrometers
while meeting aggressive cost and form factor targets requires novel
technologies and creative system designs. New miniature spectrometerarchitectures are enabled by Texas Instruments DLP® technology. The
ability to provide programmable spectral filters using high speed, accurate
light modulation with a MEMS based architecture enables systems withfeatures and sampling techniques previously not possible. System design
considerations and the latest developments in DLP® based spectrometerarchitectures will be presented.

The LWIR is a promising region for trace gas detection due to the presenceof numerous strong individual vibrational absorption resonances. While
the absorption spectra for most vapor-phase chemicals in that spectral
region are well-known, their rapid detection and identification at trace
concentrations in short optical interaction lengths in ambient air ischallenging, especially in the presence of mixtures or other interferingchemicals. Sorbent materials specifically designed to preferentially sorb andconcentrate analytes of interest, such as nerve agents, allow detection at a
parts-per-billion level.
The measured LWIR differential absorption spectra show complex changes
in the resonances for the sorbent material itself, as well as new resonances
arising from chemical bonding between the analyte and the sorbent.
Both of these sets of spectral features combined together form a uniquesignature for analyte identification. We also report the dependence of thesignal strength on the analyte concentration, and show how the sensitivity
correlates with the gas-sorbent partition coefficient for that analyte.

9482-14, Session 2

Quantitative energy-dispersive X-ray
diffraction for identification of counterfeit
medicines: preliminary study9482-16, Session 2

Chiaki Crews, Daniel O’Flynn, Aiden L. Sidebottom, Robert
D. Speller, Univ. College London (United Kingdom)

Qun Li, Katherine A. Bakeev, Jing Li, Sean X. Wang, B&W
Tek, Inc. (United States)

The prevalence of counterfeit and substandard medicines has been growing
rapidly over the past decade, and fast, non-destructive techniques for theirdetection are urgently needed to counter this trend. In this study, energydispersive X-ray diffraction (EDXRD) combined with chemometrics wasassessed for its effectiveness in quantitative analysis of compressed powder
mixtures. Although EDXRD produces lower-resolution diffraction patterns
than angular-dispersive X-ray diffraction (ADXRD), it is of interest for thisapplication as it carries the advantage of allowing the analysis of tablets
within their packaging, due to the higher energy X-rays used.
A series of caffeine, paracetamol and microcrystalline cellulose mixtures
were prepared with compositions between 0 - 100 weight% in 20 weight%
steps (22 samples in total, including a centroid mixture), and were pressed
into tablets. EDXRD spectra were collected in triplicate, and a principal
component analysis (PCA) separated these into their correct positions in
the mixture space. A partial least-squares (PLS) regression model calibrated

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Developing mobile LIBS solutions for realworld applications

We present a new type of handheld Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy(LIBS) spectrometer for developing mobile atomic spectroscopy solutions
for real world applications. A micro diode-pumped passive Q-switchedsolid-state laser with high repetition rate of well above 1kHz in comparison
to 1-10Hz as used in a traditional LIBS instrument is employed to produce
a train of laser pulses. The focused laser spot is further fast scanned overa pre-defined area, hence generating several hundreds of micro-plasmas
per second at different locations. Synchronized miniature CCD array
spectrometer modules collect the LIBS signal and generate LIBS spectra.
By adjusting the integration time of the spectrometer to cover a plurality of
periods of the laser pulse train, the spectrometer integrates the LIBS signal
produced by a plurality of laser pulses. Hence the intensity of the obtained
LIBS spectrum can be greatly improved to increase the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR). This unique feature of the high repetition rate laser based LIBS

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
system allows it to measure elements at trace levels (ppms) , hence reducing
the limit of detection (LOD). The increased signal intensity also lessens thesensitivity requirement for the optical spectrometer. In addition, the energyof the individual laser pulse can be reduced in comparison to traditional
LIBS system to obtain the same signal level, making the laser pulse is lessinvasive to the sample. The typical measurement time is within 1-2 seconds.
Several examples of real world applications will be presented.

promise for absorption, fluorescence, reflectance, and surface plasmon
resonance. To satisfy the needs of non-expert users, real-time training,measurement sequencing, and outcome interpretation are programmedwith QR codes or web-linked instructions. Limitations to doing everythingon cell phones and means to overcome those limits are described.

9482-17, Session 2

Demonstration of G-Fresnel cellphone
spectrometer

9482-20, Session 3

Spectral analysis of rare earth elements

Chenji Zhang, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Perry S. Edwards, Atoptix, LLC. (United States);
Zhiwen Liu, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

Madhavi Z. Martin, Oak Ridge National Lab. (UnitedStates); Andrzej W. Miziolek, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Robert V. Fox, Idaho National Lab. (UnitedStates); Frank C. DeLucia Jr., U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Nicolas André, University of Tennessee(United States)

Cellphone has attracted a lot of active interest as a portable platform forcompact and economical design of conventional laboratory instruments.
Here, we present a high-performance cellphone spectrometer using anovel hybrid dispersion device, ‘G-Fresnel’, which features dual functionsof focusing and dispersion. We fabricated G-Fresnel using soft lithography
and designed a prototype cellphone spectrometer by place it in front ofa cellphone camera. Due to G-Fresnel based device’s dual functions, thespectrometer can achieve high performance despite its compact form factor.
The light coming through a slit at a predetermined angle is collimated,dispersed and focused onto the CMOS sensor inside the cellphone camera.
In order to compensate for the response of the Bayer filter inherent in thecolor detector, an inversion algorithm is developed to retrieve the target
spectrum from the image recorded on the cellphone camera. Furthermore,
spectral holography method is used to characterize the device resolution.
The spectrometer is shown to achieve nm resolution across the visible
range. As proof of concept demonstration of our designed spectrometer, wemeasured fluorescence spectrum of dyed micro-sphere and achieved goodcomparison with that measured with a commercial spectrometer.

There is growing interest in rapid analysis of rare earth elements (REEs)
both due to the need to find new natural sources to satisfy increased
demand in their use in various electronic devices, as well as the fact thatthey are used to estimate actinide masses for nuclear safeguards andnonproliferation. Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) appears to
be a particularly well-suited spectroscopy-based technology to rapidly andaccurately analyze the REEs in various matrices at low concentration levels(parts-per-million). Although LIBS spectra of REEs have been reported
for a number of years, further work is still necessary in order to be able toquantify the concentrations of various REEs in real-world complex samples.
LIBS offers advantages over conventional solution-based radiochemistryin terms of cost, analytical turnaround, waste generation, personnel
dose, and contamination risk. Rare earth elements of commercial interest
that are divided into the following three groups have been reported, 1)
raw ores and unrefined materials, 2) refined products such as magnets,
lighting phosphors, consumer electronics (which are mostly magnets andphosphors), catalysts, batteries, etc., and 3) waste/recyclable materials (akae-waste). LIBS spectra for REEs such as Dy, Eu, Gd, La, Nd, Sm, and Y will
be presented.

9482-21, Session 3

Smartphone spectroscopy: three uniquemodalities for point-of-care testing(Invited Paper)

9482-19, Session 3

Kenneth D. Long, Hojeong Yu, Brian T. Cunningham, Univ.
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States)

Is “good enough” good enough forportable visible and near-visible
spectrometry? (Invited Paper)

We demonstrate three principle modalities for a smartphone-based
spectrometer: absorption, fluorescence, and photonic crystal (PC)-basedlabel-free detection. When combined with a few simple optical components,
the rear-facing CMOS cameras in a mobile device can provide spectrometricdata that rivals that of laboratory instruments, but at a fraction of the cost.
The use of a smartphone-based platform poses significant advantages
based upon the rise of smartphone apps, which allow for user-interface
and data-processing algorithms to be packaged and distributed within
environments that are externally maintained with significant potential for
useful integration with services such as cloud storage, GIS-tagging, andremote expert analysis.

Alexander Scheeline, SpectroClick (United States)
Some uses of portable spectrometers require the same quality as laboratory
instruments. Such quality is challenging because of temperature andhumidity variation, dust, and vibration. Typically, one chooses materials andmechanical layout to minimize the influence of these noise and backgroundsources. Mechanical stability is constrained by limits on instrument massand ergonomics. An alternative approach is to make minimally adequate
hardware, compensating for variability in software. We describe an
instrument developed specifically to use massive software to compensate
for marginal hardware. An initial instantiation of the instrument is limited to
430 – 700 nm. Simple changes will allow expansion to cover 315 – 1000 nm.
Outside these ranges, costs are likely to increase significantly.

First, we will compare a smartphone-based spectrometer with aconventional 96-well plate reader for the quantification of enzyme-linked
immunosobent assays (ELISA), a mainstay of immunological testing. Limitsof detection using the smartphone-based instrument were found to be
identical to those obtained with a laboratory instrument for a common
cancer biomarker (human IL-6) in bovine serum and peanut allergen (arah1) in commercially available cookies. These analytes demonstrate the broad
applicability of such a handheld sensor that could be used in both clinicaland consumer-based settings. Secondly, we will compare a smartphonebased spectrometer with a traditional fluorimeter for performing amolecular beacon (MB) assay for a specific RNA sequence. Fluorescentbased assays, such as MB, are well-suited to point-of-care applications as
they provide single-step analysis of samples without additional labeling andwashing steps. Using a representative miRNA implicated in cardiovascular

Inherent wavelength calibration comes from knowing the peak emission
wavelength of an LED light source, and fitting of instrument dispersion
to a model of order placement with each measurement. Dynamic range
is determined by the product of camera response and intentionally wide
variation in throughput among hundreds of diffraction orders. Resolution
degrades gracefully at low light levels, but is limited to ~ 5 nm at highlight levels as initially fabricated and ~ 1 nm in principle. High stray light ismeasured in real-time. Diffuse stray light can be employed for turbidimetry
or to indicate fluorescence acting as a source of working curve nonlinearity.
While unsuitable for, e.g, Raman spectroscopy, the instrument shows

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293Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
disease and certain cancer morphologies (miR-21) we demonstrate a limit
of detection of 1.3 pM, representing a value lower than that obtained using
a laboratory instrument. In addition, we were able to successfully quantify
single-base mutations in the target sequence. The ability rapidly quantify
target DNA from samples presents a promising tool for the developmentof point-of-care tools to detect biological and chemical species including
bacteria, viruses, and environmental pathogens. Finally, we will demonstratePC-based detection of a representative label-free assay using the interaction
between Protein A and human immunoglobulin G (IgG) in the nanomolar
concentration regime. By measuring the shift in peak wavelength value(PWV) from an increase in effective refractive index due to biomolecularadsorption onto the PC surface, a direct quantification of target analyte
can be achieved without any labeling molecules. This sensing modality
is particularly amenable to point-of-care testing, as it eliminates labeling
reagents from assay protocols, something especially important withbiological labels that must be refrigerated.
Our work represents the first demonstration of smartphone-based
spectroscopy for performing biological assays, and the first mobile-deviceenabled detection instrument that serves to measure three distinct sensing
modalities (label-free biosensing, absorption spectroscopy, and fluorescence
spectroscopy). The smartphone platform has the potential to expand theuse of spectrometric analysis to environments assay from the laboratory,
which may include rural or remote locations, low-resource settings, andconsumer markets.

The unique optical properties of semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) haveattracted considerable interest for assay and biosensor development. This
presentation will describe our recent efforts to utilize mass-produced
consumer electronic components, such as LEDs and CMOS image sensors,in combination with QDs, to develop point-of-care assay methods andtechnologies. The high brightness, broad absorption spectra, and narrow
emission from QDs are ideally suited to these applications, and excel
where conventional fluorescent dyes cannot. To illustrate, we will firstpresent ratiometric Foerster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based
assays of proteolytic enzyme activity on paper test strips, as well as triply
multiplexed homogeneous assays of proteolytic activity in bulk solution.
These assays use low-power, inexpensive light sources and either digital
cameras, webcams, or smartphone cameras for readout. In each case, theRGB color filters and corresponding image pixel values provide a measureof fluorescence from the system, which is coupled to enzymatic activity
through energy transfer. We will then show how QDs, FRET, LEDs, and
CMOS sensors can be used for assays on blood samples, highlighting thedesign considerations that are important for such a point-of-care device,along with the benefits and liabilities of the overall strategy. Finally, we
conclude with recent results toward paper-based analytical devices thatuse smartphone readout for the ratiometric detection of proteins. Overall,
the optical properties of QDs are very promising for developing point-ofcare assays, particularly when combined with readout methods based on
consumer electronics and mobile devices.

9482-22, Session 39482-24, Session 3

iSPEX: a smartphone spectropolarimeter

Mobile phone based mini-spectrometer for
rapid screening of skin cancer

Frans Snik, Stephanie Heikamp, Ritse C. Heinsbroek,
Felix C. M. Bettonvil, Gerard van Harten, Christoph
U. Keller, Leiden Observatory (Netherlands); Jeroen
H. H. Rietjens, SRON Netherlands Institute for Space
Research (Netherlands); Ramón Navarro, NOVA
Optical Infrared Instrumentation Group (Netherlands);
Arnoud Apituley, Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch
Instituut (Netherlands); Hester Volten, Rijksinstituutvoor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (Netherlands); Armand
Perduijn, Bright LED Solutions BV (Netherlands); Sipke
Wadman, Willem Hoving, Avantes B.V. (Netherlands);
Norbert Schmidt, DDQ (Netherlands)

Anshuman J. Das, Tristan B. Swedish, Akshat Wahi, Mira
Moufarrej, Marie Noland, Thomas Gurry, Edgar ArandaMichel, Deniz Aksel, Sneha Wagh, Vijay Sadashivaiah,
Xu Zhang, Ramesh Raskar, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (United States)

We developed the iSPEX optical add-on for the iPhone (types 4, 4S, 5 and5S), which turns the built-in camera into a spectropolarimetric sensor. The
spectrometer optics consist of an entrance slit, a plastic collimator lens anda plastic transmission grating. The linear polarization is measured by plastic
retarders and a polaroid sheet, which imprint the degree and the angle oflinear polarization as the amplitude and phase of a sinusoidal modulationon the intensity spectrum. Snapshots with the smartphone camera
thereby instantaneously record both spectral and polarization information.
We have manufactured thousands of iSPEX units, distributed them tocitizen scientists across the Netherlands, and produced unique maps of
atmospheric aerosols based on iSPEX measurements of the cloud-free sky.
We describe the optomechanical design of the iSPEX unit, the data handlingby the iSPEX app and the data reduction of submitted iSPEX measurements.
Furthermore, we discuss the opportunities for iSPEX to perform quantitative
spectroscopy with a smartphone camera.

9482-25, Session 3

Portable computing for mobile microinstruments: from hand held devices tosmart phones and tablets in spectroscopy
Scott Weagant, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada)9482-23, Session 3

Quantum dots, CMOS sensors and cell
phones toward point-of-care-diagnostics(Invited Paper)

There is an undeniable trend toward miniaturization of analytical
instrumentation. In many respects, spectroscopic instrumentation is leading
this trend. Currently, all analytical instruments (including those that arelab-based) include a computer. In the past, lap top computers appeared to
be a viable option for portable instrumentation. Other options also existed.
Included among them were palm-size computing-devices. Recently, smart
phones and tablets are offering new opportunities for computing and forEleonora Petryayeva, W. Russ Algar, The Univ. of British
Columbia (Canada)294

We demonstrate a highly sensitive mobile phone based spectrometerthat has potential to detect cancerous skin lesions in a rapid, non-invasive
manner. Earlier reports of low cost spectrometers utilize the camera of themobile phone to image the field after moving through a diffraction grating.
These approaches are inherently limited by the closed nature of mobile
phone image sensors and built in optical elements. The system presented
uses a novel integrated grating and sensor that is compact, accurate andcalibrated. Resolutions of about 10 nm can be achieved. Additionally, UV
and visible LED excitation sources are built into the device. Data collection
and analysis is simplified using the built in audio/video interfaces andlogical control on the smart phone. Furthermore, by utilizing an externalsensor, the mobile phone camera can be used in conjunction with spectral
measurements. We are exploring ways to use this device to measureendogenous fluorescence of skin in order to distinguish cancerous from
non-cancerous lesions with a mobile phone based dermatoscope.

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
control of chemical analysis portable-instrumentation that can be usedon-site (i.e., in the field). In this presentation, portable-computing for use inconjunction with chemical analysis instrumentation that can be used in thefield will be described in detail. Example will be drawn for the literature andfrom the author’s laboratory.

IOT (Internet of Things) applications.
VTT’s optical MEMS (MOEMS) Fabry-Perot interferometers were firstdeveloped in the 1990s with the realization of Vaisala’s Carbocap ®
carbon dioxide gas sensor, which operates in the mid-infrared (MIR)
wavelength range. Development of the MEMS process integration
technology has enabled the customisation of filter structures in termsof optical specifications based on different application requirements. In
this presented demonstrator, a FPI operating in wavelength range where
CO2 has strong absorption (3.5-4.5 µm), is integrated to shield coverof the cell phone. This sensor consists of a light source, gas cell, MEMSFPI, detector and Bluetooth connection to cell phone. The use of a FPI
structure enables realisation of a compact, low-cost, stable mid-infrared(MIR) microspectrometers for sensors as a single-beam, multi-wavelength
approach that allows measurement of multiple spectral points with only one
detector and a single light source. The benefits of such a setup compared
to several separate detectors include very good long-term stability and highselectivity and similar approach can be used also other gas detection. VTT
has earlier develop MEMS-FPI platform also for hydrocarbon detection in
the wavelength range 3-3.7 µm. Absorptions of the hydrocarbons are not asstrong as carbon dioxide’s, but with a novel optical structure it is possible
to realize long path length in small footprint. Therefore this technology canenable the detection of also other gases, such as hydrocarbons, incell phone.

9482-26, Session 3

Smartphone-embedded chemical
luminescence-based biosensors for pointof-need applications
Aldo Roda, Elisa Michelini, Luca Cevenini, Donato Calabria,
Maria M. Calabretta, Martina Zangheri, Massimo Di Fusco,
Massimo Guardigli, Mara Mirasoli, Patrizia Simoni, Univ.
degli Studi di Bologna (Italy)
We present smartphone-embedded portable biosensors for the detectionof clinically relevant analytes through biospecific reactions. The analysis
relied on the imaging and quantification of the light emitted by different
luminescence processes, e.g., chemiluminescence (CL), bioluminescence(BL) and thermochemiluminescence (TCL), by the smartphone-embedded
camera. Disposable analytical cartridges and accessories for the
implementation of the biosensors have been designed and fabricatedusing low-cost 3D printing technology, thus enabling rapid prototyping.
Back-illuminated complementary metal-oxide semiconductors (BI-CMOS)
cameras integrated into smartphones showed suitable for the luminescence
detection and e phone apps were used to enable long exposure times (2030s) to achieve the needed detectability and for data handling.

9482-28, Session 4

MEMS for imaging spectrometry fromthe visible to the long wave infrared
wavelengths

As a proof-of-principle we report enzymatic and immuno-assays forcholesterol, bile acids, lactate and cortisol relying either on BL (bacterial
luciferase) or CL (luminol-H2O2-horseradish peroxidase system) reactions
and employing different analytical formats (such as microfluidic cartridges
and lateral-flow immunoassay). These assays can be performed within shorttimes (i.e., few minutes) in a very straightforward manner and provided
adequate quantitative analytical performance for the analysis of the target
molecules in different matrices (serum, oral fluid and sweat). We also
investigated the use of TCL by synthesizing TCL labels for bioprobes basedon novel 1,2-dioxetane derivatives and designing a miniaturized, batterypowered heater to implement TCL detection in the smartphoneembedded biosensor.

Dilusha K. K. M. B. D. Silva, Dhirendra K. Tripathi,
Haifeng Mao, John Bumgarner, Mariusz Martyniuk, Jarek
Antoszewski, John M. Dell, Lorenzo Faraone, The Univ. ofWestern Australia (Australia)
Much work has been done in the past on MEMS based spectrometers forvarious applications. The difficulties in using MEMS based spectrometers
for imaging applications relates to difficulties in obtaining MEMS structureslarge enough to cover all or a significant part of a focal plane array.
Particulary with surface micromachining, optical tuneable filters are
generally limited in size to the order of 100 micron in lateral dimension. Our
recent work has focused on achieving two objectives. Firstly, expanding
the lateral size of our tuneable filter devices to the millimetre scale to allow
them to cover all or a significant portion of a focal plane array. Secondly,
expanding the operational wavelength range beyond the shortwave infrared,
where a lot of our work had focussed on in the past. We have worked
towards the implementation of filters at shorter wavelengths, down into partof the visible spectrum, as well as longer wavelengths, into the longwave
infrared band. Our latest results demonstrate tuneable filters with novel
designs operating over most of the longwave infrared, as well as partial
results towards the implementation of high-quality tuneable filters in the
midwave infrared, shortwave infrared, and into part of the visible spectrum.
The devices demonstrated are significantly larger in size compared to our
traditional devices, with dimensions ranging up to 2mm x 2mm or bigger.

Smartphone-based chemical luminescence detection could be thus applied
to a variety of clinical chemistry assays and other analytes useful forany point-of-need applications including critical medicine, bioterrorism,
developing country and space medicine.

9482-27, Session 3

Gas detection withmicroelectromechanical Fabry-Perot
interferometer technology in cell phone
Rami Mannila, Risto Hyypiö, Anna Rissanen, VTT TechnicalResearch Ctr. of Finland (Finland); Marko Korkalainen,
VTT Technical Research Ctr of Finland (Finland); Martti
Blomberg, Hannu Kattelus, VTT Memsfab (Finland)9482-29, Session 4This paper presents optical sensing technology with potential to miniaturize
and integrate carbon dioxide (CO2) into small mobile instruments
such as cell phones. Our miniaturized gas sensors are based on a
microelectromechanical (MEMS) Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI), which
is a tunable optical filter structure, where two highly reflective mirror
surfaces are separated by an electrically actuated air gap. The MEMS FPI is amonolithic device, i.e. it is made entirely on one substrate in a batch process,without assembling separate pieces together. MEMS massmanufacturing inlarge volumes brings down the cost of individual chip elements, enablingnovel applications for gas sensing technology for mobile sensors and novel

Martin De Biasio, Lukas Neumaier, Natalie Vollert,
Carinthian Tech Research AG (Austria); Eduard Geier,Michael Rösner, Infineon Technologies Austria AG(Austria); Christina Hirschl, Martin Kraft, Carinthian Tech
Research AG (Austria)

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Determination of stress in silicon wafers
using Raman spectroscopy

Currently, manufacturing of integrated semiconductors sees a strong·

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
trend towards the use of thin silicon substrates, e.g. for top-efficiency
power devices. However, with the reduction of substrate thickness inherent
mechanical stresses may cause warpages, which poses manufacturingand handling challenges. These stress states are known to be strongly
affected by the process history of a wafer, rendering a careful optimisation
and alignment of the process steps and parameters vital for high-yieldzero-defect production. One major problem in this is the lack of suitable
metrology devices capable of reliable and rapid stress mappingand quantification.
The Raman-active Si phonon peak at 520.5 cm-1 responds to inherent
stresses by a 2 cm-1/GPa shift of its centre wavelength; this effect has beenused variously for local stress mapping, e.g. in MEMS devices or of strongly
doped active sites. Here, the possibility of using Raman microspectrometry
as a metrology tool for spatially resolved quantification of absolute stresslevels on entire production-scale wafers was researched. Combining Raman
measurements of silicon samples expose to calibrated stress loads withanalytically calculated stress levels, it could be shown that the necessary
analytical accuracy can be achieved. Involving actual wafers taken froma qualified manufacturing process it could subsequently be shown that it
is indeed possible to reliably measure mechanical stress in entire siliconwafers and relate these results e.g. to different thinning process parameters.
The method thus proved its potential as a valuable tool for semiconductor
manufacturing process optimisation and quality control, at-line or eventuallyeven in-line.

9482-30, Session 4

Michael P. Buric, Benjamin T. Chorpening, Steven D.
Woodruff, David Tucker, National Energy Technology Lab.
(United States)
The modern energy production base in the U.S. is increasingly incorporating
opportunity fuels like biogas, coalbed methane, coal syngas, solar-derived
hydrogen, and others. In many cases, suppliers operate turbine-based
generation systems to efficiently utilize these diverse fuels. Unfortunately,
turbine engines are difficult to control given the varying energy content
of these fuels, combined with the need for a backup natural gas supply
to provide continuous operation. Here, we study the use of a speciallydesigned Raman Gas Analyzer based on capillary waveguide technology
with sub-second response time for turbine control applications. The
NETL Raman Gas Analyzer utilizes a low-power visible pump laser, anda capillary waveguide gas-cell to integrate large spontaneous Raman
signals, and fast gas-transfer piping to facilitate quick measurements offuel-gas components. A U.S. Department of Energy Turbine facility known
as HYPER (hybrid performance system) serves as a platform for a-priori
fuel composition measurements for turbine speed or power control.
A fuel-dilution system is used to simulate a compositional upset while
simultaneously measuring the resultant fuel composition and turbine
response functions in real-time. The feasibility and efficacy of system control
using the spontaneous Raman-based measurement system is then exploredwith the goal of illustrating the ability to control a turbine system using
available fuel composition as an input process variable.

High spatial resolution LWIR hyperspectral
sensorCarson B. Roberts, Andrew Bodkin, James T. Daly, Bodkin
Design & Engineering, LLC (United States)

Bodkin Design & Engineering (BD&E) has developed hardware and software
for the creation of high-resolution hyperspectral images by using a scanningfore-optic, an array of apertures and a dispersive optical processor. The
prototype system can generate hyperspectral long wave infrared images at
the resolution of the system focal plane array. High resolution images havebeen created in the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR), and in the LWIR.
The sensor used for these experiments was a modified version of BD&E’s
LWIR-62 HyperPixel Array™ imager, with a spectral resolution of 62 bands
covering the region of 7 to 10.5 µm. The full hyperspectral image wasbuilt up from a series of images taken as the fore-optic was scanned by acomputer across the scene being imaged. A new set of computer algorithms
for spectral calibration and hyperspectral image formation, which
intrinsically correct for distortions in the optical system was developed aspart of these experiments
In this paper, we will present a description of the scanning fore-optic
hyperspectral imaging system, an outline of the algorithms used for spectral
calibration, and to multiplex the individual images, as well as laboratory test
results and progress-to-date including high resolution hyperspectral images
in the LWIR and SWIR.

9482-34, Session 5

Dewar-cooler-integrated MWIR
spectrometer for high rates and highdynamic range measurements

9482-32, Session 4

Modular reconfigurable matched spectral
filter spectrometer

Nicolas Guérineau, Sylvain Rommeluère, Yann Ferrec,
Guillaume Druart, ONERA (France); Serge Magli,
SOFRADIR (France); Gilles Lasfargues, Commissariat àl’Énergie Atomique (France); Eric D. de Borniol, MINATEC(France)Elizabeth C. Schundler, James R. Engel, OPTRA, Inc.
(United States); Thomas C. Gruber Jr., MESH, Inc. (UnitedStates); Robert Vaillancourt, Ryan Benedict-Gill, David
J. Mansur, John Dixon, Kevin Potter, OPTRA, Inc. (UnitedStates)There is a need for compact, hand-held, spectrometers for the measurementof spectral signatures of chemicals or objects. To achieve this goal, aconcept of static Fourier-transform spectrometer directly integrated in theinfrared focal plane array has been developed at ONERA. This component is

OPTRA is currently developing a modular, reconfigurable matched spectral
filter (RMSF) spectrometer for the monitoring of greenhouse gases. The

SPIE DSS 2015

9482-33, Session 5

The Air Force has need of a Long Wave Infrared (LWIR) Hyperspectral
imager with simultaneously high spectral and spatial resolution. Most
hyperspectral imaging systems sacrifice spatial resolution for spectral
resolution. As a result, the imagery that contains spectral information which
may be important in target selection will not have the spatial resolution
to allow simultaneous detection of objects by shape-based algorithms orhuman-in the-loop exploitation

Fuel flexibility via real-time Raman fuelgas analysis for turbine-system control

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heart of this spectrometer will be the RMSF core, which is a dispersive
spectrometer that images the sample spectrum from 3 – 5 micron onto a
digital micro-mirror device (DMD) such that different columns correspondto different wavebands. By applying masks to this DMD, a matched spectral
filter can be applied in hardware. The core can then be paired with different
fore-optics or detector modules to achieve active in situ or passive remotedetection of the chemicals of interest. This results in a highly flexible systemthat can address a wide variety of chemicals by updating the DMD masks
and a wide variety of applications by swapping out fore-optic and detector
modules. In either configuration, the signal on the detector is effectively
a dot-product between the applied mask and the sample spectrum thatcan be used to make detection and quantification determinations. Using
this approach streamlines the data stream produced by the sensor without
reducing the information content, therefore making it ideal for remotely or
unattended systems. This paper will focus on the design and anticipatedperformance of the RMSF core.

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Conference 9482:
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Camera for Effluents and Residues (TRACER). TRACER operates in the longwave infrared and has the potential to detect a wide variety of materials
with characteristic spectral signatures in that region. The 30 lb. camera
is tripod mounted and battery powered. A touch screen control panel
provides a simple user interface for most operations. The MEMS component
is a Texas Instruments Digital Microarray Device (DMD) with custom
electronics and firmware control. Simultaneous 1D-spatial and 1D-spectral
dimensions are collected, with the second spatial dimension obtained byscanning the internal spectrometer slit. The sensor can be configured tocollect data in several modes including full hyperspectral imagery using
Hadamard multiplexing, wide-band thermal imagery, and contrast imagery
from any analog filter, all with a simple User command. Matched filters canbe generated internally on-the-fly and applied in hardware, substantiallyreducing detection time and improving SNR over HSI software processing,while reducing storage requirements. Results of preliminary field trials on
representative effluent and surface residue materials will be presented.

called Microspoc (MicroSpectrometer On Chip). The fundamental propertiesof this key element will be recalled and we will see how those properties canbe exploited to get a compact, cryogenic and snapshot MWIR spectrometer.
These design rules have been applied to develop a very compact device thatcombines the metrological properties of a FTIR-FPA of quantum HgCdTe
technology with the operational performances of a last generation Sofradir
detection block (Infrared Detector Dewar Cooler Assembly – IDDCA). The
physical dimensions of the prototype are closed to a standard IR camera,that make it well-suited for field measurements.
The experimental performances of the device will be presented, in termsof spectral resolution (typically 75 nm at 5 µm), acquisition rate (up to 500
Hz), field of view (0.6° with a precise circular definition), dynamic range andnoise equivalent spectral radiance.
At the end, we will discuss the potential of this technology to meet therequirements of different scenarii of measurements, in the field or on
airborne plateforms.

9482-37, Session 59482-35, Session 5

Detection and direct identification ofliquid contaminants at standoff distanceswith an imaging polarimetric spectrometer

Compact high performance hyperspectral
system design and applications
Leah Ziph-Schatzberg, Corning Incorporated (UnitedStates)Eugene Tsiang, Spectrum Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Imaging Fourier transform spectrometry has been used for the remotedetection and identification of liquid surface contaminants, including
biospills and hazardous chemicals. The measured spectra and theirpolarization depend on the optical properties of the liquid, as describedby the complex refractive index. A common practice is to measure theimaginary part of the refractive index and to calculate the real part from
Kramers-Kronig relations, or vice versa. Another common practice is torely on a library of refractive index of materials for matching model andexperimental spectra. Instead, we propose a method for extracting thecomplex refractive index directly from the differential polarization spectra,using an adaptation of a technique used in semiconductor ellipsometry. The
sensor employed for validating the method is the Sagnac interferometer,
a LWIR spatial interferometer (8 - 12 micron) for hyperspectral imaging
adapted for emission and reflection polarimetry by the incorporation of
linear analyzers between the scene and the camera.

Hyperspectral imaging is a fast maturing technology. Applications such as
precision agriculture, process monitoring, surveillance, and bio-medical arebeing investigated around the world. More application-specific algorithms
are being developed, and more real-world systems are moving from theresearch lab to actual use in the field.
Corning Incorporated has been developing and building hyperspectral
optical engines, gratings, and slits for over a decade. Corning currently
has the capabilities to manufacture precision diamond turned gratings
on a variety of materials, practically any shape surface, and wide
wavelength ranges. The experience and knowledge developed at Corning
during this time have allowed for unique spectrometer designs. Ourvertically integrated expert manufacturing facility allows us to build these
hyperspectral (HSI) systems. These compact, high performance, lower cost
systems are offered at wavelength ranges from the visible to the Long
Wave Infrared (LWIR). The low Size Weight and Power (SWAP) of these HSI
systems enables applications that are not possible with other systems, suchas installations on small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and mobile shortrange applications. Mobile applications are also enabled by Corning’s built-in
scanner that works seamlessly with the push-broom imaging spectrometerand Corning’s proprietary software to collect data cubes with a small, tripod
mounted integrated device.

A field demonstration was conducted using linear polarizers as analyzers
in the instrumental Mueller matrix chain. The liquid implemented in our
testing was SF96, an inert silicon oil commonly used as a surrogate for toxic
chemicals. The sensor was positioned at various angles of incidence to theliquid and substrate. Linear polarizers were set at fixed angles of 0, 45 and90 degrees with respect to the incoming plane of polarization. There was noretarder plate, such as a quarter wave plate, inserted between the sample
and the detector. The directional anisotropic emissivities and hemisphericalreflectance distribution functions for the liquid and substrates were
measured. Complex refractive index was obtained by inverting the Fresnel
specular reflectance model.

We discuss the proprietary design of Corning’s HSI systems, as well as
our manufacturing capabilities that are necessary to make these systems
cost-effectively in quantities. In this paper we discuss the specific designsof Corning HSI vis-NIR, SWIR and uncooled LWIR systems and theirperformance. We also discuss the use of these systems forreal-world applications.

Given the absence of a retarder plate in the setup, our optical train does
not directly account for circularly polarized illumination. In this approach
the possibility of circular polarization is left as a free parameter, to be
determined after computation of n and k values. The Mueller matrix
elements for Fresnel reflection from a liquid on a substrate can be
determined from the directional emissivity matrix. These can then be
used to determine the contribution of the cold sky to specular reflection,
which was found to require only a small correction. Results with the SF96
liquid experiment showed good agreement of the complex refractive index
with published values, especially as the direction of incoming illumination
approached Brewster’s angle. The results indicate that the approximate
thicknesses of the liquid layer can be determined as well.

9482-36, Session 5

Portable stand-off spectral imaging
camera for detection of effluents andresidues
Neil Goldstein, Benjamin St. Peter, Jonathan Grot, Michael
Kogan, Marsha Fox, Pajo Vujkovic-Cvijin, Ryan Penny,
Jason A. Cline, Spectral Sciences, Inc. (United States)

Significant improvement in signal-to-clutter ratio may be achieved using an
imaging polarimetric approach when compared to conventional methods. In
this work we have focused on remote sensing of liquids, but the approachalso applies to any surface which has an “effective” refractive index, such as
soils that exhibit a general bidirectional reflectance distributionfunction (BRDF).

A new, compact and portable camera, employing a MEMs-based spectral
imaging approach, has been built and demonstrated for detection of
hazardous contaminants including gaseous effluents and residues on
surfaces. The camera is called the Thermal infrared Reconfigurable Analysis

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII

9482-38, Session 5

Longwave infrared compressive
hyperspectral imager
Julia Rentz Dupuis, Bogdan R. Cosofret, Physical SciencesInc. (United States); Michael J. Kirby, Colorado State Univ.
(United States)
Physical Sciences Inc (PSI) is developing a longwave infrared (LWIR)
compressive sensing hyperspectral imager (CS-HSI) based on a single pixel
architecture for standoff detection of process plumes indicative of nuclear
or radiological material production. The solution employs novel use of ahigh throughput stationary interferometer and a digital micromirror device(DMD) converted for LWIR operation in place of the traditional cooled LWIR
focal plane array. The CS-HSI represents a substantial cost reduction overthe state of the art in LWIR HSI instruments. Radiometric improvements
for using the DMD in the LWIR spectral range have been identified andimplemented. In addition, CS measurement and sparsity bases specificallytailored to the CS-HSI instrument and chemical plume imaging have beendeveloped and validated using LWIR hyperspectral image streams ofchemical plumes. These bases enable comparable statistics to detection
based on uncompressed data.
In this paper, we present a system model predicting the overall performanceof the CS-HSI system. Results from a breadboard build and test validating
the system model are reported. In addition, the measurement andsparsity basis work demonstrating the plume detection on compressed
hyperspectral images is presented.

9482-39, Session 5

Hyperspectral grating optimization andmanufacturing considerations
Lovell E. Comstock, Jeffry J. Santman, Corning Specialty
Materials, Inc. (United States)
Hyperspectral imaging systems are finding broader applications in both thecommercial and aerospace markets. It is becoming clear that to optimize
the performance of these systems, their instrument transfer function needs
to be tailored for each application. Vis-SWIR systems in the full 400nm to2500nm waveband present particular design and manufacturing challenges.
A single blazed grating is inadequate for a system operating in the fullvis-SWIR wavelength range. In addition, optical materials and broad bandcoatings present a challenge for non-reflective systems. An understandingof the application and wavelengths of interest, combined with a judicious
choice of a focal plane array, can then lead to an optimized system for the
specific application. The ability to tailor the grating and manufacture awide variety of grating profiles and substrate shapes becomes a significant
performance enabler. This paper will discuss how the use of optical, coating,and grating design/analysis software, combined with grating manufacturing
techniques assure meeting high performance requirements fordifferent applications.

9482-10, Session PTue

Micro-Raman spectroscopy for meat typedetection
Martin De Biasio, Philip Stampfer, Raimund Leitner,
Carinthian Tech Research AG (Austria); Christian Wolfgang
Huck, Verena Wiedemair, Institute of Analytical Chemistry
and Radiochemistry (Austria); Dirk Balthasar, TOMRA
Sorting GmbH (Germany)
Raman spectroscopy can be applied to almost any bio-molecule. If a sample
is lit with monochromatic laser light, most of the light is elastically scattered

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(Rayleigh scattering) with no change in photon energy (or frequency).
However, a small portion of the scattered light is inelastically scattered(Raman scattering) with a corresponding shift in frequency. This fraction of
the reflected light provides information about the vibrations of molecules.
The difference between the incident and scattered frequencies is due toan excitation of the molecular system. A Raman spectrum is obtained bymeasuring the intensity of the scattered photons as a function of the shift
in frequency. These characteristic Raman peaks allow the spectroscopic
separation of different molecules or identical molecules in different
crystalline forms. Here, we demonstrate the feasibility of using microRaman measurements to discriminate chicken, pork, veal, turkey, mutton,beef, horse and lamb. Test sets of meat samples were bought at a numberof supermarkets and Raman spectra of the samples measured using theRaman microscope. Characteristic spectral features were identified andused to build a chemometric model. Our experimental results show that
it is indeed possible to detect and discriminate different meat types usinga Raman system. However as the samples show little differences in theirchemical make-up sophisticated data analysis is needed.

9482-54, Session PTue

Divalent chromium doped ZnSe
nanoparticles random laser induced bynanosecond laser pulse
Jiayu Yi, Guoying Feng, Chao Yang, Shouhuan Zhou,
Sichuan Univ. (China)
Divalent chromium ion doped ZnSe nanocrystalline particles (Cr2+:ZnSeNPs) by nanosecond pulsed laser ablation of polycrystalline Cr2+:ZnSemicron-sized powder in water environment are presented. The SEM and XRD
results reveal that the products are ZnSe cubic sphalerite structured withan average size of 20-50 nm. Typical random laser emissions of Cr2+:ZnSe
nanoparticles centering at 2180 nm with a threshold of 0.4 mJ/pulse wereobserved. As the pump energy increasing (above the threshold value),the decay time of the central wavelength reduces to 30 ns from 1.2 ?s. We
found that the decay time of the random laser continuously varies withthe spectral wavelengthes for the first time. This random laser device may
become a more sensitive, selective, smaller and cheaper middle infrared
light source.

9482-40, Session 6

Fluorescent marker-based and markerfree discrimination between healthy andcancerous human tissues using hyperspectral imaging
Thomas Arnold, Martin De Biasio, Raimund Leitner,
Carinthian Tech Research AG (Austria)
Two problems are addressed in this paper (i) the fluorescent marker-based
and the (ii) label-free discrimination between healthy and cancerous humantissues. For both applications the performance of hyper-spectral methods
are quantified. Fluorescent marker-based tissue classification uses a numberof fluorescent markers to dye specific parts of a human cell. The challenge
is that the emission spectra of the fluorescent dyes overlap considerably.
They are, furthermore disturbed by the inherent auto-fluorescence ofhuman tissue. This results in ambiguities and decreased image contrast
causing difficulties for the treatment decision. The higher spectral resolution
introduced by tunable-filter-based spectral imaging in combination with
spectral unmixing techniques results in an improvement of the image
contrast and therefore more reliable information for the physician tochoose the treatment decision. Marker-free tissue classification is based
solely on the subtle spectral features of human tissue without the use of
artificial markers. The challenge in this case is that the spectral differences
between healthy and cancerous tissues are subtle and embedded in
intra- and inter-patient variations of these features. The contributions ofwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
fundamental in filter-based chemical sensing discrimination systems. In
this paper, we describe a systematic numerical approach used to explore
how filter properties and filter overlap affect corresponding discrimination
results. We describe the interaction between the overlapping spectra andvarious filter sets on both target and interferent chemicals. We discuss
which filter parameters provide optimum selectivity for specific target
chemicals and how this information can be utilized to select filters for future
direct-filter sensors based on this methodology.

this paper are (i) the evaluation of hyper-spectral imaging in combination
with spectral unmixing techniques for fluorescence marker-based tissueclassification, (ii) the evaluation of spectral imaging for label-free intra
surgery tissue classification. Within this paper, we consider real hyperspectral fluorescence and endoscopy data sets to emphasize the practicalcapability of the proposed methods. It is shown that the combination ofspectral imaging with multivariate statistical methods can improve thesensitivity and specificity of the detection and the staging of cancerous
tissues compared to standard procedures.

9482-44, Session 7

9482-42, Session 6

Compact hyperspectral image sensor
based on a novel hyperspectral encoder

Spectral data analysis approaches for
improved provenance classification

Alex Hegyi, Joerg Martini, PARC, a Xerox Co. (UnitedStates)Andrzej W. Miziolek, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Kellen J. Sorauf, Regis Univ. (United States); Amy
J. R. Bauer, TSI Inc. (United States); Fank C. De Lucia Jr.,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

A novel hyperspectral imaging sensor is demonstrated that can enablebreakthrough applications of hyperspectral imaging in domains thatwere not previously accessible. Our technology consists of a planar
hyperspectral encoder combined with a traditional monochrome image
sensor. The encoder adds negligibly to the sensor’s overall size, weight,
power requirement, and cost (SWaP-C); therefore, the new imager can beincorporated wherever image sensors are currently used, such as in cell
phones and other consumer electronics. In analogy to Fourier spectroscopy,
the technique maintains a high optical throughput because narrow-band
spectral filters are unnecessary. Unlike conventional Fourier techniquesthat rely on Michelson interferometry, our hyperspectral encoder is robust
to vibration and amenable to planar integration. The device can be viewed
within a computational optics paradigm: the hardware is uncomplicatedand serves to increase the information content of the acquired data, and thecomplexity of the system, that is, the decoding of the spectral information,is shifted to computation. Consequently, system tradeoffs, for example,
between spectral resolution and imaging speed or spatial resolution, areselectable in software. Our prototype demonstration of the hyperspectral
imager is based on a commercially-available silicon CCD. The prototype
encoder was inserted within the camera’s ~1 cu. in. housing. The prototype
can image about 35 independent spectral bands distributed from 350 nm
to 950 nm, but the technology is extendable over a wavelength range from~200 nm to ~6 microns, with suitable choice of detector.

In the last 10 years various chemometric methods have been developed andused for the analysis of spectra generated by Laser Induced Breakdown
Spectroscopy (LIBS). One of the more successful and proven methods is
Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA). Recently PLS-DA was
utilized for purposes of provenance of spent brass cartridges and achievedcorrect classification at around 93% with a false alarm rate of around 5%.
The LIBS spectra from the cartridge samples are rich in emission lines fromnumerous mostly metallic elements comprising the brass and the citedresults were based on the analysis of the full broadband high resolution
spectra. It was observed that some of the lines were clearly saturated inall spectra, while others were sometimes saturated due to pulse-to-pulse
variation. The pulse-to-pulse variation was also evident in the intensity
variations of the spectra within cartridges and between cartridges. In orderto improve on the accuracy of the classification we have developed somepre-processing strategies including the removal of spectral wavelength
ranges susceptible to saturation and normalization techniques to diminish
the effects of intensity variations in the spectra. The results of these efforts
aimed at improving performance will be presented.

9482-43, Session 69482-46, Session 7

Filter selection criteria for thediscrimination of strongly overlapping
chemical spectra

Characterization of AOTF basedSpectropolarimetric Imagers from 400 to
1700 nm

Kevin J. Major, Menelaos K. Poutous, Kevin F. Dunnill,
The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte (United States);
Kenneth J. Ewing, Jasbinder S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Ishwar D. Aggarwal, The
Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte (United States)

Neelam Gupta, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
John C. Morgan, U.S. Army Engineer Research andDevelopment Ctr. (United States); Dennis Suhre, DRS
Scientific Inc. (United States)

Increasing the selectivity of sensors, while at the same time reducing theircomplexity, size and cost, are challenges to the sensing community. To
this end, an area of exploration has been the development of filter-based
chemical sensors. We have recently introduced an approach that utilizes
multiple, broadband, infrared (IR) filters to enable discrimination of target
chemicals, in the presence of potential interferents that have IR spectral
signatures in a limited waveband. Our analysis technique, comparative
discrimination spectral detection (CDSD), utilizes a set of broad IR
transmission filters, to discriminate between a specific target chemical
and multiple interferents with strongly overlapping IR spectra. We havedemonstrated the ability of this technique to correctly distinguish between
chemicals in the carbon – hydrogen stretch region of the IR absorption
spectrum (2700 – 3300 cm-1; 3.0 – 3.7 µm).

Two prototype hyperspectral imagers that collect hyperspectral andfull linear polarization signatures in the visible-near infrared (VNIR) andshortwave infrared (SWIR) regions are developed. Each of these imagers
uses a noncollinear acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF). The spectral regionof operation for the first imager is from 450 to 800 nm and the second one
from 1000 to 1600 nm. We will present imaging results for these imagers.

We present a numerical study exploring the choices of desired filter sets,
and the resulting overall discrimination by these filter sets. Filter parameterchoices, such as the peak transmission position and bandwidth, areTodd Jennings, John D. Dougherty, Pixelteq, Inc. (UnitedStates)Return to Contents+1 360 676 3290

9482-47, Session 7

Low SWaP multispectral sensors using
dichroic filter arrays·

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
The benefits of multispectral imaging are well established in a variety
of applications including remote sensing, authentication, satellite &aerial surveillance, machine vision, biomedical, and other scientific andindustrial uses. However, many of the potential solutions require morecompact, robust, and cost-effective cameras to realize these benefits. The
next generation of multispectral sensors and cameras needs to deliver
improvements in size, weight, power, portability, and spectral band
customization to support widespread deployment for a variety of purposebuilt aerial, unmanned, and scientific applications. A novel implementation
uses micro-patterning of dichroic filters into Bayer and custom mosaics,
enabling true real-time multispectral imaging with simultaneous multiband image acquisition. Consistent with color image processing, individual
spectral channels are de-mosaiced with each channel providing an imageof the field of view. This approach can be implemented across a variety
of wavelength ranges and on a variety of detector types including linear,area, silicon, and InGaAs. This dichroic filter array approach can also reduce
payloads and increase range for unmanned systems, with the capability
to support both handheld and autonomous systems. Recent examples
and results of 4-9 band dichroic filter arrays in multispectral cameras are
discussed. Specific implementations range from hybrid RGB + NIR sensors
to custom sensors with application-specific VIS, NIR, and SWIR spectral
bands. Benefits and tradeoffs of multispectral sensors using dichroic filter
arrays are compared with alternative approaches – including their passivity,
spectral range, customization options, and scalable production.

In this study, MS-VT method is improved and a spectral similarity based
technique referred to as Weighted Chebyshev Distance (WCD) method forthe supervised classification of hyperspectral imagery (HSI) is introduced.
Classification procedures can be carried out with VT parameters obtained
from specifications of class references. In the case of supervised learningwith training data having labeled training vectors, this is also shown to beequivalent to the use of the WCD in which the weights are chosen as aninverse power of the standard deviation per spectral band [7]. The WCD
measure used in the method had the ability of not only tracing the totalchanges of illumination level, but also detecting the shape of the spectral
signature. The use of WCD measures in terms of the inverse power offeature standard deviations and optimization of power parameter constitutethe most important side of the study.
The paper consists of four sections. In Section 2, the WCD algorithm isintroduced. Section 3 discusses experimental results and performance
evaluation. Section 4 is conclusions.
In summary, there are three steps of the proposed WCD algorithm asfollows:

9482-48, Session 8

Step 1: The mean and standard deviation vectors of the classes arecalculated by using the training set.

Inverse analysis of triarylamine-dye
transmission spectra
Daniel Aiken, Scott A. Ramsey, Troy Mayo, Jim Bellemare,
Samuel G. Lambrakos, Joseph E. Peak, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States)
Inverse analysis of transmission spectra for triarylamine dye in acetone
is presented. This analysis employs a parametric model of transmission
through a sample of finite thickness, where the permittivity function isrepresented parametrically by a linear combination of Lorentz oscillator
models. The results of this analysis provide estimates of the permittivity
function for triarylamine dye, which can be adopted as input data to othertypes of models, such as those for prediction of transmission and reflectivity
spectra for composites containing mixtures of dyes and other materials.
In addition, the results of this analysis should contribute to a data base of
estimated permittivity functions for practical analysis of spectra.

9482-49, Session 8

Suleyman Demirci, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey);
I??n Erer, Istanbul Technical Univ. (Turkey); Okan K. Ersoy,
Purdue Univ. (United States)
The major topic involving pixel labeling in a hyperspectral data cube isclassification. In supervised classification, measured hyperspectral testingdata is compared with the reference reflectance spectra (spectral signature)of each class to determine whether the input scene contains similar spectral
characteristics of specified classes. If a priori information about classes
does not exist, unsupervised classification usually in the form of a clustering
method is utilized to determine regions which have similar spectral
characteristics [1-2].
Among a number of distance measures [3-5], there are two widely used
computationally simple deterministic metrics for identification of spectral
similarity between unknown spectra and desired spectra. They are theEuclidian Distance (ED) measure and the Spectral Angle Map (SAM)
measure. In [6], a spectral similarity method employing Multi Scale -SPIE DSS 2015

Step 2: The WCD measure of the test pixels are calculated for all classes byusing mean and standard deviation vectors.
Step 3: Each test pixel is labeled to a class based on the minimum WCD
measure.
The proposed method is tested on AVIRIS Indiana’s Pine [8], Botswana andKennedy Space Center (KSC) [9] data. The algorithms are trained with thesame kinds of training sets, and their performances are calculated for the
power of the standard deviation. During these studies, various levels of thepower parameters are evaluated based on the efficiency of the algorithms
for choosing the best values of the weights. Quantitative classification
results for AVIRIS, Botswana and KSC data will be given in the full paper.

9482-50, Session 8

Optical system design of a Dyson imaging
spectrometer based on Fery prism
Linlin Pei, Academy of Opto-Electronics (China)

Weighted Chebyshev distanceclassification method for hyperspectral
imaging300

Vector Tunnel (MS-VT) for supervised classification of the materials in
hyperspectral imagery was introduced. With this algorithm, a simple
spectral similarity based decision rule using reference data was formed. The
prediction of multi-level upper and lower spectral boundaries of spectral
signatures for all classes across spectral bands constituted the basic
principle of the method. The decision criterion for classification of an input
vector was based on choosing its class corresponding to the narrowest VT
that the input vector fitted in to.

·

Rich feature information can be obtained through the imaging spectrometer.
This kind of technology has a wide range of development. Now we focus on
the high spectral resolution and its miniaturization. In this paper, we designa kind of Dyson imaging spectrometer based on Fery prism. Its average
spectral resolution is 3nm. Its total length is just 225mm.The Fery prism is an
modified optical element based on the conventional dispersion prism. The
spherical centers of the front and rear surfaces are not on the optical axis,
so the light beam will be dispersive through the optical element. Its raius of
surfaces can provide a certain focal length. The Fery prism does not need
to be placed in the parallel optical path to simplify the collimating lens andthe imaging lens in the prism dispersive spectrometer system. We can get
a compact imaging spectrometer. Full spectral transmittance of the Fery
prism is up to 94%. Compared to the convex grating, it is great improved.
The free spectral range of the Fery prism is wider, and the dispersion does
not have higher order spectral aliasing problems. This simple spectrometer
include only two elements. Its spectral range is from 400nm to 1000nm,
covering the near-ultraviolet to near-infrared spectral. The aberrations ofeach typical spectral are corrected. The imaging spectrometer is excellent
performance.

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Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII

9482-51, Session 8algorithms for mapping plant species composition, plant functional types,
biodiversity, biomass and carbon stocks, and plant growth. G-LiHT and
its supporting database are designed to give scientists access to the datathat are needed to understand the relationship between ecosystem form
and function and to stimulate the advancement of synergistic algorithms.
This system will enhance our ability to design new missions and produce
data products related to biodiversity and climate change. G-LiHT has been
operational since 2011 and has been used to collect data for NASA & USFS
sponsored studies, including NASA’s Carbon Monitoring System (CMS) andthe American ICESat/GLAS Assessment of Carbon (AMIGA-Carb). These
acquisitions target a broad diversity of forest communities and ecoregions
across the CONUS and Mexico. Here, we will discuss the components of
G-LiHT, their calibration and performance characteristics, operational
implementation, and data processing workflows. We will also provide
examples of higher level data products that are currently
under development.

errors in imaging of computational
imaging spectrometer caused by sampling
Jianwei Wang, Academy of Opto-Electronics (China)
An analysis is given of the errors in computational imaging spectrometerthat are caused by the sensor sampling the spectrum-mixed images. It
shows that if the mask’s transparent slit which has the same size as the pixel
stretch across two pixels, the reconstructed image consists stripes which
relates to the objects. A sampling model, which is based on data acquisition
process, is given to describe the phenomenon, and analyze the influence ofsampling errors to image reconstruction. The model says that the sampling
errors mix part of nearby-objects’ s information to the main objects’. The
ratio of main objects’ information and nearby-objects’ information is fixedand needed to be calibrated. At last, a method is proposed to reduce thestripes and its performance is outstanding. In the method, the images arereconstructed, and the ratio increase from 0.01 to 0.5 in a loop statement,
and an image evaluation index is introduced simutaneously, then we can get
the best result with unconspicuous stripes and the relevant ratio. The resultshows that the stripes in the constructed image

9482-52, Session 9

Drill Core Imaging Spectral Data Catalog
SystemTaixia Wu, Lifu Zhang, Hongming Zhang, Qingxi Tong,
Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (China)

9482-53, Session 8

Turbine jet exhaust as proxy for detectionof wake vortices

Drill core provides direct evidence for geological prospecting. Drill core
record compiling has been a vital link in geological exploration. We
developed a core drill imaging spectrometer record compiling system,
which can be used for the core component detection. The core drill Imaging
Spectrometer record compiling System include optical system, mechanicalstructure, data acquisition module, and record compiling software. The
optical system was composed of a VNIR imaging spectrometer and a SWIR
imaging spectrometer. The two imaging spectrometers measure drill core
radiation in the 400–2500 nm wavelength range with spectral resolution of
better than 5 nm at VNIR and 10 nm at SWIR. The 0.2 mm spatial resolution
and 400-2500 nm spectral range provides abundant information about
many important earth-surface minerals. The mine drill core scan experimentresult show the system have achieved relative high performance levels interms of signal to noise ratio and image quality. The system can automaticachieve core spectral data, easy to manage, rapid analysis of the spectral
characteristics of core minerals. At the same time, it can be used forpermanent preservation drill cores data, for the latter mineral, oil, gas andother geological resource identifier and extraction.

Taumi Daniels, NASA Langley Research Ctr (United States)
This paper describes an analysis of the potential of an airborne
hyperspectral imaging IR instrument to infer wake vortices location via
turbine jet exhaust as a proxy. The research goal was to determine therequirements for an imaging spectrometer or radiometer to effectively
detect the exhaust plume, and by inference, the location of the wakevortices. The effort examines the gas spectroscopy of the various major
constituents of turbine jet exhaust and their contributions to the modeled
detectable radiance. Initially, a theoretical analysis of wake vortex proxydetection by thermal radiation was realized in a series of simulations. The
first stage used the SLAB plume model to simulate turbine jet exhaust
plume characteristics, including exhaust gas transport dynamics andconcentrations. The second stage used these plume characteristics as
input to the Line By Line Radiative Transfer Model (LBLRTM) to simulate
responses from an imaging IR hyperspectral spectrometer or radiometer.
These numerical simulations generated thermal imagery that was comparedwith previously reported wake vortex temperature image data. This research
is a continuation of an effort to specify the requirements for an imaging IR
instrument to make wake vortex measurements. Results of the two-??stage
simulation will be reported, including instrument specifications for wakevortex thermal detection. These results will be compared with previously
reported results for IR imaging spectrometer performance.

9482-55, Session 9

Shadow removal from VNIR hyperspectral
remote sensing imagery with endmember
signature analysis
Fatih Omruuzun, Didem Ozisik Baskurt, Middle East
Technical Univ. (Turkey); Hazan Daglayan, Atilim University(Turkey); Yasemin Yardimci Cetin, Middle East Technical
Univ. (Turkey)

9482-45, Session 9

NASA Goddard’s LiDAR, Hyperspectral,and Thermal airborne imager (G-LiHT)

Shadow is one of the major problems encountered in airborne remotesensing applications. In general, trees, terrain slope and man-made objects
including electric poles and buildings may cause shadowing in the scene
to be investigated. The effect and size of shadow may change with respect
to the angle of incident light at data acquisition time. Shadowed areas may
inhibit the accuracy of classification, identification and target detection
algorithms in visible and near infrared band hyperspectral imagery. This
study aims to develop an effective regional shadow removal algorithm using
rich spectral information existing in hyperspectral imagery. The proposed
method benefits from assuming spectral similarity of shadowed region
pixels with neighboring pixels located around shadowed area. Although
the shadowed area has lower reflectance values due to inadequacyof incident light, it is expected that this area contains similar spectral

Lawrence A. Corp, Bruce D. Cook, Elizabeth M. Middleton,
NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States)
Scientists in the Biospheric Sciences Laboratory at NASA’s Goddard Space
Flight Center (G) have undertaken a unique instrument fusion effort foran airborne package that integrates commercial off the shelf LiDAR,
Hyperspectral, and Thermal components. G-LiHT is a compact, lightweightand portable system that can be used on a wide range of airborne platforms
to support a number of NASA Earth Science research projects andspace-based missions. G-LiHT permits simultaneous and complementarymeasurements of surface reflectance, vegetation structure, and temperature,
which provide an analytical framework for the development of new

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301Conference 9482:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VIII
characteristics with surrounding shadow- less area. Using this assumption,
the endmembers in both shadowed and shadow-less area are extracted by
Vertex Component Analysis (VCA). On the other hand, HySime algorithm
overcomes estimating number of end-members, which is one of thechallenging parts in hyperspectral unmixing. Therefore, two sets of endmembers are extracted independently for both shadowed and shadow-lessarea. The proposed study aims at revealing the relation between these
two end-member sets by comparing their pairwise similarities. Finally,reflectance values of shadowed pixels are re-calculated separately for each
spectral band of hyperspectral image using this information. Thus, theshadow effect is removed from the shadowed pixels in hyperspectral image.
The proposed method was tested on images acquired by Headwall A-Series
Visible + NIR hyperspectral sensor during a flight on October 22, 2014 overagricultural areas near Ankara city center.

given UAS can fly. Additionally, on many of the light-weight UAS, users are
frequently trying to capture data from one or more instruments to augment
the hyperspectral data collection, thus reducing the amount of SWAP
available to the hyperspectral instrumentation.
The following manuscript will provide an analysis on a newly-developed
miniaturized hyperspectral imaging platform, the Nano-Hyperspec®,
which provides full hyperspectral resolution and traditional hyperspectral
capabilities without sacrificing performance to accommodate the decreasing
SWAP of smaller and smaller UAS platforms. The analysis will examine
the Nano-Hyperspec flown in several UAS airborne environments and thecorrelation of the systems data with LiDAR and other GIS datasets.

9482-57, Session 9

Hyperspectral imaging of foods forcommercial application
Seung-Chul Yoon, Kurt C. Lawrence, Bosoon Park,
Agricultural Research Service (United States)
Hyperspectral imaging is a technology that has been used all the way
from space down to bacterial detection. In addition to imaging from far(thousands of kilometers) to near (microscopic), with pixels coveringtens of meters down to even nanometers, with spectral ranges from theultraviolet to the infrared, hyperspectral imaging is being tested andimplemented in numerous commercial applications. It is venturing out oflaboratory and finding applications in food processing applications. This
talk demonstrates the use of hyperspectral imaging of food products in realtime. A high-speed hyperspectral imaging system, including hyperspectral
camera system, robust computer, enclosure, lighting, and universal software,
was developed and demonstrated for use in detecting diseased chicken
carcasses or chicken carcasses containing fecal contamination. The real-time
imaging system is able to operate at commercial line speeds of up to 200
birds per minute. The same high-speed hyperspectral imaging system, using
different wavelengths and algorithms, can be easily modified via software
alone to detect either condition. In other research, a hyperspectral imaging
system was also able to detect foreign materials in dried fruit. The system
images the fruit on a conveyor at belt speeds of about 0.5 m/s (30 m/min).
The hyperspectral system has been interfaced with a robot and is capableof rapidly removing foreign material. Thus, researchers have been able todemonstrate rapid prototyping and commercial potential of this versatile
imaging platform.

9482-58, Session 9

Miniaturization of high-spectral-spatialresolution hyperspectral imagers on
unmanned aerial systems
Sam Hill, Headwall Photonics Inc. (United States)
Traditional airborne environmental monitoring has frequently deployedhyperspectral imaging as a leading tool for characterizing and analyzing ascene’s critical spectrum-based signatures for applications in agriculture
genomics and crop health, vegetation and mineral monitoring, andhazardous material detection. As the acceptance of hyperspectral evaluation
grows in the airborne community, there has been a dramatic trend inmoving the technology from use on mid-size aircraft to Unmanned Aerial
Systems (UAS). The use of UAS accomplishes a number of goals including
the reduction in cost to run multiple seasonal evaluations over smaller but
highly valuable land-areas, the ability to use frequent data collections tomake rapid decisions on land management, and the improvement of spatial
resolution by flying at lower altitudes (<500 ft).
Despite this trend, there are several key parameters affecting the use of
traditional hyperspectral instruments in UAS with payloads less than 10 lbs.
where size, weight and power (SWAP) are critical to how high and how far a

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Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
Wednesday - Thursday 22–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9483 Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in
Industry and Defense

9483-1, Session 1

defect density, the degree of strain, and the number of layers. However, it
does not provide direct information on the effect of molecular adsorbates,
and their spatial distribution, on the conductivity.

Terahertz isolator in asymmetry magnetometasurface (Invited Paper)

In this study we demonstrate a new approach to visualize the distribution ofmolecular adsorbates on graphene using terahertz emission spectroscopy
and imaging. We found that the waveforms of terahertz radiation fromgraphene-coated InP sensitively changed with the type of the atmosphericgas, the laser illumination time. The terahertz waveform change is explained
through band structure modifications in the InP surface depletion layer
due to the presence of localized electric dipoles induced by adsorbed
oxygen. These results demonstrate that terahertz emission serves as a local
probe for monitoring adsorption and desorption processes on graphene,suggesting a novel two-dimensional sensor for detecting local chemical
reactions. We will also present the characteristics of THz emission fromgraphene/semiconductor substrate under various conditions.

Sai Chen, Fei Fan, Pengfei Wu, Nankai Univ. (China); Bo
Liu, Shengjiang Chang, Key Lab. of Optical Information
Science and Technology (China)
In this work, we have investigated the nonreciprocal transmission of aterahertz (THz) isolator based on the magneto-metasurface. A structured
InSb layer coats on the silica substrate in which the numerical simulationshows that this metasurface has isolation over 60dB at 0.646 THz and a
10dB operating bandwidth of 13 GHz under an external magnetic field of
0.3T with an insertion loss less than 2.5dB. Importantly, we have discussed
the necessary conditions to form THz nonreciprocal transmission in themagneto-metasurface, which closely depends on the magneto-opticalmaterial and the relations of the structure asymmetry, wave polarization
direction and external magnetic field direction. Moreover, the isolation
dependences and tunability of this device on the external magnetic field
have also been investigated, which shows the best operating state with ahigh isolation can be well designed for the device. This kind of low-loss,
high isolation, easy coupling THz magneto-metasurface isolator has broadly
potentials for THz application systems.

9483-39, Session 1

GaN-based terahertz quantum cascadelasers (Invited Paper)
Wataru Terashima, Hideki Hirayama, RIKEN (Japan)
Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) that utilize optical inter-subband transitions(ISBTs) in superlattices are promising and practical terahertz (THz) laser
sources, because they have advantageous characteristics such as compact,
continuous-wave operation, narrow line-width, high-power, high-efficiency,
maintenance-free, and low-cost. III-nitride semiconductors having hugelongitudinal optical phonon energies are promising as materials to solve a
problem of “development of operational frequency range (5-12 THz)” on
THz-QCLs. In this study, for the purpose of THz lasing from target subband
levels, we designed and fabricated unique quantum cascade (QC) structures
whose active regions consisted of 2QWs per one period and the numberof wave-functions contributed to lasing is limited to minimum 3 subband
levels. (i.e., Pure 3-level laser system).

9483-2, Session 1

Enhancement of THz signal intensity byplasmonic monopole nanoantenna (Invited
Paper)
Ekmel Özbay, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey)
We have designed, fabricated and measured localized surface plasmon
resonance (LSPR) based monopole nano-antenna coupled photoconductive antennas (PCAs) for THz-time domain spectroscopy (TDS)
systems. LT-GaAs material was used to fabricate the THz PCAs. The
performance of the nano-antenna coupled PCAs was compared to thestandard PCAs. The THz signal level has increased by a factor of 2 by using
the plasmonic monopole nanoantenna.

We fabricated THz-QCLs, whose dimensions were ~1.5 mm and 120 ?mfor a resonant length and a ridge width, respectively, with QC structuresof pure 3-level laser system (100-200 periods) through a radio-frequency
molecular beam epitaxy (RF-MBE) and a metal organic chemical vapor
deposition (MOCVD) on MOCVD-growth AlGaN/AlN templates grown on
c-plane sapphire substrates. Clear satellite peaks in XRD analyses could
be observed, indicating that layer structures were stacked with a good
periodicity. By comparing data with simulation spectra, it was found thaterror of film thicknesses were 1-3 %.

9483-4, Session 1

We observed sharp lasing spectra with peaks at frequencies of 5.47 THz
and 6.97 THz whose full width at half maximum (FWHM) values were close
to those of resolution of FTIR spectrometer, when we tried pulse current
injection measurements into THz-QCL devices. We successfully for the
first time realized GaN-based THz-QCL devices lasing at almost the same
frequencies as the target ones by designing a 2QWs-type QC structure witha pure 3-level laser system. We also successfully achieved lasing at ~5.5 and~7.0 THz, which are highest reported to date for any kinds of THz-QCLs.

Study on gas molecule adsorptiondesorption dynamics on graphene using
terahertz emission spectroscopy (Invited
Paper)
Iwao Kawayama, Osaka Univ. (Japan); Saikat Talapatra,
Southern Illinois Univ.-Carbondale (United States); Robert
Vajtai, Pulickel Madhavapanicker Ajayan, Junichiro Kono,
Rice Univ. (United States); Tonouchi Masayoshi, Osaka
Univ. (Japan)

9483-5, Session 2

Terahertz metamaterials for modulationand detection (Invited Paper)

The attractive physical properties of graphene make it suitable fornanomaterial-based devices. But being an atomically thin system means
its inherent properties highly susceptible to the physically adsorbed
gas molecules. This makes it crucial to study gas adsorption-desorption
dynamics in graphene. Raman spectroscopy is one of the most useful tools
for characterizing basic properties of graphene samples, including the

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Sameer Sonkusale, Pramod Singh, Saroj Rout, Guoqing Fu,
Wangren Xu, Tufts Univ. (United States)·

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Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
This talk will illustrate some new concepts in the area of hybrid
metamaterials, metamaterials that are embedded with active circuit
elements such as transistors. Such transistor/metamaterial hybrids can
exhibit some exotic electromagnetic properties which can be exploitedfor unusual and exciting functions. Two specific examples are provided.
In one application, terahertz (THz) modulator based on embedding of
psuedomorphic high electron mobility transistor (pHEMT) within themetamaterial resonator, all implemented monolithically in a commercial
gallium arsenide (GaAs) technology is presented. In another application,a detector array based on metamaterial perfect absorber for roomtemperature detection of gigahertz (GHz) radiation within each sub
wavelength metamaterial unit cell is presented. The latter application
utilizes a hybridization of metamaterial on printed circuit board (PCB) withdiscrete microwave electronic components. This concept can be easily
scaled to terahertz spectrum through monolithic implementation in CMOS
or GaAs processes. Both applications indicate the promise of the approachof integrating electronics or semiconductor devices with metamaterials for
new and innovative functions for terahertz spectrum.

increase the power of the THz wave or to improve the sensitivity of theTHz detector. One approach to overcoming these limitations is to amplify
the THz wave that has been transmitted through the sample. This allows
us to easily detect the transmitted THz wave using a conventional roomtemperature operated THz sensor, such as a pyroelectric detector.
Based on the fundamental principle of is-TPG, we have demonstrated theamplification of THz wave via parametric processes in a non-linear crystal
with a gain of more than 50 dB at room temperature. The non-linear crystals
used for the purposes of emission and amplification of the THz waves werepumped separately using a pulsed microchip Nd:YAG laser, which leadto an enhancement of the parametric gain. The energy of both the input
and output waves were measured using a calibrated pyroelectric detector(Gentec Inc.) and ND filters for THz-wave. Typically, when the energy of the
input THz-wave was approximately 2 fJ/pulse, the output THz-wave wasalmost 1nJ/pulse.

9483-8, Session 2

Terahertz oscillators and receivers using
electron devices for high-capacity wirelesscommunication (Invited Paper)

9483-6, Session 2

Terahertz-wave detector modules
implementing zero-biased InGaAsP
Schottky-barrier diodes (Invited Paper)

Safumi Suzuki, Masahiro Asada, Tokyo Institute ofTechnology (Japan)

Hiroshi Ito, Kitasato Univ. (Japan)
The Schottky-barrier diode (SBD) is a practical THz-wave detector that
operates at room temperature. For zero-biased operation, use of a material
with a low Schottky barrier height is preferable. In this regard, an InPbased material system is one of the best choices. In this paper, two types
of InGaAsP SBD modules are presented. The first is a J-band (WR-3)
rectangular-waveguide-input SBD module. A resonant matching circuit was
integrated with an SBD to improve the sensitivity at around the resonant
frequency. It showed a sensitivity peak at around 350 GHz with a 3-dB
bandwidth of about 80 GHz. The peak sensitivity was 1460 V/W at 350 GHz.
To our knowledge, this is the highest value ever reported for a zero-biased
InP-based SBD at around this frequency. The second is a quasi-optical SBD
module for broadband operation with linear polarization characteristics. An
SBD was integrated with a modified bowtie antenna and assembled in aquasi-optical module with a Si hyper-hemispherical lens. We could detectsignals at frequencies from 30 GHz to 1 THz. A typical sensitivity obtained
was 1080 V/W at 250 GHz. We also confirmed that the polarization angle
was stable with a degree of polarization larger than 95 % at frequencies
from 80 to 600 GHz. These results indicate that the fabricated quasi-optical
SBD module is suitable for sub-THz-wave measurements that requirepolarization sensitivity without using an external polarizer.

9483-7, Session 2

THz-wave parametric amplifier using
LiNbO3 crystal (Invited Paper)

9483-3, Session 4

Chip scale polarization rotator on SOI for
mid-IR: design and analysis (Invited Paper)

Kodo Kawase, Nagoya Univ. (Japan) and RIKEN (Japan);
Kosuke Murate, Kazuki Imayama, Nagoya Univ. (Japan);Shin’ichiro Hayashi, RIKEN (Japan)
The emission of high-power THz radiation has received much recent
research attention. Various methods, including optical rectification of
femtosecond pulses in non-linear inorganic and organic crystals, such aslithium niobate (LiNbO3) have been reported to generate high-power THz
radiation. These methods can produce THz EM waves with peak electricfields of a few MV/cm. In addition, injection-seeded THz parametric
generation (is-TPG) with a peak power of a few tens of kW has recently
been reported by us. These sources have been applied in wide rangeof fields including THz spectroscopic imaging of illicit drugs hidden in
envelopes. Despite the improved performance, it remains difficult toobtain THz spectra and transmission-based images of samples with a large
absorption coefficient. To overcome these problems, it is necessary to either

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SPIE DSS 2015

Recent progress in our room-temperature resonant-tunneling-diode(RTD) terahertz (THz) oscillators and HEMT THz receivers are reported.
Oscillations up to 1.55 THz were obtained using a short antenna and an
AlAs/InGaAs double barrier RTD with thin-well structure and optimized
collector thickness. Using a coherent power combining in a coupled twoelement array with offset slot antennas, high output power of 0.6 mW
at 620 GHz was obtained. THz communications up to 3 Gbps using RTD
oscillator as a transmitter were demonstrated. The data rate was limited by
the cut-off frequency of the oscillator, which was determined by the external
circuit around the RTD. A structure for high-speed direct modulation was
fabricated, and the intensity modulation up to 30 GHz was achieved in apreliminary experiment. A novel oscillator structure; a patch antenna wasfabricated on a benzocyclobutene layer stacked on an RTD oscillator, wasproposed and fabricated for extraction of output power without using
Si lens. The RTD oscillated at ~510 GHz, and an output power of ~40 µW
radiated in the upward direction without the Si lens. A wide frequency
tunable RTD oscillator using varactor diode was realized. A wide tuning
range of ~11% (70 GHz) of the center frequency of 655 GHz was achievedby changing the depletion-layer capacitance of the varactor diode with a
DC sweep from ?4 to +0.5 V. THz detectors with high current sensitivity are
required for high speed communication. We fabricated a short-gate InGaAs
HEMT detector integrated with broadband bow-tie antenna, and achieved
current sensitivity of ~5 A/W at 280 GHz. Higher current sensitivity is
expected by a HEMT with good subthreshold characteristics.

·

B. M. A. Rahman, City Univ. London (United Kingdom);
Ajanta Barh, Ravi K Varshney, Indian Institute ofTechnology Delhi (India); Bishnu P. Pal, Mahindra Ecole
Centrale (India)
We report design methodology for realizing a compact and efficient midIR wavelength polarization rotator (PR) on silicon-on-insulator (SOI) by
exploiting power coupling between the fundamental transverse modes ofa slot and a strip waveguide (WG)-based directional coupler. Our rigorous
numerical investigations revealed that significant power coupling can takeplace between the fundamental TE and TM modes of the structure owing totheir large structural asymmetry and high modal hybridness. As an example,
we optimized the structure for efficient performance at 3 µm wavelengthwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9483-12, Session 4

at which the maximum power coupling efficiency as high as 90% is feasible
within a device length of ~ 536 +m only. Further, suitability of its fabricationis confirmed by calculating fabrication tolerances. Additionally, operational
band-width is also studied

Optical simulation of terahertz antennausing finite difference time domain
method9483-10, Session 4

Chao Zhang, Zoran Ninkov, Gregory J. Fertig, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States); Andrew P.
Sacco, J. Daniel Newman, Kenneth D. Fourspring, Exelis
Geospatial Systems (United States); Zeljko Ignjatovic, Univ.
of Rochester (United States); Paul P. K. Lee, IEEE (UnitedStates); Judith L. Pipher, Craig W. McMurtry, Jagannath
Dayalu, Univ. of Rochester (United States)

Compact THz receivers (Invited Paper)
Thomas W Crowe, Eric W. Bryerton, Jeffrey L. Hesler,
Virginia Diodes, Inc. (United States)
Heterodyne receivers based on Schottky barrier diodes offer excellent
performance for a range of scientific and commercial applications, including
atmospheric studies, plasma diagnostics, communications, imaging andtest & measurement systems. These receivers have excellent sensitivity
and bandwidth and operate at room temperature. This paper will describe
VDI’s efforts to fundamentally reduce the size and weight of these receivers
so that they can be used in a wider variety of applications. The talk will
focus on the development of a W-Band receiver for a NASA cubesat anda ~300GHz receiver for the ITER ECE system. These receiver modules arehighly integrated and their volume is greatly reduced from previous stateof-the-art, without sacrificing performance. The new integration technology
can be extended to frequencies as high as several terahertz and should
result in systems that have greater reliability and lower manufacturing costs.

Terahertz science is a promising and rapidly developing research field.
However, solid state terahertz detectors of high performance are stillneeded. For MOSFET terahertz detectors, since the physical dimension of
FET structure is much smaller than the wavelength, an antenna within eachpixel is required in order to couple more incident radiation into the detector.
In this paper, a software package, Lumerical FDTD solutions, is used to
optimize the terahertz antenna design. Effects of various parameters havebeen explored and the ultimate goad is to have broadband antennas thatwork efficiently over desired frequency bands. Generally, the transmission/
absorption characteristics of bowtie antenna are demonstrated. Uponcomparison with more realistic aluminum drude model, perfect electricalconductor (PEC) is verified to be an accurate enough and computationallyefficient model for the antenna material. Because PEC material is notabsorbing, a mathematically equivalent resistor is added into the systemserving to transform incident terahertz energy. After some tests, it is clearly
indicated that antenna arrays of smaller pixel pitch, i.e. more units withina fixed area, would grant the system more power to control the incident
light. Different from isolated dipole/bowtie antennas, the simulation results
demonstrate that antennas on silicon substrate exhibit a larger resonant
wavelength than that predicted from the simple half wavelength theory.
We get a relationship of very high linearity between three different antenna
lengths and their corresponding resonant wavelengths. Some other effects
and factors, like fat bowtie, boundary condition, polarization, have also beenchecked. The knowledge obtained from all these explorations is applied in
the design of our new generation detector detector for 215GHz.

9483-11, Session 4

Radar system components to detect small
and fast objects
Axel Hülsmann, Christian Zech, Mathias Klenner, Axel
Tessmann, Arnulf Leuther, Michael Schlechtweg,
Oliver Ambacher, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte
Festkörperphysik (Germany); Daniel Lopez-Diaz, Lantiq A
GmbH (Austria)
Small and fast objects, like bullets of caliber 4.5 to 8 mm, fired from guns
like AK-47, can cause serious problems to aircrafts at asymmetric warfare.
Especially slow and big aircrafts, like heavy transport helicopters are an easy
mark of small caliber hand fire weapons. These aircrafts produce so muchnoise, that the crew often cannot recognize an attack unless importantsystems of the aircraft fail. This is just one of many scenarios, where thedetection of fast and small objects is desirable. Another similar scenario isthe collision of space debris particles with satellites.

9483-13, Session 5

Metasurface induced terahertz
transparency and absorption (Invited
Paper)

To detect such objects by a radar system, several issues have to be taken
into account. First of all, the radar equation, which calculates the maximum
range, has to be interpreted carefully. As the bullet diameter is in the orderof or smaller than the radar wavelength, the radar cross section (RCS) of asphere is no longer only a function of geometry. Assuming a 5 mm sphere
the RCS decreases with the power of 4 by the wavelength. Increasing thefrequency beyond 16 GHz enters the so called Mie region, where the RCS
is hard to predict caused by interference effects. Further increasing thefrequency decreases the Mie effect. Not till then a frequency of 190 GHz isreached, the instable Mie region is left and a stable RCS of -47 dBsm can beassumed.

Weili Zhang, Oklahoma State Univ. (United States)
Plasmonic metamaterials have recently allowed the observation of thequantum phenomenon of electromagnetically induced transparency(EIT) as a result of the near-field coupling effect between a bright anda dark resonator, where the destructive interference of the resonancemodes delivers a sharp window of nearly perfect transmission within abroad absorption band. The EIT effect drastically modifies the dispersive
properties of an otherwise opaque medium. In contrast to the destructive
interference of the coupled EIT resonators, a constructive interference ofdifferent excitation pathways would lead to a new interesting phenomenon
known as electromagnetically induced absorption (EIA). Instead of apronounced transparency window, a sharp absorption resonance is inducedin the EIA system. Here, we present experimental demonstrations of themetasurface analogues of EIT and EIA in near-field coupled subwavelength
terahertz systems. By use optical photodoping and superconducting media,
we also report active switching of the EIT analogue.

At our contribution we will also focus on extreme linear and fast chirp
generation with high bandwidth for FMCW-radars. Also we will present
results on MMICs we have developed for radar applications at W-Band (75110 GHz) and H-Band (220 – 325 GHz). First experimental results will be alsopresented.

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Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9483-14, Session 59483-16, Session 5

Optical parameters of ZnMgO/ZnO coreshell structures in THz regime

Phase characteristics of subwavelength
antenna elements for efficient designof terahertz frequency and millimeterwavelength metasurfaces

Anas Mazady, Abdiel Rivera, Kiarash Ahi, Mehdi Anwar,
Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
Terahertz (THz) optical parameters of Zn1-xMgxO/ZnO core-shell (CS)structures with different Mg mole fractions at the core, namely 2%, 5%, and
10% are determined using THz time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) - a
noncontact optical probe. In contrast to the most reports of core-shellstructures in the form of protruding nanowires (NWs) perpendicular to theaxis of the core, we report co-axial core-shell structures. Co-axial core-shell
ZnMgO/ZnO structures have potential use in efficient solar cells, gas sensor,
and UV detectors leveraging heterostructures of increased junction area,
quantum confinement, and reduced dimensionality.
The THz-TDS setup employed a commercial mode locked Ti:sapphire laserthat generates 100 fs pulses with a repetition rate of 80 MHz and a 30V bias
was applied at the feed of the emitter antenna. CS structures with 10% Mg
at the core (CS10) has the highest measured refractive index in the 1-2 THz
range, being n=2 at 1.5 THz, followed by the 5% (CS5, n=1.1 at 1.5 THz) and
2% (CS2, n=0.9 at 1.5 THz) Mg mole fraction samples. This is attributed toincreased delay of the transmitted THz pulse resulting in a greater phaseshift. Higher absorption coefficient is observed for CS structures with higher
Mg mole fraction at the core which is consistent with Mazady et al. reporting
similar observations for 1-D nanowires [1]. The real part of the complex
dielectric constant for CS structure was found to be higher for higher Mgmole fraction, being proportional to the square of the refractive index as
expected. The measured real dielectric constant was 4 for CS10, 1.1 for CS5
and 0.35 for CS2 at 1.5 THz. The imaginary part of the complex dielectric
constant increased for high Mg sample, being 0.007 for CS10, 0.0065 forCS5, and 0.006 for CS2, that are proportional to the product of absorption
coefficient and refractive index.
References[1] Anas Mazady, Abdiel Rivera, and Mehdi Anwar, “Optical Parameters of
Zn1-xMgxO Nanowires in THz Regime”, Solid State Electronics, vol. 101, pp.
8-12, Nov 2014.

9483-33, Session 5

Sub-THz materials measurements based on
low loss corrugated waveguides (Invited
Paper)
Emile de Rijk, Alessandro Macor, SWISSto12 SA(Switzerland)

Accurate permittivity measurements are necessary to provide scientists andengineers with valuable information to properly and reliably incorporate
dielectric materials into application designs and for QC during production.

Tuning of terahertz metamaterials’
resonances via near field coupling (Invited
Paper)A material may have several dielectric mechanisms or polarization effects
that contribute to its overall permittivity. In particular, atomic and electronicmechanisms affecting the permittivity are relatively weak, and usuallyconstant over the low frequency side of the microwave region. As frequency
increases towards Terahertz these mechanisms start to play a major roleleading very often to pronounced frequency dependences.

Abul K Azad, Dibakar R Chowdhury, Hou-Tong
Chen, Antoinette J Taylor, Center for Integrated
Nanotechnologies (United States)

Several solutions used currently at microwave frequencies have been
proposed with mitigated success for Terahertz spectroscopy. Difficulties
being generated by very thin low loss samples, very high loss samples,
sample preparation, measurement set-ups and measurement calibration.

Electromagnetic metamaterials (MMs) consisting of highly conducting
sub-wavelength metallic resonators enable many unusual electromagnetic
properties at designed frequencies which are not permissible with
the naturally occurring materials. The electromagnetic properties ofmetamaterial are typically controlled by the clever design of the MM
unit cell, often termed as meta-molecule, consisting of metallic split ring
resonators (SRRs) or meta-atoms. The near field coupling between metaatoms plays a vital role in tuning the natural resonances of individual SRR
and, therefore, has the ability to modify the far-field radiative properties
significantly. It is shown that near field coupling between the meta-atoms
could lead to resonance tuning, mode splitting, and ultrafast switching inpassive and active resonators. In this article, we present a brief review ontuning the metamaterial properties by active and passive manipulation ofnear field coupling between neighboring split ring resonators.

SPIE DSS 2015

In this paper we investigate the effects of subwavelength antenna resonatorelement dimensions on the anomalous reflection properties of metasurfaces
operating in the millimeter-wavelength and terahertz frequency regions.
Such two-dimensional structures are finding uses as flat optics in a variety
of applications including beam steerers, reflectarrays, and broadband,
polarization-independent radar absorbers. Numerical simulations were
performed to characterize the reflection phase-shift of rectangularresonators of varying dimensions for efficient metasurface and reflectarray
design. We show that antenna elements with deeply-subwavelength
thickness provide the largest total phase variation and therefore present a
viable metasurface design methodology for a variety of highfrequency applications.

Applications that make use of electromagnetic signal beyond microwaves
are becoming the game-changing ingredients in a large variety of markets.
Automotive radars, 5G telecommunications, food inspection imaging,
Magnetic resonance spectrometry, aquametry in pharma or paper industry
and others are nowadays pushed toward the Terahertz regime.

9483-15, Session 5306

Richard J. Williams, Andrew J. Gatesman, Univ. ofMassachusetts Lowell (United States); William E. Nixon,
National Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)

To encompass issues of fundamental rectangular waveguides at sub-THz
frequencies, SWISSto12 has developed compact low-loss corrugatedwaveguide nowadays applied in different applications such as Dynamic
Nuclear Polarization NMR and on-wafer probing.
In particular in this work, the advantages of a novel concept called Material
Characterization Kit (MCK) recently introduced by SWISSto12 will bepresented. The device uses low-loss corrugated waveguide propagating
an HE11 EM-mode as fixture for the materials under test. MCK is directly
connected to frequency extender modules of VNAs. The MCK provides
a quick, reliable and calibrated way to extract dielectric proprieties from
S-parameter measurements. A benchmark to other techniques such as TDS
will also be presented.

·

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Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9483-17, Session 6value of the reflection of surface is 0.076 a.u. for the counterfeit IC while it is0.061 a.u. for the authentic one.

Extreme THz nonlinearities: high-harmonic
generation, dynamical Bloch oscillations
and interband Zener tunneling in bulk
semiconductors (Invited Paper)

Other techniques such as X-ray tomography has also been employed for
detection of counterfeit ICs. In this talk, the observations from THz imaging
are compared to X-ray tomography. X-ray computed tomography is an
imaging method which can provide 3D information of the internal structure
without the need for de-capsulation of a ICs. Although, it is not physicallydestructive to the ICs but the effect of X-ray on the functionality of ICs is not
yet fully investigated. Therefore, THz imaging is introduced in this paper as apromising tool for physical inspections of ICs and results are correlated with
X-ray imaging analysis.

Christoph Lange, Olaf Schubert, Matthias Hohenleutner,
Fabian Langer, Benedikt Urbanek, Univ. Regensburg(Germany); Ulrich Huttner, Daniel Golde, Philipps-Univ.
Marburg (Germany); Torsten Meier, Univ. Paderborn(Germany); Mackillo Kira, Stephan W. Koch, Philipps-Univ.
Marburg (Germany); Rupert Huber, Univ. Regensburg(Germany)

9483-19, Session 6

Solid state THz sources with higher power(Invited Paper)

Resolving the dynamics of ultrafast charge transport in strongly biased
semiconductors is key to understanding coherent processes in solid-statephysics, and lies at the heart of future high-speed electronics and electrooptics. We use intense, phase-locked, few-cycle terahertz (THz) pulses at
photon energies far below electronic interband resonances as a precisely
adjustable alternating bias, far exceeding dc breakdown voltages. These(multi-) terahertz transients centered at 30 THz (left inset) with peak fields
of 72 MVcm-1 drive the coherent interband polarization and dynamical Blochoscillations in semiconducting gallium selenide. The dynamics encompass
the generation of strong high-harmonic transients (right inset), spanningthe entire terahertz-to-visible spectral domain between 0.1 and 675 THz(main panel) in a single, phase-locked pulse. Phase and amplitude of highharmonic components can be adjusted via the carrier envelope phase of thedriving pulse which controls the interference of multiple interband ionization
channels. Microscopic calculations reproduce the polarization response overthe large spectral range covering almost 13 optical octaves. Our experiments
establish a new field of light-wave electronics exploring charge transport
at optical clock rates. Furthermore, we explore high-field transport at 1
THz exploiting the near-field enhancement in metamaterials which enables
quasi-static biasing of undoped gallium arsenide at atomically strong
field amplitudes. Nonperturbative THz nonlinearities and an interband
Zener tunneling rate exceeding previously reported values by 10 orders ofmagnitude may inspire future THz-rate electric circuitry at the interface of
THz optics and electronics.

Thomas W Crowe, Steven A. Retzloff, Jeffrey L. Hesler,
Virginia Diodes, Inc. (United States)
The most powerful and frequency agile sources of continuous wave powerin the frequency range near 1 THz are built with diode based frequency
multiplier chains. These sources commonly use a low frequency oscillator,
followed by a power amplifier and then a chain of discrete multiplier blocks;
most commonly doublers and triplers. Although it is expected that highfrequency amplifiers will eventually eliminate the need for high power
multipliers, this time has not yet arrived. Thus, the continued developmentof frequency multipliers is required to meet the current needs of scientists.
For example, chemists require very high power sources to achieve dynamic
nuclear polarization to greatly enhance the signal in NMR experiments. In
this example, a high power solid-state source is required to pump a tube
device that will generate the power required. However, there is hope that
if the coupling of the power to the sample and power from the solid-statesource can each be significantly improved, then the expensive tube device
may be eliminated for a certain class of experiments. Another example isradio astronomy where high power local-oscillator sources are needed forarray receivers at frequencies of astronomical importance, such as 1.9THz.
This paper will overview VDI’s recent development of improved sources forthese applications. This will include a description of an improved 264GHz for
DNP experiments with 90mW output power and an overview of the ongoingdevelopment of sources for 1.9THz.

9483-18, Session 69483-20, Session 7

A review on THz characterization ofelectronic components and a comparisonof THz imaging characterization with othertechniques (Invited Paper)

Nonlinear optical frequency up-conversion
broadening terahertz horizons in sensitive
detection (Invited Paper)
Kouji Nawata, Shin’ichiro Hayashi, Hiroaki Minamide, RIKEN(Japan)Kiarash Ahi, Navid Asadizanjani, Sina Shahbazmohamadi,Mark Tehranipoor, Mehdi Anwar, Univ. of Connecticut(United States)

Second-order nonlinear optical wavelength-conversion has been attractive
for generating terahertz (THz) wave with high peak-power and for THzwave detection by up-converting from terahertz wave to near infrared(NIR) light. Especially, the sensitive THz-wave detection working at room
temperature expects to open novel applications. ?We have developed
sensitive THz detection down to several tens of atto-joule using lithium
niobate (LiNbO3) or 4-dimethylamino-N’-methyl-4’-stilbazolium tosylate(DAST) crystals, and a real-time imaging using up-conversion consisting of
DAST crystal and InGaAs NIR-imager.

Many materials in THz spectral region have unique spectral fingerprints.
THz radiation, able to penetrate most of nonmetallic materials allows THz
spectroscopy to be used to image the interior structures and constituent
materials of wide variety of objects including Integrated circuits (ICs)providing an authentication platform to distinguish between authentic
and counterfeit electronic components. Counterfeit and authentic ICs
are investigated using Menlosystems TERA OSCAT High-speed Terahertz
Spectrometer with measurement frequencies up to 3 THz. Back references
average refractive indices and absorption characteristics are extracted to
distinguish between authentic and counterfeit parts. Spot measurements
are correlated to THz imaging of the whole surface of the IC. It is observedthat the packaging of counterfeit ICs are not made from homogeneousmaterials. In particular, it is observed that the variance of the reflected THzfrom the surface of the counterfeit IC is 2.7065x[(10)]^(-4) a.u. while thatof the authentic one is 1.1737x[(10)]^(-4) a.u. which is less than 45% of thecounterfeit one. Also, the difference between the peak and the minimum

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Particularly, LiNbO3 crystal is an eminent nonlinear crystal for converting
wavelengths between THz wave and NIR at frequency range from 1 to 3 THz.
Mixing THz wave with an intense NIR pump beam in the LiNbO3 provides
generation of a signal light at a different frequency because of efficient
figure of merit.
Here, we report on a sensitive THz-wave detection based on novel designusing a slant-stripe-type periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) for
practical use. The efficient scheme that two optical waves, the pump and·help@spie.org

307Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
up-conversion signal beams, propagate collinearly in the PPLN to achieveeffective parametric amplification for the signal beam was designed. The
PPLN with a poling angle, ? = 20°and a poling period, ? = 29.0 ?m was
employed. A master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA) system consisting ofa Nd:YAG microchip laser and Nd:YAG optical amplifiers was used as a pumpsource for both THz-wave generation and detection. Our injection-seededTHz-wave parametric generator (is-TPG) pumped by the MOPA was used asa THz-wave source. Generated THz-wave at 1.6 THz was incident to a PPLN
crystal. Coupling energy of THz-wave into the PPLN was controlled by two
sets of THz-wave attenuators. One THz-wave attenuator set consists of fourthin-film attenuators with different THz-wave transmissions: 30 %, 10 %, 3 %,and 1 %. The sets are useful as single attenuators or in combination as tuned
flexibly. Minimum THz-wave detection was achieved down to energy about
100 aJ at the frequency of 1.6 THz. The result leads to a novel THz detector
based on fiber and integrated optics with high sensitivity, robustness, andeasy handling.
We demonstrated the remarkably sensitive detection by frequency
up-conversion exceeding that of a cryogenically cooled bolometer. The
nonlinear optical up-conversion detection is promising and broadening
THz horizons.

9483-23, Session 7

Possibility of the detection andidentification of substance at long distanceusing the noisy reflected THz pulse underreal conditions

9483-21, Session 7

Laminated materials characterization byterahertz kinetics spectroscopy
Anis Rahman, Aunik K. Rahman, Applied Research &Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Terahertz spectroscopy under high speed acquisition of reflectedenergy (kinetics spectroscopy) is an effective tool for layered materials’
deformation characterization under ballistic impact. An effort is outlined
here that is aimed at utilizing the kinetics spectrum for deducing quantities
for uniquely describing a deformation event. Additionally, the same
technique may be utilized for real-time assessment of trauma or concussion
by measuring the helmet wore by an athlete as opposed to diagnosis by abiomarker. Biomarkers are generated in a person based on an individual’s
genetic and physiological make up; as such the threshold of a biomarker
may vary widely from person to person. On the other hand, deformation ofa laminated material (e.g., a helmet) is dependent on the nature of impact
and projectile; thus can uniquely characterize the impact condition leading
to a diagnostic procedure based on the energy received by an athlete due
to impact. In this paper we shall outline the calibration process for a given
material under ballistic impact and then utilize the calibration for extracting
physical parameters from the measured kinetics spectrum. An effort torelate the physical parameters to trauma/concussion conditions will beoutlined. Measured kinetics spectra will be used to outline the method andrationale for extending concept to a diagnosis tool. In particular, kinetics
spectra were captured from multilayered plates subjected to ballistic
hit under experimental conditions. An algorithm was devised to extract
deformation (mm) and deformation velocity from which the energy received
on the skull was estimated via laws of motion (under non-relativistic
considerations). This energy is assumed to be related to actual injury
conditions (trauma and/or concussion), thus forming a basis for diagnosis.

Experimental determination of terahertz
atmospheric absorption parametersDavid M. Slocum, Thomas M. Goyette, Robert H. Giles,
Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States); William E.
Nixon, National Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)
The terahertz frequency regime is often used as the ‘chemical fingerprint’
region of the electromagnetic spectrum since many molecules exhibit adense selection of rotational and vibrational transitions. Water is a major
component of the atmosphere and since it has a large dipole moment
the propagation of terahertz radiation will be dominated by atmospheric

SPIE DSS 2015

Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Svetlana A. Varentsova, Vladislav
V. Trofimov, Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (RussianFederation)
We show possibility of the detection and identification of substance at long
distance (several metres, for example) using the THz pulse reflected fromthe object under the real conditions: at room temperature and humidity
about 70%. The main feature of this report consists in a demonstration of
the detection and identification of substance using the computer processingof the noisy THz pulse. Amplitude of the useful signal is less than theamplitude of a noise. Nevertheless, it is possible to detect “fingerprint”
frequencies of substance if both these frequencies are known and the SDA
method is used together with new assessments for probability estimation
for presence of detected frequencies. Current results show feasibility ofusing the THz pulsed spectroscopy for the counter-terrorism problem.

9483-24, Session 7

THz magneto-photoresponse spectroscopyof HgTe based quantum well (gapped
Dirac type electronic dispersion)
Mehdi Pakmehr, Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Christoph
Bruene, Laurens W. Molenkamp, Julius-Maximilians-Univ.
Würzburg (Germany); Bruce D. McCombe, Univ. at Buffalo(United States)
The Dirac-like electronic dispersion relation (linear energy vs. momentum)
in solids is a topic of current interest in the scientific community. This
unique linear dispersion could be beneficial for the design of more efficientdevices for both electronic and optoelectronic purposes. We have used
THz magneto-photoresponse spectroscopy to probe the gapped Diraclike dispersion relation of the two-dimensional electron gas of HgTe
quantum wells with well width ( 6.1 nm) such that the topmost valence
and conduction bands have the conventional band alignment of foundin zinc blende direct gap semiconductors. We used THz laser radiation
at frequencies ?=2.4 and 1.83 THz to explore the electronic propertiesof charge carriers at high Fermi energies (130 ~ 160 meV) at cryogenic
temperatures. I will describe the experiments and how we have been able
to extract important electronic parameters of electrons in this system fromthe THz magneto-photoresponse signal, including the g-factor tensor
components, the effective mass and the so-called Rashba parameter (?R) . I

9483-22, Session 7308

effects. This study will present the results of high-resolution broadband
measurements of the terahertz atmospheric absorption and detail thetechnique for directly measuring the pressure broadening coefficients,
absolute absorption coefficients, line positions, and continuum effects.
Differences between these measured parameters and those tabulated
in HITRAN will be discussed. Once the water vapor absorption wascharacterized, the same technique was used to measure the same line
parameters for methanol, a trace gas of interest within Earth’s atmosphere.
Methanol has a dense absorption spectrum in the terahertz frequency region
and is an important molecule in fields such as environmental monitoring,security, and astrophysics. The data obtained in the present study will beof immediate use for the remote sensing community, as it is uncommon
to measure this many independent parameters as well as to measure theabsolute absorption of the transitions. Current models rely on tabulated
databases of calculated values for the line parameters measured in thisstudy. Differences between the measured data and those in the databases
will be highlighted and discussed.

·

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Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
will also present our findings about THz magneto-thermoelectric effects forthis system from photovoltage measurements in high magnetic fields.

The THz-FPA has the new pixel structure which has several times longer
optical-cavity length than the conventional pixel has, by forming a thick
SiN layer (ca. 7 µm thick) on ROIC. The extended optical-cavity structure
is favorable for detecting electromagnetic wave with longer wavelength.
Consequently, the Minimum Detectable Power per pixel (MDP) is improved
ten times in sub-THz region, especially 500-600 GHz. This paper presents
wavelength dependences of MDP values for the conventional THz-FPA and
THz-FPA with the new pixel structure.

9483-25, Session 8

Room temperature terahertz detectors andtheir applications (Invited Paper)

Specification of THz camera which incorporates THz-FPA with the extended
optical-cavity structure is summarized. Finally, sub-THz images of bothtransmission and reflection are presented, using a 500 GHz source, acollimator lens, Galvano mirrors, two wire grids and a quarter-wave plate.
The advantage of this imager is that a reflection image of a sample is takenfrom the frontal side of the sample, so that the image is hardly deformed.

Jian Chen, Xuecou Tu, Lin Kang, Biaobing Jin, Peiheng Wu,
Nanjing Univ. (China)
Terahertz (THz) detector working at room-temperature (RT), consisting ofa Nb5N6 thin film microbridge and a dipole planar antenna, is reported.
Due to the high temperature coefficient of the resistance (TCR), whichis as high as -0.7% /K, of the Nb5N6 thin film, such an antenna-coupledmicrobolometer is quite suitable for detecting THz signals. Previously, THz
detectors working at 0.1 THz have been reported. Here, the results around
0.3 THz will be presented.

9483-29, Session 8

Robust identification of concealed
dangerous substances using THz imaging
spectroscopy

The detector consists of a gold dipole planar antenna and a microbridge,
which is the core element and is made of properly patterned Nb5N6 film.
The software named HFSS is used to carry out numerical simulations forthis antenna structure and to optimize the sizes. In the process of Nb5N6
microbolometer fabrication, a SiO2/Si (100) combination substrate is used,
where SiO2 with 100 nm thick, is deposited by thermal oxidation on Si(100) substrate with high resistivity (r > 1000 W•cm). Such a combinationis chosen because of its low loss at THz frequencies and ease of fabricating
an air-bridge. Then, we used radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering
to deposit a Nb5N6 film (120 nm thick). The film was patterned into
microbridges using photolithography and reactive ion etching (RIE).
The dipole antenna was then integrated with the Nb5N6 microbridge bydepositing a 5-nm-thick aluminum film firstly, a 220-nm-thick gold later,
and then pattern into the right shape and size as designed by the software.
Finally, an air-bridge, which reduces the effective thermal conductance ofthe substrate to further enhance the responsivity, was formed under the
Nb5N6 microbridge by etching 1 µm of the Si part of the substrate.

Arthur D. van Rheenen, Magnus W. Haakestad, Norwegian
Defence Research Establishment (Norway); Helle E.
Nystad, Norwegian Univ. of Science and Technology(Norway)
The ability of THz radiation to penetrate common packaging materials
makes it well suited to detect unusual or suspicious shapes as well as
to identify dangerous and/or illegal substances. In all detection andidentification schemes false alarm rates have to be sufficiently low
and specificity has to be sufficiently high for the schemes to be used
operationally – this is what we mean by robustness. The aim of this work is
to identify schemes or algorithms that match measured THz spectra withlibrary-stored spectra to robustly identify the mentioned substances.
We consider two degrees of freedom in our search for a robust algorithm:
which spectral characteristic to choose and how to measure distance
between the measured and library-stored characteristic. We perform
THz-spectroscopy in the time-domain and calculate the raw spectrum
through a Fourier transform. However, the raw spectrum may not be
the best characteristic to choose for identification – absorbance and its
frequency derivative are considered as alternatives. As to what metric to
use to compare two THz spectra we have previously explored spectral angle
mapping (SAM) [1]. In this work we investigate the merits and pitfalls ofusing principal component analysis (PCA) and compare results with thementioned SAM method.

The DC responsivity at RT, calculated from the measured current-voltage(I-V) curve of the Nb5N6 microbolometer, is about -760 V/W. A typical noisevoltage as low as 10 nV/√Hz yields a noise equivalent power (NEP) of 1.3 x
10^-11 W/√Hz. The best measured RF responsivity at 0.28 THz, is about 580
V/W, which corresponding NEP of 1.7 x 10^-11 W/√Hz.
Using above detectors, an active imaging system at 0.22 THz has been
constructed using a Cassegrain reflector with the diameter of 30 cm. The
special resolution of about 1.41 cm is obtained. Also, this work could offer
a candidate to develop a large scale focal plane array (FPA) with simple
technique and low cost. The details will be discussed in the presentation.

The THz setup is based on a fiber-coupled time-domain spectroscopy
system pumped by a 100-fs fiber laser. Images are obtained by scanning thesamples through the THz beam by using an x-y stage.

9483-26, Session 8

Performances of THz cameras withenhanced sensitivity in sub-terahertz
regionAnalysis is performed on measurements taken on a range of proxies for
explosives and drugs and under a number of measurement conditions. We
are especially concerned with measuring under realistic conditions, where
the samples are hidden beneath barriers and measurements are performedin ambient air. Post-processing of raw data is limited to Blackman-Harris
windowing of the time-domain signal – water-vapor lines and backgroundincrease of absorbance caused by scattering is not removed fromthe sepctra.

Naoki Oda, Tsutomu Ishi, Seiji Kurashina, Takayuki Sudou,
Takao Morimoto, Masaru Miyoshi, Kohei Doi, Hideki Goto,
Tokuhito Sasaki, NEC Corp. (Japan); Goro Isoyama,
Ryukou Kato, Akinori Irizawa, Keigo Kawase, The Instituteof Scientific and Industrial Research (Japan)[1] Terahertz imaging spectroscopy – towards robust identification ofconcealed dangerous substances, Arthur D. van Rheenen and Magnus W.
Haakestad, IRMMW & THz 2014, Tucson, 22 – 26 September 2014.

Two types of terahertz (THz) cameras with an enhanced sensitivity in
sub-THz region are developed, which incorporates 640x480 or 320x240
uncooled microbolometer-type THz focal plane array (FPA) with a pixel
pitch of 23.5 µm. The pixel in the THz-FPA has such a structure that an area
sensitive to electromagnetic wave is suspended above read-out integrated
circuit (ROIC). Thin metallic layer is formed on the top of the sensitive area,
while thick metallic layer is formed on the surface of ROIC. The structurecomposed of the thin metallic layer and the thick metallic layer behaves as
an optical cavity.

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309

Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9483-30, Session 89483-31, Session PThu

Dark field THz camera imaging
measurements, 200 GHz to 400 GHz

Inspection of mechanical and electricalproperties of silicon wafers using terahertz
tomography and spectroscopy

Andrew P. Sacco, J. Daniel Newman, Exelis Geospatial
Systems (United States); Paul P. K. Lee, Univ. of Rochester(United States); Kenneth D. Fourspring, John H. Osborn,
Robert D. Fiete, Exelis Geospatial Systems (United States);Mark F. Bocko, Zeljko Ignjatovic, Judith L. Pipher, Craig
W. McMurtry, Xi-Cheng Zhang, Jagannath Dayalu, Univ. ofRochester (United States); Katherine Seery, Chao Zhang,
Zoran Ninkov, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Exelis Geospatial Systems and its CEIS partners at the University ofRochester and Rochester Institute of Technology are developing an active
THz imaging system for use in standoff detection, molecular spectroscopy
and penetration imaging. The current activity is focused on developing aprecision instrument for the detection of radiation centered on atmosphericwindows between 200 GHz and 400 GHz (available sources). A dark
field camera is developed to image the scattered energy produced from
actively illuminating objects with semi-coherent non-ionizing radiation.
The optical prescription consists of a catadioptric f/n 1.43, 1-to-1 imager
with an aperture of 0.455 m intended to achieve a resolution of 3.0 mm(200 GHz) at a standoff distance of 1.0 m. The primary goal of the initialsystem development is to produce a precise scientific instrument for THztechnology development positioned in the electromagnetic spectral range
between 188 GHz and 7.0 THz. Scatter image measurements are presented
in order to verify image formation as well as estimate the instruments ability
to penetrate materials.

9483-27, Session PThu

MCT as sub-terahertz and infrared detector

Thomas Arnold, Wolfgang Mühleisen, Johannes Schicker,
Christina Hirschl, Raimund Leitner, Carinthian Tech
Research AG (Austria)
Two different THz applications in the semiconductor industry were exploredand validated against established reference measurement techniques andsimulations. The first application investigated the possibility of measuring
mechanical properties of silicon wafers. Time-domain THz tomography
mapping scans were carried out to measure wafer thickness and flatness,both in the native state and under different external mechanical loads.
These measurements were carried out for a variety of wafers, and theensuing deformation maps used to validate newly developed numericalsimulation models wafer deformation, and vice versa. In the second
part of this paper, carrier dynamics of optically injected charges were
investigated by THz spectroscopy. THz pump/probe measurements werecarried out in transmission and reflection arrangements on silicon wafers
illuminated by a metal halide light source. The light source generates freecharge carriers in the semiconductor material that affect the transmission
and reflection properties of the semiconductor material. The results of
the THz measurements are compared to established standard techniques,
like microwave-detected photo-conductance decay (MWPCD) or quasisteady-state photo conductance (QSSPC) measurements. The defective
areas identified with the THz measurements are in good agreement withthe defective areas identified by the reference methods. A common benefitof time-domain THz measurements is that the wafer thickness, which is an
important measure for the interaction volume of the THz radiation with thesemiconductor material, can be calculated from the time-domain signals.
The results indicate that THz spectroscopy and imaging can be valuable
tools for defect analysis and quality control of silicon wafers, especiallysince the measurement is fully contact-free and can determine electricalproperties within a single modality.

Fiodor F. Sizov, Vyacheslav V. Zabudsky, V.E. Lashkaryov
Institute of Semiconductor Physics (Ukraine); Sergey
A. Dvoretsky, A.V. Rzhanov Institute of Semiconductor
Physics (Russian Federation); Vladimir A. Petryiakov,
Aleksandr G. Golenkov, Katerina V. Andreyeva, Zinoviia F.
Tsybrii, Anna V. Shevchik-Shekera, V.E. Lashkaryov Instituteof Semiconductor Physics (Ukraine); Ernesto Dieguez,
Univ. Autónoma de Madrid (Spain)
Development of infrared (IR) and sub-terahertz (sub-THz) radiation
detectors at the same sensitive elements on the base of mercury-cadmiumtelluride (MCT) are reporteded. Bi-color un-cooled and cooled to 78 K
narrow-gap MCT semiconductor thin layers grown by liquid phase epitaxy
or molecular beam epitaxy procedure on CdZnTe or GaAs high resistivity
substrates with bow-type antennas were considered both as sub-THz
direct detection bolometers and 3 to 10 um IR photoconductors. For
characterization of the effective receiving area of the antenna-coupled
MCT hot electron bolometer the deconvolution method was used with
detecting signal obtained at the narrowest waist of the beam cross-section,
integration of 2-D field distribution of the incident Gaussian beam andthe spatial response of the antenna-coupled detector. It was shown thatthe effective receiving area calculated is about 5.7 square mm and thedetector physical area is 39.5 % of this figure. Noise equialent power NEP
atfrequancy 140 GHz in n-type bolometers reaches NEP (300K) ~ 5*10^-10
and NEP (78K) ~ 3*10^-9 W/Hz^1/2. Degradation of NEP at temperature
decease in n-type detectors is explained by different temperatures
dependences of components introducing different temperature contribution
in sub-THz sensitivity. The same sensitive layers with antennas used as IR
photoconductor showed the responsivity at T = 78 K and 300 K with signalto-noise ratio S/N ~750 and ~50 respectively under the globar illumination(after infrared monochromator with spectral resolution of ~0.2 um). Images
in sub-THz spectral region with these MCT sub-THz bolometers
were obtained.

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Conference 9483: Terahertz Physics, Devices,and Systems IX: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

9483-32, Session PThu

Variation of ZnMgO properties upon
growth technique in THz spectrum
Abdiel Rivera, Anas Mazady, Kiarash Ahi, Mehdi Anwar,
Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
Terahertz (THz) index of refraction, dielectric constant, and conductivityof wurtzite Zn1-xMgxO nanowires (NWs) with Mg mole fraction of 7%
via sonochemical are determined using THz time domain spectroscopy(THz-TDS). The results are compared with ZnO and ZnMgO NWs with 10%
Mg mole fraction grown using metal organic chemical vapor deposition(MOCVD). The successful growth of Zn1-xMgxO with wurtzite structure
at low temperature permits realization of the growth of heterostructures,quantum well, nanowires and nanorods on flexible substrates providing
lower cost, optical and carrier confinement necessary in advanced lightemitting diodes (LEDs), laser diodes (LDs) and high efficiency solar cells.
A Menlo TERA K15 system was employed to carryout THz-TDS using a 100
fs laser with a repetition rate of 80 MHz fitted to excite a photoconductive
dipole antenna onto GaAs, and measuring the THz signal at the detector
crystal. The FFT of the sample shows absorption of THz corresponding
to moisture in air in the range of 0.3 – 0.7 THz, as measurements were
performed at atmospheric conditions, while no phonon interaction
associated to E2 was detected in the case of ZnO and ZnMgO NWs at
2.98THz. Index of refraction (n) was n = 0.93 in the frequency range of 0.51.1THz, that increased to n = 1.22 for frequencies above 1.24 THz (n = 1.1 and1.22 for ZnO and Zn0.9Mg0.1O, respectively). The variation in refractive index
along the THz spectrum, when compared with NWs grown using MOCVD,
is attributed to the non-uniformity of Mg mole fraction due to the random
distribution of the cavity effects in sonochemical synthesis. The non-uniform
Mg incorporation is also noticed under energy dispersive spectroscopy
and photoluminescence spectroscopy. Similar trend was observed for theabsorption and real part of the complex permittivity in the THz spectrum
extending from 0.5 THz to 2 THz.

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311

Conference 9484: Compressive Sensing IV
Wednesday - Friday 22–24 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9484 Compressive Sensing IV

9484-1, Session 1

The third term enforces the sparse solution on the least squares problem.
We experimentally observed that this approach is better than both thestandard least squares and other sparse least squares approaches in termsof sidelobes. Extensive simulation examples will be presented in the final
form of the paper.

Compressive sensing imaging for general
SAR echo model based on Maxwell’sequations
Bing Sun, Shuxia Li, Yufeng Cao, Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ.
of Texas-Pan American (United States)

9484-4, Session 1

Multi-view TWRI scene reconstruction
using a joint Bayesian sparse
approximation model

A general echo model is derived for high resolution synthetic apertureradar (SAR) based on Maxwell’s equations. After considering the generalecho model in frequency domain, a compressive sensing (CS) matrix isconstructed from the random partial Fourier matrices for processing therange CS SAR imaging. Simulations validate the orthogonality of the
proposed CS matrix and the CS SAR imaging based on the generalecho model.

Van Ha Tang, Abdesselam Bouzerdoum, Son Lam Phung,Fok Hing Chi Tivive, Univ. of Wollongong (Australia)

9484-2, Session 1

Sparsity-based moving target localization
using multiple dual-frequency radars
Khodour AlKadry, Fauzia Ahmad, Moeness G. Amin,
Villanova Univ. (United States)
In this paper, we consider moving target localization in urban environments
using a multiplicity of dual-frequency radars. Dual-frequency radars offer
the benefit of reduced complexity and fast computation time, thereby
permitting real-time indoor target localization and tracking. The multiple
radar units are deployed in a distributed system configuration, which
provides robustness against target obscuration. We develop the dualfrequency signal model for the distributed radar system and employ agroup sparse scene reconstruction approach to simultaneously provide
target location and velocity estimates. Simulation results are provided
that illustrate the superior performance of the sparsity-based localization
technique over the conventional dual-frequency approach based on Doppler
filtering, phase comparison, and multilateration, under both full and reduced
data volumes.

9484-3, Session 1

Cross-term free based bistatic radarsystem using sparse least squares

9484-5, Session 2

Rasim A. Sevimli, Ahmet E. Cetin, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey)
Passive Bistatic Radar (PBR) systems use illuminators of opportunity,
such as FM, TV, and DAB broadcasts. The most common illuminator ofopportunity used in PBR systems is the FM radio stations. Single FMchannel based PBR systems do not have high range resolution. In orderto enhance the range resolution of the PBR systems algorithms using
several FM channels at the same time are proposed. In standard methods,
consecutive FM channels are translated to baseband as is and fed to thematched filter to compute the range-Doppler map. Multichannel FM based
PBR systems have better range resolution than single channel systems.
However superious sidelobe peaks occur as a side effect. In this article, we
linearly predict the surveillance signal using the modulated and delayed
reference signal components. We vary the modulation frequency and thedelay to cover the entire range-Doppler plane. Whenever there is a target ata specific range value and Doppler value the prediction error is minimized.
The cost function of the linear prediction equation has three components.
The first term is the real-part of the ordinary least squares term, the secondterm is the imaginary part of the least squares and the third component
is the l1-norm of the prediction coefficients. Separate minimization of realand imaginary parts reduces the side lobes of the range-Doppler map.

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SPIE DSS 2015

Multi-view or multi-location through-the-wall radar (TWR) imaging
enhances stationary target detection and localization by combining
multiple data sets acquired from different sensing locations. Collecting
data at several vantage points improves imaging visibility, but also leads
to prolonged data acquisition time, complex computation, and expensive
hardware. Recently, compressed sensing (CS) approaches to urban
operations and TWR imaging have shifted to relax constraints on signal
sampling schemes and logistic difficulties in data acquisition. To date, mostof the existing CS-based TWR imaging methods have been proposed forsingle-view operation mode where a reduced data set collected from one
view point is used to form the scene image. In this paper, we address the
problem of multi-view TWR scene reconstruction, incorporating wall-clutter
mitigation, under a CS context. We consider the problem where the scene
is sensed by deploying the aperture along the front and side walls of an
enclosed structure, using different reduced sets of frequencies at eachantenna. In the proposed approach, a joint Bayesian sparse approximation
framework is employed to estimate the antenna signal coefficientssimultaneously, by exploiting the sparsity and correlations among antenna
signals. Then, a subspace projection technique is applied to segregate thetarget coefficients from the wall contributions. Finally, a multi-task linear
imaging model is developed to fuse the target coefficients from different
views taking into account the inter-view dependencies for reconstructing
a composite scene image. Experimental results show that the proposed
approach improves reconstruction accuracy and produces a composite
scene image in which the targets are enhanced and the background clutter
is attenuated.

·

Point-spread functions for coded aperture
imaging with separable doubly-Toeplitz
masks
Michael J. DeWeert, BAE Systems (United States)
The Point-Spread Function (PSF) is a standard tool for assessing theperformance of imaging systems, and gives a reliable method for predicting
the resolution and contrast of standard optics. For a computational imaging
system, such as a coded-aperture camera, PSFs must be computed for thecomputationally-derived or decoded images. Thus, the PSF is a function ofboth the aperture code and the decoding algorithms. For large ill-posed
images, the computational burden of decoding can be high enough tomake extensive testing of PSF-improvements prohibitive. Recent advancesin coded-aperture imaging, using Doubly-Toeplitz Masks, have sped up thedecoding process by orders of magnitude, making it feasible to use PFS
analysis to systematically select improved aperture codes. The shape ofthe best coded-aperture PSFs shows a very sharp central peak on top ofsmoothly-varying function with a base width equal to 2X the mask size.
This has fundamental implications for the resolution and contrast of lenslesscoded-aperture imaging. The resolution is unlimited – the PSF can preservewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9484: Compressive Sensing IV
arbitrarily-sharp features. However, the contrast is limited - the wide baseof the PSF causes a minimum-attainable blur that depends on the openarea fraction. Only in the trivial case of a 1-pixel mask can the PSF truly
approximate a delta function. While, a general theory of the best-attainable
PSFs is still in development, this work shows that the limited contrast is dueto the ill-posed nature of the inversion. Thus, it is inherent in the encoding
and decoding of extended-scenes, and likely applies to all coded aperturemasks. Finally, we show that the PSFs correlate well with human-in-the-loop
assessments of quality, and thus provide automatable criteria for codedaperture selection

We present a compressive spectral polarization imager driven by a prism
which is rotated to different angles as the measurement shots are taken,
and a colored detector with a micropolarizer array. The prism shears thescene along one spatial axis according to its wavelength components. The
scene is projected to different locations on the detector as measurement
shots are taken. Composed of 0 degree, 45 degree, 90 degree and 135
degree linear micropolarizers, the pixels of the micropolarizer array arematched to that of the detector; thus, the first three Stokes parameters of
the scene are compressively sensed. The four dimensional (4D) data cubeis thus projected onto the two dimensional (2D) FPA. Optimal patterns forthe micropolarizer and the colored detector are developed so as to improve
the reconstruction inverse problem. The performance of the imager isimproved by more than 6dB in PSNR compared with that attained using
random codes for the polarizers and filters in one measurement shot.
Multiple snapshots are obtained for scenes with detailed spatial and spectral
content. The 4D spectral-polarization data cube is reconstructed from the
2D measurements via nonlinear optimization with sparsity constraints. Bothcomputer simulations and hardware implementation are performed.

