2013
DefenseSecurity+
Sensing
29 April-3 May 2013

Technical Summaries
www.spie.org/dss

Location
Baltimore Convention Center
Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Conferences & Courses
29 April to 3 May 2013

Exhibition
30 April to 2 May 2013

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1

2013
Defense Security+Sensing
Baltimore Convention Center, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Symposium Chair

Symposium Co-chair
David A. Whelan, PhD
Boeing Defense,
Space, and Security

Kenneth R. Israel
Major General(USAF Retired)Contents
8704: Infrared Technology and Applications
XXXIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3
8705: Thermosense: Thermal Infrared
Applications XXXV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  31
8706: Infrared Imaging Systems: Design,
Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV. . . .  40
8707: Technologies for Synthetic Environments:
Hardware-in-the-Loop XVIII. . . . . . . . . . . .  48
8708: Window and Dome Technologies andMaterials XIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  51
8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive
Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII . . . .  59
8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear,and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV. . . .  74
8711: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I)
Technologies for Homeland Security andHomeland Defense XII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  898712: Biometric and Surveillance Technology for
Human and Activity Identification X . . . . .  98
8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems andApplications X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1048714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII . . . . . . . .  1158715: Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave
Imaging XVI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1288716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems
VII: Advanced Applications in Industry
and Defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1348717: Compressive Sensing II. . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1428718: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies X. . . . .  1498719: Smart Biomedical and PhysiologicalSensor Technology X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1558720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
Commercial, and Harsh
Environments IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1648721: Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality
and Safety V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  175

28722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X.  1828723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental
Monitoring III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1918724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V. . . . . .  2028725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V. . . . . . . . . .  2118726: Next-Generation Spectroscopic
Technologies VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2338727: Advanced Photon Counting
Techniques VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2428728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications IV .  2508729: Scanning Microscopies 2013: Advanced
Microscopy Technologies for Defense,
Homeland Security, Forensic, Life,
Environmental, and Industrial Sciences .  2598730: Flexible Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2648731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications
XVIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2688732: Atmospheric Propagation X. . . . . . . . . . .  2768733: Laser Technology for Defense andSecurity IX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2808734: Active and Passive Signatures IV. . . . . .  2898735: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays
XVIII: Design and Applications. . . . . . . . .  2958736: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VII. . . . .  2988737: Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced,
Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions
2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3028738: Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization,
and Display 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3078739: Sensors and Systems for Space
Applications VI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3158740: Motion Imagery Technologies, Best
Practices, and Workflows for Intelligence,
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR), andSituational Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  324

SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing 2013·

8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV. . . .  3288742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent
ISR IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3408743: Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral
Imagery XIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3488744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII. . . . .  3678745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, andTarget Recognition XXII. . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3768746: Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar
Imagery XX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3918747: Geospatial InfoFusion III . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3978748: Optical Pattern Recognition XXIV. . . . . .  4038749: Quantum Information andComputation XI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4088750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets,
Neural Net, Biosystems, andNanoengineering XI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4158751: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications
VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4248752: Modeling and Simulation for Defense
Systems and Applications VIII. . . . . . . . .  4288753: Wireless Sensing, Localization, andProcessing VIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4338754: Open Architecture/Open Business Model
Net-Centric Systems and Defense
Transformation 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4388755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2013 . . . . . . .  4408756: Multisensor, Multisource Information
Fusion: Architectures, Algorithms, andApplications 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4508757: Cyber Sensing 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4568758: Next-Generation Analyst. . . . . . . . . . . . .  460

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX
Monday - Friday 29–3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8704 Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-1, Session 1

8704-3, Session 1

Epitaxially passivated mesa-isolated InGaAs
photodetectors

A low-noise, extended dynamic range 1.3
Megapixel InGaAs array

John F. Klem, Jin K. Kim, Michael J. Cich, Samuel D. Hawkins,
Darin Leonhardt, Torben R. Fortune, Wesley T. Coon, Sandia
National Labs. (United States)

Wim Vereecken, Urbain Van Bogget, Thierry Colin, Rosa
M. Vinelli, Xenics NV (Belgium); Patrick J. Merken, Xenics
NV (Belgium) and Royal Military Academy (Belgium); Jan P.
Vermeiren, Xenics NV (Belgium)

Achieving low dark current in InGaAs photodiodes is dependent
on passivation of device sidewalls, which otherwise exhibit highconductance. Typically, high-performance devices are fabricated using
heterostructures with no exposed InGaAs surfaces, while contacts areformed through implant or diffusion processes. We have fabricatedlow-dark-current InGaAs photodetectors utilizing an epitaxial structure
incorporating an InAlGaAs passivation layer and a simple mesa isolation
process, and requiring no implant or diffusion steps. At 295 K, areal andperimeter dark current contributions are typically 15 nA/cm2 and 10 pA/
cm, respectively, in devices with large aspect ratios biased at -0.1 V. Fullresponsivity is achieved even at zero bias in these devices. These results
are comparable to state-of-the-art devices fabricated by other processes.

Xenics has designed and manufactured a 1280*1024 pixel, 17 µm pitch
InGaAs array for SWIR imaging in the [0.9 – 1.7 µm] range. It will reporton the first characterisation results of the device.
As usual for this type of room temperature operated SWIR image
sensors, the detector interface is based on a CTIA stage, yielding
excellent linearity, a low detector bias and hence a low and stable darkcurrent combined with low image lag. The charge to voltage conversion
factor is 53 µV/e-.
The pixel interface scheme contains a CDS circuit in order to reduce
the kTC noise and common mode effects. The noise is expected tobe below 30 e-rms in linear mode, resulting in a dynamic range > 60
dB. Additionally the linear dynamic range is complemented with a highdynamic range logarithmic response with a saturation level > 5 nA/pixel.

Devices were modeled using a commercial drift-diffusion simulator. Good
fits to reverse dark current-voltage measurements were obtained usinga model that included both bulk and interfacial generation mechanisms.
With small reverse bias, dark current is consistent with generation at theinterface between the absorber and underlying layers. A large increase
in dark current is associated with depletion near the InAlGaAs/absorberinterface, while small increases in current at large reverse bias suggest
long Shockley-Read-Hall lifetimes in the absorber. Forward biasing ofthese devices results in efficient injection of minority carrier holes into theabsorber region, mimicking photogeneration, while providing a method toestimate hole diffusion length and predict the performance of illuminateddetector arrays.

The information in the pixel matrix can be read via 2, 4 or 8 outputs,
yielding a maximum full frame rate between 50 and 200 Hz. Each output
is operating at 40 MHz pixel rate. The outputs are differential with acommon mode voltage of 1.5 V and an adjustable output swing of 2
Vptp. Nevertheless the power dissipation shall be below 400-600 mW.

8704-4, Session 1

Low-power advancements for a 1.3 Mpixel
SWIR imaging platform

8704-2, Session 1

Michael Delamere, Robert Rozploch, Jonathan Nazemi, Andrew
Eckhardt, UTC Aerospace Systems (United States)

SWIR InGaAs focal plane arrays in France
Anne Rouvié, Odile Huet, Sébastien Hamard, Jean-Patrick
Truffer, Maxime Pozzi, Jean Decobert, Eric M. Costard, AlcatelThales III-V Lab. (France); Michel Zecri, Patrick Maillart, Yann
Reibel, Alexandra Pécheur, SOFRADIR (France)

No abstract available.

SWIR detection band benefits from natural (sun, night glow, thermalradiation) or artificial (eye safe lasers) photons sources combined to
low atmospheric absorption and specific contrast compared to visible
wavelengths. It gives the opportunity to address a large spectrum of
applications such as defense and security (night vision, active imaging),
space (earth observation), transport (automotive safety) or industry (nondestructive process control).

Eye-safe active Vis SWIR imaging for highly
portable tactical applications

InGaAs material appears as a good candidate to satisfy SWIR detectionneeds. The lattice matching with InP constitutes a double advantage
to this material: attractive production capacity and uncooled operation
thanks to low dark current level induced by high quality material.

A recent emphasis on low light, passive SWIR imaging has driven
the advancement of sensor technology, resulting in reduced detector
dark current and ROIC read noise. However, there are often imaging
scenarios where passive SWIR imaging can be challenging, requiresignificant SWaP, or even be completely impossible. In this paper we
present FLIR Electro Optical Components’ system level approach to
SWIR imaging that provides benefits of reduced SWaP and enhanced
operational capabilities. This includes an un cooled or TEC-stabilized
advanced, low power VGA SWIR sensor with a 15 um pitch coupled withan eye safe, high power, low-speckle SWIR illuminator with adaptabledivergence angles for search and identification tasks. We will present
system level performance comparisons of these ensembles comparedto those of passive, TEC-cooled systems. The comparison will outline
the advantages of an eye safe, active SWIR solution for highly versatile,
portable applications.

8704-5, Session 1

Andrew Hood, David Follman, Paula Heu, Jonathan C. Geske,
Chad Wang, Falgun D. Patel, Peter Dalmatoff, Fedor Talantov,
FLIR Electro-Optical Components (United States)

For few years, III-VLab has been studying InGaAs imagery, gatheringexpertise in InGaAs material growth and imaging technology respectively
from Alcatel-Lucent and Thales, its two mother companies. This work has
lead to put quickly on the market a 320x256 InGaAs module, exhibiting
high performances in terms of dark current, uniformity and quantum
efficiency.
More recently, III-VLab is developing in close collaboration with
SOFRADIR the next SWIR InGaAS product generation like VGA formats
in both 25µm and 15µm pitch.
In this paper, we present the last developments achieved in France andthe foreseen road map for decreasing the pitch of the arrays as well.

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3Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-6, Session 1

8704-8, Session 2

IR CMOS: infrared enhanced silicon imager

High-performance and long-range cooled IR
technologies in France (Invited Paper)

Martin U. Pralle, James E. Carey III, Homayoon Haddad, SiOnyx
Inc. (United States)
SiOnyx has developed visible and infrared CMOS image sensors andcameras leveraging a proprietary ultrafast laser semiconductor process
technology. This technology demonstrates 10 fold improvements ininfrared sensitivity over incumbent imaging technology while maintaining
complete compatibility with standard CMOS image sensor process flows.
Furthermore, these sensitivity enhancements are achieved on a focal
plane with state of the art noise performance of 2 electrons/pixel. By
capturing light in the visible regime as well as infrared light from the night
glow, this sensor technology provide imaging in daytime through twilightand into nighttime conditions. The measured 10x quantum efficiency
at the critical 1064 nm YAG laser node enables see spot imaging
capabilities in a variety of ambient conditions. The spectral sensitivity isfrom 400 to 1200 nm. Imaging performance metrics will be discussed.
Demonstrated performance characteristics:
Pixel size : 5.6 & 10 um

Cooled IR technologies that offer high performances are at the top of
DEFIR’s priority list.
We have been pursuing further infrared developments on future MWIR
detectors, such as the VGA format HOT detector that operates at 150K
and the 10µm pitch IR detector which gives us a leading position ininnovation In the same time Scorpio LW expands Sofradir’s line of small
pixel pitch TV format IR detectors from the mid-wavelength to the longwavelength, broadening the performance attributes of its long wave IR
product line.
Finally, our dual band MW-LW QWIP detectors (25µm, 384×288 pixels)
benefit to tactical platforms giving an all-weather performance andincreasing flexibility in the presence of battlefield obscurants.

Array size: SVGA, 720P and SXGA
Frame rate: 60 Hz
Read noise: 2 ele/pixel
Spectral sensitivity: 400 to 1200 nm (with 10x QE at 1064nm)
Daytime imaging: color (Bayer pattern)
Nighttime imaging: down below ? moon conditions
1064nm laser imaging: below 10 uJ in room light conditions

These detectors are designed for long-range surveillance equipment,commander or gunner sights, ground-to-ground missile launchers andother applications that require higher resolution and sensitivity to improvereconnaissance and target identification. This paper discusses thesystem level performance in each detector type.

8704-9, Session 2

8704-7, Session 2

High-performance IR detector modules forArmy applications (Invited Paper)
Holger Lutz, Rainer Breiter, Stefan Rutzinger, Timo Schallenberg,
Joachim C. Wendler, Johann Ziegler, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE
GmbH (Germany)
Since many years AIM delivers IR-modules for army applications likepilotage, weapon sights, UAVs or vehicle platforms. State-of-the-art
640x512, 15µm pitch detector modules are in production in manifold
configurations optimized for specific key requirements on systemlevel. This is possible due to a modular design, which is best suited
to meet the diversity of system needs in army applications. Examples
are optimization of detector-dewar length for gimbal applications, size
weight and power reduction for UAVs or lifetime enhancement for vehicle
platforms.
In 2012 AIM presented first prototypes of megapixel detectors(1280x1024, 15µm pitch) for both spectral bands MWIR and LWIR.
These large format detector arrays fulfill the demand for higher spatial
resolution, which is requested for applications like rotorcraft pilotage,
persistent surveillance or tasks like determination of threat level inpersonnel targets. Recently, a new tactical dewar has been developed forthe 1280x1024 detector arrays. It is designed to withstand environmental
stresses and, at the same time, to quest for a compact overall package.
Furthermore, the idea of a modular design will be even more emphasized.
Integration of different cooler types, like AIM’s SX095 or rotary integral,will be possible without modification of the dewar.
The paper will present development status of large format IR-modules at
AIM as well as performance data and configuration considerations withrespect to army applications.

4

Yann Reibel, Thibault Augey, Sebastien Verdet, David BillonLanfrey, SOFRADIR (France); Gérard L. Destéfanis, CEALETI-Minatec (France); Eric M. Costard, Alexandru Nedelcu,
SOFRADIR (France); Laurent Mollard, Francois Marion, Nicolas
Baier, CEA-LETI (France); Olivier Gravrand, CEA-LETI-Minatec(France)

Advantages of SWIR-VIS detection means for
self-protection suites (Invited Paper)
Gil A. Tidhar, Elta Systems Ltd. (Israel)
Optical detection means are required for immediate detection of anddirection finding towards launch events of projectiles, rockets, guided
missiles and other types of threats. Their operation requires highprobability of detection, very low false alarm rate and simple installationof ground vehicles operating in military type scenarios and conditions.
H/W complexity and performance gaps have limited wide proliferationof such means to date. We indicate how multi-band low cost and low
complexity SWIR-NIR-VIS detection means may provide for an optimal
technical solution - with large probability and range of detection, lowfalse alarm rate even when operating in dense man-made interfering
environment with simple and rugged design.

8704-10, Session 2

Wide field-of-view dual-band multispectral
muzzle flash detection (Invited Paper)
Joseph R. Montoya, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Lawrence A. Taplin, FluxData, Inc. (United States); Jorge Melchor
Jr., U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Pano Spiliotis,
FluxData, Inc. (United States)
Sensor technologies are undergoing revolutionary advances, as seen in
the rapid growth of multispectral methodologies. Increases in spatial,
spectral, and temporal resolution, and in breadth of spectral coverage,
render feasible sensors that function with unprecedented performance.
A system was developed that addresses many of the key hardware
requirements for a practical dual-band multispectral acquisition system,
including wide field of view and spectral/temporal shift between dual
bands. The system was designed using a novel dichroic beam splitterand dual band-pass filter configuration that creates two side-by-side

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

images of a scene on a single sensor. A high-speed CMOS sensor
was used to simultaneously capture data from the entire scene in both
spectral bands using a short focal-length lens that provided a wide fieldof-view. The beam-splitter components were arranged such that the two
images were maintained in optical alignment and real-time intra-bandprocessing could be carried using only simple arithmetic on the image
halves. An experiment related to limitations of the system to address
multispectral detection requirements was done. This characterized thesystem’s low spectral variation across its wide field of view. This reportwill provide lessons learned on the general limitation of key hardware
components required for multispectral muzzle flash detection, using thesystem as a hardware example combined with simulated multispectral
muzzle flash and background signatures.

KiloLambda’s Wideband Protection Filter (WPF) product is a wideband,
angle of impingement independent, solid-state filter that protects
sensors, cameras and the human eye from over power laser threats.
We propose, based on our proven technologies, a novel technology forprotection of SWIR cameras against laser threats.

8704-14, Session 3

A modular packaging approach for upgradingtanks with thermal imagers (Invited Paper)
Mario O. Münzberg, Bertram Achtner, Jörg Fritze, Dirk Weisser,
Markus Welk, Cassidian Optronics GmbH (Germany)

8704-11, Session 3

The thermal imager ATTICA was designed to fit into the thermal sightsof the new German Infantry tank PUMA. The very flexible approach forthe optical concept, using different folding mirrors allows to meet thedifferent available space requirements for thermal sights also of othertanks like the main battle tank Leopard 2 and the infantry fighting vehicle
Marder. These tanks are going to be upgraded in near future. The flexible
concepts of the thermal imager optics is realized by appropriate locationof lenses, mirrors and micro scanner. The mechanical packing solutions
for the different space volumes of the commander periscope and thegunner sights of the vehicles are presented and discussed.

OTHELLO: a novel SWIR dual-band detection
system and its applications (Invited Paper)
Gil A. Tidhar, Elta Systems Ltd. (Israel)
A fourth generation of SWIR based optical detection and warning means
is presented as the EL/O – 5220 OTHELLO passive Optical Threat
Locator, which detects and precisely finds directions towards a source of
battle tank gun fire and missile (e.g. Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGMs)
Rocket Propelled Grenades (RPGs)) launch events in the battlefield.
OTHELLO hardware is described followed by an explanation of someinherent advantages of SWIR imagers as building blocks for opticaldetection systems mounted on ground military vehicles at harsh anddemanding operating conditions. Finally we describe possible applicationof OTHELLO with radar systems.

8704-15, Session 3

8704-12, Session 3

John L. Miller, FLIR Systems, Inc. (United States)

A miniature ruggedised fast frame rate
infrared sensor module for hostile fire
detection and industrial applications (Invited
Paper)

Requirements such as FOV, frame rate, data latency and sensitivity andchallenges for vehicle mounted Infrared Sensors will be detailed andanalyzed, especially as imagers evolve to High definition Format. The
impact of HD formats and data rates will be presented. Lessons Learned
from integrations of infrared sensors on armored vehicles, unarmoredmilitary vehicles and commercial automobiles will be discussed.
Comparisons between sensors for driving and those for situation
awareness, targeting and other functions will be presented. Conclusions
will be drawn regarding future applications and installations.

Challenges and requirements for future
vehicle mounted infrared sensors (Invited
Paper)

Richard M. Ash, Andrew P. Ashcroft, Peter M. Thorne, Lee
Richardson, David Isgar, David Jeckells, Martin Stevens, Asim
Malik, Tim Davey, SELEX Galileo Infrared Ltd. (United Kingdom)
A highly ruggedised infra-red sensor assembly has been developed
which is suitable for a variety of fast framing (1000 fps) applications inhostile fire detection and in commercial/industrial metrology. The sensor
has a 384x384 element array and offers high operability in either midwave or long-wave IR applications. The paper will report design concepts
and performance data.

8704-16, Session 4

Development of a panoramic third generation
IRST: initial study and experimental work
(Invited Paper)
Gianni Barani, SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy); Cristian Luison, Altran
Italy S.p.A. (Italy); Monica Olivieri, SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy);
Alessandro Rossi, Marco Diani, Univ. di Pisa (Italy); Nicola Acito,
Accademia Navale di Livorno (Italy)

8704-13, Session 3

Protecting SWIR cameras from laser threats(Invited Paper)

The paper introduces the analysis carried out by SelexGalileo for thedevelopment of a third generation IRST system based on large format
MWIR sensors, separable in blue and red bands. In the feasibility study,
physical constraints have been evaluated relying to different optics andscanning options.

Ariela Donval, Tali Fisher, Ofir Lipman, Moshe Oron, KiloLambda
Technologies, Ltd. (Israel)
SWIR cameras offer the advantage of higher resolution and smaller
optical systems than conventional mid and far infrared optical systems.
With the ability of seeing at low illumination conditions at the near infrared
region, it can provide the detection of covert lasers. The ability of laser
detection introduces the risk of sensor damage when the laser power isabove a certain threat level. Smart protection is therefore needed, thatis transparent for low laser intensities and limit or block the high laser
intensities, and is effective over a wide band of wavelengths.

The analysis has led to consider a solution in which three or four heads
are employed to cover 360° with a resolution better than 0.3 mrad, witha frame-rate of 10 Hz. Each head has a staring IR detector on which an
optomechanical device steers the incoming radiation. For the purpose offurnishing a panoramic view of each scanned FOR, two critical aspects
have been discussed: (i) the setting of an adequate scanning mechanism
to assure an overall system frame-rate of 10 Hz and (ii) the stitchingof the collected images while maintaining the bit-depth so as to avoid
abrupt changes of SNR at the seams between two subsequent images.

KiloLambda developed Optical Power Control (OPC) devices that
reduce laser power threat to a safe level for various optical systems.

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5Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

To address the issue of stitching IR images sensed on a maritime
scenario, an acquisition system composed of two MWIR cameras
has been assembled and mounted on a rotating platform. This set up
allows the synchronous acquisition of images from the two cameras.
A measurement campaign has been held on board ship to address thestitching of images collected in different operating conditions. Criticalaspects concerning both the optics configuration and the scanningsystem are discussed as well as the software processing developed forthe composition of plain panoramic images.

8704-17, Session 4

Sea Spotter - A fully staring naval IRST
system (Invited Paper)
Michael Y. Engel, Amir Navot, Izhak Saban, Yaakov Engel, Eyal
Arad, Nir Shahar, Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. (Israel)

8704-19, Session 4

A review of the latest developments of MCT
infrared technology from visible to VLWIR for
space applications at Sofradir (Invited Paper)
Philippe Chorier, Patricia Pidancier, Nicolas Jamin, Bruno Fièque,Cédric Leroy, SOFRADIR (France)
For the last ten years, Sofradir space activity has grown andstrengthened relying on 25 years of experience in development andproduction of 2nd and 3rd generation MCT infrared detectors. Based on
this experience, Sofradir is conducting major space programs covering
all the wavelength range from visible to VLWIR as Sentinel projects inthe frame of the GMES program or MTG detectors development andmanufacturing for the future European meteorological satellites of third
generation. Thus Sofradir is conducting new developments of MCT
infrared detectors such as :Infrared sensor technology, high performance computing hardware
and advanced detection and tracking algorithms have enabled a newgeneration of infrared warning systems for navy surface vessels. In
this paper we describe SEASPOTTER - a new third-generation naval
IRST system, which is unique in offering a fully staring electro-opticalimaging head. Starting from naval IRST operational requirements, forboth blue water and littoral scenarios, we describe the considerations
and constraints that led us to the optical configuration of the sensor
head and the supporting hardware. The second part of the paper isdedicated to the target acquisition methodology, including the use oforiginally developed machine learning technology for target acquisition
and tracking.

- a new generation of SWIR hyperspectral detectors with a format of
1024x1024 / 15 µm pitch

8704-18, Session 48704-20, Session 5

Hyperspectral reconnaissance in urban
environment (Invited Paper)

Miniaturized day/night sight in Soldato Futuro
programIngmar G. Renhorn, Maria Axelsson, Swedish Defence Research
Agency (Sweden); Koen W. Benoist, TNO Defence, Security
and Safety (Netherlands); Dirk Borghys, Royal Belgian Military
Academy (Belgium); Yann G. Boucher, Xavier Briottet, ONERA(France); Rob J. Dekker, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands); Alwin Dimmeler, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany); Ola Friman,
Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden); Ingebjørg Kåsen,Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (Norway); Maria
Lomoro, Ctr. Interforze Studi per le Applicazioni Militari (Italy);
Thomas O. Opsahl, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment(Norway); Mark van Persie, National Aerospace Lab. NLR(Netherlands); Salvatore Resta, Ctr. Interforze Studi per leApplicazioni Militari (Italy); Hendrik Schilling, Fraunhofer-Institut
für Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany);
Piet B. W. Schwering, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands); Michal Shimoni, Royal Belgian Military Academy(Belgium)

Alberto Landini, Altran Italy S.p.A. (Italy); Alessandro Cocchi,
Stefano Puntri, Mirela Cojocaru, SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy);
Mauro Sardelli, Selex ES S.p.A. (Italy)

For hyperspectral imagery sensors, the signal processing includes
atmospheric characterisation and correction, spectral properties
retrievals, feature extraction based on physics and phenomenology forthe purpose of detection and classification algorithms development.
High resolution sensor data are used for classification and identification.
Processing for trafficability, mission planning and mapping, detections of
IEDs, change detection, tracking and rediscovery of vehicles, detectionof people and vehicles in hide is in progress. The purpose of the effort isto explore and develop the potential benefit of combined high spatial andspectral resolution airborne imagery for several defence applications in
the urban areas.

6- optimization of MCT performances for VLWIR spectral range aiming at
new sounding missions- developments of new infrared detectors for MTG program
In this paper, a review of the main space programs conducted by Sofradiris presented. A particular emphasis is made on the last developments
concerning a new generation of visible – SWIR large format detector
with low pixel pitch (1024x1024 / 15 µm pitch), last results regarding
MCT VLWIR technology for sounding applications and new MCT infrared
detectors for earth observation.

The market of the sights for the 5.56 mm assault rifles is dominated bymainly three types of systems: TWS (Thermal Weapon Sight), the Pocket
Scope with Weapon Mount and the Clip-on.
The latter are designed primarily for special forces and snipers use, while
the TWS design is triggered mainly by the DRI (Detection, Recognition,
Identification) requirements. The Pocket Scope design is focused on
respecting the SWaP (Size, Weight and Power dissipation) requirements.
Compared to the TWS systems, for the last two years there was asignificant technological growth of the Pocket Scope/Weapon Mountsolutions, concentrated on the compression of the overall dimensions.
The trend for the assault rifles is the use of small size/light weight(SWaP) IR sights, suitable mainly for close combat operations but also
for extraordinary use as pocket scopes – handheld or helmet mounted.
The latest developments made by Selex Galileo S.p.A. are responding
precisely to the above-mentioned trend, through a miniaturized Day/Nightsight embedding state-of-the art sensors and using standard protocols(USB 2.0, Bluetooth 4.0) for interfacing with PDAs, Wearable computers,
etc., while maintaining the “shoot around the corner” capability.
Indeed, inside the miniaturized Day/Night sight architecture, a wirelesslink using Bluetooth technology has been implemented to transmit thevideo streaming of the rifle sight to an helmet mounted display. The
video of the rifle sight is transmitted only to the eye-piece of the soldier
shouldering the rifle.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-21, Session 5

In a typical design of a portable infrared imager, the Integrated DetectorDewar-Cooler Assembly (IDDCA) is directly mounted upon the metal
enclosure accommodating optical train and serving as the optical bench
and heat sink. Excitation of structural resonances in such enclosuresresults in excessive noise generation compromising the aural stealth,especially during the cooldown (boost) phase of operation.

Next-generation cooled long-range thermalsights with minimum size, weight, and power
Rainer Breiter, Tobias Ihle, Joachim C. Wendler, Ingo Rühlich,
Johann Ziegler, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany)

Reducing/preloading the above clearances in the mechanical linkages,
is not always feasible and leads to the increased manufacturing costs,
mechanical complexity, added weight and size, power consumption andnegatively affects the life expectancy.

Situational awareness and precise targeting at day, night and severe
weather conditions are key elements for mission success in asymmetricwarfare. To support these capabilities for the dismounted soldier, AIM hasdeveloped a family of stand-alone thermal weapon sights based on highperformance cooled IR-modules which are used e.g. in the infantrymanof the future program of the German army (IdZ). The design driver forthese sights is a long ID range >1500m for the NATO standard target tocover the operational range of a platoon with the engagement range of.50 cal rifles, 40mm AGLs or for reconnaissance tasks. The most recent
sight WBZG has just entered into serial production for the IdZ Enhanced
System of the German army with additional capabilities like a wirelessdata link to the soldier backbone computer.

The paper presents the complex approach to a design of aural nondetectable infrared imagers, relying on for mounting IDDCA upon
the imager enclosure using silent pad. The author reports on thedevelopment of improved silent pad capable of serving wide range ofhigh-speed rotary integral coolers. In particular
The demonstration imager relying on Ricor K562S cryocooler meets themost stringent requirement to 10 meters aural non-detectability distance(per MIL-STD 1474D, Level II) even during boost cooldown phase ofoperation.

Minimum size, weight and power (SWaP) are most critical requirements
for the dismounted soldiers’ equipment and sometimes push a decision
towards uncooled equipment with marginal performance referring to theoutstanding challenges in current asymmetric warfare, e.g. the capability
to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants in adequate
ranges.

8704-24, Session 6

High-performance bias-selectable dualband mid-/long-wavelength infrared
photodetectors and focal plane arrays basedon InAs/GaSb Type-II superlattices (Invited
Paper)

To provide the uncompromised e/o performance with SWaP parameters
close to uncooled, AIM has developed a new thermal weapon sightbased on high operating temperature (HOT) MCT MWIR FPAs together
with a new low power single piston stirling cooler. The core of the sightis put as a clip-on in front of the rifle scope, eye pieces for stand-alone
targeting with e.g. AGLs or a bi ocular version for relaxed surveillance areavailable.

Manijeh Razeghi, Abbas Haddadi, Anh Minh Hoang, Guanxi A.
Chen, Northwestern Univ. (United States)

The paper will present details of the technologies applied for such longrange cooled sights with size, weight and power close to uncooled.

High performance dual-band infrared imaging is a very powerful toolfor different military applications, such as tracking and reconnaissancemissions, and civilian safety. In this paper, we report demonstration ofhigh-performance mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) and long-wavelength
infrared (LWIR) dual-band photodetector and focal plane array (FPA)
based on InAs/GaSb Type-II superlattices. At 150K, the MWIR channel,
with a 4.83 µm cut-off wavelength, exhibits a quantum efficiency of
52% and the specific detectivitity of 8.8×1011 Jones, with a differential
resistance-area product of 802 Ωcm2 at zero bias (R0A). At 77K, the
LWIR channel, with an 11 µm cut-off wavelength, exhibits a quantum
efficiency of 50% and the specific detectivitity of 7×1011 Jones. Under
back-side illumination, a temperature evolution study of the MWIR
detector’s electro-optical performance found the 300K background-limit
to be achieved below operating temperatures of 160K for a 50% cut-off
wavelength of 5.2µm, and the measured current reached the system limitof 0.1pA at 110K for 30µm pixel-sized diodes.

8704-22, Session 5

Infrared signature reduction of military andlaw enforcement uniforms
Than Emery, Milliken & Company (United States); Rene Schwarz,
SSZ Camouflage Technology AG (Switzerland)
Uniform fabric is treated as part of the manufacturing process with a finecoating containing low emissive properties. This results in low-emissive
surfaces with significant reduction of the thermal IR signature.
The fabric can be printed and finished using standard industrial textile
production methods.

Fire Resistant fabric properties can be included as in regular FR clothing.

A highly selective dual-band MWIR/LWIR co-located FPA with 3µm active
region thickness per channel was demonstrated. It can perform imaging
under high operating temperatures (HOT) for the MWIR band. Excellent
imagery from the dual-band imager exemplifying pixel coincidence isshown.

8704-23, Session 5

The authors would like to acknowledge support and encouragement of
Dr. Fenner Milton, Dr. Meimei Tidrow, Dr. Joseph Pellegrino, and Dr. Bill
Clark from the U.S. Army NVESD.

Fabric maintains breathing and evaporation qualities and does not limit
soldiers in their action in any way.

Aural stealth of portable HOT infrared imager

8704-26, Session 6

Alexander Veprik, RICOR-Cryogenic & Vacuum Systems (Israel)

Thiol passivation of MWIR Type II superlatticephotodetectors

Improving SWAP indices and cooldown times of the integral rotary
cryogenic coolers of the future HOT infrared imagers will primarily rely
on increasing driving speed during boosted cooldown and temperature
control operational phases.

Omer Salihoglu, Abdullah Muti, Atilla Aydinli, Bilkent Univ.
(Turkey)

The immediate penalty is the increased vibration export resulting from
intensification of piston side slaps and micro collisions occurring in the
numerous clearances inherent for the crank-slide linkages as typicallyused to transform rotary motion of the driver into the linear reciprocationof compression and expansion pistons.

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Poor passivation on photodetectors can result in catastrophic failure of
the device. Abrupt termination of mesa side walls during pixel definition
generates dangling bonds that lead to inversion layers and surface traps
leading to surface leakage currents that short circuit diode action. Good·

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7

Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

passivation, therefore, is critical in the fabrication of high performancedevices. Silicondioxide has been the main stay of passivation forcommercial photodetectors, deposited at high temperatures and high RF
powers using plasma deposition techniques. In photodetectors based on
III-V compounds, sulphur passivation has been shown to replace oxygenand saturate the dangling bonds. Despite its effectiveness, it degrades
over time. More effort is required to create passivation layers which
eliminate surface leakage current.
In this work, we propose the use of sulphur based octadecanethiol (ODT),CH3(CH2)17SH, as a passivation layer for the InAs/GaSb superlatticephotodetectors that acts as a self assembled monolayer (SAM). ODTSAMs consist of a chain of 18 carbon atoms with a sulphur atom at
its head. ODT Thiol coating is a simple process that consist of dipping
the sample into the solution for a prescribed time. Excellent electricalperformance of diodes tested confirm the effectiveness of the sulphur
head stabilized by the intermolecular interaction due to van der Walls
forces between the long chains of ODT SAM which results in highly
stable ultrathin hydrocarbon layers without long term degradation.

8704-28, Session 6

Defects and noise in Type-II superlattice
infrared detectors
Martin Walther, Andreas Wörl, Volker Daumer, Robert H. Rehm,
Lutz Kirste, Frank Rutz, Johannes Schmitz, Fraunhofer-Institut
für Angewandte Festkörperphysik (Germany); Ralf Scheibner,
Johann Ziegler, AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany)
InAs/GaSb short-period superlattices (SL) have been proven to be well
suited for high performance infrared imaging system for the MWIR and
LWIR spectral range. Mono- and bi-spectral focal plane arrays (FPA) withexcellent infrared imaging properties have been demonstrated. To further
improve the performance of those detectors, a detailed knowledge ofdifferent defect generation mechanisms during the fabrication process aswell as related noise properties is mandatory.

exponential decays, which provide information on background carriers,
acceptor states and trap states. The temperature dependence of the
lifetime is used to determine the contributions of different recombination
mechanisms to the observed carrier lifetime. T2SLs are expected
to exhibit lower Auger recombination rates than HgCdTe detectors
and possess a smaller thermal generation rate than QWIP detectors.
In practice, TRPL measurements have shown that InAs/Ga(1-x)In(x)Sb T2SLs are dominated by non-radiative Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH)
recombination, resulting in short minority carrier lifetimes (10’s ofnanoseconds at 77 K). The trap energy and density are obtained from
TRPL measurements on n-type InAs/Ga(1-x)In(x)Sb T2SLs, where trap
saturation is observed under sufficiently high injection levels over a rangeof temperatures. Measurements of “Ga free” InAs/InAs(1-x)Sb(x) T2SLs
exhibit contributions from both radiative and non-radiative (both SRH
and Auger) recombination, with radiative recombination dominating at
low temperatures. This material demonstrates an order-of-magnitudeimprovement in carrier lifetime, which is attributed to the reductionof non-radiative recombination centers from the superlattice with theelimination of Ga. This result suggests that the SRH trap(s) limiting thecarrier lifetime of InAs/Ga(1-x)In(x)Sb T2SLs is native to the Ga(1-x)In(x)Sb layer.

8704-30, Session 6

Designs and characteristics of infrared nBn
photodectors based on InAs/InAsSb type-II
superlattices
Zhao-Yu He, Oray O. Cellek, Shi Liu, Ha Sul Kim, Jin Fan,
Zhiyuan Lin, Yong-Hang Zhang, Arizona State Univ. (UnitedStates)Dark current and noise measurements on LWIR and MWIR diodestructures at 77 K have been carried out with a measurement setup to
investigate noise properties of single detector elements. Both for MWIR
and LWIR detectors we observe a generation-recombination limited darkcurrent behavior without contributions by surface leakage currents. In
the white noise part of the noise spectrum, the extracted diode noise
closely matches the theoretically expected shot noise behavior for diodes
reaching the bulk dark current limit.

Antimony-based type-II superlattice (T2SL) is strong alternative to
HgCdTe for IR detector applications in both MWIR and LWIR range.
Recently, a major breakthrough on minority carrier lifetime greater than
500 ns for long-wave Ga-free InAs/InAsSb T2SLs has been reported,which is more than one order of magnitude longer than that of InAs/
GaSb T2SL, indicating potentially better photodetector performance andhigher operating temperature. High performance devices require both low
dark current and high quantum efficiency. Although a thicker layer offers
potentially higher quantum efficiency, it also results in higher dark current.
Therefore, a trade-off between low dark current and high responsivity isneeded to optimize the overall device performance. To comprehensively
study this issue, a series of nBn MW and LWIR photodetectors withdifferent absorber layer thicknesses and doping concentrations havebeen designed, fabricated and characterized. Dark current densities
as low as 5×10-4 A/cm2 have been achieved for devices with a 50%
cutoff wavelength of 13.2 µm at 77 K. A theoretical model is developed
to interpret the device characteristics and a good agreement has beenachieved between the calculated dark currents and the experimental
results. Detailed modeling results and device characteristics, suchas dark current, external quantum efficiency, detectivity, and BLIP
temperatures will be presented at the conference.

8704-29, Session 6

8704-31, Session 7

Time-resolved photoluminescence
spectroscopy of minority carrier lifetime
in Type-II superlattice infrared detectormaterials

Electronic transport in InAs/GaSb typeII superlattices detector structures with
reduced sidewall leakage

To examine defects in InAs/GaSb Type II superlattices, GaSb substrates
and epitaxial InAs/GaSb layers were analyzed by synchrotron white beam
X-ray topography (SWBXRT) to characterize the distribution of threading
dislocations. Those measurements are compared with wet chemical etchpit density measurements on GaSb substrates and on epitaxial layer
structures. The technique uses a wet chemical etch process to decorate
threading dislocations and an automated optical analyzing system for
mapping the defect distribution.

Blair C. Connelly, Grace D. Metcalfe, Paul H. Shen, Michael
Wraback, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) spectroscopy is used to
study the minority carrier lifetime in type-II superlattice (T2SL) infrared
detector materials to investigate the recombination mechanisms
and trap states that currently limit their performance. Time-domain
measurements of the photoluminescence signal demonstrate multiple

8

Gilberto A. Umana-Membreno, Hemendra Kala, The Univ.
of Western Australia (Australia); Brianna Klein, Ctr. for HighTechnology Materials (United States); Jarek Antoszewski, The
Univ. of Western Australia (Australia); Nutan Gautam, Maya
N. Kutty, Elena Plis, Sanjay Krishna, Ctr. for High Technology
Materials (United States); Lorenzo Faraone, The Univ. of Western
Australia (Australia)

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIXIn this work, we report recent results on the characterization of verticaland longitudinal electronic transport parameters in InAs/GaSb type- IIsuperlattices for infrared detectors. The samples studied were grownby molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) on GaSb substrates. Top and bottom
heavily p-type doped layers were employed as ohmic contacts regions
to a lightly doped p-type “absorber”-like superlattice region consistingof 300 superlattice periods, each defined by 14 monolayers (ML) of
InAs and 7 ML of GaSb. The composition and doping of this region
are similar to the absorber region of long-wave IR detectors in thismaterial system [1,2]. Vertical electronic transport characterization
was performed on circular geometry test-structures, in a configuration
similar to standard normal incidence single pixel photodiodes, whichwere realized employing wet chemical etching to minimize the influence
sidewall leakage currents. Longitudinal transport parameters wereobtained employing a greek-cross Van-der-Pauw test-structuresfabricated on the same wafer die. Magnetic-field dependent geometricalmagnetoresistance, for the vertical configuration, and resistivity and Halleffect measurements were measured from 80 to 300K, at magnetic field
intensities up to 12 Tesla, which were analyzed using a high-resolution
mobility spectrum technique.

% cutoff at 5 µm and 65 % quantum efficiency without antireflective
coating. The dark current density is 3×10-6 A/cm2 at -0.05 V bias
and 120 K. The optical cavity of the detector has been optimized for
maximum capture of available light in the MWIR window. A focal planearray with 640 by 512 pixels and 15 µm pitch was processed basedon this barrier structure. High-quality imagery in a system with highF-number will be presented.

8704-35, Session 7

Infrared photodetectors and emitters withInAsSb bulk active region
Ding Wang, Youxi Lin, Dmitry Donetsky, Leon Shterengas, Gela
Kipshidze, Gregory Belenky, Stony Brook Univ. (United States);
Stefan P. Svensson, Wendy L. Sarney, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
Mid-wave and long-wave infrared barrier photodetectors and emitterswith the bulk InAsSb active regions with 20% and 44% Sb grown by
MBE on metamorphic buffers have been demonstrated.

[1] A. Rogalski, Opto-Elect. Rev. 16, pp. 458–482, 2008.
[2] B. Klein, E. Plis, M. N. Kutty, N. Gautam, A. Albrecht, S. Myers, and S.
Krishna, J. Phys. D 44(7), p. 075102, 2011.

The photodetectors were grown with 1-micron-thick undoped active
regions and AlInAsSb barriers. The devices with a mesa diameter inthe range from 200 to 400 um were fabricated by dry etching followedby silicon nitride passivation. Operating at 80 K without reverse bias,
the uncoated devices showed the quantum efficiency of 40 % at the
wavelength of 5 micron and differential resistance area product RoA of 60
Ohm cm^2. At T = 13 K RoA was 125 kOhm cm^2.

8704-32, Session 7

Low-frequency noise behaviour of MWIR
Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice photodiodes
Tunay Tansel, Kutlu Kutluer, Middle East Technical Univ. (Turkey);
Omer Salihoglu, Abdullah Muti, Atilla Aydinli, Bilkent Univ.
(Turkey); Rasit Turan, Middle East Technical Univ. (Turkey)

As LED, the devices of similar design showed the 80K output power
levels of 90 uW and 8 uW at the peak wavelengths of 5 and 8 micron,respectively.

We describe the noise characteristics of InAs/GaSb superlattice (SL)Mid-Wavelength Infrared (MWIR) photodiodes addressing the influenceof unpassivated sample and also SiO2 and Si3N4 passivated samples
for reverse bias condition. These samples were realized by molecularbeam epitaxy (MBE) on an n-type (001) GaSb substrate. The noise
measurements exhibited a frequency dependent plateau for unpassivatedas well as Si3N4 passivated samples whereas low noise suppression
with a noise current reduction of more than one order of magnitude wasobserved for SiO2 passivation. For reverse bias values below -0.15 V, theclassical Schottky- noise calculation alone did not appear to describe
the noise mechanism in a SL noise behavior, which shows a divergence
between theoretically and experimentally determined noise values. We
find, the additional noise appears for, with and without passivation, atthe surface activation energy of < 60 meV and is inversely proportional
to the reverse bias. It is believed to be caused by the surface states
which depend on the reverse bias. By taking into account of activationenergies, the re-calculated noise results showed good agreement toexperimental data. Moreover, the calculated D* at the -0,1V bias and 79K
for unpassivated, Si3N4 and SiO2 passivated samples are 1.1x1011,
2.8x1010 and 1.2x1013 Johnes, respectively.

8704-36, Session 7

Multiwafer production of epitaxy-ready 4”
GaSb: substrate performance assessments
pre- and post-epitaxial growthMark J. Furlong, Rebecca J. Martinez, Sasson Amirhaghi,
Andrew Mowbray, Brian Smith, Wafer Technology Ltd. (United
Kingdom); Dmitri Loubychev, Joel M. Fastenau, Amy W. K. Liu,
IQE Inc. (United States)
In this paper we describe the volume production of 4” GaSb substrates
suitable for the epitaxial growth of GaSb based infrared detector
structures. Using a modified version of the Czochralski (Cz) technique,large diameter (4”-5”) GaSb mono-crystals have been grown that
demonstrate very low levels of dislocation density, as measured byetch pit density assessments, optical defect recognition microscopy
and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). This work also describes our latest workon surface finishing and the outputs from a new larger format (20 x3”
or 10 x4”) substrate polishing platform will be described. The surface
quality of 4” GaSb substrates will be determined by optical profilometry,
Nomarski optical microscopy and spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE). SEMI/ASTM standard flatness assessments of multi-wafer polished 4” GaSb
substrates will also be presented. The structural properties of MBE
grown GaSb detector structures will be assessed by high-resolution
X-Ray diffraction. The surface quality of GaSb epiwafer surfaces will be
determined by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).

8704-33, Session 7

High-performance MWIR type-II superlatticedetectors
Henk Martijn, Carl Asplund, Rickard Marcks von Würtemberg,
Hedda Malm, IRnova AB (Sweden)

With a 4” GaSb manufacturing capability established, we will commenton the future outlook for the production of larger substrate volumes andmake comparisons with the quantities of other materials used in the
fabrication of infrared detector devices.

A VGA format type-II superlattice focal plane array (FPA) for the mid-wave
infrared (MWIR) atmospheric window has been designed, manufactured
and characterized. This FPA will be used in an IDCA (Integrated Dewar
Cooler Assembly) with low weight, size and power. The detector material
is based on a heterojunction structure with a barrier that effectively
decreases the Shockley-Read-Hall based component of the dark current.
A very effective passivation method has been used which successfully
inhibits all surface leakage currents. The barrier structure has a 50

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9Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-37, Session 7

MBE growth of Sb-based nBn photodetectors
on large diameter GaAs substrates
Dmitri Lubyshev, Joel M. Fastenau, Yueming Qiu, Amy W. K.
Liu, IQE Inc. (United States); Edwin J Koerperick, Jonathon T
Olesberg, Dennis Norton Jr., ASL Analytical (United States);
Nikolai N Faleev, Christiana B Honsberg, Arizona State University(United States)
The GaSb-based family of materials and heterostructures provides
rich bandgap engineering possibilities for a variety of infrared (IR)applications. Mid-wave and long-wave IR photodetectors are progressing
toward commercial manufacturing applications, but to succeed theymust move from research laboratory settings to general semiconductor
production and they require larger diameter substrates than the current
standard 2-inch and 3-inch GaSb. Substrate vendors are beginning
production of 4-inch GaSb, but another alternative is growth on 6-inch
GaAs substrates with appropriate metamorphic buffer layers.
We have grown generic MWIR nBn photodetectors on large diameter,
6-inch GaAs substrates by molecular beam epitaxy. Multiple
metamorphic buffer architectures, including bulk GaSb nucleation,
AlAsSb superlattices, and graded GaAsSb and AlInSb ternary alloys,
were employed to bridge the 7.8% mismatch gap from the GaAs
substrates to the GaSb-based epilayers at 6.1 Å lattice-constant andbeyond. Reaching ~6.2 Å extends the nBn cutoff wavelength from 4.2
to >5 µm, thus broadening the application space. The metamorphic
nBn epiwafers demonstrated unique surface morphologies and crystal
properties, as revealed by AFM, XRD, and cross-section TEM. Different
relaxation mechanisms were observed for different buffer architectures,with GaSb nucleation leading to a more island-like surface morphology
while graded ternary buffers resulted in cross-hatched surface
morphology. Low root-mean-square roughness values of 5-20 Å wereobtained, and cross-wafer optical and structural measurements showed
excellent epilayer uniformity, with PL wavelength variation <0.1 µm. This
work demonstrates a promising path to satisfy the increasing demand foreven larger area focal plane array detectors in a commercial production
environment.

8704-38, Session 8

Wavelength selective wideband uncooled
infrared sensor using a two-dimensional
plasmonic absorber
Shinpei Ogawa, Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Japan); Junya
Komoda, Kyohei Masuda, Masafumi Kimata, Ritsumeikan Univ.
(Japan)A wavelength selective wideband uncooled infrared (IR) sensor at middlewavelength and long-wavelength infrared (MWIR and LWIR) region has
been developed using two-dimensional plasmonic absorber (2D PLA). 2D
PLA is the Au-based 2D periodic hole-array structure, where the photon
can be manipulated by its surface plasmon-like mode. The numericalinvestigations demonstrate that the wavelength of the absorption canbe mainly controlled by the surface period and the slight influence of thedepth and diameter. A microelectromechanical systems-based uncooled
IR sensor with 2D PLA was fabricated through a complementary metaloxide semiconductor (CMOS) and a micromachining technique. 2D PLA
was formed by Au layer sputtered on the perforated SiO2. However, thebackside of SiO2 absorbs the incident light scattered on the cavity walls
under 2D PLA, which produces additional absorption peak at LWIR. The
Al layer was introduced to the backside of the 2D PLA in order to reflect
the scattering light and prevent the absorption of SiO2. The measurementof the spectral responsivities shows that the selective enhancementof responsivity was achieved over both MWIR and LWIR, where thewavelength of the responsivity peak coincided with the period of the 2D
PLA. The results obtained here are the direct evidence that a wideband
wavelength selective IR sensor was realized only by the surface structure

10

of 2D PLA without vertical control. It indicates that a pixel array where
each pixel has a different detection wavelength would be developed
for multi-color imaging by a standard CMOS and a micromachining
technique.

8704-39, Session 8

Three Dimensional Dual-band Stacked
Microbolometer Design using resistive
dipoles and slots
Hoo Kim, Dean P. Neikirk, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (UnitedStates)A dual-band microbolometer with separate absorption of eachwavelength band would be desirable for multispectral applications.
In addition, a three dimensional (3D) stacked structure would be
advantageous for size and integration in focal plane arrays. We present
designs for a 3D stacked dual-band microbolometer based of the inband and out-of-band reflection and transmission characteristics ofresistive dipoles and slots. The mechanism of individual absorption ineach layer of a dual-band microbolometer is analyzed and simulated toallow the resistive slot layer to efficiently absorb the LWIR band whilea superposed resistive dipole layer absorbs the MWIR band. The top
dipole layer is designed to have peak absorption at 5 µm, with a second
underlying slot layer and mirror layer designed to have peak absorption
at 10 µm. Between the top and bottom layers and mirror are λ/4 airgaps. Optimal sheet resistances for each layer’s absorption is found fromsimulation. The resistive dipole layer is used as a top layer because of
its out-of-band transmission characteristic so that other wavelengthsof the incident radiation can reach the bottom layer. The resistive slot
layer is used as the bottom layer because of its out-of-band reflection
characteristic works as a mirror to the top layer. This combination of two
different types of layers provides highly efficient wavelength selective
absorption, yielding calculated power absorption efficiency of nearly 100% for both LWIR and MWIR bands.

8704-40, Session 8

Vertically Integrated Pixel Microbolometers
for IR Imaging Using High Resistivity VOx
Hitesh A. Basantani, Hang-Beum Shin, Thomas N. Jackson,
Mark W. Horn, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
Uncooled IR bolometers form an integral part of thermal imaging
cameras. Vanadium oxide material currently used for IR imaging has aresistivity between 0.1 and 1 ohm-cm and a TCR between -1.4%K-1 to-2.4%K-1. Higher TCR materials are desired, however, such materials
inevitably have higher resistivity and therefore higher electrical resistancein a lateral resistor configuration. A high resistance leads to an increasein the Johnson-Nyquist noise of the bias-induced current, thereby
limiting the performance of bolometers using high resistivity material. In
this work, we propose the use of temperature dependent through-film
conductivity as an alternate pixel structure design with lower Johnson
noise when compared with the conventional lateral pixel design.
Biased Target Ion Beam Deposition was used to deposit high resistivity
vanadium oxide thin-films (~100 nm thick). Electrical characterizationof lateral resistor structures showed resistivities ranging from 1.2 x
10^4 ohm-cm to 2 x 10^4 ohm-cm, TCR varying from -3.4%K-1 to-4.4%K-1, Johnson noise (pixel resistance of 300KΩ) of 4.7 to 6µV/√Hz
and 1/f noise (normalized Hooge’s parameter (α/n)) of 5 x 10-18 to 1 x
10-16 cm-3. In contrast, the through-film resistor structures showedsignificantly higher resistivities at 9 x 10^4 Ohm-cm to 1.55 x 10^5
Ohm-cm, TCR similar to lateral resistive structure between -3.4%K-1 to-4.5%K-1, immeasurably low Johnson noise (pixel resistance of 48KΩ)
and normalized Hooge’s parameter ranging from 1x10-18 to 1x10-21
cm-3. These results indicate the possible use of through-film resistors as
an alternative to the conventional lateral-resistor design currently used in
uncooled imaging microbolometers.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-41, Session 88704-44, Session 9

High-performance LWIR microbolometer with
Si/SiGe quantum well thermistor and wafer
level packaging

Large-format 17µm high-end VOxµ-bolometer infrared detector
Udi Mizrahi, Shimon Elkind, Aviho Giladi, Yoav Hirsh, Michael
Labilov, Igor Pivnik, Niv Shiloah, Mchael T. Singer, SCD
Semiconductor Devices (Israel); Avi Tuito, Michael Ben-Ezra,
SIBAT (Israel); Naamah Argaman, Itay Shtrichman, SCD (Israel)

Audun Roer, Sensonor Technologies AS (Norway)
An uncooled microbolometer with peak responsivity in the long wave
infrared region of the electromagnetic radiation is developed at Sensonor.
It is a 384 x 288 focal plane array with a pixel pitch of 25µm, based on
monocrystalline Si/SiGe quantum wells as IR sensitive material.

Long range sights and targeting systems require a combination ofhigh spatial resolution, low temporal NETD, and wide field of view. For
practical electro-optical systems it is hard to support these constraints
simultaneously. Moreover, achieving these needs using the relatively
low-cost Uncooled µ-Bolometer technology is a major challenge in thedesign and implementation of both the bolometer pixel and the Readout
Integrated Circuit (ROIC).

The high sensitivity (TCR) and low 1/f noise are the main performance
characteristics of the product. The frame rate is maximum 60Hz and theoutput interface is digital (LVDS).
The quantum well thermistor material is transferred to the read-out
integrated circuit (ROIC) by wafer bonding. The ROIC wafer containing
the released pixels is bonded in vacuum with a silicon cap wafer,providing hermetic encapsulation at low cost. The resulting wafer stack ismounted in a standard ceramic package.

In this work we present measured results from a new, large format(1024×768) detector array, with 17µm pitch. This detector meets thedemands of a typical armored vehicle sight with its high resolution andlarge format, together with low NETD of better than 35mK (at F/1, 30Hz).
We estimate a Recognition Range for a NATO target of better than 4 km
at all relevant atmospheric conditions, which is better than standard 2nd
generation scanning array cooled detector. A new design of the detector
package enables improved stability of the Non-Uniformity Correction(NUC) to environmental temperature drifts.

In this paper the architecture of the pixels and the ROIC, the wafer
packaging and the electro-optical measurement results are presented.

8704-42, Session 9

Memorial Tribute for Paul Kruse
Marion B. Reine, Photon Detector Physics, LLC (United States)

8704-45, Session 9

No Abstract Available.

Temperature stability improvement of a QVGA
uncooled infrared radiation FPA

8704-43, Session 9

Koichi Ishii, Hiroto Honda, Hideyuki Funaki, Ikuo Fujiwara, Keita
Sasaki, Hitoshi Yagi, Kazuhiro Suzuki, Honam Kwon, Masaki
Atsuta, Toshiba Corp. (Japan)

Uncooled infrared detector with 12um pixel
pitch video graphics array

We have developed the low-cost uncooled infrared radiation focal planearray (FPA) requiring no thermoelectric cooler (TEC), which has the
320 x 240 detection pixels with 22 um pitch. The silicon single-crystal
series p-n junction diodes and the low-noise readout circuit on a same
SOI wafer fabricated by 0.13 um CMOS technology were utilized for IR
detection. The temperature dependencies in the readout circuit were
eliminated by correlated double sampling (CDS) operation with reference
pixel which is insensitive to infrared radiation.

Tsutomu Endoh, NEC Corp. (Japan)
We have developed an uncooled infrared detector with 12um pixel pitch
VGA.
Reduction of pixel size is cost-effective for thermal imaging cameras aswell as reducing size, weight, and power (SWaP) of them.
But reduction of pixel size causes decrease of signal to noise ratio (SNR).

For greater temperature stability, we improved the reference pixel andthe readout circuit. Although the reference pixels should be completely
insensitive to IR radiation, prior reference pixels showed significant
sensitivity. The improved reference pixel was formed by partially releasing
with bulk-micromachining and it was verified to be insensitive to IR
radiation by an object of more than 200 degrees. The readout circuit
had a differential amplifier instead of a single transistor amplifier andan analog digital converter (ADC). In each potion, CDS was operated
respectively for reducing temperature dependencies. The first CDS
operation was used for eliminating the pixel output variation and thesecond operation was used for canceling the variation of the differential
amplifier. The output variation of the circuit was reduced to less than 1/20
compared with the prior circuit.

To improve the SNR with 12um pixel pitch, we have developed highly
sensitive bolometer material, thermal isolated structure for the pixel andnewly designed read-out IC (ROIC).
The bolometer material has been improved by using vanadium niobiumoxide.
As a result, we have achieved temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR)-3.6%/K, which is 2 times higher than the conventional bolometer.
For thermal isolated structure, we have used triple level sacrificial layer toachieved thermal conductance (Gth) 6nW/K, which is 2 times higher thanthe conventional structure.
As the imaging area is reduced by the pixel size, the uniformity of pixel
can be improved. This enables to remove the non-uniformity correction
circuit in the ROIC, which is effective for low power and low noise.

With these improvements, the sensitivity variation of the FPA was
improved to be within 10 percents in the range of -30 degrees to 80
degrees and noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) of 40 mK
was achieved.

Furthermore, in order to facilitate the infrared detector use, on-chip ADC
with 14bit
pipeline, 13.5MHz and 0.2W, has been developed.
The performance of the 12um pixel pitch 640 x 480 VGA will be
discussed.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-46, Session 9

BAE Systems’ 17mm LWIR camera core forcivil, commercial, and military applications
Jeffrey H. Lee, BAE Systems OASYS, LLC (United States)

uncooled infrared detectors: an 80x80 MWIR FPA of VPD PbSe.
The device is the result of depositing by thermal evaporation theactive material (a thin layer of polycrystalline PbSe) directly on thecorresponding Si-CMOS circuitry processed on 8” Si wafers. After
depositing, the material is submitted to a specific sensitization process.
The new device represents a milestone in the road towards affordable
uncooled MWIR imagers.