9484-6, Session 2

Computational imaging in a multiplexed
imager with static multispectral encoding
Johann Veras, Robert R. Muise, Kevin Hines, Abhijit
Mahalanobis, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States); MarkA. Neifeld, The Univ. of Arizona (United States)

9484-9, Session 3

We simulate and study various computational techniques for image
reconstruction applied to a multiplexed Mid-wave-IR Imager. The imager
consists of two arms where one is dedicated to high resolution imaging
using a lower resolution Focal Plane Array and the other is a single
measurement Multispectral imager which uses dispersive optics. We exploit
the compressibility of images to estimate a high resolution image and its
corresponding lower resolution multispectral data cube using standard
computational techniques.

Recent results in single-pixel compressive
imaging using selective measurement
strategies (Invited Paper)
Matthew A. Herman, InView Technology Corp. (UnitedStates)Compressive sensing (CS) and its application to imaging (CI) has beenan active area of research for the last five to ten years. CI theory permits
taking significantly fewer measurements M as compared to the total numberof pixels N in a scene. Measurements in a single-pixel camera are usuallytaken sequentially using a spatial light modulator (SLM). In practice, thepatterns displayed on an SLM correspond to rows of an NxN orthogonalsensing matrix. The original theory advocated choosing M of the N rows
uniformly at random, which is a universal strategy. However, recent insights
have shown better approaches exist that exploit the statistics of classes ofimages. At the same time, sensing matrices that have a Kronecker productstructure (e.g., Hadamard) are particularly attractive since they can bearranged into blocks of rows, where each block contains a unique spatial
frequency signature. These types of matrices are well suited to complementa more selective measurement strategy. Moreover, many of these matrices
possess fast methods to both compute an NxN transform, as well as togenerate individual patterns “on the fly.” We outline a new approach called“Partial-Complete Hadamard” sensing, that can choose patterns basedon the general statistics of a class of images, or can be adapted to thespecific statistics of a scene that is being observed. With this technique
we show significant improvement in image quality and reconstruction time
as compared to sensing with Hadamard waveforms that are randomly
chosen. Besides estimation, this technique can also be used in detection andclassification applications.

9484-7, Session 2

Compressive and classical hyperspectral
systems: a fundamental comparison
Adi Shay, Isaac Y. August, Adrian Stern, Ben-Gurion Univ.
of the Negev (Israel)
Hyperspectral imagery involves capturing and processing tremendous
amount of data, which sets sever system resource requirements. Thishas motivated the application of compressive sensing for different
spectroscopic and spectroscopic imager systems. Several new compressive
hyperspectral architecture have been designed to stretch the common
limitations of classical system. However the application of the compressive
sensing framework involves design of system architectures that differ
significantly from the conventional ones. Since compressive sensing differ
essentially from conventional sensing, it cannot be implemented for
hyperspectral imaging by simply modifying one of its units of a conventional
hyperspectral system, rather it requires a complete new design. In thiswork we present a comparison between four compressive hyperspectral
architectures to conventional architectures. The compressive hyperspectral
sensing compared are CASSI, CHISSS, SLCD and CS HPI SPC systems. Those
methods are compared to conventional and whiskbroom and pushbroom
scanning hyperspectral imaging techniques. A fundamental comparison
between these architectures is presented in terms of acquisition effort (total
number of samples captures per datacube), optical throughput, signal tonoise ration and optical system volume.

9484-10, Session 3

L1-PCA video surveillance
Ying Liu, Dimitris A. Pados, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
We describe for the first time in the literature L1-norm principal-component
analysis (PCA) of video frames and demonstrate the utility in background
representation and moving object extraction. Optimally calculated
maximum-L1-norm frame-sequence projection vectors exhibit remarkableability to capture consistently present imagery and enable most effective
video surveillance. Desired foreground responses are seen even in thepresence of an oscillating background and time-varying occlusions.
Benchmark comparisons with standard (L2-norm) PCA analytics areincluded for reference purposes.

9484-8, Session 2

Compressive spectral polarization imaging
with coded micropolarizer array
Chen Fu, Univ. of Delaware (United States); Henry
Arguello, Univ. Industrial de Santander (Colombia); Brian
M. Sadler, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Gonzalo R. Arce, Univ. of Delaware (United States)

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Conference 9484: Compressive Sensing IV

9484-11, Session 3

Gradient-based compressive sensing fornoise video reconstruction
Huihuang Zhao, Hengyang Normal Univ. (China); Shuxia
Li, John Montalbo, Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan
American (United States)
The well-known Nyquist/Shannon sampling theorem that the sampling rate
must be at least twice the maximum frequency of the signal is a golden
rule used in visual and audio electronics, medical imaging devices and soon. Compressive sensing (CS) is a sampling paradigm that provides thesignal compression at a rate significantly lower than the Nyquist rate. CS
has successfully been applied in a wide variety of applications in recent
years, including photography, shortwave infrared cameras, optical system
research, audio and music processing, MRI, etc. For example, an iterative
image reconstruction method in X-ray CT was recently developed based on
CS. A fast encoding method for Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) raw datacompressing and reconstruction was also proposed with the CS theory.
Although CS achieves good application in most cases, there are still manydifficulties for a noise signal processing based on CS theory. In this paper,
we will develop a fast gradient-based compressive sensing (FGB-CS)
method for noise video. Specially, we will consider the compressive sensing
for noise video as a convex optimization problem, and present a gradientbased compressive sensing method to solve it. Moreover, to reduce thecomputational cost, we will replace the traditional iteration parameter by
Lipschitz constant. Experimental results will show the performance ofour method.

9484-12, Session 4

Compressive sensing cryptographic
analysis
Ponciano J. Escamilla-Ambrosio, Moises Salinas
Rosales, Eleazar Aguirre-Anaya, Ctr. de Investigación en
Computación (Mexico)
Lately, there has been a huge interest in compressive sensing as atechnology to perform measurements at a lower sample rate than thatof the Nyquist frequency. This is very useful in wireless sensor networks
applications where data transmission should be reduced at a minimum inorder to save power resources. At the same time the privacy and secrecyof the information transmitted through a wireless channel is a problem
that needs attention. This security issue is more relevant in applications
where sensitive information is being transmitted, as for example inmedical wearable devices. In this paper the measurement matrix used incompressive sensing is analyzed in order to evaluate at what level it can beconsidered as an encryption mechanism. This evaluation is performed bycomparing the secrecy that can be achieved with the measurement matrix
compared with more traditional encryptions algorithm as AES and Camellia.
Results are presented in order to validate that confidentiality of theinformation is achieved but at a reduced level compared to their traditional
encryption counterparts.

9484-13, Session 4Sparsity-based DOA estimation ofcoherent and uncorrelated sources usingtransmit/receive co-prime arrays
Elie BouDaher, Fauzia Ahmad, Moeness G. Amin, Villanova
Univ. (United States)
In this paper, we use transmit/receive co-prime arrays for direction findingof mixed coherent and uncorrelated sources based on the concept of sum
coarrays. The sum coarray is defined as the set of pair-wise sums of the314

SPIE DSS 2015·

position vectors of the elements in the transmit and receive apertures. The
data measurements from the transmit/receive co-prime array are used toemulate observations at a virtual array, whose element positions are givenby the sum coarray corresponding to the co-prime array. A group sparsereconstruction problem is formulated employing multiple snapshots, where
each group corresponding to a specific angle of arrival extends across all
the time samples. The sum-coarray based approach provides the ability toresolve a higher number of sources than the number of physical antennas.
Performance evaluation of the proposed method is conducted using
numerical simulations.

9484-14, Session 4

See-through obscurants via compressive
sensing in degraded visual environment
Richard C. Lau, Ted K. Woodward, Applied Communication
Sciences (United States)
Solutions to Degraded Visual Environment are extremely significant to thesafety of aircraft maneuvering and landing. Current approaches focus onbuilding sensors at suitable wavelengths to counter obscurant particle sizeand density. For example, millimeter wave radar, with its long wavelength,
allows effective penetration of most sand or dust particles. However, such
solution has limitation with respect to cost, SWaP, and resolution.
This paper proposes a different approach: Instead of building new sensors
for each type of obscurants, we focus on extracting hidden information fromthe raw sensor data via computational imaging techniques. We show that
although to the human eye a sensor captures a zero-visibility view of an
object through dense obscurants, it is possible to recover the hidden visual
information of the object and display to the pilot to aid in landing
and maneuvering.
Specifically, we propose a compressive sensing algorithm incorporating a
dictionary composed of pose transformation of the targeted object. We willshow using the proposed algorithm, it is possible to accurately detect andlocate the object of interest in severe Degraded Visual Environment. We willquantify the upper bound of the DVE noise in which the proposed method
is effective, as well as the processing speed for real-time processing. The
proposed method is agnostic to sensor technologies and therefore can beapplied to various sensors including LIDAR, Infrared, or millimeter wave
radar in a multi-sensor setting.

9484-15, Session 4

An analysis of spectral transformation
techniques on graphs
Igor Djurovic, Univ. of Montenegro (Montenegro);
Ervin Sejdic, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States); Nikola
Bulatovic, Marko Simeunovic, Univ. of Montenegro(Montenegro)
In this paper, we will analyze emerging methods for the spectral analysis
of graphs, as graphs are currently used to study interactions in many
fields from neuroscience to social or sensors networks. There are two main
approaches related to the spectral transformation of graphs. The first
approach is based on the Laplacian matrix [1]. The graph Fourier transformis defined as the expansion of a graph signal in terms of eigenfunctionsof the graph Laplacian. The calculated eigenvalues carry the notion of
frequency of graph signals. The second approach is based on the graphweighted adjacency matrix [2], as it expands the graph signal into a basisof eigenvectors of the adjacency matrix instead of the graph Laplacian.
Here, the notion of frequency is then obtained from the eigenvalues of theadjacency matrix or its Jordan decomposition. In this paper, we will examine
advantages and drawbacks of both approaches [1,2]. Potential challenges
and improvements to graph spectral processing methods will be considered
as well as the generalization of graph processing techniques in the spectral
domain. Its generalization to the time-frequency domain and other potential

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Conference 9484: Compressive Sensing IV

9484-17, Session 5extensions of classical signal processing concepts to graph datasets will beconsidered also. Lastly, we will consider the idea of compressive sensing ongraphs.

Compressive line sensing imaging systemusing active spatial light modulation
devices[1] D. I. Shuman, S. K. Narang, P. Frossard, A. Ortega, and P.Vandergheynst,“The emerging field of signal processing on graphs,” IEEE Signal Process.
Mag., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 83–98, 2013.
[2] A. Sandryhaila and J. M. F. Moura, “Discrete signal processing on graphs,”IEEE Trans. Signal Process., vol. 61, no. 7, pp. 1644–1656, 2013.

Bing Ouyang, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute(United States) and Florida Atlantic Univ. (United States);
Weilin W. Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);Frank M. Caimi, Fraser R. Dalgleish, Anni K. Vuorenkoski,
Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute (United States);
Cuiling Gong, Texas Christian Univ. (United States); Walter
Britton, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute (UnitedStates)9484-16, Session 4

Time-frequency signature sparsereconstruction using chirp dictionary
Yen T. H. Nguyen, Univ. of Leeds (United Kingdom)
and Villanova Univ. (United States); Moeness G. Amin,
Villanova Univ. (United States); Mounir Ghogho, Univ.
of Leeds (United Kingdom) and Univ. Internationale deRabat (Morocco); Des McLernon, Univ. of Leeds (United
Kingdom)

The compressive line sensing (CLS) active imaging system [1] was proposed
as an energy efficient alternative to the traditional line-scan based serial
image [3]. An experimental prototype was constructed to conduct a seriesof test tank experiments [2]. As in many other Compressive Sensing imaging
applications, the experimental prototype was developed using a Digital
Micro-mirror Device (DMD). While the experimental results did provide
initial validation of the proposed CLS concept, they, however, revealed some
limitations of adopting a passive spatial light modulation (SLM) device suchas DMD in such system. Since the whole DMD surface will be illuminated by
the laser source, at least 50% of energy will not be utilized in target sensing.

Nonstationary signals arise in a broad class of active sensing modalities,
including sonar, radar, and ultrasound. They are the preferred type ofsmart jamming and also characterize many passive sensing problems,such as speech and electromyographic recordings. Time-frequency signal
representations (TFSRs) enable separations of nonstationary signals thatare mixed in both time and frequency domains, where traditional windowing
and filtering based approaches fail to capture or distinguish between
individual signal components.

This presentation proposes an approach to mitigating such energy
utilization inefficiency. In this regard, an emerging technology – Individually
Addressable Laser Diode Array (IALDA) is investigated. IALDA consists ofan array of laser emitters whose phase and amplitude can be controlled
independently at high speed. IALDA is, therefore, a type of active SLM
device. Currently, IALDA is mainly used in laser marking or other printing
applications, this work, therefore, represents a first attempt to adopt
such technology in CS imaging applications. In the proposed design, thecombination of a single laser source and DMD system will be replaced by
an IALDA and the front end digital control board. The receiver architectureis unchanged – consisting of a single-element photodetector such as thephotomultiplier tube and a data acquisition device. The multi-layered
sensing pattern design, the distributed compressive sensing (DCS) based
image reconstruction also remain valid. The construction of a prototype
system using a commercially-available IALDA printing head will be
discussed. The experimental results obtained using this prototype will also
be presented.

TFSRs are mainly obtained using quadratic time-frequency distributions(QTFDs), generally referred to as Cohen’s class, which have their roots inthe nonparametric Wigner-Ville distribution (WVD). QTFDs are defined by
two-dimensional (2D) kernels which convolve the WVD for interference
reduction. The reduced-interference distribution (RID) kernels act onpreserving the true signal power terms, referred to as auto-terms, andeliminating, or at least considerably attenuating, the undesired cross-terms,
which represent false power concentrations and are generated from thedata bilinear lag products underlying QTFDs. Owing to their instantaneous
narrowband characteristics and high power concentrations over the joint
time-variable (TF) variables, the signatures of a large class of nonstationary
signals occupy small regions in the TF domain. In other words, mostof the TF domain is vacant. This property casts the signals as sparse in
the joint-variable representations and has recently invited sparse signal
reconstruction and compressive sensing techniques to play an importantrole in TF signal analysis and processing.

References[1] B. Ouyang, W,. Hou, F. R. Dalgleish, F. M. Caimi, G. Nootz and A. K.
Vuorenkoski, “Experimental studies of the compressive line sensing
underwater serial imaging system”, Proc. SPIE 9111, 2014.

Missing and randomly sampled nonstationary signals give rise to artifacts inboth the time-frequency domain and the ambiguity domain. These artifacts
present clutter in the joint-variable domain which obscures the signal
components and their instantaneous frequencies. Efforts and attempts to
use traditional TF kernels to reduce the clutter along with mitigations ofsignal cross-terms, which arise due to the bilinear data products underlying
QTFDs, have proved ineffective and unsuccessful[2] B. Ouyang, F. R. Dalgleish, F. M. Caimi, T. E. Giddings, W. Britton, A. K.
Vuorenkoski, and G. Nootz, “Compressive Line Sensing Underwater Imaging
System”, SPIE Optical Engineering Vol. 53, Issue 5, April 2014.
[3] F. R. Dalgleish, A. K. Vuorenkoski, and B. Ouyang, “Extended-Range
Undersea Laser Imaging: Current Research Status and a Glimpse at Future
Technologies”, Marine Technology Society Journal, 47:5. 128-147, 2013.

In this paper, sparse reconstruction is applied in lieu of QTFDs. We
reconstruct time-frequency signature from compressed time samples
using chirp dictionary. Chirp atoms have better approximations to the local
signal behavior over a dictionary of sinusoidal atoms which have beenused previously to exploit the local sparsity of FM signals characterized bytheir instantaneous frequencies following certain frequency laws. Further,compared to reconstruction techniques using parameterized atoms
which also directly operate on the data, the proposed technique does notassume any signal structure and, as such, is able to maintain its desirable
performance for a wide class of nonstationary signals.

9484-18, Session 5

Compressive quantum sensing (Invited
Paper)
John C. Howell, Gregory Howland, Daniel Lum, Univ. ofRochester (United States)
Compressive sensing utilizes sparsity to realize efficient image
reconstruction. It is a valuable processing technique when cost, power,
technology or computational overhead are limited or high. In the quantum
domain, technology usually limits efficient acquisition of weak or fragile
signals. We have used compressive sampling for low-flux laser Radar,photonic phase transitions, high resolution biphoton ghost imaging, 3D

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315Conference 9484: Compressive Sensing IV
object tracking with less than picowatts of power at 14 frames per second,
ghost object tracking, wavefunction acquisition, measurement of conjugate
observables and high dimensional entanglement characterization. I will
discuss how compressive sensing can aid in quantum sensing by discussing
two or three of our recent quantum sensing experiments.

9484-19, Session 6[9] Park JY, Wakin MB, Gilbert A. Modal analysis with compressive
measurements. IEEE Trans. Signal Process 2014;62:1655-70.

9484-20, Session 6

Agathoklis Giaralis, Bamrung Tausiesakul, Kyriaki Gkoktsi,
City Univ. London (United Kingdom)
In recent years various analog-to-information converters (AICs) capableof capturing the salient features of continuous-time signals by samplingat much slower than the Nyquist frequency rate have been theoreticallydeveloped and prototyped (e.g. [1,2]). It has been recognized that sensors
equipped with such AICs can reduce monetary and energy costs in wirelesssensor networks (WSNs), being cheaper and less energy consuming thanconventional analog-to-digital converters [3]. This is quite a desirable
consideration for the structural design validation, condition assessment andhealth monitoring of engineering structures (e.g., mid-to-high rise buildings,
large-span bridges, offshore platforms for oil and gas exploration, etc.)from structural vibration measurements using battery operated WSNs [4].
In this regard, this paper considers the multi-coset sampling AIC in [5], in
conjunction with the deterministic sub-Nyquist sampling patterns derived
in [6 and 7] for power spectrum blind sampling to capture the useful“information” (e.g., natural frequencies, peak gains in the frequency domain,and damping ratios) of white noise excited linear damped structural systems
directly from noisy compressive vibration (acceleration) measurements.
Specifically, the potential of the considered AIC for the task is assessed
within a Monte Carlo simulation-based framework involving modelling theunderlying analog frequency response functions (FRFs) of the structural
systems by means of Auto-Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) filters using
standard techniques for spectrum compatible simulation [8]. Simulatedsequences of white noise at Nyquist rate are colored via these ARMA filters,
contaminated by additive white noise, and compressively sensed by adiscrete-time model of the adopted AIC device at various compression rates.
Next, power spectral estimation is performed directly to the compressedmeasurements and, finally, standard techniques for output-only system
identification in the frequency domain are considered to extract modalparameters. It is reported that 50% or fewer measurements comparedto the Nyquist sampling rate are required to obtain reliable estimatesof modal structural properties from compressed sensed signals, even in
the case of closely-spaced natural frequencies and extreme white noisecontamination. Compared to the recent work in [9] which is based on the
random demodulator AIC architecture and considers random sub-Nyquist
sampling, the herein approach can treat heavily damped structural systems
and its performance is not significantly affected by noise, while it achieves
modal parameters extraction directly from compressed measurements (i.e.,
it bypasses signal reconstruction in the time domain).
References[1] Tropp JA, Laska JN, Duarte MF, Romberg JK, Baraniuk RG. Beyond
Nyquist: Efficient sampling of sparse bandlimited signals. IEEE Trans Inform
Theory 2010;56:520-44.
[2] Mishali M, Eldar YC. From theory to practice: Sub-Nyquist samplingof sparse wideband analog signals. IEEE J Selected Topics Signal Process
2010;4:375-391.
[3] Duarte MF, Shen G, Ortega A, Baraniuk RG. Signal compression in
wireless sensor networks. Phil Trans R Soc A 2012;370:118-135.
[4] Lynch JP. An overview of wireless structural health monitoring for civil
structures. Phil Trans R Soc A 2007;365:345-372.
[5] Arianda DD, Leus G.Compressive wideband power spectrum estimation.
IEEE Trans Sign Process 2012;60:4775-89.

SPIE DSS 2015[7] Tausiesakul B, Gonzalez-Prelcic N. Power spectrum blind sampling
using optimal multicoset sampling patterns in the MSE sense. IEEE Int Conf
Acoust, Speech, Signal Process. (ICASSP 2014), Florence, Italy, May 2014.
[8] Spanos PD, Zeldin BA.Monte Carlo treatment of random fields: A broad
perspective. Appl Mech Rev 1998;51:219-237.

Compressive power spectrum sensing
for vibration-based output-only system
identification of structural systems in thepresence of noise

316[6] Tausiesakul, B. and Gonzalez-Prelcic, N., Power spectrum blind sampling
using minimum mean square error and weighted least squares, in Proc.
47th Asilomar Conf. Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC 2013), 153-157,
Pacific Grove, CA, Nov., 2013.

·

Multimodal exploitation and sparsereconstruction for guided-wave structural
health monitoring
Andrew L. Golato, Sridhar Santhanam, Fauzia Ahmad,
Moeness G. Amin, Villanova Univ. (United States)
The presence of multiple modes in guided-wave structural health monitoring(SHM) has been usually considered a nuisance and a variety of methods
have been devised to ensure the presence of a single mode. However,valuable information regarding the nature of defects can be gleaned byincluding multiple modes in image recovery. In this paper, we propose
an effective approach for localizing defects in thin plates, which involves
inversion of a multimodal Lamb wave based model by means of sparsereconstruction. We consider not only the direct symmetric and antisymmetric fundamental propagating Lamb modes, but also the defectspawned mixed modes arising due to asymmetry of defects. Model-based
dictionaries for the direct and spawned modes are created, which take into
account the associated dispersion and attenuation through the medium.
Reconstruction of the region of interest is performed jointly across themultiple modes by employing a group sparse reconstruction approach.
Performance validation of the proposed defect localization scheme isprovided using both simulated and experimental data for an
aluminum plate.

9484-21, Session 6

Seismic Full Waveform Inversion from
Compressive Measurements
Ana Ramirez, Gonzalo R. Arce, Univ. of Delaware (UnitedStates)Traditional methods used to acquire 2-D seismic traces require sources andgeophones that are uniformly located along a spatial line, using the Nyquist
sampling rate. Because of complex geological models of the subsurface,it has been required to use receivers at large offsets which generates very
high volumes of data. It makes the exploration process more difficult andparticularly expensive. Recently, the emerging paradigm of compressive
sensing can be used to capture the structure of the subsurface using lessnumber of sources and receivers. Using this paradigm, the same area of
exploration can be imaged requiring less resources (i.e., time and sensors).
This work presents the reconstruction of 2-D compressive seismic tracesacquired us- ing compressive measurements where the pair of sources andgeophones are randomly located along the spatial line. The recovery of the
wavefield from compressive measurements is feasible due to the capabilitiesof the Curvelets on representing wave propagators with only a small set of
coefficients. The proposed method first uses the compressive measurements
to find a sparse vector representation of each pixel in a 2-D Curvelet
dictionary. The sparse vector representation is estimated by solving asparsity constrained optimization problem using the Gradient Projection forSparse Reconstruction (GPSR) method. Simulations of the reconstruction ofsynthetic image gathers illustrate the performance of the proposed method.

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Conference 9484: Compressive Sensing IV

9484-22, Session 6

centered at a target sample. However, it is very difficult to meet such a
condition especially in the high density region. Therefore the sampling
becomes inefficient. SAKE (simultaneous auto-calibrating and k-spaceestimation) is one of the parallel MRI reconstruction methods using thecorrelations among coils. In SAKE, the reconstruction from a randomly
undersampled image is formulated as a structured low-rank matrix
completion problem. We present an improved random sampling pattern for
SAKE reconstruction. The pattern is generated based on a conflict cost witha probability model. The conflict cost measures how many dense samples
already assigned are around a target location, while the probability model
adopts the generalized Gaussian distribution which includes uniform andGaussian-like distributions as special cases. Our method preferentiallyassigns a sample to a k-space location with the least conflict cost on theannulus of the highest probability. To evaluate the effectiveness of the
proposed random pattern, we compare the performance of SAKEs using
both VD Poisson discs and the proposed pattern. Experimental results forbrain data show that the proposed pattern is less sensitive to the increased
density and it yields lower normalized mean square error (NMSE) than VD
Poisson discs.

Group sparsity based estimation of
nonstationary harmonic signals
Yimin D. Zhang, Villanova Univ. (United States)
Spectrum analysis of speech signals is important for their detection,
recognition, and separation. speech signals are nonstationary and timevarying frequencies and, when analyzed over a short time window through,for example, the commonly used short-time Fourier transform, exhibit
harmonic spectra, i.e., the fundamental frequencies are accompanied
by multiple associated harmonic frequencies. With proper modeling,such harmonic signal components can be cast as group sparse and canbe solved using group sparse signal reconstruction methodologies. The
consideration of group sparsity allows to achieving the signal sparsity
metric to be equal to the actual number of signals at each time instant. In
this case, all harmonic components contribute to effective signal detection
and fundamental frequency estimation with improved reliabilities andclean time-varying spectra. In addition, the estimation of the slowly timevarying fundamental frequency signatures can be implemented over the
analysis window using the structure-aware Bayesian compressive sensing
technique, which is known to its capabilities of high-resolution spectrum
estimation and flexible signal structure consideration. Such treatment allows
nonstationary signal spectrum analysis to be performed with an extended
time period to achieve improved signal detectability and enhanced
parameter estimations. The proposed technique can be implemented in
combination with stationarization or warping for further
performance improvement.

9484-25, Session 7

Long-term surface EMG monitoring using
K-means clustering and compressive
sensing
Mohammadreza Balouchestani, Sridhar Krishnan, Ryerson
Univ. (Canada)
Clustering of Long-term surface Electromyography (sEMG) recording aims
at recording of the electrical activities produced by muscles which arevery useful procedure for treatment and diagnostic purposes as well as for
detection of various pathologies. Currently used clustering algorithms forlong-term sEMG recording do have their share of drawbacks: 1) Clusteringand classification cannot be done in real time for long-term recording andmonitoring; 2) Implementing existing algorithms would lead to higher
computational costs. These drawbacks motivated us in developing novel
optimized clustering algorithm which could easily scan large sEMG datasetsof long-term sEMG recording. In this work, we present an advanced K-meansclustering algorithm based on Compressed Sensing (CS) in combination
with the K-Singular Value Decomposition (K-SVD) method. The proposed
algorithm out-performs existing algorithms by achieving a classification
accuracy of 99.90 %. This ability allows reducing 17 % of Average
Classification Error (ACE) and 11 % Clustering Energy Consumption (CEC).

9484-23, Session 7

Biomedical sensor design using analog
compressed sensing
Mohammadreza Balouchestani, Sridhar Krishnan, Ryerson
Univ. (Canada)
In this work, we present an implementation of a low-power biomedical
sensor using analog Compressed Sensing (CS) framework for healthy andmyopathy surface Electromyography (sEMG) signals that addresses boththe energy and telemetry bandwidth constraints of wearable and wirelessBody-Area Networks (BANs). This architecture enables continuous dataacquisition and compression of healthy and myopathy sEMG signals thatare suitable for a variety of diagnostic and treatment purposes. At thetransmitter side, an analog-CS framework is applied at the sensing step
before analog to digital converter in order to generate the compressedversion of the input bio-signal. At the receiver side, a reconstruction
algorithm based on Restricted Isometry Property (RIP) is applied in orderto reconstruct the original bio-signals form the compressed bio-signals
with high probability and enough accuracy. The proposed architecture
reduces sampling-rate to 29 % of Nyquist rate, power consumption to 48%, Percentage Residual Difference (PRD) to 26 %, Root Mean Squared Error(RMSE) to 3 %, and total computation time from 28 to 11.2 seconds.

9484-24, Session 7

Conflict-cost based random sampling
design for parallel MRI with low rank
constraints
Wan Kim, Yihang Zhou, Jingyuan Lyu, Leslie Ying, Univ. at
Buffalo (United States)
In compressed sensing MRI, it is very important to design sampling pattern
for random sampling. Variable density (VD) Poisson discs are typicallyadopted for 2D random sampling in MRI. The basic concept of Poisson discgeneration is to guarantee no samples in the circle of a specified radius

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317

Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
Monday - Thursday 20–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9485 Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII

9485-1, Session 1

Real time fatigue damage growthassessment of a composite 3 stringer
panel using passive thermography (Invited
Paper)
Joseph N. Zalameda, Eric R. Burke, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States); Michael R. Horne, National
Institute of Aerospace (United States)
Fatigue testing of advanced composite structures is critical to validate
both structural designs and damage prediction models. In-situ inspection
methods are necessary to track damage onset and growth as a function ofload cycles. Passive thermography is a large area, noncontact inspection
technique that is used to detect composite damage onset and growth inreal time as a function of fatigue cycles. The thermal images are acquired insynchronicity to the applied compressive load using a dual infrared camera
acquisition system for full (front and back) coverage. Image processing
algorithms are investigated to increase defect contrast areas. The thermal
results are compared to non-immersion ultrasound inspections and acoustic
emission data.

Roubini Marini, Hellenic Aerospace Industry S.A. (Greece);
Maria Koui, National Technical Univ. of Athens (Greece)
In recent years, the reliability and efficiency of defect detection on
aerospace composite structures, after applying Non Destructive Testingand Evaluation (NDT&E) techniques, has gained a wide interest. Smartand non-invasive methods for assessing and monitoring the integrity of acomposite structure are essential to both its manufacturing and operational
stages, while these techniques are more easily adopted by inspection
services when producing reliable results in a prompt manner (real or nearreal time results). In the present research work, a study was carried out for
the applicability of two NDT techniques, Transient Thermography (TT) and
Ultrasound Testing (UT), inspecting different types of composite specimens(i.e. laminated CFRPs, laminated Hybrid FRPs and sandwiched structures),which were consisted of a variety of defect modes. The main aim of thisstudy was to compare the defect detectability produced from each testing
configuration and evaluate the efficiency of each method in terms of defectdetectability and inspection time. The results of this study showed that all
the defects were revealed either by transient thermography or ultrasonic
testing, however thermographic analysis can display the acquired results
in a more rapid manner. On the other hand UT testing can provide efficientresults for deeper probing requiring however longer inspection times.

9485-4, Session 1
9485-2, Session 1

A new approach on JPSS VIIRS BCS andSVS PRT calibration

Nondestructive evaluation of aircraft
coatings with infrared diffuse reflectancespectraTung R. Wang, Steve A. Marschke, Michael Borroto,
Christopher M. Jones, Christopher Chovit, Raytheon Co.
(United States)

Michael R. Hawks, Air Force Institute of Technology(United States) and Oak Ridge Institute for Science &Education (United States); Kody A. Wilson, Air ForceInstitute of Technology (United States); Timothy W. C.
Zens, Air Command and Staff College (United States);
Adam T. Cooney, Hans G. Korth, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Aircraft coatings degrade over time, but aging can be difficult to detect until
it is too late. This makes it difficult to plan aircraft maintenance schedules,
and can lead to aircraft being unexpectedly placed in non-mission capablestatus. We present a method to evaluate aircraft coatings in situ using
infrared diffuse reflectance spectra. Two different types of coatings wereartificially aged in an autoclave, and half the samples were used to train
the classifier. Spectra were measured using a hand-held diffuse reflectanceinfrared Fourier transform spectrometer (DRIFTS). One set of 72 samples
can be classified as either aged or unaged with 100% accuracy. A second
sample set contained samples that had been artificially aged for 0, 24, 48
or 96 hours. Several classification methods are compared, with accuracy
better than 98% possible. Classification results based on surface roughness
estimates and spatial uniformity of the spectra are also discussed.

9485-3, Session 1

Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) is an Earth-observing satellite, developedby NASA for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
to measure both global climate changes and key weather variables. The
largest instrument aboard JPSS is the Visible Infrared Imagining Radiometer
Suite (VIIRS), developed by Raytheon Space and Airborne Systems, whichcollects radiometric imagery, in visible and infrared wavelengths, of the land,
atmosphere, ice and ocean. A Ground Support Equipment (GSE), Blackbody
Calibration Source (BCS), was used as an optical simulator to validate the
VIIRS emissive band calibration. Another GSE, Space View Source (SVS),
was used as an optical simulator to provide zero radiance sources for all
VIIRS bands. The temperature of BCS and SVS were monitored by a setof calibrated platinum resistance thermometers (PRT’s). The required PRTtemperature 1 sigma uncertainty is less than 0.030K. To improve the thermal
contact of PRTs to the BCS and SVS bounce plate, the PRT is installed in
an aluminum thermal block potted with RTV566 which helps to reduce thethermal stress to the PRT. These PRTs were calibrated using the thermalbath setup from Raytheon Primary Standard Laboratory. The thermal bathtemperature was measured using a NIST traceable Standard PRT (SPRT).
A single thermal bath fluid was used to cover the calibration temperature
range. A process was developed to validate the PRT resistance to be stable
under thermal cycles. Detailed calibration setup is described. The PRT
calibration uncertainty is estimated and deemed sufficient to support BCS
and SVS effective temperature requirements.

Comparative evaluation of aerospacecomposites using thermography andultrasonic NDT techniques
Panagiotis Theodorakeas, Nicolas P. Avdelidis, Eleni
Cheilakou, National Technical Univ. of Athens (Greece);

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII

9485-6, Session 1

latent heat absorption or release during phase change; a change in
conductive heat transfer; and a change in thermal capacitance. Complicating
the three methodologies is the factor of variable temperature differentials
and variable mass air flow on, through and around surfaces being inspected.
Building enclosures come in variable assembly types and are designed toperform differently in different environmental regions. Sources for moistureaccumulation will vary for different environmental conditions. Detection
methodologies will change for each assembly type in different
ambient environments.

Integration of infrared and opticalimaging techniques for the nondestructive
inspection of aeronautic parts
Fernando López, UFSC (Brazil); Stefano Sfarra, Univ.
degli Studi dell’Aquila (Italy); Clemente Ibarra-Castanedo,
Univ. Laval (Canada); Domenica Paoletti, Univ. degli Studidell’Aquila (Italy); Xavier Maldague, Univ. Laval (Canada)This paper will look at the issue of the methodologies for detection of
the presence of moisture and determination of the various sources fromwhich it accumulates in building assemblies. The end objective for IRT
based moisture detection inspections is not to just identify that moisture ispresent but to determine its extent and source. Accurate assessment of thesource(s) and root cause of the moisture is critical to the development of apermanent solution to the problem.

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is defined by the American Society of
Non-Destructive Testing (ASNT) as «the determination of the physicalcondition of an object without affecting that object’s ability to fulfill its
intended function». The present research work is: a) linked to the modern
NDT paradigm, i.e., ‘the use of NDTs can fit into several steps of the
manufacturing process and, in particular, for the quality control at eachlevel of the manufacturing’, and b) focused on the defects detection of awing component supplied by Mecaer Aviation Group (MAG). The part of ahelicopter wing (36 x 17,5 x 2,5 [cm]) inspected contains fabricated defects,
i.e., one detachment: 0,74 [cm] in length – <0,01 [cm] in depth, and one
crack: 0,17 [cm] in length – f: 0,03 [cm] in thickness – 0,01 [cm] in depth,
and was realized using Aluminum Alloy 2024 from SAE Aerospace. The
sample was tested choosing two NDT methods falling within classification:
optical testing (OT), and infrared and thermal testing (IR). Both groups
have the characteristics of full-field and non-contact. However, they are
fundamentally different in the sensing and detection mechanisms. OT
measures the material mechanical response to stress, whilst infrared
thermography (IRT) technique of IR group measures the heat transfer
response when an instantaneous or dynamic excitation is applied to thematerial under study. In particular, this work is based on an integration ofdigital speckle photography (DSP), holographic interferometry (HI) and IRT
NDT techniques. An external excitation (a short or long thermal pulse) wasapplied to the material surface. Contrasts in the thermal (as in IRT) and/or strain (as in DSP and HI) fields will reveal the presence of the internal
defects. Concerning to IRT technique, once the acquisition is performed, thestack of thermal images is then processed with several thermographic signal
processing algorithms in order to enhance detection and image quality. The
discussion of the results will be based on the detection capabilities of each
imaging techniques, their advantages and limitations to inspect
aeronautic materials.

9485-8, Session 2

Evaluation of angle dependence inspectral emissivity of ceramic tiles
measured by FT-IR
Chie Kobayashi, Nagahisa Ogasawara, Hiroyuki Yamada,
Syunsuke Yamada, National Defense Academy (Japan);
Takashi Kikuchi, K-Plus, Inc. (Japan)
Ceramic tiles are widely used for building walls. False detections ofdelamination are often caused in non-destructive inspection using IR
thermography because of the IR reflection from backgrounds, which is
associated with high reflectivity, i.e. low emissivity. In the non-destructive
inspection using IR thermography for the high buildings, the camera angles
have to be changed in order to measure the high wall from the ground.
Thus, it is necessary to evaluate the emissivity at various angles. In thisstudy, the effect of angle dependence in spectral emissivity was investigatedusing FT-IR attached a holding device with variable angles and film heater
made of stainless steel.
The measured angles were from 0 to 75 degrees. In addition it is very
important to measure the temperature of the surface of test pieces in theinvestigation of the spectral emissivity. As to ceramic which has low thermal
conductivity, it is difficult to measure the accurate surface temperature bythermocouples. Therefore, the temperature was measured by using the
combination of a reference sample and IR thermography camera.

9485-7, Session 2

According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, the emissivity of theinsulator materials decreases sharply when the emission angle exceeds 60
degrees. From the experimental results, it was confirmed that the angle
dependence in spectral emissivity obeys the above theory. Furthermore,
it was clear that the spectral emissivity of the ceramic tiles in the middle
infrared range was high when compared with the near infrared range andthe far infrared range.

Identification of moisture sources inbuilding assemblies using IRTGregory B. McIntosh, Snell Infrared Canada (Canada);
Antonio Colantonio, Public Works and Government
Services Canada (Canada)

It is necessary to establish the IR thermography method to reduce theinfluence of IR reflection, which is important problem in non-destructive
inspection using IR thermography.

Water, in its various phases, in any environment other than desert (hotor cold) conditions, is the single most destructive element that causes
deterioration of building materials and failure of building assemblies. It is
the key element present in the formation of mold and fungi that lead toindoor air quality problems. Water is the primary element that needs to be
managed in buildings to ensure human comfort, health and safety. Underthe right thermodynamic conditions the detection of moisture in its various
states is possible through the use of infrared thermography for a large
variety of building assemblies and materials. The difficulty is that moistureis transient and mobile from one environment to another via air movement,
vapor pressure or phase change. Building materials and enclosuresprovide both repositories and barriers to this moisture movement. In
real life steady state conditions do not exist for moisture within building
materials and enclosures. Thus the detection of moisture is in a constantstate of transition. Sometimes you will see it and sometimes you will not.
Understanding the limitations at the time of inspection will go a long way tomitigating unsatisfied clients or difficult litigation.

9485-9, Session 2

Study of experimental parameters for IRT
applications in building elements using
multi-layered analytical solutions
Catarina L. Serra, ITeCons (Portugal) and Pólo II da Univ.
de Coimbra (Portugal); Nuno A. Simões, Pólo II da Univ.
de Coimbra (Portugal); António Tadeu, Univ. de Coimbra(Portugal)
This paper compares experimental and heat transfer modeling results for

Moisture detection can be observed by IRT via three physical mechanisms;

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
thermography applications in building elements. Over the years, mostbuilding envelope inspections using infrared thermography (IRT) havebeen focused on qualitative analysis using mostly passive thermography
techniques. However, increased need for the monitorization and theassessment of the energy performance and thermal behavior of buildings,
along with ongoing structural safety concerns, has raised interest inquantitative studies and active IRT applications in buildings. Numerous
other fields have benefited from developments in defect detection studies
and from countless non-destructive testing applications. Pulse phasethermography, in which phase images are studied (instead of temperature
images) using a long heating pulse has been suggested to be the mosteffective for Civil Engineering applications. Nonetheless, the particularcharacteristics of building elements and materials, along with the complex
nature of heat transfer phenomena, demand specific experimental
procedures and thermographic data processing techniques. In this paper,
analytical solutions and numerical methods (Boundary Elements Method
and Traction Boundary Elements Method) are used to simulate heat transfer
in the frequency domain in media with embedded defects and in multilayered media and compute thermal wave phase results. These results
are compared to experimental IRT phase analysis results of experiments
performed on test specimens simulating building elements. Crucial test
parameters such as heating time and defect characteristics are changed,
and their influence is studied. In this way, this paper contributes to theunderstanding of building envelope thermal patterns using active IRT in
defect detection studies and to the definition of test parameters.

9485-10, Session 2

Active infrared thermographic testing with
distance heating
Nagahisa Ogasawara, Hikaru Ando, Chie Kobayashi,
Hiroyuki Yamada, National Defense Academy (Japan)
In order to efficiently inspect very wide area of concrete structure wall, an
infrared thermographic testing with a distance heating was developed inthis study. The researched subjects were the following three; 1. Improvementof radiant heating efficiency, 2. Development of distance heating method
and 3. Development of data analysis method against non-uniformity ofa heating and/or a wall absorptivity. According to investigation about
combinations between the spectral emissivity of radiant heater and thespectral absorptivity of concrete, both a blackbody type and a far infraredtype, e.g. a ceramics heater and a black coated heater, can heat a concrete
wall more efficiently than a near infrared type, e.g. a halogen lamp heaterand a xenon lamp heater. This is because the spectral absorptivity ofconcrete is higher in a far infrared region than in a near infrared region. In
addition, a simple numerical simulation showed that the ideal heater, which
can heat a concrete structure efficiently, should have a spectral emissivity
that is almost zero in near infrared region. As a result of consideration of thespectral transmissivity of infrared lens, the lens made of sulfuration Zinc cantransmit a radiant energy the most efficiently. However a lost energy by thelens absorption is not small, because the radiant energy from halogen lamp
distributes in wide range of wave length. The pulse phase thermography
was applied to data analysis, and the proposed system could identify
experimentally the flaw part from irregular heated concrete specimen.

9485-11, Session 3

Comparison of lock-in and pulse-phasethermography for defect characterizationin FRP composites applied to concrete
Jeff R. Brown, Sai Harsha Chittineni, Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical Univ. (United States)interpretation. This research involved the IR thermography inspection of two
full-scale FRP strengthened bridge girders that were removed from service
after approximately 15 years in a potentially corrosive marine environment.
Trial inspections were first performed on test areas where defects could
be identified using sounding methods. Two procedures showed the mostpromise for identifying and characterizing defects: sinusoidal (lock-in style)heating with periods ranging from 5 s to 40 s and constant step heatingfor 30 s followed by 70 s of cooling. Both methods resulted in a series ofphase images that could provide insight into the depth and general natureof detected defects (e.g. air gaps vs. excess epoxy). This paper presents
the findings of a comparison study between these two thermal imaging
techniques and offers recommendations for standardizing data collection
procedures during field inspections.

9485-12, Session 3

Crack depth determination with inductive
thermography
Beata Oswald-Tranta, Roland Schmidt, Montan Univ.
Leoben (Austria)
Castings, forgings and other steel products are nowadays usually tested
with magnetic particle inspection, in order to detect surface cracks. An
alternative method is active thermography with inductive heating, which isquicker, it can be well automated and as in this paper presented, even thedepth of a crack can be determined. The induced eddy current, due to itsvery small penetration depth in ferro-magnetic materials, flows around asurface crack, heating this selectively. The surface temperature is recorded
during and after the short inductive heating pulse with an infrared camera.
Using Fourier transformation the whole IR image sequence is evaluatedand the phase image is processed to detect surface cracks. The level
and the local distribution of the phase around a crack correspond to its
depth. Analytical calculations and finite element simulations were used
to model the signal distribution around cracks with different depth and a
relationship has been derived between the depth of a crack and its phasevalue. Additionally, also the influence of the heating pulse duration has
been investigated. Samples with artificial and with natural cracks havebeen tested and the derived relationship has been used to determine
the crack depth from measured data. Results are presented comparing
the determined crack depth with the real depth values, obtained bymetallographic cross-sections.

9485-13, Session 3

Measurement of flaw size fromthermographic data
William P. Winfree, Joseph N. Zalameda, Patricia A. Howell,NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
Simple methods for reducing the pulsed thermographic responses ofdelaminations tend to overestimate the size of the delamination, since theheat diffuses in the plane parallel to the surface. The result is a temperature
profile over the flaw which is larger than the flaw size. A variational
approach is presented for reducing the thermographic data to produce
an estimated size for a flaw that is much closer to the true size of thedelamination. The method is based on an estimate for the thermal responsethat is a convolution of a Gaussian kernel with the shape of the flaw. The size
is determined from both the temporal and spatial thermal response of theexterior surface above the delamination and constraints on the length of thecontour surrounding the delamination. Examples of the application of thetechnique to simulation and experimental data are presented to investigate
the limitations of the technique.

Thermal imaging is a well-established technique for the non-destructive
evaluation of FRP composites applied to concrete. Defect characterization
using IR thermograhy, however, remains a topic of on-going research, andthere are currently no universally accepted standards for data collection or

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII

9485-14, Session 39485-16, Session 3

Characterization of vertical cracks using
ultrasound excited lock-in thermography

Comparison of step heating andmodulated frequency thermography for
detecting bubble defects in colored acrylic
glass

Arantza Mendioroz, Univ. del País Vasco (Spain); Ricardo
Celorrio, Univ. de Zaragoza (Spain); Agustín Salazar, Univ.
del País Vasco (Spain)

Hongjin Wang, Sheng-Jen Hsieh, Texas A&M Univ. (UnitedStates)We present a method that combines (ultra)sonic-infrared experiments inthe lock-in regime and inverse methods to characterize vertical cracks.
We present an analytical model to calculate the surface temperature
distribution corresponding to vertical cracks of different shapes and wedevelop inverse methods to retrieve the shape, size and location of thecrack from surface temperature data. Since this inverse problem is illposed, we have developed stabilized inversion algorithms to obtain an
accurate characterization of the crack by combining lock-in thermography
data obtained at several modulation frequencies, between 0.05 and 13
Hz. First, by inverting synthetic data with added white noise, we analyze
the maximum depth of a square crack for the method to give an accurate
reconstruction. Moreover, we analyze the capability of the method toresolve two square cracks as a function of their depth. The predictions of
the reconstructions from synthetic data are checked by performing lock-in
vibrothermography experiments on samples containing calibrated simulated
cracks. In order for the sample to reach the steady state quickly and also toprevent it from being damaged or altered, data are obtained at low (below
50 W) ultrasound power. In these conditions, the signal-to-noise-ratio is
improved by using the lock-in method in which we analyze a high number ofimages. The inversions obtained from experimental data validate the results
obtained from synthetic data. The results are very promising regarding thecharacterization of real vertical cracks.

Bubble defects are a cause for recall and rejection of glass materials andproducts in industry. Often these defects are difficult to see, particularly
if they are small or if they are located below the surface of the glass. This
study compared active step heating thermography (SHT) and modulated
frequency thermography (MFT) for effectiveness in detecting bubble
defects in samples of colored acrylic glass. The defects ranged in size from1.98 mm to 6 mm in diameter and were located at various depths ranging
from 1.5 mm to 4 mm below the surface of the sample. After a series ofexperiments, we found that SHT can be used to detect shallow defects as
early as 4 seconds after heating. When heating time is lengthened, defectsof 4 to 6 mm in diameter buried 1.5 mm to 4 mm below the surface can bedetected. In contrast, MFT provided a higher signal to noise ratio of 1.3 andcould be used to detect defects as small as 1.98 mm in diameter at depthsof up to 4 mm beneath the glass surface. Obtaining these results required
reducing phase frequency by an order of 10^-3. Future directions include
development of a systematic method and/or rule of thumb for determining
the appropriate frequency for different defect types.

9485-17, Session 3

Detection of pinhole defects in optical filmusing thermography and artificial neuralnetwork9485-15, Session 3

Automatic thermographic scanning withthe creation of 3D panoramic views

Hongjin Wang, Texas A&M Univ (United States); Sheng-Jen
Hsieh, Bhavana Singh, Texas A&M Univ. (United States)

Alessandro Bortolin, Gianluca Cadelano, Giovanni Ferrarini,
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy)

As the use of optical film for liquid crystal display applications has increased
in recent years, it has become challenging to mass produce quality film.
Micro defects in the film can lead to display failure. Optical and visual
methods for detecting defects have had little success due to the reflective
nature of the film and to difficulty in setting up illumination sources andestablishing appropriate viewing angles. This study developed an artificial
neural network model for detecting pinhole defects in film. Nine defect sizes
ranging from 0.03mm to 4 mm in diameter were investigated. The thermal
response of the film during heating and cooling was captured using an
infrared camera. An artificial neural network (ANN) model was trained todetect the presence of the pinhole defects. Temperature variation, averageabsolute temperature difference, and cooling rate were used as input nodes
for the model. Two-thirds of the data set was used for training and one-third
was used for model verification. The model was able to classify samples
as defective or non-defective with 81% accuracy. The residual between
the predicted value and the output was 12%. Future directions include
mathematical model development for estimating and classifying defect sizes
and types.

Infrared thermography is widely applied to the inspection of building,enabling the individuation of thermal anomalies due to the presence ofhidden structures, air leakages, and moisture. One of the main advantagesof this technique is the possibility to acquire rapidly a temperature map of asurface. However, due to the actual low-resolution of thermal camera, during
a building survey it is necessary to take multiple images in order to scan all
the surfaces.
In this work a device based on quantitative infrared thermography, calledaIRview, has been applied during building surveys to automatically acquire
thermograms with a camera mounted on a robotized pan tilt unit. The
goal is to perform a first rapid survey of the building that could give useful
information for the successive quantitative thermal investigations For
each data acquisition, the instrument covered a rotational field of view of
330° around the vertical axis and of 210° around the horizontal one. The
obtained images have been processed in order to create an equirectangularprojection of the ambient.
For this reason the images have been integrated into a web visualization
tool, working with flash-based software or with the Google Street View
algorithms, creating a webpage where it is possible to have a three
dimensional virtual visit of the building. The thermographic data areembedded with the visual imaging and with other sensor data, facilitating
the understanding of the physical phenomena underlying thetemperature distribution.

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9485-18, Session 3

Testing and evaluation of concrete
structures by thermal wave imaging
Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Indian Institute of Technology
Ropar (India); Juned A. Siddiqui, PDPM Indian Institute ofInformation Technology, Design & Manufacturing Jabalpur(India); Vanita Arora, Geetika Dua, Indian Institute ofTechnology Ropar (India); Ghali V. Subbarao, K L Univ.

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321Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII(India); Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM Indian Institute ofInformation Technology, Design & Manufacturing Jabalpur(India)Reinforced concrete structures (RCS) have budding application in civilengineering due to their high strength, durability, sustainability, flexibility
in making complex shapes. However, loss of durability of constructedstructures due to premature corrosion of rebar is a major constraint. An
initial stage of cracking in concrete is not detectable by visual inspections.
With a view to avoid catastrophic failure and massive repair of structures,
it is essential to determine damage at low levels. Growing concernment
about safety of the structure due to premature deterioration has led toa significant demand for advancement of non-destructive testing andevaluation (NDT&E) techniques for monitoring and assessing health of RCS.
This paper highlights a whole-filed, remote, non-destructive testing andevaluation method based on infrared thermography for identifying hidden
corrosion of rebar in a concrete structure. Results shown for both time andfrequency domain transform techniques proves the effectiveness of the
proposed approach for identification of corrosion in rebar in theconcrete samples.

9485-19, Session 3

Studying industrial-scale rack-storage fires
using IR thermography
Jaap de Vries, FM Global (United States)
There is continued interest in the development of fire modeling tools
having predictive abilities regarding large-scale fire phenomena. To thisend, FM Global has recently developed an open-source CFD fire simulation
code, FireFOAM. Such codes heavily rely on experimental data, obtained
at various scales, for validation. However, at larger scales, detailed
measurements of local quantities (e.g., surface temperature) needed formodel validation become increasingly complex. Therefore, often times,
data for large-scale fires are simply limited to global heat release rates. The
present study addresses this limitation by introducing IR thermographic
measurements in large-scale scenarios relevant to industrial warehouse fires.
Experiments were carried out under a 20-MW calorimeter in FM Global’s
Fire Technology Laboratory on three- and five-tier-high rack-storagearrays. The commodities considered consisted of three nested double-wallcorrugated cardboard boxes surrounding a metal liner and resting on a
hardwood pallet. This type of fuel represents a simple yet realistic industrial
commodity. An in-house calibrated microbolometer IR camera was used toobtain temporal and two-dimensional temperature measurements on fuelsurfaces, which were compared with far-field radiometer results. Maximum
temperatures up to 1050ºC were observed on the external surfaces of thetest array. Inside the flue spaces between pallet loads, temperatures up to1250ºC were measured. Timing of the peak radiance measured using the IR
camera and peak heat release rate measurements from the calorimeter werecompared. These temperatures are higher than those obtained through CFD
modeling, which can be attributed to the effect of char oxidation.
The present study demonstrates the value of IR thermography applied
to large-scale fires. The availability of surface temperature data in such
scenarios provides fundamental insights into the mechanisms of fire spreadand radiation phenomena that can be used to evaluate the results offire simulations.

9485-20, Session 4

Advances in infrared fibers (Invited Paper)
Guangming Tao, Ayman F. Abouraddy, CREOL, The
College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida(United States)
Infrared fibers offer a versatile approach to guiding and manipulating lightin the infrared spectrum, which is becoming increasingly more prominent
in a variety of scientific disciplines and technological applications. Despite

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well-established efforts on the fabrication of infrared fibers over the past
decades, a number of remarkable breakthroughs have recently rejuvenatedthe field – just as related areas in infrared optical technology are reaching
maturation. In this review, we describe both the history and recent
developments in the design and fabrication of infrared fibers including
infrared glass and single-crystal fibers, multimaterial fibers, and fibers that
exploit the transparency window of traditional crystalline semiconductors.
This interdisciplinary review will be of interest to researchers in optics andphotonics, materials science, and electrical engineering.

9485-21, Session 4

Logarithmic InGaAs detectors with global
shutter and active dark current reduction
Yang Ni, New Imaging Technologies (France)
In this paper, we present newly developed logarithmic InGaAs detectors
with global shuttering and also an active dark current reduction technique
to insure ambient temperature operation without TEC for industrial
applications. The newly released detectors come with both VGA (15um
pitch) and QVGA (25um pitch) resolutions, giving the possibility to use lensless than 1-inch size. The logarithmic response is obtained by using solar-cellmode InGaAs photodiodes.
The VGA and QVGA ROICs have 3 analog memories inside each pixel which
permit, except the classic ITR, IWR and CDS modes, a new differential
imaging mode which can be a useful feature in active imaging systems.
The photodiode front-end circuit, in pure voltage mode, is made with
non-inverting amplifier instead of CTIA. The reason of this choice is thatthe exposure time can be shortened without need of excessive power
consumption as in CTIA front-end. We think that this arrangement
associated true CDS could match the noise performance of CTIA based one.
Both ROIC have been designed and manufactured by using 0.18um 1P4M
CMOS process. Both ROIC have been tested with success and match thedesign targets. The first batch of both detectors is under fabrication and will
be presented during the conference.

9485-22, Session 4

The fabrication of sub-micron size caesium
iodide x-ray scintillator
Chien Wan Hun, Po Chun Chen, National United Univ.
(Taiwan); Ker Jer Huang, Chung-Shan Institute of Scienceand Technology (Taiwan); Chien-Chon Chen, National
United Univ. (Taiwan)
The caesium iodide (CsI) scintillator can converts incident X-ray into
visible light with very high conversion efficiency of optical photons. The
incident energy, response time, film thickness, sample size, and spatial
resolution requires in engineering and medical applications are difference.
A smooth and flat surface and single crystal structure of CsI enhance
the X-ray to visible light conversion. However, the regular CsI is soft andextremely hygroscopic; it is very difficult to polish to obtain a smooth andoptical flat plane. In order to obtain a good quality of CsI scintillator for
X-ray application we used an ordering channel as template and formed
sub-micron CsI wire in the template. The fabrication process including:(1) Ordering structure of nano or sub-micron channels were made by ananodization method; (2) fill CsI scintillated film on the channel by CsI
solution, (3) fill CsI melt into the channel formation single crystal of submicron crystalline scintillator after solidification. The non-vacuum processesof anodization and solidication methods were used for the sub-micron CsI
scintillator column formation that is cost down the scintillator fabrication. In
addition, through the fabrication method, the ordering structure scintillatorof scintillator can be made by anodic treatment and die casting technology
with low cost and rapid production; moreover, the film oxidized metal tubesof the tubular template can be further manufactured to nano tubes byadjusting electrolyte composition, electrolysis voltage, and processing timewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
of anodic treatment, and the aperture size, the thickness and the vessel
density of the nano tube can be controlled and ranged from 10 nm to 500
nm, 0.1 ?m to 1000 ?m, and hundred million to thousand billion tube/
cm2, respectively.

10 nm to 500 nm, were fabricated and evaluated the performance of thesensitivity of infrared detection. Moreover, a 1 inch plate, which can be
regarded as a device, with nanowires array was fabricated by designing a
new type of processing chamber.

9485-23, Session 49485-25, Session 4

Swap intensified WDR CMOS module for
I2/LWIR fusion

Computational methods for improving
thermal imaging for consumer devices

Yang Ni, New Imaging Technologies (France)

Colm N. Lynch, National Univ. of Ireland, Galway (Ireland)
and Tessera (FotoNation) Ireland Ltd. (Ireland); Nicholas
Devaney, National Univ. of Ireland, Galway (Ireland);Alexandru Drimbarean, Tessera (FotoNation) Ireland Ltd.
(Ireland)In this paper, we present a SWAP intensified Wide Dynamic Range CMOS
module for night vision applications, especially for I2/LWIR fusion. This
module is based on a dedicated CMOS image sensor using solar-cell mode
photodiode logarithmic pixel design which covers a huge dynamic range (>140dB) without saturation and blooming. The format of this CMOS sensor
has been tailed to match the whole surface of standard 18mm II tube with
1280x1024 pixels of 10.6um pitch. The incorporated scanning modes include
full resolution and central x2 zoom/2x2 binning to VGA resolution, creating
instant narrow and wide field of view switching.

We will present also the special optimization applied on the CMOS processlevel in order to improve the MTF in fiber optic coupling process with II tube.
50lp/mm limit resolution has been obtained with XR5 grade II tube. The final
module has very compact size with 1/4 watt consumption and capability todeliver 50 images per second at full resolution. The huge dynamic range
and blooming-less operation of this sensor extracts the full performance ofII tube under all night light conditions with instantaneous reactivity to any
event in the scene. The custom tailored features of this module simplify andimprove considerably the performance of an NIR-VIS/LWIR fused visionsystem on the real operation theatre.

In recent years, uncooled microbolometer arrays have increased in
popularity, while there has also been a decrease in sensor footprint.
Adoption of such sensors in consumer imaging is likely in the near future,
as is evidenced by the recent release of a number of consumer-levelsmartphone imaging accessories built around thermal cores; among them
the FLIR One attachment. Due to the relatively large size of the Airy discacross thermal wavelengths and the limited size allowances of mobile phone
packaging, the maximum output resolution of entry-level thermal sensors is
unlikely to increase dramatically without major innovation in camera phone
manufacturing. As consumers are accustomed to megapixel resolutions, thisproblem must be addressed. We propose a purely computational method toincrease the output resolution of such sensors, incorporating both sub-pixel
shifts and temporal variations in the scene. A resolution increase is possible
provided that the maximum spatial resolution of the system is limited by
the pixels. In addition to these methods, a dual IR-visible camera system
was custom built to fully simulate a range of use cases. Supplemental
information from the visible spectrum is incorporated in the super-resolution
scheme, providing precise shift values and structural information that is notpresent in the thermal channel. Special consideration is given to retaining
temporal information from thermal images in a super-resolved output, fromwhich further thermal structural detail is inferred through a specialized
extension of Eulerian Video Magnification. Simulations of the superresolution method are described and results from the experimental imaging
setup are presented.

9485-24, Session 49485-26, Session 5

Highly sensitive arrayed indium-antimony
nanowires for infrared detection

Pulsed thermal NDT in tables, figures andformulas (Invited Paper)

Po-Chun Chen, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan); ChienChon Chen, National United Univ. (Taiwan); Shih-Hsun
Chen, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan); Chung-Yi Chou,
National United Univ. (Taiwan); Sheng-Jen Hsieh, Texas
A&M Univ. (United States)

Vladimir P. Vavilov, Tomsk Polytechnic Univ. (RussianFederation); Douglas Burleigh, Surf Consulting (UnitedStates)

We will present also the special optimization applied on the CMOS processlevel in order to improve the MTF in fiber optic coupling process with II
tube. 50lp/mm limit resolution has been obtained with XR5 grade II tube.
The final module has very compact size with 1/4 watt consumption andcapability to deliver 50 images per second at full resolution. The huge
dynamic range and blooming-less operation of this sensor extracts thefull performance of II tube under all night light conditions and improves
considerably the performance of an NIR-VIS/LWIR fused vision system on
the real operation theatre.

Pulsed thermal nondestructive testing (TNDT) is being increasingly usedin the inspection of composite materials. The theoretical basis of thistechnique has been successfully developed in recent decades. This included
both direct solutions for heat conduction problems (modeling) and inverse
solutions (defect characterization). The practical implementation of pulsed
TNDT hardware is also becoming more widely used due to the availabilityof infrared (IR) thermographic modules which allow the development of
portable inspection units for both laboratory and field conditions.

The objective of this study is to achieve a high sensitive infrared detector
by fabricating highly ordered array of indium-antimony (In-Sb) nanowires
which is a semiconductor material. The approach is to investigate an
infrared detector with arrayed nanowires which can transport signals in one
dimension to obtain high efficiency and sensitivity compared with In-Sb byusing traditional thin film fabrications. This research expects to provide an
infrared detector by fabricating III-V alloy nanowires to highly improve theresolution of infrared signal. To develop scaled-up functional devices, highlyordered nanowire arrays are essential building blocks. Many candidate
materials (metals, alloys, oxides and semiconductors) have been studied
for various potential applications in nanotechnology and have shown somepromising results. The solid metallic nanowires have been exploited for awide range of applications to take the advantages of their large length/
diameter aspect ratio. Further development to synthesize nanowires
efficiently at lower cost is the direction for manufacturing next generation
nanodevices. In this study, various diameters of ordering nanowires, fromReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Several reviews and summary papers describing the history and thecurrent status of pulsed TNDT have been published recently. However,some publications were not impartial or objective. In addition, some of thetheoretical possibilities cannot easily be implemented inpractical applications.
This paper contains useful tables and formulas that are illustrated withtypical IR thermograms to provide a general overlook of pulsed TNDT.
Hopefully this review will be valuable to experienced TNDT practitioners aswell as to beginners in the field.

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII

9485-27, Session 5

and lockin thermography (LT) which consists in modulated heating. In
PT, images were generally processed in the time domain by mean of acontrast. Such temperature differences observed on the specimen surface
corresponds to how well or not the heat flow propagates within the bulk of
the specimen. A subsurface defect acts as a thermal barrier, hence the «heat
accumulates» just over it translating as a higher surface temperature. In LT,
the images were processed in the phase domain. Phase is related to the
propagation delay of the thermal waves propagating into the specimens.
A careful choice of the stimulation modulated frequency yields to thermal
waves propagating at the depth corresponding to possible defects (forexample the glue line in a laminate).

Advances in thermographic signal
reconstruction (Invited Paper)
Steven M. Shepard, Thermal Wave Imaging, Inc. (UnitedStates)Since its introduction in 2001, the Thermographic Signal Reconstruction(TSR) method has been the subject of numerous investigations andcomparative studies. It has emerged as one of the most widely usedmethods for enhancement and analysis of thermographic sequences, withapplications extending beyond industrial NDT into biomedical research, art
restoration and botany. The basic TSR process, in which a noise reduced
replica of each pixel time history is created, yields improvement over
unprocessed image data that is sufficient for many applications. However,examination of the resulting logarithmic time derivatives of each TSR pixel
replica have facilitated significant insight into the details of the active
thermography process. The deterministic and invariant properties of thederivatives has facilitated the successful implementation of automateddefect recognition and measurement systems. Unlike most approaches toanalysis of thermography data, TSR does not depend on flaw-backgroundcontrast, so that it can be applied to characterization and measurement ofthermal properties of flaw-free samples. We present a summary of recent
advances in TSR, a review of the underlying theory and examples of
its implementation.

By analyzing the PT data in the frequency domain thanks to the Fouriertransform, PPT enabled PT data to be analyzed as LT data and thus unified
somehow these two approaches. Moreover, such analysis enhanced
significantly the results by reducing the noise (optical heating andinfrared effects).
Since then, PPT has been adopted by the community and is a common
tool nowadays.
In this paper, PPT will be presented and its capabilities will be demonstrated
on various specimens.

9485-30, Session 5

Development of self-reference lock-in
thermography and its applications to
nondestructive testing (Invited Paper)

9485-28, Session 5

Takahide Sakagami, Kobe Univ. (Japan)

Principal component analysis ofthermographic data (Invited Paper)

Self-reference lock-in data processing technique was developed for the
improvement of signal-to-noise ratio of the thermal images obtained byinfrared thermography. In this paper, experimental results of nondestructive
testing by the self-reference lock-in thermography are shown comparedwith other thermal data processing technique.

William P. Winfree, K. Elliott Cramer, Joseph N. Zalameda,
Patricia A. Howell, Eric R. Burke, NASA Langley Research
Ctr. (United States)
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been shown effective for reducing
thermographic NDE data. While a reliable technique for enhancing thevisibility of defects in thermal data, PCA can be computationally intense
and time consuming when applied to the large data sets typical inthermography. Additionally, PCA can experience problems when very large
defects are present (defects that dominate the field-of-view), since thecalculation of the eigenvectors is now governed by the presence of thedefect, not the “good” material. To increase the processing speed and tominimize the negative effects of large defects, an alternative method of
PCA is being pursued where a fixed set of eigenvectors, generated fromeither acquired data or a simulation of the thermal response of the material
under examination, is used to process the thermal data from the material.
Details of a one-dimensional analytic model and a two-dimensional finiteelement model will be presented. An overview of the PCA process as well
as a quantitative signal-to-noise comparison of the results by performing
both embodiments of PCA on thermographic data from specimens will beshown. Finally, a number of different applications of this technology forcharacterization of flaws will be presented.

9485-29, Session 5

Review of pulse phase thermography(Invited Paper)
Clemente Ibarra-Castanedo, P. Servais, Xavier Maldague,
Univ. Laval (Canada)

SPIE DSS 2015

A novel data processing algorithm inthermal property measurement and defectdetection by using one-sided active
infrared thermography
Vladimir P. Vavilov, Tomsk Polytechnic Univ. (RussianFederation)
Comparison between one- and two-sided test procedures is an ongoingissue in thermal nondestructive testing (NDT). From the theoretical pointof view, two-sided procedures seem to be more appropriate to provide
a more accurate measurement of thermal properties, as well as a morereliable detection of defects arbitrarily located throughout a test specimen.
A good illustration to this statement is the known Parker method intended
for determining thermal diffusivity. Basically, this is a two-sided pulsed
technique which takes into account material properties averaged by sample
thickness. The same statement adheres to thermal NDT of hidden defects.
The difficulty in using a one-sided procedure is that it does not provide
some evident specific points in the front-surface temperature evolution
which can be used for reliable data inversion. In practice, another drawbackof one-sided procedures is the presence of reflected radiation produced bya heat source that is used for stimulation.
The new algorithm recently proposed at National Research Tomsk
Polytechnic University is based on the analysis of an artificial function
which includes temperature and time. This function experiences certain
extremums (typically-minimums), and the corresponding observation times
can be used for determining thermal diffusivity by the formula similar to theParker one. In thermal NDT, such approach being applied to defect areas,
provides diffusivity variations which can be used for the evaluation of defectseverity in a particular specimen. In this study, both the theoretical basis andIn this paper, Pulse Phase Thermography (PPT) will be reviewed in thecontext of NDT. It is recalled PPT was proposed in 1996 as a new mean
to look at thermographic data obtained from pulsed experiments. Up tothat time, two stimulation approaches were common for thermographic
NDT. Pulsed thermography (PT) which consists in flash-heating specimens

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
and strength-to-mass ratios. Defects are much more common in the 3D
combining areas. However, 3D non-destructive infrared thermography(IR NDT) is poorly documented currently. In this paper, IR NDT is used toinspect 3D carbon fiber samples. In particular, a non-contact laser lock-in
thermography technique (LLT) is used to detect and evaluate the defects
in 3D carbon fiber samples. LLT utilizes a modulated continuous wave laser
as a heating source for lock-in thermography instead of the usual flash andhalogen lamps. For comparison purposes, conventional flash and halogen
lamps are used to detect the defects in 3D samples as well.

the some experimental implementations of the proposed data processing
algorithm have been explored to prove its principle validity in thermal
properties measurement and thermal NDT, including thermal tomography.

9485-32, Session 5

Signal and image processing techniques
for testing and evaluation of glass fibre
reinforced polymers

In addition, both optical pulsed thermography (PT) and mechanicalvibrothermography (VT) are also used to inspect the same samples.
Different image processing methods are used depending on the different
experimental methods used. Finally a comparative study is conducted for LT,
PT and VT.

Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Vanita Arora, Indian Instituteof Technology Ropar (India); Juned A. Siddiqui, PDPM
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design &Manufacturing Jabalpur (India); Ghali V. Subbarao, K L
Univ. (India); Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM Indian Instituteof Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing
Jabalpur (India)

An ultrasound C-scan non-destructive test (UT NDT) is also conducted toinspect the same samples. The results from UT NDT are compared to thecorresponding IR NDT results. Advantages and disadvantages of IR NDT and
UT NDT are clearly identified according to these comparisons.
In order to verify these defects detected using IR NDT and UT NDT, amicroscope inspection after cutting and polishing the samples is carried out.
A comparison between NDT and DT is also conducted thereafter.

Glass Fibre Reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites are being used in awide range of application areas since these materials are less affectedby corrosive environmental conditions and provide longer life with lessmaintenance. However, there are still some concerns about reinforced
polymers, such as the presence of surface and sub-surface defects which
effects their in service applications. To detect these defects, InfraRed
Thermographic (IRT) methods shows their potential usage for nondestructive testing and evaluation (NDT&E) of composite materials due toits inherent testing capabilities such as remote, whole field, quantitativeand qualitative to detect surface and sub-surface defects. Thermal NDT&E
is broadly categorized into passive or active approach. In passive approach
the test sample’s temperature distribution will be monitored in the absenceof any external heat stimulus at ambient conditions. However, this may notprovide ample thermal contrast to detect the defects located at deeper
depths. In order to detect deeper defects inside the test specimen an
active thermography is preferred. This can be carried out by applying an
external heat stimulus, to induce enough thermal contrasts over the test
object. The thermal gradient appear over the material during the active
heating due to the changes in thermal properties of defective and soundregion leads to detect the subsurface defects. This present work highlights
a spectral reshaping by introducing a Gaussian window on the captured
thermal profile in a frequency modulated thermal wave imaging andnamed as Gaussian windowed frequency modulated thermal wave imaging(GWFMTWI) technique. Further various multi-transform techniques (timeand frequency domain based) have been introduced in order to test subsurface defect detection capabilities in chosen GFRP sample. Comparisonhas been made with the non-stationary linear frequency modulated thermal
wave imaging technique in terms of depth scanning capability. Results
obtained from the GWFMTWI clearly shows better detection potential withimproved test resolution and sensitivity.

Experimental results show that IR and UT have respective advantages
depending on different defects.

9485-34, Session 6

Characterization of phononic
heterostructures by infrared thermography
Dimitrios A. Exarchos, Ilias Tragazikis, Ioannis E. Psarobas,
Theodore E. Matikas, Univ. of Ioannina (Greece)
This work deals with the development of a new class of metamaterials
based on phononic composite structures that can offer vibration protection
in a wide range of applications. Such phononic heterostructures is a classof phononic crystals that exhibit spectral gaps with lattice constants of afew orders of magnitude smaller than the relevant acoustic wavelength. The
design of a phononic composite metamaterial is based on the formationof omnidirectional frequency gaps. This is very much relevant to thedimensionality of a finite slab of the crystal. In this respect, two dimensional
structures are used to cut off acoustic waves. In this study, different infrared
thermography techniques were used in order to assess the phononic
structure’s geometry, as well as to determine the thermal properties ofthe metamaterial.

9485-35, Session 6

Superimpose methods for uncooled
infrared camera applied to the micro-scalthermal characterization of composite
materials

9485-33, Session 6

Infrared thermography, ultrasound C-scanand microscope for non-destructive anddestructive evaluation of 3D carbon fiber
materials: a comparative study

Junko Morikawa, Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan)
The mobile type apparatus for a quantitative microscale thermographyusing a micro-bolometer was developed based on our original techniquessuch as an achromatic lens design to capture a micro-scale image in longwave infrared, a video signal superimposing for the real time emissivity
correction, and a pseudo acceleration of a timeframe. The total size of the
instrument was designed as it was put in the 17 cm x 28 cm x 26 cm size
carrying box.

Hai Zhang, Univ. Laval (Canada); Marc Genest, National
Research Council Canada (Canada); Francois Robitaille,
Univ. of Ottawa (Canada); Simon Joncas, École deTechnologie Supérieure (Canada); Xavier Maldague, Univ.
Laval (Canada); Catherine Leduc, École de Technologie
Supérieure (Canada); Lucas West, Univ. of Ottawa(Canada)The video signal synthesizer enabled to record a direct digital signal ofmonitoring temperature or positioning data. The encoded digital signal
data embedded in each image was decoded to read out. The protocol
to encode/decode the measured data was originally defined. The mixed
signals of IR camera and the imposed data were applied to the pixel by pixel
emissivity corrections and the pseudo-acceleration of the periodical thermal

Thick 3D Carbon fiber polymer matrix composites (3D CF PMCs) are
increasingly used for aircraft construction due to their exceptional stiffness-

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325

Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
phenomena. Because the emissivity of industrial materials and biologicaltissues were usually inhomogeneous, it has the different temperaturedependence on each pixel. The time-scale resolution for the periodic
thermal event was improved with the algorithm for “pseudo-acceleration”.
It contributes to reduce the noise by integrating the multiple image data,
keeping a time resolution.
The anisotropic thermal properties of some composite materials such as
thermal insulating materials of cellular plastics and the biometric composite
materials were analyzed using these techniques.

9485-36, Session 69485-46, Session 6

A numerical approach for testing andevaluation of mild steel material bythermal wave imaging

Thermal diffusivity estimation withquantitative pulsed phase thermography
Juan Esteban Ospina, Juan Felipe Florez, Hernan Dario
Benitez, Pontificia Univ. Javeriana, Cali (Colombia); Xavier
Maldague, Université Laval (Canada)

Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Geetika Dua, Indian Instituteof Technology Ropar (India); Juned A. Siddiqui, PDPM
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design &Manufacturing Jabalpur (India); Ghali V. Subbarao, K L
Univ. (India); Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM Indian Instituteof Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing
Jabalpur (India)
Among several commonly used infrared non-destructive testing andevaluation methods, non-stationary thermal non-destructive testing
modalities have proved to be an imperative approach for the inspectionand evaluation of various solid materials. These techniques makes use of
relatively low peak power heat sources in a moderate time compared withthe conventional pulsed thermography and sinusoidal modulated (lock-in)
thermography approach respectively. This present work introduces a novel
11-bit Barker coded thermal wave imaging approach for characterization ofmild steel sample having flat bottom holes as defects. Capabilities of the
proposed approach has been studied on a mild steel sample containing flatbottom holes as sub-surface defects located at different depths modeledusing a finite element method. Results show the depth detection capabilitiesof the proposed 11-bit Barker coded excitation scheme as a promising
testing and evaluation method to detect the subsurface defects.

9485-37, Session 6

Characterization of nuclear graphite
elastic properties using laser ultrasonicmethods

Laser ultrasonic methods have been used to characterize the elastic
behaviors of commercially-available and legacy nuclear graphites.
Since ultrasonic techniques are sensitive to various aspects of graphite
microstructure including preferred grain orientation, microcrack orientationand porosity, laser ultrasonics is a candidate technique for monitoringgraphite degradation and structural integrity in environments expected
in high-temperature, gas-cooled nuclear reactors. Aspects of materials
texture can be assessed by studying ultrasonic wavespeeds as a functionof propagation direction and polarization. Shear wave birefringencemeasurements, in particular, can be used to evaluate elastic anisotropy.
In this work, laser ultrasonic measurements of graphite moduli have been
made to provide insight into the relationship between the microstructures
and the macroscopic stiffnesses of these materials. In particular, laser
ultrasonic measurements have been made using laser line sources to
produce shear waves with specific polarizations. By varying the lineorientation relative to the sample, shear wave birefringence measurements

SPIE DSS 2015

Pulsed Phase Thermography (PPT) transforms the pulsed thermography
sequence in time domain into the frequency domain using discrete Fouriertransform. This transformation is performed for each pixel. Phase datais less affected by local surface optical variations and so it is reported todetect defect approximately twice the depth of the temperature data.
Another important advantage of PPT is that the phase angle, is generally
not sensitive to undesirable conditions in pulsed thermography such as nonuniform heating or surface emissivity variation.
PPT also permits quantitative analysis by estimating the depth ofdelaminations or flat bottom holes in composite samples. In one approach,the flaw depth is evaluated from the relationship between the relative
phase angle (phase contrast between defect and non-defective area) andlength ratio (delamination depth/diffusion length). Another type of depth
quantification with PPT defines a model based on thermal quadrupole
theory to attain an analytical expression of phase contrast in Laplacedomain where defect depth and thermal resistance appear explicitly.
In practice, quantitative PPT has been only used to estimate defectparameters such as depth and thermal resistance. An approach to estimate
thermophysical properties, such as thermal diffusivity, through PPT had
not been introduced until the quantitative PPT method discussed in thiswork. Here, we propose a thermal quadrupole based method that extends
quantitative pulsed phase thermography. This approach estimates thermal
diffusivity by solving an inversion problem based on non-linear
squares estimation.
This approach is tested with pulsed thermography data acquired from acomposite sample whose configuration. The estimation algorithm calculates
thermal diffusivity for each pixel (i,j) in the image to generate a thermal
diffusivity map. We compare our results with other techniques establishedin time domain. The proposed quantitative analysis with PPT provides low
error estimations of thermal diffusivity. This estimation requires only the apriori knowledge of sample thickness.

Fan W. Zeng, Karen Han, Lauren R. Olasov, James B.
Spicer, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States); Nidia C.
Gallego, Cristian I. Contescu, Oak Ridge National Lab.
(United States)

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have been recorded. Results from the shear wave birefringencemeasurements show that an isostatically molded graphite, such as IG-110,
behaves isotropiclly, while an extruded graphite, such as PCEA, displays
significant ultrasonic texture. Graphites have complicated microstructuresthat depend on the manufacturing processes used, and ultrasonic texture
in these materials could originate from grain orientation and also frompreferred microcrack alignment. Changes to material isotropy due to service
related microstructural changes are possible and the ultimate aim of thiswork is to determine the degree to which these changes can be assessed
nondestructively using laser ultrasonics measurements.

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9485-38, Session 7

IR-based spot weld NDT in automotive
applications
Jian Chen, Zhili Feng, Oak Ridge National Lab. (UnitedStates)Today’s auto industry primarily relies on destructive teardown evaluation
to ensure the quality of the spot welds due to their criticality in crash
resistance and performance of vehicles. The destructive teardown evaluationis labor intensive and costly. The very nature of the destructive test means
only a few selected welds will be sampled for quality. Most of the welds in a
car are never checked. There are significant costs and risks associated withreworking and scrapping the defective welded parts made between theteardown tests.

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
IR thermography as a non-destructive testing (NDT) tool has its distinct
advantage — its non-intrusive and non-contact nature. This makes the IR
based NDT especially attractive for the highly automated assembly lines.
IR for weld quality inspection has been explored in the past, mostly limited
to the offline post-processing manner in a laboratory environment. No
online real-time RSW inspection using IR thermography has been reported.
Typically for post-processing inspection, a short-pulse heating via xenon
flash lamp light (in a few milliseconds) is applied to the surface of a spot
weld. However, applications in the auto industry have been unsuccessful,largely due to a critical drawback that cannot be implemented in the highvolume production line – the prerequisite of painting the weld surface toeliminate surface reflection and other environmental interference. This isdue to the low signal-to-noise ratio resulting from the low/unknown surface
emissivity and the very small temperature changes (typically on the order of
0.1°C) induced by the flash lamp method.

direct observation and real-time data acquisition of the Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ) using frame rates of 2 kHz. Several welding processes have beenrecorded with the aim to study the performance of the infrared sensor
and its application to the real-time monitoring of the process. During theexperiments, some faults have been also introduced. This paper will review
the experimental results obtained after the analysis of the data.

9485-40, Session 7

Comparison of the insulation property of
an innovative material and a traditional
one by infrared thermography
Antonella Barizza, Paolo Bison, Stefano Boldrini,
Alessandro Bortolin, Gianluca Cadelano, Laura Colla,
Giovanni Ferrarini, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche(Italy)An integrated approach consisting of innovations in both data analysis
algorithms and hardware apparatus that effectively solved the key technicalbarriers for IR NDT. The system can be used for both real-time (during
welding) and post-processing inspections (after welds have been made).
First, we developed a special IR thermal image processing method thatutilizes the relative IR intensity change, so that the influence of surface
reflection and environment interference can be reduced. Second, for the
post-processing inspection, a special induction heater is used to replace
the flash lamp, resulting in temperature changes on the order of 10°C. As aresult, the signal-to-noise ratio increased by several orders of magnitudes
with no surface painting needed, and the inspection results are moreaccurate and reliable. For real-time inspection, the heat from welding (withtemperature exceeding 1000°C) was utilized. Third, “thermal signatures”
were identified to uniquely correlate to different weld quality attributes
through computational modeling of heat transfer and extensive testing ofspecially designed ranges of welding conditions. Novel IR image analysis
algorithms that automatically and intelligently identify the “thermal
signatures” from the IR images and positively determine the weld quality inless than a second were developed.

An innovative ceramic material has been developed as a possible substituteof the traditional rockwool as thermal insulating material. It should be usedin the future inside a machine working at a temperature greater than 200°C. Several measurements have been carried out on this new material bymeans of Laser Flash technique and Differential Scanning Calorimeter toevaluate the thermal conductivity at 200 °C. The effect of exposition tothis temperature for several hours has been evaluated as well, to check if adegradation of the insulating properties can be measured. Experiments did
not show any evidence of degradation. Nonetheless the value of the thermal
conductivity measured both at high and ambient temperature was not sogood as expected. At the same time, the same measurements on rockwool(the traditional choice for insulation in this machinery) reavealed to bevery difficult as it is not possible to prepare samples to be tested in a laser
flash. To overcome this problem in the measurement of the performance athigh temperature a new experiment was prepared by heating one side of
the material by means of an electric heater and by looking and comparing(at least qualitatively) the temperature increase on the other side. On the
purpose, two parallelepiped samples of the two rival materials, with thesame thickness have been prepared and put in contact with the electricheater plate. The temperature of the heater has been controlled by asuitable Variac transformer. The temperature evolution of the side facing
the ambient has been measured by means of a thermographic camera
for almost one hour. An analytical model has been used to evaluate theexpected behaviour of the material with boundary conditions that can beapproximated to those of prescribed temperature on one side (the one incontact with the heater) and exchange with the environment on the other(the one facing the ambient and visible by the IR camera). The experimentshows that the traditional material owns better insulation performance
than the innovative one. Attention has been paid on the properties of theinnovative material that, being highly hygroscopic, can maintain a lowtemperature during the drying process due to the very high value of thelatent heat of water when changing from liquid to gas phase. This canlead to wrong evaluation of the insulating properties by the comparison
technique adopted.

9485-39, Session 7

Laser beam welding quality monitoring
system based in high-speed (10 kHz)
uncooled MWIR imaging sensors
Rodrigo Linares, Germán Vergara, Carlos Fernández, Luis
Gómez, María González-Camino, Raúl Gutiérrez, María
T. Montojo, Víctor Villamayor, Arturo Baldasano, New
Infrared Technologies, S.L. (Spain); Gemma Castro, Rosa
María Arias, Yago Lapido, Jorge Rodríguez, Pablo Romero,
AIMEN Centro Tecnológico (Spain)
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple
pieces of metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides aconcentrated and quite intense heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds
and high welding rates. The investment required to implement the process
is very high, and therefore it is frequently used in high-volume applications.
It has been the automotive industry the main driver to spread this welding
technique in the production lines.

9485-41, Session 7

Thermographic investigation of
luminescent barium borate glasses forwhite-LED applications

As it happens in the Resistance Spot Welding technique, where current
flow meters and pressure sensors are used to monitor the process but
not electro-optical sensors, there is a lack of an appropriate low-costsensing technology to perform an in-line real-time monitoring of the LBWprocess. Some EO sensors are capable to monitor the penetration of thewelding in real-time; however, the cost of these sensors makes unfeasible
their implementation in every welding station. In addition, LBW process isquite dynamic, and therefore it requires sampling speeds of several kHz.
The appearance of high-speed, uncooled imaging MWIR sensors made of
VPD PbSe opens the possibility to perform such process monitoring at anaffordable cost.

Florian Wagner, South Westphalia Univ. of Applied
Sciences (Germany); Peter W. Nolte, Fraunhofer
Application Ctr. for Inorganic Phosphors (Germany);Franziska Steudel, Fraunhofer Application Center for
Inorganic Phosphors (Germany); Stefan Schweizer, South
Westphalia Univ. of Applied Sciences (Germany) and
Fraunhofer Application Ctr. for Inorganic Phosphors(Germany)

In order to demonstrate the capabilities of this technology, one of thesesensors has been assembled to a production LBW machine, allowing a

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327

Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVIIWhite light-emitting diodes (W-LEDs) represent one of the most promisinglighting technologies for the future. Primarily used in many lighting
applications is a blue LED in combination with a yellow phosphor. The
phosphor powder is usually embedded in an organic polymer and directly
coated onto the LED chip. This setup, however, is often subject to heatinduced degradation of the organic encapsulate resulting in an efficiency
decrease and in a change of the color temperature. Luminescent glasses
or glass ceramics are an interesting alternative to the above-mentioned
phosphor / polymer combination; the organic encapsulate is no longer
necessary. In addition, glasses and glass ceramics provide for a high thermaland chemical stability.

the current status of the TEMPS program, aimed at constructing a facility at
NIST to characterize the radiative properties of materials at temperatures
up to 2000 K and higher, under static as well as dynamic conditions of theheated spot (melt pool).

This work focuses on the thermal behavior of luminescent barium borate
glasses and glass ceramics under intense laser beam excitation. The glasses
and glass ceramics are doped with rare-earth ions for optical activation.
Upon absorbing the incident laser beam the rare-earth ions show their
typical emission in the visible spectral range. However, not all of theabsorbed laser power is converted to light, but a significant part is releasedin the form of heat. Contact-free infrared thermography enables then foran analysis of the heat development in these materials. An algorithm basedon solving the partial differential heat equation is developed to calculate
the heat source density of the laser excitation from the surface temperature
distribution. Time-resolved thermographic images are taken and used tovalidate the developed algorithm. There is good agreement between thecalculated heat source density and the laser-induced heat power generated
in the glass.

Moulay A. Akhloufi, Univ. Laval (Canada) and Ctr. of
Robotics and Vision (Canada); Yannis Guyon, Univ. deTechnologie de Belfort-Montbéliard (France); Abdelhakim
Bendada, Clemente-Ibarra Castenado, Univ. Laval(Canada)9485-42, Session 7

About infrared scanning of photovoltaic
solar plant
Timo T. Kauppinen, P. E. Panouillot, Sami Siikanen,
VTT Technical Research Ctr. of Finland (Finland); E.
Athanasakou, P. Baltas, B. Nikopoulous, Euditi (Greece)
This paper is discussing about infrared scanning of PV solar plants. It is
important that the performance of each solar panel and cell is verified. One
new possibility compared to traditional ground-based scanning (handheld
camera) is the utilisation of UAV (Unmanned Aerial vehicle). In this paper
results from a PV solar Plant in Western Greece are introduced. The nominal
power of the solar plant is 0, 9 MW and it is scanned both by a groundcontrolled drone and by handheld equipment. It is essential to know all
the factors effecting to results and also the time of scanning is important.
The results done from the drone and from ground-based scanning arecompared; also results from various altitudes and time of day are discussed.
The UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle/RPAS (Remote Piloted Aircraft
Systems) will give an excellent opportunity to monitor various targets
which are impossible or difficult to access from the ground. Comparedto fixed-wing and helicopter-based platforms it will give advantages but
also this technology has limitations. One limitation is the weight of theequipment and the short operational range and short flight time. Also valid
procedures must be created for different solutions in the future. The mostimportant thing, as in all infrared thermography applications, is the properinterpretation of results.

Three-dimensional (3D) vision scanning for metrology and inspection
applications is an area that knows an increasing interest in the industry. This
interest is driven by the recent advances in 3D technologies, permitting toattain high precision measurements at an affordable cost. 3D vision allows
for the modelling and inspection of the visible surface of objects. When it
is necessary to detect subsurface defects, active infrared thermography is
one of the most used tools today for the non-destructive testing (NDT) of
materials. Fusion of these two modalities allows the simultaneous detectionof surface and subsurface defects and to visualize these defects overlaid
on the 3D model of the scanned parts or their 3D computer-aided design(CAD).
In this work, we present a framework for automatically fusing 3D data
(scanned or CAD) with the infrared thermal images for an NDT process in
3D space. The captured 3D images and their thermal infrared counterparts
are aligned and fused using automatically detected features. This fusion
is undergone on 3D space, thus allowing 3D visualization of subsurface
defects on a 3D model (or CAD). Additionally, the defects are extractedusing image processing techniques and overlaid over their virtual position
in 3D space. Their positioning at a certain distance from the part 3D surface
is proportional to the computed depth using phase image analysis in the
Fourier domain. This depth represents the real position of the detectedsubsurface defect and is extracted using a sequence of thermal images.
The obtained results are promising and show how this new technology canbe used efficiently in a combined NDT-Metrology analysis of manufactured
parts, in areas such as aerospace and automotive, among others.

9485-45, Session 8

Nuno A. Simões, Maria Simões, Catarina L. Serra, António
Tadeu, Pólo II da Univ. de Coimbra (Portugal)
An external thermal Insulation composite system (ETICS) kit may include
anchors to mechanically fix the insulation product onto the wall. This option
increases safety over a simple bonded solution, but it is more expensive
and needs more labor resources. The insulation material is then facedwith render, which is applied directly, without any air gap. The rendering
comprises one or more layers of coats with an embedded reinforcement.
The commonest multi-coat rendering system consists of a base coat applied
directly to the insulation product with a glass fiber mesh reinforcement,
followed by a second base coat and then a very thin coat (key coat) that
prepares the surface for the finishing and decorative coat. The system canbe from 5 to 10 mm thick, with higher thicknesses possibly being associatedwith a two layers of fiber mesh reinforcement.

The TEMPS program at NIST and its
implications for optical properties
metrology of laser-matter interaction
Sergey Mekhontsev, Leonard M. Hanssen, Steven E.
Grantham, Weston L. Tew, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States)

Nondestructive techniques may be useful when safety or quality control
inspections are needed, being important to confirm the existence anddistribution of the anchors. So, the main purpose of this work is to use theinfrared thermography technique (IRT) in different ETICS solutions andMultiple processes involving directed energy beams to melt, sinter or
evaporate materials can benefit from better understanding of emissive
properties of materials in their solid, powder and liquid states. We present

SPIE DSS 2015

Three-dimensional non-destructive testing(NDT) in the infrared spectrum

Thermographic inspection of external
thermal insulation systems withmechanical fixing

9485-43, Session 73289485-44, Session 8·

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
in order to get reliable temperature values while this information is notavailable when using broadband imaging. In this work, combustion analysis
of a candle was carried out using Telops MS-IR MW camera which allows
multispectral imaging at a high frame rate. A motorized filter wheel allowing
synchronized acquisitions on eight (8) different channels at a high frame
rate is used to provide time-resolved multispectral imaging. Among thefilters, seven distinct spectral filters and one neutral density filter, i.e. whichcorresponds to broadband imaging, were used for the experiments. The
combustion recorded produced water and carbon dioxide, the latter being
clearly observed in filters corresponding to its infrared signature. It wasthen possible to estimate the temperature of the gas plume by modeling its
spectral profile. Comparison with temperatures obtained using conventional
broadband imaging illustrates the benefits of time-resolved multispectral
imaging for the characterization of combustion processes.

assess its ability to detect anchors within it. The reliability of IRT will betested using different ETICS configurations where the insulation products(expanded and extruded polystyrene, expanded cork and rock wool), thenumber of coats and thickness of the render system, and the type and colorof the finishing coats are changed. An active thermography approach is first
performed in laboratory conditions and then a passive inspection routine
will be implemented for different environment conditions. At the end, a setof guidelines detect the presence and density of anchors during the ETICS
inspection will be given.

9485-47, Session 8

Analysis of the relative merits of the 3-5µm and the 8-12 ?m spectral bands using
detected thermal contrast

9485-49, Session 9

Sean M. Stewart, Nazarbayev Univ. (Kazakhstan)

Thermal imaging of microfluidic systems
as a model for investigating energy
efficiency

The two most important atmospheric transmission bands in the infraredoccur at 3–5 µm and 8–12 µm respectively. For a given infrared detector
a common question that continues to be asked is, of the two spectral
bands, which gives the better performance? While seemly an innocent
enough question, the literature attests it has not been without controversy.
Conflicting and often contradictory results have been given that tend toreflect the predilections of the proponent as much as factors dependent
upon, for example, the particular target to be detected, atmospherictransmittance, or detector performance. In this study an analysis designed
to assess the relative merits of infrared detectors operating in the 3–5µm and 8–12 µm spectral bands based on the recently defined figure of
merit known as the detected thermal contrast is undertaken. The detected
thermal contrast attempts to describe the overall performance of thesequence of events from the initial emission of thermal radiation at thesurface of a target to the final measurable input signal seen in the detecting
instrument. Under ideal limiting conditions typical of those found for manyindustrial and scientific applications, by considering targets whose spectral
emissivities vary as a function of both wavelength and temperature, exact
expressions based on the recently introduced polylogarithmic formulationof the problem are developed for both thermal and quantum detectors.
It is found the 3–5 µm waveband for either detector type gives better
performance for a range of different target types whose spectral emissivities
are well known while differences between detector type is not as significant
as one might initially expect. The work not only extends a number ofapproximation schemes that have been proposed and developed in the past
where target emissivities as a function of the temperature only have been
used, it also challenges a number of previously reported results.

Michael Mauk, Richard Y. Chiou, Drexel Univ. (UnitedStates); Dharma T Varapula, Pranav R Kamarajugadda,
Drexel University (United States); Changchun Liu,
University of Pennsylvania (United States); Tzu-Liang B.
Tseng, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States)
Microfluidic systems are miniaturized fluidic circuits that implement
physical, chemical or biomedical processes (both for analysis or synthesis)
on a micro-scale (microns to millimeters). Typically, a microfluidic device
is fabricated on a thin substrate that hosts a fluidic network of chambers,
reactors, conduits, channels, filters, and manifolds, possibly supplemented
with micro-pumps and valves for fluid actuation and flow control. Heat andmass transfer, fluid phenomena (mixing, flow characteristics), and chemical
kinetics can be imaged and visualized with an infrared camera to develop
and validate engineering models of micro-scale processes. As a specificexample, the efficiency of microfluidic heat exchangers, reactors, and pumps
can be assessed by such thermal imaging. We present test devices andsupporting instrumentation for thermal image analysis of a microfluidic heatexchanger, a bioreactor for algae culture, optically activated pumping andvalves based on phase-change materials. Microfluidic devices are rapidprototyped in clear plastics using a laser cutter and designed to facilitate
thermal image analysis, as well as instrumentation with temperature,pressure, and flow-rate sensors. Energy efficiency can be assessed todetermine the feasibility and effectiveness of microfluidic designs.

9485-48, Session 99485-50, Session 9

Time-resolved multispectral imaging of
combustion reaction

Spectrum infrared transmission study ofwater spray

Alexandrine Huot, Marc-André Gagnon, Karl-Alexandre
Jahjah, Pierre Tremblay, Simon Savary, Vincent Farley,
Philippe Lagueux, Éric Guyot, Martin Chamberland,
Fréderick Marcotte, Telops (Canada)

Zhongwei Chen, Li Zhang, Naval Academy of Armament(China)Water spray is widely used in fire prevention, metallurgy and heat radiation
protection, because it has high infrared (IR) attenuation and is acquired
easily everywhere. Research has proved this high IR attenuation comesfrom high IR absorption in droplet and intricate IR scatter between
droplets. Recently, the calculation and theoretical analysis of water spray
IR attenuation have been solved, where multi-scattering, distribution ofdroplet diameter, droplet density and water optical character in the infraredatmosphere window, etc. are considered. And a stair phenomenon in water
spray spectrum IR transmission with droplet density invariable have beenstudied. However, is there similar phenomenon with spray water content
increase and droplet diameter unchanged? And which droplet diameters
are the most high IR absorption in the two IR atmosphere windows bands(3~5?m, 8~12?m)? These questions are still to be answered. Consideringthat Monte-Carlo Method (MCM) is usually used in calculating water spray

Thermal infrared imaging is a field of science that evolves rapidly. Scientists
have used for years the simplest tool: thermal broadband cameras. This
allows to perform target characterization in both the longwave (LWIR)
and midwave (MWIR) infrared spectral range. Infrared thermal imaging isused for a wide range of applications, especially in the combustion domain.
For example, it can be used to follow combustion reactions, in order tocharacterize the injection and the ignition in a combustion chamber oreven to observe gases produced by a flare stack. Most chemicals likecarbon dioxide (CO2) selectively absorb/emit infrared radiation at discreteenergies, i.e. over a very narrow spectral range. Temperatures derived frombroadband imaging are erroneous when facing situations involving thesegases. It is well known that spectral emissivity has to be taken into account

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII
In this work an active thermography method using the heat of the sealing
jaws as an excitation source is studied to detect seal contamination. The
cooling profile of contaminated seals is recorded. Three data processing
techniques, based on the slope of the cooling profile, a Fourier transformand a matched filter, are compared to quantify contamination. The effectof recording time and sampling frequency on detection efficiency is
studied. High resolution digital images serve as a reference to quantify
contamination. Although the thermograms have a lower spatial resolution
than the digital images, heat dissipation enlarges defective regions enabling
to detect small defects. Moreover, contrary to digital imaging, thermography
is not limited to transparent packaging making it broadly applicable in the
packaging industry.

spectrum IR transmission, Single Diameter Monte Carlo Method (SDMCM)
is used in this paper. Thus, the research can be concentrated on importantfactors such as spray IR transmission, the droplet character diameter
which the minimum IR transmission of water spray in the IR atmosphere
windows band is acquired, etc. In the calculation process, the water spray
spectrum IR transmission is calculated with MIE scatter theory. The reasonsfor the phenomenon will be analyzed, and the character diameter with theminimum IR transmission of water spray will be calculated andaccurately given.

9485-51, Session 9

Gas and flame detection and identification
using uncooled MWIR imaging sensors
Rodrigo Linares, Germán Vergara, Carlos Fernández, Luis
Gómez, María González-Camino, Raúl Gutiérrez, María T.
Montojo, Víctor Villamayor, Arturo Baldasano, New Infrared
Technologies, S.L. (Spain)
Gas detectors are nowadays widely spread for safety purposes in industrial
facilities. They are categorized by the type of gas they detect: combustible
and/or toxic. Whereas electrochemical sensors have limited lifetime andmaintenance issues, infrared sensors are reliable and free of maintenancedevices used for detecting a wide variety of VoCs and inflammable gases
such as hydrocarbon vapors. They usually work via a system of transmitters(light sources) which power is interfered when a gas is present in the optical
path. A spectral analysis of this optical interference allows the gas detection
and identification.
Optical flame detectors are sensors intended to sight and respond to thepresence of a flame, faster than a smoke detector or a heat detector would
do. Many of these systems operate in the infrared band in order to detect
the heat radiation, most of the times by comparison of three specificwavelength bands.
Most of the present infrared gas and optical flame detectors traditionallymake use of MWIR single point sensors rather than imaging sensors; this ismainly due to the lack of affordable imaging sensing technologies in thisband of the infrared spectrum. However, the appearance of high-speed,
uncooled imaging MWIR sensors made of VPD PbSe, with spectral detection
range from 1 to 5 microns, opens the possibility to incorporate these sensors
into gas and flame detection systems to allow area monitoring.
This paper reviews several experiments made using VPD PbSe imaging
sensors for gas and flame detection. The data collected makes use ofspectral filtering; the analysis of the multispectral cube will show thebenefits of incorporating this technology for gas and flame area detection
and identification

Observation of temperature trace, inducedby changing of temperature inside thehuman body, on the human body skinusing commercially available IR camera
Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Vladislav V. Trofimov, Lomonosov
Moscow State Univ. (Russian Federation)
We showed a possibility of observing of temperature trace on humanbody skin, caused by changing of temperature inside the human bodydue to water drinking. We use as a computer code that is available fortreatment of images captured by commercially available IR camera, as
well as our developed computer code for computer processing of theseimages. Using both codes we demonstrate clearly changing of humanbody skin temperature induced by water drinking. We discuss also anotherexperiments dealing with the person which is drinking or eating. We analyze
the response of human body on this and discuss a physical reason ofobserving phenomena.
Shown phenomena are very important for the detection of forbidden
samples and substances cancelled inside the human body using nondestructive control without using X-rays. Early we have demonstrated suchpossibility using THz radiation. Carried out experiments can be used forsolving of counter-terrorism problem.

9485-54, Session 10

Mass screening for infectious disease
containment and pandemic outbreaks:
misconceptionsPeter Leando, Compix Inc., Meditherm Inc., American
College of Clinical Thermology Inc. (United States)

9485-52, Session 9

IR imaging in mass screening for the containment of pandemic disease isbased on detecting a febril (fever) state in individuals.

Detection of seal contamination in heatsealed food packaging based on active
infrared thermography
Karlien D’huys, Wouter Saeys, Bart De Ketelaere,
Katholieke Univ. Leuven (Belgium)
In the food industry, packaging is often applied to protect the productfrom the environment, assuring quality and safety throughout shelf life if
properly performed. Packaging quality depends on the material used andthe closure (seal). The material is selected based on the specific needs ofthe food product to be wrapped. However, proper closure of the package isoften harder to achieve. One problem possibly jeopardizing seal quality is
the presence of food particles in between the seal. Seal contamination cancause a decreased seal strength and thus an increased packaging failurerisk. It can also trigger the formation of microchannels through which air
and microorganisms can enter and spoil the enclosed food. Therefore, early
detection and removal of seal-contaminated packages from the production
chain is essential.

330

9485-53, Session 10

SPIE DSS 2015·

The ability to use IR affectively for this is dependent on a goodunderstanding of the physiology and physics related to the pathologythat we are trying to screen for and is not restricted to temperature
measurements alone. The radiometric thermal data processed during realtime imaging must include calibrated reference sources, thermal patternrecognition and comparative analysis between individual people
being screened.
A screening test should have high ‘sensitivity’ rather than ‘specificity’ andto be effective the false negative rate must be very low. To achieve this thefalse positive rate will be high by necessity and so a ‘secondary’ level ofscreening can be implemented to bring the false positive rate to within amanageable level by the higher ‘specificity’ secondary level of screening.
This paper discusses the physiology of fever screening, experience based
screening and operational protocols (operational problems and challenges),
software assisted systems, operator / technician training and the future of IR
screening as part of containment strategies for pandemic outbreaks.

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Conference 9485:
Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXVII

9485-55, Session 109485-57, Session PThu

3D medical thermography device

Distinguishability of sensor fault fromsystem fault

Peyman Moghadam, Commonwealth Scientific andIndustrial Research Organisation (Australia)

Morteza Taiebat, Farrokh Sassani, The Univ. of British
Columbia (Canada)

Medical thermography has been demonstrated to be an effective, noninvasive tool for diagnosis. We present a novel system for 3D medical
thermography using a mobile, handheld device, which offers significant
advantages over existing fixed platform or 2D imaging solutions. The system
is consists of a thermal-infrared camera, a conventional colour camera anda 3D range sensor rigidly attached in close proximity and mounted on anergonomic handle. As a practitioner holding the device smoothly moves itaround patients, the proposed system generates and builds up a precise 3Dmodel by incorporating information from each new measurement in realtime. The geometric poses of the sensors are estimated simultaneously for
all frames in the video sequence using a GPU-based SLAM solution. A dense
voxel representation is optimized frame-to-frame, with each voxel assigned
a color and a temperature through pose-based raycasting. The 3D voxel
map can be visualized as a mesh with both color and temperature data
represented simultaneously. The data is acquired in motion, thus it provides
multiple points of view. When processed, these multiple points of view are
adaptively combined by taking into account the reliability of each individual
measurement which can vary due to a variety of factors such as angle ofincidence, distance between the device and the patient and environmental
sensor data or other factors influencing a confidence of the thermal infrared
data when captured. High-resolution results are demonstrated for a numberof body parts, and results suggest a strong utility for helping to detect andmeasure thermal irregularities in patients.

There is increasing recognition that, if measurement data is to be used
on-line, particularly for feedback control, then safety and reliability cannot
be ensured without some form of on-line fault detection. The ability todifferentiate between process/system faults and sensor malfunctions is
crucial in the monitoring of a system, as different compensatory responses
are required. System or process faults threaten the quality of the final
product or action and may require immediate attention by the process
operator, while malfunctioning unit can be either physically replaced ormathematically compensated for. The inherent difficulties of distinguishing
the separate elements within a single signal are universally acknowledged.
Meanwhile, feedback control adds to the complexity of fault detection in
the system by masking measurement deviations that might indicate a fault,
and by making it difficult to distinguish between sensor, actuator and plantfailure. Present fault diagnosis methods have only studied sensor fault or
system fault without considering the presence of the other. Indeed, they
may occur at the same time. In this study we intend to develop a hypothesis
to address this problem and currently we are focusing on the use of
uncertainty modeling and belief propagation, based on probabilistic andempirical rules with considering sensor fault characteristics to distinguishbetween process and sensor faults. In contrast to traditional methods, which
require strict duplication of sensor elements, we are aiming to employ
minimum redundant sensors or functional redundancy for the observation of
the process faults. We demonstrate through the belief propagation concept
how sensor reading validation may lead to a certain distinguishability index.
If the number of employed sensors is less than the estimated number of
sensors required, this is a strong indication of the difficulty in distinguishing
between sensor and system faults. Paper will encompass our approach andits application in industrial drying kiln.

9485-56, Session 10

Cow’s body region detection using a visualapproach on thermal images
Julien R. Fleuret, Univ. Laval (Canada)
Computer vision has assisted human activities in many fields, but has yet to
be developed for livestock production.
The few applications existing are mainly using infrared (IR) cameras inenvironments where the mobility of the animal is reduced. The influence ofthe object pose on thermal images is well known. The Bag of visual Word
(BoW) framework is famous for object recognition and pose estimation.
Recognition of animals in images became very popular with the famous
PASCAL VOC challenges, but almost no work has been conducted onthermal IR images. Among the few studies carried out on thermal image
processing applications on animal sciences, a recent study has showed
several regions on the cow body where measurements are easier to do. In
this work we have assumed the body of a cow to be an object composedof multiple deformable objects, therefore we based our approach on the
BoW framework. We experienced several image descriptors and clustering
algorithms with the aim of comparing the result in terms of detection withthe usual implementation of the BoW.

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331Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies XII
Monday - Friday 20–24 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9486 Advanced Environmental, Chemical, and Biological Sensing
Technologies XII

9486-2, Session 1[6] J. Biophoton. 2013, 6, 785-792.
[7] Nanoscale 2014, 6, 2361-2367.

Detection of virus DNA by a surfaceenhanced Raman scattering biosensor

9486-4, Session 2

Nianqiang Wu, West Virginia Univ. (United States)
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering Sensors are characteristic of strong
anti-interference, photobleaching-free and fingerprint signaling. However,
Raman scattering is extremely inefficient. In addition, the SERS tags or
substrates based on bare metal colloids suffer from instability and poor
repeatability in an aqueous solution with high ionic strength. In thiswork, a sandwich-structured gold nanoparticle@Raman reporter@silica
colloids haven been developed as the SERS tags. The silica outer-shell not
only renders the water-solubility of colloids but also prevents from theleaking of Raman reporter molecule, which has much better stability andrepeatability compared to bare metal nanoparticles. Such SERS tags arecoupled to a periodic nano-array pattern on a solid-state chip to a form aplasmonic nano-architecture that has high-density of “hot spots”. This SERS
substrate can achieve strong electromagnetic filed enhancement in thethree-dimensional space, which amplifies SERS signal remarkably. This SERS
substrate has been used to detect a virus DNA with high sensitivity, low
limit of detection and good repeatability. This plasmonic nano-architecture
can be adapted as the SERS substrate for detection of a broad spectrum of
biomolecules such as proteins, miRNA and small molecules.

Rahim Esfandyarpour, Ronald W. Davis, Zahra Koochak,Stanford Univ. (United States)
Detection of biological analytes is useful in various applications inbiotechnology and personalized medicine. The analytes of interest may
range from macromolecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids to viruses
and whole cells. While each of them plays a vital part in life but there issomething special about the proteins. Proteins are the key link between theprocesses of information and replication that take place on a genetic level
and the infrastructure of living features. Detection of proteins and nucleic
acids is often performed using optical fluorescence based techniques, which
are more costly and timely than electrical detection due to the need for
expensive and bulky optical equipment and the process of tagging. Thus, arobust label-free electrical detection technique can provide for a promisingsolution in lowering both reagent costs and instrumentation costs.
Thus, to overcome these various problems mentioned and to develop
a more sensitive and label free platform, we developed a novel array ofelectrical nano-biosensors in a microfluidic channel, called
nanoneedle biosensors.

9486-3, Session 1

iSERS: tissue-based cancer diagnostics
using rationally designed plasmonic
nanoparticles

Briefly, a nanoneedle biosensor is a real-time, label-free, matrix
independent, direct electrical detection platform, which is capable of highsensitivity detection, measuring the change in impedance modulation, due
to the presence or reaction of biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids
and cells.

Sebastian Schlücker, Yuying Zhang, Univ. Duisburg-Essen(Germany)
Protein localization in tissue sections by conventional immunohistochemistry(IHC) using enzyme-labeled antibodies is limited to the detection of a single
target protein in a qualitative manner. In contrast, surface-enhanced Raman
scattering (SERS)[1] offers a highly multiplexed, quantitative detection ofnumerous target molecules due to the small line width of vibrational
Raman bands.
IHC based on SERS microscopy (iSERS), initially called immuno-Raman
microspectroscopy[2], requires the rational design of functionalized
noble metal nanoparticles as SERS labels for antibodies.[2-7] Different
approaches to SERS nanoparticle probes with well-defined physical andchemical properties are described. Correlative LSPR/SEM/SERS microscopic
experiments at the single-particle level reveal the underlying structureactivity relationships.[6]Results from two-color iSERS experiments on prostate tissue specimens,
targeting proteins such as p63 and PSA, are presented.[7] The combinationof wide-field immunofluorescence and iSERS raster scanning, employing
fluorophor- and SERS-labeled primary antibodies, allows a fast localization
across large areas on biopsies. Quantitative spectral multiplexing is
exemplified by cuvette experiments for various mixtures containing up to six
different SERS “colors”. Perspectives for iSERS as an innovative and highly
promising nanobiophotonic imaging techniques are discussed.

Previously in the Spring 2014 SPIE meeting, we presented the target cell
detection results using our nan biosensors.
This time, the utility of this sensor in affinity biosensing for several different
protein biomarkers is demonstrated. As a practical example with clinicalrelevance, detection of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) in
physiological salt buffer for cancer diagnosis is demonstrated.
Different generations of the sensors with various thicknesses andgeometrical designs are developed and the sensitivity is improved.
We believe this work provides a strong starting point for a new class ofelectronic biosensing devices with the capability of rapid direct large-scale
integration. Our demonstration of label-free and real-time detection ofcancer biomarkers with this sensor can be envisioned to allow for point-ofcare cancer diagnosis.

9486-5, Session 2

Light-directed functionalization methods
for high-resolution optical fiber based
biosensors
Leyla N. Kahyaoglu, Rajtarun Madangopal, Jenna L.
Rickus, Purdue Univ. (United States); Matthew Stensberg,
Agricultural and Biological Engineering Purdue University(United States) and Birck-Bindley Physiological Sensing
Facility, United States (United States)[1] Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 4756-4795.
[2] J. Raman Spectrosc. 2006, 37, 719-721.
[3] Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2009, 48, 1950-1953.
[4] ChemPhysChem 2009, 10, 1344-1354.
[5] Analyst 2013, 138, 2224-2238.

332

Label free impedance detection ofdifferent biomarkers using a nanobio
sensor array

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies XII
Duke Univ. (United States)

Recent advances in miniaturization and analyte-sensitive fluorescentindicators make optical fiber biosensors promising alternatives tomicroelectrodes. Optical sensing offers several advantages overelectrochemical methods including increased stability and better spatial
control to monitor physiological processes at cellular resolutions. The
distal end of an optical fiber can be functionalized with the different
fluorophore/polymer combinations through mechanical, dip-coating,or photopolymerization techniques. Unlike mechanical and dip-coating
schemes, photopolymerization can spatially confine the sensing layer inthe vicinity of light in a more reproducible and controllable manner. The
objective of this study was to design and optimize microscale fluorescence
lifetime based optrodes using UV-induced photopolymerization. Among six
commercially available acrylate based monomers, an acrylate-functionalized
alkoxysilane monomer was selected and further modified to achieve stableentrapment of the oxygen sensitive porphyrin dye (PtTFPP) dye at the endof optical fibers. Sensitivity and response time were optimized by varying
both the concentration of doped dye and the excitation power used for
microtip growth at the end of 50 µm optical fibers. Selected monomer
formulation and photopolymerization settings were also used to fabricate
sensors at the end of tapered fibers as small as 5 µm. The resulting sensors
showed linear response within the physiologically relevant range of oxygen
concentrations and fast response times. While applied here to oxygen
sensing, the photopolymer formulation and process parameters described
are compatible with a wide range of available organic dyes and can be use
to pattern arrays of spots, needles or more complex shapes at highspatial resolution.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) provides a non-destructive
sensing method with high sensitivity and multiplex detection capability
since SERS takes advantage of high enhancement from surface plasmon
resonance and unique “fingerprint” spectral signature using Raman
spectroscopy. Our group has developed a unique plasmonics-active
nanoparticle, gold nanostars, with tunable plasmonics in near-infrared (NIR)“tissue optical window” without using toxic surfactant. We present theirapplications for chemical and biological sensing with SERS method as wellas theoretical studies to investigate and confirm experimentally measured
SERS results.

9486-8, Session 3

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering
sensors on guided-mode resonancegratings
Jing Yang, Xinyuan Chong, Fanghui Ren, Alan X. Wang,
Oregon State Univ. (United States)
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a powerful technique which
can provide ultra-sensitive and non-destructive characterization of various
kinds of molecules. Although a peak enhancement factor (EF) as large
as 1014 can be generated from the random “hot spots” that are createdon metallic nanostructures, the density of such “hot spots” is extremely
low, and this makes single molecule detection unpredictable. Therefore,
a comprehensive enhancement mechanism that can provide a universal
increase of the Raman signal intensity across the entire substrate is highly
desirable for biomolecule detection. In this work, we design and fabricate a
guided-mode-resonance (GMR) grating on indium-tin-oxide (ITO) thin filmwith resonant wavelength at 532 nm wavelength. A 100 nm thick spinon-glass (SOG) is coated on top of the ITO grating. This thin layer of SOG
will prevent direct contact of Ag NPs with the ITO grating to avoid strong
damping effect, while still achieving reasonable coupling efficiency between
the Ag NPs and ITO grating. The Ag NPs are self-assembled onto the SOG
layer to provide a sufficient amount of “hot-spots” for SERS enhancement.
In addition, the ITO grating exhibit great tolerance to fabrication deviations
due to the strong refractive index contrast between the ITO and the
SOG. Our ITO based SERS substrates demonstrate significant Raman
enhancement capability and the quantitative SERS characterization of5’-dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) on gratings showed that the LODof the ITO gratings is 10 pM.

9486-6, Session 2

Plasmonic-biosilica SERS sensors for ultrasensitive immuno-assay detection
Jing Yang, Le Zhen, Fanghui Ren, Gregory L. Rorrer, Alan
X. Wang, Oregon State Univ. (United States)
Immunoassay based on specific recognition between an antigen and acomplementary antibody has become an essential and reliable tool forclinical diagnoses and diseases detection in recent years. Surface-enhanced
Raman scattering (SERS) detection has attracted significant attention due toits narrow spectral bandwidth, immune to photo-bleaching, and fingerprint
information of various molecules. Typically, SERS-based immunoassays
are implemented on flat glass slides coated with colloidal nanoparticles.
These substrates are inexpensive and easy to be functionalized, but thesensitivity is relatively low. Diatoms are photosynthetic micro-organismsthat create their own skeletal shells of hydrated amorphous silica, called
frustules, which naturally possess hierarchical micro- & nano-scale featuresthat are extremely cumbersome and expensive to duplicate by top-down
fabrication techniques. In this paper, we present the design, fabrication,and characterization of diatom-based SERS immunoassay by integrating
Ag NPs into diatom frustules. The immunoassay was designed according
to a standard sandwich protocol of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA). The model antibody, goat-anti-mouse immunoglobulin G (IgG)
was first attached to the surface of Ag NPs. The antigen, mouse IgG wasthen immobilized onto the antibody-functionalized diatom frustules forthe specific recognition. To evaluate the specific recognition between the
antibody and the antigen, we challenged the immunoassay with a negative
control IgG, human IgG. Afterward, the immunoassay was incubated with
antibody-functionalized Au NPs, which were initially labeled with Raman
reporter, 5,5’-Dithiobis-(2-Nitrobenzoic Acid) (DTNB). We achieved 10 pg/
mL detection limit, which is 100? better than conventional colloidal SERS
sensors in the comparison group.

9486-9, Session 3

On-chip silicon photonic thermometers:from waveguide Bragg grating to ring
resonators sensors
Nikolai N. Klimov, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States) and Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States) and Joint Quantum Institute (UnitedStates); Thomas Purdy, National Insitute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Zeeshan Ahmed, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
Though today’s resistance thermometers can routinely measuretemperatures with uncertainties of 10 mK, they are sensitive toenvironmental variables such mechanical shock and humidity, which cause
the sensor resistance to drift over time requiring expensive, time consuming
calibrations. These fundamental limitations of resistance thermometry,
as well as the desire to reduce sensor ownership cost has produced
considerable interest in the development of photonic temperature sensors
as an alternative to resistance thermometers. These innovative temperature
sensors have the potential to leverage advances in frequency metrology
to provide cost effective measurement solutions. Proposed sensor

9486-7, Session 2

Plasmonics-active gold nanostars forchemical and biological sensing using
SERS detection
Yang Liu, Hsiangkuo Yuan, Andrew M. Fales, Tuan Vo-Dinh,

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333Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
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technologies range from temperature sensitive dyes to macro scale fiber
Bragg grating (FBG). In this study we demonstrate that our 1st generation
photonic thermometer, a silicon waveguide integrated with a Bragg grating(Si WBG), fabricated using CMOS technology and consisted of can be used
to measure temperature changes over the range from 5 degC to 160 degCwith a combined uncertainty [k = 2 (~ 2 sigma)] of 0.84 degC. In our work
we also compare the performance of Si WBG sensors to ring resonatorsthermometers. Our preliminary results indicate that using photonic devices
such as the ring resonator we can measure short term temperaturefluctuations of ≈ 100 µK at room temperature.

CMOS-compatible planar mid-IR microphotonics, and a high-throughput
nanofluidic sensor system, provides a unique platform for chemical
detection.

9486-10, Session 3

Martin Maiwald, Ferdinand-Braun-Institut (Germany);
Janna K. Register, Andrew M. Fales, Duke Univ. (UnitedStates); Götz Erbert, Günther Tränkle, Ferdinand-BraunInstitut (Germany); Tuan Vo-Dinh, Duke Univ. (UnitedStates); Bernd Sumpf, Ferdinand-Braun-Institut (Germany)

Gold nanostars as building blocks for
multiplexed chemical and biologicalsensing platforms
Laura Fabris, Rutgers, The State Univ. of New Jersey(United States); A. Swarnapali De Silva Indrasekara, Rice
Univ. (United States) and Rutgers, The State Univ. of New
Jersey (United States); Roney Thomas, Rutgers, The State
Univ. of New Jersey (United States)
Surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a phenomenon that relies on
the ability of plasmonic nanoparticles to induce localized electromagnetic
field enhancements, and for this reason they are a fundamental componentof this spectroscopic technique. The possibility of achieving SERS signal
enhancements high enough to enable sensitive identification of analytes
down to the single molecule level is strictly related to the presence ofthe so-called “hot spots”, which can be located at the vertices, edges, orcrevices in isolated nanoparticles or at narrow junctions between assembled
nanoparticles. In turn, the presence of finely tunable hot spots correlates tothe possibility of applying SERS as a reliable spectroscopic technique in theanalytical and biomedical fields.
In this talk I will first describe our efforts in optimizing synthetic strategies
based on the interplay between kinetics and thermodynamics to finely tune
the morphology of gold nanostars, with the goal of achieving extremely
sharp structural features, ideal for near field localization. I will then describe
our latest SERS-based sensing platform based on gold nanostars and will
demonstrate how, by finely tuning the morphology of the nanostars, wewere able to develop a multiplexed chemical sensor with limits of detectionin the femtomolar regime and a SERS enhancement factor of 10^9.
Furthermore, I will show how core-satellite assemblies of gold nanostars
and nanospheres can be achieved with high regio-specificity by covalently
linking only one spherical satellite per nanostar tip employing Raman-active
molecular linkers and yield SERS enhancement factors of 10^10, which are
extremely promising for applications in multiplexed chemical and biologicalsensing platforms.

Shifted excitation surface-enhanced
Raman difference spectroscopy for ex vivo
sensing of plasmonic nanoprobes

This presentation describes the application of a dual-wavelength 785
nm diode laser for Shifted Excitation Raman Difference Spectroscopy(SERDS) to the detection of plasmonics-active nanoprobes. Plasmonics
refers to the research area of enhanced electromagnetic properties ofmetallic nanostructures that produce ultrasensitive and selective detection
technologies. Plasmonics-active nanosystems are at the cutting edgeof biomedical ‘theranostics’ (the combination of both therapeutics anddiagnostics) and show exciting promise for clinical translation to early
disease detection. The plasmon resonance of anisotropic noble metal
nanoparticles can be tuned to coincide with the “tissue optical window”,
allowing deeper penetration of the excitation laser wavelength. However,scattering from the skin’s surface and autofluorescence from biologicalmedia can make in vivo detection challenging. Here, we present a dualwavelength distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) Y branch diode laser as
an exciation light source for SERDS. The laser chip contains two DBR
gratings which are designed to provide two emission lines at 784.40 and
785.02 nm. An implemented Y-branch coupler realizes a common emission
aperture and thus a common excitation spot on the sample. Transdermal
SERDS measurements of plasmonic nanostars intradermally injected
into ex vivo rat dorsal pelts were performed. Surface-enhanced Raman
spectroscopy (SERS) affords the capability of sensitively reporting richmolecular information about multiple contrast agents simultaneously. In thispresentation, we will show the combination of SERS with Shifted Excitation
Raman Difference Spectroscopy for enhanced and background-free Raman
spectroscopy to illustrate the potential of this setup for in vivo biosensing.

9486-13, Session 4

Enabling optical polarization sensing
methods with liquid crystals
Paul Searcy, Daniel Phipps, Erika Petrak, Chris A. Toomey,
Thomas G. Baur, Meadowlark Optics, Inc. (United States)

9486-11, Session 3

Mid-infrared opto-nanofluidics for labelfree on-chip chemical sensing
Pao T. Lin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)A mid-infrared label-free chemical sensor was developed using optonanofluidics consisting of a Si-liquid-Si slot-structure. A broadband mid-IR
lightwave can be strongly confined within a nanofluidic capillary by utilizing
the large refractive index contrast between the liquid core waveguide andthe Si cladding. Through an optical-field enhancement together with adirect interaction between the probe light and the analyte, the sensitivity forchemical detection is increased by 50 times when compared to evanescentwave sensing. This spectral characterization distinguished several common
organic liquids accurately, and could determine the ratio of chemical species
at low concentration < 5 µL/mL in a mixture through spectral scanningover their characteristic mid-IR absorption peaks. The combination of334

9486-12, Session 3

SPIE DSS 2015·

Meadowlark Optics has 30+ years working with polarized light in a huge
gamut of application spaces from aerospace, astronomy, semiconductor
manufacturing, military, bioengineering and telecommunications. This
makes us uniquely positioned to explain the pros and cons of successfullyusing Liquid Crystals in many different applications. Fundamentally, Liquid
Crystals (LCs) are becoming ubiquitous tools for optical designers but havecomplex trade-offs when considering all the different parameters of LCs. We
will discuss the pros and cons of Nematic, Ferroelectric, Polymer-Dispersed,
Twisted (and Super Twisted) Nematic, Sheared, and Vertically Aligned
technologies both in the context of Single Pixel and Spatial Light Modulator
applications. Explaining the strengths and weaknesses of different
approaches we enable the rest of the optical sensing community to make
optimal application specific choices.

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
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9486-14, Session 4

rovbrational spectrum, a methane concentration was extracted by fitting thein-house Excel-based simulation to the data. Based on a set of preliminary
measurements and subsequent analysis of gas samples obtained atvarious locations around the landfill, the methane concentrations are in
the 5-25 ppm range near the site depending of course upon prevailingweather conditions. In this work, we will describe the method and present
preliminary analysis of the resulting measurements.

Dispersive Raman spectroscopy excited
at 1064nm to classify the botanic originof honeys from Calabria and quantify thesugar profile
Anna G. Mignani, Leonardo Ciaccheri, Andrea A.
Mencaglia, Istituto di Fisica Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy);
Rosa Di Sanzo, Sonia Carabetta, Maria Teresa Russo, Univ.
Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria (Italy)

9486-16, Session 4

A method for continuous in-situ
pathlength calibration of integrating
sphere based gas cells

Calabria is a nice region located in the South of Italy. Its rich vegetationand pristine habitat are ideal conditions for the production of excellent
honey. One of the major needs of producers is the availability of innovative
devices for non-destructive and quick assessment of the honey quality, thatis, the botanic origin together with the sugar profile. Optical spectroscopy
has been recently recognized as a convenient technique which isparticularly suitable for non destructive testings of intact food. Absorption,
fluorescence, and Raman spectroscopy demonstrated effectiveness also forhoney analyses, especially for distinguishing the botanic origin, for revealing
adulterated samples, and for quantifying glucose and fructose as
main sugars.

Sarah Bergin, Jane Hodgkinson, Daniel Francis, Ralph P.
Tatam, Cranfield Univ. (United Kingdom)
Growing concerns regarding occupational safety and emission control are
driving a demand for industrial gas sensors. Gas sensors based on tunable
diode laser spectroscopy provide high specificity to the required gas, fast
response, repeatable measurements and low (ppm) limits of detection.
However when introduced to an industrial setting, the stability of thesesystems is subjected to further challenges, including maintenance of
precise optical alignment in the face of ambient temperature changes andmechanical vibration.

The present paper makes use of a compact device for performing Raman
spectroscopy with excitation at 1064nm and a grating-based detecting unit.
The long excitation wavelength makes it possible to avoid fluorescenceeffects that could overcome the weak Raman signal, while the dispersive
detection scheme makes the instrument a compact and portable unit.

Though originally used to measure the total flux of light sources, theintegrating sphere has gained attention as a multipass absorption cell.
Integrating spheres consist of a highly reflective surface, providing multiple
diffuse reflections, tolerance to misalignment, the ability to measure
turbid or irregular samples and the elimination of optical interference
fringes. However, their mean pathlength is heavily dependent on spherewall reflectivity. Consequently, contamination can reduce the pathlength
considerably, affecting the calibration.

A set of 13 honey samples was considered, made of 3 different botanic
origins, 5 of chestnut, 5 of citrus, and 3 of acacia, respectively. The sugar
profile of these samples was available, which was previously obtained bymeans of destructive analytical measurements.
The Raman spectra were firstly processed by means of the Principal
Component Analysis, then by the Linear Discriminant Analysis thus
obtaining an excellent clustering according to the botanic origin. Moreover,a predictive model was created using the Partial least Square method forquantitatively predicting the content of the content of sugars. Good results
were achieved for quantifying the most abundant sugars, that are: glucose,fructose, isomaltose, maltose, as well as other minor sugars such as erlose,
theralose and kojibiose.

We introduce a novel approach to continuous in-situ pathlength calibrationof an integrating sphere, which compensates for both component
degradation and changes in pathlength due to cell wall contamination. In
this way the gas absorption coefficient can be determined continuously
without needing to remove and clean the sphere. Results are presented
for detection of methane at 1651nm. These methods have the potential for
extension to other gases such as CO2, CO, H2S, NOx and other gases.

9486-15, Session 4

9486-17, Session 4

FTIR monitoring of methane from a local
landfill

Real-time measurement of the NO2
concentration in ambient air using a multimode diode laser and cavity enhanced
multiple line integrated absorption
spectroscopy

Scott W. Reeve, Tiffani Johnson, Arkansas State Univ.
(United States)
From anthropogenic sources to natural oceanic emissions, the concentrationof methane in the atmosphere has more than doubled in the last 200 years.
Since methane represents a global warming potential 34 times an equivalentmass of carbon dioxide, monitoring this species is of great interest. In
terms of anthropogenic emissions, landfills represent a significant source of
atmospheric methane. We developed a method for sensing and monitoring
ambient concentrations of methane by combining FTIR technology with an
in-house Excel-based algorithm to extract methane concentrations fromFTIR generated rovibrational data.

Michael Fernez, Andreas Karpf, Gottipaty N. Rao, Adelphi
Univ. (United States)
We report on the development and demonstration of a highly sensitive trace
gas sensor using a multimode diode laser, and cavity enhanced multiple line
integrated absorption spectroscopy. The sensor was tested using known
concentrations of NO2 mixed in Zero Air and was used to measure theconcentration of NO2 in ambient air in our laboratory. The broad frequency
range of a multi-mode Fabry-Perot diode laser covered a large numberof absorption lines of NO2 which enabled us to detect the absorption
signal corresponding to a large number of rovibronic NO2 transitions
simultaneously. The use of a high finesse cavity enhances the sensitivityof the detector by providing a pathlength on the order of 1 km in a small
volume. Off-axis alignment excites a large number of cavity modes which
improves the signal strength and simultaneously reduces the detector’ssusceptibility to vibration. Relatively high laser power (~300 mW) was used
to compensate for the low coupling efficiency of a broad linewidth laser
to the optical cavity. The NO2 concentration in ambient air was measured

The Craighead County Legacy Landfill in NE Arkansas is not currently
required to collect combustable gases under the landfill NSPS/EG, althoughthat may change in the future. To assess the methane monitoring capabilityof FTIR method discussed here, gas samples from a number of locations
surrounding the landfill were obtained using a set of evacuated stainlesssteel cylinders. For each sample, a precise location was determined via
GPS along with wind speed and weather conditions. Sample cylinders werethen connected, in turn, to a research grade FTIR instrument equippedwith a 35 m variable absorption path length gas cell. FTIR spectra wererecorded for each sample at a spectral resolution of 0.125 cm-1. From each

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
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9486-20, Session 5

and found to be approximately 15 ppb. Low concentration mixtures of NO2
in Zero Air were used to calibrate the device and determine the detector’ssensitivity: The device’s sensitivity was found to be approximately 1 ppb.

Development of Differential Absorption
LIdar (DIAL) for Detection of CO2, CH4
and PM in Alberta

9486-18, Session 5

Active stand-off detection of gas leaks
using an open-path quantum cascade laser
sensor in a backscatter configuration
Adrian Diaz, The City Univ. of New York (United States);
Benjamin P. Thomas, NOAA-CREST (United States); Paulo
C. Castillo, Brookhaven National Lab. (United States);
Barry M. Gross, Fred Moshary, NOAA-CREST (UnitedStates)Fugitive gas emission from agricultural or industrial plants are an
important environmental concern as it contributes to the global increaseof greenhouse gas concentration. This study presents gas concentration
measurements using a quantum cascade laser open path system (QCLOPS).
The system retrieves the path-averaged concentration of N2O by collecting
the backscattered light from topographic target. The gas concentration
measurements presented in this work have a high temporal resolution (68ms) and are achieved at sufficient range (40 m, ~ 130 feet) with a precisionof ± 0.2 ppm. Given these characteristics, this system is ideal for gas leaklocalization and quantification. The instrument used is a monostatic systemusing a tunable quantum cascade laser emitting at ~ 7.7 µm wavelength
pointed at a pseudo-Lambertian gold target. The backscattered radiationis collected by a Newtonian receiver telescope and focused on an infrared
light detector. A 1 mL puff of pure N2O is then released along the optical
path to simulate a gas leak. The measured absorption spectrum of N2O
is obtained using the thermal intra-pulse frequency chirp of a pulsed
DFB quantum cascade laser. Then, the least-squares fitting technique isimplemented to fit the measured spectrum with a reference spectrum. The
coefficients resulting from the fitting are used to retrieve the path-averaged
concentration values of N2O.

Monitoring urban atmospheric ozone andethylene by infrared DIAL remote sensing

9486-21, Session 5

Mohammad M. Islam, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore
County (United States); Joshua A. Lay, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore (United States); Chen-Chia Wang, Sudhir B.
Trivedi, Brimrose Corp. of America (United States); Jacob
B. Khurgin, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States); Fow-Sen
Choa, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)

Taieb Gasmi Cherifi, Saint Louis Univ. Madrid Campus(Spain)Experimental results to underline the dynamics of ethylene and ozone inpresence of urban nitrogen oxides are presented. We also demonstrate
the effective role played by ethylene, as representative of volatile organic
compounds, in the formation of urban ozone. The campaign proceeds withearlier investigations of ozone dynamics in response to urban
human activity.
The main source of pollution is attributed to vehicle exhaust and to a very
low extent to wind transport of ethylene from the southern industrial region.
The area monitored by the DIAL is a residential area located north-west ofMadrid (40º 27’ N, 3º 44’ W, 680m above sea level). Measurements spannedover several days between 10:00 and 20:00 with a standard deviation thatvaried between 1% and 7%. The standard deviation of 7% is an equivalentmeasurement uncertainty of almost 2-ppb when averaging 200 pulse pairs.
Correlation between ozone concentration and ethylene, as volatile organic
compounds representative, was demonstrated. Our observations are
additionally supported by a basic photochemical smog model that indeed
suggests a direct correlation between the C2H4 evolution and that of O3
under similar conditions for the urban atmosphere under investigation.

SPIE DSS 2015

Rapid expansion of the oil and gas industry in Alberta, including the oilsands, has challenged the Alberta Government to keep pace in its efforts
to monitor and mitigate the environmental impacts of development.
The limitations of current monitoring systems has pushed the provincial
government to seek out advanced sensing technologies such as satellite
imagery and laser based sensors. Space Dynamics Laboratory (SDL) of Utah
State University, in cooperation with Alberta Environmental Monitoring,
Evaluation and Reporting Agency (AEMERA), has developed North
America’s first mobile differential absorption lidar (DIAL) system designed
specifically for emissions measurement. This instrument is housed inside a
36’ trailer which allows for mobility to travel across Alberta to characterize
source emissions and to locate fugitive leaks. DIAL is capable of measuringconcentrations for carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) at ranges of
up to 3 km with a spatial resolution of 10 meters. DIAL can map both CO2
and CH4, as well as particulate matter (PM) in a linear fashion; by scanningthe laser beam in both azimuth and elevation DIAL can create images ofemissions in two dimensions. DIAL imagery may be used to understand andcontrol production practices, characterize source emissions, to determine
emission factors, locate fugitive leaks, assess plume dispersion and confirm
air dispersion modeling. A system overview of the DIAL instrument andsome representative results will be discussed.

Combined microphone array and lock-in
amplifier operations for outdoor photoacoustic sensing

9486-19, Session 5

336

Michael D. Wojcik, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States);
Blake G. Crowther, Synopsys, Inc. (United States); RobertLemon, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States); Zheng Yang,
Quamrul Huda, Long Fu, Prasad Valupadas, AEMERA(Canada); Allan Chambers, Alberta Innovates Technology
Futures (Canada)·

Mid-infrared (MIR) standoff photoacoustic (PA) sensing of explosive
chemicals and nerve gas stimulants at calibrated concentration have been
demonstrated in door. When they are operated out door, array beam
forming technique has to be employed to reject ambient noise and enhancesignal. Lock-in amplifier usually needs to be used to achieve weak signal
detection in a noisy environment. If we can combine these two techniques
we will be able to reject both spatial and temporal noise and achieve great
signal to noise ratio (SNR) performance. From the best of our knowledge noliterature has described how to combine these two techniques. In this work
we demonstrated combined array and lock in amplifier operation in outdoor
environment. A simplified system includes a signal generator, a speakersource, a lock in amplifier, 4 spy-phones with 4 parabolic reflectors to collect
the acoustic signal, a National-Instrument NI6259 data acquisition systemwith both A to D (ADC) and D to A converters (DAC), and a PC. To combine
these two techniques, each of the array collected signals was digitized by
the ADC. Their path delays were adjusted in the computer to synchronize
the phase. By using a PC controlled ADC the processing time is very long(~1s). To synchronize them without using costly high-speed customer
made hardware, we delayed the reference signal by send it through thewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
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same ADC- PC-DAC path as the array signals. By doing so, a good lock-in
operation with stable phase was obtained.

Light scattering patterns from non-spherical particles and aggregates
exhibit complex structure that is only revealed when observing in two
angular dimensions. However, due to the varied shape and packing ofsuch aerosols, the rich structure in the two-dimensional angular opticalscattering (TAOS) pattern varies from particle to particle. We examine
two-dimensional light scattering patterns obtained at multiple wavelengths
using a single CCD camera with minimal cross talk between channels. The
integration of the approach with a single CCD camera assures that datais acquired within the same solid angle and orientation. Since the opticalsize of the scattering particle is inversely proportional to the illuminating
wavelength, the spectrally resolved scattering information provides
characteristic information about the airborne particles simultaneously
in two different scaling regimes. The simultaneous acquisition of datafrom airborne particulate matter at two different wavelengths allows for
additional degrees of freedom in the analysis and characterization of theaerosols. Whereas our previous multivariate analyses of aerosol particles
has relied solely on spatial frequency components, our present approach
attempts to incorporate the relative symmetry of the particle-detector
system while extracting information content from both spectral channels. In
addition to single channel data, this current approach also examines relative
metrics. Consequently, we have begun to employ multivariate techniques
based on novel morphological descriptors in order to classify “unknown”
particles within a database of TAOS patterns from known aerosols utilizing
both spectral and spatial information acquired. A comparison is madeamong several different classification metrics, all of which show improved
classification capabilities relative to our previous approaches.

9486-22, Session 5Standoff detection of trace chemicals withlaser dispersion spectrometer
Michal P. Nikodem, Wroclaw Research Ctr. EIT+ (Poland)Standoff and remote trace gas detection plays an important role innumerous applications including industrial monitoring and security. Thissensing approach can be also very beneficial in environmental monitoring,e.g. when quantifying emissions from distributed sources like wetlands
or water reservoirs. Using single instrument that covers large area withpath-integrated detection can significantly reduce deployment costs.
Unfortunately, remote/standoff arrangement is also technically challenging:power that is received by the photodetector can strongly fluctuate(especially when diffuse optical targets are used).
When high sensitivity is needed, wavelength modulation spectroscopy(WMS) is typically used. However, because in WMS spectroscopic
information is encoded in the intensity of light, optical power fluctuations
larger than two orders of magnitude will reduce accuracy of this technique(even when 2f/1f normalization is applied). Chirped Lasers Dispersion
Spectroscopy (CLaDS) is an alternative method for remote sensing
applications in which high accuracy is required [Wysocki and Weidmann
OE18, p26123, 2010]. In CLaDS, the spectroscopic information is encodedin the frequency/phase domain rather than amplitude which makes CLaDS
signal immune to optical power fluctuations. Up to date chemical detection
with CLaDS was demonstrated using retro-reflectors with only few tests
being performed using diffusive optical targets [Nikodem et al. APB,
DOI:10.1007/s00340-014-5938-3]. In this paper we will present our studies
on 1651nm CLaDS-based open-path methane sensing using scatteringtargets. Detection limit for environmental methane detection at trace levels
will be experimentally determined and technical requirements for this
instrument will be analyzed (including optical power levels, maximum target
distance and optical target type).

9486-25, Session 6

Universal optical platform for monitoringof bioprocess variables
Neha R. Sardesai, Govind Rao, Yordan Kostov, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
The main bioprocess variables that are continuously measured are pH,
dissolved oxygen (DO), and dissolved carbon dioxide (DCO2). Less common
variables are redox, concentrations of substrate and product concentrations,product activity, etc. Recently, pH and DO are measured using opticalchemical sensors due to their small form factor and convenience in use.
These sensors are typically interrogated using a lab grade spectrometer, orwith the help of a low-cost, tailor-made optoelectronic transducer that isdesigned around the optical sensor. In this contribution, we are presenting
a new class of optoelectronic transducers that are capable of monitoring
several different optical sensors without the need to switch the optics or
hardware when changing the type of sensor. This allows flexibility closer tothe lab-grade devices at a price point of a dedicated sensor.

9486-23, Session 6

Microfluidics for spectrochemical
applications
R. Shatford, D. Kim, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada)In this work, we are demonstrating a universal optical platform capableof monitoring pH or DO sensors. It uses the principle of ratiometricfluorescence measurements for pH, and fluorescence lifetime measurements
for DO. The platform is capable of seamlessly switching between these
two modes. It is also capable of auto recognition of the sensor type. The
platform can operate both with patch-type or fiber optic type of sensors.
The platform has measurement accuracy of about 0.08 pH units andapproximately 5% air saturation with oxygen. Additionally, an approach toobtain identical calibrations between several devices is presented.

There is no doubt that microfluidics has been receiving significant
attention for chemical and biochemical analysis applications. A numberof technologies have been used to fabricate microfluidic channels. Suchtechnologies ranged from wet chemical etching to deep reactive ion
etching. More recently, 3d-printing has been employed to make channels
for applications ranging from microplasma channels, to channels used forbio-analytical applications, to vacuum pumps on a chip and from there on
to chemical synthesis on chips and more recently, to fabricate for chemical
synthesis. In this presentation, fabrication technology will be briefly
reviewed and these applications will be evaluated using recent examples.

The described platform has been tested in actual bioprocesses and has beenfound adequate for continuous bioprocess monitoring.

9486-24, Session 6

9486-26, Session 6

Multispectral light scattering imaging
and multivariate analysis of airborne
particulates

Prediction of carp aggregation based on
sensory data
Yu Liang, Chao Wu, The Univ. of Tennessee at Chattanooga(United States)

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies XII
aggregation of carp, a harmful fish in North America, using the newly
observed data as initial conditions. The referred mathematical model
is derived from the following assumptions: (1) instead of the consensus
among every carps involved in the aggregation, the aggregation of carp
is completely a random and spontaneous physical behavior of numerousof independent carp; (2) carp aggregation is a collective effect of intercarp and carp-environment interaction; (3) the inter-carp interaction canbe derived from the statistical analytics about large-scale observed data.
As a variance of molecular dynamics method, the proposed mathematicalmodel is based on empirical inter-carp force field, whose effect is featured
with repulsion, parallel orientation, attraction, out-of-perception zone, andblind angle of carp. By employing entropy theory and addressed inter-carp
force field, the aggregation behavior of carp is investigated. Preliminary
simulation results about the aggregation of small number of carps withinsimple environment are provided. To solve real world large-scale problem,
a divide-and-conquer strategy will be employed to soothe the inhibitive
computational cost of model, namely the targeting lake will be partitioned
into multiple overlapping or non-overlapping subdomains (or cells), which
can be investigated independently; in addition, machine learning techniques
will be employed to measure the aggregation likelihood of each cell. The
addressed model will be validated using real-world sensory data.

9486-27, Session PTue

Ambra Giannetti, Barbara Adinolfi, Istituto di Fisica
Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy); Mario Pellegrino, Univ.
di Pisa (Italy); Giovanna Sotgiu, Istituto per la Sintesi
Organica e la Fotoreattività (Italy); Sara Tombelli,
Cosimo Trono, Istituto di Fisica Applicata Nello Carrara(Italy); Greta Varchi, Istituto per la Sintesi Organica e laFotoreattività (Italy); Francesco Baldini, Istituto di Fisica
Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy)
Nanoparticle and nanomaterial technologies in the biomedical field are
significantly impacting the development of both therapeutic and diagnostic(theranostic) agents. The use of an antisense oligonucleotide which acts
as molecular beacon (MB) being able to generate a fluorescent signal
when it hybridizes with the target mRNA, may represent an innovative
strategy that conjugates the ability of sensing specific mRNA with thepharmacological silencing activity preventing the overexpression of proteinsassociated to pathologic conditions. This oligonucleotide optical switch
constitutes then a theranostic agent, which is a highly promising andfascinating tool for simultaneous intracellular detection and silencing ofspecific mRNA molecules. In this paper, the mRNA specific for survivin waschosen as target: survivin is an intracellular protein belonging to the familyof Inhibitors of Apoptosis Proteins (IAP), through which tumor cells canacquire resistance to apoptosis and its over-expression was demonstrated
in different tumors of various localizations, such as breast, esophagus,
pancreas, colon, stomach, and others.
Polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) nanoparticles (NPs) were used as
nanocarriers to enter the cells and a complete optical characterization of
the nanostructures used to internalize MBs was performed. PMMA NPs are
intrinsically fluorescent, thanks to the presence of fluorescein entrapped
within their core during their synthesis, in order to determine opticallytheir localization.
Two different MBs for survivin mRNA were used, having at their extremities
Atto647N (labs 644 nm, lem 669 nm) and Blackberry Quencher 650 (?max~ 650 nm, useful absorbance between 550 and 750 nm) as fluorophore/quencher pair. They were characterized in vitro and their functionality wasverified both in solution and after their immobilization onto the PMMA NPs.
In particular, the sensitivity of the MBs was investigated by recording thefluorescence of the MB in different buffers and after incubation for different
times with increasing concentrations of the target. PMMA NPs, and MBadsorbed onto them were then tested on human lung carcinoma A549 cells
and on human dermal fibroblasts (HDFa) as negative controls, in terms ofcell vitality and internalization. These experiments provided clear evidence

SPIE DSS 2015

We have shown that oligonucleotide optical switches, together with NPs,
can play a fundamental role in achieving quantitative information on
intracellular events. The conducted analytical characterization demonstrated
that they can be used not only as simple on-off elements but also as
real sensors.

9486-28, Session PTue

Global nuclear radiation monitoring using
plantsMohammad M. Islam, Carlos Romero-Talamas, Yordan
Kostov, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Wanpeng Wang, Zhongchi Liu, Univ. of Maryland,College Park (United States); Daniel S. Hussey, Eli Baltic,
David L. Jacobson, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Fow-Sen Choa, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
Plants exhibit complex responses environmental changes such astemperature, water, airborne pollutants, and soil contents. Our work focuseson plant responses to nuclear radiation – with the goal of monitoring
plant responses as benchmarks for detection and dosimetry. In this study,
we have so far included the following plants: Cactus, Arabidopsis, Dwarf
mango (pine), Euymus, Azela, and Arborvitae. We observed that insidethese plants Chlorophyll-a to Chlorophyll-b ratio can be changed according
to the accumlated total radiation dose. The recovery processes and speed
are different for different plants. Some plants recover fast, some slow, andsome never recover and die. The full photoluminescence (PL) spectral arecorrelated to the recovery and dying process.

Polymethyl-methacrylate nanoparticles as
carrier for theranostic agents into cells338of the subcellular distribution of nanoparticles in living cells and of theirability to promote the MB internalization.

·

In our experiment, an InGaN blue laser (405nm) is used as the pumplaser. The PL spectrum shows a relatively weak and broad green peaknear 550 nm (carotenoids) and two narrower and stronger peaks near
685nm (chlorophyll-a) and 735 nm (chlorophyll-b). Sample tree subjects
were placed at a distance of 3m from NIST BT-2 reactor gate capable ofproducing a maximum neutron field dose rate of about 2x108 /(cm2*sec).
Our results shows that some plants are sensitive to nuclear radiation andsome are less. We can use their characteristics to do differential detection,
extract nuclear activity information out of measurement results, and avoid
false alarms produced by environmental changes. Certainly the ultimate
verification can be obtained from genetic information, which only needs tobe done when we have seen noticeable changes on plant optical spectra,
mechanical strength and electrical characteristics.

9486-29, Session PTue

A plastic optical fiber biosensor for e. coli
Domingos M. C. Rodrigues, Regina C. S. B. Allil, Vanessa
M. Queiroz, Rafaela N. Lopes, Marcelo M. Werneck, Univ.
Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Alexandre Silva Allil,
Univ. Federal of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)
This work presents a novel, fast response time, plastic optic fiber (POF)
biosensor to detect Escherichia coli. Different forms of probes in U-shaped
format were tested: U-shaped with different radiuses, coil-shaped andmeander-shaped. In the calibration process we used solutions of sucrosefor obtaining refractive indexes (RI) in the range 1.33 – 1.39 IR equivalentof water and bacteria, respectively. The POF probes were functionalizedwith antibody anti-Escherichia coli serotype O55 and tested with bacteria
concentrations of 104, 106 and 108 colonies forming unities/mL (CFU/mL). The optoelectronic setup consists of an 880 nm LED connected to
the U-shaped probe driven by a current source controlled by an Arduino
Microcontroller. In the opposite fiber end, the light received by a photodiodeis amplified and read by the A/D port of the microcontroller. The output

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies XII

9486-32, Session PTue

voltage decreases as the external RI increases, accordingly to the bacteriathat is captured by the antibody fixed in the biosensor. The paper presents
results obtained with the different shapes of probes tested with the same
setup and biochemical protocol. In conclusion the system shows good
possibilities of having concentration measurements results in less than 10
minutes with uncertainty of 10-4 RIU enabling in a future capacity to readconcentration of 105 and 103 CFU/mL.

Lidar for monitoring methane hydrate in
the arctic permafrost
Alexsandr S. Grishkanich, Alexsandr P. Zhevlakov, Sergey V.
Kascheev, Victor G. Bespalov, Valentin V. Elizarov, National
Research Univ. of Information Technologies, Mechanics
and Optics (Russian Federation); Alexsandr Gusarov,
Belgian Nuclear Research Ctr. (Belgium)

9486-30, Session PTue

Fabrication and characterization of
Pd nanocube-reduced graphene oxide
composite based hydrogen sensor

Over the past 100 years, the rate of the temperature change in the Arctic
increased almost twice compared to the average rate of warming on the
Earth. Preliminary estimations predict the fast and wide degradation of
permafrost across the Arctic by the year 2100. Deconservation of 0.1% of theorganic carbon from the upper 100 m layer of permafrost (about 10,000 Gt
of carbon in the form of CH4) may double the atmospheric methane withradiation activity about 20 times higher than that of CO2.

Duy-Thach Phan, Gwiy Sang Chung, Univ. of Ulsan (Korea,
Republic of)Graphene-supported palladium (Pd) nanocubes were synthesized by asimple chemical method for hydrogen sensing. Pd nanocubes of 25, 40, 55,
70 and 85 nm sizes were synthesized in colloidal state by a chemical route in
two-steps (seed-mediated growth) and then, simply reduced into graphene
flakes by hydrazine in a simple one-step process. The hydrogen-sensing
and electrocatalyst properties of the new Pd nanocube-graphene hybrid
were investigated in detail. The resistivity-type sensor that used the Pd
cube-graphene hybrid had a detectable range from 10,000 ppm to 10 ppm
with good sensitivity and linearity at room temperature. Our experimentshowed that the Pd cube-graphene hybrid with bigger Pd nanocubes not
only showed better response to H2 gas molecules but also maintained its
excellent H2 sensing properties even with increases in working temperature.
The effects of Pd nanocube size on the H2 sensing performance of the Pd
cube-graphene hybrid was explained by the spillover mechanism inthis work.

The advantages of Raman-lidar for monitoring of methane hydrate from thepermafrost are to create an alternative to the conventional visual monitoringand sampling, which are more expensive and inefficient in the Arctic.
CH4 frequency spectra are characterized by isotopic shifts, depend on
the isotopic mass (and neutrons) and can be extremely fine. For example,
C14 shifts from the relatively stable C12 by only 12.4•10-3 cm-1 and hyper/
ultraspectral (l/Dl>>100) resolution measurements required for theiridentification. Hyperspectral resolution helps to avoid the overlapping ofspectral lines, resolves the isotopic shifts in the Stokes spectra, and allows
determine the isotopic composition. C14/C12 ratio of the composition
identifies the source of the carbon emission (permafrost or oil deposits).
We developed on-board Raman lidar which allows methane pockets
detection, and classifies parameters (C14/C12 ratio) of the permafrost
anomalies. The lidar is based on Nd: YAG laser (266 nm, 50 mJ, 5 ns, 100Hz) and hyperspectral resolution detection system for resolving the isotopic
shifts in the Stokes spectra.

9486-31, Session PTue

Oil and gas deposits determination by
ultraspectral lidar

9486-33, Session PTue

Monitoring radioactive contamination byhyperspectral lidar

Alexsandr S. Grishkanich, Alexsandr P. Zhevlakov, Sergey
V. Kascheev, Victor G. Bespalov, National Research Univ. ofInformation Technologies, Mechanics and Optics (RussianFederation); Alexsandr A. Il’inskiy, All Russian Petroleum
Research Exploration Institute (Russian Federation);
Dmitriy V. Kosachiov, Gazprom (Russian Federation)Alexsandr S. Grishkanich, Alexsandr P. Zhevlakov, Sergey
V. Kascheev, Valentin V. Elizarov, National Research Univ. ofInformation Technologies, Mechanics and Optics (RussianFederation); Alexsandr Gusarov, Belgian Nuclear Research
Ctr. (Belgium); Sergey K. Vasiev, The State Atomic Energy
Corp. ROSATOM (Russian Federation)

GeoChemical surveys of hydrocarbon deposits based on detection of theoil and gas migration as well as the other molecules such as CyHx, H2S,
CO, CO2. The migration leads to a change of the physical properties of therocks above the hydrocarbon (methane, propane) deposit and anomalous
concentrations of hydrocarbon gases in an atmospheric boundary layer.

There are already significant amounts of hazardous radioactive substancesin the world. It, potentially, leads to a major damage and contaminationof large areas. Long-lived isotopes of cesium and strontium, as well ascompounds of transuranic elements define a long-term
radioactive contamination.

Laser sensing is a highly effective method for the deposit exploration. We
present a Raman lidar with ultraspectral resolution for airborne oil&gas
exploration and pipeline leakage detection. Tests were carried out on thegas pipeline Urengoy-Novopskov. The experiments were carried out to
detect leaks on the working section of pipeline with an internal pressure of
60-70 bar. Test flights show the level of sensitivity about 6 ppm (methane)and 3 ppm (hydrogen sulfide) with the measurements at 50 to 500 m
flight altitudes.

Lidars can be effective for monitoring of the radioactive contamination.
Laser induced fluorescence of UO2 nuclear facility accidental release has
characteristic spectral structure and consists of a limited (6-8) numberof lines in 470-530 nm range. (UO2) 2 + uranyl ions can form fluorescentcompounds in water, soil, or material surfaces. It allows detect nuclear fuelcomponents in the environment. Fluorescence of all interfering impurities
completely stops in 1-2 ms after the laser probe, and spectral identificationof the uranyl salts is trustable and effective after the proper delay since theintensity of fluorescence of the uranyl compounds decreases by only 10-15%.

The probing is done by a compact pulsed diode pumped Nd:YLF laser (50mJ ,6 ns, 100 Hz) with KTP ISHG (50% conversion efficiency) and BBO
frequency shifting (261.7 nm, 6-10mJ).

The most effective fluorescence of the salts, and therefore the mostsensitive detection was achieved with a pulsed Nd: YAG laser (266 nm, 20
mJ, 6 ns, 100 Hz). The sensitivity was determined by lidar calibration basedon the samples with a known amount of uranium. Preliminary results show,that the lidar can detect uranium oxides with concentration of 500 ppb on
100 m2 surface.

Ultraspectral resolution of the double polychromator (3600 mm-1, dl/
dl=0.224 nm/mm) reliably differentiates methane (283.31 and 284.42 nm),nitrogen (278.69 nm), and hydrogen sulfide (280.89 nm) what ensuresreliable 80% HHG detection for the integration of seismic prospecting andlaser remote sensing.

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies XII
The alternative approach is to use Raman-scattering circuit. We demonstrateeffective detection of U235O2, U238O2, Sr90 and Cs137 spectral shifts. It
allows remote (100 – 500 m) detection of radionuclides with 1
ppm concentration.

Quality control in the recycling stream of
PVC cable waste by hyperspectral imaging
Valentina Luciani, Silvia Serranti, Giuseppe Bonifazi, Univ.
degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza (Italy)

9486-34, Session PTue

Chemical agent registration method on thebasis of surface optical sensitization andsurface plasmon resonance
Sergei Vinogradov, Michail Kononov, A. M. Prokhorov
General Physics Institute (Russian Federation)
There are some methods of different molecules and atoms sensing, someof them are working on the basis of surface plasmon resonance (SPR). We
represent the new approach in chemical sensing based on superposition of
SPR and effect of surface optical sensitization of silver halide. Commonly
chemical sensor consists of two main parts namely a sensing part anda registration part. In our approach we used widely known attenuatedtotal reflection method of SPR generation in the registration part of oursetup. However in sensing part we used the new approach on the base of
surface optical sensitization of thin silver halide nanocrystal films. Samplesof sensing multilayer structure consisted of silver layer (about 50 nm),protective thin aluminum oxide film (about 5 nm) and polycrystalline silver
iodide layer. All layers were deposited onto flat polish glass substate. As
a model agent which must registers arsenazo III was used. Arsenazo III
in the form of a powder was inserted in the optically transparent camera
near sensing samples which were exposed by laser light with wavelength543,5 nm. SPR was excited by laser light with wavelength 632,8 nm. All
experiments were made in the normal conditions. As the result, we obtained
SPR signal changes from multilayer structure in presence of arsenazo III
molecules in gas phase. We estimate sensitivity of our method as 10^10
particles in cm^3 while method selectivity determines by chemical agent
absorption spectrum.

9486-35, Session PTue

A .S. M. Iftekhar Uddin, Gwiy Sang Chung, Univ. of Ulsan(Korea, Republic of)This paper describes the synthesis and fabrication of silver (Ag)/ZnO
nanoparticles (NPs)-reduced graphene oxide (rGO) hybrid via a chemical
method with graphene oxide (GO), AgNO3 and Zn(NO3)2.6H2O as the
precursors. The physical and structural properties of the synthesizedmaterials were characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy(FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive
spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and
X-ray diffraction (XRD). The sensing properties of the hybrid materials werecharacterized as the function of temperature, response, response/recovery
time, linearity, reproducibility and selectivity. The morphological studies
reveal that the synthesized material exhibited thin rGO layers decorated
with the mixer of tiny Ag and ZnO NPs where rGO supposedly acted as atemplate in the synthesis process that promoted the preferential attachmentof Ag and ZnO NPs and prevented the agglomeration of the nanoparticles.
The structural and elemental characterization demonstrated the formationof high purity sensing material and good agreement with the standard
crystalline structure. Several sensing material samples were prepared byvarying the Ag contents to determine the optimum material ratio. At 150oC,
3wt% Ag/ZnO-rGO specimen showed maximum sensor response (S = Ra/Rg) of 35 to 1000 ppm acetylene gas concentration in air atmosphere. The
synthesized hybrid also showed fast response/recovery time (25/80 sec)with good linearity, good reproducibility and excellent selectivity.

SPIE DSS 2015

In recent years recycling is gaining a key role in the manufacturing industry.
The use of recycled materials in the production of new goods has the
double advantage of saving energy and natural resources, moreover from an
economic point of view, recycled materials are in general cheaper than thevirgin ones. Despite of these environmental and economic strengths, the useof recycled sources is still low compared to the raw materials consumption,in fact in Europe only 10% of the market is covered by recycled products.
One of the reasons of this reticence in the use of secondary sources isthe lack of an accurate quality certification system. The feed of a recycled
process is not always the same, which means that also the corresponding
output can vary depending on the initial composition of the treatedmaterial. Usually, if a continuous quality control system is not present at
the end of the process, the quality of the output material is assessed on theminimum certified characteristics. Solving this issue is crucial to expand thepossible applications of recycled materials and to assign a price based on
the real characteristics of the product.
In this paper the possibility to apply a quality control system, based on an
hyperspectral imaging (HSI) working in the near infrared (NIR) range, to theseparation process of PVC cable wastes is explored. The analyzed material
was a residue fraction of a traditional separation process further treated bymagnetic density separation. Results show as PVC, PE, rubber and copper
particles can be identified and classified adopting the NIR-HSI approach.

9486-37, Session PTue

Endmember signature based detection of
flammable gases in LWIR hyperspectral
imagesFatih Omruuzun, Yasemin Yardimci Cetin, Middle East
Technical Univ. (Turkey)

Fabrication and characterization of Ag/
ZnO nanoparticles-reduced graphene
oxide hybrid based acetylene sensor

340

9486-36, Session PTue·

Segmentation and identification of compounds or materials existing ina scene is a crucial process. Hyperspectral sensors operating in different
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are able to quantify spectral
characteristics of materials in different states. Due to the fact that somechemical compounds in gas state have insignificant light reflectancecharacteristics as compared to solids and liquids in visible region of thespectrum, imaging sensors operating in infrared regions are needed to senseenergy absorbance or transmittance characteristics of these compositions.
The present study proposes a novel method for detection of flammablegases in long-wave infrared hyperspectral images. Proposed method begins
with a series of pre-processing steps, including blackbody radiation curve
compensation and dimensionality reduction. Since a priori information
regarding the compounds in the scene is not always available, endmember
spectral signatures are extracted with N-FINDR and VCA hyperspectral
unmixing approaches. Afterwards, endmember signatures are matchedwith infrared energy absorbance signatures of gases obtained from NIST
(National Institute of Standards and Technology) Material Measurement
Laboratory. Finally, concentration of target signature at each image pixel
is detected by means of endmember abundance maps. The performanceof the approach is compared with that of similarity measure based gas
detection methods. It is observed that the proposed technique removes theneed for an external threshold setting while providing better resolvability of
the gasses.

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Conference 9486: Advanced Environmental,
Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies XII

9486-38, Session PTue

to address CO and CO2.
Results of the characterization of the ring resonator and its sensing
performance will be discussed.

On-chip surface enhanced Raman
spectroscopy (SERS)-linked immunosensor assay (SLISA) for rapid and global
environmental surveillance of chemicaltoxins

The project is part of the German collaborative research centre “Planar
Optronic Systems” (Sonderforschungsbereich, Transregio 123) funded by
the DFG. The aim is to realize a sensor network in a large-scale polymer filmwith integrated and distributed optical sensors to measure variables such aspressure, temperature, different fluids as well as gases.
[1] R. Orghici, P. Lützow, J. Burgmeier, J. Koch, H. Heidrich, W. Schade, N.
Welschoff und S.R. Waldvogel. A microring resonator sensor for sensitive
detection of 1,3,5- trinitrotoluene (TNT). Sensors, 10, 6788-6795, (2010)

Vinay Bhardwaj, Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Florida International University (United States); Supriya
Srinivasan, Anthony J. McGoron, Florida International Univ.
(United States)

9486-40, Session PTue

The increasing threat of an intentional (attack) or accidental release of
toxins, in particular, chemical-toxins, including chemical warfare agents(CWAs) and toxic industrial chemicals (TICs), has increased public fear. The
major problem in such attacks/accidents is to detect toxins present in very
low levels. Indeed, several detection techniques are currently being used forthe same. However, none of them meet the most demanding requirementsof a detect-to-protect class of biosensors, which is a critical need of federal
agencies, including the Department of Homeland Security, Department of
Defense and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

New possibility to analyse non-standard
explosives and post blast residues inforensic practice
Marek Kotrl?, Ivana Turková, Institute of Criminalistics
Prague (Czech Republic)
Electron microscopy - SEM, EDS/WDS is one of the key techniques foran analysis of non-standard explosives and post blast residues. If theamount of material allows, a number of other analytical techniques areused such as XRD that is capable of a direct phase identification of acrystalline substance, namely in mixtures. TLC has constantly proved
itself for laboratory screening, furthermore, combinations of FTIR, Raman
spectrometry, LC MS, GC MS, XRF, micro XRF and other ones are applied.
In the case of identification of post-blast residues where an examination
is often carried out at the level of separate microscopic particles, the roleof SEM is unsubstitutable, whereas the analysis of the organic phase fromthese often sporadic microparticles has been until recently infeasible. Oneof the very interesting options appears to be the Raman spectrometry
technique, which is nowadays available as a supplement to SEM EDX. Newly
available is the device that is fully confocal, SEM keeps full functionality andscan range, very high resolution (for green laser resolution 360nm FWHD;
430nm Rayleigh), it is fitted with high quality objective lens, allows mapping
through Raman spectrometry in a volume 250µm x 250µm x 250µm
by piezo driven scanner (capacitive feedback linearized) and obtaining
high quality white light image (250µm x 250µm) immediately in the SEM
chamber. This technique is currently undergoing intensive testing and it
seems that the method could significantly help to solve problems with theanalysis of organic phases in electron microscopy not only in the case of
post-blast residues and explosives.

Our group has developed a prototype lab-on-a-chip (LOC) using silverbased-surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)-linked immunosensor assay (SLISA). The LOC-SLISA was tested for the measurement of astress-marker protein, RAD54, expressed by yeast in response to hydrogenperoxide (H2O2), a toxin in the EPA priority list of chemical-toxins. This
design, for the detection of stress-marker protein in response to toxin(response to dose effect), allows detection of known as well as unknown
toxins (global sensing), which can be correlated to human-health using
information available on EPA databases. We found, the SLISA has goodcorrelation in accuracy with the standard ELISA technique, and outperforms
the latter by being rapid and easy-to-use. SLISA has an edge over ELISA,SLISA is 5 times more sensitive, provides qualitative information on sensor
characterization and immuno-assay, and allows direct detection withminimal/no chances of uncertainty, a concern in label-based biosensing
technologies. The results were correlated to EPA’s defined exposure
guideline levels of H2O2 to validate the significance of our quick, easy,
cheap, effective, robust and safe (QuEChERS), detect-to-protect biosensor
for environmental surveillance.

9486-39, Session PTue

Ring resonators in polymer foils forsensing of gaseous species
Elke Pichler, Konrad Bethmann, Technische Univ. Clausthal(Germany); Urs Zywietz, Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V.
(Germany); Christian Spad, Technische Univ. Clausthal(Germany); Uwe Gleißner, Univ. of Freiburg (Germany);
Ulrike Willer, Wolfgang Schade, Technische Univ. Clausthal(Germany)
Micro ring resonators manufactured with well established silicon-nitride
wafer technology and functionalized by coating with receptor molecules,
are already being used successfully for sensitive and selective detection;e.g. with receptors based on triphenylene ketals, the explosive TNT could be
detected down to concentrations of 300 ppt [1].
In this paper, the concept of a micro ring resonator formed of waveguides
in tailor-made polymers is presented. Extensive simulations were performed
to determine appropriate dimensions for the waveguide and the designof ring and coupling zone as well as for the estimation of losses. The main
contributions are diffraction losses due to bending of the waveguide andlosses due to the roughness of the waveguide walls. Based on the calculatedparameters, a first polymer ring resonator was realized using microscope
projection lithography. Selectivity is only ensured by use of appropriate
receptor coatings. Therefore, different receptor molecules were synthesized

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Conference 9487:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII
Thursday - Friday 23–24 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9487 Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII

9487-1, Session 1

Smartphone based paper/plastic hybrid
microfluidic chemiluminescence sensor fornanomolar peroxide detection
Renny E. Fernandez, Elise Lebiga, Southern Methodist
Univ. (United States); Mayank Ahuja, Plano East SeniorHigh School (United States); Alexander Lippert, Ali
Beskok, Southern Methodist Univ. (United States)

9487-2, Session 1

Claudia Gärtner, Holger Becker, Ingo Schulz, Tobias Jahn,
Cäcilia Freund, microfluidic ChipShop GmbH (Germany)
Cell based assays and organ-like substrates gather an increasing attention
due to their potentials in diagnostic and drug development. The use of thesecell-based systems will allow to better understand in vivo processes and test
for the direct influence of different substances e.g. in drug development andin addition to identify the influence of generated metabolites or different
cell types.
To enable the use of these biological tools, a respective technical platform
was realized based on microfluidic systems. The microfluidic elements aredesigned in a fashion allowing not only for cell culture on chip but also forthe targeted reagent and nutrition supply. Furthermore the influence ofthe metabolism from one cell type on the other can be evaluated due tothe arrangement of cell compartments as interacting networks. Elements
being essential for this work include membrane elements for the separationof liquid stream together with a targeted supply of reagents and a three
dimensional feeding of embedded cells. Fluidic networks facilitate minimize
manual steps and a respective microfluidic cell culture incubator will be
introduced allowing for a direct manipulation on a microscope stage and an
incubator free cell culture.
Material choice and surface functionalization are further topics being
essential for the implementation of the cell base-assays on chip.
Sensor systems embedded in the microfluidic system for pH, CO2 andtemperature, monitor the on-chip conditions and enable defined
assay conditions.

Microsystem integrated immunosensor
for the detection of the bioterrorist agent
francisella tularensis

The respective microfluidic cell assay toolbox will be presented as well as
examples for implemented assays on chip ranging from cell culture showing
the cell behaviour in respect to material, surface functionalization anddifferent growth conditions to finally embedding organ-on-chip structuresof cultured and co-cultured cell lines.

Ciara K. O’Sullivan, Ioanis Katakis, Univ. Rovira i Virgili(Spain)Tularemia is a highly infectious zoonotic disease caused by a Gram-negative
coccoid rod bacterium, Francisella tularensis. Tularemia can be treated with
antibiotics, but it is still considered as a life-threatening potential biological
warfare agent due to its high virulence, transmission, mortality andsimplicity of cultivation. In the work reported here, different electrochemical
immunosensor formats for the detection of whole F.tularensis bacteria weredeveloped and their performance compared. An anti-Francisella antibody(FB11) was used for the detection that recognises the lipopolysaccharide
found in the outer membrane of the bacteria. In the first approach, goldsupported self-assembled monolayers of a carboxyl terminated bipodal
alkanethiol were used to covalently cross-link with the FB11 antibody. In an
alternative second approach F(ab) fragments of the FB11 antibody weregenerated and directly chemisorbed onto the gold electrode surface. The
second approach resulted in an increased capture efficiency and higher
sensitivity. Detection limits of 4.5 ng/mL for the lipopolysaccharide antigen
and 31 bacteria/mL for the F.tularensis bacteria were achieved. Having
demonstrated the functionality of the immunosensor, an electrode array was
functionalised with the antibody fragment and integrated with microfluidics
and housed in a tester set-up that facilitated complete automation of theassay. The only end-user intervention is sample addition, requiring lessthan one-minute hands-on time. The use of the automated microfluidic

SPIE DSS 2015

9487-3, Session 1

Sensor enhanced microfluidic devices forcell based assays and organs on chip

We report a chemiluminescence sensor system for detection andquantification of nanomolar levels of hydrogen peroxide (H202) usinga hybrid paper/plastic disposable device incorporated to a smart phone(iPhone). The hybrid microfluidic device consists of a paper reaction pad
and plastic microchannels. The reagents are delivered to the paper pad
through plastic microfluidic channels, while the chemiluminescence, due
to the reaction of Bis (2,4,6-trichlorophenyl) oxalate with H202 in thepresence of rubrene and Imidazole, is confined to the paper reaction pad.
The photon emission analysis of the reaction is quantified by integrating
the intensity profile extracted through image processing of the Full HD
1080p videos recorded at 30 fps with 8 megapixel inbuilt iPhone camera.
H202, the rate limiting analyte, is quantified using the decay curve of thechemiluminescence reaction carried out under pseudo first order conditions.
The hybrid microfluidic device is specifically designed to confine the wholechemiluminescent reaction to paper pads with definite dimensions (radius:
3 mm; A: 28 mm2). The sensor system was found to be sensitive to H202
concentrations as low as 250 nM with respect to the control.The custom
designed Hybrid paper/plastic (low cost) microfluidic system is suitably
incorporated to a smartphone using a mini enclosure for rapid video capture
and analysis. The results obtained were verified using an inverted research
microscope configured with a CMOS digital camera.

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set-up not only required much lower reagent volumes but also the required
incubation time was considerably reduced and a notable increase of 3-foldin assay sensitivity was achieved with a total assay time from sample
addition to read-out of less than 20 min.

·9487-4, Session 1

Integrated microsystem for multiplexedgenosensor detection of biowarfare agentsSamuel Dulay, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain); Rainer Gransee,
Fraunhofer ICT-IMM (Germany); Sandra Julich, Herbert
Tomaso, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Germany); Ciara K.
O’Sullivan, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain) and Institució
Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (Spain); Ioanis
Katakis, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain)
An early, rapid and definite detection for the presence of biowarfare
agents, pathogens, viruses and toxins is required in different situations
which include civil rescue and security units, homeland security, military
operations, public transportation securities such as airports, metro andrailway stations due to its harmful effect to human population. In this work,
an electrochemical genosensor array that allows simultaneous detectionof different biowarfare agents with integrated microsystem that provides

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Conference 9487:
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an easy handling of the technology which combines with microtube
fluidics setup has been developed and optimised for the following specificgenoassay: Bacillus anthracis, Brucella melitensis, Bacteriophage lambda,
Francisella tularensis, Burkholderia mallei, Coxiella burnetii, Yersinia pestis,and Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki. The chip electrodes arrays weremodified via co-immobilisation of a 1:100 (mol/mol) mixture of a thiolated
probe and a polyethyleneglycol-terminated bipodal thiol. PCR products
from these relevant biowarfare agents were detected reproducibly througha sandwich assay format with the target hybridised between a surface
immobilised probe into the electrode and a horseradish peroxidaselabelled secondary reporter probe, which provided an enzyme based
electrochemical signal. The potential of the designed microsystem for
multiplexed genosensor detection and cross-reactivity studies over potential
interfering DNA sequences has demonstrated high selectivity using thedeveloped platform producing high-throughput.

As such, compatible interfacing with biological systems means less sample
pretreatment of the system being investigated, which allows the researcher
to investigate the system in native, typically complex, environments.
Unfortunately, many biosensors often fail when challenged in complex
biological matrices (e.g., serum, blood, cytoplasm and cerebral spinal fluid),
as a result of nonspecific adsorption of proteins and/or degradation of therecognition element.
A sensor platform that exhibits promising detection abilities in complex
sample matrices is the electrochemical, aptamer-based (E-AB) sensor. Thesesensors utilize aptamers as specific recognition elements. Aptamers are
single-stranded DNAs or RNAs that are produced in vitro to bind a specifictarget. In order to use these aptamers for E-AB sensors, the 5’-electrodebound aptamer must undergo a specific conformation change upon binding
to the target analyte. By attaching methylene blue (a redox active molecule)to the distal end of the aptamer this conformation change can be monitored
electrochemically. Because of this specific and selective signaling ability,
E-AB sensors achieve detection directly in untreated serum. However, thisdetection is made on the seconds time scale, and the sensors fail whenemployed for longer time scales (minutes-hours). In this talk, I will discuss
how we adhere a biocompatible hydrogel membrane to E-AB sensor surface
to mitigate fouling of the sensor and enable long-term, real-time detection
directly in whole blood.

9487-5, Session 1

Ultrafast real-time PCR with integrated
melting curve analysis and duplex
capacities using a low-cost polymer labon-a-chip system

9487-7, Session 2

Rainer Gransee, Fraunhofer ICT-IMM (Germany); Tristan
Schneider, Univ. of Applied Sciences Wiesbaden(Germany); Deniz Elyorgun, Fachhochschule Bingen(Germany); Tobias Schunck, Christian Winkler, Julian
Hoeth, Xenia Strobach, Theresia Gatscha, Fraunhofer ICTIMM (Germany)

Rapid Detection of Listeria spp. using an
Internalin A Aptasensor Based on Carbonmetal Nanohybrid Structures
Diana C. Vanegas-Gamboa, Univ. of Florida (UnitedStates) and Univ. del Valle (Colombia); Yue Rong, Neil
Schwalb, Univ. of Florida (United States); Katherine D. Hills,
Carmen L. Gomes, Texas A&M Univ. (United States); Eric S.
McLamore, Univ. of Florida (United States)

Nucleic amplification has become the gold standard of molecular testing.
Real-time or quantitative (qPCR) systems offer both DNA amplificationand simultaneous fluorescence detection. An ultrafast microfluidic module(allowing 30 polymeric chain reaction cycles (PCR) in 6 minutes) based on
the oscillating fluid plug concept was previously developed [1] allowing theamplification of native genomic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules.
This abstract presents the actual status of the renewed and advanced
system. The system generates high quality quantitative PCR amplification
plots and additional sensitive melting point analysis comparable to dataobtained from commercial real-time cyclers. These features provide theuser with all information needed to analyze the PCR products. The system
uses light emitting diodes (LED) for illumination and a low cost Chargecoupled Device (CCD) camera for optical detection. Image data processing
allows the automated process control of the overall system components.
The system enables the performance of rapid and robust nucleic acidamplifications together with the integration of real time measurement
technology. This allows the amplification and simultaneous quantification of
the targeted. The integration of duplex amplification performance allows theincorporation of the necessary controls into the device to validate the PCR
performance. This demonstrator can be run either as fully autonomously
working device or as OEM part of a sample-to-answer platform.

Foodborne outbreaks caused by Listeria monocytogenes continue to raise
major public health concerns worldwide. In the United States alone, thecenters for disease control and prevention have confirmed the occurrenceof 183 cases of listeriosis with 39 fatalities within the last 3 years. Standard
methods for the detection of pathogenic strains require up to 7 days toyield results, thus faster techniques with the same level of reliability forbacteria detection are desirable. This study reports on the development of a
rapid, accurate, and sensitive electrochemical biosensor for rapid testing ofListeria spp. based on the selective binding of InlA aptamers to internalinsin the cell membrane of the target bacteria. Hybrid nanomaterial platforms
based on reduced graphene oxide and nanoplatinum were deposited
onto Pt/Ir electrodes for enhancing electrochemical transduction . InlA
aptamers were immobilized onto the nanomaterial platforms via metal-thiol
self-assembly. Aptamer loading onto different platform nanostructures
was investigated through cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The detection mechanism was evaluatedby recording the electrochemical response to several bacterial dilutions in
PBS buffer using the non-pathogenic species Listeria innocua. Preliminary
data have shown that the aptasensor can be tuned for detection of listeria
concentrations as low as 100 CFU/ml in less than 3 hours (including
incubation time), although these numbers are expected to improve withfurther studies. The developed aptasensor is a promising approach for rapid
testing of Listeria monocytogenes in food analysis.

[1] Fast nucleic acid amplification for integration in point-of-careapplications, Electrophoresis 2012, 33, 3222–3228

9487-6, Session 2

Biocompatible membrane coatedelectrochemical aptamer-based sensors
for long-term monitoring in complex
sample matrices

9487-8, Session 2

Lauren R. Schoukroun-Barnes, Ethan Glaser, Ryan J. White,
Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)

Electrochemical detection of francisellatularensis genomic DNA using solid-phase
recombinase polymerase amplification

To compatibly interface with a biological system, the sensor must not befouled by the nonspecific adsorption of proteins and thus lose sensitivity.

Ciara K. O’Sullivan, Ioanis Katakis, Univ. Rovira i Virgili(Spain)Return to Contents+1 360 676 3290·

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Solid-phase isothermal DNA amplification was performed exploiting
the homology protein recombinase A (recA). The system was primarily
tested on maleimide activated microtitre plates as a proof-of-concept andlater translated to an electrochemical platform. In both cases, forward
primer for Francisella tularensis holarctica genomic DNA was surface
immobilised via a thiol or an amino moiety and then elongated during
the recA mediated amplification, carried out in the presence of specifictarget sequence and reverse primers. The formation of the subsequentsurface tethered amplicons was either colorimetrically or electrochemicallymonitored using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labelled DNA secondary
probe complementary to the elongated strand. The amplification time
was optimised to amplify even low amounts of DNA copies in less than anhour at a constant temperature of 37 ºC, achieving a limit of detection of
1.3·10-13 M (4·106 copies in 50 ?L) for the colorimetric assay and 3.3·10-14 M(2·105 copies in 10 ?L) for the chronoamperometric assay. The system wasdemonstrated to be highly specific with negligible cross-reactivity with noncomplementary targets or primers.

9487-9, Session 2

ECL detection of francisella tularensis DNA
target based on “switch-on-off” strategy
with surface confinement of the systemusing diazonium salt as a molecular linker
Mabel Torrens, Mayreli Ortiz, Ciara K. O’Sullivan, Ioanis
Katakis, Univ. Rovira i Virgili (Spain)
In the present work, using ECL, a sensor for detecting a DNA target relatedwith Francicella tularensis was developed. The Francisella subspecies
holarctica and tularensis are the causative agent of the disease tularemia,
because of the ingestion of contaminated food, water supplies, and contact
with rabbits or hares infected. Nowadays the detection of F. tularensis
involves culturing suspect pathogens which is a time consuming technique.
Detection of antibodies can also be used for diagnosis but the drawback
is that antibodies are not detected until two weeks after the infection. An
alternative for the early detection of subspecies holarctica and tularensis
is the use of the specific sequences of fopA or tul4od. Thus, to reduce thehealth impact of this hazardous pathogen, biosensors to detect specific
DNA sequences from Francisella tularensis have been studied. Herein,
taking this DNA sequence as a model target, an “on-off” approach wasdeveloped based on a type sandwich detection of DNA by using two
partially complementary DNA sequences with almost consecutive regionsof the DNA target: a capture DNA probe labeled with the luminophoreruthenium (II) trisbipyridine N-hydroxysuccinimide (Rubpy), which produces
light and a secondary DNA probe labeled with the ferrocene able to quench
the luminescence. The close proximity of the Rubpy to ferrocene permits theenergy transferring and the subsequent quenching effect of the ferrocene
over the former, which is not possible in the absence of DNA target. The
study was carried out in solution and by confinement the system on theelectrode surface using a recently reported diazonium salt platform
as a linker.

9487-10, Session 2

Electrochemiluminescence genosensor for
multiplex detection of pathogen species
Ciara K. O’Sullivan, Ioanis Katakis, Univ. Rovira i Virgili(Spain)In this contribution we describe development of a sensor for multiplex
detection of pathogens by their DNA using ECL detection. ECL is a highly
sensitive method where light is generated at the surface of an electrodeupon application of potential. One of the most potent luminophores used
is ruthenium trisbipyridine (Ru(bpy)3 2+), which has been used in assay
for detection of DNA and proteins over three decades, ever since the first
demonstration by Blackburn et al in 1991. ECL has been demonstrated

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applicable for detection of DNA on gold electrodes (Miao and Bard 2003,
Spehar-Délèze et al. 2006). Firrao (2005) has demonstrated the ECL
detection of DNA hybrid immobilised directly on glassy carbon electrode via
C-N bond between the electrode carbon molecule and amine group fromaminated oligonucleotide formed by application of high potential. Different
methods for DNA immobilisation and electrode surface treatments areevaluated for ECL detection.

9487-11, Session 3

Dynamic analysis and performance
evaluation of the BIAcore surface plasmon
resonance biosensor
Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Solution procedures were proposed to analyze nonlinear mass transport
through an optical biosensor. A generalized collocation technique wasapplied to predict the dynamic behavior of an analyte along the flowchamber as a result of convection, diffusion and chemical reaction. The
method estimated the effective time constants for reaching average
steady-state concentrations of the free and bound analytes in the cell.
When diffusion in the direction of flow was neglected, a closed-form
solution, based on double Laplace transforms, was obtained after linearizing
the original system. In both models, an increase in the sample diffusion
coefficient lowered the effective time constant. This approach may help
researchers evaluate the performance of biosensors and meet specificdesign criteria.

9487-12, Session 3

Implementation of a novel fiber optic
Fourier transform infrared (FO-FTIR)
spectroscopy approach for non-contact
and label-free sensing of biochemical
contamination
Moinuddin Hassan, Elizabeth Gonzalez, Victoria M.
Hitchins, Ilko K. Ilev, U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States)
Healthcare associated infections (HAI) in clinics and hospitals are a major
concern to public health and impose significant medical, social andeconomic consequences. Approximately 1 in every 20 inpatients develops
an HAI. Reusable medical devices (RMDs), while being used to diagnose,
prevent disease, monitor, treat patients, or sustain life, can serve as areservoir of infectious agents as they repeatedly come into contact withmultiple patients and healthcare professionals. Therefore, it is vital that
RMDs are properly cleaned and disinfected/sterilized between uses. When
reprocessing RMDs, they must first be properly cleaned before disinfected
or sterilized to ensure that the device is exposed to the disinfectant/sterilant. However, currently there are few options for healthcare workers toverify the success of the cleaning process. Current techniques are based on
ex-situ approaches such as swab/wipe sampling, which are time consuming,
can introduce low recovery efficiency, and do not monitor and detect
pathogen contamination in real time. In order to reduce HAIs from reusabledevices, alternative methods for quantitative, accurate, easy-to-use andreal-time detection and identification of microorganism contaminations on
medical devices surfaces in clinical setting are needed. We have recently
presented a novel proof-of-concept platform for non-contact, label-free andreal-time detection of medical device surface contamination employing afiber-optic Fourier Transform Infrared (FO-FTIR) spectroscopy methodology
in the mid-infrared spectral range of 2.5um to 12um. In this study, wedemonstrate the detection sensitivity of FO-FTIR sensing for four species ofbacteria: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosaand Streptococcus pneumoniae. Initially, bacteria samples containing
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Conference 9487:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII
eight times. Preliminary study showed that the FO-FTIR based sensor can
detect the presence of the bacteria at concentrations between 10^3 and10^4 CFU/2uL. This sensing method combined with a multivariate analysis
may potentially be used as effective pathogen screening tool for routine
monitoring in clinical setting.

radio frequency lock-in amplifier was used for detection. The amplitude
and phase of the PA signal was measured at the modulation frequency as
the frequency was swept over the bandwidth of interest. Enhancement in
detection sensitivity was achieved by sinusoidal modulation of the excitation
laser over long time scales. The transient PA response of the sample toa synthesized pulse was reconstructed from the frequency-domain data.
These signals were then used to recreate a map of the optical absorbers inthe specimen using time-reversal methods. Experimental results obtained
from 500-?m graphite rods embedded in tissue-mimicking phantoms andslide-mounted tissue samples will be presented along with time-domain andtime-reversal reconstruction maps. We believe that the frequency-domain
photoacoustics is ideally suited for rapid interrogation of thin biologicalsamples, with higher incident power density and signal-to-noise ratio
compared to pulsed laser systems.

9487-13, Session 3

Process patent protection: protecting
biopharmaceutical intellectual property
via natural-abundance stable isotopes(Invited Paper)John P. Jasper, Nature’s Fingerprint (United States) andMolecular Isotope Technologies, LLC (United States)

9487-15, Session 3

3D noninvasive, high-resolution imaging
using a novel photoacoustic tomographysystem (pat) and rapid wavelength-cycling
lasers

The ambient distribution of light stable isotopes in biopharmaceuticalsynthetic pathways permits the identification and differentiation ofpotentially-infringing pathways. After reviewing three cases of productidentification, we examine three cases of process authentication, protecting$1.5 billion in biopharmaceutical products: one of false advertisingand two of process patent infringement. The three cases of productauthentication demonstrate the dynamic range of the light stable isotopes
in differentiating sources of pharmaceutical materials. The false-advertisingcase was substantially a product case because the green-tea L-Theanine
and the client- and competitor L-Theanine were markedly different incarbon- (~15‰) and nitrogen isotopic (~10‰) composition. The competitor
L-Theanine process was revealed from court documents and chemicalisotopic insight. The competitor was accused of falsely advertising thesource of their L-Theanine. The second case of process patent infringement
was a straightforward case of infringement. An infringer used synthetic
intermediates that were readily available on the market to produce theinfringing product. When confronted with the isotopic evidence of process
infringement, an out-of-court, business resolution was reached. The
third case of process infringement was a case of wrongful accusation of
infringement. The carbon-isotopic records of both the product and process
studies show that (i) the products are of different origins and (ii) the
defendant had in fact used a different synthetic pathway so that he was not
infringing the patent of the plaintiff.

Ashwin Sampathkumar, Riverside Research Institute(United States); Marc Klosner, Gary Chan, Chunbai Wu,
Donald F. Heller, Light Age, Inc. (United States)
Breast cancer ranks second as a cause of cancer death in women (after
lung cancer). Recently, death rates for breast cancer have steadilydecreased in women due to progress in earlier detection and improved
treatment modalities. While there are a host of applications for PAT
technology, breast imaging for the purpose of cancer screening anddiagnosis is one of considerable importance, affecting both cost andquality of healthcare provided to patients nationally and globally. For
mammography, a distinction between malignant and benign tumors may bemade by categorizing the morphologies of the vascular support structures.
Additional discrimination can be achieved by exploiting the differential
absorption between oxy- (HbO2) and deoxy-hemoglobin (Hb) at 755
nm and (near the isosbestic point) at 797 nm or at longer wavelengths,
where relative absorptions of HbO2 and Hb reverse. More specifically, sincemalignant tumors have lower levels of oxygenation and greater blood
volume compared with non-malignant tumors, Multispectral PAT can often
be performed by capturing separate images at 755 nm to predict theoxygenation level, augmented by images at 797 nm to characterize total
blood volume. Current tunable laser systems offer access to hemoglobinspecific operational wavelengths at the expense of high cost, low power
and longer pulse-repetition frequency (PRF). In this work, we describe thedevelopment of a PAT system using a rapid wavelength-cycling Alexandrite
laser designed for clinical photoacoustic imaging (PAI) applications. The
laser features high-pulse-energy output at clinically relevant repetition
rates, as well as a novel wavelength-cycling output pulse format. It provides
500 mJ/pulse at 755 and 797 nm for a pulse-width of 50-70 ns and a PRF
of 25-50 Hz. Wavelength cycling provides a pulse sequence for which
the output wavelength repeatedly alternates between 755 nm and 797
nm rapidly within milliseconds. This capability enables improved coregistration of images captured at the different wavelengths of operation.
We present imaging results of breast phantoms with inclusions, obtainedwith this laser source and a custom-built 2-MHz, 20-element transducer
ring that is adapted to a 128-element Verasonics system. The results include
photoacoustic images and oxygen saturation maps of tubular (50-250 ?m)and spherical structures (1-5 mm), mimicking blood vessels and tumors inthe breast.

Possible Addendum: Online process analysis of natural-abundance stable
isotopes affords a marked opportunity to monitor bioreactors and chemicalproduction systems in real time. Advances in theory and in technology
over the last decade plausibly afford the opportunity for online monitoringof the state of such systems. I will review the development of a Stable
Isotopic Indirect Calorimeter (http://www.naturesfingerprint.com/abstracts/
abstract_i10272000.shtml ) as an example of a bioreactor / gas purifier /offline isotope-analytical system which could readily be converted to an
online system. Next, I will briefly review the contemporary stage of online
isotope-ratio monitored, continuous reactors.

9487-14, Session 3

Remote characterization of biological
specimens using all-optical frequencydomain photoacoustic microscopy
Ashwin Sampathkumar, Riverside Research Institute(United States)
Photoacoustic (PA) imaging (PAI) and characterization (PAC) of biological
specimens using pulsed lasers have been widely demonstrated. For
microscopy applications, the high cost and long scan times of such systems
limit the scope of PAI or PAC of thin biological specimens. In this paper,
we describe a narrow-bandwidth generation and detection of PA signals inbiological specimens using frequency-domain photoacoustics. An intensitymodulated laser operating at 632 nm with a peak power of 100 mW wasused for PA generation, and an interferometer coupled to a 200-MHz,

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9487-21, Session 3

Bridgman growth of lead selenoiodide formultifunctional detectors
David House, Reecha Suri, Christopher Cooper, Brad·

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Conference 9487:
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Arnold, Fow-Sen Choa, Lisa Kelly, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States); Liliana Braescu, Institut
National de la Recherche Scientifique (Canada); Narsingh
B. Singh, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates)is proposed to image through a highly scattering turbid medium, which
combines SCM with phase retrieval algorithm based on compressed sensing(CS) theory. Its remarkable advantages are embodied in that it can decrease
the imaging time due to the fact that CS uses the structure information of asignal, which can sample less data than the requirement of Nyquist sampling
theory. Simultaneously, instead of the demand for the support area, thephase retrieval algorithm based on the CS uses an -norm as the constraint.
Theoretical and experimental results show that, neither coherent source,
nor wave-front shaping is required in this method, and that the imaging canbe easily realized here using just a simple optical system with the help of
optical memory effect. And large amounts of speckle data and the choiceof a suitable support area limit its application, which are solved by thismethod. Consequently, it will be beneficial to achieve imaging in currently
inaccessible scenarios.

There is a strong need for the HOT MWIR detectors for a variety of imagers
This paper describes a novel material to fulfill this gap.

9487-38, Session 3

Advancing innovative regulatory scienceand public health through CDx: FDA’s
development of a counterfeit detectiontool

9487-34, Session PThu

Leigh Verbois, Nicola Ranieri, U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (United States)
To minimize consumer and patient exposure to counterfeit products
scientists at the FDA’s Forensic Chemistry Center in Cincinnati, Ohiodeveloped a tool, the CDx, Counterfeit Detection Device, to rapidly
screen products. The CDx is a handheld, battery-operated tool that
illuminates a product with a variety of wavelengths of light to provide
a visual comparison of an unverified product with an authentic sample.
The first version tool has been in use since 2005 in their laboratory. The
third version of the tool (CD3) has been in use since 2010 in a number ofinternational mail facilities in the United States and other points of entry
where investigators screen drug ingredients and other finished products
to identify counterfeit or unapproved products. CDx has also been applied
effectively to screen cosmetics, foods, medical devices, and cigarettes, andinvestigate product tampering and questionable documents. This allows
users to identify suspect products and remove them from the supply
chain. Additionally, minimal scientific or technical background is needed tooperate the tool, and it can be used even in remote communities or in places
with only very basic health care systems. As the Agency made continued
improvements to CDx, it has engaged in efforts to maximize the publichealth benefit of CDx (CD3+ is the current version). These have included(1) the development of a testing strategy which evaluates the technologicalcapabilities and potential deployment strategies, (2) developing a pathfor device optimization and production of devices for testing and (3)development of a deployment strategy. The concurrent development ofstrategic partnerships is necessary to undertake testing, optimization, andmanufacturing, and to understand the broader deployment of CDx. These
concurrent efforts are in recognition that the Agency has immediate needfor production as well as acknowledges the potential public health impact of
CDx if distributed to a wider audience.

9487-33, Session PThu

Speckle-correlation imaging throughhighly scattering turbid media with LED
illumination

The incident light will be scattered away due to the inhomogeneity of
the refractive index in many materials, such as tissues, which will greatly
reduce the imaging depth and degrade the imaging quality. Many exciting
methods have been presented in recent years for solving this problem andrealizing imaging through a highly scattering medium, such as the wavefront
modulation technique, speckle correlation and so on. The imaging method
based on compressed sensing (CS) theory which proposed recently candecrease the computational complexity because it doesn’t require thewhole speckle pattern to realize reconstruction. One of the key premisesof this method is that the object is sparse or can be sparse representation.
However, choosing a proper projection matrix is very important to theimaging quality. In this paper, by utilizing the knowledge of statistics, weanalyzed that the transmission matrix of a scattering medium obeys circular
Gaussian distribution, which makes it possible that a scattering medium
can be used as the measurement matrix in the CS theory. In order to verify
the performance of this method, a whole optical system is simulated, inwhich the Rayleigh-Sommerfeld diffraction is employed to describe thelight propagation between optical devices. Various projection matrices are
introduced to make the object sparse, including the Fourier transform basis,
the wavelet transform basis and the discrete cosine transform basis, theimaging performances of each of which are compared comprehensively.
Simulation results show that the choice of optimal projection matrix varies
with the type of observed targets, and for most targets, applying the
wavelet transform basis will obtain an image in good quality. This work can
be applied to biomedical imaging and used to develop real-time imaging
through highly scattering media.

A spectral method of color modeling andcalibration for optical imaging systems

We address an optical imaging method that allows imaging, which owing
to the “memory-effect” for speckle correlations, through highly scattering
turbid media with compressed sensing (CS) theory. When light propagatesthe opaque materials, such as white paint or human tissues, it will bescattered away due to the inhomogeneity of the refractive index. Multiple
scattering of light in highly scattering media forms speckle field, which
will greatly reduce the imaging depth and degrade the imaging quality.
Some methods have been developed to solve this problem in recent years,
including wavefront modulation method (WMM), transmission matrix
method (TMM) and speckle correlation method (SCM). A novel approach

SPIE DSS 2015

Xiaopeng Shao, Huijuan Li, Tengfei Wu, Weijia Dai,
Lin Wang, Xidian Univ. (China); Xiangli Bi, Schoolof Optoelectronics, Beijing Institute of Technology(China) and Science and Technology on Electro-Optical
Information Security Control Laboratory (China)

9487-35, Session PThu

Xiaopeng Shao, Weijia Dai, Tengfei Wu, Huijuan Li, Lin
Wang, Xidian Univ. (China)

346

Imaging through turbid media via
sparse representation: imaging quality
comparison of three projection matrices

Rui Gong, Xiaopeng Shao, Lin Wang, Xidian Univ. (China);
Xun Yu, Xun Yu, Baoyuan Liu, Xi’an Technological Univ.
(China); Feng Han, Xi’an Univ. of Technology (China)
A method was elaborately designed to modeling the color informationof optical imaging systems, by which the color calibration could be
implemented among different optical imaging systems by adjusting thedigital inputs of their captured images. In this process, a monochromator
was employed to generate monochromatic light with 20 nm interval in the·

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Conference 9487:
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these static substrates severely limit the application of plasmonicnanostructures as (i) they provide no means to alter the state of assemblyof the nanostructures once they are formed or anchored on the surface
i.e., not reconfigurable and (ii) preclude applications which demand nonplanar, flexible or conformal surfaces. The above considerations has led
to the development of a novel class of SERS substrates based on flexible
substrates such paper, polymer membranes and electrospun fibers. Theseflexible SERS media based on unconventional substrates such as paper
offer distinct advantages compared to the conventional SERS substrates
in that (i) flexible nature of the substrate enables conformal contact withthe surfaces under investigation leading to efficient sample collection;(ii) porous nature of the SERS substrate (interstices between the fibers)
provides efficient access to the analytes; (iii) high surface area of the 3D
paper substrate results in large dynamic range of the chemical sensors; (iv)
intricate network of fibers decorated with metal nanoparticles can provide
potentially high density of electromagnetic hotspots and (v) intense lightscattering caused by the fibrous structure of the substrate (e.g., paper)
enables efficient light-metal interaction; (vi) facile fabrication leads toefficient, robust, reliable, reusable and cost- effective SERS substrates.
In this presentation, we will focus on the Army need for a more flexible(substrate surface and application) SERS substrate for universal sensing.
This presentation will leverage off a previous flexible SERS (May 2014)
workshop hosted by Dr. Srikanth Singamaneni at Washington University.

visible spectrum. Afterwards, the radiance of each monochromatic light
could be measured by a spectroradiometer, and the spectral response curveof the sensor in the optical imaging system could be derived accordingly
by the mapping algorithms between these physical measurements andthe recorded digital inputs of images, which was a significant feature
for representing color information. Meanwhile, the tristimulus valuesof GretagMacbeth color checker under a given lighting condition were
measured by the spectroradiometer, by which the color mapping models
were established by polynomial expressions for individual optical imaging
systems, capable of making conversions between the tristimulus values ofan arbitrary color and its corresponding digital inputs in the captured image.
Therefrom, based on the spectral response features of the sensor and the
proposed color mapping models, the color calibration would be actualized
among different optical imaging systems by a two-step image manipulation
algorithm, containing the forward conversion and the inverse conversion
in color mapping between two optical imaging systems. From the spectral
aspect, the proposed procedure and algorithms provided instructive
solutions on the color modeling and calibration among different opticalimaging systems, which were capable to supply the same color informationin their captured images on the same scene, equivalent to implementing
color management.

9487-36, Session PThu

Leptospirosis risk depending on the
distance to a potential source of infection

9487-17, Session 4

Surface-enhanced Raman scatteringfrom living cells: from differentiating
healthy and cancerous cell to cytotoxicity
assessment (Invited Paper)

Erica Tatiana E. Loaiza Echeverri, Doracelly D. HincapiePalacio, Jesus J. Ochoa, Univ. de Antioquia (Colombia);
Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Leptospirosis is bacterial zoonosis with world distribution and multiform
clinical spectrum in humans and animals. The etiology of this diseaseis the pathogenic species of the Leptospira type. In this paper, diverse
manifestations of the disease, from mild to severe, such as the Weil disease
and the lung hemorrhagic syndrome with lethal proportions of 10% - 50%
are described. This is an emerging problem of urban health due to thegrowth of marginal neighborhoods that lack basic sanitary conditions,which at the same time has favored the increased number of rodents. The
presence of rodents and the possibility of having contact with their urine
determine the likelihood for humans to get infected. In this paper, weestimate how the risk of human infection depending on the proximity to
the rodent burrows is modified. We simulated the spatial distribution of risk
infection around a potential source of rodents that expel leptospira throughtheir urine. We did this by using the Bessel function K(0), with an r distancefrom the observation spot to the source, and the scale parameter ? inmeters. We used the published data of the leptospirosis incidence rate (rankof 5 to 79 x 10 000), and a distance of 100 to 5000 meters from the sourceof infection. We obtained an adequate adjustment between the function andthe simulated data. The risk of infection increases with the proximity of thepotential source. This estimation can become a guide to propose effective
measures of control and prevention.

Mustafa Culha, Gamze Kuku, Melike Saricam, Sevda Mert,
Yeditepe Univ. (Turkey)
There is an ongoing effort to obtained molecular level information fromliving cells using surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) not only tounderstand changes of cellular processes upon exposure to external stimuli
but also decide the status of cells whether they are healthy or abnormal. In
our research effort, we investigate how much information can be obtained
from living cells to use for decision making about the cellular processes. The
undertaken studies include differentiation of the healthy and cancer cells
and cytotoxicity assessment of the nanomaterials.

9487-18, Session 4

Quantitative detection and SERS
Amanda J. Haes, The Univ. of Iowa (United States)
Directly detecting low concentrations of small molecules in biological andenvironmental samples is often limited by similar molecular structures andfunction of the target species as well as complex sample matrices. Whennanoparticles are used to facilitate detection, an additional limitationof signal irreproducibility from changing surface functionality further
complicates both qualitative and quantitative detection. Often, biologicalrecognition elements in these sensors are composed of antibodies,functional groups, nucleic acids, etc. Because surface recognition layers
can exhibit variability as a function of temperature, matrix, shelf life, andpH; surface chemistry and quality control measures that promote both
nanomaterial stability and responsiveness are vital and motivate ourinvestigations. Herein, the design of stable yet responsive optically-active
nanostructures for the detection of biologically-relevant metabolites ina high throughput, sensitive, and selective manner thereby combating
current dynamic detection limitations will be discussed. Localized surface
plasmon resonance (LSPR) spectroscopy, normal Raman spectroscopy(NRS), and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) will be discussed
for applications in the direct, qualitative and quantitative detection ofsmall biologically and environmentally relevant molecules. In particular,
chemical reactions of various small molecule environmental contaminants

9487-16, Session 4

Flexible SERS-based substrates:
challenges and opportunities toward an
Army relevant universal sensing platform(Invited Paper)
Mikella E. Farrell, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Srikanth Singamaneni, Washington Univ. in St. Louis(United States); Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)
Generally the fabrication, assembly and evaluation of plasmonicnanostructures for surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrates
has focused on static rigid substrates such as glass and silicon. However,

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Conference 9487:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII
will be detected and speciation assigned based on vibrational frequency
assignments. Metal nanoparticles will be shown to provide enhancement.
Upon comparison speciation in solution vs. on the SERS substrates, abetter understanding will result. These results are expected to provide
important information regarding the mechanism of small molecule detection
using SERS. In the future, these results could be expanded for different
nanomaterials cores, molecular targets, and sensor-based
detection platforms.

dithering. These images are then deconvoluted from each other to increase
the spatial resolution three-fold. This talk will describe super-resolution
chemical imaging using these probes and the dithering method as well as its
applications in label-free imaging of lipid rafts and other applications withinbiology and forensics.

9487-22, Session 5

Characterization of the role of oxide
spacers in multilayer-enhanced SERS
probes9487-19, Session 4

Functionalized paper SERS (P-SERS)
substrates for selective targeting ofanalytes in complex samples

Pietro Strobbia, Brian M. Cullum, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)

Wei W. Yu, Eric P. Hoppmann, Diagnostic anSERS, Inc.
(United States)
Inkjet-printed paper SERS (P-SERS) substrates were recently introduced by
Diagnostic anSERS, Inc. as an inexpensive alternative to micro-fabricated
SERS substrates. These highly sensitive paper SERS substrates eliminate
the high costs associated with traditional SERS sensing approaches andhave been demonstrated in a wide variety of applications, including
food contaminants, pesticides and illicit drugs. Unlike conventional SERS
substrates, flexible P-SERS substrates are simple to use and possess
additional ability to separate analytes from a complex mixture (via paper
chromatography) and analyte re-concentration (via lateral flow). P-SERS
substrates enable SERS to become a field-applicable technique.
Despite these advances, P-SERS, like other existing SERS substrates, relyon the affinity of the analyte to the nanostructure surface for enhancement.
This limits the application of SERS to molecules that possess functionalgroups that interact strongly with gold or silver surfaces, such amines andthiols. To enable P-SERS substrates to be more applicable for a wider rangeof analytes, we report in this work the functionalization of P-SERS substrates
by strategically placing various linking groups onto the gold nanoparticles
to promote the selective interaction of target molecules with the plasmonic
surface. We will present data to show that the presence of these linking
groups on the nanoparticle surface allow for the specific capture of target
analytes from complex samples and lead to improved SERS performance.

Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has several advantages as atransduction method for many types of optical sensors, due to its sensitivity
and potential multiplex detection. Over the years, SERS probes have beendeveloped to be capable of extreme sensitivities, with single molecule SERS
having been achieved in randomly located hot-spots of colloidal aggregates.
However, these structures suffer from significant irreproducibility, due to therandomness of the aggregation. Alternatively, strategies such as ordered 2D
arrays or enhancement based on single probes (e.g. immuno-nanosensors,
nanostars) have high reproducibilities but limited enhancement factors.
A widely applicable enhancing geometry, developed in our laboratory, basedon metal thin films interleaved with dielectric spacers takes advantage ofinteraction into the volume of the probe (perpendicularly to the surface) toenhance the signal independently from the underlying structure.
Preliminary evidence into the mechanism of this enhancement suggests thatthe dielectric spacer material and thickness play a key role in the magnitudeof the resulting additional enhancement. In this paper we investigate thematerial dependence of the multilayer enhancement using substrates
fabricated using ultrathin oxide spacer layers deposited by atomic layer
deposition. The SERS enhancement measured for substrates based on
semiconductor and dielectric materials have been characterized in orderto understand which properties influence the multilayer enhancement thegreatest. In addition a model to describe the mechanism by which thespacer properties influence the multilayer enhancement will also
be discussed.

9487-20, Session 49487-23, Session 5

Large area super-resolution chemical
imaging via rapid dithering of a nanoprobe

Optical nanosystems for biomolecular
reaction studies (Invited Paper)

Eric R. Languirand, Brian M. Cullum, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)

Jing Pan, Tae-Gon Cha, Jong Hyun Choi, Purdue Univ.
(United States)

Super-resolution chemical imaging via Raman spectroscopy offers chemical
specificity, affording the ability to multiplex numerous label-free analytes
while elucidating the spatial distribution on the surface of the sample.
However, spontaneous Raman is an inherently weak phenomenon making
trace detection and thus super-resolution imaging extremely difficult, if not
impossible. To circumvent this and allow for a trace detection of the few
species present in each sub-diffraction limited area, we have developed asurface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) coherent fiber-optic imaging
bundle probe consisting of 30,000 individual fiber elements. When theprobes are tapered, etched and coated with metal, they provide circular
Raman chemical images with a field of view of 20µm in diameter via
the array of 50 nm individual fiber elements. An acousto-optic tunablefilter is used to rapidly scan or select discrete frequencies for multi- or
hyperspectral analysis.

There have been significant efforts in recent years in developing novel
optical nanosystems for biomolecular detection and engineering. We havedesigned near-IR fluorescent single-wall carbon nanotubes with molecular
recognition domain by functionalizing them with nucleic acids. With
molecular recognition and self-assembly capabilities of oligonucleotides,
we have studied target-receptor interactions at the nanoscale. The
thermodynamics and kinetics of these interactions can be extracted byutilizing the signal transduction from the optical nanomaterials. Our system
is a powerful and unique optical platform that allows one to probe andanalyze biomolecular reactions both in ensemble and at single
molecule level.

Although the 50nm fiber element dimensions of this probe inherently
provide spatial resolutions of approximately 100nm, further increases inthe spatial resolution can be achieved by using a rapid, 2-step dithering
process. Using this process, two additional images are obtained one-halffiber diameter translations in the x- and y- planes. A piezostage drives
the movement, allowing accurate and reproducible shifts required for

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Conference 9487:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII

9487-24, Session 59487-26, Session 5

From materials science to next generation
sensing using synthetic and engineered
peptide technology (Invited Paper)

Structural reconfiguration of DNA origami(Invited Paper)
Haorong Chen, Feiran Li, Jong Hyun Choi, Purdue Univ.
(United States)

Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Natural biological systems exhibit the exquisite ability to spatially combine
many weak, non-covalent chemical interactions to direct the molecular
recognition and self-assembly of incredibly complex materials. The ability tocontrol assembly at the molecular level has led to an interest in harnessing
nature’s building blocks (e.g., polypeptides) to tailor interaction with bothbiological and inorganic materials for a variety of applications. By using
biocombinatorial approaches it is possible to first create biochemical
diversity, and then mimic natural selection through artificial “biopanning”
methods. The discovery and evolution of peptide candidates withthe desired interaction can be tuned for selective interaction with thetarget material. In this paper, we will review and highlight two powerful
biocombinatorial methods, bacterial cell-surface display and protein
catalyzed capture reagents (PCC). We have shown that it is possible to use
these methods to enable selective and specific interaction, thereby enablinghigh performance synthetic antibody substitutes, as well as hybrid material
systems. This paper will include highlights of our most recent work showing
record thermostability with retention of target interaction after extended
exposure to extreme environmental conditions (e.g.,70C-90C), as well as
progress towards the development of genetically engineered peptides forinorganics (GEPI) and autonomous cell templating capabilities.

DNA origami represents a class of highly programmable macromoleculesthat can go through conformational changes in response to externalsignals. Here, we show that a two-dimensional (2D) origami rectangle
can be effectively folded into a short, cylindrical tube by connecting thetwo opposite edges through the hybridization of linker strands and thatsuch process can be efficiently reversed via toehold-mediated strand
displacement. The reconfiguration kinetics is experimentally studied as afunction of incubation temperature, initial origami concentration, missing
staples (i.e. structural defects), and origami geometry. A simple kinetic
model is developed by introducing j-factor to describe the reaction rates
in the cyclization process. We find that the cyclization efficiency (j-factor)
increases sharply with temperature and depends strongly on structural
flexibility and geometry. A simple mechanical model correlates the observed
cyclization efficiency with origami structure details. The mechanical analysis
suggests two sources of energy barrier for DNA origami folding: overcoming
global twisting and bending the structure into circular conformation. It also
provides the first semi-quantitative estimation of the rigidity of DNA interhelix crossovers, an essential element in structural DNA nanotechnology.
This work demonstrates efficient DNA origami reconfiguration, advances
our understanding of the dynamics and mechanical properties of DNA
structures, and should be valuable to the field of DNA nanotechnology.

9487-25, Session 59487-27, Session 6

Enhancing enzymatic efficiency
by attachment to semiconductor
nanoparticles for biosensor applications(Invited Paper)

Automated calculation of bifurcation
carotid angle for analyzing the riskof carotis plaques by using carotid ct
angiographic images
Nusret Demir, Akdeniz Üniv. (Turkey); Serkan Demir, GATA
Haydarpasa Training Military Hospital (Turkey)

Joyce C. Breger, Scott Walper, Eunkeu Oh, Kimihiro
Susumy, Michael H. Stewart, Jeffrey Deschamps, Mario G.
Ancona, Igor L. Medintz, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)

The aim of this study is calculation of bifurcation carotid angle by detectionof vein boundaries to answer if this angle is a risk factor about formation of
carotis plaques.

Nanosensors employing quantum dots (QDs) with appended biofunctionalmoieties offer tremendous promise for disease surveillance/diagnostics
and chemical/biological threat activity. Their small size permits cell
penetration and their inherent photochemical properties are well-suited for
rapid, optical measurement. The effectiveness of enzymes immobilized on
QDs, however, are not completely understood, hindering development ofchemical/biological sensors and remediation materials. Here, we analyze
enzyme effectiveness for the neutralization of a simulant nerve agent
when attached to two distinctly sized QDs. Two sizes of QDs, 525 or 625
nm, were appended with DHLA ligands to improve aqueous stability andprevent aggregation. Various molar ratios of phosphotriesterase (PTE)
were rapidly self-assembled via spontaneous metal coordination of the
PTE oligiohistidine tag onto the Zn2+-rich QD surface. PTE catalyzes thedetoxification of organophosphate pesticides (e.g, paraoxon, an analog ofsarin) to p-nitrophenol whose absorbance can be measured at 405 nm. The
optimal ratio of PTE to 525 nm and 625 nm QD’s was determined to be 6
and 8, respectively. At these ratios, we saw a ~50-60% increase in Vmax for
PTE along with improvement in other kinetic parameters. The influence ofsolution viscosity and a competitive inhibitor were also studied to determine
their effect on kinetic processes. The enhanced enzyme performance inboth cases is most likely due to increased enzyme-substrate interactions
from improvements in enzyme orientation, enzyme density, and substratediffusion on or near the QD. Development of these nansosensors as opticalbased biosensors (e.g., within compact microfluidic devices) may greatly
improve the sensitivity of conventional biological/chemical
detection schemes.

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The carotid artery is the large vertical artery in the neck. The carotid artery
starts at the arch of the aorta . The carotid artery divides into the internal
carotid artery and the external carotid artery. The internal carotid artery
supplies the brain. Plaque often builds up at that division, and causes anarrowing (stenosis). Pieces of plaque can break off and block the small
arteries above in the brain, which causes a stroke.
Carotid ct angiography images are clustered automatically by ISODATA
unsupervised classification algorithm. Since the spectral digital
numbers(DN) of vein pixels are bigger than the other part of the images, thecluster which has the biggest median value of DN among all other classes
gives the vein class.
The cluster image in raster format is converted into the vector format whichallows to work on the vein geometry. The converted vector vein cluster
data-set has been simplified using Douglas-Peucker algorithm to eliminate
the zigzag effects of pixel data which are remained on the vector form dataset. Then the cluster polygon is converted to lines and the vertices which
will be used for the calculation of bifurcation carotid angle.
For sorting the vertex points to calculate the angle on each vertex, alphashapes algorithm is applied along the boundary. Then all the angles on eachvertex point along the boundary of veins are calculated. It is also visuallyclear that the angle which has the minimum value among all the calculated
angles, gives the bifurcation carotid angle. The calculated angle values will
be analyzed by one of the authors regarding formation of carotis plaques. 5
sample data-sets are used to test the method, and will be extended to ca.50
samples. The calculated angle values of 5 samples are 68.24, 17.90, 48.19,
25.57, 29.84 degrees respectively.

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Conference 9487:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII

9487-28, Session 6

9487-30, Session 6

Electroencephalograph (EEG) Study ofBrain Bistable Illusion

A very low-cost 3D scanning system forwhole-body imaging

Qinglei Meng, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Elliot Hong, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore (UnitedStates) and Univ. of Maryland School of Medicine (UnitedStates); Fow-Sen Choa, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore
County (United States)

Jeremy Straub, Scott Kerlin, Univ. of North Dakota (UnitedStates)Bistable illusion reflects two different kinds of comprehension for one
certain image, which is now known as a competition between two groups ofantagonism of neurons. Recent research indicates that these two groups ofantagonism of neurons express different comprehension, while one groupis emitting a pulse, the other group will be restrained. On the other hand,when this inhibition mechanism becomes weaker, the other antagonism
neurons group will replace this function. Since attention play key roles
controlling cognition, is highly interesting to find the location and frequency
band used in brain (with either top-down or bottom-up control) to reachdeterministic visual perceptions. In our study, we used a 16-channel EEG
system to record brain signals from subjects while conducting bistableillusion testing. An extra channel of the EEG system was used for time
marker. The moment when subjects reach a perception switch, they click
the channel and generate a spiking time marker. The recorded data were
presented in form of brain electrical activity map (BEAM) with different
frequency bands for analysis. It was found that the visual cortex on the rightside between parietal and occipital areas was controlling the switching ofperception. Compared with a period of stable perception, during which
all delta, theta, alpha and beta wave band distribution could be observed,
while illusion was switching, theta, alpha and beta waves were all mostly
suppressed by delta waves. This indicated that delta wave may control theprocessing of perception switching.

A low-cost, high resolution 3D scanning system has been developed byfaculty and students at the University of North Dakota. This hardware
creates 3D models (complete with color and texture data) using hardware
and software with a cost of approximately $5,000. These models can beeasily manipulated in computer aided design (CAD) software to allow
assessment, customization or the creation of derivative (e.g., fitted clothing)objects. The scanner is based on a collection of networked Raspberry Pi
units with 5 megapixel cameras and uses visible light scanning and point
cloud-based 3D model reconstruction. With 50 Raspberry Pi units, thesystem utilizes over 250 megapixels of data to generate the model andcolor/texture data. The Raspberry Pi units collect this data concurrently witha total scan time of approximately two seconds.
This paper provides an overview of the design, testing and initial uses
for this scanning hardware. The structural framework that was designed
for supporting and positioning the cameras is discussed. Also presented,
are a number of alternate configurations that were considered (andnot utilized) which may be more suitable for certain applications. The
paper also discusses the efficacy of this technology for a variety of
applications (including medical, sporting, garment/hazardous condition
suit development and artistic). It considers the utility of being able tocapture high-quality scans at low cost in terms of what applications could
be enabled by increasing access to 3D scanning technology. A discussion of
the required operating conditions and the limitations that this places on theapplications the scanner is suitable for is also included. The paper concludes
with a discussion of the efficacy of 3D scanning technology for enabling
numerous applications and the role of visible light and low-cost visible lightsolutions, like the scanner discussed, in enabling these applications.

9487-29, Session 6

Sensor probes and phantoms for advanced
transcranial magnetic stimulation systemdevelopments

9487-32, Session 6

Qinglei Meng, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Prashil Patel, Sudhir B. Trivedi, Brimrose Corp. of
America (United States); Xiaoming Du, Elliot Hong, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore (United States); Fow-Sen Choa, Univ.
of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)

Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has become one of the most widelyused noninvasive method for brain tissue stimulation and has been used asa treatment tool for various neurological and psychiatric disorders including
migraine, stroke, Parkinson’s disease, dystonia, tinnitus and depression.
In the process of developing advanced TMS deep brain stimulation tools,
we need first to develop field measurement devices like sensory probes
and brain phantoms, which can be used to calibrate the TMS systems.
Currently there are commercially available DC magnetic or electric filed
measurement sensors, but there is no instrument to measure transientfields. In our study, we used a commercial figure-8 shaped TMS coil togenerate transient magnetic field and followed induced field and current.
The coil was driven by power amplified signal from a pulse generator withtunable pulse rate, amplitude, and duration. In order to obtain a 3D plot of
induced vector electric field, many types of probes were designed to detect
single component of electric-field vectors along x, y and z axis in the spacearound TMS coil. We found that resistor probes has an optimized signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) near 3k ohm but it signal output is too weak comparedwith other techniques. We also found that inductor probes can have very
high output for Curl E measurement, but it is not the E-field distribution
we are interested in. Probes with electrical wire wrapped around iron coilcan directly measure induced E-field with high sensitivity, which matchedcomputer simulation results.

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Mathematical modeling of Chikungunya
fever control
Chikungunya fever is a global concern due to the occurrence of large
outbreaks, the presence of persistent arthropathy and its rapid expansion
throughout various continents. Globalization and climate change havecontributed to the expansion of the geographical areas where mosquitoes
Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus remain. It is necessary to improve
the techniques of vector control in the presence of large outbreaks, in
American Continent. We derive measures of disease control, using amathematical model of mosquito-human interaction, by means of three
scenarios: a) a single vector b) two vectors, c) two vectors and humanand non-human reservoirs. The basic reproductive number and criticalcontrol measures were deduced by using computer algebra with Maple 11(Maplesoft Inc, Ontario Canada). Control measures were simulated withparameter values obtained from published data. According to the numberof houses in high risk areas, the goals of effective vector control to reduce
the likelihood of mosquito-human transmission would be established.
Besides the two vectors, if presence of other non-human reservoirs werereported, the monthly target of effective elimination of the vector would
be approximately double compared to the presence of a single vector. The
model shows the need to periodically evaluate the effectiveness of vector
control measures.

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Conference 9487:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology XII

9487-37, Session 6

Printing graphene-based inks on flexible
substrates for biosensor applications
Jonathan C. Claussen, Iowa State Univ. (United States)
Printed electronics developed with ink jet printing technology havebecoming increasingly attractive for a variety of reasons including low
cost, scalability, and the ability to print on a wide variety of surfaces suchas paper and polymers that typically degrade during photolithographic
processing. Furthermore, ink-jet printed graphene electronics also
inherently incorporate the unique material properties of graphene (e.g.,high conductivity, flexibility, strength, and biocompatibility) that makethem well suited for a variety of applications including supercapacitors, thinfilm transistors, and biosensors. In this work we developed an exfoliatedgraphene ink for printable biosensors. The graphene ink is printed onto
a flexible substrate, i.e., Kapton tape, along with silver/silver chloride ink
and carbon ink to create a printed 3-electrode circuit for amperometric,
electrochemical sensing. An enzymatic layer consisting of the enzyme
lactate oxidase is immobilized on the working electrode (printed graphene)
for subsequent lactate sensing—a biomarker associated with muscle fatigue
found within the sweat. The sensitivity of the printed circuit to lactate
is analyzed as well as the durability of the biosensor during flexed andun-flexed scenarios. These results demonstrate the potential of grapheneprinted electronics in epidermal biosensor applications.

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII
Tuesday - Wednesday 21–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9488 Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-1, Session 1

by monitoring food contamination, in real-time along the entire food supply
chain.

Magnetostrictive particles used forbiosensors for the detection of pathogen
in liquid and their potential as a novel
actuator (Invited Paper)

9488-3, Session 1

Detection of heavy metals with graphenebased biosensors

Kewei Zhang, Taiyuan Univ. of Science and Technology(China); ZhongYang Cheng, Auburn Univ. (United States)

Nick Wu, West Virginia Univ. (United States)

Magnetostrictive particles (MSPs) have been developed as the sensor
platform for the development of high-performance biosensors due to its
high sensitivity and wireless nature. The MSP-based biosensors work wellin liquid making it is suitable for in-situ detection of pathogenic bacteria
in liquid. In this study, both phages against S. typhimurium and antibodies
against L. monocytogenes, E. coli and S. aureus were used as the bio-probe(i.e. biomolecular recognition unit) that is immobilized onto the surface of
MSPs that have a size of 1.0 mm x 0.3 mm x 15 ?m. These biosensors werecharacterized in pathogenic bacteria cultures with different populations
ranging from 5x101 to 5x108 cfu/ml. It is found that these biosensors have
rapid response (a response in minutes). Therefore, these biosensors are
suitable for in-situ and real-time detection of pathogenic bacteria in liquid.
The experimental results show that all the MSP-phage and MSP-antibody
biosensors exhibit a detection limit better than 100 cfu/ml. When thecultures with population <106 cfu/ml are tested, both MSP-phage and MSPantibody sensors exhibit the similar response. However, the phage-MSP
sensors exhibit a higher capability in the capture of target bacterial cell.
Additionally, it is found that the MSP-based sensors can move in space using
an ac magnetic field with a specific frequency and that the motion direction
is controlled by the frequency of the ac magnetic field. The physics behind
this phenomenon is discussed.

9488-2, Session 1

High throughput pathogen screening
for food safety using magnetoelastic
biosensors (Invited Paper)
Suiqiong Li, Soochow Univ. (China); Bryan A. Chin, AuburnUniv. (United States)
In order to secure food safety, high throughput pathogen screening
technique that can quickly identify and isolate unsafe contaminated foodhas been long-desired. Recently, magnetoelastic (ME) free-standing
biosensors have been investigated as a label-free wireless biosensor
system for real-time pathogen detection. ME biosensor is composed ofa ME resonator coated with a bio-molecular recognition element thatbinds specifically with a target pathogen. Once the biosensor comes into
contact with the target pathogen, binding occurs, resulting in a decreaseof the sensor’s resonant frequency. Interrogated through magnetic signals,
large amount of ME sensors can be deployed and monitored wirelessly.
ME biosensors have been investigated to detect foodborne pathogens in
cultures and liquid foods. Recently, it has been demonstrated that phagebased ME biosensors are able to directly detect Salmonella Typhimurium infood products without the requirement of pre-analysis culture preparation.
This presentation will present the novel ME biosensor technique, including
the detection principle, the interrogation system, the fabrication of ME
biosensors and their applications, especially for food safety analysis.
Direct detections of foodborne pathogens on food products with different
surface morphologies, such as tomato, spinach and egg surface, have been
demonstrated. The detection limit up to 10^2 CFU/cm^2 has been obtainedusing phage-coated ME biosensors with the size of 1 x 0.2 x 0.028 mm. The
ME biosensor technique has the potential to be a powerful screening tool

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Heavy metals are pollutants that exist in the surface water, soils and food,
which poses threat to food safety and human health. Fluorescent biosensors
have been developed for detection of heavy metals. However, organic dyes
are used in conventional fluorescent biosensors. Organic dyes are vulnerable
to photobleaching. In this work, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) has beenused as a substitute of organic dye to construct fluorescent biosensors. rGO
is coupled to a fluorophore to enable a resonance energy transfer processes,
in which rGO acts as an energy acceptor. Alternatively, rGO can be used
as an energy donor, that is, a fluorophore. This work has demonstrated
different types of fluorescent biosensors using rGO as either an energy
donor or an acceptor. Such biosensors show high sensitivity and selectivity
toward detection of heavy metals.

9488-4, Session 1

In-situ detection of multiple pathogenic
bacteria on food surfaces
Yating Chai, Shin Horikawa, Auburn Univ. (United States);
I-Hsuan Chen, Howard Clyde Wikle, Auburn Univ (UnitedStates); Jiajia Hu, Changzhou Univ. (China); Jing Hu,
Changzhou University (China); James M Barbaree, AuburnUniv (United States); Bryan A. Chin, Auburn Univ. (UnitedStates)
Real-time in-situ detection of pathogenic bacteria on fresh food surfaces
was accomplished with phage-based magnetoelastic (ME) biosensors. The
ME biosensor is constructed of a small rectangular strip of ME material thatis coated with a biomolecular recognition element (phage, antibodies orproteins, etc.) that is specific to the target pathogen. This mass-sensitive ME
biosensor is wirelessly actuated into mechanical resonance by an externallyapplied time-varying magnetic field. When the biosensor binds withtarget bacteria, the mass of the sensor increases, resulting in a decreasein the sensor’s resonant frequency. In order to compensate for nonspecificbinding, control biosensors without phage were used in this experiment.
In previous research, the biosensors were measured one by one. However,the simultaneous measurement of multiple sensors was accomplishedin this research, and promises to greatly shorten the analysis time forbacterial detection. Additionally, the use of multiple biosensors enables thepossibility of simultaneous detection of different pathogenic bacteria. This
paper presents results of experiments in which multiple phage-based ME
biosensors were simultaneously monitored. The E2 phage and JRB7 phagefrom a landscape phage library served as the bio-recognition element thathave the capability of binding specifically with Salmonella Typhimurium andB. anthracis spores, respectively. Real-time in-situ detection of Salmonella
Typhimurium and B. anthracis spores on food surfaces are presented forvarious pathogen concentrations.

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-5, Session 1

Univ. (United States)

Application of a LED-based reflectancesensor for the assessing in situ
the lycopene content of tomatoes(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

Inspired by advanced nanofabrication techniques, rationally designed
optical sensors have gained tremendous research interest in recent years.
Although unprecedented sensitivity, repeatability and specificity havebeen achieved, many of these rationally designed optical sensors are
manufactured using cost-prohibitive, top-down nanofabrication techniques,
which are not feasible for frequent spot inspection of food safety anddrinking water monitoring. Diatoms are photosynthetic micro-organismsthat create their own skeletal shells of hydrated amorphous silica, called
frustules, which naturally possess hierarchical micro- & nano-scale featuresthat are extremely cumbersome and expensive to duplicate by top-down
fabrication techniques. These diatom nanostructures are readily and cheaply
obtained by cultivation of diatom cells, followed by isolation of the diatom
frustules through conventional chemical separation techniques. In this paper,
we report that a hybrid biological-plasmonic nanostructure, i.e. the diatom
frustule and the self-assembled nanoparticles, can obtain label-free surfaceenhanced Raman scattering (SERS) sensing with ultra-high sensitivity.
The ultra-high sensitivity of the bioenabled nanophotonic sensors comesfrom the coupling between the diatom frustules and Ag nanoparticles toachieve dramatically increased local optical field to enhance the lightmatter interactions for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) sensing.
We successfully applied the bioenabled nano-photonic sensors to detect
melamine in milk and aromatic compounds in water with sensitivity down
to 1?g/L. We also proved that the bioenabled nanophotonic sensors can beused with commercially available portable Raman spectrometers, which
will provide a cost-effective in-situ sensing technique for food safety anddrinking water monitoring.

Anna G. Mignani, Leonardo Ciaccheri, Andrea A.
Mencaglia, Lorenza Tuccio, Giovanni Agati, Istituto di Fisica
Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy)
Non-destructive in situ determination of the antioxidant lycopene of
fresh tomato fruits is of large interest for the growers, willing to optimize
the harvest time for high quality products. For this, we developed a new
LED-based sensor able to measure directional reflectance spectra of wholetomatoes in the 400-700 nm range. As comparison, total reflectancespectra of the same fruits were also recorded by using an integrated sphereconnected to a bench spectrophotometer. The tomato skins from thevery same samples were then frozen in liquid nitrogen, extracted with anacetone/ethanol/hexane mixture and spectrophotometrically analyzed fortheir lycopene content. Concentration of lycopene was varying between
0.07 and 0.55 mg/g fresh weight skin. Partial Least Squares Regression(PLSR) was used to correlate spectral data to the tomato lycopene content.
The PLSR analysis of directional reflectance showed that lycopene content
could be nicely predicted with a coefficient of determination R2=0.945
and a root mean square error of cross-validation RMSECV=0.057 mg/g.
Similar results were obtained for the PLSR analysis of total reflectance data
R2=0850, and RMSECV=0.044 mg/g. Our results suggest that portable, lowcost and compact LED-based sensors appear to be promising instruments
for the non-destructive assessment of tomato lycopene even in the field.

9488-8, Session 2

Optimization of phage-basedmagnetoelastic biosensor to detectsalmonella on bird feces contaminatedleafy green vegetables

9488-6, Session 1

Detection of salmonella of globe fruits
using pulse excited magnetoelastic
biosensors

Jing Dai, Auburn Univ. (United States); Jiajia Hu,
Changzhou Univ. (China); Yating Chai, Shin Horikawa,
Bryan A. Chin, Auburn Univ. (United States)

Howard C. Wikle III, Songtao Du, Bryan A. Chin, AuburnUniv. (United States)

The outbreak of foodborne diseases caused by bacteria, such as O157:H7
E. coli and Salmonella has become a great concern in food safety[1]. The
consumption of foodborne bacteria contaminated vegetables is one of thecauses of foodborne disease. Vegetables can be contaminated by animal
manure, for example, bird feces. Bird feces contain Salmonella which isa pathogen that lives in the intestines of the infected birds and is shedthrough feces. Bird could fly over or land on leafy green vegetables, suchas spinach, iceberg lettuce and cabbage, leading to the potential bird feces
contamination. Recently, USFDA found that the outbreak of Salmonellain peanut butter may be linked to the exposure of bird feces to the raw,
unshelled peanuts that were stored outdoors where birds were observed
flying over and landing on the in-shell peanuts[2]. Even though water
washing can remove feces and reduce bacterial contamination, it is still
difficult to eliminate bacteria at all. Therefore, detection Salmonella in bird
feces contaminated leafy green vegetables is required. The phage-basedmagnetoelastic biosensor has been developed to detect Salmonella on foodsurface [3, 4]. In the present work, we optimized the current phage-basedmagnetoelastic biosensors to detect Salmonella on bird feces contaminatedvegetables. Several parameters influencing the effectiveness of detection
were optimized, such as, incubation time and blocking agent concentration.
A protocol was developed to visualize Salmonella on biosensor surface
to correlate the resonance frequency measurement of biosensors. Ourdetection protocol could contribute to screening the leafy green vegetables
after harvesting to reduce effort and cost.

This paper describes the results of a research project to investigate
magnetoelastic (ME) biosensors actuated with a pulse excitation tomeasure the concentration of Salmonella Typhimurium of globe fruits. The
ME biosensors are based on an acoustic wave resonator platform that isa freestanding (free-free) thin ribbon of magnetostrictive material with alength-to-width ratio of 5:1. A biorecognition probe coated on the surfaceof the resonator platform binds with a targeted pathogen, i.e. E2 phagethat binds with S. Typhimurium. The biosensor was actuated to vibrate
longitudinally such that the resonant frequency depended primarily on thelength of sensor and its overall mass. A pulsed excitation and measurement
system was used to actuate micron scale ME biosensors to vibrate. The
biosensor responds in a ring-down manner, a damped decay of theresonance amplitude, from which the resonant frequency was measured.
An increase in mass due to the binding of the target pathogen resulted ina decrease in the resonant frequency. The mass of the captured Salmonella
was determined from the difference in the vibration frequency before andafter exposure to the pathogen. The pulsed excitation and measurement
system that was developed under this effort and the characterization of its
performance on the measurement of Salmonella concentrations on globe
fruits is described.

9488-7, Session 2

Bioenabled nanophotonic sensors for foodsafety and drinking water monitoring
Alan X. Wang, Jing Yang, Gregory L. Rorrer, Oregon State

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353

Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-9, Session 2

This detection technique appears to have the potential to mitigate 4 of the
primary factors limiting the effectiveness of current detection strategies:(1) poor contact statistics between the sensor platform and target – which
impacts detection time, (2) sample preparation – which is required toconcentrate or remove pathogens from the sample and/or remove or reduce
interferents, (3) non-specific binding – which significantly reduces sensitivity
and selectivity of the detection method, and (4) ease and cost of use – mostend users will not have PhDs or a high level of training. Our results haveidentified an ideal concentration of magnetic nanoparticles that imparts
the highest sensitivity to changes in particle distribution. We have also
discovered that increasing the concentration of particles actually reduces
the sensitivity of the technique by as much as a two orders of magnitude

Electronic nose fabricated fromnanocomposite oxides for agriculture
applications
Dong-Joo Kim, Hyejin Park, Eunji Lee, Yoonsung Chung,
Seok Hee Lee, Auburn Univ. (United States); Hosang
Ahn, Korea Institute of Construction Technology (Korea,
Republic of); Young Soo Yoon, Gachon Univ. (Korea,
Republic of)
Off-odor detection in foods, packaging materials, and their interactions
involving scalping or other flavor system modification can be a serious
issue since off-odors or flavors have become more than a quality issue with
the increased awareness of food safety problems. Since plants and trees
normally release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as a byproduct ofeveryday physiological processes, monitoring of the specific VOCs and thequantities released can provide the information on both the crop and field
conditions. The electronic nose generally consists of an array of gas sensors
with a broad and partly overlapping selectivity and an electronic patternrecognition system with multivariate statistical data processing tools. In thisstudy, a microfabricated electronic nose system is investigated to hybridnanostructured metal oxide based on ZnO, SnOx and graphene oxide, andtheir composite film segmented by a series of electrodes to create a highdensity of sensing array in a small size chip. The novelty of the proposed
microarray is based on the formation of a composite structure by spatially
gradient composition and/or microstructure through sensing layers where
each wire-type electrode induces its unique response pattern. Such adesign can meet the requirements for low-cost and high-volume production
in combination with high gas analytical performance. The results on thegrowth of the nanostructured films using solution process are presented.
Sensing properties of the devices are also discussed in terms of sensitivity,
selectivity and response rate.

9488-11, Session 2

A biosensor based on magnetic resonancerelaxation
MariAnne Sullivan, Barton C. Prorok, Auburn Univ. (UnitedStates)Conventional culture and susceptibility tests continue to remain the “goldstandard” for identifying pathogens in clinical and other settings. Many
new pathogen detection approaches have aimed at replacing this standard
by providing more rapid, more accurate and less expensive detection.
Very promising techniques such as PCR, surface enhanced Raman, andothers have proven adept at pathogen detection, but end users have
not warmed up to their expense, extensive sample preparation and skill
set necessary to perform them. The field continues to search for a rapid,
sensitive, and specific detection technology that is cost-effective and easy
to use. This work describes a biosensor based on magnetic resonancerelaxation switching. The method leverages a large body of work involving
nanoscale contrast agents employed in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
imaging. The aim was to develop a detection approach that mimics thehuman immune response to an invading pathogen, the release of 109 to
1012 specific antigens to guarantee quick contact with the pathogen. The
technique employs magnetic nanoparticle contrast agents conjugatedwith specific capture agents to achieve a similar contact goal. Detectionof the species involves monitoring the average relaxation time (T2) ofwater protons in the solution, which is highly sensitive to the concentrationand distribution of the magnetic nanoparticles present. With multiple
nanoparticles attaching to each individual target species their distribution
will be altered, and correspondingly, the average proton relaxation time willchange. Although, this method leverages well established principles of NMR
imaging, this measurement can be accomplished with a simple
hand-held relaxometer.

354

SPIE DSS 2015·

9488-12, Session 2

Nature-inspired magnetoelastic
biosentinels for the detection ofpathogenic bacteria in stagnant liquids
Shin Horikawa, Yating Chai, Howard C. Wikle III, Jing Dai,
Jiajia Hu, Auburn Univ. (United States); Sang-Jin Suh,
Auburn Univ (United States); Bryan A. Chin, Auburn Univ.
(United States)
This paper presents an investigation into magnetoelastic (ME) biosentinels
that seek out, capture, and detect target pathogens in stagnant liquids. The
biosentinels are designed to mimic a variety of white blood cell types, themain defensive mechanism in the human body against different pathogenic
invaders. These nature-inspired biosentinels are composed of an ME
resonator coated with a landscape phage that binds specifically with thepathogen of interest. When subjected to an externally applied time-varying
magnetic field, the biosentinels can be placed into mechanical resonance(i.e., bending or longitudinal mode of vibration) by magnetostriction. The
resonating biosentinels can then move autonomously through a liquid
due to the net acting force and fluid-structure interactions. As soon as thebiosentinels find and bind with the target pathogens, changes in the mass
as well as resonant frequency of the biosentinels occur, and thereby thepresence of the target pathogen can be detected. The resonance frequencychanges were measured wirelessly with a designed electromagnetic coilconnected to a network analyzer that operates in the reflection mode. As
an initial model study, detection of Bacillus anthracis spores (Stern strain),a Category A bioterrorism agent, under stagnant flow conditions wasinvestigated. This investigation will advance the fundamental scientifictheories describing the operation of biosentinels and have broad societal
impact by improving human health through earlier detection of pathogens.
Potential short-term applications include the capture and detection ofpathogenic bacteria in liquid food products such as juices and milk.