BAE Systems’ uncooled foundry is now running its 17m pixel pitch
Long Wave Infrared (LWIR) Sensor based on Vanadium Oxide (VOx)
Bolometers in full rate production at its Night Vision Sensors facility
in Lexington, MA. The camera core is optimized for size weight andpower while maintaining focal plan performance and compatibility witha diversity of video interfaces. The focal planes run in 30Hz and 60Hz
progressive modes at a VGA (640x480) resolution. The camera core
consumes very little power with an all-digital video and control interface.
The camera core is available with system specific interface boards whichenable combinations of interfaces ranging from Cameralink to analog
RS170 in addition to micro display drivers. Its software and firmware
are fully upgradable through its USB 2.0 port. The USB port also gives
users access to its internal frame capture memory of up to 100 losslessimages. The mechanical package of the camera core with the baseline
interface board, is packed into 1.67 in3 [1.24” x 1.305” x 1.03” - L x W xH] and weighs just under 1.4 oz.

Due to fundamental reasons, low cost uncooled IR imagers have poor
performances in terms of velocity of response and high frame rates.
The new detector presented in this work fills the gap. The device is able
to provide MWIR images to rates as high as 2 KHz-full frame, in real
uncooled operation, more than 1 order of magnitude above the existing
standard low cost uncooled technologies. For the first time affordable
infrared imagery will fulfill the requirements demanded for the study ofdynamic processes and the detection of fast events. As remarkable fact,
the technology opens the MWIR band to SWaP concept.

For the IR Sensors and Systems Track

Philip Klipstein, Daniel Aronov, Eyal Berkowicz, Yossi Cohen,
Rami Fraenkel, Alex Glozman, Yoav Gross, Steve Grossman,
Olga Klin, Inna Lukomsky, Tuvy Markovitz, Lior Shkedy, Itay
Shtrichman, Noam Snapi, Michael Yassen, Eliezer Weiss, SCD
Semiconductor Devices (Israel); Avi Tuito, SIBAT (Israel); Michael
Ben-Ezra, IMOD (Israel)This abstract has been submitted to SPIE for consideration of being
presented at the 2013 Defense and Securities Conference. Any further
distribution or use must be approved by BAE Systems

8704-47, Session 9

Low-cost uncooled VOx infrared camera
development
Chuan C. Li, DRS Technologies, Inc. (United States)
This paper will discuss the most recent uncooled VOx microbolometer
infrared detector and camera developments at DRS. Major development
activities including integrated camera system design, design-to-cost
methodology and advanced manufacturing technologies aiming at
reducing the camera size, weight, power and productioin costs will be
discussed and some preliminary results will be presented

8704-48, Session 9

Uncooled detector development at Raytheon
Stephen H. Black, Raytheon Co. (United States)
Following the “Moore’s law of Imaging”, the format of uncooled focal
plane arrays continues to grow, while at the same time the pixel pitch andcost continue to shrink. In this paper we will report on the first mega-pixel
uncooled imager. We will also report on work to reduce the pixel pitch toenable small form factor, high-definition uncooled imagery. Additionally,work to further reduce the cost of microbolometer packaging will bepresented.

8704-99, Session 980x80 VPD PbSe: the first uncooled MWIR
FPA monolithically integrated with a Si-CMOS
ROIC
Germán Vergara, Rodrigo Linares-Herrero, Raul Gutierrez
Alvarez, Carlos Fernandez-Montojo, Luis J. Gómez, Victor
Villamayor, Arturo Baldasano-Ramirez, Maria Teresa Montojo
Supervielle, New Infrared Technologies, Ltd. (Spain)
In the work it is presented a breakthrough in the field of low cost

128704-50, Session 10

Low SWaP MWIR detector based on XBnfocal plane array (Invited Paper)

Over the past few years, we have developed a new type of HighOperating Temperature (HOT) photon detector at SCD, which operates
in the upper MWIR window of the atmosphere (3.4-4.2 micron). Thiswindow is generally more transparent than the lower MWIR window (4.44.9 micron), especially for mid and long range applications. The detector
has an InAsSb active layer, and is based on the new “XBn” device
concept. We have analyzed various electro-optical systems at different
atmospheric temperatures, based on XBn-InAsSb operating at 150K
and epi-InSb at 95K, respectively, and find that the typical recognition
ranges of both detector technologies are similar. Therefore, for very
many applications there is no disadvantage to using XBn-InAsSb insteadof InSb. On the other hand XBn technology confers many advantages,
particularly in low Size, Weight and Power (SWaP) and in high reliability of
the cooler and Integrated Detector Cooler Assembly (IDCA). In this work
we present a new IDCA, designed for 150K operation. The 15 micron
pitch 640x512 digital FPA is housed in a robust, light-weight, miniaturised
Dewar, attached to Ricor’s K562S Stirling cycle cooler. The complete
IDCA has a diameter of 28 mm, length of 80 mm and weight of < 300
gm. The total IDCA power consumption is ~ 3W at a 60Hz frame rate,
including an external miniature proximity card attached to the outside of
the Dewar. We will describe some of the key performance parameters of
the new detector, including its NETD, RNU and operability, pixel crosstalk, and early stage yield results from our production line.

8704-51, Session 10

Quantum-engineered mid-infrared type-II
InAs/GaSb superlattice photodetectors forhigh-temperature operation
Zhaobing Tian, Theodore Schuler-Sandy, The Univ. of New
Mexico (United States); Stephen A. Myers, Brianna Klein, Elena
Plis, Sanjay Krishna, Ctr. for High Technology Materials (UnitedStates)Over the last several years, owing to the material improvement andthe implementation of advanced device architectures, antimony-based
type-II superlattice (SL) infrared (IR) photodetectors and their focal
plane arrays (FPAs) have made significant progress. Here we present
our effort towards the development of high operating temperature

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIXSL photodetectors, which utilizes a interband cascade scheme withdiscrete InAs/GaSb SL absorbers, sandwiched between election andhole barriers. This low-noise architecture, has enabled backgroundlimited operation above 170 K (BLIP, 300 K, 2π field-of-view), as well as
above room temperature response in Mid-IR. The detector yields a darkcurrent density of 2.1×10-7 A/cm2(1.4×10-3 A/cm2) at -5 mV, and aJohnson-limited D* of 1.4×1011 cmHz1/2/W (1.2×109 cmHz1/2/W) at 150
K (room temperature), respectively. In this presentation, we will discuss
the operation principles of the cascade structure, and our most recent
progresses of mid-wave infrared photodetectors toward high temperature
operation.

maintaining high D* (> 1.0E11 cm √Hz/W) in the 3.0 um to 5.0 um spectral
range. Electromagnetic simulations show that using pyramids as photon
trapping structures minimizes the reflection and maximizes absorption to> 90 % over the entire 0.5 um to 5.0 um spectral range. InAs1-xSbx as
the absorber layer with a cutoff wavelength ~ 5.1 um at 200 K has beengrown on GaAs and photon trap barrier detectors and barrier detectors
without pyramids have been fabricated in a 1024 x 1024 format on an 18
um pitch. A 1024 x 1024 ROIC on an 18 um pitch designed to interface
with the barrier detector arrays have also been fabricated.
MWIR III-V nBn detectors in a 1024 x 1024 format were hybridized
to fanouts to permit direct measurement of the electrical and opticalproperties of detectors without going through an ROIC. Multiple 18
um x 18 um detectors were tied together in parallel by connecting the
Indium bump of each detector to a single large metal pad on the fanout.
The dark current density at -1 V bias for a 64 x 64 and 6 x 6 array ofdetectors, each of which are tied together in parallel is ~ 1E-3 A/cm^2
at 200 K and 5E-6 A/cm^2 at 150 K. The 4096 and 36 18 um x 18 um
detectors both have similar Jdark vs Vd characteristics, demonstratinghigh operability and uniformity of the detectors in the array. The external
QE measured using a narrow band filter centered at ~ 4 um had values
in the 65 – 70 % range. Since the detectors were illuminated through a
GaAs substrate which has a reflectance of 29%, the internal QE is greaterthan 90 %. Also measured is the QE at 150 K for a 1024 x 1024 detector
array hybridized to a ROIC. QE measured at the FPA (detector hybridized
to a ROIC) level matches the QE measured on detectors that were
measured directly through a fanout chip. Additional response and noise
measurements are being conducted and that data will also be presented.

8704-52, Session 10

Fabrication of high-operating temperature(HOT), visible to MWIR, nCBn photon-trap
detector arrays
Hasan Sharifi, Mark S. Roebuck, Terrence J. De Lyon, Hung
Nguyen, Margaret Cline, David T. Chang, Daniel Yap, Sarabjit
Mehta, Rajesh D. Rajavel, HRL Labs., LLC (United States);
Adrian C. Ionescu, Arvind I. D’Souza, Ernest W. Robinson,
Daniel Okerlund, DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)
We describe our recent efforts in developing visible to mid-wave (0.5µm to 5.0 µm) broadband photon-trap InAsSb-based infrared detectors
grown on GaAs substrates operating at high temperature (150-200K)
with low dark current and high quantum efficiency. Utilizing an InAsSb
absorber on GaAs substrates instead of an HgCdTe absorber will
enable low-cost fabrication of large-format, high operating temperature
focal plane arrays. We have utilized a novel detector design basedon pyramidal photon trapping InAsSb structures in conjunction withcompound barrier-based device architecture to suppress both G-R darkcurrent, as well as diffusion current through absorber volume reduction.
Our optical simulation show that our engineered pyramid structures
minimize the surface reflection compared to conventional diodestructures acting as a broadband anti-reflective coating (AR). In addition,
it exhibits > 70-80% absorption over the entire 0.5 µm to 5.0 µm spectral
range while providing up to 3x reduction in absorber volume.

8704-54, Session 10

High-performance bias-selectable dualband short-/mid-wavelength infrared
photodetectors and focal plane arrays basedon InAs/GaSb/AlSb Type-II superlattices(Invited Paper)
Manijeh Razeghi, Anh Minh Hoang, Abbas Haddadi, Guanxi A.
Chen, Northwestern Univ. (United States)
Active and passive imaging in a single photodetector based on
the combination of short-wavelength and mid-wavelength infrared(SWIR/MWIR) detection is highly needed in a number of tracking
and reconnaissance missions. We report the demonstration of highperformance bias-selectable dual-band short-/mid-wavelength infrared
photodetectors and focal plane arrays (FPAs) based on InAs/GaSb/AlSb
type-II superlattices (T2SLs) with designed cut-off wavelengths of 2.2
and 4.5µm at 150K. At 150 K, the short-wavelength channel exhibiteda quantum efficiency of 55%, and a dark current density of 1.0×109 A/cm2 at -50 mV bias voltage, providing an associated shot noise
detectivity of 3.0×1013 Jones. The mid-wavelength channel exhibiteda quantum efficiency of 33% and a dark current density of 2.6×10-5 A/
cm2at 300 mV bias voltage, resulting in a detectivity of 4.0×1011 Jones.
The operations of the both absorber channels are selectable by changing
the polarity of applied bias voltage.

Lattice-mismatched InAs0.82Sb0.18 with 5.25 µm cutoff at 200K wasgrown on GaAs substrates. 128x128/60um detector arrays that consist ofbulk absorber as well as photon-trap pyramid structures were fabricatedto compare the detector performance. The measured dark current density
for the diodes with the pyramidal absorber was 3x lower that for theconventional diode with the bulk absorber, which is consistent with thevolume reduction due to the creation of the pyramidal absorber topology.
We have achieved high D* (> 1.0 x 1010 cm √Hz/W) and maintain high (>80 %) internal quantum-efficiency over the desired band at 200K.

8704-53, Session 10

MWIR InAsSb barrier detector data andanalysisUsing the same detector design, a dual-band SWIR/MWIR FPA
capable of active and passive imaging was demonstrated. A bi-layer
etch-stop scheme is introduced for back-side illuminated detectors
which enhanced the external quantum efficiency both in the SWIR and
MWIR spectral regions. Excellent imagery from the dual-band imager
exemplifying pixel coincidence is shown.

Arvind I. D’Souza, Ernest W. Robinson, Adrian C. Ionescu,
Daniel Okerlund, DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc.
(United States); Terrence J. De Lyon, Rajesh D. Rajavel, Hasan
Sharifi, HRL Labs., LLC (United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (United States); Priyalal
S. Wijewarnasuriya, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Christoph H. Grein, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago (United States)

The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Priyalal Wijewarnasuriya fromthe U.S. Army, and Dr. Nibir Dhar from DARPA for their interest, support,
and encouragement.

The AWARE Broadband program requires photon trap detector
architecture to achieve pioneering performance of MWIR detectors at
200 K. One of the ambitious requirements is to obtain high (> 80 %)quantum efficiency over the broad 0.5 um to 5.0 um spectral range while

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-55, Session 10

8704-133, Session 10

Modeling of InAsSb/AlAsSb nBn HOT
detector’s performance limit (Invited Paper)

Design and performance evaluation of highaspect ratio mesa delineated HgCdTe midwavelength detectors for high-operating
temperatures

Antoni Rogalski, Piotr Martyniuk, Military Univ. of Technology(Poland)InAsSb with cut-off wavelength covering 3-12 m IR range has provided
alternative to HgCdTe alloy as for as IR detection systems are concerned.
There has been enormous progress in development of the InAsSb focal
plane arrays (FPA) and strained superlattices (SL). The higher operation
temperature (HOT) conditions were successfully achieved with AIIIBV
unipolar barrier structures, where InAsSb/AlAsSb system plays dominantrole.
The performance of medium wavelength infrared (MWIR) InAsSbbased nBn detectors, called also “bariodes”, is examined theoreticallytaking into account thermal generation governed by the Auger andradiative mechanisms. In our model, the heterojunction barrier-active
region (absorber) was assumed to be decisive as the contributing darkcurrent mechanism limiting nBn’s detector performance. Since there isno depletion layer in the active layer of such devices, the generationrecombination and trap assisted tunneling mechanisms are suppressedleading to lower dark currents in bariode detectors in comparison withstandard diodes.
Detailed analysis of the detector’s performance (such as dark current, RA
product, and detectivity) versus bias voltage, operating temperatures,and structural parameters are performed pointing out optimal working
conditions. The theoretical predictions of bariode parameters arecompared with experimental data published in the literature. Finally, theInAsSb nBn performance is compared with standard p-on-n InAsSb
photodiodes and HgCdTe nBn detectors operated at room temperature
with the same bandgap wavelength.

8704-56, Session 10

Numerical simulation of lateral collection
and crosstalk in back-illuminated InAs nBn
detector arrays
Marion B. Reine, Photon Detector Physics, LLC (United States);
Jonathan Schuster, Benjamin Pinkie, Boston Univ. (UnitedStates); Enrico Bellotti, The Boston Univ. Photonics Ctr. (UnitedStates)This paper will present recent results from our three-dimensional finiteelement numerical simulations of back-illuminated InAs nBn infrared
detector arrays. These simulations have led to several important results.
First, these simulations have helped us to better understand the darkcurrent and photocurrent mechanisms that operate in this fundamentallynew type of semiconductor quantum detector, and have led us tosome simple analytical expressions that describe the I(V) curves andquantum efficiency versus bias voltage for an “ideal” nBn detector inwhich the dark current is due only to diffusion current from the absorberand collector layers. We validated these analytical expressions bycomparing them against the numerical simulations. Second, thesesimulations have revealed a new lateral transport mechanism based
on “trapping” of minority photocarriers (holes) in a p-type barrier layer,
which explain the anomalously long lateral collection lengths (hundredsof µm) for photocarriers measured in InAs and InAsSb nBn detectors
with p-type barrier layers that have been reported by two groups. Third,these simulations have allowed us to calculate the I(V) curves, quantum
efficiency and crosstalk in a 3x3 back-illuminated InAs nBn array with
15x15 µm2 pixels, with a variety of mesa sizes and diffusion lengths in
the absorber layer. We believe that these 3D numerical simulations play a
critical role in understanding the basic physical mechanisms that govern
the behavior and performance of nBn detectors and arrays.

14

Kasey D. Smith, Justin Wehner, A. M. Ramirez, Roger W.
Graham, Edward P. Smith, Raytheon Co. (United States); Ishwara
Bhat, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States)
Raytheon Vision Systems (RVS) is evaluating the performance
optimization of molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) grown mid-wavelength
infrared (MWIR) HgCdTe-on-Silicon double layer heterojunction (DLHJ)
and triple layer heterojunction (TLHJ) detector designs for high operating
temperature performance (~ 200 K). RVS has been using high-aspectratio, deep dry-etching to form a photonic crystal for 3D photon
trapping in the single-color DLHJ HgCdTe detector absorber to achievea reduction in active detector and junction volume, and associateddark current, while also maintaining high quantum efficiency (QE). Thisapproach has now been extended to dual-band TLHJ HgCdTe detectors
where a broadband MWIR detector with two discrete spectral bands canbe realized using a back-to-back photodiode detector architecture andperformance optimization for high operating temperature performancecan be focused on the longer wavelength spectral band. Conventional
deposition techniques for CdTe passivation are challenging for small pixel
geometries, high-aspect ratios, and advanced detector designs suchas those necessary for 3D photon trapping with increased p-n junction
perimeter to surface area ratios. To address this, atomic layer deposition(ALD) of CdTe with metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD)
is being evaluated to conformally coat the sidewalls of deep dry-etcheddevices.
This paper will describe two-dimensional TCAD semiconductor device
simulations performed by RVS to evaluate critical detector design
parameters and performance at high operating temperature for DLHJ
and TLHJ HgCdTe detector architectures with and without 3D photon
trapping designs, and report on recent experimental results for thesedetectors. Results will also be reported for the evaluation of ALD
deposition of CdTe on high-aspect ratio dry-etched mesa sidewalls andthe application of this technique in the fabrication of DLHJ MWIR HgCdTe
detectors.

8704-58, Session 11

Nickel-oxide film as an AR coating of Si
window for IR sensor packaging
Hyunbin Shim, Dong Soo Kim, In Ku Kang, Jin Kwan Kim, Hee
Chul Lee, KAIST (Korea, Republic of)Infrared (IR) transparent window is necessary to the IR sensor package.
Most commonly used materials for IR transparent window are Ge(germanium) and Si (silicon). Ge has an excellent optical properties but it
has a disadvantage of an expensive price. Si has a merits of inexpensive
cost and CMOS process compatibility but it has a lower transmittancein the range of LWIR (long wavelength IR) region (8~12um) than Ge.
Therefore, anti-reflection (AR) coating is necessary to increase thetransmittance of Si as an IR transparent window in the LWIR region.
In this paper, we design the simple single layer AR coating. Among thevarious materials, nickel oxide was selected as an AR coating material
due to its suitable optical properties and simple process. Nickel oxide
film was deposited onto the double side polished (100) orientation
CZ (Czochralski) Si wafer by reactive rf sputtering with Ni target in
an environment of Ar and O2 mixed gas. FT-IR was used to measure
the transmittance of the samples in the LWIR region. After the nickel
oxide film was sputtered onto the double side of the silicon wafer, themeasured transmittance of the Si wafer was increased over 20% in
the LWIR region than that of uncoated Si wafer. Additionally, annealing
effect on the transmittance of the Si wafer with nickel oxide coating wasstudied. With increasing the annealing temperature from 300°C to 500°C,
additional increase of transmittance was achieved.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-59, Session 11

8704-61, Session 11

High-resistant multispectral optical coatings
for infrared applications

New solutions and technologies for uncooled
infrared imaging

Michael Degel, Elvira Gittler, Peter Maushake, Marcus Serwazi,
Tino Wagner, JENOPTIK Optical Systems GmbH (Germany)Joël Rollin, Frédéric Diaz, Christophe Fontaine, Thales Angénieux
S.A. (France); Brigitte Loiseaux, Mane -Si Laure Lee, Christophe
Clienti, Thales Research and Technology (France); Xianghua
Zhang, Laurent Calvez, Université de Rennes I (France); Fabrice
Lemonnier, Thales Research and Technology (France)

Infrared optics which are built into optical systems for outdoor
applications are required to transmit high-quality images and signals withlong-time stability. It must do so despite harsh environmental conditions
and process-induced impacts on optical components and their coatings.
DLC – also referred to as “hard carbon“ IR coatings – represent the stateof-the-art in optical systems of thermo-sensor-based monitoring plants
for industrial, civil and military applications. They can be manufactured
on such materials as silicon or germanium. This can be achieved, inthe simplest case, through adaptation of refractive indexes (single-layer
coating). This coating is industry standard.

The military uncooled infrared market is driven by the continued cost
reduction of the focal plane arrays whilst maintaining high standards ofsensitivity and steering towards smaller pixel sizes.
Two approaches can come into play: the bottom up option consists inallocating improvements to each contributor and the top down proccessrather rely on an overall optimization of the complete image channel.

The newly developed Hybrid-DLC coating unites lasting resistancewith the strongly improved transmittance of a dielectric coating (Fig.1).
This enables the capability to selectively manufacture customized IR
windows of highest durability and lowest residual spectral reflection.
A sophisticated design and production process makes it possible tominimize internal coating tensions and, hence, warrant the durability andadhesive power in accordance with such established testing standards
as TS 1888 (Windscreen-Wiper Test) or MIL.

The University of Rennes I with Thales Angénieux alongside has beenworking over the past decade through French government fundings,
on low cost alternatives of infrared materials based upon chalcogenide
glasses.
A special care has been laid on the enhancement of their mechanicalproperties and their ability to be molded according to complex shapes.
New manufacturing means developments capable of better yields for the
raw materials will be addressed, too.

In addition, these spectral properties can be achieved in two separate
wavelength ranges (e.g. MWIR and LWIR). Multispectral coatings ofthis type provide users of coatings with new solutions in design andapplication. By way of example, Fig. 2 shows a multispectral HybridDLC coating with optimized transmittance as a dual band coating withthe properties of e.g. a transmission >85% for 3-5 µm a transmission of>90% for 8-11,5µm.

Beyond the mere lenses budget cuts, a wavefront coding process canease a global optimization.
This technic gives a way of relaxing optical constraints or upgrading
thermal device performances through an increase of the focus
depthes and desensitization against temperature drifts: it combines
image processing and the use of smart optical components. Thales
achievements in such topics will be enlightened and the trade-off
between image quality correction levels and low consumption/ real timeprocessings, as might be required in hand-free night vision devices, will
be emphasized.

Therefore, an optical element that has been used to provide protection
only with a narrow AR window is now a multifunctional tool including
protection, a wide AR window and a dual-band filter coating which leads
to less optical components in the lens system and therefore saving
optical design space and weight.

It is worth mentioning that both approaches are deeply leaning on eachother.

The new approach in multifunctional and resistant optical elements
requires much more a sophisticated coatings set-up. While the standard
DLC coatings consists of one single layer is the stack of single layers for
the Hybrid-DLC with up to 50 layers on each optical surface.

8704-62, Session 11

The state of the art of durable infrared coatings with coating designs
and internal coating tension is described in this paper together withprojections into the future.

A practical approach to LWIR wafer-based
optics for thermal imaging systems

8704-60, Session 11

Alan Symmons, Ray J. Pini, LightPath Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates)The development and implementation of wafer level packaging forcommercial microbolometers has opened the pathway towards full waferbased thermal imaging systems. The next challenge in development ismoving from discrete element LWIR imaging systems to a wafer based
optical system, similar to lens assemblies found in cell phone cameras.
This paper will compare a typical high volume thermal imaging design
manufactured from discrete lens elements to a similar design optimized
for manufacture through a wafer based approach. We will explore both
performance and cost trade offs as well as review the manufacturabilityof all designs.

Dual- and triple-band AR coatings for IR
systems
Daniel Cohen, Yevgeni Stolov, Amnon Azran, Mordechai Gilo,
Ophir Optronics Ltd. (Israel)
Abstract: Dual-band infrared camera systems allow viewing andcomparison of the 3-5µ and 8-12µ spectrum regions, improve visibility
at sunrise/sunset and help distinguish between targets and decoys.
They also enhance the ability to defeat many IR countermeasures
such as smoke, camouflage and flares. As dual band 3rd generation
FLIR systems progress, we introduce coatings for these systems. This
paper describes advanced dual band coatings for the 3-5µ and 8-12µspectrum regions, with reference to single band coatings. Theoreticaland measured designs are shown for ZnSe, ZnS, Ge, & IG-6 substrates.
Triple band AR coatings with additional transmittance at 1.06µ are also
demonstrated.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-63, Session 11

Dewar-level integrated MWIR wavefront
sensor for high-sensitivity optical quality
control
Sabrina Velghe, PHASICS S.A. (France); Serge Magli, SOFRADIR(France); Gilles Aubry, HGH Systèmes Infrarouges (France);
Nicolas Guérineau, ONERA (France); Benoit F. Wattellier, William
Boucher, PHASICS S.A. (France)
Recent developments in the Mid Wave InfraRed (MWIR) optical domain
were made on materials, optical design and manufacturing. They answer
increasing demands for more compact, less temperature dependent
optical systems with increased optical performances and complexity(multi- or hyper- spectral imagery). At the same time, the characterizationof these components has become strategic and requires solutions withhigher performance.
The optical quality of such devices is measured by wavefront sensing
techniques. PHASICS previously developed wavefront sensors based on
Quadri-Wave Lateral Shearing Interferometry (QWLSI) using broadband
microbolometers cameras for infrared measurements. However they
suffer from reduced light sensitivity in the MWIR domain, which limits
their use with broadband sources such as black bodies. To meet
metrology demands, we developed an innovative wavefront sensor.
This instrument combines the metrological qualities of QWLSI with theradiometric performances of a last generation detection block (Infrared
Detector Dewar Cooler Assembly, IDDCA) with a quantum infrared focal
plane array (IRFPA) of HgCdTe technology.
The key component of QWLSI is a specific diffractive grating placed a
few millimeters from the focal plane array. This requirement implies that
this optics should be integrated inside the IDDCA. To achieve this, wetake advantage of the experience acquired from recent developmentswith optics integrated in IDDCA. Thanks to this approach, we developed
a high spatial resolution MWIR wavefront sensor (160x128 points) with ahigh sensitivity for accurate measurements under low-flux conditions.
This paper will present the instrument technological solutions, thedevelopment key steps and experimental results on various metrology
applications.

algorithm that aims at reconstructing a well-sampled image from the setof undersampled raw subimages produced by the camera is proposedand validated on experimental images.

8704-66, Session 11

New multiband IR imaging optics
Shyam S. Bayya, Jasbinder S. Sanghera, Woohong R. Kim,
Daniel J. Gibson, Brandon Shaw, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Michael Hunt, Univ. Research Foundation (UnitedStates); Ish D. Aggarwal, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (UnitedStates); Erin F. Fleet, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Materials are needed for multiband IR imaging applications withtransparency over a broad spectral range covering SWIR, MWIR and
LWIR wavelength regions. The choices are often limited to zinc sulfide(ZnS), zinc selenide (ZnSe), Germanium (Ge) and a few commerciallyavailable IR glasses. Many of these materials have fixed refractive indicesand cannot be tailored for dispersion compensation over a broad spectral
region as is needed for multiband achromats. We have been expanding
the materials available for these applications by developing new IR
glasses having broadband transmission with different refractive indicesand dispersion profiles. We have also developed a rugged MILTRAN
ceramic that is 3-5 times harder than ZnS and ZnSe. Using Zemax withthe expanded database of these new materials, we have designed a dualband achromat with only 19 µm focal shift between MWIR and LWIR.
High optical quality polishing methods for both the MILTRAN ceramics
and IR glasses are being developed. The status of our current effort indeveloping multiband achromats will be presented.

8704-68, Session 11

Dual-band infrared picture-in-picture
demonstrator
Jay N. Vizgaitis, Arthur R. Hastings Jr., U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
No abstract available.

8704-64, Session 11

Cryogenic wafer-level MWIR camera:laboratory demonstration
Nicolas Guérineau, Florence de la Barrière, Guillaume Druart,
Mathieu Chambon, ONERA (France); Gilles Lasfargues, ManuelFendler, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique (France)
Today, both military and civilian applications require miniaturized opticalsystems in order to give an imagery function to vehicles with small
payload capacity. This miniaturization will become feasible with the
integration of optical functions in the detector area. In the field of cooled
infrared imaging systems, the detector is positioned in a Dewar andthe constraints on the size and weight of such integrated optics are so
demanding that downscaled versions of traditional systems with a single
optical axis are reaching their limits because of a loss of resolved points
in the final image.
In the field of infrared, we take advantage of the progress in micro-optics
to design a multichannel cooled infrared camera directly integrated
on the detector. This wafer-level camera uses state of art microlenses
with a high sag height. This optical system has a field of view of 120°.
The additional mass of the optics is sufficiently small to be compatible
with the cryogenic environment of the Dewar. The performance of thiscamera will be discussed. Its characterization has been carried out
in terms of the modulation transfer function and the noise equivalenttemperature difference (NETD). The optical system is limited by thediffraction. By cooling the optics, we achieve a very low NETD equal to
15 mK compared with traditional infrared cameras. A postprocessing

16

8704-132, Session 11

Challenges, constraints and results oflens design in 8-12 micron waveband
for bolometer-FPAs having a pixel pitch≤12micron
Norbert Schuster, John W. Franks, Umicore Electro-Optic
Materials (Belgium)
In the 8-12 micron waveband Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) are available witha pixel pitch of 12 microns or less. High resolution FPAs with VGA andXGA resolution should become available at a reasonable price. These will
require new lens designs to give the required fields of view.
The challenge for the Optical Designer is to design lenses where the pixel
pitch of the detector is the same as the wavelength of the light imaged.
The lens specification will need to give more thought to the resolution
required by the system.
A smaller pixel pitch detectors defines a requirement for a shorter
focal length to give the same field of view. This will have a number ofeffects upon the lens design. The geometrical aberrations decrease
proportionally with the focal length. Reverse telephoto layouts become
more common, particularly when the system has a shutter. The increasein pixel count will require wide field of view lenses which present
particular challenges.
The impact of diffraction effects on the lens design is considerably

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

increased. The fast F-number causes an increase in the diffraction limit of
the system, but also increases the geometric aberrations by a cube law.
Therefore the balance between the diffraction limited and the aberration
limited performance becomes more difficult.

known as the working range, defined as (Tx – Tg), bounded by the glasstransition temperature (Tg) and the crystallization temperature (Tx). In
contrast to Silica glasses, the working temperature range for ZBLAN
glass is extremely narrow. Multiple ZBLAN samples were subject to aheating and quenching test apparatus on the parabolic aircraft, under acontrolled 0-g and hyper-g environment and compared with 1-g groundtests. Optical microscopy examination elucidates crystal growth in
ZBLAN is suppressed when processed in a microgravity environment.
The crystallization temperature, Tx, at which crystals form increased,
therefore, significantly broadening the working temperature range for
ZBLAN.

The first approach of the designers is to re-use proven design originallyintended for use with 17 micron detectors. Some of these designs will
have adequate performance at the Nyquist limit of 12 micron detectors.
Even smaller detector pitches, such as 10 micron, will demand new
approaches to Infra Red lens design. The traditional approach will quickly
increase the number of elements to 3 or more. This could lead to thelenses with medium fields of view driving the system cost. It will become
necessary for a close cooperation between the camera developer andlens designer to explore alternate approaches such as wavefront coding
in order to reach the most cost effective solution.

ZBLAN samples were placed inside a single fused silica ampoule which
was inserted at the end of a pushrod to place the samples inside the test
apparatus. Each ampoule contained two, 2-3 mm (0.79 in - 0.11 in.) by
1.03 mm (0.041 in.) diameter samples. These samples were separated bya small piece of silica glass, of similar length but slightly larger diameter,
1.09 mm (0.043 in.). Tests were conducted to carefully characterize
the temperature variation in the test apparatus. Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC) tests were independently conducted to verify the Tg.

8704-67, Session 12

Wide-angle catadioptric optics for broadband
applications

8704-71, Session 12

Naomi Pollica, Christopher C. Alexay, StingRay Optics, LLC(United States)

Precise optomechanical characterization ofassembled IR optics

Many design approaches to color correction of infrared optics have
evolved from theories presented by first-order linear equations, but thathas only been half the battle. Geometric forms and glass properties
have limited the development of well-corrected lenses when facedwith higher order color and aberration correction. In this paper we will
discuss broad spectral multi-band imaging with specific recognition in
fast catadioptric wide-angle systems. The result of this work will illustratea solution yielding a compact well-corrected lens for advanced imaging
applications.

Daniel Winters, Patrik Langehanenberg, Josef Heinisch, Eugen
Dumitrescu, TRIOPTICS GmbH (Germany)
The imaging quality of assembled optical systems is strongly influenced
by the alignment errors of the individual lenses in the assembly. Although
instrumentation for characterizing centering errors for the visual spectral
range existed for some time, the technology to include the LWIR
(8-12µm) and the MWIR (3-5µm) spectral ranges was only recently
developed. Here, we report on the development and performance ofsuch a measurement system that is capable of fully characterizing thealignment of all individual elements of an IR lens assembly in a noncontact and non-destructive fashion.

8704-69, Session 12

Optical methods for the optimization ofsystem SWAP-C using aspheric components
and advanced optical polymers

The main component of the new instrument is an autocollimator working
in the LWIR that determines the position of the center of curvature ofeach individual IR lens surface with respect to the instruments referenceaxis. This position data are used to calculate the shift and tilt of theindividual lenses with respect to each other or a user-defined reference
axis like e.g. the assembly housing. Finally, to complete the whole
picture, the thicknesses and air gaps between individual lenses aremeasured with a low coherence interferometer built into the instrument.
In order to obtain precise data, the instrument software takes themeasured real centering error into account and directs the user to
optimally align the assembly with respect of the interferometer reference
axis, which then determines the position of the vertex positions along theoptical axis and from these the center thicknesses of each lens and the
air gaps between lenses with an accuracy below one micrometer.

Amy L. Zelazny, Kenneth F. Walsh, John P. Deegan, Robert
Benson, Rochester Precision Optics, LLC (United States); W.
David Schmidt, Russell Howe, Rochester Precision Optics(United States)
We describe the benefits to camera system SWAP-C associated withthe use of aspheric molded glasses and optical polymers in the design
and manufacture of optical components and elements. Both camera
objectives and display eyepieces, typical for night vision man-portable
EO/IR systems, are explored. We discuss optical trade-offs, system
performance, and cost reductions associated with this approach in both
visible and non-visible wavebands, specifically NIR and LWIR. Example
optical models are presented, studied, and traded using this approach.

8704-72, Session 13

2.2 micron, uncooled, InGaAs photodiodes,
and balanced photoreceivers up to 25 GHz
bandwidth

8704-70, Session 12

Enhanced processability of ZrF4-BaF2-LaF3AlF3-NaF glass in microgravity

Abhay M. Joshi, Shubhashish Datta, Jim Rue, Discovery
Semiconductors, Inc. (United States)

Anthony Torres, Arup K. Maji, The Univ. of New Mexico (UnitedStates); Jeffrey M. Ganley, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)We report lattice mismatched, uncooled, 2.2 Micron wavelength cutoff,
InGaAs Photodiodes and Balanced Photoreceivers with bandwidth up
to 25 GHz. The responsivity at 2.05 micron is 1.2 A/W, and the 1 dBcompression, optical current handling of these photodiodes is 10 mA
at 7V reverse bias. Such high current handling capacity allows thesephotodiodes and balanced photoreceivers to operate with a higher DC
Local Oscillator (LO) power, thus, allowing more coherent gain and shotnoise limited operation. The impulse response of these devices showsrise time/fall time of ~15 ps, and Full Width Half Maximum (FWHM) of

Fluorozirconate glasses, such as ZBLAN (ZrF4-BaF2-LaF3-AlF3-NaF), areideally suited for Infrared (IR) optical transmission. However, crystallites
formed during the fabrication processes deteriorate mechanicalproperties and prevent this glass from achieving its desired transmission
range. The temperature at which the glass can be drawn into a fiber is

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX~20 ps.
The InGaAs Photodiodes are optically sensitive from 1.2 to 2.2 Micron,and can be used at both 1.55 Micron and 2.05 Micron wavelength for
imaging and LIDAR applications. With the advent of 25 GHz Digital
Signal Processing (DSP), Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) and Digital
to Analog Converters (DAC), these high speed InGaAs Photodiodes andBalanced Photoreceivers act as a perfect front end, for very high speed
imaging, as well as LIDAR systems which can be operated uncooled at
300K.

8704-75, Session 13

Long-range night/day human identification
using active-SWIR imaging
Brian E. Lemoff, Robert B. Martin, Mikhail Sluch, Kristopher M.
Kafka, William B. McCormick, Robert V. Ice, West Virginia HighTechnology Consortium Foundation (United States)

8704-73, Session 13

Development of high-sensitivity SWIR APD
receivers
Xiaogang Bai, Ping Yuan, James J. Chang, Rengarajan
Sudharsanan, Spectrolab, Inc. (United States); Michael A.
Krainak, Guangning Yang, Xiaoli Sun, Wei Lu, NASA Goddard
Space Flight Ctr. (United States)
Emerging short wavelength infrared (SWIR) LIDAR and long range
laser rangefinder systems, require large optical aperture avalanche
photodiodes (APDs) receivers with high sensitivity and bandwidth. A
large optical aperture is critical to increase the optical coupling efficiency
and extend the LIDAR sensing range of the above systems. In order toachieve high receiver sensitivity both APD noise and transimpedance
amplifier (TIA) noise need to be reduced. Dark current and capacitance oflarge area APDs increase with increasing APD aperture and thus limits thesensitivity and bandwidth of receivers. Spectrolab has been developing
low excess noise APDs with impact ionization engineering (I2E) designs
since 2009. Spectrolab has demonstrated APDs with optical gain over
100 utilizing multiple I2E structures in the APD multiplier. These high gain
I2E APDs showed an excess noise factor less than 0.15.
In this paper, Spectrolab will discuss our recent progresses in thedevelopment of large area and low excess noise of I2E APDs. The mainefforts are focused on optimization of APD design and epitaxial growth.
APDs with optical aperture as large as 300 microns are fabricated andfully characterized. Large-area, high sensitivity I2E APD receivers are built
using low-noise TIAs and detailed characterization data will be presented
at the meeting.

8704-74, Session 13

Multifunction InGaAs detector with on-chipsignal processing
Lior Shkedy, Rami Fraenkel, Tal A. Fishman, Aviho Giladi,
Ilana Grimberg, Elad Ilan, Shay Vaserman, Alina Koifman, SCD
Semiconductor Devices (Israel); Leonid Bykov, SCD (Israel)
Advanced electro-optical systems are designed towards a morecompact, low power, and low cost solution with respect to traditional
systems. Integration of several components or functionalities, such as
infrared imager, laser designator, laser range finder (LRF), into one multifunction detector serves this trend. SNIR Read-Out Integrated Circuit(ROIC) incorporates this high level of signal processing and with relatively
low power consumption. In this paper we present measured results froma Focal Plane Array (FPA) where the SNIR ROIC is Flip-Chip bonded toa 15µm pitch VGA InGaAs detector array. The FPA is integrated into a
metallic vacuum sealed package.
We present InGaAs arrays with dark current density below 1.5nA/cm2 at
280K, Quantum Efficiency larger than 75% at 1550nm, and operability
better than 99.5%. The metallic package is integrated with low powerproximity electronics which delivers Camera Link output. The overall
power dissipation is less than 1W, not including Thermo-Electric Cooling(TEC), which is required in some applications.
The various active and passive operation modes of this detector will
be reviewed. Specifically, we concentrate on the high gain mode withlow readout noise for Low Light Level imaging application, and the18

Asynchronous Laser Pulse Detection (ALPD) with remarkably low
detection thresholds.

Positive identification of personnel from a safe distance is a longstanding need for security and defense applications. Advancesin computer face recognition have made this a reliable means ofidentification when facial imagery of sufficient resolution is available to
be matched against a database of mug shots. Long-range identification
at night requires that the face be actively illuminated; however, for visible
and NIR illumination, the intensity required to produce high-resolution
long-range imagery typically creates an eye-safety hazard. SWIR
illumination makes active-SWIR imaging a promising approach to longrange night-time identification. We will describe an active-SWIR imaging
system that is being developed to covertly detect, track, zoom in on, andpositively identify a human target, night or day, at hundreds of meters
range. The SWIR illuminator pans, tilts, and zooms with the imager toalways just fill the imager field of view. The illuminator meets Class 1 eyesafety limits (safe even with magnifying optics) at the intended target, andmeets Class 1M eye-safety limits (safe to the naked eye) at point-blankrange. Close-up night-time facial imagery will be presented along withexperimental face recognition performance results for matching SWIR
imagery to a database of visible mug shots at distance.

8704-76, Session 13

A novel optical gating method for laser gatedimaging
Ofer Nesher, Ron Schneider, Eyal Zohar, Ran Ginat, Elbit
Systems Ltd. (Israel)
For the past 15 years, Elbit Systems is developing time-resolved active
Laser-Gated Imaging (LGI) systems for various applications. LGI systems
are based on high sensitive gated sensors, synchronized to pulsed laser
sources. A significant characteristic of the LGI is its ability to penetrate a
disturbing media, such as rain, haze and some fog types. Elbit propriety
multi-pulse per frame method, which is being implemented in LGI
systems, further improves the imaging quality.
Current LGI systems are based on Image Intensifiers (II) sensors,
limiting the system parameters such as spectral response, image
quality, reliability and cost. A novel propriety optical gating module wasdeveloped in Elbit, untying the dependency on the II. The optical gating
module is independent on the radiance wavelength and located between
the system optics and the sensor. This method supports the use of
conventional solid state sensors. By selecting the appropriate solid state
sensor, the new LGI systems can operate at any desired wavelength.
In this paper we present the new gating method characteristics,
performance and its advantages over the II gating method. The use of thegated imaging systems is described in a variety of applications, including
results from latest field experiments.

8704-77, Session 14

Large format MWIR and LWIR detectors at
AIMJohann Ziegler, Holger Bitterlich, Rainer Breiter, Martin Bruder,
Petra Fries, Richrad Wollrab, Joachim C. Wendler, Jan Wenisch,
AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Germany)

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

AIM’s roadmap indicates a wide range of efforts to improve theperformance and expand the capability of MCT FPA IR detectors.
Emphasis is placed on MWIR and LWIR large-format FPAs, which offer
superior spatial resolution required for applications such as rotorcraft
pilotage, persistent surveillance or threat level determination in personnel
targets. Adding to these benefits, operation in the LWIR spectral range
offers superior detection in cluttered battlefield scenery and underadverse visibility conditions as well as short integration times forobservation of fast-moving objects.

the major key for all kind of devices: large CZT single crystals (115mm
diameter), large MCT lattice matched epitaxies grown by LPE and MBE.
Then new developments on planar p on n technology are described on
several bands from SWIR to VLWIR. As an illustration, detectors that
operate in MWIR band (5.2µm) at high temperature (150K) with a highoperability (above 99.5%).are presented, together with ultra-low darkcurrent (0.06é/s) SWIR detectors. Other data on TV size LWIR and TV/2
size VLWIR (up to 15µm cut off) will be given in this paper.
In parallel, FPA with a pitch of 10µm were fabricated in MWIR band that
present excellent performances, opening the way for more compact
classical size FPAs (TV) or reasonable size very large FPAs (several
millions pixels).

To put these advantages into practice, AIM is producing on the basis of
its well established 640 x 512 pixel, 15 µm pitch staring detector a MWIR
and LWIR 1280 x 1024 pixel design with 15 µm pitch size. Benefittingfrom continuous improvements of traditional liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)
and n-on-p array technology, excellent electro-optical performance has
been achieved for this new large format detector design. In parallel, theperformance of MCT material grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)on GaAs substrates, which is being developed to take advantage of 3rdgeneration device architecture, is evaluated for this application.

The fabrication of avalanche photodiodes could lead recently to thefabrication of SWIR APDs that operate at room temperature and of ahigh frame rate FPA (320x256 with a pitch of 30µm, 1.500frame/s) that
operates at 2.5µm and presents a very low dark current and a highoperability (above 99.5% for a gain of 10 at 80K).

In this paper we will present AIM’s MWIR and LWIR detector roadmap fordifferent formats, pixel pitches (e.g.10µm) and operating temperatures
and will report electro-optical performance and IR images of MWIR and
LWIR FPAs fabricated by both LPE and MBE.

8704-80, Session 14

8704-78, Session 14

Temperature dependence of 1/f noise, defects
and dark current in small pitch MWIR and
LWIR HDVIP® HgCdTe FPAs

Megapixel array developments at Selex
Galileo

Roger L. Strong, Michael A. Kinch, John M. Armstrong, DRS
Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc. (United States)Peter M. Thorne, Harald J. Weller, Jim Gordon, SELEX Galileo
Infrared Ltd. (United Kingdom)

Reducing an array’s pixel pitch reduces the size and weight of the focal
plane array (FPA) and its associated dewar, cooler and optics. Higher
operating temperatures reduce cool-down time and cooler power,
enabling reduced cooler size and weight. High operating temperaturesmall pitch (<15 um) infrared detectors are therefore highly desirable. We
have characterized a large number of MWIR and LWIR FPAs as a functionof temperature and cutoff wavelength to determine the impact of theseparameters on the FPA’s dark current, 1/f noise and defects. The 77K
cutoff wavelength range for the MWIR arrays was 5.0-5.6 um, and 8.5-11
um for the LWIR arrays. DRS’ HDVIP® FPAs are based on a front-side
illuminated, via interconnected, cylindrical geometry, N+/N/P architecture.

SELEX Galileo will present progress on our megapixel array development
programmes and will include progress on the FALCON HD1920x1080p
12um pitch array. This device is 3-side buttable which provides a route
to producing larger mosaic arrays that are affordable by using them as
elements of a mosaic array assembly. Arrays have been fabricated using
MCT grown by MOVPE on low cost GaAs substrates. An update on arraytest results will be given. Progress on mosaic assembly will be given
along with detail on some of the technical challenges.

The 1/f noise is manifested as a tail in the rmsnoise distribution. We havefound that the model-independent skewness of the rmsnoise distribution
is a highly effective tool for quantifying the magnitude of an FPA’s 1/f
noise.

8704-79, Session 14

Recent progress in MCT detectors in France

Quartile Skewness = (Q3+Q1-2*Q2)/(Q3-Q1)
In this paper we show that a normal FPA’s 1/f noise varies as ni (theintrinsic carrier concentration), in agreement with models that treat
dislocations as donor pipes located within the P-volume of the unit cell.
Nonstandard FPAs have been observed with systemic 1/f noise which
varies as the square of ni.

Gérard L. Destéfanis, Olivier Gravrand, CEA-LETI-Minatec(France); Michel Vuillermet, David Billon-Lanfrey, SOFRADIR(France)
The exceptional physical properties of MCT and the maturity of thetechnology allows today the fabrication of more and more complex
infrared FPAs with this material, keeping the highest performance.

8704-81, Session 14

Larger and larger arrays with smaller and smaller pitches can beachieved in a large variety of cut of wavelengths such as SWIR, MWIR,
LWIR, and VLWIR (including the visible). Pitch reduction has for first
consequence an increase of the resolution but is also a major element for
consumption reduction.

Planar p on n LWIR and VLWIR FPA madewith MCT
Nicolas Baier, Laurent Mollard, CEA-LETI (France); Olivier
Gravrand, Gérard L. Destéfanis, CEA-LETI-Minatec (France);
Guillaume Bourgeois, Jean-Paul Zanatta, CEA-LETI (France);
Alexandre Kerlain, Laurent Rubaldo, Alain Manissadjian,
SOFRADIR (France); Jean-Christophe Peyrard, Délégation
Générale pour l’Armement (France)

Thanks to fundamental considerations based on minority carrier
lifetime, these FPA present, on suitable technologies, lower and lower
dark currents. As a consequence they can operate at larger and larger
temperature reducing power consumption and making better reliability ofcryogenic systems (SWAP).
New advanced functions can be addressed with more complex design ofthe pixel such as multicolor detection with MCT hetero-structures grownby MBE, or fast and noiseless amplification in the pixel using avalanche
photodiodes (APD), or signal processing with smart read out circuit madewith advanced foundries (0.18µm or less).

In this paper, we report on results obtained both at CEA/LETI and
SOFRADIR on p-on-n HgCdTe Infra-Red Focal Plane Arrays (IR FPAs) for
the Long-wave (LW) and the Very-long-wave (VLW) spectral ranges. For
many years, p-on-n arsenic-ion implanted planar technology has beendeveloped and improved within the framework of the joint laboratory
DEFIR. Compared to n-on-p, p-on-n technology presents lower darkThis paper gives an overview of the most recent developments at
Sofradir and Leti joint laboratory ‘DEFIR” on MCT detectors.
First a focus is made on high quality material developments than are

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

current and series resistance. Consequently, p-on-n photodiodes are
well-adapted for very large FPAs operating either at high temperature orvery low flux.
The long wave (LW) spectral ranges have been firstly addressed with
TV/4, 30 µm pitch FPAs. Our results showed state-of-the-art detector
performances, consistent with “Rule 07” law, a relevant indicator of thematurity of photodiode technology. The subsequent development ofp-on-n imagers has produced more compact, less energy consuming
systems, with a substantial resolution enhancement.
Space applications are another exciting but challenging domains, andare good candidates for the p-on-n technology. In this way, TV/4 arrays,
30 µm pixel pitch, have been manufactured for the very long wave
spectral range. For this detection range, the quality of material andreliability of technology are the most critical. Detectors with different
cutoff wavelength have been manufactured to aim 12.5 µm at 78K, 12.5µm at 40K and 15 µm at 78K. Electro-optical characterizations reveal
homogeneous imagers with excellent current operabilities (over 99.9%
at best). The results highlight the very good quality of p-on-n technology
with carrier diffusion limited dark current, fitting the “Rule 07” law, andhigh quantum efficiency.

8704-57, Session 15

Numerical simulation of quantum efficiency
and crosstalk in IR photon-trapping
structures
Jonathan Schuster, Boston Univ. (United States); Enrico Bellotti,
The Boston Univ. Photonics Ctr. (United States)
The main goal of this work is to evaluate the efficiency and crosstalkof HgCdTe photon trapping structure arrays. We first solve theelectromagnetic problem using the finite-difference time-domain method
which yields the optical generation rate in the pillars. We then use thefinite element method to perform drift diffusion simulations using this
optical generation rate by simultaneously solving the carrier continuity
and Poisson equations on a three-dimensional finite element grid. Wethen use this model to evaluate the quantum efficiency and crosstalk as afunction of surface charge and surface recombination velocity.

8704-82, Session 15

Analysis of propellant combustion with realtime multispectral infrared camera
Grégory Vincent, Emilie Sakat, Sylvain Rommeluère, Charles
Erades, Sidonie Lefebvre, Franck Cauty, ONERA (France);
Stéphane Collin, Jean-Luc Pelouard, Lab. de Photonique et deNanostructures (France); Riad Haïdar, ONERA (France)
Infrared spectroscopy is widely used for gas identification, because of
specific spectral absorption/ emission of species in this wavelength
range. Numerous spectrometers have been developed, based on
different principles: Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectrometers[FER2006, ROM2008], filtering wheels with standard infrared cameras[NAR2010], OPOs [BER2009]... Each technology has its own abilites: highor low spectral resolution, real-time acquisition, imaging ability, large or
narrow operating spectral window...
In this paper, we present a real-time mid-infrared multispectral camera
based on multichannels optical architecture. The system is made of astandard HgCdTe focal plane array, stacks of microlenses arrays andnanostructured spectral filters array [HAI2010, COL2010]. Experimental
results are shown: spectral images of a lighter flame, of propellant
combustion and of Bragg filters.

Bibliography[FER2006] Ferrec et al., Opt. Eng. 45 (11), 115601, 2006
[ROM2008] Rommeluère et al., Opt. Lett. 33 (10), 2008
[NAR2010] Naranjo et al., Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7661, 76610K, 2010
[BER2009] Berrou et al., App. Phys. B 98, 217-230, 2009
[HAI2010] Haïdar et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 96 (221104), 2010
[COL2010] Collin et al., Phys. Rev. Lett 104 (027401), 2010

8704-83, Session 16

Thermal imagers: from ancient analog video
output to state-of-the-art video streaming
Hubertus A. Haan, Cassidian Optronics GmbH (Germany)
In military especially in military vehicle applications, the video output ofthermal imagers have been stayed constant over almost two decades.
When the famous Common Modules were deployed in high numbers
the thermal image at first was presented to the observer in the eye piece
only. In the early 1990s TV cameras were attached and the standard
output was CCIR. In the civil camera market output standards changed
to digital formats a decade ago and norms were established andvanished again where video compression and digital video streaming is
nowadays state-of-the-art.
The reasons why the output technique in the thermal world stayedunchanged over such a long time are: The very conservative view of themilitary community, long planning and turn-around times of programs
and a slower growth of pixel number of thermal imagers in comparison
to consumer cameras. Therefore for a long time the analogue output was
satisfactory. This has changed in the meantime.
For thermal imagers with megapixel detectors the CCIR output format
is not sufficient any more to handle the interface and the data rate.
The paper discusses the state-of-the-art compression and streaming
solutions for thermal imagers and the pros and cons with respect tomilitary applications.

8704-84, Session 16

On-chip temporal multiplexing with a digital
focal plane array
Christy Fernandez-Cull, Andrew Bolstad, Brian M. Tyrrell, MIT
Lincoln Lab. (United States)
With emerging active-pixel focal planes, image plane coding strategies
can be transferred to the pixel architecture. Digital-pixel focal planearray (DFPA) technology, which MIT Lincoln Laboratory has beendeveloping for several years, is a promising enabling technology forsuch applications. In this work, we investigate applicability of a DFPAROIC capable of a 1 kHz global frame rate and a much higher-rate onchip temporal multiplexing capability, in which each pixel is modulated
by a time-varying, pseudo-random, and binary-valued signal. We
experimentally show that a high-resolution series of frames can bereconstructed from a low temporal resolution image with minimal loss inspatial resolution. Knowledge of the temporal code combined with a nonlinear total variation regularization algorithm enables 3D (x,y,t) estimationfrom a 2D (x,y) temporally encoded image. This paper will focus on
simulations and experimental results associated with 3D data recovery
from a 2D multiplexed image.

We present experimental set-up, and measurements, and we also
describe an algorithm used to retrieve spectral signatures of objects. We
thus demonstrate the ability of our system to record fast phenomena andto discriminate objects thanks to their spectral signature.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-86, Session 16

8704-88, Session 16

Solid state temperature-dependent NUC(non-uniformity correction) in uncooled LWIR
(long-wave infrared) microbolometer FPAs
(focal plane arrays)

MT3250BA: a 320 x 256 - 50µm
microbolometer ROIC for high-resistancedetector arrays
Tayfun Akin, Middle East Technical Univ. (Turkey) and MikroTasarim Ltd. (Turkey); Selim Eminoglu, Mikro-Tasarim San.ve Tic.
Ltd. Sti. (Turkey)

Christel-Loic Tisse, Yanpeng Cao, MTech Imaging Pte. Ltd.
(Singapore)

This paper reports the development of a new microbolometer ROIC
(MT3250BA) suitable for detector arrays with high pixel resistance.
MT3250BA is the first microbolometer ROIC product from Mikro-TasarimLtd., which is a fabless IC design house specialized the developmentof monolithic imaging sensors and ROICs for hybrid imaging sensors.
MT3250BA has a format of 320 x 256 and pixel pitch of 50 µm,
developed with the system-on-chip architecture in mind, where all thetiming and biasing for this ROIC are generated on-chip without requiring
any external inputs. MT3250BA is a highly configurable ROIC, where
many of its features can be programmed through a 3 wire serial interface
allowing on-the-fly configuration of many ROIC features. MT3250BA has
2 analog video outputs that can be programmed in 2 or 1-output modes
with a selectable analog reference for pseudo differential operation.
Unlike other bolometer readout circuits, it performs snapshot operation
allowing proper imaging operation without any motion artifact. The
ROIC runs at 10MHz and supports frame rate values above 100fps inthe 2-output mode. The integration time can be programmed from 0.1µs
up to 100ms in steps of 0.1 µs. The ROIC uses 3.3 V supply voltage
and dissipates less than 55mW in the 1-output mode. MT3250BA isfabricated using a modern mixed-signal CMOS process on 200 mm
CMOS wafers, and tested parts will be available in the first quarter of2013 either in wafer or die levels with test reports and wafer maps. A
USB based compact camera electronics and imaging software is alsoavailable for quick evaluation of this new ROIC.

In uncooled LWIR microbolometer imaging sensors, temperaturefluctuations of the FPA result in thermal drift and gain non-uniformity,
both of which generate undesirable FPN (Fixed-Pattern-Noise) that isdifficult to remove using traditional, individual shutterless and TEC-less(Thermo-Electric Cooling) techniques.
We introduce a novel single-based image processing approach thatmarries statistical scene-based and calibration-based NUC algorithms,
without relying on accurate global or local motion estimation between
frames, to compensate the resulting temperature-dependent nonuniformity.
Our method exploits local spatial statistics of both the observed scene
and the FPA’s temperature distribution. Firstly, an empirical behaviouralmodel is derived by calibration to characterize the spatio-temporal
response of the microbolometric FPA to environmental and scene
temperature variations. Secondly, under the assumption of strong spatial
redundancy between adjacent pixels, we start by estimating the optimal
NUC parameters within the homogenous regions of the thermal infrared
image so as to locally minimize their intensity variance. We then makeuse of the estimated correction parameters from these regions of interest
to infer the NUC profile across the entire image.
The performance and robustness of the proposed temperature-adaptive
NUC method are demonstrated by showing results obtained froma 640x480 pixels uncooled microbolometer operating over an wide
temperature range of < –5°C to >65°C.

8704-89, Session 16

8704-87, Session 16

MT6415CA: a 640 x 512 - 15µm CTIA ROIC for
SWIR InGaAs detector arrays

Benefits in sensitivity and detection using
oversampled imaging sensors

Tayfun Akin, Selim Eminoglu, Mikro-Tasarim San.ve Tic. Ltd. Sti.
(Turkey)

John T. Caulfield, Jerry A. Wilson, Cyan Systems (United States);
Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)

This paper reports the development of a new low-noise CTIA ROIC
(MT6415CA) suitable for SWIR InGaAs detector arrays for low-light
imaging applications. MT6415CA is the second product in the MT6400
series ROICs from Mikro-Tasarim Ltd., which is a fabless IC design house
specialized the development of monolithic imaging sensors and ROICs
for hybrid imaging sensors. MT6421CA has a format of 640 x 512 andpixel pitch of 15 µm, developed with the system-on-chip architecturein mind, where all the timing and biasing for this ROIC are generated
on-chip without requiring any external inputs. MT6415CA is a highly
configurable ROIC, where many of its features can be programmed
through a 3 wire serial interface allowing on-the-fly configuration of many
ROIC features. It performs snapshot operation both using IntegrateThen-Read (ITR) and Integrate-While-Read (IWR) modes. The CTIA
type pixel input circuitry has a dual gain mode with selectable full-wellcapacity (FWC) values < 30.000 e- and > 300.000 e- in the high-gain (HG)
and low-gain (LG) modes, respectively. MT6415CA has an input referrednoise level of less than 15 e- rms in HG mode, suitable for very low-noise
SWIR imaging applications.

Current generations of Infrared sensors can be limited by undersampling
the image. This results in aliasing, loss of information, and higher missed
detections and false alarms from several image data sources.
Recently, several programs have been exploring smaller pixel Infrared
sensors. Cyan Systems is developing small pixel oversamplingtechnology focused on improving the resolution and acuity of IR
Focal Plane Sensors and related image processing. This new classof oversampled IR sensors will help extend the detection range, andimprove acuity in turbulent and hazy conditions over larger pixel IR focal
plane array sensors.
Improvements in Oversampling processing concepts will bedemonstrated using simulations and sensor design.
We will show quantitative data to illustrate the improvements inresolution, NEP, detection range, and false alarm suppression of theoversampled IR sensor. Also, we will show high fidelity photon shot noiseMonte Carlo modeling of the performance of the Oversampled FPA andcompare key performance metrics with current generation of IRFPAs.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-25, Session PThur

Impact of growth temperature on InAs/
GaInSb strained layer superlattices for very
long-wavelength infrared detection
Heather J. Haugan, Gail J. Brown, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States); Said Elhamri, Univ. of Dayton Research Institute(United States); William C. Mitchel, Krishnamurthy Mahalingam,
Mu J. Kim, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
We report the ternary growth studies to develop Sb-based superlattice(SL) material for very long wavelength infrared detectors. We selecta superlattice structure of 47.0 Å InAs/21.5 Å Ga0.75In0.25Sb thattheoretically adjusted for the greatest possible detectivity and optimize agrowth parameter for the best possible material quality. Since superlatticematerial quality is strongly related with the densities of nonradiative
Shockley-Read-Hall recombination centers and the residual dopings,
the impact of growth temperature (Tg) on the photoresponse (PR)intensity, the charge carrier density and mobility will be investigated using
photoconductivity, temperature-dependent Hall effect measurements.
Our growth process to create this SL structure produces a consistentband gap of 50±5 meV, however SL quality assessed by PR intensity isvery sensitive to the Tg. For the SLs grown at 390-470 °C, a PR signal
gradually increases as Tg increases from 400 to 440 °C with a maximum
at 440 ºC. Outside this temperature window, the SL quality deteriorates
very rapidly. All SLs were residual n-type with mobility of ~10,000 V/cm2
for an optimized SL.

8704-92, Session PThur

Surface states characterization andsimulation of Type-II In(Ga)Sb quantum dot
structures for processing optimization of
LWIR detectors
Qin Wang, Mina Rajabi, Amir Karim, Susanne Almqvist, Mietek
Bakowski, Susan M. Savage, Jan Y. Andersson, Acreo AB(Sweden); Mats Göthelid, Shun Yu, Oscar Gustafsson, Mattias
Hammar, Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden); Carl Asplund,IRnova AB (Switzerland)Long-wave infrared (LWIR) imaging enables a variety of commercial anddefense applications. However surface leakage currents arising from the
LWIR detector mesa sidewalls due to a large number of surface statesand defects in the bulk material are still a challenge.
In this work, the LWIR detection material is based on type-II quantum
dots (QDs) that rely on a spatially indirect transition between the In(Ga)Sb
QDs and InAs bulk material (Ref. 1). The interband QD LWIR detector is
expected to provide performance levels similar to quantum well infrared
photodetectors (QWIPs), but at operating temperature in excess of 200
K. It enables the use of less expensive thermoelectric coolers, thereby
making them potentially attractive as a low-cost high-performance LWIR
detector.
Wet etching is a key step in fabricating the detectors. X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron
microscope (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
measurements have been performed on the In(Ga)Sb QD samples treatedby different wet etching methods, to analyze their surface chemicalcomposition and roughness. The results provide valuable information for
optimization of the fabrication process for the LWIR detectors.
The dark current of the fabricated detectors have been characterizedby I-V measurements at 77 K and room-temperature. The dark current
mechanisms owing to surface shunt or bulk leakage are investigatedby analysis of the detector’s dark current temperature and geometry
dependence. The dark current caused by surface states was also
investigated by the simulation tool MEDICI. These results were thencompared with the experimental results.

22

Ref. 1: Oscar Gustafsson et al. Photoluminescence and photoresponse
from InSb/InAs-based quantum dot structures, OPTICS EXPRESS, Vol.
20, p. 21264 to 21271, 2012

8704-106, Session PThur

Pyroelectric sensor arrays for detection andthermal imaging
Anthony J. Holden, InfraRed Integrated Systems Ltd. (United
Kingdom)
Penetration of uncooled (room temperature operation) thermal detector
arrays into high volume commercial products depends on very low cost
technology linked to high volume production. A series of innovativeand revolutionary developments is now allowing arrays based on
bulk pyroelectric ceramic material to enter the consumer marketplaceproviding everything from sophisticated security and people monitoring
devices to hand held thermal imagers for preventative maintenance andbuilding inspection.
Although uncooled resistive microbolometer detector technology has
captured market share in higher cost thermal imager products we will
describe a pyroelectric ceramic technology which does not need microelectro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology and vacuum packaging
to give good performance. This is a breakthrough for very low costsensors and imagers.
Recent developments in a variety of products based on pyroelectric
ceramic arrays will be described and their performance and applicability
compared and contrasted with competing technologies. This will include
the use of low element count arrays for applications in people counting
and queue management and the technology innovations that are driving
higher element count imaging arrays for low cost thermal imaging
cameras and intelligent security detectors. The technical challenges andresearch and development in materials production, device design andlow cost manufacture will be described. New research and development
will be described which aims to increase performance and array element
count for more products and markets.

8704-107, Session PThur

IR and visible images registration method
based on cross cumulative residual entropy
Chao Li, Qian Chen, Guohua Gu, Tian Man, Nanjing Univ. of
Science and Technology (China)
Being the prerequisite of image joint and fusion, image registration
technology has been utilized in various fields. Required by application,
image registration technology has developed from single module
registration to multiple module registration, such as the registrationof infrared and visible light image registration[3-4]. The current image
registration technology could be devided into two major types: featurebased and gray-based registration[5]. The latter is decided by thegrayness of the picture, which needs no pretreatment, and it enjoys ahigh-precision and is applied in the registration of infrared and visible
light image registration, especially MI-based and NMI-based methods.
But in the mutual information calculation, marginal entropy influences
the value of mutual information. The larger the overlapping zone of two
pictures is, the bigger marginal entropy will be. Therefore, the valueof mutual information will be impacted by the overlapping zone ofpictures, and the largest change of mutual information is not necessarily
the best registration change. In order to eliminate the link between
the wait-to-be-registrated image and the way they are overlapped,
Studholme(1999) came up with NMI as a similarity test. But as for themultiple registration like infrared and visible light image, the utilization ofmutual information and NMI always has no good result as single module
registration, because their registration would create partial peak, leading
to misregistration. So the idea of the match between feature and mutual
information is created. Experiments show that the match of grayness andfeature restrains partial peaks greatly and is more precise and stable than

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-112, Session PThur

MI and NMI. On the other hand, the amount of calculation is rather big.
This paper presents a method which combines with probability density
and cross cumulative residual entropy. In this algorithm, firstly, according
to infrared image and optical image characteristics, we put forward edge
extraction algorithm based on the probability density. Secondly, we use
cross cumulative residual entropy as the similarity measure to matchthe reference images and transformed images effectively. Bilateral filter
can denoising and protect edge, and cross cumulative residual entropy
is using cumulative distribution function instead of probability density
function to To overcome the noise on the local minima. The experimentproved that registration is effective.

Low-dark current structures for longwavelength Type-II strained layer superlatticephotodiodes
Eric A. DeCuir Jr., U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Zhaobing Tian, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States); Priyalal
S. Wijewarnasuriya, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Sanjay Krishna, Ctr. for High Technology Materials (UnitedStates); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States); Roger E. Welser, Ashok K. Sood,
Magnolia Optical Technologies, Inc. (United States)

8704-108, Session PThur

Design and fabrication of a MOM diodecoupled frequency-selective surface

Dark current reducing pBiBn structures have been employed to reducedark currents in long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) type-II InAs/GaSb
strained-layer superlattice (SLS) diodes. The ability to lower dark current
densities has been achieved by way of hetero-structure engineeringof electron-blocking and hole-blocking layers via a molecular beam
epitaxy (MBE) approach. These samples were fabricated into varying
area mesa diodes and small diode arrays using a reactive ion etching(RIE) technique employing inductively coupled plasma using chlorinebase chemistry. The samples in this study were passivated with either
SiO2 or Al2O3 using plasma enhanced chemical vapor and atomic
layer deposition, respectively. A variable area diode analysis (VADA)
technique was employed to investigate the overall effectiveness of thesepassivation layers by extrapolating the surface resistivity and bulk R0A.
Temperature dependent dark current measurements enabled an analysisof the dominating current mechanisms, while theoretical fittings of thediode dark currents were used to identify the contributing dark current
components observed in the empirical dark current data. The relative perwatt and per photon spectral response of these photodiode structures
was determined using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy andthe quantum efficiency (QE) and detectivity (D*) was determined using
a narrow band filter, a calibrated 500K blackbody source, and a noise
spectrum analyzer.

Edward C. Kinzel, Missouri Univ. of Science and Technology(United States); Robert L. Brown, CREOL, The College of Optics
and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); James
C. Ginn III, Plasmonics Inc. (United States); Brian A. Lail, Florida
Institute of Technology (United States); Brian A. Slovick, CREOL,The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida(United States); Glenn D. Boreman, The Univ. of North Carolina at
Charlotte (United States)
This presentation describes the design, fabrication, and testing of aslot-antenna based Frequency Selective Surface (FSS) coupled with
Metal-Oxide-Metal (MOM) diodes integrated into the structure. This
design takes advantage of a single self-aligned patterning step using
shadow evaporation. The diodes are formed by forming a native oxideon aluminum and overlaying platinum. The structure is optimized at
10.6 µm to have less than 2% reflection with 70% of the incident
energy dissipated into the oxide layer using numerical simulation. Initial
experimental results conducted on designs patterned with e-beamlithography are also presented. The fabricated structure is shown to
produce a polarization sensitive unbiased DC current. This design will be
useful for both infrared sensing and imaging as well as direct conversionof thermal energy.

8704-113, Session PThur

Crosstalk analysis in large-area, lowcapacitance InGaAs quad photodiodes

8704-109, Session PThur

Shubhashish Datta, Abhay M. Joshi, Jim Rue, Discovery
Semiconductors, Inc. (United States)

Type-II superlattice N-structure operating in
the mid-wavelength infrared range (MWIR)

Quad photodiodes, namely a 2 x 2 array of p-i-n photodiodes, arerequired as the front-end photonic sensors in several applications
relying on free-space propagation with direction sensing capability,
such as long baseline interferometry, laser ranging, and free-space
optical communication. The direction sensing accuracy of these quad
photodiodes may be limited by the crosstalk between the four quadrants.

Yuksel Ergun, Anadolu Univ. (Turkey)
We have investigated theoretical and experimental properties of InAs/
AlSb/GaSb based type-II superlattice (T2SL) pin photodetector. The band
gap and heavy hole-light hole (HH-LH) splitting energies of the structure
were carried out by first principles calculations considering possible
interface transition layers of AlAs and InSb between InAs/AlSb interfaces
and constituent layer thicknesses. According to theoretical findings
type-II SL N-structure was optimized to operate as a MWIR detector
tailoring the band gap and HH-LH splitting energies. N-structure is a
InAs/AlSb/GaSb based SL pin structure where GaSb and InAs layers aresequentially confined by the thin AlSb barriers in each period throught
the structure. With the insertion of AlSb barriers, carriers are pushed
towards the GaSb/InAs interfaces as under bias and thus the opticaltransition probability increases when compared with a standard GaSb/
InAs T2SL p-i-n diode. The detector structure is constructed by 1/9/2/8.5
monolayers (MLs) of InSb/InAs/AlSb/GaSb SL layers as 90 periods ofp-region with GaSb:Be (p=1.5×1017 cm-3), 60 period of i-intrinsic region
and 40 periods of n-region with InAs:Te (n=5×1017cm-3). Experimental
results show that AlSb barriers in the structure act as blocking barriers
reducing the diffusion and G-R component of dark current. Dark current
density and RoA product at 79 K were obtained as 4x10-7A/cm2 and1.8x106 Ωcm2 at zero bias, respectively. The specific detectivity wasmeasured as 3x1012 Jones with cut-off wavelengths of 4.3 µm at 77K
reaching to 2x109 Jones and 4.5µm at 255 K.

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We report 0.5 mm diameter, 1 mm diameter, and 2 mm diameter quad
InGaAs photodiodes having quadrant-to-quadrant separation of 15
um, 20 um, and 25 um. This crosstalk is a combination of resistive andcapacitive coupling between the photodiode quadrants depending onreverse bias, quadrant-to-quadrant separation, load, and reactance ata particular frequency and its interaction with the neighboring pixel. We
report crosstalk that varies widely from -20 dB to -60 dB depending on
the combination of the above parameters. Thus, the position sensing
accuracy is heavily influenced by the operation conditions of the quad
photodiode.

8704-114, Session PThur

Low-cost and compact thermal imaging
sensors for body temperature measurement
Myung-Soo Han, Seok Man Han, Hang Ju Ko, Jae Chul Shin,·

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23

Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIXHyo Jin Kim, Korea Photonics Technology Institute (Korea,
Republic of); Mi Sook Ahn, Hyung Won Kim, Yong Hee Han, UElectronics (Korea, Republic of)Infrared sensor in the form of a nice big resolution rather than to produce
a compact and low-cost thermal sensor technology is spreading rapidly.
Small low-cost infrared sensor on the increasing demand for applications
such as intruder, car blind-spot detection, human body temperaturedetection and gas sensors. In this paper, ROIC over the substrate with
a 32x32 array microbolometer sensors were fabricated using surface
micromachining technology. In addition, the miniaturized chip using
wafer-level vacuum packaging technology were made. Thermal imaging
system for the implementation of the analog and digital boards weremade for each other, body temperature can be measured by an infrared
thermal imaging system was implemented. Monolithic fabricatedmicrobolometer with vanadium-tungsten oxide infrared sensing materialon the ROIC wafer substrate was used in order to minimize heat loss
sensor was designed as a floating structure. Vacuum packaging isessential to making efficient infrared heat sensing. So microbolometer
infrared transmission filter and getter-coated on a silicon wafer leads
wafer fabrication crafted ROIC wafer and wafer-level vacuum packaging.
Low-level microbolometer array with wafer level packaging, small sizeand low cost, but it was confirmed that the body temperature to produce
a thermal imaging sensor.

8704-115, Session PThur

Characteristic of nickel oxide microbolometer
Gyo-Hun Koo, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republic of);
Young-Chul Jung, Gyeongju Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Sung-Ho
Hahm, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); DongGeon Jung, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Yong
Soo Lee, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
We have used reactive sputtering technology for nickel oxide film
formation on silicon nitride membrane with 100um x um pixel size. Nickel
oxide films obtained by the sputtering of Ni within the argon and oxygengas mixture have been analyzed from XRD, AFM and XPS methods. And
then, ohmic contact structure for optimizing the resistivity of thin nickel
oxide films was investigated. High TCR of nickel microbolometer withlow 1/f noise spectrum distribution was obtained. For the fabricationof microbolometer, we simulated the optical and device structures forpredicting the performance of microbolometer with nickel oxide films.
Through the result of calculation on the micribolometer designed inthis research, we could verify a low NETD(noise equivalent temperature
difference) below 50mK.

8704-119, Session PThur

Nanoantenna-enabled midwave infrared
detectionDavid W. Peters, Jin K. Kim, Darin Leonhardt, Joel R. Wendt,
John F. Klem, Charles M. Reinke, Paul S. Davids, Sally Samora,
Sandia National Labs. (United States)
We show results of the integration of a nanoantenna in close proximity
to the active material of a photodetector. The nanoantenna allows amuch thinner active layer to be used for the same amount of incident
light absorption. This is accomplished through the nanoantenna couplingincoming radiation to surface plasmon modes bound to the metal
surface. These modes are tightly bound and only require a thin layer ofactive material to allow complete absorption. Moreover, the nanoantenna
impedance matches the incoming radiation to the surface waves without
the need for an antireflection coating. While the nanoantenna concept
may be applied to any active photodetector material, we chose tointegrate the nanoantenna with an InAsSb photodiode. The addition of
the nanoantenna to the photoiode requires changes to the geometry of
the stack beyond the simple addition of the nanoantenna and thinning
the active layer. We will show simulations of the electric fields in the
nanoantenna and the active region and optimized designs to maximize
absorption in the active layer as opposed to absorption in the metalof the nanoantenna. We will briefly review the fabrication processes.
Finally, we will review results of characterization in the MWIR, including
a comparison of performance with and without the nanoantenna andcomparison to the models.

8704-120, Session PThur

Numerical simulation of large-format
reduced-pitch HgCdTe infrared detector
arraysBenjamin Pinkie, Boston Univ. (United States); Enrico Bellotti,
The Boston Univ. Photonics Ctr. (United States)

8704-116, Session PThur

Development status of Type II superlattice
infrared detector in JAXA
Haruyoshi Katayama, Junpei Murooka, Masataka Naitoh,
Ryota Sato, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Japan);Toshifumi Kawasaki, Yudai Itoh, Tomoko Takekawa, Syota
Sugano, Masafumi Kimata, Ritsumeikan Univ. (Japan); Mikhail
A. Patrashin, Iwao Hosako, National Institute of Information
and Communications Technology (Japan); Yasuhiro Iguchi,
Transmission Devices R&D Laboratories, Sumitomo ElectricIndustries, Ltd. (Japan)
We report the development status of Type II superlattice (T2SL) infrared
detector in JAXA. Since 2009, we have started a basic research on InAs/
GaSb T2SL infrared detectors. Our final goal is to realize the T2SL array
detector having a cutoff wave length of λc=15µm.
In order to confirm a technical feasibility of 15µm cutoff T2SL
detector, we fabricated T2SL samples having superlattice thickness

24of 9 monolayers (ML) InAs/ 7 ML GaSb, 14ML InAs /7ML GaSb, and16ML InAs /7ML GaSb. These crystals are designed for the cutoff
wavelength from 6µm to 12µm. The X-ray Diffraction measurementshows a mismatch between the substrate and superlattice layers is
below 0.006%. The surface morphology of the samples with an atomic
force microscope is 1.5-3.3Å RMS for 5×5µm square regions. We alsofabricated single pixel detectors with these crystals. We show the resultsof the spectral response measurement using a FTIR system. We also
show the development status of an array detector.

The goal of this work is to extend our current three-dimensional
numerical model of single and dual-color HgCdTe detectors to larger
format arrays. The current trend of fabricating larger arrays while
decreasing pixel pitch makes it desirable to develop a numericalmodel which can accurately predict intra-pixel effects which cannot bemodeled without considering array sizes greater than 3 pixels by 3 pixels.
Furthermore, at small pixel pitch, effects such as resonance between
mesa sidewalls and optical crosstalk become applicable, requiring amore rigorous solution of the optical properties of the detector. Our
numerical model is based on the solution of Maxwell’s curl equations
using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method to obtain the
optical carrier generation profile within the device considering diffraction
effects which become relevant at reduced-pitch. The optical generationis then interpolated onto a mixed-element grid which is used to find anumerical solution of the coupled Poisson and electron/hole continuity
equations through the implementation of the finite element method(FEM). Using our model, we analyze the quantum efficiency and crosstalkof both single- and dual-color detectors with pixel pitches between 8 and
16 microns as a function of pixel dimension and material composition. In
addition, we study the effects of contact placement on both the opticalresponse of the detector as a whole and the pixel-to-pixel uniformity ofelectrical characteristics.

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-121, Session PThur

8704-123, Session PThur

Nanowire grid polarizers for mid- and longwavelength infrared applications

A low-noise silicon-based 20um*20um
uncooled thermoelectric infrared detector

Matthew C. George, Hua Lee, Jonathon Bergquist, Bin Wang,
MOXTEK, Inc (United States)

Mohammad J. Modarres-Zadeh, Reza Abdolvand, Oklahoma
State Univ. (United States)

The wire grid polarizer (WGP) remains one of the most useful opticalcomponents in the field and is prevalent in applications ranging fromimaging and displays to communications and scientific instrumentation.
The WGP typically consists of an array of metallic lines with subwavelength pitch supported by a transparent substrate. Existing WGP
products designed for infrared applications typically suffer from low
contrast between transmission of passing and blocking polarization
states due to their relatively large wire grid pitch (typically ≥370 nm). Ourcurrent work demonstrates that a dramatic reduction in pitch from thatfound in typical IR WGP products greatly improves infrared performance.
Using our aluminum nanowire, large area patterning capabilities, Moxtek
has developed high contrast wire grid polarizers on Silicon suitable formid- and long-wavelength infrared applications. Our 144 nm pitch MWIR
polarizer transmits better than 95% of the passing state while maintaining
a contrast ratio of better than 33dB from 3.3-5.7 microns. Between 7 and
15 microns, our LWIR polarizer transmits better than 70% of the passing
polarization state and has a contrast ratio better than 40dB. Transmission
measurements were made using an FTIR spectrometer and correlated tomeasurements from an outside lab that used NIST-traceable standards toverify instrument accuracy. Results were compared to RCWA modeling of
the WGP performance on antireflection-coated wafers. Performance of a
WGP on a narrow band antireflection-coated wafer for 10.6 micron laserline applications will also be presented.

Presented is an uncooled surface-micromachined thermoelectric (TE)infrared detector that features deep sub-micron P-doped /N-doped
polysilicon wires as the thermocouple pair and an umbrella like opticalcavity as the absorber to achieve fill factor as high as 90%. An NETD of~120mK is measured in vacuum from these devices with f/1.5 lens.
Thermoelectricity is a transduction mechanism for infrared sensing thathas not been much exploited. Last year, our group demonstrated siliconcompatible TE infrared sensors with promising performance. Here, wereport a greatly improved responsivity of more than 10 times comparedto that of last year, which is mostly due to the superior thermoelectric
properties of the material used in the junction (n-type silicon instead ofnichrome), reduction of the dimensions of TE wires (which results in morephonon scattering), higher doping of the polysilicon layers, and improved
thermal management of the cell. At room temperature, responsivity of>1000V/W @5Hz and the response time of ~10ms is measured in vacuum
when viewing a 500K blackbody with no optics. COMSOL simulation isused to predict the detector performance and the results are in a good
agreement with the measurements.

8704-122, Session PThur

The dominant source of noise in thermoelectric IR detectors is believed
to be Johnson noise when the detectors are operating in an open circuit
condition. This has also been confirmed for the presented detectors
by the noise measurement. The measured resistance of the fabricateddetectors is in the range of 20 to 70KOhm which results in Johnson
noise of about 20 to 36 nV/Hz^0.5. The D* is calculated to be about
10^8cmHz^0.5/W, which to the best of our knowledge is the highest
reported D* for such a small thermoelectric devices.

Influence of pixel geometry on the 1/f noise
coefficient

8704-124, Session PThur

Francis R. Généreux, Jacques-Edmond Paultre, Bruno Tremblay,
Francis Provençal, Christine Alain, INO (Canada)

Adaptive control system for vibration
harmonics of cryocooler

The increasing demand for infrared systems with reduced volume andimproved resolution has paved the way for the development of bolometer
FPAs with reduced footprint. Nowadays, 17 µm pixel pitch arrays are
already commercially available. Despite this important breakthrough,various pixel properties still need to be improved to achieve highly
sensitive 12 µm pitch pixels.

Baoyu Yang, Yinong Wu, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)Vibration disturbances generated by cryocooler, representing in a seriesof harmonics, are critical issue in practical application. A control system
including electronic circuit and mechanical actuator has been developed
to attenuate the vibration. The control algorithm executes as a series ofadaptive narrowband notch filters to reduce corresponding harmonics.
The algorithm does not require actuator transfer function, thus ensure
its adaptiveness. Using this algorithm, all the vibration harmonics of
cryocooler were attenuated by a factor of more than 45.9 dB, i.e., theresidual vibration force was reduced from 20.1Nrms to 0.102Nrms overthe 300 Hz control bandwidth, the converging time is only less than 20
seconds, and the power consumption of mechanical actuator is lessthan half a watt. The vibration control system has achieved the general
requirement of Infrared application.

The first step in improving pixel performance is the enhancement of thethermistor material properties, namely the TCR, the resistivity and the
1/f noise coefficient. Among these properties, the 1/f noise coefficientis particularly important for small pixels as its value is, for a given film,
inversely proportional to the volume of the thermistor material. This
relation holds as long as the current through the thermistor material
is uniform, i.e. when the pixel platform has a rectangular shape.
Unfortunately when the pixel pitch is reduced, the shape of the platform
becomes less rectangular due to restriction on the size of some pixels
components.
To develop a model that accounts for a non rectangular platform, we
perform a systematic study of the 1/f noise coefficient as a function of
the pixel geometry. Structures with various thermistor widths, electrodegaps, electrode widths and via sizes are fabricated and characterized.
The experimental results show that the 1/f noise coefficient is adversely
affected by current non uniformity, in agreement with the model
prediction. Design parameters that impact significantly the current non
uniformity are identified and approaches to minimize their importance areproposed.

8704-125, Session PThur

Very broad spectrum Echelle spectrography
Seth H. Pappas, Infrared Labs., Inc. (United States); Burt J.
Beardsley, Catalina Scientific (United States); George W. Ritchie,
Rider Univ. (United States)
Very Broad Spectrum Echelle Spectrography
An echelle spectrograph provides high spectral resolving power acrossa broad wavelength range by covering multiple spectral orders in justone image. A spectrograph of this type is commonly used in elemental
constituent measurements for astronomical observations and laboratory

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

analysis. The wavelength range covered by these instruments is highly
dependent on the capabilities of the sensor used to acquire the data.
Silicon-based CCD detectors typically enable measurements from 200nm
to 900nm. Infrared Laboratories and Catalina Scientific Instruments havecollaborated to demonstrate a very broadband echelle spectrographusing IR Labs’ Triwave camera. The Triwave, with its germaniumenhanced CMOS detector, covers a wavelength range of 300nm to
1600nm. An opportunity exists in the area of dielectric coatingthickness
measurement by extracting and analyzing interference fringe data using
the echelle spectrograph. Methods and results of this characterization
will be presented.

have achieved broad absorption resonances centered at 0.35, 1.1,
14, and 48 microns wavelength. Angle-dependent specular reflectivity
spectra are measured using a UV-visible or Fourier spectrometer.
The peak absorption ranges from 85 to 99%. This strong absorption
is preserved up to 50 degrees angle of incidence. The absorption is
explained using the model of an LCR resonant circuit created by coupling
between dipolar plasmon resonance in the surface structures and theimage dipoles formed in the ground plane. The resonance wavelengthis proportional to the dielectric permittivity and to the linear dimensionof the surface structures. These absorbers have application to thermal
detectors.

8704-126, Session PThur

8704-128, Session PThur

Study of Shockley-Read-Hall, radiative, andAuger recombination processes in InAs/
InAsSb Type-II superlattices

A new unit cell design with automatic input
stage selection capability for increased SNR

Jin Fan, Zhiyuan Lin, Shi Liu, Oray O. Cellek, Xiaomeng Shen,David J. Smith, Yong-Hang Zhang, Arizona State Univ. (UnitedStates)Antimony-based type-II superlattices (T2SLs) has attracted strong
attentions as a promising alternative to HgCdTe for photodetectors
in MWIR and LWIR range. Recent studies of minority carrier lifetime
have shown a major breakthrough for long-wave Ga-free InAs/InAsSb
T2SLs with lifetime greater than 500 ns, which is more than one orderof magnitude longer than that of InAs/GaSb T2SLs, indicating device
performance approaching to radiative recombination limited regime.
Early theoretical studies also show that InAs/Ga(In)Sb T2SLs could
potentially offer suppressed Auger recombination through band-structureengineering. However, the behaviors of radiative and non-radiative
recombination in InAs/InAsSb T2SLs have not been fully investigated.
This paper reports our recent studies of SRH, radiative, and Auger
recombination processes for InAs/InAsSb T2SLs. In this work, a seriesof InAs/InAsSb T2SLs designed for MWIR and LWIR range have beengrown using MBE. Post-growth characterization using X-ray diffraction(XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) reveals excellent
structural properties of the grown samples. Photoluminescence (PL)measurements are carried out from 12 to 150 K with different excitation
power densities covering 4 orders of magnitude from 1.5 mW/cm2 to 10
W/cm2. The results show that the recombination in InAs/InAsSb T2SLs
at 12 K is dominated by radiative recombination process, indicating
excellent optical properties. As the temperature increased to 77 K,
SRH, radiative, and Auger recombination processes are all present.
A theoretical model is developed to calculate the SRH, radiative, andAuger recombination coefficients. Detailed modeling and characterization
results will be present at the conference.

8704-127, Session PThur

Thin-film, wide-angle, design-tunable,
selective absorber from near UV to far
infraredJanardan Nath, Doug Maukonen, Evan M. Smith, Pedro N.
Figueiredo, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Guy Zummo,
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States); Deep R. Panjwani, Robert E. Peale, Univ.
of Central Florida (United States); Glenn D. Boreman, The Univ. ofNorth Carolina at Charlotte (United States); Justin W. Cleary, Kurt
G. Eyink, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Melik Yazici, Huseyin Kayahan, Omer Ceylan, Yasar Gurbuz,
Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)
This paper presents novel unit cell architecture for short wave infrared(SWIR) imaging applications. It has two input stages which are CTIA andSFD covering for both respectively low and high flux levels and automatic
input stage selection circuitry that chooses best input stage. User canselect 2 modes for FPA: manual and automatic mode. In manual mode,
user can set CTIA or SFD for all pixels according to user needs. In
automatic mode, each pixel selects input stage itself according to lightlevel. Automatic input stage selection for each pixel brings high SNRlevel and low noise along with highest possible dynamic range. Since 2
input stage is available inside unit cell this readout is compatible for dual
color or dual band detectors. Standard CMOS 0.18um TSMC technology
is used to realize unit cell. In the architecture of unit cell, circuit leveltechniques are used to optimize layout size. Unit cell size is only 30 x 30
um. Simulation level verification is provided for the unit cell architecture.

8704-129, Session PThur

A fully digital readout employing extended
counting method to achieve very low
quantization noise
Huseyin Kayahan, Melik Yazici, Ömer Ceylan, Yasar Gurbuz,
Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)
This paper presents a digital ROIC for staring type arrays with extending
counting method to realize very low quantization noise while achievinga very high charge handling capacity. Current state of the art has shownthat digital readouts with pulse frequency method can achieve charge
handling capacities higher than 3Ge- however both works show ahigh quantization noise (higher than 1000e-). Even if the integration
capacitance is reduced, it cannot be lower than 1-3 fF due to theparasitic capacitance of the comparator. In addition a small capacitancewould mean a lot of reset and count operation increasing the power
consumption. Furthermore for higher SNR, the voltage swing on the
integration capacitor should be kept high which is contradicting to thesmall quantization noise. For achieving a very low quantization noiseof 200 electrons in a power efficient way, a new method based on
measuring the time to measure the remaining charge on the integration
capacitor is proposed. With this approach SNR of low flux pixels are
significantly increased while large flux pixels can store electrons ashigh as 15Ge-. A prototype array of 32x32 pixels with 30um pitch
is implemented in 90nm CMOS process technology for verification.
Simulation results are given for complete readout.

We experimentally demonstrate a structured thin film that selectively
absorbs incident electromagnetic waves in discrete bands, which by
design occur in any chosen range from near UV to far infrared. The
structure consists of conducting islands separated from a conducting
plane by a dielectric layer. By changing dimensions and materials, we

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

8704-130, Session PThur

spectra, showing In(Ga)Sb QD related absorption edge, were obtained
up to 200 K. Photoresponse is thermally activated with different
activation energies for devices with different cut off wavelengths. Longer
wavelengths produced higher activation energies. This can be explainedusing the energy band alignment diagram of the dots/matrix system fordifferent QD sizes.

Design of 90x8 ROIC with pixel level digital
TDI implementation for scanning type LWIR
FPAs

Reference

Omer Ceylan, Huseyin Kayahan, Melik Yazici, Yasar Gurbuz,
Sabanci Univ. (Turkey)[1] Oscar Gustafsson, et al. OPTICS EXPRESS, Vol. 20, No. 19, 21264(2012)

Design of a 90x8 CMOS readout integrated circuit (ROIC) based on pixel
level digital time delay integration (TDI) for scanning type LWIR focal
plane arrays (FPAs) is presented. TDI is implemented on 8 pixels which
improves the SNR of the system with a factor of . Oversampling rate of
3 improves the spatial resolution of the system. TDI operation is realizedwith an under-pixel analog-to-digital converter, which improves the noise
performance of ROIC with a lower quantization noise. Since analog signal
is converted to digital domain in-pixel, non-uniformities and inaccuracies
due to analog signal routing over large chip area is eliminated.
Contributions of each pixel for proper TDI operation are added insummation counters, no op-amps are used for summation, hence power
consumption of ROIC is lower than its analog counterparts. Due to lackof multiple capacitors or summation amplifiers, ROIC occupies smaller
chip area compared to its analog counterparts. ROIC is also superior
to its digital counterparts due to novel digital TDI implementation interms of power consumption, noise and chip area. ROIC supports bidirectional scan, multiple gain settings, bypass operation, automatic gain
adjustment, pixel select/deselect, and is programmable through serial
or parallel interface. Input referred noise of ROIC is less than 1000 rms
electron, while power consumption is less than 20mW. ROIC is designed
to perform both in room and cryogenic temperatures. Simulation results
are provided.

8704-94, Session 17

Reduction of dark current density by fiveorders at high bias and enhanced multicolour
photo response at low bias for quaternary
alloy capped InGaAs/ GaAs QDIPs, when
implanted with low-energy light (H-) ions
Arjun Mandal, Hemant Ghadi, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay (India); Arindam Basu, N. B. V. Subrahmanyam, P. Singh,
Bhabha Atomic Research Ctr. (India); Subhananda Chakrabarti,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (India)
Quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs) have already establisheditself as a major technology for infrared detection on account of its
significantly low dark current, large responsivity and high detectivity. 10
layered InGaAs/ GaAs QDIPs were grown over semi-insulating GaAs (100)substrates using solid-source molecular beam epitaxy (Riber SYS14020
Epineat III-V). Each layer of dots was capped with a combination of 30
Å In0.21Al0.21Ga0.58As and 500 Å intrinsic GaAs layers. The samples
were further implanted with 50 keV H– ions, with fluence varying between
8 E11 to 2 E13 ions/cm^2. When I-V measurements were carried out
on the fabricated devices, even at a high bias of -1.5 V, a reduction ofdark current density by five orders was observed (2.2 E-7 A/ cm^2)for the device implanted with 2 E12 ions/ cm^2 fluence, compared toas-grown device. Suppression of field assisted tunnelling process dueto the increased potential barrier probably led to the above trend in theimplanted device. Multicolour photo-response (around 7.35 and 5.5 µm)
was observed in the device. For the device, implanted with lower fluenceof 8 E11 ions/cm^2, the strongest photo-response was noticed at thelowest bias of -0.1V, which was considerably higher for the as-grown
device (a bias of -1.0 V). At this fluence, the peak detectivity increasedby more than one order to ~ E10 cm-Hz^1/2/W. This is probably the firstreport of detectivity enhancement in H– ion implanted quaternary alloy
capped InGaAs/ GaAs QDIPs. DST, India is acknowledged.

8704-131, Session PThur

A plasmonic enhanced pixel structure for
uncooled microbolometer detectors
Tayfun Akin, Middle East Technical Univ. (Turkey)
No abstract available.

8704-93, Session 17

In(Ga)Sb/InAs quantum dot-based IR
photodetectors with thermally activatedphotoresponse
Amir Karim, Acreo AB (Sweden); Oscar Gustafsson, RoyalInstitute of Technology (Sweden); Susan M. Savage, Qin Wang,
Susanne Almqvist, Acreo AB (Sweden); Carl Asplund, IRnova
AB (Sweden); Mattias Hammar, Royal Institute of Technology(Sweden); Jan Y. Andersson, Acreo AB (Sweden)

8704-95, Session 17

We report on the investigation results of In(Ga)Sb quantum dots (QDs) on
InAs substrates for fabricating IR photodetectors. Such photodetectors
are expected to have lower dark currents and higher operating
temperatures compared to the current state of the art InSb and mercury
cadmium telluride technology. This is due to the matrix material (InAs)
having a larger bandgap than the detection energy and the 3D QD
confinement. In(Ga)Sb QDs in InAs have type-II band alignment which
offers spatially indirect band to band transitions, with longer carrierlife times, between the quantized energy levels of the dots and thecontinuous levels of the matrix material [1]. The structures were grownusing metal-organic vapour-phase epitaxy and explored using structural,electrical and optical characterization techniques. Material development
resulted in obtaining photoluminescence up to 10 µm, which is thelongest wavelength reported in this material system.

Ethan J. Klem, Jay S. Lewis, Chris Gregory, Garry Cunningham,
Dorota Temple, RTI International (United States); Arvind I.
D’Souza, Ernest W. Robinson, DRS Sensors & Targeting
Systems, Inc. (United States); Priyalal S. Wijewarnasuriya, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (United States)

Room-temperature SWIR sensing frommonolithically integrated colloidal quantum
dot photodiode arrays

While InGaAs-based focal plane arrays (FPAs) provide excellent
detectivity and low noise for SWIR imaging applications, wider scale
adoption of systems capable of working in this spectral range is limitedby high costs, limited spectral response, and costly integration with Si
ROIC devices. RTI has demonstrated a novel photodiode technology
based on IR-absorbing solution-processed PbS colloidal quantum dots
(CQD) that can overcome these limitations of InGaAs FPAs. The mostsignificant advantage of the CQD technology is ease of fabrication.

We have fabricated photovoltaic IR detectors from the developedmaterial that show an absorption edge up to 8 µm. Photoresponse

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

The devices are fabricated directly onto the ROIC substrate at low
temperatures compatible with CMOS, and arrays can be fabricated atwafer scale. Further, device performance is not expected to degradesignificantly with reduced pixel size.
We will present the results for both passive detectors fabricated on
passive Si substrates and for 320 x 10 arrays fabricated on ROICs. We
will discuss recent advances in device architecture and processing that
resulted in measured dark currents of 4 nA/cm^2 at room temperature,with sensitivity to ~1.7 µm. We will show other devices with spectral
sensitivity that extends from UV to 2.2 µm. For the ROIC-integrated
devices we will show dark currents <10 nA/cm^2. Histograms of D* will
be presented, along with low frequency noise to the mHz range.

as several conversion gain options and a 2x2 pixel binning. The ROIC
design makes use of the advanced and matured CMOS technology,
0.18 µm, which allows for high functionality and relatively low power
consumption. The FPA is mounted on a Cold-Finger by a speciallydesigned ceramic substrate. The whole assembly is housed in a stiffened
Dewar that withstands harsh environmental conditions while minimizing
the contribution to the heat load of the detector. The design enables a
3-megapixel detector with overall low size, weight, and power (SWaP)
with respect to comparable large format detectors. In this work we
present in detail the characteristic performance of the new Blackbird
detector.

This combination of high performance, dramatic cost reduction, andmulti-band sensitivity is ideally suited to expand the use of SWIR imaging
in current applications, as well as to address applications which require a
multispectral sensitivity not met by existing technologies.

8704-98, Session 18

8704-96, Session 18

Ashok K. Sood, Magnolia Optical Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States); Je-Ung Lee, Univ. at Albany (UnitedStates)Broadband enhancement of infrared
photodetectors with metamaterial resonators
John A. Montoya, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States);David W. Peters, Charles M. Reinke, Sandia National Labs.
(United States); Stephen A. Myers, Pankaj Ahirwar, Sanjay
Krishna, The Univ. of New Mexico (United States)
Current infrared imaging systems have nearly identical pixels over abroad spectral range, which results with “black and white” images. As
a result, there is ever increasing emphasis on the development of new,on the pixel level, photodiodes that can provide spectral information.
Attempts at creating a robust imaging system with spectral information
have been made through a complex network of external optics, which
results with high cost and a large system package. However, enhanced
photodiode detectivity (D*) and higher operating temperature can beachieved with the aid of highly resonant metamaterials. Metamaterials
permit the construction of materials with exact electric permittivity
and magnetic permeability response. As a result, metamaterials
impedance matched to free space can minimize the reflectance andimprove the photodiodes signal. While metamaterials are a detector
agnostic technology, we chose to integrate metamaterials structureswith a quantum well infrared photodiode (QWIP). By providing spectral
information on the pixel level, a multicolor infrared imaging system
reduces in size and cost. The work presented here demonstrates the useof metamaterials for improving the functionality of an infrared photodiodefor enhanced signal and multicolor capability.

8704-97, Session 18

3 mega-pixel InSb detector with 10µm pitch
Gal Gershon, Lior Shkedy, Omer Cohen, Zipora Calahorra, Maya
Brumer, Michal Nitzani, Eran Avnon, Yossi Aghion, Igal Kogan,
Elad Ilan, SCD Semiconductor Devices (Israel); Eylon Merav, SCD(Israel); Asaf Albo, SCD Semiconductor Devices (Israel)
SCD has developed a new 1920x1536 / 10 µm digital Infrared detector
for the MWIR window named Blackbird. The Blackbird detector features
a Focal Plane Array (FPA) that incorporates two technological building
blocks developed over the past few years. The first one is a 10 µm InSb
pixel based on the matured planar technology. The second building blockis an innovative 10 µm ReadOut Integrated Circuit (ROIC) pixel. The InSb
and the ROIC arrays are connected using Flip-Chip technology by meansof indium bumps. The digital ROIC consist of a matrix of 1920x1536
pixels and has an analog to digital (A/D) converter per-channel (total of
1920x2 A/Ds). It allows for full frame readout at a high frame rate of 120
Hz. Such an on-chip A/D conversion eliminates the need for several
A/D converters with fairly high power consumption at the system level.
The ROIC power consumption at maximum bandwidth is less than 400
mW. The ROIC features a wide range of pixel-level functionality such
28

Design and development of wafer-level shortwave infrared micro-camera

Low cost IR Sensors are needed for a variety of Military and Commercial
Applications as low cost imagers for various Army and Marine missions.
SiGe based IR Focal Planes offers a low cost alternative for developing
wafer-level shortwave infrared micro-camera that will not require any
cooling and can operate in the Visible-NIR band. The attractive featuresof SiGe based IRFPA’s will take advantage of Silicon based technology,
that promises small feature size and compatibility with the low powersilicon CMOS circuits for signal processing.
We will present feasibility study of an infrared sensor based on SiGe
material system and its performance characteristics. We will also present
simulations to compare the sensitivity of the SiGe detector spectral cutoff
wavelength of 1.6 micron to other IR Focal Plane arrays. We have tested
several SiGe photodetectors and will present results of the electrical andoptical measurements on SiGe devices. We will discuss various device
designs for SiGe detectors to simulate and model the performance forlow dark current and high quantum efficiency and hence higher SiGe
sensor performance.
SiGe technology offers a low cost alternative for developing VisibleNIR sensors that will not require any cooling and can operate from
0.3- 1.7 microns. The attractive features of SiGe based IRFPA’s will takeadvantage of Silicon based technology that can be processed on 12-inch
silicon substrates, that can promise small feature size and compatibility
with the Silicon CMOS circuit for signal processing.
In this paper, we will discuss the design and development of WaferLevel Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) Micro-Camera. We will discuss
manufacturing approaches and sensor configurations for short wave
infrared (SWIR) focal plane arrays (FPAs) that significantly reduce the costof SWIR FPA packaging, optics and integration into micro-systems.

8704-100, Session 19

MEMS clocking-cantilever thermal detector
Evan M. Smith, Imen Rezadad, Javaneh Boroumand Azad, Pedro
N. Figueiredo, Deep R. Panjwani, Janardan Nath, Robert E.
Peale, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Oliver Edwards,
ZyberTec LLC (United States)
We present estimations of Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference(NETD), speed, and sensitivity for a radiant energy imager using nullswitching, a novel infrared detector based on MEMS cantilevers (USPatent No. 7977635). These cantilevers operate as a repeatedly cycledswitch, where incident infrared radiation causes a measurable change
in the on/off duty cycle. Since most detectors transduce IR to a change
in resistance or capacitance, rather than to a change in a timing
measurement, the usual methods of estimating performance need to bereconsidered for this new type of detector. We present a determination of

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

the detector’s noise influenced sensitivity defined by its Noise Equivalent
Temperature Difference (NETD). Thermal fluctuations, radiative losses,
and vibrations in the cantilever resulting from acoustic and thermal
sources affect NETD. Vibrations are potentially the most significant causeof timing uncertainty, though the detector’s null position is intended todampen them, allowing for attractively low NETD. Preliminary results
indicate a total NETD of 3.8 mK, with a corresponding responsivity(change in duty cycle) of 0.4 ns, requiring a 3 GHz digital clock rate. We
estimate that this high sensitivity might be achieved at a cycling rate of 1
kHz.

to increase the sensor resolution. The optical modes are exited using atapered single mode optical fiber. One end of the optical fiber is coupled
to a distribute feedback laser while the other end is connected to a
photodiode to monitor the transmission spectrum.

8704-103, Session 20

Wafer-level reliability characterization for
wafer-level packaged microbolometer withultra-small array size

8704-101, Session 19

Hee Yeoun Kim, Chungmo Yang, Jae Hong Park, Ho Jung, TaeHyun Kim, Gyung Tae Kim, Sung Kyu Lim, National Nanofab Ctr.
(Korea, Republic of); Sang Woo Lee, ePack Inc. (United States);
Wook Joong Hwang, Kwyro Lee, National Nanofab Ctr. (Korea,
Republic of)High-resistivity and high-TCR vanadium oxidethin films for infrared imaging prepared bybias target ion-beam deposition
Yao Jin, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Hitesh
Basantani, Adem Ozcelik, Department of Engineering Scienceand Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University (United States);Thomas N. Jackson, Mark W. Horn, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)

Ultra-small and low cost microbolometers are highly required for mobile
applications such as hand-held and automobile camera. These kinds of
low-end sensors need small array size and low cost vacuum packaging
technology. Wafer-level vacuum packaging (WLVP) is indispensable tosatisfy the requirement of small size and low cost microbolometer at thesame time. While WLVP process consisting of solder deposition, getter
activation and bonding are very well known, wafer level characterization
have not been studied systematically. For the commercialization of WLVP,
wafer level characterization is so important to decrease overall chip cost
including WLVP process cost. In this report, wafer level characterization
and reliability of WLVP processed wafers will be described. Amorphoussilicon based microbolometers with 64x64 array size are fabricated in 8
inch wafer. Cap wafers with cavity depth of 50~100um and membranethickness of 50~400um are fabricated and bonded with sensor wafer by
Au-Sn eutectic solder. Optical detection and integrated vacuum sensor
are independently used to characterize the vacuum leak rate. For thewafer-level packaged samples with membrane thickness below 100um,
it is possible to characterize the leak rate by optical detection technique.
Integrated vacuum sensor having the same structure as bolometer pixel
shows the vacuum level below 10mTorr and leak rate below 1e-13(Torr•L/sec) which are enough for commercialization. Long time reliability inwafer level is also characterized by the same methods and all steps for
final product are implemented in wafer level.

Vanadium oxide (VOx) thin films have been intensively studied as
an imaging material for uncooled microbolometers due to their low
resistivity, high temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR), and low 1/f
noise. Our group has studied pulsed DC reactive sputtered VOx thin films
while reactive ion beam sputtering has been exclusively used to fabricate
the VOx thin films for commercial thermal imaging cameras. The typicalresistivity of imaging-grade VOx thin films is in the range of 0.1 to 10
ohm-cm with a TCR from -2%/K to -3%/K.
In this work, we report for the first time the use of a new biased target
ion beam deposition (BTIBD) tool to prepare vanadium oxide thin films.
In this BTIBD system, ions with energy lower than 25ev are generated
remotely and vanadium targets are negatively biased independently for
sputtering. High TCR (>-4.5%/K) VOx thin films have been reproducibly
prepared in the resistivity range of 1E3-1E4 ohm-cm by controllingthe oxygen partial pressure using real-time control with a residual gas
analyzer. These high resistivity films may be useful in next generation
uncooled focal plane arrays for through film rather than lateral thermal
resistors. This will improve the sensitivity through the higher TCR without
increasing noise accompanied by higher resistance. We report on theprocessing parameters necessary to produce these films as well as
details on how this novel deposition tool operates. We also report on
controlled addition of alloy materials and their effects on VOx thin films’
electrical properties.

8704-104, Session 20

Application of mosaic pixel microbolometer
technology to very high-performance, lowcost thermography, and pedestrian detection

8704-102, Session 19

Kevin C. Liddiard, Electro-optic Sensor Design (Australia)

Room-temperature microphotonic bolometerbased on dielectric optical resonator

The mosaic pixel focal plane array (MP-FPA) was initially developed byElectro-optic Sensor Design (EOSD) for next generation passive infrared(PIR) security sensors. As originally conceived the technology involved
a novel microbolometer FPA design which, together with advanced
packaging and integrated optics, would provide enhanced performancein short range sensing applications. Two base products were envisaged,a small, typically 4x4 FPA format, non-imaging sensor, and a 40x30 or
80x60 format imaging sensor. It soon became evident that the technology
could be applied to other non-military applications where large pixel size
is adequate and high detective performance is required.

Tindaro Ioppolo, Edoardo Rubino, Southern Methodist Univ.
(United States)
In this paper we present a room-temperature micro-photonic bolometerthat is based on the whispering gallery mode of dielectric resonator(WGM). The sensing element is a hollow micro-spherical or cylindricalpolymeric resonator. The hollow resonator is filled with a fluid (gas or
liquid) that has a large thermal expansion. When an incoming radiation
impinges on the resonator it will be absorbed by the absorbing fluid
leading to a thermal expansion of the micro-resonator. The thermal
expansion induces changes in the morphology of the resonator (size andindex of refraction) leading to a shift of the optical resonances (WGM).
In addition the incoming radiation is chopped so that elastic waves are
generated within the micro-photonic resonator via thermo-elastic effect.
The chopping frequency is chosen so that a mechanical resonance ofthe resonator is exited. This will amplify the induced WGM shift andhence the resolution. Different geometry and sizes will be investigated

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However, the main attention in the IR industry has until recently been
directed to progressively larger format, smaller pixel FPA. The potentialof small format, large pixel FPA for many applications in the emerging
very high volume industry and consumer markets is now becoming
recognised; made possible with availability of CMOS/MEMS foundries
capable of large scale microbolometer manufacture.
The MP-FPA concept has been demonstrated and the results of analysis
and measurement previously reported at SPIE IR Technology andApplications. In this paper we extend the discussion to two applications
in depth: high performance low cost thermography with very low NETD,·

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Conference 8704: Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIX

and non-imaging cheap sensors for pedestrian detection. We alsocomment on progress of microbolometer technology development forminiaturised sensors.

8704-105, Session 20

A 160x120 Microbolometer FPA for Low-Cost
Applications
Tayfun Akin, Selim Eminoglu, Murat Tepegoz, Mikro-Tasarim San.
ve Tic. Ltd. Sti. (Turkey)
No abstract available,

8704-111, Session 20

Development of improved NEP hybrid
pyroelectric radiometers for low radiantpower measurement in the LWIR
George P. Eppeldauer, Vyacheslav B. Podobedov, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States); Donald
Dooley, Sid E. Levingston, Gentec-EO, USA, Inc. (United States)
The 3 nW/Hz^½ to 10 nW/Hz^½ Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) ofrecently developed hybrid pyroelectric radiometers is not quite low
enough to use them in low-temperature radiation thermometers or at theoutput of blackbody-monochromator sources in the far IR. The output
of a blackbody radiator in the 20 to 25 micrometer wavelength interval isvery low, therefore enhanced performance of these detectors is needed.
In order to do this, in cooperation with the material supplier SRICO Inc. a
number of pyroelectric detectors that feature higher voltage responsivity
and lower NEP have been developed. The responsivity increase wasachieved through the use of ever thinner detector crystals down to 9
micrometer and use of larger feedback resistors in their built-in current
measuring preamplifiers. The goal was to create a 3 mm diameter (orgreater) detector with an NEP of less than 0.5 nW/Hz^1/2 at a signal
frequency of 5 Hz. This is an order of magnitude NEP improvement.
The main characteristics of the improved pyroelectric radiometers,such as voltage responsivity, NEP, output signal-to-noise ratio, upperroll-off frequency, and spatial non-uniformity of responsivity have been
evaluated.

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8705 Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV

8705-1, Session 1

The anisotropic characteristics of wood made it a challenging material
for the measurement of thermal conductivity. Three types of wood havebeen measured: oak, larch and fir-wood. Three instruments have beenutilized: a) the guarded hot plate method; b) the hot disk apparatus; c) theIR thermography equipment in transmission scheme (a variant of Parker’s
method) complemented by density and specific heat measurements.
In particular, IR thermography gives the possibility to evaluate byimages the preferential direction of heat propagation by looking at the
deformation of a localized heat source released on the surface (i.e. acircular shape can become an ellipse as heat diffuses on the surface).
Results coming from different kind of measurements are compared andcritically considered.

In-situ calibration of a microbolometer
camera for the study of large-scale fires
Jaap de Vries, FM Global (United States)
Understanding fire dynamics and fire protection is of great importanceto life safety and property protection. At its Fire Technology Laboratory,
FM Global continues to advance the understanding of how combustible
materials and protection systems interact under fire conditions. In
fact, spanning 10,000-m2 (108,000-ft2), FM Global’s Fire Technology
Laboratory is the centerpiece of the Research Campus and the largest
facility of its type in the world. Quantitative temperature measurementsof large-scale fires are of key interest to FM Global’s researchers andengineers.

8705-3, Session 1

High-resolution survey of buildings by lock-in
IR thermography

This work investigates the effectiveness of extending the useable
temperature range of a microbolometer IR camera using a reduced
aperture. The corresponding calibration of the FPA was performed, insitu, by investigating spatially resolved radiance levels with and without
the aperture present. In-the-field calibration results thus obtained werecompared and validated using a blackbody (ε = 1) source. The increasein the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) caused by the
reduction in exposure was investigated over a wide temperature range.
Finally, new image processing techniques were applied to reduce the 1/f(pink) noise levels in the low temperature regime.

Alessandro Bortolin, Gianluca Cadelano, Giovanni Ferrarini,
Paolo Bison, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy); Fabio
Peron, Univ. Ca’ Foscari di Venezia (Italy); Xavier P. V. Maldague,
Univ. Laval (Canada)
Applications of IR-thermography in buildings surveys are not limited
to the identification of the temperature distribution and heat losses onbuilding envelopes. As it is well known from NDT testing in industrial
applications, active IR-thermographic methods such as heating-up/
cooling-down or lock-in thermography improves the results in many
investigations. In civil engineering these techniques have not been usedwidely. Mostly, thermography is used in a quasi-static manner. The paper
illustrates a new approach to achieve, by the lock-in technique, an in
depth view of the structure of the wall evidencing the presence of buried
elements, interfaces and cracks. The idea is to take advantage of theperiodic heating and cooling of earth surface due to the alternating of
day and night. It produces a thermal wave of period 24 hours that canprobe the walls of buildings with a penetration depth of the order of sometenths of centimeters. The periodic temperature signal is analyzed to
extract amplitude and phase. It is expected that the phase image gives
the indication of inhomogeneity buried in the wall structure.

The results show that the application of an aperture can effectively
extend the temperature range of a fixed-integration-time IR camera from
650ºC (1200ºF) to 1200ºC (2192ºF), making this camera particularly
suitable for the scientific study of fires. This temperature extension was
accomplished at low cost without changing the FPA’s integration time,
removing the cameras lens, or the use of a neutral density (ND) filter.

8705-2, Session 1

Thermographic analysis of the thermal
properties of wood for wooden windows
Alessandro Bortolin, Gianluca Cadelano, Giovanni Ferrarini,
Paolo Bison, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy); Fabio
Peron, Univ. Ca’ Foscari di Venezia (Italy)

As a case study, the exterior surface of Palazzo Ducale in Venice isanalyzed and illustrated. In addition to IR images, Near IR and visible
electromagnetic bands are considered to evaluate the strength of thesolar radiation. Indeed, the periodicity due to the earth rotation is only
approximately of 24 hours. The passing clouds or the possibility of rainydays can superimpose other heating/cooling frequencies to the main one.
The Fourier analysis of the impinging radiation on the wall is considered.
A final attempt to deconvolve the temperature signal by the impinging
radiation signal, coming from the contemporary acquisition of the surface
in the visible/near IR bands, is described and compared with the lock inanalysis.

The frame of windows are typically made of wood in Italy, even thoughaluminum, PVC and other materials are more and more utilized in thebuilding manufacture. On the other hand, the growing attention on
the problem of energy saving makes more stringent the attention to
the insulation properties of any component of the building envelope.
Therefore, it is paramount to evaluate the thermal properties of wood thatwill be utilized in the windows frame manufacture.
Wood is a material characterized by a high anisotropy due to its
characteristic growing. Mechanical properties, and thermal as well, arevery different if considered along the direction of grain or perpendicular
to it. For example, the resistance to tensile and compression strengths ismuch higher along the fibers direction than perpendicular to it. Moreoverthe cross section of a trunk shows an approximately circular/ellipticalsymmetry, but more generally the stress/strain relation is represented bya tensor. Again, the same is true for thermal properties and the relation
between temperature gradient and heat flux is in generally a linear one
connected by the conductivity tensor of rank 2.