9488-10, Session PTue

The blocking reagent optimization for themagnetoelastic biosensor
Jiajia Hu, Changzhou Univ. (China) and Auburn Univ.
(United States); Yating Chai, Shin Horikawa, Auburn Univ.
(United States); Howard C. Wikle, Auburn University(United States); Feng’en Wang, Institute of Quality
Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-products,
Shandong Academy of Agricultur (China); Songtao Du,
Auburn University (United States); Bryan A. Chin, AuburnUniv. (United States); Jing Hu, Changzhou Univ. (China)
Wireless phage-based magnetoelastic (ME) biosensors have proven to
be promising for real-time detection of pathogenic bacteria on fresh
produce. These biosensors consist of a freestanding ME resonator as thesignal transducer and engineered phage as the biomolecular-recognition
element that binds specifically with the pathogen of interest. Due to thewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII
and a self-developed Raman system. Residual pesticides in fruits andvegetables have become one of the major food safety concerns around theworld. At present, routine analytical methods used for the determinationof pesticide residue on the surface of fruits and vegetables are destructive,complex, time-consuming, high cost and not environmentally friendly. SERS
technology is a combination of Raman spectroscopy and nanotechnology.
SERS can greatly enhance the Raman signal intensity, achieve singlemolecule detection, and has a simple sample pre-treatment characteristicof high sensitivity and no damage; in recent years it has begun to be usedin food safety testing research. In this study a rapid and sensitive method
was developed to identify and analyze mixed pesticides of chlorpyrifos,
deltamethrin and acetamiprid in apple samples by SERS. Silver colloid wasused for SERS measurement by hydroxylamine hydrochloride reduced.
The advantages of this method are seen in its fast preparation at room
temperature, good reproducibility and immediate applicability. Raman
spectrum is highly interfered by noise signals and fluorescence background,which make it too complex to get good result. In this study the noise signals
and fluorescence background were removed by Savitzky-Golay filter andmin-max signal adaptive zooming method. Under optimal conditions,pesticide residues in apple samples can be detected by SERS at the level ofparts per million for individual chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin and acetamiprid,
respectively. Most of these detection limits meet the maximum residue limits
established by Chinese Standard. When mixing the three pesticides at low
concentrations, their characteristic peaks can still be identified from the
SERS spectrum of the mixture. Based on the synthesized material and its
application in SERS operation, the method represents an ultrasensitive SERS
performance in apple samples detection without sample pre-treatment,
which indicates that it could be served as a useful means in monitoring
pesticide residues.

Joule magnetostriction effect, the biosensors can be placed into mechanicalresonance when subjected to a time-varying magnetic field alternating
at the right frequency. Upon the attachment of the target pathogen, themass of the biosensor increases, thereby decreasing its resonant frequency.
This paper presents results from an investigation to detect Salmonella
typhimurium mixed with feces on apple surface using phage-based ME
biosensors. The Salmonella typhimurium detection was conducted using
a surface-scanning coil detector by wirelessly monitoring changes in theresonant frequency of the biosensors in real time (up to 30 min) in a humid
environment. The frequency shift was conducted by a surface-scanning coildetector, and the surface image after Salmonella typhimurium binding wasobserved by optical microscope and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
The results showed that the frequency shifts are closely related to theconcentration of Salmonella typhimurium and feces, and the surface images
confirmed the binding of Salmonella typhimurium, and thus resulting in thefrequency shifts. This work demonstrates the detection of live bacteria on
fresh produce.

9488-26, Session PTue

Rapid detection of foodborne pathogens
in pork meat by surface-enhanced Raman
scattering
Feifei Tao, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China)
Microbial hazard is one of the major challenges to meat safety, and rapid
identification and detection methods for foodborne pathogens are urgently
needed in meat industry at present. The objectives of this study were to
explore the capabilities of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) for
rapid identification and quantification of foodborne pathogens in pork meat.
The SERS signals of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S.
aureus) were obtained respectively on novel gold nanoparticle covered SiO2
substrates excited at 785 nm by the lab set-up Raman spectral system, overthe Raman shift between 400 and 2000 cm-1. The spectral preprocessing
methods of fluorescence background removal and Savitzky-Golay
smoothing were conducted on their original SERS signals, and the Raman
fingerprints were determined for E. coli and S. aureus respectively. In thisstudy, pork meat samples with different loads of E. coli and S. aureus wereartificially prepared, and three groups of pork meat samples contaminatedby E. coli, S. aureus and the mixture of E. coli and S. aureus respectively
were used for SERS spectra acquisition and reference microbiologicalanalyses. The determined Raman fingerprints of E. coli and S. aureus fromtheir respective suspensions were further used to analyze the bacterial
contamination in pork meat samples. Soft Independent Modeling of Class
Analogies (SIMCA) and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) methods
were performed to identify the contaminated bacteria types, and quantify
the corresponding bacteria numbers in pork meat samples respectively.
Based on SERS technique and the gold nanoparticles applied, the detecting
limits of E. coli and S. aureus were also discussed in this study. The obtained
results shown in this article demonstrate that SERS has great potentials for
rapid identification and quantification of foodborne pathogens in pork meat,and hopefully to become a powerful tool for rapid detection of foodborne
pathogens in meat industry.

9488-28, Session PTue

Rapid detection of benzoyl peroxide inwheat flour by using Raman scattering
spectroscopy
Juan Zhao, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China);
Kuanglin Chao, Jianwei Qin, Agricultural Research Service(United States); Sagar Dhakal, China Agricultural Univ.
(China); Tianfeng Xu, CAU (China)
Benzoyl peroxide is a common flour that improves the whiteness of flour
and the storage properties of flour products. However, benzoyl peroxide
adversely affects the nutritional content of flour, and excess consumption
causes nausea, dizziness, other poisoning, and serious liver damage. This
study was focus on detection of the benzoyl peroxide added in wheat flour.
Raman scattering spectroscopy system was used to acquire spectral signal
from sample data and identify benzoyl peroxide based on Raman specral
peak position. The optical devices consisted of Raman spectrometer and
CCD camera, 785 nm laser, optical fiber, prober, and a translation stage
to develop a real-time, non-destructive detection system. Pure flour, purebenzoyl peroxide and different concentrations of benzoyl peroxide mixed
with flour were prepared as three sets samples to measure the Raman
spectrum. These samples were placed in the same type of petri dish to
maintian a fixed distance between the Raman CCD and petri dish during
spectral collection. The mixed samples were worked by pretreatment ofhomogenization and collected multiple sets of data of each mixture. The
exposure time of this experiment was set at 0.5s. The Savitzky Golay (SG)algorithm and polynomial curve-fitting method was applied to remove thefluorescence background from the Raman spectrum. The Raman spectral
peaks at 890 cm-1, 1001 cm-1, 1234 cm-1, 1603cm-1, 1777cm-1 were identified
as the Raman fignerprint of benzoyl peroxide. Based on the relationshipbetween the Raman intensity of the most prominent peak at around 1001
cm-1 and log values of benzoyl peroxide concentrations, the chemical
concentration prediciton model was developed. This research demonstrated
that Raman detection system could effectively and rapidly identify benzoyl
peroxide adulteration in wheat flour. The experimental result is promisingand the system with further modification can be applicable for moreproducts in near future.

9488-27, Session PTue

Research on identification anddetermination of mixed pesticides inapples using surface enhanced Raman
spectroscopy
Chen Zhai, Yongyu Li, Yankun Peng, Tianfeng Xu, Sagar
Dhakal, China Agricultural Univ. (China); Kuanglin Chao,
Jianwei Qin, USDA-ARS (United States)
A novel Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) method for fastand sensitive nondestructive detection was developed using silver colloid

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355

Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-29, Session PTue

9488-31, Session PTue

Nondestructive detection of pork quality
based on dual-band VIS/NIR spectroscopy

Rapid detection of salmonella
typhimurium through improvements tomagnetoelastic biosensors

Wenxiu Wang, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ.
(China); Yongyu Li, Xiuying Tang, CAU (China); Yuanyuan
Liu, China Agricultural Univ. (China)
With the continuous development of living standards and the relativechange of dietary structure, consumers’ rising and persistent demandfor better quality of meat is emphasized. Colour, pH value, tenderness,water-holding capacity (WHC) and water content are important quality
attributes when evaluating meat. To realize nondestructive detection ofmulti-parameter of meat quality simultaneously is popular in production
and processing of meat and meat products. The objectives of this researchwere to extract effective spectral information from two-band spectrum for
rapid nondestructive and simultaneous detection of pork quality attributes.
Reflectance spectra of 60 chilled pork samples were collected from a dualband visible/near-infrared spectroscopy system which covered 400-1100
nm and 1000-2500 nm. Then colour, pH value, tenderness, WHC and watercontent were determined by standard method as reference value. Fourier
filtering and standard normal variables transform (SNVT) were employed
to eliminate the spectral noise. A spectrum connection method was put
forward for effective integration of the dual-band spectrum to make full useof the whole efficient information. Partial least squares regression (PLSR)
was applied to establish prediction models using full spectral informationand extracted efficient variables based on single-band spectrum and dualband spectrum, respectively. The experimental results showed that themodel based on dual-band spectral information was superior to the models
based on single band spectral information with lower root mean squareerror (RMSE) and higher accuracy. This mainly because dual-band spectrum
can provide sufficient and comprehensive information which reflected thequality attributes. Data fusion from dual-band spectrum could significantly
improve pork quality parameters prediction performance. The researchalso indicated that multi-band spectral information fusion had potential tocomprehensively evaluate other quality and safety attributes of pork.

Depth of penetration of a 785-nm
wavelength laser in milk powder

9488-32, Session PTue

Jiajia Hu, Changzhou Univ. (China) and Auburn Univ.
(United States); Yating Chai, Shin Horikawa, Auburn Univ.
(United States); Howard C. Wikle, Auburn University(United States); Feng’en Wang, Institute of Quality
Standard & Testing Technology for Agro-products (China);
Songtao Du, Auburn University (United States); Bryan A.
Chin, Auburn Univ. (United States); Jing Hu, Changzhou
Univ. (China)

Kuanglin Chao, Sagar Dhakal, Jianwei Qin, Moon S. Kim,
Agricultural Research Service (United States); Yankun
Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China); Walter F. Schmidt,
Agricultural Research Service (United States)
Raman spectroscopy is a useful, rapid, and non-destructive method forboth qualitative and quantitative evaluation of chemical composition.
Raman-based detection of contaminants in dry powder samples such as
milk powder can be performed, but the penetration depth of the laser into
the sample material is an important factor to ensure effective contaminantdetection. The aim of this study was to investigate the penetration depthof a 785-nm laser (585-mw) into a sample of dry milk powder. Milk powder
samples were prepared on a teflon slab with sample depths ranging from 1
mm to 10 mm, in increments of 1 mm. Known to exhibit identifiable Ramanpeaks, the teflon was used as a subsurface reference material. Analysis of
the sample spectra for characteristics of teflon and characteristics of milk
allowed for determination of the effective penetration depth of the laser
light in the samples.

SPIE DSS 2015

A standard label-free biosensor is composed of molecular recognition
probes immobilized on a sensor platform. While the sensitivity and easeof measurement are characteristics of the sensor platform, selectivity
and avidity are properties of the molecular probe. Magnetoelastic (ME)biosensors composed of phage-displayed peptide probes and ME particles
have shown significant promise for their sensitivity, cost effectiveness, anduser-friendliness. We previously developed methods for enhanced isolationof highly selective phage-displayed oligopeptide probes and stable affinityimmobilization of the probes on ME platforms. Using these methods, we
isolated highly selective Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium probesthat do not bind to other serovars of pathogenic Salmonella, tagged themwith Strep II tag for affinity immobilization, and immobilized them on a
streptavidin coated 0.03 mm x 0.4 mm x 2 mm ME platform. We determinedthat the linear limits of detection for our biosensor were from 102 to 106
cells. Our biosensor was highly selective for detection of S. Typhimurium
and did not react with E. coli O157:H7, S. Enteritidis, or S. Newport. When
compared to the biosensor coated with the E2 landscape phage probethat had been previously utilized for detection of S. Typhimurium, ourbiosensor demonstrated higher sensitivity at bacteria concentrations up
to 106 cells. Our results validated our previous approaches to improve theprobe aspect of the ME biosensors. Although we demonstrated the efficacyof our approach for rapid detection of S. Typhimurium, our techniques canbe easily adapted for detection of any organism including foodborne andagriculturally important bacterial pathogens.

The blocking reagent optimization for themagnetoelastic biosensor

9488-30, Session PTue

356

Zhou Tong, Shin Horikawa, Bryan A. Chin, Auburn Univ.
(United States); Laura A. Silo-Suh, Mercer Univ. (UnitedStates); Sang-Jin Suh, Auburn Univ. (United States)

A biosensor essentially consists of two main components viz., a physicaltransducer and a biorecognition element. A magnetostrictive platform
can serve as the transducer, since it offers wireless or remote detection, a
unique advantage over conventional sensor platforms. Filamentous phagecan be used as the biorecognition element due to its ability to bind bacteriawith high specificity and selectivity. For all practical applications, it is very
essential for both major components to be robust enough to withstandthe rigors of conditions encountered in the field. Unfortunately, it has
been found that corrosion of the surface of the magnetostrictive material
can occur. In this study, fundamental research was conducted to identify
possible factors leading to the corrosion of magnetostrictive biosensors.
The effect of different buffer solutions (Distilled water, TBS and PBS),
exposure time, BSA blocking agent, dissolved oxygen content and pH on
the corrosion behavior of magnetostrictive biosensors are presented anddiscussed in this paper.

·

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-33, Session PTue

(Korea, Republic of); Moon S. Kim, Agricultural ResearchService (United States); Giyoung Kim, Jongguk Lim,
National Academy of Agricultural Science (Korea, Republicof); Eunju Cheong, Jinyoung Barnaby, Agricultural
Research Service (United States); Hyun-jeong Cho, NAQS
(Korea, Republic of)

Determination of the optimal analyticalconditions for quickly detecting feces
to cause contamination of potential
pathogens in the field of agriculture using
hyperspectral imaging

Soybean growth is affected by unfavorable environmental factors suchas drought, extreme temperatures, and nutrient deficiency. This study
investigated a nondestructive method for monitoring drought stress effectof soybean plants seeds based on hyperspectral fluorescence imaging.
Drought stress was imposed on soybean plants during 15 days. The
fluorescence spectra of soybean leaves in the range from 464 to 800 nm
were extracted from hyperspectral fluorescence images obtained using
violet LED excitation of 405 nm. Optimal combination of multispectral
images for the measurement of drought stress of soybean plants was
examined. Soybean plants with drought stress over six days and with
non-drought stress were classified. The results demonstrate fluorescenceimaging technology based on violet LED has the potential to monitor thewater deficient conditions of soybean plants.

Hyunjeong Cho, Sungyoun Kim, Dongho Kim, Byuncheon
Kim, Byunglim Cho, NAQS (Korea, Republic of)
As the interest of the consumers about the food quality and safety is
growing and the outbreak caused by pathogenic microorganism has been
emerged as an international trade issue, to ensure food safety for potential
pathogens has been expanding in importance. Contamination by pathogenic
microorganism is different from agricultural chemicals artificially imposedsuch as pesticides and contaminated through potential various paths, andmay lead to serious outbreak when contaminated agricultural produce areplaced at inappropriate temperature and potential pathogens are growing.
Pathogenic microbial contamination of agricultural products are known
to be introduced through the various paths. It has been considered ofintroduced pathway that Contaminated irrigation water, the use of manure
amended with pathogenic microorganisms, or unhygienic administrationin harvest.

9488-36, Session PTue

Multispectral imaging for browningdetection of fresh-cut lettuce

In this study, using a hyperspectral imaging system that are being developed
to ensure food quality and safety and available to discriminate the desired
products from other unwanted materials, the optimal analytical conditions
for quickly detecting feces to cause contamination of potential pathogens
was established in the field of agriculture and harvest. Also they was
introduced to potable hand -held equipment. In the future, this equipment is
expected to evaluate through application studies in agricultural field.

Changyeun Mo, Giyoung Kim, Jongguk Lim, National
Academy of Agricultural Science (Korea, Republic of);
Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea,
Republic of); Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service(United States)

9488-34, Session PTue

Lettuce accounts for the largest portion of fresh-cut agricultural products
in South Korea. The complete removal of browning on lettuce during
the cleaning process is difficult. Defects on lettuce such as browning are
required to be screened before the cleaning process. In this study, a rapid
detection method of browning on lettuce was developed using multispectral
imaging technique. Reflectance spectra of lettuce in the range from 400
to 1000 nm range were collected from hyperspectral reflectance images
obtained using blue, green, and red LED illumination. Multispectral imaging
algorithms were developed to discriminate sound and browning portionon lettuces. Multispectral algorithm can potentially be useful for the defectdetection of fresh-cut lettuce.

Development of a quality monitoring
method for Korean traditional ricewine ‘makgeolli’ using near-infrared
spectroscopy
Dae Yong Kim, Kyungdo Kwon, Byoung-Kwan Cho,
Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
A rapid nondestructive measurement method was developed to evaluate
the quality of Korean traditional rice wine, Makgeolli using Fourier transform
Near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopy. The best PLSR model was developed
for monitoring the quality of Makgeolli such as ethanol, reducing sugar
and total acidity, respectively. The best calibration model for ethanol
amount was achieved with the maximum of normalization. The coefficientof determination of prediction (R2) and standard error of prediction (SEP)of ethanol amount were 0.973 and 0.760%. In the reducing sugar amount,the best calibration model was achieved with raw data. The coefficientof determination of prediction and SEP were 0.962 and 0.729%. The best
calibration model for total acidity was indicated by mean of normalization.
The coefficient of determination of prediction and SEP of total acidity were0.939 and 0.037%. The feasibility of the system and developed PLSR models
might be able to replace the conventional quality monitoring methodsof Makgeolli, which have been dependent on the experience of the field
experts and expensive and time-consuming laboratory equipment.

9488-37, Session PTue

Hyperspectral imaging for contaminantdetection in starch
Min Huang, Jiangnan Univ. (China) and Agricultural
Research Service (United States); Moon S. Kim, Kuanglin
Chao, Jianwei Qin, Agricultural Research Service (UnitedStates); Qibing Zhu, Jiangnan Univ. (China)
As an industrial adhesive, maleic anhydride was not approved for use infood, but food starch in night markets sold from a supplier in Tainan city,
Taiwan, were found to contain maleic anhydride in December, 2013. This
study was aimed at exploring the feasibility of maleic anhydride detection
using NIR hyperspectral imaging for food starch. Hyperspectral reflectanceimages from 937.5 nm -1653.7 nm were captured. Following image
preprocessing (normalization and background removal), the spectrumof each pixel in the sample images was classified by band ratio method.
Chemical images were created for the distribution of maleic anhydride
particles within images of starch mixture samples that were preparedwith different concentrations (5%, 1%, 0.5%). The study demonstrated
that hyperspectral imaging technique was an effective method for maleic
anhydride adulteration detection in food starch.

9488-35, Session PTue

Hyperspectral fluorescence imaging
with violet LED excitation for monitoring
drought stress effect on soybean plants
Changyeun Mo, National Academy of Agricultural Science

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-38, Session PTue

9488-13, Session 3

Production of an innovative fertilizer fromorganic waste: process monitoring by
hyperspectral imaging

Second derivative analyses of temperaturedependent Raman spectroscopy

Silvia Serranti, Giuseppe Bonifazi, Andrea Fabbri, Univ.
degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza (Italy); Alice Dall’Ara,
ENEA (Italy); Carlos Garcia Izquierdo, CEBAS-CSIC (Spain)
The European directive 2008/98/CE establishes a legal framework forthe treatment of waste within the Community. It aims at protecting theenvironment and human health through the prevention of the harmful
effects of waste generation and waste management. In order to better
protect the environment, the Member States should adopt measures for thetreatment of their waste according to a hierarchy as outlined: prevention,
preparing for reuse, recycling, energy recovery, disposal.
In this context, the European project LIFE12 ENV/IT/000356 “RESAFE” isaddressed to produce and utilize a new class of fertilizers characterized
by reduced salinity in order to substitute chemical and mineral fertilizers
through a technological route based on Urban Organic Waste (UOW), Farm
Organic Residues (FOR), Bio-Chars (BC) and Vegetable Active Principles(VAP) processing. Following this approach, it will be possible for farmers
and urban waste managers to reduce costs and to obtain environmental
and economic incomes. Furthermore, environmental impacts will be also
reduced contributing to decrease the greenhouse emissions from landfills
and from the production of mineral fertilizers.

Walter F. Schmidt, Leigh Broadhurst, Jianwei Qin, Kuanglin
Chao, Daniel Shelton, Moon S. Kim, Agricultural ResearchService (United States)
No Abstract Available

9488-14, Session 3

Dry mixture preparation by resonant
acoustic mixing for Raman-spectroscopybased contaminant detection
Sagar Dhakal, Kuanglin Chao, Jianwei Qin, Moon S. Kim,
Agricultural Research Service (United States)

In this paper, specific innovative sensing architectures, based onHyperSpectral Imaging (HSI) devices working in the near infrared (NIR)
range, and related detection architectures, is presented and discussed
in order to define and apply smart detection engines to follow thetransformations of the complex material, resulting from UOW, FOR, BC andVAP based recipes during the different stages of the fertilizer production
process. Results show as the fertilizer production process can be monitored
adopting the NIR-HSI approach.

Developing non-destructive ingredient authentication and screening
methods using Raman spectroscopy for food safety inspection requires
the preparation of sample mixtures of food materials that containcontaminants at low concentrations. The experiments require the sample
mixtures to have extremely high degrees of uniformity in order to effectively
develop methods for the contaminant detection levels targeted. In thisstudy, dicyandiamide was mixed into dry milk powder at concentrations(w/w) between 0.05% and 1.0%. Resonant acoustic mixing technology
was used to produce samples of extremely high uniformity in mixture
composition. Analysis of the Raman spectra from the sample mixtures
showed linear relationships between the Raman intensities and the chemical
concentrations. The method and procedures of this study form a basis
for the future development of Raman spectroscopy-based quantitativeevaluation protocols for detection of contaminants in food ingredients.

9488-47, Session PTue

9488-15, Session 3

Prediction of soluble solids content spatial
distribution in apple using hyperspectral
imaging and variable selection algorithms

Screening of adulterants in powderedfoods and ingredients using line-scan
Raman chemical imaging

Wenqian Huang, Liping Chen, Jiangbo Li, Zhiming Guo,
National Research Ctr. of Intelligent Equipment for
Agriculture (China)

Jianwei Qin, Kuanglin Chao, Moon S. Kim, Agricultural
Research Service (United States)

Today, determination of soluble solids content in apple based on
hyperspectral imaging is slow for the long acquisition time of hyperspectral
images. Therefore it is important to select effective wavelengths from thehyperspectral images to decrease the acquisition time. In this study, antcolony optimization (ACO) and successive projections algorithm (SPA) wereused for extracting effective wavelengths from 769 wavelengths of 400~1000 nm hyperspectral images of ‘Fuji’ apples. A total of 160 samples wereprepared for the calibration (n=120) and prediction (n=40) sets. Based on
the 46 and 40 effective wavelengths selected by ACO and SPA respectively,
different models were built and compared for predicting soluble solids
content (SSC) in apple using partial least squares (PLS) and multiple
linear regression (MLR). Within all the models, the SPA-MLR achieved thebest results, where , RMSEP and RPD were 0.9434, 0.3322 and 4.2033
respectively. However, , and of the ACO-MLR model were 0.8046, 0.6921
and 2.2622 respectively, which was not a good results compared with theseof the PLS model based on 769 wavelengths. Results showed that ACO andSPA can be used for selecting the effective wavelengths from hyperspectral
images. SPA-MLR is an optimal modeling method for prediction of SSC in
apple and has a great potential for on-line detection of SSC in apple. The
soluble solids content spatial distribution on apples was determined at thesame time.

358

SPIE DSS 2015·

Powdered foods and ingredients are widely consumed by final consumers
and extensively used as basic materials for food productions in various
food industries. Economically motivated adulteration and fraud are
emerging food safety risks that threaten the health of the general public.
The capacity for rapid and accurate authentication of the powdered foods
and ingredients is an important part of food safety programs. In this study,
a newly developed line-scan macro-scale Raman chemical imaging system
was used to realize high-throughput screening of adulterants and illegal
additives mixed in the powdered foods and ingredients. The system utilizes
a 785 nm line laser to project a 24 cm long excitation line on the sample
surface. A detection module consisting of a dispersive imaging spectrographand a CCD camera is used to acquire Raman scattering signals along thelaser line. Hyperspectral Raman image data is accumulated line by line as a
motorized table moves the samples transversely through the laser line. The
system was used to collect Raman images from representative powderedfoods and ingredients (e.g., dry milk, flour, and starch) mixed with selected
adulterants and illegal additives (e.g., melamine, azodicarbonamide, andmaleic anhydride) at different concentration levels. Raman spectral andimage processing algorithms were developed to visualize the adulterant andadditive particles in the food powders.

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-16, Session 3

reconstructed hyperspectral curves will be evaluated over the wavelength
range from 400 to 700 nm and the five individual wavelengths (517,565, 580, 600 and 620 nm ), identified for the systemic disease andfecal material detection applications. The performance of detection withreconstructed hyperspectral images will be also evaluated.

Shifted excitation Raman difference
spectroscopy: a potential tool for outdoor
measurements in precision agriculture
Martin Maiwald, André Müller, Ferdinand-Braun-Institut(Germany); Jörn Selbeck, Jana Käthner, Manuela Zude,
Leibniz-Institut für Agrartechnik Potsdam-Bornim e.V.
(Germany); Dominique Fleury, Univ. of Applied Sciences
at Changins (Switzerland); Bernd Sumpf, Götz Erbert,
Günther Tränkle, Ferdinand-Braun-Institut (Germany)

9488-18, Session 4

Chemometric analysis for near-infrared
spectral detection of beef in fish meal
Chun-Chieh Yang, Agricultural Research Service (UnitedStates); Cristóbal Garrido-Novell, Dolores Pérez-Marín,
José E. Guerrero-Ginel, Ana Garrido-Varo, Univ. deCórdoba (Spain); Moon S. Kim, Agricultural ResearchService (United States)

The development of compact excitation light sources such as diode lasers
and miniaturized spectrometers brought Raman spectroscopy out of thelab and enables application fields such as the in situ detection of explosives,
point-of-care diagnostics, and food analysis. The latter becomes more andmore important in precision agriculture. Here, the monitoring of fruit quality,
moisture needs, and plant health are only a few aspects. However, outdoor
measurements in the field have additional challenges. Autofluorescence of
biological samples and impurities on peel surfaces can mask the Raman
signals. Moreover, daylight with its broad background signal and additional
narrow lines can significantly complicate the detection and the analysis of
weak Raman signals. Shifted Excitation Raman Difference Spectroscopy(SERDS) is a powerful spectroscopic tool for efficient separation of Raman
signals from background interference.

This paper reports the chemometric analysis of near-infrared spectradrawn from hyperspectral images to develop, evaluate, and compare
statistical models for the detection of beef in fish meal. There were fivepure-fish samples, five pure-beef samples, and sixty-four fish/beef mixture
samples prepared for hyperspectral line-scan imaging by a machine visionsystem. Spectral data for four hundred pixels (400 individual spectra)
were retrieved from every sample image. The spectral data spanning 969
nm to 1631 nm (across 200 spectral bands) were analyzed. Statisticalmodels were built using the partial least squares regression (PLSR) and theprincipal component analysis (PCA) methods. The models were created
and developed using the spectral data from the pure-fish and pure-beefsamples, and were tested and evaluated using the data from the mixture
samples. The objective of this study was to detect any beef present in fishmeal samples, and to estimate the percentage of beef present infish-beef mixtures.

In this work SERDS using a dual-wavelength diode laser at 785 nm will
be presented as a potential tool for outdoor measurements in precision
agriculture.
The diode laser generates two excitation lines with an optical power up
to 100 mW and a spectral spacing of about 10 cm-1. Here, the device has
a power consumption of 0.7 W. Together with a footprint of 0.5 x 3 mm2
it enables the integration into portable sensor systems. An electro-opticaland spectral characterization of this light source will be given. Raman
experiments under daylight conditions are carried and demonstrate thesuitability of SERDS for outdoor measurements. Pilot investigations onapples show the potential of this setup for in situ measurements in precision
agriculture.

9488-19, Session 4

Application of hyperspectral imaging
and spectral similarity analysis for
intramuscular fat quantification in beef

9488-17, Session 4

Santosh Lohumi, Sangdae Lee, Byoung-Kwan Cho,
Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Color-based hyperspectral imaging forsafety inspection of poultry carcasses

Intramuscular fat content of beef is an important meat trait because itis related to human nutrition and health and sensory meat properties.
Existing chemical procedures are very exhaustive and do not fulfill theconditions for routine analysis in the industry. Thus, the meat industry is
still in need of fast and reliable methods with the potential of industrial use.
In recent years, hyperspectral imaging has gained a wide recognition asa non-invasive and rapid quality and safety evaluation method for a wide
range of food products including meat. In this paper, the potential use of
hyperspectral imaging (HSI) in combination with spectral similarity analysis
for the determination of intramuscular fat content in beef was evaluated.
Hyperspectral image of beef samples with different intramuscular fat
concentration were acquired. Intramuscular fat content was chemicallyextracted and quantified for the same samples. Following imaging
processing, spectral similarity measure including, spectral information
divergence (SID), spectral angle measure (SAM), and Euclidian distancemeasure (EDM), which was based on quantifying the spectral similarities
by using a predetermined fat reference spectrum, was performed on
the hyperspectral image of the beef samples for visualization anddetermination of intramuscular fat. The three similarity analysis method
showed a comparable result for intramuscular fat detection and imaging
allowed visualization of distribution of intramuscular fat within the samples.
Our results show that HSI technique and spectral similarity analysis is apromising non-invasive method to determine intramuscular fat content inbeef and can also be applied to detection of different properties in different
kind of meat samples.

Seung-Chul Yoon, Kurt C. Lawrence, Bosoon Park,
Gary R. Gamble, Tae-Sung Shin, Gerald W. Heitschmidt,
Agricultural Research Service (United States)
Researchers at the USDA-ARS have developed hyperspectral imaging
system and technology for real-time online safety inspection of poultry
carcasses, including systemic disease and fecal material detection. This
paper extends the previous work by identifying color machine vision
technology that can use the hyperspectral image classification models
for the food safety inspection of poultry carcasses. So far, the use of
hyperspectral image processing algorithms for food safety and quality
inspection applications has been largely limited to hyperspectral imaging
system. The ultimate goal of a study with color machine vision for
hyperspectral imaging is to develop a cost-effective imaging solution using
a traditional digital color camera and the state-of-the-art hyperspectral
image processing algorithms for food inspection applications. The specificobjectives of this study are 1) to develop a hyperspectral reflectancereconstruction technique using color images, 2) to evaluate the performanceof the spectral image reconstruction models in terms of spectral recovery
accuracy, and 3) to evaluate the performance of the hyperspectral image
processing algorithms with reconstructed hyperspectral images in termsof disease and fecal detection. A proof-of-concept study will be performed
to develop prediction models to recover hyperspectral images with RGB
color images simulated from hyperspectral images. The accuracy of the

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-20, Session 49488-22, Session 5

The use of short wave infrared
hyperspectral imaging for discriminationof watermelon seed infestation by
acidovorax citrulli

Classification of corn kernels contaminatedwith aflatoxins using fluorescence andreflectance hyperspectral images analysis

Hoonsoo Lee, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republicof); Santosh Lohumi, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea,
Republic of); Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of)
The bacterial fruit blotch of cucurbit plants caused by Acidovorax citrulli
leads to a serious problem to growers and seed producers because it isdifficult to prevent spreading through causal agent of seeds. Conventional
detection methods for infected seed such as a biological, serological, andmolecular measurement are not practicable to measure whole samples
because these methods are time-consuming and require expensive
equipments. Therefore, it is necessary to develop novel technique which isable to detect seeds infestation non-destructively and rapidly. The shortwave infrared (SWIR) hyperspectral imaging system is used to discriminate
infected seeds from healthy seeds as a rapid, accurate, and nondestructive
detection tool. Detection algorithms based on partial least square
discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and least square support vector machine(LS-SVM) were developed to discriminate between infected and healthy
seeds. The SWIR hyperspectral imaging system could achieve high accuracy(95%) to discriminate infected seeds from healthy seeds. This study showsthat SWIR hyperspectral imaging system has a good potential for detectionof infected seeds from healthy seeds.

9488-21, Session 4

Spectroscopic techniques for examinationof toxic metabolites in maize kernels
Lalit Mohan Kandpal, Hyun-Jung Min, Byoung-Kwan Cho,
Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
The official method, HPLC to determine grain safety is expensive and time
consuming, since spectroscopic techniques are emerging for detectionof toxic metabolites in agricultural commodities. These methods are
effortless and provide non-destructive measurements. Aflatoxins are thetoxic metabolites produced by certain mold fungi, Aspergillus flavus andAspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are considered as highly carcinogenic(cancer causing) to animal and human. In this study, we purpose various
spectroscopic techniques for the detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) inmaize kernels. Maize samples were artificially spiked with different AFB1
concentrations (derived from A. falvus) ranging from 10 µg/kg to 500µg/kg, while pure samples were surface disinfected with PBS solution.
Afterwards, both contaminated and pure samples spectra were collected
through various spectroscopic modalities in particular hyperspectroscopy,
fluorescence spectroscopy and FT-NIR spectroscopy. Partial least square
discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and support vector machine (SVM)
models were developed to successfully differentiate pure samples fromcontaminated samples of different concentration. Results from both models
indicated adequate classification accuracy between pure and contaminatedgroups, moreover we generated contamination map from PLS-DA modelthat provide the visual information about the AFB1 contamination region or
pixel of the maze sample. Our results suggest that spectroscopic techniques
are highly effective to detect contamination in agriculture productswith non-destructive manner and could be an alternative tool to replace
conventional methods.

360

SPIE DSS 2015·

Fengle Zhu, Haibo Yao, Zuzana Hruska, Russell Kincaid,
Mississippi State Univ. (United States); Robert L. Brown,
Deepak Bhatnagar, Thomas E. Cleveland, U.S. Dept. ofAgriculture (United States)
Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites produced by certain fungal speciesof the Aspergillus genus. Aflatoxin contamination remains a problem invarious agricultural products due to its toxic and carcinogenic properties.
Conventional chemical analytical methods for quantification of aflatoxins
in grain samples are time-consuming, expensive and destructive. Due to
its rapid and non-destructive methodology, hyperspectral imaging may
provide an alternative approach for detecting aflatoxins. This study focusedon employing fluorescence and reflectance visible near-infrared (VNIR)
hyperspectral imaging systems to classify aflatoxin contaminated cornkernels. Corn ears were artificially inoculated in the field with toxigenic A.
flavus spores at the early dough stage of kernel development. After harvest,
a total of 300 kernels were collected from corn ears. These kernels werevisually separated into three different groups: those that are fluorescent,adjacent to inoculation site, and not near the inoculation site as controls.
Fluorescence hyperspectral imagery with ultraviolet excitation andreflectance VNIR hyperspectral imagery with halogen light, were acquired
on both sides (germ and endosperm) of the kernels. All kernels were thensubjected to chemical analysis individually to determine their aflatoxin
contamination levels. Region of interest (ROI) was created for all kernels to
extract averaged spectra for subsequent data analysis. The fluorescence andreflectance spectra were plotted for all three treatment groups and for bothsides of the kernels, to examine the spectral differences between germ andendosperm sides, and among the three visually designated groups. All thekernels are pooled together and divided into “healthy” and “contaminated”
groups based on a 20 ppb threshold. Results from linear discriminant
analysis using fluorescence and reflectance data will be compared for germand endosperm sides.

9488-23, Session 5

Discrimination of varieties of pear basedon Vis/NIR spectroscopy and BP-ANN
Jiangbo Li, National Engineering Research Ctr. for
Information Technology in Agriculture (China)
Three different varieties of pear were identified with visual/near infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS) technology. The samples data were analyzed
with the whole wave band and characteristic wave band (420~650nm,
825~1100nm and 1400-1550nm) models, respectively. The first threeprincipal components (PC) were obtained by principal component analysis(PCA) and used as the input variables of back-propagation artificial neuralnetwork (BP-ANN) which included one hidden layer, while the values ofpear varieties were used as the output variables of BP-ANN, and then thethree layers BP-ANN discrimination model was built. In addition, three
pre-processing methods including average smoothing, first and second
derivatives were applied to improve the predictive ability of models.
The identification results from 30 unknown samples showed that thediscriminating rates were 100% in both models with average smoothing,
and the accuracy of characteristic wave band is better than that of thewhole wave band model. The results also indicated that it is feasible todiscriminate the variety of pear by visible/near infrared reflectance spectra
as a rapid and non-contact way, and selecting characteristic wave band is
one of the validated methods to improve the precision of thediscrimination model.

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Conference 9488:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety VII

9488-24, Session 5

Using NOAA/AVHRR based remote sensing
data and PCR method for estimation of
Aus rice yield in Bangladesh
Mohammad Nizamuddin, The City College of New York
(United States); Kawsar A. Akhand, The City Univ. of New
York (United States); Leonid Roytman, The City College of
New York (United States); Felix Kogan, Mitchell Goldberg,
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (United States)
Rice is a dominant food crop of Bangladesh accounting about 75 percent
of agricultural land use for rice cultivation and currently Bangladesh is theworld’s fourth largest rice producing country. Rice provides about twothird of total calorie supply and about one-half of the agricultural GDP and
one-sixth of the national income in Bangladesh. Aus is one of the main
rice varieties in Bangladesh. Crop production, especially rice, the mainfood staple, is the most susceptible to climate change and variability. Anychange in climate will, thus, increase uncertainty regarding rice production
as climate is major cause year-to-year variability in rice productivity. This
paper shows the application of remote sensing data for estimating Aus
rice yield in Bangladesh using official statistics of rice yield with real timeacquired satellite data from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer(AVHRR) sensor and Principal Component Regression (PCR) method wasused to construct a model. The simulated result was compared with official
agricultural statistics showing that the error of estimation of Aus rice
yield was less than 10%. Remote sensing, therefore, is a valuable tool for
estimating crop yields well in advance of harvest, and at a low cost.

9488-48, Session 5

Pest damage assessment in fruits andvegetables using thermal imaging
Badrinath Vadakkapattu Canthadai, M. Esakki Muthu
Raju, Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology (India); Vengal
Rao Pachava, National Institute of Technology, Warangal(India); Dipankar Sengupta, Univ. degli Studi di Padova(Italy)In some fruits and vegetables, it is difficult to visually identify the ones
which are pest infested. This particular aspect is important for quarantine
and commercial operations. In this article, we propose to present the resultsof a novel technique using thermal imaging camera to detect the nature andextent of pest damage in fruits and vegetables, besides indicating the levelof maturity and often the presence of the pest. Our key idea relies on thefact that there is a difference in the heat capacity of normal and damaged
ones and also observed the change in surface temperature over time that is
slower in damaged ones. This paper presents the concept of non-destructive
evaluation using thermal imaging technique for identifying pest damagelevels of fruits and vegetables based on investigations carried out on
random samples collected from a local market.

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Conference 9489: Dimensional Optical Metrology
and Inspection for Practical Applications IV
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9489 Dimensional Optical Metrology and Inspection for Practical
Applications IV

9489-1, Session 1

view, the amount of overlay between the back projection and the image
segmentation determines the right candidate.

3D range data compression with a virtual
fringe projection system (Invited Paper)Song Zhang, Iowa State Univ. (United States)
Over the past decades, 3D range scanning techniques have advanced
rapidly and showed the great potential to penetrate into our daily life. Yet,
unlike their 2D counterparts, storing enormously large 3D raw data become
an issue since 3D range data compression techniques have not been wellestablished. 3D range data are predominantly stored as mesh formats (e.g.,
STL, OBJ, PLY). These formats are designed to be generic and effective suchthat they could be used to represent arbitrary topologies; and they usuallystore (x, y, z) coordinates for each vertex of a polygon, the connectivity
between vertices, and often normal and (u, v) map. However, they requirea large storage space. Virtually creating a 3D range scanner with advanced
computer graphics tools can be used to convert 3D shapes to regular 2D
images by virtually re-scanning the objects. This method achieved greatcompression ratios without substantially losing data quality. However,
because one 8-bit channel spatially encodes fringe orders for temporalphase unwrapping, these techniques are limited to use a small finite
number of fringe stripes, resulting in relatively low-resolution 2D images
for representing 3D geometries. The key limitation of the previous methods
is the use of discontinuous “stair” type of channel for phase unwrapping.
This paper presents a method to overcome such a limitation by making thechannel as smooth sine and cosine functions without any discontinuities.
Comparing with previously methods, this proposed method has higher
compression ratio and has less significant artifacts due to lossy
compression algorithms.

9489-2, Session 1

Phase unwrapping of fringe images for
dynamic 3D measurements without
additional pattern projection
Andreas Breitbarth, Eric Müller, Peter Kühmstedt, GuntherNotni, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Optik undFeinmechanik (Germany); Joachim Denzler, FriedrichSchiller-Univ. Jena (Germany)
Fringe projection is an established method to measure the 3D structureof macroscopic objects. Adversely, the coding of fringe projection withusually more than one stripe is ambiguous. To determine object points withabsolute position in 3D space, the coding has to be unique. Thus, there isneed of an additional coding pattern to eliminate these stripe ambiguities.
Especially in dynamic measurement situations each extra pattern without
3D information is counterproductive. This trade-off leads to a new approachof phase unwrapping.
The approach is based on an image segmentation of each view in areas
without height jumps larger than a fringe period. These areas can be
unwrapped without errors, but absolute values are dependent on the zero
point. Using a stereo camera setup, the alignment of the phase maps of bothareas is now required. For this purpose an arbitrary pixel is selected that is
ideally not in the vicinity of the segment edge. The associated phase valueof this point is then searched along the related epipolar line on the wrapped
phase map in the corresponding image segment. All similar phase values
are candidates for a real point correspondence. So, phase unwrapping isdone for each candidate as zero point. To check which candidate is right,
3D data estimation by triangulation between the unwrapped phase mapsof both views is applied. By back projection of this 3D data into the second362

SPIE DSS 2015·

To verify the presented approach, both synthetic data and real images of
two stereo camera systems have been analyzed. In general, the number ofcandidates of correspondence decreased with the additional considerationof phase distribution on the projector plane. Thus, the robustness und
calculation speed of this approach are increased. Furthermore, positiveeffects of an asymmetric alignment of the projector with respect to thestereo cameras have been shown. Taken together, our method results in
object coordinates with an absolute position in 3D space without using
additional projection pattern.

9489-3, Session 1

Experimental Verification ofReconstruction of Two Interfering
Wavefronts Using the Transport ofIntensity Equation
Ahmad Darudi, Javad Amiri, Peyman Soltani, Univ. of
Zanjan (Iran, Islamic Republic of); Georges T. Nehmetallah,
The Catholic Univ. of America (United States)
One of the most challenging problems in interferometry is how toreconstruct two unknown interfering wavefronts from their interference
patterns or reveals the error of the reference wavefront. Authors recently
have extended the application of the TIE formula to the amplitude and thephase of the interference filed of two waves in paraxial approximation andtechnique has been verified by simulation.
In this work we present the experimental verification of interferometric
TIE method. A Fizeau interferometer is used to test a flat surface. A PZT is
attached to the back of the test surface to generate the phase shift between
waves. A CCD is moved along the common propagation direction of the
waves by a linear stage to record at least three intensity distributions toreveal the intensity derivative along z direction but due to mechanical error
the recorded intensities show some lateral displacements that are removed
by software. The wavefront of the object wave is also reconstructedwith traditional TIE and compared with one that reconstructed frominterferometric TIE method. The consistency and errors of the reconstructedwaves is discussed and possible potential error sources are investigated. The
issues such as computation time and spatial resolution of the reconstructedwaves are discussed and possible applications of interferometric TIE
are presented.

9489-4, Session 1

Geometric and topological feature
extraction of linear and circular segmentsfrom 2D cross-section data of 3D point
cloudsRajesh Ramamurthy, Yi Liao, Ratnadeep Paul, Kevin G.
Harding, Tao Jia, Vincent Lucas, GE Global Research(United States); Xiaoming Du, GE Global Research (China)
Optical measurement techniques are often employed to digitally capture
three dimensional shapes of components. The digital data density output
from these probes range from a few discrete points to exceeding millionsof points in the point cloud. The point cloud taken as a whole represents

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Conference 9489: Dimensional Optical Metrology
and Inspection for Practical Applications IV(United States)

a discretized measurement of the actual 3D shape of the surface of thecomponent inspected to the measurement resolution of the sensor.
Embedded within the measurement are the various features of the part thatmake up its overall shape. Part designers are often interested in the feature
information since those relate directly to part function and to the analyticalmodels used to develop the part design. Furthermore, tolerances are added
to these dimensional features, making their extraction a requirement forthe manufacturing quality plan of the product. The task of “extracting”
these design features from the point cloud is a post processing task. Due tomeasurement repeatability and cycle time requirements often automatedfeature extraction from measurement data is required. The presence of nonideal features such as high frequency optical noise and surface roughness
can significantly complicate this feature extraction process. This research
describes a robust process for extracting linear and arc segments fromgeneral 2D point clouds, to a prescribed tolerance. The feature extraction
process generates the topology, specifically the number of linear and arc
segments, and the geometry equations of the linear and arc segments
automatically from the input 2D point clouds. This general feature extraction
methodology has been employed as an integral part of the automated postprocessing algorithms of 3D data of fine features.

In the real application environment of field engineering, a large variety
of metrology tools are required by the technician to inspect part profile
features. However, some of these tools are burdensome and only addressa sole application or measurement. In other cases, standard tools lackthe capability of accessing irregular profile features. Customers of fieldengineering want the next generation metrology devices to have theability to replace the many current tools with one single device. This
paper will describe a method based on the ring optical gage concept
to the measurement of numerous kinds of profile features useful for thefield technician. The ring optical system is composed of a collimatedlaser, a conical mirror and a CCD camera. To be useful for a wide range
of applications, the ring optical system requires profile feature extraction
algorithms and data manipulation directed toward real world applications
in field operation. The paper will discuss such practical applications asmeasuring the non-ideal round hole with both off-centered and obliqueaxes. The algorithms needed to analyze other features such as measuring
the width of gaps, radius of transition fillets, fall of step surfaces, and surface
parallelism will also be discussed in this paper. With the assistance of image
processing and geometric algorithms, these features can be extracted witha reasonable performance. Tailoring the feature extraction analysis to thisspecific gage offers the potential for a wider application base beyond simple
inner diameter measurements. The paper will present experimental resultsthat are compared with standard gages to prove the performance andfeasibility of the analysis in real world field engineering. Potential accuracy
improvement methods, a new dual ring design and future work will be
discussed at the end of this paper.

9489-5, Session 2

Inner profile measurement probe: froma pipe to an underground cavity (Invited
Paper)
Toru Yoshizawa, NPO 3D Associates (Japan); Toshitaka
Wakayama, Saitama Medical Univ. (Japan)

9489-7, Session 2

Composite layup monitoring using
structured light

We have been involved in developing probes for inner profile measurementof pipes, tubes and holes that may be large or small. Request for innerprofile or diameter measurement of pipes and holes are becoming more
and more important, and especially necessity for measuring smaller innerdiameter is strong, that is, probes with a smaller size are required to meetrequirement from various fields such as mechanical engineering, automobile
and aircraft industry and civil engineering. Because a smaller size probe areapplicable to a larger hole. We have proposed measurement method thatincorporates a ring beam device with a laser diode (LD) and a cone mirror
inside. Disk-like beam from this ring beam device gives an inner crosssection of the objective. However, recent request for measuring smaller andsmaller inner diameter is very large, and a conventional probe consistingof a glass or plastic tube with such devices as a CCD camera, a cone mirror
and a LD built-in proved too large to check such smaller holes and as witha diameter smaller than 5mm. Hence we tried to utilize optical fibers. Up
to now, a probe with the size of 5mm in diameter is under trial. As far as
we checked the inner surfaces of smaller holes under 5mm in diameter,
endoscopes and/or borescopes have been mainly used. However these areavailable only for observing the inside and not useful for capturing innerprofiles numerically. At this stage of development, we are applying the fiber
ring beam device in combination with a rigid borescope to attain 5mmsize probe. In addition, we are aiming to realize such a small size probe as
3mm in diameter. At the same time we are trying to develop a probe that isavailable for checking the size and volumes of an underground cavity with across sectional diameter of 10m or more.

Robert W. Tait, Kevin G. Harding, Christopher Nafis, GE
Global Research (United States)
The making of composite parts involves laying down multiple layers of tapein an organized manner. Misplaced ends, wrinkles or other factors can cause
the part being built to have weaknesses or other imperfections. However,
the actual edges of the tape do not stand out well with each layer reacting
differently to lighting. The fiber nature of the tape will make the surface
appear bright in some orientations and very dark in other. To complicate theproblem, each layer of tape needs to be laid down at different angles, so canbe dark, light or in-between, and at positions to fairly tight tolerances. This
paper presents a study of several methods for determining the tape position
and flaws, and detail a structured light method for determining the tapeposition. Considerations of tolerances, experimental results and how such asystem might be implimented will be presented.

9489-12, Session 2

Method for controlling a laser additive
process using intrinsic illumination
Guoshuang Cai, Robert W. Tait, Sudhir Tewari, Magdi
N. Azer, Xiaobin Chen, David Abbot, Yong Liu, Kevin G.
Harding, GE Global Research (United States)

9489-6, Session 2

Development of feature extraction analysis
for a multi-functional optical profilingdevice applied to field engineering
applications

One form of additive manufacturing is to use a laser to generate a meltpool from powdered metal that is sprayed from a nozzle. The laser netshape machining system builds the part a layer at a time by following apredetermined path. However, because the path may need to take manyturns, maintaining a constant melt pool may not be easy. A straight section
may require one speed and power while a sharp bend would over melt
the metal as the same settings. This paper describes a process monitoring
method that uses the intrinsic IR radiation from the melt pool along witha process model configured to establish target values for the parameters
associated with the manufacture or repair. This model is based upon

Kevin G. Harding, GE Global Research (United States); Xu
Han, Guangping Xie, GE Global Research (China); Brandon
Laflen, GE Global Research (United States); Ming Jia, GE
Global Research (China); Guiju Song, GE Global Research

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363

Conference 9489: Dimensional Optical Metrology
and Inspection for Practical Applications IV
known properties of the metal being used as well as the properties of thelaser beam. An adaptive control technique is then employed to control
process parameters of the machining system based upon the real-timemeasurement. Since the system uses the heat radiant from the melt pool,other previously laid metal does not confuse the system as only the meltedmaterial is seen by the camera.

before the printer starts on the next layer) or to abort the print job (saving
material, electricity and clean up time).
A similar need exists for assessing objects produced through 3D printing:items need to be assessed before being used for applications where adefect could injure a person or cause other problems. This inspection canbe performed manually; however, this is time consuming and expensive.
Traditional assessment techniques, which are based on comparison to aperfect or near-perfect specimen are problematic when assessing the typeof bespoke items typically produced by 3D printers.

9489-9, Session 3

Sensors for modern manufacturing: certify
as you build (Invited Paper)
Jyoti Mazumder, Lijun Song, Univ. of Michigan (UnitedStates)Modern manufacturing is increasingly becoming Digital manufacturing.
Recently Additive Manufacturing (AM) has been hailed as the “third
industrial revolution” by Economist magazine [April-2012]. Flexibility andcapability of producing near net shape critical components directly from
Computer Aided Design (CAD) is partly responsible for its attraction.
Often it is used for low volume manufacturing which may benefit fromin situ diagnostics and quality inspection. Sophisticated science basedin-Situ diagnostic techniques are needed to produce defect free parts withacceptable properties. Post mortem measurement of part dimension withconventional metrology is not adequate. With the in-situ determinationof defects, microstructure and composition it will have the potential torevolutionize the manufacturing practice by offering a new route to engineer
structures and properties as desired. New optical Sensors being developed
to control geometry using imaging, cooling rate by monitoring temperature,
microstructure, temperature and composition using optical spectra.
Ultimately these sensors will enable one to “Certify as you Build”.

9489-10, Session 3

A brief survey of sensing for additive
manufacturing (Invited Paper)
Edward W. Reutzel, Abdalla R. Nassar, Applied ResearchLab. (United States)
Additive manufacturing of metal parts is a complex process, fraught withmany potential opportunities for failure. Parts may require thousands ofindividual laser or electron-beam deposits, and conditions may fluctuateduring processing, e.g. material feed rate or packing density, beam power or
spatial energy distribution, environment gas composition, local and global
temperature, and build geometry. Such process variations affect final partgeometry, microstructure, properties, and final part quality. To provide
practitioners confidence that each part is produced consistently without
defects, researchers have developed a variety of sensing methodologies
for quality control, including thermal imaging of melt pool, monitoring oftemperature or layer build-height, laser beam power, and others. This brief
survey addresses sensor investigations that are being undertaken to support
this important technology.

9489-11, Session 4

Thickness and air gap measurement ofassembled IR objectives
Bernd Lueerss, Patrik Langehanenberg, TRIOPTICS GmbH
(Germany)
A growing number of applications like surveillance, thermography,
or automotive demand for infrared imaging systems. Their imaging
performance is significantly influenced by the alignment of the individuallens elements. Besides the lateral orientation of lenses, the air spacing
between the lenses is a crucial parameter. Because of restricted mechanicalaccessibility within an assembled objective, a non-contact technique
is required for the testing of these parameters. So far commercial
measurement systems were not available for testing of IR objectives
since many materials used for infrared imaging are non-transparent atwavelengths below 2 µm. We herewith present a time-domain low coherent
interferometer capable of measuring any kind of infrared material (e.g., Ge,
Si, etc.) as well as VIS materials. In a fiber-optic Michelson-Interferometerthe light from a broadband superluminescent diode is split into a reference
arm with a variable optical delay and a measurement arm where the sample
is placed. On a photo detector, the reflected signals from both arms aresuperimposed and recorded as a function of the variable optical path.
Whenever the group delay difference is zero, a coherence peak occurs andthe relative lens’ surface distances are derived from the optical delay. In
order to penetrate IR materials, the instrument operates at 2.2 µm.
The set-up allows the contactless determination of thicknesses and air gaps
inside of assembled infrared and VIS objective lenses with accuracy in the
micron range. It therefore is a tool for the precise manufacturing or
quality control.

9489-13, Session 4

The impact of oceanic gravity waves onlaser propagation

9489-8, Session 4

Serdar Kizilkaya, Cumhuriyet Mah. (Turkey); Timothy Kane,
The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

Characterization of 3D printing output
using an optical sensing system
Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
This paper presents the experimental design and initial testing of a system
to characterize the progress and performance of a 3D printer. Currently, 3D
printing – particularly in the consumer realm – operates blindly. If there isa problem, such as the filament running out or an object detaching fromthe plate, the printer has no way of knowing this and continues printing(generally making a mess). By identifying problems during printing, it may
be possible to correct them (if, for example, an issue with a layer is detected364

The system presented seeks to characterize printing progress and quality
through comparison to a model. It is based on five Raspberry Pi singleboard computers. It collects images of the 3D printed object, which arecompared to an ideal model. The system, while suitable for printers of all
sizes, can potentially be produced at a sufficiently low cost to allow its
incorporation into consumer-grade printers. The efficacy and accuracyof this system is presented and discussed. The paper concludes witha discussion of the benefits of being able to characterize 3D printerperformance and a discussion of future work.

SPIE DSS 2015·

The usage of lasers in ocean studies is widespread. Each step of laser
beam propagation through the ocean is a major topic to be analyzed,
often independently. The objective of this study is to specifically focus
on the interaction of the laser beam with the air-ocean interface and themodeling and analysis of the effects of a gravity wave perturbed ocean
surface on laser propagation. The directional energy spectrum of Neumannwith the Fourier series expansion is used in a Monte Carlo simulation of
the gravity wave perturbed ocean surface model. Beam tracing with the
ABCD matrix approach is used for the laser beam propagation analysis

www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9489: Dimensional Optical Metrology
and Inspection for Practical Applications IV
rather than using the ray tracing like in many similar studies. Specificparameters are used in the model to output not only a qualitative model
but also numerical and realistic results. The main purposes of this study are
implementing a numerical model to see the effects of the ocean surface on
laser propagation and analyzing the feasibility of using the beam tracing
approach in such a model.

independent of direction. On the other hand, both absorption and emission
are usually confined to the surface.
For the calculation of 3D-Points and for calibration of the infrared system,
there have been developed new algorithms based on state of technology.
We use phase shifting technique for reconstruction of single measurement
points. Therefore, we get for each camera pixel one 3D Point, which isessential in the infrared regime due to sensors with little number of pixels.
Unique reconstruction of the 3D scene is done by a multi-period method.

9489-14, Session 5

Our development shows that this new technology offers a significant
potential for industrial metrology. Using a projector model and calibration
method developed by the Fraunhofer IFF in Magdeburg, we show 3D dataon glass, PMMA, carbon fiber (CFRP) and painted sheet metal without
treatment of the surface. We are going to present first measurement
results about the accuracy and the measurement uncertainty of this newmeasurement principle.

Measuring accuracy of in-plane and outof-plane deformations simultaneous
measurement of speckle interferometry
using multi-recording method (Invited
Paper)
Yasuhiko Arai, Kansai Univ. (Japan)

9489-16, Session 5

A novel in-plane and out-of-plane deformation simultaneous measurement
method using only two speckle patterns grabbed before and after
deformation of an object with rough surfaces has been proposed.
The optical system is set up by improving ordinary two-beam speckle
interferometer. In the new optical system, because a phenomenon of inplane and out-of-plane deformation can be simultaneously recorded byonly one camera by using the multi-recording method of speckle patterns,
the system does not require any confused setting up the optical system.
For example, alignment of the axes of plural numbers of cameras, settingof multiplication factor of plural cameras, adjustment of timing of samplingof plural cameras in dynamic events, and so on are not required. Therefore,
the optical system based on the new method can be readily applied tothree-dimensional deformation measurement. At the same time, the highresolution measurement of deformation is also realized. However, it isthought that there are some problems concerning measuring accuracy,
because plural dimensional data has to be grabbed by single camera. In
this paper, some error sources of in-plane and out-of-plane deformations
simultaneous measurement of speckle interferometry using multi-recording
method are discussed. The influence of factor of each error source tomeasuring accuracy of the method is investigated by using experimental
results. Possibility of high resolution three-dimensional measurement byusing proposed optical system is also discussed.

Terahertz reflection interferometry
for automobile paint layer thickness
measurement
Aunik K. Rahman, Applied Research & Photonics, Inc.
(United States); Kenneth B. Tator, KTA-Tator, Inc. (UnitedStates); Anis Rahman, Applied Research & Photonics, Inc.
(United States)
Non-destructive terahertz reflectometry [1] offers many advantages for subsurface inspection such as interrogation of hidden defects and measurementof under-layer thicknesses. In this paper we describe a terahertz reflection
interferometry (TRI) technique for non-contact measurement of paint panels
where the paint is comprised of different layers of primer, basecoat, topcoatand clearcoat. Terahertz interferograms were generated by reflection
from different layers of a paint panel on a metallic substrate. These
interferograms’ spacing separation arising from the delay-time response ofrespective layers, allows one to model the thickness of the individual layers.
An angular scan demonstrates that the interferograms are more pronounced
at certain angles than others. This “optimum” angle is also a functionof different paint and substrate combinations. An automated scanningalgorithm helps visualize the evolution of the interferograms as a function ofangle and also enables the identification of optimum reflection angles for agiven paint-substrate combination. Additionally, scanning at different points
on a substrate reveals that there are observable variations from one point
to another of the same panel over its entire surface area. This ability may be
used as a quality control tool in the production line. Details of the procedure
will be discussed, and data will be presented.

9489-15, Session 5Long wave infrared 3D scanner
Ernst Wiedenmann, Robert Schott, Jan Tusch, Andreas
Wolf, Mohsen Afrough, Sven Albert, Aimess Services
GmbH (Germany)[1] Anis Rahman and Aunik Rahman, “Terahertz reflectometry of multilayered paint thicknesses and estimation of particle sizes,” CLEO:
Applications and Technology, High Performance Optical Measurement(AW3H), San Jose, California, United States, June 8-13, 2014, ISBN: 978-155752-999-2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/CLEO_AT.2014.AW3H.4

In industrial metrology, the system of fringe projection for the rapid
determination 3D surface data is established. The combination of areal andstructured projection with two-dimensional optical sensors and triangulation
measurement principle allows dense point clouds with sufficient accuracy.
State of the art systems have great difficulty with very dark surfaces.
Transparent materials cannot be measured using the visible spectrum oflight without surface preparation. We have therefore developed a new
structured light projection system that solves these problems. For the firsttime in the geometric measurement technology, the physical principle ofenergy conversion is utilized.

9489-17, Session 5

Quantitative imaging of open-circuit
voltage in opto-electronic devices withnanoscale resolution

Existing structured light projection systems are based on the reflectionof electromagnetic radiation. Instead of reflection, our system relies on
the absorption of the object. This enables the measurement of previously
inaccessible surfaces, but calls for the transition to other radiation sources.
We choose the infrared wavelength range, since most materials, which
are transparent for visible light, show a strong absorption in this area. The
absorbed energy is converted to heat, which can be detected by an infrared
detector. The emitted radiation has two major advantages. On the one handheat radiation is an ideal Lambertian radiator. This means that the radiation
density is constant in all directions in space, and thus the detection is

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Elizabeth Tennyson, Joseph Garrett, Univ. of Maryland,College Park (United States); Jesse A. Frantz, Jason D.
Myers, Robel Y. Bekele, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Jasbinder S. Sanghera, Univ. Research Foundation(United States) and U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Jeremy N. Munday, Marina S. Leite, Univ. of
Maryland, College Park (United States)·

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365Conference 9489: Dimensional Optical Metrology
and Inspection for Practical Applications IV
One key parameter to evaluate the performance of opto-electronic devices
is the open circuit voltage (Voc). For photovoltaics, the Voc dictates thepower conversion efficiency, which is an indirect measurement of charge
carrier recombination within the material. Identifying and spatially resolving
where the recombination processes occur within micron-structured
photovoltaics is crucial to the design of next generation solar cells.
Presently, one major limiting factor of polycrystalline solar cells is the nonradiative recombination that stems from defects and grain interfaces within
the semiconductor materials. Suppressing these processes can improvedevice performance significantly. Nevertheless, current measuring methods
have been unable to probe the Voc with high spatial resolution. We present
a novel imaging tool to resolve the Voc of opto-electronic devices withnanoscale resolution based on illuminated-Kelvin probe force microscopy[1]. This non-destructive approach operates at ambient environment, andonly requires partially processed devices. The difference between theilluminated and dark surface voltage signals is proportional to the Fermilevel splitting of the p-n junction within the semiconductor, which is equal
to the voltage generated by the device. We demonstrate the versatilityof our new measurement technique when applied to different solar cellmaterials, including polycrystalline devices for lightweight, low-cost andhigh-efficiency photovoltaics. Further, we map the ideality factor of thedevices with high spatial resolution, and identify the correlation between
the structural properties of the grains and interfaces and the local Voc in
different devices. Our metrology can be applied to a wide range of devices,
including infrared sensors and high-power wide bandgap detectors.
[1] Tennyson, E.M et al. Imaging Open-Circuit Voltage in Solar Cells with
Nanoscale Resolution. In Review

A spiral-polarization grating for contrast detection is projected onto asample using a quarter wave plate and a spatial light modulator (SLM).
Intensity reflected from the sample is detected by a polarization camera,
which is made with pixel polarizers attached on a CCD sensor. The azimuthal
directions of pixel polarizer array are composed to 0°, 45°, 90° and 135°.,
so contrast of projected sinusoidal pattern onto sample is analyzed realtime by 4 stepping phase-shifting method. The contrast distribution isapproximated the Gauss distribution along depth direction. It can be easily
to fit the Gauss function measured in advance. The three-dimensional
coordinate is calculated from a relationship Gauss distribution andmeasuring contrast. We propose real- time and uniaxial three-dimensionalsurface measurement on a microscopy using polarization grating controlled
by a spatial light modulator.

9489-20, Session 5

3D position tracking for borescope
inspections
Kevin G. Harding, GE Global Research (United States);
Yong Yang, GE Global Research (China); Guiju Song, GE
Global Research (United States)

9489-18, Session 5

Application of holographic interferometry
to in-plane and out-of-plane misalignmentand deformation measurements inpackaging applications
Vladimir V. Nikulin, Rahul M. Khandekar, Vijit Bedi,
Binghamton Univ. (United States)
Packaging of electronic and photonic components requires highaccuracy, which needs to be verified in the process of manufacturing andtesting. Since very small misalignments and/or deformations can leadto unacceptable performance, a measurement approach is needed thatwould reveal displacements as small as a few tens of nanometers or less. In
addition, misalignments and deformations occur both in the out-of-plane
and in-plane directions, which may be very difficult to separate from eachother. It was previously demonstrated that the two types of measurements
can be implemented with different approaches: holographic interferometry
for out-of-plane and moiré interferometry for in-plane, but it is very
desirable to have a single system with sufficient accuracy in both lateral andlongitudinal directions. An optical technique developed by our group andpresented in this paper is based on a holographic approach and combines
the principles of holographic interferometry and phase modulating
adaptive optics that could provide simultaneous in-plane and out-of-planemeasurements with high accuracy.

Service providers perform regular borescope inspection of field products
to ensuresystem performance and prevent accidents. A full borescope
inspection for large equipment usually takes several days to cover every
region of interest in the turbine. One of the challenges that causes thislong inspection time is the difficulty in navigating the borescope tip tosome position of interest and aiming the view of the borescope in given
direction. The image from the borescope tip is the only information available
to the operator to judge the position of tip. In some cases, the operator
can get lost due to the limited field-of-view and illumination provided by
the borescope. It is very hard to tell the borescope tip position from one
borescope image. This increases the difficulty of correlating the inspection
results obtained at different times that might be used to predict potentialmachineryfailure. This paper discusses various methods that have been
investigated for 3D borescope tracking and presents a new approach usinga shape sensor integrated in the borescope tube used with image based
location determination to determine the position of the borescope tip
during inspections. The shape sensor provides a real time estimate of theborescope tip position and orientation then the image based analysis uses
the part CAD model to fine tune this position information. The tracking
result can provide better information of the tip position for the operator.
This enhanced position information can be used to better monitor defectchanges over time by comparing the inspection result at different times in
the parts lifetime.

9489-21, Session 5

Small hole inner profile measurement
method9489-19, Session 5

Real-time and uniaxial microscopic
measurement of 3D profile by polarization
grating
Yukitoshi Otani, Shuhei Shibata, Daisuke Barada,
Utsunomiya Univ. (Japan)
An optical three-dimensional microscopic surface measurement has anadvantage for non-contact, non-destructive and short measuring time.
Many methods of stereo method such as a moiré and a grating projection366

are proposed. However these methods are difficult to apply a deep hole or
steep height because intensity of bottom surface cannot be captured in thearea of shadow portion. To overcome this drawback, a method of uniaxial
measurement for three-dimensional surface on a microscopy is proposed bydetecting a distance from contrast variation.

SPIE DSS 2015·

Yi Liao, Kevin G. Harding, Rajesh Ramamurthy, GE Global
Research (United States)
It is very difficult to measure the inner profile geometry of small holes ofless than a millimeter in size, yet that geometry may be important for somemanufacturing operations. This paper will present a method to measure
key dimensional parameters of small holes used in systems such as forturbo-machinery. Precision shaped holes can consist of a hole at some angle
to the surface of the part and an area around the entrance to the hole forthe purpose of diffusing the air or lubricant across the surface of the partto achieve the most effective performance. The drive towards smaller andwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9489: Dimensional Optical Metrology
and Inspection for Practical Applications IV
the images obtained by high resolution surveillance system are identicalto the existing omni-directional image obtained from fish-eye camera. This
provides a robust and accurate solution to the problem of optical radar
surveillance system localization in unknown environments. An experiment isperformed on outdoor image sequences with demonstrating the efficiencyof our algorithm.

more complex hole geometries means that previous methods such as touchprobes do not provide a good mapping in a time that can be used as partof production. The advanced designs of the holes means simple pin gages
do not provide enough information. This paper will discuss tests of various
methods considered for mapping small hole inner diameters, and present
results of the use of depth from defocus as a possible solution.

9489-22, Session 5

High contrast imaging in the presence of abright background
Harbans S. Dhadwal, Jahangir Rastegar, Dake Feng,
Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States)
In recent years, considerable attention and resources have been directed
at the development of scanning endoscopes that can be used to accesshuman organs with ease and transport high resolution in vivo images. While
lateral and axial resolutions have seen tremendous increases, insignificant
advancement has been made toward improving contrast of images recorded
under bright field conditions, which are unavoidable in areas of in vivo
medical imaging, such as, laparoscopy surgery and endomicroscopy, visualinspection of nano-scale devices and the like.
The key to improving image contrast is to minimize the bright background
prior to detection and conversion to a digital image. We have developed
an optical solution for overcoming these limitations by processing theimage in the optical domain. In particular, the composite image, which
comprises of the object and the background signal, is processed in the
optical domain prior electronic detection. The background signal, which
has a very narrow frequency bandwidth centered at the origin, is separated
from the object distribution by masking the high energy at the origin of
the spatial frequency plane. Current digital signal processing methods are
not able to achieve significant improvements in image contrast due to thepoor dynamic range of the electronic image, which is dominated by thebright field signal. Thus, the proposed method will enable the use of highillumination, which is critical to obtaining high quality images in voids andsimilar hard to illuminate volumes.
In general, the mask will be an inverse filter designed to cancel the effectsof the background signal. The final image on the detector plane willcorrespond directly to the original object function, with the highest contrast
possible. We have incorporated the above high pass filter into a compact
imaging system designed for collecting images of features etched into
highly reflective substrates. The results show considerable enhancement of
the image contrast.

9489-23, Session PTue

The Omni-directional Image Assisted
Optical Surveillance System.
Yung-Hsiang Chen, National Applied Research Labs.
(Taiwan) and National Tsing Hua Univ. (Taiwan); Chi-Hung
Hwang, National Applied Research Labs. (Taiwan); WeiChung Wang, National Tsing Hua Univ. (Taiwan); Chun-Fu
Lin, National Applied Research Labs. (Taiwan)
This paper presents a high resolution optical surveillance system with which
integrated an omni-directional imager as an event finder/ system trigger.
The omni-directional optics, a fish-eye camera in this study, provides a wider
field of view (FOV) which can monitor widely range continuously without
scanning mechanism but offers sufficient information which includes sign offield event and direction and then drive high resolution surveillance camera
for detail imaging. To archive an optical triggering surveillance system, thescale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) is implemented to detect features
both from images taken by omni-directional imager and the high resolution
surveillance system. Considering the FOV of high resolution surveillancesystem is narrow, to ensure the pointing of high resolution surveillancecamera, feature matching is also implemented in this system to identify

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367

Conference 9490: Advances in Global Healththrough Sensing Technologies 2015
Monday 20–20 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9490 Advances in Global Health through Sensing Technologies 2015

9490-1, Session 1

9490-3, Session 1

Non-invasive disease diagnostics basedon oral biospecimens: lessons learned andfuture directions (Invited Paper)

Comparison between oral and salivary
diagnostics (Invited Paper)

Isaac R. Rodriguez-Chavez, National Institute of Dental
and Craniofacial Research (United States)
The burden of oral diseases globally drives the increased demand forsuperior bio-sensing technologies applied to rapid tests (RTs) and point-ofcare-devices (POCs). Clinical diagnosis, patient care, disease management
and monitoring epidemics are a few of the examples where fast, robust
and accurate bio-sensing for global human disease diagnosis is essential.
Better diagnosis save, extend and improve lives. The efficiency and successof the “test and treat” clinical approach to manage diseases depends onthe development and application of these state-of-the-art emerging, fast
and automated bio-sensing technologies. Thus, it is important to continue
developing the next-generation of RTs and POCs with superior technicalperformance compared to existing diagnostic tools. These novel diagnostic
approaches also tend to minimize costs and the invasiveness of specimen
collection as well as they simplify the number of steps involved in its
performance and the time to yield diagnostic results. This talk will discusscurrent gaps and the improvements made in the field of RTs and POCs
coupled to the latest bio-sensing approaches when using oral biospecimens.
It will also review future trends in the bio-sensing diagnostics field.

9490-2, Session 1

The human saliva proteome: overview andemerging methods for characterization(Invited Paper)

J. Marques, Univ. de Lisbon (Portugal); Patricia Corby,
C. Barber, William R. Abrams, New York Univ. College ofDentistry (United States); Daniel Malamud, New York Univ.
(United States)
The field of “salivary diagnostics” includes studies utilizing samples
obtained from a variety of sources within the oral cavity. These samples
include; whole unstimulated saliva, stimulated whole saliva, duct saliva
from the parotid, submandibular/sublingual glands or minor salivary glands,
swabs of the buccal mucosa, tongue or tonsils, and gingival crevicular
fluid. Many publications merely state “we collected saliva from subjects”
without describing the process or source of the saliva. Additional factorsthat need to be documented include the time of day of the collection, themethod used to stimulate and collect the fluid, and how much fluid is being
collected. The handling of the oral fluid post-collection is critical and may
include protease inhibitors, nuclease inhibitors, centrifugation, and cold or
frozen storage prior to assay. In an effort to create a standard protocol for
determining a biomarker’s origin we carried out a pilot study collecting fluid
from 5 different sites in the oral cavity and monitoring the concentrations ofpro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines as detected with MesoScaleDiscovery(MSD) plates. Our data suggest that 3 of the cytokines are primarily derived
from the submandibular gland, while 7 of the cytokines come from a source
other than the major salivary glands such as the minor salivary glands,
gingival crevicular fluid, or cells in the oral mucosae.

9490-4, Session 1

Saliva fluid considerations in oral
diagnostics

Timothy J. Griffin, Univ. of Minnesota (United States)
Human saliva holds tremendous potential for transforming disease andhealth diagnostics given its richness of molecular information and noninvasive collection. Enumerating its molecular constituents is an importantfirst step towards reaching this potential. Among the molecules in saliva,
proteins and peptides arguably have the most value: they can directly
indicate biochemical functions linked to a health condition/disease state,
and they are attractive targets for biomarker assay development. However,cataloging and defining the human salivary proteome is challenging
given the dynamic, chemically heterogeneous and complex nature of thesystem. Presented here will be a summary of communal efforts to meet thischallenge, focusing on the current snapshot of the human salivary protein
catalog, and including efforts to characterize the chemical heterogeneityof the proteome (e.g. post-translational modifications). A summary ofwork aimed at identifying the contribution from the oral microbiome tothe human saliva proteome will also be presented. Implications of these
efforts to characterize the salivary proteome in the context of diseasediagnostics will be discussed. Emphasis will also be given to describing
emerging methods for salivary proteomic characterization, including
methods integrating genomic and proteomic data (proteogenomics
and metaproteomics) and also new instrumental methods, such as data
independent approaches for hypothesis-driven proteomics.

Eva J. Helmerhorst, Boston Univ. (United States)
Salivary diagnostics has received a vast amount of attention ever since
it was discovered that saliva contains biomarkers for disease processes
ongoing elsewhere in the human body. Human saliva is easy to collect by
non-invasive means. While these are clear advantages over the collectionof human blood, saliva is, in contrast to blood (serum) a more complex
body fluid to be stored and analyzed. It is comprised of water, ions, andproteins, that are bacterial- and human cell derived. The exocrine secretions
produced by major and minor salivary glands contain a wide variety ofsecretory proteins including highly glycosylated mucins. The non-exocrine
constituents are oral microorganisms, desquamated epithelial cells,
human immune cells, and gingival crevicular fluid, a serum-like transudate
emanating from the gingival sulcus. While the complexity of saliva offers
tremendous opportunities for saliva diagnostics and biomarker discovery,it also poses additional challenges. These are related to the structural
stability of biomarkers in oral fluid, the dilution of biomarker components ofinterest, and the complexation of biomarkers to other salivary constituents.
We will touch upon these in this presentation and propose methods that
can improve reliability of outcomes in diagnostic investigations. Studies aresupported by NIH/NIAID grants AI087803 and AI101067.

9490-5, Session 1

Addressing the challenges of system
integration for non-invasive diagnostics
Vincent Gau, Genefluidics (United States)

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Conference 9490: Advances in Global Healththrough Sensing Technologies 2015
Many components in biological matrices influence the result of ananalysis, affecting assay sensitivity and reproducibility. Matrix effects arecomplex and system specific. Each biological matrix presents different
management challenges, and each type of analytical method is affected bymatrix components differently. Therefore we streamline the raw specimen
processing procedure into our integrated system to remove the blood
matrix and recover all pathogens through a fully integrated microfluidic
cartridge. In the past 12 years, GeneFluidics has developed, demonstrated
and published an electrochemical biosensor for rapid infection diagnostics
directly from urine, saliva and blood without target purification or
amplification to establish three distinct sets of species-specific probe pairs
optimized for hybridization temperatures at room temperature (RT), 37ºC
and 65 ºC. Our microfluidic cartridge development including a pathogen
identification (PID) and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) cartridge
and a salivary diagnostic oral cancer cartridge with a multiplexed RNA/
immunoassay panel. To facilitate the product commercialization, which
focuses on the development and validation of a fully integrated cartridge,
all system control and reagent delivery can be provided by our current
robotic lab automation system. The clinical feasibility studies are performed
with a compact electrochemical detection reader, and system control andreagent delivery replaced by a fluidic manifold with results viewable on asmartphone or laptop.

in 5 people with HIV don’t know they are infected, don’t get HIV medicalcare, and can pass the virus on to others without knowing it. Only 28%
of people with HIV are taking HIV medicine regularly and have their virus
under control. Routine HIV screening is needed to limit the spread of HIV,and to provide individualized therapeutic monitoring of HIV/AIDS patientstreated with antiretrovirals. This year, the world is facing the biggest andmost complex Ebola outbreak in history. Coordinated public health actions
are essential to stop and reverse the spread of Ebola. To stop the spread ofEbola from West Africa and within USA there is an urgent need to screen
large numbers of people to determine whether someone has Ebola andneeds to be treated before developing symptoms and spreading
the disease.

9490-8, Session 2

Early predictive markers of organ injury
and toxicity
Danielle L. Ippolito, U.S. Army Ctr. for Environmental
Health Research (United States); Mohamed D. M.
AbdulHameed, Gregory J. Tawa, BHSAI (United States);
John A. Lewis, U.S. Army Ctr. for Environmental HealthResearch (United States); Christine E. Baer, EXCET, Inc.
(United States); Bonna C. Donald, Oak Ridge Institute for
Science and Education (United States); Anders Wallqvist,
BHSAI (United States); Jonathan D. Stallings, U.S. Army
Ctr. for Environmental Health Research (United States)

9490-6, Session 1

Saliva-based molecular diagnostics of HPV
Jennifer Webster-Cyriaque, The Univ. of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill (United States); William Seaman, Univ. of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill (United States)

Technological solutions are needed to rapidly assess organ injury with rapid,
point-of-care diagnostics. Identifying early predictive markers of multiple
organ injury which can be multiplexed into a portable device for emergency
medical response teams represents a critical barrier to providing thetools needed for early diagnosis. In this study, we describe computational
methods for identifying biomarkers of end organ injury. We present
validation studies in rodents for testing the predictive power of the novel
biomarkers in toxic chemical injury. Biomarkers of drug-induced liver injury
were identified by literature searches and analysis of a large repository ofgene expression data, the DrugMatrix database. Protein and microRNA
levels in plasma or urine were correlated with gene expression levels intissue and/or histopathology (steatosis, fibrosis, inflammation, and necrosis).
Gene, clinical chemistry, microRNA, and protein expression analysis
indicated that panels of liver injury biomarkers of liver injury were better
predictors than single literature-derived indicators alone. The combinationof chemistries—small molecules, proteins, and nucleic acids—coupledwith the differences in biofluid (serum and urine) present challenges fordeveloping multiplexed technologies to detect organ injury.

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are tumorviruses that are shed into oral
secretions. While over 150 different types of HPV have been identified,
HPV16 and 18 are the most common oncogenic types, and HPV6 and 11
are most commonly associated with warts. While other quantitative PCR(qPCR) can be used to detect oncogenic HPV, there was not an assay that
could between these four types that are thought to cause the majority of
HPV-associated disease. A single tube multiplex assay qPCR assay wasdeveloped that allowed distinction, detection and quantitation using typespecific primer pairs and TaqMan probes. A Sybr Green-based qPCR assay
using degenerate primers targeted the conserved E1 region of all HPVs.
qPCR assays were applied in the context of clinical trials to determine theeffect of HIV treatment (ART) on HPV shedding. There was good agreement
between the ability of the qPCR assays to identify HPV types in oral
secretions and with sequenced based results. 19% had at least one subtypeof oral HPV DNA present before starting ART and 25% had at least one
subtype present after ART initiation. Post ART, 20% had a new HPV subtype
present in throat wash that was not identified in the specimens obtained
before initiating ART. 22% of subjects persisted in shedding at least one ofthe prevalent subtypes. These qPCR assays were effective in the evaluationof the consequence of HIV therapy to oral HPV pathogenesis.

Disclaimer: Research was conducted in compliance with the Animal Welfare
Act and all other Federal requirements. The views expressed are those of theauthors and do not constitute endorsement by the US Army. This research
was supported in part by an appointment to the Postgraduate ResearchParticipation Program at the USACEHR administered by the ORISE throughan interagency agreement between the US DOE and USAMRMC.

9490-7, Session 1

Next generation saliva diagnostics: host
response biomarkers for HIV diagnostics

9490-9, Session 2

Detecting biotargets and drugs fromblood, urine and saliva (Invited Paper)

Sarka O. Southern, Gaia Medical Institute (United States);
Jennifer Webster-Cyriaque, The Univ. of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill (United States); Martin Gleeson, Genalyte, Inc.
(United States)

Utkan Demirci, Stanford Univ. School of Medicine (UnitedStates)Our goal is to develop Next Generation rapid disposable tests for priority
infectious diseases such as HIV and Ebola. The Next Generation tests willdetect the pathogen and host response biomarkers in saliva using a simple
point-of-care device. The Next Generation tests will facilitate routine,
stigma-free screening and disease management outside of traditional
healthcare settings, in community clinics and field settings. Based on CDC
statistics, about 1.2 million people in the US are living with HIV. Nearly 1

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Micro/nano-scale technologies provide a notable impact on medicine andbiology in the areas of cell manipulation, regenerative medicine, diagnostics
and monitoring. In our laboratories, we create solutions to address the realworld problems, which are currently observed at the clinical settings. By
focusing on global health problems, in this talk, we will present an overview
of our recent developed platform technologies in point-of-care (POC)·

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Conference 9490: Advances in Global Healththrough Sensing Technologies 2015
and primary care settings for detection, isolation and quantification ofmultiple biotargets such as eukaryotic cells, bacteria, viruses and protein
biomarkers from unprocessed bodily fluids including saliva, urine, whole
blood and serum. For instance, cancer and infectious diseases are theleading causes of death and pose significant burden on global healthcare,
especially in developing countries. In 2008, there were 7.6 million cancer
deaths worldwide, representing 64% of the deaths in developing countries.
Similarly, HIV infects 35 million people, and HIV/AIDS has killed more than
25 million people worldwide. In HIV/AIDS patients, coinfection with otherviruses, such as Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV), can leadto the development of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) tumors, which is the leading
AIDS malignancy. KS frequently occurs in the oral cavity and shed in saliva.
KSHV also is the etiologic agent of primary effusion lymphoma (PEL)and is tightly linked with multicentric Castleman’s disease, an aggressive
lymphoproliferative disorder. Currently, there are no specific or highly
effective treatment options for KS, PEL or multicentric Castleman’s disease.
The development of inexpensive, rapid detection of KSHV from blood andnoninvasive biospecimens such as saliva is important for several reasons.
Further, antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are the mainstay of treatment for
persons with epilepsy (PWE). However, as many as 2 out of 3 PWE sufferfrom recurrent seizures or AED-related side effects. In either case, theoptimization of AED dosages is clinically important and often guided bymeasuring AED serum concentrations. However, there are only lab-based
platforms available. Thus, there is a great need for simple, rapid, reliableand disposable tests for AED measurements that can be performed at thedoctor’s office or by the patient or a family member at home. To addressthese specific clinical and technological challenges, we developed platform
technologies that provide detection limits down to femtogram/mL levelfrom biologically relevant samples as well as saliva samples with a broadlinear dynamic range. Our innovative technologies could direct our future
creating broadly applicable platforms for scientific discovery, providing
clinical solutions for resource-constrained settings in the developing world
as well as for primary care settings in the developed world.

9490-11, Session 2

9490-10, Session 2

9490-12, Session 2

Imaging-based rapid test and assay reader
with trans-visual sensitivity

Optical biosensor technologies formolecular diagnostics at the point-of-care(Invited Paper)

Onur Mudanyali, Neven Karlovac, Holomic (United States)
Rapid diagnostics Tests (i.e., lateral flow and flow through immunoassays)
indicate the presence of the diseases, threats and contamination by color/
contrast changes and variations. Exhibiting important opportunities for
medical and environmental diagnostics applications, these immunoassays
suffer from limited sensitivity (i.e., limit of detection - LOD) and repeatability(i.e., high coefficient of variation - CV). Therefore, their interpretation byhumans and/or digital devices is prone to critical errors. To address thisimportant need for accurate and reliable test evaluation, we developeda smartphone-based reader platform that provides an exceptional
performance, achieving a very low CV (down to 0.1%) and trans-visual
sensitivity to significantly improve the LOD of immunoassays.
The reader utilizes opto-electro-mechanical hardware attachments (e.g., forchromatographic and fluorescent imaging) and a smartphone application
to digitally image, analyze and interpret the assays using a customdeveloped image processing algorithm with dynamic feature extraction
and background estimation. The smartphone attachment, enclosing all
opto-electronics components, enables the necessary illumination andenhancement for high-performance image analysis and also mechanicallyaccommodates the tests/assays without using any external components or
adapters. Moreover, we also developed a software suit (i.e., Holomic Test
Developer) for the technical investigation of assay behavior during the
research and development stages as well as configuration/calibration ofsmartphone readers to work with new test/lot types without any softwareand hardware adaptations.
This digital platform may provide a powerful tool to not only read andinterpret rapid tests and immunoassays but also improve their performance
to a level beyond the ability of human vision.

Multiplex on-chip detection of pathogen
biomarkers in human saliva using silicon
photonic microring resonators
Martin A. Gleeson, Genalyte, Inc. (United States)
Genalyte has developed a silicon photonic chip diagnostics platform(MaverickTM) for rapid detection of multiple biological analytes from adrop of sample. We present here result generated detecting pathogen
antigens, and immune response antibodies in saliva. The core of thetechnology is a silicon microchip, on the surface of which we pattern 64
microscopic ring resonators covered by a single microfluidic channel. The
rings are individually functionalized to bind antigens (to detect infectious
agents or toxins directly), antibodies (to detect immune response), or otherbiomarkers of infection in a sample that is pumped through the channelover the rings. The frequency of each ring’s optical resonance is exquisitely
sensitive to the mass of bound analyte. A laser in the Maverick instrument
interrogates 128 rings (two patient samples) simultaneously to quantify thepresence of analytes. Currently, each assay is performed in quadruplicate,providing 15 multiplexed assays plus 1 control. The chips are packaged into
a consumable cartridge that measures 24 patient samples (for Maverick). A
96 well plate with foil cover holds the reagents for all the tests, including 24
wells with a buffer solution, into which the operator loads the samples. The
user need only collect a few drops of sample, saliva or blood, transfer themto the sample well, insert the measurement cartridge and the well plate
into the unit, and press start. The instrument performs all fluid operations
internally, connecting dedicated probes from the measurement cartridgeto the appropriate wells in the plate and pumping the sample and reagentsthrough the microfluidic channels on the sensor chips as required by theassay protocol.

Joerg M. Schotter, Stefan Schrittwieser, Paul Muellner,
Eva Melnik, Rainer Hainberger, AIT Austrian Institute ofTechnology GmbH (Austria); Guenther Koppitsch, Franz
Schrank, ams AG (Austria); Katerina Soulantika, Sergio
Lentijo-Mozo, Institut National des Sciences Appliquéesde Toulouse (France) and Lab. de Photonique et deNanostructures, CNRS, Univ. de Toulouse (France);
Beatriz Pelaz, Wolfgang J. Parak, Philipps-Univ. Marburg(Germany); Frank Ludwig, Jan Dieckhoff, Technische Univ.
Braunschweig (Germany)
Label-free optical schemes for molecular biosensing hold a strong promisefor point-of-care applications in medical research and diagnostics.
Apart from diagnostic requirements in terms of sensitivity, specificity,and multiplexing capability, also other aspects such as ease of use andmanufacturability have to be considered in order to pave the way to apractical implementation.
We present integrated optical waveguide as well as magnetic nanoparticle
based molecular biosensor concepts that address these aspects. The
integrated optical waveguide devices are based on low-loss photonic
wires made of silicon nitride deposited by a CMOS compatible plasmaenhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) process that allows forbackend integration of waveguides on optoelectronic CMOS chips. The
molecular detection principle relies on evanescent wave sensing in the 0.85µm wavelength regime by means of Mach-Zehnder interferometers, whichenables on-chip integration of silicon photodiodes and, thus, the realizationof system-on-chip solutions.
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Conference 9490: Advances in Global Healththrough Sensing Technologies 2015
dynamic response of functionalized magnetic-core/noble-metal-shell
nanorods (‘nanoprobes’) to an externally applied time-varying magnetic
field. As target molecules specifically bind to the surface of the nanoprobes,
the observed dynamics of the nanoprobes changes, and the concentrationof target molecules in the sample solution can be quantified. This approachis suitable for dynamic real-time measurements and only requires minimal
sample preparation, thus presenting a highly promising point-of-carediagnostic system. To that end, we show comparative measurements for thedetection of the breast cancer biomarker HER2 from both serum andsaliva samples.

amplification and detection through real time PCR. Coping with a massively
increased surface-to-volume ratio leading to a higher amount of unspecificbinding on the chip surface, special additives need to be integrated tocompensate for this effect.
Finally the overall procedure showed a sensitivity comparable to standard
real time PCR but cutting the complete analysis time to significantly lessthan one hour.
The presented work demonstrates that the combination of lab-on-a-chip
PCR with direct read out through optical means in a real time fashion is anextremely promising tool for molecular diagnostics.

9490-29, Session 2

9490-15, Session 3

A systems biology approach to heat stress,
heat injury and heat stoke (Invited Paper)

A graphene-modified cellulose paper
microchip for HIV detection

Jonathan D. Stallings, Danielle L. Ippolito, U.S. Army Ctr.
for Environmental Health Research (United States)

Mohammadali Safavieh, Brigham and Women’s Hospital(United States); Sultan Khetani, Vivasvat Kaul, Brigham
and Women’s Hospital (United States); Daniel R. Kuritzkes,
Hadi Shafiee, Brigham and Women’s Hospital (UnitedStates)Heat illness is a major source of disease non-battle injuries in both deployed
and training settings. Developing tools to help leaders enhance performance
while reducing the risk of injury is paramount. Here, we describe a systems
biology approach to heat stress in order to develop a 3-dimensional (3D)
realistic thermoregulation model, identify the molecular basis of injury,
and characterize associated pathways and biomarkers. We discuss theimplication of our previous work, future directions, and the type of tools thatwill be necessary to enhance force health protection in the future.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) takes the lives of more than 1.5
million people per year and cumulatively has caused more than 39 million
deaths since 1981. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has shown a great promisein effectively controlling HIV worldwide and ART expansion in developing
countries has reduced mortality by more than 5 million deaths. However,achieving long-term ART-free HIV remission or functional cure requires
halting viral replication and eliminating latently infected cellular reservoirs.
Although ART stops ongoing viral replication by blocking non-infectedsusceptible cells from becoming infected, it cannot completely eradicate HIV
as it cannot identify and eliminate cellular reservoirs harboring an integrated
HIV genome that do not produce viral proteins. Accurate detection andelimination of these latent reservoirs is critical as ART can be discontinued
only if these latent cells are completely eradicated. Morphological andstructural changes in the genome structure, cell membrane, and cytoplasm
due to HIV infection may change the electrical fingerprint of latently
infected CD4+ T cells. This change in electrical response of the cells can be a
powerful and sensitive tool to identify and sort these rare reservoirs in whole
blood or tissue samples utilizing microfluidic technology. Our preliminary
results show that the electrical response of cell lines representing latently
viral-infected cells and non-infected cells is significantly different. Early
detection of HIV infection and ART failure through viral load counting is also
another major challenge in HIV management in resource-limited settings.
The current viral load technologies in developed countries are timeconsuming, laboratory-based, expensive, and labor-intensive and cannot
be implemented in developing countries. We have developed biosensing
microchip technologies for virus detection and counting in fingerprickvolume of biological samples including plasma and saliva using electricaland optical modalities.

Disclaimer: Research was conducted in compliance with the Animal Welfare
Act and all other Federal requirements. The views expressed are those of theauthors and do not constitute endorsement by the US Army.

9490-14, Session 3

Lab-on-a-chip enabled HLA diagnostic:
combined sample preparation and realtime PCR for HLA-b27 diagnosis (Invited
Paper)
Claudia Gärtner, Holger Becker, Richard Klemm, SebastianSchattschneider, Nadine Hlawatsch, Christian Moche,
microfluidic ChipShop GmbH (Germany); Rainer Frank,
Andreas Willems, Inno-Train Diagnostik GmbH (Germany)
In case of transplantation, the identification of special metabolic diseases
like coeliac disease or autoimmune diseases HLA (human leucocyte antigen)typing is of interest. The special protein complex HLA-B27 for instance isassociated with autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis on the one
hand side, but also binds very efficiently viral antigens leading e.g. of asignificantly later manifestation of AIDS after the HIV infection of HLA-B27
positive persons compared to HLA-B27 negative ones.
A fast and easy analysis of these samples is of interest, allowing thephysicians a direct diagnosis during one visit at the doctor’s side. This canonly be realized if besides sample taking and the transfer in the analytical
instruments all steps are carried out without manual intervention within alimited amount of time not exceeding 60 minutes, preferably below 45 min.

9490-16, Session 3

Provided this prerequisite a lab-on-a-chip device was realized, enabling afast HLA typing through miniaturized real-time PCR. Starting the analysis
with whole blood, two main process steps are involved, namely the
extraction of DNA from blood, followed by the amplification of the target
DNA by real time PCR combining amplification with direct measuring
leading to a semi-quantitative result.

Peter Miethe, fzmb GmbH (Germany); Claudia Gärtner,
microfluidic ChipShop GmbH (Germany); Dominik Gary,fzmb GmbH (Germany); Nadine Hlawatsch, microfluidic
ChipShop GmbH (Germany)

Rapid detection of ebola virus in
immunofiltration lab on chip system

Diagnostics for ebola virus infection are based mainly on reversetranscription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technology and antigencapture ELISA, which can be supplemented with antibody-detection
assays. These assays are established in national and international referencelaboratories equipped with the necessary biocontainment. However, rapid
and less-sophisticated methods are urgently needed for diagnostics under

For the implementation of this complete process on chip, a sample
preparation and a real time module were used. Sample preparation was
carried out by using magnetic beads that are stored together with lysis
reagents in dry format directly on chip. After clean up through applying
a special buffer regime the DNA was transferred in the PCR module for

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Conference 9490: Advances in Global Healththrough Sensing Technologies 2015
rural or technically demanding conditions in the field.
We developed a rapid, safe and reliable antigen-detection assay for use
with blood and urine samples. The assay is based on the immunofiltration
technology that uses previously characterized EBOV-specific monoclonal
antibodies (MAbs) directed against matrix protein VP40 of all known EBOV
species and that previously had been found to work in a conventional ELISA.
We have integrated all assay steps an lab on chip device. The coreelements are micro porous polyethylene sinterbodies with immobilize
capture antibodies, reference ligands and negative control. The second
antibody is biotin labeled and used for photometric detection of the boundviral antigen by streptavidin–horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and TMB(tetramethylbenzidine). All necessary reagents (conjugates, substrates) arestored in dry form in micro cavities. The lab on chip systems is processedwith a micro pipetting system. Typical assays are performed within 15
minutes. The detection limit achieved for ebola virus is in the order of 102
CFU/m corresponding to 5?103 TICD50.

Low cost molecular diagnostics for cancer
and infectious disease

Steven A Benner, The Westheimer Institute for Scienceand Technology (United States); Hyo-Joong Kim, Firebird
Biomolecular Sciences LLC (United States); Kristen B.
Merritt, Zunyi Yang, D. Chris McLendon, Shuichi Hoshika,
Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution (UnitedStates); Daniel Hutter, Firebird Biomolecular Sciences LLC(United States)

Catherine Klapperich, Boston Univ. (United States)
Recent advances in microfluidic and paperfluidic devices have brought
molecular diagnostics closer to translation into the clinic than ever before.
Many in the field of device and diagnostic design have shifted fromdeveloping novel components to designing whole devices, with an eye
towards usability and robustness. These are positive developments. In ourlaboratory, we integrate several new approaches to make devices for use
in resource limited settings. Our recent work has focused on infectious
diseases including HIV, infectious diarrhea, and other sexually transmitted
infections. A test for HPV, important in the early detection of both cervicalcancer and head and neck cancers is currently under development. I will
present data from this work and a summary of the point-of-care (POC)
diagnostic work funded by the NIBIB Center for Future Technologies inCancer Care (www.bu.edu/cftcc).

Because of its “rule based” pairing (A pairs with T, G with C), DNA appears
to be ideal as a scaffolding for constructing nanostructures, assembling
enzymes for ordered and sequential transformation of organic molecules,
or even for self-assembly of entire genetic constructs, from plasmids
to chromosomes, to explore biomolecular mechanisms in normal anddiseased biological function. Unfortunately, chemical realities make thoserules imperfect, so imperfect that these (and other multiplexed tasks)
simply cannot be done reliably. This talk will describe recent work that
redesigns DNA mitigate various of its chemical imperfections. It will focus
on artificially expanded genetic information systems (AEGIS). AEGIS is a
species of DNA having extra nucleotide “letters” added to the four that arefound naturally in DNA. AEGIS nucleobases pair with geometries closely
similar to those in the standard Watson-Crick pair, but with hydrogenbonding patterns different from (and orthogonal to) hydrogen bonding
patterns that join the natural A:T and G:C pairs. Thus, AEGIS DNA can becopied by engineered DNA polymerases, can support PCR, and can evendirect translation to give proteins with extra amino acid “words”. Recent
work using expanded synthetic DNA to diagnose diseases, assemble
nanostructures, and create large genetic constructs will be discussed.
Further, progress towards creating E. coli cells that are able to manage
artificially expanded genetic alphabets will be described. Together, these
illustrate how a fundamental and molecular re-design of natural living
systems can provide a foundation for a “New Synthetic Biology”.

9490-18, Session 3

PANDAA: rapid sensitive detection ofhighly polymorphic pathogens andquantification of drug resistance
Iain J. MacLeod, Harvard School of Public Health (UnitedStates) and Botswana-Harvard AIDS Institute (Botswana)and Aldatu Biosciences (United States); Christopher F.
Rowley, Harvard School of Public Health (United States)
and Botswana-Harvard AIDS Institute (Botswana) and
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Ctr. (United States); David
M. Raiser, Aldatu Biosciences (United States); M. Essex,
Harvard School of Public Health (United States) and
Botswana-Harvard AIDS Institute (Botswana)9490-20, Session 3

The WHO goal of expanding HIV antiretroviral therapy (ART) access to
15 million people by 2015 could be crippled by increases in acquired andtransmitted HIV drug resistance due to inadequate patient monitoring.
Current resistance testing is cost-prohibitive in low- and middle-income
countries leading to acquisition of additional resistance, further reducing
future therapeutic options. A simple, rapid, and affordable HIV drug
resistance test stands to radically improve this treatment paradigm byfacilitating informed clinical decision-making throughout sub-Saharan Africa.
Targeted point mutation assays (PMAs) – such as quantitative real-time
PCR (qPCR) – offer one such possible approach to drug resistance testing.
However, PMAs are significantly constrained by the presence of secondary
mutations (i.e. proximal nucleotide changes unrelated to the mutationof interest) that are frequently found in highly polymorphic pathogens.

SPIE DSS 2015

9490-19, Session 3

Next-generation DNA in pathogen
detection, surveillance, and CLIA-waivablediagnostics

9490-17, Session 3

372

Previous attempts to use probe-based qPCR to detect single nucleotidechanges associated with drug resistance have failed due to the highly
polymorphic nature of HIV. Pan Degenerate Amplification and Adaptation(PANDAA) enables qPCR to be used for sensitive, high-throughput
HIV genotypic resistance testing in a subtype-independent manner. By
adapting the probe-binding site in the HIV genome, thereby compensating
for secondary mutations that would otherwise abrogate probe binding,
PANDAA can overcome the long-standing technical challenges associatedwith the genomic variability of highly polymorphic pathogens. By adapting
qPCR for routine HIV drug resistance diagnostics for the first time, PANDAA
represents a significant advancement that allows the simultaneous detectionof multiple drug resistance mutations with considerable speed, sensitivity,and cost advantages over existing methods.

·

The Ad5 [E1-, E2b-]-based Vector: A New
and Versatile Gene Delivery Platform
Frank Jones, Etubics Corporation (United States);
Elizabeth Gabitzsch, Etubics Corp. (United States); Joseph
P Balint Jr., Etubics Corporation (United States)
Recombinant vectors have been used in the settings of gene therapy,
vaccination and immunotherapy but have encountered experimental
and clinical challenges because they are recognized as foreign entities.
Immunologic host recognition leads to a clearance of the vectors resulting
in mitigation of the vaccination outcome. We have reported on a newvector platform, Ad5 [E1-, E2b-], an improved Ad5 vector which can deliver

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Conference 9490: Advances in Global Healththrough Sensing Technologies 2015
HBA technology enables detection of binding activities such as antigenantibody binding. Thus, highly sensitive and easy-to-use immunoassays canalso be developed using the HBA technology.

multiple disease gene targets. This vector platform can be utilized as an
immunization modality to induce immune responses even in the presenceof Ad5 immunity. At present we are focused on the immunization of andtreatment of difficult to treat diseases. We have reported on immunizationand immunotherapy of multiple infectious diseases such as HIV, influenza
and various cancers. In a Phase I/II study employing Ad5 [E1-, E2b-]-CEA
which expresses a modified carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA(6D)) transgene
we treated patients with colorectal cancer. CEA-specific CMI responses wereobserved despite the presence of pre-existing Ad5 immunity. The medianoverall-survival of the patients treated was an encouraging 11 months. We
have also reported on our Ad5 [E1-, E2b-]-E6/E7 immunotherapy in an
HPV induced cancer model which induced immune responses and tumor
clearance. HIV infected individuals have a high incidence of HPV induced
cancers. Our Ebola and universal influenza vaccines are under developmentwith encouraging results. The Ad5 [E1-, E2b-] platform is an improved vector
technology with broad vaccination and immunotherapeutic application
which holds promise in the treatment and prevention of many difficult totreat disease targets.

9490-23, Session 3

Advances in global health through sensing
technologies
Jonathan C. Claussen, Iowa State Univ. (United States)
Diabetics are prone to having their blood sugar levels drop during exercise
causing hypoglycemia. This sudden drop in blood glucose levels is difficult
to self-diagnosis as fatigue and sweating, which are typical signs of
hypoglycemia, are also common results of rigorous exercise. Therefore
such rigorous exercise could lead diabetics to a severe hypoglycemic state,
which can cause mental confusion, unconsciousness, or even seizures. In
order to prevent severe hypoglycemia and help diabetics maintain theirblood glucose levels during exercise, we have developed a printable-based
glucose biosensor that can be incorporated into elastic bands and otherclothing apparel. The electrodes of the glucose biosensor are comprised ofgraphene-based inks that are ink jet printed onto flexible clothing apparel.
Enzymes are functionalized onto the graphene inks to functionalize theelectrodes for selective glucose sensing. The sensitivity of the printed
circuit to glucose is analyzed as well as the durability of the biosensor
during flexed and un-flexed scenarios. These results demonstrate thatelectrochemical glucose biosensors could potentially be incorporated into
clothing so that diabetics could non-invasively and continuously monitor
their blood glucose levels during exercise. Furthermore, the use of ink jet
printed inks circumvents the cost associated with conventional electrodedesigns that utilize photolithography to pattern surfaces with metal layers
and chemical vapor deposition to grow graphene.

9490-21, Session 3

Nanopore sensing technology for single
molecule and single cell analysis
MinJun Kim, Drexel Univ. (United States)
Solid state nanopores were developed almost a decade ago as an alternative
to protein nanopores for next-generation sequencing of DNA molecules. In
recent years, however, they have drawn significant attention as an analytical
tool to study other nanoscale analytes. Compared to biological nanopores,
solid-state nanopores are more robust and can be tuned in size andgeometry to meet various requirements for a wide range of applications.
A size scale that spans from single macro-molecules (<10 nm) to singleparticle viruses (50-200 nm) and even single-cell microorganisms suchas bacteria (1 - 2 µm) makes solid-state nanopores a powerful analytical
tool for single-particle, single-molecule or single-cell research. In fact,nanopore can provide a unique opportunity to bridge the gap between
single-molecule and single-cell research. In this presentation, we first review
micro/nano-fabrication techniques to achieve a wide range of pore size andgeometry and then discuss applications in sensing and biophysical analysis
of single-molecules and single cells. Particularly, we will review our recent
works on single-protein research including protein binding and proteinprotein interactions as well as single-virus research for sensing humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) and study biophysical deformation of single
viruses as they translocate through the pore.

9490-24, Session PTue

Differential excitation spectroscopy for
detection of industrial chemicals: benzene
and chlorinated solvents
Boyd V. Hunter, Jason M. Cox, Kestrel Corp. (UnitedStates); Michael A. Miller, Robert A. McIntosh, Southwest
Research Institute (United States); Paul Harrison, William P.
Walters, Kestrel Corp. (United States)
Differential Excitation Spectroscopy (DES) is a new pump-probe detection
technique which characterizes molecules based on a multi-dimensionalparameterization of the rovibrational excited state structure, pump andprobe interrogation frequencies, as well as the lifetimes of the excited states.
Under appropriate conditions, significant modulation of the ground state
can result. DES results provide a unique, simple mechanism to validate andunderstand various molecules in support of relevant science. In addition, theDES multi-dimensional parameterization provides an identification signaturethat is highly unique and has demonstrated high levels of immunity frominterferents, providing significant practical value for high-specificity
material identification.

9490-22, Session 3

Homogeneous biochemiluminescenceassays for point of care use
X. James Li, Cellex, Inc. (United States)
An ideal diagnostic test for point of care use should be rapid, simple,
easy-to-use, sensitive, specific and still affordable. It has been a challenge
to develop assay technologies, which enable the development of
POC tests that would meet all of these attributes. The homogeneous
biochemiluminescence assay (HBA) technology was developed and used
to develop several POC tests, including the QFlu Combo Test, which cansimultaneously detect influenza virus and its resistance to Tamiflu, and QAR
Test, which can detect antibiotic resistance of bacterial species caused bybeta lactamase and its resistance to beta lactamase inhibitors. These POC
tests are rapid (about 15 minutes), sensitive (femtomolar level), specificand affordable.

Benzene and various chlorinated solvents have been used as degreasing
agents in many industrial and military facilities and have often contaminatedgroundwater and been dispersed from their original locations by plumes
in the groundwater. The vapors from these solvents then show up underpreviously uncontaminated facilities. A current challenge is to provide
continuous monitoring of vapors in potentially contaminated facilities toensure workplace safety. A DES gas-phase testbed was constructed and abinitio modeling calculations were performed on benzene, dichloroethylene,
trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethane, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride;
subsequent validation demonstrated the very specific DES responses to be
used to provide the signatures needed for continuous monitoring as well as
to establish limits of detection for the technique.

The HBA uses the well-known luciferin/luciferase system for detectionof enzyme activities and resistance to enzyme inhibitors. We designed
luciferin-containing substrates specific for marker enzymes. In the presenceof the marker enzyme, the luciferin is freed and becomes a substrate ofluciferase, leading to production of detectable light signal. A variation of the

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Conference 9490: Advances in Global Healththrough Sensing Technologies 2015

9490-26, Session PTue

9490-28, Session PTue

Sensors for isolation of anti-cancer
compounds found within marine
invertebrates

Early detection and monitoring of malaria

Gordon W. Wiegand, Amanda C. LaRue, Medical Univ. ofSouth Carolina (United States)
Highly evolved bacteria living within immobile marine animals are being
targeted as a source of antitumor pharmaceuticals. This paper describes 2
electo-optical sensor systems developed for identifying species of tunicatesand actinobacteria that live within them. Two stages of identification
include 1) a benthic survey apparatus to locate species and 2) a laboratory
housed cell analysis platform used to classify their bacterial micro-biome.
Marine Optics Sampling- There are over 2000 species of Tunicates thatthrive in diverse habitats. We use a system of cameras, GPS and the GPS/photo integration application on a PC laptop to compile a time / location
stamp for each image taken during the dive survey. A shape-map of x/ycoordinates of photos are stored for later identification and sampling.
Bacteria flow cytometry-Low noise circuitry is applied to sensor optics todetect a full range of bacteria extracted from invertebrates and presented
to a specialized flow cytometer. A laser beam is focused by cross-cylindricallenses to form an elliptic spot on the cell / laser intercept. Light scatteris detected at 3 different angles by applying a system of transfer optics
and photomultiplier sensors at 1-5°, 35° and 90° from the optical axis.
Fluorescence is also measured on a cell- by- cell bases to determine thepresence of chlorophyll, accessory pigments and DNA. Pulses originatingfrom these parameters are processes in parallel and displayed in a 3
dimensional cloud. Patterns are established for various bacterial species
isolated from mapped invertebrates. Confirmation and enrichmentof Actiniobacteria is done by electrostatically sorting for microscopic
examination and multispectral analysis.

Mohammed Z. Rahman, LaGuardia Community College(United States); Leonid Roytman, The City College of
New York (United States); Abdelhamid Kadik, LaGuardia
Community College (United States); Dilara A. Rosy, Univ.
of Dhaka (Bangladesh)
Global Earth Observation Systems of Systems (GEOSS) are bringing vitalsocietal benefits to people around the globe. In this research article, we
engage undergraduate students in the exciting area of space exploration to
improve the health of millions of people globally. The goal of the proposed
research is to place students in a learning environment where they willdevelop their problem solving skills in the context of a world crisis (e.g.,malaria). Malaria remains one of the greatest threats to public health,particularly in developing countries. The World Health Organization has
estimated that over one million die of Malaria each year, with more than 80%of these found in Sub-Saharan Africa. The mosquitoes transmit malaria. They
breed in the areas of shallow surface water that are suitable to the mosquito
and parasite development. These environmental factors can be detectedwith satellite imagery, which provide high spatial and temporal coverageof the earth’s surface. We investigate on moisture, thermal and vegetationstress indicators developed from NOAA operational environmental satellite
data. Using these indicators and collected epidemiological data, it ispossible to produce a forecast system that can predict the risk of malaria
for a particular geographical area with up to four months lead time. Thisvaluable lead time information provides an opportunity for decision
makers to deploy the necessary preventive measures (spraying, treated net
distribution, storing medications and etc) in threatened areas with maximum
effectiveness. The main objective of the proposed research is to study theeffect of ecology on human health and application of NOAA satellite data
for early detection of malaria.

9490-27, Session PTue

Space medical applications of optical 3D
scanning
Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States); Atif
F. Mohammad, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
This paper considers the utility of 3D scanning in space. In begins byproviding an overview of human-size 3D scanning technologies, including
their current (limited) use by medical professionals on Earth and how they
support science, art and other focus areas. A low-cost and lightweight
optical 3D scanner developed and deployed at the University of North
Dakota is presented as a model for how a 3D scanner could be deployedon a spacecraft or the International Space Station to support telemedicine
for assessing astronauts’ health and for performing scientific experiments(involving astronauts and/or inanimate objects). The types of disorders
which could be detected or assessed using a 3D scanner are discussed andthe value of the 3D scanner in both preventative medicine and treatment
is considered. Mass, volume, power consumption, bandwidth utilization,
cost and space utilization are considered in light of the astronaut healthbenefits and, then, in the context of using the system for astronaut healthmonitoring, human experiments, non-human experiments and spacestation (or experiment, etc.) maintenance. The use of the optical 3D
scanning technology is compared to other approaches (blue light and laser
scanning) in light of these key metrics. Multiple scenarios for scanner use
are presented and assessed, including responding to an acute injury andthe monitoring of muscles over time during the mission. From this, it isconcluded that the 3D scanner would provide comparatively high benefit at
low monetary, mass, volume, power and data costs. We also consider how
the 3D scanner could be utilized to enable outreach activities via capturing
imagery and CAD models of objects in microgravity.

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Conference 9491:
Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II
Wednesday - Thursday 22–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9491 Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II

9491-15, Session 1

as well as surmounting future integration challenges. Recent work will be
detailed which shows the implementation of plasmonic based sensing arraysfor the detection of emission gases. Coupled with these recent studies isthe novel design of plasmonic arrays that are being developed for theirenergy harvesting capabilities. First of a kind studies will be detailed onthese structures that include their energy harvesting characteristics andsubsequent detection of emission gases without the need of an external
excitation source. Potentiometric oxygen sensors based on yttria-stabilized
zirconia are the most extensively used gas sensor in the combustion
industry, used for controlling fuel injection in gasoline-powered vehicles andoptimizing combustion in coal-fired power plants. Currently, the dimensionsof these sensor systems range from 10cm to meters, and need access to air,thus limiting their size and placement. MEMS procedures used for producing
millimeter sized potentiometric gas sensors with the necessary technicaland cost attributes required for use within combustion applications will
be detailed.

Analysis of the coupling optical fiber
ultrasonic sensor for partial discharges
detection
Fengmei F. Li, Yiying Liu, Linjie Wang, Chen Yu, Xi’an
Jiaotong Univ. (China)
Abstract: Reliable operation of power apparatus is required for efficient
power system. Insulation failure is one of the major causes of catastrophic
failure of power system. It is established that partial discharge (PD) causes
insulation degradation and premature failure of insulation. So it is important
to detect PDs in electrical equipment. Fiber optic sensors with some uniquemerits including electromagnetic interference immunity, lightweight andgood insulation are getting more and more attention in PDs detection basedon acoustic emission technology.

9491-2, Session 2

In this paper, a coupling optical fiber ultrasonic sensor with fusedtapered coupling structure which can be used to detect partial discharge
phenomenon of high voltage power equipment were theoretically andexperimentally analyzed. One input light is divided into two unchanged
output parts, while passes through a typical coupling optical fiber ultrasonicsensor with a thin waist and two tapered sections. When an acoustic wave
impinges on this sensor, the effective length of coupling zone and thestress distribution is changed according to strain effect. These changes
can then cause the variation of the coupling optical power of the sensor
in our analysis, the coupling of the ‘taper transition’ region as well as the‘couple waist’ region were both considered, in order to make the coupling
principle of the coupling optical fiber sensor more accurate. The finite
element method was applied to further analyze the relationships between
the strain and the structure parameters of the sensor. The model wasestablished by a series of geometrical equations, which were deduced todescribe the realistic coupler structure including the ‘degree of fusion’, the‘shape of taper’, and the ‘shape of waist’. The simulation results demonstratethat the structure parameters and stress distribution of the sensor play animportant role in the sensing mechanism. Consequently, the performanceof the fiber sensor in terms of its frequency response and the sensitivity
can be improved by optimizing the structure parameters of the couplingregion. Then according to the theoretical analysis, an optical fiber sensor
was fabricated and the acoustic emission of PD detection experiment was
carried out.

Growth and morphology of lead tin
selenide for MWIR detectors
Christopher Cooper, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States); Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States); Bradley Arnold, Lisa Kelly,
Fow-Sen Choa, Narsingh B. Singh, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
No Abstract Available

9491-3, Session 2

Atomic layer deposited passivation films
for AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility
radiation dosimeters
Ateeq J. Suria, Stanford Univ. (United States); Chetan
Angadi, Sharmila Bhattacharya, NASA Ames Research Ctr.
(United States); Debbie G. Senesky, Stanford Univ. (UnitedStates)Experiments results show that the bandwidth of the sensor was in the rangeof 10 kHz up to 2MHz. Therefore, it is obvious that the performance of thisfiber optic ultrasonic sensor was significantly superior to other conventionalpiezoelectric-based sensors in partial discharge detection.

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) of thin films has gained interest by thesemiconductor industry due to their high quality (continuous and pinholefree) gate dielectric thin films and precise thickness control to the angstromlevel. Thus ALD is a candidate approach for creating gate dielectrics with
precise thickness, quality control as well as radiation-tolerance. Widebandgap material platforms are an attractive option for developmentof total ionizing dose (TID) radiation dosimeters due to their radiation
hardness and thermal stability, which is a direct result of their large bandgap(3.4 eV) and high atomic bond energy (8.92 eV/atom). Current radiation
dosimeters are limited to operation at room temperature, have limited
accuracy and sensitivity. Thus these devices are prone to failure in harshenvironments (high temperature, high radiation) and require complex, bulky,
and expensive packaging. Thus, gallium nitride (GaN) is an attractive option
for developing radiation dosimeters. By utilizing the electrical response of
two dimensional electron gas (2DEG) at the AlGaN/GaN interface to ionizing
radiation such as gamma radiation, highly sensitive radiation dosimeters
can be developed. This paper presents TID sensing devices fabricated with
ALD gate dielectric films on AlGaN/GaN HEMT structures exposed to a
total ionizing dose levels up to 2 MRad from a Co-60 source without any
shielding. The response of the devices is compared with similar devices
fabricated without ALD dielectric thin films. Additionally, the current voltage

9491-1, Session 2

Harsh environment compatible chemicalsensors: plasmonics and electrochemical
device principles
Michael A. Carpenter, SUNY College of Nanoscale Scienceand Engineering (United States)
Metal oxide nanomaterials have served as a foundation for chemical sensor
development studies for nearly 20yrs. Recent work has shown that thesurface plasmon resonance band of gold nanomaterials embedded inmetal oxide heterostructure films is used both as an energy harvesting
device structure as well as an optical beacon for the detection of emission
gases, CO, NO2 and H2, at temperatures ranging between 500 and 800oC.
Challenges for their detection include high levels of sensitivity, the selective
detection of the gas of interest within a catalytically active environment

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Conference 9491:
Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II(I-V) response of the devices will be investigated after using thermal
annealing at temperatures up to 200°C to heal the dosimeters.

9491-4, Session 2

Solar cells for harsh environments uses
based on InGaN/GaN multiple quantum
wells
Der-Hsien Lien, Yu-Hsuan Hsiao, Shih-Guo Yang, Si-Chen
Lee, National Taiwan Univ. (Taiwan); Jr-Hau He, King
Abdullah Univ. of Science and Technology (Saudi Arabia)
Harsh electronics is an emerging field aiming at the promotion of device
capability and applicability in harsh environments, including the extremesof pressure, vibration, and chemically corrosive environments. For practicaluses, harsh electronic systems are required to be self-powered and operated
independently because their working environments are usually inaccessible
for human. In general cases, sunlight is one of the most suitable energy
sources due to the absence of resources in harsh terrains. However, aharsh environment-sustainable solar cell is still deficient, because mostsemiconductor photovoltaic (PV) devices suffer serious degradation underhigh temperatures (volcanos, outer space, planet’s orbits and near-sun
missions) and long-term radiation exposure (cosmic rays, upper layers of
the atmosphere, military and civil nuclear facilities). The performance loss inhigh-temperature environments is due to the narrowing of bandgap whileelevating the temperature, which leads to a severe decrease of open-circuit
voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF), resulting in an overall degradation ofefficiency. For example, the efficiencies of crystalline Si and GaAs solar
cells are reduced by ~0.45% and ~0.21% for every degree increase at thetemperatures higher 40 °C, respectively. In addition, under long-term
radiation exposure, the high-energy particles deteriorate the performanceof solar cells over time and eventually result in failure/reset. Although
off-pointing technology, active cooling techniques, and passivationfrom radiation are possible approaches, a reliable PV operation in hightemperature regimes with high radiation resistance is still demanded.
In this study, we explore InGaN/GaN MQW high-temperature solar cellswith superior radiation tolerance promising to harsh-environments/space
applications for the first time. Different from conventional solar cells,
short-circuit current (Jsc) and FF of MQW solar cells remarkably increase
with temperature due to the implementation of GaN-based materials and
MQWs, which results in a significant improvement in efficiency at 700 K.
Moreover, the PV devices retain the initial performance at room temperature
after high-temperature operation without failures or thermal breakdowns.
Under high-energy proton irradiation, the devices exhibit a slow degradationcompared to conventional solar cells, demonstrating a predicted lifetime of>30 years under solar proton storm. This study paves the way for InGaN/
GaN MQW solar cells to harvest energy efficiently under extremely harsh(hot/radiative) environments.

9491-5, Session 2

Irradiation effects of grapheneenhanced gallium nitride (GaN) metalsemiconductor-metal (MSM) ultraviolet
photodetectors

Investigation of the optical and sensing
characteristics of nanoparticle arrays forhigh temperature applications
Gnanaprakash Dharmalingam, Michael A. Carpenter, SUNY
College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering (UnitedStates)Monitoring polluting gases such as CO and NOx emitted from gas turbines
in power plants and aircraft is important, in order to both reduce the effectsof such gases on the environment as well as to optimize the performanceof the respective power system. Fuel cost savings as well as a reduced
environmental impact can be realized if air traffic utilized next generation
jet turbines with a emission/performance control sensing system. These
monitoring systems must be sensitive and selective to gases and reliable
and stable under harsh environmental conditions where the operation
temperatures are in excess of 500C within a highly reactive environment.
In this work, plasmonics based chemical sensors with nanocomposites ofa combination of gold nano particles and Yttria Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ)
has enabled the sensitive (PPM) and stable detection (100s of hrs) of H2,
NO2 and CO at temperatures of 500 C. Selectivity remains a challenging
parameter to optimize and a layer by layer sputter deposition approachhas been recently demonstrated to modify the resulting sensing properties
through a change in the morphology of the deposited films. It is expectedthat further enhancements would be realized through control of the shapeand geometry of the catalytically active Au nanoparticles. This level ofcontrol has been realized through the use of electron beam lithography tofabricate nanocomposite arrays. Sensing results towards the detection of H2will be highlighted with specific concerns related to optimization of thesenanorod arrays detailed.

Wireless photonic power and data transfer
to dormant devices
Harbans S. Dhadwal, Jahangir Rastegar, Dake Feng, Philip
Kwok, Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States)

Ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors are used for applications such as flame
detection, space navigation, biomedical and environmental monitoring.
Oftentimes, the extremes of temperatures, radiation, salinity and/or
corrosive chemicals require sensor materials that can withstand suchharsh environments and function reliably. For example, a sun sensor uses
UV light to assist with determination of spacecraft orientation and may
be exposed to both ionizing radiation and extreme temperature swings.

SPIE DSS 2015

9491-6, Session 2

9491-7, Session 2

Heather C. Chiamori, Ruth Miller, Ateeq J. Suria, Nicholas
Broad, Debbie G. Senesky, Stanford Univ. (United States)

376

Gallium nitride is an ideal device material platform with a wide bandgap(3.4 eV) enabling room temperature operation and visible-blindness,
tunable cutoff wavelength selection based on ternary alloy mole fraction,high current density, thermal/chemical stability and radiation hardness
due to the strength of the chemical bond. For this study, GaN-based
MSM photodetector architecture consists of conductive interdigitatedelectrodes fabricated on thin film GaN-on-sapphire substrates. The
electrodes and semiconductor substrate serve as back-to-back Schottky
contacts. While robust, MSM photodetectors are typically subject totopside illumination losses due to the opacity of metal electrodes, which
can reduce symmetric device active area by 50 percent. Studies haveshown improved MSM photodetector performance using semi-transparent
or transparent electrodes. Graphene, with outstanding electrical, opticaland mechanical properties and a flat absorption spectrum from 300 to
2,500 nm, has potential use as a transparent conductor for GaN-based
MSM photodetectors. The graphene-enhanced MSM UV photodetectors arefabricated with the graphene acting as the metal portion of the device. The
MSM UV photodetector properties and behavior are studied after exposure
to ionizing radiation using a UV light source under ambient and irradiatedconditions (Co-60).

Need exists for untethered transmission of electrical power and data toremote devices and sensors, with some imposing additional time andenvironmental constraints. Several solutions exist, including electromagnetic
induction and radiation. Here we focus on the use of photonic power which
is an optimized optical to electrical conversion solution, used for both
wireless and guided transmission. High photonic conversion efficiencies,·

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Conference 9491:
Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II
power line produced by freezing rain have been identified by monitoringstrain on an OPGW with 140km optical fiber. Variation of strain between
day and night on the OPGW cable can be exploited, used to accurately
model the environmental heating and cooling of the OPGW, and pro-rated
for the conductor under earth. The fiber types at high gamma doses that
represent the harsh environment constraints associated with the consideredapplication have been investigated by the coherent probe-pump-based
Brillouin sensor. The dose dependence of the radiation-induced attenuation(RIA) of optical fibers in the 1 to 10 MGy dose range shows that the
responses strongly depend on the fiber composition.

approaching 50% have been demonstrated for wavelength matchedlaser diodes and photovoltaic cells. Typically, each a 2 mm diameter cellis capable of producing 500 mW of electrical power, under continuous
illumination with a 1 W laser diode. For higher output powers, multiple
cells can be combined or a single larger area PV cells can be used, both
approaches have been commercialized. However, these existing solutions
do not meet the needs of rapid, one-time energy transfer to remote devices,such as munition shells prior to launch.
We report on the design and fabrication of a 16 PV cell array that provides
power and data transfer to a munition shell, when illuminated by a clusterof laser diodes. The power beam and the PPC cell array are also utilized toestablish a communication link, the speed of which is determined by the
PPC rise time. Fast energy transfer time is obtained through the use of an
optimized illumination profile, together with a switched inductor circuit for
charge transfer to a super capacitor.

9491-10, Session 3

Potential of commercial single-mode
optical fibers as distributed sensors forhigh temperature measurement with PPPBOTDA

9491-8, Session 3

Characterization and calibration of Raman
based distributed temperature sensing
system for 600C operation

Yi Bao, Yizheng Chen, Fujian Tang, Weina Meng, Genda
Chen, Missouri Univ. of Science and Technology (UnitedStates)

Sudeep Mandal, Boon Kwee Lee, Sachin Dekate, Renato
Guida, GE Global Research (United States); Marc
Goranson, Jerome Ybema, Suncor Energy Products, Ltd.
(Canada)Cost effective ways of measuring high temperatures and temperature
distributions in large-scale energy production and infrastructure systems
are quite desirable in civil, defense, oil and gas applications. In this study,a single-mode optical fiber is used as a distributed sensor to measuretemperatures up to 1000ºC. The optical fiber was protected by a heat
resistant glass tube with inside and outside diameters of 4 mm and 8mm, respectively. The glass tube was monotonously heated at a thermal
gradient of 8°C/min until 1000°C, and then was monotonously cooled toroom temperature (22°C) in a thermostatic chamber. The distribution of
Brillouin frequency shifts along each fiber were measured by a commerciallyavailable Neubrescope (Model NBX-7020) at different temperatures withpulse pre-pump Brillouin optical time domain analysis (PPP-BOTDA). A
parabolic regression equation was developed to characterize the nonlinear
thermo-optic effect through the change of Brillouin frequency. The
accuracy of temperature measurement is ±2°C. The coefficients in theparabolic equation have been determined experimentally. The measurement
repeatability and spatial resolution are ±1°C and 4 cm, respectively. The
optical fiber sensor is stable at 800°C for 4 hours. Further works will bedirected to investigate measurement potentials and structural behaviors up
to 1000 °C for 4 hours.

Fiber optic distributed temperature sensing based on Raman scattering oflight in optical fibers has become a very attractive solution for distributed
temperature sensing (DTS) applications. The Raman scattered signal isindependent of strain within the fiber, enabling simple packaging solutions
for fiber optic temperature sensors while simultaneously improving
accuracy and robustness of temperature measurements due to the lackof strain-induced errors in these measurements. Furthermore, the Raman
scattered signal increases in magnitude at higher fiber temperatures,
resulting in an improved SNR for high temperature measurements. Most
Raman DTS instruments and fiber sensors are designed for operation up to
approximately 300˚C.
We will present our work in demonstrating high temperature calibration ofa Raman DTS system using both Ge doped and pure silica core multi-mode
optical fiber. We will demonstrate the tradeoffs involved in using each typeof fiber for high temperature measurements. In addition, we will describe
the challenges of measuring large temperature ranges (0 – 600˚C) witha single DTS interrogator and will demonstrate the need to customize theinterrogator electronics and detector response in order to achieve reliable
and repeatable high temperature measurements across a wide
temperature range.

9491-11, Session 4

Optical sensors for harsh environment
applications
Rachit Sharma, GE Global Research (India); Sandip Maity,
GE Global Research (India) and GE India Technology
Centre Pvt Ltd (India); Anish Bekal, Sameer Vartak, Arun
K. Sridharan, Chayan Mitra, GE India Technology Centre
Pvt. Ltd. (India)

9491-9, Session 3

Coherent probe-pump-based Brillouinsensor for harsh environments
L. F. Zou, OZ Optics Ltd. (Canada)

In this past decade, industrial sectors of power generation and oil & gas,
have seen a steady increase in the demand for lower costs, fuel savings,
better efficiency, and longer asset life. As a result, higher reliability,
optimized performance, and advanced analytics will be the key drivers inthese sectors in the coming decade. Intelligent machines with fast & reliable
online sensing and controls, in combination with advanced analytics, areleading to a profound transformation of the global industrial sector. Manya times, true performance enhancement requires measurement of machineparameters in harsh environments (high pressures or temperatures orboth). Therefore, to support the development of advanced analytics and toaugment the industrial assets with digital intelligence, harsh environment
sensors are going to be increasingly important in the times to come.

A coherent probe-pump-based Brillouin sensor with less than 1mW cw
pump power by controlling depletion of the pump beam resulting fromthe strong coherent interaction of the pump and the probe has beendeveloped. The sensor has been used for some harsh environments, suchas leakage detection of oil and gas pipeline, monitoring of thunderstorms
and rime ice on electricity power line, and monitoring of nuclear waste
repository. The small leakage with the injection pressure of 22 psi and thetemperature difference of 22°F between the line temperature and the soil
temperature has been detected in five minutes after a leakage happened
through 1/8” orifice and the temperature change caused by the leakage
increased with time during 15 minutes leakage operating. The use of
these results to monitor pipeline leakage and to avoid false alarm in realapplication is discussed. The effects of thunderstorms and rime ice on the

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Optical sensors are highly promising for harsh environment applications·

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Conference 9491:
Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II
because they offer some key advantages over conventional techniques,
such as their speed of response, in-situ capability, ease of deployment, andtheir repeatability/reliability. In addition, by using lasers, one can effectively
remove the error contribution due to the measurement system interaction
with the process, hence enabling high specificity and selectivity. Some major
parameters which are often used for monitoring and control applicationsin industrial assets are temperature, pressure, species concentrations, andflows. Laser based techniques, as demonstrated in literature [1], can beused to measure all of these parameters over a variety of temperatureand pressure ranges inaccessible by conventional sensors. Sensor systems
based on tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy, particle imaging
velocimetry, laser-induced fluorescence techniques are capable of providing
in-situ measurement of temperature, pressure, and flow with fast responsetime [2-4]. Infra-red camera and SiC based optical emission sensors
provide monitoring of process dynamics [5]. A desired harsh environment
application of optical sensing is gas analysis. In this paper, the authors
present systems based on tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy aseffective and reliable tools to carry our real-time, highly selective, in-situ
trace gas analysis. The authors present the measurement capabilities andimplementation challenges of these systems towards serving as possible
solutions to key industrial problems.
[References]:
1. N. Docquier, S. Candel, “Combustion control and sensors: a review”, Prog.
Energy and Comb. Sci. 28 (2002) 107-150

Predominantly these systems have been developed for the oil and gas
industry to assist reservoir engineers in optimising the well lifetime.
Nowadays these systems find a wide variety of applications as integrity
monitoring tools in process vessels, storage tanks and piping systems
offering the operator tools to schedule maintenance programs andmaximize service life. Results from field deployments will be presented.

Planetary atmospheres minor species
sensor balloon flight test to near space

3. A. Farooq, J. B. Jeffries, R. K. Hanson, “In-situ combustion measurementof H2O and temperature near 2.5?m using tunable diode laser absorption”,
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 075604 – 075615

Robert E. Peale, Christopher J. Fredricksen, Andrei V.
Muraviev, Douglas Maukonen, Univ. of Central Florida(United States); Hajrah M Quddusi, Univ of Central Florida(United States); Seth Calhoun, Joshua E. Colwell, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States); Timothy A Lachenmeier,Russell G Dewey, Near Space Corporation (United States);
Alan Stern, Sebastian Padilla, Rolfe Bode, World View
Enterprises (United States)

4. M. Lackner (Ed), “Lasers in chemistry”, Vol. 1, Wiley (2008), ISBN 978-3527-31997-8

9491-12, Session 4

Analysis of the acoustic response in waterand sand of different fiber optic sensing
cablesJoachim Hofmann, Brugg Kabel AG (Switzerland);
Massimo Facchini, Kabelwerke Brugg AG Holding(Switzerland)
Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) is a highly promising technology toefficiently monitor assets for energy production and transportation, bothoff- and on-shore, such as boreholes, pipelines and risers.
The aim of the hereby-presented measurements is to evaluate the sensitivityof the different optical fiber cables to acoustic signals in sand and water,
independently from the DAS read-out unit type and manufacturer. Acoustic
sensing cables specifically designed by BRUGG Cables are characterized andcompared to standard telecommunication cables. The spectral response ofeach cable was quantified using an all-fiber Mach-Zehnder Interferometer.
The response was also measured with calibrated microphones in order
to convert the measurements into absolute physical units (Pascal). The
measurement campaign is part of an investigation program for a reliable
DAS system, which comprises the sensing cable (including installation
procedure), the interrogator unit and suitable software.

9491-13, Session 4

The Planetary Atmospheres Minor Species Sensor (PAMSS) is an intracavity
laser absorption spectrometer that uses a mid-infrared quantum cascadelaser in an open external cavity for sensing ultra-trace gases and vapors.
The system consists of optical and electronics subsystems for a combined
weight under 10 kg including batteries. The laser operates at 8.1 micron
wavelength in the molecular fingerprint region of the spectrum and had
been calibrated to have parts-per-billion sensitivity. An environmental test
chamber enabled pre-flight laboratory testing in near-space conditionsof temperatures below -60 C and pressures below 10 mbar. PAMSS was
integrated into a balloon gondola operated by Near Space Corporation(Tillamook OR) and achieved flight objectives by maintaining an altitude
higher than 27.4 km for at least 10 minutes on 17 July 2014. Successes
included continuous operation and survival of software, electronics, optics,
laser, and optical alignment during the extreme conditions of flight and ahard landing. Operation of PAMSS in the relevant environment of near space
has elevated the Technical Readiness Level to 6. These results demonstrate
the potential of PAMSS as a future local trace-gas sensor for operation inharsh environments in the search for life and resources on planetary bodies.
Promise is also indicated for atmospheric science on such bodies, including
Earth, and including questions of global warming and pollution. PAMSS mayfind additional application in local calibration and validation of results fromorbit-based remote sensing instruments.

9491-16, Session 4

Optical fiber distributed temperature anddistributed acoustic sensing for remoteand harsh environments

Optical fiber reliability in subsea
monitoring
Kaustubh Nagarkar, Victor Ostroverkhov, Thomas Stecher,
Mahadevan Balasubramaniam, Glen Koste, Sachin Dekate,
Slawomir Rubinsztajn, GE Global Research (United States)

Michael Mondanos, Tom Parker, Craig Milne, Jackson Yeo,
Silixa Ltd. (United Kingdom); Mahmoud Farhadiroushan,
Silixa, Ltd. (United Kingdom)

SPIE DSS 2015

The principle of distributed sensing is well known from the Distributed
Temperature Sensor (DTS) which uses the interaction of the source lightwith thermal vibrations (Raman scattering) to determine the temperature at
all points along the fibre. Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) uses a novel
digital optical detection technique to precisely capture the true full acoustic
field (amplitude, frequency and phase over a wide dynamic range) at
every point simultaneously. A number of signal processing techniques havebeen developed to process a large array of acoustic signals to quantify thecoherent temporal and spatial characteristics of the acoustic waves.

9491-14, Session 4

2. H. Stroll, “Creating owner’s competitive advantage through contractual
services”, GER-4208, GE Power Systems

378

Advances in opto-electronics and associated signal processing have enabled
the development of optical fibre distributed acoustic and temperature
sensors. Unlike systems relying on discrete optical sensors a distributed
system does not rely upon manufactured sensors but utilises passive
custom optical fibre cables resistant to harsh environments, including hightemperature applications.

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Conference 9491:
Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II
and Engineering (United States)

Fiber optic cables have been successfully deployed in ocean floors for
decades to enable trans-ocean telecommunication. The impact of strain
and moisture on optical fibers has been thoroughly studied in the past
30 years. Cable designs have been developed to minimize strain on thefibers and prevent water uptake. As a result, the failure rates of opticalfibers in subsea telecommunication cables due to moisture and strain are
negligible. However, the relatively recent use of fiber optic cables to monitor
temperature, acoustics, and especially strain on subsea equipment adds
new reliability challenges that need to be mitigated. This paper will provide
a brief overview of the design for reliability considerations of fiber optic
cables for subsea monitoring. In particular, experimental results on fibers
immersed in water under varying accelerated conditions of static stress andtemperature will be discussed. Based on the data, an assessment of thesurvivability of optical fibers in the subsea monitoring environment will
be presented.

Oxygen sensors are extensively used throughout the combustion industry.
Durability and high cost of current industry standards limit the efficiency
and applications of these current sensors. Innovations in electrochemicalsensor design will enable the translation of bulk ceramic manufacturingmethods into novel semiconductor industry-based microfabrication
techniques for the development of cost effective oxygen sensors for
combustion applications. Potentiometric oxygen sensors are currently themost extensively used gas sensor in the combustion industry, used forcontrolling fuel injection in gasoline-powered vehicles (cost of sensors ~$100) and optimizing combustion in coal-fired power plants (cost of sensor~ $5000). Currently, the dimensions of these sensor systems range fromten centimeters to meters, and need access to air, thus limiting their sizeand placement. With the commercial oxygen sensor design, advantages ofminiaturization will only be realized if the need for an external air referenceis eliminated. The recent discovery of an oxygen sensor by Argonne andOhio State with a self-contained reference gas system, fabricated by aunique deformation bonding method and having unsurpassed oxygensensing capabilities, provides a unique opportunity to adapt MEMS-based
fabrication technology to the design of chemical gas sensors. Application of
MEMS procedures for producing millimeter sized potentiometric gas sensors
with the necessary technical and cost attributes required for widespread use
within combustion applications will be described. Specifically these include
a summary of the deposition, processing and bonding methods used.
Design attributes of the electrochemical sensor as well as characterizationof device materials and operation characteristics will be detailed.

9491-17, Session PThu

Thermal stability and energy harvesting
characteristics of Au nanorods: harshenvironment chemical sensing
Nicholas A. Karker, Gnanaprakash Dharmalingam, Michael
A. Carpenter, SUNY College of Nanoscale Science andEngineering (United States)
Monitoring the levels of polluting gases such as CO and NOx from hightemperature (~ 500°C) combustion environments requires materials withhigh thermal stability and resilience that can withstand harsh oxidizing
and reducing environments. Au nanorods (AuNRs) have shown potential inplasmonic gas sensing due to their catalytic activity, high oxidation stability,
and absorbance sensitivity to changes in the surrounding environment. By
using electron beam lithography, AuNR geometries can be patterned withtight control of the rod dimensions and spacings, allowing tunability of their
optical properties. Methods such as NR encapsulation within an yttriastabilized zirconia overcoat layer with subsequent annealing procedures will
be shown to improve temperature stability within a simulated
harsh environment.

9491-19, Session PThu

Data communication through multiple
physical media: applications to munitions
Harbans S. Dhadwal, Jahangir Rastegar, Dake Feng, Philip
Kwok, Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States)
Electronic systems comprising of sub-assemblies, distributed acrossdifferent physical media, require seamless communication between
processors and sensors embedded in the disparate volumes. For example,
smart munitions systems embed sensors and other key control electronics,
throughout the structure, in vastly different physical media. In addition tothe obvious space constraints, these structures are subjected to high G
forces during launch. Thus, communications through wire harnesses become
cumbersome, make assembly process and testing difficult, and challenging
to make survive high G firing.

Since light sources and spectrometers are typically required to obtain
optical measurements, integration is a major barrier for harsh environment
sensing. Plasmonic sensing results will be presented where thermalenergy is harvested by the AuNRs which replaces the need for an external
incident light source. Results from gas sensing experiments that utilize
thermal energy harvesting are in good agreement with experiments
which use an external incident light source. Principal Component Analysis
results demonstrate that by selecting the most “active” wavelengths ina plasmonic band, the wavelength space can be reduced from hundredsof monitored wavelengths to just four, without loss of information about
selectivity of the AuNRs. By combining thermal stability, the thermal energy
harvesting capability, and the selectivity in gas detection (achieved throughmultivariate analysis), integration of plasmonic sensors into combustion
environments will be greatly simplified.

Here we focus on an approach that takes advantage of the opticaltransparency of epoxy material commonly used in potting electronic
components in munition shells, as well as the wave guiding that is possible
through the body of the shell which is made from composite materials.
Experimental results show that a wireless optical link, connecting various
parts of the distributed system, is possible at near IR frequencies. Data canbe rapidly parsed between a processor, sensors and actuators. We present
theoretical rationale and experimental results for a commercial epoxy
system, which was used to embed a number of IrDA devices inside the coneof 120 mm mortar shell. The IrDA devices were used to establish an ad hoc
network, linking and sharing data, between various sensors and a central
processor, within the confines of a small potted space. The data rate isdetermined by the various IrDA standards, for example, VFIR calls for a 16
Mbps link. New Giga-IR standards are being developed for future devices.
IrDA devices have been used for convenience but any wavelength near the
IR band can be utilized

9491-18, Session PThu

Microfabricated electrochemical sensors
for combustion applications
Vitor A. Vulcano Rossi, SUNY College of Nanoscale
Science and Engineering (United States); Max Mullen,
The Ohio State Univ. (United States); Nicholas A. Karker,
Zhouying Zhao, SUNY College of Nanoscale Science andEngineering (United States); Marek Kowarz, Smart System
Technology & Commercialization Ctr. (United States);
Prabir K. Dutta, The Ohio State Univ. (United States);
Michael A. Carpenter, SUNY College of Nanoscale Science

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Conference 9491:
Sensors for Extreme Harsh Environments II

9491-20, Session PThu

Lessons learned and experience from landcollapse accidents using remote sensing
and GIS: case study of continuous landcollapse in east Cairo area, Egypt
Mohamed N. Hegazy, National Authority for Remote
Sensing and Space Sciences (Egypt)
Early warning and Late or no response was the tradition behavior of thelocal authority in Egypt for the last decades. In the area East of Cairo
where a huge body of slum community named Manshiyyat Naser and El
Deweiqa was studied for land collapse geo- hazard. Different environmental
factors have their impacts on the deterioration of the physical environment
parameters. These parameters can be classified into manmade and natural
ones. The man made include heavy trucks movement, misuse of water ingarden irrigation, extreme use of explosives in mining activity nearby thearea, and overall the uncontrolled sewage system. The physical parameters
include country rock type as hard fractured limestone, shale, etc. as thesedifferent types of rocks have different hardness and durability and resistivity
to physical weathering and erosion. Stratigraphy parameter as the layers
has different hardness and sometimes hard rocks are overlying soft detrital
sediments. Faults and cracks have a magnificent impact as structure density
affect the durability of such rocks. Different geochemical characteristicsof the rocks like clay minerals that have swelling mechanism or dissolving
salts plays an important role in the deterioration of these rocks. Presence ofscarps and steep slopes is one of these factors. This research is concernedwith assessment of one of the land collapse accidents that occurred andlessons learned from that case to overcome the bad impact of the absenceof monitoring and documentation of recent expected ones. Multi-temporal
multi-sensors imageries were used to monitor the scarp and areas for
fractures developments and change of rock properties due to sewage
water seepage and dumping different types of trashes. Scarp area that was
subjected to collapse was outlined and a database for it was constructed
before collapse happened. Another image of the same area after collapse
was used also to make the necessary comparisons regarding damage
identification. An inventory for the number of buildings that was damaged
due to land collapse was done. Using multi-temporal satellite images was
the only way to assess the damage in area and number of buildings due tolack of any type of information or maps for such slum area.
The research was concluded to the decision makers to develop a monitoringmechanism using remotely sensed data and establishment of a database forthe area including cadastral maps. Another important recommendation was
to open a corridor way for emergency and rescue purposes as the area lacks
such way for emergency, rescue and accessibility.

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Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX
Wednesday - Thursday 22–23 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9492 Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX

9492-1, Session 1

9492-3, Session 1

Cutting the cord: toward wireless opticalintensity interferometry (Invited Paper)Photon counting camera for fluorescence
lifetime imaging (Invited Paper)

Elliott P. Horch, Southern Connecticut State Univ. (UnitedStates)Werner Zuschratter, Yury Prokazov, Evgeny Turbin, André
Weber, Leibniz Institute für Neurobiologie Magdeburg(Germany); Roland Hartig, Otto-von-Guericke Univ.
Magdeburg (Germany)

Intensity interferometry, which was first used for obtaining ultra--highresolution image information in astronomy in the 1960’s and 1970’s, isnow being revived using modern detectors and electronics. This paper
explores the possibility of wireless optical interferometry made possible
by technological advancements in timing correlation, signal processing,and detector technology. The most important of these advances is thedevelopment of single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays. Thesein theory will allow for each station of a long-baseline optical intensity
interferometer to simultaneously conduct a number of independent
correlation measurements at slightly different wavelengths, with eachwavelength hitting one pixel of the array. This mitigates the well-known
problem of low signal-to-noise in intensity interferometers. In addition,
the much higher timing resolution of modern electronics over what wasavailable in the 1970’s also greatly increases the signal-to-noise ratio. The
first part of this paper will discuss the projected performance limits for aninterferometer based on these ideas.

Conventionally, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) acquisition
by single photon counting (SPC) method employs point detectors incombination with scanning. Here we present a detection system for widefield FLIM acquisition. In contrast to frequency domain and time-gatingwide-field approaches the system enables a pure photon-counting mode
providing all the advantages of the SPC method for wide-field microscopy.
This is achieved by registration of the position together with temporal
information for every incident photon eliminating the need of animaging scanner.
The light detecting unit of the system consists of a micro-channel platebased photomultiplier tube (MCP-PMT) that combines high positional
resolution with ultra-fast reaction time. For the positional readout acapacity coupled imaging technique (charge image) has been employedin combination with a charge division anode. Using an artificial neuralnetworks computation model the method allows to reconstruct the positionof the incident photon as precise as 20 microns over the detector active
area of 25 mm diameter. Thus, the resulting image quality equals roughly
the resolution of a megapixel conventional CCD camera. Importantly,
to reach such a resolution only 9 charge acquisition channels out of
14 interconnected readout electrodes were necessary. The temporal
resolution, provided by the detector, undercuts 50 ps. The detecting unit
together with the supporting electronics and cooling is packed in a nearly
cubic lightweight housing of just 1-liter volume. Connected to a regularfluorescence wide-field microscope the camera system permits reliable
FLIM acquisition by accurate single photon counting but also allows timecorrelated imaging applications in other fields.

Intensity interferometry relies only on obtaining precise photon arrival
times, so that photon correlations can be found and studied after the factwith signal processing techniques. In the second part of the paper, we
explore the implications of this fact, namely, that the data collection ateach station is in effect an independent operation. If the stations can beapproximately synchronized over minutes or tens of minutes, then there isno need for central data collection with a single timing unit; the array canbe wireless. The possibilities for this type of operation and plans to attempt
it at Southern Connecticut State University will be discussed. If this canbe achieved, then baselines of at least one to several kilometers may bepossible in optical interferometry in the coming years, which would improve
the resolution over the current generation of amplitude-based opticalinterferometers by a factor of at least 10.

9492-4, Session 1

9492-2, Session 1

48-confocal-spots single-molecule
measurements using a custom 48-pixel
SPAD arrays with integrated timestamping

Time and spectrum-resolving multiphoton
correlator for 300-900 nm
Piotr L. Kolenderski, Nicolaus Copernicus Univ. (Poland);
Kelsey Johnsen, Institute for Quantum Computing(Canada); Thomas D. Jennewein, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada); Marilyne Thibault, Institute for Quantum
Computing (Canada); Alberto Tosi, Carmelo Scarcella,
Politecnico di Milano (Italy)

Antonino Ingargiola, Univ. of California, Los Angeles(United States); Luca Miari, Ivan Rech, Angelo Gulinatti,
Massimo Ghioni, Politecnico di Milano (Italy); Shimon
Weiss, Xavier Michalet, Univ. of California, Los Angeles(United States)
In the last 15 years single-molecule spectroscopy has emerged as one of
the fundamental tools in biology and biophysics to investigate processes on
the single-molecule level. Single-molecule FRET measurements on freelydiffusing molecules, for example, allows to probe the distance between
two fluorescent labels in the 3-10nm range. Although powerful, the main
limitation of these techniques is the long acquisition times required toacquire a sufficient number of single-molecule events in order to sample thelandscape of sub-populations and extract physical parameters. This issue
limits the application of these techniques to steady state or quasi-steadystate conditions. High-throughput single-molecule spectroscopy techniques
try to overcome this limitation through parallelization of the measurementby multiplexing the excitation sites and the fluorescence detection.

We demonstrate a single-photon sensitive spectrometer in the visible
range, which allows us to perform time-resolved and multi-photon
spectral correlation measurements at room temperature. It is based on a
monochromator composed of two gratings, collimation optics and an arrayof single photon avalanche diodes. The time resolution can reach $110$ ps
and the spectral resolution is $2$ nm/pixel, limited by the design of themonochromator. This technique can easily be combined with commercial
monochromators, and can be useful for joint spectrum measurements of
two photons emitted in the process of parametric down conversion, as wellas time-resolved spectrum measurements in optical coherence tomography
or medical physics applications.

In this work we present the first parallel single-molecule measurement

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Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX
performed on freely diffusing molecules with 48 excitation spots. The 48spot excitation pattern is generated from a single laser source employing a
Liquid-Cristal-On-Silicon Spatial Light Modulator (LCOS-SLM) and projected
into the sample through a high-NA objective lens. The fluorescence of single
molecules diffusing through the excitation spots is detected by a novel
48-pixels SPAD array with integrated photon timestamping (implemented
in an internal FPGA) and a USB-2.0 interface used to download the data.
The plug-and-play USB-2.0 interface allows downloading timestamps to ahost PC with mean count rates up to 70 kHz per channel, more than enoughfor single-molecule measurements. Thanks to the integrated time-stamping
function and the USB interface the need for external expensive acquisition
hardware is avoided.
In single-molecule measurements the maximum excitation intensity mustlie in a narrowly defined range in order to avoid the fluorophore saturation(at high intensities), yet achieving single-molecule detection. Therefore afundamental challenge we faced was generating a sufficiently uniform 48spot pattern so that all the spots would lie in this suitable range of
excitation intensities.
Regarding the emission path, the two main experimental challenges which
needed to be solved were detector alignment and demonstration that thelower photon detection efficiency (PDE) of the detector in the red region of
the spectrum (compared to the highest-PDE “thick” SPADs only available assingle-SPAD units), did not impede these measurements. Here we will showthat all these issues can be satisfactorily solved, resulting in single diffusing
molecules bursts which are clearly resolved in all the 48-spots.
In conclusion, this works demonstrate a fully functional single-molecule
measurements system achieving a 48-fold increase in speed, opening theway to high-throughput single-molecule FRET analysis among many otherpotential applications.

Zhiliang L. Yuan, Toshiba Research Europe Ltd. (United
Kingdom)
We report recent advances in high bit rate quantum key distribution (QKD)
to operate lit telecom networks. We have developed compact, gigahertzclocked gated single photon detectors based on InGaAs avalanche
photodiodes, which naturally act as a temporal filter to reject the Ramannose in lit fibre. With bidirectional 10Gb/s classical data traffic multiplexed
in a single fibre using dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM), we
obtain record secure QKD key rates of 2.38 Mbps and fiber distances up to
70 km. The robustness of the QKD system is further demonstrated over withdata lasers launching conventional 0dBm power. Finally, we demonstrated
the first field-trial of a quantum-secured DWDM transmission system, inwhich QKD is combined with 4 ? 10 Gb/s encrypted data and transmitted
simultaneously over 26 km of field installed fiber. We discuss thefundamental limit for the QKD performance in the multiplexing environment.
References:[1] K. A. Patel et al., “Coexistence of high-bit-rate quantum key distribution
and data on optical fiber,” Phys. Rev. X 2, 041010 (2012).
[2] K. A. Patel et al., “Quantum key distribution for 10Gb/s dense wavelength
division multiplexing networks,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, 051123 (2014).

9492-7, Session 3

Single photon detectors and quantum
sensing (Keynote Presentation)
John G. Rarity, Univ. of Bristol (United Kingdom)This talk will review the development of semiconductor photon counting
detector technologies and highlight their role in the emergence and ongoing
evolution of quantum sensing, communications and computation. In themid 1980’s it was discovered that low noise silicon avalanche diodes could
be used as high efficiency photon counting detectors in ‘Gieger mode’.
Various groups were studying the fundamental quantum nature of lightand the emergence of good detectors allowed the shift from study offundamentals to the development of applications including single photon
range finding and quantum secured key distribution. Development of longer
wavelength detectors was then ‘pulled’ by the need for photon counting
at fibre communications relevant wavelengths leading to the developmentof Germanium and InGaAs devices. Most photon counting detectors haveemerged simply by adapting the external electronics around devices
developed for linear operation. As the market for photon counting devices
has grown various photon counting specific designs have emerged targeting
low timing jitter (Si devices), free running operation (InGaAs) and photon
counting detector arrays. In this presentation we will give examples ofrecent work exploiting photon counting detectors in quantum information
applications [1] and free running InGaAs detectors in long range DIAL
measurement of CO2 concentration [2].
1. B.A. Bell, JGR et al, Multi-Colour Quantum Metrology with Entangled
Photons, Phys. Rev. Letts. 111, 093603 (2013)
2. X. Ai, JGR et al, A feasibility study on pseudo-random single photon
counting for space-borne atmospheric sensing lidar applications, IEEE
Aerospace Conference, 2014

SPIE DSS 2015

Quantum key distribution on lit fibre(Invited Paper)[3] I. Choi et al., “Field trial of a quantum secured 10 Gb/s DWDM
transmission system over a single installed fiber,” Opt. Express 22, 23121(2014).

9492-5, Session 2382

9492-6, Session 3

Photon-counting communications receiverin the lunar lasercom ground terminal(Invited Paper)
Matthew E. Grein, Eric A. Dauler, Andrew J. Kerman, Mark
L. Stevens, Richard J. Molnar, Bryan S. Robinson, Daniel V.
Murphy, Don M. Boroson, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9492-8, Session 3

Single photon counting for space based
quantum experiments
Rakhitha Chandrasekara, Zhongkan Tang, Yue Chuan Tan,Yong Sean Yau, Cliff Cheng, Ctr. for Quantum Technologies(Singapore); Christoph F. Wildfeuer, Kantonsschule Sursee(Switzerland); Alexander Ling, National Univ. of Singapore(Singapore)
Modern long distance quantum entanglement studies are limited to subcontinental distances, recorded up to 150km in free space. Operating an
entangled photon source in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) will allow us to study
micro gravity effects on entanglement and expand quantum communication
applications to intercontinental distances.
We are developing a polarization-entangled photon pair source to be hosted
in Cubesat platforms, which we call Small Photon Entangling Quantum
System (SPEQS). The SPEQS devices are equipped with Avalanche Photo
Diodes (APDs) to monitor the photon pair source in the Cubesat platforms.
In a lab environment, typical single photon counting experiment uses cooled(-200C) APDs due to lower dark count rates. But the limited power budget
rules out APD cooling in Cubesat platforms. Thus in a typical Cubesat polar
orbit, APDs experience varying temperature profile. The APD breakdown·

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Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX
voltage is temperature dependent and affects detection efficiency.

can sustain real-time, video-rate imaging with several thousand detected
photons per second on each pixel.

In the SPEQS, APDs are designed to operate in Geiger mode. We use amodified passive quenching; current mode sensing circuit to capture thesingle photons. There the passive quenched avalanche pulse is split in to
two amplitude proportionate signals (top and bottom signals) by using
two series sense resistors. These two avalanche signals are detected by acomparator at different voltage references and convert them to
CMOS pulses.

9492-10, Session 4

Single photon imaging withsuperconducting nanowire single photon
detectors (Invited Paper)

The top signal reference voltage is chosen such that it passes all the signals
at any operating temperature. Then the bottom signal reference is chosen
to maintain the top signal at a fixed amplitude by maintaining a predefinedbottom to top count ratio. A change in temperature affects the breakdown
voltage of the APD and the top pulse height. The feedback system traces
the change of APD top pulse height through the change of bottom to top
counter ratio. It adjusts the bias voltage such that the bottom to top countratio is fixed within a given window (window comparator). This ensures theexcess voltage of the APD at a fixed value irrespective of the temperature
hence constant detection efficiency.

Robert H. Hadfield, Univ. of Glasgow (United Kingdom)Single nanowire single photon detectors offer single photon sensitivity withfree running operation, low timing jitter and low dark counts at infrared
wavelengths [1]. Using attenuated laser pulses 1550 nm wavelength, wehave employed these devices successfully in time of flight ranging [2] anddepth imaging studies in daylight at a range of several kilometres [3]. We
are now working to extend this technique to ‘ghost imaging’ using a sourceof correlated photon pairs [4]. One photon from the pair at 1550 nm willinterrogate an object and be detected via the SNSPD. The second correlated
twin (400 nm) will be imaged on a high efficiency CCD. This will allow animage to be rapidly acquired from a large number of modes (>500).

The robustness of the photon counting system was tested in near spaceconditions with a correlated photon source in a weather balloon, whichreached 35.5km altitude. During the journey the SPEQS device experienced
temperature changes ~0.4 0C/min, which can be experienced in a typicalLEO orbit.

[1] CM Natarajan, MG Tanner, RH Hadfield Superconducting nanowire singlephoton detectors: physics and applications Superconductor Science andTechnology 25 063001 (2012

The APD system was able to capture the correlated photons in all thesetemperature conditions (ranging from 17 – 30 0C) with out dropping thecount rate, which proves robustness of the system. Also it is interesting tocheck the performance of the window comparator when the temperature
is fluctuating and the incident photon count is also changing during theexperiment. Another important feature of the window comparator is its
enhanced linearity, which extends the saturation point of an APD. This
allows prolonged APD operation in space radiation environment.

[2] RE Warburton, A McCarthy, A Walker, S Hernandez-Marin, RH Hadfield,
S Nam, GS Buller Subcentimeter depth resolution using a photon-counting
time-of-flight laser ranging system Optics Letters 32 (15) 2266 (2007)[3] A McCarthy, N Krichel, X Ren, NR Gemmell, MG Tanner, SN Dorenbos, V
Zwiller, RH Hadfield, GS Buller Kilometer range time-of-flight depth imaging
at 1560 nm wavelength with a superconducting nanowire single-photon
detector Optics Express 21 7 8904 (2013)

Currently we are working towards combining active quenching with thewindow comparator to achieve high counting rates. We will present the
SPEQS photon-counting system design, performance and robustness in nearspace conditions.

[4] R Aspden et al EPR based ghost imaging using a single-photon sensitive
camera New J Physics 15 073032 (2013)9492-11, Session 49492-9, Session 4

High performance superconducting
nanowire single photon detectors
embedded in silicon nanobeam cavities(Invited Paper)

Real-time infrared single-photon imaging
with a superconducting nanowire camera(Invited Paper)
Martin J. Stevens, Michael S. Allman, Varun B. Verma,
Robert D. Horansky, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Francesco Marsili, Matthew
D. Shaw, Andrew D. Beyer, Jet Propulsion Lab. (UnitedStates); Richard P. Mirin, Sae Woo Nam, National Instituteof Standards and Technology (United States)

Mohsen K. Akhlaghi, Ellen Schelew, Jeff F. Young, The Univ.
of British Columbia (Canada)
We report on the development of ultra-compact superconducting nanowire
single photon detectors in a silicon-on-insulator platform for applicationsin integrated quantum photonics. At the core of these detectors is avery short (8.5um total length) and narrow (8nmx35nm) U-shaped
NbTiN superconducting nanowire placed on top of a silicon waveguide(190nmx500nm cross-section). Rather than extending the weakly absorbing
nanowire over hundreds of microns to absorb all of the guided light inthe silicon, we embed it in an asymmetric 1D photonic crystal microcavity
formed by etching a set of carefully designed holes in the waveguide,
on either side the nanowire segment. The resulting optical structure is acoherent perfect absorber that uses a minimal volume of superconductor
to efficiently and quickly convert incident photons in the waveguide to
low-noise electrical pulses. We demonstrate the capacity of this design
to achieve close to ideal detection of photons: at 2.05K, the fabricateddetectors show ~96+-12% on-chip quantum efficiency for ~1550nm photons
with less than a 0.1Hz intrinsic dark count rate. Estimated timing jitter is~53ps full-width at half-maximum and the reset time is <7ns, both currently
limited by read-out electronics. We will discuss the potential impact andapplication of this detector performance and architecture on various fields.

We have demonstrated a superconducting nanowire camera consisting of
64 individual SNSPD (superconducting nanowire single-photon detector)
pixels. Each pixel has an active area of 17 µm x 20 µm, and the 8 x 8 arrayof pixels are spaced a 40 µm pitch for a fill factor of ~0.25. The camera isbiased and read out using a novel row-column readout scheme. Each of the
8 rows is individually biased, and each row and column is individually readout with a chain of room-temperature amplifiers. Output pulses from theseamplifier chains are fed into a 16-channel time-tagging unit and to real-time
histogramming and coincidence software. Simultaneous voltage pulses on
row i and column j indicate that pixel (i,j) has detected a photon.
To test the device, light from a 1550 nm laser is free-space coupled throughoptical windows to the camera, which is held at a temperature of 800 mK
in a closed-cycle cryostat. Because WSi SNSPDs are sensitive to blackbody
photons from room temperature, we use two cold bandpass filters inside thecryostat to block most of this background. A computer-controllable image
is encoded onto the laser beam with a digital micromirror device, and readout with the superconducting nanowire camera. We have shown that every
one of the 64 pixels is sensitive to light, and that the coincidence software

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Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX

9492-12, Session 4

to create the choke inductance. For both cases, we observed that 1) the
device efficiency achieved complete saturation, and 2) the 40 nm 2-SNAP
circuit critical current was approximately twice that for a 40 nm non-SNAP
configuration. Finally, we extended the series-2-SNAP concept by putting
two series-2-SNAPs in parallel to make a 192 ?m^2 large area device —nearly 200 times larger than the base unit 2-SNAP and nearly 5 times larger
than a typical non-SNAP – that achieved high system detection efficiency
with two-fold increase in SNR and an approximately four-fold increase in thecritical current compared to an 40 nm non-SNAP.

Waveguide-integrated WSi-based
superconducting nanowire single-photon
detectors (Invited Paper)
Ryan M. Briggs, Matthew D. Shaw, Francesco Marsili,
Andrew D. Beyer, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States);
Justin D. Cohen, Sean Meenehan, Oskar J. Painter,
California Institute of Technology (United States)
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) fabricatedfrom amorphous WSi have been previously demonstrated with highdetection efficiency (>90%) and intrinsic broadband response from visible
to mid-infrared wavelengths. However, for wavelength-division multiplexing
and other applications requiring spectral resolution, SNSPDs must be
coupled with external filtering components. We have demonstrated WSibased SNSPDs integrated with fiber-coupled SiN photonic waveguides,
which provide a robust and scalable platform for fabricating arrays ofdetectors with on-chip filters. As an initial demonstration, waveguide ring
resonators were implemented as narrowband filters at telecommunication
wavelengths near 1550 nm.
Waveguide-integrated SNSPDs were fabricated using wafer-scale
processing on a low-stress SiN on SiO2 photonics platform. Self-aligning,
cryo-compatible fiber couplers were formed by etching v-grooves into
the Si substrate beneath the photonics layers with suspended SiN inversetaper waveguide transitions. Nanowire absorbers were patterned on top of
single-mode waveguides designed for operation between 1500 and 1600
nm, enabling strong evanescent coupling with the guided waveguide modeand minimal loss from reflections. For spectral filtering experiments, devices
were fabricated with in-line high-quality factor (Q ~ 100,000) waveguidering resonators.
Devices were characterized in a closed-cycle He-3 cryostat operating at 0.5
K. Single-photon detection was observed with count rates in excess of 1 MHz
and saturated internal efficiency versus current bias, indicating near-optimal
coupling between the waveguides and nanowire detectors. By varying the
input wavelength, detectors with in-line ring resonator filters were shownto have a typical on-resonance passband of <100 pm with the expected
free-spectral range corresponding to the ring geometry. Typical total system
detection efficiency of ~1% was measured, limited primarily by the fiber-tochip couplers.

9492-13, Session 4

Large-area NbN superconducting nanowire
avalanche photon detectors with saturated
detection efficiency
Ryan P. Murphy, Matthew E. Grein, Theodore J.
Gudmundsen, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Adam
McCaughan, Faraz Najafi, Karl K Berggren, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (United States); Francesco Marsili,
Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Eric A. Dauler, MIT
Lincoln Lab. (United States)
Superconducting circuits with SNSPD devices placed in parallel—
superconducting nanowire avalanche photodetectors, or SNAPs—havepreviously been demonstrated to improve the output SNR by increasing thecritical current. In this work, we employ a 2-SNAP superconducting circuitwith narrow (40 nm) NbN nanowires to improve the system detection
efficiency to NIR photons while maintaining high SNR. Additionally, while
previous 2-SNAP demonstrations have added external choke inductanceto stabilize the avalanching photocurrent, we show that the external
inductance can be entirely folded into the active area by cascading 2-SNAP
devices in series to produce a greatly increased active area. We fabricated
two types of series-2-SNAP circuits, one with short and the other with long
nanowire lengths (4 ?m and 20 ?m, respectively) with cascades of 2-SNAPs

384

SPIE DSS 2015·

This work was sponsored by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research& Engineering under Air Force Contract number FA8721-05-C-0002.
Opinions, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations are those of
the authors, and not necessarily endorsed by the United States Government.

9492-14, Session 5

Multi-channel single photon receiver for
IceSat-2 Mission ATLAS instrument (Invited
Paper)
Guangning Yang, Michael A. Krainak, Xiaoli Sun, NASA
Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States); Wei Lu, As
and D, Inc. (United States); William E. Hasselbrack, Sigma
Space Corp. (United States)
Photon-counting detectors are required for the NASA (ICESat2 – Ice,
Cloud and land Elevation Satellite-2) Advance Topographic Laser Altimeter
System (ATLAS). The ATLAS receiver uses six multichannel photon counting
detectors - one for each of six distinct optical beams. It requires a photon
counting detector with high counting efficiency at 532 nm (>15%), large
dynamic range (from greater than 12 photons per pulse to a 0.01 photons
per pulse), low jitter (less than 285ps), short dead time (<3 ns), long lifetime
under large solar background radiation, radiation hard for space operation,and ruggedized for survives the harsh vibration during the launch. A
Hamamatsu photomultiplier with a 4x4 array anode (Fig. 1) was selected for
IceSat2 to meet these requirements.
In this paper, we will present the photon counting detector selection, thedesign and performance of the constant fraction comparator circuit for
precision timing, detector lifetime test and verification, detector high powerdamage level test and verification.
We will describe our measured data for addressing each mission
requirement. A constant fraction discriminator timing circuit design was
adopted to achieve <250 ps jitter (Fig. 2) and dead time less than 3 ns. The
multi-anode PMT achieves large dynamic range while each counting channel
operates at less than one photon per pulse to minimize the first photon
timing bias. An accelerated PMT Lifetime life time test was conducted andproved the detector meets the mission lifetime requirement (4 years with anaverage count rate of 2.5 MCPS). An extended green wavelength sensitive
cathode was selected for greater than 15% detection efficiency at 532 nm.
A ruggedized PMT mechanical housing design was used to space qualify
the PMT with a greater than 10 grms vibration requirement. A PMT overlightdamage level test was conducted and proved that the PMT will survive
under an exposure of 3 ms, 10 KHz burst pulse stream with greater than 2 uJ
per pulse and a 500 ps pulse width (4,000W peak power).
The ATLAS flight receiver with 60 primary channels and 60 redundant(cold spares) channels is fully built and delivered to ATLAS instrument for
integration.

9492-15, Session 5

Photon counting using maximal length
sequences: a theoretical assessment ofpseudo-random coding for rangefinding(Invited Paper)
Robert A. Lamb, SELEX ES (United Kingdom)

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Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX
Heriot-Watt Univ. (United Kingdom)

Time-of-flight (TOF) single photon counting lidar has made tremendous
progress in recent years and is the subject of intense development for bothland based and airborne rangefinding and terrain mapping applications.
Early demonstrations of TOF over distances of several kilometres used fixed
repetition rates to derive the absolute range or the range (depth) profiles
of extended targets. The need to maintain a high data rate to reduce dataacquisition times at ranges greater than c/2fPRF, where fPRF is the pulse
repetition frequency, led to the attendant problem of range aliasing. Thiswas subsequently solved by using random waveforms of know patterns:
providing the pattern does not repeat during the round trip time to thetarget, its absolute range can be determined. However, as photon counting
is now evolving into integrated 3D imaging lidar, optical communications,rangefinding and designation concepts, the precise statistical natureof random waveforms needs to be defined carefully to ensure optimal
performance in TOF lidar or data transmission systems. In this paper, weinvestigate the use of maximal length (m-) sequences as an example
of a deterministic pseudo-random waveform. The m-sequence ensuresmaximum autocorrelation gain for a given coded bit length. We investigate
the use of m-sequences in determining range accuracy as a function oftransmit time, range, solar and detector background noise.

We investigate the potential of a depth imaging system for underwater
environments. This system is based on the time-of-flight approach andthe time correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) technique. We reportlaboratory-based measurements and explore the potential of achieving subcentimetre xyz resolution at 10’s meters stand-off distances.
Initial laboratory-based experiments demonstrate depth imaging performed
over distances of up to 1.8 meters and under a variety of scattering
conditions. The system comprised a monostatic transceiver unit, a fibercoupled supercontinuum laser with a wavelength tunable acousto-optic
filter, and a fiber-coupled individual silicon single-photon avalanche diode(SPAD). The scanning in xy was performed using a pair of galvonometer
mirrors directing both illumination and scattered returns via a coaxial opticalconfiguration. Target objects were placed in a 110 litre capacity tank anddepth images were acquired through approximately 1.7 meters of watercontaining different concentrations of scattering agent. Depth images wereacquired with a 150 ?m spatial resolution in clear and highly scattering waterusing per-pixel acquisition times in the range 0.5-100 ms at average opticalpowers in the range 0.8 nW to 120 ?W.
Based on the laboratory measurements, estimations of potential
performance, including maximum range possible, were performed with amodel based on the LIDAR equation. These predictions will be presented for
different levels of scattering agent concentration, optical power, wavelengthand comparisons made with naturally occurring environments. The
experimental and theoretical results indicate that the TCSPC technique has
potential for high-resolution underwater depth profile measurements.

9492-16, Session 5

Time-of-flight laser ranging for moving
targets with single-photon counting(Invited Paper)
Yan Liang, Univ. of Shanghai for Science and Technology(China); Heping Zeng, Univ. of Shanghai for Science andTechnology (China) and East China Normal Univ. (China)

9492-18, Session 6

Real-time imaging and tracking of objects
hidden from view using SPAD imaging
arrays (Invited Paper)With the development of single-photon detection and data acquisition
technology, time-of-flight (TOF) ranging systems using time-correlated
single-photon counting (TCSPC) technique have been implanted more andmore. However, in some typical applications, the velocity of the target is
too fast for the TCSPC system to set the short detecting window, leading todifficulties in discriminating the track of the fast moving target, especiallyin strong background light. Besides, the major weakness in range ambiguity
could not be ignored.

Daniele Faccio, Genevieve Gariepy, Francesco Tonolini,
Heriot-Watt Univ. (United Kingdom); Nikola Krstajic,
Robert K. Henderson, The Univ. of Edinburgh (United
Kingdom); Jonathan Leach, Heriot-Watt Univ. (United
Kingdom)

We demonstrated coincidence photon-counting laser ranging techniquethat allows for single-shot measurements on fast-moving objects understrong background light illumination. Coincidences registered by two
single-photon detectors within a short time window of 2.4 ns were recorded
as the distance information, improving the signal-to-noise ratio to 8.54 dB
when the surrounding noise photons caused 5?106 counts/s while the signal
pulses contained 10 photons per pulse. Single-shot ranging of both moving
and fast position-changing targets was demonstrated with high signal-tonoise contrast at few-photon level.

Single photon avalanche diodes (SPAD) arrays are rapidly emerging as a
new imaging technology with applications in diverse areas such as time-offlight imaging and bio-imaging.
We have recently demonstrated the advantages of using silicon based SPAD
arrays to perform light-in-flight imaging. Our detector is a 32x32 array ofsingle SPADs, each individually operating in TCSPC mode. The combinationof single-photon sensitivity, direct imaging capability of the array and high?100 picosecond temporal resolution allow to capture the movement oflight pulses as they propagate in air by collecting the few photons that are
scattered by air molecules.

Furthermore, we illustrated a TOF ranging system employing laser pulses
at 1550 nm with multiple repetition rates to decrease the range ambiguity.
The TSCPC with an InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiode based single-photon
detector, was applied to record different arrival time of the scattered return
photons from the non-cooperative target at different repetition rates todetermine the measured distance, providing an effective and convenientmethod to increase the absolute range capacity of the whole system. We
attained hundreds of meters range with millimeter accuracy by using laser
pulses of approximately 10-MHz repetition rates.

Here we demonstrate a related technique that relies upon the same featuresof SPAD arrays. We perform real-time tracking of objects in motion thatare hidden from view. As an example, we place an object (a 30 cm highmannequin) behind a wall such that it is completely obscured from thedirect line of sight of the SPAD array camera. The multiple spherical-wavereflections of a sequence of laser pulses imaged by the camera appear as
circular wave-fronts that evolve and propagate in time following a trajectorythat depends on the location of the mannequin. We record this pattern anda retrieval algorithm allows us to reconstruct the location of the object.

9492-17, Session 5

Remarkably, we have demonstrated the ability to perform the dataacquisition and retrieval in less than one second. This in turn allows to track
any object motion in real-time, thus paving the way for a series ofnovel applications.

Underwater depth imaging using timecorrelated single photon counting
Aurora Maccarone, Aongus McCarthy, Ximing Ren, Ryan E.
Warburton, Andrew M. Wallace, Heriot-Watt Univ. (United
Kingdom); James Moffat, Defence Science and Technology
Lab. (United Kingdom); Yvan R. Petillot, Gerald S. Buller,

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Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX

9492-19, Session 6

pixel. An imager based on an array of GmAPDs therefore has zero readout
noise, enabling quantum-limited sensitivity for photon-starved imaging
applications. In monolithic implementions, the GmAPD is incorporated
into the CMOS readout circuit and is fabricated as a part of a standard
foundry process. This is a rapid and low-cost fabrication approach, but
precludes optimization of APD doping profiles and limits fill factor. MIT
Lincoln Laboratory has pursued fabrication of customized APD arrays, which
are then hybridized to CMOS readout circuits using bump bonding or 3D
integration techniques. These approaches are more difficult and costly thanmonolithic integration, but allow the APD to be optimized for the intended
application. In this presentation, we discuss devices developed for 3D
imaging, wavefront sensing, and passive imaging.

Study of single photon counting for nonline-of-sight vision
Martin Laurenzis, Institut Franco-Allemand de Recherchesde Saint-Louis (France); Jonathan Klein, Univ. Bonn
(Germany); Andreas Velten, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison(United States) and Morgridge Institute for Research(United States); Matthias B. Hullin, Univ. Bonn (Germany);Frank Christnacher, Institut Franco-Allemand deRecherches de Saint-Louis (France)

9492-22, Session 7

The application of non line of sigh vision has been demonstrated in the
recent past on laboratory level with round trip path lengths on the scale of
1 m as well as 10 m. This method uses a computational imaging approachto analyze the scattered information of objects which are hidden from thedirect sensors field of view. Recent demonstrator systems were driven atlaser wavelengths (800 nm and 532 nm) which are far from the eye-safe
shortwave infrared (SWIR) wavelength band i.e. between 1.4 µm and 2µm. Therefore, the application in public or inhabited areas is difficult withrespect to international laser safety conventions.

Gun muzzle flash detection using a single
photon avalanche diode array in 0.18µm
CMOS technology (Invited Paper)
Vitali Savuskan, Tomer Merhav, Avi Shoham, Igor Brouk,
Yael Nemirovsky, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology(Israel)In the present work, the authors evaluate the application of recent single
photon counting devices for non line of sight sensing and give predictions
on range and resolution. Further, the realization of a concept is studied
enabling the indirect view on a hidden scene. While recent laser gatedviewing sensors suffer from a too low temporal resolution due to minimal
sensor gate width of around 150 ns, single photon counting devices havehigh sensitivity and high temporal resolution. Different approaches basedon GM-APD and SPAD sensor technologies as well as the lock-in approachof phase-modulated detectors are reviewed. In this publication the authors
present detailed theoretical and experimental evaluations.

9492-20, Session 6

Hybrid receiver system for single photon
sensitive direct and coherent detection
Piotr K. Kondratko, Paul J. Suni, Andrew T. Bratcher, John
J. Glennon III, Lockheed Martin Coherent Technologies(United States)
Hybrid receivers that enable switching between direct and coherent
detection provide many imaging functions beneficial to scientific anddefense applications. A hybrid receiver system is presented wherein asingle detector is switched between the Geiger-mode and linear avalanche
modes of operation. This system benefits from enhanced functionality
and lower size, weight, power, cost, and complexity than dual receivers
implementation. The hybrid receiver sensing modality is reconfigurable
on-the-fly between single photon direct detection and amplitude/phasecoherent detection. The reconfiguration is achieved by adjusting detector
bias (electrically) and by enabling or disabling the local oscillator (optically).
In this work, we describe these two sensing scenarios, discuss the operationof the receiver system, and show laboratory-scale imaging results for eachmode of hybrid receiver operation.

9492-21, Session 7

Brian F. Aull, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)
Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GmAPDs) are capable of detecting
single photons. They can be operated to directly trigger all-digital circuits,
so that detection events are digitally counted or time stamped in each

SPIE DSS 2015

9492-23, Session 7

Analysis and modeling of optical crosstalkin InP-based Geiger-mode avalanche
photodiode FPAs
Quan Chau, Xudong Jiang, Mark A. Itzler, Mark Entwitsle,
Mark Owens, Krystyna Slomkowski, Princeton Lightwave,
Inc. (United States)
Optical crosstalk is an important factor limiting the performances ofGeiger-mode avalanche photodiode (APD) focal plan arrays (FPAs). Thisis especially true for APD arrays with increased pixel density. For arraysof the same format, FPA operating at 1.55um has a more severe crosstalk
issue compared to a FPA operating at 1.06 um. Different approaches suchas etched trenches and epitaxially grown filter layers have been adopted tomitigate crosstalk effect. We have performed extensive experimental andtheoretical investigations on the crosstalk effects in InP-based Geigermode APD FPAs. We will present a detailed spatial and temporal analysis
of crosstalk on both 32x32 and 128x32 operating at different wavelengths

Silicon Geiger-mode avalanche
photodiode arrays for photon-starved
imaging (Invited Paper)386

In this study, a CMOS Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) 2D array isused to record and sample muzzle flash events in the visible spectrum,from representative weapons. SPADs detect the emission peaks of alkalisalts, potassium or sodium, with spectral emission lines around 769nm
and 589nm, respectively. The alkali salts are included in the gunpowder
to suppress secondary flashes ignited during the muzzle flash event. The
SPADs possess two crucial properties for muzzle flash imaging: (i) very
high photon detection sensitivity, (ii) a unique ability to convert the opticalsignal to a digital signal at the source pixel, thus practically eliminating
readout noise. The sole noise sources are the ones prior to the readout
circuitry (optical signal distribution, avalanche initiation distribution andnon-photonic generation). This enables high sampling frequencies in thekilohertz range without significant SNR degradation, in contrast to regular
CMOS image sensors. Narrow band filters around the emission peaks of
the alkali salts reduce the contribution of solar radiation. This research
will demonstrate the SPAD’s ability to accurately sample and reconstruct
the temporal behavior of the muzzle flash in the visible wavelength, in thepresence of sunlight. The reconstructed signal is clearly distinguishable frombackground clutter, through exploitation of flash temporal characteristics
and signal processing, which will be reported. The frame rate of ~16 KHz
was chosen as an optimum between SNR degradation and temporal profile
recognition accuracy. In contrast to a single SPAD, the 2D array allows for
multiple events to be processed simultaneously. Moreover, a significant fieldof view is covered, enabling comprehensive surveillance and imaging.

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Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX(1.06 um and 1.55 um). Different optical paths contributing to crosstalkhave been identified and their relative contributions quantified. Our studyof crosstalk characteristics is based on the dark count events in FPAs, andwe have developed an algorithm to identify the prime pixels that trigger
crosstalk events and effectively separate crosstalk events from intrinsic darkcount events. A numerical model is also developed to predict the crosstalkprobability of a Geiger-mode APD FPA. This model takes into account afull range of parameters representing Geiger-mode APD array’s design andoperating conditions.

radiometer based on an Erbium-Doped-Fiber-Amplifier. A FPGA controlled
test-bench facilitates the acquisition of the afterpulsing probability overthree orders of magnitude in time.
We also demonstrate the performance of the detector in different
applications: In particular, with low-temperature NFADs, we achieved
quantum key distribution over 300 km of ultra-low loss fiber. But low noise
InGaAs/InP SPADs will certainly find applications in yet unexplored fields
like photodynamic therapy, near infrared diffuse optical spectroscopy andmany more. For example with a large area detector, we made time-resolved
measurements of singlet-oxygen luminescence from a standard Rose Bengal
dye in aqueous solution.

9492-24, Session 7

Model of turn-on characteristics ofInP-based Geiger-mode avalanche
photodiodes suitable for circuit
simulations

9492-26, Session 7

Al0.8Ga0.2As avalanche photodiodes for
single photon counting
Min Ren, Yaojia Chen, Wenlu Sun, Joe C. Campbell, Univ.
of Virginia (United States); Xiao Jie Chen, Erik B. Johnson,
James F. Christian, Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc.
(United States)

George Jordy, Joseph P. Donnelly, MIT Lincoln Lab. (UnitedStates)A model for the turn-on characteristics of separate-absorber-multiplier InPbased Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes has been developed. Verilog-A
was used to implement the model in a manner that can be incorporated
into circuit simulation. This approach solves the first order nonlinear
differential equations that govern the avalanche current of the APD, rather
than using SPICE elements to mimic the voltage and current characteristicsof the APD. This continuous time representation is fundamentally different
than the piece wise linear characteristics of other models. The model isbased on a driving term for the differential current, which is given by thevoltage overbias minus the voltage drop across the device’s space-charge
resistance RSC. This voltage drop is primarily due to electrons transiting theseparate absorber. RSC starts off high and decreases with time as the initial
breakdown filament spreads laterally to fill the APD. With constant voltage
bias, the initial current grows exponentially until space charge effects reducethe driving function. With increasing current the driving term eventually
goes to zero and the APD current saturates. When discharging an external
capacitor circuit, the driving term becomes negative as the capacitor
discharges, reducing the current and driving the voltage below breakdown.
The model parameters depend on device design and are obtained fromfitting the model to Monte-Carlo turn-on simulations that include lateral
spreading of the carriers of the relevant structure. The Monte-Carlosimulations also provide information on the probability of avalanche, andjitter due to where the photon is absorbed in the APD.

In this work, we report Al0.8Ga0.2As single photon avalanche diodes(SPADs). Linear-mode Al0.8Ga0.2As APDs have exhibited low excess noise(k = 0.13) and low dark current density of ~179nA/cm2 at gain as highas 200 at room temperature. Geiger mode performance was measured
with a capacitance-balanced gated quenching circuit. A 405 nm pulsed
laser diode, with pulse-width of 3 ns, was used as the light source. The
breakdown voltage is 20.5 V at room temperature and the gate pulse was
fixed at 2 V for all measurements with a pulse-width of 5 ns. The external
quantum efficiency is 10% at 405 nm. After pulse probabilities (APP) anddark count probabilities (DCP) of SPADs, with diameter from 30 µm to 150µm, are characterized and compared at single-photon-detection-efficiency
of 5%. With 1 µs hold-off time after pulse probability = 1.36% and dark countprobability = 2.99x10^(-5) per gate was achieved at room temperature.

9492-27, Session 8

Nanopillar optical antenna avalanche
detectors: 3D nanoscale electric fields
for high speed, low noise avalanche gain
(Invited Paper)

9492-25, Session 7

Pradeep N. Senanayake, Alan Farrell, Diana L. Huffaker,
Univ. of California, Los Angeles (United States)

Low noise InGaAs/inp single-photon
negative feedback avalanche diodes:
characterization and applications (Invited
Paper)

This talk will focus on the design, fabrication and electro-optic
characterization of a novel detector architecture “3D Nanopillar Optical
Antenna Avalanche Diodes” (3D-NOAADs) for shrinking both the absorption
and multiplication volumes using III-V nanopillars, while enhancing theoptical absorption via a self aligned 3D plasmonic antenna. Wavelengthtuning and hybridization of the optical absorption via Surface Plasmon
Polariton Bloch Waves (SPP-BWs) and Localized Surface Plasmon
Resonances (LSPRs) will be discussed. Photo-generated carrier transport
from the absorption region into the multiplication region and subsequent
impact ionization will also be discussed. The first measurement of excess
noise factor in nanostructured photodiodes will be presented. Single pixel
3D-NOAADs exhibit substantially lower excess noise factors compared
to bulk (keff ~ 0.13), low breakdown voltages ~ 8 V and gain-bandwidth
products ~ 200 GHz.

Gianluca Boso, Boris Korzh, Tommaso Lunghi, Hugo
Zbinden, Univ. de Genève (Switzerland)
In recent years, many applications have been proposed that requiredetection of light signals in the near-infrared range with single-photon
sensitivity and time resolution down to few hundreds of picoseconds.
InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) are a viable choice forthese tasks thanks to their compactness and ease-of-use. Unfortunately,
their performance is traditionally limited by high dark count rates (DCRs)
and afterpulsing effects. However, a recent demonstration of negative
feedback avalanche diodes (NFADs), operating in the free-running regime,achieved a DCR down to 1 cps at 10 % photon detection efficiency (PDE) attelecom wavelengths.
Here we present our recent results on the characterization of the DCR,
afterpulse probability and the PDE of NFAD detectors for temperatures
down to 143 K. The PDE was measured with 1% accuracy using a simple

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387

Conference 9492:
Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IX

9492-28, Session 89492-30, Session 8

Visible to infrared photon counting with
the MWIR HgCdTe e-APD (Invited Paper)

Phase preservation and ultra-low
background in parametric up-conversion
at the single-photon level

William W. Sullivan III, Jeffrey D. Beck, Richard Scritchfield,
Mark R. Skokan, Pradip Mitra, DRS Technologies, Inc.
(United States); Xiaoli Sun, James B. Abshire, NASA
Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States); Darren P.
Carpenter, Barry L. Lane, Analog/Digital Integrated
Circuits, Inc. (United States)
An updated review of improvements in the understanding and maturityof linear mode photon counting with HgCdTe electron-initiated avalanche
photodiode (APD) focal plane arrays (FPAs) is presented. This work wasdone under a NASA Advanced Component Technology (ACT) program.
The program’s goals were to understand limitations discovered in DRS’
first successful 2x8 linear mode photon counting (LMPC) FPA reported
in the 2011 paper. A process validation lot of 2x8 FPAs was fabricated.
Five FPAs were characterized that replicated the 2011 LMPC 2x8 FPA withphoton counting sensitivity. It was experimentally verified that readout
integrated circuit (ROIC) glow emitted photons was responsible for mostof the false event rate (FER) of the 2011 array. The application of a single
layer metal blocking layer between the ROIC and the detector array andoptimization of the ROIC biases reduced the FER by an order of magnitude.
Further improvements that implement blocking layers in the ROIC are
expected totally eliminate this issue and bring the FER down to the < 20
k e/s gain normalized dark current levels measured on adjacent APD test
pixels. Photon detection efficiencies (PDEs) of greater than 50% wereroutinely demonstrated across 5 arrays, with one array reaching a PDEof 70%. High resolution pixel-surface spot scans were performed and thejunction diameters of the diodes were measured. The junction diameter
was decreased from 31 µm to 22 µm resulting in a 4x increase in APD gainfrom 470 on the 2011 array to 1910 on one of the 2014 FPAs. A 3D Monte
Carlo random walk model was generated that showed good agreement withthe measured junction diameters, rms jitter, and eCE. Mean single photon
signal to noise ratios of over 20 were demonstrated at excess noise factorsof 1.2-1.3. A PDE vs. FER model was also generated with good agreement tomeasured data.

Yu-Hsiang Cheng, Tim O. Thomay, Joint Quantum Institute(United States) and National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Alan L. Migdall, Glenn S.
Solomon, Joint Quantum Institute (United States) andNational Institute of Standards and Technology (UnitedStates); Sergey V. Polyakov, Joint Quantum Institute(United States) and National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)
We experimentally demonstrate that phase information can be maintained
during frequency up-conversion at the single-photon level. Additionally,
we show that the up-conversion process may be made noiseless within
experimental uncertainty, while maintaining reasonable up-conversion
efficiency. Our experimental results are an enabling step towards
demonstration of a faithful up-conversion of certain entangled states.
The nonlinear frequency mixing with periodically-poled lithium niobate(PPLN) waveguides is done simultaneously in two arms of a Mach-Zehnderinterferometer. A high-power cw 1550 nm pump laser is used to convert
near-infrared 920 nm photons into the visible at 577 nm. We choose 920
nm to emulate anti-bunched single-photon sources, such as InAs-based
quantum dots (QDs). We detect the up-converted faint state with a Si
single-photon avalanche photodiode (SPAD), and use a field-programmablegate array (FPGA) to collect photon statistics. Note that the Si SPADs
commonly used for photon detection have significantly higher detection
efficiency for visible light as compared to the wavelengths typical ofsemiconductor QD emission. Furthermore, they are easy to operate at room
temperature, comparing favorably to many other types of single-photon
detectors. Our laser at 920 nm was attenuated to reach photon flux of
6?10^5 s^-1 to simulate that of typical InAs QD emission.
We observed high contrast fringes with visibility >0.95 with no postprocessing. Within the available range of pump powers and using a
stock >20 nm bandpass filter around 577 nm, no statistically significant
background due to strong pump was detected in our experimental setup.

9492-29, Session 8

Recent progress in upconversion detector
and its application (Invited Paper)
Qiang Zhang, Univ. of Science and Technology of China(China)Upconversion detectors utilizing the sum-frequency generation (SFG)
in periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) waveguides or bulk crystals
to convert the telecom band wavelength into near infrared window andthen detect it with Silicon APD. Generally, upconversion detector has highdetection efficiency but too many noise counts.
In this talk, we shall show that with long wave pump and narrow band
filtering technology, we can reduce the noise count rate 100 cps, as
low as the intrinsic noise level of a Silicon APD based SPD with a 28%
system detection efficiency. Based on this new upconversion detector, we
implemented several quantum key distribution experiment, including, 52 km
day light quantum communication, measurement device independent QKD
and passive decoy QKD. Meanwhile, the detector has been used to achieve
217 km optical time-domain reflectometry (OTDR) and measure air visibility.
In the end of the talk, we shall discuss and show some preliminary results
about how to make the whole upconversion system compact and how toincrease its detection efficiency.

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Conference 9493: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications VI
Tuesday 21–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9493 Energy Harvesting and Storage: Materials, Devices, and Applications
VI9493-1, Session 1cell performance. Under optimized conditions, the performance obtained iscomparable to that of a similar DAFC run with a pure alcohol-water mixture.
Additionally, the modified DAFC can provide useable amounts of power
for weeks.

Micro enzymatic biofuel cells: fromtheoretical to experimental aspect (Invited
Paper)

9493-3, Session 1

Yin Song, Richa Agrawal, Chunlei Wang, Florida
International Univ. (United States)

Synergic system between photovoltaic
module and microbial fuel cell withsimultaneous pollution control

Miniaturized enzymatic biofuel cells (EBFCs) converting biological energy
into electrical energy by using enzyme-modified electrodes are considered
as a candidate to power the implantable medical devices and portableelectronics. However, low power density and insufficient cell lifetime are
two big obstacles to be overcome before EBFCs become competitive inthe practical application. In this work, we demonstrated an EBFC system
employing 3D micropillar arrays integrated with graphene/CNT composite.
The fabrication process of this system combines top-down carbon
microelectromechanical system (CMEMS) technology to fabricate the 3D
micropillar arrays platform and bottom-up electrophoretic deposition (EPD)to deposit graphene/CNTs/enzyme composite onto the 3D micropillar
arrays. The electrode characterization and cell performance evaluation
have been conducted by cyclic voltammetry, scanning electron microscope,fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, etc. In addition, the theoreticalsimulation of this EBFC system is conducted using finite element analysis
from COMSOL 4.3a in terms of cell performance, efficiency and optimum
cell configurations. In order to maximize the power output of the EBFC,
within the same cell configuration, the energy generated from enzymes
could be accumulated first at the charging process and then dissipated in ashort time with higher power to the external circuit. The comparison of fullcell electrochemical performance of the EBFC system between before andafter self-charging process will be also presented in this talk.

Oresta M. Vasyliv, Arterium Corp. (Ukraine); Neelkanth G
Dhere, Univ of Central Florida (United States)
Solar energy is ultimately the long-term solution of renewable energy
production without a net carbon dioxide emission, but its efficacy depends
on how this source of energy is harvested. The sun does not shine all day,nor does it shine equally in all regions. Thus, solar panels can help withdaytime large electricity needs, but it will not serve as a basic source ofenergy throughout the day and night without an efficient methods ofenergy storage. Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is not dependent on the day
time and thus their application for derivation of energy is more universal.
Although power efficiency of these systems is lower in comparison withphotovoltaic (PV) panels. Joining of MFC and PV modules will allow in
obtaining energy round the clock. Low efficiency of MFC will be increased
because of energy accumulated by photovoltaic system during the daytime.
Thus, usage of energy generated by MFC during the nighttime and PV
power during the daytime results in a complementary synergic system withthe prospect of non-stop stable power generation.
Desulfuromonas. acetoxidans is exoelectrogenic sulfur-reducing bacteriathat is shown to be effective anode biocatalyst in MFC. Recently it wasdetermined that despite H2S generation as a result of S0-reduction, thisbacterium can also oxidize elemental sulfur to sulfite and sulfate with anelectrode serving as the electron acceptor. Since sulfur can accumulate
on anodes from the abiotic oxidation of sulfide it shows the possibility ofcontinuous simultaneous carrying of opposite stages of sulfur cycle in theanode chamber of MFC by activity of only one genus of bacterium. Hence
simultaneous sulfur redox reactions supported by D. acetoxidans activity
doubles the electron transfer to the electrode, which can lead to increase
the effectiveness of MFC power output. It was shown that D. acetoxidans is
resistant to different concentrations (in the range of 0.5-2.5 mM) of copper,
iron, nickel, lead etc. Using metal-resistant strains of these bacteria helps
overcome H2S toxicity (which is the final product of bacterial dissimilative
sulfur-reduction), since divalent cations will interact with sulfide ions,forming insoluble precipitates. Thus D. acetoxidans may be applied for
remediation of toxic metal ions from water environments because of metal
fixation in form of insoluble complexes of metal sulfides. It has been shownthat D. acetoxidans is capable of converting the organic compounds, suchas malate, pyruvate, succinate, fumarate, ethanol, butyrate etc. It shows thepossibility of its usage for decreasing the organic content in effluents while
application in MFC with formation of simple benign constituents, such as
CO2 and H2O. It is followed by water purification with the simultaneousenergy production.

9493-2, Session 1

Performance study of sugar-yeast-ethanol
bio-hybrid fuel cells
Justin P. Jahnke, David M. Mackie, Marcus Benyamin,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Rahul Ganguli,
Teledyne Scientific Co. (United States); James J. Sumner,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Renewable alternatives to fossil hydrocarbons for energy generation areof general interest for a variety of political, economic, environmental andpractical reasons. In particular, energy from biomass has many advantages,
including safety, sustainability, and the ability to be scavenged from native
ecosystems or from waste streams. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) can takeadvantage of microorganism metabolism to efficiently use sugar and otherbiomolecules as fuel but are limited by low power densities. In contrast,
direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs) take advantage of proton exchange
membranes (PEMs) to generate electricity from alcohols at much higher
power densities. Here, we investigate a novel bio-hybrid fuel cell design
prepared using commercial off-the shelf DAFCs. In the bio-hybrid fuel cells,
biomass such as sugar is fermented by yeast to ethanol, which can be used
to fuel a DAFC. A separation membrane between the fermentation and theDAFC is used to purify the fermentate while avoiding any parasitic power
losses. However, shifting the DAFCs from pure alcohol-water solutions
to filtered fermented media introduces complications related to how thestarting materials, fermentation byproducts and DAFC waste products affectboth the fermentation and the long-term DAFC performance. This study
examines the impact of separation membrane pore size, fermentation/fuelcell byproducts, alcohol and salt concentrations, and load resistance on fuelReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Application of PV-MFC system could be one of the modes of highly effective
eco-friendly energy derivation with simultaneous reduction of organic andinorganic waste of water environment. Joining the MFC and PV system willallow establishment of new self-functioning effectiveenergy-production system.

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Conference 9493: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications VI

9493-4, Session 1

9493-6, Session 2

Inhomogeneous thermoelectrics:
improving overall ZT by localized property
variations

Dielectric properties of low temperaturenano engineered Y2/3Cu3Ti4O12 ceramiccompoundNarasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates); David C. Nemir, Jan Beck, TXL Group, Inc. (UnitedStates); Jay R. Maddux, Patrick J. Taylor, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

K. D. Mandal, Sunita Sharma, Shiv S. Yadav, Institute ofTechnology, Banaras Hindu Univ. (India); M. M. Singh,
Narsingh B. Singh, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)

The search for improved thermoelectric materials is driven in part by thedesire to convert otherwise wasted low-temperature heat into usefulelectricity. In this work, we demonstrate a new path towards materials
having higher overall ZT, and consequently improved capacity to obtain
more electrical power from a given content of heat. We produced alloysof (Bi,Sb)2Te3 using a special gas atomization process that is capable ofproducing source powder material having nanometer-scale grain size.
When impulse-compacted by shockwave consolidation, the obtained
dense solid will retain its nanostructure because insufficient time andtemperature are available for the kinetics of any appreciable grain growth
to proceed. However, if there is initial non-uniformity in the properties ofthe source powder, or if there is stress non-symmetries during shockwave
consolidation, then the obtained consolidated material may have
locally inhomogeneous properties distributed throughout the material.
Thermoelectric property measurements from selected regions within the
consolidated sample indicate a wide distribution of properties. For example,
the thermal conductivity at room temperature ranged from as low as 1.30
Watts/m-K in one region to higher than 3.00 Watts/m-K in a neighboring
region. The electrical resistivity showed similar variation from as low as 0.5
m Ohm-cm to as high as 1.5 m Ohm-cm. Individually, those regions exhibited
thermoelectric ZT values ranging between 0.3 and 0.4 . However, whencombined into a dense nanocomposite, the overall ensemble ZT = 0.6 which
is nearly a factor of 2 higher.

Non-ferroelectric material exhibiting high dielectric constant with goodthermal stability and low dielectric loss is the most important prerequisites
for the fabrication of noble ceramic material which is suitable for capacitor,
resonator and filler applications in electronic devices. Normally size andperformance of such electronic devices can be regulated by their material
properties. The size of the ceramic could be remarkably reduced as the sizeof the resonator, is inversely proportional to the square of dielectric constantof the material. Further, the dielectric constant of the material should be
independent of temperature and frequency.

9493-5, Session 1

Solar fuel production for a sustainableenergy (Invited Paper)
Deryn D. Chu, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Nick Wu, West Virginia Univ. (United States); Terry DuBois,
Edward J. Plichta, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States)
Sun light is the most abundant renewable energy source and has
great potential to meet future global energy demands. Solar fuels thatconvert solar energy to chemical energy stored as chemical fuels suchas hydrogen and methanol. Converting sunlight with water and carbon
dioxide into solar fuels, without competing with food production, is an
important route for sustainable development beyond fossil fuels. The direct
photoelectrochemical water splitting to generate hydrogen has attracted
attention world-wide due to their renewable fuel generation and benefit
to the environment. Recently, numerous researchers have focused on
artificial photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water and CO2 to organic fuels.
The products derived from carbon dioxide reduction varies and includes
methane, formic acid, methanol, etc., which depends on the reaction
conditions. Using the photoelectrochemical technique, the photoelectrodes
combine with catalysts enhancing reaction rates. The photo-electrochemical
conversion of water to hydrogen and CO2 to small organic molecules asfuels has great potential to become a viable and economical technology. In
this presentation, enhanced photocatalytic reactions through extended lightabsorption will be discussed.

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9493-7, Session 2

Effect of organic flux on the colossal
dielectric constant of CCTO
Vishnu Razdan, Carnegie-Mellon Univ. (United States);
Abhishek Singh, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates); Brad Arnold, Fow-Sen Choa, Lisa Kelly, Narsingh
B. Singh, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates)The potential demand for miniaturization of electrical and electronic devices
has raised a serious challenge for the development of capacitors withhigh dielectric constant and low loss. The high dielectric constant calcium
copper titanate, CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO), and its isomorphs have attracted
much attention for the development of promising capacitor materials forelectronic industries. Improving the synthetic technology and dielectric
properties of these materials is a current focus of research and developmentin the area of materials chemistry. Because of their improved properties
due to size and structure, the nanometer-sized particles (with dimensions
smaller than 100 nm) have attracted considerable interest for a wide variety
of applications, including electronics, ceramics and as catalysts.

9493-8, Session 2

Mapping capacity loss in Al anodes forultra-lightweight and compact all-solidstate batteries
Chen Gong, Alex Pearse, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States); Dmitry Ruzmetov, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States) and Univ. of
Maryland, College Park (United States); Gary Rubloff,
Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States); Norman
C. Bartelt, A. Alec Talin, Sandia National Labs. (UnitedStates); Marina S. Leite, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States)
All-solid-state Li-ion batteries are a promising and rapidly growing
power source for mobile devices. However, the mechanisms of lithiation/
delithiation for many anode materials are still not well understood. We
investigate the mechanism of lithiation in all-solid-state thin film batteries
with Al anodes for ultra-lightweight and compact devices application. We
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Conference 9493: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications VI
upon lithiation by confocal Raman microscopy and X-ray photo-electron
spectroscopy (XPS). We find that a Li-Al-O thin layer forms at the top
surface of the anode, confirmed by the emerging Raman peaks after cyclingat 1380, 1585 cm-1. This oxide layer covers stable LiAl alloy mounds by asurface driven reaction (with (Fd3m) phase, Raman shift at 2890 cm-1). The
XPS measurements corroborate the Raman results, showing an atomic ratioof Li:Al equal to 4:1. A simple thermodynamic model for the lithiation of Al
suggests that LiAlO2 and Li5AlO4 are expected to form at 3.35 V and 0.17
V, respectively, indicating that different Li-Al-O co-exist at the surface of theanode [1]. During lithiation, Li is trapped at the intrinsic Al2O3 on the top of
the anode, preventing Al diffusion. This unique behavior of Al is caused by
Li surface diffusion: Li diffuses ≈ 9 orders of magnitude faster into Si thanit does in Al [2]. The addition of a thin and inert metallic cap layer could
prevent the surface driven reactions observed, and the design of a new
device architecture will be presented.

of EDLCs, the concept of hybridization of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)
and EDLCs has gathered much attention in past years. Such a hybrid is
typically referred to as “lithium-ion capacitor” (LIC) or “lithium capacitor”
and essentially utilizes a lithium intercalating anode (such as graphite or
Li4Ti5O12) and fast charging-discharging EDLC electrode (such as activatedcarbon, carbon nanostructures) in a lithium-salt based electrolyte. Althoughsuch a system sounds quite ideal in theory, there are major challenges thatneed to be addressed in order to fully realize the benefits of LIB and EDLC
electrodes in conjunction. Most of these challenges stem from the mismatchin capacity of the electrodes and also the charging-discharging times of theelectrodes. For instance, the EDLC electrode acts as the limiting factor forthe capacity of the system while the LIB electrode limits the power ofthe system.
Here we have fabricated a hybrid capacitor that utilizes a Li4Ti5O12 (LTO)
based anode and a graphene and carbon nanotube (G-CNT) composite
based cathode. LTO is an excellent candidate for LICs because lithium
intercalates/de-intercalates at a potential of 1.55V v/s Li/Li+, which is wellover the reductive decomposition of the electrolyte. Also, LTO shows little
or no volumetric changes with lithium intercalation, which in turn lends it
excellent cyclability. Graphene and CNT, on the other hand are both carbon
nanostructures and well-known EDLC materials. The active materials were
deposited onto copper and aluminum foils, respectively for anode andcathode using electrostatic spray deposition (ESD). Full hybrid cells wereassembled using the previously fabricated electrodes keeping in mind thecapacity mismatch between the fast charging G-CNT electrode and thelithium-intercalating LTO electrode. Detailed results will be presented at
the conference.

[1] C. Gong et al. “High spatial resolution imaging of capacity loss in Al
anode all-solid-state batteries”. In preparation.
[2] M. S. Leite et al. “Insights into capacity loss mechanisms of all-solidstate Li-ion batteries with Al anodes”. J. Mat. Chem. A, in press. (2014). DOI:
10.1039/c4ta90112f. Inside Cover.

9493-9, Session 2

Effect of temperature and thickness ofthe graphene on the hydrogen storage
properties

9493-11, Session 3

Jie Huang, Chee How Wong, Nanyang Technological Univ.
(Singapore)

Carbon microelectromechanical systems(C-MEMS) based microsupercapacitors

Hydrogen, of which the application is limited due to the difficulties in finding
the ideal storage material, has been considered alternative for petroleum as
the main energy source. With its large surface area and other extraordinary
physical properties, graphene has been the focus of many researchers as thepromising candidate for hydrogen storage and transportation. In this work,
the hydrogen storage characteristics of graphene have been investigated by
MD simulations. We found that, under a typical environment setup, where
the temperature is 70 K and the pressure is 1 MPa, the hydrogen uptake
percentage can be as high as 6.51%. And the majority of the hydrogenatoms are absorbed during the initial 100- 200 ps of the simulation.
Additionally, the strain energy of the absorbed hydrogen atoms converged
to a value with small fluctuation from the initial 100- 200 ps. Moreover,the hydrogen storage properties of graphene with different environment
temperatures have been studied as well. We found that with increasing
temperature, the hydrogen uptake percentage towards the end of thesimulation decrease. Furthermore, the number of layers of the graphenesheet also exerts influence of the hydrogen absorption capability of thesample. We conclude that the more graphene sheets are being used, theless hydrogen atoms are being absorbed by the sample. Our work provides
insight into optimizing the environmental temperature and thickness of thegraphene sheet when designing novel energy storage devices, especiallyhydrogen storage devices.

Richa Agrawal, Florida International Univ. (United States);
Majid Beidaghi, Drexel University (United States); Wei
Chen, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology(Saudi Arabia); Chunlei Wang, Florida International Univ.
(United States)
The rapid development of miniaturized electronic devices has led to a neverending demand for high performance rechargeable micro-power sources.
Microsupercapacitors in particular have attracted a great deal of attention inrecent years because of their high pulse power and long cycle lives. Carbon
microelectromechanical systems (C-MEMS), in which a patterned photoresist
is pyrolyzed in an inert environment at a high temperature is a powerfulapproach to fabricate high aspect ratio carbon microelectrode arrays,
which have been proved to hold great promise as a platform for energy
storage. Additionally, different active materials can be loaded onto theseelectrode arrays for further enhancement of electrochemical performance.
We have explored various techniques, materials and structural designs for
micro-supercapacitors. In this talk, C-MEMS based various electrochemicalcapacitor systems will be briefly introduced. Both two and three dimensional
micro-electrodes were fabricated and various electroactive materials were
integrated onto the microelectrodes. These include carbon nanotubes(CNTs), polypyrrole and manganese oxide. More recently, we have also
examined the integration of Graphene sheets and CNTs onto the microelectrodes as promising high power and energy density material.

9493-10, Session 2

Hybridization of lithium-ion batteries andelectrochemical capacitors: fabricationand challenges (Invited Paper)

9493-12, Session 3

Paper-based broadband and wide-angle
antireflection coatings for Si and GaAs
solar cells

Richa Agrawal, Yong Hao, Yin Song, Chunhui Chen, Chunlei
Wang, Florida International Univ. (United States)
Conventional electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) are well
suited as power sources for devices that require large bursts of energy inshort time periods. However, when compared to their battery counterparts,
EDLCs suffer from low energy densities. The low energy density of EDLCs
hinders their applications in devices that require a simultaneous supplyof high power and high energy. In order to improve the energy density

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Dongheon Ha, Jeremy N. Munday, Univ. of Maryland,College Park (United States)
In most of photovoltaic applications, reducing surface reflection is a key·

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Conference 9493: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications VI
design criterion. Traditionally, researchers have used either single or
double-layer antireflection coatings (ARCs) for this purpose; however, these
traditional methods require complicated high temperature processes thatare costly.
Here we present a simple and easy way to make ARCs based on a micro
cellulose fiber paper that reduces light reflection and increases power
conversion efficiency. This paper-based ARC has high transmissivity, whichenables light to propagate through the transparent paper and reach theactive surface. Also, an increased path length in the device will be achieved
due to light scattering from the textured composition of the micro cellulose
fiber. The paper-based ARC is applied to two different types of solar
cells (Si and GaAs), and a broadband and wide-angle optical response isexperimentally observed, increasing the efficiency of the GaAs solar cellby ~24% [1]. The effect of the transparent paper ARC on both textured anduntextured solar cells is also investigated. This new paper-based ARC with
inexpensive and room temperature process can be an excellent candidate to
replace conventional ARCs based on expensive and complicated fabrication
processes. Furthermore, the transparent paper ARC is made from an earthabundant and recyclable material, which will cause lessenvironmental issues.
[1] Dongheon Ha, Zhiqiang Fang, Liangbing Hu and Jeremy N. Munday, Adv.
Energy Mater., 4: 1301804 (2014): (inside cover)

9493-13, Session 3

Anil Shrestha, Genki Mizuno, Robert Olah, Banpil
Photonics, Inc. (United States); Saif Islam, Banpil Photonics
Inc. (United States); Achyut K Dutta, Banpil Photonics, Inc.
(United States); Nibir K. Dhar, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
The absorption of energy from an electromagnetic wave depends on theabsorption coefficient of material and the thickness of the sample. At
normal incidence, without any back reflector, the material thickness isalmost equal to the optical path. If we increase the optical path without
increasing the material thickness incorporating nanostructures, then it ispossible to achieve the same absorption even using less material thickness.
Light trapping is a phenomenon where the incident light goes throughmultiple reflections inside a device structure having nanostructures,
enabling in increasing the optical path, which resulting in high absorption.
The nanostructure diffracts the incident radiation and increases the optical
path for the electromagnetic radiation. Nanostructures also significantly
reduce the reflection from the surface of solar cells which further boosts
the absorption at shorter wavelength end of absorption spectrum. At
longer wavelength end of absorption spectrum, the light trapping effectsignificantly increases the optical path leading to expanding and/or
increasing the absorption. The modeling and simulation of solar cell havingnanostructures are carried out and the simulation results are correlated withexperimental results of fabricated test structures.

Energy harvesting via ferrofluidic
induction

A series of experiments were conducted to verify ‘ferrofluidic induction’ - aprocess for generating electrical power via cyclic oscillation of ferrofluid(iron-based or magnetized nanofluid) through or around a solenoid. A
capillary-sized, plastic capsule of aqueous ferrofluid was vibrated near 20 Hz
through a solenoid which consisted of 600 turns and fabricated from 0.127
mm copper wire. The solenoid was 2.4 cm long and had an internal andexternal diameter of 1.25 cm and 1.5 cm, respectively. The capsule consistedof 0.75 mL of ferrofluid which consisted of nano-sized (~ 20 nm) iron-oxide
particles at a concentration of ~15 mg/mL. Magnetic and morphologicalproperties of the nanoparticles were examined using magnetic force
microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, respectively, before andafter oscillation experiments. The ferrofluid was actively oscillated withand without a uniform, coaxial, bias magnetic field which was employed topromote alignment of the ferrous nanoparticles’ dipoles. For experimental
control, a small steel rod (> 1000% more iron) was oscillated through thesolenoid. The results indicate that the vibrating, encapsulated ferrofluid
induced a +/- 0.4 mV EMF in the solenoid with or without the bias magnetic
field present. With the bias magnetic field, the steel rod induced a +/- 10 mV
EMF in the solenoid; nearly two orders-of-magnitude greater than the EMF
induced without the bias field. These results demonstrate the feasibility offerrofluidic induction, and secondarily, the importance of an accompanying
bias magnetic field. These processes can be exploited to accomplish or
enhance energy harvesting and/or conversion in many applications.

9493-16, Session 3

Piezoelectric energy-harvesting powersource and event detection sensors for
gun-fired munitions

9493-14, Session 3

Pulsed microwave heating method for
preparation of dye-sensitized solar cells
for greener, faster, cheaper production ofphotovoltaic materials
Clifford B. Murphy, Roger Williams Univ. (United States);
Robert Cotta, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States);
Timothy Blais, Roger Williams Univ. (United States);Charles B. Hall, QD Vision, Inc. (United States)
Microwave heating methods are very popular for developing chemical

SPIE DSS 2015

9493-15, Session 3

John G. Monroe, Erick S. Vasquez, Zachary S. Aspin, John
D. Fairley, Keisha B. Walters, Matthew J. Berg, Scott M.
Thompson, Mississippi State Univ. (United States)

High efficiency solar cells utilizing lighttrapping structure392

syntheses that are achieved much more rapidly or with less solvent than via
conventional heating methods. Their application to solar cell development
has been primarily in developing improvements in the synthesis of dyes
and the curing of polymer substrates, but not in assisting the photoanodeconstruction of dye-sensitized solar cells. Microwave heating of conductive
substrates can lead to arcing of electricity in the reactor which in turn canlead to damaging the photoanode. Here I present our work in applying apulsed microwave heating method that affords quicker dye deposition times
in comparison to conventional heating (mw 30 min, conventional 60 min)with similar dye concentrations as characterized by UV-Vis absorbance,
contact angle measurements, and cyclic voltammetry. Our photoanodes
are constructed with anatase TiO2 cured onto FTO glass, deposition of
the N719 ruthenium dye either directly to the TiO2 layer or through amidebond formation to a silane layer that has been deposited on the TiO2 layer.
Modest improvements in the solar energy conversion efficiency are shown
through the microwave method in comparison to conventional heating (mw
0.78% vs. conventional 0.25% reported by K. Szpakolski, et. Al. Polyhedron,
2013, 52, 719-732).

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Jahangir Rastegar, Dake Feng, Omnitek Partners, LLC(United States); Carlos M. Pereira, U.S. Army Armament
Research, Development and Engineering Ctr. (UnitedStates)This paper presents a review of piezoelectric based energy harvesting
devices and their charge collection and storage electronics for use in veryharsh environment of gun-fired munitions. A number of novel classes ofsuch energy-harvesting power sources that have been developed for gunfired munitions and gravity dropped weapons and other similar applications

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Conference 9493: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications VI
are also presented together with highly efficient charge collection andstorage electronics with integrated event detection and safety electronics
and logic. The power sources are designed to harvest energy from firing
acceleration and vibratory motions during the flight. The energy harvesting
power sources are shown to produce enough electrical energy for many low
power fuzing applications and as a component of a hybrid power source toachieve very fast rise time and longer run time. In munitions applications,the developed power sources have the added advantage of providing
additional safety, since with such power sources the fuzing electronics are
powered only after munitions have exited the barrel and have traveled a safe
distance from the weapon platform.

bacterium that performs complete oxidation of an organic substrate withelectron transfer directly to the electrode in microbial fuel cell (MFC). This
bacterium is very promising for MFC development because of inexpensive
cultivation medium, high survival rate and resistance to various heavy
metal ions. Its comparatively small size (0.4-0.8?1-2 ?m) is highly beneficial
while application of porous anode material. Complete bacterial cover ofan electrode area significantly improves the effectiveness of its usage.
Two chamber MFC with volume 0.3 l was constructed with applicationof D. acetoxidans IMV B-7384 as anode biocatalyst. The initial biomassof bacterial suspension was 0.30±0.05 g of dry cell weight per liter. Theinterconnection between the reductive stage of tricarboxylic acid (TCA)
cycle, which functions under anaerobic conditions, and MFC performancewas established. Malic, pyruvic, fumaric and succinic acids in concentration
42 mM were separately added into the anode chamber of MFC as theredox agents. Application of malic acid caused the most stable and thehighest power generation in comparison with addition of pyruvic, fumaricand succinic acids. The maximal power density (10.07±0.17mW/m2) was
observed on 136 hour of bacterial cultivation under addition of malic acid
while increasing of growth time up to 480 hour caused decrease of power
density by 25%. Under addition of pyruvic, succinic and fumaric acids into
the anode chamber of MFC the maximal power density values equaled
5.80±0.25 mW/m2; 3.2±0.11mW/m2, and 2.14±0.19 mW/m2 respectively on
40, 56 and 32 hour of bacterial cultivation. On 480 hour of D. acetoxidans
IMV B-7384 growth the generated power decreased by 71%, 88%, and 27 %respectively under application of pyruvic, succinic and fumaric acids. Hencethe malic acid conversion via reductive stage of TCA cycle is shown to be
the most significant process in terms of electricity generation in MFC by D.
acetoxidans IMV B-7384 under anaerobic conditions.

The design of a number of prototypes, including their packaging for highG hardening, and the results of laboratory, air-gun and firing tests arepresented. Power sources that generate over 100 mJ in a relatively small
packaging for gun-fired munitions have been designed using extensivemodeling and finite element analysis and tested at over 40,000 Gs. Methods
to increase the efficiency of piezoelectric-based energy-harvesting powersources and to minimize friction and damping losses and development ofrelated testing platforms are discussed.

9493-17, Session 3

C-MEMS for bio-sensing applications(Invited Paper)
Yin Song, Richa Agrawal, Chunlei Wang, Florida
International Univ. (United States)
There is urgent need to develop highly selective, sensitive and reproducible
miniaturized bio-sensing platform based on reliable interface that iscompatible with microfabrication processing. Our research objective
is to advance fundamental research by fabricating pyrolyzed carbon
arrays with high surface area as a bio-sensing electrode, developing
the functionalization methods to increase biomolecules immobilization
efficiency and further understanding electrochemical phenomena occurringat bio/carbon interfaces. The carbon microelectrode arrays with highaspect ratio have been fabricated by carbon microelectromechanicalsystems (C-MEMS) and nanomaterials such as graphene have been
integrated to further increase surface area. To achieve the efficientcovalent immobilization of biomolecules, various oxidation and reduction
functionalization methods have been investigated. The oxidation treatmentin this study includes vacuum ultraviolet, electrochemical activation, UV/
Ozone and oxygen RIE. The reduction treatment includes direct aminationand diazonium grafting. The functionalized surface has been characterizedusing XPS, CV and FTIR to confirm and calculate the surface coverage ofdifferent functional groups. The developed bio-sensing platform was thenapplied for several applications, such as: DNA sensor; Glucose sensor; H2O2
sensor; Aptamer sensor and HIV sensor. The performance and sensitivity ofeach biosensor will be discussed in the talk.

9493-19, Session PTue

Alloyed metal nanoparticles withmodulated optical properties forphotovoltaics
Allen Chang, Chen Gong, Ellen Cesewski, Marina S. Leite,
Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States)
Plasmonic pure metal nanostructures have been shown to improvethe efficiency of solar cells by increasing light scattering. In particular,
extensive efforts have been dedicated to understand how Ag nanoparticles
enhance light absorption within photovoltaic devices and recently, Al has
emerged as a potential candidate for increasing light absorption at shortwavelengths. However, these current plasmonic pure metal nanoparticles
suffer from limited enhancement capabilities due to their intrinsic opticalproperties. Here we present the potential for plasmonic alloyed metal
nanoparticles formed by a combination of Ag, Al, Au and Cu to increase
solar cell efficiencies beyond the enhancement by pure metals. We fabricate
arrays of metallic alloyed nanoparticles by physical deposition methods
with controlled sizes (down to 100 nm) and extremely high yield (> 95%).
We modulate the optical properties of the nanostructures by varying alloy
compositions, achieved by sequential/alternating e-beam evaporation of
5 nm layers of different metals and by co-sputtering. We incorporate thealloyed nanoparticles into GaAs solar cells and locally measure the spectrally
dependent photocurrent and open circuit voltage enhancements by nearfield scanning optical microscopy. Our results show increased optical activity
surrounding the nanostructures and spectral dependence, only revealed by
the high spatial resolution measurements performed here. Furthermore, ourMie scattering calculations suggest that alloyed metals, AlxAg1-x, show low
optical loss – therefore increased power conversion efficiency – over thebulk of the sun spectrum (280 nm - 1480 nm). Thus we can enhance lightabsorption into a solar cell device over a wider wavelength range thanpure metals.

9493-18, Session PTue

Interconnection between tricarboxylic acidcycle and energy generation in microbial
fuel cell performed by desulfuromonasacetoxidans IMV B-7384
Oresta M. Vasyliv, Arterium Corp. (Ukraine); Olga D.
Maslovska, Yaroslav P. Ferensovych, Oleksandr I. Bilyy,
Svitlana O. Hnatush, Ivan Franko National Univ. of L’viv(Ukraine)
Desulfuromonas acetoxidans IMV B-7384 is exoelectrogenic obligate
anaerobic sulfur-reducing bacterium. Its metal-resistant strains playsignificant role in heavy metal ions remediation from the aquatic
environments because of formation of insoluble metal sulfide precipitates.
D. acetoxidans IMV B-7384 was one of the first described electrogenic

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Conference 9493: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications VI

9493-20, Session PTue

A new scattering and absorption
enhancement mechanism using quantum
dot emission
Yunlu Xu, Jeremy N. Munday, Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States)
Recently, significant attention has been given to metallic and dielectric
scattering structures to enhance the absorption within the active
semiconductor layer of a device. These scattering structures have improved
the performance of both detectors and solar cells; however, metallic
structures suffer from Ohmic losses and dielectric scatterers have poorer
scattering efficiencies. Here, we demonstrate that a thin quantum dot
layer can be used to effectively absorb the incident light and radiate it into
specific modes of the semiconductor to enhance the absorption within theactive layer. Our device consists of a thin-film photovoltaic cell with a backreflector containing a uniformly distributed quantum dot layer within aperiodic array of aluminum nanostructures. The aluminum nanostructures
serve to aid in the coupling of the quantum dot emission into waveguidemodes of the structure and also to transport carriers to the back electrode.
We studied the impact of the size and periodicity of nanostructures onphoton absorption and coupling efficiency into the fundamental modesof the structure. We applied this architecture to a polymer photovoltaic
device and demonstrated an increased coupling efficiency to the active
layer. We also studied the thickness dependence of this structure and foundsignificant device performance improvement for thicknesses below 100 nm.
Our analysis shows that the absorption of an ordinary polymer photovoltaic
device is increased by ~30% using this technique [1].
[1] Y. Xu and J.N.Munday, Opt. Exp., 22, A259-A267 (2014)

9493-21, Session PTue

Power conversion and photodetection
through hot carrier generation andcollection in a TCO-insulator-metal based
deviceTao Gong, Jeremy N. Munday, Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States)

9493-22, Session PTue

The electrical and structural analysis ofdegraded single junction amorphoussilicon solar modules
Gilbert O. Osayemwenre, Univ. of Fort Hare (South Africa)

SPIE DSS 2015

In conclusion, this research established the degradation which occurs andcorrelate it to the morphological damage. The module with the worst casescenario has an efficiency of 59% decrease, this could be unacceptable in a
device where stability is of priority.

9493-23, Session PTue

Spray-on solar cells using non-toxic
nanocrystal inks
Troy K. Townsend, Harry K. Kelderman, St. Mary’s Collegeof Maryland (United States)
Solution processed solar cells were fabricated from nanocrystal inks in air
under ambient conditions to produce non-toxic devices made entirely froma spray process. Transparent electrodes of indium tin oxide (ITO) were
deposited onto non-conductive glass from a combustion process followedby visible light absorbing (band gap = 2.5 eV) CoO nanocrystals (p-type)
and ZnO nanocrystals (n-type). The heterojunction device was completedwith a thiol-stabilized Au (2-3 nm) ink, and the entire device (glass/ITO/
ZnO/CoO/Au) was annealed at 400oC to promote sintering and measured
with 1 sun illumination. Device films were characterized with XRD, UV/Vis,and SEM to compare deposition techniques. Film morphologies were foundto be directly related to device performance, and spray-cast device films
were found to be comparable to spin-cast layers. Spray-deposition offers
unique advantages for producing electronic devices on large orirregular surfaces.

9493-24, Session PTue

Hot carrier devices, which take advantage of generated electrons with highkinetic energy before relaxation, have been drawing increased interest
recently. As a result of plasmonic-enhanced absorption in nanostructured
metals, photodetectors based on metal-semiconductor junctions havebeen exploiting hot electron effects to allow sub-bandgap absorption andhence show promise as near IR wavelength detectors. Here we present a
simple transparent conductive oxide (TCO)-insulator-gold based junctionthat allows for the generation and collection of hot carriers in the visible
wavelength range. Experimental hot carrier generation and extraction
is observed for both monochromatic and broadband illumination. In
addition, the absorption is independent of illumination angle for incidence
angles up to 60°. The photo-generated current is nearly constant underbias conditions of +/- 0.2 V, which suggests the device can be used astable photodetector even under external bias. A theoretical model is also
developed and explains the experimental data well. Moreover, we predict anover 10% power conversion efficiency for an optimized device.

394

This paper outline a systematic approach used in evaluating the quality,
performance and reliability of single junction amorphous silicon solar
modules (a-Si:H). The analytical techniques include an electrical andstructural analysis. These techniques were used to obtain a holistic view ofthe state of affairs of these readily available PV modules for small standalone systems. Specifically, current-voltage (I-V) characterization andscanning electron microscopy (SEM) will be presented as diagnostic tools
in this article. The SEM (JEOL, JED-2300) was used to study the surface
morphology of the affected region, results show structural damage in theaffected regions. The experiment shows that the energy output of themodules varies a degradation variation of 2.5% to 25.7%, was observed. The
detailed results will be presented in the final paper.

·

How effective are Lambertian dielectric
scatterers for light trapping?
Joseph Murray, Jeremy N. Munday, Univ. of Maryland,College Park (United States)
To reduce costs and decrease recombination losses, many photovoltaic
technologies are shifting toward thin-film devices. The need for complete
light absorption however constrains reduction in thickness. Light trapping
can be applied to increase absorption in thinner devices. Of the many lighttrapping strategies, adding a random dielectric scatterer to a photovoltaic
device is a simple, cost effective way to increase the performance of solar
cell devices. However, coatings which show excellent performance as
scatterers don’t generally enhance device absorption as much as the ideal
Lambertian would predict. The interface between such a coating and thedevice greatly effects the scattering into the cell. These interfaces differ
from the ideal Lambertian in both amount and directionality of scattering.
Here, using a novel measurement technique, we demonstrate this difference
from both the ideal Lambertian and frequently employed models. The Ideal
Lambertian model significantly overestimates the scattering and commonlyused models cannot correctly account for the reflectance. We further extend
this study to show that these simple approaches create poor predictions ofdevice absorption. We show that even a high quality scatterer can quickly
deviate from Lambertian when light is not normally incident upon thecoating. This result is used to illustrate the need for careful consideration
when predicting the device performance of light trapping structures. Finally,www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9493: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications VI
we will show ways to improve traditional light trapping structures anddiscuss design considerations for surpassing traditional light trapping limits.

9493-25, Session PTue

Enhanced vibration energy harvesting
using nonlinear oscillations
Emily K. Engel, Jiaying Wei, Christopher Lee, Franklin W.
Olin College of Engineering (United States)
Results are presented for the design, fabrication, and testing of a novel
electromagnetic-based device concept to convert ambient mechanicalvibration into electricity. In order to harvest energy over a greater frequency
range (as compared to that of single-natural-frequency devices), a tuned
L-shaped beam is used as a mechanical transducer to generate nonlinear
oscillations. The first two natural frequencies of the L-beam are thefirst bending modes of the horizontal and vertical legs of the L-beam,
respectively. They are tuned to a (near) 2:1 ratio. Under harmonic baseexcitation, an autoparametric, dynamic response can result in which one
externally excited vibration mode parametrically excites a second vibration
mode resulting in significant displacement of both modes (beams) over an
extended frequency range. A series of demonstration devices were built
and measurements were taken to determine system configurations thatmaximize power generation.
The geometry of an L-shaped beam with adjustable end mass (magnets)
at the free end of the vertical leg was designed guided by finite element
analysis such that the first two natural frequencies occurred in a (near)
2:1 ratio. This ratio was verified by impact hammer testing on prototype
devices. Tests were conducted to measure the strain of the vertical andhorizontal legs of the harvester along with the current generated in a
nearby wire coil in response to single-frequency, harmonic base excitation.
Measurements demonstrated that in the cases of near 2:1 ratios, there wasa single, stable, harmonic response involving coupled motion of both thehorizontal and vertical legs. Corresponding power generated through a load
resistor was measured simultaneously. Comparisons between cases where
the natural frequencies are tuned and unturned are made. Tuned cases areshown to generate more power over an extended frequency range.

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395

Conference 9494A:
Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics II
Wednesday 22–22 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9494 Next-Generation Robotics II; and Machine Intelligence and Bioinspired Computation: Theory and Applications IX

9494-1, Session 1

States)

Silicon carbide micro-/nanosystems forsensing and energy applications in harshenvironment (Invited Paper)

Many emerging robotic platforms will require more than a handful of
discrete, localized sensors to achieve the desired capabilities. Rather,
they will need a distributed array of sensors as well as 3-D interconnects.
However, fabricating a robotic component comprising 100s of distributed,
connected sensors (and in some cases, actuators) can be very difficult
with current approaches, which tend to produce assemblies that are costly,
heavy, and bulky.

Carlo Carraro, Roya Maboudian, Univ. of California,
Berkeley (United States)
Silicon has been the dominant semiconducting material in micro-/nanosystems technologies. However, the material and surface propertiesof silicon impose limitations on its use in applications involving harshenvironment (such as high temperature, high radiation and corrosive
conditions). Silicon carbide (SiC), a wide bandgap semiconductor, isemerging as a material to address the limitations of Si as it is temperature
tolerant, radiation resistant, and chemically inert. In this talk, I will present
recent advances in the materials science and manufacturing technologyof SiC thin film and low dimensional structures. This includes deposition,
metallization, and fabrication of semiconductor microdevices, with particularemphasis on sensor and energy technologies for applications inharsh environment.

EHD printing of PEDOT: PSS inks forfabricating pressure sensor arrays on
flexible substrates

9494-4, Session 1

Joshua R. Baptist, Woo Ho Lee, Dan O. Popa, Muthu B.
J. Wijesundara, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (UnitedStates)Micro-force sensing mobile microrobots

Robotic skins with multi-modal sensors are necessary to facilitate better
human-robotic interaction in non-structured environments. Integration ofvarious sensors, especially onto substrates with non-uniform topographies,
is challenging using standard semiconductor fabrication techniques.
Printing is seen as a promising technology that can be explored for sensor
fabrication and integration as it may allow direct printing of different
sensors onto the same substrate regardless of topology. In this work, weinvestigate Electro-HydroDynamic (EHD) printing, a method that allows
printing of microscale features with a wide array of materials, for fabricatingpressure sensor arrays using Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):Polystyrene
Sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS). Fabrication of such sensors has been achieved by
pre-patterning gold metallized interdigitated electrode arrays on a Kapton
substrate, with custom PEDOT:PSS ink printed directly onto the electrodearrays. Initial results for the fabricated sensors indicate 4 ohms/newton
sensitivity with good linearity between a range of 3 to 15 newton. In thefull paper, we will detail the custom PEDOT:PSS ink development as wellas electrical, morphological, and mechanical characteristics of the printed
sensors while demonstrating the suitability of EHD printing for sensor
integration with robotic skin.

9494-3, Session 1

Wuming Jing, David J Cappelleri, Purdue Univ. (UnitedStates)This paper presents the first microscale micro force sensing mobile
microrobot. The design consists of a planar, vision-based micro force sensor
end-effector, while the microrobot body is made from photoresist mixed
with nickel particles that is driven by an exterior magnetic field. With aknown stiffness, the manipulation forces can be determined from observing
the deformation of the end-effector through a camera attached to an optical
microscope. After analyzing and calibrating the stiffness of a micromachined
prototype, proof of concept tests are conducted to verify this microrobot
prototype possessing the mobility and in-situ force sensing capabilities.
This microscale micro-Force Sensing Mobile Microrobot ( FSMM) is able
to translate with the speed up to 10 mm/s in a fluid environment. The
calibrated stiffness of the micro force sensor end-effector of the FSMM is on
the order of 10^-2 N/m. The force sensing resolution with the current visionsystem is approximately 100 nN.

9494-5, Session 1

Magnetoresistive sensors for the next
robot generation
Rolf Slatter, Sensitec GmbH (Germany)

Multi-material additive manufacturing ofrobot components with integrated sensor
arraysAdam Cohen, Matt Saari, Bryan Cox, Matt Galla, Paul
Krueger, Edmond Richer, Southern Methodist Univ. (United

SPIE DSS 2015

The focus is on resistive and capacitive sensors and electromagnetic
actuators, though others are anticipated. Our research requires a numberof advancements including co-deposition of multiple materials in layered
structures. Today’s additive manufacturing can only build structures from asingle class of material (e.g., polymers or metals); overcoming this limitation
will enable a wide range of active structures to be fabricated. Anticipatedapplications beyond robotics include advanced prosthetics, wearable
electronics, and defense electronics.
This paper will present preliminary results for printing polymers andconductive material simultaneously to form small sensor arrays. Approaches
to optimizing sensor performance will also be discussed.

9494-2, Session 1

396

To address these challenges, we are developing a novel additive
manufacturing technology that will enable the integrated fabricationof robotic structural elements with distributed, interconnected sensors
and actuators. In essence, we are building a “robot printer” that willautomatically produce a pre-assembled, ready-to-use robotic limb or otherbody part.

·

There is a number of significant new development trends for robots, among
others lightweight robots for man-machine interaction, humanoid robots,
exo-skeletons and the application of robots in completely new environments
e.g. in space.
These development trends are placing new demands on the sensors used
to measure the position of the robot joints. These new demands can bewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9494A:
Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics II
summarised as follows:As robotic systems advance in capabilities and begin to fulfill new roles inboth civilian and military life, the limitation of slow operational speed has
become a hindrance to the wide-spread adoption of these systems. For
example, military convoys are reluctant to employ autonomous vehicles
when these systems slow their movement from 60 miles per hour down
to 40. However, these autonomous systems must operate at these lower
speeds due to the limitations of the sensors they employ. If a vehicle cannot
detect an obstacle in sufficient time to act to avoid it, the maximum vehicle
speeds must be reduced until the vehicle is able to operate safely. These
detections are made even more difficult when moving obstacles and highrisk obstacles—such as human beings—are added to the scenario. Weather
conditions, complex terrain, dynamic obstacles, positive and negative
obstacles, to name but a few, cause challenges to high speed,autonomous operations.

• Demand for ever more compact design• Requirements for extreme lightweight design• Necessity for a large hollow shaft to allow the passage of cables, shaftsetc.
• Operation in increasingly difficult operating environments (lowtemperature, high temperature, radiation etc.)• Increasing requirements regarding functional safety (at least to Safety
Integrity Level (SIL) 3)
These new demands are leading to the increasing use of encoders basedon the magnetoresistive (MR) effect. This magnetic sensing principle was
first applied industrially in the read-heads of hard disc drives. However, inthe past decade the MR effect has been applied successfully to sensors for
position, current and magnetic field measurement. MR-based encoders offer
a number of benefits compared to the sensor technologies used until now
in robot joints. They are significantly lighter than resolvers and allow a large
central hollow shaft. They are much more robust than optical encoders,being largely unsusceptible to oil, dust, water and other contaminants. Furthermore they can be operated over a much wider temperature range andwith less demanding assembly toleranc-es than optical encoders.

Robotic Research, with its extensive experience in ground autonomy andassociated problems therein, in conjunction with CERDEC/Night Vision
and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD), has performed a sensor study
to specify system and detection requirements, determine how current
autonomy sensors perform in various situations, and analyze how sensors
might be employed to increase operational speeds of ground vehicles.
These sensors included the state of the art in LADAR/LIDAR, Radar, Visual,and Infrared sensors, and have been analyzed at high speeds to study
their effectiveness in detecting and accounting for obstacles and otherperception challenges. By creating a common set of testing benchmarks,
and by testing in a wide range of real-world conditions, Robotic Researchhas evaluated where sensors can be successfully employed today, where
sensors fall short, and which technologies should be examined anddeveloped further, all to achieve the goal of doubling ground vehicle speeds
on any given terrain.

9494-26, Session 1

Force estimation in a 2-DOF piezoelectric
actuator by using the inverse-dynamics
based unknown input observer technique
Vincent Trenchant, Micky Rakotondrabe, Yassine Haddab,
FEMTO-ST (France)

9494-7, Session 2

Multi-model sensor and HMI integration
with applications in personal robotics

Piezoelectric cantilever actuators are widely used in microrobotic
applications such as micromanipulation and serial microassembly thanks
to their high bandwidth and high positioning resolution. Microrobotic tasks
mainly involve real-time displacement measurement. However, knowing inreal-time the force played into role potentially increases the performances
and the success rate of the tasks. Measuring both the displacement andthe force is however a great challenge in these applications due to thelimited space and to the lack of performant but embeddable sensors tocarry out the measurement. Observer techniques have been introduced
as complementary measurement tools in piezoelectric actuators andproved their efficiency to track the force or the displacements with enoughprecision and/or enough bandwidth. Nonetheless, these existing works
were limited to single degree of freedom (1-DOF) actuators. They cannot
therefore be applied to multi-DOF piezoelectric actuators which are
increasingly developed these last years. This paper deals with the estimationof force in a 2-DOF piezoelectric actuator, developed in and used as highprecision and high dynamics positioner in microrobotic tasks. The actuators
exhibit not only hysteresis nonlinearity but also strong couplings properties
which add challenge in the observer synthesis. For all that, we propose
to adapt the Force estimation in a 2-DOF piezoelectric actuator by using
the inverse-dynamics based unkown input observer technique inverse
dynamics based unkown input observer (ID-UIO) to estimate the force in theactuator with enough precision and without compromising the bandwidthof measurement, although the presence of the nonlinearity and of the crosscouplings. Experimental tests demonstrate the efficiency of the approachand its interest in force/position controlled positioning tasks.

Rommel A. Alonzo, Sven Cremer, Dan O. Popa, The Univ. of
Texas at Arlington (United States)
In recent years, the advancements of object detection, path planning,task-oriented algorithms, and the availability and cost reduction of sensors,
have opened the doors to the creation of autonomous robots deployed
to assist humans. A personal robot’s main task is to provide assistance tohumans when requested. However, most robotic platforms are programmed
in a generic fashion, and cannot adapt to specific users level of skill andpreference. On the other hand, most users expect a personalized level of
uniqueness from their other electronic devices. We aim to introduce thislevel of uniqueness into the world of robotics.
This paper proposes a multi-modal robotic framework where a platform
and its sensors autonomously recognizes a user and reconfigures its levelof access and operation to suit that user. Multiple forms of HMI’s (HumanMachine Interface) are presented and a software architecture is formedthat can adjust the type of task that it was previously configure to present.
Multiple forms of sensor fusion with range, pressure, and odometry sensors
are used to recognize human intent. Experimental results with a Qinetiq
DragonRunner Robot are tested on multiple users to examine the robots
ability to adapt to its environment and to its user.

9494-8, Session 2
9494-6, Session 2

Robotic situational awareness of actions inhuman teaming

Sensor study for high speed autonomous
operations

David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

Anne R. Schneider, Zachary La Celle, Alberto Lacaze, Karl
Murphy, Robotic Research LLC (United States); Mark Del
Giorno, Del Services, LLC (United States); Ryan R. Close,
U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD (United States)

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When robots can sense and interpret the activities of the people they are
working with, they become more of a team member and less of just a pieceof equipment. This has motivated work on recognizing human actions using
existing robotic sensors like short-range ladar imagers. These produce
three-dimensional point cloud movies which can be analyzed for structure·

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397

Conference 9494A:
Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics IIand motion information. We skeletonize the human point cloud and apply
a physics-based velocity correlation scheme to the resulting joint motions.
The twenty actions are then recognized using a nearest-neighbors classifierthat utilizes a similarity threshold to achieve high accuracy.

9494-9, Session 2

Performance evaluation and clinicalapplications of 3D plenoptic cameras

9494-11, Session 2

Ryan Decker, Azad Shademan, Justin Opfermann, Simon
Leonard, Peter C. W. Kim, Axel Krieger, Children’s National
Medical Ctr. (United States)
Viewers experience visual discomfort, such as eyestrain and associatedsymptoms including nausea and headaches, often enough to present abarrier to the popularization of stereoscopic 3D technology. Even thoughvarious researches have examined the factors that cause visual discomfort
in watching 3D stereoscopic video, the brigthness factor was not well dealt
with. In this paper, we analyze visual discomfort under various illumination
conditions by considering eye-blinking and saccadic movements. In
addition, we measured the perceived depth before and after watching 3D
stereoscopic video using our own 3D depth measurement instrument.
Our test sequences consist of 6 illumination conditions each for foregroundand background only. The Illumination is changed from bright to dark or
in inverse direction. Our test procedure is as follows: First, the subjects
get rested until they were certain to have no visual discomfort. Then, thesubjects answered eight questions to check their subjective pre-stimulus
discomfort. Next, the participant watched the 30-minute stereoscopic 3Dand 2D video clips in random order. We measured eye-blinking, saccadic
movements and fixation of the participant using an eye-tracking device.
Finally, we measured perceived depth for each subject before and after
watching video. We also measured the perceived depth after subjects’
taking 40-minute rest to measure the recoverability. Eye-blinking showed ahigher score but saccadic movement showed a lower score when watchingbright video than dark video. After 40 minutes, most subjects returned to
the normal condition in depth perception.