The façade of Palazzo Ducale is tiled with marble of two different colors
and types. The thermal properties (effusivity and diffusivity) are measured
to take into account the different thermal responses of different tiles.

8705-4, Session 1

The case for using a sacrificial layer ofabsorbent insulation in the design of flat andlow-sloped roofing

In manufacturing the frame for windows, the fiber or grain direction must
be selected in such a way to maximize the thermal resistance along theinside to outside direction, that means the inside/outside direction offrame (i.e. inside/outside direction of window) must be perpendicular
to the grain direction. Indeed the grain direction is the one with the
maximum thermal conductivity while the perpendicular one (crossing thefiber direction) owns a lower conductivity value.

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Gregory R. Stockton, Stockton Infrared Thermographic Services,
Inc. (United States)
Starting about twenty-five years ago, there was a slow, steady increasein the number of single-ply membrane roof designs, mainly because·

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV
they cost less to install then conventional built-up roofs (BURs). But overthe past ten years, there have been a marked increase in single-ply roof
systems -mostly white and more reflective roofs, using cellular foam
insulation in the substrate. These roofs generally do not last as long, butcost much less to install.
Another factor in the increase in popularity is the fact that many
governments offer incentives for building owners to use reflective, better
insulated roofs. Now, owing to the energy-efficient requirements for thedesign and construction of new buildings put forth in ASHRAE Standard
90.1, “Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings” and the world’s apparent desire to be (at least appear to be)“green”, more and more roof designs include these reflective single-ply
membranes, which use cellular foam boards and higher density sprayfoam insulation to meet these requirements. Using a lower density
traditional insulation will mean that the roof will have to be very thick,increasing the costs of installation.
High density cellular foams do not absorb water for the first 5-7 years(until UV breaks down the foam and they become absorbent), so any
water that enters the roof through a breach in the membrane goesstraight into the building. This is not a good consequence, since keeping
the water out of the building is the purpose of waterproofing. This paper
puts forth the idea and reasoning behind having a sacrificial layer of very
absorbent insulation installed in every flat and low-sloped roof so thatwhen a breach occurs, it can easily be found and documented during anannual infrared inspection which is an effective predictive maintenancetechnique and best practice condition monitoring for roof maintenance.

8705-5, Session 1

Methods to attack, or defend the professional
integrity and competency of an Infrared
Thermographer and their work. What every
Attorney and Infrared Thermographer needs
to know before going into a lawsuit
Fred P. Colbert, Colbert Infrared Services (United States) andProfessional Thermographers Association (United States) and
Thermal Trend (United States)
This paper outlines the 4 areas for critical review that an attorney should
focus on with regards to how to prepare a case for trial by reviewing thequalifications of personal, their equipment, their training, and the body of
their work. It is based on practical experience while working as an expert
witness for the US Dept. of Justice Department, DEA, State and Local
law enforcement, as well as in the Civil Court system.
Today with the introduction in the last few years of low cost infrared
cameras, there has been a massive influx of either internal Electrical/
Mechanical Predictive Maintenance programs, or as outsourced
consulting services, as well as thermographic imaging services in themarket segments of, Building Envelopment for both commercial andresidential, Refractory/Boiler Evaluations, etc. This influx is driven by
two factors, the low cost of investment in the equipment and extreme
over simplification and understating the technical and skill level required
to use this equipment in an effort to sell more cameras to an otherwise
saturated market.
Along with this influx of new thermographers, also comes the resultof their work. And unfortunately in many cases the outright lack ofprofessional competency in the quality of the data that is provided. In
many cases this data is vital to the operation of critical equipment andprocesses in industrial, commercial, and utility industries where the failureof equipment can mean the loss of millions of dollars and catastrophic offacilities and loss of life.
The liability and exposure of what is at risk for both parties, the consumer
and the provider of these types of services, whether in-house, or
our-sourced is overwhelming. The cost to prepare your defense if you
are even named as a potential litigant in a lawsuit is in excess of US$100,000.

32

8705-6, Session 2

Flow detection via sparse frame analysis
for suspicious event recognition in infrared
imagery
Henrique C. Fernandes, Univ. Laval (Canada); Marcos A.
Batista, Univ. Federal de Goiás (Brazil); Celia Z. Barcelos, Univ.
Federal de Uberlândia (Brazil); Xavier P. V. Maldague, Univ. Laval(Canada)It is becoming increasingly evident that intelligent systems are very
beneficial for society and that the further development of such systems
is necessary to continue to improve society’s quality of life. One areathat has drawn the attention of recent research is the development of
automatic surveillance systems. In our work we outline a system capableof monitoring an uncontrolled area (an outside parking lot) using infrared
imagery and recognizing suspicious events in this area. The first step is to
identify moving objects and segment them from the scene’s background.
Our approach is based on a dynamic background-subtraction techniquewhich robustly adapts detection to illumination changes. It is analyzed
only regions where movement is occurring, ignoring influence of pixels
from regions where there is no movement, to segment moving objects.
Regions where movement is occurring are identified using flow detection
via sparse frame analysis. During the tracking process the objects areclassified into two categories: Persons and Vehicles, based on features
such as size and velocity. The last step is to recognize suspicious events
that may occur in the scene. Since the objects are correctly segmented
and classified it is possible to identify those events using features suchas velocity and time spent motionless in one spot. In this paper we
recognize the suspicious event “suspicion of object(s) theft from inside
a parked vehicle at spot X by a person” and results show that the useof flow detection increases the recognition of this suspicious event from78.57% to 92.85%.

8705-7, Session 2Standoff laser-induced thermal emission of
explosives
Nataly Y. Galán-Freyle, Leonardo C. Pacheco-Londoño, Amanda
Figueroa-Navedo, John R. Castro-Suarez, Samuel P. HernandezRivera, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States)
A laser based thermal excitation of analytes followed by standoff IR
detection has been evaluated for detection of explosives. The goal wasto determine the feasibility of using laser induced thermal emission (LITE)
from vibrationally excited explosives residues on surfaces to detect
explosives remotely. FT-IR based spectral measurements were carriedout to examine surfaces containing trace amounts of threat compounds
used in explosive devices. A highly energetic material: PETN was usedat surface concentrations of 200 to 5 ug/cm2. Target support substrates
of different thicknesses were heated using a high power CO2 laser,
and their mid-infrared thermal emission was recorded. The telescope
was configured from reflective optical elements in order to minimize
emission losses in the infrared wavelength range and to provide optimal
performance in the system. Spectral replicas were acquired at a distanceof 4 m with an FT-IR interferometer at 4 cm-1 resolution and 10 scans.
Laser power was varied from 4 to 12 W at radiation exposure times of 1030 s. Laser powers were adjusted to improve the detection of HEM andto reduce degradation of target chemicals. The advantages of increasing
the thermal emission were easily observed in the results, for which
optimal conditions were obtained prior to IR emission measurements.
The best conditions were laser power of 8 W and an exposure time of 30s. Signal intensity was proportional to the thickness of the coated surface(a function of the surface concentration), as well as the laser power andlaser exposure time.

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV

8705-8, Session 28705-11, Session 3

Ballistic impact performance analysis using
FAST infrared imagery

A multistep approach for infrared facerecognition in texture space

Frédérick Marcotte, Vincent Farley, Simon Savary, Telops(Canada)Moulay A. Akhloufi, Univ. Laval (Canada) and Ctr. of Robotics andVision (Canada); Abdelhakim Bendada, Univ. Laval (Canada)

For numerous years, soldier protection and military vehicle armor
dedicated research groups have been using high-speed visible imaging
and other statistical technique in order to evaluate the level of protection
offered by various ballistic materials. The main objective of these studies
consist in evaluating the amount of energy absorbed by a given material,and how efficient this material is at spreading the absorbed energy to alarge area. Obviously, the outputs lead to the commercialization of betterand more efficient soldier protective gear and vehicles.

Face recognition is an area of computer vision that has attracted a
lot of interest from the research community. A growing demand forrobust face recognition software in security applications has driven thedevelopment of interesting approaches in this field. A large quantity of
research in face recognition deals with visible face images. In the visible
spectrum the illumination and face expressions changes represent asignificant challenge for the recognition system. To avoid these problems,
researchers proposed recently the use of 3D and infrared imaging forface recognition.

Recent technological progress demonstrated this phenomenon canstraightforwardly be measured very efficiently by a high-speed scientificgrade infrared camera. This paper presents the results of measurementsof ballistic high speed (6500 fps) infrared impact of small caliber projectile
on ballistic material.

In this work, we introduce a new multistep approach for face recognitionin the infrared spectrum. The proposed approach works in texture space
using binary and ternary patterns descriptor. The approach operates
in two steps. In the first step, dimensionality reduction techniques areused to classify the preprocessed infrared face image. This operation
permits the selection of the highest score candidates. In the second step,a small set of these candidates are then classified using a correlation
filer approach. This last step permits the selection of the best matching
candidate.

8705-9, Session 2

Metal particles explosion in dust cloud
analysis using FAST infrared imagery

The obtained results show a high increase in recognition performance
when a multistep approach is used compared to dimensionality reduction
face recognition techniques.

Frédérick Marcotte, Vincent Farley, Simon Savary, Telops(Canada)8705-12, Session 4

Often metal particles are added to explosive in order to improve theballistic and blast properties of the explosion. Metal particle can also be
used as explosive in the form of a dust cloud.

Compact high-speed MWIR spectrometer
applied to monitor CO2 exhaust dynamics
from a turbojet engine

This paper presents the results of a 2D dynamic flow analysis of metal
particles explosion in dust cloud. The ignition points, the flow rate as wellas the propagation direction of the flow have been characterized using
FAST IR imagery.

Rodrigo Linares-Herrero, New Infrared Technologies, Ltd.
(Spain); Victor Archilla-Prat, INTA Instituto Nacional de Técnica
Aeroespacial (Spain); German Vergara, Raul Gutierrez Alvarez,
Carlos Fernandez-Montojo, Luis J. Gomez, Victor Villamayor,
Arturo Baldasano-Ramirez, Maria Teresa Montojo Supervielle,
New Infrared Technologies, Ltd. (Spain); Ana Jimenez, Daniel
Mercader, A. Gonzalez, A. Entero, INTA Instituto Nacional deTécnica Aeroespacial (Spain)

8705-10, Session 3

Fusion of active and passive infrared images
for face recognition
Moulay A. Akhloufi, Univ. Laval (Canada) and Ctr. of Robotics andVision (Canada); Abdelhakim Bendada, Univ. Laval (Canada)Due to international environmental regulations, aircraft turbojet
manufacturers are required to analyze the gases exhausted during engine
operation, including CO, CO2, NOx, particles, unburned hydrocarbons,
among others. Complex measurement procedures are requested,using emission’s rakes located in the back of the nozzle, and mobilelaboratories for sampling the gases from the exhaust plume. However,there is an opportunity to move from the traditional gas sampling
methods to real-time, high-speed and non-intrusive stand-off gas
analysis using optical spectroscopy techniques in the infrared spectra.

This work introduces a new framework for active and passive infrared
image fusion for face recognition applications. Two multispectral facerecognition databases were used in our experiments: Equinox Database(Visible, SWIR, MWIR, LWIR) and Laval University multispectral-Faces
Database (Visible, NIR, MWIR, LWIR).
The proposed framework uses a fusion scheme in texture space in order
to increase the performance of face recognition. The proposed texture
space is based on the use of binary and ternary patterns. A new adaptive
ternary pattern is also introduced.

In this work, some results of these hot gases IR emission signatures arepresented using a high-speed spectroscopy measurement technique.
The measurements were carried out during the test campaigns ofcommercial turbines at Turbojet Testing Center-INTA. As a remarkablefact, the results demonstrate the reliability of the technique for studying
and monitoring the dynamics of the exhausted CO2 using the infraredemission signature.

Active (SWIR and NIR) and passive (MWIR, LWIR) infrared modalities areused in this fusion scheme. An intra-spectrum and inter-spectrum fusion
approaches are introduced.
The obtained results are promising and show an increase in therecognition performance when texture channels are fused in a multi-scalefusion scheme.

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For the measurements, a compact (no moving parts) high-speed
uncooled MWIR spectrometer device was used. The system is able toprovide more than 4,000 spectral lines per second in the IR band ranging
between 3.0 and 4.6 microns. Each spectrum is formed by 128 spectral
sub-bands with a bandwidth of 60 nm. The spectrometer was operatingin passive, stand-off mode and the measurements provided informationof both dynamics and concentration of CO2 during the engine test
operation.
·

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV

8705-13, Session 4

radiation is also eliminated.

Design of a remote infrared images andother data acquisition station for outdoor
applications
Marc-André Béland, Abdelhakim Bendada, Xavier P. V. Maldague,
Univ. Laval (Canada); Giovanni Ferrarini, Paolo Bison, Ermanno
G. Grinzato, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy)
No abstract available.

8705-14, Session 4

Infrared thermography inspection of glassreinforced plastic (GRP) wind turbine blades
and the concept of an automated scanningdeviceNicolas Avdelidis, Innovative Technology and Science Ltd.
(United Kingdom); Clemente Ibarra-Castanedo, Xavier P V
Maldague, Universite Laval (Canada)
Infrared thermography techniques have been used for many years
in the non-destructive testing and evaluation (NDT & E) of materials
and structures. The main advantage of thermography over classicalNDT techniques resides in the possibility of inspecting large areas ina fast and safe manner without needing to have access to both sidesof the component. Nonetheless infrared thermography is limited tothe detection of relatively shallow defects (a few millimetres under thesurface), since it is affected by 3D heat diffusion. However, the mostcommon types of anomalies found on composites, such as GRP windturbine blades are delaminations, disbonds, water ingress, node failureand core crushing, and can be effectively detected and sometimes
quantified using active thermographic techniques. This research work
presents the use of infrared thermography on glass reinforced plastic(GRP) wind turbine blades assessment. Finally, the development of anautonomous, novel and lightweight multi-axis scanning system, as aconcept, deploying in situ thermography NDT is also presented, with
the intention of developing maximisation of the blade area coverage ina single run, at a known sensitivity, with the utilisation of the minimum
number of system degrees of freedom and the maximum repeatability, as
well as positional accuracy possible.

8705-16, Session 5

Experimental model for determining
developmental stage of chicken embryousing infrared images and artificial neuralnetworks
Seung K. Jung, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States);
Sheng-Jen Hsieh, Che-Hao Chen, Texas A&M Univ. (UnitedStates)Development of a chicken embryo is conventionally assumed to follow a
set growth pattern over the course of 21 days. However, despite identical
incubation settings, many factors may contribute to an egg developing at
a different rate from those around it. Being able to determine an embryo’s
actual development instead of relying on chronological assumptions ofnormal growth should prove to be a useful tool in the poultry industry
for responding early to abnormal development and improving hatch
rates. Previous studies have used infrared imaging to enhance candlingobservation, but relatively little has been done to implement infrared
imaging in problem-solving. The purpose of this research is to constructa quantitative model for predicting the development stage and early
viability of a chicken embryo during incubation. It may be noted that asimilar project was conducted previously using different input parameters
but having lower accuracy. In this project, infrared images of eggs were
processed to calculate air cell volumes and cooling rates, and daily
measurements of egg weight and ambient temperature were compiled.
Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were “trained” using multiple input
parameters to recognize patterns in the data. Various training functions
and topologies were evaluated in order to optimize prediction rates
and consistency. The prediction rates obtained for the ANNs werearound 81% for development stage and around 92% for viability. It is
recommended for future research to expand the potential combinationsof input parameters used in order to increase this model’s versatility inthe field.

8705-17, Session 58705-15, Session 5

Results of the first 1000 patients: A method todefeat breast cancer without using traditional
surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation: We
must rethink breast cancer diagnosis andtreatment
Phillip Bretz, Richard Lynch, Desert Breast & Osteoporosis
Institute (United States)
Since the National Cancer Act of 1971, all the taxpayer funding provided
the National Cancer Institute and major cancer centers has been unable
to reduce the 40,000 deaths yearly from breast cancer yet the same pathis being followed decade after decade. Exploiting the genomic code
has revealed that breast cancer is almost different in each individual andthat heterogeneity protects the cancer cell from a myraid of new drugs
costing billions that in many cases provide only months of prolonged life
with poor quality. This paper is meant to investigate an alternative to mainstream thought. Its center piece is the melding of pharmacogenomics,
modified military infrared and Halo which allows for diagnosing breast
cancer at an ultra-small size 2-4mm allowing for its destruction without
traditional surgery using cryogenic probe. As a result chemotherapy and34

Using medical IR the smallest cancer found to date is 4mm and a full
three years before mammography, ultrasound and MRI identified thecancer. A high false negative rate for mammography (20%) and theelimination of mammography below age 50 for Medi-Cal enrollees
in California, for example, makes investigation of this new approach
imperative. This paper presents the results of the first 1000 patients.

Thermal imaging to detect physiologicalindicators of stress in humans
Carl B. Cross, Julie A. Skipper, Wright State Univ. (United States);
Douglas Petkie, Wright State University (United States)
Real-time, stand-off sensing of human subjects to detect emotional state
would be valuable in many defense, security and medical scenarios.
We are developing a multimodal sensor platform that incorporates
high-resolution electro-optical and mid-wave infrared (MWIR) cameras
and a millimeter-wave radar system to identify individuals who are
psychologically stressed. Recent experiments have aimed to: 1) assess
responses to physical versus psychological stressors; 2) examine theimpact of topical skin products on thermal signatures; and 3) evaluate
the fidelity of vital signs extracted from thermal imagery and radar
signatures. Registered image and sensor data were collected as subjects(n=32) performed mental and physical tasks. In each image, the face
was segmented into 29 non-overlapping segments based on fiducial
points automatically output by our facial feature tracker. Image features
were defined that facilitated discrimination between psychological andphysical stress states. To test the ability to intentionally mask thermal
responses indicative of anxiety or fear, subjects applied one of four
topical skin products to one half of their face before performing tasks.

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV

8705-20, Session 6

Finally, we evaluated the performance of two non-contact techniques
to detect respiration and heart rate: chest displacement extracted fromthe radar signal and temperature fluctuations at the nose tip and regions
near superficial arteries to detect respiration and heart rates, respectively,
extracted from the MWIR imagery. Our results are very satisfactory:
classification of physical versus psychological stressors is repeatedly
greater than 90%, thermal masking was usually ineffective, and accurate
heart and respiration rates are detectable in both the thermal and radar
signatures.

Real-time process monitoring andtemperature mapping of the 3D polymer
printing process
Ralph B. Dinwiddie, Lonnie J. Love, John C. Rowe, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States)
An extended range IR camera was used to make temperature
measurements of samples as they are being manufactured. The objective
is to quantify the temperature variation inside the system as parts arebeing fabricated, as well as quantify the temperature of a part during
fabrication. The IR camera was used to map the temperature within thebuild volume of the oven and surface temperature measurement of a partas it was being manufactured. The development of the temperature mapof the oven provides insight into the global temperature variation within
the oven that may lead to understanding variations in the properties ofparts as a function of location within the build volume. The developmentof the temperature variation of a part that fails during construction helps
in understanding how the deposition process impacts temperature build
up within a single part leading to failure.

8705-18, Session 6

Developing a successful and sustainablepredictive maintenance program
John W. Pratten III, Proactive Maintenance Consultants, LLC(United States)
Much has been written about the many important issues that need tobe addresses when trying to develop a predictive maintenance program
within your facility. The sad fact however is that very few infrared camera
owners or their respective employers have done enough to receive
maximum benefit from their infrared technology investment.
While visiting and working with hundreds of customers all over the US,
the problem seems to break down to three simple issues. The first is
the trend of lower prices for infrared cameras. The issue here is that thecost of training is now a much higher percentage of the total cost of
acquisition and good training is taking a back seat.

8705-21, Session 6

Thermal imaging for assessment of electronbeam free form fabrication (EBF3) additive
manufacturing welds (Invited Paper)

The second point is that there may or may not be a conversation about
the importance of training during the sales process. Often the focus ison the science of infrared, very important indeed, but the conversations
regarding training need to go beyond that.

Joseph N. Zalameda, Eric R. Burke, Robert A. Hafley, Karen M.
Taminger, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

The third issue can be contributed to the overwhelming feeling of “where
do I start” from the customer’s point of view. These points are touched on
during many of the regular training classes, but due to the vast numberof customers struggling in this area, it is apparent that not enoughinformation is available. Many customers need to fend for themselves as
they try to realize a reasonable return on their investment.

Additive manufacturing is a rapidly growing field where 3-dimensionalparts can be produced layer by layer. NASA’s electron beam free-form
fabrication (EBF3) technology is being evaluated to manufacture metallic
parts in a space environment. The benefits of EBF3 technology areweight savings to support space missions, rapid prototyping in a zerogravity environment, and improved vehicle readiness. The EBF3 system
is composed of 3 main components: electron beam gun, multi-axis
position system, and metallic wire feeder. The electron beam is used tomelt the wire and the multi-axis positioning system is used to build thepart layer by layer. To insure a quality weld, a near infrared (NIR) camera
is used to image the melt pool and solidification areas. This paper
describes the calibration and application of a NIR camera for temperature
measurement. In addition, image processing techniques are presented
for weld assessment metrics.

The focus of this paper will focus on the third point above, developing a
successful and sustainable predictive maintenance program.

8705-19, Session 6

Thermographic in-situ process monitoring of
the electron-beam melting technology used inadditive manufacturing8705-22, Session 7

Ralph B. Dinwiddie, Ryan R. Dehoff, Peter D. Lloyd, Larry E.
Lowe, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)

Crack detection using induction
thermography during high-temperature
testing

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has been utilizing the Arcamelectron beam melting technology to additively manufacture complex
geometric structures directly from powder materials. Although thetechnology has demonstrated the ability to decrease costs, decrease
manufacturing lead-time and fabricate complex structures that are
impossible to fabricate through conventional processing techniques,certification of the component quality can be challenging. Because theprocess involves the continuous deposition of successive layers, eachlayer can be examined without destructively testing the component.
However, in-situ process monitoring is difficult due to metallization on
inside surfaces caused by evaporation of metal from the melt pool.
This work describes the challenges overcome to continuously image
inside of the chamber during the EBM process such as utilization of acontinuously moving Mylar film canister. Results will be presented related
to in-situ process monitoring and how this technique results in improved
mechanical properties and reliability of the process.

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Marc Genest, National Research Council Canada (Canada)
Thermo-mechanical fatigue test and strain to crack test at elevatedtemperature are important aspect to the total fatigue life for manyengineering applications. During a thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF)
test, crack inspections are commonly done in a disruptive manner using
an acetate replication method; and post-test crack evaluations aredone using both optical and scanning electronic microscope methods.
Similarly, inspections during typical strain to crack (SC) are performed in
disruptive manner. This paper demonstrates that infrared imaging can beused in-situ, as a non-destructive inspection approach to detect crack
during TMF testing and SC at high temperature. It also shows that thistechnique allows reducing or eliminating the need for downtime typicallyrequired for inspection. The results obtained by induction thermography
are compared to those obtained via traditional methods and post-test
evaluation. The induction thermography inspections were carried out at·

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV
several temperatures and show that the temperature used during the test
does not influence the crack detection capability. It is demonstrated thatinduction thermography can detect cracks smaller than 500 um and has
potential for quantifying the crack length. The potential for generatingcrack growth curve is also presented.

8705-25, Session 88705-23, Session 7

Peter H. Shin, Sean C. Webb, Kara J. Peters, North Carolina
State Univ. (United States)

Spectroradiometric calibration of subambient flat plate blackbodies
Sergey N. Mekhontsev, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Vladimir B. Khromchenko, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States) and SDL,
Inc. (United States); Leonard M. Hanssen, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)
The current NIST capabilities for infrared spectroradiometry calibration
support for customers includes a pair of complementary facilities: theAdvanced IR Radiometry and Imaging (AIRI) laboratory for blackbody
source and pyrometer characterization, and the Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectrophotometry (FTIS) laboratory for material optical property
characterization, including emittance. The wavelength and temperature
ranges covered by the facilities are respectively: 3.4 µm to 13.5 µm
and 15 °C to 1000 °C for AIRI, and 3 µm to 23 µm and 200 °C to 900°C for FTIS Emittance. The limitations on these ranges are determinedby the available spectral comparators and radiometers, which are used
for spectral radiance and surface temperature measurements, as well
as by condensation of the water vapor on the surfaces at sub-ambient
temperatures (in case of AIRI, where no dry air purge is available). To
meet the newly emerging requirements, we will need to extend thefunctionality of both facilities, to enable the measurement of spectral
radiance and emittance of blackbody sources and targets at near- andsub-ambient temperatures and shorter wavelengths. We report the first
results of our efforts. The approach taken has been to: (a) transition tospectrometers that are better suited for this particular job; (b) add new
detectors or improve operation of existing ones, and (c) introduce design
features, allowing for dry air purge in the vicinity of the radiator’s surface,with minimal possible interference with radiative or convective heatexchange, experienced in free-standing mode at the user facility.

8705-24, Session 7

Recent developments in infrared
reflectometry at NIST
Leonard M. Hanssen, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Jinan Zeng, Space Dynamics
Lab. (United States); Sergey N. Mekhontsev, National Instituteof Standards and Technology (United States); Vladimir B.
Khromchenko, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States)
We present an update on recent progress in the extension of NIST’s
reflectometry capabilities in support of existing and emerging
requirements for higher accuracy optical measurements in the infrared forthe characterization of detectors, sources and materials. NIST’s Sensor
Science Division (SSD) is responsible for maintaining the national scales
for the infrared spectral characterization of materials. A complimentary
pair of facilities, the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometrylaboratory and the Laser-based Infrared Reflectometry laboratory, havebeen established for the characterization of reflectance, transmittance,and emittance of materials, as well as the reflectance of cavities in theinfrared spectral region from approximately 1.5 µm to beyond 20 µm.
Besides scales for these properties, these two facilities also support the
SSD’s infrared spectral radiance and responsivity scales through themeasurement of cavity reflectance and detector reflectance, respectively.
We will discuss recent improvements to the facilities’ capabilities alongwith examples of recent calibration measurements in support of defense
and aerospace applications.

36

Nondestructive inspection in adhesivebonded joint CFRP using pulsed phasethermography

Many forms of damages in fiber reinforcement polymer (FRP) composites
are difficult to detect because they occurs in subsurface layers of thecomposites. One challenging need for inspection capabilities is inadhesively bonded joints between composite components, a common
location of premature failure in aerospace structures. This paper
investigates pulsed phase thermography (PPT) imaging of fatigue
damage in these adhesively bonded joints. Simulated defects werecreated to calibrate parameters for fatigue loading conditions and PPT
imaging parameters of a carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) single
lap joint. Afterwards, eighteen lap joint specimens were fabricated withvarying quality of manufacturing. PPT imaging of the pristine specimens
revealed defects such as air bubbles, adhesive thickness variations, andweak bonding surface between the laminate and adhesive. These initial
manufacturing flaw detections are important since they contribute todamage progression and eventually failure during fatigue loading cycles.
Next, fatigue testing was performed and acquired PPT imaging data
identified fatigue induced damage prior to final failure cycles. After failureof each sample, those images were confirmed by visual inspectionsof failure surface. Ten samples also included fiber Bragg grating (FBG)
sensors embedded in the adhesive bond for real-time inspection during asimulated flight condition of these single-lap joints.

8705-26, Session 8

Non-visible defect detection in glass using
infrared thermography and artificial neuralnetworks
Amber Campa, Boston Univ. (United States); Sheng-Jen Hsieh,
Hong J. Wang, Texas A&M Univ. (United States)
Bubble defects in glass are a major problem in the glass industry as
these defects result in recall and rejection of materials and products.
Optical imaging has been applied to detect bubble defects. However,for tinted glass, optical approaches are more challenging. In this study,
infrared imaging was applied to detect hidden bubbles in tinted glasswith diameters of less than 2 mm and varying depths. Results suggestthat infrared imaging can be used to detect bubbles within tinted glass
and artificial neural network models can be used to predict the diameterand depth of the defects with prediction accuracy of ~60% for diameterand 76% for depth.

8705-27, Session 9

Comparison of pulse phase andthermographic signal reconstruction
processing methods
Beata Oswald-Tranta, Montan Univ. Leoben (Austria); Steven M.
Shepard, Thermal Wave Imaging, Inc. (United States)
Active thermography data for nondestructive testing has traditionallybeen evaluated by either visual or numerical identification of anomalous
surface temperature contrast in the IR image sequence obtained as
the target sample cools in response to thermal stimulation. However,in recent years, it has been demonstrated that considerably more
information about the subsurface condition of a sample can be obtainedby evaluating the time history of each pixel independently. In this paper,
we evaluate the detection limits of two such techniques, Pulse Phase
Thermography (PPT) and Thermographic Signal Reconstruction (TSR)

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV
using various heating methods and samples. Both processing techniques
are applied to the same data sequence, and results are evaluated interms of signal-to-background ratio. In addition to the experimental data,
we present finite element simulation models with varying flaw diameterand depth, and discuss size measurement accuracy and the effect ofnoise on detection limits and sensitivity for both methods.

preserving its stiffness and dynamic properties. The reinforced areas are
however prompt to debonding if the fabrics are not properly installed.
Nondestructive testing is therefore required to verify that the fabric isuniformly installed and that there are no air gaps or foreign materials
that could instigate debonding. In this work, the use of active infrared
thermography was investigated for the assessment of (1) a laboratory
specimen reinforced with FFRP and containing several artificial
defects; and (2) an actual FFRP retrofitted masonry wall in the Facultyof Engineering of the University of L’Aquila (Italy) that was seriously
affected by the 2009 earthquake. Thermographic data was processedby advanced signal processing techniques, and post-processed bycomputing the watershed lines to locate suspected areas. Results
coming from the academic specimen were compared to digital speckle
photography and holographic interferometry images.

8705-28, Session 9

Evaluating quality of adhesive joints in glassfiber plastic piping by using active thermal
NDT
Vladimir P. Vavilov, Tomsk Polytechnic Univ. (Russian Federation);Marcella Grosso, Univ. Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Carla
A. Marinho, Petrobras Brasileiro SA (Brazil); Denis A. Nesteruk,
Tomsk Polytechnic Univ. (Russian Federation); Joao M. Rebello,
Univ. Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Sergio D. Soares,
Petrobras Brasileiro SA (Brazil)

8705-30, Session 9

Improved sizing of impact damage incomposites based on thermographic
response
William P. Winfree, Patricia A. Howell, Cara A. Leckey, Matthew
D. Rogge, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

Glass-fibre Reinforced Plastic (GRP) has been continuously employedin the oil industry in recent years, often on platforms and, particularly,
in pipes for transportation of water or oil under moderate temperatures.
In this case, the pipes are usually connected with adhesive joints and,
consequently, the detection of defects in these joints, such as areas
without adhesive or adhesive failure (disbond), gains great importance.
Due to increasing investments into applications of composite materials
on platforms, PETROBRAS has undertaken certain efforts to identify
the best practices in service inspection of GRP pipe lines, having
invested in the study of some NDT techniques. One of such techniques
being presently tested is active thermography. One-sided inpection
on the joint front surface is a challenging task because the joint collar
thickness can exceed 10 mm that is far beyond of the reported limits of
IR thermographic NDT applied to GRP composites. The detection limits
have been evaluated both theoretically and experimentally as a functionof joint collar thickness and defect lateral size. The 3D modeling was
accomplished by using the ThermoCalc-6L software. The experimental
unit consisted of a FLIR SC640 IR imager and a home-made heater
which included two halogen lamps of the 1,5 kW power each. The
results obtained with pulsed heating have demonstrated that inspection
efficiency is strongly dependent on the collar thickness with a value ofabout 8 mm being a detection limit. In the future, potentials of a lock-in
IR thermographic procedure, as well as powerful ultrasonic stimulation, isto be studied to compare with the pulsed technique.

Impact damage in thin polymer matrix graphite fiber (PMGF) composites
often results in a relatively small region of damage at the front surface,with increasing damage near the back surface. Conventional methods
for reducing the pulsed thermographic responses of the composite tend
to underestimate the size of the back surface damage, since the smaller
near surface damage gives the largest thermographic indication. A
method is presented for reducing the thermographic data to produce anestimated size for the impact damage that is much closer to the size ofthe damage estimated from other NDE techniques such as microfocus
x-ray computed tomography and pulse echo ultrasonics. Examples of theapplication of the technique to experimental data acquired on impacted
composite specimens are presented. The technique is also applied to theresults of thermographic simulations to investigate the limitations of thetechnique.

8705-31, Session 9

Analysis of signal processing techniques inpulsed thermography
Fernando Lopez, Univ. Federal de Santa Catarina (Brazil);
Xavier P. V. Maldague, Clemente Ibarra-Castanedo, Univ. Laval(Canada); Vicente de Paulo Nicolau, Univ. Federal de Santa
Catarina (Brazil)

8705-29, Session 9

Nondestructive testing of externallyreinforced structures for seismic retrofitting
using flax fiber reinforced polymer (FFRP)
composites

Pulsed Thermography (PT) is one of the most widely used approaches
for the inspection of composites materials, being its main attraction the
deployment in transient regime. However, due to the physical phenomena
involved during the inspection, the signals acquired by the infrared
camera are nearly always affected by external reflections and local
emissivity variations. Furthermore, non-uniform heating at the surface
and thermal losses at the edges of the material also represent constraints
in the detection capability. For this reason, the thermographic signals
should be processed in order to improve – qualitatively and quantitatively– the quality of the thermal images. Signal processing constitutes animportant step in the chain of thermal image analysis, especially when
defects characterization is required. Several of the signals processing
techniques employed nowadays are based on the one-dimensional
solution of Fourier’s law of heat conduction. This investigation brings into
discussion the three-most used techniques based on the 1D Fourier’slaw: Thermographic Signal Reconstruction (TSR), Differentiated Absolute
Contrast (DAC) and Pulsed Phase Thermography (PPT), applied on
glass and carbon laminated fiber composites. It is of special interest to
determine the detection capabilities of each technique on both kinds ofmaterials, allowing in this way more reliable results when performing aninspection by PT. The results obtained from this research will be used in

Clemente Ibarra-Castanedo, Univ. Laval (Canada); Stefano
Sfarra, Domenica Paoletti, Univ. degli Studi dell’Aquila (Italy);
Abdelhakim Bendada, Xavier P. V. Maldague, Univ. Laval(Canada)Natural fibers constitute an interesting alternative to synthetic fibers,
e.g. glass and carbon, for the production of composites due to theirenvironmental and economic advantages. The strength of natural
fiber composites is on average lower compared to their synthetic
counterparts. Nevertheless, natural fibers such as flax, among other bast
fibers (jute, kenaf, ramie and hemp), are serious candidates for seismic
retrofitting applications given that their mechanical properties are moresuitable for dynamic loads. Strengthening of structures is performed byimpregnating flax fiber reinforced polymers (FFRP) fabrics with epoxy
resin and applying them to the component of interest, increasing inthis way the load and deformation capacities of the building, while

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV
later investigation to compare and analyze the performance of Fourier’s
law-based versus statistical multivariate-based signal processing
techniques.

8705-34, Session 98705-32, Session 9

Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar(India); Subbarao V. Ghali, K L Univ. (India) and PDPM IIITDM
Jabalpur (India); Vanita Arora, Indian Institute of Technology,
Ropar (India); Juned A. Siddiqui, Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM
IIITDM Jabalpur (India); Masahiro Takei, Graduate School of
Chiba Univ. (Japan)

Detection of defects in laser powder
deposition (LPD) produced components bylaser thermography
S. P. Santospirito, Kamil Slyk, Bin Luo, Kingston Computer
Consultancy Ltd. (United Kingdom); Rafal Lopatka, Warsaw Univ.
of Technology (Poland) and Polkom Badania (Poland)
Detection of defects in Laser Powder Deposition (LPD) produced
components has been achieved by laser thermography. An automatic
in-process NDT defect detection software system has been developed
for the analysis of laser thermography to automatically detect, reliably
measure and then sentence defects in individual beads of LPD
components. A deposition path profile definition has been introduced so
all laser powder deposition beads can be modelled, and the inspection
system has been developed to automatically generate an optimized
inspection plan in which sampling images follow the deposition track,and automatically control and communicate with robot-arms, the source
laser and cameras to implement image acquisition. Algorithms weredeveloped so that the defect sizes can be correctly evaluated and thesehave been confirmed using test samples. Individual inspection images
can also be stitched together for a single bead, a layer of beads or
multiple layers of beads so that defects can be mapped through theadditive process. A statistical model was built up to analyse and evaluate
the movement of heat throughout the inspection bead. Inspection
processes were developed and positional and temporal gradientalgorithms have been used to measure the flaw sizes. Defect analysis
is then performed to determine if the defect(s) can be further classified(crack, lack of fusion, porosity) and the sentencing engine then compares
the most significant defect or group of defects against the acceptancecriteria – independent of human decisions. Testing on manufactured
defects from the EC funded INTRAPID project has successful detected
and correctly sentenced all samples.

8705-33, Session 9

Nondestructive testing and evaluation ofcomposites by non-invasive IR Imaging
techniques
Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar(India); Juned A. Siddiqui, PDPM IIITDM Jabalpur (India); Vanita
Arora, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar (India); Subbarao
V. Ghali, K L Univ. (India) and PDPM IIITDM Jabalpur (India);
Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM IIITDM Jabalpur (India); Masahiro
Takei, Graduate School of Chiba Univ. (Japan)
InfraRed Thermography (IRT) is one of the promising technique fornon-destructive testing method for characterization of materials. This
technique relies on evaluation of the surface temperature variations
to detect the presence of surface and subsurface anomalies within
the material. Due to its whole field and remote testing capabilities, IRT
has gained significant importance in testing of Glass Fiber Reinforced
Plastic (GFRP) materials. A GFRP specimen with defects of various sizes
at a given depth was inspected using non-stationary thermographic
techniques. In order to highlight the defect detection capabilities of the
proposed non-stationary schemes, a comparison has been made using
matched excitation energy in frequency domain by taking signal to noise
ratio into consideration. Further, results obtained from the conventional
phasegrams at matched frequency have been compared with recently
introduced pulse compression based approach for non-stationary
excitation schemes.

38

Theory, modeling, and simulations for thermal
wave detection and ranging

Active infrared thermography for nondestructive testing and evaluation
is a rapidly developing technique for quick and remote inspection of
subsurface details of test objects. Sinusoidal modulated thermal wave
imaging such as Lock-in thermography (LT) significantly contributed
to this field by allowing low power controlled modulated stimulations
and phase based subsurface detail extraction capabilities. But demandof repetitive experimentation required for depth scanning of the test
object, limits its applicability for realistic applications and demands
multi frequency low power stimulations. Non-stationary thermal wave
imaging methods such as frequency modulated thermal wave imaging(FMTWI), digitized FMTWI and coded thermal wave imaging methods
permitting multi frequency stimulations cater these needs and facilitate
depth scanning of the test object in a single experimentation cycle.
This contribution highlights theory, modeling and simulations for nonstationary modulated thermal wave imaging methods for non-destructive
characterization of solid materials.

8705-35, Session 9

Recent advances in thermal wave detection
and ranging for non-destructive testing andevaluation of materials
Ravibabu Mulaveesala, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar(India); Subbarao V. Ghali, K L Univ. (India) and PDPM IIITDM
Jabalpur (India); Vanita Arora, Indian Institute of Technology,
Ropar (India); Juned A. Siddiqui, Amarnath Muniyappa, PDPM
IIITDM Jabalpur (India); Masahiro Takei, Graduate School of
Chiba Univ. (Japan)
Thermal Wave Detection and Ranging (TWDAR) for non-destructive
testing (TNDT) is a whole field, non-contact and non-destructive
inspection method to reveal the surface or subsurface anomalies in thetest sample, by recording the temperature distribution over it, for a given
incident thermal excitation. Present work proposes recent trends in
non-stationary thermal imaging methods which can be performed withless peak power heat sources than the widely used conventional pulsed
thermographic methods (PT & PPT) and in very less time compared tosinusoidal modulated Lock-in Thermography (LT). Furthermore, results
obtained with various non-stationary thermal imaging techniques arecompared with the phase based conventional thermographic techniques.

8705-36, Session 10

The Zombie Thermographer Apocalypse
Preparedness 101: Zombie Thermographer
Pandemic
Fred P. Colbert, Colbert Infrared Services (United States) and
Thermal Trend (United States) and Professional Thermographers
Association (United States)
The U.S Government Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response, actually has partof their web site dedicated to” Zombie Preparedness”. See: http://www.

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Conference 8705: Thermosense:
Thermal Infrared Applications XXXV
cdc.gov/phpr/zombies.htm for more information. This is a tongue-incheek campaign with messages to engage new audiences with thehazards of preparedness. The CDC director, U.S. Assistant Surgeon
General Ali S. Khan (RET), MD, MPH notes, “If you are generally wellequipped to deal with a zombie apocalypse you will be prepared for ahurricane, pandemic, earthquake, or terrorist attack. “Make a plan, andbe prepared!”
Today we can make an easy comparison between the humor that
the CDC is bringing to light, and what is actually happening in our
Thermographic Industry, but the reality is that we must recognize that we
actually do have “Zombie Thermographers” out there, and that this is apandemic apocalypse that is attacking the creditability and legitimacyof this science of this industry that we have all been working hard toadvance for over 30 years.
This paper outline strategies to be prepared for the trends that are
already in place and what needs be done to overcome these problems.
Awareness, education, practical expectations and understanding of
the real science behind thermal imaging is vital to being able to further
advance scope of this technology.
We have what is the equivalent of the night of the living dead, zombie
thermographers walking around with thermal imagers in their hands,
and believing that they are just as qualified as a real professional
thermographer, all the time not even knowing what they do not know, buttelling people that all you have to do is just point and shoot. The internetand You Tube are full of examples of them, demonstrating that you can
see through walls, see mold, and even see ghosts, space aliens and big
foot!
We are seeing a decline in the quality of professional thermographic
consulting services that are offered today. As well as a serious dropin the skill sets that in-house thermographers have within their own
facilities. Market economics that are based on commodity sales ofmaterial products like light bulbs are being transferred onto engineering/
technical consulting services, where unsuspecting consumers and naivepurchasing agents are awarding contracts to the lowest bidder. The
first mistake is to confuse quality technical services with a commodity
based business model; they are simply not the same. For example
just look at Washington State (USA), where history has taught us thislesion repeatedly, but we don’t seem to get the message. The historyof engineering failures like the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, the Hood Canal
Bridge, and the I90 Floating Bridge and now the 520 Bridge are all atestimony to short sidedness and commodity economics for technicalservices.
There are 4 key areas where we can become more prepared, andunderstand what the outcome will be if we do not make the necessarychanges to advert this Night of the living dead, Zombie Thermographer
Apocalypse that is becoming a pandemic problem for our industry.

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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV
Tuesday - Thursday 30–2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8706 Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV

8706-1, Session 1

Resampling in hyperspectral cameras asan alternative to correcting keystone in
hardware, with focus on benefits for the
optical design and data quality
Andrei Fridman, Norsk Elektro Optikk AS (Norway); Gudrun Høye,
Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (Norway); Trond
Løke, Norsk Elektro Optikk AS (Norway)
In this work we compare the performance of hyperspectral cameras
where keystone is corrected in hardware with cameras where very large
keystone is corrected by resampling. Design and manufacturing of
hyperspectral cameras are challenging tasks because of very stringent
requirements for co-registration between spectral bands. These
requirements severely limit specifications of these imaging instruments
in terms of spatial resolution and ability to collect light. General opinion
seems to be that, despite these limitations, it is better to aim forcorrecting co-registration errors in hardware instead of correcting them in
postprocessing.
We model several cameras with realistic specifications using a Virtual
Camera software that was developed specifically for this purpose. The
cameras where the keystone is corrected in hardware, are modelled tohave different degree of keystone correction. For the cameras where alarge keystone is corrected by resampling, different resampling methods
are investigated. High-resolution hyperspectral images containing
objects of various size and contrast are used as the input scenes for thesimulations. Since the precise content of the scene is known, this method
allows to measure performance of different modelled hyperspectral
cameras very accurately.
Different criteria are suggested for quantifying performance, and thetested cameras are compared according to these criteria.
The results of these simulations may found the basis for choice ofarchitecture and design of future hyperspectral imaging systems.

8706-2, Session 1

Infrared camera NUC and calibration:comparison of advanced methods
Frédérick Marcotte, Pierre Tremblay, Vincent Farley, Telops(Canada)Image uniformity and accurate radiometric calibration are key featuresof state-of-the-art infrared cameras. Over the past years several nonuniformity correction and radiometric calibration techniques have beendeveloped. In this paper we present and compare 3 different techniques:
Telops’ Real-Time Image Processing (patent-pending), user multi point’s
calibration, and factory interpolated multi point’s calibration. For eachmethod we assess the performances, the ease of use, the advantages
and drawbacks as well as the most important operational limitations
considering a broad range of exposure times, ambient and scene
temperatures. Capabilities of adequately supporting InSb and MCT
detectors are also discussed.

8706-3, Session 1

An evaluation of image quality metrics tovalidate pixel uniformity and the performanceof NUC methods

the characteristics of the fixed pattern noise in the image data, in
addition to the correction method itself. If external conditions (e.g.
ambient temperature) are varying during a trial, the fixed pattern noisein the image data being collected will also vary. By visual inspections
a substantial time may be needed to select the most optimal NUC
methods if the amount of data is large. In addition, by (subjective) visualinspections it is not always obvious which NUC methods that mostefficiently reduce the pixel noise. By using image quality metrics, thequality of corrected image data is given by computed objective values. In
this paper a number of image quality metrics have been studied. Different
NUC methods have been applied on image data collected from imaging
sensors in the thermal infrared spectral region, where image data may
be severely distorted by fixed pattern noise, followed by calculationsof image quality metrics for the corrected image data. The results arecompared with visual evaluations.

8706-4, Session 1

Development of 3D infrared imaging systemusing nanocarbon-based photodetectors
Ning Xi, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
The development of 3D infrared imaging system is challenging anddifficult, and it also requires an understanding of processing andpresenting the data via various methods for acquiring signals across awide range of electromagnetic spectrum. Traditionally, infrared camera
is made by integrating a photosensor array to an optical processing
system. As a result, the resolution of the final image depends on thedimension of the focal plane array. Moreover, the conventional imaging
system losses of the directional information of the infrared signal, it isbecause the sensor acquires the total intensity of signals arriving eachpoint on the focal plane array. If it is required to reconstruct a 3D image,two infrared cameras or two focal plane arrays are required. In order toovercome the current limitation, we report the development of a newgeneration of 3D infrared imaging system based on nanocarbon-based
photodetectors. Various nanocarbon-based materials, such as carbon
nanotubes and graphene, have been employed for infrared photo sensing
materials because of their excellent electrical and optical properties
such as adjustable electrical band gap, low dark current, fast opticalresponse time etc. In our system, a large-scale focal plane array is not
required. Instead, 3D images can be recovered by the nanocarbon-based
photodetectors using compressive sensing. The development of theimaging system overcomes the problems of pixel crosstalk phenomenon.
Moreover, stereoscopic infrared imaging will be demonstrated in thispaper, and this represents a potential advancement of 3D infrared
imaging.

8706-5, Session 1

A long-wave infrared (LWIR) spectral imager(7.7 to 13 microns) based on cooled detector
array and high-resolution circular variable
filter (CVF)
Dario Cabib, Moshe Lavi, Amir Gil, CI Systems (Israel) Ltd. (Israel)
Spectral imagers in the Long Wave IR spectral range suffer from the
problem of high production costs because the existing cooled array
detectors are expensive, and in fact they are prohibitively expensive formany applications.
As a result, the drive to lower the cost of IR spectral imagers is strong,
and CI has found a way to achieve this feat by significantly lowering
the cost of the monochromating method used to provide the spectral

Thomas Svensson, Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
The performance of a non-uniformity correction (NUC) depends on
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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV
information. In fact, CI Systems has developed a long wave IR (7.7 to13 micron) spectral imager using a Circular Variable Filter (CVF) insteadof the common interferometric Fourier Transform method used in thisspectral range. The CVF method is an environmentally stable, easyto-align optical set-up, which may be suitable for many applications inwhich a spectral resolution in the range of 0.5% of the wavelength or
50 nm at 10 (best case) to 2% of the wavelength or 200 nm at 10 (worstcase) is acceptable. System design, calibration procedure and examples
of preliminary measurements, applications and specifications will begiven in this paper.

analysis will be presented for the major tube parameters of luminancegain, equivalent background input (EBI), signal-to-noise ratio (SNR),
limiting resolution, halo, and modulation transfer function (MTF). This will
additionally include the high-light resolution provided by various autogated and non-gated tubes, since this area has been an important factor
in the international market. NVESD measurement data will be comparedto the corresponding manufacturer data whenever possible.

8706-9, Session 2

Data analysis tools for imaging infrared
technology within the ImageJ environment

8706-7, Session 2

Compensation for instrument anomalies inimaging infrared measurements

Ryan K. Rogers, William D. Edwards, Dynetics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Caleb E. Waddle, Christopher L. Dobbins, Sam B. Wood,
U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command(United States)

Christopher L. Dobbins, U.S. Army Aviation & Missile Research,
Development & Engineering Ctr. (United States); James A.
Dawson, Jay A. Lightfoot, William D. Edwards, Ryan S. Cobb,
Amanda R. Heckwolf, Dynetics, Inc. (United States)

For over 30 years, the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Research,
Development, and Engineering Center (AMRDEC) has specialized incharacterizing the performance of infrared (IR) imaging systems in
the laboratory and field. In the late 90’s, the AMRDEC developed theAutomated IR Sensor Test Facility (AISTF), which allowed efficient
deployment testing of UAS payloads. More recently, ImageJ has been
predominantly used as the image processing environment of choice foranalysis of laboratory, field, and simulated data. The strength of ImageJis that it is maintained by the U.S. National Institute of Health, exists inthe public domain, and functions on all major operating systems. Three
new tools or “plug-ins” have been developed at AMRDEC to enhance theaccuracy and efficiency of analysis. First, a Noise Equivalent Temperature
Difference (NETD) plugin was written to process Signal Transfer Function(SiTF) and 3D noise data. Another plugin was produced that measures
the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) given either an edge or slit target.
Lastly, a plug-in was developed to measure Focal Plane Array (FPA)
defects, classify and bin the customizable defects, and report statistics.
This paper will document the capabilities and practical applications ofthese tools, and profile the advantages of them over previous methods ofanalysis.

Infrared imaging is commonly used for performing thermography
based on field calibration that simply relates image levels to apparent
temperature levels based on field blackbodies. Under normal conditions,the correlation between the image levels and blackbody temperature
is strong, allowing conversion of the raw data into units of blackbodyequivalent temperature without consideration of other factors. However,
if instrument anomalies are present, a complicated calibration procedure
is required involving use of a thermal chamber. The procedure andexpected results are described based on analysis of temperaturedependent dark current, optical emissions, and detector response.
The procedure involves first cold soaking a thermal camera and thenobserving the cooldown behavior of the sensor under non-stressing
conditions. Increased temperature levels are then used to observe
cooler performance and, if present, increases in dark current levels. A
multi-variate linear regression is performed that allows temperaturedependent dark current, lens emission, lens transmission, and detector
response to be fully characterized. The resulting multipliers describe
for each image pixel a relationship between the scene temperature andthe observed values of image signal, detector temperature, and camera
temperature. The calibration procedure includes analysis of detector
and camera temperatures as an indicator of cooler performance. Using
error residuals, the expected accuracy of the compensation technique isderived based on the deviation between the measurement condition andthe ground calibration using field blackbodies. Given the need to performthermography with a specified level of accuracy, the limiting deviationin camera and detector temperature relative to the ground calibration isderived.

8706-10, Session 2

Enhanced extended area blackbody forradiometric calibration
Joseph D. LaVeigne, Gregory Franks, Santa Barbara Infrared, Inc.
(United States)
Emissivity and uniformity are two of the most important features that
determine the radiometric performance of an extended area blackbody.
SBIR has developed an enhanced blackbody a highly emissive surface
and improved its uniformity. We describe the design of the enhanced
blackbody and present performance metrics including emissivity,
uniformity, slew rate, stability and temperature range.

8706-8, Session 2

Characterization of domestic and foreign
image intensifier tubes
Edward J. Bender, Michael V. Wood, Dan J. Hosek, Steve D.
Hart, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC Night Vision & Electronic
Sensors Directorate (United States)

8706-11, Session 2

Active SWIR Laboratory testing methodology

The market for military-use Generation 2 and Generation 3 image
intensifier (I2) tubes has become truly global, with major manufacturers
and customers spanning five continents. This worldwide market isbecoming increasingly important to U.S. manufacturers, with the majorityof U.S. Army intensifier fielding being completed in 2012. Given thiskeen global competition, it is not surprising that the advertised tube
performance of a given source is often discounted by competitors, andthe customers have no objective “honest broker” to determine the relative
accuracy of these claims. To help fill this void, the U.S. Army RDECOMCERDEC NVESD recently measured a number of domestic and foreign
image intensifier tubes, using consistent test equipment/procedures withwhich the U.S. industry must correlate for Army tube deliveries. Data andReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Curtis M. Webb, Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems (UnitedStates); Stephen G. White, Santa Barbara Infrared, Inc. (UnitedStates)Active Short Wave InfraRed (SWIR) imaging presents challenges tolaboratory testing. It is always important to have laboratory testingthat will directly relate to field performance. This paper will present themodeling and corresponding laboratory testing that was developed
for these systems. The paper will present the modeling that was used
to derive the lab metric used for verification testing of the system andprovide details into the design of the lab equipment that was necessary·

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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV
to ensure accurate lab testing.
The Noise Limited Resolution test, first developed for low light imaging
systems in the 1960s, serves as the basic lab test procedure for theevaluation of the active SWIR system. This test serves well for a quick
test metric and is used for this system during production testing. The
test derivation will be described and shown how it relates to the field
performance.
The test equipment developed by SBIR for this application allows for
accurate uniform radiance levels from an integrating sphere for both
1.06um and 1.57um imaging applications. The source has the ability todirectly mimic any laser system and can provide pulsed laser source
radiation from 10 nanoseconds to 100 nanoseconds resulting in levels
from 0.01 to 1 W/cm2/sr, peak radiance levels. The light source can betriggered to replicate a laser return at any range from 100m to 100,000m.
Additionally, the source provides the ability to output Mid Wave IR (MWIR)
illumination through the use of a small extended area IR source in the
integrating sphere. This is critical for the use of boresighting the Forward
Looking IR (FLIR) with the 1.06um and 1.57um sensors in the pod.

reflectance measurements with/without dome using NIST’s Complete
Hemispherical Infrared Laser-based Reflectometer (CHILR) at 1.56
µm, 4 µm, 5 µm, 9.5 µm, and 10.6 µm. The detector absorptance withdome is determined by using the trap efficiency to correct the spectralreflectance of the bare coating on the detector using NIST’s Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectrophotometry (FTIS) facility. The relative spectral
responsivity associated to absorptance and absolute tie-point method
can determine the absolute spectral responsivity of the radiometer.
The direct calibration of the dome-input pyroelectric radiometers withorganic black coating using Infrared Spectral Comparator Facility (IRSCF)
and traditional sources can be conducted with dome/without dome tomake a comparison with the reflectance measurements from CHILR and
FTIS. This comparison is useful to understand the loss of the reflected
light outside the detector inside the trap dome. The systematic studyof the radiation trap efficiency on dome-input geometry is significant
for optimizing the dome trap effect, reducing the uncertainty of thecalibration, and building responsivity scale at the lower signal levels.

8706-14, Session 3
8706-12, Session 2

Testing missile warning and countermeasuresystems (MWCS): instrumentation fordevelopment, production, and maintenanceof MWCS
Dario Cabib, Adam Inbar, Tamir Barak, Doron Rozenstein, Larry
Davidzon, Alon Edri, CI Systems (Israel) Ltd. (Israel)
CI has adopted a unique, all-encompassing approach to testing missile
warning and countermeasure systems (MWCS). This is an integrated
approach from two points of view: i) It specifically answers the testingneeds of all stages in the life of an MWCS, from development tomaintenance in the field, and ii) it is capable of carrying out all needed
tests of most electro-optical subsystems of the MWCS.
For this purpose CI has developed unique equipment and methodology,
examples of which are: i) a small, cost effective, easy-to-use, thermalenvelope allowing environmental tests of MWCS sensor performance on
a bench instead of the need to use cumbersome testing in a chamber, ii)
a complex missile simulator for a civilian aircraft MWCS, including bothscenario feedback loop for acquisition and tracking by five or more IR
imagers and a sensor for jamming code emission testing, and iii) a double
theodolite system that easily allows mutual alignment and field of view
calibration of a number of sensors mounted on the sides and rear of an
airplane for threat detection and acquisition.
The general approach, specific solutions, methodology and otherexamples of unique instrumentation for this MWCS testing application
will be presented in this paper.

8706-39, Session 2

Evaluation of dome-input geometry for
pyroelectric detectors
Jinan Zeng, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States) and Utah State Univ. (United States); Leonard M.
Hanssen, George P. Eppeldauer, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States)
Hemispherical dome-input pyroelectric radiometers with gold blackand organic black coatings have been developed to extend the spectral
responsivity scale from near infrared (NIR) up to 25 µm. The dome wasgold coated to increase the detector absorptance and to minimize
spectral structures and obtain spectrally constant responsivity. The
trap efficiency mainly depends on the optical properties of the black
coating on the detector, such as the reflectance and distribution of thereflected light in the wavelength range of interest. The trap efficiency
for specular and diffuse detector coatings was obtained from the42

An investigation of image-based task
performance prediction
Eddie L. Jacobs, Univ. of Memphis (United States)
Human task performance with imaging sensors is characterized byperception experiments involving ensembles of observers viewing an
ensemble of task relevant images from real sensors. Summary statistics
from perception experiments are used, along with detailed descriptions of
the sensors and early human vision processes to build predictive models
such as NV-IPM. Use of these models typically requires knowledge ofmore than 100 specific parameters regarding the sensor, the viewing
conditions, and the task. In this research we seek to do a blind predictionof task performance using task relevant image ensembles and image
processing operations that produce statistically similar outputs to
those obtained in real human perception experiments. We restrict ourinvestigation to the task of identifying tracked vehicles. The data we seek
to replicate through image processing are similarity matrices derived
from the confusion matrices of actual perception experiments. This
paper presents our work to date examining primarily the correspondence
between several image processing approaches and perception data. In
particular, our goal of identifying image processing steps that result in
accurate task performance indicators is presented.