9494-10, Session 2

Joe D. Sanford, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (UnitedStates); Rita M. Patterson, Univ. of North Texas Health
Science Ctr. at Fort Worth (United States); Dan O. Popa,
The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)
Surface electromyography (SEMG) has been shown to be a robust andreliable interaction method allowing for basic control of powered prosthetic
devices. Commercially available dexterous devices are available withincreasing numbers of degrees of freedom over past systems. Users of thesedevices with the most severe levels of amputation require the most complex
devices with the greatest number of degrees of freedom. However, thesmaller the remainder limb due to an increase in amputation severity, thefewer viable SEMG sites are available as control inputs. This inverse issue,
controlling complex dexterous devices with limited available inputs, requires
the addition of sensing and interaction modalities. Research has shown amarked decrease in EMG-classification efficiency throughout activities ofdaily life due to socket shift and movement as well as changes in degreeof fit of the socket throughout the subject’s lifetime. Previous work, which
reported the use of intra-socket pressure as measured during flexion andextension of a subject’s carpi flexor and extensor muscles, has shownthat it is possible to control a powered prosthetic device. In this paper, we
present data correlating SEMG data with intra-socket pressure data. Surface
EMG sensors and force sensors were housed within a prosthetic cuff fit toa healthy-limbed subject. EMG and intra-socket force data was collected

SPIE DSS 2015

Resolving ranges of layered objects using
ground vehicle LiDAR
Jim Hollinger, LSA Autonomy LLC (United States); Brett
L Kutscher, Land Sea Air Autonomy, LLC (United States);
Ryan R. Close, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD(United States)
Lidar systems are well known for their ability to measure three-dimensional
aspects of a scene. This attribute of Lidar has been widely exploited by
the robotics community, among others. The problem of resolving rangesof layered objects (such as a tree canopy over the forest floor) has beenstudied from the perspective of airborne systems. However, little research
exists in studying this problem from a ground vehicle system (e.g., a bush
covering a rock or other hazard). This paper will discuss the issues involved
in solving this problem from a ground vehicle. This will include analysis ofextracting multiple-return data from Lidar and the various laser properties
that impact the ability to resolve multiple returns, such as pulse length andbeam size. The impacts of these properties are presented as they apply tothree different Lidar imaging technologies: Scanning Pulse Lidar, Geiger
Mode Flash Lidar, and Time-of-Flight camera. Tradeoffs associated withthese impacts are then discussed for a ground vehicle Lidar application.

9494-25, Session 2

Untethered microscale flight: mechanisms
and platforms for future MEMS aerial
microrobotics
Spencer Ward, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States);
Vahid Foroutan, Ratul Majumdar, Syed Hussain, Igor
Paprotny, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago (United States)

Surface EMG and Intra-socket Force
Measurement to Control a Prosthetic
Device398

from inside the cuff as the subject performed pre-defined grip motions with
their dominant hand. Data fusion algorithms were explored and allowed asubject to use both intra-socket pressure and SEMG data as control inputs
for a powered prosthetic device. This additional input modality allows for an
improvement in input classification as well as information regarding socket
fit through out activities of daily life.

·

This paper describes initial work demonstrating untetherd microscale flying
structures as a platform for new class of aerial microrobots. We present
and analyze both bio-mimetic structures based partially on wing designsof smallest flying insects on Earth, as well as stress-engineered structures
powered by radiometric (thermal) forces. The latter devices, also called
MEMS Microfliers are 300 µm x 300 µm x 1.5 µm in size, and are fabricatedout of polycrystalline silicon. A convex chassis, formed through a novel
in-situ masked post-release stress-engineering process, ensures their static
in-flight stability. High-speed optical micrography was used to image these
MEMS Microfliers mid-flight.

9494-28, Session 2

Towards energy harvesting system formesoscale intra-body robot power
Kanty Rabenorosoa, Micky Rakotondrabe, FEMTO-ST(France)
Mesoscale robots and active capsules are clearly identified as future trendsof medical robots thanks to their dimension more suitable for minimal
invasive intervention. Among the applications of mesorobots which areessentially capsules, we find: imaging of gastrointestinal tract, biopsy. The
most success of passive capsules are achieved for monitoring or video

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Conference 9494A:
Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics II
challenge, we develop an ontology to provide a unified representation of
all kitting-related tasks, which are decomposed into atomic actions that areeither computational, involving sensing, perception, planning, control, andlearning, or physical, involving actuation and manipulation. The ontology
is based on a stochastic model of robotic object grasping where theobject poses are estimated by extracting edges from the corresponding
camera images of the objects and performing template matching withthe object CAD models. A stochastic integer linear program then uses thisontology to perform task partitioning between the robots and humans.
Preliminary experiments on a single robot - single human case, involving
picking and placing of different industrial parts, yield promising results.
The task partitioning involves the robot seeking human assistance forvisual perception tasks while performing the other tasks on its own. The
operations are completed with higher success rates and lower completion
times using human-robot partnership versus just the human or only
the robot.

acquisition inside a small bowel or GI tract. As passive capsules were limited
in terms of task accomplishment, the development of active capsules
has been increasing. The main limitation of active capsules, however, isthe limited power and autonomy of the embedded energy used both forlocomotion and for task accomplishment despite of the multipurpose
robotic abilities. This energy limitation is particularly due to the limited
volume of the capsule and thus a weak accumulated energy. This paper
propose a system for energy harvesting for capsules. Based on external
oscillating magnetic actuation and piezoelectric structure, the proposed
approach can be used to power autonomous mesorobots for locomotion
and for tasks accomplishments. The design of the system is first described
afterwards the modeling of the magnetic excitation is discussed. The
piezoelectric system is presented and simulation results are presented. A
prototype is tested to prove the feasibility of the concept.

9494-12, Session 3

Automated actuation of multiple bubble
microrobots using computer-generated
holograms

9494-14, Session 3

Control of a Powered Prosthetic Device via
a Pinch Gesture Interface

M. Arifur Rahman, Julian Cheng, Qihui Fan, Aaron T Ohta,
Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa (United States)

Oguz Yetkin, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (UnitedStates); Kristi Wallace, University of Texas at Arlington(United States); Joe D. Sanford, Dan O. Popa, The Univ. of
Texas at Arlington (United States)

Microrobots, defined here as sub-millimeter untethered microactuators, haveapplications in micro-object manipulation, including cellular manipulation,
microsurgery, microassembly, tissue culture, and drug delivery. Laserinduced opto-thermocapillary flow-addressed bubble (OFB) microrobots
are promising tools for the transportation of micro-objects. In the OFB
microrobot system, laser patterns generate thermal gradients within a liquid
media, forming thermocapillary forces that actuate the bubble microrobots.
An automated control system is being developed using a spatial light
modulator (SLM), with the goal of independently addressing 50 OFB
microrobots. The SLM was controlled using computer generated hologram
to create an optical pattern consisting of 50 individual spots. The OFB
microrobots were independently controlled using gray-level holographic
patterns. Each array of microrobots corresponds to a specific computer
generated hologram (CGH), so a sequence of CGHs can be used to achieve
the desired navigation of microrobots. Using the CGH control system,
single, multiple, and groups of microrobots were created, repositioned, andmaneuvered independently within a set workspace. Compared to the otheractuation methods such as optically induced dielectrophoresis (ODEP),
optical tweezers, electrostatic force, and magnetic force, the CGH-controlled
microrobot system is not as reliant on the properties or chemistry of thetarget object. Moreover, this OFB microrobotic system does not require
extensive fabrication, and increases the throughput compared to othermicrorobotic systems.

Pinch gesture based user input systems have been demonstrated in Virtual
Environments [Zeleznik et al.]. Wrist-worn, gloveless hand gesture tracking
systems also exist [Kim et al.]
We present a novel system to control a powered prosthetic device (theTouchBionics RoboLimb) using a gesture tracking system worn on the soundhand in order to select different grasp patterns. We have created a gesture
tracking system comprised of conductive thimbles worn on each finger tocontrol the RoboLimb device.
We have performed timing tests on the selection and execution of threegrasp patterns using 1) Our gesture system 2) The iPhone app provided by
TouchBionics 3) Using an intra-socket force tracker developed in our group.
Our preliminary results indicate that one of three grasp patterns can beselected and executed within 2.374 (+-0.31) seconds with 100% accuracy(n=25). The user was also able to perform basic object manipulation tasks.
When used with our intra-socket pressure based system, the gesture took
(5.098+- 1.51) seconds on average.
We believe a low encumbrance gesture based wearable system for selecting
grasp patterns may provide a viable alternative to EMG and other prosthetic
control modalities.
References

9494-13, Session 3

Jr, J. J. L., and Zeleznik, R. C. FLEX AND PINCH : A CASE STUDY OF WHOLE
HAND INPUT DESIGN FOR VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION

An ontology to enable optimized task
partitioning in human-robot collaboration
for warehouse kitting operations

Kim, D., Hilliges, O., Izadi, S., Butler, A. D., Chen, J., Oikonomidis, I., andOlivier, P. Digits : Freehand 3D Interactions Anywhere Using a Wrist-Worn
Gloveless Sensor. In Proceedings of the 25th Annual ACM Symposium on
User Interface Software and Technology (New York, NY, USA, 2012), UIST ’12,
ACM, pp. 167–176.

Ashis G. Banerjee, Andrew Barnes, GE Global Research(United States); Krishnanand N. Kaipa, Jiashun Liu,
Shaurya Shriyam, Nadir Shah, Satyandra K. Gupta, Univ. of
Maryland, College Park (United States)

9494-15, Session 3

Interaction models between robots
wearing sensorized skin and theirenvironment

Collaborative teams of human operators and mobile ground robots
are becoming popular in manufacturing plants to enhance the overall
productivity by having robots assist humans with a lot of the repetitive
tasks. An example of such a task category is the packing of individually
separate but related objects into different units, an operation known as
kitting. This operation is essential for effective inventory management inassembly warehouses. Kitting poses several research challenges, one ofwhich is the effective partitioning of the operation tasks between humans
and robots so as to minimize the expected operation time. To address thisReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Md Ahsan Habib, Ioana Corina Bogdan, Dan O. Popa, The
Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)
In this paper, we present a simulation platform to investigate how
design parameters of sensorized skins (such as size and pitch) affect·

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Conference 9494A:
Sensors for Next-Generation Robotics II
the performance of human-robot interaction. Here the task consideredis a controlled interaction between a robot surface equipped with tactile
sensors and an external environment. A PI controller is bused to executeforce-based explicit force control based on tactile feedback in order toexert a desired force onto the environment. The performance criteria of
the task considered are rise time, settling time, steady-state force error,
and center of pressure estimate. Generalization of design conclusions fromthe simulation environment to real robot skin requires accurate modelingof contact between interacting bodies, reliable transfer of contact force
to the tactile sensor and accurate simulation models for tactile sensors.
In [1,2], a reduced-order model was proposed to relate the force applied
to robot skin to the force sensed by the embedded tactile sensor. In thisreport, further modeling aspects of tactile skin systems are discussed, suchas array modeling, data management, pressure distribution models throughcompliant sensor cover materials with varying thicknesses and the modelingof noise involved in the sensor system. We present how these models were
implemented on SkinSim, our software testbed environment[3].
[1] K. R. Shook, et al., Experimental testbed for robot skin characterizationand interaction control, SPIE 2014, pp. 911606-911606-13.
[2] A. Habib et al., SkinSim: A Simulation Environment for Multimodal Robot
Skin. CASE 2014.
[3] SkinSim, https://bitbucket.org/nextgensystems/skinsim

9494-27, Session 3

Multi-mode vibration suppression in
MIMO systems using zero placement input
shaping technique9494-29, Session 3

Simultaneous suppression of badlydamped vibrations and cross-couplings in
a 2-DoF piezoelectric actuator, by using
feedforward standard H∞ approach
Didace Habineza, Micky Rakotondrabe, Yann Le Gorrec,
FEMTO-ST (France)
Multi-axis piezoelectric actuators are very known in spatial positioning
tasks, especially in micro/nano scale applications. However, the positioning
precision of these actuators and the stability of the final tasks arecompromised by badly-damped vibrations and by the cross-couplings
between actuators axis. In the litterature, inverse-dynamics [3] andinput-shaping [1,4] techniques rank among the most used techniques
for feedforward control of vibrations. However, the identification of themulti-axis piezoelectric actuators, such as piezoelectric tube scanners,
may lead to nonminimum-phase and non-bicausal models, for which theinverse-dynamics control approaches require are not necessarily utilizable[9]. In this paper, we propose a feedforward H∞ approach to control
a 2-axis piezoelectric actuator. This leads to a bivariable compensator,
able to suppress the vibrations in the direct transfers and able to reduce
the amplitudes of the cross-couplings. The proposed approach allows
to calculate a feedforward vibrations compensator without any need toinvert the model, which is an easier and less time-consuming way thanwith inverse-dynamics based techniques. Furthemore, the calculatedcompensator is also easier to implement comparably to classical inputshaping compensators. The experimentations carried out demonstrate theefficiency of the proposed approach.

Yasser Al Hamidi, Texas A&M at Qatar (Qatar) and FEMTOST (France); Micky Rakotondrabe, FEMTO-ST (France)
Piezoelectric cantilever structured actuators are well appreciated for thedevelopment of high precision and high dynamics positioning systems(micropositioners) thanks to their high bandwidth, high resolution andease of powering (electrical). However these piezoelectric micropositioners
exhibit badly damped vibrations due to the cantilever structures. Thesebehaviors strongly affect the final performances, or even the stability, of thetasks to be executed.
The increasing need on dexterous actuated systems led to the developmentof piezoelectric micropositioners with multiple degrees of freedom (forinstance [1-4]). In [5], a 2-DOF piezoelectric micropositioner principle
was patented. It is capable to perform microrobotic tasks such as
micromanipulation with submicrometric resolution and along two axes [6,7],
see Fig.1. Nonetheless this micropositioner exhibits badly damped vibrations
not only in the direct transfers but also in the cross-couplings transfers.
This paper deals with the feedforward control of the vibrations for the
2-DOF piezoelectric micropositioner in order to damp the vibrations in the
direct axes and to reduce the cross-couplings. The novelty in this paper
relative to the existing vibrations feedforward control, i.e. control without
sensors, in piezoelectric systems [8-10] is the account for the strong crosscouplings. For that, we propose to extend the zero placement input shaping
technique [11] to account for the direct transfers as well as the crosscouplings and to have more robustness relative to model uncertainties.
Experimental tests on the 2-DOF piezoelectric micropositioner have been
carried out and demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed method.

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Conference 9494B: Machine Intelligence andBio-inspired Computation: Theory and Applications IX
Tuesday 21–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9494 Next-Generation Robotics II; and Machine Intelligence and Bioinspired Computation: Theory and Applications IX

9494-16, Session 1

Networks to transfer relational information (Davis and Domingos, 2009;
Mihalkova, and Mooney, 2009). These models only allow transferring
the knowledge from one resource to the next, and are not suitable forcollaborative learning applications.

Evolving spiking neural networks: a novel
growth algorithm exhibits unintelligent
designIn this paper, we present a model that combines the benefits of transfer
learning over relational (graph) data with capabilities provided bycollaborative learning approaches. In our model, a group of distributed
resources has access to potentially overlapping relational data subsets.
Over time, the resources incrementally process available information,
form the patterns representing their view of the world, and update thosepatterns by exchanging influencing and knowledge transfer messages.
This model allows the resources to learn the same, similar, and different
but interdependent tasks in a single conceptual framework. The algorithms
presented in this paper build a foundation for the greater autonomy for data
mining applications. As a validation, we present the experimental results
using TREC KBA dataset.

J. David Schaffer, Binghamton Univ. (United States)
Spiking neural networks (SNNs) have drawn considerable excitement
because of their computational properties, believed to be superior toconventional von Neumann machines, and sharing properties with living
brains. Yet progress building these systems has been limited because welack a design methodology. We present a gene-driven network growthalgorithm that enables a genetic algorithm (evolutionary computation) togenerate and test SNNs. The genome for this algorithm grows O(n) where nis the number of neurons; n is also evolved. The genome not only specifies
the network topology, but all its parameters as well. Experiments show thealgorithm producing SNNs that effectively produce a robust spike bursting
behavior given tonic inputs, an application suitable for central patterngenerators. Even though evolution did not include perturbations of the
input spike trains, the evolved networks showed remarkable robustness tosuch perturbations. In addition, the output spike patterns retain evidenceof the specific perturbation of the inputs, a feature that could be exploitedby network additions that could use this information for refined decision
making if required. On a second task, a sequence detector, a discriminating
design was found that might be an example of “unintelligent design”, extra
non-functional neurons were included that did not hamper its
proper functioning.

9494-19, Session 1

Spike encoding for dynamical control
system architecture
Bryant T. Wysocki, Thomas A. McEwen, Clare D. Thiem,
Nathan R. McDonald, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)9494-18, Session 1

The concept of reservoir computing is being examined as a means todevelop a dynamical control system architecture for Air Force applications.
Reservoir computing is a bio-inspired approach to computation withmethodologies based on machine learning that provides methods of design,
training, and testing of recurrent neural networks (RNN) and dynamicalneural processors. Key to this research is figuring out the fundamental
aspects of data representation using hardware-based spike-timingdependent encoding for processing in neuromorphic architectures. Time
encoding efficiently maps a signal’s amplitude information into a spiketime sequence that represents the input data and offers perfect recovery
for band-limited stimuli. Understanding how sensory information isrepresented in neuronal activity is central for perception and is a crucial
aspect of artificially intelligent cortical systems. Using a combination ofmodeling, simulation, and bench top experimentation, Air Force researchers
are beginning to explore the trade space for creating practical reservoir
computing technology. An initial spike encoding circuit has been designed
and prototyped for lab bench experimentation. Motivation for this research,accomplishments to date and a plan for the way forward will be presented
in this paper. Successful completion of this work will set the stage for a newlevel of neuromorphic computing for the control of complex Air
Force systems.

Collaborative mining and transfer learning
for relational data

9494-20, Session 2

9494-17, Session 1

Experimental analysis of a Lotka-Volterra
neural network for classification
Christopher L. Sukhu, Joseph E. Stanton, Marc Aylesworth,BAE Systems (United States)
An experimental study of a neural network modeled by an adaptive LotkaVolterra system follows. With totally inhibitory connections, this system
can be embedded in a simple classification network. This network is able toclassify and monitor its inputs in a spontaneous nonlinear fashion without
prior training. We describe a framework for leveraging this behavior throughan example involving breast cancer diagnosis.

Georgiy M. Levchuk, Andres Ortiz, Aptima, Inc. (UnitedStates)Experimental study of a fuzzy-logic-based
control approach for maintaining wirelesscommunication connections among
multiple mobile robots

Numerous automated data analysis algorithms have been developed in
the last decade to learn patterns from training data. However, current stateof the art solutions are not suitable for anti-access areas of denial (A2AD)
domain, where the communication is limited, data is distributed, andcomputation resources are not reliable. Moreover, most of the real-world
data mining involves “relational” data, where the links between individual
data variables and values are diverse and carry essential contextual
information. Only limited research on transfer learning for relational data
has been conducted, with the most prominent work using Markov Logic

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Xu Zhong, Stony Brook Univ. (United States); Yu Zhou,
State Univ. of New York Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)This paper addresses the fundamental and challenging problem of forming·

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401Conference 9494B: Machine Intelligence andBio-inspired Computation: Theory and Applications IX
and maintaining wireless communication connections among multiple
collaborative mobile robots in physical environments. Adapting to theinstability and uncertainty of wireless signal propagation in reality, a fuzzylogic based decentralized control approach is proposed for deploying ateam of collaborative mobile robots into an unknown environment while
maintaining the desired wireless link quality among the robots. Each robot
is controlled by an onboard fuzzy controller: a set of membership functions
and fuzzy rules are defined for each robot to map the wireless link quality
with a neighbor to its communication-maintaining movement relative to theneighbor; the control decision of a robot with multiple neighbors is made byaggregating the decisions for dealing with all its neighbors. The combined
effect of all the robots’ movement leads to the desired communication
connectivity among the robots. To validate the proposed control approach,an experimental study has been carried out. The experimental system
consists of a team of physical mobile robots, each of which is equippedwith the onboard modules and algorithms of motion control, wirelesscommunications and localization. In particular, ZigBee modules are utilized
to wirelessly communicate the control-related information and to detect
the wireless link quality among the robots. The parameters of the fuzzycontroller are iteratively adjusted to attain appropriate control outputs in
response to the positions and wireless link quality of neighbors. The tuned
fuzzy controller is used to control the robots to maintain desired wirelesscommunication connections. The experimental results are reported, whichshow that the proposed control approach is able to guide the whole
multi-robot system to converge to the desired connectivity while forming acoverage across the environment.

9494-21, Session 2

Bio-inspired approach for intelligent
unattended ground sensors
Nicolas Hueber, Pierre Raymond, Christophe Hennequin,
Maxime Perrot, Alexander Pichler, Philippe Voisin, Julien
Pichard, Jean-Pierre Moeglin, Institut Franco-Allemand deRecherches de Saint-Louis (France)

9494-22, Session 2

Evaluating data distribution and drift
vulnerabilities of machine learningalgorithms in secure and adversarial
environments part two
Kevin M. Nelson, George E. Corbin, Mark Anania, Matthew
G. Kovacs, BAE Systems (United States); Misty Blowers, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)
Machine learning is rapidly emerging as a valuable technology thanks to its
ability to learn patterns from large data sets and solve problems that are
impossible to model using conventional programming logic. As machinelearning techniques become more mainstream, they are being applied toa wider range of application domains. These algorithms are now trusted
to make critical decisions in secure and adversarial environments such as
healthcare, fraud detection, and network security, in which mistakes can beincredibly costly. However, machine learning’s data-driven approach, while
normally one of its greatest benefits, can also prove to be a weakness if
the data on which the models rely are corrupted by an adversary. Models
that utilize on-line learning or are periodically retrained to learn newpatterns and account for drift and data distribution changes are particularly
susceptible to “poisoning attacks.” In this class of attack, specially crafted
data points are added to the training set to maliciously influence the system
by inducing adversarial drift which leads to incorrect classifications. Our
work is focused on exploring the resilience of various machine learningalgorithms to these data-driven attacks. In this paper, we present our initial
findings using Monte Carlo simulations and statistical analysis to explore thesusceptibility of several anomaly detection algorithms to adversarial drift as
well as the effects of a poisoning attack against intrusion detection systems
which rely on these methods.

9494-23, Session 3

New conflict areas and terrorism are changing the way military strategies
are operated. Small groups spread terror over huge areas which are difficult
to survey 24/7, even with UAVs and a satellite constellation. This research
project aims at improving the surveillance capacity over such wide zones
in order to increase the safety of civilians, troops and infrastructures. In thiscontext, global sensing and situational awareness require a set of smart
battery-powered UGS (Unattended Ground Sensors) capable of issuing an
alarm to a decision-making center. Only high-level information is sent, whena relevant suspicious situation occurs.
This paper proposes an innovative bio-inspired approach that mimics thehuman bimodal vision mechanism and the parallel processing ability of
the human brain. Our prototype exploits two levels of analysis: a lowlevel panoramic motion analysis called peripheral vision, and a high-level
event-focused analysis: foveal vision. By tracking moving objects and fusing
multiple criteria (size, speed, trajectory, etc.), the peripheral vision module
acts as a fast relevant event detector. The foveal vision module focuses on
this detected event to extract more detailed features (texture, color, shape,etc.) for the recognition core. Our bio-inspired recognition process is able
to acquire human knowledge and to classify in real time a huge amount ofheterogeneous data thanks to its natively parallel structure.

Subset selection of training data formachine learning: a situational awarenesssystem case study
Mark C. McKenzie, Sebastien Wong, Defence Science andTechnology Organisation (Australia)
Recent advances in machine learning with big data sets has allowed forsignificant advances in the optimisation of classification and recognition
systems. However, for applications such as situational awareness systems,
the entirety of the available data dwarfs the amount permissible fora training set with tractable machine learning optimization times.
Furthermore, the performance of any optimized system is highly dependentof the training set correctly and completely representing the entire data
space of scenarios. In this paper we present a technique to characterize
the entire data space to ascertain the key factors for representation andsubsequently select a subset that statistically represents the correct mix ofscenarios. We demonstrate the effectiveness of these characterization andsubset selection techniques by using a genetic algorithm to optimize theperformance of a gunfire recognition system.

The bio-inspired prototype demonstrates, under laboratory tests, a low
false alarm rate. By locally processing the data and sending only high-level
information, its energy requirements and electromagnetic signature are
optimized. Moreover, the embedded Artificial Intelligence core enables thisunique smart sensor to recognize and learn new significant events.
These results are paving the way for future reconfigurable virtual fieldagents. By duplicating human expertise in potentially hazardous places, ourminiature visual event detector will allow early warning and contribute tobetter human decision making.

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Conference 9494B: Machine Intelligence andBio-inspired Computation: Theory and Applications IX

9494-24, Session 3

Realistic computer network simulation
for network intrusion detection dataset
generation
Garrett S. Payer, ICF International (United States)
The KDD-99 Cup dataset is dead. While it can be continued to be used asa toy example, the age of this dataset makes it all but useless in the areaof intrusion detection research and data mining. Many of the attacks usedwithin the dataset are obsolete and do not reflect the features important for
intrusion detection in today’s networks.
Creating a new dataset encompassing a large cross section of the attacks
found on the Internet today could be useful, but would eventually fall tothe same problem as the KDD-99 Cup; its usefulness would diminish after
a period of time. Worse, the rate of decline in usefulness would occur at amuch faster rate than that of the KDD-99 Cup as today’s attackers are much
more sophisticated, switching attack vectors and methodology on almost adaily basis.
In order to continue research into intrusion detection, generation of datasetsneeds to be as dynamic and as quick as the attacker. Simply examining
existing network traffic and using domain experts such as intrusion analysts
to label traffic is inefficient, expensive, and not scalable. The only viable
methodology to is to produce this information via simulation using a
combination of technologies including virtualization, attack tool sets such as
Metasploit and Armitage, and sophisticated emulation of threat anduser behavior.
By simulating actual user behavior and network intrusion events
dynamically not only allows researchers to vary scenarios quickly, but allows
online testing of intrusion detection mechanisms by interacting with data
as it’s generated. As new threat behaviors are identified, they can be added
to the simulation to make quicker determinations as to the effectivenessof existing and ongoing network intrusion technology, methodology andmodels. Additionally, the dataset generated by the experiments as well as
it’s configuration can be distributed with the associated research to facilitate
additional verification and additional research.

9494-25, Session 3

Change detection in satellite imagery
using clustering of sparse approximations(CoSA) over learned feature dictionaries
Daniela I. Moody, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States)
Neuromimetic machine vision and pattern recognition algorithms areof great interest for landscape characterization and change detection
in satellite imagery in support of global climate change science andmodeling. We present results from an ongoing effort to extend machine
vision methods to the environmental sciences, using adaptive sparse signal
processing combined with machine learning. A Hebbian learning rule is used
to build multispectral, multiresolution dictionaries from regional satellite
normalized band difference index data. Land cover labels are automaticallygenerated via our CoSA algorithm: Clustering of Sparse Approximations,using a clustering distance metric that combines spectral and spatial
textural characteristics to help separate geologic, vegetative, and hydrologic
features. Land cover labels are estimated in example Worldview satellite
images of a particular region taken at different times, and are used to detectseasonal and yearly surface changes. Our results suggest that neurosciencebased models are a promising approach to practical pattern recognition
problems in remote sensing.

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403

Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9495 Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2015

9495-1, Session 1

Portable digital holographic microscopeusing spherical reference beam and its
biomedical applications (Invited Paper)
Eriko Watanabe, Kanami Ikeda, Kazuhiro Hoshino, The
Univ. of Electro-Communications (Japan)
Digital holographic microscopy has significant potential for use in medicine
because it is a noninvasive and nondestructive quantitative phasemeasurement technique for imaging transparent microscopic objects. For
instance, regenerative therapy for treating ocular surface disease is highly
attractive, and noninvasive, nondestructive, and nonstaining evaluation
techniques are necessary for characterizing these ocular cells so that thetherapy can be standardized and made suitable for widespread use.
In this study, we introduce a portable digital holographic microscope(DHM) that achieves microscopic phase imaging with a high resolution
over large areas with reduced computational load for phase reconstruction.
The portable DHM has dimensions of 150 (Width) x 470 (Depth) x 244.5(Height) mm3, and its integrated charge-coupled device camera and beam
splitter result in a simplified alignment along with compactness. The cut-off
frequency, which is the highest measurable spatial frequency in this DHM
system, was evaluated as the benchmark for spatial resolution, and a valueof 575 line pairs/mm was experimentally obtained, which is similar to thetheoretical cut-off frequency of 588 line pairs/mm. We also present a new
autofocusing technique that utilizes the complex amplitude distribution oftransparent phase objects in the DHM system. The efficacy of the techniquefor performing high-accuracy phase measurements in a wide field of viewby dividing the mapping focal length into sections was demonstrated using
sheets of epithelial cells.

9495-2, Session 1

Three-dimensional microscopy throughliquid-lens axial scanning (Invited Paper)
Ana Isabel Doblas-Exposito, Emilio Sánchez-Ortiga,
Genaro Saavedra, Univ. de València (Spain); Jorge SolaPikabea, Univ de València (Spain); Manuel Martínez-Corral,
Univ. de València (Spain); Po-Yuan Hsieh, Yi-Pai Huang,
National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan)n this contribution we analyze the feature of two different type ofelectrically-addressable lenses for rapid axial scanning in three-dimensional
wide-field microscopy. We have found that liquid-crystal lenses are stillslow and microscopy images show significant aberrations. However, fast
improvement of this technology permits to predict the utility of theseelements in short term. Currently, liquid lenses provide fast axial scanned
images with invariant magnification and resolution. We illustrate ourresearch with some microscopy experiments.

9495-3, Session 1

An integral imaging augmented reality
display (Invited Paper)

SPIE DSS 2015

9495-4, Session 1

Integrated fluorescence and phasecontrast digital holographic microscopy
for live cell imaging
Xiangyu Quan, Kouichi Nitta, Osamu Matoba, Kobe Univ.
(Japan); Peng Xia, Yasuhiro Awatsuji, Kyoto Institute ofTechnology (Japan)
Fluorescent stained imaging and phase contrast imaging are the mostcommonly use methods in biological field. The formal one is suitableof detecting specific parts inside of the cells, while latter is for imaging
morphological features of the cells. In many cases, the two methods are
inseparable and mutually assisting with each other. Despite the structure
differences between the two methods, researches on microscopy thatis consisting of the two methods and imaging them simultaneously
are developing worldwide. In our study of an integrated fluorescenceand phase-contrast digital holographic microscopy system, the three
dimensional phase contrast images can be measured as well as afluorescence image from a single shot exposure.
In the presented method, the phase images are obtained by an off-axis
digital holographic microscope with the transmission-type geometry
and a fluorescent image is obtained by a fluorescence microscope withthe reflection-type geometry. The wavelengths of each illumination
are designed to capture simultaneously both the images. For further
advancement, fast calculation by means of GPU(graphics process unit) is
applied for reconstructing 3D phase images that enables live measurement
on cell activities.
The experimental results presented feasibility of simultaneous
measurements and it also shows possibilities on important functions as
fluorescence digital holography and spectral inspection.

9495-5, Session 2

Floating information display based on
aerial imaging by retro-reflection (AIRR)(Invited Paper)
Hirotsugu Yamamoto, Utsunomiya Univ. (Japan)
CONTEXT: Floating information display is a display technique that shows
information on a transparent, aerial, and floating screen without physicalhardware on the screen surface. Floating information display is expected to
expand new fields of digital signage and 3D interactions.

Hong Hua, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ.
of Arizona (United States); Bahram Javidi, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)404

In this presentation, we will review the recent advancements in true
3D wearable AR displays and present a new approach to the design ofan optical see-through head-mounted display for augmented reality
applications, which combines the recent advancement of freeform opticaltechnology and microscopic integral imaging (micro-InI) method. A microInI unit creates a 3D image source for HMD viewing optics, instead of atypical 2D display surface, by reconstructing a miniature 3D scene froma large number of perspective images of the scene. By taking advantageof the emerging freeform optical technology, our approach will result
in compact, lightweight, goggle-style AR display that is potentially lessvulnerable to the accommodation-convergence discrepancy problem andvisual fatigue. A proof-of-concept prototype system will be demonstrated,which offers a goggle-like compact form factor, non-obstructive seethrough field of view, and true 3D virtual display.

OBJECTIVE: This invited paper aims to introduce our floating display·

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015
technique that utilizes retro-reflection to form aerial image.

as a switchable active device of scattered angle.

METHOD: The proposed display technique, called AIRR (aerial imaging
by retro-reflection), employs light sources, a beam splitter, and retroreflector. Lights are reflected on the beam splitter and then impinge theretro-reflector. After the retro-reflection, the lights travel reversely toward
the light sources. About a half of the retro-reflected lights are transmitted
through the beam splitter and form real images of the light sources. Thus,
aerial images are formed at the symmetrical positions of the light sources
with respect to the beam splitter.

Thus, our 3D display methods are promising because of several advantages
such as simple structure, smooth movement parallax, etc.

9495-7, Session 2

Floating three-dimensional image display
using micro-mirror array imaging element(Invited Paper)

RESULTS: We have realized floating LED screen by use of a full-color LED
panel, which we originally developed. The full-color LED panel can show fullcolor images at a high frame rate (960 Hz). Such a high frame rate reduces
latency. Floating LED screen is visible over extremely wide viewing angle(90 deg. FWHM). The proposed display technique is utilized for interactive
display system called “AIRR Tablet”, http://youtu.be/iJd7fpH8n6M, which isa collaborative work with Prof. Ishikawa at Univ. of Tokyo.

Daisuke Miyazaki, Yuki Maeda, Osaka City Univ. (Japan);
Satoshi Maekawa, Parity Innovations Co. Ltd. (Japan)
The development of auto-stereoscopic display techniques has recently
become active to avoid the use of bothersome 3-D glasses. The
achievement of natural depth perception is an important issue for 3-D
display technique. In addition, floating image formation is effective toenhance realistic sensation of a 3-D image, and to gain accessibility fordirect interactive operation to the image with fingers or 3-D
pointing devices.

IMPACT: Advantages of AIRR include alignment tolerances, a wide viewing
angle, cost-effectiveness of optical components, and forming a real image
without stray lights.

9495-6, Session 2

We have proposed several types of 3-D display systems based on real image
formation with optical imaging elements. A volumetric display generates
a floating 3-D image by arranging light spots in the air, which satisfies all
the criteria of stereoscopy. We have developed several volumetric display
systems using two kinds of optical imaging elements, concave mirrors andmicro-mirror array devices. A dihedral corner reflector array (DCRA) is a
novel a micro-mirror imaging element, which can form a plane-symmetricalreal image without image distortions. A real image is moved by an opticalscanner to scan a volume.

Recent developments in DFD (depth-fused3D) display and arc 3D display (Invited
Paper)
Shiro Suyama, Univ. of Tokushima (Japan); Hirotsugu
Yamamoto, Utsunomiya Univ. (Japan)

As another type of an autostereoscopic 3-D display technique, we havebeen developing floating multi-viewpoint display systems. The multiviewpoint imaging can be implemented by using multiple projectors or ahigh-frame-rate single projector and an optical scanner. We used a DCRA
device to form a floating real image and images of exit pupils for providing
multiple viewpoints. It is possible to expand the viewing area to 360
degrees around a floating image. A multi-view auto-stereoscopic display
technique based on the multi-projection method with a DCRA device
is proposed. In the proposed display system, a DCRA device forms thereal images of the pupils of projectors to provide multiple viewpoints. In
addition, a floating image is formed in the air with the DCRA device to avoid
vergence-accommodation conflict and to suppress unnatural movement of
a floating image accompanied with shifting a viewing position even though
the stereoscopic display provides horizontal parallax only. ?

In this paper, we will report recent developments in DFD (Depth-fused 3D)
display and arc 3D display, which have smooth movement parallax.
Firstly, DFD display needs only two conventional 2D displays. Twooverlapped images in front and rear planes can be perceived as a single
depth-fused image. The perceived depth of this fused image continuously
changes as the luminance ratio of the two images is changed which has
almost linear dependency. DFD image can be protruded outside the regionof two planes at about 50% of two plane distance. Moreover, DFD display
has small but smooth movement parallax which is important for natural 3D
perception and would result in fatigueless and robustness to anisometropia
in DFD display.
However, as the distance between front and rear planes is increased over 5
min. of arc, perceived depth is separated near front plane, at mid-positionand near rear plane. A new method has been proposed to enlarge this DFD
image depth. By using low-pass filtered front and rear images, almost linear
dependence of perceived depth has been achieved.

9495-8, Session 3

Secondly, in arc 3D display, floating 3D images behind or in front of thedisplay can be obtained by lighting the many scratches from upper or lower
side. Perceived depth in arc 3D display increases as the arc radius increases
and lighting angle decreases whose dependence coincides well with ourtheoretical calculation. Perceived depth and position are almost the sameeven when changing observer’s position, resulting in smooth
movement parallax.

Evaluation of viewing experiences inducedby curved 3D display (Invited Paper)
Sungchul Mun, Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of Scienceand Technology (Korea, Republic of); Sumio Yano,
Shimane Univ. (Japan)

A new active device has been proposed for switching arc 3D images byusing liquid-crystal prism tip. In this device, liquid-crystal region and replicaof multi-prism is sandwiched by transparent electrodes. As tangential line ofarc-shaped scratches, multi-prism tip of straight line was used to estimate
basic operation of high voltage liquid crystal device. Liquid-crystal moves
between vertical and inclined direction to glass substrate by applying ahigh voltage, resulting in change of liquid-crystal refractive index. By thisrefractive index change, scattering angle at tip of prism can be changed. At
the voltage of 1.5 V, scattered light is not observed at the angle of 3D-image
observer’s position. When applied voltage increases over 150 V, scattered
light is successfully observed at this position. Scattered light angle can be
successfully changed by applied voltage change.

As advanced display technology has been developed, much attention has
been given to flexible panels. On top of that, with the momentum of the 3D
era, stereoscopic 3D technique has been combined with the curved displays.
However, despite the increased needs for 3D function in the curved displays,
comparisons between curved and flat panel displays with 3D views haverarely been tested. Most of the previous studies have investigated theirbasic ergonomic aspects such as viewing posture and distance with only 2D
views. It has generally been known that curved displays are more effectivein enhancing involvement in specific content stories because field of views
and distance from the eyes of viewers to both edges of the screen are
more natural in the curved display than in the flat panel one. For flat panel
displays, ocular torsions may occur when viewers try to move their eyesfrom the center to the edges of the screen to continuously capture rapidly
moving 3D objects. This is due in part to differences in viewing distances

The peak brightness of scattered light is also changed by applied voltage.
Peak brightness is almost zero under applied voltage of 15 V. Over applied
voltage of 75 V, peak brightness increases as applied voltage increases. Our
active liquid-crystal device for arc 3D display can be successfully operated

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
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from the center of the screen to eyes of viewers and from the edges of thescreen to the eyes. In addition, issues in 3D human factors have primarily
been explored with either subjective or objective measures rather than theircorrelations. Thus, this study compares S3D viewing experiences induced bya curved display with those of a flat panel display by evaluating significant
subjective and objective measures.

Accommodation response for integral
photography still images
Sumio Yano, Shimane Univ. (Japan); Min-Chul Park, Korea
Institute of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of)
The integral photography is representative method in three-dimensional
image systems, which are based on the light field reproduction. There aremainly two methods for generation of integral photograph images. One of
the generation methods is that the real optical and electrical devices areused; namely, apply the pickup and display equipments. Another method isthat integral-photography images are generated using computer software.
In our research, we developed the generation method of integral
photography images using computer software. For these integral
photography images, we measured the accommodation responses, andanalyzed these results. The displayed integral photography images as
the visual stimuli were still images. In the experiment, the display sizeof the integral photography was 4.8 inch; the number of lens was 106 in
the horizontal direction and 80 in the vertical direction; the number of
elemental images was 18 x 18 dots. The viewing distances were adapted
to 60cm and 90cm. For the measurement of accommodation responses,
WAM-5500 (SHIGIYA MACHINERY WORKS LTD.) was used. Moreover,
the accommodation responses for the real object were also measured
for the comparison. We examined the differences of the accommodation
responses for the integral photography images and real objects based on
measurement results.

A supermultiview simulator which can simulate images projected toviewers’ eyes at the viewing zone of a 3-D imaging system based on asupermultiview image set. When the image set consists of m different
viewing images, the viewing zone of the system is divided into manydifferent regions of viewing individual view images separately and mixed
images of 2 to m consecutive view images. The simulator allows each eyeof a viewer to perceive two different images which are viewed at different
viewing regions. The simulator is intended for investigating the presenceof monocular depth sense. The basic optical structure of the simulator
has already been introduced to [http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2053234]. The
structure is enlarged to display 40inch image at a viewing distance of 1m.
The viewing zone of the simulator consists of two viewing regions for leftright eyes. The distance between two regions can be adjusted from 54mm
to 70mm. This paper will present the performances of the simulator and thepresence of the monocular depth obtained with Binocular Accommodation
Automatic REF/Keratometer (WAM-5500) [www.grandseiko.com]

9495-12, Session 4Integral imaging for anti-access/area
denial environments (Invited Paper)
Shih-Chi K. Chen, Abhijit Mahalanobis, Robert Stanfill,
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control (United States);
Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)

9495-10, Session 3

There is a growing interest in target detection and tracking in Anti-Access/Area Denial (A2AD) environments, where sensor platforms are at low
altitudes and imagery are collected at oblique angles. Targets that are ofinterest in these scenarios are typically partially or mostly occluded byfoliage or other objects. We present experiments to illustrate reconstructionof obscured targets using Integral Imaging, in both synthetically generated
data and data collected using a multi-sensor system. We also explore theeffects of Integral Imaging on Aided Target Recognition (AiTR), as well as
performance improvement on target tracking.

An analysis of brightness as a factor invisual discomfort caused by watchingstereoscopic 3D video
Yongwoo Kim, Hang-Bong Kang, The Catholic Univ. of
Korea (Korea, Republic of)Viewers experience visual discomfort, such as eyestrain and associatedsymptoms including nausea and headaches, often enough to present abarrier to the popularization of stereoscopic 3D technology. Even thoughvarious researches have examined the factors that cause visual discomfort
in watching 3D stereoscopic video, the brigthness factor was not well dealt
with. In this paper, we analyze visual discomfort under various illumination
conditions by considering eye-blinking and saccadic movements. In
addition, we measured the perceived depth before and after watching 3D
stereoscopic video using our own 3D depth measurement instrument.

9495-13, Session 4

Full-parallax 3D display from single-shot
Kinect capture

Our test sequences consist of 6 illumination conditions each for foregroundand background only. The Illumination is changed from bright to dark or
in inverse direction. Our test procedure is as follows: First, the subjects
get rested until they were certain to have no visual discomfort. Then, thesubjects answered eight questions to check their subjective pre-stimulus
discomfort. Next, the participant watched the 30-minute stereoscopic 3Dand 2D video clips in random order. We measured eye-blinking, saccadic
movements and fixation of the participant using an eye-tracking device.
Finally, we measured perceived depth for each subject before and after
watching video. We also measured the perceived depth after subjects’
taking 40-minute rest to measure the recoverability. Eye-blinking showed ahigher score but saccadic movement showed a lower score when watchingbright video than dark video. After 40 minutes, most subjects returned to
the normal condition in depth perception.

SPIE DSS 2015

The performances of a supermultiview
simulator and the presence of monoculardepth sense (Invited Paper)Beom-Ryeol Lee, Jeung-Chul Park, Ilkwon Jeong,
Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute(Korea, Republic of); Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ.
(Korea, Republic of)9495-9, Session 3406

9495-11, Session 3·

Seok-Min Hong, Dongseo Univ. (Korea, Republic of);
Adrián Dorado, Genaro Saavedra, Manuel Martínez-Corral,
Univ. de València (Spain); Dong-Hak Shin, Byung-Gook
Lee, Dongseo Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
We propose the fusion between two concepts that very successful in thearea of 3D im-aging and sensing. Kinect technology permits the registration,
in real time, but with low resolution, of accurate depth maps of big, opaque,diffusing 3D scenes. Our software transform the sampled depth map into
an array microimages whose position, pitch and resolution are in goodaccordance with characteristics of an integral-imaging monitor. Finally we
project this information onto the monitor, so that the microlenses integrate
the light emitted by the pixels, producing 3D scenes displayed with
continuous perspec-tive and full parallax.

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
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9495-14, Session 4

systems to acquire spatial images with spectral selectivity and no scanningin both transverse and longitudinal directions. The imaging modality isbased upon multiplexed volume holographic (MVH) gratings acting as
spatial-spectral filters used in an optical imaging system. In addition, withproper multiplexed holographic pupil engineering, the MVH systems canobtain multiple depth-resolved phase-contrast imaging in real-time in asingle shot. Moreover, the talk will address MVH techniques incorporatingother state-of-the-art imaging methods to better manipulate light for
imaging in a variety of applications.

2D MEMS scanning for lidar with subNyquist sampling, electronics andmeasurement procedureThorsten Giese, Joachim Janes, Fraunhofer-Institut fürSiliziumtechnologie (Germany)
Electrostatic driven 2D MEMS scanners resonantly oscillate in both axes
leading to Lissajous trajectories of a digitally modulated Laser beamreflected from the micro mirror. A solid angle of about 0.02 is scanned bya 658nm Laser beam with a maximum repetition rate of 350MHz digitalpulses. Reflected light is detected by an APD with a bandwidth of 80MHz.
The phase difference between the scanned Laser light and the lightreflected from an obstacle is analyzed by sub-Nyquist sampling. The FPGAbased electronics and software for the evaluation of distance and velocity ofobjects within the scanning range are presented. Furthermore, the measures
to optimize the Lidar accuracy of about 1mm and the dynamic range of up
to 4m are examined. First measurements demonstrating the capability ofthe system and the evaluation algorithms are discussed.

9495-17, Session 5

Compact integral three-dimensional
imaging device (Invited Paper)
Jun Arai, Takayuki Yamashita, Hitoshi Hiura, Masato
Miura, Ryohei Funatsu, Tomohiro Nakamura, NHK
Japan Broadcasting Corp. (Japan); Eisuke Nakasu, NHK
Engineering System, Inc. (Japan)
Compact integral three-dimensional (3D) imaging device has beendeveloped that positions the lens array and image sensor close together.
Unlike in the conventional scheme, where a camera lens is used to project
the elemental images generated by the lens array onto the image sensor,
the developed device combines the lens array and image sensor into one
unit and makes no use of a camera lens. This eliminates the resolution
deterioration and distortion caused by the use of a camera lens andimproves, in principle, the quality of the reconstructed 3D image. Images ofobjects captured with this device were reconstructed as 3D images by using
display equipment consisting of a liquid crystal panel and a lens array. The
reconstructed images were found to have appropriate motion parallax.

9495-15, Session 4

Shaping field for 3D deep tissue
microscopy
Hyungsik Lim, Jorge Colon, Hunter College (United States)
Information capacity of a (lossless) image-forming system is a conserved
property determined by two imaging parameters – the resolution and thefield of view (FOV). Adaptive optics improves the former by manipulating
the phase, or wavefront, in the pupil plane. Here we describe a homologous
approach, namely adaptive field microscopy, which aims to enhance theFOV by controlling the phase, or defocus, in the focal plane. The objectiveof our development is to improve deep tissue imaging. The useful FOVof depth-resolving laser scanning microscopy, such as confocal andmultiphoton microscopy, can be severely limited if the region of interest(ROI) is buried in a thick sample and not perpendicular to the optic axis.
In this case, one must acquire many z-scans and reconstruct the entiretyof ROI by post-processing, which is not only hazardous to tissue, due
to excessive radiation, but also time consuming. We demonstrate thesubstantial enhancement of effective FOV by dynamic control of the image
plane. Specifically, the tilt of the image plane is continuously adjusted insitu to match the oblique orientation of the sample plane within tissue.
The utility of adaptive field microscopy is tested for imaging tissue with
non-planar morphology. Ocular tissue of small animals was imaged by
two-photon excited fluorescence. Our results show that adaptive fieldmicroscopy utilized the full FOV. The freedom to adjust the image plane toaccount for the geometrical variations of sample could be extremely usefulfor 3D biological imaging. Furthermore, adaptive field microscopy could
facilitate rapid surveillance of cellular features within deep tissue while
avoiding excessive exposure to radiation, making it suitable for invivo imaging.

Also developed was a depth control method using an afocal lens array,
which is used by combining it with the compact integral 3D imaging device.
In the conventional scheme, a convex lens is used to control the depth
position of the 3D image, resulting in depth distortion in the reconstructed
3D image. In contrast, the afocal lens array generates a mirror image of theobject without depth distortion, which was confirmed by reconstruction of
the 3D images of objects.

9495-18, Session 5

Using perceivable light fields toevaluate the amount of information that
autostereoscopic displays need to cast(Invited Paper)
Adrian Stern, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel);
Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
Recently we introduced the notion of “perceivable light fields” (PLF) as anefficient tool for the analysis and design of three dimensional (3D) displays.
The PLFs are used with a 3D display analysis approach that puts the viewer
in the center of the model; first the human visual system requirements aredefined through the PLF and then they are back-propagated to the display
devices to evaluate its specifications. Here we such an analysis to evaluate
the information limits that the 3D display devices needs to generate.

9495-16, Session 4

Spatial-spectral volume holographic
microscopy

9495-19, Session 5

Yuan Luo, National Taiwan Univ. (Taiwan)

Integral imaging acquisition andprocessing for human gesture recognition(Invited Paper)

Laser induced fluorescence has been developed for a variety of clinicalapplications. However, many of the existing biomedical imaging systems
typically require scanning in two lateral dimensions as well as depth
focusing. Efforts to improve scanning efficiency by optimizing the scanningalgorithm or increasing the number of focal points are ongoing. However,these methods can increase system complexity and do not eliminate theneed for moving parts. This talk will introduce volume holographic imaging

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Filiberto Pla, Pedro Latorre Carmona, Eva SalvadorBalaguer, Univ. Jaume I (Spain); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of·

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
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Connecticut (United States)

9495-22, Session 6

In this paper we present an overview of results corresponding to theapplication of the integral imaging 3D acquisition technique for therecognition of human gestures. Using an array of cameras and 3D scenereconstruction algorithms we obtain a series of videos formed by frames
reconstructed and focused by synthetic aperture techniques at specificdepths (those where the gesture appears). A state of art bag of visual
words approach is then applied on them as well as on two-dimensional
single camera videos obtained from one of the cameras of the array. Thisset up allows comparing recognition results using the same technique on
images generated by the integral imaging techniques and plain 2D video
cameras. Our results show that for some of the visual descriptors used,
integral imaging provides better results (in terms of accuracy) than the
monocular case, due to the properties of focused images generated by the
3D reconstruction. These results encourage us to explore this methodology
further and exploit properties of integral imaging that may be useful forhuman gesture recognition.

High-speed parallel phase-shifting digitalholography system using special-purpose
computer for image reconstruction (Invited
Paper)
Takashi Kakue, Tomoyoshi Shimobaba, Tomoyoshi Ito,
Chiba Univ. (Japan)

9495-20, Session 5

Optical barriers in integral imaging
monitors through micro-Köhler
illumination (Invited Paper)
Manuel Martínez-Corral, Héctor Navarro, Genaro Saavedra,
Amparo Pons-Martí, Univ. de València (Spain); Raul
Martinez-Cuenca, Univ. Jaume I (Spain); Angel Tolosa,
AIDO Instituto Tecnológico de Óptica, Color e Imagen(Spain); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)Usual problem in 3D integral-imaging monitors is flipping, or pseudoimages, that happens when the microimages are seen from neighbormicrolenses. These pseudo-images appear when the light rays coming fromeach elemental image are not passing through the corresponding microlens,and a set of barriers must be used to avoid this crosstalk. We present apure optical arrangement based on Köh-ler illumination to generate thesebarriers. The proposed system does not use addi-tional lenses to project theelemental images, so no optical aberrations are intro-duced. As an added
benefit, Köhler illumination provides a higher contrast display.

9495-21, Session 6

Digital holographic measurement for voicerecording and reproduction (Invited Paper)
Osamu Matoba, Hiroki Inokuchi, Kobe Univ. (Japan);Yasuhiro Awatsuji, Kyoto Institute of Technology (Japan)

We report a high-speed parallel phase-shifting digital holography systemusing a special-purpose computer for image reconstruction. Parallel
phase-shifting digital holography is a technique capable of single-shotphase-shifting interferometry. This technique records multiple phase-shifted
holograms required for calculation of phase-shifting interferometry by using
space-division multiplexing. This technique requires image-reconstruction
process for a huge amount of recorded holograms. In particular, it takes along time to calculate light propagation based on fast Fourier transform in
the process and to obtain a motion picture of a dynamically and fast moving
object. Then we designed a special-purpose computer for accelerating theimage-reconstruction process of parallel phase-shifting digital holography.
We developed a special-purpose computer consisting of VC707 evaluation
kit (Xilinx Inc.) which is a field programmable gate array board. We also
recorded holograms consisting of 128 ? 128 pixels at a frame rate of 180,000
frames per second by the constructed system. By applying the developed
computer to the recorded holograms, we confirmed that the developed
computer can accelerate the calculation of image-reconstruction process ofparallel phase-shifting digital holography ~50 times faster than CPU.

9495-23, Session 6

Implementation of wireless 3D
stereo image capture system and 3D
exaggeration algorithm for the region ofinterest
Woonchul C. Ham, Chul-Gyu Song, Luubaatar Badarch,
Kangsan Lee, Chonbuk National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)In this paper, we introduce the mobile embedded system implemented for
capturing stereo image based on two CMOS camera module. We use WinCE
as an operating system and capture the stereo image by using device driverfor CMOS camera interface and Direct Draw API functions.
We aslo comments on the GPU hardware and CUDA programming for
implementation of 3D exaggeraion algorithm for ROI by adjusting andsynthesizing the disparity value of ROI (region of interest) in real time. We
adopt nonlinear depth mapping to place emphasis on the center ROI region
compared with other surrounding regions
We also try to comments on the pattern of aperture for deblurring of CMOS
camera module based on the Kirchhoff diffraction formula. We try to findmethod to obtain the more deblurred image in case of the distance between
CMOS camera lens and object being very short. In general, the distance
between camera and object should be more than 6cm to obtain clean imageof object in CMOS camera module in a usual cellulal phone. We suggest a
new method to obtain clean image within this distance based on aperturemechanism by putting a special aperture mask pattern between CMOS
lens mechanism and object and adjusting the size and distance between
aperture grids.

Digital holography is applied to record and reproduce the sound field in
3D space. To our best knowledge, the reproduction of the sound wave
by optical means is new. We briefly review the method of recording andreproducing the sound wave by a tuning fork and a human voice. In theexperiments, we present recording of multiple sound waves. Recording
characteristics of the fabricated system are presented. Heterodyne method
is also applied to record a sound wave with higher frequency than that offrame rate of the image sensor.

Synthesized stereo image is real time monitored on the shutter glass typethree-dimensional LCD monitor and disparity values of each segment are
analyzed to prove the validness of emphasizing effect of ROI.

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015

9495-24, Session 79495-26, Session 7

Crosstalks in multiview 3D images (Invited
Paper)

Spectral Analysis of Views Interpolated by
Chroma Subpixel Downsampling for 3D
Autosteroscopic Displays

Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of);Beom-Ryeol Lee, Electronics and Telecommunications
Research Institute (Korea, Republic of); Min-Chul Park,
Thibault Leportier, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of)

Avishai Marson, Adrian Stern, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the
Negev (Israel)
One of the main limitation of horizontal parallax autostereoscopic displays
is the horizontal resolution loss due the need to repartition the pixels of
the display panel among the multiple views. Recently we have shown that
this problem can be alleviated by applying a color sub-pixel rendering
technique. Interpolated views are generated by downsampling the panel
pixels at sub-pixel level, thus increasing the number of views. The method
takes advantage of lower acuity of the human eye to chromatic resolution.
Here we supply further support of the technique by analyzing the spectra of
the subsampled images.

In the 3-D image, the crosstalk is defined as the interference between
neighboring view images. The term has been used to quantify the quality of
3-D images but it doesn’t look appropriate for the contact-type multiview
3-D displays. This is because the viewing zones of this type displays are
divided into a number of viewing regions having diamond shapes, which
are much more than that of the multiview images displayed on the display
panel. Furthermore, each region provides an image that is different fromthose in other regions. The images in most of these viewing regions are
the mixtures of at least two neighboring different view images. Since thecrosstalk in the stereoscopic images is caused by a small intensity portionof an eye image added to the other eye image. This added portion will get
into the other eye simultaneously and cause blur in the other eye image. As
a consequence of this blur, the depth sense can be reduced. The crosstalk
is quantified as the intensity ratio of left (right) eye image to right (left) eye
image added to the left (right) eye image. However, it is expected that thiscrosstalk will have no meaning if size of the viewing region is smaller thanthat of viewer’s pupil. In this case, the images from surrounding viewing
regions of the viewing region will simultaneously get into viewer’s each eyewith the image on the viewing region. Hence the crosstalk definition used instereoscopic images cannot be used in multiview images. In this paper, thecrosstalk concept in the multiview 3-D displays is redefined and the depth
sense with the mixed images is investigated.

9495-27, Session 8

2D MEMS scanning for lidar with subNyquist sampling, set-up and functionality
Joachim Janes, Thorsten Giese, Fraunhofer-Institut fürSiliziumtechnologie (Germany)
2D MEMS scanners are used for e.g. Laser projection purposes or Lidar
applications. Electrostatic driven resonant torsion oscillations of both axesof the scanners lead to Lissajous trajectories for a digitally modulated Laserbeam reflected from the micro mirror. A solid angle of about 0.02 is scannedby a 658nm Laser beam with a maximum repetition rate of 350MHz 50mW
digital pulses. Reflected light is detected by an APD with a bandwidth of
80MHz. The phase difference between the scanned Laser light and the lightreflected from an obstacle is analyzed by sub-Nyquist sampling allowing the
calculation of its distance and velocity. The experimental set-up of the Lidar
system is presented and first measurements demonstrating the capability
are discussed.

9495-25, Session 7

Ligthfield superresolution throughturbulence (Invited Paper)
Juan M. T. Trujillo-Sevilla, Univ. de La Laguna (Spain); Luis
Fernando Rodriguez-Ramos, Instituto de Astrofísica deCanarias (Spain); José Manuel Rodríguez Ramos, Univ. de
La Laguna (Spain) and ITB-CIBICAN (Spain)

9495-28, Session 8

FTV standardization for super multiview
and free navigation in MPEG (Invited
Paper)

Plenoptic cameras are gaining popularity thanks to its ability of recording
the full lightfield. This is, the full distribution of light rays created by a scene
in front of the camera. A conventional camera also records the lightfield,
but just a projection of it and not the full lightfield as a plenoptic camera
does. This enables to make things that are impossible using a conventional
camera, such as, a posteriori refocus, 3D mapping, wavefront phasemeasurement and perspective shifting with no moving parts in the camera.

Masayuki Tanimoto, Nagoya Industrial Science ResearchInstitute (Japan)
FTV (Free-viewpoint Television) is 3DTV with infinite number of views andranked as the top of visual media. It enables users to view 3D scenes byfreely changing the viewpoint. MPEG has been developing FTV standards
since 2001. MVC (Multiview Video Coding) is the first phase of FTV, whichenables efficient coding of multiview video. 3DV (3D Video) is the second
phase of FTV, which enables the efficient coding of multiview video anddepth data for multiview displays. Views in between linearly arranged
cameras are synthesized from the multiview video and depth data in
3DV. Based on recent development of 3D technology, MPEG has started
the third phase of FTV, targeting super multiview and free navigation
applications. This new FTV standardization will achieve more flexible camera
arrangement, more efficient coding and new functionality. Users can enjoy
very realistic 3D viewing and walk-through/fly-through experience of 3D
scenes in super multiview and free navigation applications

There are still many features of plenoptic cameras that has not been
explored, for example, the typical main limitation in a plenoptic camera is
the loss of resolution since not all pixels in the sensors are used. Plenoptic
cameras can also be used as a wavefront sensors since the lightfield relates
light rays and its directions, and therefore refraction index changes of themedia placed in front of the camera can be measured indirectly by means ofangle variations of light rays.
In this work we present a new method to improve the resolution of images
captured using plenoptic cameras, when the surrounding media introduces
refraction index changes that aberrates the wavefront. A formulation basedin Fourier optics is presented as well as results using real data.

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9495-29, Session 89495-33, Session PTue

Research on steady-state visual evoked
potentials in 3D displays (Invited Paper)

Color image authentication scheme via
multispectral photon-counting double
random phase encoding

Yu-Yi Chien, Chia-Ying Lee, Fang-Cheng Lin, Yi-Pai Huang,
Li-Wei Ko, Han-Ping D Shieh, National Chiao Tung Univ.
(Taiwan)Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are intuitive systems for users tocommunicate with outer electronic devices. Steady-state visual evoked
potential (SSVEP) is one of the common inputs for BCI systems due
to its easy detection and high information transfer rates. An advanced
interactive platform integrated with LCDs is leading a trend to provide analternative option not only for the handicapped but also for the public tomake our lives more convenient. Many studies of SSVEP-based BCI systems
have been done in a 2D environment but less with 3D stimuli. However,
3D displays have potentials in SSVEP-based BCI systems because they
can offer vivid images, good quality in presentation, various stimuli, andmore entertainment. The purpose of this study was to investigate theeffect of two important 3D factors (disparity and crosstalk) on SSVEPs.
Twelve participants (2 females) ranging in age between 22 to 28 years old
participated in the polarized 3D experiment. The results showed that there
is a significant difference (p-value<0.05) between large and small disparity
angle, and the signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of small disparity angles ishigher than those of large disparity angles.

Reconstruct holographic 3D objects bydouble phase hologram (Invited Paper)

9495-34, Session PTue

Inkyu Moon, Faliu Yi, Chosun Univ. (Korea, Republic of)

Chih-Hung Ting, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan);
Koki Wakunami, Kenji Yamamoto, National Institute ofInformation and Communications Technology (Japan); YiPai Huang, National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan)
To develop a 3D display which can show true 3D images is very importantand necessary. Holography has potential to achieve that objective because
holography actually records and reconstructs the recorded object inspace by reconstruction of wavefront. Further, to use computer generated
hologram (CGH) can solve the major issue of conventional hologram, therecoding process is quite complicated and needs the real objects. The
quality of reconstructed image, however, is not good enough if using only
one phase-only spatial light modulator (pSLM), for it can just tune the phase
information and cannot modify the amplitude information. Although to use
two pSLMs by dual-phase modulation method (DPMM) can adjust the phaseand the amplitude information at the same time to enhance the quality ofreconstructed image, it is hard to use in practical application because of theextremely high accurate calibration of the two pSLMs. Therefore, double
phase hologram (DPH) was proposed to use only one pSLM to adjust thephase and the amplitude information simultaneously through DPMM.

In this paper, we give an overview of the method for simultaneousreconstruction of multiple depth images without off-focus points in
integral imaging using a graphics processing unit (GPU). The GPU allows
parallel processing with multiple processors for the multiple depth images
reconstruction by using a lookup table that contains the shifted values
along x and y direction for each elemental image for a given depth range.
In this scheme, both multiple slice images reconstruction and off-focusedpart removal are performed simultaneously, which leads naturally to acomputational speed acceleration of 3D integral imaging. We examine andcompare the computation time of CPU-based and GPU-based slice image
reconstruction with only well-focused parts while varying the number ofslice images. The speedup ratio is much higher with the increase of numberof reconstructed slice image and resolution of elemental image.

9495-35, Session PTue

Optimizing the diffraction efficiency of
LCOS-based holography with anomalousreflection by gradient meta-surface
Chuan Shen, Kaifeng Liu, Sui Wei, Lei Ni, Hao Wang, Anhui
Univ. (China)

9495-31, Session PTue

Format matching using multiple-planes
pseudoscopic-to-orthoscopic conversion
for 3D integral imaging display
Xin Shen, Xiao Xiao, Univ. of Connecticut (United States);
Manuel Martínez-Corral, Univ. de València (Spain); Bahram
Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
In this paper, we present a technique to generate an elemental image
array to match display devices for three dimensional integral imaging.
Experimental results show that our technique can accurately match different
display formats and improve the display results.

SPIE DSS 2015

The combination of photon-counting and double random phase encoding
based on binary or monochrome image have showed its robustness forsecure image retrieval and verification recently. In this paper, we give an
overview of the method for color image authentication with multispectral
photon-counting imaging (MPCI) and double random phase encoding(DRPE) techniques. In this scheme, the three types of color samples (Red,Green and Blue color) in Bayer images down-sampled from multispectral
RGB color image are encrypted with DRPE, respectively. Then, encrypted
image for each channel is photon counted. For color image authentication,
the photon-counted encrypted image for each channel is decrypted,
respectively and composited into a decrypted Bayer image. Finally, thedecrypted Demosaicing image is restored using interpolation methods.
Experimental results show that the restored color images from thepresented method can be efficiently verified with statisticalcorrelations approach.

Parallel reconstruction of multiple depth
slice images with focused parts in integral
imaging via graphics processing unit

9495-30, Session 8

410

Inkyu Moon, Chosun Univ. (Korea, Republic of)·Meta-surface offers an innovative approach to manipulate light withanomalous capabilities. In this paper, we discuss the possibility of insertinga specially designed gradient meta-surface into the pixel architecture of theliquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) for the purpose of optimizing the diffraction
efficiency of LCOS-based holography. The pixels in LCOS with featuresize approaching the order of visible light wavelength could provide large
diffraction angle, unfortunately, scaling down the pixel size would reduce
the efficiency of the first diffraction we desired. The metal-insulator-metal(MIM) structure served as the unit cell of meta-surface consists of threelayer, i.e., the subwavelength metal nanobrick with varying geometricalparameter and the continuous metal film separated by the insulator layer.
A linear phase gradient is exhibited by the unit cells in each pixel period.
When illuminated by a polarized incident light, the MIM structure, wherewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015
wave vector has itself shortcomings due to iterative uncertainty and slow
convergence.

a magnetic resonance is created at a particular frequency, can offer ananomalous reflection with high-efficiency and acts as a flat blazed grating.
Finally, the light are supposed be diverted to the desired first diffraction.
The properties of potential metal, such as Au, Ag, and Al, served as theplasmonic material and suitable insulator have been studied to configure
the MIM structure accurately. Investigations are numerically carried out toobserve the effects on the distribution of liquid crystal director with Techwiz
Software and to obtain the relative diffraction efficiency by using FDTD
software. Compared with the conventional LCOS device, the optimization of
the diffraction efficiency has been achieved by our proposed structure.

In this paper, a novel hybrid phase retrieval algorithm extended TIE forpartially coherent light illuminations is investigated in both case of uniformly
and non-uniformly lit. This algorithm consists of multi-plane ASI to utilize
the physical constraints between the object domain and the spectral
domain, and the relationship between the intensity and phase among
the wave propagation. The phase at the center image plane is calculated
from three intensity images. Then this result is treated as the initial valueof the multi-plane ASI. Finally, the phase information at the object planeis acquired according the reversibility of the optical path. This hybridalgorithm expands the application of tradition TIE while improving theconvergence rate of ASI method.

9495-36, Session PTue

Phase retrieval using iterative Fouriertransform and convex optimization
algorithm

9495-38, Session PTue

3D High Speed Characterization Of Phase
Objects Using The Transport Of Intensity
EquationZhang Fen, Cheng Hong, Quanbing Zhang, Sui Wei, Anhui
Univ. (China)
Phase is an inherent characteristic of any wave field. Statistics show that
greater than 25% of the information is encoded in the amplitude term and
75% of the information is in the phase term. The technique of phase retrievalmeans acquire phase by computation using magnitude measurements andprovides data information for holography display, 3D field reconstruction,
X-ray crystallography, diffraction imaging, astronomical imaging and manyother applications.

Thanh Nguyen, Georges T. Nehmetallah, The Catholic
Univ. of America (United States); Ahmad Darudi, Peyman
Soltani, Univ. of Zanjan (Iran, Islamic Republic of)
Traditionally, 3D phase information are obtained using interferometricor holographic techniques. While these techniques are very sensitive
to vibrations, and vibration cancelation platforms are needed to obtaindecent results, non-interferometric intensity based techniques of phaseretrieval such as the transport of intensity equation (TIE) do not sufferfrom such a drawback. TIE employs a simple experimental technique forphase reconstruction of objects by recording several diffraction patterns at
different observation planes through axially translating the CCD. Recently,
instead of the slow mechanical translation, a Tunable Lens was proposed tomodify the TIE setup (TL-TIE) for dynamic phase objects.

Mathematically, solving phase retrieval problem is an inverse problem
taking the physical and computation constraints. Some recent algorithms
use the principle of compressive sensing, such as PhaseLift, PhaseCut andcompressive phase retrieval etc. they formulate phase retrieval problems as
one of finding the rank-one solution to a system of linear matrix equations
and make the overall algorithm a convex program over matrices. However,by “lifting” a vector problem to a matrix one, these methods lead to a muchhigher computational cost as a result. Furthermore, they only use intensity
measurements but few physical constraints.

In this work we purpose to extend the TL-TIE by employing a tunablelens in the optical setup for phase (transmissive) as well as amplitude(reflective) objects. This modified setup will reduce the acquisition timemaking the TIE technique useful for dynamic object surface characterization.
Furthermore, we illustrate how a static 3D phase and/or amplitude object
can also be reconstructed tomographically by illuminating it at multiple
angles using this modified setup. The object will be mounted on a rotatingstage and multiple diffraction patterns are captured for different angles
and at different observation planes. The reconstructed optical fields are
tomographically recomposed to yield the final 3D shape using a simple
multiplicative technique. Finally, a reconfigurable hardware maybe employed
for synchronization of the CCD and the TL-TIE lens.

In the paper, a new algorithm is proposed that combines above convex
optimization me-thods with a well known iterative Fourier transform
algorithm (IFTA). The IFTA iterates between the object domain and spectral
domain to reinforce the physical information and reaches convergencequickly which has been proved in many applications such as com-putegenerated-hologram (CGH). Herein the output phase of the IFTA istreated as the initial guess of convex optimization methods, and thenthe reconstructed phase is numerically com-puted by using modified
TFOCS. Simulation results show that the combined algorithm increases thelikelihood of successful recovery as well as improves theprecision of solution.

9495-39, Session PTue

9495-37, Session PTue

3D subsurface imaging of crustal rocks
using components of electromagnetic
radiations based on Maxwell theory priorseismic events in situ

A novel hybrid phase retrieval algorithm
for partially coherent light illuminations
Hong Cheng, Fen Zhang, Sui Wei, Yanliu Liu, Yapin Chen,
Anhui Univ. (China)

Umesh P. Verma, Ranvir N. Nandan, Patna Science College(India); Madhurendra Nath Sinha, Patna Iniversity Geology
Department (India)

The phase carries details of the depth information about an optical wave
field and is very important in many applications, such as optical fieldreconstruction and 3D display. However, optical waves oscillate too fast for
detectors to record the intensity and phase directly and simultaneously. The
phase retrieval technology or algorithm has been the focus of enormous
research recently.

Continuous observations on imagery of TEC , MMC and OLR data available
through NOAA and IPS and IRS kalpana satellites and RT basis could reveal
interesting pattern of variations in the components of electromagnetic
radiation induced prior seismic events. With sincere interpretation after
analysis not only provide pre- seismic events’information but at the sametime generates 3D imaging of subsurface stressed block of sub crustal
rocks.undrer stress the rock volume induces EM radiation at LIA andatmospheric condition transmitted in form of TEC(Total electron Content)
and MMC(Multiple magnetic components) and OLR (outgoing long

Among the valuable algorithms transport-of-intensity equation (TIE) andangular-spectrum-iteration (ASI) are widely used in various fields suchas electron microscopy and x-ray imaging. Unfortunately, the former one
is originally derived for a coherent illumination and can not be directly
applied to the phase retrieval of partially coherent light field when notbeen uniformly lit. While the ASI deducted from wave propagating with

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015
wave radiation) ;which are recorded by said satellites on real time basis.
Using FFT and normal numerical modelling 3 D images are interpretatedundergoing geophysical and geochemical changes prior the seismic events.
The technique is best alternative for infrared and hyperspectral imaging todecipher the subsurface imagery only with the satellite signals’ ‘variation.
With the tracing technique of all noted observations and plotting on the
3axes system the variation trend gives informative view of the changes
taking place in the geophysical and geochemical properties of the rocks.
On the basis of trend of signals obtained and theirs’ nature of propagationa profile of the rocks inferred( available0) with intriguing properties can be
deciphered . These entire processing are undertaking at the sub
crustal volume.

9495-42, Session PTue

Viewing zone control of super multi-view
display with directional backlight9495-40, Session PTue

Kenji Hirano, Jin Miyazaki, Tomohiro Yendo, Nagaoka Univ.
of Technology (Japan)

Color reconstruction of computergenerated hologram for real scenes using
a light field camera
Yutaka Endo, Takashi Kakue, Tomoyoshi Shimobaba,
Tomoyoshi Ito, Chiba Univ. (Japan)
To calculate computer-generated holograms (CGHs) of real scenes underincoherent light, many capturing systems have been proposed. Integral
imaging is a technique to capture three-dimensional information and used
for calculating CGHs. However, conventional integral imaging systems would
be relatively large. Recently lenslet-based light field cameras attract wide
interests, and some products are on the market. The light field cameras are
small and easily obtainable.
In this paper, we show a process to calculate a CGH of real scenes using
a consumer light field camera, Lytro, and show the results of color
reconstruction of the CGHs. Since Lytro is relatively small, portable andinexpensive compared to conventional integral imaging systems, it would
be convenient to construct a capturing system for CGH calculation. The CGH
calculation is performed by the conversion of a light field into a wavefront
using Fourier transform of each sub-image of Lytro. Before the conversion,
we perform light field rendering to match the sampling of the light field tothe conditions of a display device for the CGHs. For color reconstruction, we
calculate three CGHs with red, blue and green wavelengths and superpose
those reconstructed images. Experimental results demonstrate that the CGH
calculation and its color reconstruction are correctly performed.

Compressive holography reconstruction
using phase-shifting interferometry

The display is based on the lenticular method. As stated above, the rays
should be shot out to only around observer’s pupils. Therefore, the lenticularlens of which viewing zone angle is narrowed is used. But, due to thecharacteristics of the lenticular lens, the same image is seen repeatedly fromdifferent positions out of the viewing zone. It is called side lobe. Because of
the side lobes, the rays for one eye enter the other eye. To suppress theseside lobes, we proposed the lenticular lens is illuminated by the directional
light. The direction of the directional light has to be changed to follow theobserver’s eye.
We implemented optical designs based on the technique as mentioned
above, and we produced a prototype display. We experimented withconsideration of change of viewing angle and distance.
We confirmed usefulness of the proposed display by theseexperiment result.

9495-43, Session PTue

Kevin J. Friel, Pann Ajjimaporn, Jeremy Straub, Scott
Kerlin, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Cheng Zhang, Chuan Shen, Hong Cheng, Fen Zhang,Anhui Univ. (China); Kaifeng Liu, Quanbing Zhang, Anhui
University (China); Sui Wei, Anhui Univ. (China)
In classical compressive holography (CH), which based on the Gaborholography setup, two nonlinear terms are inherent in the intensity recorded
by a 2D detector arrays, the DC term and the squared field term. The DC
term (the term at the origin) can be eliminated by filtering the Fouriertransform of the interference irradiance measurements using appropriate
high-pass filter near the zero frequency. The nonlinearity caused by thesquared field term can be neglected and modeled as a error term in themeasurement. However, the above assumptions are significantly limited,which yields the degradation of reconstruction quality.
In this paper, an novel scheme using phase-shifting method is presented.
To accurately recover the complex optical field caused by the propagationof the object, without the influence of the DC term and the squared fieldterm, a very effective method for removing these two terms is introduced.
The complex optical field of the 3D object and the complex optical field at
the detector plane can be precisely represented by a linear mapping model.
The complex optical field at the recorder plane is obtained by phase-shifting

SPIE DSS 2015

A super multi-view display provides three-dimensional images by emitting
a lot of rays of different colors depending on the direction from each pointon the display. It provides smooth motion parallax without special glasses,
and it is expected that the observer is free from the visual fatigue causedby the accommodation-vergence conflict. However, a huge number of pixels
are required on a display device because high-density rays are required forgood quality images and each ray needs corresponding pixel. We proposeda new method to reduce the required number of pixels by limiting rays
emitted to only around observer’s pupils.

The use of 3D scanning for sporting
applications

9495-41, Session PTue

412

interferometry with multiple shots. Then, the corresponded complex opticalfield at the detector plane can be successfully extracted from multiple
captured holograms using conventional four phase-shifting interferometry.
From such complex optical field at the record plane, including the amplitude
and phase information, the complex optical field of the 3D object can bereconstructed via a optimization procedure. Numerical results demonstrate
the effectiveness of our proposed method.

·

A low-cost, visible light 3D Scanner has been developed which uses fifty
cameras attached to Raspberry Pi single-board computers. This scanner
is able to capture even minute details of a subject and collect structural,
texture and coloration detail. These models can be 3D printed or displayedon screen for visualization; they can also be computationally analyzed. This
paper considers the application of 3D scanning and the analysis of collected
data to improving sporting performance. Sports player spend tireless hours
trying to improve elements of their gameplay. A basketball player mightseek to understand the current mechanics of and to optimize a jump shot,
while a runner focuses on posture and stride issues. One area of particular
benefit, which the scanner that has been developed at the University ofNorth Dakota is well-suited for is sports where performance is heavily
related to posture, stance, and positioning. One such sport is golf. In golf, aplayer may spend significant time trying to perfect their stance and swing tocreate the perfect shot. There are many times where the player may believethat the swing is perfect, but the reality is a different story. The 3D Scannerand visualization techniques can, potentially, correct this misunderstanding
as well as aiding in improving detected issues. The 3D Scanner can show
the problems in the player’s grip on the club, how far back they are taking
the swing and/or how bent their knees should be. This paper continues withwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015a discussion of the challenges of assessing sporting activities, particularly
related to golf and hockey, and the utility provided by doing so. It discusses
how a visible light scanner can be particularly useful for scanning combined
human-and-object targets. It concludes with a discussion of how thisapproach can apply to other sports.

system. The cylindrical fog screen which facilitates space divisionmultiplexing of visual information can be used to visualize different content
or can be used to visualize a single virtual object in its full-parallax view
when used with multiple projectors. And the gesture recognition systemenables the user to interact with the 3D objects rendered on the cylindricalscreen directly with hands.

9495-44, Session PTue

9495-46, Session PTue

The use of 3D scanning for wellness
assessment purposes

Projection type transparent 3D display
using active screen

Pann Ajjimaporn, Kevin J. Friel, Jeremy Straub, Scott
Kerlin, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Hiroki Kamoshita, Tomohiro Yendo, Nagaoka Univ. ofTechnology (Japan)

This paper considers the use of a 3D scanner for wellness assessment andmonitoring. It begins with a discussion of the various ways that the scanner
could prospectively aid this type of application. The efficacy of multiple
types of scanners (optical, blue light and laser) is discussed, relative to theidentified applications. The paper then focuses on one particular application:wellness assessment through patient body visualization with a visible light
3D scanner. This scanner can be used to allow a patient or doctor to view
different perspectives of different parts of the body (for an extended periodof time, if required for diagnosis), in a way that a single picture couldn’t
or which might require an invasive or uncomfortable posture. It may also
facilitate a doctor seeking out a specialist opinion without requiring thepatient to physically visit the specialist.

Equipment to enjoy a 3D image, such as a movie theater, television and soon have been developed many. So 3D video are widely known as a familiar
image of technology now.
The display representing the 3D image are there such as eyewear, nakedeye, the HMD-type, etc. They has been used for different applications
and location.
But have not been widely studied for the transparent 3D display.
If transparent large 3D display is realized, it is useful to display 3D image
overlaid on real scene in some applications such as road sign, shop window,
screen in the conference room etc.

The scanner can provide a detailed rendering of the gesture and thenatural position of the different parts of the patient’s body. For example,
for a patient undergoing spinal cord therapy, 2D pictures could show theperson in the difference posture; however, the perspectives offered might
be vague and the differences that could be viewed from the perspectives
that images were captured from might be minimal. With the help of a 3D
Scanner, the patient and his or her doctor can see him or herself from a 3D
perspective that can be spun around, looked at from all the directions thatthe patient or doctor would want to look at and provide an opportunity forthe patient to see the improvement of their body or to see if the posture
has improved over time. A similar approach could also be utilized for weightloss monitoring, where a patient could view the impact of their diet, exercise
and/or other activities over time. The paper concludes by discussing how
the work performed relative to these two limited applications can be
expanded upon to aid other medical applications.

As a previous study, to produce a transparent 3D display by using a specialtransparent screen and number of projectors is proposed.
However, for smooth motion parallax, many projectors are required.
In this paper, we propose a display that has transparency and large display
area by time multiplexing projection image in time-division from one or
small number of projectors to active screen.
The active screen is composed of a number of vertically-long small
rotate mirrors.
It is possible to realize the stereoscopic viewing by changing the image ofthe projector in synchronism with the scanning of the beam.
3D vision can be realized by light is scanned.
Also, the display has transparency, because it is possible to see through thedisplay when the mirror becomes perpendicular to the viewer.
We confirmed the validity of the proposed method by using simulation.

9495-45, Session PTue

9495-47, Session PTue

Gesture recognition and space-divisionmultiplexing enabled fog based interactive
360-degree viewable display

Noise reduction in holographic
reconstruction by combining two spatial
light modulators

Praneeth K. Chakravarthula, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras (India); Pattie Maes, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (United States)

Thibault Leportier, Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of
Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); Jung-Young
Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of)

Substantial research is being done in the field of 3D Displays. Most present
day 3D displays uses special films/glasses to visualize the 3D content. The
drawbacks of such a system is that the image cannot be viewed in multiple
viewpoints and also it causes visual discomfort. Though Holographic
displays are present, they offer only a limited viewing angle. Also, one
cannot get rid of the screen and they do not allow the user for directinteraction with the 3D image. We present a novel fog based “immaterial”
3D display, which solves most of the above problems. The concept of the
proposed display is similar to 360-degrees viewable 3D diplays which
utilize projection of multiple images such as Hitachi’s transport or Sony’s
RayModeler. But this stereoscopic display enables observers to not only
visualize the 3D shape of virtual objects but also to be able to touch themas if they were real, and interact. This idea of fog based displays has been
explored previously, majorly for 2D visualizations (e.g. [Rakkolainen etal. 2005]) and also for 3D visualization (e.g. [Asuka Yagi et al.]). But oursystem consists of a cylindrical fog screen with a gesture recognition

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One of the issues in holographic display is the presence of the zerothorder and the twin image which are degrading the image quality of
the reconstructed object. A common solution introduces an off-axis
configuration. However the spatial separation of the three contributions
imposes constraints on the resolution and the size of the hologram. In
addition, the spatial light modulators (SLM) currently available present
limitations in terms of resolution and fill factor. Recently, different methods
have been proposed to display complex information, and therefore get ridof the twin image. One approach is to use a grating to combine the realand imaginary parts of the holographic data. It requires only a single SLM,
but the resolution is low as the SLM is divided in two to display the twocomponents of the data. The grating period that should be used is alsostrongly dependent of the wavelength and the hologram size. It imposes
strong restrictions on the system’s tolerance. Another approach is tocombine two SLMs. In this paper we propose a new approach to make use·

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015

9495-50, Session PTueof a polarizing beam splitter and a wave-plate to exploit the polarization
properties of the light and combine the wavefronts coming from two SLMs.
One SLM is used to display the hologram while the other compensates the
background noise coming from the diffusion of the input light by the pixels
and the intrinsic periodic structure of the SLM.

Impact of lighting and attire on 3D scannerperformance
Dakota J. Feist, Jeremy Straub, Scott Kerlin, Univ. of North
Dakota (United States)

9495-48, Session PTue

This paper considers the impact of lighting and attire on the performanceof a previously created low-cost 3D scanning system. It considers the effectof adjusting the lighting configuration and of the subject’s clothing on
the quality of the scans and the number and types of objects that can bescanned. The experimentation performed tested different types (colors andtextures) of clothing to assess which produced the best scans and multiple
lighting configurations.

Evaluating visual discomfort instereoscopic projection-based CAVE
system with a close viewing distance
Weitao Song, Beijing Institute of Technology (China) andUniv. of Connecticut (United States); Dongdong Weng,
Dan Feng, Yuqian Li, Yue Liu, Yongtian Wang, Beijing
Institute of Technology (China)

The project started with primarily testing different clothing color
configurations. Dark and baggy clothing, like hoodies and cargo shorts did
not scan well. These items would generally render, but would be distorted orappear muddy. However, if the dark colors are offset by something brighter,then render quality improved. If the colors were all really bright, on the other
hand, they won’t render at all. Based on our testing, a light brown shirt andlight blue jeans produced the best results.

As one of the popular immersive Virtual Reality (VR) systems, stereoscopic
cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE) system is typically consistedof 4 to 6 3m-by-3m sides of a room made of rear-projected screens.
While great efforts have been made to reduce the size of the projectionbased CAVE system, the issue of asthenopia caused by lengthy exposure
to stereoscopic images in such CAVE with a close viewing distance has
yet to be dealt with. In this paper, we propose a light-weighted approach
which utilizes a convex eyepiece to reduce visual discomfort induced bystereoscopic vision. An empirical experiment was conducted to examine
the feasibility of convex eyepiece in a large depth of field (DOF) at closeviewing distance both objectively and subjectively. The result shows the
positive effects of convex eyepiece on the relief of eyestrain.

Several lighting configurations were also considered. First, normal room
lighting was tested. Then fluorescent lights were incorporated into thescanning chamber. Both were placed at the top of the room with one infront of the user, and one near the back. This improved performance particularly in the area of the legs; however it caused glair on the top of
the head.
The paper includes a summary of performance across numerous
combinations of lighting and clothing configurations. Future work will
include testing the impact of using other lighting including applying lightdefusers to the existing fluorescent lights, and adding lights with de-fusers
in front and behind the person being scanned. The paper concludes with a
discussion of scanner efficacy for various applications, based on thedata collected.

9495-49, Session PTue

Conditions in order to maintain theviewing zone in autostereoscopic display
Seon Kyu Yoon, Korea Institute of Science and Technology(Korea, Republic of) and Korea Univ. (Korea, Republic of);Sung Kyu Kim, Korea Institute of Science and Technology(Korea, Republic of)

Visible light 3D scanning offers the potential to non-invasively andnearly non-perceptibly incorporate 3D imaging into the everyday world.
Applications of this technology can increase productivity and security
and enhance profitability. This paper considers the various possible usesof visible light 3D scanning technology. It discusses multiple possible
usage scenarios including in hospitals, security perimeter settings andretail environments. The use of the scanner in each prospective example
application is discussed and its utility therefor is assessed. A value model
is considered which compares estimates of the cost (including monetary
costs and other possible cost sources, such as legal liability and the lossof goodwill from possible misuse or failure) and value produced by thetechnology (for both the business / organization) and individual.

However, when a glass is used in the process of manufacturing the opticalplate, problem occurs in the formation of the OVD and viewing zone by
the refractive index of the substrate. By each refractive index which causes
different angles of the viewing zone and the display, reduce the OVD. In
this paper, parallax barrier and substrate were used in the experiment andto predict mathematically to figure the changes in OVD depended by eachusage conditions.
To maintain the distance between the flat panel display and theautostereoscopic optical plate, in the presence of a glass substrate, it isdemanded to employ the method with minimum affect by therefractive index.
AS results of the experiment, a method that is able to provide a stereoscopic
with minimal impact, a glass substrate for fixing the optical plate has been
confirmed that when the position in the direction of the viewer, has the least
effect. Thus in order to deform OVD by each angles of the viewing zone, it isimportant to maintain the spacing between the optical plate and flat
panel display.

SPIE DSS 2015

Integrating visible light 3D scanning into
the everyday world
Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

In general, autostereoscopic display provides stereoscopic vision by using
an optical plate, such as a parallax barrier or lenticular. The Optimum View
Distance(OVD) and viewing zone formed in formed in optical plate is an
important factor to observe the correct stereoscopic vision.

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9495-51, Session PTue·

From this, a framework for assessing the efficacy of visible light 3D scanning
for a given application is derived (and the utility of the visible light approachis compared to other scanning approaches such as those using blue light or
lasers). Factors that drive cost and benefit are identified and the impact ofthese factors’ implication in a usage scenario on cost and benefit
is considered.
The paper also discusses ethical and legal considerations relevant to realworld use. This extended discussion considers prospective legal regulations
regarding and restrictions on the use of this type of scanning technology. It
also considers individuals’ expectations across multiple scenarios and theimpact of these expectations on how a scanner could be used without being
perceived as invasive and impairing the individual’s goodwill. From all of
this, the paper concludes by presenting a decision making framework forscanner incorporation into an application.

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Conference 9495: Three-Dimensional Imaging,
Visualization, and Display 2015

9495-52, Session PTue

360-degree three-dimensional digitizationof human torso by using multiples
projection-acquisition systems
Carlos Ricardo Contreras Pico, Andrés Leonardo González
Gómez, Jaime Enrique Meneses Fonseca, Univ. Industrial
de Santander (Colombia)
In the field of medicine esthetic has been developed a set of non-invasive
techniques to mold the body, such as Blepharoplasty, Mastoplasty, andLipoaspiration, among others. At present, non-invasive therapeutic
procedures are applied: Mesotherapy, Vacuum Therapy or Endermologie
and Ultrasonic Hydrolipoclasia, etc., by using a set of modeler systems
with high technology, which permit to obtain esthetic results that aredemonstrated qualitatively. Many authors conclude that although the results
are demonstrated qualitatively, there are not appropriate studies thatverify quantitatively and locally the volume variations from objective andprecise measurements. As consequence of this situation, the companies
that manufacture systems to treatment and specialized academies in
the matter, restrict your participation in the market and they reduce thecompetitiveness of your products front to others procedures.
In this paper the development of a system to digitize the human torso isshown. The system has been developed in order to evaluate, primarily, theeffectiveness of the therapeutic methods mentioned above; however, theapplications of such a system would be multiple in various fields. The system
consists of four projection-acquisition modules and it is based on the fringe
projection technique and the phase shifting algorithm. The calibration
procedure, which is implemented to determine the transformations thatallow to locate the point clouds, which are acquired by each of the systems,
in a single coordinate system is carried out from the digitization of a control
object, in this case a parallelepiped.

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Conference 9496: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Large Data Analyses (LDA),
Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII
Thursday - Friday 23–24 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9496 Independent Component Analyses, Compressive Sampling, Large
Data Analyses (LDA), Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII

9496-1, Session 1

software can be used to segment breast lesions of DCE MRI images forpreoperative staging, evaluation after chemotherapy, and for screening of
women at high risk of developing cancer.

Remote stress detection using visible(RGB) camera

9496-3, Session 1

Balvinder Kaur, Sophia Moses, Megha Luthra, Vasiliki N.
Ikonomidou, George Mason Univ. (United States)
Abstract: Heart rate variability (HRV) can be an important indicator ofseveral conditions that affect the autonomic nervous system, includingtraumatic brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder and peripheral
neuropathy. Recent work has shown that some of the HRV features canpotentially be used for distinguishing a subject’s normal mental statefrom stressed one. In all of these past works, HRV analysis is performedon the cardiac activity data acquired by conventional electrocardiographyelectrodes, which may introduce additional stress and complexity to theacquired data. In this paper we use remotely acquired time-series data
extracted from the human facial skin reflectivity signal during rest andstressed conditions to compute HRV driven features. We further apply
a set of classification algorithms to distinguishing stressed from normal
conditions. To determine heart beat signal from the facial skin reflectivity,
we apply 1) Principal Components Analysis (PCA) for denoising signals, 2)
Independent Component Analysis (ICA) for source selection, 3) Bandpass
filters for further denoising. To determine the signal peaks to extract the
RR-interval time-series, we apply 1) a threshold-based detection techniqueand 2) additional peak conditioning algorithms. To classify RR-intervals,
we explored classification algorithms that are commonly used for medical
applications such as 1) logistic regression and 2) linear discriminant analysis(LDA). Goodness of each classifier is measured in terms of sensitivity/
specificity. Results from each classifier are then compared to find the
optimal classifier for stress detection. This work, performed under an IRB
approved protocol, provides initial proof that remotely-acquired heart rate
signal can be used for stress detection. This result shows promise for further
development of a remote-sensing stress detection technique both for
medical and deception-detection applications.

Remotely detected differential pulse
transit time as a stress indicator
Balvinder Kaur, Elizabeth Tarbox, Marty Cissel, Sophia
Moses, Megha Luthra, Nhien Tran, Misha Vaidya, Vasiliki N.
Ikonomidou, George Mason Univ. (United States)
Abstract: The human cardiovascular system, largely controlled by theautonomic nervous system (ANS), is one of the first sites where one cansee the “fight-or-flight” response due to the presence of external stressors.
The main cardiovascular-related measure for stress detection remains theheart rate (HR). The combination of HR with heart rate variability (HRV)
analysis allows detection of changed parameters in the ANS control systemand therefore provides a reasonable power of stress detection. In this paper,
we investigate the possibility of a second measure: Pulse transit time (PTT),
which refers to the time that is required for the blood pressure wave tocover the distance from the heart to a defined remote location in the body.
Loosely related to blood pressure, PTT is a measure of blood velocity, and isalso implicated in the “fight-or-flight” response. We define the differential
PTT (dPTT) as the difference in PTT between two remote areas of the body,such as the forehead and the palm. Expanding our previous work on remoteheart rate detection from visible spectrum videos, we built a system that
remotely measures dPTT. Human subject data were collected under an
IRB approved protocol from 15 subjects both under normal and stressed
conditions and are used to initially establish the potential use of remote
dPPT detection as a stress indicator.

9496-4, Session 1
9496-2, Session 1

Breast lesion segmentation using a threedimensional active contours without edges
approach with a GPGPU implementation

High accuracy optical flow estimation
based on robustification variants and novel
computer-aided diagnosis systems applied
to breast MRI

Anke Meyer-Baese, Florida State Univ. (United States)

Anke Meyer-Baese, Florida State Univ. (United States)

A three-dimensional implementation of the Active Contours Without Edges(ACWE) algorithm using OpenCL is presented. The proposed algorithm
uses the General-purpose computing on graphics processing units (GPGPU)
to accelerate the original model by parallelizing two main steps of thesegmentation process, the computation of the Signed Distance Function(SDF) and the evolution of the segmented volume. The proposed energyfunction, of the Active Contours algorithm, incorporates knowledge of the
kinetic curves of common breast lesions to improve the segmentation.
A dataset of 46 dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) breast MRI images,
from Maastricht University Medical Center, is used to test and validate theproposed algorithm. Compared with an optimal sequential implementation,
the proposed algorithm obtains speedups of ten, on a GeForce GTS 450
video card, in most of the images. The segmentation process is visualized
in real time with a graphical user interface (GUI) developed with Qt and
OpenGL. The described work obtains volumes of breast lesions in a fast
way by taking advantage of the computational resources of the video cards
and it allows the physician to visualize the results with multiple views. This

Motion compensation represents an important pre-requisite for a correctcomputer-aided diagnosis of lesions in breast MRI. We extend and improve
the optical flow algorithm described by Brox et al. (2004) and introduce
robustification variants for applicability to breast MRI. The original algorithm
is based on an energy functional for computing the optical flow and on
three assumptions, a brightness constancy assumption, a gradient constancy
assumption, and a discontinuitypreserving spatio-temporal smoothness
constraint. We study two types of robustification, a joint and separate, andevaluate both methods based on the computed smaller angular errors. In a
subsequent computer-aided diagnosis system we evaluate the developed
method on breast MRI images comprising diagnostically challenging lesions.
The proposed method for motion compensation shows improved lesion
detection for this demanding clinical application.

416

SPIE DSS 2015·

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Conference 9496: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Large Data Analyses (LDA),
Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII

9496-5, Session 1

9496-7, Session 2

Catheter ultrasound for cross-sectional
imaging and drug delivery to vessel wall
(Biomedical Wellness Award Invited
Presentation) (Invited Paper)

Dynamical complex network theory
applied to the therapeutics of brain
malignancies
Anke Meyer-Baese, Florida State Univ. (United States)

John A. Hossack, Univ. of Virginia (United States)

Controlling regions in signaling networks represent key nodes to control
the dynamics of the network to a desired state corresponding to a drugresponse in brain cancer patients. We propose to apply pinning control
in combination with a constrained evolutionary computation method to
localize these driver nodes.

Current methods for delivery of an anti-restenosis drug to an arterial vessel
wall post-percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and stent placement arelimited in terms of drug choice, dosing level, and ability to assure drug
coverage between the struts of a drug eluting stent. An ideal solution
for the diagnosis and treatment of vascular disease must involve highresolution imaging with cross-sectional characterization of the vessel walland the means to provide a com-prehensive and versatile therapy thatcan be completed within a single catheterization procedure. Intravascularultrasound (IVUS) provides real-time, radiation-free, imaging andassessment of atherosclerotic disease in terms of anatomical, functionaland molecular information. In this presentation, the design of a dual
imaging / therapy IVUS catheter is described and results doc-umenting
gene and drug delivery reported. Microbubbles and drug / gene (shellassociated or co-injected) are dispensed from the catheter tip. Using thisapproach, it becomes possible to address the need for complete vessel
wall coverage and achieve delivery in regions poorly addressed us-ing
conventional stent-based approaches (e.g. near bifurcations). Additionally,
we propose to in-tegrate microfluidic devices directly within the catheter toenable real-time production of mi-crobubbles. By placing the microfluidics
device in the catheter, the need for long-term mi-crobubble stability is
mitigated. This tolerance for limited stability facilitates the rapid production of microbubbles (> 100,000 microbubbles/s) and therefore meetsrequirements in order to address realistic vessel segments within the limited
available time in the catheter lab setting. A range of in vitro, ex vivo and invivo results are presented. Our most recent results involve a demonstration
in a pig model of coronary balloon angioplasty that produced a 33%
reduction in neointima formation versus a drug plus microbubble, but noultrasound, control.

We checked whether the controlling regions depend on the number ofdriver nodes and whether the primary driver nodes have a large in-degree
and a small out-degree. At the same time we will unveil the potential
controlling rules.
Our proposed research is expected to further our understanding oftherapeutics and will be beneficial for neuropharmacology by directly
targeting these regions through novel treatment strategies.

9496-26, Session 2

A new EEG measure using the 1D cluster
variation method
Alianna J. Maren, Themasis Associates (United States)
A new information measure, drawing on the 1-D Cluster Variation Method(CVM), describes local pattern distributions (nearest-neighbor and nextnearest neighbor) in a binary 1-D vector in terms of a single interaction
enthalpy parameter h for the specific case where the fractions of elementsin each of two states are the same (x1=x2=0.5). An example application ofthis method would be for EEG interpretation in Brain-Computer Interfaces(BCIs), especially in the frontier of invariant biometrics based on individual
Grand Mother favorite image sets as the unique stimulus and response.
This measure is obtained by mapping EEG observed configuration variables(z1, z2, z3 for next-nearest neighbor triplets) to h using the analytic function
giving h in terms of these variables at equilibrium. This mapping results ina small phase space region of resulting h values, which characterizes local
pattern distribution in the source data. The 1-D vector with equal fractionsof units in each of the two states can be obtained using the method fortransforming natural images into a binarized equi-probability ensemble(Saremi & Sejnowski, 2014; Stephens et al., 2013). The 1-D space-filling curve
demonstrated 20 dB lower baseline using the Peano-Hilbert method (cf.
SPIE ICA etc. by Hsu & Szu, 2014) that might optimize the COTS 1-D BCI
baseball hat, resulting in a convenient 3-D lab-tethered EEG in 1-D CVM
equi-probable binary vector for Smartphone wireless display.

9496-6, Session 2

Quantitative analysis of integrated
chromosome 19 transcriptomic andproteomic data sets derived from glioma
cancer stem-cell lines
Anke Meyer-Baese, Florida State Univ. (United States)
The inherent genomic instability in gliomas results in chromosomal
duplications, amplifications of specific genes, and activating mutations.
Chromosome 19 is linked to glioma by 1p/19q codeletions, which are apositive prognostic indicator: 123 months mean survival versus 16 months inpatients with tumors that are 1p/19q intact.

9496-8, Session 3

Reducing weight precision of
convolutional neural networks towards
large-scale on-chip image recognition

We perform a quantitative analysis on transcriptomic and proteomic data
sets derived from glioma-derived cancer stem cells (GSCs) based on
nonlinear feature extraction methods and unsupervised clustering.
In our analysis, we determine a high degree of similarity in overall protein
expression patterns between some specific GSCs.

Zhengping Ji, Ilia Ovsiannikov, Yibing Wang, Lilong Shi,
Qiang Zhang, Samsung Semiconductor, Inc. (UnitedStates)Taken together, these results indicate that the various GSC cell line classes
show similar expression patterns for chromosome 19 proteins. Our results
have expanded the knowledge of the role of chromosome 19 beyond thewell-known impact of 1p/19q codeletion. Our findings may have relevancefor selection of GSC lines for testing responses to preclinical andclinical compounds.

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Deep learning drew considerable research attention in recent years. Various
deep learning architectures, such as convolutional deep neural networks,
deep belief networks and auto encoder decoders have been developed toprovide state-of-the-art solution in a variety of artificial intelligence andcomputer vision tasks, including (large-scale) visual object recognition,
automatic speech recognition, natural language processing, and music/
audio signal processing. Till now, the main efforts of deep learning havebeen focused on the software implementation, in the aspects of network·

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Conference 9496: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Large Data Analyses (LDA),
Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII
architectures, learning optimization and demonstration of applications
with bench-marking performance. Yet the hardware implementation
endowing more powerful on-board behaving is still limited. Transforming
the advancement of deep learning from current software implementation to
fast and compact chip solution, especially under mobile platform is of great
importance for next-generation hand-held products and wearable devices.
Major challenges in achieving deep learning chips lie in the constraintsof hardware size and power consumption. For instance, the software
implementation can enjoy a cluster of high performance computers withhuge storage space and unlimited power supplies, but this becomes
implausible when considering a centimeter size chip running on astandalone battery. One efficient solution to reduce storage space andpower consumed for calculation on chip is to reduce the precision of model
configurations, i.e., the connection weight and internal responses for deeplearning architecture. This paper is aimed at creating such a deep learning
system running with low bit resolution and in the meanwhile maintaining
good performance for image recognition task. A popular deep learning
architecture -- Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), is selected given two
factors: (1) its hardware favorableness in local computation for parameter
reduction and (2) outstanding performance in solving image
recognition problems.
We proposed server-device quantization scheme to reduce bit resolutionof CNN for image recognition tasks. On the server cloud, we first train a
Convolutional Neural Network using back propagation algorithm, where
resolution bits for both input and weight are double precision (64 bits).
Then we perform a new quantization method – supervised iterative
quantization to reduce the bit resolution of learned network weights. This
process involves intensive data learning process (both unsupervised andsupervised) and expensive computation, so we perform it on server. After
that, the network configuration and quantized weight with low bit resolution
are loaded to the hardware device to recognize coming input in real-time.
Considering the hardware side, however, the optimized but expensive
quantization becomes infeasible for real-time input. Thus, we adopted
a uniform quantization instead for the input and network responses toguarantee low on-chip load and fast running speed. The convolutional neuralnetwork with reduced weight precision thus receives quantized image input,
generates low-bit responses and performs recognition of responses forclass output.
The Convolutional Neural Network with reduced weight and input/response
precision is demonstrated in recognizing two types of images. One is handwritten digit images and the other is real-life images in office scenarios.
Both results showed that the network is able to maintain the original
performance even though the bit resolution of both weight and input arelargely reduced, e.g., from 64 bits to 4-5 bits.

lower the prediction accuracy of algorithms, and vice versa. In addition,transportation planning authorities/stakeholders in our selected study
area can directly use our results to better understand the factors that
influence the predictive accuracy of machine learning algorithms used in thetransportation domain, with a view of selecting the one most suited for use
in specific scenarios. This is especially true because most studies simulatevery simplistic traffic conditions that either void of real-world data, realistic
road networks, or both.

9496-10, Session 3

A generalized LDA framework through 6W
Jeffrey C. Jenkins, The Catholic Univ. of America (UnitedStates); Rutger Van Bergem, George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates); Charles Sweet, LoftMind, Inc. (United States);
Eveline Vietsch, Georgetown Univ. Medical Ctr. (UnitedStates); Harold H. Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America(United States); Masud Cader, American Univ. (UnitedStates); Dalila Benachenhou, George Washington Univ.
(United States)
Large Data Analysis (LDA) has become a reachable multi-disciplinary goalin recent years due in part to high performance computers and algorithm
development, as well as the availability of large data sets. However, theexperience of Machine Learning (ML) and information communities has
not been generalized into an intuitive framework that can be used directly
by researchers in several disciplines. How can the human brain uncover
patterns, association and features in real-time, real-world data? There must
be a general strategy used to transform raw signals into useful features, but
representing this generalization in the context of our information extraction
tool set is lacking. The data exploration phase of data mining is a primeexample of this unspoken, ad-hoc nature of ML – the Computer Scientist
works with a Subject Matter Expert (SME) to understand the data, and thenbuild tools (i.e. classifiers, etc.) which can benefit the SME and the rest of
the researchers in that field. We ask, why is there not a tool to represent
information in a meaningful way to the researcher asking the question?
Meaning is subjective across disciplines, so to ensure robustness, we draw
examples from several disciplines and propose a generalized LDA framework
for independent data understanding. Then, we explore the concept ofadaptive Information resolution through a 6W unsupervised learning
methodology feedback system.

9496-11, Session 39496-9, Session 3

Earth mover’s distances of feature vectors
in large data analyses

An evaluation into the effectiveness ofmachine learning algorithms in traffic
pattern prediction using field andsimulation data

Henry Chu, Anurag Singh, Michael A. Pratt, Univ. ofLouisiana at Lafayette (United States)

Nnanna N. Ekedebe, Nicolas Dolphin, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates)Without intelligent transportation systems (ITS)/Vehicular ad hoc networks(VANETs), road traffic congestions will continue to exacerbate leading toincreases in wasted time, gas, and other harmful environmental emissions.
Consequently, having prior knowledge of the congested condition of aroadway can be invaluable especially in emergency situations.

The earth mover’s distance (EMD) measures the difference of two feature
vectors that is related to the Wasserstein metric defined for probability
distribution functions on a given metric space. The EMD of two vectors isbased on the cost of moving the content of individual elements of an anchor
vector to match the distribution of a target vector. The EMD is a solution
to a transportation problem. We present results of using EMD in large data
analysis problems such as those for health data and image data.

Owing to the aforesaid, using several machine learning algorithms, weevaluate their prediction accuracy in determining future traffic patterns. Our
training set consists of six weeks of real-world traffic data from August, 1st2012 to September, 27th 2012 in the Maryland (MD)/Washington DC andVirginia (VA) areas.

9496-12, Session 3

Our results show that the predictive accuracy of our evaluated machinelearning algorithms depend on factors such as time of day, and prediction
window/interval. Generally speaking, the higher the prediction window, theLiyi Dai, U.S. Army Research Office (United States)

418

SPIE DSS 2015

Compressive sensing solutions throughminimax optimization
This paper is concerned with the basic issue of the robustness of·

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Conference 9496: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Large Data Analyses (LDA),
Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII

9496-16, Session 5compressive sensing solutions in the presence of uncertainties. In particular,
we are interested in compressive sensing solutions under unknown
modeling and measurement inaccuracies. The problems are formulated asminimax optimization. Exact solutions are derived through the approachof Alternating Direction Method of Multipliers. Numerical examples show
the minimax problem formulations indeed improve the robustness ofcompressive sensing solutions in the presence of model andmeasurement uncertainties.

Automatic organization and signal
processing of databases (Large Data
Analysis Award Invited Presentation)(Invited Paper)
Ronald R. Coifman, Plain Sight Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates)9496-13, Session 4

We describe a general methodology to associate with a database, viewed
as a matrix or a higher dimensional tensor, an analytic processing tool kit,
which can be used to perform signal processing on the data, from denoising
to filling in missing entries, or compression.

Hypothesis on human eye perceiving
optical spectrum rather than an image
Yufeng Zheng, Alcorn State Univ. (United States); Harold
H. Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States)

The system builds two geometries in duality, one on the rows the other on
the columns allowing for filtering and matching using natural earth moverdistances between data points.

It is a common knowledge that we see the world because our eyes canperceive an optical image. A digital camera seems a good example ofsimulating the eye imaging system. However, the signal sensing andimaging on human retina is very complicated. There are at least five layers(neurons) along the signal pathway: photoreceptors (cones and rods),
bipolar, horizontal, amacrine and ganglion cells. To sense an optical image,it seems that photoreceptors (as sensors) plus ganglion cells (converting
to electrical signals for transmission) are good enough. Image sensing
does not require ununiformed distribution of photoreceptors like fovea.
For example, why don’t we feel the “blind spots” (never fibers exiting theeyes)? Similar situation happens to glaucoma patients who do not feel
their vision loss until 50% or more nerves died. Now our hypothesis is thathuman retina initially senses optical spectrum rather than optical image.
Due to the symmetric property of Fourier spectrum the signal loss from ablind spot or the dead nerves (for glaucoma patients) can be recovered. Eyelogarithmic response to input light intensity much likes displaying Fourier
magnitude. The optics and structures of human eyes satisfy the needs of
optical Fourier spectrum sampling. It is unsure that where and how inverse
Fourier transform is performed in human vision system to obtain an opticalimage. Phase retrieval technique in compressive sensing domain enables
image reconstruction even without phase inputs. The new spectrum-based
imaging system can tolerate up to 50% of bad sensors/pixels, adapt tolarge dynamic range (with logarithmic adaption), etc. More details will bepresented in the paper.

Applications to processing sensor data, psychological profiles, text
documents ,and others will be given.

9496-17, Session 5

VoIP attacks detection engine based onneural network
Jakub Safarik, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech
Republic); Jiri Slachta, Cesnet z.s.p.o. (Czech Republic)
The security is nowadays crucial for any system, especially communications.
One of the most successful protocols in the field of communication over
IP networks is Session Initiation Protocol. It is an open-source project usedby different kind of application, both open-source and proprietary. High
penetration and text-based principle made SIP number one target in IP
telephony infrastructure, so security of SIP server is essential. To keep up
with hacker and detect potential malicious attacks, security administrator
needs to monitor and evaluate SIP traffic in the network. But monitoring
and following evaluation could easily overwhelm the security administrator
in networks, typically in networks with a number of SIP servers, users andlogically or geographically separated networks. The proposed solution lies
in automatic attack detection systems. The article covers detection of VoIP
attacks in such a system based on artificial intelligence neural network. A
honeypot applications running in the real network gather reliable attack
information. The honeypot application runs in various part of the networkand creates a distributed net of detection nodes. The input for neuralnetwork contains real attack data detected on honeypots. From same
honeypots, I prepare training set with specific attack sets of various attack
types, which uses a backpropagation algorithm learning. The automaticclassification on a centralized server with low false positive detection
reduce the cost of attack detection resources. Whole detection system uses
modular design for easy deployment in final infrastructure. The centralized
server collects and process detected traffic and maintains whole distributed
network of detection nodes.

9496-14, Session 4

Radar sensing displayed through optics
Harold H. Szu, Charles C. Hsu, The Catholic Univ. of
America (United States); Michael J. Wardlaw, Office ofNaval Research (United States); Jefferson M. Willey, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9496-15, Session 49496-18, Session 5

Optical sensing cameras

Thermal image enhancement based onblind source separation and multiple
spectral measurements

Harold H. Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (UnitedStates); Jae Hoon Cha, A. Lynn Abbott, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (United States); Keith
A. Krapels, The Univ. of Memphis (United States)

Jae Hoon Cha, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States); A. Lynn Abbott, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (United States);
Harold H. Szu, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

No Abstract Available

Thermal radiation from objects varies depending on spectral bands

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Conference 9496: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Large Data Analyses (LDA),
Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII
according to Planck’s law. By modeling measurements of such radiation
as a linear sum of contribution from multiple sources, a thermal scene canbe divided into multiple scenes of independent objects that approximate
the makeup of the original scene. We pose the scene composition as aninverse blind source separation problem, where multiple spectral images areused to improve temperature resolution of the estimated scene. Numericalsimulations along with real images from three bands (SWIR, MWIR, and
LWIR) suggest the feasibility of selective source removal and radiative
spectral extrapolation, which can lead to thermal image enhancement.
Practical issues related to the use of multiple spectral images (such as image
registration and choice of sensing bands) are also discussed.

9496-19, Session 5

Auxiliary function approach to
independent component analysis andindependent vector analysis (Unsupervised
Learning ICA Award Invited Presentation)(Invited Paper)
Nobutaka Ono, National Institute of Informatics (Japan)
In this paper, we present a fast and stable learning rule for independent
component analysis (ICA) and independent vector analysis (IVA) for
super-Gaussian sources based on auxiliary function method, which is an
optimization technique and can be considered as Expectation Maximization(EM) algorithm. In the auxiliary function method, an auxiliary function,
which is like a Q function in EM algorithm, is introduced. Then, instead of
directly minimizing an objective function, the auxiliary function is iteratively
minimized. We show that for a quadratic function can be a good auxiliary
function, which is minimized in a closed form, for a contrast function of ICA
or IVA when sources are assumed to follow super Gaussian distributions.
The derived algorithm consists of two alternative updates: 1) weighted
covariance matrix updates and 2) demixing matrix updates, which include
no tuning parameters such as a step size in gradient descent method. The
monotonic decrease of the objective function at each update is guaranteed.
The experimental evaluation shows that the derived update rules yield
faster convergence and better results than natural gradient updates. A fast
implementation on a mobile phone is also presented.

9496-20, Session 5

Z. Li, X. Zhang, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada)Regardless of the number of the groove density of the grating used ina spectrometer for optical emission measurements, in atomic emission
spectrometry, a spectrometer with a relatively long focal length (e.g., 0.5 m
to 0.75 m) is required in order to obtain the desired resolution (e.g., in thepico-meter regime). Resolving power is a quantitative measure of resolution.
Relatively high resolving power is required to address (but not completely
eliminate) spectral overlaps (often called spectral interference effects).
On account of their long focal length, such spectrometers cannot be used
for taking “the lab to the sample” type of applications. Spectral overlaps
become progressively more of a challenge as the focal length of thespectrometer is decreased, for example down to 12-15 cm. Short focal length
spectrometers (translating to reduce size and weight) are better suitedfor portable chemical measurements in the field. Although increasing thenumber of grooves/mm in gratings used in small focal length spectrometers
appears to be appealing, there are fundamental limits to such a suggestion.
Interesting alternatives arise by considering use of artificial neural networks
or of statistical (or mathematical) methods to address spectral overlaps.

SPIE DSS 2015

9496-21, Session 5

Biomining: bridging the gap between
health and security LDA
Jeffrey C. Jenkins, The Catholic Univ. of America (UnitedStates); Christopher Frenchi, Christopher Newport Univ.
(United States); Charles Sweet, LoftMind, Inc. (UnitedStates); Binh Q. Tran, Harold H. Szu, The Catholic Univ. of
America (United States)
What is the difference between identifying a person and identifying a
disease? Aside from the sensors, motivation, and features used to makeinference, not much. Machine Learning (ML) techniques have beensuccessfully used to perform Detection, Identification and Recognition(DIR) in both Biometrics and Biomedical sensing, yet a unified rationale
for coupling the two data representations has eluded researchers. Drawing
from ML fundamentals, we identify a methodology of utilizing Large Data
Analysis (LDA) as a bridge between Biometrics and Biomedical wellness.
We can leverage features from Biometric sensors and Biomedical sensors
to form a combined feature space that can better equip researchers tounderstand their data. Without knowing intrinsic attribute relationships
apriori, we can discover meaningful association rules between data fromdifferent devices for an individual or a group of individuals. We may beable to classify disorders from Biometric data and ID an individual from
Biomedical device data. Such a system could also discover which sensors are
best suited to ‘see’ biomarkers or biometric features, provided situationaland environmental context. We assess the EEG as a hybrid system where weestablish a foundation of Biomining and demonstrate how learnable libraries
can emerge without human interaction through ML techniques in a cloud
based environment.

9496-22, Session PThu

Detection of cardiac activity changes fromhuman speech
Jaromir Tovarek, Pavol Partila, Miroslav Voznak, Martin
Mikulec, Miralem Mehic, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava(Czech Republic)

How do artificial neural networks (ANNs)
compare to partial least squares (PLS) for
spectral interference correction in opticalemission spectrometry?

420

In this presentation, statistical and neural network-based methods will becompared and contrasted using additional experimental results (over what
previously reported).

·

Impact of changes in blood pressure and pulse from human speech isdisclosed in this article. The symptoms of increased physical activity arepulse, systolic and diastolic pressure. There are many methods of measuring
and indicating these parameters. The measurements must be carriedout using devices which are not used in everyday life. In most cases, themeasurement of blood pressure and pulse following health problems orother adverse feelings. Nowadays, research teams are trying to design
and implement modern methods in ordinary human activities. The main
objective of the proposal is to reduce the delay between detecting theadverse pressure and to the mentioned warning signs and feelings.
Common and frequent activity of man is speaking, while it is known that thefunction of the vocal tract can be affected by the change in heart activity.
Therefore, it can be a useful parameter for detecting physiological changes.
A method for detecting human physiological changes by speech processing
and artificial neural network classification is described in this article. The
pulse and blood pressure changes was induced by physical exercises inthis experiment. The set of measured subjects was formed by ten healthy
volunteers of both sexes. None of the subjects was a professional athlete.
The process of the experiment was divided into phases before, during andafter physical training. Pulse, systolic, diastolic pressure was measured
and voice activity was recorded after each of them. The results of thisexperiment describe a method for detecting increased cardiac activity fromhuman speech using artificial neural network.

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Conference 9496: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Large Data Analyses (LDA),
Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII

9496-23, Session PThu

to identify a given type of structure. These results can be interpreted as
sampling theorems for structured signals. We also discuss some recent
research that validates the theoretical predictions in more applied settings.

FPGA-based realtime blind source
separation with principal component
analysis9496-32, Session 7

Matthew Wilson, Uwe Meyer-Baese, Florida State Univ.
(United States)

Quantitative real-time analysis
of collective cancer invasion anddissemination (Invited Paper)

Principal component analysis (PCA) is a popular technique in reducing
the dimension of a large data set so that more informed conclusions canbe made about the relationship between the values in the data set. Blindsource separation (BSS) is one of the many applications of PCA, where
it is used to separate linearly mixed signals into their source signals. This
project attempts to implement a BSS system in hardware. Due to uniquecharacteristics of hardware implementation, the Generalized Hebbian
Algorithm (GHA), a learning network model, is used. The FPGA used tocompile and test the system is the Altera Cyclone III EP3C120F780I7

Andrew Ewald, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available

9496-34, Session 8

3D printed bionic nano-materials (Invited
Paper)

9496-24, Session PThu

Michael C. McAlpine, Princeton Univ. (United States)

Independent component analysis
algorithm FPGA design to perform realtime blind source separation

The ability to three-dimensionally interweave biology with nanomaterials
could enable the creation of bionic devices possessing unique geometries,
properties, and functionalities. The development of methods for interfacing
high performance devices with biology could yield breakthroughs inregenerative medicine, smart prosthetics, and human-machine interfaces.
Yet, most high quality inorganic materials: 1) are two dimensional, 2)
are hard and brittle, and 3) require high crystallization temperatures for
maximally efficient performance. These properties render the corresponding
devices incompatible with biology, which is: 1) three dimensional, 2) soft,flexible, and stretchable, and 3) temperature sensitive. These dichotomies
are solved by: 1) using 3D scanning and printing for hierarchical, interwoven,multiscale material and device architectures, 2) using nanotechnology as anenabling route for overcoming mechanical discrepancies while revealing new
effects due to size scaling, and 3) separating the materials synthesis and3D printed assembly steps to enable conformal integration of high quality
materials with biology. The coupling of 3D printing, novel nanomaterial
properties, and ‘living’ platforms may enable next-generation nano-bio
interfaces and 3D printed bionic nanodevices.