8706-15, Session 3

Validating the time-dependent searchparameter search model
Melvin H. Friedman, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC Night Vision& Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States); Hee-Sue Choi,
Jae H. Cha, Joseph P. Reynolds, U.S. Army Night Vision &Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States)
The time dependent search parameter (TDSP) search model was
described in a recent paper and compared with perception experiments.
It was found that the TDSP search model was in approximate agreementwith perception results. Here the focus is on determining if the agreement
between the TDSP search model and experiment can be improvedby reducing experimental errors in the perception experiments andincluding a response time in the TDSP search model. The perception
experiments described in the previous paper showed the response time
was comparable to the mean detection time, which implies that observer
response time could be introducing discrepancies between modeled
and measured results. Another factor that introduced discrepancies
between modeled and measured results is errors in the vehicle time-line
calibration. This paper describes a version of the TDSP search modelthat includes a response time, describes techniques used for improving
the perception experiment and compares TDSP model predictions withexperimental results.

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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV

8706-16, Session 3(b) the target detection ranges assessment for various IR sensors
mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles and dedicated to sense and avoid
task.

Performance characterization of night-visionequipment based on triangle orientation
discrimination (TOD) methodology

8706-18, Session 4

Nicolas Laurent, Cédric Lejard, Geoffroy Deltel, PHOTONISFrance S.A.S. (France); Piet Bijl, TNO Defence, Security and
Safety (Netherlands)

Sensor performance and atmospheric effects
using NvThermIP/NV-IPM and PcModWin/
MODTRAN models: a historical perspective(Invited Paper)

Night vision equipment is crucial in order to accomplish supremacy
and safety of the troops on the battlefield. Evidently, system
integrators, MODs and end-users need access to reliable quantitative
characterization of the expected field performance when using nightvision equipment. The Image Intensifier tube is one of the most important
engines driving the performance for night vision equipment. As a major
tube manufacturer, PHOTONIS has investigated the link between its
products physical design parameters and the actual end-user field
performance. The developments include 1) an end-to-end performancemeasurement method and test facility, 2) an image-based night vision
simulation and 3) a range estimation model. The purpose is twofold: i)being able to support the need of its customers, and ii) further systematic
improvement of night vision equipment design. For the end-to-end test,
PHOTONIS and TNO cooperated in the implementation of the TOD(Triangle Orientation Discrimination) test for night vision equipment. This
test provides a clear and rigorous ranking of the products with respect
to their performance level. With respect to the image-based simulation,
PHOTONIS performs physical and performance comparisons between
artificial and real imagery, promising exciting further development of amodel based on the merging of the different approaches of night visionevaluation and modeling.

John W. Schroeder, Ontar Corp. (United States)
Atmospheric effects have a significant impact on the target detection,
recognition and identification capabilities of electro-optical sensors.
Adverse atmospheric and weather conditions can render the mostsophisticated hardware system virtually blind.
It is not feasible to test a sensor under all the conditions that may be
encountered in an operational environment. Engineers and designers rely
on computer models to simulate the performance for anticipated extreme
conditions.
This paper will focus on the effect of atmospheric conditions on EO
sensor performance using computer models. It will discuss both thebenign and disturbed atmosphere effects and provide guidelines for theappropriate model to use for different conditions, e.g. broadband versus
LIDAR/LADAR. Finally, it will provide a historical perspective for themodel development and model distribution.
The current state-of-the-art model for computing atmospherictransmission and radiance is MODTRAN 5 developed by the US Air Force
Research Laboratory and Spectral Science, Inc. Historically the Air Forcefocused on the “normal” and naturally disturbed atmosphere; the US
Army on battlefield conditions, e.g. smoke, fires etc.; and the US Navy on
the marine environment. An amalgamation of their efforts resulted in the
public release of LOWTRAN 2 in the early 1970’s. Subsequent release of
LOWTRAN and MODTRAN continue until the present.

8706-17, Session 3

MACCAO: a software tool for the assessmentof electro-optical and infrared sensor
performance

The corresponding state-of-the art in sensor models is the NVESD’s
NVThermIP and soon to be released NV-IPM. This model has also
undergone an evolutionary process starting with the FLIR and ACQUIRE
models to the present. NVThermIP, version 2002 through 2009, had thecapability to interface with 3rd party MODTRAN software, along with a
Beer’s law and table inputs. The replacement, NV-IPM, uses a different
approach. It continues to use Beers law and table, however it primaryinterface if via a library of pre-calculations. The capability to interface
to a complete set of MODTRAN inputs no longer exists. The paper will
discuss the importance of restoring this capability showing the potential
calculations errors using the existing capabilities.

Stephane Barbe, Eric Coiro, Jean-Claude Krapez, ONERA(France)A new software tool for the assessment of electro-optical and infrared(EO/IR) sensor performance is currently under development at ONERA(French Aerospace Lab). This tool named MACCAO is dedicated tothe sensor trade-off studies, sensitivity analysis, sensors performancecomparison studies and sensor performance assessment for a large
number of environmental conditions (climatic and weather conditions),target/background characteristics and mission task requirements
representative of an operational need.

8706-19, Session 4

MACCAO, which already implements target / background radiancemodel, passive EO/IR sensors models, the radiative transfer code
MATISSE and, in the near future, the aircraft infrared signature code
CRIRA, all developed at ONERA, is able to process larges series ofsimulation cases with short computing times.

Impact of the spectral nature of signatures ontargeting with broadband imagers
Van A. Hodgkin, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

Two specific applications are considered: target acquisition with observerat the end of the imaging chain and target detection for automatic searchand track system. In the first application, the tool uses a discrimination(detection, recognition, identification) range performance model based at
first on the Johnson criteria, then later towards more recent criteria likeTargeting Task Performance (TTP) metric. In the second application, it
uses a point source target detection model.

For the purpose of detecting an object or feature of particular interestin or against a background of other objects or features of little or nointerest with an imaging system, the spectral information in the scene
can be as important as the spatial information. A useful measure of
the visibility of a target is the apparent contrast between it and thebackground on the visual display of the imager. In broadband imaging,
the scene’s spectra resulting from the interactions between illumination
and reflectivities, or thermal emission, with the atmospheric pathand optical system transmission are mixed irretrievably together by
the spectral responsivity of the image detectors. A single pixel in a
broadband image is nothing more than a measure of the net spectrally
integrated radiance from the corresponding part of the scene and thus
provides no spectral indication of whether it’s a target or backgroundpixel. If the scene is heterogeneous, that is, it contains different objects

This paper describes the structure of the MACCAO software tool, themodels and codes used, the operating mode, two application examples
and future developments planned. The two application examples
presented are respectively:(a) the target discrimination ranges assessment for several EO/IR sensors
mounted on unmanned ground vehicles and dedicated to land bordersurveillance;

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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV
and features, or has spatial variation in illumination or temperature, thenthe apparent contrast between groups of target and background pixels
will most likely be a function of the degree of correlation between the net
target and background spectra within the pass-band of the imager. This
paper documents how the spectral nature of the target and backgroundreflectivities and the illumination impact target discrimination withreflective broadband imaging systems.

8706-20, Session 4

TOD characterization of the Gatekeeper
electro-optical security system
Guido A. Gosselink, Hugo Anbeek, Thales Nederland B.V.
(Netherlands); Piet Bijl, Maarten A. Hogervorst, TNO Defence,
Security and Safety (Netherlands)
The Triangle Orientation Discrimination (TOD) test method wasapplied to characterize thermal and visual range performance with
the Gatekeeper Electro Optical Security System in use with the Royal
Netherlands Navy. The system consists of uncooled IR and TV cameras
providing up to 360˚ view in azimuth. The images shown to the user areautomatically optimized based on the scene intensity distribution. Proper
measurement of such a system with scene-based optimization requires
careful surround illumination of the TOD setup over a large part of thecamera Field Of View. Threshold estimates showed a very small error
and relatively small differences between the observers. The resulting
TOD curves that characterize the sensor system in terms of acuity andcontrast sensitivity can directly be used as input to a Target Acquisition
model to predict range performance for real targets under practicalconditions.

8706-22, Session 4

Quantitative evaluation of turbulencecompensation
Adam W. W. van Eekeren, Klamer Schutte, Judith Dijk, Piet B. W.
Schwering, TNO Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands)
A well-known phenomena that diminishes the recognition range ininfrared imagery is atmospheric turbulence. In literature many methods
are described that try to compensate for the visual artifacts caused byatmospheric turbulence. Most of these methods use a global processing
approach in which they assume a global shift and a uniform blurringin all frames. Because the effects of atmospheric turbulence are often
spatial and temporal varying, we presented previous year a turbulencecompensation method that performs local processing leading to excellent
results. In this paper an improvement of this method is presented
which uses a temporal moving reference frame in order to be capableof processing imagery containing moving objects. Furthermore we will
evaluate our method in a quantitative way, which will give a good insightin which components of our method contribute to the obtained visual
improvements.

8706-23, Session 5

What good is SWIR? part I: passive daycomparison of SWIR, NIR, and Vis
Ronald G. Driggers, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Van A. Hodgkin, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States); Richard H. Vollmerhausen, Univ. of
Delaware (United States)

NIR, and VIS bands and sensors. This paper includes quantitative
findings from previously published papers, analysis of open source
data, summaries of various expert analyses, and calculations ofnotional system performance. We did not accept anecdotal findings
as acceptable benefits. Topics include haze and fog penetration,
atmospheric transmission, cloud and smoke penetration, target andbackground contrasts, spectral discrimination, turbulence degradation,and long range target identification. The second and third papers in thisseries will address passive night imaging and active night imaging.

8706-25, Session 5

Sensor model for space-based local area
sensing of debris
Paul McCall, Florida International Univ. (United States);
Madeleine Naudeau, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);Thomas Farrell, Schafer Corp. (United States) and Air Force
Research Lab. (United States); Marlon E. Sorge, The Aerospace
Corp. (United States); Malek Adjouadi, Florida International Univ.
(United States)
A model is being developed to evaluate the capabilities of various
sensors and combinations of sensors to provide Local Area Awarenessfor satellites in geostationary orbit. LWIR sensors have been chosen as
the detector technology for the initial phase of research because of theirability to operate with the sun in their field of view (FOV) while imaging
nearby objects in the long-wave infrared band without the need for
additive components such as baffles or solar occluders.
The Local Area Awareness model is comprised of three main
components: inputs, sub-models, and outputs. The inputs consistof the physical and material construction of the observed object, theconfiguration of the sensing platform, orbital dynamics scenarios that will
be simulated, and a waveband specific star catalog. The sub-models aredefined to simulate the physical properties of the space environment in
the sensor waveband and approximate a preliminary noise model. The
sensors are oriented in such a way to yield a full 360° in-plane field-ofview around the body of the satellite, and a 180° field-of-view from theback of the solar panels. Multiple orbital dynamics scenarios are used for
simulation of the observed object’s orbit; the observed object is modeled
as a configurable cube with solar panels.
Results are presented in terms of radiant flux of the tracked object. It isshown that intensity-based detection techniques can be quantified fromthis research. This research demonstrates the feasibility of the use of the
LWIR waveband for imaging nearby objects from a geostationary-based
sensing platform.

8706-28, Session 6

Producing a color target acquisition metric
Assaf Asbag, Racheli Hayoon, Ricky Shama, Neta Gadot, Stanley
R. Rotman, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel)
Infrared sensing is increasing being done with multispectral data; such
images would be presented as a color image to observers. Our researchdeals with developing metrics for quantizing the contrast of target tobackground in color images and the degree such contrast affects thedetection of the target by human observers. When dealing with a grayscale image, the only parameter affecting the detectability of targets is
the luminance contrast; in color images, there are several parameters.
This research examines these parameters and defines the importance ofeach one of them. Our system parameters of color image are the CIELAB
space (brightness-color). We examine how each axis affects the contrastof the targets. From our conclusions, we will suggest how color targets
can be best modeled.

This paper is the first of a three part series associated with the military
benefits of SWIR imaging. This first paper describes the benefits
associated with passive daytime operations with comparisons of SWIR,

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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
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8706-29, Session 6

set (N=49072). A new data selection algorithm is described which uses
a coarse bin (1/3) to subdivide the variable space (35=243 bins), andan ordered approach to ranking the bins and selecting individual points
so that a maximum coverage of each variable is achieved (1/100). A
comparison of signature and detection results from an unclassified DDG
ShipIR model will show the merits of the new climatic data selection
process.

Image enhancement technology research forArmy applications
Piet B. W. Schwering, Rob A. W. Kemp, Klamer Schutte, TNO
Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands)
Recognition and identification ranges are limited to the quality of theinfrared images. Both the received contrast and the spatial resolution
determine of objects are recognizable. Several aspects affect the image
quality. First of all the sensor itself. The image quality depends on thesize of the infrared detector array and the sensitivity. Second, also theintervening atmosphere, in particular over longer ranges, has an impact
on the image quality. It degrades the contrast, due to transmission
effects, as well as influences the resolution, due to turbulence blur, of theimage. We present studies in the field of infrared image enhancement.
Several techniques are described: noise reduction, super resolution,
turbulence compensation, contrast enhancement, stabilization. These
techniques operate in real-time on COTS/MOTS platforms. They areespecially effective in the army theatre, where long horizontal paths, andshort line-of-sight limited urban operations are both present. Applicationof these techniques on observation masts, such as on camp sites,
and on UAVs and moving ground vehicles are discussed. Examples
will be presented from several trials in which these techniques were
demonstrated, including the presentation of test results.

8706-31, Session 7

Range and contrast imaging improvements
using circularly polarized light in scattering
environments
John D. van der Laan, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ.
of Arizona (United States); Shanalyn A. Kemme, David A.
Scrymgeour, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Eustace
L. Dereniak, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona(United States)
We find for near to mid-wave infrared wavelengths there are clear particle
size ranges and indices representative of fog and rain where the use of
circular polarization imaging can penetrate to larger optical depths thanlinear polarization. Using Monte Carlo simulations for varying particle
size, wavelength, and index, we show that for specific scene parameters
circular polarization vastly outperforms linear polarization in maintaining
degree of polarization for large optical depths in transmission andreflection. This enhancement in circular polarization can be exploited to
improve imaging in obscurant environments that are important in many
critical imaging applications.

8706-42, Session 6

Multisensor fusion of electro-optic andinfrared signals for high-resolution visible
images, part I

Polarization imaging can greatly increase contrast when imaging throughscattering media compared to traditional intensity imaging. Past research
has often not shown the effectiveness of circular polarization’s degreeof polarization memory in a broader range of imaging environments
and wavelength regimes. The majority of currently available research
exploring the use of circularly polarized light was conducted in thevisible wavelength range with scenes immersed in water, using varying
concentrations of polystyrene microspheres as scattering objects.
In contrast, this work seeks to expand the regions where circularpolarization outperforms linear by systematically simulating combinationsof environmental parameters and imaging wavelengths. We will showthat additional environments exist where the use of circular polarization
can improve imaging. Finally, we propose that the Mie scattering
efficiency value for the scattering media generally predicts when circularpolarization imaging will perform better than linear and intensity imaging.

Xiaopeng Huang, Stevens Institute of Technology (United States);
Ravi Netravali, Columbia Univ. (United States); Hong Man, Victor
B. Lawrence, Stevens Institute of Technology (United States)
Electro-Optic (EO) image sensors exhibit the properties of high resolution
and low noise level, but they cannot reflect information about thetemperature of objects and do not work in dark environments. On theother hand, infrared (IR) image sensors exhibit the properties of low
resolution and high noise level, but IR images can reflect information
about the temperature of objects all the time. Therefore, in this paper,
we propose a novel framework to enhance the resolution of EO images
using the information (e.g., temperature) from IR images, which helps
distinguish temperature variation of objects in the daytime via highresolution EO images. The proposed novel framework involves four main
steps: (1) select target objects with temperature variation in original IR
images; (2) fuse original RGB color (EO) images and IR images basedon image fusion algorithms; (3) blend the fused images of target objects
in proportion with original gray-scale EO images; (4) superimpose thetarget objects’ temperature information, onto original EO images via
the modified NTSC color space transformation. Therein, the image
fusion step will be conducted by qualitative (frame pipeline) approach.
Revealing temperature information in EO images for the first time is themost significant contribution of this paper. Simulation results will show
the transformed EO images with the targets’ temperature information.

8706-32, Session 7

Simulation of laser-beam reflection at the sea
surface modeling and validation
Frédéric Schwenger, Endre Repasi, Fraunhofer-Institut für
Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)
A 3D simulation of the reflection of a Gaussian shaped laser beam on
the dynamic sea surface is presented. The simulation is suitable for the
pre-calculation of images for cameras operating in different spectral
wavebands (visible, short wave infrared) for a bistatic configuration oflaser source and receiver for different atmospheric conditions. In thevisible waveband the calculated detected total power of reflected laser
light from a 660nm laser source is compared with data collected in a fieldtrial.

8706-30, Session 7

Climatic data analysis for input to ShipIRDavid A. Vaitekunas, W. R. Davis Engineering, Ltd. (Canada);
Yoonsik Kim, Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute(Korea, Republic of)

Our computer simulation comprises the 3D simulation of a maritime
scene (open sea/clear sky) and the simulation of laser beam reflected
at the sea surface. The basic sea surface geometry is modeled by acomposition of smooth wind driven gravity waves. To predict the viewof a camera the sea surface radiance must be calculated for the specificwaveband. Additionally, the radiances of laser light specularly reflected at
the wind-roughened sea surface are modeled considering an analytical

This paper presents a new methodology to analyse the climatic datafor input to ShipIR. Historical hourly data from a weather buoy (in theregion of interest) are used to come up with a small number of scenarios(N=100) that have the same statistics (CDF, PDF) as the original data

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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV
statistical sea surface BRDF (bidirectional reflectance distributionfunction).
Validation of simulation results is prerequisite before applying thecomputer simulation to maritime laser applications. For validation
purposes data (images and meteorological data) were selected from fieldmeasurements, using a 660nm cw-laser diode to produce laser beamreflection at the water surface and recording images by a TV camera.
The validation is done by numerical comparison of measured total laser
power extracted from recorded images with the corresponding simulation
results. The results of the comparison are presented for different incident(zenith/azimuth) angles of the laser beam.

8706-33, Session 7

IR signature management for the modern
navyDavid A. Vaitekunas, W. R. Davis Engineering, Ltd. (Canada);
Yoonsik Kim, Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute(Korea, Republic of)
A methodology for the analysing the infrared signature and susceptibilityof naval platforms using ShipIR/NTCS was presented by Vaitekunas(2010). This paper will update that previous analysis utilising three keymodel improvements: the use of a larger set of climatic conditions(N=100), a new target sub-image algorithm (which addresses a previous
problem with detection of horizon pixel-aliasing), and a new seeker
model which performs line-by-line background clutter rejection. Existing
commercial stealth technologies (exhaust stack suppression, low solar
absorptive paints, extended hull film-cooling) are re-assessed to provide
a more comprehensive and rigorous assessment of IR stealth technology,
and to provide naval platform mangers with a methodology for setting the
IR requirements for a new ship program.

8706-34, Session 7

Hyperspectral imaging spectro-radiometer
improves radiometric accuracy
Florent M. Prel, Louis Moreau, Robert Bouchard, ABB Analytical
Measurement (Canada); Ritchie D. Bullis Jr., Naval Air Warfare
Ctr. (United States); Claude B. Roy, Christian A. Vallieres, Luc E.
Lévesque, ABB Analytical Measurement (Canada)
Reliable and accurate infrared characterization is necessary to measure
the specific spectral signatures of aircrafts and associated infrared
counter-measures protections (i.e. flares). Infrared characterization isessential to improve counter measures efficiency, improve friend-foe
identification and reduce the risk of friendly fire.
Typical infrared characterization measurement setups include a variety ofpanchromatic cameras and spectroradiometers. Each instrument brings
essential information; the camera measure the spatial distribution oftargets and the spectroradiometers provide the spectral distribution of
the emitted energy. However, the combination of separated instrument
brings out possible radiometric errors and uncertainties that can be
reduced with Hyperspectral imagers. These instruments combine both
spectral and spatial information into the same data. These instruments
measure both the spectral and spatial distribution of the energy at thesame time ensuring the temporal and spatial cohesion of collected
information.
This paper presents a quantitative analysis of the main contributors ofradiometric uncertainties and shows how a hyperspectral imager can
reduce these uncertainties.

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8706-36, Session PS1

Simultaneous measurement of the thickness
profile and refractive index distribution ofsilicon wafers
Jungjae Park, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science(Korea, Republic of); Jonghan Jin, Jae Wan Kim, Korea ResearchInstitute of Standards and Science (Korea, Republic of) andUniv. of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); JongAhn Kim, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science(Korea, Republic of); Chu-Shik Kang, Korea Research Institute ofStandards and Science (Korea, Republic of) and Univ. of Scienceand Technology (Korea, Republic of)
The thickness uniformity of a silicon wafer is one of the most importantmeasurable factors because patterns fabricated by a lithography process
can be distorted when having poor thickness uniformity. Among thevarious thickness measurement methods, optical interferometry candetermine the thickness very precisely with the advance information of arefractive index. In this paper, a high speed measurement method havebeen proposed and realized to simultaneously measure both thickness
profile and refractive index distribution of a silicon wafer by analyzing
interference spectrums in Fourier domain based on an optical comb
of a femtosecond pulse laser. To obtain the thickness profile as well as
the refractive index distribution of the silicon wafer having a diameterof 100 mm, the sample was translated mechanically in the range of 90
mm along its center line. The total number of measurement points was
450 due to the lateral scanning step of 0.2 mm. At each measurement
point, the interference spectrums were acquired 10 times repeatedly
to eliminate random noise. The thickness and refractive index were
determined from several optical path differences calculated in spectral
domain. As a result, the averaged thickness and refractive index of thesilicon wafer in the center line were measured to be 478.03 ?m and3.603, respectively. In addition, differences of the thickness profile andrefractive index distribution were calculated to be 2.03 ?m and 0.005 interms of a P.V. value.

8706-37, Session PS1

Uncertainty evaluation of the geometrical
thickness and refractive index of siliconwafersJonghan Jin, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science(Korea, Republic of) and Univ. of Science and Technology(Korea, Republic of); Jungjae Park, Korea Research Institute ofStandards and Science (Korea, Republic of); Jae Wan Kim, Korea
Research Institute of Standards and Science (Korea, Republic of)and Univ. of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); JongAhn Kim, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science(Korea, Republic of); Chu-Shik Kang, Korea Research Institute ofStandards and Science (Korea, Republic of) and Univ. of Scienceand Technology (Korea, Republic of)In the field of semiconductor industry, silicon wafer is one of the basic
components for manufacturing semiconductor devices. To achieve
high degree of integration in semiconductor devices, the thickness ofthe silicon wafer becomes thinner. Therefore, to measure a geometrical
thickness of the silicon wafer accurately with high speed is an importanttask in in-line inspection. Optical interferometer has long been used as
one of the most accurate measurement method, but it gives only the
optical thickness coupled with both geometrical thickness and refractive
index. To obtain the geometrical thickness precisely without the previous
knowledge of the refractive index of a silicon wafer, KRISS proposed anovel measurement method based on the optical comb of a femtosecond
pulse laser having a spectral bandwidth from 1500 nm to 1600 nm. The
infrared optical pulses can be transmitted partially through the silicon

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Conference 8706: Infrared Imaging Systems:
Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing XXIV
material because of its optical property. By analyzing interference
spectrums in Fourier-domain, both quantities were separated andobtained at the same time with high speed. In the case of the refractive
index, it was determined as a group refractive index of the sample. In
this paper, to evaluate the measurement system, uncertainties related
to geometrical thickness and refractive index were estimated. The
uncertainty components for Fourier analysis, such as refractive index
of air, wavelength resolution of spectrum analyzer, and measurement
repeatability were chosen and considered. For the silicon wafer having
the geometrical thickness of 321 µm, the combined uncertainties for bothquantities were 50 nm and 0.001.

8706-38, Session PS1

Characterization of non-uniformity and biasheating for uncooled FPA detectors using
simulator
Jungeon Lee, Chong-Min Kyung, KAIST (Korea, Republic of)
There are some difficulties in the development of uncooled focal planearray (FPA) detectors due to the absence of full simulation model whichreflects the characterization of FPA detectors by variations of various
parameters. In this paper we propose the simulator for the both readout
integrated circuit (ROIC) and bolometer FPA which is based on a state
difference equation of thermal equivalence equation of bolometer andmathematical modeling of optical and electrical part in infrared sensor
system. The simulator shows the characteristics and the behaviors ofindividual components of infrared sensor system in the steady-state
and transient-state. We present here the simulation results for output
characteristics of detectors owing to variations of parameters induced
non-uniformity in FPA detectors and find the dominant parameter to be
the leading source non-uniformity in FPA detectors. We also present thesimulation results for some typical ROICs to cancel the bias self-heating
which wastes most of the dynamic range of infrared sensor system.
These show the effectiveness of compensation for the bias self-heating
according to variations of parameters. Using the proposed simulator
we can expect the quantitative amount of non-uniformity due to thestatistical variations in various processing steps and design of ROIC
components. It can be used for the systematic design of infrared sensor
system which cannot be performed in fabrication procedure.

8706-40, Session PS1

The analysis and experiments of ghost image
for solid catadioptric mid-wave IR system
Qun Wei, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics andPhysics (China)
In this paper, a mid-wave infrared solid catadioptric system is designedwith a focal length 86mm, and F number 1.95. The ideal MFT at 17lp/mm
is 0.57, and the spot image RMS radius for each field is 13.901 µm at 0°,15.146µm at 1.7°, and 14.409µm at 2.44°. First, Zemax and Lighttools
are used to analysis the stray light and ghost image. The analysis showsthat the first refract surface and the second reflect surface are the main
surfaces cause the problem. The outdoor experiments show that theimage is not as clear as ideal system. To reduce the influence of straylight and ghost image, there are three ways. The first one is to slightly
change the distance between lens and detector, the protect window
between cold stop; the second method is to add light shades and battle
vanes in front of the imaging system; the last way is optimizing theimaging process program. All the three ways are used to increase theimage quality. After making these changes, the ghost image is nearly
disappeared. The image blur of a point target from 610m away is reduced
to 2 pixels from 10 pixels, and the image blur of a structure target from
1.3km away is reduced to 5 pixels from 30 pixels. The actual MTF at
17lp/mm is 0.3 by testing. The contract increases from 0.57 to 0.96.

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Conference 8707: Technologies for Synthetic
Environments: Hardware-in-the-Loop XVIII
Thursday 2 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8707 Technologies for Synthetic Environments: Hardware-in-the-Loop XVIII

8707-1, Session 1

Analytic determination of optimal projector
lens design requirements for pixilated
projectors used to test pixilated imaging
sensors
Joseph P. Rice, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
A model is described for the problem of optimally projecting a pixellated
light source onto a pixellated imaging sensor, in the context that the
projected source is used for performance testing of the sensor. Thisis a common problem in hardware-in-the-loop testing using infrared
scene projectors, and in hyperspectral image projection. The model canbe used, for example, to compute the paraxial design requirements ofthe projection lens, given that the parameters of all other subsystems
in the problem are fixed. For remote sensing applications, where theperformance of a sensor focused at infinity is to be tested, the projector
lens becomes a collimator. For optimal projection when using the sourcefor performance testing of the sensor, one then requires that the projector
pixels are not spatially resolved by the imaging sensor, the entrance
pupil of the sensor is overfilled without vignetting, and also, where
feasible, the sensor field of view is overfilled. The model uses paraxial
analytical ray tracing approximations to provide a set of equations thatare used in an associated spreadsheet to determine the basic collimatorrequirements such as effective focal length, f/#, and relief distance, given
the geometrical characteristics of the projector spatial light modulator
and the sensor under test. Beyond this, the model provides a sense of
intuition and guidance prior to detailed computerized ray tracing.

8707-2, Session 1

A 2-color 1024x1024 dynamic scene projector
systemJoseph D. LaVeigne, Gregory Franks, Santa Barbara Infrared, Inc.
(United States)
We report on the design and testing of a 2-color dynamic scene projector
system based on the MIRAGE-XL infrared scene projector. The system isbased on the optical combination of two 1024x1024 MIRAGE-XL resistivearrays. We present test data including sup-pixel spatial co-registrationand compensation for spectral cross-talk.

8707-3, Session 1

Superlattice LED 512x512 two-dimensional
infrared scene projector system
Rodney McGee, Nicholas Waite, Fouad E. Kiamilev, Univ. of
Delaware (United States); Thomas F. Boggess, The Univ. of Iowa
(United States); Dennis T. Norton, Univ. of Iowa (United States)
Using SLEDs (Superluminescent Light Emitting Diodes), we created an
infrared scene projector system designed to test a wide variety of infrared
detector arrays. The type of optoelectronic systems discussed herein,created at the University of Iowa, target the 3-5 and 8-12 micrometer
wavelength because atmospheric absorption is minimal in the thesewindows. Large IR detector arrays, particularly ones intended for military
and aerospace applications, are often difficult and expensive to directly
test, so for these detectors, an IR projector for scene simulation isrequired. The simulations are used in hardware in the loop (HWIL) sensor
testing. The sensor testing requires large 2D array, high frame rate, highapparent temperature, and large dynamic range IR sources.

48

The SLEDS projection system consists of the optical devices paired with
the RIIC driver which is known as a hybridized optoelectronic device or
hybrid. That hybrid is mounted into a package which is a custom design
and mounted into a cryogenic vessel with electrical connections to theoutside which are connected to high-speed electronics with a digital
video input. Our wide-ranging responsibility at the University of Delaware
included the LED driver ASIC, packaging, wire bonding, cryogenic
cooling, interfacing PCBs, power electronics, digital/analog interface
hardware, software control system, and associated test and diagnosis
equipment. Previously we demonstrated a 68x68 hybrid device andassociated system, now we discuss a 512x512 projector system exceeds
the prior in apparent temperature, dynamic range, and refresh rate.

8707-4, Session 1

Scalable system for close support electronics
in future large-format infrared sceneprojectors
Joshua Marks, Christopher Kerwien, Kassem Nabha, Robert
Haislip, Ron Reisor, Rodney McGee, Nicholas Waite, Fouad E.
Kiamilev, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
State-of-art infrared detectors arrays now exceed infrared emitter arrays
in both resolution and frame rate. For this reason, many governmentorganizations are interested in increasing the resolution and frame rateof Infrared Scene Projectors (IRSPs). Increasing the size of emitter
device arrays and read-in integrated circuits (RIICs) involves its own setof challenges, but another major challenge is scaling the close support
electronics (CSE) to drive larger emitter arrays. This paper presents ascalable architecture for CSE electronics that meets the needs of today’s
IRSPs, and efficiently scales to drive larger, future generation emitter
arrays.
Our scalable CSE architecture is based on an actual CSE system built
to control a 512x512 Read In Integrated Circuit (RIIC) that drives a
512x512 Super Lattice LED (SLEDs) array at a frame rate of 1 KHz with
16-bit resolution. The 512x512 RIIC is made from four identical 256x256
sub-RIICs. These sub-RIICs are operated independently of each other,
but are able to share control signals. This limits the number of signals
being driven from the CSE. The CSE is implemented as a custom
graphics accelerator implemented in a state-of-the-art FPGA. This
accelerator takes DVI signals as their input. It can be easily expanded
to accommodate more sub-RIICs. Our CSE architecture is also able tohandle the increased power requirements through the use of feedback
controlled voltage regulation and efficiently designed power routing.

8707-6, Session 2

High-dynamic range DMD-based infrared
scene projector
David J. Mansur, Robert Vaillancourt, Ryan Benedict-Gill, Scott P.
Newbry, OPTRA, Inc. (United States); Julia Rentz Dupuis, OPTRA
Inc (United States)
OPTRA is developing a next-generation digital micromirror device (DMD)
based two-band infrared scene projector (IRSP) with infinite bit-depth
independent of frame rate and an order of magnitude improvement incontrast over the state of the art. Traditionally DMD-based IRSPs haveoffered larger format and superior uniformity and pixel operability relative
to resistive and diode arrays, however, they have been limited in contrast
and also by the inherent bit-depth / frame rate tradeoff imposed by pulse
width modulation (PWM). OPTRA’s high dynamic range IRSP (HIDRASP) has broken this dependency with a dynamic structured illumination
solution. The HIDRA SP uses a source conditioning DMD to impose thestructured illumination on two projector DMDs – one for each spectral

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Conference 8707: Technologies for Synthetic
Environments: Hardware-in-the-Loop XVIII
band. The source conditioning DMD is operated in binary mode, andthe relay optics which form the structured illumination act as a low passspatial filter. The structured illumination is therefore spatially grayscaled
and more importantly is analog with no PWM. In addition, the structured
illumination concentrates energy where bright object will be projected
and extinguishes energy in dark regions; the result is a significant
improvement in contrast. The projector DMDs are operated with 8-bit
PWM, however the total projected image is analog with no bit-depth /frame rate dependency. In this paper we describe our progress towards
the development, build, and test of a prototype HIDRA SP.

uncertainties, with the MDXR having lower uncertainty and greater
spectral coverage. We demonstrate use of the MDXR data to provide
corrections to the spectral throughput, aperture area, and source
radiance temperature parameters in a chamber model.

8707-9, Session 2

Precision radiometric surface temperature(PRST) sensor
James T. Daly, Carson B. Roberts, Andrew Bodkin, Bodkin
Design & Engineering, LLC (United States); Scott Beaven, Jeffrey
Weinheimer, Space Computer Corp. (United States); Robert L.
Sundberg, Spectral Sciences, Inc. (United States)

8707-7, Session 2

Progress in LED arrays for infrared sceneprojection

There is a need for a Precision Radiometric Surface Temperature (PRST)
measurement capability that can achieve non-contact profiling of asample’s surface temperature when heated dynamically during laser
processing or aerothermal heating. Target surface temperature maps
within and near the laser spot provide critical quantitative diagnostic data
for laser-target coupling effectiveness and laser damage assessment.
The challenge is to measure the temperature of a target under laser
illumination while the target surface’s temperature and emissivity arechanging rapidly and with incomplete knowledge of how the emissivity
and surface texture (scattering) changes with temperature.

David Westerfeld, Sergey D. Suchalkin, Seungyong Jung, Takashi
Hosoda, Gregory Belenky, Stony Brook Univ. (United States)
Arrays of light emitting diodes (LEDs) have advantages for infrared sceneprojection (IRSP) applications. As IRSP sources, LEDs are unsurpassed
in terms of modulation rate and spectral flexibility. We describe progressthat has been made with these LEDs in two directions: the creation of
more efficient superlattice emitters through an improved understandingof hole transport and the demonstration of LEDs for high pixel density
arrays.

Bodkin Design & Engineering, LLC (BD&E), with partners Spectral
Sciences, Inc. (SSI) and Space Computer Corporation (SCC), hasdeveloped a PRST sensor that is based on a hyperspectral MWIR imager
spanning the wavelength range 2-5 micron and providing a hyperspectral
datacube of 20-24 wavelengths at 60 Hz frame rate or faster. This imager
is integrated with software and algorithms to extract surface temperaturefrom radiometric measurements over the range from ambient to 2000K
with a precision of ±20K, even without a priori knowledge of the target’s
emissivity and even as the target emissivity may be changing with time
and temperature.

LED arrays radiating simultaneously in two infrared bands are attractive
for infrared scene projection. The ability to simultaneously andindependently control the mid and far infrared emission from each pixelin an LED array eliminates the need for image combining and greatly
simplifies IRSP systems.
These dual band LED structures may include both direct (type-I) andbroken band (type-II) superlattice light emitting structures and can emit
anywhere from 2 µm to more than 8 µm. Carrier transport has beenstudied in superlattice structures containing alternating thin layers of InAs
and InGaSb. Calculation and experimental results revealed that charge iscarried mostly by electrons, while holes are blocked near the superlatticeboundary. This results in recombination being largely confined to thep-side boundary. This presents opportunities for improving the efficiencyof these sources.

In this paper, we will present a description of the PRST system as well as
laser heating test results which show the PRST system mapping target
surface temperatures in the range 600-2600K on a variety of materials.

LEDs grown on commercially available 3 inch diameter wafers have beengrown and show good performance. Improved processing techniques
have enabled the creation of single color LEDs that can be arrayed at a
pitch of 25 µm. The combination of large arrays and small pixels should
enable the creation of 2048x2048 LED arrays.

8707-10, Session 3

Development of tools, technologies, andmethodologies for imaging sensor testing
Heard S. Lowry, Aerospace Testing Alliance (United States)

8707-8, Session 2

Ground testing of space- and air-borne imaging sensor systems
are supported by vis-to-LWIR imaging sensor calibration andcharacterization, as well as Hardware in the Loop (HWIL) simulaltion
with high-fidelity complex scene projection to validate sensor mission
performance. To accomplish this successfully, there must be thedevelopment of tools, technologies, and methodologies that are usedin space simulation chambers for such testing. This paper provides an
overview of such efforts being investigated and implemented at Arnold
Engineering Development Complex (AEDC).

Calibration of infrared test chambers with themissile defense transfer radiometer
Simon G. Kaplan, Solomon I. Woods, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States); Adriaan C. Carter,
Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States); Timothy M. Jung, Jung
Research and Development Corp. (United States)
The Missile Defense Transfer Radiometer (MDXR) is designed tocalibrate infrared collimated and flood sources over the fW/cm^2 touW/cm^2 power range from 3 um to 28 um in wavelength. The MDXR
operates in three different modes: as a filter radiometer, a Fouriertransform spectrometer (FTS)-based spectroradiometer, and as an
absolute cryogenic radiometer (ACR). Since 2010, the MDXR has
made measurements of the collimated infrared irradiance at the output
port of seven different infrared test chambers at several facilities. We
present a selection of results from these calibration efforts comparedto signal predictions from the respective chamber models for the threedifferent MDXR calibration modes. We also compare the results toprevious measurements made of the same chambers with the NIST
BXR. In general, the results are found to agree within their combined

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8707-11, Session 3

Dynamic thermal signature prediction forreal-time scene generation
Chad L. Christie, Efthimios T. Gouthas, Defence Science andTechnology Organisation (Australia); Owen M. Williams, Daintree
Systems Pty Ltd. (Australia); Leszek Swierkowski, Defence
Science and Technology Organisation (Australia)
A real-time scene generation framework, VIRSuite, has been developed
in recent years at the Defence Science and Technology Organisation,·

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Conference 8707: Technologies for Synthetic
Environments: Hardware-in-the-Loop XVIII
Australia, driven by the needs both for hardware-in-the-loop (HWIL)
simulation and benchtop test and evaluation of guided weapons. The
simulated objects are represented within VIRSuite as 3D models withradiative signatures deduced predominantly from trials data. Although
the use of measured data is the most reliable and preferred way for
representing the radiometric properties, in many cases the data areincomplete or insufficient. Also, the signature may vary in some simulated
engagements.
In order to address these shortcomings, a physics-based simulator
capable of predicting the infrared signatures of objects and theirbackgrounds is being developed as a new VIRSuite module. The
simulator predicts not only the steady-state surface temperatures
but also real-time thermal transient effects. At the core is a dynamic
heat transfer model used for calculating the temperature distributions
throughout both the target objects and background terrains. It includes
transient heat conduction within the materials and boundary conditions
that take into account the heat fluxes due to solar radiation, windconvection and radiative transfer. The simulator embodies variable
insolation (dependent on the sun position in the sky and cloud cover),changes due to target movement and wind shifts, and includes
sky radiance and atmospheric propagation profiles calculated from
MODTRAN. In this paper, an overview of the current implementationof the model is presented, covering both its steady-state and transient
performance.

8707-14, Session 3

The design of flight motion simulators: highaccuracy versus high dynamics
Robert W. Mitchell, Ideal Aerosmith, Inc. (United States)
A Flight Motion Simulator (FMS) requires a specific configuration tosatisfy test payload specifications. The design of the FMS must carry
the payload, meet the accuracy, and dynamic requirements. In a typicalsimulator configuration, the high accuracy and high dynamics haveconflicting requirements. The high accuracy requires a stiff gimbal design
to minimize deflections. The high dynamics design requires a low inertia,
lightweight system to provide high performance.
Parametric curves are presented of the relative comparison of accuracy
in relation to dynamic performance. Relationships are provided tosupport the basis for the simulator design for both cases. A compromisein the simulator configuration is required for the standard nested gimbal
design to achieve both the accuracy and dynamic requirements. Other
types of designs and materials are available with positive and negative
features. A typical set of specifications is presented that can be used asa baseline and a beginning point for FMS performance requirements.

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Conference 8708:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIII
Wednesday - Thursday 1 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8708 Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIII

8708-1, Session 1

synthesis of ALON® powder, continuing through forming/heat treatmentof blanks, ending with optical fabrication of ALON® windows. Surmet
has made significant progress is production capability in recent years.
Additional scale up of Surmet’s manufacturing capability, for larger sizes
and higher quantities, is currently underway.

Hyper hemispherical sapphire domes:
remarkable breakthrough for fulfilling realmarket needs

ALON® transparent armor represents the state of the art in protection
against armor piercing threats, offering a factor of two in weight andthickness savings over conventional glass laminates. Tiled and monolithic
windows have been successfully produced and tested against a range of
threats.

Benny Ballin, Rotem Industries Ltd. (Israel)This presentation will demonstrate how a real threat led toward a rapid
and efficient development of the new Hyper Hemispherical Sapphire
Domes that require new capabilities that were not available before. The
threat is all those shoulder-fired missiles used by terrorist that aim totake down commercial aircrafts or helicopters mainly during landings
or takeoffs. “Up to a million man-portable missiles produced since the1970s…” National Defense, April 2006 . DIRCM (Directional Infrared
Counter Measures) and CIRCM (Common Infrared Countermeasures ) are
two United States Government and Army initiatives intended to develop
systems to protect commercial aircraft and U.S. helicopters from infraredhoming (“heat seeking”) man-portable missiles. The new developed
Hyper-Hemispherical sapphire domes solve problem in current systems
design such as limited field of view, optical obstacles and huge drag.
The compelling event in entering this project was the decision of Israeli
Ministry of Transportation to equip Israeli airlines with laser-based antimissile system. Elbit Systems was chosen as the main contractor, while
Rotem Industries provides the sapphire hyper-hemispherical domes.
The presentation will demonstrate the advantages of using sapphire, theThreat of those shoulder-fired missiles used by terrorists, the problem
and the limitations of current DIRCM/CIRCM designs and the solution of
the new developed domes.

Large ALON® window are also of interest to a range of visible to
Mid-Wave Infra-Red (MWIR) sensor applications. These applications
often have stressing imaging requirements which in turn require thatthese large windows have optical characteristics including excellent
homogeneity of index of refraction and very low stress birefringence.
Surmet is currently scaling up its production facility to be able to
make and deliver ALON® monolithic windows as large as ~19x36-in.
Additionally, Surmet has plans to scale up to windows ~3ftx3ft in size inthe coming years. Recent results with scale up and characterization of
the resulting blanks will be presented.

8708-4, Session 1

Transparent ceramics for sensor applications
Mark V. Parish, Marina R. Pascucci, Normand Corbin, Brenda
Puputti, John Bonin, CeraNova Corp. (United States)
CeraNova’s transparent polycrystalline alumina (CeraLumina™) exhibitshigh transmittance in the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and useful bandsof transmission in the RF. The fine, uniform grain size also leads tohigh hardness, high strength, and high thermal shock resistance.
Polycrystalline alumina is a viable replacement for sapphire domes,
particularly for aerodynamic dome shapes. Both transparent hemisphericand ogive dome blanks have been successfully produced; CeraLumina
optical fabrication progress will be presented. CeraNova’s spinel has
high transmittance in the visible and MWIR, and enhanced mechanicalproperties due to its fine grain size. Results of optical and mechanicaltesting for both materials will be presented.

8708-2, Session 1

Growth and characterization of 14”-wide
sapphire plates by edge-defined, film-fed
growth (EFG)
John O. Outwater, Sapphire Systems, Inc. (United States)
Sapphire’s hardness, strength, and transparency in the UV through IR
range make it the optimal window material for many sensor applications.
Single-crystal windows up to 32” wide are desired in a number ofapplications. The need is especially acute for Air Force applications,which use high-resolution Infrared (IR) sensors in their onboard imaging,sensing, and targeting systems. These sensors require protective
windows with optical clarity and mid-wave IR transmission capability, andsapphire appears to be the most promising material.

8708-5, Session 1

Large-size spinel windows and domes
Juan L. Sepulveda, Raouf O. Loutfy, Sharly Ibrahim, Simon
Bilodeau, Materials and Electrochemical Research Corp. (UnitedStates)

Sapphire Systems has developed an innovative Edge-defined, Filmfed Growth (EFG) method for growing single-crystal sapphire plates 14
inches wide and 5/16” thick, with lengths up to 24”. The as-grown plates
have a clean, clear, bubble-free surface and interior. The high qualityof the as-grown plates has the potential to greatly reduce post-growth
processing costs, which can be a significant fraction of the cost of afinished window. It is anticipated that windows made from these plates
will find wide application in military and civilian service.

Excellent transmission in the Mid IR wavelength range coupled with goodmechanical properties make the use of spinel ceramics very attractive
for high performance windows and domes. MER has concentrated
its current development efforts in the scale up to windows as large as
25”x32” and domes/hyperdomes as large as 10” in diameter. The MER
spinel technology allows producing complex 3-D shape parts like hyperhemispherical domes and other aspheric lenses. The thickness canreach 1” and above. MER has shown the feasibility of producing several
windows 25”x32” and 18”x22” per run. Optimization of transmittance andstrength, minimization of the stress birefringence, keeping the variation of
the index of refraction to a minimum, has been the main objective. MER
also pursued edge bonding technology, where large, thick, panes wereedge bonded into a final large window. High optical and IR transparency
in the 0.3 – 5.5 µm wavelength range is obtained. Optical metrology
measurement of a polished 18”x22”x0.86” window indicated tolerable
levels of high frequency variation in the index of refraction homogeneity
as well as acceptable low values of residual stress birefringence. MER is
also scaling up production to several 7” diameter hemispherical domes
blanks per run. After rendering, polishing, and coating, defect free domes

8708-3, Session 1

Scale up of large ALON® windows
Lee M. Goldman, Sreeram Balasubramanian, Uday K. Kashalikar,
Robyn Foti, Suri A. Sastri, Surmet Corp. (United States)
Aluminum Oxynitride (ALON® Optical Ceramic) combines broadband
transparency with excellent mechanical properties. ALON’s cubic
structure means that it is transparent in its polycrystalline form, allowing
it to be manufactured by conventional powder processing techniques.
Surmet has established a robust manufacturing process, beginning with

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Conference 8708:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIII
in conformance with optical, mechanical, and dimensional specifications
have been produced. Details of MER’s technology achievements to
produce low cost, high strength, transparent magnesium aluminum spinel
windows and domes are described. Optical and mechanical properties
were measured and are provided.

Manufacturing process scale-up of Optical
Grade Transparent Spinel Ceramic at
ArmorLine Corporation

Low-thermal-expansion tungstate materials have the potential to be usedas thermal-shock-resistant midwave (3-5 µm) infrared windows. Material
properties that favor thermal shock resistance are high strength, highthermal conductivity, low elastic modulus, and low thermal expansion.
Sapphire, for example, owes its high thermal shock resistance tohigh strength and high thermal conductivity. In principle, it is possible
to obtain even higher thermal shock resistance if a window material
with near-zero thermal expansion can be made. This paper assesses
recent work on Zr(WO4)2 and Al0.5Sc1.5(WO4)3. It is concluded thatmulti-phonon absorption in the midwave spectral region limits the
optical capabilities of tungstate materials. These materials have moreabsorption—and therefore, more emission—than aluminum oxynitride in
the 4-5 µm wavelength region.

Joseph Spilman, Joseph Nick, Lawrence Shaffer, John B. Voyles,
ArmorLine Corp. (United States)

8708-9, Session 2

8708-6, Session 1

While transparent Spinel ceramic’s mechanical and optical characteristics
are ideal for many UV, visible, SWIR, MWIR, and multispectral sensor
window applications, commercial adoption of the material has beenhampered because the material has historically been available inrelatively small sizes (one square foot per window or less), low volumes,
unreliable supply, and with unreliable quality. Recent efforts, mostnotably by Technology Assessment & Transfer (TA&T), have scaled-up
manufacturing processes and demonstrated the capability to produce
larger windows on the order of two square feet, but with limited output
not suitable for production type programs. ArmorLine Corporation
licensed the hot-pressed Spinel manufacturing know-how of TA&T in2009 with the goal of building the world’s first dedicated full-scale Spinel
production facility, enabling the supply of a reliable and sufficient volumeof large Optical Grade Spinel plates. With over $20 million of private
investment by J.F. Lehman & Company, ArmorLine has installed andcommissioned the largest vacuum hot press in the world, the largest
hot isostatic press in North America, and supporting manufacturing
processes within a 75,000 square foot facility. ArmorLine’s equipment
is capable of producing window blanks as large as 50” x 30” and thefacility is capable of producing substantial volumes of material withits Lean configuration and 24/7 operation. Initial production capability
was achieved in 2012. ArmorLine will discuss the challenges that wereencountered during scale-up of the manufacturing processes, ArmorLine
Optical Grade Spinel optical performance, and provide an overview of the
facility and its capabilities.

8708-7, Session 2

Polycrystalline yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG)
for aircraft IR window applications
Duraiswamy Ravichandran, Texas Biochemicals, Inc. (UnitedStates)Polycrystalline Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG) is being considered as analternative material for IR transparent multispectral sensor windows (1-5
microns), due to its superior optical clarity and mechanical properties.
Texas Biochemicals Inc. have fabricated optical quality transparent
YAG IR window by a tape-casting process. The advantages of thismethod are 1. Cost effectiveness, 2. Low production time for fabricating
optical quality transparent YAG ceramics, and 3. Tape casting offers
an easy path for scale-up. The processing parameters of transparent
YAG IR windows in terms of pH, slurry viscosity, particle sizes, particle
morphology, powder-X-ray diffraction, IR transmittance, mechanicalproperties and TEM analysis results will be presented.

8708-8, Session 2

Assessment of low-expansion tungstates forthermal-shock-resistant infrared windows
Daniel C. Harris, Lee R. Cambrea, Naval Air Warfare Ctr.
Weapons Div. (United States)
52

Transparent ceramics for spacecraft windows
Jonathan Salem, NASA Glenn Research Ctr. (United States)
A variety of transparent ceramics developed for military applications
hold promise as spacecraft windows. Working against such applications
is their high density as compared to tradition window materials such as
fused silica. Advantages include higher fracture toughness, lower stresscorrosion cracking rates, and higher melting point. One key aspect for
application to space craft windows is residual strength after hypervelocity
impact damage: the strength must be sufficient to sustain mission
completion. Some of the mechanical properties of transparent armor
materials are reported and some life related estimates are compared.

8708-10, Session 2

Multifunctional windows
Nagendra Nag, Lee M. Goldman, Sreeram Balasubramanian, Suri
A. Sastri, Surmet Corp. (United States)
The requirement for modern aircraft is driving the need for conformal
windows for future sensor systems. However, limitations on opticalsystems and the physical properties of optically transparent materials
currently limit the geometry of current windows and window assemblies
to faceted assemblies of flat windows held in weight bearing frames.
Novel material systems will have to be developed which combine
different materials (e.g. ductile metal with transparent ceramic) into
structures that combine transparency with structural integrity. Surmet’s
demonstrated ability to produce novel transparent ceramic/metal
structures will allow us to produce such structures, in the types ofconformal shapes required for future aircraft applications. Furthermore,
the ability to incorporate transparencies into such structures also holds
out the promise of creating multi-functional windows which provide a
broad range of capabilities that might include RF antennas and de-icing
in addition to transparency. Recent results will be presented.

8708-42, Session 2

Synthesis and characterization of large
optical grade sapphire windows produced
from a horizontal growth process
Jonathan B. Levine, Timothy Burks, John Ciraldo, Matthew
Montgomery, Andrey Novoselov, Sergey Podlozhenov, Rubicon
Technology Inc. (United States)
As sensor technology and applications have advanced over theyears, the size of sapphire sensor windows has grown substantiallyto satisfy current and future demands. Rubicon Technology, with theirstrong history in scaling sapphire crystal growth and commercial scale
production processes, has successfully produced large sapphire blanks
using a highly modified horizontal directional solidification process.
Several prototypes, 1.75 inches thick, 14 inches wide and over 20

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Conference 8708:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIII
inches long have been synthesized. The optical characteristics suchas transmission and refractive index homogeneity were measured withexcellent results and these data will be presented on several polishedbubble-free windows. This research sets the standard for high quality
monolithic sapphire sheets large enough for use as seamless integrated
optical windows in both military and civilian applications.

their useful optical properties. Nanocomposite materials have thepotential to fill this need, though they have not been fully developed andcharacterized. Their polycrystalline nature leads to increased strengthand durability. Additionally, the small grain size of these materials leads
to optical transparency in the desired infrared region. The edges of thetransparency region are determined by multiphonon absorption on the
low frequency side and scatter on the high frequency side. By keeping
the grain size less than 1 m, the scatter edge is in the Rayleigh limit
and the scatter loss rapidly decreases. This creates a near intrinsic
infrared window material. A grain size on the order of nanometers canbe obtained in such materials by combining oxide materials, since theadditional phases inhibit grain growth.

8708-44, Session 2

New gelling systems to fabricate complexshaped transparent ceramics

In this study, a nanocomposite material is characterized. Transmittance
was measured over the range of wave numbers from 1,000 to 11,000
cm-1 with a Fourier transform spectrometer in order to study the entire
window region and the properties of the edges. Additionally, temperaturedependence of these optical properties was studied. A hot cell wasinserted into the spectrometer, allowing measurements to be taken atvarious temperatures between room temperature and 500 C. Laser
measurements were also made in order to more precisely determine thetransmittance.

Yiquan Wu, Alfred Univ. (United States); Yan Yang, New York
College (United States)
Gel-casting process has been recognized as a conventional method tofabricate complex ceramic parts, which is based on a polymerization ofslurry in a mold and an in-situ formation of green body in the mold cavity.
A newly developed gelling system without toxic organic compounds has
been studied to make transparent complex-shaped ceramics. In thissystem, the gelling agent not only functions as a ligand substance but
also acts as a dispersant for preparing the slurry. The developed gellingsystem enables the casted bodies to be dried at a room temperature andprocessed for a debinding at a high heating rate without cracks. This
novel process is very promising to fabricate large-size and complexshaped transparent ceramics for the dome and window applications.

8708-14, Session 3

Optical properties of ceramic YAG
Thomas M. Hartnett, Raytheon Co. (United States)
Ceramic YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) has been fabricated into a varietyof components including windows, domes as well as planer waveguides
and fibers. This presentation will discuss the processing, opticalproperties and performance of Nd and Yb doped ceramic components.

8708-11, Session 3

Midwave-infrared-transparent yttriamagnesia nanocomposite optical ceramics
Daniel C. Harris, Lee R. Cambrea, Linda F. Johnson, Robert
Seaver, Meghan Baronowski, Naval Air Warfare Ctr. Weapons Div.
(United States); Richard Gentilman, C. Scott Nordahl, Todd R.
Gattusso, Stephanie R. Silberstein, Patrick S. Rogan, Thomas M.
Hartnett, Raytheon Co. (United States); Brian J. Zelinski, Wayne
L. Sunne, Jennifer Klose, Eric C. Fest, William H. Poisl, Raytheon
Missile Systems (United States); Charles B. Willingham,
Raytheon Co. (United States); Giorgio Turri, Florida SouthernCollege (United States); Michael A. Bass, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States);David E. Zelmon, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Steven
M. Goodrich, Univ. of Dayton Research Institute (United States)

8708-43, Session 3

Gelcasting of aluminum oxynitride (AlON)
ceramics
Jun Wang, Fang Zhang, Jian Zhang, Shiwei Wang, Shanghai
Institute of Ceramics (China)
Gelcasting is a very useful technique for producing ceramic parts withcomplex shapes. In this paper, gelcasting in air and pressureless sinteringin nitrogen were applied to manufacture transparent AlON ceramics
which have been developed for infrared domes and windows.

8708-15, Session 4

A fully dense, midwave-infrared-transparent nanocomposite opticalceramic containing equal volumes of 100- to 200-nm-diameter grainsof MgO and Y2O3 has been fabricated from nanopowders of the pureoxides. The small grain size provides low optical scatter in the 3-5 µm
wavelength region and increases mechanical strength and hardness
relative to those of yttria and magnesia. Infrared absorption of thenanocomposite at 4.85 µm is 5-10 times less than that of spinel andsapphire. This paper reports the optical, mechanical, and thermal
properties of the nanocomposite material and compares these properties
with those of yttria, magnesia, spinel, and sapphire.

Elemental zinc sulfide (eZnS®) provides aclear view for tri-mode seekers
Teresa J. Clement, Raytheon Missile Systems (United States)
Elemental zinc sulfide (eZnS), an optical material with wide-band
transmittance now being produced at Missile Systems in Tucson, isan enabling technology for discriminating tri-mode seeker missile
applications. In early 2009 a Raytheon team of scientists and engineers
designed and installed a new manufacturing facility to recapture the eZnS
chemical vapor deposition process previously developed by Raytheonin the 1990s; collaborating with experienced and retired Raytheonscientists responsible for the original material development, the newteam baselined the chemical vapor deposition of eZnS using the legacy
process. Immediately thereafter, using a 10-factor reduced-matrix designof experiments, the team showed ability to increase deposition rates
while maintaining the high optical quality of the material, thus driving
down the cycle time of domes produced at RMS by over 30%. Additional
value stream improvements for the finished tri-mode seeker dome served
to further reduce the cycle time and cost. Impact of such improvements
will assure both high-quality and low-cost dome solutions for advanced
missile systems using tri-mode seeker technology.