Uwe Meyer-Baese, Crispin Odom, Florida State Univ.
(United States); Guillermo Botella, Univ. Complutense de
Madrid (Spain); Anke Meyer-Baese, Florida State Univ.
(United States)
The conditions that arise in the Cocktail Party Problem prevail across
many fields creating a need for of Blind Source Separation. The need for
BSS has become prevalent in several fields of work. These fields include
array processing, communications, medical signal processing, and speechprocessing, wireless communication, audio, acoustics and biomedical
engineering. The concept of the cocktail party problem and BSS led to thedevelopment of Independent Component Analysis (ICA) algorithms. ICA
proves useful for applications needing real time signal processing. The goalof this thesis was to perform an extensive study on ability and efficiency
of Independent Component Analysis algorithms to perform blind source
separation on mixed signals in software and implementation in hardware
with a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). The Algebraic ICA (A-ICA),
Fast ICA, and Equivariant Adaptive Separation via Independence (EASI)ICA were examined and compared. The best algorithm required the least
complexity and fewest resources while effectively separating mixed sources.
The best algorithm was the EASI algorithm. The EASI ICA was implemented
on hardware with Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) to perform andanalyze its performance in real time.

9496-27, Session 9

Hardware enhance of brain computerinterface (Invited Paper)
Jerry Wu, J2 Universe LLC (United States); Harold H. Szu,
The Catholic Univ. of America (United States)
The history of brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) starts with Hans Berger’s
discovery of the electrical activity of the human brain and the developmentof electroencephalography (EEG). Recent years, BCI researches are focusedon Invasive, Partially invasive, and Non-invasive BCI. Furthermore, EEG canbe also applied to telepathic communication which could provide the basis
for brain-based communication using imagined speech. It is possible touse ECoG signals to discriminate the vowels and consonants embedded in
spoken and in imagined words and apply to military product. In this report,
we begin with an example of using high density EEG with high electrodedensity and analysis the results by using BCIs. The BCIs in this work isenhanced by A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) board with optimized
two dimension (2D) image Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis.

9496-30, Session 6

Sampling theorems for structured signals(Invited Paper)
Joel A. Tropp, California Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)For over 40 years, researchers have studied methods for identifying a
structured signal from linear measurements using convex optimization. The
appropriate optimization problem depends on a priori information about
the type of structure that is latent in the signal. Familiar examples include
l1-norm minimization for recovering sparse signals and Schatten 1-norm
minimization for recovering low-rank matrices, but there are many others.
Extensive empirical work suggests that there is a phase transition in thenumber of measurements that are needed to recover a specific signal using
convex optimization. This talk summarizes ideas from the last five years
that allow us to compute the precise number of measurements required

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Conference 9496: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Large Data Analyses (LDA),
Neural Networks, Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XIII

9496-28, Session 99496-36, Session 9

Spatially revolved electroencephalography(Invited Paper)

Computational intelligence from AI to BI
and NI (Invited Paper)

Jerry Wu, J2 Universe LLC (United States); Harold H. Szu,
The Catholic Univ. of America (United States)

Paul J Werbos, Center for Large-Scale Integration and
Optimization of Networks CLION (United States)

Electroencephalography (EEG) measures voltage fluctuations resulting fromionic current flows within the neurons of the brain. In practice, EEG refers
to the recording of the brain’s spontaneous electrical activity over a shortperiod of time, several tens of minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes
placed on the scalp. In order to improve the resolution and the distortion
cause by the hair and scalp, large array magnetoencephalography (MEG)systems are introduced. The major challenge is to systematically compare
the accuracy of epileptic source localization with high electrode density tothat obtained with sparser electrode setups. In this report, we demonstrate
a two dimension (2D) image Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis alongwith utilization of Peano (space-filling) curve to further reduce thehardware requirement for high density EEG and improve the accuracy andperformance of the high density EEG analysis.

No Abstract Available

9496-29, Session 9

Simulated annealing model of acupuncture(Invited Paper)Charles Shang, Baylor College of Medicine (United States);
Harold H. Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (UnitedStates)The growth control singularity model (reviewed in http://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2644274/) suggests that acupuncture can cause
perturbation around singular points (acupuncture points or acupoints) of
the growth control system with effects similar to simulated annealing. Suchperturbation can lead to local and/or global optimization of a physiologicalsystem by shaking a system from a suboptimal, diseased state to a healthierstate. This model can explain many results of randomized controlled trials
on acupuncture. In clinical trial, the goal of a treatment is to relieve certain
disorder which corresponds to reaching certain local optimum in simulated
annealing. The total amount of energy of the system during the annealing
process is limited and related to the person’s general health and age inthe case of acupuncture. The perturbation at singular points can lead ahigher local excitation (annealing temperature) for annealing compared toperturbation at non-singular points (placebo control points). Such difference
diminishes as the number of perturbed points increases due to the wider
distribution of the limited energy. Perturbation at too many points candissipate the energy below a critical annealing temperature and compromise
the optimization.
This model explains the following facts of randomized controlled trials on
acupuncture:
1. Well chosen single acupoint treatment for certain disorder can lead toreliable therapeutic effect above placebo
2. When multiple acupoints are used at the same time, the result can bereliable if the patients are relatively healthy and young (i.e. the intended
local optimum of the trial is often the same as global optimum) but areusually mixed if the patients are old, frail and have multiple disorders at thesame time.
3. As number of acupoints used in a trial increases, the efficacy difference
between sham and real acupuncture often diminishes.
It also correctly predicted that the efficacy of acupuncture is inversely
correlated to the disease chronicity, severity and patient’s age.
This model suggests that acupuncture trial is most likely to show positive
efficacy when few, well chosen acupoints are used on relatively healthy,
young patients. This is the first biological – physical model of acupuncture
which can predict and guide clinical acupuncture research.

422

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Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9497 Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing, Security, and Applications 2015

9497-2, Session 1

These methods usually have the defects of insufficient prior information andrelatively poor adaptively?In this paper, we proposed a non-blind restoration
algorithm based on learning patch likelihoods. Patch-based method not onlyuses the valid information of the input image itself?but also utilizes the priorinformation of the sample images to improve the adaptively?However thecost function of this method is quite time-consuming, and the method may
also produce ringing artifacts. Focusing on these problems, we analyzed
and improved the non-blind restoration algorithm based on learning patch
likelihoods. In order to enhance time-consuming, we considered the effect of
the Gaussian mixture model with different weight and normalize the weightvalues, which can optimize the cost function. To solve the ringing artifacts,a ringing artifacts post processing method was proposed. Extensive
experiments have been performed, as well as comparison with state-ofthe-arts, including Richardson-Lucy filter, TV model, and Bregman iteration.
Four image quality measures are used to evaluate the performance of image
deblurring. Experimental results verify that our method can effectively
reduce the execution time, suppress the ringing effectively, and keep thequality of image deblurring.

Color image retrieval and analysis
Chen Gao, Karen Panetta, Tufts Univ. (United States);
Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San Antonio (UnitedStates)Color is an essential property human perceived. Color analysis is pivotal
in image and video retrieval, food quality evaluation, paint color search,and other consumer applications. In this paper, a new color space model
LUXV which is consistent with human vision is proposed. In addition, a new
non-reference colorfulness measure is presented. This new measure saved
each color as a global index offline. Therefore, when a new color is added
for retrieval, there is no need to calculate distances to all candidate colors in
the database as the traditional methods do. The experimental results showthat using the proposed colorfulness measure on the LUXV color space caneffectively and efficiently retrieval colors and images with the mostsimilar colors.

9497-5, Session 1

9497-3, Session 1

Intensity and resolution enhancement oflocal regions for object detection andtracking in wide area surveillance

A nonparametric hypothesis testing
approach to wavelet domain image fusion
Stephen P. DelMarco, BAE Systems (United States)

Evan Krieger, Vijayan K. Asari, Saibabu Arigela, Theus
Aspiras, Univ. of Dayton (United States)

Data fusion can be used to generate high quality data from multiple,
degraded data sets by appropriately extracting and combining “good”
information from each degraded set. In particular for image fusion, it may
be used for image denoising, deblurring, or pixel dropout compensation.
Image fusion is often performed in an image transform domain. In transformdomain fusion approaches, transform coefficients from multiple images may
be combined in various ways to produce an improved transform coefficient
set. The fused transform data is inverted to produce the fused image. In
this paper we formulate a general approach to image fusion in the wavelet
domain. The proposed approach exploits context information, throughapplication of nonparametric statistical hypothesis testing. The use ofstatistical hypothesis testing places the fusion on a theoretically sound andprincipled basis, and leads to improved fusion performance. Furthermore,
use of statistical wavelet coefficient information in a neighborhood of thetest coefficient more fully exploits the available context information. In thispaper we first formulate the fusion approach. We then present numericalimage data fusion results using a sampling of imagery from a public domain
image database. We compare fusion performance of the proposed approachwith performance of other standard wavelet-domain fusion approaches, andshow a performance improvement when using the proposed approach.

Object tracking in wide area motion imagery is a complex problem thatconsists of object detection and target tracking over time. The object
detection portion is well suited for human analysts. An analyst has theability to focus on the object of interest and ignore unneeded data. The
human eye also has the ability to deal with high dynamic range lighting
situations. Human have a duplex retina which allows for good visual
discrimination in all lighting conditions. The eye also uses the pupil to adapt
to local lighting conditions. A human analyst can also intelligently use
additional tools to magnify the object of interest. The use of a magnification
tool allows the analyst to see additional details of the object for moreaccurate tracking. A computer vision solution for object tracking has
the potential to be a much faster and efficient solution; however it faces
challenges that do not affect the human analyst. The imagery captured forcomputer analysis has a limited dynamic lighting range due to the globally
set exposure of the camera. This results in overexposed and underexposed
regions where there is a loss or suppression of data. In addition, wide area
motion imagery is typically taken over huge areas where the objects ofinterest, like cars and people, have a very low spatial resolution. In WAMI
data the object’s spatial resolution chosen to be as minimal as possible
for recognition in order to have the largest possible expanse of the data
captured. The proposed solution for improving computer vision object
tracking results is to mimic the abilities of a human analyst. The proposedsolution simulates three aspects of human object detection. First, the focus
of a human analyst is emulated by only doing work on the local object
search area. By focusing the processing efforts on only the local searcharea the computation requirements are decreased. Second, the solution
proposed is that an intensity enhancement process should be done on
the local area in order to improve the visual quality of image. An intensity
enhancement process can improve the detection by improving the contrast
in overexposed and underexposed regions. Finally, the proposed solution
includes locally increasing the spatial resolution of the search area. By using
a super resolved search area, the features can be better extracted andmatched to the object of interest. A quantitative evaluation is performed toshow tracking improvement using the proposed method. The testing is done
first to find which of three enhancement methods has the most benefit for
the tracking process. The local enhancement and super resolution process
is then evaluated using the highest performing enhancement method.

9497-4, Session 1

Improved patch-based learning for image
deblurring
Dong Bo, Haopeng Zhang, Zhiguo Jiang, Beihang Univ.
(China)Images have been widely applied in aerospace, military surveillance, roadtransportation monitor, medical care, etc. However, the blurring usuallyoccurs when capturing images, making troubles for the tasks of feature
extraction, object identification, image analysis, etc. Thus, restoration
techniques are needed to improve the quality of blurred images to meet therealistic requirements. Most recent image deblurring methods only use valid
information found in the input image as the clue to fill the deblurring region.

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Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015
The process is evaluated by comparing the resulting object locations
found by the tracker to the known object locations. The three databases,
each grayscale sequences that were taken from aircrafts, used for theseevaluations include the Columbus Large Image Format database, the Blue
Devil database, and the Sussex database.

based weighting. The introduction of clustering method increases thetime cost of bilaterial filter and thus we propose graphic processing units(GPU) technique to reduce the cost. A GPU framework for 3D cluster-driven
bilateral filter is presented in this paper. The experimental results show
significant improvement on processing efficiency after GPU technique
is applied.

9497-6, Session 1

Image restoration using 2D autoregressive
texture model and structure curve
construction
Viacheslav V. Voronin, Vladimir I. Marchuk, Alexander
I. Sherstobitov, Don State Technical Univ. (RussianFederation); Ilya Svirin, CJSC “Nordavind” (RussianFederation); Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San
Antonio (United States); Karen O. Egiazarian, Tampere
Univ. of Technology (Finland)
Image inpainting, and, in general, image reconstruction are very important
problems in image processing. An ultimate goal of image inpainting
is to restore a missing (damaged) area of “empty” pixels regions in avisually plausible manner using information outside of the damaged
domain. An automatic restoration of damaged or missing pixels is animage reconstruction problem coming from many practical multimedia
applications, such as retouching of digital photographs, restoring images,
image coding, computer vision, etc. In this work we use geometric image
model. In this case any image can be divided into several areas such as
texture regions, non texture and edges on the local geometric features anddifferent spatial configuration. In this paper an image inpainting approachbased on the construction of a composite curve for the restoration of
the edges of objects in an image using the concepts of parametric andgeometric continuity is presented. It is shown that this approach allows to
restore the curved edges and provide more flexibility for curve design indamaged image by interpolating the boundaries of objects by cubic splines.
After edge restoration stage, a texture restoration using 2D autoregressive
texture model is carried out. In this paper we propose an algorithm torepresent and reproduce texture regions based on the estimation of spatial
autoregressive processes. The image intensity is locally modeled by a first
spatial autoregressive model with support in a strongly causal prediction
region on the plane. Model parameters are estimated by Yule-Walker
method. Several examples considered in this paper show the effectivenessof the proposed approach for large objects removal as well as recovery ofsmall regions on several test images.

European activities in civil applications ofdrones: an overview of remotely piloted
aircraft systems (RPAS) (Invited Paper)

Timothy Whitney, Jeremy Straub, Ronald Marsh, Univ. ofNorth Dakota (United States)
Super-resolution is term for a collection of image enhancement techniquesthat use one or more low-resolution input images to produce an enhanced(higher resolution) output image. Multiframe super resolution takes in aset of low resolution (LR) images of a target object and, by combining theinformation from each image, calculates subpixel values that are used tobuild a high resolution (HR) output image. Many multiframe super resolution
implementations exist, including Iterative Back Projections, Bayesian,
Projection onto Convex Sets and Iterative Adaptive Filtering. These methods
conform to a similar paradigm: the super resolution algorithm is run once
using a set of multiple LR input images to produce one HR image. This
paper presents and discusses the results of a technique, called hierarchicalsuper-resolution, where the super resolution algorithm is run multiple times,
using a larger set of LR input images.
This approach takes a^n input images (where a is the number of images
in a hierarchy layer and n is the number of layers in the hierarchy) andperforms super resolution on each initial group of five. The results of thisare then used as inputs for the next higher layer of super resolution. This
process is repeated n times, until a final HR image is produced. In manycases, this hierarchical technique is able to produce a better quality image
than the traditional single run super-resolution approach. This hierarchicalmethod allows existing super resolution algorithms to be used to further
enhance the quality of images, without requiring the modification of theunderlying super resolution algorithm. This makes the hierarchical approach,prospectively, easily interoperable with existing super-resolution algorithms.
Potential uses for hierarchical super-resolution exist in computer vision,
robotics, healthcare and any application in which higher than capture-level
image quality is essential.

9497-12, Session 2

Lukas Sevcik, Dominik Uhrin, Jaroslav Frnda, Miroslav
Voznak, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic);
Homer Toral Cruz, University of Quintana Roo (Mexico);Martin Mikulec, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech
Republic); Sergej Jakovlev, Klaipeda Univ. (Lithuania)

Reiner Creutzburg, Fachhochschule Brandenburg(Germany)
No Abstract Available

The recently growing interest in real-time service (like audio and video),transfer through packet networks based on IP protocol. It leads to analysesof these services, and their behavior is in such networks becoming more
intensive. Video has become the majority part of all data traffic sent via
IP networks. In general, a video service is one-way service (except e.g.
video calls) so network delay is not such an important factor as it in voiceservice. Dominant network factors that influence the final video quality areespecially packet loss, delay variation and the capacity of the transmission
links. Analysis of video quality concentrates on the resistance of video
codecs to packet loss in the network, which causes artefacts in the video.

9497-10, Session 1

A 3D cluster-driven trilateral filter for
speckle reduction in ultrasound images
Zhilong Hu, Jinshan Tang, Michigan Technological Univ.
(United States)

IPsec provides confidentiality in terms of safety, integrity and nonrepudiation (using HMAC-SHA1 and 3DES encryption for confidentiality andIn this paper, we propose a cluster-driven bilateral filter for speckle
reduction in 3D ultrasound images. The proposed filter used a cluster-

SPIE DSS 2015

Image enhancement using hierarchical
Bayesian image expansion super resolution

Encryption for confidentiality of the
network and influence of this to the qualityof streaming video through network

9497-8, Session 1

424

9497-11, Session 1·

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Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015
AES in CBC mode) with an authentication header and ESP (Encapsulating
Security Payload).

The transform domain mixture is an added layer of secrecy and security
that demands additional computational cost and hardware. The paper
uses standard ICA or separation schemes, and the mixing process is linear
using real valued matrices. Mixing in the space, frequency, and wavelet(scale) domains is compared. Effectiveness is measured using mean squareerror rate between original and recovered images, and effectiveness ofthe steganography scheme is also measured using the mean square error
between the original dominant image and the mixture images.

OpenVPN is a full featured secure network tunneling VPN software solution.
OpenVPN is tightly bound to the OpenSSL library and derives much of its
crypto capabilities from it. OpenVPN supports conventional encryption
using a pre-shared secret key or public key security (SSL/TLS mode).
OpenVPN also supports unencrypted TCP/UDP tunnels.
MPLS VPN is a technology that allows a Service Provider to have complete
control over parameters that are critical to offering its customers service
guarantees about bandwidth throughputs, latencies and availability. The
technology enables secure Virtual Private Networks (VPN) to be built andallows scalability.

9497-16, Session 2

Information security trades in tacticalwireless networks

9497-14, Session 2

Michael T. Kurdziel, Harris Corp. (United States) andRochester Institute of Technology (United States); John A.
Alvermann, Harris Corp. (United States)

On a simulation study of cyber-attacks onvehicle-to-infrastructure communication in
intelligent transportation system

Wireless networks are now ubiquitous across the tactical environment. They
offer unprecedented communications and data access capabilities. However,providing information security to wireless transmissions without impacting
performance is a challenge. The information security requirement for each
operational scenario presents a large trade space for functionality versus
performance. One aspect of this trade space pertains to where information
security services are integrated into the protocol stack. This paper will
present an overview of the various options that exist and will discuss theadvantages and disadvantages of each option.

Nnanna N. Ekedebe, Wei Yu, Towson Univ. (United States);
Houbing Song, West Virginia Univ. (United States); Chao
Lu, Towson Univ. (United States)
The Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) is one type of cyber-physicalsystem that aims to provide efficient/low latency, effective, reliable, andsafe driving experiences with minimal congestion and effective traffic
flow management. To achieve this goal, ITS applications such as intervehicle communications (IVC), vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), and vehicle-toinfrastructure (V2I) should work synergistically. In an ITS, security, privacy,
and safety concerns are some of the major challenges, militating against thefull adoption of ITS technology by concerned stakeholders in the real-world,
thereby obviating the realization of these wonderful benefits. Because
safety is a fundamental requirement for ITS, security, and privacy preserving
mechanisms must not vitiate safety, meaning that all security and privacy
enhancing mechanisms must complement or improve safety rather than
endanger it.

9497-37, Session 2

A better detection of 2LSB steganography
via standard deviation of the extended
pairs of values
Omed S. Khalind, Benjamin Aziz, Univ. of Portsmouth(United Kingdom)

As a result of the ITS’s reliance on wireless connectivity, V2V, and V2I
communications are, consequently made vulnerable to cyber-attacks,
posing message deletion, modification, forgery, and replay attacks byan adversary. Because of the safety nature of VANET (Vehicular Ad Hoc
Network) messages, these possible compromises must not be overlookedwith impunity. In this paper, using V2I communication and real-worldtransportation dataset, we evaluate the consequences of cyber-attacks (e.g.
attacks against service availability by jamming the communication channel
and other ways) on a typical VANET system. In this way, we can have abetter understanding on the importance of ensuring adequate security
respecting safety VANET applications before full real-world deploymentof this promising technology. Our experimental results show that cyberthreats (such as ones against service availability) can adversely affect traffic
efficiency and safety evidence by exacerbated travel time, fuel consumed,
and other evaluated performance metrics as the communication network iscompromised. In addition, we discuss a framework to make ITS secure andresilient against cyber-attacks.

This paper proposes a modification to the Extended Pairs of Values(EPoV) method of 2LSB steganalysis. In EPoV, the detection and thelength estimation of the hidden message were performed in two separate
processes as it considered the automated detection process. However, thenew proposed method uses the standard deviation of the EPoV to measure
the amount of distortion in the stego image made by the embedding
process, which is directly proportional with the embedding rate of the 2LSB
steganography. It is shown that it can accurately estimate the length of thehidden message and outperform the other methods of the targeted 2LSB
steganalysis in the literature. The proposed method is also more consistent
with the steganalysis methods in the literature by giving the amount ofdifference to the expected clean image. The experimental results, based on
analysing 3000 never-compressed images, show that the proposed method
is more accurate than the current targeted 2LSB steganalysis methods forlow embedding rates.

9497-15, Session 2

9497-38, Session 2

Transform domain steganography withblind source separation

Environmental network monitoring by
smart devices using sparse recovery
algorithm

Ismail I. Jouny, Lafayette College (United States)

Joon Young Lee, Arizona State Univ. (United States)

This paper applies blind source separation and independent component
analysis for images that may contain mixtures of text, audio, or other images
for steganography purposes. The paper focuses on separating mixtures inthe transform domain such as 2-D Fourier domain or the Wavelet domain.
The study addresses the effectiveness of steganography when using linear
mixtures of multimedia components and the ability of standard blindsources separation techniques to discern hidden multimedia messages.

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Environment network monitoring has been investigated in Phoenix, Arizona,
United States for a recent time period. In this study, I introduce a sparserecovery algorithm and apply it to estimation of environmental network,
which can be gathered by smart devices. First, I describe that it is applicableto the environment network estimation. Relying on the Google for importantdata, I built the environment network data. The mathematical formulation·

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425

Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015is shown and the l1-optimization is formulated for the proposed method. By
several validity tests, I show that it meets the compressible requirements
and l1-optimization enables environment network estimation to be effectivein that the total measurements of registered devices can be reduced down
by approximately 31%. I provide visualizations of environment network in
Phoenix, Arizona, US by quarters of 2014.

9497-17, Session 3

Capon-based single snapshot DOA
estimation in monostatic MIMO radaror occupant tag. The tag senses unique identifiers sent by each modulein addition to relative intensity readings from luminaires to determine
location. Luminaires use a communication chain approach (token message
passing) to regulation packet transmission. This approach also serves as
the basis for an IR based mesh networking and distributed computing
protocol that is suitable for eliminating any additional building infrastructure
besides power. The significance of this research is to demonstrate how new
constructions and building retrofits can easily and affordably achieve wholebuilding localization and tracking for intelligent building operations, asset
management, occupant safety and building security.

9497-19, Session 3

Aboulnasr Hassanien, Moeness G. Amin, Yimin D. Zhang,Fauzia Ahmad, Villanova Univ. (United States)
We consider the problem of single snapshot direction-of-arrival (DOA)
estimation of multiple sources in monostatic multiple-input multiple-output(MIMO) radar. After performing pulse compression, the data associatedwith each Doppler-range bin within each radar pulse is represented by asingle snapshot. When a single snapshot is used, the covariance matrix ofthe data becomes rank deficient and, therefore, does not enable applying
high-resolution DOA estimation techniques. On the other hand, lowresolution techniques, such as the conventional beamformer, suffer frombiased estimation and fail to resolve closely spaced sources. In this paper,
we propose a new Capon-based method for DOA estimation in MIMO radarusing one radar pulse. Assuming that the general angular locations of thesources are known a priori to be located within a certain spatial sector, we
employ multiple transmit beams to focus the transmit energy of multiple
orthogonal waveforms within the desired sector. The transmit weightvectors are carefully designed such that they have the same transmit power
distribution pattern. As compared to the standard MIMO radar concept, theproposed approach enable transmitting a number of orthogonal waveforms
that is much higher than the number of transmit antennas. By using
matched-filtering at the receiver, the data associated with different beams
are extracted and stacked together to form a virtual data block. The numberof virtual snapshots is equal to the number of transmit beams. By choosing
the number of transmit beams to be larger than the number of receive
elements, it becomes possible to form a full-rank sample covariance matrix.
The Capon beamformer concept is then applied to estimate the DOAs of
the targets of interest. The proposed method is shown to have improved
DOA estimation performance as compared to conventional single snapshot
DOA estimation methods. Simulation results are provided that illustrate thesuperiority of the proposed method over existing techniques.

Experimental studies of high-accuracy
RFID localization with channel
impairments
Eric Pauls, Yimin D. Zhang, Villanova Univ. (United States)
Radio frequency identification (RFID) systems present an incredibly costeffective and easy-to-implement solution to close-range localization. Oneof the important applications of a passive RFID system is to determine thereader position through multilateration based on the estimated distances
between the reader and multiple distributed reference tags obtained from,e.g., the received signal strength (RSS) readings. In practice, the achievableaccuracy of passive RFID reader localization suffers from many factors,
such as the distorted RSS reading due to channel impairments in terms of
the susceptibility to reader antenna patterns and multipath propagation.
Previous studies have shown that the accuracy of passive RFID localization
can be significantly increased by properly modeling and compensating
for such channel impairments, and sparse signal reconstruction based
techniques for reader position estimation were developed. The objectiveof this paper is to report experimental study results that validate theeffectiveness of such approaches for high-accuracy RFID localization. We
also examine a number of practical issues arising in the underlying problem
that limit the accuracy of reader-tag distance measurements and, therefore,
the estimated reader localization. These issues include the variations in
tag radiation characteristics for similar tags, effects of tag orientations,and reader RSS quantization and measurement errors. As such, this paper
reveals valuable insights of the issues and solutions toward achieving highaccuracy passive RFID localization.

9497-20, Session 39497-18, Session 3

Efficient target tracking with an ad-hoc
networks of omni-directional sensors

Building occupant and asset localizationand tracking using visible light
communication

Kalin Atanassov, Qualcomm MEMS Technologies, Inc.
(United States); William S. Hodgkiss, Univ. of California,
San Diego (United States)

Kofi Nyarko, Samuel Mbugua, Christian Emiyah, Morgan
State Univ. (United States)
LED lighting is becoming more and more ubiquitous within new commercial
building constructions and retrofits due to their well documented meritsof energy efficiency, environmental friendliness, and reduced cost ofoperation compared to incandescent and fluorescent lighting. Besides
these benefits, LED lighting provides an opportunity for performing visible
lighting communication (VLC). This research demonstrates how inexpensive
commercial off-the-shelf lighting components and microcontrollers canbe used to construct a whole building solution for occupant and asset
localization and tracking through VLC. Through the modulation of theemitted light from mesh networked LED luminaires, the location of a“smart” tag can be determined and relayed to a central database. This
paper describes the implementation of the VLC enabled LED luminaires,in addition to the customized infrared synchronization protocol, whichenabled inexpensive single frequency diodes to be time division multiplexed
to avoid packet collisions. Specifically, high lumen LEDS are modulatedusing differential pulse position modulation to communicate with an asset

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Ad-hoc networks of omni-directional sensors provide an efficient means to
obtain low-cost, easily deployable and reliable target tracking systems. To
remove target position dependency on the target power, a transformation
to another coordinate system is introduced that uses power ratios between
sensor pairs. Each transform pair defines a circle whose center lies on theline connecting the sensor pair. It can be shown that the problem of sensing
target position using power ratios can be adapted to the conventional
Kalman filter framework by propagating system and observation noise
covariance to the log-ratio space. To validate the proposed methodology,
first an analysis is conducted to show that by converting to log-ratio space
and thus reducing the number of observed independent parameters, noinformation about target position is lost. This analysis is done by deriving
the CRLBs for the position estimation error in both original and transformed
spaces and showing that they are equivalent. Second, to show how thetraditional Kalman filter framework performs, a particle filter that works off
the transformed coordinates is designed and implemented. The numberof particles is selected to be sufficiently large and the result is used as aground truth to compare with the performance of the Kalman tracker. The

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Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015

9497-34, Session 4comparisons are done for different target movement speeds and sensor
density modes. As a result, it is shown that the proposed transformation
does not lose information about target position and performs well within a
traditional Kalman tracker framework.

On the universe’s cybernetics duality
behavior
Erlan H. Feria, The College of Staten Island of the City
Univ. of New York (United States)

9497-21, Session 4

Nonparametric spectrum estimation using
generalized coprime sampling

On November 10th, 2014 the New York Times reported on major prizes
given to scientists (D. Overbye, “Scientists, and Universe’s Odd Behavior,
Are Recognized with $3 Million Prizes”). Of the contributions leading tothese prizes some physicists made use of mathematical dualities that aresaid to “offer physicists the chance of going around intractable problems
of calculation in one system by solving the easier equations in another.”This New York Times article also reports that the use of these dualities
has become “a cottage industry in physics today.” In my paper I will be
reviewing work on the universal cybernetics (UC) duality principle, which
I discovered in 1978 in control theory while conducting graduate researchon cybernetics. UC is the study of control and communications in living andnon-living systems. Its duality principle states that, “synergistic physical andmathematical dualities naturally arise in efficient system designs.” The UC
duality principle uses both mathematical and physical dualities for goingaround intractable problems of calculation not only in physics but also incontrol, radar and biological lifespan. The very latest solutions derived by
the UC duality principle will be reviewed, inclusive of the nascent linger
thermo theory, which has inherently led to a sensible and straightforward
relationship between biological lifespan and specific heat-capacity.

Si Qin, Yimin D. Zhang, Moeness G. Amin, Villanova Univ.
(United States)
Spectrum estimation is an important task in civilian and military surveillance
applications. While most methods are based on Nyquist sampling, therecent advances of compressive sensing permit sparse sampling to achieveeffective spectrum estimation with reduced complexity. Among different
sparse sampling strategies, the coprime sampling scheme provides asystematic mechanism to determine sparse sampling patterns for spectrum
estimation with a reduced average sampling rate. A coprime sampling
approach assumes a pair of coprime integers M and N, and the signals
are sampled at the integer multiples of MT and NT, with T denotes a unit
sampling interval. It can be shown that, with proper arrangement, coprime
sampling with O(M+N) samples can provide a high spectrum resolution withresolution cell inversely proportional to O(MN). In this paper, we propose
the generalized coprime sampling schemes to achieve flexible sampling
patterns and improved spectrum estimation performance. The problem
of nonparametric spectrum estimation is cast as sparse reconstructionof piecewise consecutive spectral entries through the use of Bayesiancompressive sensing technique that accounts for clustered dependencies.
This method falls into the general class of multi-task Bayesian compressive
sensing methods, which yield enhanced capability and improved
performance as compared to other sparse reconstruction methods. The
required sampling rate is analyzed in this paper, and the effectiveness of the
proposed method is verified through simulation examples.

9497-35, Session 4

Video sensor calibration by invoking video
synopsis approach with external constraint
criteria
Sumit Chakravarty, New York Institute of Technology(United States); Sherry Zhu, Nanjing Univ. of Post andTelecommunications (China)

9497-22, Session 4

On an investigation into intelligent
transportation system (its) safety, andtraffic efficiency applications

Sensor calibration and comparison in real time factory environment isa challenging task. Not only can we not stop or change the flow of theprocesses for real time calibration, in most situations we can neither
replicate the process exactly there by offloading the calibration orcomparison activity from the actual process flow. This process becomeseven more challenging for sensor replacement, particularly when
considering replacement between sensor which work on different principles.
In this paper we target real time sensor calibration of video sensor based on
the current tactile sensor, for automatic width estimation for Steel
Rolling Mill.

Nnanna N. Ekedebe, Nicolas Dolphin, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates)
Vehicle-to-X (V2X) ( vehicle-to-vehicle [V2V], and vehicle-to-infrastructure[V2I]) communication, used in intelligent transportation system (ITS)/
vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), promises improved traffic efficiency,
road safety, and provision of infotainment services, etc. However, the levelsof these improvements have not been clearly researched and documented
especially in realistic environments [1]. Consequently, using field andsimulation data, we investigate the safety and traffic efficiency application
benefits of V2V communication applications in a realistic scenario. In orderto do this, we built a real-world simulation test-bed using real-world/field
traffic data of the Maryland (MD)/Washington DC and Virginia (VA) areafrom July 2012 to December 2012. In addition, we developed an application
called incident warning application (IWA) of which IWA-equipped vehicles
make use of it to bypass a compound road accident, slippery roadwaycaused by ice, and reduced visibility as a result of fog; unequipped/classic
vehicles are unaware of this and hence suffer adverse effects. On the
average, our results show that, indeed, tangible benefits/improvements withrespect to travel time (126.78%), average speed (56.12%), fuel consumption(8.05%), CO2 emissions (8.05%) together with other evaluated performance
metrics are derivable from V2V communication especially at specific IWAequipped vehicles penetration rates.

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Using the actual rolling mill block diagram and system identification
techniques we develop system model to find the open loop input output
relationship between sensor input and plant actuator. Our next task isto process captured video of the rolling mills steels plates which is theplanned replacement sensor for the steel rolling system. We then present
the major aspect of this paper: creation of Synopsis Video, to have efficientand compact representation of video to corroborate with the tactile sensor.
By segmenting moving objects and then densely stitching them into
background frames, video synopsis provides an efficient way to condense
long videos while preserving most important activities. Video synopsis
methods rely on suitable constraints to ensure only relevant section of thevideo are preserved with minimal video size. Typically this is achieved via
energy minimization criteria created from the video. In this paper we use
external criteria like tactile sensor data to extend of energy minimization
formulation and thereby provide better synopsis of the video for our sensor
calibration and comparison problem. The temporal and spatial synopsis
of the video enable the calibration process to be evaluated efficiently byvisual confirmation. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness ofproposed approach which provides alternative approach to solve to problem
of sensor calibration for real-time process applications.

·

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9497-40, Session 4

Emotion recognition from speech: tools
and challenges
Abdulbasit Al-Talbani, Harin Sellahewa, Sabah A. Jassim,
The Univ. of Buckingham (United Kingdom)
Human emotion recognition from speech is studied frequently for its
importance in many applications, e.g. human- computer interaction.
There is a wide diversity and non-agreement about the basic emotion or
emotion-related states on one hand and about where the emotion related
information lies in the speech signal on the other side. These diversities
motivate our investigations into the use of Meta-features using PCA
extracted from a large number of features that cover wide range of emotion
related information. Our focus is investigating the presence of different
emotions in the same speech portion. Subsets of Meta-features are fused toincrease the performance of the recognition model that adopts the scorebased LDC classifier. We shall demonstrate that our scheme outperformthe state of the art results when tested on non-prompted databases or
acted databases (i.e. when subjects act specific emotions while uttering asentence). However, the huge gap between accuracy rates achieved on the
two types of datasets of speech raises questions about the way emotions
modulate the speech. In particular we shall argue that emotion recognition
from speech should not be dealt with as a classification problem. We shalldemonstrate the presence of a spectrum of different emotions in the same
speech portion especially in the non-prompted data sets, which tends tobe more “natural” than the acted datasets where the subjects attempt tosuppress all but one emotion.

9497-23, Session 5

A modified CMA equalizer for SOQPSK for
aeronautical telemetry
Arlene Cole-Rhodes, Morgan State Univ. (United States)
We present the results of using a modified constant modulus algorithm(CMA) to recover a shaped offset quadrature-phase shift keying (SOQPSK)TG modulated signal, which has been transmitted over an aeronauticalchannel using the iNET data packet structure, and we investigate its
performance in tracking the transmitted data bits. The iNET-packet structure
includes data symbols known as the preamble and asynchronous marker(ASM) symbols, which can be used as pilot symbols within each data
packet. The CMA equalizer has been widely used for constellations types
such as QPSK, which are constant modulus and it has also been shown
to be effective for SOQPSK, which a partial response continuous phasemodulation (CPM) with a constrained ternary alphabet. The alphabetmatched algorithm (AMA) will be applied to equalize the QPSK symbols
which are produced by the SOQPSK detector. In addition as an alternative
to center-tap initialization we have used the known data in the packet tocompute the minimum mean square error (MMSE) equalizer, and this isused to initialize the CMA +AMA algorithm. Performance evaluation results
are presented for SOQPSK from this modified CMA equalizer, and this iscompared to the results of using the CMA only equalizer.

New cognitive detection techniques for
multimedia signals
Sumit Chakravarty, New York Institute of Technology(United States); Yixuan Sun, Nanjing Univ. of Post andTelecommunications (China)

Implementing MANETS in Android based
environment using Wi-Fi direct
Muhammad Waqas, Mohammad Inayatullah Khan Babar,
Mohammad Haseeb Zafar, Univ. of Engineering andTechnology, Peshawar (Pakistan)
Packet loss occurs in real-time voice transmission over Wireless Broadcast
Ad-hoc Network which creates disruptions in sound. This paper aims to
make a Wireless Ad-hoc connectivity between two Android smartphones
by using the Wireless Fidelity (WIFI) Direct Application Programming
Interface (API) and apply the Network Codec which in this case is Reed
Solomon Code, it is built for the sole purpose of demonstration and reading
the data. The network codec is used to encode the data of a music wav fileand recover the lost packets if any, packets are dropped deliberately at thetransmitter device only to see if the original file can be recovered at thereceiver device using the network codec. This resulted in faster transmissionof the files due to dropped packets. In the end both files had the originalformatted music files but the time factor was noteworthy.

9497-1, Session PTue

Segmentation of textured images basedon descriptor’s of local approximations
Alexander I. Sherstobitov, Don State Technical Univ.
(Russian Federation); Dmitry V. Timofeev, South Federal
Univ. (Russian Federation); Vladimir I. Marchuk, Don State
Technical Univ. (Russian Federation); Sos S. Agaian, The
Univ. of Texas at San Antonio (United States); Vyacheslav
V. Voronin, Don State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation);
Karen O. Egiazarian, Tampere Univ. of Technology(Finland)

There are two tasks that are being performed by a segmentation algorithm,
namely labelling areas of the image as belonging to a particular object orclass, and finding the location of the boundary. They are complimentary
activities: labelling the pixels will implicitly place a boundary along someIn this paper we are address two issues regarding cognitive radio spectrum
sensing. Spectrum sensing for cognitive radio has been extensively studied
in recent past and multiple techniques have been proposed. One suchtechnique is entropy based detection. In entropy based detection we

SPIE DSS 2015

9497-39, Session 5Filter banks, textons and local descriptors take an image and transform theraw data into a feature space which separates pixels with different texture.
This representation is used to segment the image into regions of different
texture. Segmentation is a special case of classification, in that each pixel
is assigned to a class. In classification, each data point is separate. Problemof textured image segmentation is sufficiently different from the problemof edge detection and gradient calculation. The texture in an image is nota point property and is only detectable for a group of pixels, which meansthat nearby data points will have descriptors calculated from overlapping
areas of the image.

9497-36, Session 5428

measure the entropy of the received signal after converting it to frequency
domain. The logic is that in frequency domain, the entropy of noise(assuming its AWGN) is higher than the signal, thereby enabling us tosegment noise from signal by using entropy based threshold. This approach
however makes some assumptions which may not be valid. It assumes at atime only one of the two( signal / noise) is present. It further assumes thata given test segment is either a signal or a noise segment. The length of thesegment in such a scenario would be fixed /known. These assumptions may
be too constraining and we propose alternate method to address the above
issues. We use a filtering technique in form of Independent Component
Analysis to segment the signal and further use additional techniques
like energy weight-age to weigh the components to estimate the signal
strength. We test our proposed method for a variety of signals include
image, audio and sinusoidal signals. Results show the improvement in
performance as well as the availability of new measures as generated fromour proposed technique.

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Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015

9497-13, Session PTue

pixels, while choosing the boundary location will implicitly divide the image
up into a number of regions. Since each method is implicitly doing theother task as well, the main difference is how the algorithm is constrained.
Algorithms that label pixels will specify how many classes there should
be or how coherent members of a class should be. Algorithms that labelboundaries will specify boundary length and will quantify how strong theedge must be to be considered a boundary.

Image Encryption by Redirection and
Cyclical Shift
Artyom M. Grigoryan, Bryan A. Wiatrek, Sos S. Agaian, The
Univ. of Texas at San Antonio (United States)

The challenge is to find a way to combine the border and region
information. In paper present original method of segmentation based on
the using texture descriptor design on the local approximations (IDLPA). A texture descriptor ID-LPA constructing as a set of indices of local
approximations. Textured image is divided into non-overlapping patches
which are transform into a one-dimensional source vectors. These vectors
are approximated using local functions of various parameters. Errors ofapproximation on each of vectors and for the each of approximation
function is indexed and forming descriptor. Algorithm of recognition andclassification of local areas using NN and SVM classifiers. Researches arepresent important properties of descriptor ID-LPA: robustness at luminance,
contrast, angel of rotate image. Local areas with equal features are unit intoalone area and forming segments of texture image. In paper resent resultsof supervised and unsupervised segmentation base on ID-LPA texture
descriptor. The proposed algorithm allows to segment texture images into
separate regions based on the solution of particular problems of texture
classification with limited volume of learning vocabulary. In paper presented
result of texture image segmentation for cases. The results of comparisonsof textured images segmentation are present on images database OUTEX. In
image database OUTEX are present set of different masks of segments baseon which construct composite test texture images. Edge of segments may
have different forms: line, curve, circle, circular arc and so on.

In this paper, we present a novel method for encrypting and decrypting
large amounts of data such as 2-D images, both gray-scale and color,
without the loss of information using private keys of varying lengths. The
proposed method is based on the concept of the tensor representation ofimage and splitting the two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform by 1-D
DFTs of signals from the tensor representation, or transform. The splittingof the transform is accomplished in a three dimension space, namely on
the 3-D lattice placed on the torus. Each splitting-signal of the image
defines the 2-D DFT along the frequency-points located on the spirals on
the torus. Spirals have different form and cover the lattice on the torus in acomplex form, which makes them very effective when moving data throughthe spirals and between them, and data along the spirals. The encryption
consists of several iterative applications of the mapping the 3-D torus into
the several ones of small sizes, and rotates and moves the data around thespirals on all tori. The encryption results in the image which is uncorrelated.
The decryption algorithm uses the encrypted data and processes them ininverse order with an identical number of iterations. The proposed method
can be extended to encrypt and decrypt documents as well as other typesof digital media. Simulation results of the purposed method are presented
to show the performance for image encryption. The comparison of the
proposed method with previously used methods of encryption is given.

9497-9, Session PTue

9497-27, Session PTue

Investigation of methods to search for theboundaries on the image and their use onlung hardware of methods finding saliency
map

Simulating the performance of switcheddiversity with post-examining selection
Richard J. Wright, Harris Corp. (United States)
Switched diversity is a solution to fading channel distortion that uses 2 ormore branches to monitor the received signal. The main assumption is thatthe branches are uncorrelated. Switched diversity uses a switching thresholdthat is the criterion for an acceptable received signal path. If no acceptable
path is chosen, one is chosen randomly, for a traditional switched diversity
scheme. This paper will look into a modified hybrid switched/selection
scheme proposed in a separate paper [1]. This scheme will help the receiverpick the best path if no acceptable path is chosen, but there will sometradeoff. This paper will also simulate the theoretical results found from thepaper as well using MATLAB, thus validating their findings. A LOS analysis
will be examined as well. The proposed scheme is called switch and examine
combining with post-examining selection (SECps), which is a variant ofswitch and examine combining (SEC). We will include the findings from [1]for reference.

Evgeny Semenishchev, South-Russian State Univ. of
Economics and Service (Russian Federation); V. I. Marchuk,
Don State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation)
This work aimed to study computationally simple methods of searchsaliency map object on images. Research in the field map saliency
received increasing interest for the use of sophisticated techniques in
portable devices. Knowledge of saliency map can increase the speed ofmany subsequent algorithms and reduce the computational cost. In work
presented iterative algorithms for constructing of search saliency map
with the possibility gradation level of significance. The search is performedby analysis the boundaries and corners of objects on images and theirlocalization by the threshold decision. Smooth variation of the thresholdused to determine the person’s attention to the location of objects in
the image. The first algorithm is based on an analysis of the number oftransitions in the local area. The second algorithm is based on a comparisonof the calculated coefficient obtained by the analysis of the boundariesof the local area and the obtained value for the entire image. The third
algorithm is based on an analysis of the number of gradients in the local
area. The obtained numerical values of effectiveness computationally ofsimple methods of finding areas of human attention at the analysis of theboundaries of objects on a set of test images. Obtained graphs of speed
works algorithms depending on the number of objects and the image
size. The paper discusses methods for finding the boundaries of objects in
the image and their comparative characteristics based on analysis of test
images. The obtained recommendations for the use of simple techniquesin practice.

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9497-28, Session PTue

Parsimonious sidelobe control fortransmit beamforming in MIMO radar withmultidimensional arrays
Aboulnasr Hassanien, Yimin D. Zhang, Moeness G. Amin,
Fauzia Ahmad, Villanova Univ. (United States)
Two-dimensional (2D) transmit beamforming is used in multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO) radar to focus the transmitted energy within
ceratin desired sector(s) while minimizing the amount of energy wasted
in the out-of-sector regions. Recent approaches to designing 2D transmit
beamforming achieve sidelobe control by imposing sidlobe constraints inorder to upper-bound the worst sidelobe level. The out-of-sector regions
are usually approximated by a discrete grid where a sidlobe constraint is·

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Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015
imposed at each point on the grid. The use of fine 2D grid dramaticallyincreases the number of sidelobe constraints resulting in a very highcomputational burden. On the other hand, the use of a coarse grid results intransmit power leakage within the uncontrolled sidelobes located between
the coarse grid points. In this paper, we propose parsimonious formulations
to the sidelobe control problem in MIMO radar with multidimensional arrays.
We divide the out-of-sector regions into few subregions where the subspacespanned by the steering vectors associated with the spatial directions
within a certain subregion is approximated by the effective eigenvectorsof the discrete-prolate spheroidal sequences. Then, the sidelobe control isachieved by imposing constraints on the magnitude of the inner productbetween the 2D transmit beamforming weight vector and the effective
eigenvalues. Comparisons between the proposed formulations and previous
ones are given in terms of the total number of constraints needed, theassociated computational complexity, and the sidelobe levels. Simulation
results are provided that show the effectiveness of the proposed method.

9497-29, Session PTue

Quaternion Fourier transform-based
prediction of coding region in DNA
sequences
Artyom M. Grigoryan, Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at
San Antonio (United States)
DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, which is a double stranded structure madeup of four nucleotides -Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and Thymine, consists ofinter-genic regions and is found inside a nucleus of the cell [1,2]. The genes
are divided into small protein coding regions known as exons and noncoding spacers known introns. The base sequences in the protein-coding
regions of DNA molecules have a period-3 component and this property
is used to indicate the gene location, by using a band pass digital filter orcomputing the discrete Fourier transform. The ability of the discrete Fouriertransform to identify the accurate boundaries of the 3-period signal islimited by its requirement of chosen window size over which the spectrum
is calculated. In this paper, we present a novel method for prediction ofcoding region in the DNA sequences, which is based on the presentationof sequences in the quaternion algebra. We choose the quaternion Fouriertransform because it is well-suited for four-dimension data and allows us toprocess all four components or dimensions simultaneously, and it captures
the inherent correlation between the components [3,4]. Experimental results
show that the proposed method with the representation of nucleotide
with quaternion numbers instead of four independent indicator sequences
together with the Fourier transform is highly effective in identifying theapproximate locations of coding regions. The sufficiencies of the proposed
method of prediction of coding regions and comparison with the known
methods are described.
REFERENCES[1]. P. P. Vaidyanathan, “Genomics and Proteomics: A signal processor?stour,” IEEE circuits and systems magazine, vol. 4, pp. 6–29, 2004.

[3] T.A. Ell, “Quaternion-Fourier transforms for analysis of 2-dimensional
linear time-invariant partial differential systems,” In Proceedings of the
3nd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, vol. 1-4, pp. 1830–1841, San
Antonio, Texas, USA, December 1993.

Viacheslav V. Voronin, Vladimir I. Marchuk, Nikolay V.
Gapon, Don State Technical Univ. (Russian Federation);
Andrey Zhuravlev, Bauman Moscow State Technical Univ.
(Russian Federation); Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at
San Antonio (United States); Karen O. Egiazarian, Tampere
Univ. of Technology (Finland)
Recently, applications of video processing and analysis have got a lot
attention in field of computer vision. Video inpainting refers to a field ofcomputer vision that aims to remove objects or restore missing or tainted
regions present in a video sequence. This paper describes a novel inpainting
approach for removing marked dynamic objects from videos captured
with a static camera, so long as the objects occlude parts of the scene
with a static background. Proposed approach allow to remove objects or
restore missing or tainted regions present in a video sequence by utilizing
spatial and temporal information from neighboring scenes. The algorithm
iteratively performs following operations: achieve frame; update the scenemodel; update positions of moving objects (this step use the condensation
algorithm); replace parts of the frame occupied by the objects marked
for remove with use of a background model. As a possible model ofbackground we considered running average, codebook and some others.
In this paper, we extend an image inpainting algorithm based texture andstructure reconstruction by incorporating an improved strategy for video. An
image inpainting approach based on the construction of a composite curvefor the restoration of the edges of objects in a frame using the conceptsof parametric and geometric continuity is presented. It is shown that thisapproach allows to restore the curved edges and provide more flexibility for
curve design in damaged frame by interpolating the boundaries of objects
by cubic splines. After edge restoration stage, a texture reconstruction using
patch-based method is carried out. Overview of this step is as follows: wefill-in a static background in the damaged frames by the available temporal
information in undamaged frames. This leads to a hole that is common to
all the frames which cannot be filled-in temporally. Each damaged frame
filled using priority based spatial filling-in scheme is then used to get a best
matching for a height priority location. This best match is then copied as inimage inpainting. We demonstrate the performance of a new approach via
several examples, showing the effectiveness of our algorithm and comparedwith state-of-the-art video inpainting methods.

9497-31, Session PTue

Assessment of heart rate variability basedon mobile device for planning physicalactivity

The up-to-date trend of mobile devices using has become the solution totheir challenges medical electronic equipment associated with automatic
analysis of biomedical information to assess physiological parameters of
the body, information support diagnostic decisions of the physician andautomatically diagnose pathological changes of the human condition.
The greatest social significance has the task of assessing the state of the
cardiovascular system, where the key role is played by electrocardiogram(ECG), representing record observed on the body surface projections of thevolumetric electrical processes in the heart. ECG carries information about
the current state of the cardiovascular system, and pathological changes in
the heart. A promising way of ECG analysis is the assessment of heart ratevariability. Mathematical processing of heart rate variability allows to obtaina set of mathematical and statistical characteristics. These characteristics[4] A.M. Grigoryan and S.S. Agaian, “Alpha-rooting method of color image
enhancement by discrete quaternion Fourier transform,” [9019-3],in Proc.
SPIE, 2014 Electronic Imaging: Image Processing: Algorithms and Systems
XII, February 2-6, San Francisco, California, 2014.

SPIE DSS 2015

Inpainting for videos with dynamic objects
using texture and structure reconstruction

Ilya Svirin, CJSC “Nordavind” (Russian Federation);
Nadezhda Nabilskaya, TSEZIS LLC (Russian Federation);
Vyacheslav V. Voronin, Don State Technical Univ. (RussianFederation)[2]. E. N. Trifonov and J. Sussman, “The pitch of chromatin DNA isreflectedin its nucleotide sequence,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 77, pp.
3816–3820, 1980.

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Conference 9497: Mobile Multimedia/Image
Processing, Security, and Applications 2015of heart rhythm are used in the solution of research tasks for study ofphysiological changes that determine changes in the functional state of thesubject. For practical purposes it is enough to have 2-3 measure, integral
reflecting the functional state of a person and determine his valid physicalactivity. The advent of mobile devices made possible the calculation andmeasurement of heart rate variability in real-time that allow us to plan andto adjust the physical activity of the person.

cases, observer based control schemes should be designed to generate
the estimates of states. Many researches on ob-server design for nonlinear
systems are carried out based on fuzzy models. As the structure of fuzzymodels, Takagi–Sugeno (T–S) fuzzy model is widely accepted as a powerfultool for de-sign and analysis of fuzzy control systems.
Adaptive schemes for nonlinear systems that incorporate fuzzy systems
have been enormously popular. The technique, known as a high-gain
observer, is to design the observer gain that makes the observer robust
against model uncertainties in nonlinear functions. Hence, it works for awide class of nonlinear systems. However, high gains may excite hidden
dynamics and amplify meas-urement noise: large oscillation in the transient
response and sensitivity to measurement noise. Thus, a high-gain observer
could not be applicable in practice. In order to overcome such a prob-lem,several researchers have successfully designed sliding-mode approachto construct observers that are highly robust with respect to noise in the
input of the system. However, it turned out that the corresponding stability
analysis could not be directly applied to situations that present output noise.

9497-32, Session PTue

Network synchronization for secure mobile
communication
Chang-Woo Park, Korea Electronics Technology Institute(Korea, Republic of)
For the safe and secure communication for the air transportation systems,
this paper proposes an robust adaptive high-gain fuzzy frequency observer
design scheme and its application to network synchronization and securecommunication. It is assumed that their states are immeasurable and theirparameters are unknown. The structure of the proposed robust adaptive
high-gain fuzzy fre-quency observer is represented by Takagi–Sugeno
fuzzy model and has the integrator of the es-timation error. It improves
the performance of high-gain observer and makes the proposed observer robust against noisy measurements, uncertainties and parameter
perturbations as well. Us-ing Lyapunov stability theory, an adaptive law
is derived to estimate the unknown parameters and the stability of the
proposed observer is analyzed. Some result of network synchronization andsecure communication of chaotic systems is given to present the validityof theoretical deri-vations and the performance of the proposed high-gain
fuzzy frequency observer as an applica-tion.
The proposed observer is taken as an application to secure communication.
In secure communi-cation, observers are used as receivers. The chaotic
signal of the transmitter including any infor-mation signal is sent to thereceiver and the information signal is recovered by the proposed ob-server
scheme. Note that there needs time interval from start driving to load
the information sig-nal to the chaotic signal of the transmitter since thereceiver that has the proposed scheme syn-chronizes the chaotic signalof the transmitter first and then the driven chaotic receiver recovers theinformation. With the proposed observer, the asymptotic synchronizationof chaotic systems was achieved and the secure communication of chaotic
systems was succeeded.
Chaotic systems have been researched and known to exhibit complex
dynamical behavior in the past two decades. The interest in chaotic systems
lies on nonstandard control problems including stabilization, synchronizationand chaotic model following control since they have unpredictable behavior,and extreme sensitivity to initial conditions as well as parameter variation. It
is well-known that synchronization of two chaotic dynamical systems is oneof the most important ap-plications of chaos, and many researches havebeen proposed to achieve synchronization with exactly known or uncertain
conditions. In some applications such as secure communication, chaos
synchronization has been studied extensively and valuable results have beenfound, since chaotic signals can hide information efficiently and securely.
Transmitting messages masked by chaotic signals or modulated by chaotic
systems were studied as a form of secure communication.
The idea of chaotic masking is to directly add the message (information
signal) in a noise-like chaotic signal at the transmitter, while chaotic
modulation is done by injecting the message into a chaotic system as
spread-spectrum transmission. Then, a coherent detector and some signal
pro-cessing is thus employed to recover the information signal from thereceived signal at the receiver. In order to recover it at the receiver, thereceiver should synchronize with the transmitter. Most approaches havebeen developed based on either control or observer as an application for
chaotic synchronization.
Observer design has been a very active field during the last few decades
and has turned out to be much more difficult than the control problem,since states are partially or fully unavailable in many practical control
problems; the state variables are not accessible for direct connections or,
sensing devices or transducers are not available or very expensive. In such

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Conference 9498: Multisensor, Multisource
Information Fusion: Architectures, Algorithms, andApplications 2015
Tuesday 21–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9498 Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion: Architectures,
Algorithms, and Applications 2015

9498-1, Session 1

An asset valuation approach using fuzzy
logic
Henry Leung, Univ. of Calgary (Canada)
Organisations that own operational networks have many networked assets
to support daily business. The business operations are supported by various
computer network services, which are in turn supported by the various
assets that make up an operational network. Within organisations, some
operations are more important than others. Similarly, some services are
more important to an operation than others. Assets that support a service
also have different levels of importance in support of the service, andtherefore operation. For meaningful decision support on the assets andservices, network defenders need to know the values of their assets andservices. Unfortunately, there is no easy way of knowing or determining
asset values of networked assets, and no universally recognised approach toasset valuation exists. Proprietary and published approaches, mostly in risk
analysis, tend to assume values whose significance may be hard to justify inpractice.
Fortunately, experienced computer security experts can give intuitive
guidance on the relative importance of network assets in operational
networks. Such experiential knowledge, though unquantifiable throughclassical relational mathematics, can be generally effective in assigning
relative values to assets. In this work, we propose to capitalise on thisexpertise by combining asset attribute factors with expert and experiential
knowledge about the assets to determine their values. We exploit themathematical theory of fuzzy logic that can be used to model and quantify
human expertise and experiential knowledge. We define rules about asset
interactions within an operational network and model linguistic declarations
about assets and their functions in an operational network that knowledge
and expertise to intuitively assign values to assets. Our approach starts bymodeling experts’ experiential knowledge about assets and their properties
as fuzzy variables. Then we use a fuzzy inference system to translate thatknowledge into an asset value. We apply our approach to network scenariosand show its potential usefulness to complex networks. Our results show
asset values that are a close match with what an experienced expert would
infer local asset values to be.

9498-2, Session 1

Reliable sources and uncertain decisions in
multisensor systems
Christian P. Minor, Nova Research, Inc. (United States);
Kevin J. Johnson, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

SPIE DSS 2015

9498-4, Session 1

STAC: A Comprehensive Sensor Fusion
Model for Scene Characterization
Zsolt Kira, Alan R. Wagner, Christopher J. Kennedy, Jason
Zutty, Grady Tuell, Georgia Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates)In this paper, we present a new multi-sensor fusion model for large-scalecomplex scene characterization. Due to advances in theory, algorithms, andavailable computational power, it is now possible to deploy a robot team to
extract a large set of rich, semantic information of a scene from raw sensory
data in many different modalities. The resulting semantic map can include
not just tracking of static and dynamic objects, but also object attributes,
terrain information, characterization of structures such as buildings and theirlayout, and information about activities and events that are occurring in thescene. This set of data can then be used to infer information that can berelevant when deciding how to act, including higher-level information suchas routines and patterns that emerge or higher-level intent or objectives ofthe entities in the scene.
In this paper, we discuss some of the limitations of existing fusion models
in covering this level of complexity, and develop a new multi-dimensionalmodel grounded in sensor theory that extends upon existing work. The newmodel, named STAC, contains spatial, temporal, algorithm, and cognition
dimensions. It incorporates many different elements of the problem
domain, including spatial representations of the scene at multiple levels of
abstraction, temporal dynamics that occur through time, and contextual/semantic information. We provide several contributions through this model,
namely: 1) the separation of what type of information is processed (e.g.
at what spatial level of abstraction) and the type of processing that isused on it, 2) a temporal dimension supporting analysis of various spatiotemporal aspects of fusion algorithms, 3) explicit separation of directly
observed elements versus elements inferred via inference processes, and 4)
explicit support for multi-level fusion. We show some example algorithms
framed within the new model and highlight its advantages in categorizing,
analyzing, and comparing different data fusion techniques.

9498-5, Session 2

Conflict among information sources is a feature of fused multisource
and multisensor systems. Accordingly, the subject of conflict resolution
has a long history in the literature of data fusion algorithms such as thatof Dempster-Shafer theory (DST). Most conflict resolution strategies
focus on distributing the conflict among the elements of the frame ofdiscernment (the set of hypotheses that describe the possible decisions
for which evidence is obtained) through rescaling of the evidence. These“closed-world” strategies imply that conflict is due to the uncertainty
in evidence sources stemming from their reliability. An alternative
approach is the “open-world” hypothesis, which allows for the presenceof “unknown” elements not included in the original frame of discernment.
Here, conflict must be considered as a result of uncertainty in the frameof the discernment, rather than solely the province of evidence sources.

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Uncertainty in the operating environment of a fused system is likely toappear as an open-world scenario. Understanding the origin of conflict(source versus frame of discernment uncertainty) is a challenging area forresearch in fused systems. Determining the ratio of these uncertainties
provides useful insights into the operation of fused systems and confidence
in their decisions for a variety of operating environments. Results anddiscussion for the computation of these uncertainties are presented forseveral DST combination rules with simulated and real data sets.

Better-than-the-best fusion algorithm withapplication in human activity recognition
Nayeff Njjar, Shalabh Gupta, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)This paper introduces the Better-than-the-Best Fusion (BB-Fus) algorithm
for human activity recognition. The BB-Fus is a simple and effective
information fusion algorithm that combines the information from different
sources (be it sensors or features) to improve the Correct Classification Rate·www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9498: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2015

9498-7, Session 2(CCR). It can be observed that in most classification problems, different
sensors and features might isolate different classes with different CCRs. As
a result, this paper searches for the optimal decision tree that best isolates
one class at a time in the training phase. Because this search involves theapplication of the cross-validation algorithm of every possible decision tree
configuration (i.e., an iterative and expensive training and testing of different
classes to isolate and different sensors/features to use at every level), thetraining phase can be computationally expensive and time consuming; so,the paper also presents a computationally efficient search algorithm thatuses the confusion matrices extracted from each of the sensors/features.
The decision tree can then be simply applied in the testing phase and thepaper proves that the obtained decision tree improves the CCR over the useof any single sensor or feature. For numerical verification, this paper deploys
the BB-Fus algorithm to solve the human activity recognition problem using
the REAListic sensor DISPlacement (REALDISP) in which 9 Xsens sensors
are used to monitor 33 different human activities. The 9 Xsens sensors areplaced on different body parts and each sensor provides acceleration andgyroscope readings. The 33 human activities include various gym exercises
such as walking, running and jogging.

Flight plan optimization
Anoop Dharmaseelan, Flight Focus (Singapore) and SIM
Univ. (Singapore); Keyne D. Adistambha, Flight Focus(Singapore); Terence K. L. Goh, SIM Univ. (Singapore)
Airlines depend on flight planning software for a very accurate flightplan. The fuel required for the flight depends on the route chosen by thedispatcher for that day. Fuel cost accounts for 40 percent of the operatingcost. Fuel burn can be optimised by planning on optimised routes.
In this project we aim to develop a new algorithm that is able to produce an
optimised route based on the criteria set by the airline. The requirement of
the airline can vary from shortest distance, shortest time and minimum fuel.
For this project we will be concentrating on shortest distance route frompoint A to point B. The route search will be based on data extracted froman active navigation data base that is produced on a 28 day AIRAC cycle.
The navigation data base is on an ARINC 424 format which is exported toan excel format for the purpose of the project. The most common algorithm
that is used for the route search is Dijkstra’s. For this algorithm the result
produced is static and the time taken for the search is significantly long.

9498-6, Session 2

In this project we have developed a new algorithm for the optimized route
search. The basic principle of the algorithm is based on simulated annealing.
We have included mutation properties at a portion of the algorithm toobtain better results. We have tested the program to obtain optimized
routes for short sectors as well as long sectors. The results obtained are
dynamic and fast. This is ideal for random routing feature which is highly
sought after by many regional operators.

A theoretical performance analysis ofdiscrete data classification when fusing
two features
Robert S. Lynch, Analytic Information Fusion Systems, LLC(United States) and Univ. of Connecticut (United States);Peter K. Willett, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
An approach to discrete classification based on non-informative Dirichletpriors was previously described in [1]. In [2], associated analytical
performance results appeared for automatically reducing the dimensionalityof the data quantization space, and based on a single feature. In general, themethod utilized for discrete classification is referred to as the Bayesian Data
Reduction Algorithm (BDRA). BDRA has been developed to be an adaptableclassifier that can deal with all types of data (missing, discrete, continuous,
unlabeled, and mislabeled), and that works by finding the quantization
complexity (referred to as M*) of the training data that corresponds to bestposterior classification performance. In other words, BDRA reduces theeffect of the “curse of dimensionality,” [3], to find a representation of thedata that minimizes the training error, P(e).

9498-8, Session 3

In this work, the results shown in [1] and [2] are extended to the case of
fusing two features. Specifically, it is of interest to demonstrate theoreticallythe effect that the overall quantization of the features, M, has on therelative performance of the BDRA when fusing two features. The primary
result is to show, with a data model independent of distribution, how thedimensionality reduction aspects of the BDRA improves overall theoreticalclassification performance on the training data. This result is significant for
those interested in the theoretical performance of fusing discrete data (i.e,attributes or classifier decisions), and is an important step towards provingthat BDRA always converges to a solution.

Big Data management software must deal with enormous amounts of data,prospectively in numerous shapes and sizes. This data can be a traditional
database, or in text, audio, visual or other formats. Relational databases
cannot support a level where data streaming is happening across multiple
areas of structured and non-structured data. NoSQL databases are theanswer to this challenge.

Pragmatic open space box utilization:
asteroid survey model using distributed
objects management based articulation(DOMBA)
Atif F. Mohammad, The Univ. of North Dakota (UnitedStates); Jeremy Straub, Univ. of North Dakota (UnitedStates)Open Space Box is a model for creating data scalability, performance andavailability. In this mission, the data which is being transmitted is being
collected by a satellite orbiting an asteroid a significant distance from Earth.
The Open Space Box framework is used to transmit data to the Earth’s
surface or to the International Space Station (as an intermediary).

[1] R. Lynch, Jr. and P. Willett, “Bayesian Classification and Feature
Reduction Using Uniform Dirichlet Priors,” IEEE Transactions on Systems,
Man, and Cybernetics, vol. 33, no. 3, June 2003

This approach facilitates the performance of several concurrent research
missions which can each use the data transmitted for their particular needs.
Given that the data set grows while the satellite is with the orbit of theasteroid (until its orbit deteriorates into the asteroid or some accident,
which we cannot predict, occurs, the need for managing data is significant.
The Open Space Box framework allows the seamless expansion of data
(subject to craft storage limitations), while making sure that transparent
Data Recharging occurs on the back-end.

[2] R. Lynch, Jr. and P. Willett, “A Theoretical Performance Analysis of theBayesian Data Reduction Algorithm,” Proceedings of the IEEE International
Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Waikoloa, Hawaii, October
2005.
[3] R. Bellman, Adaptive Control Processes: A Guided Tour, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 1961

The high-availability architecture means, that in case some of the nodes’
hardware fails, due to any reason, the next working node will start capturingdata. Once (or if) the failed node is repaired, it will take charge again (as the
MapReduce namenode). The Open Space Box model provides the means to
conduct non-traditional data handling at the significant distances applicable
to an near-Earth asteroid (NEA) / nea-Earth object (NEO) mission.
For decades, Tables have been used in an RDBMS or Relational Databases,

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Conference 9498: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2015
reliably than current state of the practice and lead to improved classification
performance compared to traditional classifiers.

which are structured, DOMBA (on the other hand) deals with data in termsof collections. No read/write roadblocks to the data exist even though amaster/slave architecture is used (as it is the base architecture). Elastic
scalability allows for the introduction and removal of nodes or even the
addition of an entirely new cluster. This could be critical to expanding a
mission that makes an important discovery via the launch of another craft(or collection of small craft). Open Space Box also makes a virtual cachinglayer available to make sure that continuously accessed data is available inmemory and that, upon closing the data file, recharging is applied tothe data.

9498-12, Session 4

Effects of using a 3D model on theperformance of vision algorithms
Paul Benjamin, Pace Univ. (United States); Damian M.
Lyons, Fordham Univ. (United States); Robert Lynch,
Analytic Information Fusion Systems, LLC (United States)
and Univ. of Connecticut (United States)

9498-9, Session 3

Gaussian process based modelingand design of experiments for sensor
calibration in drifting environments
Feng Yang, Zongyu Geng, Nianqiang Wu, West Virginia
Univ. (United States)
It remains a challenge to calibrate a sensor subject to environmental
drift. The calibration task is to quantify the relationship between thesensor’s response and its exposure condition, which is specified by not
only the analyte concentration but also the environmental factors such astemperature and humidity. Achieving a high-quality calibration model isdifficult for the following reasons: First, the exposure-condition factors may
well affect the response in a nonlinear fashion and also interact nonlinearlywith each other. How to obtain the nonlinear calibration model, and how toquantify the uncertainty of the model estimates (e.g., analyte concentrations
estimated by the calibration model from observed sensor responses)? Thesemodeling and inference questions are far from being adequately addressed.
Second, the fitting of a high-dimensional calibration model generally
requires large experimental samples. How to use the least experimental
data to obtain a calibration model of the desired quality? This is a designof experiments (DOE) question, and needs to be answered based on themodel fitting/inference for sensor calibration. To address these challenges,
this work developed a Gaussian Process (GP)-based procedure to efficiently
calibrate sensors in drifting environments. Unlike other powerful models(e.g., neural network) previously adopted for sensor calibration, GP renders
the potential for valid statistical inference, which allows us to develop abootstrapping method to quantify estimation uncertainty. Built on suchinference ability, the DOE was developed to achieve efficient sampling
for sensor calibration. Through simulation studies, the effectiveness andefficiency of the GP-based calibration procedure was demonstrated.

9498-10, Session 3

Uncertainty modeling using copulas forclassification[2] “Navigation of Uncertain Terrain by Fusion of Information from Realand Synthetic Imagery”, Damian Lyons, Paramesh Nirmal and D. Paul
Benjamin, SPIE Conference on Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications, April 2012.
[3] http://www.cvlibs.net/datasets/kitti/

9498-13, Session 4

Combining voice and gesture recognition
for improved control of UGVs and UAVs
Adrian Stoica, Christopher Assad, Michael Wolf, Jaakko T.
Karras, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Marco Arena,
Politecnico di Torino (Italy); Randi Williams, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore (United States)
BioSleeve is a sleeve-embedded sensor array for the forearm, with 16
Electromyography (EMG) electrodes collecting surface EMG, and an IMU;
signals are processed to recognize 19 hand gestures with over 97% correctclassification rate (CCR). BioSleeve has been used to implement commands
for ground platforms (Landroids, Dragon Runner) and aerial platforms(Phantom quadrotor). The CCR decays with time and operational use(movement, fatigue), currently addressed by periodic retraining.

We are currently working towards fusing the two methods, for expanding
the range of commands compared to each individual modality, to increase
the number of commands recognized above 95% CCR in conditions ofextended use, fatigue and noise; our preliminary results indicate theadvantage of the fusion.

In this paper we address the problem of characterizing uncertainty for
multisensor data fusion in a classification problem. To achieve this goal
we propose a joint probability density modeling framework that is basedon the statistical theory of copulas. We model the joint density of given
multivariate data using copula functions while allowing the ability toincorporate any desired marginal distributions, i.e., any desired modalities.
The proposed model is data driven in that the corresponding copulafunctions and their parameters are learned from the data. Our simulations
demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing copula theory for uncertainty
characterization in data fusion applications that could lead to (near-)
optimal fusion algorithm development for object classification. Our results
show that the proposed framework can capture the uncertainties more

SPIE DSS 2015

[1] “A Cognitive Approach to Vision for a Mobile Robot”, D. Paul Benjamin,
Damian Lyons, and Christopher Funk, SPIE Conference on Multisensor,
Multisource Information Fusion: Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications,
April 2013.

Talk2Bots is a voice-based interface we developed around CMU
PocketSphynx, and for which we selected a small vocabulary of 200 words,of which 50 were implemented for commands of Dragon Runner andPhantoms. The CCR while very good in noise-free environments, showing
robustness to multiple speakers and different ways of saying the words, issensitive to noise, and in particular to white noise.

Onur Ozdemir, Boston Fusion Corp. (United States); Sora
Choi, Syracuse Univ. (United States); Thomas G. Allen,
Boston Fusion Corp. (United States); Pramod K. Varshney,
Syracuse Univ. (United States); Karla K. Spriestersbach,Missile Defense Agency (United States)

434

In previous work [1,2], we have shown how a 3D model can be built in realtime and synchronized with the environment. This world model permits arobot to predict dyamics in its environment and classify behaviors. In thispaper we evaluate the effect of such a 3D model on the accuracy and speedof various computer vision algorithms, including tracking, optical flow andstereo disparity. We report results based on the KITTI database and on ourown videos [3].

·www.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9498: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2015

9498-14, Session 4

rotated, convex and concave geometric patterns to trace. The AGV withonboard robot arm will be moved to a series of locations along a straight
line, as well as approached from various directions to verify accuracy. It has
been shown in previous research that an AGV approaching the same pointfrom various directions is relatively inaccurate as compared to approachingfrom the same direction.

Evaluation of parallel reduction strategies
for fusion of sensory information from arobot teamThis paper discusses performance of a mobile manipulator repeatability
and accuracy test artifacts, patterns, experiments, and results. Repeatability
and accuracy can then be measured using relatively inexpensive, repeatable
pattern and point tracking for three main scenarios: A) the AGV stops while
the robot accesses all points within its work volume, B) the AGV initiallystops while the robot accesses most points within its work volume, informs
the AGV to increment to a new point and stop while the robot accesses theremaining points, and C) both the AGV and robot simultaneously while therobot accesses all points. This paper will discuss all scenarios and will detailexperiments and results of performing scenarios A and C. There will be aplan or testing scenario B. Although, scenario B tests will be performed,
data analyzed and included in the paper if the researchers have theresources prior to the April conference.

Damian M. Lyons, Joseph Leroy, Fordham Univ. (UnitedStates)
The advantage of using a team of robots to search or to map an area is thatby navigating the robots to different parts of the area, searching or mapping
can be completed more quickly. In prior work, we and other researchers
have studied the problem of developing effective team dispersion
algorithms for such problems. Another crucial aspect of the problem isthe combination, or fusion, of data from team members to generate an
integrated model of the search/mapping area. In prior work we looked at
the issue of removing mutual robots views from an integrated point cloudmodel build from laser and stereo sensors, leading to a cleaner and moreaccurate model. Others have also looked at the issue of fusion of robot datafrom laser and stereo sensors to improve the accuracy of the model. This
paper addresses a further challenge: Even with mutual views removed, thestereo data from a team of four robots can require over 600 MB/sec and canquickly swamp a WiFi connection.
This paper proposes and evaluates a communication and fusion approachbased on the parallel reduction operation, where data is combined in aseries of steps of increasing subsets of the team. Several different strategies
for selecting the subsets are evaluated for bandwidth and accuracy
constraints. The results are compared with star connectivity as a worstcase and with a balanced binary tree combination as a best case. Parallel
reduction assumes associativity of combination, and the paper concludes
with a discussion of the implications of this constraint.

9498-15, Session 4

Performance measurements of a mobile
manipulator
Roger V. Bostelman, Tsai Hong, Jeremy A. Marvel, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
Future smart manufacturing systems will include more complex coordinationof mobile manipulators (i.e., robot arms mounted on mobile bases).
Historically, mobile manipulator research has principally focused on control
algorithms, including dynamic motions caused by the onboard manipulator
motion, especially in undulating terrain, e.g., outdoors. Other areas ofmobile manipulator research have been application-oriented, such as
trajectory planning for a mobile manipulator with stability considerations
and task planning, such as opening doors. However, generalized, precise
measurement of mobile manipulators performing routine tasks (e.g., moving
to different poses and generating motions profiles) has been relatively nonexistent except for simply ensuring that the task is more or less completed.
Prior to industrial acceptance for mobile manipulators, just as with theirbase components of industrial robot arms and automated guided vehicles(AGVs), these new mobile manipulator systems require their manufacturers
to have real, verifiable performance data so users can apply thesetechnologies appropriately.
The ISO 9283:1998 industrial robot performance standard describes
accuracy and repeatability testing for fixed-base industrial robots forboth end-of-motion poses and in-transit trajectories. Currently, there are
no industrial robot performance standards for when industrial robots areonboard a moveable base. There is no AGV performance standard, althougha new ASTM F45 Committee on Driverless Automatic Industrial Vehicles has
been formed, and includes some aspect of mobile manipulation.
Measurement of the robot’s Cartesian position and orientation (pose) whichis combined with the mobile base’s pose is complex where they system
can include nine or more degrees of freedom. To simplify measurement, an
artifact was designed to allow various geometric patterns to be traced by
the robot wielding a tool point sensor to sense the dimensional points along
the patterns. Two versions were designed and manufactured to include flat,

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435

Conference 9499: Next-Generation Analyst III
Monday - Tuesday 20–21 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9499 Next-Generation Analyst III

9499-1, Session 1

Hypothesis testing from social data
Md. Tanvir Al Amin, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign(United States); Lance M. Kaplan, Jemin George, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Boleslaw Szymanski,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States); Tarek
Abdelzaher, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates)This paper describes a scalable hypothesis tensing service that uses
real-time social microblog data feeds to answer the question: are these
physical observations anomalous? The service focuses on helping analysts
explain large-scale distributed and correlated phenomena that may or
may not be anomalous depending on their causes. For example, is thisinternational outbreak of virus-X infections “normal”? Often, experienced
analysts have some idea on patterns to look for in observed events thatwould be supportive of particular hypotheses regarding their underlying
cause. Depending on the specific cause, the pattern may be determined as“normal” or “anomalous”. Looking for these event patterns in vast amountsof data, however, can be time consuming. The hypothesis testing service
helps the analyst test their hypotheses by quickly checking whether a given
hypothesis is borne-out by the underlying data. We demonstrate hypothesis
testing using data collected from social media, where the reliability andauthenticity of data is itself questionable. Our work jointly (i) ascertains
the reliability of individual data times, and (ii) tests multiple hypotheses
regarding underlying causes. Accordingly, an analyst can support/reject theassumption of normalcy, and establish the nature of the anomaly, if present.

Challenges in the use of social media data
for the next generation analyst
William R. Grace, Robert Leskovich, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States)

A crucial component of ABI is the ability to monitor the sentiment of thelocal population within the area of operations (AO) for a military unit.
Sentiment analysis is a subset of Human Terrain/ Geography. This paper
describes research on assessing localized sentiment using the new social
media site Yik Yak. Yik Yak is similar to Twitter in that it allows users to post
character limited posts. However Yik Yak differs from Twitter in two major
areas. First, Yik Yak is pseudo-anonymous, allowing and encouraging users
to register without a user name, email or phone number (see http://www.
yikyakapp.com/). Second, unlike Twitter where less than 1% of Tweets are
geo-located (Ulicny & Kokar, 2011, p. 1), every Yik Yak post is geo-located.

9499-4, Session 1

Social media increasingly suffuses our lives. Yet with the capabilities for
information access and networking social media provides, dangers also
arise. Deception represents both an enigmatic and pervasive threat thatthrives within the digital landscapes of social media. Deception can takea variety of forms, be propagated through a diverse number of channels,
and cause a plethora of damage. This paper provides a review of the stateof literature devoted to elements of deception and misinformation insocial media, and provides a framework of their recognized characteristics.
While previous studies have touched on the role that deception plays insocial media, these have generally neglected the analyst’s point-of-view.
Identifying themes, characteristics, and behaviors of deception, as well as
analytical approaches and existing toolsets posed to identify and counter
instances of these threats; this study particularly addresses contemporary
challenges and opportunities for the open-source analyst of social media
deception.

Employing socially driven techniques
for framing, contextualization, andcollaboration in complex analytical threads
Arthur Wollocko, Michael Farry, Martin Voshell, Michael
Jenkins, Charles River Analytics, Inc. (United States);
Jennifer Danczyk, Charles River Analytics (United States)
Proliferation of sensor technology has changed Intelligence Analysis(IA). Recent military focus towards sensor platforms has resulted in data
overload, placing an increased burden on overtaxed analysts. Technologies
have emerged to ease that burden, but focus on individual modalities or
sensor platforms rather than analyst needs, not adequately exploiting theirunique skills and training.

9499-3, Session 1

Localized emotional barometer: sentiment
analysis using Yik Yak data
W. Robert Leskovich, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (UnitedStates)Activity-based Intelligence (ABI) is a rapidly growing methodology within
the intelligence community (IC). Over the past few years the definitionof ABI has shifted from an intelligence “discipline (Barber, 2012, p. 8;

SPIE DSS 2015

This methodology has garnered attention from the nation’s highest
intelligence authority; General James Clapper. In his remarks at the Defense
Strategies Institute Automated ISR Symposium, General Clapper called ABI
a “big idea” that would merge Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) with Geospatial
Intelligence (GEOINT) (“Remarks of DNI Clapper at Defense Strategies
Institute Automated ISR,” 2014). The true application of ABI goes evenfurther, brining ALL INTs together to create full awareness for the analyst.

Our on-going research seeks to determine if Yik Yak can be usedsuccessfully as a sentiment analysis tool. A new toolset is being developed
to gather Yik Yak data, perform sentiment analysis and keyword extraction
tools, and assess the results. The results will be geospatially represented
within the defined area of interest with visualizations dependent on local
sentiment. If effective, such data collection and analysis could be a useful
tool by acting as a local “emotional barometer” for situation analysts.

9499-2, Session 1

436

Phillips, 2012)” to a “methodology” (Long, 2013, p. 7; Office of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics, 2011, p. 29)
encompassing all of the various INTs. However, the exact definition is not
as important as the intent (which has not changed); to provide analysts
with a more efficient method to produce intelligence. This represents a
shift for the IC from target driven collections to activities driven collection.
The traditional warfare concept of identifying a target and then tracking it
geospatially does not fit within the irregular warfare paradigm. In this newenvironment analysts must identify targets by geospatial activities. ABI
does this by automating as many of the collection and processing systems
as possible. An effective ABI tool will be able to persistently monitor an
area of operations (AO) and alert analysts of activity that warrants further
investigation.

Specifically, most tools fail to capitalize on the emergence of “digitally
native”, “net generation” analysts, who are familiar with socially driven
platforms that excel at giving users insight into large data sets while keeping
cognitive burdens at a minimum. By using these ubiquitous platforms,
net generation analysts have trained skills in discovering new informationsocially, tracking trends among affinity groups, and disseminating
information. However, these functions are currently under-supported byexisting tools. In this paper, we describe techniques that employ sociallydriven techniques to contextualize and frame complex analytical threads
throughout the IA process.
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Conference 9499: Next-Generation Analyst III
one group of “net generation” analysts (those supporting the evolving
Processing, Exploitation, and Dissemination (PED) process). It analyzes
under-supported functions in their current working environment, focusing
on opportunities to improve their ability to discover new information anddisseminate insights. We describe our Cognitive Systems Engineering-based
approach to developing a novel collaborative enterprise IA system thatcombines collaboration tools with technologies familiar to “net generation”
analysts. This approach’s strengths will be detailed in the context of required
work support functions, as well as its embodiment within a fully functional
technical environment.

international problem of human trafficking, where we extracted, aligned andlinked data from 50 million online Web pages. DIG builds on our Karma data
integration toolkit, which makes it easy to rapidly integrate structured datafrom a variety of sources, including databases, spreadsheets, XML, JSON,
and Web services. The ability to integrate Web services allows Karma to pullin live data from the various social media sites, such as Twitter, Instagram,
and OpenStreetMaps. DIG then indexes the integrated data and provides aneasy to use interface for query, visualization, and analysis.

9499-5, Session 1

Classification of short-lived objects using
an interactive adaptable assistance system

9499-7, Session 2

Social network analysis realization andexploitation

Nadia El Bekri, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany); SusanneAngele, Elisabeth Peinsipp-Byma, Fraunhofer IOSB
(Germany)

Jack Davenport, James J Nolan, Decisive Analytics Corp.
(United States)
Tactical Warfighters demand rapid information fusion capabilities to develop
and maintain accurate situational awareness and understanding of dynamic
enemy threats in asymmetric military operations. The ability to extract
meaning in relationships between people, objects, and locations from avariety of text datasets is critical to proactive decision making.

Based on satellite images and certain clearly determined characteristics
an aerial image analyst is able to classify different types of objects. Aninteractive assistance system collects the data from a reference databasewith a fixed set of reference objects and is therefore mainly designed
to evaluate durable single objects. We introduce a concept to a further
development of the assistance system in order to be able to handle also
short-lived, not clearly classifiable and strong variable objects like dhows.
The adaptive assistance system is supposed to assist image analysts byidentifying unknown objects and improvised equipment, which are notlisted as reference in the master database. For image analysts in missions it
is important to detect, analyze, log and if required to find again improvised
equipment based on certain characteristics. In order to achieve this goal thesystem has to fulfill certain conditions.

Under this effort we have developed the Social Network Analysis Realizationand Exploitation (SNARE) system to extract these relationships. The SNARE
approach to social network modeling provides three major advantages tocurrent methods: 1) Automates the construction of detailed multi-mode
social networks, 2) Models entities as complex systems of attributes andrelationships, and 3) Provides automated support for reasoning aboutcomplex social structures.
SNARE provides the following benefits to the tactical Warfighter: 1) The
SNARE system automatically builds high-fidelity social networks from text
data sets too large to be scrutinized in detail through manual effort. 2)
SNARE provides visualizations of the complex social network interactions,providing the Warfighter with enhanced situational awareness. 3) SNARE
displays the temporal nature of the relationships in the social networks,
thereby giving the analyst a view of how the social networks are changing
over time.

The image analyst must have the possibility to detect improvised objects
in accordance with appropriate procedures while taking into considerationfor example the spatial and time reference. Furthermore, we will outline
suitable possibilities for the image analyst to categorize improvised objects
interactive via geometric shapes as well as a data storage concept for shortlived objects. The adaptive approach describes the option to insert thedata (objects) into the system directly and share them with other imagery
analysts. So far, the entry and manipulation of data (objects) is granted toa central unit for authorization reasons. Therefore we also designed a data
handling concept for on-the-spot uploaded objects.

9499-6, Session 2

A scalable architecture for extracting,aligning, linking, and visualizing multi-Int
data

9499-8, Session 2

Recognition of human-vehicle interactions
in group activities via multi-attributed
semantic message generation

Craig A. Knoblock, Pedro Szekely, The Univ. of Southern
California (United States)

Vinayak Elangovan, Amir Shirkhodaie, Tennessee State
Univ. (United States)

An analyst today has a tremendous amount of data available, but each of
the various data sources typically exists in their own silos, so an analyst
has limited ability to see an integrated view of the data and has little orno access to contextual information that could help in understanding thedata. There is a huge variety of data that is available that can be exploited
to understand what is going on in a given area or to answer specificintelligence questions. The available data includes GEOINT data (e.g.,satellite imagery, motion imagery, mapping data, etc.), MASINT data (e.g.,
LIDAR, SAR, hyperspectral data, etc.), SIGINT data (e.g., ELINT, COMINT,etc.), HUMINT data (e.g., intelligence reports, documents, etc.), OSINT (e.g.,
news articles, photos, videos, telephone books, company web sites, etc),
as well as social network and cyber data. The challenge is how to allow ananalyst to integrate or fuse the various sources available to answer specificintelligence questions or to detect anomalies.

Improved Situational awareness is a vital ongoing research effort for U.S.
Homeland Security for the past recent years. Many outdoor anomalous
activities involve vehicles as their primary source of transportation to andfrom the scene where a plot is executed. Vehicles are employed in various
activities including: bring in and take out ammunitions, supplies, and people,
way to unify, loitering etc. Analysis of the Human-Vehicle Interaction (HVI)
dynamics helps to identify interrelated patterns of activities representing
potential threats. The objective of this paper is tri-fold. Primarily, we discussa method for temporal HVI events detection and verification for generationof HVI hypotheses. Secondly, we describe a method for identificationof pertinent anomalous behaviors through analysis of state transitions
between two successively detected events. Finally, we present a techniquefor generation of semantic messages effectively describing HVI eventsand present our experimental results from a simulated scenario in the IRIS
Virtual Environment Simulation Model (IRIS-VESM) to demonstrate theeffectiveness and efficiency for generation of calibrated datasets
through VESM.

We have developed the Domain-Insight Graph (DIG) system, which is aninnovative architecture for extracting, aligning, linking, and visualizing
massive amounts of domain-specific content from unstructured sources.
Under the DARPA Memex program we have already successfully applied
this architecture to multiple application domains, including the enormous

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Conference 9499: Next-Generation Analyst III

9499-9, Session 2

9499-11, Session 3

Torpedo: Topic periodicity discovery fromtext data

Addressing information management anddissemination challenges for the nextgeneration analyst

Jingjing Wang, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign(United States); Hongbo Deng, Yahoo! Inc. (United States);
Jiawei Han, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates)Although history may not repeat itself, many human activities are inherently
periodic, recurring daily, weekly, monthly, yearly or following some otherperiods. Such recurring activities may not repeat the same set of keywords,
but they do share similar topics. Thus it is interesting to mine topic
periodicity from text data instead of just looking at the temporal behavior ofa single keyword/phrase. Some previous preliminary studies in this direction
pre-specify a periodic temporal template for each topic. In this paper, weremove this restriction and propose a simple yet effective framework tomine periodic/recurrent patterns from text, such as news articles, search
query logs, research papers, and web blogs.
We propose a two-step generic framework which takes advantage of bothadvanced topic modeling technology and the well-studied time series
periodicity discovery techniques. First we transform time-stamped text
data into topic specific time series by a time dependent topic modelingmodule with the following intuitions: 1) Top ranked words in a topic should
often co-occur in documents. 2) Top ranked words in a topic should often
co-occur around the same time. 3) The time distribution of a topic should
accommodate the imbalance of the corpus over time. 4) The model should
be robust to noise and able to exclude non-discriminative words. Then weanalyze the time series to find any inherent periodicity for each topic by aperiodicity discovery module. Each module can accommodate various stateof-art techniques to meet the requirements from various applications. We
both obtain a clear view of how topics distribute over time and enable theautomatic discovery of periods that are inherent in each topic. Theoreticaland experimental analyses demonstrate the advantage of our method overexisting work. We also present our interesting observations from real wordquery logs of a commercial search engine.

Recent technological advances in sensors, computation, and storage have
led to the development of relatively inexpensive information, surveillance,and reconnaissance (ISR) assets capable of producing high-resolution data
sets. The lower cost combined with the desire to cover larger areas withpersistent surveillance capabilities have resulted in wide-scale deploymentof these ISR assets and the consequent generation of large volumes of data.
Unfortunately, networks have not kept pace with the significant increase indata volume nor has the human ability to process, understand, and makedecisions based on the available data.
Given this divergence, the traditional model of collecting data at centralized
locations is not always viable. This paper examines two different but
complimentary approaches to address the problem of the ever-increasing
volume of data. Both approaches rely on the key notion of moving theanalysis/query computation of the data to the place of acquisition.
The first relies on analysts specifying their information needs in the formof profiles that are disseminated to the sensors/aggregators, where they
reside, matching information as it is acquired and disseminating the datasubset to the analyst.
The second approach relies on the notion of mobile agents, small, mobile
computations that can be dispatched by the analysts to scour data thathas been acquired and archived at the edge. These agents embody specificqueries for information and can move between sensor assets performing
correlation/fusion tasks prior to selecting a data subset and relaying that tothe analyst.

9499-12, Session 3

Next generation data harmonization

9499-10, Session 3

Justin M. Del Vecchio, Jillian Chaves, Adam Czerniejewski,
Greg Tauer, Ryan M. Brown, CUBRC (United States);
Tim Perkins, Chandler Armstrong, U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers (United States); Ronald Rudnicki, CUBRC(United States)

A survey of tools and resources for the
next generation analyst
David L. Hall, Jacob L. Graham, Emily Catherman, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)Intelligence analysts are presented with an ever increasing number of data
sources for analysis to solve problems. Often, analysts are able to identify
subsets of data sources suitable for answering pertinent questions. However,
harmonizing these data sources is a challenge and analysts quickly findthemselves mired in time consuming manual processes to align and extract
meaningful information. A solution is to embrace semantic technologies andleverage the many recent breakthroughs they afford in the harmonization
and representation of heterogeneous data. An example prototype using
these semantic technologies is in development where input to the system
is a set of data sources documenting violent events that need to bealigned and analyzed. The prototype applies a novel approach where data
sources are aligned to a common ontology and then events across data
sources correlated using the fine-grained ontology mappings in a cloudenvironment. Of particular interest is the application of a holistic ontology,
tools to speed the alignment process (of both structured and unstructureddata), and implementation of a geospatial-centric user interface to analyze
resolved results. The prototype serves a sound foundation to layer additional
data sources that complement the original set of data sources.

We have previously argued that a combination of trends in information
technology (IT) and changing habits of people using IST provide
opportunities for the emergence of a new generation of analysts that canperform effective intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) on a“do it yourself” (DIY) or “armchair” approach (see D. L. Hall and J. Llinas,“The emergence of the millennium analyst: how advances in information
technology and use enable asymmetric ISR” in Proceedings of the MSS
National Symposium on Sensor Data Fusion, Oct. 28, Springfield, VA). Key
technology advances include; i) new sensing capabilities including use of
micro-scale sensors and ad hoc deployment platforms such as commercial
drones, ii) advanced computing capabilities in mobile devices that allow
advanced signal and image processing and modeling, iii) intelligent
interconnections due to advances in “web N” capabilities, and iv) global
interconnectivity and increasing bandwidth. In addition, the changing
habits of the digital natives reflect new ways of collecting and reporting
information, sharing information and collaborating in dynamic teams.
This paper provides a survey and assessment of tools and resources tosupport this emerging analysis approach. The tools range from large-scalecommercial tools such as i2 Analyst Notebook, Palantir, and GeoSuite to
emerging open source tools such as GeoViz and DECIDE from university
research centers. The tools include geospatial visualization tools, social
network analysis tools and decision aids. A summary of tools is provided
along with links to web sites for tool access.

438

Jesse Kovach, Laurel C. Sadler, Niranjan Suri, Robert P.
Winkler, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

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Conference 9499: Next-Generation Analyst III

9499-13, Session 3

9499-15, Session 4Intelligence reach for expertise (IREx)

Collaborative interactive visualization:
exploratory concept

Christina Hadley, QED Systems, LLC (United States);
James R. Schoening, U.S. Army CERDEC Intelligence andInformation Warfare Directorate (United States); Yonatan
Schreiber, CUBRC (United States)

Marielle Mokhtari, Valérie Lavigne, Frédéric Drolet,
Defence R&D - Valcartier (Canada)
Dealing with an ever increasing range of data of diverse types is a challengethat (Intelligence) analysts face day to day. Digital data is regularly accessedby these people in order to share it, to visualize it, to comprehend it, toanalyze it either individually or as a team, to fuse it with another data,or to form decisions. Increasing individual and collective comprehension
goes through collaboration between (co-localised and/or geographicallydispersed) people. Better is the collaboration, better will be thecomprehension. However, choosing the appropriate collaboration approach
will likely involve many trade-offs between the various facets of the problem
under study.

IREx is a search engine for Intelligence Analysts to find collaborators. U.S.
Army Field Manual 2 (Intelligence) calls for collaboration within and outside
the area of operations, but finding the best collaborator for a given task can
be challenging. IREx will be demonstrated as part of Actionable Intelligence
Technology Enabled Capability Demonstration (AI-TECD) at the E15 field
exercises at Ft. Dix in July 2015. It includes a Task Model for describinga task and its needed competencies, and uses an ontology foundation
for semantic matching and for maintaining consistency as the model isextended for unique domains.
FM-2 defines ‘Intelligence Reach’ as the “.process by which intelligenceorganizations proactively and rapidly access information from, receive
support from, and conduct direct collaboration and information sharing withother units and agencies, both within and outside the area of operations.”
Collaboration tools are being developed, but they assume collaborators are
already matched up. If not, IREx can be used to find collaborators with theneeded expertise and who also available. Another use could be for a learner
who completes self-paced training but needs to practice these skills on areal task. They could post a standing offer to help on any task that would
enable them to use their new skills. Or, they could set up a standing querythat would alert them to postings seeking this skill.

Technology now allows people to connect and collaborate in settings asvaried as across mobile devices, over networked computers, display walls,
tabletop surfaces, to name just a few. A powerful collaboration includes
the visualization aspect which is a means to achieve effective humancommunication. Multi-dimensional visualization in an immersive display
system (e.g. 3D display wall, CAVE, HMD…) is also of consideration in our
digitized world because these systems support, among other things, (1)the ability to simultaneously display a huge amount of data and represent
multidimensional dataset more efficiently compared to any other display
devices, (2) to help escaping the conventional bias towards 2D computing
by organizing content more effectively in 3D, (3) to analyze and interpret
data faster, and (4) to explore data in a more intuitive way throughinteractions with visually rendered data. Interactive visualization strengthens
collaboration for the reason that this approach is conducive to incrementallybuilding a mental assessment of the data meaning. But the way to share,access and manipulate a representation remains an ongoing challenge,
especially when this representation is complex in terms of content or scale
and when the systems having to exploit it are as varied as thosementioned before.

The IREx Task Model is advancing toward becoming an IEEE standard. It iscurrently an approved IEEE Study Group, after which follows a standards
working group, then a balloting group, and finally an IEEE standard.
Members of the Study Group, including those from the U.S. Army, created afree web service to refine the Task Model and how it functions in a working
search application. Those interested are invited to join the IREx project or
the parallel IEEE activities.

The purpose of this article is (1) to discuss challenges and opportunities
related to interactive and collaborative visualisation; (2) to present a
collaborative interactive visualization concept allowing to share, accessand manipulate a virtual content between people that are co-localised orgeographically dispersed and potentially exploiting different operating
systems by conciliating technological and representation constraints; and(3) the way this concept will be integrated in the Sensemaking Support
System developed for the Joint Intelligence Collection and Analysis
Capability project at DRDC Valcartier.

9499-14, Session 3

Utilizing context for improved threat
analysis
Eric G. Little, Geoff Gross, Modus Operandi, Inc. (UnitedStates)Analyzing threat conditions is difficult due to the large amounts of noisy
data to which analysts are normally exposed to. Discerning between entities,
events, activities, or states of affairs that are threatening, compared to thosewhich are not, normally requires an understanding of context. Context is
formally defined here as a mereotopological state of affairs that serves as
the background environment for threat conditions. Context can relate toa spatial location, a temporal period, how many individuals are engaging
in an activity (and their spatio-temporal approximation to one another),etc. Entities exist within and move through their environments, which
serve as their contexts. For example, a person throwing an object may
not be threatening, unless this activity occurs in a certain location (e.g., in
the stands at a sporting event, outside of an embassy’s gate, or near theWhite House). A large number of money transfers may not be threatening,
unless occurring rapidly in a very short period of time commensurate withfraudulent activity. This paper describes a means for utilizing this approachto develop high-level fusion algorithms that can appropriately capture not
only L1 and L2 items, but better understand and compute over the L3 items
associated with threat. This, in turn, can be used to trigger appropriate
alerting mechanisms providing both analysts and automated agents withnear-real-time capabilities for understanding and reacting to threatening
conditions. Users can access and utilize this capability within a host of
software applications that provide improved human-in-the-loop analysis.

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9499-16, Session 4

Visualization approaches for displaying
measures of sentiment
Sue E. Kase, Heather E. Roy, Daniel N. Cassenti, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
The overall purpose of intelligence analysis platforms is to extract key
information from multi-source data. Ultimately, these systems are meant
to save intelligence analysts time and effort by offering knowledge
discovery capabilities. However, intelligence analysis platforms should bedesigned with human factors in mind. Poorly designed intelligence analysis
platforms can hinder the knowledge discovery process, or worse, promote
the misinterpretation of analysis results. Future intelligence systems must
be critical enablers for improving speed, efficiency, and effectiveness ofcommand-level decision making. Human-centered research is neededto address the challenge of visualizing large data collections to facilitateorientation and context, enable the discovery and selection of relevant
information, and provide dynamic feedback for identifying changes in thestate of a targeted region or topic. From the perspective of the Humanas a Data Explorer, this study investigates the visual presentation of
intelligence information to support timely and accurate decision making.

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Conference 9499: Next-Generation Analyst III
This investigation is a starting point in understanding the rich and varied
set of information visualizations sponsored by the Army in recent years. A
human-subjects experiment explores two visualization approaches against
a control condition for displaying sentiment about a set of topics with anemphasis on performance metrics including response time, accuracy, andnumber of mouse clicks needed to answer persons of interest comparisons.
The resulting data analysis is the first in a series of experiments that will
provide input for technology development that can inform future interface
designs and system prototypes.

9499-17, Session 4

Conversational sensemaking
Alun D. Preece, William Webberley, Cardiff Univ. (United
Kingdom); Dave Braines, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United
Kingdom)
Recent advances in natural language question-answering systems andcontext-aware mobile apps create opportunities for improved sensemaking
in a tactical setting. Users equipped with mobile devices act as both sensors(able to acquire information) and effectors (able to act in situ), operating
alone or in collectives. The currently-dominant technical approaches follow
either a pull model (e.g. Apple’s Siri or IBM’s Watson which respond to users’
natural language queries) or a push model (e.g. Google’s Now which sends
notifications to a user based on their context). There is growing recognition
that users need more flexible styles of conversational interaction, where
they are able to freely ask or tell, be asked or told, seek explanations andclarifications. Ideally such conversations should involve a mix of human andmachine agents, able to collaborate in collective sensemaking activities
with as few barriers as possible. Desirable capabilities include adding new
knowledge, collaboratively building models, invoking specific services, anddrawing inferences. As a step towards this goal, we collect evidence from anumber of recent pilot studies including natural experiments (e.g. situation
awareness in the context of organised protests) and synthetic experiments(e.g. human and machine agents collaborating in information seeking andspot reporting). We identify some principles and areas of future research for“conversational sensemaking”.

9499-18, Session 4

Collaborative human-machine analysis
using a controlled natural language
David Mott, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom);
Donald R. Shemanski, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States); Cheryl Giammanco, US Army ResearchLaboratory, Human Research & Engineering Directorate(United States); Dave Braines, IBM United Kingdom Ltd.
(United Kingdom)
A key aspect of an analyst’s task in providing relevant information fromdata is the reasoning about the implications of that data, in order to build aplausible picture of the real world situation. This requires human cognition
involving problem solving, deduction, assumption making and the review
of rationale, based upon domain knowledge about the characteristics,
interrelationships and behaviours of the individuals, events and environmentthat may be involved. For a computer system to assist an analyst in sucha task, it must be capable of following a similar reasoning process, using
similar concepts to that of the analyst, so that a natural collaboration may
occur between analyst and machine.
For this purpose we use a Controlled Natural Language, a subset ofEnglish called ITA Controlled English (CE), to represent analyst’s domain
knowledge and reasoning, in a form that it is readable and understandable
by the analyst without computer knowledge, whilst at the same time
understandable by the machine. CE can be used to express the rules andconstraints of the domain, the data that is given to the analyst as well as theconclusions that are inferred and the assumptions made, thus facilitating

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the interaction between man and machine. A CE reasoning and modelingsystem can perform inference based upon the data and provide the user
with conclusions together with their rationale. We have explored the useof “active” Microsoft Word documents as the main interface to such a
CE system, allowing the user to embed their conceptual model within aconventional document whilst providing integrated facilities for running thereasoning, querying the results and providing explanation.
To experiment with CE for assisting analysts, we have studied a specificlogical problem, the “Analysis Game”, given as part of a training course forintelligence analysts, which shares key characteristics and presents the typeof deductive challenges inherent in many real-world analytic scenarios. The
problem has been successfully formulated in CE, leading to a solution, but
we discovered that an iterative approach to the formulation was needed,
mirroring a more human-like approach where a person might develop anunderstanding of the problem and its essential characteristics and reasoning
steps by the incremental construction of relevant concepts and rules torepresent the problem. By a sequence of interactions between the user andthe CE system, the user may modify the conceptual model, see the effectsof the model in terms of the conclusions, or lack of conclusions, when run
against the data and devise new concepts to better solve the problem.
We discuss how such interactions might occur, and propose that suchtechniques could lead to better collaborative tools to assist the analyst.

9499-19, Session 4

Enhancing decision-making by leveraging
human intervention in large-scale sensor
networks
Enrico Casini, Florida Institute for Human & Machine
Cognition (United States); Jessica Depree, Modus
Operandi, Inc. (United States); Niranjan Suri, Florida
Institute for Human & Machine Cognition (United States)
and U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Jeffrey
M. Bradshaw, Florida Institute for Human & Machine
Cognition (United States); Teresa Nieten, Modus Operandi,Inc. (United States)
Extensive deployment of sensor networks in recent years has led to thegeneration of large volumes of data. One approach to processing suchlarge volumes of data is to rely on parallelized approaches based onarchitectures such as MapReduce. However, fully-automated processing
without human intervention is error prone. Supporting human involvementin processing pipelines of data in a variety of contexts such as warfare,cyber security, threat monitoring, and malware analysis leads to improved
decision-making. Although this kind of human-machine collaboration seems
straightforward, involving a human operator into an automated processing
pipeline presents some challenges. For example, due to the asynchronous
nature of the human intervention, care must be taken to ensure that once
a user-made correction or assertion is introduced, all necessary adjustment
and reprocessing is performed. In addition, to make the best use of limited
resources and processing capabilities, reprocessing of data in light ofsuch corrections must be minimized. This paper introduces an innovative
approach for human-machine integration in decision-making for large-scalesensor networks that rely on the popular Hadoop MapReduce framework.

9499-20, Session 5

One decade of the DFIG model
Erik Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The last major revision of the Joint Directors of the Laboratories
Information Fusion model in 2004 incorporated the analyst and wascoined the Data Fusion Information Group (DFIG) model. Since thattime, developments in information technology (e.g., cloud computing,applications, and multimedia) have altered the role of the analyst. Data
production has outpaced the analyst; however the analyst still has the rolewww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9499: Next-Generation Analyst III
of data refinement and reporting. In this paper, we highlight three issues
being addressed by the DFIG model. One example is the vast amountof data available that has to be accessed. It is the role of the analyst to
provide information queries so that indexed data can be retrieved. The
second example is data production which requires the analyst to digest
the data into a condensed and meaningful form. The last example is theinterpretation of the resolved information from data that must include
cultural, social, and contextual information not inherent in the data itself.
Through a use-case example, the DFIG developments in the last decadedemonstrate the usability of the JDL process model as augmented by the
DFIG model to bring together the user (analyst of operator) and the role ofthe machine (information fusion of information manager).

analyst information that directly supports his or her evolving tasking andwork product development preferences. Our interactions with analysts
have illuminated the analyst's need to impact the information collection
and analysis capabilities in a variety of ways, including understanding
data options, collection synchronization, analysis composition, hypothesis
validation, mission-oriented query, and work product development. Each ofthese needs exists today, and we anticipate that they will evolve significantly
as US forces engage threats in denied environments. We strive to create a
Goal-Oriented Associate System that teams with the Analyst to increase theflexibility and capability to effectively utilize Multi-INT fusion and analytics
tailored to the analyst's mission needs; Critical components of this associate
system apply emerging methods in information integration, information
foraging, hard/soft fusion, pattern analysis, structured argumentation based
COA hypothesis synthesis.

9499-21, Session 5

Combining human and machine processes(CHAMP)

9499-23, Session 5

Generalist analysts’ at the edge anddistributed analytics

Moises Sudit, Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Michael
Hirsch, Stetson Univ. (United States); David Sudit, BAE
Systems (United States)

Gavin Pearson, Bob Madahar, Defence Science andTechnology Lab. (United Kingdom)

Machine Reasoning and Intelligence is usually done in a vacuum or without
consultation of the ultimate decision-maker. The late consideration of
the human cognitive process creates some major problems in the use of
automated systems to provide reliable and actionable information thatusers can trust and depend on to make the best Course-of-Action (COA).
On the other hand, if automated systems are created exclusively basedon human cognition, then there is a danger of developing systems that
don’t push the barrier of technology and are mainly done for the comfort
level of the selected Subject-Matter-Expert (SME). Our presentation of
Combining Human And Machine Processes (CHAMP) is based on the notionof formulating a Mathematical Model to provide an optimal strategy on
where, when, how and which Human Intelligence should be injected within a
Machine Reasoning and Intelligence process. This insertion should be basedon the criteria of improving the quality of the output of the automatedprocess while maintaining the required computational efficiency for a COA
to be actuated in timely fashion. So our work will address the following
research areas:

Joint Vision 2020 highlights that achievement of ‘full spectrum dominancerests upon information superiority’ and that information capabilities arechanging rapidly. Similarly the Eight Great Technologies and McKinsey
Global Institute have highlighted the criticality of ‘Big Data’ technologies.
But most ‘Big Data’ technologies are predicated on the availability of highquality/bandwidth distributed information Infrastructure and service richsystems, and much of the technology is designed for use by highly trained
data scientists. In deployed military operations the context is radicallydifferent; many analysts are generalists as opposed to highly trained data
scientists, and the information infrastructure is frequently significantly
thinner, sparse and brittle. Further operations are highly dynamic,
temporally challenging, and in an unfamiliar socio-cultural environment. As
Joint Vision 2020 states ‘the need to shape ambiguous situations at the low
end of the range of operations will present special challenges.
This paper outlines the S&T challenges associated with adapting ‘Big Data’technologies to build a distributed analytic capability for the deployed
operations. In particular we will discuss issues associated with:• Consistency with a mission: Injection of Human Reasoning and Intelligencewithin the reliability and temporal needs of a mission to attain Situational
Awareness, Impact Assessment and a Course-of-Action.

a) The data analytic platforms and the need for adaption to a distributed
coalition environment and tactical information infrastructures;• Support the use of data that is uncertain, incomplete, imprecise andcontradictory (UIIC): Develop a mathematical model to suggest the insertionof a cognitive process within a machine reasoning and intelligent system so
as to minimize UIIC concerns.

b) The Volume, Velocity, Variety, Veracity, Viscosity and Value of informationand information processing, storage and distribution capabilities;c) The nature of the situations to be understood and the resulting impact on
abstract representations and synergistic human-machine teams;• Develop systems that include humans in the loop whose performance canbe analyzed and understood to provide feedback to the sensors.

d) The role of the human in collaboratively extracting understanding frominformation and directing the information system.

9499-22, Session 59499-24, Session 5

Composable systems

Argumentation and fusion of soft-hardinformation for threat prediction

James Llinas, Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Kevin Barry,
Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)

Galina L. Rogova, Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Ronald
R. Yager, Iona College (United States)

The Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Laboratory's (LM ATL) arecollaborating with Professor James Llinas to develop a mixed-initiative
associate system for intelligence analysts to facilitate reduced analysis
and decision times while proactively foraging and presenting relevant
information based on the analyst's needs, current tasks and cognitive
state. New ISR enterprise management and analytic features will allow any
analyst (e.g., SIGINT, Full-Motion Video, All Source) to drive the collection,fusion, and analysis processes in order to have enough context and situation
awareness to rapidly analyze large data sets and support multiple missions
with derived work products.

The modern day threat environment is characterized by a huge amount of
information of variable quality often uncertain, unreliable, and irrelevant.
Human analyst faces a difficult problem of combining and making senseof these pieces of evidence while facing possibly unknown circumstances,
limited or inexistent a priori information, decision making time pressure,and possible catastrophic consequences of unrecognized threats. This
paper presents a human-machine model designed in the framework ofargumentation, uncertainty theories, and anytime decision making. Thismodel combined two components. The first component is a humanbased evidential reasoning for construction of pro and contra arguments

Today's exploitation and analysis systems have largely been designed
to be sensor or data driven, often missing the mark on delivering to the

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Conference 9499: Next-Generation Analyst III
for each of the three threat parts (intent, opportunity, and capability)
while considering transient information as pieces of alternative stories(hypotheses) based on “what might happen.” The second one represents
abductive reasoning, in which beliefs in each of these arguments are
combined to produce beliefs in each threat component. These beliefs
are further fused to obtain probabilities of the competing stories underconsideration. These probabilities are used for selecting decisions oneither alerting an analyst on potential or imminent threat, or continuing
observations for making better decision. One of the problems here relates
to the fact that arguments are based on heterogeneous information: sensor
readings, information source subjective opinions, the outputs of various
processing such as sensor fusion and video analysis. Thus uncertainty
characterizing different arguments is expressed in the framework ofdifferent uncertainty theories (probability, possibility, belief). The paper
addresses the problem of combining arguments while considering andunifying various uncertainty representations.

9499-25, Session PTue

Dealing with extreme data diversity:
extraction and fusion from the growing
types of document formats
Peter David, Nichole Hansen, James J. Nolan, Pedro
Alcocer, Decisive Analytics Corp. (United States)
Despite years of effort and hype, Semantic Web research has not produced
general-purpose technology that can solve the DoD’s massive data
integration problems. Under the Semantic Web paradigm, the meaning ofdata is explicitly defined by premade taxonomies and ontologies that are
unified through logic and rules and whose use is prescribed for all dataexchanged in a system or network. Unfortunately, it has become clear that aworld in which all data is aligned with a consistent and universally available
schema is not close at-hand. One of the areas where the absence of auniversal method for metadata management is most painful is in the area of
open-domain document analysis.
The growth in text data available online is accompanied by a growth in thenumber of document formats. Corpora with extreme heterogeneity arecommon. In the presence of extreme document diversity even simple tasks
such as extracting document titles, authorship information, or top level
headings can be a difficult and time-consuming process. One importantreason for this difficulty is the proliferation of metadata-less formats suchas PDF files of scanned documents, and text data formatted solely throughtypographic conventions that were improvised or defined informally by
the author, without an underlying, machine-readable explanation of how
document structure and metadata is represented through text formatting.

SPIE DSS 2015

Towards an automated intelligenceproduct generation capability
Timothy W Hawes, Alison M. Smith, James J Nolan,
Decisive Analytics Corp. (United States)
Creating intelligence information products is a time consuming and difficult
process for analysts faced with identifying key pieces of information relevant
to a complex set of information requirements. Complicating matters,
these key pieces of information exist in multiple modalities scatteredacross data stores, buried in huge volumes of data. This results in thecurrent predicament analysts find themselves; information retrieval andmanagement consumes huge amounts of time that could be better spent
performing analysis. The persistent growth in data accumulation rates will
only increase the amount of time spent on these tasks without a significant
advance in automated solutions for information product generation.
We present a product generation tool, Automated PrOduct Generationand Enrichment (APOGEE), which aims to shift the bulk of the effort
in information product creation from data discovery and management
to analysis by automating the information product creation process.
APOGEE discovers text, imagery, video, and audio relevant to information
requirements for inclusion in information products using semantic andstatistical models of unstructured content. APOGEE’s mixed-initiativeinterface, supported by highly responsive backend mechanisms, allows
analysts to dynamically control the product generation process ensuring amaximally relevant result. The combination of these capabilities results insignificant reductions in the time it takes analysts to produce information
products while helping to increase the overall coverage of products. The
end result of the APOGEE effort is a flexible end-to-end system that can be
rapidly deployed in new operational settings.

9499-27, Session PTue

Entity resolution using cloud computing
Alex James, Greg Tauer, Adam Czerniejewski, Ryan M.
Brown, Jesse Hartloff, Jillian Chaves, Moises Sudit, CUBRC(United States)

Our ongoing research adopts the view that the problem of understanding
and exploiting document organization and structure is not a problem ofmatching structure and content to predefined ontologies or taxonomies.
Ultimately, the problem of document understanding is a problem ofunderstanding the communicative intent of its author. Rather than apply a
top-down, schema-based approach to document modeling that uses a priori
schemas as a starting point for document understanding, we use a bottomup, data driven approach that learns how people view and organize theircontent. Because we view authorship as a communication phenomenon
whose patterns and rules must be discovered, we have designed a research
program that is inspired by and based on the tools of computational
linguistics and machine learning.

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9499-26, Session PTue·

Roles and capabilities of analysts are changing as the amount of data grows.
Open-source content is abundant and users are becoming increasingly
dependent on automated capabilities to sift and correlate information.
Entity resolution is one such capability. It is an algorithm that links entities
using an arbitrary number of criteria (ie: identifiers, attributes, etc.) frommultiple sources. This presentation demonstrates a prototype capability,
which identifies enriched attributes of individuals stored across multiple
sources. Here, the system first completes its processing on a cloudcomputing cluster. Then, in a data explorer role, the analyst evaluates
whether automated results are correct and whether attribute enrichment
improves knowledge discovery.

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII
Wednesday - Friday 22–24 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9500 Quantum Information and Computation XIII

9500-1, Session 1

time, and momentum-displacement frames. As a result the QKD protocols
for generation of raw-keys, sifted-keys, privacy amplifications etc are morerobust to offer higher level of security against individual or muti attacks. The
paper presents network architecture designed for plug-and-play, the QKD
protocol, determination of the quantum bit error rate, and estimation ofsystem performance against eavesdropping.

Towards secure networks using entangled
photons and spins (Invited Paper)
Dirk R. Englund, Edward H. Chen, Tim Schroeder, Luozhou
Li, Catherine Lee, Jacob C. Mower, Massachusetts Instituteof Technology (United States)

9500-4, Session 1

Quantum key distribution (QKD) enables participants to exchange secret
information over long distances with unconditional security. Here, we
discuss a high-dimensional QKD protocol to maximize the secure key
capacity over an optical channel, given experimental constraints. Our
security proof rests on temporal and spectral correlations of entangled
photon pairs. This resource-efficient QKD system is implemented attelecom wavelength, is suitable for optical fiber and free-space links, and iscompatible with wavelength-division multiplexing. We also discuss recent
efforts of integrating QKD hardware on photonic integrated circuits. The
full protocol is discuss in J. Mower et al, Phys. Rev. A 87, 062322 (2013).
However, the reach of QKD systems is still fundamentally limited by photon
loss. In the second part of the talk, we discuss recent advances in solidstate quantum memory for quantum repeaters. In particular, we will discuss
quantum memories consisting of nitrogen vacancy (NV) center spatiallyimplanted in high-quality photonic crystal nanocavities in single-crystal
diamond. For more information, please see arXiv:1409.1602.

Quantum teleportation for keyless
cryptography
Abhishek Parakh, Univ. of Nebraska at Omaha (UnitedStates)This paper presents a protocol that uses quantum teleportation for securely
sending a message from sender to receiver. The protocol assumes that thecommunicating parties share pairs of entangled qubits before the protocol
begins. However, unlike previous protocols we do not use these qubits
to generate an encryption key but to teleport the message qubit to thereceiver in such a way that any eavesdropper listening to the communication
cannot deduce any information about the message qubit.
The proposed protocol not only presents a new direction in quantum
cryptography where not explicit key exchange is required but provides thefollowing two advantages as well:
1. Unlike quantum key distribution protocol no qubits are “wasted” ordiscarded due to measurement in the wrong bases. As a consequence
the proposed protocol provides bit rates higher than any other quantum
cryptographic protocol.

9500-2, Session 1

Performance limits for single-photons,
correlated-photons, and entangledphotons for quantum key distribution overfiber optics network topologies

2. Any arbitrary state of the qubit can be transmitted rather than just statesin one of the two orthogonal bases.

9500-5, Session 1

Eric Donkor, Fahad A. Althowibi, Ryan Williams, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)

Implementing Diffie-Hellman key exchangeusing quantum EPR pairs

We present and compare the characteristic performance of single-photons,
correlated-photons, and entangled-photons for quantum key distribution
over various fiber optic network topologies. The networks include the RING,
BUS, and STAR. Quantum bit-error rate is determined for each network
as function of number of users, and transmission distance. The trade off
between number of users and transmission distance is presented. The
robustness of the QKD against eavesdropping is evaluated foreach architecture.

Sayonnha Mandal, Abhishek Parakh, Univ. of Nebraska at
Omaha (United States)
This paper implements the concepts of perfect forward secrecy andthe Diffie-Hellman key exchange in demonstrating the principle of the
key exchange, using quantum EPR pairs to establish and share a secretkey between two non-authenticated parties Alice and Bob to transfer
messages between each other without the risk of compromise. Current
implementations of quantum cryptography are based on the BB84 protocol,
which is susceptible to siphoning attacks on the multiple photons emitted
by practical laser sources. This makes BB’84-based quantum cryptography
protocol unsuitable for network computing environments. Diffie-Hellman
does not require the two parties to be mutually authenticated to each other,
yet it can provide a basis for a number of authenticated protocols, mostnotably the concept of perfect forward secrecy. The work proposed in thispaper provides a new direction in utilizing quantum EPR pairs in quantum
key exchange. Although, classical cryptography boasts of efficient androbust protocols like the Diffie Hellman key exchange, in the current times,
with the advent of quantum computing they are very much vulnerable toeavesdropping and cryptanalytic attacks. Using quantum cryptographic
principles, however, these classical encryption algorithms show more
promise and a more robust and secure structure for applications. The uniqueproperties of quantum EPR pairs also, on the other hand, go a long way inremoving attacks like eavesdropping by their inherent nature of one particleof the pair losing its state in the occurrence of measurement of the other.