8708-12, Session 3

Optical properties of a nanocomposite
material for durable infrared applications
Michael E. Thomas, Cadence A. Martin, Andrea M. Brown,
William J. Tropf, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.
(United States)
There is currently a need for durable IR-transparent materials
demonstrating improved physical characteristics while still retaining

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Conference 8708:
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8708-17, Session 48708-20, Session 4

Large-scale production of monodispersed
ZnS nanopowder for missile window
applications

Infrared-transmitting glass ceramics

Duraiswamy Ravichandran, Thomas Shi, Texas Biochemicals,Inc. (United States)

A large body of literature is reviewed with the aim of identifying binary
and ternary systems for producing long-wave infrared transmitting glassceramics for window applications. Known optical and physical property
data is summarized for many ternary sulfides as well as their constituent
binary sulfides. Some phosphide and arsenide chalcopyrite structures
are reviewed as well. Where available, data on the transmission range,energy gap, refractive index, and hardness are tabulated. Several glassforming systems are identified containing Ga¬2S3, GeS2, or As2S3.

The existing material choice for long wave-infrared (LWIR) and semiactive laser domes is multispectral Zinc Sulfide (ZnS). ZnS (both standard
and multispectral versions) have very poor environmental durability andare subject to damage in sand and rain flight environments. An alternativeroute to make more erosion-resistant and high mechanical strength
ZnS could be through hot pressing ZnS nanoparticles into small-grainmaterial.
We are attempting to produce large scale monodispersed ZnSnanoparticles (100 nm) by a homogeneous precipitation route. The
powder X-ray diffraction patterns of ZnS show the presence of broadreflections corresponding to the (1 1 1), (2 2 0), and (3 1 1) planes of the
cubic crystalline ZnS material. This novel route produced ultrahigh purity,
homogeneous, well dispersed, and monodispersed ZnS nanoparticles.
The correlation of processing variables with respect to morphology,
purity, IR transmittance, X-ray diffraction and TEM analysis will bepresented.

8708-18, Session 4

Large-scale development of ZnSnanoparticles for IR windows and domes
David Battaglia, Jeremy Lange, Brian Lewis, Lynntech, Inc.
(United States); Ralph Korenstein, Raytheon Integrated Defense
Systems (United States)
Aqueous methods for nanomaterial synthesis are environmentally friendly,
very versatile, inexpensive, and convenient for the processing of large
scales of multi-component ceramics and semiconductors. Using thesetechniques, we have investigated the potential of developing methods forthe production of multi-kilogram scale quantities of high quality, opticalgrade ZnS nanomaterials. These nanomaterials are suitable for use in
the creation of optical windows and components through sintering andpressing processes. The quality of the ZnS nanoparticles is achieved
and maintained through the strict control of the reaction parameters andprocessing techniques. Currently, our processing techniques have beensuccessful in lowering the impurity levels well below 100 ppm. Drying andde-agglomeration techniques have also shown substantial improvementsin the pressed density of the nanopowders enabling their use in opticalapplications and powder XRD patterns of the ZnS nanoparticles haveshown the production of highly crystalline particles of pure cubic (zincblende) structure.

8708-19, Session 4

John S. McCloy, Brian J. Riley, David A. Pierce, Pacific Northwest
National Lab. (United States)

8708-22, Session 5

Challenges of developing hemispherical ZnS
domes coated with a durable antireflection
coating
Shay Joseph, Doron Yadlovker, Evyatar Kassous, Avichi Levi,
Orna Marcovich, Arit E. Shinman-Avraham, Rafael Advanced
Defense Systems Ltd. (Israel); Hedva Zipin, Rafael Advanced
Defense Systems Ltd (Israel)
The design of a modern optical system often raises new challenges for
manufacturers of high end optical components. One such challenge,
which has become more and more common, is the requirement for highly
durable hemispherical domes to allow for wide field of view. There aremany difficulties to overcome before the final product can be made. In
this paper we present some of the major difficulties of developing suchdomes made from ZnS grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). First,
the CVD process which introduces the challenge of removing the grown
raw dome from the mandrel without causing cracking and breakage isdiscussed. Then, the challenges introduced by the EB-gun evaporation
method, most commonly used for evaporating the anti-reflection coating,are presented. Amongst these challenges, the mounting of the dome
inside the coating chamber, the coating uniformity over the dome’s
curvature and the coating’s environmental durability are the most difficult
problems to overcome. The paper presents how computerized modelingalong with experimental procedures can be combined to minimize thedifficulties in the production processes and improve the overall productquality and yield.

8708-23, Session 5

Recent advancements in antireflective
surface structures (ARSS) for mid-infrared
opticsDe Gao, Todd S. Stefanik, Nanocerox, Inc. (United States)

Catalin Florea, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States);
Lynda E. Busse, Shyam S. Bayya, Brandon Shaw, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Ish D. Aggarwal, Sotera Defense
Solutions, Inc. (United States); Jasbinder S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)

Nanocerox produces oxide nanopowders via flame spray pyrolysis thathave proven effective in the processing of a host of high quality opticalceramic materials. In order to produce LWIR windows to compete with
ZnS, however, oxide materials are not suitable. Nanocerox has therefore
developed aqueous synthesis techniques for the production of zinc
sulfide nanopowders. The proprietary processing technique allows
control of primary particle size, high purity, low levels of agglomeration,and cost effective synthesis. Crystallinity, particle size, and purity of thepowders will be presented. Characterization of parts fabricated fromthese powder via sinter/HIP processing will also be discussed, including
optical performance and microstructural characterization.

Anti-reflective surface structures (ARSS) represent an alternative
approach to anti-reflective (AR) thin film coatings used to reducereflection loss at an optical interface. While the thin film AR coating
technology has been widely used for visible, near-infrared and infrared
optics, it does have its drawbacks due to reduced laser damage
threshold and increased environmental sensitivity. In contrast, theARSS approach offers more robust results by using surface structures
directly built into the actual surface of the optics, without the need forcoating with extraneous materials. We will present recent results which
demonstrate superior ARSS performance on a variety of infrared optics
for use in the mid-infrared spectral region. Fused silica, YAG crystals,

Transparent zinc sulfide processed fromnanocrystalline powders

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Conference 8708:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIIIand spinel ceramics substrates have all been successfully patterned
through reactive ion etching (RIE) with or without initial patterning
through photolitography. Reflection losses as low as 0.1% or better
have been demonstrated for fused silica at 1.06 microns. Laser damage
thresholds have been measured for substrates with ARSS and comparedwith uncoated and/or AR coated samples. Thresholds as high as 100
J/cm2 have been demonstrated in fused silica with ARSS at 1.06
microns. In general, ARSS substrates show much improved thresholds
when compared with uncoated substrates. These results have direct
implications for systems using optical windows for which robust optical
performance is required.

laser damage testing of ARMs-treated windows will be presented incomparison to untreated and thin-film AR coated SPINEL windows. The
environmental durability of ARMs-treated SPINEL windows will also be
evaluated through rain and sand erosion, and salt-fog exposure testing tomilitary standards.

8708-26, Session 5

AR microstructures in diamond for highpower infrared laser optics
Bruce D. MacLeod, Douglas S. Hobbs, Ernest Sabatino III,
TelAztec LLC (United States); Eugene V. Anoikin, Element Six(United States)

8708-24, Session 5

Performance measurements of infraredwindows with surface structures providing
broadband wide-angle antireflective
properties

Due to its low infrared absorption, low dispersion, high thermal
conductivity and extreme mechanical durability, polycrystalline diamondmaterial has become the first choice for producing aperture scalable
windows and output couplers within high power lasers based on carbon
dioxide (CO2) gas. A barrier to the continued power scaling of CO2
lasers using diamond is the poor laser damage resistance and reliabilityof the critical anti-reflection (AR) treatment currently realized throughconventional thin-film AR coatings. A high performance, long life solution
is provided through AR microstructure (ARMs) technology where a nonscattering texture etched directly into the surface of a diamond window
produces a graded refractive index profile for high optical transmission
and damage resistance, while retaining diamond’s favorable thermal
and mechanical properties. ARMs textures designed for CO2 laser
output couplers will be fabricated in polycrystalline diamond windowmaterials produced by Element Six, Limited of the Netherlands. Various
ARMs design concepts will be presented through optical modelingand prototype fabrication, along with results of continuous-wave laser
damage testing comparing the survivability of ARMs-treated diamondto thin-film AR coated diamond windows. An initial evaluation will bepresented of the survivability of ARMs-treated diamond operating
within the high intensity infrared laser produced plasma environment ofemerging extreme UV lithography tools.

Byron Zollars, Steve M. Savoy, Qizhen Xue, Jeremy John, Kyle
Hoover, Gabriel Elpers, Roger Wood, Nanohmics, Inc. (UnitedStates)Infrared and visible windows have been fabricated with surface structuresthat provide broadband and large angle-of-incidence antireflective
coatings (ARC). The ARC is composed of nanoscale pillars formed byreactive ion etching of either a sacrificial buffer layer or the underlying
optical substrate, using a random array of nickel dots as an etch mask.
The Ni dots are formed either by a photonic sintering process or using
a rapid thermal annealing process. The size and spacing of the Ni dots
are found to be highly dependent on the initial Ni film thickness and theannealing parameters, as well as the nature of the surface interaction
between the Ni and the buffer layer. The diameter and spacing of theresulting pillars can be parametrically tuned between <100 nm to >1µm to yield broad antireflection properties from visible through thelong-wave infrared. Recently, Cleartran (ZnS) optical substrates treated(both sides) with the ARC process have exhibited a greater than 90%
transmittance over the short-wave infrared and mid-infrared wavelengths(1-5 µm), and at incident angles up to 50°. The process for making thesurface structures is suitable for low-cost application of broadband
wide-angle ARCs on curved optical surfaces. With the appropriate choiceof buffer layer composition and thickness, durability against rain andsand erosion can be achieved beyond that of the bare substrate. Recent
measurements of optical and mechanical performance will be discussed.

8708-45, Session 5

ZnS/diamond composite coatings for infraredtransmission applications formed by theaerosol deposition method
Scooter D. Johnson, American Society for Engineering Education(United States); Fritz J. Kub, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Charles R. Eddy Jr., U.S. Naval Reserch Lab. (UnitedStates)

8708-25, Session 5

AR microstructures in spinel combining
optical and environmental durability in highenergy laser (HEL) exit apertures

The deposition of nano-crystalline ZnS/diamond protective coatings on
sapphire substrates, as a preliminary step to coating infrared transparent
ZnS substrates from powder mixtures by the aerosol deposition method(ADM) is presented.

Douglas S. Hobbs, Bruce D. MacLeod, Ernest Sabatino III,
TelAztec LLC (United States); Catalin Florea, Jasbinder S.
Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

The advantages of the ADM include the ability to form dense,
nanocrystalline films up to hundreds of microns thick at room
temperature and at a high deposition rate on a variety of substrates.
Deposition is achieved by creating a pressure gradient that accelerates
micrometer-scale particles in an aerosol to high velocity. Upon impact
with the target substrate the particles fracture and embed. Continued
deposition forms the thick compacted film.

Power scaling of high energy laser (HEL) technology is becoming limitedby the short term optical and environmental survivability of conventional
thin-film coatings. In particular, HEL exit aperture windows must reliably
pass a high power density beam while exposed to salt-water spray, sand
impacts, and wind driven rain, conditions easily withstood by durable
materials such as magnesium aluminate spinel (SPINEL), but where
thin-film AR coatings readily fail. A high performance, long life solution
is provided through AR microstructure (ARMs) technology where a nonscattering texture etched directly into the surface of a SPINEL window
produces a graded refractive index profile for high optical transmission
and damage resistance, while retaining SPINEL’s favorable chemical andmechanical durability. ARMs textures designed for HEL windows passing
near infrared wavelength light at 1064nm, will be fabricated in SPINEL
window materials being developed by the Naval Research Laboratory.
Results of both pulsed and continuous-wave (CW) standardized

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Deposition from an aerosolized mixture of ZnS and diamond powders
onto sapphire results in linear trend from sputter erosion of the substrate
at 100% diamond to formation of a film with increasing fractions of ZnS.
The crossover from abrasion to film formation occurs between about 50– 60 % ZnS and a mixture of 90% ZnS and 10% diamond forms a welladhered film of about 0.7 microns thickness at a rate of 0.14 microns/min. Infrared transmission measurements of these films indicate goodtransparency in the far infrared. These initial films mark progress toward
the future goal of coating ZnS substrates.
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Conference 8708:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIII

8708-27, Session 6

8708-29, Session 6

Optical properties of ZnS in terahertz regime

Peridynamic modeling of damage andfracture in EM windows and domes

Satya R. Ganti, Alfred Univ. (United States); S. K. Sundaram, NewYork State College of Ceramics at Alfred Univ. (United States);
John S. McCloy, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is a II-VI semiconductor used in missile domes andother space-borne systems due to its excellent optical properties in
the infrared as well as the far-infrared regimes. Several samples of
ZnS were measured in the GHz to the THz range using both backward
wave oscillators (BWO) and THz-time domain spectroscopy (THzTDS) approaches. Samples were processed using standard chemical
vapor deposition, hot-pressing, and spark plasma sintering (SPS)
processes. We used a free-space quasi-optical millimeter wave (MMW)
spectrometer equipped with a set of high-power BWOs for transmittancemeasurements in the frequency ranges of 35-55 GHz and 170-270 GHz.
A commercially available THz-TDS system from TeraView consists of amode-locked Ti:Sapphire laser with a center wavelength approximately
800 nm , repetition rate of 80 MHz and 100 fs pulse width. With highsignal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and coherent phase detection, the THz-TDS
was known to be generally more advantageous compared to otherapproaches. The frequency-dependent coefficient of power absorption
was extracted from the experimental spectra. Multispectral as wellas single crystals of ZnS were measured from 0.25 - 3 THz. Dielectric
constant, loss tangent, refractive index, and absorption coefficient arereported for these materials. Data from BWO and THz-TDS approaches
were compared. Additionally, three low-frequency phonon resonancelines were reported at 0.78, 2.20, and 2.80 THz. Data reported in theliterature showed a significant difference in these resonances between
single crystals, polycrystalline samples or nanoparticles of ZnS. Our
results were compared to the reported data in the literature.

8708-28, Session 6

Integrated computational materials
engineering of impact damage in E/O
windows and domes
Brian J. Zelinski, Raytheon Missile Systems (United States);
Stefan Bringuier, Toby Shearman, Pierre A. Deymier, Ibrahim
Guven, Krishna Muralidharan, Robert G. Erdmann, The Univ. of
Arizona (United States)
Steady improvements in modeling, simulation, and economical
computing power continue to promote virtual design and manufacturingof materials, from the atomic level, through the mesoscale, to parts. This
multi-scale, multi-physics approach, known as Integrated Computational
Materials Engineering (ICME), promises to reduce product development,
qualification, and test costs while improving performance andmanufacturing efficiency. Raytheon is collaborating with the Universityof Arizona to apply ICME to the properties of ZnS, with an emphasis on
mechanical erosion by sand impact to assess the ability of these multiscale techniques to reproduce the characteristics and extent of damage
under a variety of impact conditions.
Results are shown that demonstrate the ability of quantum or ab initio
simulations to predict basic properties of ZnS at the unit cell level.
Fracture behavior at the level of a million atoms, as simulated bymolecular dynamics, is described, as well as damage at the part level,
as modeled by Peridynamics, a technique that naturally incorporates
damage initiation and propagation, with no a priori assumptions. Finally,
recent progress on developing an analytical bridge or methodology fortranslating failure criteria between Molecular Dynamics and Peridynamics
simulations is discussed. This linkage seeks to allow transfer of criticalphysics-based information between these two approaches, despite thedisparity in their simulation volumes. In short, this paper reports on recent
progress to establish the basic components of a multi-scale, multiphysics computational model of sand erosion, the fundamentals of whichshould have broad applicability to a range of materials and environments.

56

Ibrahim Guven, The Univ. of Arizona (United States); Brian J.
Zelinski, Raytheon Missile Systems (United States)
The brittle nature of EM window and dome materials limits electricaland magnetic performance due to impact of sand particles, hailstones
and raindrops. The damage and fracture patterns due to such impacts
are well documented with distinct association to the impact type.
However, the underlying mechanisms that lead to those patterns are notwell understood. Adding to the complexity, multiple layers of coatings
with varying thicknesses are applied to the external surfaces of thesestructures, which affects the extent and nature of the impact damage.
A physics-based analysis method that captures correct damage andfracture patterns due to particle impact is well warranted.
In this paper, Peridynamic (PD) Theory will be demonstrated as asimulation methodology for fracture analysis of EM windows and domes
under particle impact. This theory involves reformulation of classicalcontinuum mechanics in integral form (no spatial derivatives), alleviating
the stress singularity problem common to previous fracture analysis
approaches. The PD theory enables accurate description of failure events
via natural generation and accumulation of defects, cracks, and damage;it can capture complex, 3-D and multiple non-coplanar crack initiationand propagation. The fracture behavior of materials is influenced by animportant material parameter, critical stretch, which is specific to PD
theory. This study will offer a combined experimental-computational
method in extracting critical stretch parameter for glass and ceramicmaterials based on simulations of indentation tests. Additional
simulations involving sand impact and subsequent fracture patterns will
be presented.

8708-30, Session 7

Design of uniform window heating structures
for electro-optical systems
Matthew W. Pieratt, Sean N. Carney, Melissa Stout, Douglas L.
Hibbard, Gregory F. Miller, Exotic Electro-Optics, Inc. (UnitedStates)Temperature non-uniformity in a heated window can result in a significant
distortion in the transmitted wavefront. Aberrations are introducedby actual physical distortion of the window due to differential thermal
expansion and by localized optical path variations due to the change inindex with temperature (dn/dT) of the substrate material. Typically, thesecond factor is the more pronounced. This effect represents a significant
limitation in the performance of windows with non-symmetric geometries
made from materials that exhibit combinations of high dn/dT and low
thermal conductivity.
EEO has recently developed a software tool capable of quantitatively
modeling the thermal distribution of a heated window in operation.
This capability allows the design team to optimize the heater layer
sheet resistance (whether the layer is a metallic grid or a transparent
conducting oxide thin film) and the configuration of bus-bar (electrode)connections prior to any hardware fabrication. Consideration of both ofthese factors is critical to achieving a uniform thermal distribution at the
specified temperature across a given window.
This presentation will describe the recent efforts of EEO to establish
the capability for quantitatively modeling the temperature homogeneity
across a heated window based on window material and dimensions,heater layer characteristics and bus-bar configuration. Data will bepresented that demonstrates the validity of these models via comparison
to actual heated windows observed under heated conditions.

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Conference 8708:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIII

8708-31, Session 7

throughout the manufacturing process, the opportunity for substantial
cost savings is maximized the earlier in the process that issues can bedetected, thereby improving process efficiency. A comprehensive NDE/
NDI method has been developed to rapidly inspect transparent ceramic
domes in order to characterize a wide range of critical defects/issues
so as to improve dome manufacturing and yield through the reduction
or elimination thereof. A matrix of hot-pressed, hot isostatically pressedand pressureless sintered spinel samples with a range of defect types
and a variety of surface conditions were inspected using a suite ofnondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods. In summary, the combinationof three such methods demonstrated the capability to detect of all thecritical defects with statistical significance for shop floor inspection ofspinel domes. The equipment is relatively inexpensive and easy to use,and perhaps most importantly, has the potential of detecting defects prior
to the grinding and polishing steps with resultant payoffs for improving
yields and final finishing costs.

Spinel domes with integrated electromagnetic
interference protection
Todd Heil, Greg Slavik, Alex Smith, Jeffrey J. Kutsch, Lynda
Renomeron, Igor Vesnovsky, Evans A. LaRoche, Lawrence L.
Fehrenbacher, Technology Assessment & Transfer, Inc. (UnitedStates); Brian Mayers, Mark Somers, Nano Terra, Inc. (UnitedStates)Magnesium aluminate spinel is a durable electro-optical material withhigh visible through mid-IR transmission. Technology Assessment &Transfer (TA&T) reports on their efforts to integrate electromagnetic
interference (EMI) protection into spinel domes through the useof metallic grids. Two approaches are being developed to embed
noble metal EMI grids in spinel domes; 1) encapsulate the grid witha germanate glass that has matching refractive index and coefficientof thermal expansion to spinel, and 2) embed the grid in spinel in thegreen state and proceed through all subsequent ceramic densification
steps. Achievements to date and outlooks on both methods as
viable manufacturing routes are presented. Concurrent TA&T spineldevelopment efforts are also highlighted.

8708-35, Session 8

Ultrasonic processing of hard materials forconformal optics
Edward M. Fess, OptiPro Systems (United States)
Hard ceramic optical materials such as sapphire, ALON, Spinel, or PCA
can present a significant challenge in manufacturing precision opticalcomponents due to their tough mechanical properties. These are also thesame mechanical properties that make them desirable materials whenused in harsh environments. Tool wear and tool loading conditions during
the grinding process for these materials can be especially problematic.
Because of this, frequent dressing and reshaping of grinding wheels
is often required. OptiPro systems is developing an ultrasonic grinding
process called OptiSonic to minimize the forces during grinding an
make the grinding process more efficient. The ultrasonic vibration of thegrinding wheel allows for a grinding process that has the capacity for
longer tool life and reduced tool wear for a more deterministic process.
This presentation will discuss the OptiSonic process, and present current
results.

8708-32, Session 7

Electromagnetic sensing for deterministic
finishing of gridded domes
Steve L. Galbraith, Resodyn Corp. (United States)
Electromagnetic sensing is a promising technology for precisely locating
conductive grid structures buried in optical ceramic domes. Burying
grid structures directly in the ceramic makes gridded dome construction
easier, but a practical sensing technology is required to locate the grid
relative to the dome surface. This paper presents a novel approach being
developed for locating grids that are physically thin, on the order of a mil,curved, and 80% open. By contrast, thick, flat, solid metal conductors
are the typical sensed objects of similar technologies. Non-contact
location sensing takes place over a distance of ? inch. A non-contact
approach was required because the presence of the ceramic material
precludes touching the grid with a measurement tool. Furthermore, theceramic which may be opaque or transparent is invisible to the sensing
technology which is advantageous for calibration. The paper firstdetails the physical principles being exploited. Next, sensor impedance
response is discussed for thin, open, grids vs. thick, solid, metal
conductors. Finally, the approach for developing sensors and evaluating
their impedance response is presented. A concluding discussion about
practical field use tools that will use the technology is presented. These
tools include simple hand held device that can be used on the shop floor
and a more sophisticated tool that can be integrated into a coordinate
measuring machine in a metrology environment.

8708-36, Session 8

Deterministic manufacturing of large sapphire
windows
Teddy Lambropoulus, Scott DeFisher, OptiPro Systems (UnitedStates)There is a need for precisely figured large sapphire windows withdimensions of up to 20 inches with thicknesses of 0.25 inches that will
operate in the 1- to 5-micron wavelength range. In an effort to reduce
manufacturing cost during grinding and polishing, OptiPro Systems
is developing technologies that provide an optimized deterministic
approach to making them. This development work is focusing on two
main areas of research. The first is optimizing existing technologies, likedeterministic microgrinding and UltraForm Finishing (UFF), for shaping
operations and precision controlled sub-aperture polishing. The second
area of research consists of a new large aperture deterministic polishingprocess currently being developed at OptiPro called UltraSmooth
Finishing (USF). The USF process utilizes deterministic control with alarge aperture polishing tool. This presentation will discuss the challenges
associated with manufacturing large sapphire windows and present
results on the work that is being performed to minimize manufacturingcosts associated with them.

8708-33, Session 7

Multimodal characterization of transparent
dome blanks
John S. Steckenrider, Jojit C. Tancredo, Jeffrey J. Kutsch,
Technology Assessment & Transfer, Inc. (United States)
In a multi-step process such as the manufacturing of transparent
ceramic domes, there are often multiple intermediate opportunities forthe evaluation of component integrity and/or defect detection. While
characterization of the final condition is obviously critical, there is muchto be gained by exploiting NDE/NDI methods earlier into the process,so as to either make the necessary changes to subsequent processing
steps to mitigate the issue(s) or remove that component from the
manufacturing stream, thereby eliminating the subsequent processing
costs. Given that the processing cost per each sequential step increases

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57

Conference 8708:
Window and Dome Technologies and Materials XIII

8708-37, Session 8

Freeform and conformal opticalmanufacturing

optical fabrication process that includes ultrasonic generation of hardceramic surfaces, high speed VIBE polishing, sub-aperture figure
correction of polycrystalline materials and final testing of freeform
surfaces. This paper will highlight the progress made to each of theprocesses as well as the challenges associated with each of them.

Scott DeFisher, Frank Wolfs, OptiPro Systems (United States)
Future optical systems are moving away from traditional spherical optics.
The anticipated benefits are numerous for freeform optics as they provide
better aerodynamic characteristics for aircraft, lighter weight for space
missions, and smaller size for medical procedures.
Currently the design and utilization of conformal and freeform shapes arecostly due to the difficulties introduced with fabrication and metrology ofthese parts. Techniques for creating these complex optical surfaces arestill in development for traditional optical materials. OptiPro has a unique
opportunity create manufacturing solutions though computer controlled
multi-axis optical generating, polishing, and metrology machines. OptiPro
Systems is continuing to develop advanced optical manufacturing
technologies. OptiPro has made toric and freeform arch shapes.
OptiPro’s existing manufacturing platforms include its eSX grinding,
UltraForm Finishing, and UltraSurf non-contact surface scanning system,
which will be used for grinding, polishing, and measuring conformal andfreeform shapes.
Freeform surfaces are initially generated using deterministic
microgrinding with diamond bonded tools. Tool paths with up to five axesof simultaneous motion are required to generate and polish the opticalfigure of conformal surfaces. Sub-aperture corrective polishing will needto vary the amount of time the tool contacts at each location in orderto remove the proper amount of material. These locations and dwell
times are derived from a surface figure error map provided by OptiPro’s
UltraSurf. Research and development of the freeform manufacturing
process will be presented.

Recent advances in high-performancewindow fabrication
James B. Taylor, Richard J. Boland, Edward Gowac, Paul D.
Stupik, Marc Tricard, Zygo Corporation (United States)
Continuous drive towards higher performance Intelligence Surveillance
and Reconnaissance (ISR) and High Energy Laser (HEL) systems has
translated into new requirements for high performance windows:• A wide range of materials needs to be considered ranging from
amorphous glass (such as fused silica), polycrystalline materials such as
ClearTran or hard ceramics such as AlON, spinel and sapphire• A wide range of sizes (up to an including meter class optics) andgeometries (high aspect ratio plano surfaces remain prevalent of course,
but “free-form” shapes are also being envisioned and implemented
routinely, including conformal windows)• Increasingly tighter specifications, driven by lower wavelength IR
systems as well as visible and/or multi-spectral systems, requirecontinually more sophisticated metrology techniques to validate• Development of sophisticated manufacturing processes needed toyield pristine optical surfaces capable of operating at high laser fluences
and/or for highly brittle ceramics capable of withstanding a wide range oftemperature, operating pressure and stress• New high durability thin film coatings capable of withstanding
increasing harsher environments

8708-38, Session 8Interferometric tomography metrology ofconformal optics
Mikhail A. Gutin, Olga N. Gutin, Xu-Ming Wang, Dennis Ehlinger,
Applied Science Innovations, Inc. (United States)
Conformal windows and domes improve aerodynamic quality of
missiles and aircraft but introduce significant optical aberrations. These
aberrations can be compensated, provided both window and corrective
optics are fabricated to high tolerances. Highly accurate measurement ofconformal optics is required for success of the fabrication process. This
paper describes the development of the Interferometric Tomography – a
new tool for metrology of conformal aspheric optics, including optics
with very high aberrations. The metrology system is designed to measure
wavefront aberrations as well as the optical figure of both surfaces.

8708-39, Session 8

Advances in freeform optics fabrication forconformal window and dome applications
Jessica DeGroote Nelson, Alan Gould, Nathan Smith, Katherine
Medicus, Michael Mandina, Optimax Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates)Freeform optical shapes or optical surfaces that are designed with nonsymmetric features are gaining popularity with lens designers and opticalsystem integrators. This enabling technology allows for conformal sensor
windows and domes that provide enhanced aerodynamic properties aswell as environmental and ballistic protection. In order to provide ballistic
and environmental protection, these conformal windows and domes are
typically fabricated from hard ceramic materials. Hard ceramic conformal
windows and domes provide two challenges to the optical fabricator.
The material hardness, polycrystalline nature and non-traditional shapedemand creative optical fabrication techniques to produce these typesof optics cost-effectively. This paper will overview a complete freeform58

8708-40, Session 8• In a defense environment where cost pressures continue to require lessexpensive manufacturing processes
This paper will present a wide range of examples dealing with thesematerials, geometries, specifications, metrology and thin film coating
developments.

8708-41, Session 8

Patterning and hardening of Gold Black
infrared absorber by shadow mask deposition
with Ethyl Cyanoacrylate
Deep R. Panjwani, Nima Nader-Esfahani, Doug Maukonen,
Imen Rezadad, Javaneh Boroumand, Evan Smith, Janardan
Nath, Robert Peale, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
We report patterning of infrared-absorbing gold-black films by thermal
evaporation with shadow-mask stencil lithography, achieving 80 micronfeature sizes. To overcome the extreme fragility of these highly porous
gold deposits, which are just 2-5% the density of bulk gold, ethyl
cyanoacrylate is fumed onto the deposits through the same mask.
Transmission and reflection spectroscopy in the range 2.5 to 12 micron
wavelength is performed using a Fourier spectrometer with infrared
microscope and either a globar or synchrotron IR source. In the latter
case, an array detector provides spectral imaging of the film withdiffraction-limited spatial resolution. Scanning electron microscopy andoptical profilometry characterize the morphology and thickness of thefilms, and four-point probe measurements determine their resistivity.
Measurements are recorded before and after fuming and over a period ofweeks to study aging effects. The optimized hardening process strongly
reduces the usual aging degradation without reducing the IR absorption
relative to fresh unhardened deposits. This work has application to
infrared array bolometers.

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
Monday - Thursday 29–2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8709 Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII

8709-1, Session 1

transmitter array for any position of the receiver array. Finally we present
inversion results from our laboratory data in from data acquired atAberdeen Proving Ground.

Toward a real-time positioning system for a
portable EMI sensor
Juan Pablo Fernández, Thayer School of Engineering at
Dartmouth (United States); Benjamin E. Barrowes, Kevin A.
O’Neill, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Ctr.
(United States); Irma Shamatava, Fridon Shubitidze, Thayer
School of Engineering at Dartmouth (United States)

8709-3, Session 1

The Portable Decoupled Electromagnetic Induction Sensor (Pedemis)
is a new instrument designed to provide diverse, high-quality data for
detection and discrimination of unexploded ordnance in rocky, treed,or otherwise forbidding terrain. It consists of a square array of ninetransmitters and a similar arrangement of receivers that measure all
three vector components of the time-dependent magnetic field at ninedifferent locations. The receiver assembly can be fixed to the transmittersor detached from them for enhanced flexibility and convenience. The
latter mode requires a positioning system that finds the location of thereceivers with respect to the transmitters at any time without hampering
portability or requiring communication with outside agents (which may
be precluded by field conditions). The current system examines theprimary field during the transmitters’ on-time phase and optimizes tofind the location at which it is most likely to obtain the combinationof measured values. We have developed an algorithm that computes
mutual inductances analytically and exploits their geometric information
to predict location. The method does full justice to Faraday’s Law fromthe start and incorporates the fine structure of both transmitters andreceivers; it is exact and involves only elementary functions, making it
unnecessary to set up and monitor approximations and guaranteeing
robustness and stability everywhere; it uses a fraction of the memory
and is orders-of-magnitude faster than methods based on numericalquadrature. We have tested the algorithm on the current Pedemis
prototype and have obtained encouraging results which we summarize inthis paper.

John B. Sigman, Fridon Shubitidze, Dartmouth College (UnitedStates)Automatic classification of unexploded
ordnance applied to Spencer Range live site
for 5x5 TEMTADS sensor

This paper details methods for automatic classification of Unexploded
Ordnance (UXO) as applied to sensor data from the Spencer Range
live site. The Spencer Range is a former military weapons range, in
Spencer, Tennessee. Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) sensing is carriedout using the 5x5 Time-domain Electromagnetic Multi-sensor Towed
Array Detection System (5x5 TEMTADS), which has 25 receivers and
25 co-located transmitters. Every transmitter is activated sequentially,
with each followed by measuring the magnetic field in all 25 receivers,
from 100 microseconds to 25 milliseconds. This data is inverted using
the Differential Evolution (DE) algorithm for the Combined Advanced
EMI Model. The inversion provides x, y, and z locations and a timeseries of the total ONVMS principal eigenvalues. The eigenvalues are
fit to an empirical model, called Pasion-Oldenburg model, providing 3
coefficients -- k, b, and g -- for each object. The objects are groupedgeometrically into variably-sized clusters, in the k-b-g space, using
clustering algorithms. Clusters matching a priori characteristics are
identified as Targets of Interest (TOI), and larger clusters are automaticallysubclustered. Ground truths at the center of each class are requested,and probability functions are applied to the cluster, based on radial
distance from the center of the cluster, and according to a Gaussian
Mixture Model. All objects of UXO probability higher than a chosen
threshold are placed in a ranked dig list. This prioritized list is submitted
to the Institute for Defense Analysis (IDA) for independent scoring, andthe results are demonstrated and analyzed.

8709-2, Session 1

The Pedemis Instrument: positioning,background subtraction, and APG field
results

8709-4, Session 1

Benjamin E. Barrowes, U.S. Army Engineer Research andDevelopment Ctr. (United States); Fridon Shibitidze, DartmouthCollege (United States); Tomasz M. Grzegorczyk, Delpsi,
LLC (United States); Juan Pablo Fernández, Thayer Schoolof Engineering at Dartmouth (United States) and Fernandez
Consulting (United States); Kevin A. O’Neill, U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Ctr. (United States)

Irma Shamatava, Juan Pablo Fernández, Dartmouth College(United States); Benjamin E. Barrowes, U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Ctr. (United States); Fridon
Shubitidze, Dartmouth College (United States)

Spencer range live-site portable EMI sensors
target classification

The Spenser range is second in a series of live-site UXO classification
studies in wooded areas, performed by the Environmental Strategic
Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), using recently developed
portable electromagnetic induction (EMI) systems. The first study was
conducted in 2011 at Camp Beale, CA. Our team processed data takenby the 2 ? 2 three-dimensional (3D) man-portable, developed by the NRL
and G&G Sciences, and the new version of the Man-Portable Vector(MPV) handheld system developed by ERDC-CRREL, G&G Sciences, andSky Research, using advanced EMI models. The models, that combine aforward model based on volumetric, discrete, orthonormalized, mutuallycoupled magnetic dipoles; joint diagonalization (JD) preprocessing;differential evolution (DE) optimization; and classification using library
matching and Gaussian mixture models, is suitable for the discriminationof single or multiple targets. The main objective of this work is to further
evaluate the classification capabilities of the advanced methods at theSpenser range that is partially wooded site, with a high density of clutter
and a mix of munitions types (37mm to 155 mm projectiles). The datafrom portable sensors are processed independently and targets intrinsic

Recent techniques for detecting and discriminating unexploded ordnance(UXO) have centered on electromagnetic induction (EMI) technologies.
Recent results from EMI instruments from ESTCP demonstration sites
has shown that detection and discrimination rates could mean saving
at least three quarters of the money used to excavate targets. Pedemis
is a new EMI instrument with nine transmitter coils and nine receiver
cubes that can physically decouple the transmitter and receiver arrays.
This allows flexible deployment and operational options that can further
reduce geophysical data acquisition times at remediation sites.
We have recently finished fabrication of Pedemis and acquired bothlaboratory and field data. To interpret these data, we present a routine
to position the receiver array relative to the transmitter array based on a
beacon type positioning system. In addition, we present a backgroundsubtraction method that can subtract instrument noise due to the

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59Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII( i.e. the size, shape and material properties) and extrinsic (location,
depth, orientation) parameters are estimated. The intrinsic parameters
are then used for classification and sensor-specific, independent diglists are generated for each EMI instrument. The dig-lists are submitted
to the Institute of Defense Analysis (IDA) for independent scoring, andthe classification performances of the advanced models for each of theportable EMI sensors are illustrated and assessed.

8709-5, Session 1

A new EMI system for detection andclassification of challenging targets
Fridon Shubitidze, Juan Pablo Fernández, Dartmouth College(United States); Benjamin E. Barrowes, U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Ctr. (United States); Irma Shamatava,
Sky Research, Inc. (United States); David George, G&G SciencesInc. (United States)
Advanced electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors currently feature
multi-axis illumination of targets and tri-axial vector sensing (e.g.,
MetalMapper), or exploit multi-static array data acquisition (e.g.,
TEMTADS). They produce data of high density, quality, and diversity,and have been combined with advanced EMI models to provide superb
classification performance relative to the previous generation of singleaxis, monostatic sensors. However, these advances yet have to improvesignificantly our ability to classify challenging targets, such as small anddeep targets. Particularly, recent live-site discrimination studies at Camp
Butner, NC and Camp Beale, CA have revealed that it is more challenging
to detect and discriminate small munitions (with calibers ranging
from 20 mm to 60 mm) than larger ones. In addition, Massachusetts
Military Reservation, MA, live-site test highlighted the difficulties for
current sensors to classify large deep and overlapping targets with highconfidence. To overcome these problems, recently a new EMI system,that consist different size Tx coils, has been developed to improvethe detection limits of current sensors. The advanced EMI models has
been adapted to the new system data to further to further enhancethe discrimination of small and deep targets. In the paper, we will
illustrate a combined software and hardware approach that will provide
extended detection range and spatial resolution of next-generation EMI
systems; will illustrate a fast EMI data inversion and target-discrimination
approaches;

estimated. The estimated intrinsic parameters are used for classification,
which is performed using library matching and statistical classification
algorithms. Using classification algorithms a prioritized dig-list is
generated and submitted to the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA)
for independent scoring. The performances of the advanced models’classification are illustrated and assessed based on the independently
scored results. Particularly, the sources of false positives are analyzed inrelation to the target size and time windows of the measured signals.

8709-7, Session 2

Transmitter power efficiency of broadband
CW electromagnetic induction sensors
Waymond R. Scott Jr., Georgia Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Broadband electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors have been shown
to be able to discriminate between certain classes of metallic targets.
However, broadband CW systems are not as power efficient as traditional
pulsed induction systems. The excitation for a CW system is a multisinethat consists of the sum of N sinusoidal signals. The power amplifier used
to drive the transmit coil with the multisine signal can require a significant
amount of power. Two methods for reducing this power are presented.
In the first method, an analog power amplifier is used, and the power isreduced by optimizing the multisine signal to make the amplifier more
efficient. In the second method, a switched-mode power amplifier is used
in which the coil is connected to the power supply with binary switches
that are either fully on or off. A binary signal is developed that controls
the switches so the signal generated has essentially all its energy in thedesired N sinusoidal signals. The power dissipation in the switchedmode amplifier is significantly less than in a linear amplifier even with thebest excitation signal. Proper filtering and compensation must be usedor the switched-mode amplifier will introduce noise in the EMI sensor.
Results will be shown that demonstrate the power efficiency and noise
performance of the switched-mode amplifier.

8709-8, Session 2

Buried explosive hazard characterization
using advanced magnetic andelectromagnetic induction sensors

8709-6, Session 2

Jon Miller, Gregory Schultz, Sky Research, Inc. (United States)

Targets classification approach applied toactive UXO sites

Advanced electromagnetic induction (EMI) arrays that feature multi-axis
transmitters and wideband magnetic field receivers provide significant
capability enhancement to landmine, unexploded ordnance (UXO), andburied explosives detection applications. Specifically, arrays that areeasily and quickly configured for integration with a variety of groundvehicles and mobile platforms offer improved safety and efficiency topersonnel conducting detection operations including route clearance,
explosive ordnance disposal, and humanitarian demining missions. We
present experimental results for a novel sensor concept that incorporates
both magnetic and electromagnetic modalities. The sensor features amulti-axis EMI array and an extremely high sensitivity chip scale atomic
magnetometer (AM). The use of multi-axis EMI transmitters and receivers
enables characterization of target electromagnetic polarizabilities, which
describe the physical properties of the buried object. The integration ofa radio frequency (RF) tunable AM receiver adds increased sensitivity
to lower frequency components of the electromagnetic response.
This added sensitivity provides greater capability for detecting deeply
buried or low-metal content targets. We evaluate the requirements
for incorporating these sensor modalities in forward mounted groundvehicle operations. Specifically, the ability to recover target features innear real-time is critical to non-overpass modes. Additionally, vehicle
and motion induced noise reduction can significantly improve target
depth sensitivity and reduce requirements for forward vehicle standoff.
We also demonstrate the potential for this technology to confirm ground
penetrating radar (GPR) decisions by providing target depth and location
information.

Fridon Shubitidze, Dartmouth College (United States); Benjamin
E. Barrowes, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development
Ctr. (United States); Juan Pablo Fernández, Dartmouth College(United States); Irma Shamatava, Sky Research, Inc. (UnitedStates)This study is designed to illustrate discrimination performance ofadvanced, beyond a simple dipole, electromagnetic induction (EMI)models, such as orthonormalized volume magnetic source (ONVMS),
joint diagonalization (JD) and differential evolution (DE) approaches, at
Fort Sill, OK and Massachusetts military reservation (MMR), MA activesites. The Fort Sill site is highly contaminated with a mix of following
munitions: 37 mm target practice tracers, 60 mm illumination mortar, 75
mm and 4.5” projectiles, 3.5”, 2.36” and LAAW rockets, antitank minefuzes with/without hex nut, practice MK2 and M67 grenades, 2.5 inchballistic windshields, M2A1-mines with/without bases, M19-14 time
fuzes, 40 mm practice grenades with/without cartridge. Where-else MMR
site consists different size targets. In this work these models are applied
to EMI data collected using the Metal Mapper (MM) and 2x2 TEMTADS
sensors. The data for each anomaly are inverted and targets’ intrinsic(total volume magnetic source (NVMS i.e. the size, shape and material
properties) and extrinsic (location, depth, orientation) parameters are
60

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII

8709-9, Session 2

8709-11, Session 3

In-field quality control of advanced
electromagnetic induction data for munitions
remediation projects

Optimized coils for electromagnetic induction
systems
Mark A. Reed, Waymond R. Scott Jr., Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)

Jon Miller, Sky Research, Inc. (United States); Leonard R. Pasion,
Sky Research, Inc. (Canada)

Traditional continuous-wave electromagnetic induction (EMI) systems
use a dipole transmit coil and quadrupole receive coil to achieve zeromutual coupling. The quadrupole produces a magnetic field that falls
off more quickly than that of a dipole, causing the detection depth to belower than that of a comparable pulsed EMI system, which uses bothtransmit and receive dipole coils. Therefore, a continuous-wave systemwith transmit and receive coils that both act like dipoles and yet havezero mutual coupling is desirable. A method of optimizing such coil pairs
for EMI systems is presented. A simple model of spiral coils is developed,
allowing each of the two coils to be easily represented as a non-constantspiral. The problem of simultaneously optimizing two such spiral coils ispartially convex, so an iterative convex optimization method can be used
to quickly and accurately find an optimal solution. In the optimization, theenergy coupled between the two coils is constrained to be zero and thestored energy in each coil is constrained to avoid infinite current, creating
an optimal pair of spiral-wound transmit and receive coils. Results areshown that demonstrate a continuous wave system with the benefits ofboth dipole-dipole and dipole-quadrupole systems.

The prevalence of unexploded ordnance (UXO), discarded military
munitions (DMM), and munitions constituents (MC) at both active
and formerly used defense sites (FUDS) has created a necessity for
remediation efforts to mitigate the potential environmental and publichealth hazards posed by these munitions and explosives of concern(MEC). UXO remediation operations typically employ electromagnetic
induction (EMI) or magnetometer surveys to identify potential MEC
hazards located throughout cleanup sites. A significant cost factor inthese operations is the allocation of resources for the excavation ofharmless objects associated with fragmentation, scrap, or geologicalclutter. Recent developments in advanced EMI sensor technologies, i.e.,
those that employ multi-axis transmitter and receiver configurations,have enabled classification of a vast majority of these non-hazardous
objects prior to excavation. One of the key requirements for successfully
implementing MEC classification is the acquisition of high quality EMI
data prior to analysis. Factors such as improper sensor positioning,
low signal-to-noise ratio, or insufficient data sampling can lead to poor
performance of classification algorithms. We present results from recent
field evaluations of an approach for incorporating an in-field analysisof data quality metrics as part of the EMI survey process. Specifically,
this approach applies a dipole inversion routine to the EMI data
immediately after acquisition is complete. Data and model parameters
are subsequently used to extract quality metrics, which are supplied
to the operator in the form of a quality decision. This process provides
the operator with high confidence that the data will yield effectiveclassification results.

8709-12, Session 3

Location and continuous orientation
estimation of buried targets using tensor
extraction
Kyle R. Krueger, Waymond R. Scott Jr., James H. McClellan,
Georgia Institute of Technology (United States)

8709-10, Session 3

Dictionary matching techniques have been an effective way to detect
the location and orientation of buried targets using electromagnetic
induction (EMI) sensors. Two problems with dictionary detection arethat they require a large amount of computer storage to enumerate ninedimensions, and fine discretization of the parameter space must be used
to reduce modeling error.

Operational field evaluation of the PAC-MAG
man-portable magnetometer array
Joe Keranen, Gregory Schultz, Jon Miller, Sky Research, Inc.
(United States)

The proposed method shrinks the dictionary size by five orders ofmagnitude, and reduces modeling error by directly solving for the 3[1]x3 tensor model of the target. A robust low-rank matrix approximation
algorithm has been implemented which can also account for directional
insensitivities in the measurements.

Detection and discrimination of unexploded ordnance (UXO) in areasof prior conflict is of high importance to the international community
and the United States government. For humanitarian applications,sensors and processing methods need to be robust, reliable, and easy
to train and implement using indigenous UXO removal personnel. This
paper describes an Operational Field Evaluation (OFE) of the PAC-MAG
man-portable UXO detection system. The OFE, conducted in Laos andbeginning in January 2013, consists of a two week training of indigenous
demining personnel by NVESD and Sky Research personnel followed bya period of system use as part of demining operations. The PAC-MAG
system is a man-portable magnetometer array for the detection andcharacterization of ferrous unexploded ordnance (UXO). System hardware
includes four Cesium vapor magnetometers for detection, a Real-time
Kinematic Global Position System (RTK-GPS) for sensor positioning, anelectronics module for data concatenation and wifi communications, anda computer for logging data via wifi. A hipchain encoder is also provided
for position information in GPS-denied areas. System software elements
include data logging software and post-processing software for detection
and characterization of ferrous anomalies. The output of the postprocessing software is a dig list containing locations of potential UXO(s),formatted for import into the system GPS equipment for reacquisition of
anomalies. Results from the training of indigenous demining personnel on
the use of the system and from in-field operations will be described.

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8709-13, Session 3

Constant phase uniform current loop
for detection of metallic objects using
longitudinal magnetic field projection
Daniel C. Heinz, Adam W. Melber, U.S. Army CERDECIntelligence and Information Warfare Directorate (United States);
Michael L. Brennan, CACI International Inc. (United States)
Currents on remote metallic objects such as landmines can be induced
by projecting strong longitudinal magnetic fields. These currents resultin electromagnetic fields that can be subsequently detected. The
magnetic field varies slowly as it passes from air into the ground but
is sufficient to produce a strong magnetic field rotation which excites
currents in metallic objects. Traditionally strong magnetic fields areproduced using short range transformer–like inductive coupling, or as acomponent of powerful propagating electromagnetic fields. The strengthof the magnetic component of the propagating electromagnetic fieldis restricted by regulatory limits on the total radiated radio frequency
power. There is a need for forward projected strong magnetic field at·

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
medium ranges with low level propagation. This paper reports on a nonradiating loop antenna which maintains a constant amplitude and phasecurrent around the loop. The radiated field is small and results from therelativistic time-of-flight affect from one side of the loop to the other.
The result is that a very strong magnetic field is produced in the near- to
mid-field region, up to one wavelength away from the loop. Experimentswith a prototype antenna and modeling show that the H-field is very
high, radiated electromagnetic fields are negligible, and the drop off isaround 1/r2. This agreement between experiments and modeling allows
for a design based on computer simulations. In the full paper, correlation
between measurements and simulations will be presented with a designconcept of a forward looking system for detection of metallic objects.

8709-67, Session 3

Computational analysis of “detectability”
metrics from an EMI sensor for target
detection and discrimination
Isaac S. Chappell, Institute for Defense Analyses (United States)
Many technologies are being developed to improve the detection of
threats and to discriminate the threats from clutter in an operational
environment. Efforts within IDA have focused on analysis of data froman electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor developed by Dr. Waymond
Scott to improve the detection and discrimination of low-metal mines andof a wider variety of smaller, shallow buried targets from surface clutter.
Our objective was to gain a better understanding of the EMI sensor,
specifically the physics behind its operation and the data coming out
of it with respect to locating and discriminating targets underground.
We developed a number of metrics to visualize a subset of the data.
We analyzed each metric for various criteria. We found two metrics,
KSUMLOG and GSUM, which were good “detectability” metrics.
Detectability is defined here as providing a visual difference between
locations where there were targets and the background.

(SAS) image seabed segmentation using a optimized 2D wavelet packets.
Our approach uses 2D local discriminant basis (LDB) on a training set
of seabed snippets to learn an optimal filter selection. Once an optimalfilter selection is made, the expansion coefficients of the training set iscomputed and clustered to form our segmentation rule set. New seabedsnippets are then segmented by computing their expansion coefficientsand applying our determined segmentation rule set.

8709-16, Session 4

Multiresolution statistics as a normalized
clutter measure for synthetic aperture sonar
imagery
Shawn Johnson, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.
(United States); Anthony Lyons, Applied Research Lab. (UnitedStates)(For J. T. Cobb’s session on sonar processing and ATR) Given thecomplexity of many shallow seafloor sites, synthetic aperture sonar(SAS) images often appear heterogeneous or cluttered. This image
clutter can cause difficulty for object detection algorithms when it mimics
scattering features of real targets. The purpose of this work is to develop
an efficient method for determining the complexity of a region of interest(in terms of the density of scattering objects or features with a specificrange of sizes), thereby inferring the performance of an object detection
algorithm in that particular region of interest and possibly influencing the
choice of detector. A proposed technique for estimating a normalized
clutter measure from the statistics of multi-resolution images will bedemonstrated using data obtained from the MUSCLE SAS operated by
the NATO Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation.

8709-17, Session 4

Automated detection and classification forunderwater optical imagery

8709-14, Session 4

Unsupervised domain transfer of latent
Dirichlet allocation derived MLO topics from
SAS imagery
Jason C. Isaacs, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City Div.
(United States)
Identifying the important discriminating information demonstrated by
objects in SAS imagery is important for automatic target recognition. We
present a method for determining which information is important using
a generative model for documents, introduced by Blei, Ng, and Jordan[1] in which each document is generated by choosing a distribution
over topics and then choosing each word in the document from a topic
selected according to this distribution. We use this algorithm to analyze
synthetic aperture sonar data by using Bayesian model selection toestablish the number of topics. We show that the extracted topics
capture meaningful structure in the SAS data, consistent with the classdesignations provided, and demonstrate the transfer of this knowledge
across sensor domains.

8709-15, Session 4

Multi-Image texton selection for sonar image
seabed co-segmentation

Jo E. Wilbur, Robert J. McDonald, Michael P. Strand, Naval
Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City Div. (United States)(For J. T. Cobb’s session on sonar processing and ATR)This work presents detection/classification results for underwater opticalimagery. The study couples optical image data from a laser line scan
(LLS) sensor and model based scene generation from a 2D/3D opticalimagery based model developed at NSWC, Panama City. An automatictarget recognition (ATR) algorithm to locate contacts and extract 2D and3D object features was developed and tested on range and intensity data
sets, both real and synthetic. The ATR system consists of three modules
a detector, feature extractor, and classifier. The detector preprocesses
the data and locates regions of interest. The feature extractor produces afeature vector which is subsequently input to the classifier. Combinationsof real and synthetic data are used to develop and evaluate the effects
of clutter, turbidity, and other factors on performance. The data usedcomprised the Arête Streak Tube Imaging Lidar (STIL) sensor acquired
offshore near Panama City, Florida. This available STIL imagery is thensupplemented through modeling with “target / false target insertion” tofurther examine the effect of clutter on performance. NSWC, PC has thecapability for 3D/2D optical modeling which includes realistic 3D shapes.
The model enabled inclusion of false contacts not provided in the realdata, like, rocks, anchors, chains, tires, and other debris. Various blurring
filters and scaling operations were applied to the target and false target
model images to examine the effect on detection/classification fromturbidity and from degradation of the resolution as the imaging altitude
increases.

James T. Cobb, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Panama City Div.
(United States); Alina Zare, University of Missouri (United States)(For J. T. Cobb’s session on sonar processing and ATR)This paper deals with the problem of supervised synthetic aperture sonar

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII

8709-18, Session 4

the prevalence of innocuous magnetic clutter related to indigenous
scrap, fragmentation, or geology can severely impede the progress andefficiency of these remediation efforts. Additionally, the variability insurface conditions and local topography necessitates the developmentof sensor technologies that can be applied to a range of sites including
those that prohibit the use of vehicle-mounted or large array systems.
We present a man-portable EMI sensor known as the Electromagnetic
Packable Technology (EMPACT) system that features a multi-axis sensor
configuration in a compact form factor. The system is designed for
operation in challenging site conditions and can be used in low groundstandoff modes to detect small and low-metal content objects. The
EMPACT acquires high spatial density, multi-axis data that enable highresolution of small objects. These high density data can also be used toprovide characterization of target physical features, such as size, material
content, and shape. We summarize the development of this system forhumanitarian demining operations and present results from preliminary
system evaluations against a range of target types. Specifically, we
assess the general detection capabilities of the EMPACT system and weevaluate the potential for target classification based on analysis of data
and target model features.

Estimation of sidescan sonar image quality
using shadow contrast
Daniel Cook, Georgia Tech Research Institute (United States);
Daniel Brown, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)(For J. T. Cobb’s session on sonar processing and ATR)
Resolution, maximum range, and area coverage rate are the mostcommonly reported performance metrics for both real and synthetic
aperture sidescan sonars. While of primary importance, these areinsufficient to adequately describe the image quality achievable by
the sonar. Because sidescan imaging is done using very low grazing
angles a target’s shadow often carries as much, if not more, information
than the direct return. We advocate the shadow contrast as a key
sidescan image metric and show how it can be predicted from systemparameters and environmental conditions. This deeper analysis of image
quality has significant implications for system design, deployment, anddata processing. For example, shallow-water multipath can obliterate
shadows at ranges much shorter than the maximum range of the sensor.
Also, certain sediment types such as silt and mud have low backscatter
coefficient that can limit the signal-to-noise ratio at long ranges. Suchknowledge could be used to develop more effective sonar systems, but
perhaps more interesting is the potential for adaptive mission planning.
That is, the sensor track and transmit power can be dynamically adjusted
so as to ensure that minimum image quality requirements are met
throughout the survey area. Such requirements are influenced by bothhuman operators and automatic target recognition algorithms. In addition
to deriving the shadow contrast, we apply the metric to several examplesof at-sea imagery to demonstrate the utility of a more comprehensive
approach to quantifying sidescan image quality.

8709-22, Session 5

Deployment of dual-sensor ALIS for
humanitarian demining in Cambodia
Motoyuki Sato, Kazunori Takahashi, Tohoku Univ. (Japan)
Conventional landmine detection depends on highly trained and focused
human operators manually sweeping 1m2 plots with a metal detector
and listening for characteristic audio signals indicating the presence ofAP landmines. We are in the process of developing a high-resolution
landmine scanning system which produces horizontal slices of theshallow subsurface for visualization of buried explosives and inert clutter.
As many AP mines contain minimum amounts of metal, metal detectors
need to be combined with a complimentary subsurface imaging sensor.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is widely accepted for subsurface
sensing in the fields of geology, archaeology and utility detection. The
demining application requires real-time imaging results with centimetre
resolution in a highly portable package. The key requirement for sharp
images of the subsurface is the precise tracking of the geophysicalsensor(s) during data collection. We should also notice that GPR system
is a very wide band radar system, and equivalent to UWB radar, which
has recently been developed for short-range high-accuracy radar. We
are testing simplified but effective signal processing for imaging mines.
We are currently testing a dual sensor ALIS which is a real-time sensor
tracking system based on a CCD camera and image processing. In thispaper we introduce the GPR systems which we have developed for
detection of buried antipersonnel mines and small size explosives. ALIS
has been deployed in Cambodia since 2009 and detected more than 70
mines in mine fields, and returned more than 13ha cleaned fields to local
farmers. We also report the current status of ALIS in Cambodia.

8709-19, Session 4

Seabed segmentation and environmentally
adaptive ATR
Jason C. Isaacs, James T. Cobb, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr.
Panama City Div. (United States)
The automatic detection and classification of underwater objects insynthetic aperture sonar data is complicated due to various factors
such as variation in operating and environmental conditions, competing
man-made and natural clutter, variations in object shapes, compositions
and orientations. In a real-world environment, the decision about thepresence and type of an object is usually made based on the propertiesof the object signature such as highlight and shadow structures.
These properties can be displayed by background objects in certain
environments and consequently confuse an ATR algorithm. Therefore,
the feature extraction process should be adaptable to environmental
and operating condition changes. The focus of this work is to analyze
the adaptability of a sonar-based ATR system with seabed segmentation
used to elicit adaptation.