9500-3, Session 1

A quadnat continuous-variable quantum
key distribution using collated photons
Eric Donkor, Univ. of Connecticut (United States); Reinhard
Erdmann, Advanced Automation Corp. (United States);David H. Hughes, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Patrick D. Kumavor, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
We propose a quantum key distribution system based on the generation andtransmission of random continuous variables in time, energy (wavelength),phase, and photon number. The bounds for quantum measurement in ourscheme is determined by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, rather thanquadrature measurements of entangled states or the no-cloning of single
quantum particles. Correlated measurements are performed in the energy-

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIIIThe concept of perfect forward security is also revisited in this paper toattribute tighter security to the proposed protocol.

complicated by the inherent and irreducible quantum noise of coherent
states. This problem is different from traditional laser communication withcoherent detection; therefore continuous efforts are being made to improvethe measurement techniques. Quantum-based encryption systems that
use the phase of the signal as the information carrier impose aggressive
requirements on the accuracy of the measurements when an unauthorized
party attempts intercepting the data stream. Therefore, analysis of thesecrecy of the data becomes extremely important. In this paper, we present
the results of a study that had a goal of assessment of potential vulnerabilityof the running key. Basic results of the laboratory measurements are
combined with simulation studies and statistical analysis that can be used
for both conceptual improvement of the encryption approach and forquantitative comparison of secrecy of different quantum
communication protocols.

9500-6, Session 1

Provably Secure Time Distribution For theElectric Grid
Amos M. Smith, Phil G. Evans, Oak Ridge National Lab.
(United States); Brian P Williams, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (United States); Warren P. Grice, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States)
We demonstrate a quantum time distribution (QTD) method that combines
the precision of optical timing techniques with the integrity of quantum key
distribution (QKD). Critical infrastructure is dependent on microprocessor
and programmable logic-based monitoring and control systems. The
distribution of timing information across the electric grid is accomplished by
GPS signals which are known to be vulnerable to spoofing. We demonstrate
a method for synchronizing remote clocks based on the arrival time ofphotons in a modified QKD system. This has the advantage that the signal
can be verified by examining the quantum states of the photons similar
to QKD.

9500-7, Session 1

Secret Key Generation via a Modified
Quantum Secret Sharing Protocol
Amos M. Smith, Phil G. Evans, Benjamin J. Lawrie, Oak
Ridge National Lab. (United States); Matthieu Legré, id
Quantique SA (Switzerland); Pavel Lougovski, William Ray,Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States); Brian P Williams,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (United States); Bing Qi,
Warren P. Grice, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
We describe a novel method for distributing random secret information
between two and only two parties based on N-party single-qubit Quantum
Secret Sharing (QSS). We demonstrate our protocol with N = 3 parties
on a quantum channel. Our system is based on the Clavis2 QKD systemdeveloped by ID Quantique. Any two of the N participants can build asecret key with collaboration from the remaining N-2 parties and partial
information from each other. This allows for the creation of two-party secretkeys were standard QSS does not and reduces the number of resources
needed to implement single photon QKD on the grid.

9500-9, Session 1

Multidimensional manifold extraction for
multicarrier continuous-variable quantum
key distribution
Laszlo Gyongyosi, Budapest Univ. of Technology andEconomics (Hungary) and Hungarian Academy of
Sciences (Hungary); Sandor Imre, Budapest Univ. ofTechnology and Economics (Hungary)
We introduce the multidimensional manifold extraction for multicarrier
continuous-variable (CV) quantum key distribution (QKD). The manifold
extraction utilizes the resources that are injected into the transmission
by the additional degrees of freedom of the multicarrier modulation.
We demonstrate the results through the AMQD (adaptive multicarrier
quadrature division) scheme, which granulates the information into
Gaussian subcarrier CVs and divides the physical link into several Gaussian
sub-channels for the transmission. We prove that the exploitable extra
degree of freedom in a multicarrier CVQKD scenario significantly extends
the possibilities of single-carrier CVQKD. The manifold extraction allows forthe parties to reach decreased error probabilities by utilizing those extra
resources of a multicarrier transmission that are not available in a singlecarrier CVQKD setting. We define the multidimensional manifold space ofmulticarrier CVQKD and the optimal tradeoff between the available degrees
of freedom of the multicarrier transmission. We also extend the manifold
extraction for the multiple-access AMQD-MQA (multiuser quadrature
allocation) multicarrier protocol. The additional resources of multicarrier
CVQKD allow the achievement of significant performance improvementsthat are particularly crucial in an experimental scenario.

9500-10, Session 2

9500-8, Session 1

Compressive quantum sensing

Analysis of the secrecy of the running key
in quantum encryption channels using
coherent states of lightJohn C. Howell, Univ. of Rochester (United States);
Gregory A. Howland, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Samuel Knarr, Daniel Lum, James Schneeloch,
Univ. of Rochester (United States)

Vladimir V. Nikulin, Binghamton Univ. (United States);David H Hughes, John Malowicki, AFRL (United States);
Vijit Bedi, Intel Corporation (United States)

Compressive sensing utilizes sparsity to realize efficient image
reconstruction. It is a valuable processing technique when cost, power,
technology or computational overhead are limited or high. In thequantum domain technology usually limits efficient acquisition of
weak or fragile signals. I will discuss the basics of information theory,compression, and compressive sensing. I will then discuss our recent
work in compressive sensing. The topics of discussion include low-flux
laser Radar, photonic phase transitions, high resolution biphoton ghost
imaging, Ghost object tracking, 3D object tracking and high dimensional
entanglement characterization. I will touch lightly on our current work of
rapid wavefunction reconstruction and wavefront sensing. As an example,
we were able efficiently and rapidly reconstruct high dimensional joint
probability functions of biphotons in momentum and position. With

Free-space optical communication channels offer secure links with low
probability of interception and detection. Despite their point-to-point
topology, additional security features may be required in privacy-criticalapplications. Encryption can be achieved at the physical layer by using
quantized values of photons, which makes exploitation of such quantum
communication links extremely difficult. One example of such technology
is keyed communication in quantum noise, a novel quantum modulation
protocol that offers ultra-secure communication with competitive
performance characteristics. Its utilization relies on specific coherent
measurements to decrypt the signal. The process of measurements is

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIIIa measurement provides about a quantum system’s position statistics, theless information a subsequent measurement can provide about the system’s
momentum statistics. Importantly, this does not specify the manner inwhich momentum information must be lost. We extract position information
at the cost of noise, not the usual blurring associated with projective
measurements.

conventional raster scanning this process would take approximately a year,
but using double-pixel compressive sensing, the pictures were acquired in a
few hours with modest flux.

9500-11, Session 2

Using our technique, we efficiently recover high resolution transverseposition and transverse-momentum distributions (the image and diffraction
pattern) of an unknown optical field from a single-set of measurements. We
first image the field onto a sequence of random patterns. After the pattern,
the light is collected with a CCD placed in the focal (momentum) plane of
Fourier-transforming lens. The momentum distribution is imaged directlyon the CCD, while compressive sensing algorithms are used to recover the
position distribution. Images/Diffraction patterns imaged include double-slit
and triple-slit patterns, an hbar character, and the University ofRochester logo.

Multi-path time-delay detection andestimation using a quantum annealer
John J. Tran, Information Sciences Institute (UnitedStates); Kevin J. Scully, Darren L. Semmen, Walter E. Lillo,
The Aerospace Corp. (United States); Robert F. Lucas,
Information Sciences Institute (United States)
The detection and resolution of closely spaced objects (CSO) on a twodimension focal plane are important parts of automated target recognition
and tracking. The detection and mitigation of multi-path time-delay (MPTD)
signals are important parts of GPS and satellite communications. These
two signal processing problems, on the surface, appear to be unrelated;
however, when examined more closely, the MPTD problem can be viewed asa one-dimensional CSO problem. Of the two problems, the CSO resolution
algorithm is more widely studied and has been shown to be combinatorial.
To avoid being trapped by local minima of the cost function, a brute force
algorithm, requiring time and/or space that scale exponentially with the
maximum number of closely-spaced objects, is needed to arrive at thecorrect solution. To address the computational challenge, we recently
presented a theoretical translation of this brute force approach to an
adiabatic quantum annealer (Tran, el al 2014) with resource requirementsthat do not depend on the number of objects. However, a realistic CSO
resolution problem imposes resource constraints that are beyond the limitsof the D-Wave, a commercially available quantum annealer.

We strongly emphasize that we do not violate any uncertainty relations--rather we carefully choose our measurements to economize the use of
information we obtain.
The results to be presented in this talk can be found in our recent PhysicalReview Letter: “Simultaneous Measurement of Complementary Observables
with Compressive Sensing” Phys. Rev. Lett. 112, 253602

9500-13, Session 2

Sensors based on quantum hyperentanglement: efficiency and performancein the presence of other photon sources
James F. Smith III, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

In this research, we present a simplified CSO resolution problem, which
requires fewer resources: the multi-path time-delay problem, i.e., theresolution of multiple copies of a single signal that reach the receiver
via slightly different paths. We also present experimental results of thealgorithm’s performance on the D-Wave architecture. This research effort
provides evidence that a real-world problem can be solved using aquantum annealer.

Sensors based on quantum hyper-entanglement that can act alone orin a group to form an array are analyzed. Sources of interference thatcan be hyper-entangled, entangled, non-entangled or completely of arandom nature are included in the analysis. Like the sensors, the sourcesof interference can form arrays. Improvements in the transmitter anddetector designs are discussed resulting in new closed form expressions
that are a function of the design and parameters of the sensor arrays,
the interference sources and the environment. These parameters include
coherence times, aperture diameters, atmospheric loss, target areas, etc.
New closed form expressions include performance measures that are
explicit functions of sensor properties, e.g. the number of modes d used for
hyper-entanglement, the number of transmitters and detectors denoted as
M used by an array, mode properties, e.g. polarization, and energy-time forboth the sensor and the interference sources. They are also explicit functionsof environmental properties, e.g. loss and noise parameters. These measures
include: the probability of detection, various coincidence probabilities, signal
to noise or interference ratios, the quantum Fisher information, the quantum
Chernoff bound, and estimates of the number of measurements required.
The sensors make use of one signal and one ancilla photon at optical or
infrared frequencies. Only the signal photon propagates in the atmosphere.
This results in loss being essentially classical, giving rise to stronger forms ofentanglement. Hyper-entanglement and array formation greatly improves
signal to noise or interference ratios, system range, angle measurement
errors, and measurement time.

9500-12, Session 2

Complementary imaging with compressive
sensing
Gregory A. Howland, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates) and Univ. of Rochester (United States); John C.
Howell, James Schneeloch, Daniel Lum, Univ. of Rochester(United States)
A current trend in quantum sensing and imaging is a move awayfrom strong, projective measurements typically associated withwavefunction collapse. One compelling example is compressive sensing,which compresses a signal during measurement to require far fewer
measurements than a basis-scan. This offers a powerful tool for scaling
quantum measurements to many dimensions. In this talk we will show how
compressive sensing also has more fundamental implications for quantum
measurement---particularly as it relates to the uncertainty principle.

9500-14, Session 2

Compressive sensing is a measurement technique that uses optimization
to recover an n-dimensional compressible signal from a dramaticallyundersampled set of m<< n random, linear projections. For imaging, theseprojections often take the form of random, binary filters followed by asingle-element detector. This system is referred to as a single-pixel camera.

Finding analytical solution for mirror
inverse gate operations in quantum
systems with diagonal interactions

Each filtering operation maps a small amount of position information onto
the total flux passing the filter. Because only a small amount of information
is extracted, the disturbance to the state is small and momentum
distribution is left intact up to a small noise floor. This is best understood by
the entropic formulation of the uncertainty principle---the more information

In this paper, we present an analytical solution for implementing mirror
inverse (MI) gate operations in quantum systems with diagonal (Ising type)

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Rudrayya C. Garigipati, Preethika Kumar, Wichita State
Univ. (United States)·

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII
interactions. Unlike non-diagonal XY interactions where a SWAP gate iseasily implemented, in Ising coupled systems, each swap operation needs
to be decomposed into 3 controlled-NOT (CNOT) gates. As such, methods
for finding system parameters that allow us to transmit qubit states along
LNN arrays without requiring swap gates can greatly reduce the overall
computational overhead in these systems. In our recent work, we showedthat MI gate operations can be implemented directly in Ising coupledsystems without having to decompose the operation into a sequence of
CNOT gate operations. To achieve this we use a dynamic learning algorithm
as a tool, for finding parameters of the Ising-coupled system Hamiltonianthat realizes the operation. Here, we first choose a Hamiltonian, and thentrain its parameters to implement the desired MI gate operation within achosen time duration (T). Once the parameter values are known, we simply
set the system parameters to the values solved for, and then allow thesystem to evolve for time T. However, as the number of qubits increases,
the number of system parameters also increase, which makes the training
process complex. However, by carefully analyzing the parameter values
obtained from training systems with fewer qubits, we try to find analyticalsolutions that can be extended to calculate parameter values to achieve MIin systems with large number of qubits without the need for training.

9500-15, Session 3

Chip-scale quantum communications(Invited Paper)David S. Weiss, Yang Wang, Aishwarya Kumar, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
We have demonstrated arbitrary single qubit gates on single atoms attargeted sites in a 5x5x5 optical lattice array. Targeted atoms see a pairof orthogonal Stark-shifting addressing beams that selectively shift theirmicrowave resonance frequencies. The targeted atoms are transferred fromthe qubit storage basis to a computational basis, in which arbitrary Bloch
sphere rotations can be performed. They are then returned to the storagebasis, and a new target is selected. These operations have a negligible
effect on non-targeted atoms. The addressing beams can be redirectedby microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) mirrors in 5 microseconds.
Gate operations take ~200 microseconds and coherence times exceed 5 s.
Arbitrary targeted single qubit gates are an important step along the pathof making a neutral atom quantum computer in a highly scalable geometry.
In the future, arbitrary sorting of atoms among lattice sites and scalable
pairwise entanglement will be pursued.

Towards scalable quantum information
processing with cold atoms and Rydberg
blockade

Future scalable quantum communications technologies will require newtools and devices at the micro-scale that can generate, process, anddetect photons for quantum signal processing. While nano- and microphotonic devices are now routinely used for classical communications
processing, significant challenges still remain for accomplishing quantum
communication tasks in scalable systems. In this talk, I will give an overview
of our team’s efforts to overcome some of these bottlenecks and discuss
progress towards the construction of a chip-scale quantum transceiverfor QKD.

9500-16, Session 3

Quantum networks of trapped atomic ions
(Invited Paper)
Christopher Monroe, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States)
Laser-cooled and trapped atomic ions are standards for quantum
information science, acting as qubits with unsurpassed levels of quantum
coherence while also allowing near-perfect measurement. When qubit statedependent optical forces are applied to a collection of atomic ions, their
Coulomb interaction is modulated in a way that allows the entanglementof the qubits through quantum gates that can form the basis of a quantum
computer. Similar forces allow the simulation of quantum magnetic
interactions, and recent experiments have implemented tunable long-range
interacting spin models with up to 20 trapped ions, the largest collectionof interacting qubits yet demonstrated. Scaling to even larger numbers canbe accomplished by coupling trapped ion qubits to optical photons, whereentanglement can be formed over remote distances for applications inquantum communication, quantum teleportation, and distributed quantum
computation. By employing such a modular and reconfigurable architecture,
it should be possible to scale up ion trap quantum networks to useful
dimensions, for future applications in quantum computing and quantum
communication that are impossible using classical processors.

SPIE DSS 2015

Targeted single qubit gates with neutral
atoms in a 3D optical lattice9500-18, Session 3

Ryan M. Camacho, Paul S. Davids, Christopher T. DeRose,
Mohan Sarovar, Junji Urayama, Sandia National Labs.
(United States)

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9500-17, Session 3·

Mark E. Saffman, Tian Xia, Martin Lichtman, Kara Maller,
Yuan Sun, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States)
We are exploring several different approaches towards scalable quantum
computing based on neutral atom qubits with long range Rydberg blockade.
Rydberg interactions can be used to entangle single atom qubits, toentangle ensemble qubits, and to establish hybrid entanglement between
atomic and other qubits. Using a 2D array of atomic qubits we demonstratehigh fidelity single qubit control together with entanglement of nearby
qubits. The ratio of qubit coherence time to entangling gate time exceeds
1000. Progress towards hybrid atom-superconductor entanglement via a
microwave mediated controlled phase gate will also be presented.

9500-19, Session 3

Scalable quantum computing architecturewith mixed species ion chains
Boris Blinov, John Wright, Tomasz Sakrejda, Richard
Graham, Zichao Zhou, Carolyn Auchter, Thomas Noel, Univ.
of Washington (United States)
We describe our work on implementing mixed ion species quantum
information processing for a scalable ion trap architecture. These
mixed species chains may help solve several problems with scaling ion
trap quantum computation to large numbers of qubits. In the MUSIQC
architecture [1], an expandable number of Elementary Logic Units (ELUs),
microfabricated traps holding linear chains of 10 to 100 ions, are linked
together using a photonic interface to form a large-scale system. Local
quantum gates are performed using motional coupling between ions inthe same trap. Few ions in each chain are reserved for performing a slower
entanglement operation between ions in different ion traps coupled by
optical fibers. This long distance entanglement will be accomplished using
photon-mediated ion-ion entanglement, in which pairs of ions are projected
into an entangled Bell state by a combined measurement of their emitted
single photons [2]. We intend to separate the fast motional coupling andthe slower remote ion entanglement to different ion species, barium andytterbium respectively, whose atomic transitions are widely separated infrequency, yet atomic masses are relatively similar. Remote entanglement

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII

9500-22, Session 4

generation and laser cooling ions of one species (Ba) then will not cause
decoherence in ions of the other species (Yb).

An optimal fusion transformation forcluster state growth using only linear
optical elements

1. C. Monroe, R. Raussendorf, A. Ruthven, K. R. Brown, P. Maunz, L.-M. Duan,and J. Kim. Large-scale modular quantum-computer architecture withatomic memory and photonic interconnects. Phys. Rev. A 89, 022317 (2014).
2. D. L. Moehring, P. Maunz, S. Olmschenk, K. C. Younge, D. N. Matsukevich,
L.-M. Duan, and C. Monroe. Entanglement of single-atom quantum bits at a
distance. Nature, 449(7158), (2007).

Dmitry B. Uskov, Brescia Univ. (United States); Pavel
Lougovski, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States);Paul M. Alsing, Michael L. Fanto, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States); Lev Kaplan, Tulane Univ. (United States);
Amos M. Smith, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)

9500-20, Session 3

High fidelity quantum information
processing in surface ion traps

We analyize the generation of linear optical cluster states (LOCS) by
sequential addition of one and two qubits. While it is known that 1/9 is the
maximal for the CZ gate the question of whether the CZ gate itself is the
optimal operation state remains open. We find that the optimal cluster
growth operation is a state transformation on a subspace of the full Hilbert
space and requires no additional resources. We show the maximal successrate of fusing n photonic qubits or m Bell pairs is (1=2)^n-1 and (1=4)^m-1.
We give an explicit that implements this fusion transformation.

Jungsang Kim, Emily Mount, Daniel Gaultney, Stephen
Crain, Geert Vrijsen, Duke Univ. (United States)
Trapped ions provide one of the most robust platforms for realizing
quantum computation and quantum networks, due to the long qubit
coherence times and high fidelity qubit operations that have been
demonstrated, such as qubit initialization, measurement, and quantum
logic gates. In addition, feasibility for practical quantum networking
has been demonstrated in this platform by generating remote ion-ion
entanglement using two ion-photon entangled pairs. The main hurdle
towards scalable quantum information processors with ion traps is a viable
path to technological scalability, where large numbers of ion qubits andtheir corresponding control signals can be integrated into a single system
within a compact package. Surface traps fabricated on silicon substrates
using microfabrication techniques allow us to build multi-zone ion traps
where large numbers of ions can be trapped and their motion can becontrolled. Design of high quality optical components and micromirrorbased beam delivery systems allow one to provide stable laser beams thatcan be adequately steered to perform individually-addressed quantum
logic gates on a chain of ions in these surface traps. Careful choice of ionphoton entanglement scheme enables generation of ion-ion entangled pairs
between two ions trapped in two independent traps at rates fast compared
to decoherence times of the ion qubits. These experimental primitives canbe combined to construct a truly scalable quantum information processor
with reconfigurable connectivity among the qubits in the system. In thiswork, we will discuss the high speed, high fidelity qubit measurement
and high fidelity single qubit gates implemented in surface traps using
laser beams generated by a frequency comb. We will also discuss the
progress towards high fidelity two-qubit gates in surface traps, and highrate entanglement generation between two surface traps installed in two
independent vacuum chambers. These experiments demonstrate a concrete
implementation of modular, scalable ion trap quantum computer.

9500-23, Session 4

Functional role of tunneling in a
programmable quantum annealer
Vadim N. Smelyanskiy, NASA Ames Research Ctr. (UnitedStates)We present first experimental evidence of a computational role of multiqubit quantum tunneling in the evolution of a programmable quantum
annealer. We developed a theoretical model of multi-qubit dissipative
co-tunneling under the complex noise characteristics based on a Polaronic
Quantum Master Equation. We considered a non-convex optimization
primitive realized by frustrated network of qubit clusters with strong
intra-cluster coupling. We analyze a particular example with sixteen qubits,
demonstrating eight qubit co-tunneling that increases success probabilities
compare to classical paths. We report results for larger problems with up to
200 qubits that contain the primitive as subproblems.

9500-24, Session 4

Induced dipole-dipole forbidden
transitions in rare-earth elements andtheir prospects for quantum information
processing

9500-21, Session 4

Superconducting metamaterials and qubits

Eric Donkor, Ryan Williams, Fahad A. Althowibi, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)

Britton L. T. Plourde, Haozhi Wang, Francisco Rouxinol,
Matthew LaHaye, Syracuse Univ. (United States)

In this paper we discuss the prospects of quantum information processing
based on forbidden transitions in the inner shell of the rare-earth elements.
We shall derive the selection rule for such transitions and investigate
the prospects for rare-earth based quantum information procession
emphasizing their long decoherence time, degree of entanglement, andlossless interconnectivity.

We will report on the fabrication of a variety of superconducting thin-film
metamaterial resonators and our characterization of their transmission
spectra at low temperatures. In parallel, we have performed various
numerical simulations of these structures to compare with our measured
spectra and to investigate the standing-wave patterns of the various modes.
We will describe how we can couple a transmon qubit to these metamaterial
resonators and discuss possible future investigations, including thegeneration of multi-mode entanglement, with this system.

9500-25, Session 5

How often must we apply syndrome
measurements?
Yaakov S. Weinstein, The MITRE Corp. (United States)
Correcting errors is a vital but expensive component of fault tolerant

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII
quantum computation. Standard fault tolerant protocol assumes that
attempted detection of errors via syndrome measurements is done after
every quantum gate. In fact, this is not necessary. In this talk I demonstratethat error correction should be applied more sparingly. This is achievedby simulating encoded single-qubit rotations within the [[7,1,3]] code andshowing, via fidelity measures, that applying error correction after every
gate is not desirable.

[7] A. M. Hassan and P. S. Joag., Phys. Rev. A, 80, 042302, Oct 2009.
[8] T. J. Osborne., Phys. Rev. A, 72, 022309, Aug 2005.

9500-27, Session 5

Measuring arbitrarily accurate pulse
compensation with randomized
benchmarking

9500-26, Session 5

Random multipartite correlations measure
pure multipartite entanglement
Minh C. Tran, Nanyang Technological Univ. (Singapore);
Tomasz Paterek, Nanyang Technological Univ. (Singapore)
and Ctr. for Quantum Technologies (Singapore); Wieslaw
Laskowski, Univ. Gdanski (Poland); Francois Arnault,
Univ. de Limoges (France); Borivoje Dakic, Vienna Ctr.
for Quantum Science and Technology (Austria) and Univ.
Wien (Austria)
Entanglement is one of the basic features of quantum physics and it
is a resource for quantum information science [1]. Its detection andcharacterization belong to the mainstream of this field but we still lack acomplete understanding of this phenomenon, especially for the multipartite
case. Recently there have been results concerning entanglement
identification and quantification of multipartite systems which involve
sequence of specific measurements of the quantum states [2-4] andthus strictly require communication between the laboratories during themeasurements.
In this paper we shall present a different technique to identify and quantify
entanglement that requires no such sequence. Each local subsystem can bemeasured randomly and independently from each other and only after thatwill the correlations between all parties, which contain knowledge about
entanglement of the system, be computed. Therefore it is possible that nocommunication between the parties is needed until all the measurements
have been carried out.
We shall show that the expectation of these squared random correlations
is proportional to the sum of squared correlations in a complete set oforthogonal basis. This allows us, using two copies of the quantum state, toprove a lower bound on the random correlations. Interestingly the lower
bound is achieved only by product states and thus makes the random
correlations a legitimate entanglement identifier. Although the samestatement about the sum of squared correlations is already present in theworks of Hassan and Joag [6,7], their mathematical proof is based on an
earlier incorrect theorem [5]. Nevertheless, it follows from their works
that the sum of squared correlations actually measures entanglement, andtherefore so do our random correlations. We show what is the maximal
allowed entanglement according to this measure and proved for odd
systems that it is achieved by Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger states. Next,
we use convex roof construction to extend the measure to mixed states,
derive a computable formula for entanglement of any rank-two states,
and illustrate it on an example. A derivation similar in spirit was presented
by Osborne for the measure called I-tangle [8]. Finally, we would like toemphasize that the proofs here can be generalized to qudits and in fact
hold for arbitrary states independently of dimensionality and the number ofsubsystems.
[1] R. Horodecki, P. Horodecki, M. Horodecki, and K. Horodecki, Rev. Mod.
Phys., 81, 865--942, Jun 2009.
[2] A. Peres, Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 1413 (1996).
[3] M. Horodecki, P. Horodecki, and R. Horodecki, Phys. Lett. A , 223, 1(1996).
[4] W. Laskowski, D. Richart, C. Schwemmer, T. Paterek, and H. Weinfurter,
Phys. Rev. Lett. 108, 240501 (2012).

True Merrill, Georgia Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates); Chingiz Kabytayev, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States); Adam Meier, Georgia Tech
Research Institute (United States); Kenneth R. Brown,
Georgia Institute of Technology (United States)
We study a method to determine the fidelity scaling behavior ofcompensating pulse sequences with respect to control calibration errors.
Sequences that compensate control error to arbitrary order are known,
but testing their performance in an experiment is challenging when theresidual control error is less than state preparation and measurement(SPAM) errors. However, a randomized benchmarking (RB) protocol canbe used to estimate the sequence fidelity independent of SPAM errors. We
derive the analytic fidelity response with respect to amplitude errors forarbitrary compensating sequences in a RB protocol. Single- and multi-qubit
compensating sequences are considered. These results are compared in anumerical study that simulates RB measurements with realistic SPAM errors
in 171Yb+ ion qubits.

9500-28, Session 5

Demonstrating continuous variable
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen steering with afinite number of measurements
James Schneeloch, Samuel Knarr, Gregory A. Howland,
John C. Howell, Univ. of Rochester (United States)
We show how one can demonstrate continuous-variable EPR-steering
without needing to characterize entire joint measurement probability
distributions. To do this, we develop a modified Fano inequality usefulfor bounding the conditional entropies of continuous variables. Thisis an important development, as the ordinary Fano inequality gives abound, which up to a contstant offset, is proportional to the logarithmof the (infinite) number of possible outcomes. Using only the very broad
statistical assumption that the expectation value of the marginal position or
momentum is finite, we provide a (much) tighter bound to the conditional
entropy. Next, we use the modified Fano inequality in a continuous variable
entropic EPR-steering inequality to demonstrate EPR-steering using only
enough information to characterize the bound. Because Fano’s inequality
requires knowledge of only the diagonal elements of a joint probability
distribution, it is a substantial improvement to the number of measurements
needed to demonstrate EPR-steering. In addition, these bounds allow us toeasily hedge against experimental limitations including a finite detector size,
dead space between pixels, less than perfect detection efficiencies, and any
such factors that impose an incomplete sampling of the true measurement
probability distribution. Because of this, one can now reliably demonstrate
EPR-steering in continuous variables without having to make the simplifying
but unrealistic assumption that the detector is collecting 100 percent of thelight emitted from the entangled source. These Fano steering bounds are
particularly effective for highly correlated probability distributions, suchas the joint position and momentum distributions of photon pairs emitted
in spontaneous parametric downconversion. Furthermore, we provide
evidence that this method is sufficiently sensitive for practical use.

[5] A. M. Hassan and P. S. Joag., Quantum Inf. Comput. , 8, 773, 2007.
[6] A. M. Hassan and P. S. Joag., Phys. Rev. A, 77, 062334, Jun 2008.

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII

9500-29, Session 5

this context and we will use specific models to illuminate the principles (forexample the Feynman Checkerboard Model for the Dirac propagator is quite
useful in this regard).

Considerations on the collapse of the wave
function

9500-32, Session 6

John F. Reintjes, Sotera Defense Solutions (United States);Mark Bashkansky, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Principal fiber bundle description of
number scaling for scalars and vectors:
application to gauge theory

Collapse of the wavefunction plays a central role in the theory of quantum
measurement, and has been discussed extensively in the literature.
Wavefunction collapse has also been discussed in the context of state
preparation in which the measurement of one component of an entangled
pair projects the remaining (unmeasured) component into an unentangled single particle quantum state that depends on the result of themeasurement [1] Conceptual issues remain with respect to collapse, or
reduction, of the wavefunction as to whether it represents a physical process
or is just a mathematical concept. In this work, we discuss features of thecollapse of the wavefunction (or equivalently, for our purposes, projection of
the quantum state) within the context of state preparation using entangled
signal-idler photon pairs from a spontaneous parametric downconversion(SPDC) source in the entangled ghost imaging configuration. Specifically,
we examine the form that the quantum state of the signal can take following
an idler measurement, and calculate its propagation properties from theghost image plane to a downstream diffraction plane. We investigate theextent to which the predictions of propagation properties using different
collapse models agree with the predictions of non-collapse models. Our
results demonstrate that agreement between collapse and non-collapse
models can be obtained if the signal is assumed to collapse into a specificmixed state. However, measurable distinctions between collapse and noncollapse models are predicted to arise if the signal is modeled to collapse
into a pure state.

Paul Benioff, Argonne National Lab. (United States)
The fiber bundle approach to effects of number scaling in physics andgeometry will be described. A big advantage of this approach is that itallows a clear distinction between local mathematical structures as contents
of individual fibers and global mathematical structures whose elements
represent connections between different fibers. Each fiber contains a finite
dimensional vector space and a complex scalar field for gauge theories or areal scalar field for tangent spaces in geometry. The manifold is assumed to
be flat space time. For gauge theories there is an associated principal frame
bundle with U(n) connections between the frame fibers.
Connections due to number scaling are described by a complex vector
field for gauge theories and a real field for tangent bundles. In both cases
the real vector field is assumed to be integrable. The imaginary part is non
integrable if it is the photon field. For gauge theories, properties of thecomplex field will be summarized. The use of the Higgs mechanism to assign
mass to the real and imaginary components of the connection field will be
described. For tangent bundles the effect of the fields on curve lengths andon geodesic equations will be noted.

M. H. Rubin, “Entanglement and state preparation Phys Rev A 61, 022311(2000)

9500-33, Session 6

Consequences of recognizing
unpredictability beyond quantum
uncertainty

9500-31, Session 6

Diagrammatic quantum mechanics
Louis H. Kauffman, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago (UnitedStates); Samuel J. Lomonaco Jr., Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)

John M. Myers, Harvard Univ. (United States); Frederick H.
Madjid, Consultant (United States)
Quantum uncertainty denotes a spread of a probability measure on a set of
possible outcomes. Over the history of physics, many advances, including
the introduction of quantum mechanics, have come as new possibilities, forwhich no probability was assigned prior to their arrival. Within quantum
theory, recent work has proven cases of essential unpredictability beyond
the probabilistic uncertainty of quantum mechanics. An example is thechoosing of a wave function to explain given evidence. Recognizing
essential unpredictability impacts the application of physical concepts byrecognizing a tree structure of assumptions, by showing the breakdown of
the concept of time in general relativity, and by recognizing the dependenceof measurement units on assumed equations, leading to the avoidance ofconcepts unnecessary to a particular endeavor, replacing them by more
direct comparisons.

Quantum mechanics can be described, particularly for working withquantum information and topological quantum computing in the following
short form: Physical states are in correspondence with unity vectors in a
Hilbert space (often taken to be finite dimensional). Physical processes
are in correspondence with unitary transformations of the Hilbert
space. Measurements can be described with respect to an orthonormal
measurement basis of the Hilbert space so that each basis element
corresponds to a possible outcome of the measurement. The probabilityof an outcome is equal to the absolute square of its inner product with thegiven physical state. By using this concise model of quantum mechanics
we can describe quantum algorithms and quantum processes. A process
consisting in a composition of unitary transformations is susceptible toa number of diagramming techniques - circuit diagrams, graphs, semirealistic interaction descriptions, explications in terms of category theory,
relationships with topological diagrams such as knot and link diagrams
and structures from topological quantum field theory. It is the purposeof this talk to give a unified treatment of these diagrammatic modes ofrepresentation of quantum mechanics.

9500-34, Session 6

Topological and geometrical quantum
computation in cohesive Khovanov
homotopy type theory

In particular, we show how the diagrammatic approach leads naturally to adiscrete version of the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, andwe show how when one goes to the continuum limit of discrete models, theactual path integral formalism appears naturally. In this limiting situation
we see that the set of outcomes of a measurement is usually conflatedwith a set of spatial locations. These locations are nodes in the graphs forour discrete approach and we see how the topology of the limit space is
now tightly related to the structure of the resulting quantum mechanics.
This gives rise to a discussion of the relationship of physical space and theproperties of quantum theory. In particular we will discuss non-locality in

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Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
The recently proposed Cohesive Homotopy Type Theory is exploited asa formal foundation for central concepts in Topological and Geometrical
Quantum Computation. Specifically the Cohesive Homotopy Type
Theory provides a formal, logical approach to concepts like smoothness,
cohomology and Khovanov homology; and such approach permits to clarify·

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII
the quantum algorithms in the context of Topological and Geometrical
Quantum Computation. In particular we consider the so-called “openclosed stringy topological quantum computer” which is a theoretical
topological quantum computer that employs a system of open-closed
strings whose worldsheets are open-closed cobordisms. The open-closed
stringy topological computer is able to compute the Khovanov homology
for tangles and for hence it is a universal quantum computer given than
any quantum computation is reduced to an instance of computation of
the Khovanov homology for tangles. The universal algebra in this case is
the Frobenius Algebra and the possible open-closed stringy topologicalquantum computers are forming a symmetric monoidal category whichis equivalent to the category of knowledgeable Frobenius algebras.
Then the mathematical design of an open-closed stringy topologicalquantum computer is involved with computations and theorem proving for
generalized Frobenius algebras. Such computations and theorem proving
can be performed automatically using the Automated Theorem Provers with
the TPTP language and the SMT-solver Z3 with the SMT-LIB language. Some
examples of application of ATPs and SMT-solvers in the mathematical setup
of an open-closed stringy topological quantum computer will be provided..

9500-35, Session 6

Heterotic quantum and classicalcomputing on a convergence spacearchitecture

probabilistic logic. The Horn clauses of the language wrap random variables
and matrices to express probability distributions and statistical correlations,a powerful way to capture relationship between identical distributions thatare not independent. A salient feature of the language is a mechanism toimplement statistical ensembles and to solve the underlying SAT instancesof probabilistic predicates using quantum mechanical machinery. We exploit
the fact that classical random variables have quantum decompositions tobuild the quantum mechanical observables. We establish the semantics ofthe language in a rigorous fashion by considering an existing probabilistic
logic language called PRISM with classical probability measures definedon the Herbrand base and extend it to the case of quantum probability. In
the classical case H-interpretations form the sample space and probability
measures defined on them lead to consistent definition of probabilities forwell formed formulae. In the quantum analogue probability amplitudes
are attached to H-interpretations facilitating the model generations andverifications via quantum mechanical superpositions and entanglements.
The well formed formulae of the language can be cast as quantum
mechanical observables and thus providing an elegant interpretation for
their probabilities. We discuss several examples to combine statisticalensembles and predicates of first order logic to reason with situations
involving uncertainty. We provide comments on possible implementation
issues one may encounter on different quantum hardware considered in
the literature.

9500-37, Session 6

Howard A. Blair, Daniel R. Patten, Robert J. Irwin, David W.
Jakel, Syracuse Univ. (United States)
Category-theoretic characterizations of heterotic models of computation,
introduced by Stepney et al., combine computational models such asclassical/quantum, digital/analog, synchronous/asynchronous, etc. to obtain
increased computational power. A highly informative classical/quantum
heterotic model of computation is represented by Abramsky’s simple
sequential imperative quantum programming language which extends theclassical simple imperative programming language to encompass quantum
computation. The mathematical (denotational) semantics of this classicallanguage serves as a basic foundation upon which formal verification
methods can be developed. We present a more comprehensive heterotic
classical/quantum model of computation based on heterotic dynamicalsystems on convergence spaces.
Convergence spaces subsume topological spaces but admit finer structurefrom which, in prior work, we obtained differential calculi in the cartesianclosed category of convergence spaces allowing us to define heterotic
dynamical systems, given by coupled systems of first order differential
equations whose variables are functions from the reals toconvergence spaces.
To capture probabilistic nondeterministic operations such as occur in
Abramsky’s language, we require “multi-valued functions” that return values
probabilistically from a finite set of possibilities. A unitary operation U on
quantum registers is implemented by having the right-hand side of thedifferential equation governing the register produce the unitary operator.
Convergence spaces subsume topological spaces but admit finer structure,
which we previously used to obtain differential calculi in the cartesian closed
category of convergence spaces.

Theoretical analysis of on-chip linear
quantum optical information processing
networks
Stefan F. Preble, Jeffrey A. Steidle, Edwin E. Hach III,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
We present a quantum optical analysis of waveguides directionally coupled
to ring resonators, an architecture realizable using silicon nanophotonics.
The innate scalability of the silicon platform allows for the possibility of“on-chip” quantum computation and information processing. In this paper,
we briefly review a comprehensive method for analyzing the quantum
mechanical output of such a network for an arbitrary input state of thequantized, traveling electromagnetic field in the continuous wave (cw) limit.
Next, we generalize the simple cw model to properly account for the effectsof pulsed, multi-mode operation. In particular, we propose and analyze ascalable, on-chip realization of the Nonlinear Sign (NS) shifter essential for
implementation of the Knill-Laflamme-Milburn (KLM) protocol for Linear
Optical Quantum Computing (LOQC). Finally, we discuss generalizations
to arbitrary networks of directionally coupled ring resonators along withpossible applications is the areas of quantum metrology and sensitive
photon detection. In connection with these broad applications, we
discuss the possibilities for on-chip versions of intriguing experiments
in quantum optics that, so far, have been performed only in bulk optics.
Specifically, we will demonstrate how a particular device topology yields,
via Passive Quantum Optical Feedback (PQOF), dramatic and unexpectedenhancements of the Hong-Ou-Mandel Effect, an effect central to theoperation of many quantum information processing systems.

Finally, we introduce several specific questions for future researchconcerning the general conditions for constructing a separable Hilbert spaceof complex-valued mappings on convergence spaces.

9500-38, Session 6

9500-36, Session 6

Avishy Carmi, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel);
Daniel Moskovich, Tomasz Paterek, Nanyang Technological
Univ. (Singapore)

Quantum probabilistic logic programming
Radhakrishnan Balu, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)We describe a logic programming language that supports Horn clauses,
random variables, and covariance matrices to express and solve problems in

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Geometric topological circuit diagrams foradiabatic quantum computation

In adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) , a prepared Hamiltonian (the initial
Hamiltonian) evolves towards a Hamiltonian (the terminal Hamiltonian)whose ground state encodes the solution to the problem of interest. While
AQC is known to be equivalent to the quantum circuit model its physicalwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII
characteristics entail different design principles for quantum algorithms. We
propose a formalism to decompose adiabatic quantum computations into
component substeps. The resulting diagrammatic algebraic structures arereminiscent of coloured tangle diagrams in low dimensional topology. We
argue that our formalism offers the following advantages:

9500-50, Session PThu

• It captures conservation laws of quantum information. In particular, it
captures no-cloning. Inside our formalism, we show that that the input
Hamiltonian cannot be copied during the computation. We can also quantify
the fidelity of any imperfect cloning described in our diagrams.

Kun Wang, Haixing Hu, Nan Wu, Fangmin Song, Nanjing
Univ. (China); Xiangdong Li, The City Univ. of New York
(United States)• Component computations use deformed (rescaled) time parameters. In
the limit our diagrams represent sequential computations. In this sense ourdiagrams may be considered as AQC analogs to circuit diagrams.

In this paper we study the behavior of three-state discrete quantum walks.
In particular, we present results for absorption probabilities in the systems
with one or two absorbing boundaries for one-dimension problem. A
combinatorial expression for these probabilities is presented by using thepath integral method. We show that the behavior of three-state quantum
walks is strikingly different from classical random walk.

Absorption problems for three-state
quantum walks• The terminal Hamiltonian is designed using the problem logic. In ourformalism we may construct it by embedding individual clauses as
subcomputations.
• Our diagrams facilitate error detection and correction by identifying
problematic substeps.

9500-52, Session PThu

• Our decompositions of adiabatic quantum computations are not unique,and different diagrams represent equivalent computations with different
performance parameters.

Calculation of key reduction for B92 QKD
protocol

We illustrate the utility of our formalism by adiabatically realizing someknown quantum algorithms, including a 2-SAT problem and a quantum
Fourier transform.

Miralem Mehic, Pavol Partila, Jaromir Tovarek, Miroslav
Voznak, V?B-Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
It is well known that Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) can be used withhighest level of security for distribution of secret key, which is further used
for symmetrical encryption. B92 is one of the oldest QKD protocols. It uses
only two non-orthogonal states, each one coding for one bit-value. It ismuch faster and simpler when compared to its predecessors, but with theidealized maximum efficiencies of 25% over the quantum channel. B92
consists of several phases in which initial key is significantly reduced: secretkey exchange, extraction of the raw key (sifting), error rate estimation, key
reconciliation and privacy amplification. QKD communication is performed
over two channels: the quantum channel and the classical public channel. In
order to prevent man-in-the-middle attack and modification of messages on
the public channel, authentication of exchanged values must be performed.
We used Wegman-Carter authentication, because it describes an upperbound for needed symmetric authentication key.

9500-59, Session 6

Staged quantum energy teleportation
Michael R Frey, Bucknell University (United States)
Standard quantum energy teleportation (QET) is a protocol facilitatedby a coupled particle pair for a sender, Alice, to transfer energy to areceiver, Bob. In the standard QET protocol Alice makes a local quantum
measurement of her particle, thereby injecting energy into the particle
pair. She communicates the measurement result to Bob, who then applies
a local unitary transformation in accordance with Alice’s communication,
successfully extracting energy from his particle. A variant of the standard
QET protocol is proposed in which energy transfer occurs in stages. In eachstage Alice makes a weak measurement of her particle, she communicatesthe result to Bob, and Bob operates on his particle accordingly to
successfully extract energy. Weak measurements allow multiple transfers ofenergy via the same particle pair, with both greater overall efficiency andgreater total energy throughput. Two-stage QET is shown for a particularspin-1/2 particle pair to increase throughput by 35% and efficiency by 25%
over standard QET.

We explained the reduction of the initial key in each of QKD phases. Also,
we presented the equation which can be used for calculation of the lengthof the final key, based on parameter “level of security” and quantum bit
error rate (QBER) in the quantum channel. Intensive testing with Quantum
Cryptography simulator confirmed proposed equation. The results ofexperiments are included in the paper.

9500-39, Session 7

9500-49, Session PThu

A bright PPKTP waveguide source ofpolarization entangled photons

Quantum random number generation
algorithm realized by smartphone camera

Michael L. Fanto, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Christopher C. Tison, Rome Research Corp. (United States)and Florida Atlantic Univ. (United States); Stefan F. Preble,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States); Paul M.
Alsing, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Nan Wu, Kun Wang, Haixing Hu, Fangmin Song, Nanjing
Univ. (China); Xiangdong Li, The City Univ. of New York
(United States)
We propose and study an efficient algorithm that extracts quantum
random numbers (QRN) from the raw data of CCD- or CMOS- based
image sensors (cameras) in commercial smartphones. Based on NIST
statistical test on random number generators, the proposed algorithm
can give good performance in QRN generation rate and with a higher
statistical randomness. This algorithm can be implemented to provide
simple-structure, low-price and reliable QRN devices for QKD or othercryptographic applications.

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The need for bright efficient sources of entangled photons has been asubject of tremendous research over the last decade. Researchers havebeen working to increase the brightness and purity to help overcome thespontaneous nature of the sources. Periodic poling has been implemented
to allow for the use of crystals that would not normally satisfy the phasematching conditions. Utilizing periodic poling and single mode waveguideconfinement of the pump field has yielded extremely large effective
nonlinearities in sources easily producing millions of photon pairs. Herewe will demonstrate these large nonlinearity effects in a periodically poled
potassium titanyl phosphate (PPKTP) waveguide as well as characterizing
the source purity.

·

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII

9500-40, Session 7

capable of generating single-mode optical fiber couple photon pairs thatare entangled in both time/energy and polarization degrees of freedom.
We made use of these highly desirable entangled states to develop andinvestigate device independent quantum cryptography applications as wellas linear optical quantum computing developments.

High spectral purity silicon ring resonatorphoton-pair source
Stefan F. Preble, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States); Michael L. Fanto, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States); Christopher C. Tison, Rome Research
Corp. (United States) and Florida Atlantic Univ. (UnitedStates); Zihao Wang, Jeffrey A. Steidle, Rochester Instituteof Technology (United States); Paul M. Alsing, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
Here we present the experimental demonstration of a Silicon ring resonatorphoton-pair source. The crystalline Silicon ring resonator (radius of 17.5um)
was designed to realize low dispersion across multiple resonances, whichallows for operation with a high quality factor of Q~80k. In turn, the source
exhibits very high brightness of >5E7 photons/s/mW^2/GHz since theproduced photon pairs have a very narrow bandwidth. Furthermore, thewaveguide-fiber coupling loss was minimized to <1.5dB using an inverse
tapered waveguide (tip width of ~150nm over a 300um length) that is buttcoupled to a high-NA fiber (Nufern UHNA-7). This ensured minimal loss ofphoton pairs to the detectors, which enabled very high purity photon pairs
with minimal noise, as exhibited by a very high Coincidental-Accidental
Ratio of >1300. The low coupling loss (3dB fiber-fiber) also allowed for
operation with very low off-chip pump power of <50uW. In addition,
the zero dispersion of the ring resonator resulted in the production of aphoton-pair comb across multiple resonances symmetric about the pumpresonance (every ~5nm spanning >20nm), which could be used in future
wavelength division multiplexed quantum networks. Lastly, we present
results on using the same source to generate degenerate bi-photons byusing two pump lasers operating at symmetric wavelengths. And we discussa dispersion tailoring approach for producing degenerate bi-photons withultra-high purity and brightness. Such a source will be able to generate
indistinguishable photon pairs for a variety of quantum
information applications.

9500-41, Session 7

High heralding-efficiency of near-IR
fiber coupled photon pairs for quantum
technologies
P. Ben Dixon, Danna Rosenberg, Matthew E. Grein, MIT
Lincoln Lab. (United States); Ryan S. Bennink, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States); Veronika Stelmakh, Franco
N. C. Wong, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)We report on the development and use of a high heralding-efficiency,
single-mode-fiber coupled telecom-band source of entangled photons
for quantum technology applications. The source generates entangled
photon pairs through spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) in aperiodically-poled potassium triphosphate (PPKTP) crystal.
The source development efforts consisted of theoretical and experimental
efforts. The theoretical treatment defined the correlated-mode coupling
efficiency, an inherent source efficiency related to heralding efficiency. The
experimental effort consisted of a systematic study of correlated-mode
coupling efficiency and generation rate capabilities using a reconfigurable
computer controlled pump-beam and collection-mode optical apparatus
with a linearly configured PPKTP source. The measured data agree well withtheory and we demonstrated a correlated-mode coupling efficiency of 97%+/- 2%, which is the highest efficiency yet achieved for this type of system.
These results confirm that very high overall heralding efficiencies can, in
principle, be achieved in quantum optical systems.

This work is sponsored by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Researchand Engineering under Air Force contract #FA8721-05-C-0002. Opinions,interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations

9500-42, Session 7

Parametric down conversion with adepleted pump and its relationship to theblack hole information loss problem
Paul M. Alsing, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
In this paper we extended the well-known analogy of Hawking radiation
to the quantum optical process of spontaneous down conversion (SPDC),
which is used ubiquitously in photon-based quantum information
processing, by exploring the case where the black hole (BH) is analogous
to the laser `pump source. That is, we investigate the case of parametricdown conversion with a depleted laser pump (vs. undepleted pump - as is
typical in laboratory experiments) as a model for BH particle creation andevaporation, and study various features of entanglement in such a system.
We discuss how variants of this model might be testable in a tabletop
laboratory experiment.

9500-43, Session 7

High-purity single-mode photon source for
integrated quantum photonics
Xiyuan Lu, Wei C. Jiang, Jidong Zhang, Qiang Lin, Univ. ofRochester (United States)
Integrated quantum photonics relies critically on the purity, scalability,
integrability and flexibility of a photon source to support diverse quantum
functionalities on a single chip. Here we report a device on the silicon-oninsulator platform that utilizes dramatic cavity-enhanced four-wave mixing
in a high-Q silicon microdisk resonator. The device is able to produce
high-purity photon pairs with an unprecedented spectral brightness of 7.01x10x8 pairs/s/mW2/GHz and a quantum cross-correlation of gsi(2) = (2.58 ±0.16) x 10^4. The recorded photon correlation violates the classical Schwarz
inequality by four orders of magnitude, demonstrating the high purity ofthe photon pairs. Moreover, the generated photons are single-mode in
frequency, time and space, which is proved by the quantum self-correlation
gss^(2) and gii^(2), with peak values of 1.86 ± 0.05 and1.87 ± 0.05, respectively.
We use the high-purity single-mode photon pairs as heralded single-photon
source. The conditional photon autocorrelation gc^(2) is as low as 0.0075± 0.0017 ( 0.0026± 0.0006) at 5.9 x 10^4 photon pairs per second, without(with) dark counts subtracted. Even at the rate of 2.9 x 10^6 pairs per
second, the conditional photon autocorrelation remains below 0.03, with aheralding efficiency of 78.2%.
The high purity single mode photon-pair/heralded-single-photon source,
together with the multi-pair generation, structural compactness, andthe CMOS compatibility, opens up a great avenue towards quantum
silicon photonics with unprecedented capability of multi-channel parallel
information processing for both integrated quantum computing and longhaul quantum communication.

We then incorporated these beneficial source development techniques
in a Sagnac configured telecom-band entangled photon source that is

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII

9500-44, Session 8

We prepare photon pairs in high-dimensional states that are non-separable
superpositions of polarization and spatial mode. These states can provide ahigh-dimensional space in which to encode quantum information.

Coherently stimulated parametric downconversion in quantum optical metrology

Our recent study of these states with heralded photons and classical beams
have revealed a rich polarization structure in the transverse position basis.
We have imaged the transverse mode of the light in these states and foundspace-variant polarization patterns. These patterns also exhibit opticalsingularities that had not been studied before in designer beams.

Christopher C. Gerry, Richard Birrittella, Anna Gura,
Lehman College (United States)
We examine the properties of the states produced by non-degenerate
coherently stimulated parametric down-conversion wherein the signal
and idler modes are seeded with coherent states of light and where thenonlinear crystal is driven by a strong classical field as described by theparametric approximation. The states produced at the two-mode squeezed
vacuum states defined with a specific ordering of operators, namely thedisplacement operators of the two modes acting on the double vacuum
state followed by the action of the two-mode squeeze operator representing
the down-conversion process. Though mathematically equivalent to thereverse ordering of operators, but with different displacement parameters,
the ordering we consider is closely related what could most easily be
implemented in the laboratory. situation we have in mind corresponds to a
specific The statistical properties of the state are studied with an emphasis
on how they, and its average photon number, are affected by the various
controllable phases, namely that of the classical pump field and those of
the two coherent states. We then consider the multi-photon interference
effects that arise if the two beams are overlapped on a 50:50 beam splitter,
investigating the role of the phases in controlling the statistical properties ofthe output states. Finally, we study the prospects for the application of thestates quantum optical interferometry with great sensitivity than that of thestandard quantum limit.

In the laboratory we prepare photon pairs produced via parametric down
conversion in non-separable superpositions of polarization and spatialmode. In particular we encode up to three spatial modes using spatial light
modulators, which in combination with polarization yield a six-dimensional
state of a single photon. We diagnose these states either by quantum
tomography or by imaging polarimetry-- a polarization tomography in thetransverse-position basis. We also investigate the connection between thequantal and classical state measures.

9500-47, Session 8

Entanglement as a mechanism forcontrolling distributed quantum systems
Samuel J. Lomonaco Jr., Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore
County (United States); Louis H. Kauffman, Univ. of Illinois
at Chicago (United States)
We discuss how quantum entanglement can be used to control remotequantum systems. We also discuss how such a control mechanism cannaturally be employed through a divide-and-conquer strategy to reducing
the effects of decoherence.

9500-45, Session 8

Properties of antipodal atomic
Schrödinger cat states

9500-48, Session 8

Superconducting circuitry for quantum
electromechanical systems

Christopher C. Gerry, Lehman College (United States);
Edwin E. Hach III, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States)

Matthew LaHaye, Francisco Rouxinol , Yu Hao, Syracuse
Univ. (United States); Seungbo Shim, The Korean ResearchInstitute of Standards and Science (Korea, Republic of);
Elinor Irish, Univ. of Southampton (United Kingdom)

The atomic coherent states are obtained by applying a rotation, withthe rotation axis in the x-y plane of the Bloch sphere, on the Dicke state
representing the collective ground state of a system of two-level atoms
where all atoms are in their ground states. On the other hand, a twocomponent superposition states is a kind of Schrödinger cat state whose
components are antipodal on the Bloch sphere across the north-south axis,
a polar cat state. This is a state wherein the atoms are highly entangled andis an atomic form of the Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger state. We study thestates obtained by applying the rotation operator that generates the atomic
coherent states to the polar cat state. The transformation rotates the twocomponents such that they remain antipodal and hence remain orthogonalstates. In fact, the state is now a superposition of two kinds of atomic
coherent states, one generated from the collective atomic ground and theother generated from the collective atomic excited state. We examine theentanglement properties of such states especially in connection with theprospect of there being spin squeezing, a signature of entanglement. We
also examine the prospect of employing such states for the purposes ofquantum metrology for atomic frequency standards.

Mechanical quantum systems are being actively developed both for
fundamental studies of quantum coherence and related topics at themacroscopic scale and to serve as elements in quantum information
networks and quantum sensing applications. An important class ofthese systems includes electromechanical devices that incorporate
superconducting qubits and circuitry into their design for the read-out andmanipulation of nanomechanical elements. It is expected that such hybrid
quantum systems should enable the production and measurement of avariety of non-classical states of nanostructures, making these systems apotentially versatile new element for quantum processing architectures andfor testing decoherence in new limits. In this talk, I will give a brief overview
of the burgeoning field of mechanical quantum systems and then highlightongoing work in my group at Syracuse to integrate superconducting
quantum devices with nanoelectromechanical systems.

9500-46, Session 89500-53, Session 8

States of photons with space-variant
polarization

Analog quantum computing (AQC) byrevisiting the underlying physics

Enrique J. Galvez, Colgate Univ. (United States); Behzad
Khajavi, Colgate Univ. (United States) and Florida Atlantic
Univ. (United States); Xinru Cheng, Colgate Univ. (UnitedStates) and Univ. of Ottawa (Canada)Paul J Werbos, Univ. of Memphis (United States)

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Theorems have been proven that universal quantum computers based on
qubits (Deutsch) and classical analog networks (Siegelmann) both havesuperTuring capabilities. It is a grand challenge to computer science to·

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Conference 9500:
Quantum Information and Computation XIII

9500-55, Session 8

prove that the combination of the two, in analog (continuous variable)
quantum computing, offers supersuperTuring capability, the best we canachieve. Computing with continuous spins is perhaps the most promising
path to AQC for now. Two papers at SPIE2014 described unbreakable
quantum codes based on continuous spins beyond what traditional qubits
can achieve.

Arbitrary error detection in a planar latticeof the surface code

To make this real, we must first develop a realistic ability to model andpredict the behavior of networks of spin gates which act in part aspolarizers. Last year at SPIE (and arxiv) I proposed a “simple” triphoton
experiment, in which three entangled photons are sent to linear polarizers
set to angles theta a, theta b and theta c. The traditional assumption of“collapse of the wave function” yields a prediction for the coincidence
detection rate, R3/R0(theta a, theta b, theta c) significantly different fromthe prediction of a new family of models based on classical Markov Random
Fields (MRF) across space time, even though both yield the same correct
prediction in the two-photon case. We cannot expect to predict systemsof 100 entangled photons correctly if we cannot even predict three yet.
The laboratory of Yanhua Shih is currently performing this experiment, asa first step to demonstrating a new technology to produce 100 entangled
photons (in collaboration with Scully) and understanding larger systems. I
have also developed continuous-time versions both of the MRF models andof “collapse of the wave function”, as a step towards eliminating the need toassume metaphysical observers in general.

9500-54, Session 8

A CNOT gate within a glass chip

Jerry M. Chow, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr.
(United States)
Quantum error correction will be a necessary component towards realizing
scalable quantum computers with physical qubits. Theoretically, it is possible
to perform arbitrarily long computations so long as the error rate is below
a threshold value. The two-dimensional surface code permits relatively
high fault-tolerant thresholds at the ~1% level, and only requires a latticed
network of qubits with nearest-neighbor interactions. Superconducting
qubits have continued to steadily improve in coherence, gate, and readout
fidelities, to become a leading candidate for implementation in to larger
quantum networks. I will present recent experiments on systems ofsuperconducting qubits arranged in a planar lattice, amenable to the surface
code. Using a system of four qubits in a ring configuration we are able todetect an arbitrary single-qubit quantum error. The error detection protocol
is based on the stabilizer formalism and protects a codeword encodedof an entangled two-qubit state via quantum non-demolition parity
measurements, ZZ and XX, on two separate syndrome qubits. The -nontrivial- geometric arrangement of the qubits is essential to a surface code
realization and is therefore extendable throughout the two-dimensional
plane, encoding progressively larger logical Hilbert spaces towards a fully
scaled fault-tolerant quantum computer.

Warner A. Miller, Grigoriy Kreymerman, Florida Atlantic
Univ. (United States); Paul M. Alsing, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States)
Quantum gates and simple quantum algorithms can be designed utilizing
the diffraction phenomena of a photon within a multiplexed holographic
element. The quantum eigenstates we use are the photon’s linear
momentum (LM) as measured by the number of waves of tilt across theaperture. Two properties of quantum computing within the circuit model
make this approach attractive. First, any conditional measurement can becommuted in time with any unitary quantum gate - the timeless natureof quantum computing. Second, photon entanglement can be encoded
as a superposition state of a single photon in a higher-dimensional state
space afforded by LM. We descriptor here our experimental results forconstruction a controlled NOT (CNOT) gate logic within a holographic
medium, and present the quantum state tomography for this device.
Our theoretical and numerical results indicate that OptiGrate’s photothermal refractive (PTR) glass is an enabling technology. This work has
been grounded on coupled-mode theory and numerical simulations, allwith parameters consistent with PTR glass. We discuss the strengths(high efficiencies, robustness to environment) and limitations (scalability,
crosstalk) of this technology. While not scalable, the utility and robustnessof such optical elements for broader quantum information processing
applications can be substantial.

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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI
Thursday - Friday 23–24 April 2015
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 9501 Satellite Data Compression, Communications, and Processing XI

9501-1, Session 1

However, this compression method might fail to capture all the discriminant
information of hyperspectral images since features which are important forclassification may not be high in signal energy. In this paper, we investigate
this problem and analyze potential discriminant information loss. Then, we
explore several hybrid options, which can be used to preserve discriminant
information, which is needed for classification, but may not be high insignal energy. In particular, we first encode hyperspectral images using
an existing compression method. Then we generate residual images bysubtracting reconstructed images from the original images. We also apply
a feature extraction method to the original images, which produces a set offeature vectors. By applying these feature vectors to the residual images,
we generate discriminant feature images which provide the discriminant
information missed during the initial encoding process. Also, we investigate
the effects of compression in remotely sensed data. In some cases, due tothe nature of remotely sensed data, classification accuracy may increase at
low bit rates. We examine this phenomenon and its implication. Experimentswith AVIRIS data show that the proposed method can improve classification
accuracy compared to other compression methods.

Future CNES high-resolution remotesensing missions: novel image
compression approaches for on-board
processing units
Roberto Camarero, Carole Thiebaut, Christophe Latry,
Mathieu Albinet, Jean-Marc Delvit, Ctr. National d’Études
Spatiales (France); Xavier Delaunay, THALES Services(France)
Current satellite on-board processing units usually follow a conservative
scheme where simple operations are performed on the acquired pixels.
Frequently, only image compression is done on-board, and in mostcases, this compression is applied at a constant global bit-rate in order tosimplify the storage and the acquisition and download schedules, as highly
predictable data volumes are produced.

9501-3, Session 1

This constant or fixed rate paradigm represents in fact a huge constraint forimage compressors. Firstly, it can be hard to obtain with classical entropy
coders, because their variable-length codes naturally produce variable bitrates. Secondly and more important, the same compression ratio must be
applied to every image, without being able to take into account its content,
its degree of interest or even its entropy.

Hyperspectral image compression using an
online learning method
Behcet U. Töreyin, Irem Ulku, Cankaya Univ. (Turkey)

Moreover, image-quality requirements are more and more difficult tosatisfy because every final user has specific needs, and remote sensing
imagery has become a crucial instrument in a large number of civil andmilitary applications. Thus, as with fixed rate compression some image
areas are better compressed than others, image-quality assessments mustbe established based on worst-case analysis, which provides very low
compression ratios, even for state-of-the-art compressors.

A hyperspectral image compression method is proposed using an online
dictionary learning approach. The online learning mechanism is aimed at
utilizing least number of dictionary elements for each hyperspectral image
under consideration. In order to meet this “sparsity constraint”, basis pursuit
algorithm is used.
In an earlier study on hyperspectral image compression, authors devised an
online dictionary learning method formulated as a regularized least-squares
based unconstrained optimization problem. Due to the formulation of theregularized problem, the linear combination of the dictionary elements
obtained after learning process, do not have to perfectly match thehyperspectral image intensity values. Having said that, the earlier method
yields comparable compression performance with that of the state-of-theart methods in the literature.

CNES has been working for the last years in the characterization ofimage-quality requirements imposed by final users, in order to establish
a relationship between the local image characteristics and the associatedimage quality requirements, or in other words, the tolerated
compression losses.
As a result, the new functionalities included in the next generation of
CNES image compressors will permit to accurately and locally adjust thecompression ratio: the target quality level will be adapted for every area in
the image taking into account not only its entropy but also its content andits degree of interest.

In order to further improve the performance of the online dictionary learning
based hyperspectral image compression method, a new formulation is
proposed in this paper. Contrary to the earlier one, the proposed dictionary
learning based compression scheme is re-formulated in such a way that, atthe end of the learning process, the hyperspectral image values match withthe linear combination of the dictionary elements. This new formulationand its corresponding solution strategy, which is known as basis pursuit
algorithm, are widely used in the spectral unmixing of hyperspectral
imagery. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first
hyperspectral image compression study using an online dictionary learning
approach based on basis pursuit algorithm.

This new trend has required the adoption of variable rate compression,
which has had a significant impact in other associated elements such as
mission scheduling and storage. Other interesting on-board processing
techniques have also been introduced in order to fully exploit the capacitiesof this new kind of compression.

9501-2, Session 1

Hyperspectral imagery from AVIRIS datasets are used for testing purposes.
Effects of non-zero dictionary elements on the compression performance
are analyzed. Results indicate that, the proposed online dictionary learningalgorithm may be utilized for higher data rates, as it performs better interms of PSNR values, as compared with the state-of-the-art predictive
lossy compression schemes. It should be also noted that, a pre-analysis of
the number of non-zero dictionary elements may improve the performanceof the compression scheme.

Effects of compression on classification
performance and discriminant information
preservation in remotely sensed data
Chulhee Lee, Yonsei Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jeoungyeol
Baek, Yonsei Univ (Korea, Republic of); Sungwook Youn,
Yonsei Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
Several compression methods have been used to reduce the data sizeof hyperspectral images. Among such compression methods, it has
been shown that image compression based on the principal component
analysis provides good compression efficiency for hyperspectral images.

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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI

9501-4, Session 1

A novel compression for hyperspectral
images based on invariant set multiwavelets
Yongjun Li, Yunsong Li, Xidian Univ. (China)
Hyperspectral images consist of a set of contiguous images bands collectedby a hyperspectral sensor, and huge amounts of data of hyperspectral
image shave become a great challenge to data storage and transmission,
so the compression seems to be essential. In compression, wavelets
have shown a good adaptability to a wide range of data, and being of
reasonable complexity. Some wavelet-based compression algorithms
have been successfully used for some hyperspectral space missions.
A novel hyperspectral image compression scheme in the wavelet
domain is proposed in this letter. Firstly, on the basis of the theory ofinvariant set multi-wavelets which is established by Micchelli and Xu, abiorthogonal multi-wavelets filter is designed in this paper, and it has many
characteristics, such as symmetry, compact support and orthogonality. In
this filter, the self-affine triangle domain is as support interval, and constantfunction is as scaling function. These properties can be used to well describe
the image information. Secondly, the algorithms of decomposition andreconstruction of this filter and the test about the decomposition andreconstruction of hyperspectral image are given, the experiment result
is analyzed. After a decomposition, 16 decomposition results which iscalled wavelet decomposition channel can be obtained. Each wavelet
decomposition channel is decomposition information of the original image
in one direction. The first channel in the upper left corner is a low frequency
channel, the rest of the high frequency channel. The invariant set multiwavelet compared with 9/7 wavelet and 5/3 wavelet, not only has thehigher sparse, lower time complexity, no boundary distortion, and suitablefor parallel processing. Experiments show that our proposed scheme iscapable of providing high compression performance.

9501-5, Session 1

FPGA based JPEG-LS encoder for onboard
real-time lossless image compression
Yakup Murat Mert, TÜB?TAK B?LGEM ?LTAREN (Turkey)
As the amount of the data increases for reconnaissance satellites withincreasing resolution, data transmission and storage capabilities become
insufficient. In this case, data compression ability is considered mandatoryfor efficient usage of the communication bandwidth, transmission powerand storage capacity. However, data compression method should have
low complexity for implementation ease as well as low power and weightbudget. Besides, it should support high data rates for real-time compression
and storage efficiency.
JPEG-LS Image compression standard defines image compression methods
for continuous-tone gray-scale or multi component images for lossless andnear lossless compression. Standard is based on LOCO-I (Low Complexity
Lossless Compression for Images) algorithm. Its low complexity feature
implies small hardware requirement and pixel by pixel prediction encoding
results compression capability with very high throughput. JPEG-LS also
simplifies the host system by eliminating the need for buffering sufficientamount of data to start compression as opposed to transform based
compression methods. Despite to its simplicity and high rate, JPEG-LS
offers very high lossless compression ratio. Consequently, its advantages on
simplicity and compression performance make it suitable method for onboard real-time image compression.
JPEG-LS has straightforward algorithm composed of arithmetic
operations and comparisons which makes it a good candidate for pipeline
implementation. However, due to the variable update procedures of thealgorithm, computed data in one pipeline stage should be forwarded toanother stage to achieve full pipelined architecture. Otherwise, pipeline
should be stalled for the same consecutive contexts to complete a variable
update required for processing another one. Stalling the pipeline will reduce
the encoding throughput as stalling time will become significant even for

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small size pictures. Without optimization, the data forwarding between
pipeline stages leads to increase in delay and it has impact on the encoder
performance as well. Some designs used multiple clock domains to handle
the data forwarding scheme which means noticeable design complexity.
Additional pipeline stages were also employed to reduce the delay stemmed
from data-loop. However, this led to variable updates with out-of-datevalues, which implies a change on algorithm and impact on compression
performance. An optimized solution for the data forwarding is based on
the the products of the algorithm.As the prediction correction value, C[Q],is either incremented/decremented by 1 or remains same at the end of its
update procedure, evaluating these 3 possible cases for error computationand selecting the proper result at the variable update stage significantly
reduces the delay. This approach was adopted by many designs. On theother hand, only a few designs claimed to implement run mode and run
interruption sample encoding and proposed optimization for
those procedures.
In this study, an efficient field programmable gate array (FPGA)
implementation of the JPEG-LS encoder for lossless image compression is
introduced. Proposed encoder architecture comprises both regular modeand run mode with run interruption sample encoding procedures for fullcompliance with the ISO/ITU standard. Differently from former reported
implementations, prediction error computation is optimized with pipeline
data forwarding technique for minimum delay and complexity. Besides,
procedures of the run-length encoding are realized using look-up tables
without update latency. Synthesis results showed that our optimizations
improved processing speed of the encoder noticeably while FPGA hardware
footprint is significantly reduced compare to former JPEG-LS
encoder designs.

9501-6, Session 2

Simplex volume analysis for finding
endmembers in hyperspectral imagery
Hsiao-Chi Li, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Meiping Song, Dalian Maritime Univ. (China);
Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)
This paper explores the issue of simplex volume calculation from two
different aspects, geometric structure and eigen-analysis. The geometricstructure is derived from its simplex structure whose volume can becalculated by multiplying its base with its height. On the other hand, eigenanalysis takes advantage of the Cayley-Menger determinant to calculate thesimplex volume. Experimental results show that geometric structure-based
method yields the most reliable simplex volume.

9501-7, Session 2

Super-resolution imaging in remotesensing
Qiuhua Luo, Xiaopeng Shao, Lin Wang, Ligen Peng, Yi
Wang, Xidian Univ. (China)
A new effective image super-resolution (SR) algorithm which is a hybridof multiple frame Variational Bayesian (VB) reconstruction and single
frame Dictionary Learning (DL) reconstruction method is developed toreconstruct a high resolution (HR) satellite image in this article. Firstly,
employing a variational Bayesian analysis, the unknown high resolution
image, the acquisition process, the motion parameters and the unknown
model parameters are built together in a single mathematical model witha Bayesian formula, and then the distributions of all unknowns are jointly
estimated. Without any parameter adjustment, a HR image is adaptively
reconstructed from multiple frame low resolution (LR) images. Secondly,
taking the above HR image as input, a higher resolution image can be rebuilt
utilizing the statistical correlation between the HR and LR images which is
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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI
information between LR images to recover HR satellite images. Benefit fromthe dictionary training of magnanimity image, the DL algorithm is able toprovide more high-frequency image details, which means this hybrid of VB
and DL method combines the above advantages. The experiments showthat this proposed algorithm can effectively increase the image resolution of
remote sensing image by 0.5 at least comparing with low resolution image.

Chinsu Lin, National Chiayi Univ. (Taiwan); Hsian-Min Chen,
Taichung Veterans General Hospital (Taiwan); Yen-Chieh
Ouyang, National Chung Hsing Univ. (Taiwan); Chao-Cheng
Wu, National Taipei Univ. of Technology (Taiwan); Shih-Yu
Chen, National Yunlin Univ. of Science and Technology(Taiwan)

9501-8, Session 2

Pesticide residue detection in agriculture crops is a challenging issue andis even more difficult to quantify pesticide residue resident in agriculture
produces and fruits. This paper conducts a series of base-line experiments
which are particularly designed for three specific pesticides commonlyused in Taiwan. The materials used for experiments are single leaves ofvegetable produces which are being contaminated by various amountof concentration of pesticides. Two sensors are used to collected data.
One is Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The other is a
hyperspectral sensor, called Geophysical & Environmental Research(GER) 2600 spectroradiometer which is a battery-operated field portable
spectroradiometer with full real-time data acquisition from 350 nm to2500 nm. In order to quantify data with different levels of pesticide residue
concentration, several measures for spectral discrimination are developed.
Mores specifically, new measures for calculating relative power between
two sensors are particularly designed to be able to evaluate effectiveness ofeach of sensors in quantifying the used pesticide residues. The experimental
results show that the GER is a better sensor than FTIR in the sense ofpesticide residue quantification.

Hyperspectral image classification with auniversal extreme learning machine
Qian Du, Mississippi State Univ. (United States); Wei Li,
Beijing Univ. of Chemical Technology (China)
Extreme learning machine (ELM) is a neural network with only one hidden
layer and one linear output layer. The weights between the input and thehidden layers are randomly assigned and the weights of the output layer
are computed using a least squares method. Therefore, the computational
cost is much lower than any other neural network based methods (including
the popular support vector machine (SVM)). The major objective is to avoid
parameter tuning while still being able to maintain satisfactory classification
accuracy. The parameters in an ELM include: the size of random matrix(which is related to the number of hidden neurons), and the scaling factor ofa binary sigmoid function in the hidden layer. Since each row of the randommatrix is to linearly combine all the bands of an input sample pixel, themaximum size of the matrix is a square matrix (i.e, the number of hidden
neurons equals the number of spectral bands) to make the hidden-layerinputs non-singular. The scaling factor of the sigmoid function is critical, andthe rule of thumb is that the maximum and minimum values of hidden-layeroutputs should be away from the extreme values (i.e., 1 and 0) in order to be
distinguishable. The experimental results show that such a simple universal
ELM outperforms the standard SVM, and offers similar performance as an
ensemble ELMs but maintaining extremely low computational cost.

9501-11, Session 3

Adaptive sparse signal processing
for discrimination of satellite-based
radiofrequency (RF) recordings oflightning events
Daniela I. Moody, David A. Smith, Los Alamos National Lab.
(United States)

9501-9, Session 2

Ongoing research at Los Alamos National Laboratory studies the Earth’s
radiofrequency (RF) background utilizing satellite-based RF observationsof terrestrial lightning. The Fast On-orbit Recording of Transient Events(FORTE) satellite, launched in 1997, provided a rich RF lightning database.
Application of modern pattern recognition techniques to this dataset may
further lightning research in the scientific community, and potentially
improve on-orbit processing and event discrimination capabilities for
future satellite payloads. We extend sparse signal processing techniques toradiofrequency (RF) transient signals, and specifically focus on improved
signature extraction using sparse representations in data-adaptive
dictionaries. We present various processing options and classification resultsfor on-board discharges, and discuss robustness and potential forcapability development.

GSM-MR compression algorithm with two
step sorting based on similarity analysis
Fei Cheng, Kai Liu, Jin Zhang, Wenwen Ding, Yunsong Li,
Xidian Univ. (China)
Collecting reliable and accurate MR (Measure Report) data on time plays avital role in the mobile communication network optimization. However, with
the increment of the number of mobile users, network bandwidth cannot
meet with mass transfer of MR. A high performance and high compression
ratio GSM-MR compression algorithm is proposed to gain better transfer
time. This algorithm utilizes two step sorting in order to reduce the distance
between similar content, based on the analytic result about similarities of
GSM-MR data sorting by different ﬁelds. Experimental results reveal that thealgorithm does not only decrease compression consuming time, but also
ascends compression ratio with the increment of the size ofcompression data.

9501-12, Session 3

An automatic fractional coefficient setting
method of FODPSO for hyperspectral
image segmentation

9501-10, Session 3

Pesticide residue quantification analysis byhyperspectral imaging sensors

Weiying Xie, Yunsong Li, Xidian Univ. (China)
In this paper, the spectrum has been already taken into consideration by
integrating various types of band selection algorithms, firstly. We provide
a short overview of the hyperspectral image to select an appropriate set ofbands by combining supervised, semi-supervised and unsupervised band
selection algorithms. Some approaches are not limited in regards to theirspectral dimension, but are limited with respect to their spatial dimension
owing to low spatial resolution. The addition of spatial information
will be focused on improving the performance of hyperspectral image
segmentation for later fusion or classification. Here, an automatic fractional

Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States); Yuan-Hsun Liao, Providence Univ.
(Taiwan); Wei-Sheng Lo, Horng-Yuh Guo, Ching-Hua
Kao, Tau-Meu Chou, Junne-Jih Chen, Taiwan Agricultural
Research Institute Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan
(Taiwan); Chia-Hsien Wen, Providence Univ. (Taiwan);

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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI
coefficient setting method of fractional-order Darwinian particle swarm
optimization (FODPSO) is proposed for hyperspectral image segmentation
to extend previous limitation. Many researchers have advocated that alarge fractional coefficient should be in the exploration state while a small
fractional coefficient should be in the exploitation, which does not mean
the coefficient purely decrease with time. Due to such reasons, we propose
an adaptive FODPSO by setting the fractional coefficient adaptively for theapplication of final hyperspectral image segmentation. In fact, the paper
introduces an evolutionary factor to automatically control the fractionalcoefficient by using a sigmoid function. Therefore, fractional coefficient withlarge value will benefit the global search in the exploration state. Conversely,
when the fractional coefficient has a small value, the exploitation state is
detected. Hence, it can avoid optimization process get trapped into the local
optima. Ultimately, the experimental segmentation results prove the validity
and efficiency of our proposed automatic fractional coefficient setting
method of FODPSO compared with traditional PSO, DPSO and FODPSO.

9501-13, Session 3

Optimizing the updated Goddard
shortwave radiation weather research andforecasting (WRF) scheme for Intel many
integrated core (MIC) architecture
Jarno Mielikainen, Bormin Huang, Hung-Lung A. Huang,
Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States)

9501-14, Session 3

Progressive band processing of orthogonal
subspace projection in hyperspectral
imagery
Hsiao-Chi Li, Yao Li, Cheng Gao, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States); Meiping Song, Dalian
Maritime Univ. (China); Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
Progressive band processing (PBP) processes data band by band
according to the band sequential (BSQ) format used by hyperspectral
imaging sensor. It can be implemented in real time in the sense that dataprocessing can be performed whenever bands are available without
waiting for data completely collected. This is particularly important forsatellite communication when data download is limited by bandwidth andtransmission. This paper presents a new concept of processing a well-known
technique, orthogonal subspace projection (OSP) band by band, to becalled PBP-OSP. Several benefits can be gained by PBP-OSP. One is bandprocessing capability which can allow different receiving ends to processdata whenever bands are available. Second, it enables users to identify
significant bands during data processing. Third, unlike band selection which
requires knowing the number of bands needed to be selected or bandprioritization PBP-OSP can process arbitrary bands in real time with no needof such prior knowledge. Most importantly, PBP can locate and identify

SPIE DSS 2015

9501-15, Session 4

Orthogonal projection based fully
constrained spectral unmixing
Meiping Song, Dalian Maritime Univ. (China); Hsiao-Chi
Li, Yao Li, Cheng Gao, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
OSP has been used widely in detection and abundance estimation for about
twenty years. But it can’t apply nonnegative and sum-to-one constraints
when being used as an abundance estimator. Fully constrained least squarealgorithm does this well, but its time cost increases greatly as the numberof endmembers grows. There are some tries for unmixing spectral underfully constraints from different aspects recently. Here in this paper, a new
fully constrained unmixing algorithm is prompted based on orthogonal
projection process, where a nearest projected point is defined onto thesimplex constructed by endmembers. It is much easier, and it is faster than
FCLS with the mostly same unmixing results. It is also compared with othertwo constrained unmixing algorithms, which shows its effectiveness too.

9501-16, Session 4Intel Many Integrated Core (MIC) ushers in a new era of supercomputing
speed, performance, and compatibility. It allows the developers to run codeat trillions of calculations per second using the familiar programming model.
In this paper, we present our results of optimizing the updated Goddard
shortwave radiation Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) schemeon Intel Many Integrated Core Architecture (MIC) hardware. The Intel
Xeon Phi coprocessor is the first product based on Intel MIC architecture,and it consists of up to 61 cores connected by a high performance on-die
bidirectional interconnect. The co-processor supports all important Inteldevelopment tools. Thus, the development environment is familiar one to avast number of CPU developers. Although, getting a maximum performanceout of Xeon Phi will require using some novel optimization techniques.
Those optimization techniques are discusses in this paper.

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which bands are significant for data processing in a progressive manner. This
progressive profile on OSP performance is the best advantage that PBP-OSP
can offer and cannot be accomplished by any other OSP-like operator.

·

Optical design for computing superresolution imaging
Xiaopeng Shao, Jiaoyang Wang, Jie Xu, Xiaodong Chen,
Xidian Univ. (China)
A novel optical design method is introduced for computing super-resolution(SR) imaging. Traditional optical design method is to optimize the merit
function for good image quality. Computing SR imaging mainly uses single
frame or video to reconstruct high resolution images and computing SR’sconstraint conditions mean that a kind of images is suitable for SR. So
we design a novel optical design to acquire a sort of images for SR. The
innovation is to combine the merit function of the optical design with
the SR’s constraint conditions together. Optical imaging system withlow complexity and resolution is designed and the random-exposure
coding pattern based on motion is made. In order to optimize the global
performance, the trade-off between the optical design and the image
processing is necessary to consider. The results show that although the
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) of the optical imaging systems is not
best, it can provide image signals that are suitable for SR, consequently
acquiring more details and higher resolution images. The novel opticaldesign method can decrease data redundancy, remarkably improvethe effective utilization of image signals, achieve cost reduction andsimultaneously acquire SR images. This method is applicable for many areas,
especially for the satellite-borne earth observation remote sensing imaging.

9501-17, Session 4

A multiple constrained signal subspace
projection for target detection in
hyperspectral images
Lena Chang, Yen-Ting Wu, National Taiwan Ocean Univ.
(Taiwan); Yang-Lang Chang, National Taipei University ofTechnology, Taiwan. (Taiwan)
The hyperspectral images have been widely applied to target detection.
Generally, the target signatures should be known a priori for filter-based
detection methods. However, the uncertainty of target signatures caused by
the influence of atmosphere interference or other random noise degradeswww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI

9501-19, Session 4

detection performance. Thus, developing a robust detection method isimportant in hyperspectral image analysis.

Parallel implementation of WRF double
moment 5-class cloud microphysics
scheme on multiple GPUs

In the study, we propose a linearly constrained signal subspace projection(SSP) approach to target detection. Instead of using single constraint on
target detection, we design an optimal filter with multiple constraints ondesired targets by using SSP. The proposed SSP approach fully exploits
the orthogonal property of two orthogonal subspaces: one denoted signal
subspace containing desired and undesired/background targets; theother denoted noise subspace, which is orthogonal to signal subspace. By
projecting the weights of the detection filter on the signal subspace, theproposed SSP can reduces some estimation errors in target signatures andalleviate the performance degradation caused by uncertainty of target
signature. The SSP approach can detect desired targets, suppress undesired
targets and minimize the interference effects. In experiments, we provide
three methods in selecting multiple constraints of the desired target:
K-means, principal eigenvectors and endmenber extracting techniques.
Simulation results show that the proposed SSP with multiple constraints
selected by K-means has better detection accuracy, fast convergence rateand large output SINR than other filter-based target detection methods.
Furthermore, the proposed SSP with multiple constraints is a robust
detection approach which could overcome the uncertainty of desired target
signature in real image data.

Melin Huang, Bormin Huang, Hung-Lung A. Huang, Univ. of
Wisconsin-Madison (United States)
The Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) Double Moment 5-class (WDM5)
mixed ice microphysics scheme predicts the mixing ratio of hydrometeors
and their number concentrations for warm rain species including clouds
and rain. WDM5 can be computed in parallel in the horizontal domainusing multi-core GPUs. In order to obtain a better GPU performance, we
manually rewrite the original WDM5 Fortran module into a highly parallel
CUDA C program. We explore the usage of coalesced memory access andasynchronous data transfer. Our GPU-based WDM5 module is scalable torun on multiple GPUs. We will report the computing performance of the
GPU-based WDM5 scheme.

9501-20, Session 4

Richardson-Lucy deblurring for the starscene under a thinning motion path9501-18, Session 4

Breast mass segmentation in digital
mammography based on Pulse coupledneural network and Level set method

Laili Su, Xiaopeng Shao, Lin Wang, Haixin Wang, Xidian
Univ. (China); Yining Huang, Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd(China)Weiying Xie, Xidian Univ. (China); Yide Ma, Lanzhou
University (China); Yunsong Li, Xidian Univ. (China)

This paper puts emphasis on how to model and correct image blur thatarises from a camera’s ego motion while observing a distant star scene.
Concerning the significance of accurate estimation of point spread function(PSF), a new method is employed to obtain blur kernel by thinning star
motion path. In particular, how the blurred star image can be corrected
to reconstruct the clear scene with a thinning motion blur model which
describes the camera’s path is presented. This thinning motion path tobuild blur kernel model is more effective at modeling the spatially motion
blur introduced by camera’s ego motion than conventional blind estimationof kernel-based PSF parameterization. To gain the reconstructed image,firstly, an improved thinning algorithm is used to obtain the star point
trajectory, so as to extract the blur kernel of the motion-blurred star image.
Then how motion blur model can be incorporated into the RichardsonLucy (RL) deblurring algorithm, which reveals its overall effectiveness,is detailed. In addition, compared with the conventional estimated blurkernel, experimental results show that the proposed method of using
thinning algorithm to get the motion blur kernel is of less complexity, higher
efficiency and better accuracy, which contributes to better restoration of the
motion-blurred star images.

A novel approach to mammographic image segmentation, termed as PCNNbased level set algorithm, is presented in this paper. Just as its name implies,
a method based on pulse coupled neural network (PCNN) in conjunction
with the variational level set method for medical image segmentation.
To date, little work has been done on detecting the initial zero level set
contours based on PCNN algorithm for latterly level set evolution. When all
the pixels of the input image are fired by PCNN, the small pixel value will
be a much more refined segmentation. In mammographic image, the breast
tumor presents big pixel value. Additionally, the mammographic image
with predominantly dark region, so that we firstly obtain the negative of
mammographic image with predominantly dark region except the breast
tumor before all the pixels of an input image are fired by PCNN. Therefore,
in here, PCNN algorithm is employed to achieve mammary-specific, initial
mass contour detection. After that, the initial contours are all extracted.
We define the extracted contours as the initial zero level set contours forautomatic mass segmentation by variational level set in mammographic
image analysis. What’s more, a new proposed algorithm improves externalenergy of variational level set method in terms of mammographic images
in low contrast. In accordance with the gray scale of mass region in
mammographic image is higher than the region surrounded, so the Laplace
operator is used to modify external energy, which could make the brightspot becoming much brighter than the surrounded pixels in the image. A
preliminary evaluation of the proposed method performs on a known public
database namely MIAS, rather than synthetic images. The experimental
results demonstrate that our proposed approach can potentially obtainbetter masses detection results in terms of sensitivity and specificity.
Ultimately, this algorithm could lead to increase both sensitivity andspecificity of the physicians’ interpretation of mammograms inclinical practice.

9501-37, Session PThu

A Novel Super Resolution Camera Model
Xiaopeng Shao, Yi Wang, Jie Xu, Lin Wang, Fei Liu, Qiuhua
Luo, Xiaodong Chen, Xidian Univ. (China); Xiangli Bi,
School of Optoelectronics, Beijing Institute of Technology(China) and Science and Technology on Electro-Optical
Information Security Control Laboratory (China)
A novel super-resolution camera model is proposed for the problem thatthe resolution of the images obtained by traditional cameras behave
comparatively low, aiming to realize super-resolution to single image andvideo reconstruction. To achieve this function we put a certain driving device
such as piezoelectric ceramics in the camera. By controlling the driving
devices, a set of continuous low-resolution images can be obtained andstored instantaneity, which reflect the randomness of the displacements andthe real-time performance of the storage very well. The low resolution image
sequences have different redundant information and some particular priori

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459

Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI
information, so it is possible to restore super-resolution image factually andeffectively. The sample method is used to derive the reconstruction principleof super-resolution, which analyzes the possible improvement degree of theresolution in theory at the same time. The super-resolution algorithm basedon dictionary learning is used to reconstruct single image and then thevariational Bayesian algorithm is simulated to reconstruct the low resolution
images with random displacements, which models the unknown highresolution image, motion parameters and unknown model parameters in
one hierarchical Bayesian framework. Utilizing sub-pixel registration method,a super-resolution image of the scene can be reconstructed. The resultsof 16 images reconstruction show that this camera model can increase theimage resolution to 2 times, obtaining images with higher resolution in now
available hardware levels. However, this novel model also exist the problemof large amount of calculation and longtime of imaging.

9501-38, Session PThu

Research on IR thermal emission
polarization characteristics of smoothsurface material
Fei Liu, Xiaopeng Shao, Bin Xiangli, Lin Wang, Ying Gao,
Xidian Univ. (China)
The IR thermal emission polarization characteristics model have been
established by the physical mechanism of the infrared thermal emission
and polarization of light, aiming at the problems existing in the longwave infrared target detection field. As the key step, the thermal emission
polarization theory of point source, a basement of the polarization studies,is analyzed through Kirchhoff’s law, Snell theorem and Fresnel formulain detail. The influence factors of the object’s infrared thermal emission
polarization characteristics such as emission angle, complex refractive index
and so on have been analyzed. In addition, the polarization characteristics
model of the surface source has been built to calculate the degree of linear
polarization for the smooth surface of different materials. The results showthat different materials have their own polarization characteristics in asimilar environment and the degree of linear polarization is changed withsome influence factors. Moreover, a sensitivity analysis is presented toquantitatively describe the impacts of detection distance and the locationof the target. In particularly, whatever the materials it is, the infinite surface
source is not of the polarization characteristics. At the same time, the model
also demonstrated that the polarization characteristics of a finite surface
source vary with its locations.

9501-39, Session PThu

Ying Gao, Lin Wang, Xiaopeng Shao, Fei Liu, Xidian Univ.
(China)A simulation method for analyzing infrared polarization scenes has been
proposed in order to study infrared spontaneous emission polarization
deeply, since current infrared polarization devices can’t show thepolarization signature of infrared spontaneous emission for a target ora body well. A preliminary analysis on polarization characteristics ofinfrared spontaneous emission in the ideal case is carried out and also a
corresponding ideal model is established through the Kirchhoff’s law and
the Fresnel theorem. Based on the newly built ideal model, a 3 dimensional(3D) scene modeling and simulation based on the OpenSceneGraph(OSG) rendering engine is utilized to obtain the polarization scene ofinfrared emission under ideal conditions. Through the corresponding
software, different infrared scenes can be generated by adjusting the
input parameters. By interacting with the scene, the infrared polarization
images can be acquired readily, also a fact can be obviously confirmedthat the degree of linear polarization for an object in the 3D scene varies
with the many factors such as emission angle and complex refractive index.
Moreover, large difference between two kinds of material such as metal

SPIE DSS 2015

9501-40, Session PThu

Lightning Detection and Exposure
Algorithms for Smartphones
Haixin Wang, Xiaopeng Shao, Lin Wang, Peng Gao, Laili Su,
Xidian Univ. (China); Yining Huang, Huawei Technologies
Co.Ltd (China)
This study focuses on the key theory of lightning detection and exposureand the experiments are conducted by building an experimental platform,
containing CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)imaging
sensor, photoflash?and module to generate the effects of lightning. Firstly,
the algorithm based on differential operation between two adjacent frames
was selected to remove the lightning background information and extract
lighting signal, and the threshold detection algorithm was applied to achieve
the purpose of precise detection of lightning. Secondly, an algorithm is
proposed to obtain scene exposure value, which can automatically detect
external illumination status. Then a look-up table could be built on thebasis of the relationships between the exposure value and average image
brightness. Based on the look-up table, the exposure values of two adjacentframes will be equal. The optimal exposure time can be determined by
the optimal exposure value, so that rapid automatic exposure will beaccomplished. Finally, based on a USB 3.0 industrial camera including a
CMOS imaging sensor, a set of hardware test platform is established andexperiments are carried out on this platform to verify the performancesof the proposed algorithms. The algorithms can effectively and fast
capture clear lightning pictures such as special nighttime scenes, which
will provided beneficial supporting to the smart phone industry, since thecurrent exposure methods in smart phones often lost capture or induce
overexposed or underexposed pictures.

9501-41, Session PThu

Blind Image Noise Assessment Based On
Local Phase Coherence
Lin Wang, Xiao Li, Xidian Univ. (China); Yanyun Zhang,
Xidian University (China); Jiaobo Gao, Mingyin Jiao, Xi’an
Institute of Applied Optics North Electro-optics Group Co.,Ltd (China)

Simulation on polarization states of finite
surface for infrared scenes

460

and nonmetal in the polarization characteristics of infrared spontaneousemission at the same temperature can be easily discerned in the 3D
scene. The 3D scene simulation and modeling in the ideal case provides a
direct understanding on infrared polarization property, which is of greatsignificance for the further study of infrared polarization characteristics inthe situation of real scenes.

·

Remote Sensing Image can be degraded by a variety of causes duringacquisition, transmission, compression, storage and reconstruction.
Noise is one of the most important degradation factors. Quantifying its
impact on the image may be useful for applications such as improving theacquisition system and thus the quality of the produced images. Objective
IQA(Image Quality Measure) methods can be classified by whether areference image, representing the original signal exists. In the case of
remote sensing, the ideal un-degraded image is not available. NR (noreference) method is required to blindly assess the image quality. In thispaper, a new NR algorithm is proposed to quantify the image noise basedon LPC (local phase coherence). This algorithm assumes that the input
image is contaminated by additive zero mean Gaussian noise. To locate andestimate the noise in the degraded image, LPC, which states the consistent
relationship in the phases of complex wavelet coefficient across scales in thevicinity of sharp image features, is carried out on both the noisy image andthe denoised image which is obtained by using a low-pass filter on the noisy
image to suppress the noise. After comparing the differences between the
two LPC images, the impact of the noise on image quality can be quantified
by a simple calculation model. Experiment results show that the proposedwww.spie.org/dss

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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI

9501-51, Session PThu

algorithm correlates well with subjective quality evaluations and has highestimation accuracy especially for the Gaussian noise-infected images.

Airborne experiment results forspaceborne atmospheric synchronouscorrection system

9501-42, Session PThu

Research of ghost imaging with spatial
light modulator

Wenyu Cui, Weining Yi, Lili Du, Xiao Liu, Anhui Institute of
Optics and Fine Mechanics (China)

Xiaopeng Shao, Yang Zhang, Xue’en Wang, Lin Wang,
Xidian Univ. (China)

The Image quality of optical remote sensing satellites is affected by theatmosphere, thus the images need to be corrected. Due to the spatial
and temporal variability of atmospheric conditions, correction by usingsynchronous atmospheric parameters can effectively improve the remotesensing image quality. For this reason, a small light spaceborne instrument,
the atmospheric synchronous correction device(airborne prototype), isdeveloped by AIOFM of CAS(Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics ofChinese Academy of Sciences). With this instrument, of which the detection
mode is time synchronization and spatial coverage, the atmosphericparameters consistent with the images to be corrected in time and spacecan be obtained, and then the correction is achieved by radiative transfer
model. To verify the technical process and treatment effect of spaceborne
atmospheric correction system, the first airborne experiment is designed
and completed. The experiment is implemented by the “satellite-aircraftground” synchronous measurment method. A high resolution(0.4 m)
camera and the atmospheric correction device are equipped on the aircraft,which photograph the ground with the satellite over the top simultaneously.
And aerosol optical depth (AOD) and columnar water vapor (CWV) in
the imagery area are also acquired, which are used for the atmosphericcorrection for satellite and aerial images. Experimental results show thatusing the AOD and CWV of imagery area inversed by the data obtained by
the device to correct satellite and aerial images, can improve image clarity
and contrast by more than 30%, and increase MTF by more than 1 times,
which means atmospheric correction for satellite images by using the dataof spaceborne atmospheric synchronous correction device is correctand efficient.

Ghost imaging, also named quantum imaging,is a special optical technology
which has incomparable advantages in term of anti-interference, nonlocality, breakthrough in a number of limit laws of classical optics. In recent
years,much research has been conducted on the ghost imaging which isbased on two-photon quantum states and classic hot lights. However, thehigh cost of the experiments and the influences of the limited experimental
conditions on experimental data result difficulties in achieving desired
outcomes.In this paper, by using classical phase-sensitive light source, we
simplified the two optical paths in conventional ghost imaging experiments,
and achieved single-pixel detector ghost imaging. Based on the in-depth
analysis of ghost imaging’s physical nature and imaging mechanism’s
derivation, this paper will give a brief introduction of the structure, andphase modulation principle of spatial light modulator will be discussed. By
using spatial light modulator to achieve artificial light phase modulation, theinformation of optical field distribution can be obtained in advance. With thehelp of relevant software, the photocurrent detected by single-pixel bucket
detector can be computed associatedly with the optical field distribution,to achieve a clear image of the object. In the end, the paper will discuss thequantum nature of ghost imaging with different light sources,and present
the future prospect of ghost imaging in remote sensing and medicine.

9501-43, Session PThu

Design of a wide-field imaging
optical system with super-resolution
reconstruction

9501-21, Session 5

Finding endmember classes inhyperspectral imagery

Xiaopeng Shao, Jie Xu, Jiaoyang Wang, Xiaodong Chen,
Xidian Univ. (China); Rui Gong, School of Physics andOptoelectronic Engineering, Xidian University (China);
Xiangli Bi, School of Optoelectronics, Beijing Instituteof Technology (China) and Science and Technology on
Electro-Optical Information Security Control Laboratory(China)Cheng Gao, Yao Li, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
Endmember finding has received considerable interest in hyperspectral
imaging. In reality an endmember may not actually exist due to spectral
variability caused by many unknown factors such as noise, interfering
effects, lack of calibration. In this case a real endmember may appear as
its variant rather than a pure signature. To resolve this dilemma a generalapproach is to find endmember classes which contain real endmembers andtheir spectral variations. Despite that endmember variability issue has beenstudied extensively finding endmember classes or bundles seems easily
said than done. This paper develops a new approach to finding endmember
classes, called algorithm for finding endmember classes (AFEC). It consistsof two components. In its first component an unsupervised algorithm isimplemented to find an initial set of potential endmember candidates andthen followed up by the second component which develops an algorithm
to refine endmember classes iteratively, called iterative algorithm forrefining endmember classes (IAREC). In order to demonstrate its utility
and effectiveness synthetic and real image experiments are conducted
and its performance is also evaluated and compared to several common
approaches reported in the literature. The results show that our proposed
approach perform the best among all the test algorithms.

The need for a portable image acquiring system has become as strong as
the extension of digital imaging technology, for this, a new mono-centric
and wide-field optical design is proposed. In recent few years, somehigh-resolution and wide-field imaging systems have been raised already,their sizes are comparatively too large to be carried conveniently whilewith which fairly clear and wide field of view (FOV) images could be easily
obtained. With ZEMAX, a new optical design is emulated by scaling thestructure of current wide-field optical systems and increasing some microlens array, the size of which is about 10mm*10mm*20mm while the structureof which includes a two-glass mono-centric lens, micro lens array (the lenses
in the array can be different), a specific detector and some other devices.
Micro lens array is used to make the image plane from curve to almost flat.
This hardware is small enough to apply to helmets and computers and the
FOV of which is wide enough. Verified by a series of merit function, this
optical design is found to have a just acceptable imaging resolution and thecomputational imaging method is applied to this system to acquire a higher
imaging resolution. From each micro lens a series of low resolution images
are obtained and in this system a high-resolution image can be retrieved
from multiple low-resolution images with super-resolution reconstruction
method. Compared from the size and the imaging resolution, this new
optical design is much smaller and has a high imaging resolution.

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461

Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI

9501-22, Session 5

this paper, we construct a parallel implementation of SBU5 scheme on Intel
many integrated cores (MICs). The computing performance of MIC-based
SBU5 scheme will be reported.

Skeleton-based action recognition using
multiple sequence alignment

9501-25, Session 5

Wenwen Ding, Kai Liu, Fei Cheng, Jin Zhang, YunSong Li,
Xidian Univ. (China)
Human action recognition and analysis is an active research topic incomputer vision for many years. This paper presents a method to represent
human actions based on trajectories consisting of 3D joint positions. Thismethod first decompose action into a sequence of meaningful atomic
actions (actionlets), and then label actionlets with English alphabets
according to the Davies-Bouldin index value. Therefore, an action can be
represented using a sequence of actionlet symbols, which will preserve
the temporal order of occurrence of each of the actionlets. Finally, we
employ sequence comparison to classify multiple actions through using
string matching algorithms (Needleman-Wunsch). The effectiveness of the
proposed method is evaluated on datasets captured by commodity depth
cameras. Experiments of the proposed method on three challenging 3D
action datasets show promising results.

9501-23, Session 5

Support vector machine with adaptive
composite kernel for hyperspectral image
classification
Wei Li, Beijing Univ. of Chemical Technology (China); Qian
Du, Mississippi State Univ. (United States)
With the improvement of spatial resolution of hyperspectral imagery, it
is more reasonable to include spatial information in classification. It has
been demonstrated in the literature that the resulting spectral-spatialclassification outperforms the traditional hyperspectral image classification
with spectral information only. Among many spectral-spatial classifiers,
support vector machine with composite kernel (SVM-CK) can provide
superior performance, with one kernel for spectral information and the otherfor spatial information. In SVM-CK, the spatial information is retrieved byspatial averaging of pixels in a local neighborhood, say, a 3-by-3 or 5-by-5
window, and used in classifying the center pixel. Obviously, not all the
pixels in such a local neighborhood may belong to the same class. Thus,
we propose an adaptive composite kernel, named SVM-ACK, to improve
the performance. In SVM-ACK, an image segmentation step is conductedfirst, and then only the pixels potentially belonging to the same classwithin the window will be actually averaged for spatial feature extraction.
The experimental result demonstrates that the proposed SVM-ACK canobviously outperform SVM-CK.

Construction of WRF Stony Brook
University 5-class scheme on Intel many
integrated cores (MICs)

Hyperpsectral unmxing is a hot topic in hyperspectral data processing.
For many cases, partial ground-objects in the image can be easily known [1],for example, the tree always exists in most of natural scenes. While, it is easy
to obtain the spectrum of known objects from the spectral library or filed
measurement. Generally, more accurate results should be obtained using
prior information [2]. Nonnegative matrix factorization can naturally satisfy
the nonnegative constraint in HU [3]. Therefore, we try to construct thesemi-supervised HU approach based NMF in this paper.
The paper tries to make full use of the prior information in 2 aspects: 1)
the prior information is imbedded in original NMF model, in which theendmember matrix A is divided into the known endmembers A1 and theestimated endmembers A2. During the iterative procedure, only A2 needs
to be updated. Correspondingly, a new update rule should be derived.
Under the improvement, the non-convex problem of original NMF canbe partially relieved. But this improvement doesn’t consider the relation
between the prior endmembers and the unknown endmembers. In otherwords, it doesn’t support enough prior information for estimating the
unknown information. Therefore, another improvement is proposed. 2)
The prior information is used to construct constrained function based onorthogonal subspace theory [4]. Specifically, the constrained function isconstructed by projecting the unknown endmembers to the orthogonal
subspace of known endmembers. The larger the function value is, the larger
the distance between estimated endmembers and orthogonal subspacespanned by known endmembers. Actually, it fits for the property of real theendmembers.
We will evaluate the algorithm using 2 synthetic datasets and 2 real datasetscomparing with classical unmixing methods: SISAL [5], VCA [6] andMVCNMF [7].
[1]. W. Tang, Z. Shi, and Z. An, “Nonnegative matrix factorization for
hyperspectral unmixing using prior knowledge of spectral signatures,”Optical Engineering, vol. 51, no. 8, pp. 087 001–1, 2012.
[2]. Dobigeon N, Tourneret J -, Chang C. Semi-Supervised Linear Spectral
Unmixing Using a Hierarchical Bayesian Model for Hyperspectral Imagery.
Signal Processing, IEEE Transactions on, 2008, 56(7):2684 - 2695.

[4]. C.-I. Chang, “Orthogonal Subspace Projection (OSP) Revisited: A
Comprehensive Study and Analysis,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol.
43, no. 3, pp. 502–518, 2005.

Melin Huang, Bormin Huang, Hung-Lung A. Huang, Univ. of
Wisconsin-Madison (United States)
The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is mesoscale
numerical weather prediction system. It is designed to serve the needs ofboth operational forecasting and atmospheric research ranging from meters
to thousands of kilometers. Microphysics process plays an important rolein weather and climate prediction, which provides atmospheric heat andmoisture tendencies. Several microphysics schemes are available within
the WRF, with different numbers of simulated hydrometeor classes andalgorithms for estimating their size, fall speeds, distributions, and densities.
Stony Brook University 5-class (SBU5) is one of microphysics schemes withriming intensity predicted to account for the mixed-phase processes. In

SPIE DSS 2015

Lifu Zhang, Nan Wang, Taixia Wu, Xia Zhang, Institute ofRemote Sensing and Digital Earth (China)[3]. Bioucas-Dias, J. M., A. Plaza, et al. (2012). “Hyperspectral Unmixing
Overview: Geometrical, Statistical, and Sparse Regression-BasedApproaches.” Ieee Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations
and Remote Sensing 5(2): 354-379.

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Semi-supervised hyperspectral unmixing
approach based nonnegative matrix
factorization·[5]. J. M. Bioucas-Dias, “A variable splitting augmented Lagrangian
approach to linear spectral unmixing,” in Hyperspectral Image and Signal
Processing: Evolution in Remote Sensing, 2009. WHISPERS ‘09. First
Workshop on, 2009, pp. 1–4.
[6]. J. Nascimento and J. Bioucas-Dias, “Vertex component analysis: A fastalgorithm to unmix hyperspectral data,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens.,
vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 898–910, Apr. 2002.
[7]. L. Miao and H. Qi, “Endmember extraction from highly mixed data using
minimum volume constrained nonnegative matrix factorization,” IEEE Trans.
Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 765–777, Mar. 2007.

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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI

9501-26, Session 5

when samples of different classes are not far apart or even overlapped.
Due to the different neighborhood structures of overlapping traininglabels, the traditional NFS can’t perform well for classification of remotesensing images. In response, ANFS is proposed to overcome this problem.
It combines and adopts two methods, NFS and incenter-based nearest
feature space (INFS) which makes use of the incircle of three labeled
samples to form a INFS, to achieve the best classification accuracy. In ANFS,a fitting preprocessing of NFS is presented to determine what the best fix
models (NFS/INFS) is for the three nearest labeled samples of the sameclasses. Furthermore, in order to speed up the computation performanceof the ANFS classifier, this paper proposes a parallel computing version
of ANFS. It makes use of the modern graphics processing unit (GPU)architecture with NVIDIA’s compute unified device architecture (CUDA)
technology to improve the computational speed of ANFS. Experimental
results demonstrate the proposed ANFS approach is suitable for land coverclassification in earth remote sensing. It can achieve the better performance
than NFS classifier when the class sample distribution overlaps. A better
computational speedup can also be gained through the parallel computing
of GPU.

Virtual Dimensionality Analysis forHyperspectral Imagery
Chein-I Chang, Li-Chien Lee, Drew Paylor, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
This paper investigates and explores insights into these two scenarios, signal
strength and signal energy used for binary hypothesis testing problems toestimate VD. It further develops their probability distributions for hypothesis
testing to estimate VD. It turns that the values of VD obtained by these two
scenarios are quite different.

9501-27, Session 6

A new detection algorithm for
microcalcification clusters inmammographic screening

9501-29, Session 6

Weiying Xie, Xidian Univ. (China); Yide Ma, Lanzhou
University (China); Yunsong Li, Xidian Univ. (China)

Progressive band processing of pixel
purity index for finding endmembers in
hyperspectral imagery

A novel approach for microcalcification clusters detection is proposed. At
the first time, we make a short analysis of mammographic images withmicrocalcification lesions to confirm these lesions have much greater
gray values than normal regions. After summarizing the specific featureof microcalcification clusters in mammographic screening, we make more
focus on preprocessing step including eliminating the background, image
enhancement and eliminating the pectoral muscle. In detail, Chan-Vese
Model is used for eliminating background. Then, we do the application of
combining morphology method and edge detection method. After the AND
operation and Sobel filter, we use Hough Transform, it can be seen thatthe result have outperformed for eliminating the pectoral muscle which isapproximately the gray of microcalcification. Additionally, the enhancement
step is achieved by morphology. We make effort on mammographic
image preprocessing to achieve lower computational complexity. As wellknown, it is difficult to robustly achieve mammograms analysis due to low
contrast between normal and lesion tissues, there are also much noise insuch images. After a serious preprocessing algorithm, a method based onblob detection is performed to microcalcification clusters according their
specific features. The proposed algorithm has employed Laplace operator
to improve Difference of Gaussians (DoG) function in terms of low contrast
images. A preliminary evaluation of the proposed method performs on a
known public database namely MIAS, rather than synthetic images. The
comparison experiments and Cohen’s kappa coefficients all demonstratethat our proposed approach can potentially obtain better microcalcification
clusters detection results in terms of accuracy, sensitivity and specificity.

Yao Li, Cheng Gao, Hsiao-Chi Li, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States); Meiping Song, Dalian
Maritime Univ. (China); Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States)
Pixel purity index (PPI) is a very popular endmember finding algorithm due
to its availability in ENVI software developed by AIG. This paper introduces
a new concept of executing PPI band-by-band in a progressive manner,called progressive band processing of PPI (PBP-PPI) which allows users toprocess PPI band by band without waiting for full bands of data information
completed. In order for PPI to be carried out by progression the PPI used
by PBP-PPI is somewhat different from the commonly used PPI in thesense that PPI must be performed on a band acquisition basis according
to the band sequential (BSQ) format. To accomplish this goal PPI should
be capable of calculating PPI counts sample by sample for any given setof skewers and in the mean time PPI can also process samples band byband. The proposed PBP-PPI is developed to meet these needs. One great
benefit resulting from PBP-PPI which PPI does not have is the progressive
profiles of PPI counts of data samples as more bands are included for dataprocessing. As a result, data analysts can use progressive changes in PPI
counts to identify significant bands for finding endmembers.

9501-30, Session 6

9501-28, Session 6

Collaborative representation for
hyperspectral image classification

Adaptive nearest feature space approachto remote sensing image classification

Wei Li, Beijng Univ. of Chemical Technology (China); Qian
Du, Mississippi State Univ. (United States)

Yang-Lang Chang, Min-Yu Huang, Zhen-Xian Wu, JyhPerng Fang, National Taipei Univ. of Technology (Taiwan);
Lena Chang, National Taiwan Ocean Univ. (Taiwan); Jiaji
Wu, Xidian University (China)

Sparse representation has been a popular classifier for hyperspectral image
classification, where a pixel under test is represented by labeled samples
with a sparseness constraint and it is assigned to the class whose labeled
samples produce the minimum representation residual. Such a classifier
does not have the traditional training and testing procedures, but cangenerate classification accuracy comparable to that of the classical support
vector machine. Deviated from the popularity of sparsity, we propose toimpose a collaborative constraint so that the representation coefficientstend to have a minimum L2 norm. Such a collaborative representation basedclassifier has a closed form solution, making it much more efficient than
the sparse representation based classifier and support vector machine.
Its classification performance is even better after imposing a similarity-

In this paper a novel technique based on nearest feature space (NFS),
known as adaptive nearest feature space (ANFS), is proposed for supervised
remote sensing image classification. The nearest feature space (NFS) has
been proven to be efficient for remote sensing image classification in recent
years. NFS feature space is constructed by three nearest labeled samplesof the same class, which can better handle the variations of the samples
than the well-known nearest feature line (NFL) as it can provide more
information to virtually enlarge the training samples set. Although NFS can
perform well for classification, in some instances, it decreases the efficiency

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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI
based regularization in representation. In this paper, we further discuss
the performance of the regularized collaborative representation basedclassifier by utilizing spatial information, including joint collaborative modeland weighted joint collaborative model, which can further improve its
classification accuracy.

9501-31, Session 7

The Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model is the most widely usedcommunity weather forecast and research model in the world. There are
two distinct varieties of WRF. The Advanced Research WRF (ARW) is anexperimental, advanced research version featuring very high resolution.
The WRF Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model (WRF-NMM) has been designed
for forecasting operations. WRF consists of dynamics code and several
physics modules. The ARW core is based on an Eulerian solver for the fullycompressible nonhydrostatic equations. In the paper, we will use Intel Intel
Many Integrated Core (MIC) architecture to increase the performance of
the ARW dynamics. It is the most time consuming part of the ARW. So, any
speed increase of dynamics will be also reflected of the overall speed of the
ARW. We will describe the challenges we met during the development of
a high-speed dynamics code subroutine for MIC architecture. Furthermore,lessons learned from the code optimization process will be discussed.

Xia Zhang, Lifu Zhang, Kun Shang, Yanli Sun, Institute ofRemote Sensing and Digital Earth (China)
There are two major problems of vegetation classification using
hyperspectral remote sensing (HRS) data. Classification results using only
spectral information can hardly meet the application requirements, as
the classes become more and more sophisticated. And the applicationof classification results is also limited due to the salt and pepper noise.
Therefore a classification strategy based on construction and optimizationof vegetation feature band set (FBS) is proposed. Besides the spectral andtexture features of original image, 30 spectral indices which are sensitive
to the biological parameters of vegetation are added into FBS in order toimprove the separability between different classes. A spectral dimension
optimization algorithm of FBS based on class-pair separability (CPS) is
also proposed. A spatial dimension optimization algorithm of FBS basedon neighborhood pixels’ spectral angle distance (NPSAD) is proposedso that detailed information can be kept during the image smoothing
process. The validation result based on airborne HRS image shows that the
proposed method can significantly improve the classification accuracy sothat the widespread application prospects in identification of crop species,
monitoring of invasive species and precision agriculture are expectable.

9501-34, Session 8

A super-resolution algorithm for degradedsatellite image
Ligen Peng, Xiaopeng Shao, Xidian Univ. (China); Qiuhua
Luo, School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering,
Xidian University (China); Lin Wang, Xiaodong Chen,
Xidian Univ. (China)

9501-32, Session 7

Accurate estimation of motion blurparameters in noisy remote sensing image
Xueyan Shi, Lin Wang, Xiaopeng Shao, Xidian Univ.
(China); Huilin Wang, Zhong Tao, Xi’an Institute of Applied
Optics North Electro-optics Group Co., Ltd (China)
The relative motion between remote sensing satellite sensor and objects is
one of the most common reasons for remote sensing image degradation.
It seriously weaken image data interpretation and information extraction.
In practice, point spread function (PSF) of a blurred image should be
estimated firstly for image restoration. Identifying motion blur direction andlength accurately is very crucial for estimating PSF and restoring the blurred
image with precision. In general, the regular light-and-dark stripes in the
motion blur image spectrum can be employed to obtain the parameters
by using Radon transform. However, serious noise existing in real remotesensing images often causes the light-and-dark stripes in the spectrum
unobvious. The motion blur parameters would be difficult to calculate andthe error of the result relatively big. In some case, the estimated values
even show great deviation from the actual ones. In this paper, an improved
motion blur parameter identification method to the noisy remote sensing
image is proposed to solve this problem. The spectrum characteristicof noisy remote sensing image is analyzed firstly. An interactive image
segmentation method based on graph theory is adopted to effectively
extract the edge of the light center in the spectrum. The motion blurdirection is estimated by applying Radon transform on the segmentation
result. In order to reduce random error, a method based on whole column
statistics is used during calculating the blur length. Finally, Lucy-Richardson
algorithm is applied to restore the remote sensing images of the moonafter estimating the blur parameters. The experimental results verify theeffectiveness and robustness of our algorithm.

SPIE DSS 2015

Further optimization of dynamics code of
the advanced research weather research
and forecasting (ARW) model for Intel
Xeon Phi
Jarno Mielikainen, Bormin Huang, Hung-Lung A. Huang,
Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States)

A vegetation classification method basedon optimization of feature band set using
hyperspectral remote sensing data464

9501-33, Session 7·

An effective algorithm for super resolution (SR) reconstruction of remotesensing image is proposed in this article, which first estimates point
spread function (PSF) of the degraded image from a knife edge and thenreconstructs a high resolution (HR) image from a set of low resolution(LR) images by utilizing the above estimated PSF with Bayesian superresolution (BSR) method. In this process, a knife edge, even irregular inshape, from which a high precision PSF can be obtained, is automaticallypicked up from many candidate edges according to the neighborhood
features of the image. Concerning that accurate estimation of sub-pixel
motion between the LR images would significantly affect the quality of
the reconstructed HR image, the BSR method which is robust to errors in
the estimation of the motion parameters is employed in this algorithm,
because it can simultaneously reconstruct the HR image and estimate themotion information of LR images. To suppress the artifacts and noise of
the HR image, the total variation (TV) method is applied in reconstruction
as well. The experiments show that the proposed approach can provide
useful high-frequency details for LR remote sensing images, which verifies
its effectiveness in SR reconstruction. Compared with low resolution image,the spatial resolution and the modulation transfer function (MTF) of thereconstructed HR image could be at least increased by 0.4 and
0.2, respectively.

9501-35, Session 8

Hyperspectral vital sign signal analysis for
medical data
Cheng Gao, Yao Li, Hsiao-Chi Li, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States); Peter F. Hu,
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Conference 9501: Satellite Data Compression,Communications, and Processing XI

9501-44, Session 8

The linear logistic regression model (LLRM) is a probabilistic statisticalclassification model which has been widely used for predicting the outcomeof a categorical dependent variable (i.e., a class label) based on one ormore predictor variables (features) via the logistic sigmoid function.
Unfortunately, it suffers from two major issues, (1) the data are generally
skewed and (2) training data are required to estimate parameters in LLRM.
This paper develops a complete new technology, called Hyperspectral Vital
Sign Signal Analysis (HyVSSA) from a hyperspectral imaging perspective.
A hyperspectral image is generally acquired by hundreds contiguous
spectral bands, each of which is an optical sensor specified by a particular
wavelength. As a result, a hyperspectral data vector is a column vector
whose components are signals produced by hundreds spectral bands.
Now if we consider each sensor which produces a particular spectral bandas a medical device to produce a patient’s particular vital sign signal ofinterest as the way signals acquired by a spectral band, a patient withvital sign signals (VSSs) measured by various medical devices can bethen represented by a hyperspectral data vector with each component
specified by a particular VSS as a spectral band and thus, the number ofhyperspectral data vectors to be processed becomes the number of patientsto be considered. In light of this interpretation a revolutionized concept
is developed, which translates medical data to hyperspectral data in sucha way that hyperspectral technology is readily applied to medical data
analysis. Consequently, new competing techniques and methods can befurther derived from hyperspecral technology as an alternative to LLRM to
be used in analyzing medical data. This paper explores this new technology
and its applications to medical data which are very generally skewed, forexample, prediction of outcomes of blood transfusion where abnormal
data is only very small portion of the entire data set and LLRM may not beeffective or inapplicable.

Error correction capability aware BCH
implementation for NAND flash memories
in Earth observation satellites
M. Fatih Aydogdu, TUBITAK UZAY (Turkey); Yakup Murat
Mert, TUBITAK BILGEM ILTAREN (Turkey)
In this paper, a parallel FPGA architecture implementing BCH error
correction for NAND flash memories in storage modules of Earthobservation satellites (EOS) is presented. In order to satisfy the error
correction requirements of NAND flash memories the designed module
is capable of correcting 4 erroneous bits in code words (CW) of 4148 bits
using shortened BCH (4148, 4096) algorithm. Besides the standard BCH
encoding and decoding procedure a code selection module is added to thearchitecture to guess whether or not the CW has more than 4 errors. If morethan 4 errors occurs in the CW the architecture understands that the CW is
uncorrectable and does not try to change any bits which will most probably
inject more errors to the CW. The design is implemented on a XC7VX485TFPGA from Virtex 7 series of Xilinx and with a 300 MHz system clock, it iscapable of encoding and decoding information at 4,78GBits/sec.

9501-36, Session 8

Dehazing method through polarimetric
imaging and multi-scale analysis
Lei Cao, Xiaopeng Shao, Fei Liu, Lin Wang, Xidian Univ.
(China)An approach utilizing polarimetric imaging and multi-scale analysis has
been developed to solve one problem that haze weather weakens theinterpretation of remote sensing as the result of poor visibility and short
detection range. On the one hand, the polarization effects of the airlightand the object radiance in the imaging procedure has been considered,then the inversion of haze-free image is able to be got through establishingpolarization hazy imaging model. On the other hand, one fact that objects
and haze possess different frequency distribution properties has beenemphasized. So multi-scale analysis through wavelet transform has been
employed to make it possible for low frequency components that haze
presents and high frequency coefficients that image details or edges
occupy are processed separately. Firstly, according to the measure of thepolarization feather by Stokes parameters, three linear polarimetric images(0°, 45°, and 90°) have been taken on haze weather, then the best polarized
image and the worst one can be synthesized. Secondly, those two polarized
images contaminated by haze have been decomposed into different spatial
layers with multi-scale analysis, and the low frequency images have beenprocessed via a polarization dehazing algorithm while high frequency
components manipulated with a nonlinear transform. Then the ultimate
haze-free image can be reconstructed. Experimental indices such as
effective detection range, image contrast, PSNR and image definition verify
that the dehazing method proposed in this study can strongly promote
image visibility and increase detection distance through haze for imaging
warning and remote sensing systems.

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466

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