8709-24, Session 6Stand-off detection of explosives vapors byresonance-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

8709-20, Session 5

Electromagnetic packable (EMPACT)
technology for detection and characterizationof unexploded ordnance in post-conflict
areas

Ida Johansson, Ema Ceco, Henric Östmark, Swedish Defence
Research Agency (Sweden)
This paper describes a system for stand-off vapor detection by
Resonant Raman spectroscopy, RRS. The system is a step towards
making a RRS LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) system, capableof detecting vapors from explosives and explosives precursors at long
distances. The current system is an improved version of a previous
setup, which has been used to detect the vapor of nitromethane andnitrotoluenes outdoors in the open air, at a stand-off distance of 13
meters. The current setup has a higher extinction ratio and a superior
throughput, which enables detection at longer distances. A tunable
Optical Parametric Oscillator pumped by an Nd:YAG laser, with a

Gregory Schultz, Jon Miller, Sky Research, Inc. (United States)
Land reclamation efforts in post-conflict regions are often hamperedby the presence of Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) or other Explosive
Remnants of War (ERW). Surface geophysical methods, such as
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) and magnetometry, are typically applied
to screen rehabilitation areas for UXO prior to excavation; however,

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
pulse length of 6 ns, is operated in the UV range of interest , 195-400
nm, illuminating the sample vapor. The backscattered Raman signal iscollected by a telescope and a tunable edge filter is used for suppressionof backscattered laser light. As tunable filters are yet only available
for measurements down to about 310 nm, substances that undergo
resonance in that wavelength range are used in this work. A 150 mm
long round-to-slit optical fiber is used to transmit collected light to thespectrometer with minimum losses, and a gated intensified chargecoupled device (ICCD) registers the spectra.

8709-25, Session 6

Infrared photothermal imaging of trace
explosives on relevant substrates
Christopher A. Kendziora, Robert Furstenberg, Michael R.
Papantonakis, Viet Q. Nguyen, James Borchert, Jeff M. Byers, R.
Andrew McGill, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
We are developing a technique for the stand-off detection of trace
explosives on relevant substrate surfaces using photo-thermal infrared(IR) imaging spectroscopy (PT-IRIS). This approach leverages one ormore compact IR quantum cascade lasers, tuned to strong absorption
bands in the analytes and directed to illuminate an area on a surface ofinterest. An IR focal plane array is used to image the surface and detect
small increases in thermal emission upon laser illumination. The PTIRIS signal is processed as a hyperspectral image cube comprised of
spatial, spectral and temporal dimensions as vectors within a detection
algorithm. Increased sensitivity to explosives and selectivity between
different analyte types is achieved by narrow bandpass IR filters in thecollection path. We have demonstrated the technique at several metersof stand-off distance indoors and in field tests, while operating the lasers
below the eye-safe intensity limit (100 mW/cm2). Sensitivity to explosive
traces as small as a single grain (~1 ng) has been demonstrated. This talkwill include an overview of the approach and recent experimental resultsfor different explosives and possible interferents on relevant substrates
including metal, plastic, glass and painted car panels.
References: R. Furstenberg et al. Applied Physics Letters 93, 224103(2008), C. A. Kendziora et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8373 83732H-1 (2012). R.
Furstenberg et al.; Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8013, 801318 (2011); R. A. McGill etal.; US Patent #8,101,915 B2 (2012). This research is sponsored by ONR/
NRL and the U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate.

8709-26, Session 6

Sensitive NQR techniques for explosive
detection
Georgy V. Mozzhukhin, Kazan State Technical Univ. (RussianFederation); Bulat Rameev, Kazan Physical-Technical Institute(Russian Federation) and Gebze Institute of Technology (Turkey);
Oleg Snigirev, Lomonosov Moscow State Univ. (RussianFederation); Yavuz Öztürk, Perihan Aksu, Bekir Akta?, Gebze
Institute of Technology (Turkey); Rustem R. Khusnutdinov, Marat
Badretdinov, Kazan State Power Engineering Univ. (RussianFederation); Kev M. Salikhov, Kazan Physical-Technical Institute(Russian Federation)
Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR) on 14N nuclei (I=1) is one of themost prospective methods for “bulk” detection of explosives, because
the NQR spectrum is like a “fingerprint” of chemical compound. We
presents below the results of our studies for development of double
resonance and multifrequency NQR techniques for the explosive
detection with primary goal to increase NQR sensitivity in low frequency
range (< 1MHz).
Experiments were performed using Tecmag Apollo/Redstone NMR/NQR console in combination with Tomco pulse amplifiers, home-madepreamplifiers, Q-spoilers and probes. We also tested home-made two-64

frequency probe for human body and Supracon SQUID-sensor based
system as model setup for development of a luggage scanner.
The application of double resonance methods in NQR based on useof the presence of hydrogen atoms of 1H with magnetic interaction of
14N nitrogen atom. Our cross-relaxation experiments revealed that it ispossible to use the low pulse magnetic field (< 4mT) both for increasing
the amplitude of the NQR signal in the multipulse sequence and forshortening the time of the detection.
Another prospective approach is based on use of two (three) frequency
methods for explosives detection. The two-frequency hand-held bodysensor has been developed. We proposed a scheme two-frequency
excitation with the SQUID detection at the third frequency. We haveshown that multifrequency and double NQR are prospective methods
with respect practical applications. Further work is planned to adapt
these detection technique for a specific (explosive or illicit) substance.
The authors acknowledge the support under NATO SfP Program, theproject No. 982836.

8709-66, Session 6

Low-power stimulated emission nuclear
quadrupole resonance detection systemutilizing Rabi transitions
John Apostolos, William Mouyos, AMI Research andDevelopment, LLC (United States); Judy Feng, AMI Research &Development, LLC (United States); Walter Chase, AMI Researchand Development, LLC (United States)
The application of CW radar techniques to Nuclear Quadrupole
Resonance (NQR) detection of nitrogen based explosives and chlorine
based narcotics enables the use of low power levels, in the range of 10’sof watts, to yield high signal strengths. By utilizing Rabi transitions thenucleus oscillates between states one and two under the time dependent
incident electromagnetic field and alternately absorbs energy from theincident field while emitting coherent energy via stimulated emission.
Through the application of a cancellation algorithm the incident field
is eliminated from the NQR response, allowing the receive signal to bemeasured while transmitting. The response signal is processed using
matched filters of the NQR response which enables the direct detectionof explosives. This technology has applicability to the direct detectionof explosives and narcotics for security screening, all at safe low power
levels, opposed to the current X-Ray and Millimeter wave screening
systems that detect objects that may contain explosives and utilize highpower. The quantum mechanics theoretical basis for the approach andan application for a system for security screening are described with
empirical results presented to show the effects observed.

8709-27, Session 7

Fast and sensitive recognition of various
explosive compounds using Raman
spectroscopy and principal component
analysis
Joonki Hwang, Hanyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Aaron Park,
Chonnam Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jin Hyuk Chung, Agency
for Defense Development (Korea, Republic of); Namhyun Choi,
Hanyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jun-Qyu Park, Chonnam
Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Soo Gyeong Cho, Agency for Defense
Development (Korea, Republic of); Sung-June Baek, Chonnam
Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jaebum Choo, Hanyang Univ. (Korea,
Republic of)
Recently, the development of methods for the identification of explosive
materials that are faster, more sensitive, easier to use, and more costeffective has become a very important issue for homeland security and

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
Dean Rusby, Paul McKenna, Univ. of Strathclyde (United
Kingdom)

counter-terrorism applications. However, limited applicability of several
analytical methods such as, the incapability of detecting explosives
in a sealed container, the limited portability of instruments, and false
alarms due to the inherent lack of selectivity, have motivated theincreased interest in the application of Raman spectroscopy for the rapid
detection and identification of explosive materials. Raman spectroscopy
has received a growing interest due to its stand-off capacity, whichallows samples to be analyzed at a distance from the instrument. In
addition, Raman spectroscopy has the capability to detect explosives
in sealed containers such as glass or plastic bottles. We report a rapid
and sensitive recognition technique for explosive compounds using
Raman spectroscopy and principal component analysis (PCA). Seven
hundreds of Raman spectra (50 measurements per sample) for 14
selected explosives were collected, and were pretreated with noise
suppression and baseline elimination methods. PCA, a well-known
multivariate statistical method, was applied for the proper evaluation,
feature extraction, and identification of measured spectra. A broad
wavenumber range (200-3500 cm-1) on the collected spectra set
was used for the classification of the explosive samples into separate
classes. It was found that three principal components achieved 99.3
% classification rates in the sample set. The results show that Raman
spectroscopy in combination with PCA is well suited for the identificationand differentiation of explosives in the field.

When a high power laser is focussed onto a material at intensities of10^18 -10^20 Wcm^-2 it can produce energetic beams of relativistic (upto 10’s MeV) electrons which can then be converted into Bremsstrahlung
X-ray beams, in a suitable convertor. These X-rays have uniqueproperties in terms of their short (few ps) duration, directionality and small
source size which potentially make them suitable as a source for highresolution through barrier imaging.
In a recent experiment conducted with the Vulcan glass laser at the
Rutherford Appleton laboratory, the source characteristics in the 50
KeV-5 MeV range have been investigated and optimised. Using a rangeof targets from low to high Z, the conversion efficiency and spectral
emission have been characterised. A range of target thicknesses were
investigated from a starting point where refluxing effects were present,
to thicknesses much greater than the hot electron range, comparing
the X-ray scaling observed to simulations. Additional methods toincrease the absorbed laser energy were also investigated and theimproved conversion efficiency will be discussed. As well as X-ray flux
measurements, images from test samples demonstrating the optimum
resolution deliverable will be presented.
With the development of higher repetition rate diode driven laser
systems, the requirements and potential for laser driven sources to be
used for buried object detection and security screening applications will
be presented

8709-28, Session 7

Standoff detection of explosive molecules
using nanosecond gated Raman
spectroscopy

8709-31, Session 8

Construction of a ultra-nanocrystalline
diamond-based field emitter arrays for a flatpanel x-ray source

Jin Hyuk Chung, Soo Gyeong Cho, Agency for Defense
Development (Korea, Republic of)
Recently, improvised explosive devices (IEDs) has been a serious
threat for many countries. One of the approaches to alleviate thisthreat is standoff detection of ingredients used in IEDs, including
explosive molecules. Raman spectroscopy is a prospective method
among many technological measures under research to achieve thisgoal. It can provide unique information of the target material, throughwhich the ingredients used in IEDs can be analyzed and identified. The
main problem of standoff Raman spectroscopy detection is the large
background noise hindering weak Raman signal from the target samples.
Typical background noise comes from both ambient fluorescent lights
indoor and sunlight outdoor whose intensity is usually much larger thanthat of Raman scattering from the sample. Under the proper condition
using pulse laser and ICCD camera with nanosecond pulse widthand gating technology, we succeed to separate and remove thesebackground noises from Raman signals. For this experiment, we build
an optical system for standoff detection of explosive molecules, andare able to identify various ingredients of IEDs including TNT, RDX, and
HMX which are located 10 ~ 54 meters away from our detection system.
Using 532nm, 10Hz, Q-switching Nd:YAG laser as light source, and ICCD
camera synchronized with laser Q-switching time with proper gate delay
regarding the flight time of Raman from target materials, more than 20
ingredients used in IEDs frequently are successfully identified.

Edwin J. Grant, Chrystian M. Posada, Missouri Univ. of Scienceand Technology (United States); Ralu Divan, Anirudha V. Sumant,
Argonne National Lab. (United States); D. Rosenmann, Argonne
National Lab. (United States) and Argonne National Laboratory(United States); L. Stan, Argonne National Lab. (United States);
Aashiesh Avachat, Carlos H. Castano, Hyoung Koo Lee, Missouri
Univ. of Science and Technology (United States)
A novel cold cathode field emission array (FEA) X-ray source based on
ultra-nanocrystalline diamonds (UNCD) field emitters is being constructed
as an alternative for detection of obscured objects and material.
Depending on the geometry of the given situation the flat-panel X-ray
source could be used in tomography, radiography or tomosynthesis.
Furthermore, the unit could be used as a portable X-ray scanner or an
integral part of an existing detection system. UNCD field emitters show
great field emission output and can be deposited over large areas as
the case with carbon nanotube “forest” (CNT) cathodes. Furthermore,
UNCDs have better mechanical and thermal properties as comparedto CNT tips which further extend the lifetime of UNCD based FEA. This
work includes the first generation of the UNCD based FEA prototype
which is being manufactured at the Center of Nanoscale Material within
Argonne National Laboratory with standard microfabrication techniques.
The prototype is a 3x3 pixel FEA, with a pixel pitch of 500 ?m, where
each pixel is individually controllable.which could break off and disrupt
the electron emission over the lifetime of the FEA. From our previous
simulation study the technical feasibility of the flat-panel X-ray source
was demonstrated, and present work includes design and fabricationof the prototype of the UNCD FEA, in collaboration with the Center for
Nanoscale Materials at Argonne National Laboratory. The prototype isan array of 3x3 FEA, with a pixel pitch of 500 µm, where each pixel isindividually controllable. We present experimental results including theelectron emission current, turn-on voltage and other electron emission
characteristics from each cathode.

8709-30, Session 8

Laser driven X-ray sources, their potential forthrough barrier/obscured object imaging
David Neely, James S. Green, Rutherford Appleton Lab. (United
Kingdom); Marco Borghesi, Queen’s Univ. Belfast (United
Kingdom); Ceri M. Brenner, Robert J. Clarke, John L. Collier,Andre Dalcher, Rutherford Appleton Lab. (United Kingdom);
Robert M. Deas, Defence Science and Technology Lab.
(United Kingdom); Bryan Edwards, Justin Greenhalgh, Cristina
Hernandez-Gomez, Rutherford Appleton Lab. (United Kingdom);
Zulfikar Najmudin, Imperial College London (United Kingdom);
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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII

8709-32, Session 8

A vehicle threat detection system using
correlation analysis and synthesized x-ray
imagesYufeng Zheng, Alcorn State Univ. (United States); Adel
Elmaghraby, University of Louisville (United States)
The goal of the proposed research is to automate the vehicle threat
detection with X-ray images when a vehicle crosses the country border
or the gateway of a secured facility (military base). The proposed
detection system requires two inputs: probe images (from X-ray machine)and gallery images (from database). For each vehicle, the gallery
images include the X-ray images of fully-loaded (with typical cargo)
and unloaded (empty) vehicle. The proposed system produces two
types of outputs for threat detection: the detected anomalies and thesynthesized images (e.g., grayscale fusion, color fusion, and differential
images). The anomalies are automatically detected with the block-wisecorrelation analysis between two temporally aligned images (probe
versus gallery). The locations of detected anomalies can be marked
with small rectangles on the probe X-ray images. The several side-view
images can be combined into one fused image in gray scale and incolors (color fusion) that provides more comprehensive information to theoperator. The fused images are suitable for human analysis and decision.
We analyzed several samples of vehicle X-ray images, each of which
consists of 4 images generated from AS&E OmniView GantryTM. The
preliminary results of detected anomalies and synthesized images arevery promising; meanwhile the processing speed is very fast.

8709-33, Session 8

Quasi-static high-resolution magneticfield detection based on dielectric opticalresonators
Tindaro Ioppolo, Edoardo Rubino, Southern Methodist Univ.
(United States)
In this paper we present a high resolution magnetic field sensor thatis based on the perturbation of the of the optical modes of cylindricaland spherical dielectric resonator. The optical resonator is side coupled
to a tapered single mode optical fiber. One side of the optical fiber iscoupled to a distribute feedback laser while the other end is coupled toa photodiode. The optical modes of the dielectric cavity are perturbed
using a metglas beam that is in conatct with the resonator. When the
metglas beam is exposed to an external magnetic field it will elongate
perturbing the optical modes of the dielectric cavity. Different sensor
configurations are under investigation to optimize the sensor resolution.

8709-35, Session 8

Underwater surveillance system forinspection of strategic coastal installations
Vladivoj Valkovic, Analysis and Control Technologies, Ltd.
(Croatia); Davor Sudac, Jasmina Obhodas, Institut Ruder
Bo?kovic (Croatia)
Recently thousands of structures for the production of oil, gas andelectricity have been erected in the coastal seas around the Globe. Thoseare not the only structures in the sea; sea floor is intertwined by pipes
providing water, electricity, gas and communication to the islanders.
In addition infrastructure objects like bridges, power stations, ports
and dams have critical underwater components. They all need to beinspected for the service, repaired when malfunctioning and kept in theenvironmentally accepted conditions.
A new addition to the underwater NDT family is fast neutron activation
analysis induced by tagged 14 MeV neutrons. It has been shown thata sealed tube 14 MeV neutron generator can be successfully used
underwater when mounted together with gamma detector and associatedelectronics inside a specially designed ROV.
We have shown that such a system can be used to study problems
related to integrity and stability of coastal and underwater constructions
namely underwater parts of infrastructure objects like bridges, dams, etc.
The problems which have been elaborated include:- Mechanism of corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete immersed in
the sea water.
- Influence of environment, stress and materials on corrosion ofreinforcement in concrete.
Devices which can perform without cleaning the structure could
substantially reduce time and, ultimately, costs. The described neutron
based system is capable to obtain information about the compositionand state of the surfaces covered with 4-6 cm thick layer of marineorganisms.

8709-69, Session 8

The development of an ‘on-belttomosynthesis’ system for cost-effective (3D)
baggage screening.
Selina Kolokytha, Robert Speller, Stuart Robson, Univ. College
London (United Kingdom)

8709-34, Session 8

Detection of tunnel excavation using fiber
optic reflectometry: experimental validation
Raphael Linker, Assaf Klar, Technion-Israel Institute ofTechnology (Israel)
Cross-border smuggling tunnels enable unmonitored movement ofpeople and goods, and pose a severe threat to homeland security. In
recent years, we have been working on the development of a system
based on fiber-optic Brillouin time domain reflectometry (BOTDR) for
detecting tunnel excavation. The system is based on the observationthat the excavation of an underground cavity induces strains in the soil,
which can be detected in a fiber optic cable buried at a shallow depth.
In two previous presentations (SPIE publications 731603 and 76662A)
we have reported the initial development of the system as well as its
validation using small-scale experiments which were conducted in a large
centrifuge. In this presentation we will report for the first time results of66

full-scale experiments and further discuss the system’s performance.
We will also show how the soil strain measurements enable not only
detection and localization of the tunnel but also estimation of its depth
and size, and in some cases the rate at which it approaches the fiber
optic cable.

This study describes a cost-effective check-in baggage screening
system, based on ‘on-belt tomosynthesis’ (ObT) and close-range
photogrammetry, that is designed to address the limitations of themost common method of baggage screening, conventional projection
radiography:
1) Superimposition of the projections of the individual items withinbaggage
2) Distorted image information due to disparity in x-ray absorption
properties among individual items within baggage
These effects can lead to loss of information and an increase in baggage
handling time, as baggage is manually searched or screened with moreadvanced systems, most frequently a CT scanner. CT is more advanced
than conventional x-ray systems, however, slower, more complex, andcostly.
This project proposes a system that overcomes the limitations of theformer systems, creating a cost-effective fully automated pseudo-3D

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
imaging system, by combining x-ray and optical imaging to form digital
tomograms. Tomosynthesis is the creation of pseudo-3D images from anumber of 2D projections which are acquired at a range of orientations
around a static object. In the ObT system, instead of moving the sourceand detectors around the object, as in conventional CT, the movementof bags around bends in the baggage transport system provides therequired relative motion between source, object and a fan configurationof strip-detectors. For image reconstruction it is necessary to accurately
establish the sequential position and orientation of each bag as it isimaged. For this, a low-cost photogrammetric solution is used, basedon geometrically calibrated web–cameras positioned around the bends
where the bags are imaged.

probability of neutralization depends on both the platform speed and thetime between “shots”. The second approach assumes that each target
has a random but fixed “threshold” which is virtually a static problem.
The third approach assumes a summation of pulses adding to a heating
effect that leads to a breakdown of sensitive and critical elements ofa circuit. The results are used to predict the estimated probability ofneutralization for different target heights above the ground, the standoff
distance, the effect of time between microwave pulses at specified
platform speeds for the three different approaches identified above.

8709-38, Session 9

UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, 35 Tavistock Square,
London, WC1H 9EZ, United Kingdom

Polarimetric antenna for ground penetratingradar based on the resistive-vee dipole

UCL Dept. Medical Physics and Bioengineering, Malet Place Engineering
Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom

James W. Sustman, Waymond R. Scott Jr., Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)

UCL Dept. of Civil, Environ & Geomatic Engineering, Chadwick Building,Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom

A broadband antenna system has been developed to use polarization
diversity for ground penetrating radar (GPR) applications. The antenna
system uses four, crossed, resistive-vee dipole (RVD) antennas operating
bistaticly to measure the simultaneous transmission and reception ofmultiple polarizations. The RVD was selected because it has low self
clutter, low radar cross section and wideband performance. The RVD
is linearly polarized, but other polarizations can be synthesized throughthe use of two orthogonal RVDs to transmit or receive orthogonal fieldcomponents. The antenna system is able to distinguish rotationallysymmetric and linear targets with its ability to transmit right-handcircularly polarized (RHCP) fields and receive both left-hand circularly
polarized (LHCP) and RHCP scattered fields. A target’s type can be
identified by comparing the relative amplitudes of the received LHCP
fields and RHCP fields. For example, the polarimetric antenna will be able
to identify linear targets such as wires or pipes because linear targets
scatter LHCP and RHCP fields in equal amounts. The configuration of
the RVDs was optimized through simulation to achieve good circularpolarization at close range and low coupling between the RVDs. Further
simulations were performed which demonstrate that the polarimetricantenna provides sufficient information to identify linear targets from
nonlinear ones, even at different target orientations. The polarimetricantenna was constructed and has been shown to also correctly detectand identify linear targets.

8709-36, Session 9

Modeling of currents induced in linear
conducting objects located at a dielectricinterface
Scott E. Irvine, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Suffield (Canada); Pradiv Sooriyadevan, Quality Engineering Test
Establishment (Canada)
Sensing of linear conductors is essential for avoiding utilities both in freespace (cable avoidance for aircraft) and underground (excavation). The
latter of these two is arguably more important as burying utilities havebecome more favourable than placing them overhead. Sensing buried
utilities is not only important in order to reduce the number of accidents
associated with excavating, but also to be able to map the continuously
expanding infrastructure beneath cities and densely populated areas.
This presentation will discuss ongoing investigations into currents
induced within linear conductors. The induced current is a usefulindicator of the amount of scattering an electromagnetic field encountersin the presence of a linear conductor, and hence, the ease with whichsuch a linear conductor could be sensed using electromagnetic radiation.
To begin the geometry of the problem is discussed. In general, the linear
conductor can be considered to be placed in one of three different
dielectric spaces: free-space or vacuum, a full-space having dielectric
properties different from those of vacuum, or a dielectric half-space.
The analysis begins with the simplest case of vacuum and assesses thevariation of induced current with several parameters using Method ofMoment calculations. The parameters include frequency of excitation,
size of conductor, and type of excitation field (dipole vs. planewave). The
analysis is extended to include the dielectric full-space and half-spaces,
as well as additional parameters including permittivity and conductivity.
The final portion of the presentation will involve a comparison of themodeling results with acquired experimental data. Such comparisons
are important for benchmarking theoretical models and will undoubtedly
stimulate ongoing research.

8709-39, Session 10

Millimeter-wave detection of landmines
Hilmi Ozturk, TÜBITAK National Research Institute of Electronics
and Cryptology (Turkey); Hakki Nazli, TÜBITAK Marmara
Research Ctr. (Turkey); Korkut Yegin, Yeditepe Univ. (Turkey);
Mehmet Sezgin, TÜBITAK Marmara Research Ctr. (Turkey);
Emrullah Bıcak, Tubitak Sensors and Radars Gr. (Turkey);
Bahattin Turetken, Tubitak Material Reseach Instıtute (Turkey)
Millimeter wave absorption relative to background soil can be used for
detection landmines with little or no metal content. At these frequencies,
soil and landmine absorb electromagnetic energy differently. Steppedfrequency measurements from 40 GHz to 60 GHz were used to detectburied surrogate landmines in the soil. The targets were 3 cm beneaththe soil surface and coherent transmission and reflection was used in
the experimental setup. The measurement set-up was mounted on a
handheld portable device, and this device was on a rail for accurate
displacement such that the rail could move freely along the scan axis.
Each measurement was performed from 40 to 60 GHz and scattering
data in frequency domain were recorded for processing, namely forinverse Fourier Transform and background subtraction. Backgroundsubtraction was performed through a numerical filter to achieve higher
contrast ratio. Although the numerical filter used was a simple routinewith minimal computational burden, a specific detection method wasapplied to the background subtracted GPR data, which was based oncorrelation summation of consecutive A-scan signals in a predefined

8709-37, Session 9

Response of RF targets to a microwave
sourceDavid C. Heberlein, John Biddle, Bohdan Balko, Institute for
Defense Analyses (United States)
This research was undertaken to predict the vulnerability of different RF
target types to the electric field pulses projected by a source mounted
on a moving platform. Three approaches were used to predict target
effects. The first approach assumed each “shot”, i.e. a short sequence ofpulses, is an independent attempt to neutralize the target such that the

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
window length. We will show the positive and negative sides of millimeterwave imaging for landmine detection.

8709-40, Session 10

A parametric analysis of time and frequency
domain GPR scattering signatures fromburied landmine-like targets
Fabio Giovanneschi, Maria Antonia Gonzalez Huici, Udo
Uschkerat, Fraunhofer FHR (Germany)
The detection and efficient classification of buried antipersonnel (AP)landmines remains nowadays a complex scientific and technical issue.
Ultra wideband (UWB) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a promisingalternative and/or complementary technology to tackle this serious
problem since it can sense any dielectric anomaly present in soil in a
non-invasive way.
In this work we present a comprehensive study of the scattered signals
by small buried targets via Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD)
numerical modeling of the GPR response for diverse antenna-soil-target
scenarios. These simulations evidence that to include the real antenna inthe model is crucial to obtain accurate target responses.
From the aforementioned one-dimensional signatures, we extract
several scattering features in time and frequency domain. The
acquired knowledge may be useful to better understand the scattering
mechanisms of subsurface objects as well as to be incorporated withintarget recognition procedures. In particular, we focus on characteristics
such as the target top and bottom scattering amplitude ratio against
the dielectric contrast between scatterer and soil for different target
geometries and depths. We also investigate the spectral behavior interms of the number and positions of the resonances present in thesignatures for a series of target electrical sizes and soil permittivities.
Moreover, a short two-dimensional analysis of the scattering responses
is also made applying a time-frequency transformation to the simulated
GPR data.
Finally, a brief theoretical interpretation of the results is provided together
with a detailed summary of the most relevant temporal and spectralfeatures encountered.

8709-42, Session 11

Optical detection of buried explosive threats:
Longitudinal comparison of visible, SWIR, and
TIR signal strengths
James J. Staszewski, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States);Charles A. Hibbitts, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.
(United States); Luke Davis, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (UnitedStates)Vision is an effective, but imperfect way of detecting buried explosive
threats. This work quantifies observer sensitivity to optical information
produced by burial of anti-tank and small anti-personnel landmines,
asking ‘How detectable are soil signatures captured in visible, short wave
infrared, and thermal infrared bands?’ and “How long do they remain
detectable?’ Signature imagery in each band from the same mines wascollected over a 6-week period. “Best in band” images were sampled
for each week-long time epoch. Images on the other bands collected at
the same time as each “best” were used as incidental “signal” controls.
Images showing adjacent undisturbed areas and matched in time toeach “signal” signature in each band served as controls. Signal andcontrol images were presented to adult observers in a binary choice task.
Signal detection measures (d’ and A’) were used to quantify signaturedetectability. Results suggest negligible declines in signal strength overthe period sampled. Strength for “Best” signatures was generally superior
to incidental signatures in each band. Aggregated results suggest thesuperiority of SWIR imagery over visible and TIR, showing greatest

68

advantage and strength for the small signature of an anti-personnel mine.
Strengths for visible and SWIR were roughly equivalent for best andincidentals for anti-tank targets. Strengths varied substantially for eachband over time epochs and more so for incidentals than “bests” in eachband. The variability and complementary among the bands suggeststhat each support detection under appropriate conditions. Investigationof environmental conditions that predict when each band yields thestrongest signals is warranted.

8709-43, Session 11

Comparison of broadband and hyperspectral
thermal infrared imaging of buried threat
objects
John E. McFee, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Suffield (Canada); Stephen Achal, Alejandra U. Diaz, ITRES
Research Ltd. (Canada); Anthony A. Faust, Defence Researchand Development Canada, Suffield (Canada)Previous research by many groups has shown that broadband thermal
infrared (TIR) imagers can detect buried explosive threat devices, such as
landmines and improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Broadband detection
measures the apparent temperature – an average over the wavebandof the product of the true soil surface temperature and the emissivity.
Broadband detection suffers from inconsistent performance (low signal,high clutter rates), due in part to diurnal variations, environmental andmeteorological conditions and soil surface effects. It has been suggested
that hyperspectral TIR imaging might have improved performance since it
can, in principle, allow extraction of the wavelength-dependent emissivity
and the true soil surface temperature. This would allow the surface
disturbance effects to be separated from the soil column (bulk) effects.
A significant, and as yet unanswered, question is whether hyperspectral
TIR images provide better detection capability (higher probability ofdetection and/or lower false alarm rate) than broadband thermal images.
TIR hyperspectral image data of threat objects, buried and surface-laidin bare soil, were obtained in arid, desert-like conditions over full diurnal
cycles for several days. Regions of interest containing threat objects
and backgrounds were extracted throughout the time period. Simulated
broadband images were derived from the hyperspectral images. The
time evolution of the images was studied. Various metrics were used
to compare the ability of the broadband and hyperspectral images todiscriminate objects from background. Hyperspectral was found toprovide some improvement over broadband imaging in detection of
threat objects for the limited set of data studied.

8709-44, Session 11

A broad-band field portable reflectometer tocharacterize soils and chemical samples
Eldon Puckrin, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Valcartier (Canada); Louis Moreau, Hugo A. Bourque, Real
Ouellet, Florent M. Prel, Claude B. Roy, Christian A. Vallieres,
Guillaume Thériault, ABB Analytical Measurement (Canada)
The developments of optical methods to characterize soils and various
surface contaminants require complete and reliable databases of spectral
signatures of various objects, including chemical and representative
background surfaces. Ideally, the databases should be acquired in thefield to properly consider the chemical mixing and heterogeneity of thesurfaces. Spectral characterization instruments are common in the visible
and the short-wave infrared but there are few solutions in the mid-wave
and thermal infrared.
ABB recently developed a broad band spectrometer based on a small
FTIR spectrometer. It is capable of measuring diffuse spectral reflectancefrom various surfaces in the infrared from 0.7 to 13.5 microns. Thissensor has been developed to be operated in the field by one person.
It is lightweight (about 12 kg); it is battery powered and ruggedized

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIIIa spot-finding procedure (to look for potential targets) followed by the
extraction of several features from the neighborhood of each spot. The
features include local binary pattern (LBP) and histogram of oriented
gradients (HOG) as these are good at detecting texture classes Finally,
we project and sum each hit into UTM space along with its confidence
value (obtained from the SVM), producing a confidence map for ROC
analysis. In this work, we use an Evolutionary Computation Algorithm(ECA) to optimize various parameters involved in the system, such as the
combination of features used, parameters on the Canny edge detector,
the SVM kernel, and various HOG and LBP parameters. To validate ourapproach, we compare results obtained from an SVM using parameters
obtained through our ECA technique with those previously selected byhand through several iterations of “guess and check”.

for operation in harsh environments. Its operation does not require
sophisticated training; it has been designed to be operated by a nonspecialist. The sensor can be used to generate spectral libraries or toperform material identification if a spectral library already exists.
Examples of measurements in the field will be presented.

8709-45, Session 11

Thermal inertia mapping of below groundobjects and voids
Nancy K. Del Grande, Brian M. Ascough, Geo-Temp Corp.
(United States); Richard L. Rumpf, Rumpf Associates
International (United States)

8709-48, Session 12

Thermal inertia (effusivity) contrast marks the borders of naturally
heated below ground object and void sites. The Dual Infrared Effusivity
Computed Tomography (DIRECT) method, patent pending, detects andlocates the presence of enhanced heat flows from below ground object
and void sites at a given area. DIRECT maps view contrasting surface
temperature differences between sites with normal soil and sites withsoil disturbed by subsurface, hollow or semi-empty object voids (or airgaps) at varying depths. DIRECT utilizes an empirical database created
to optimize the scheduling of daily airborne thermal surveys to viewand characterize unseen object and void types, depths and volumes in“blind” areas.

Automatic detection system for buried
explosive hazards in FL-LWIR based on softfeature extraction using a bank of Gaborenergy filters

8709-46, Session 12

There is a strong need to develop an automatic buried [i]explosive
hazards detection[/i] (EHD) system for purposes such as route clearance.
In this article, we put forth a new automatic detection system, which
consists of keypoint identi cation, feature extraction, classi cation, andclustering. In particular, we focus on a new [i]soft feature extraction
process[/i] from [i]forward-looking long-wave infrared[/i] (FL-LWIR)
imagery based on the use of an importance map derived from a bank ofGabor energy lters. Experiments are conducted using a variety of target
types buried at varying depths at a U.S. Army test site. An uncooled
LWIR camera is used and the collected data spans multiple lanes andtimes of day (due to diurnal temperature variation that occurs in IR). Our
experiments illustrate the performance at di erent stages in the systemand sensitivity of some of the algorithm parameters. The reported [i]Receiver Operating Characteristic[/i] (ROC) curve performance isextremely encouraging for FL EHD.

Stanton R. Price, Derek T. Anderson, Mississippi State Univ.
(United States); Robert H. Luke, U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC,
Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States);
Kevin E. Stone, James M. Keller, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States)

Buried target detection in forward looking IR(FLIR) images using Shearlet features
Mihail Popescu, Alexander T. Paino, Brian Thomson, James M.
Keller, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States)
In this paper we investigate a new approach for representing objects
in FLIR images based on shearlets. Similar to wavelets, shearlets
represent an affine system for image representation obtained by scaling
and translation of a generating function called mother shearlet. Unlike
wavelets, the mother shearlet has an extra parameter called shear thatallows the shearlet transform to be anisotropic. We believe that theanisotropic property of the shearlet transform will allow for a better
representation of objects with irregular shape and will better account forimage perspective.

8709-49, Session 12

We test our representation methodology on FLIR images obtained froman IR camera installed on a moving vehicle. Objects of interested (spots)are detected in each frame using a methodology based on mathematicalmorphology. Each spot is then represented using its shearlet features andassigned a confidence using a support vector machine classifier.

Moving beyond flat earth: dense 3D scenereconstruction from a single FL-LWIR camera
Kevin E. Stone, James M. Keller, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States); Derek T. Anderson, Mississippi State Univ.
(United States)

We compare our approach to a methodology that uses traditionalfeatures such as local binary patterns (LPB) and histogram of gradients(HOG). The comparison is performed on a dataset that consists ofmultiple 1 kilometer runs.

In previous work an automatic detection system for locating buried
explosive hazards in forward-looking long-wave infrared (FL-LWIR) andforward-looking ground penetrating radar (FL-GPR) data was presented.
This system consists of an ensemble of trainable size-contrast filtersprescreener coupled with a secondary classification step which extracts
cell-structured image space features, such as local binary patterns (LBP),
histogram of oriented gradients (HOG), and edge histogram descriptors(EHD), from multiple looks and classifies the resulting feature vectors
using a support vector machine. Previously, this system performed image
space to UTM coordinate mapping under a flat earth assumption. This
limited its applicability to flat terrain and short standoff distances.

8709-47, Session 12

Using evolutionary computation to optimize
an SVM used in detecting buried objects in
FLIR imagery
Alexander T. Paino, Mihail Popescu, James M. Keller, Kevin E.
Stone, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States)

This paper demonstrates a technique for dense 3D scene reconstruction
from a single vehicle mounted FL-LWIR camera. This technique utilizes
multiple views and standard stereo vision algorithms such as polar
rectification and optimal correction. Results for the detection algorithm
using this 3D scene reconstruction approach on data from recent
collections at an arid US Army test site are presented. These results are

In this paper we will describe an approach for optimizing the parametersof a Support Vector Machine (SVM) as part of an algorithm used to detectburied objects in forward looking infrared (FLIR) imagery captured by acamera installed on a moving vehicle. The overall algorithm consists ofReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290·

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69Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
compared to those obtained under the flat earth assumption, with special
focus on rougher terrain and longer standoff distance than in previous
experiments. The most recent collection also allowed comparison
between uncooled and cooled FL-LWIR cameras for buried explosive
hazard detection.

8709-51, Session 12

A novel framework for processing forward
looking infrared imagery with application toburied threat detection
Jordan M. Malof, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins, Peter
A. Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)
Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) cameras have recently been studied as asensing modality for use in buried threat detection systems. FLIR-based
detection systems benefit from larger standoff distances and fasterrates of advance than other sensing modalities, but they also present
significant signal processing challenges. FLIR imagery typically yields
multiple looks at each subsurface area, each of which is obtained froma different relative camera pose and position. This multi-look imagery
can be exploited for improved performance, however open questions
remain as to the best ways to process and fuse such data. Further, theutility of each look in the multi-look imagery is also unclear: How many
looks are needed? From what poses? Etc. In this work we propose ageneral framework for processing FLIR imagery wherein FLIR imagery ispartitioned according to the particular relative camera pose from which
it was collected. Each partition is then projected into a common spatial
coordinate system resulting in several distinct images of the subsurface
area. Buried threat detection algorithms can then be applied to each ofthese resulting images independently, or in aggregate. The proposed
framework is evaluated using several detection algorithms on an FLIR
dataset collected at a Western US test site and the results indicatethat the framework offers significant improvement over detection in theoriginal FLIR imagery. Further experiments using this framework suggestthat additional looks by the FLIR imagery can be used to improvedetection performance, and that detection can be performed at greater
standoff distances without significant loss in performance.

8709-52, Session 13

Sparse model inversion and processing of
spatial frequency-domain electromagnetic
induction sensor array data for improved
landmine discrimination
Stacy L. Tantum, Kenneth A. Colwell, Duke Univ. (United States);
Waymond R. Scott Jr., Georgia Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Peter A. Torrione, Leslie M. Collins, Kenneth D. Morton
Jr., Duke Univ. (United States)
Frequency-domain electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors have beenshown to provide target signatures which enable discrimination oflandmines from harmless clutter. In particular, frequency-domain EMI
sensors are well-suited for target characterization by inverting a physicsbased signal model. In many model-based signal processing paradigms,
the target signatures can be decomposed into a weighted sum ofparameterized basis functions, where the basis functions are intrinsic to
the target under consideration and the associated weights are a functionof the target sensor orientation. When sensor array data is available, thespatial diversity of the measured signals may provide more informationfor estimating the basis function parameters. After model inversion, thebasis function parameters can form the foundation of a generative model
for model-based classification of the target as landmine or clutter. In thiswork, sparse model inversion of spatial frequency-domain EMI sensor
array data followed by target classification using a generative statisticalmodel is investigated. Results for data measured with a prototype
frequency-domain EMI sensor at a standardized test site are presented.
70

Preliminary results indicate that extracting physics-based features fromspatial frequency-domain EMI sensor array data followed by statisticalclassification provides an effective approach for classifying targets aslandmine or clutter.
[This work is supported by the US Army RDECOM CERDEC Night Vision
and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) and the Army Research
Office (ARO).]8709-53, Session 13

Landmine Classification Using Possibilistic
K-Nearest Neighbors with Wideband
Electromagnetic Induction Data
Josephine Dula, Univ. of Missouri (United States); Alina Zare,
Dominic K. Ho, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); PaulD. Gader, Univ. of Florida (United States)
A K-Nearest Neighbor classifier is presented to classify mine and nonmine objects in data obtained from wide-band electromagnetic induction
sensors. The proposed classifier is motivated by the observationthat different buried object types often have consistent signatures
depending on their metal content, size, shape, and depth. Given a joint
orthogonal matching pursuits (JOMP) sparse representation, particulartarget types consistently selected the same dictionary elements. The
proposed classifier distinguishes between particular target types using
the frequency of dictionary elements selected by an alarm. Possibilistic
weights are assigned for each alarm for sixteen landmine target classes
as well as a false alarm class. The advantage of the use of possibilistic
weights is that the proposed classifier can indicate that none of the
trained target types are match a pruticular alarm. The proposed method
is compared to several state-of-art methods and shows improvement in
discrimination results.

8709-54, Session 13

Sweep detection & alignment in handheld
GPR detection devices
Peter J. Dobbins, Joseph N Wilson, Jeremy Bolton, Univ. of
Florida (United States)
Handheld ground penetrating radar (GPR) devices, such as the AN/
PSS-14, produce image data for a detection sequence. Sequences
contain sweeps of left to right and right to left swings of the device.
By smoothing the image scan and examining local minima, we candetermine the sweep ranges and turn around points contained within thedata. Different filters are used to determine the interval between sweeps
and approximate the exact turn around point for each sweep. Images
are then annotated with the start and end of sweep locations. Resultspresented are both qualitative, based on comparison to labeling byhumans, and quantitative, based on robot-collected data. Dynamic Time
Warping (DTW) helps us align overlapping regions of a left to right sweep
with its corresponding right to left sweep.

8709-55, Session 13

Material identification reflectivity kernel(MIRK), real-time processing for in-stride sea
mine countermeasures
John D. Pearson, Prometheus Inc. (United States)
Algorithms have been derived to solve the equation: signal return(f(t)) equals the integral of the product of a value K (t, t’) and s(t, t’)dt’
plus noise. Given the signal return to the sensor, f(t) and knowing thecharacteristics of the transmitted signal s(t’), the algorithm solves for thevalue k(t, t’) and provides information necessary to identify the signal

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII

8709-58, Session 14

return as target or non-target. The algorithm is tunable for different
transmitted signals in different sensor applications.

Performance of imaging techniques for
explosive hazard detection using forwardlooking ground-penetrating radar

The signal processing technique has improved classification and reduced
false target rates in several undersea sonar sytems to a significant degree(95+% in one operational defense sonar system). The technique only
requires a software patch to an operating system. This technique has
been successful, in its original application with synthetic aperture radar.

Timothy C. Havens, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States);
James M. Keller, Dominic K. Ho, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States)

8709-56, Session 14

This paper presents a comparison of FLGPR imaging techniques for thetask of detecting explosive hazards. The challenges in detecting thesehazards with FLGPR are that there are multiple types of targets buriedat different depths in a highly-cluttered environment. A wide array oftarget and clutter signatures exist, which makes detection algorithm
design difficult. Recent work in this application has focused on fusion
methods, including fusion of multiple modalities of sensors (e.g., FLGPR
and infrared), fusion of multiple frequency sub-band images in FLGPR,
and feature-level fusion using multiple kernel learning. For this paper,
we will examine the effectiveness of different imaging techniques,
including conventional delay-and-sum based methods and adaptive
imaging methods based on amplitude and phase estimation and robust
Capon beamforming. Using FLGPR data collected at a US Army test
site, we compare the performance of several imaging techniques using acommon set of previously developed detection algorithms

Detection of shallow buried objects using
an autoregressive model on the ground
penetrating radar signal
Daniel Nabelek, Dominic K. Ho, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia(United States)
The detection of shallow buried low-metal content objects using ground
penetrating radar (GPR) is a challenging task. This is because thesetargets are just underneath the ground and the ground bounce reflection
interferes with their detections. They do not produce much hyperbolic
signatures as required by most existing GPR detection algorithms dueto their special geometric shapes and low metal content. This paper
proposes the use of the Autoregressive (AR) modeling method for thedetection of these targets. We fit an A-scan of the GPR data to an AR
model. It is found that the fitting error will be small when such a target ispresent and large when it is absent. The ratio of the energy in an A-scanbefore and after AR model fitting is used as the confidence value fordetection. Using the data collected from a government test site, theproposed method can improve the detection of this kind of targets by
30% compared to the pre-screener, at a false alarm rate of 0.002/m2.

8709-59, Session 14

A run packing technique for multiple sensor
fusionTaylor Glenn, Joseph N. Wilson, Univ. of Florida (United States);Paul Gader, Brandon Smock, Univ of Florida (United States)

8709-57, Session 14

The Run Packing (RP) fusion method is a novel algorithm that addresses
the confidence level fusion problem when M different sensors (or alarm
sources) produce alarms independently. The goal of such a fusion
method is to map the output confidence range of each alarm source
to a global range shared by all of the alarm sources. The shared global
confidence range allows a single receiver operating characteristics(ROC) curve to be created, and this ROC then shows the global system
performance trade-offs across all alarm sources. We explain the run
packing algorithm, show its application to a multi-sensor buried explosive
object detection system, and compare its performance to other fusion
techniques.

Evaluation of landmine detection
performance applying two different
algorithms to GPR field data
Roi Mendez Rial, Udo Uschkerat, Fernando Rial, Maria Antonia
Gonzalez Huici, Fraunhofer FHR (Germany)In this paper we evaluate and compare the performance of two
different algorithms that have previously demonstrated their potential
in underground target detection. One of the algorithms is based on a
Likelihood Ratio Test, where the unknown model parameters of theclutter are estimated using a Maximum Likelihood approach (Generalized
Likelihood Ratio Test). The other method is a basic energy-based
detection algorithm where a noise (clutter) level is established according
to the average amount of scattered energy per time instant (depth).
Since both methods act on a pixel by pixel basis, we apply morphology
operators as final step in order to remove isolated single-pixel alarms andcluster detection pixels.

8709-60, Session 14

Multiple Instance Hidden Markov Models for
GPR-based Landmine Detection
Achut Manandhar, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins, Peter
A. Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)

Field data was obtained on specially prepared test fields at the Joint
Research Center (JRC) in Ispra (IT), where various mine simulants,
reference objects and mine-like clutter where placed at precise locations
in different soil types. An additional test site of Leibnitz Institute forApplied Geophysics (LIAG) in Hannover with different mine simulants andinhomogeneous soil is also considered.

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a widely used technology for thedetection of subsurface buried threats. Although GPR data contains
a representation of 3D space, object truth (target/false alarm location)
is usually only available in 2D space along the surface of the earth.
To overcome uncertainty in target depth location, many algorithms
simply extract features from multiple depth regions which are thenindependently used to make mine/non-mine decisions. A similar
technique is employed in Hidden Markov Model (HMM) based landmine
detection. In this approach, sequences of downtrack GPR responses
over multiple depth regions are utilized to train an HMM, which learns theprobability of a particular sequence of GPR responses being generated
by a buried target. However, the uncertainty in object depth complicateslearning for discriminating targets/non-targets since features at the(unknown) target depth can be significantly different from features atother depths but in the same volume. To mitigate the negative impactof the uncertainty in object depth, mixture models based on Multiple

The efficiency of both algorithms in terms of detection accuracies (ROC
curves) and computational burden is compared, and the impact ofpreprocessing algorithms (such as background removal and different
focusing techniques) is also evaluated.
Based on the results, we discuss the convenience of both methods to
be integrated in a real-time signal processing system considering theiradvantages and drawbacks.

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71Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
Instance Learning (MIL) have previously been developed. MIL is also
applicable in the landmine detection problem using HMMs becausefeatures that are extracted independently from sequences of GPR signals
over several depth bins can be viewed as a set of unlabeled time series,
where the entire set either corresponds to a buried threat or a false alarm.
In this work, a novel HMM-MIL framework is developed. We show thatthe performance of the proposed approach for discriminating targets
from non-targets in GPR data is promising.

parameters in the data preprocessing pipeline is inefficient and notguaranteed to find an optimal result. In this paper, the authors present a
new metric for GPR processed data quality and demonstrate its utility in
an automated parameter sweep optimization of a large set of algorithm
configuration parameters. The observed costs and benefits of using
automated preprocessing optimization are presented and discussed.

Multiple instance learning for hidden Markov
models: application to landmine detection

For preprocessing optimization and evaluation, a cost function was
desired that is independent of the target detection features – to enable
independent evaluation of the various components of the GPR target
detection software. The proposed cost function, JSUM, is a signal-toclutter ratio (SCR) metric, derived from the known KSUM metric. JSUM
was developed to be sensitive to a particular type of noise in GPR data
not captured by KSUM. The response of JSUM and KSUM to different
common types of noise was explored to qualify the usefulness of themetric.

Jeremy Bolton, Univ. of Florida (United States); Seniha Yuksel,
Univ of Florida (United States); Paul D. Gader, Univ. of Florida(United States)

JSUM was used as the cost function for a parameter sweep optimization
across a set of preprocessing parameters. The outcomes of thisoptimization are presented for discussion.

8709-61, Session 15

In standard learning techniques, an algorithm is typically presented
with exemplar samples from some number of classes, and its goal is toconstruct a characterization for each class. However, in some learning
scenarios, class labels are not readily available for each sample in the
training data. Multiple Instance Learning is a learning paradigm that
explicitly accounts for learning from ambiguous data. It accomplishes thistask by learning from sets of data rather than samples.
A novel Multiple Instance Hidden Markov Model (MI-HMM) is developed
for classification of ambiguous time-series data. Without introducing any
additional parameters, the MI-HMM provides an elegant and simple way
to learn the parameters of an HMM in a Multiple Instance Learning (MIL)
framework. The efficacy of the model is shown on a real landmine data
set. Experiments on the landmine data set show that MI-HMM learning
is very effective, and outperforms the state-of-the-art models that are
currently being used in the field for landmine detection.

8709-62, Session 15

Robust entropy-guided image segmentation
for ground detection in GPRJohn W. Roberts, Yakov P. Shkolnikov, Jonathan Varsanik,
Timothy Chevalier, Exponent, Inc. (United States)
Identifying the ground within a ground penetrating radar (GPR) image isa critical component of automatic and assisted target detection systems.
As these systems are deployed to more challenging environments theyencounter rougher terrain and less-ideal data, both of which can cause
standard ground detection methods to fail. This paper presents a meansof improving the robustness of ground detection by adapting a techniquefrom image processing in which images are segmented by local entropy.
This segmentation provides the rough location of the air-ground interface,which can then act as a “guide” for more precise but fragile techniques.
The effectiveness of this two-step “coarse/fine” entropy-guided detection
strategy is demonstrated on GPR data from very rough terrain, and its
application beyond the realm of GPR data processing is discussed.

8709-63, Session 15

GPR preprocessing optimization with signalto-clutter metrics
Jonathan Varsanik, John W. Roberts, Timothy Chevalier, Adam D.
Mulliken, Exponent, Inc. (United States)
Prior to the calculation of target detection features, ground penetratingradar (GPR) data typically requires extensive preprocessing to suppress
clutter artifacts and enhance signals corresponding to weaker targets.
Optimization of this GPR signal preprocessing pipeline is necessary toprovide the best opportunity at visual detection and automatic target
recognition. Manual, independent adjustment of the many configuration
72

8709-64, Session 15

Application of image categorization methods
for buried threat detection in GPR data
Rayn T. Sakaguchi, Kenneth D. Morton Jr., Leslie M. Collins,
Peter A. Torrione, Duke Univ. (United States)
Utilizing methods from the image processing and computer vision fields
has led to advances in high resolution Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
based threat detection. By analyzing 2-D slices of GPR data and applying
various image processing algorithms, it is possible to discriminate
between threat and non-threat. In initial attempts to utilize suchapproaches, object instance-matching algorithms were applied to GPR
images, but only limited success was obtained when utilizing featurepoint methods to identify patches of data which displayed landmine-likecharacteristics. While the approach worked well under some conditions,the instance-matching method of classification was not designed to
identify a type of class, only reproductions of a specific instance. In
contrast, our current approach is focused on identifying methods that
can account for within-class variation that results from changing target
types and varying operating conditions that a GPR system regularly
encounters. Image category recognition is an area of research whichattempts to account for the in-class variation of objects within visual
images. Instead of finding a reproduction of a particular known object
within an image, algorithms for image categorization are designed tolearn the qualities of images that contain an instance belonging to a
known class. The results illustrate how image category recognition
algorithms can be successfully applied to threat identification in GPR
data.

8709-65, Session 15

Embedding the multiple instance problem:
applications to landmine detection withground penetrating radar
Jeremy Bolton, Paul Gader, Univ. of Florida (United States);
Hichem Frigui, University of Louisville (United States)
Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is a recently researched learning
paradigm in machine intelligence. MIL provides for learning target
concepts from data with uncertain class labels also known as ambiguous
data. It accomplishes this task by performing inference over a set ofdata rather than a single sample by utilizing the noisy-OR gate. Although
this approach permits learning in this highly ambiguous environment,
optimization procedures are cumbersome due to the final inference stepusing the noisy-OR gate, which is a non-linear mapping from a set ofprobabilities to a single probability.
Rather than performing this non-linear mapping last, the proposed

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Conference 8709: Detection and Sensing of Mines,
Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XVIII
research investigates the benefits of performing a non-linear mapping
first by embedding the MI scenario into a simple classifier, thus
eliminating cumbersome optimization steps. Preliminary classification
results on ground penetrating radar data for the purposes of landmine
detection show that this method is comparable in classification accuracy
to existing MI methods; yet there is a significant reduction in computation
time during the training period. Furthermore, this method is moreamenable to online training.

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73Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
Tuesday - Friday 30–3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8710 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
enables to detect more chemicals than usual LWIR sensors.

8710-1, Session 1

Mid- and short- wave infrared hyperspectral
imaging of hazardous liquids (Invited Paper)
Chris R. Howle, Rhea Clewes, Defence Science and Technology
Lab. (United Kingdom); Keith Ruxton, M Squared Lasers Ltd.
(United Kingdom); Jason A. Guicheteau, Darren K. Emge, U.S.
Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Ctr. (United States); Bill
Miller, Gordon Robertson, Graeme A. Malcolm P., Gareth T.
Maker, M Squared Lasers Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The ability for the accurate detection and identification of hazardous
agents including chemical warfare agents (CWAs), biological warfare
agents (BWAs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is a priority forthe protection of personnel in both military and domestic environments.
Active infrared (IR) hyperspectral imaging is a technology that has great
potential for successful agent detection and identification. This imaging
technique uses an infrared source, in this case an optical parametricoscillator (OPO) with broad tunability, operating at 1.5 µm to 1.7 µm in the
short wave IR (SWIR) and 2.7µm to 3.6 µm in the mid wave IR (MWIR).
The laser beam is raster scanned across the scene of interest using a pairof galvanometric mirrors with the backscattered light being de-scanned
and focussed onto point detectors generating IR images of the scene.
If the agent is present and the wavelength is tuned to an absorption
feature, the agent will absorb the laser light through molecular vibrations.
Absorptions will appear as a dark area in the generated image, giving theuser the spatial information of the agent. The output wavelength is tuned
to on and off absorption features of the target agent, in order to build
its absorption spectrum. The recorded spectrum can then be comparedto spectral reference data to obtain identification. This work presents a
selection of results where active hyperspectral imaging was performed in
the SWIR and MWIR on a number of agents used as simulants in the fieldof CWA detection.

8710-2, Session 1

Standoff chemical D&Id with extended LWIR
hyperspectral imaging spectroradiometer
Florent M. Prel, Louis Moreau, ABB Analytical Measurement(Canada); Hugo Lavoie, François Bouffard, Jean-Marc Thériault,
Defence Research and Development Canada, Valcartier(Canada); Christian A. Vallieres, Claude B. Roy, ABB Analytical
Measurement (Canada); Denis Dubé, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada, Valcartier (Canada)Standoff detection and identification (D&Id) of unknown volatile chemicals
has been increasingly desired for homeland security, first responders andenvironmental monitoring such as chemical warfare and consequencesof industrial incidents. On site gas detection sensors are commerciallyavailable and several of them can even detect more than one chemical
species, however only few of them have the capabilities of detecting awide variety of gases at long distances.
The ABB Hyperspectral Imaging Spectroradiometer (MR-i), configured forthe needs of the Defense Research and Development Canada, detects
and identifies a wide variety of chemical species including toxic industrial
chemicals (TICs) and chemical warfare agents (CWA) up to several
kilometers away from the sensor. This configuration is called iCATSI for
improved Compact Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer. iCATSI is astand-off passive system.
The modularity of the MR-i platform allows optimization of the detection
configuration with a 256 x 256 Focal Plane Array imager (cut off 13.6 µm)
or a line scanning imager (cut off 14 µm) both covering the long wave
IR atmospheric window. The uniqueness of their extended LWIR cut off

74

Lab and field chemicals measurements results will be presented in thispaper.

8710-6, Session 1

Stand-off identification and mapping of
liquid surface contaminations by passive
hyperspectral imaging
René Braun, Roland Harig, Bruker Optik GmbH (Germany)
Stand-off identification of potentially hazardous liquid surface
contaminations and the visualisation of the contaminated area enable
first responders to rapidly assess emergency situations. Hyperspectral
imaging allows the detection and mapping of a huge variety of liquidcompounds in real time even without the active illumination of thesample. The approach that is presented in this study uses the contrastof the brightness temperature of the investigated sample and of thesurrounding hemisphere. The liquid compounds are identified by thecomparison of the reflection spectrum that is measured and synthetic
in-situ reflection spectra for various liquid compounds. These synthetic
in-situ spectra are calculated using the optical properties of the various
target compounds that are stored in a library and data characterizing
the measurement conditions. That is the spectrum of the radiation
incident to the investigated sample and the reflection spectrum of theuncontaminated background surface, both of which are acquired alongwith the measurement. In this work passive measurements of liquidsurface contaminations are presented. The comparison to modelled
spectra proves the feasibility of passive stand-off detection and mappingof liquid compounds.

8710-7, Session 2

Video-rate spectral imaging of gas leaks in
the longwave infrared
Nathan A. Hagen, Robert T. Kester, Christopher Morlier, Rebellion
Photonics (United States)
We have recently constructed a gas cloud imager (GCI) which
demonstrates the first-ever video-rate detection (15 frames/sec) of gas
leaks using an uncooled LWIR detector array. Laboratory and outdoor
measurements, taken in collaboration with BP, show capabilities thatexceed the current state of the art both in detection sensitivity and in
the ability to detect and quantify multiple gases simultaneously. Gases
imaged for these experiments include methane, propane, propylene,
ethane, ethylene, butane, and iso-butylene, but any gases withabsorption features in the LWIR band can be detected, such as sarin
and other toxic gases. These results show that practical continuous
monitoring of gas leaks is now possible.

8710-8, Session 2

Improved detection and false alarm
rejection for chemical vapors using passive
hyperspectral imaging
William J. Marinelli, Physical Sciences Inc. (United States); Rex
K. Miyashiro, Research Support Instruments, Inc. (United States);
Christopher M. Gittins, Daisei Konno, Shing D. Chang, PhysicalSciences Inc. (United States); Brad Perkins, Matt Farr, Smiths
Detection Edgewood (United States)

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Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
Two AIRIS sensors were deployed to Dugway Proving Grounds for testing
against chemical agent vapor simulants. The primary objectives of thetest were to: 1) assess performance of algorithm improvements designed
to reduce false alarm rates with a special emphasis on solar effects, and3) evaluate performance in target detection at 5 km.

These characteristics are for example the maximum detection range, thenumber of different detectable compounds, the weight, the price, etc…
All these parameters are good to compare products between them,but they omit one very important point: the reaction time in case of an
unexpected incoming chemical threat, in the case of the surveillance
application.

The tests included 66 total releases comprising alternating 120 kg glacialacetic acid (GAA) and 60 kg triethyl phosphate (TEP) events. The AIRIS
sensors had common algorithms, detection thresholds, and sensor
parameters. The sensors used the target set defined for the Joint Service
Lightweight Chemical Agent Detector (JSLSCAD) with TEP substitutedfor GA and GAA substituted for VX. They were exercised at two sites
located at either 3 km or 5 km from the release point.

To answer this important question, we imagine a new parameter: theField Surface Scanning Rate (FSSR). This value is a classical parameterin astronomical survey, use by astronomers to compare the performanceof different telescopes, they compute the quantity of sky (in sky square
degrees) analyzed per unit of time by the system.
In this paper we will compare this new figure-of-merit, the FSSR, of someon the shelf stand-off detector.

Data from the tests will be presented showing that: 1) excellent detection
capability was obtained at both ranges with significantly shorter alarmtimes at 5 km, 2) inter-sensor comparison revealed very comparable
performance, 3) false alarm rates < 1 incident per 10 hours running
time over 143 hours of sensor operations were achieved, 4) algorithm
improvements eliminated both solar and cloud false alarms. The
algorithms enabling the improved false alarm rejection will be discussed.

We will present for different surveillance scenario and for each analyzed
detector the FSSR value.
The comparison between classical FTIR system and gas imaging systemin term of FSSR will be presented.

The sensor technology has recently been extended to address the
problem of detection of liquid and solid chemical agents and toxic
industrial chemical on surfaces. The phenomenology and applicability ofpassive infrared hyperspectral imaging to this problem will be discussed
and demonstrated.

8710-12, Session 3

Performance comparison of microphone andreflector array structures for real-time andoutdoor photoacoustic chemical sensing

8710-9, Session 2

Joshua A. Lay, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore (United States);
Xing Chen, Fow-Sen Choa, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)

Standoff chemical detection with a parts per
million level calibrated detection sensitivity

Standoff chemical sensing using QCL and photoacoustic techniques
recently has been demonstrated at a distance of more than 41 feet.
To operate such a system outdoor, the system needs to be capableof rejecting other acoustic sources in the field. In this work, we
experimentally compare two different implementations of beam forming
array systems. One structure uses 4 microphones placing at the 4foci of 4 parabolic reflectors. The other structure uses an array of 4x4
microphones placing at the focal point of one parabolic reflector. Twoacoustic sources were used to represent the signal (at 3kHz) and noise(at 4kHz). Using a multi-channel A to D system we can adjust delays of
all the channels to make sure the signals from each phone were addedin phase, which can enhance the signal and at the same time suppress
the noise source. the system is then ready for real time operations. The
measured results in Fourier domain shows that the signal and noise
spectra of the 4 microphone/4 reflector system with a combined SNR of
12.48 dB. For the 16-microphone/1-reflector case, an SNR of 17.82 wasachieved. The worse SNR result of the 4-phone/4-reflector system may
not simply due to the other system has 16 microphones. It also becauseof the average effect of the full reflector area, which can play the roleto blur the phase of each element in the beam forming system. With
reflectors the phase canceling of noise at the microphone location cannot
be exact.

Xing Chen, Fow-Sen Choa, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States); Ellen L. Holthoff, Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Jenyu Fan, Adtech Optics Inc.
(United States)
Photoacoustic (PA) sensing is a highly sensitive chemical and biologicaldetection technique. Chemical sensing using quantum cascade lasers(QCLs) and the PA effect has achieved parts-per-trillion level detection
sensitivity for in situ measurements in PA cells. However, to detect
chemicals such as explosives and nerve agents, a safe standoff distanceis required. To achieve that, recently we demonstrated standoff chemical
detection at a distance of more than 41 feet using the PA effect, QCLs,
and other very light weight components, including a microphone, soundreflector, and electronics. In this work, we have further calibrated thesensitivity of such a standoff detection system. In our experiments, a
QCL was operated under pulsed conditions with a repetition rate of~1.5kHz and pulse width of ~300 µs with an average power of more than
150 mW. To calibrate the sensitivity, a commercial gas vapor generator
was used. Permeation tubes containing nerve agent simulants were thegas sources. Nitrogen was used as the carrier gas and varying calibrated
flow rates provided ppm level chemical concentrations. When the laser
output light was focused on the nerve agent in an open environment,
photoacoustic signals were generated and could be detected by an
ultra-sensitive microphone at a standoff distance. In order to increase
the detection distance, a parabolic sound reflector was added to thesystem for better sound collection. With the help of the sound reflector,
the standoff detection distance was extended up to 2 feet with the nerve
agent concentration calibrated at 2 ppm.

8710-13, Session 3

LIBS plasma model validation
Steven T. Griffin, Brandon Dent, Univ. of Memphis (United States)
An engineering thermodynamic approach to the plasma description
associated with Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) has
been previously published. In the prior work, a non-traditional modelingapproach was made to reduce the modeling system to a configurationcompatible with incorporation into a TI6701. This modeling technique
was necessitated by the extreme limitations that portability androbustness place on the physical size and power consumption of thecomputer for data processing and classification. The new modelingapproach was previously reported. This presentation reports on the
finalization of this and the validation of the result through comparison tomore established models such as detailed balance, via the solution toa system of Boltzmann Equations. The emphasis is on the engineering

8710-10, Session 2

CWA stand-off detection, a new figure-ofmerit: the field surface scanning rate
Philippe F. Bernascolle, Bertin Technologies (France)
All the manufacturers of stand-off CWA detector communicate on
the “same” characteristics. And one can find these parameters in thecomparison table published between all the different products.

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75

Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
modeling and its’ system implications - not a physics tutorial.
Implications of the modeling approximations for the accuracy andrepeatability of the complete sensor system will be presented. Possible
utilization of newer, larger scale processors and the impact that would
have on the model and associate sensor performance is addressed

8710-14, Session 3

Methodology for the passive detection anddiscrimination of chemical and biologicalaerosols
William J. Marinelli, Kirill N. Shokhirev, Daisei Konno, David
C. Rossi, Physical Sciences, Inc. (United States); Martin B.
Richardson, BAE Systems, Inc. (United States)
The standoff detection and discrimination of aerosolized biologicaland chemical agents has traditionally been addressed through LIDAR
approaches, but sensor systems using these methods have yet to be
deployed. We discuss the development and testing of an approachto detect these aerosols using the deployed base of passive infrared
hyperspectral sensors used for chemical vapor detection.

8710-16, Session 4

Smart phones: platform enabling modular,
chemical, biological, and explosives sensing
Amethist S. Finch, Justin R. Bickford, Marvin A. Conn, Thomas
J. Proctor, Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
Reliable, robust, and portable technologies are needed for the rapid
identification and detection of chemical, biological, and explosive (CBE)materials. A key to addressing the persistent threat to U.S. troops inthe current war on terror is the rapid detection and identification of
the precursor materials used in development of improvised explosive
devices, homemade explosives, and bio-warfare agents. However, auniversal methodology for detection and prevention of CBE materials
in the use of these devices has proven difficult. Herein, we discuss ourefforts towards the development of a modular, robust, inexpensive,
pervasive, archival, and compact platform (android based smart phone)enabling the rapid detection of these materials. Preliminary results focus
integration of detection methodologies based on the use of commerciallyavailable colorimetric assays for chemical and explosives identification.

The detection of aerosols requires the inclusion of down welling sky andup welling ground radiation in the description of the radiative transfer
process. The wavelength and size dependent ratio of absorption toscattering provides much of the discrimination capability. The approachto the detection of aerosols utilizes much of the same phenomenology
employed in vapor detection; however, the sensor system must acquire
information on non-line-of-sight sources of radiation contributing to thescattering process.

8710-17, Session 4

We describe the general methodology developed to detect chemical
or biological aerosols, including justifications for the simplifying
assumptions that enable the development of a real-time sensor system.
Mie scattering calculations, aerosol size distribution dependence, andthe angular dependence of the scattering on the aerosol signature will be
discussed.

Recently, we reported on the fabrication of inkjet-printed paper SERS
substrates and demonstrated their applications for the detection of foodcontaminants, pesticides and illicit drugs in the forms of spot-on assays,
swabs and dipsticks. These inexpensive and highly sensitive paper SERS
substrates eliminate the high costs associated with conventional SERS
substrates created through microfabrication. Paper SERS substrates
represent a significant advancement for point-of-sample analytics,
liberating surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy from the confines ofa traditional laboratory setting and enabling the application of this highly
sensitive analytical technique in the field.

This methodology will then be applied to two test cases: the groundlevel release of a biological aerosol (BG) and a non-biological confuser(kaolin clay) as well as the debris field resulting from the intercept of a
cruise missile carrying a thickened VX warhead. A field measurement,
conducted at the Utah Test and Training Range will be used to illustrate
the issues associated with the use of the method.

8710-15, Session 4

Sampling and analysis of chemical
particulates on surfaces.
Kenneth J. Ewing, Jas S. Sanghera, Daniel Gibson, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Fritz Miklos, Sotera Defense
Solutions, Inc. (United States)
Almost all chemical detectors are designed to collect and analyze vapors
or gasses in the ambient air. For example ion mobility spectrometers,
mass spectrometers, and gas chromatographs are routinely used todetect various toxic chemicals such as chemical warfare agents andtoxic industrial chemicals in the vapor phase. However, low volatility
toxic chemicals such as pesticides are dispersed as a solid particulate,and in many cases the pesticide is immobilized into an inert carriermaterial to enable uniform dissemination of the material. Such low
vapor pressure materials are not efficiently collected using vapor phasecollection methods. Therefore, there is a need for the development ofsampling techniques for low vapor pressure chemical particulates. The
current work describes a sampling approach for collection of chemical
particulates from surfaces with subsequent analysis using thermal
desorption ion trap mass spectrometry.

76

Paper SERS chromatography for detection of
trace analytes in complex samples
Wei W. Yu, Ian M. White, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates)In this work, we report the application of paper SERS substrates in theform of paper chromatography for the detection of trace quantities ofmultiple analytes in a complex sample. Paper chromatography facilitates
the separation of different analytes from a complex sample into distinct
sections in the chromatogram, which can then be uniquely identified
using SERS. Specific applications such as the separation and detectionof contaminants in foods, and the identification of narcotics in street
drugs will be demonstrated. This simple but highly sensitive techniquerequires no complex equipment apart from a portable Raman system andthe inexpensive paper SERS substrates. Paper SERS chromatography
has obvious applications, including law enforcement, food safety, andborder protection, and facilitates the rapid detection of chemical andbiological threats at the point of sample.

8710-18, Session 4

New SERS substrates enabled by confining
gold nanoparticles in mesopores of SBA-15
for sensitive chemical detections
Yongheng Zhu, Univ. of Washington (United States) and Shanghai
Univ. (China); Jiaqiang Xu, Shanghai Univ. (China); Shaoyi Jiang,
Qiuming Yu, Univ. of Washington (United States)
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy has immerged
as a powerful analytical and sensing tool for use in chemical andbiological threat detections. Gold and silver colloid nanoparticles andnanostructures are commonly used as SERS-active substrates. Here,SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing 2013·

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8710-64, Session PTues

we reported a new type of SERS-active substrates realized by in-situ
growing gold nanoparticles in mesoporous sillca materials SBA-15.
The high surface area of SBA-15 and the narrow gap formed by gold
nanoparticles inside the mesopores make this new SERS materialvery sensitive for detecting a variety of chemical markers. We first
synthesized hexagonal lamelliform SBA-15 with the plane size of ~6µm and the thickness of ~ 400 nm. The mesopores of ~7 nm diameterare hexagonally arranged forming vertical channels. Polydopamine
were coated on the inner wall of mesopores of SBA-15 particles andpromoted the reduction of gold precursors (AuCl4-) at room temperature.
TEM images confirm that gold nanoparticles are formed inside themesopores. In addition, X-ray diffraction patterns show that gold
nanoparticles are crystalline and mesopores structure of SBA-15 isretained. Using 4-mercaptopyridine (4-Mpy) as SERS reporter molecule,strong SERS signals were obtained and the spectra also indicated thatgold nanoparticles were confined in mesopores. We functionalized thegold nanoparticle surfaces with cysteine for specific detection of TNT
because of the formation of Meisenheimer complex between TNT andcysteine. The excellent detection limit and selectivity over DNT and othernitrocompound were demonstrated.

CN, C2 emission studies of methyl- anddinitro-imidazoles using femtosecond LIBS
techniqueSoma Venugopal Rao, Nageswar Rao Epuru, Sreedhar Sunku,
Manoj Kumar Gundawar, Surya Prakash Tewari, Univ. of
Hyderabad (India)
We present some of our initial experimental results from the laser
induced breakdown spectroscopic studies of 1, 4-dinitroimidazoleand 2-methyl-4(5)-nitroimidazole using femtosecond laser pulses. The
molecular emission spectra of CN violet band and C2 swan band alongwith elemental (C, H, N, O) features have been investigated in plasmas
generated in air, argon, and nitrogen atmospheres at different time delays(40 ns to 690 ns). The variations in ratios of molecular CN (388.2 nm), C2(516.5 nm) intensities to that of elemental of C (247.8 nm) and N (868.65nm) have been evaluated. We observed that CN/C and C2/C ratios
were constant from 40 ns to 200 ns (in all atmospheres and for both themolecules). For delays beyond 200 ns the ratios were higher (than that at
200 ns) and oscillating in air, nitrogen atmospheres but remained almost
constant in argon atmosphere. This could be due to the secondary
reactions occurring in plasma (with external atmospheric constituents)
leading to higher number of molecular species. The spectral intensitiesof the CN molecular bands were observed to be stronger in nitrogen thanin air and argon. However, C and C2 peaks were observed to be intense
in argon atmosphere than ambient air and nitrogen. In the case of airand nitrogen atmospheres contribution from nitrogen atoms surrounding
plasma leads to higher probability of CN formation. The intensity decay
constants of CN, C2 molecular and carbon peaks were also calculated.

8710-19, Session 4

Development of SERS monitoring of fuelmarkers to prevent fraud
Timothy G. Wilkinson, John Clarkson, Peter C. White, Nicholas
Meakin, DeCipher Pte Ltd. (United Kingdom); Ken McDonald,
Ocean Optics (United Kingdom)
Governments often tax or subsidise fuel products to generate revenues,
or stimulate their economies and both of these practices are subject
to fraud. Fuel marking has been shown to be effective in controlling
illegal activity. DeCipher has developed SERS as its lead technology
for measuring markers in fuel to identify and control malpractice. SERS
instruments are portable and give high specificity for fuel markers andthe analysis is quick, clear and decisive. We will present results of ourdevelopment of a stable silver colloid as a SER substrate to measure fuelmarkers at ppb levels.

8710-65, Session PTues

Femtosecond LIBS studies of Nitropyrazoles
Soma Venugopal Rao, Nageswara Rao Epuru, Sreedhar Sunku,
Manoj Kumar Gundawar, Surya Prakash Tewari, Univ. of
Hyderabad (India)
We present our initial experimental results from LIBS studies of
1-nitropyrazole, 3-nitropyrazole, 3,4-dinitropyrazole and 1-methyl3,4,5 trinitro pyrazoles using femtosecond pulses performed in argon
atmosphere. CN molecular bands in three different spectral regionsof 357 nm-360 nm, 384 nm-389 nm and 414 nm -423 nm, C2 swan
bands near 460 nm-475 nm, 510 nm– 520 nm and 550 nm-565 nm wereobserved. The C peak at 247.82 nm, H peak at 656.2 nm also have been
observed along with several peaks of O and N. CN/C2, CN/C, C2/C andC2/N ratios were measured from the average of 25 spectra obtained inargon. The effect of number of nitro groups on the atomic and molecularemission has been evaluated. A gate delay of 100 ns and a gate width of
800 ns were used.

8710-20, Session 4

Ppb detection of Sarin surrogate in liquid
solutions
Matthieu Hamel, Jennifer Hamoniaux, Licinio Rocha, Stéphane
Normand, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique (France)
Organophosphorus molecules are well known to be highly toxic
compounds. In particular, Sarin is toxic for concentrations as low as 0.03
ppm in the air (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health value). Numerous
methods could be used to detect sub-ppm concentrations of Sarin. A
technology providing easy-to-use, low cost, sensitivity and selectivity “onboard” could be emission spectroscopy.

8710-66, Session PTues

To this aim, we have developed a new, cheap and extremely sensitive
method for the detection of Diethyl Chlorophosphate (DCP), a Sarin
surrogate. This method provides in a few seconds a turn-off fluorescence
response where the sensor is able to provide a response for ppb levels.
For instance, a I/I0 = 0.68 (fluorescence quenching) was obtained when
the sensor was affected by 16 ppb of DCP.

Controls characterization of predictor
corrector-based LIBS data collection
Steven T. Griffin, Alex Sanders, Univ. of Memphis (United States)
Portable LIBS sensor communication bandwidth limitations favor local
material classification for low power consumption. Partial Least Squares- Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) and Principle Component Analysis(PCA) have been implementation via general purpose computers andare accepted for some Department of Defense applications. Prior
publications address the creation of a low mass, low power, robust
hardware spectra classifier for a limited set of predetermined materials
in an atmospheric matrix. The incorporation of a PCA or a PLS-DA
classifier into a predictor-corrector implementation on a TI6701 has
been developed. The performance modeling of the control system withAn example of our sensors is composed of a xanthene derivative(fluorescein, resorufin and so on) highly diluted in DMSO or ethanol. This
presentation will show the results and compare the sensors in terms ofquenching effect, response linearity and limit of detection. An extension
to a solid, potable system will also be presented. It is probable that these
simple systems with so outstanding detection levels will find industrial
applications.

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77Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
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an emphasis on further optimization needs addressing. This paper
characterizes, from a control system standpoint, the predictor-corrector
architecture applied to LIBS data collection. In addition, the applicationof this as a material classifier is presented. Updates in the model
implemented on a low power multi-core DSP will be presented as well.
Performance comparisons to alternative control system structures will beconsidered.

8710-67, Session PTues

An apparatus for the measurement of
re-suspension of particles from realistic
surfaces
Jonathan M. Richardson, Trina R. Vian, Benjamin L. Ervin, Jason
J. Han, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)
Particles deposited on surfaces can be re-suspended readily by varioustransient airflows (e.g., passing vehicles, pedestrian movement).
Measuring re-suspension properties is of particular interest for hazardous
particles that could present a persistent aerosol hazard in a particularlocation. MIT Lincoln Lab has developed an apparatus for determining
the relative re-suspension probabilities of various particle classes due
to transient airflow. The apparatus is designed to accommodate a wide
range of substrates and includes a method for exposing the substrates
to a range of particle classes in a well-controlled manner. This poster
will describe our exposure and re-suspension measurement methods,
presenting recent results. We acknowledge the support of Teresa Lustig
at the Department of Homeland Security for this work.
Disclaimer: This work is sponsored by the Department of Homeland
Security, Science and Technology under Air Force Contract #FA872105-C-0002. Opinions, interpretations, recommendations and conclusions
are those of the authors and are not necessarily endorsed by the UnitedStates Government.

8710-22, Session 5

Infrared hyperspectral standoff detection of
explosives
Frank Fuchs, Stefan Hugger, Jan P. Jarvis, Verena Blattmann,
Michel Kinzer, Quankui K. Yang, Ralf Ostendorf, Wolfgang
Bronner, Rachid Driad, Rolf Aidam, Joachim H. Wagner,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik (Germany)In this work we demonstrate imaging standoff detection of traces of
explosives using infrared laser spectroscopy. The system relies on active
laser illumination, synchronized with the collection of the backscatteredradiation by a high performance infrared camera. The key component
is an external cavity quantum cascade laser with a tuning range of
300 cm-1 that enables us to scan the illumination wavelength over
several of the characteristic absorption features of a large number ofdifferent explosives using a single source. For the hyperspectral image
analysis we combine an Adaptive Matched Subspace Detection (AMSD)
algorithm with an Adaptive Target Generation Process (ATGP). In sucha two-step process the algorithm separates the uncontaminated areafrom contaminated area and identifies the chemical species. In our
experiments this approach yields high detection performances while
keeping the false alarm rates at a very low level.
We investigated traces of various explosives including e.g. PETN, TNT
and RDX on different real-world target-materials. For medium distances(< 3 m) particles below 1 µg can be detected. For larger quantities wedemonstrate detection distances exceeding to 25 m. The large tuning
range of the laser proved to be crucial both for the ability to identify mostof the relevant explosives as well as for reliable suppression of crosssensitivity to other substances.

8710-23, Session 5

Quantum cascade laser (QCL) FM
spectroscopy of explosives
Zach Gutmann, Trocia Clasp, Taylor Ingle, Roger Buchanan,
Scott Reeve, Arkansas State Univ. (United States)
Polyisobutylene is a widely used polymer used in a number ofapplications including the manufacture of military grade explosives.
We have examined the vapor emanating from a low molecular weight(2800 g/mol) sample of polyisobutylene using high resolution QCL FM
spectroscopy. The spectra exhibit a rovibrational structure in both the
11 and 7.5 micron regions similar to that for the gas phase isobutylene
molecule. We have assigned the structure in the 7.5 micron range as
the isobutylene v7 fundamental band. In addition, a series of GCMS
measurements were used to detect the signature fractioning pattern ofisobutylene collected using solid phase microextraction (SPME) fromthe same sample of polyisobutylene. The base ion peak 41 m/z (99%)
as well as the molecular ion 55 m/z (16%) and 39 m/z (45%) peaks wereused for confirmation. Finally, we re-examined SPME samples collectedin the presence of C4 explosives using this same GCMS method. Herewe will describe the optically based measurements as well as the seriesof GCMS measurements that unambiguously identifies isobutylene as an
explosive bouquet compound in RDX-based C4 explosives.

8710-24, Session 5

Active infrared hyperspectral imaging of solid
particles on surfaces
Anish K. Goyal, Travis Myers, Melissa Spencer, Matthew
Aernecke, Rod R. Kunz, Stella Park, Bryan E. Tipton, Michael W.
Kelly, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Ellen L. Holthoff, Mikella
E. Farrell, Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Active long-wave-infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral imaging is a promisingtechnique for the standoff detection and mapping of chemicals on
surfaces. In this work, we investigate the phenomenology of LWIR
reflectance from surfaces that are contaminated with solid particulates.
The illumination source consisted of two wavelength-tunable externalcavity quantum-cascade lasers (EC-QCLs) that span the wavelength
range from 9.1 to 10.8-microns. The diffusely reflected radiation fromthe sample was captured by a HgCdTe focal-plane array (FPA). The
resulting hyperspectral image (HSI) cubes of 164 wavelengths wereanalyzed for spectral features that are indicative of the target material.
For these experiments, the solid particles consisted of KClO3. These
were measured as bulk powders, as a sparse distribution of particles,
as single particles dispensed from a microdrop generator into a regulararray, and as fingerprint residue. The particles and residues were
deposited on a variety of surfaces such as aluminum, glass, and car
panels, and their reflection spectra were characterized under various
illumination geometries. It was found that the reflection spectrum fromindividual particles and residues was similar to that for bulk powders
but with a dependence on the illumination geometry. By applying
detection algorithms to the HSI cubes, it was possible to detect KClO3 atconcentrations of <100 micrograms/cm2 at a ground sampling distance(GSD) of 0.6 mm. Single particles having a mass of 10’s of nanograms
could be detected at GSD = 0.3 mm. We will present the experimental
results and compare with theoretical calculations.

8710-25, Session 5

Hazardous material analysis using mid-wave
infrared hyperspectral imagining techniques
Keith Ruxton, Gordon Robertson, Bill Miller, Graeme P. A.
Malcolm, Gareth T. Maker, M Squared Lasers Ltd. (United

78

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Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
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Kingdom)

Raman spectroscopy into the Terahertz regime using an ultra narrowband volume holographic grating (VHG) based notch filter system. An
integrated, compact Raman system is demonstrated utilizing a single
stage spectrometer to show both Stokes and anti-Stokes measurements
down to <10cm-1 on traditionally difficult to detect explosives including
HMTD and TATP, as well as other chemical and biological samples.

The detection and identification of hazardous material is required in awide range of application environments including military and domestic.
Infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy is a technique that can be used
for material identification through comparing absorption spectra withreference data from a library. The absorption spectrum of a compoundis the result of light at certain wavelengths being absorbed throughmolecular vibrations of the compound. To build on this hyperspectral
imaging can be used to add spatial information of the absorber.
In this case the IR source output, an optical parametric oscillator(OPO) operating at 1.5 µm to 1.7 µm in the short wave IR (SWIR) and2.7µm to 3.6 µm in the mid wave IR (MWIR), is raster scanned using
a galvanometric mirror pair across a scene of interest. The resulting
backscattered light is de-scanned through the same mirror pair andfocussed onto point detectors and images in the IR are generated. This
hyperspectral imaging instrument is a prototype that is currently being
developed for a wide range of applications. If an absorber is present andthe OPO wavelength is tuned to an absorption feature this will be appear
as a dark area in the generated image. With the broad tunability of the
OPO a detailed absorption spectrum of the target compound can berecorded and used to aid identification. This work presents a selectionof results where explosive simulants and explosive materials were
investigated and analysed using the prototype instrument.

8710-27, Session 5

Quantum Cascade Laser Intracavity
Absorption Sensor
Andrey V. Muraviev, Doug Maukonen, Christopher J. Fredricksen,
Gautam Medhi, EMX International, LLC (United States); Robert E.
Peale, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
We describe a compact Chemical Explosives Threat Analyzer (ChETA),
which detects and identifies trace vapors. ChETA is a mid-infrared
intracavity laser absorption spectrometer based on an external
cavity multi-mode quantum cascade laser. A scanning Fabry-Perot
interferometer is used as tunable narrow band transmission filter toanalyze the laser emission spectrum. Sensitivity to date has been
demonstrated at the level 1 ppm using the test gas ethyl acetate, whichcorresponds to the vapor absorption coefficient of 5*10^-6 cm^-1. The
sensitivity to a weak sharp absorption line of the test gas ammonia has
been shown to significantly exceed that of usual Fourier spectroscopy
with a 10 meter path length. Sensitivity to the absorption coefficientsof 10^-7 cm^-1 and vapor concentrations in the low ppb range is wellwithin ChETA’s theoretical limits, which is comparable to that for thestrongest lines of saturated TNT vapor.

8710-26, Session 5

Thz Raman spectroscopy for explosives,
chemical, and biological detection
James T. Carriere, Frank Havermeyer, Randy A. Heyler, Ondax,
Inc. (United States)

8710-28, Session 6

Raman and Terahertz spectroscopy are both widely used for their ability
to safely and remotely identify unknown materials. Each approach has
its advantages and disadvantages. Traditional Raman spectroscopy
typically measures molecular energy transitions in the 200-5000 cm-1
region corresponding to sub-molecular stretching or bending transitions,while Terahertz spectroscopy measures molecular energy transitionsin the 1-200 cm-1 region (30GHz-6THz) that correspond to low energy
rotational modes or vibrational modes of the entire molecule.

LightGuard: hyperspectral imaging detector
for explosives, chemical threats, andnarcotics
Matthew P. Nelson, ChemImage Corp. (United States)
ChemImage has developed a LightGuard sensor which uses
hyperspectral imaging (HSI) for wide area surveillance and standoff
detection of explosives, chemical threats, and narcotics. Existing
detection technologies often require close proximity for sensing or
detecting, endangering operators and costly equipment. Furthermore,most of the existing sensors do not support autonomous, real-time, onthe-move (OTM) detection of threats.

Many difficult to detect explosives and other hazardous chemicals are
known to have multiple relatively strong transitions in this “Terahertz”(<200cm-1, <6THz) regime, suggesting this method as a powerfulcomplementary approach for identification. However, THz signal
generation is often expensive, many THz spectroscopy systems arelimited to just a few THz range, and strong water absorption bands in thisregion can act to mask certain transitions if great care isn’t taken during
sample preparation. Alternatively, low-frequency or “THz-Raman™”
spectroscopy, which covers the 10cm-1 to 200 cm-1 (300GHz-6 THz)regions and beyond, offers a powerful, compact and economicalalternative to probe these low energy transitions.

The LightGuard sensor provides real-time standoff detection of
explosives, chemical threats and narcotics. The LightGuard sensor
provides wide area surveillance and HSI capability enabled by liquid
crystal tunable filter technology. Easy-to-use detection software with asimple, intuitive user interface produces automated alarms and real-time
display of threat and type. The system has an extensive library of militaryand homemade explosives, chemical threats and illicit drug substances
and allows for easy threat library updates in the field for detection of newhazardous materials.

We present results from a new approach for extending the range ofRaman spectroscopy into the Terahertz regime using an ultra narrowband volume holographic grating (VHG) based notch filter system. An
integrated, compact Raman system is demonstrated utilizing a single
stage spectrometer to show both Stokes and anti-Stokes measurements
down to <10cm-1 on traditionally difficult to detect explosives, as well asother chemical and biological samples.

LightGuard technology could be used by law enforcement for standoff
screening of suspicious locations and vehicles in pursuit of illegal labs
or combat engineers to support route-clearance applications, as well assite reconnaissance and explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) missions ultimately to save the lives of soldiers and civilians.

Many difficult to detect explosives (including HMTD and TATP) andother hazardous chemicals are known to have multiple relatively strongtransitions in this “Terahertz” (<200cm-1) regime, suggesting this method
as a powerful complementary approach for identification. However,THz signal generation is often expensive, many THz spectroscopy
systems are limited to just a few THz range, and strong water absorption
bands in this region can act to mask certain transitions if great care
isn’t taken during sample preparation. Alternatively, “low-frequency”
Raman spectroscopy, which covers the 10cm-1 to 200 cm-1 (300GHz-6
THz) regions and beyond, offers a powerful, compact and economicalalternative to probe these low energy transitions.

In this paper, results from a LightGuard sensor, which include detectionof various materials in bulk form, as well as residue amounts on vehicles,
people and other surfaces, will be discussed.

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8710-29, Session 6

Investigation of short cavity CRDS noise
terms by optical correlation
Steven T. Griffin, Jason Fathi, Univ. of Memphis (United States)
Cavity Ring Down Spectroscopy (CRDS) has been identified as having
significant potential for Department of Defense security and sensing
applications. Significant factors in the development of new sensor
architectures are portability, robustness and economy. A significant factor
in new CRDS sensor architectures is cavity length. Prior publication
has examined the role of cavity length in sensing modality both fromthe standpoint of the system’s design and the identification of potential
difficulties presented by novel approaches. Two of interest here are newnoise terms that have been designated turbulence-like and specklelike in prior publication. In the prior publication the theoretical andsome empirical data was presented. This presentation addresses theautomation of the experimental apparatus, new data analysis, andimplications regarding the significance of the two noise terms. This isaccomplished through an Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) from theoutput of a custom designed optical correlator. Details of the uniqueapplication of the developed instrument and implications for short cavity(portable) CRDS applications are presented.

8710-30, Session 6

Next-generation hazard detection via ultrafast
coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy
John J. Brady, Paul M. Pellegrino, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
The diversity of possible signature molecules and their inherent low vapor
pressures make the detection of hazardous materials (e.g. biological,
chemical or explosive) in an asymmetric threat scenario a greatchallenge. As a result, there still exists a need to detect such materials on
surfaces and in the aerosolized state at a variety of ranges dependent on
the concept of operation. It has long been believed that spectroscopic
methods are the most likely candidates to fill this critical gap for soldierprotection. Studies utilizing the multiplex coherent anti-Stokes Raman
scattering (CARS) technique suggests that the broadband nature of the
femtosecond laser pulse could enable discrimination of threat signaturesin complex backgrounds. The spectral bandwidth of the femtosecond
laser pulse used in these studies is board enough to coherently andsimultaneously excite all the vibrational modes in the molecule ofinterest. The research performed here demonstrates that CARS has
the capability to detect hazardous materials such as dimethyl methyl
phosphonate and 2-chloroethyl ethylsulfide (a Sarin and a Mustard
chemical warfare stimulant, respectively) with high specificity. Further,evidence shows that CARS is capable of overcoming common sensitivity
limitations of spontaneous Raman thus allowing for the detection ofmaterial in milliseconds with standard USB spectrometers, as opposed
to seconds with intensified spectrometers. The exponential increase in
scattered photons suggests that the CARS technique may be capable ofovercoming range detection issues found with spontaneous Raman.

8710-31, Session 6

Rejection of fluorescence from Raman
spectra of explosives by picosecond optical
Kerr gating
Ida Johansson, Markus Nordberg, Henric Östmark, Swedish
Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
This paper describes how optical Kerr gating can be used for effective
rejection of fluorescence from Raman spectra of explosives andexplosives precursors. Several explosives are highly fluorescent, and thismethod enables Raman detection of explosives materials that would else
80

complicate or inhibit identification. Where electronic cameras (intensified
charge-coupled devices, ICCDs) have showed not yet to be sufficiently
fast to be used for rejection of this fluorescence, Kerr gating is here
proved to be an efficient alternative, demonstrated by measurements onplastic explosives. Results are obtained using a gating time of ~30 ps.
The Kerr gate is driven by the fundamental mode of an Nd:YAG laser, at
1064 nm, with pulses of ~10 mJ, 50 Hz and 30 ps. CS2 is used as a Kerr
medium and Glan polarizing prisms are important features of the system.
Raman spectra are obtained using a 532 nm probe wavelength, from thesame Nd:YAG laser being frequency doubled, with ~10 mJ pulse energy.

8710-32, Session 6

Spatiotemporal evolution of plasma
molecular emission following laser ablation of
explosive analogs
Jonathan A. Merten, Arkansas State Univ. (United States);
Christian G. Parigger, The Univ. of Tennessee Space Institute(United States); Cheyenne J. Sheppard, Matthew P. Jones,
Arkansas State Univ. (United States); Susan D. Allen, EmbryRiddle Aeronautical Univ. (United States)
LIBS has been investigated extensively for the detection of explosives,normally by the measurement of N, O and C lines and their ratios. There
have been fewer studies on the potential of molecular fragments (e.g.
CN, C2, NO) for explosive identification. Even less information is available
regarding the temporal evolution of these molecules’ emission within
the plasma. We have investigated the early (first microsecond) evolutionof the CN and C2 spectra from LIBS plasmas formed on 3-nitrobenzoic
acid, a simulant for energetic nitro compounds. This compound waschosen because it is available in pure, solid form and contains a nitrosubstituted benzene ring. It should be noted that molecular LIBS isinteresting for other applications such as detection of biological samples,isotopic analysis, etc.
Images were taken of the inhomogeneous LIBS plasma using bandpass
filters at emission maxima for C2 (462-472 nm), CN (379-389 nm) andcontinuum (400-410 nm) at various times starting 50 ns after the 355 nm
ablation pulse at several laser energies. The images are complemented
with time-resolved spectra. The spatially integrated C2 data shows acontinuous exponential decay from the earliest time measured. The CN
emission, on the other hand, increased slightly up to a laser energydependent maximum, with an exponential decrease thereafter.
The temperature of the molecular species at early times has been
estimated from vibrational fits using BESP software and compared to theexcitation temperature of metals doped into the sample.

8710-33, Session 7

Real-world particulate explosives test
coupons for optical detection applications
Viet Q. Nguyen, Michael R. Papantonakis, Robert Furstenberg,
Christopher A. Kendziora, R. Andrew McGill, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
Trace or residue explosives detection typically involves monitoring
explosives present as solid particulates on a solid substrate. Different
optical spectroscopy techniques have been developed to detect these
explosives by probing how light interacts with the explosives particles insitu. Depending on the specific optical detection technique, the particle
size, how the particle contacts the surface, solvent inclusion in the
crystals formed and variables which are specific for material deposited bysolution-based techniques, can all influence the spectra. This generally
places an increased level of importance on how test coupons arefabricated and highlights the need to fabricate explosives particulate test
coupons which best mimic “real world” particulate coated surfaces.
Sieving dry materials avoids many of the complications produced by

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solvent-based techniques and more closely exhibit “real world” likeparticle properties relevant for trace detection, e.g., those generated byfingerprint transfer. We have investigated how sieved material compareswith more common solvent-based techniques such as ink-jetting, aerosol
sprays and spin coating with ammonium nitrate, TNT, RDX, and sucrose.
The solution-based techniques tended to produce particles with unevenparticle sizes and spatial distributions, and often result in crystals withsolvent inclusions, and importantly, yield crystals which intimately contact
the substrate. This can influence the performance of optical detection
techniques and is not representative of trace explosives for forensic
applications. In contrast we have found the simple application of sieving
can produce particulate explosives-coated test coupons with relevant
size distributions and more realistic contact with surfaces. Additionally
we describe our efforts to quantify the samples using profilometery andimage processing.

observed from all the compounds and assigned to transitions of neutral
potassium and sodium atoms as published in the NIST atomic database[1, 3]. In addition, first evidence of broad-band molecular LIBS emission
signatures was observed for chlorate and nitrate compounds at ~10µm
and at ~7.2 µm respectively. The observed molecular emission bands
show strong correlation with FTIR absorption spectra of the investigatedmaterials.

8710-35, Session 7

Vaibhav Sinha, Hyoung K. Lee, Missouri Univ. of Science andTechnology (United States)

8710-37, Session 8

Feasibility studies on explosive detection
and homeland security applications using
a combined neutron and x-ray computed
tomography system

Optimized aerodynamic sampling of shoes tosupport trace explosives detection

The successful creation and operation of a neutron and X-ray combined
computed tomography (NXCT) system has been demonstrated byresearchers at the Missouri University of Science and Technology.
The NXCT system has numerous applications in the field of material
characterization and object identification in materials with a mixture of
atomic numbers represented. Presently, the feasibility studies have been
performed for explosive detection and homeland security applications,particularly in concealed material detection and the determination of lightatomic materials. These materials cannot be detected using traditional
X-ray imaging. The new system has the capability to provide complete
structural and compositional information due to the complimentary
nature of X-ray and neutron interactions with materials. The design of
the NXCT system facilitates simultaneous and instantaneous imaging
operation, promising enhanced detection capabilities of explosive
materials, concealed weapons and similar materials for homeland
security applications. In addition, a feasible design of a sample
positioning system which allows the user to remotely and automaticallymanipulate the sample make system viable for commercial applications
has been developed. In the present research, several explosives (TNT,
Dynamite, Nitrocellulose, Lead Azide, Semtex etc.) and weapon (Bullet,
Screw Drivers, Plastic Guns) simulants have been imaged and the results
will be provided. The fusion algorithms which combine the data fromthe neutron and X-ray imaging provide a superior image for detection.
Furthermore, the possibility of neutron activation in target materials
will be described. This paper will be a complete overview of the NXCT
system for feasibilities studies on explosive detection and homeland
security applications. The design of the system, operation, algorithm
development, and detection schemes will be narrated in detail.

Matthew Staymates, Greg Gillen, Jessica Grandner, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States); Stefan R.
Lukow, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security (United States)
The ongoing development and characterization of an aerodynamic
shoe sampling system is presented. Shoe screening technology is ofparticular interest given the inconvenience of removing shoes at aviation
checkpoints. This system emphasizes a non-contact approach to trace
explosives sampling that exploits fluid mechanics for micro-particle
release and transport. The prototype shoe sampler uses a series of highpressure air jets and air blades to dislodge particulate contamination fromthe surfaces of shoes. A large blower establishes a bulk flow field within
the system domain that guarantees all liberated particles are transported
to a collection device, rather than being blown away from the particle
collector. In this talk, we will present a series of flow visualization tools
and metrology techniques used to help with design optimization andevaluation of our prototype system. These include schlieren imaging,laser light-sheet flow visualization, and high-speed video microscopy.
Lessons learned during the ongoing development of this system will be
used to develop future shoe screeners that are based on trace detection.

8710-36, Session 7

Infrared (1-10 um) atomic and molecularemission signatures from energetic materials
using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

8710-38, Session 8

Eric Kumi-Barimah, Uwe H. Hommerich, EiEi Brown, Hampton
Univ. (United States); Clayton S. Yang, Battelle East Science andTechnology Ctr. (United States); Sudhir B. Trivedi, Brimrose Corp.
of America (United States); Alan C. Samuels, Arnold P. Snyder,Battelle East Science and Technology Ctr. (United States)

A review of sensor data fusion for explosives
and weapons detection
Michael C. Kemp, Iconal Technology Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The combination or fusion of data from multiple complementary sensors
can potentially improve system performance in many explosives andweapons detection applications. The motivations for fusion can include
improved probability of detection; reduced false alarms; detection of
an increased range of threats; higher throughput and better resilienceto adversary countermeasures. This paper presents the conclusionsof a study which surveyed a wide range of data fusion techniques andexamples of the research, development and practical use of fusion
in explosives detection. Different applications types such as aviation
checkpoint, checked baggage and stand-off detection are comparedand contrasted, and the degree to which sensors can be regarded as‘orthogonal’ is explored. Whilst data fusion is frequently cited as anopportunity, there are fewer examples of its operational deployment.
Blockers to the wider use of data fusion include the difficulty of predicting
the performance gains that are likely to be achieved in practice, as well
as a number of cost, commercial, integration, test and evaluation issues

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has shown great
promise for applications in chemical, biological, and explosives (CBE)sensing and has significant potential for real time standoff detection andanalysis. In this work conventional LIBS covering the UV-VIS-NIR region
was extended to the IR spectral region from 1 - 12 um. A Q-switched
Nd: YAG laser operating at 1064nm was employed as the excitation
source and was focused onto several chlorate and nitrate compounds(e.g. KClO3, NaClO3, KNO3, NaNO3) to produce intense plasma at thetarget surface. Comparative IR LIBS studies on KCl and NaCl were also
performed. The IR LIBS emissions within the hot plasma were focused
onto the entrance slit of a 0.15m grating spectrometer and detectedby a liquid nitrogen cooled Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT) detector.
A gated detection scheme employing a boxcar averager was used toseparate the continuum radiation in the plasma plume from the atomic
and molecular IR LIBS signals. Narrow-band atomic emission lines were

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81Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
surrounding multiple sensor ‘systems-of-systems’. The paper suggests
some tentative ways forward and makes a number of recommendations
for future research work.

8710-39, Session 8

A simulation study of detection of weapon ofmass destruction based on radar
Ershad Sharifahmadian, Yoonsuk Choi, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)
Typical systems used for detection of Weapon of Mass Destruction(WMD) are based on sensing objects using gamma rays or neutrons.
Nonetheless, depending on environmental conditions, current methods
for detecting fissile materials have limited distance of effectiveness.
Moreover, radiation related to gamma- rays can be easily shielded.
Here, detecting concealed WMD from a distance is simulated andstudied based on radar, especially WideBand (WB) technology. The
WB-based method capitalizes on the fact that electromagnetic waves
penetrate through different materials at different rates. While lowfrequency waves can pass through objects more easily, high-frequency
waves have a higher rate of absorption by objects, making the object
recognition easier.
During simulation, radar waves and propagation area including freespace, shielding materials, and WMD are modeled. In fact, an object ismodeled as different layers with different thicknesses. As an example,
the materials under test can be air, wood, steel, beryllium, plutonium.
Therefore, four layers except plutonium are defined. For each layer, fieldparameters, attenuation, transmission and reflection coefficients are
considered.
At start of simulation, a modeled radar wave is radiated toward thelayers. The average power density of the transmitted and reflected waves
are calculated for each layer. Moreover, reflection loss and absorption
loss are calculated for each layer. At the receiver side, based on thereceived signal from each layer and the time of reception, each layer
can be identified. When an electromagnetic wave passes through an
object, the wave’s power will be subject to a certain level of attenuation
depending of the object’s characteristics. For instance, the total loss,
combination of absorption and reflection losses, for 0.03mil Iron at
frequencies 30MHz, 300MHz, 3GHz are calculated as 62dB, 64dB,
108dB, respectively. Matlab simulation is performed using radar signals
with different frequencies and powers (frequency ranges KHz to GHz) to
identify different layers.

8710-40, Session 8

Dual-excitation-wavelength resonanceRaman explosives detector
Balakishore Yellampalle, Mikhail Sluch, Hai-Shan Wu, Robert B.
Martin, William B. McCormick, Robert V. Ice, Brian E. Lemoff,West Virginia High Technology Consortium Foundation (UnitedStates)Deep-ultraviolet resonance Raman spectroscopy (DUVRRS) is apromising approach to stand-off detection of explosive traces due to:1) resonant enhancement of Raman cross-section, 2) λ-4-cross-section
enhancement, and 3) fluorescence and solar background free signatures.
For trace detection, these signal enhancements more than offset thesmall penetration depth due to DUV absorption. A key challenge forstand-off sensors is to distinguish explosives, with high confidence,from a myriad of unknown background materials that may haveinterfering spectral peaks. To address this, we are developing a stand-off
explosive sensor using DUVRRS with two simultaneous DUV excitation
wavelengths. Due to complex interplay of resonant enhancement, selfabsorption and laser penetration depth, significant amplitude variation isobserved between corresponding Raman bands with different excitation
wavelengths. These variations with excitation wavelength provide an82

orthogonal signature that complements the traditional Raman signature
to improve specificity relative to single-excitation-wavelength techniques.
As part of this effort, we are developing two novel CW DUV lasers, whichhave potential to be compact, and a compact dual-band high throughput
DUV spectrometer, capable of simultaneous detection of Raman spectrain two spectral windows. We have also developed a highly sensitivealgorithm for the detection of explosives under low signal-to-noise
situations.

8710-41, Session 8

Explosives detection using quantum cascadelaser spectroscopy
John R. Castro-Suarez, Yadira S. Pollock, Samuel P. Hernandez,
Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States)
Infrared spectroscopy based explosives detection systems using
quantum cascade lasers (QCL) and thermal (Globar) sources were used
to record mid infrared spectral signals of highly energetic materials (HEM)on travel baggage and cardboard. Different deposition methods such as
sample smearing, spin coating, spray deposition and partial immersion
were evaluated for preparing samples and standards. Chemometrics
statistical routines such as principal component analysis regression(PCA) with pre-treatments were applied to the recorded infrared spectra.
The results show that the infrared vibrational techniques investigated areuseful for detection of explosives in the types of substrates studied.

8710-42, Session 8

Explosive vapor detection payload for small
robotsPhil J. Stimac, Michael Pettit, John P. Wetzel, John W. Haas III,
Applied Research Associates, Inc. (United States)
Detection of explosive hazards is a critical component of enablingand improving operational mobility and protection of US Forces. The
Autonomous Mine Detection System (AMDS) developed by the US ArmyRDECOM CERDEC Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate(NVESD) is addressing this challenge for dismounted soldiers. Under
the AMDS program, ARA has developed a vapor sampling system thatenhances the detection of explosive residues using commercial-offthe-shelf sensors. The “sniffer” payload is designed for plug-and-playinstallation and autonomous operation on small robotic platforms,
addressing critical Army needs for more safely detecting concealed or
exposed explosives in areas such as culverts, walls and vehicles. This
presentation will describe the development, integration and testing of
the explosive vapor sampling system, which consists of a sampling“head,” vapor transport tube and extendable boom. The sampling head
and transport tube are integrated with the extendable boom, whichallows samples to be collected from targeted surfaces up to 7-ft awayfrom the robotic platform. During sample collection, an IR lamp in thesampling head is used to heat a suspected object/surface and the vapors
are drawn through the heated vapor transport tube to an ion mobility
spectrometer for detection. The sampling system is capable of quickly(less than 60 seconds) detecting common explosives (e.g., TNT, PETN,
and RDX) at nanogram levels on common surfaces (brick, concrete,
wood, glass, etc.).

8710-43, Session 8

Investigation of molecular and elemental
species dynamics in NTO, TNT, and ANTA
using femtosecond LIBS
Soma Venugopal Rao, Sreedhar Sunku, Nageswars R. Epuru,
Manoj Kumar Gundawar, Surya Prakash Tewari, Univ. of

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Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
Hyderabad (India)

8710-45, Session 9

In this paper we present the results from our recent efforts to study theelemental and molecular species dynamics in high energy materials(HEMs) using the technique of laser induced breakdown spectroscopy(LIBS) with ultrashort laser pulses [1-5]. Spectral emission behavior of
atomic and molecular species of HEMs such as NTO, TNT and ANTA
were studied in different atmospheres of Argon, Nitrogen, and ambient
air. We used a femtosecond (fs) laser with pulse width of ~40 fs, 2.5
mJ energy delivering 1 KHz repetition rate pulses for creating the
breakdown. CN and C2 molecular species were formed when theseorganic molecules during the breakdown. These molecular species
are key signatures of organics substances for identification of organic
HEMs. The formation of these species will be either from the ejection ofmolecular radicals owing to direct vaporization of sample or due to therecombination reaction occurring between the constituent atomic species
present in the plasma. The surrounding atmosphere, therefore, has asignificant impact in the formation of these molecular radicals. Especiallyin the case of CN molecular fragments, the probability of CN formation
is more when atmospheric nitrogen interacts with C and C2. A precise
kinetic study of molecular band intensities evolving in time allows us todifferentiate the contribution of native CN bonds released by the sample
from those formed due to Carbon recombination with atmospheric
Nitrogen. The present work attempted to understand the sources offormation of these molecular fragments from different HEMs under
diverse surrounding atmospheres. The decay rates of various atomic
lines have also been examined.

System to study the effects of atmosphericenvironmental conditions on bioaerosol
viability and fluorescence spectra
Yongle Pan, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Joshua
L. Santarpia, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Don Collins,
Texas A&M Univ. (United States); Shanna A. Ratnesar-Shumate,Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States);Nathan Taylor, Carlos Antonietti, Jill Matus, Texas A&M Univ.
(United States); Steven C. Hill, Mark Coleman, Chatt Williamson,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Christopher Bare,
Sean Kinahan, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (UnitedStates); Andres Sanchez, Crystal Reed, Sandia National Labs.
(United States)
A system to measure the effects of atmospheric environmental
conditions, such as gases, sunlight, and humidity on the UV-laserinduced fluorescence spectra and viability of bioaerosols was designed,
built and tested. The overall system will be referred to as the System for
Atmospheric Effects on Bioaerosols (SAEB). The SAEB system includes
two rotating drums, each with a volume of approximately 1.5 m3. The
drums are made from UV transparent Teflon, and rotate at 1 rpm to help
keep particles aloft for long-term aging. The two drums are on a platformthat rotates during the day tracking the sun for maximizing exposure to
sunlight without shading. The ends of the inner volume of each drum (i.e.,the drum heads) is a membrane of porous expanded tetrafluoroethylene(ePTFE) which prevents any particles larger than about 20 nm fromentering or leaving the drum, but allows gases to pass into and out ofthe drums. In one operation mode, both drums are injected with thesame bioaerosol simultaneously, while one of the drums is allowed toequilibrate with atmospheric gases, and the other drum equilibrates
with highly cleaned atmospheric air (with humidity adjusted back toatmospheric level) in which volatile organics, ozone, NOx, and other tracegases have been removed. Several newly developed and commercial
instruments are used to monitor the aerosol properties sampled from thedrums including: 1) a UV-LIF spectrometer for measuring single particle
fluorescence spectra excited by a 263-nm or a 351-nm laser; 2) a TSIUVAPS for particle size, concentration and total fluorescence by 355
nm excitation; 3) two DMAs for monitoring the growth of small particles
injected into the chamber (for indication of secondary organic aerosol
formation); 3) Solar pyrometer, ozone, humidity, and temperature sensors
for continuously recording atmospheric environmental conditions; and4) bioaerosol viability measurement, where aerosol particles, at different
times, are collected into water by all-glass impingers (AGI) and analyzed
for colony forming units (in the case of bacteria) or plaque-forming-units(in the case of virus), as well as for total bacteria (live+dead) or virus(infectious+noninfectious) using q-PCR. The measurements period forthis study was from September 27th through October 19th, 2012 at
Adelphi, MD, USA.

References
1. S.J. Rehse and A.W. Miziolek, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8371, 837106, 2012.
2. A.W. Miziolek, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8374, 837402, 2012
3. D.W. Hahn and N. Omenetto, Appl. Spectrosc. 64, 335A, 2010.
4. D.W. Hahn and N. Omenetto, Appl. Spectrosc. 66, 347, 2012.
5. E.L. Gurevich and R. Hergenroder, Appl. Spectrosc. 61, 233A, 2007.

8710-44, Session 9

Models to support active sensing of
biological aerosol clouds
Andrea M. Brown, Jeffrey M. Kalter, Elizabeth C. Corson, Jerome
U. Gilberry, Zahra Chaudhry, Nathan T. Boggs, David M. Brown,
Michael E. Thomas, Christopher C. Carter, Johns Hopkins Univ.
Applied Physics Lab. (United States)
Elastic backscatter lidar is a promising approach for stand-off detectionof biological aerosol clouds. Comprehensive models that explain the
scattering behavior from the aerosol cloud are needed to understandand predict the scattering signatures of biological aerosols under varying
atmospheric conditions and against different aerosol backgrounds.
Elastic signatures are dependent on many parameters of the aerosol
cloud, with two major components being the size distribution andrefractive index of the aerosols. The Johns Hopkins University Applied
Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) has been in a unique position to measure
the size distributions of released biological simulant clouds using awide assortment of aerosol characterization systems that are available
on the commercial market. In conjunction with the size distribution
measurements, JHU/APL has also been making a dedicated effort toproperly measure the refractive indices of the released materials using
a thin-film absorption technique and laboratory characterization of thereleased materials. Intimate knowledge of the size distributions andrefractive indices of the biological aerosols provides JHU/APL withpowerful tools to build elastic scattering models, with the purposeof understanding, and ultimately, predicting the active signatures of
biological clouds.

Fluorescence spectra from single bioaerosol particles were observed
to vary at different time affected by various atmospheric environmental
conditions. The preliminary results obtained with this SAEB system
during the Sept-Oct field measurements will be analyzed and presented
in the conference.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Basic and Supporting Science
program of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA).

8710-46, Session 9

The multiwavelength aerosol signature
testbed for BSL3 (MAST-3)
Jonathan M. Richardson, Robert Martinez, Joseph J. Lacirignola,
Edward Froehlich, Andreas Gennis, Tiffany S. Ko, MIT Lincoln
Lab. (United States); Richard G. Vanderbeek, Mary M. Wade,

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83Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
Todd M. Sickler, Amber M. Prugh, U.S. Army Edgewood
Chemical Biological Ctr. (United States)
Biological attack remains a clear and present threat to our military andhomeland. Detection of bio-aerosol threats by optical means has theadvantages of being rapid and low maintenance, require no reagents.
Such methods rely on the optical properties of the bio-aerosols
themselves, which depend primarily on the class (spore, virus, toxin,etc.) and comingled materials (residual growth media, etc.) present. In
the case of wet-generated aerosols, the environmental conditions (e.g.,
relative humidity) are also important. This work will describe an apparatus
for measuring the optical properties of benign and malignant bio-aerosols
under a wide range of growth and environmental conditions called theMulti-wavelength Aerosol Signature Testbed (MAST). A demonstration
version of MAST has been fielded at the Edgewood Chemical andBiological Center (ECBC), where it is located in a secure biosafety level3 laboratory. This version of the MAST includes 355nm and 1550nm
polarimetric scatter and 355nm spectroscopic fluorescence channels,
all fiber-coupled. The apparatus fully contains the aerosol challenges
and can be decontaminated in-place for periodic maintenance. In thispresentation, we will describe the aerosol generation and optical systems
and present results from our measurements program.
Disclaimer: This work is sponsored by the US Army ECBC under
Air Force Contract #FA8721-05-C-0002. Opinions, interpretations,recommendations and conclusions are those of the authors and are notnecessarily endorsed by the United States Government.

8710-47, Session 9

Spectroscopic detection of microorganisms
Iris Vazquez-Ayala, Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal
Technology Div. (United States); Amira C. Padilla-Jiménez, Univ.
de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States); Jorge Castellanos,
Univ. of Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States); William OrtizRivera, Nataly Y. Galán-Freyle, Carlos Ríos-Velázquez, Univ. dePuerto Rico Mayagüez (United States); Kathrine Burns, Ryan S.
Mackie, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Dahlgren Div. (United States);Samuel P. Hernandez-Rivera, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez(United States)
This work was motivated by the need of rapid analysis of potential
biological threats. Development of capabilities for the detection,
identification and discrimination of biological agents using adequate
simulants is at the very top of defense and security agencies. That
involves the study of commonly known bacteria, using vibrational
spectroscopic techniques such as FT-IR, Raman, and surface enhanced
Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy. Various substrates were usedin order to test and compare the results obtained. These included the
preparation of various SERS active substrates, including polymer/
metal thin films spin coated on 1 cm x 1 cm pieces of glass and onto
IR windows materials barium fluoride and zinc selenide. Bacterial
suspensions were deposited on these substrates, allowed to dry in air
and analyzed. The systems used to determine to detect microorganisms
were Thermo-Ahura TruDefender™ which is based on a 785 nm laser,
Thermo-Ahura FirstDefender™ (ATR FT-IR) and Block Engineering
LaserScanner™ (a quantum cascade mid-infrared laser). All substrates
were used for analysis of three types of bacteria: Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus epidermis and Bacillus thuringiensis. The spectrasuggest that FT-IR spectroscopy can determine whether thesemicroorganisms are present, in addition to confirming that they can bediscriminated based on spectral differences of the bacterial membranethat can be detected in the spectral windows of the various instruments
evaluated.

848710-48, Session 9

Understanding water uptake in bioaerosols
using laboratory measurements, field tests,
and modeling
Zahra Chaudhry, Shanna A. Ratnesar-Shumate, Thomas J.
Buckley, Jeffrey M. Kalter, Jerome U. Gilberry, Jonathan P.
Eshbaugh, Christopher C. Carter, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States)
Uptake of water by bioaerosols can impact their physical and chemical
characteristics. The water content in a bioaerosol particle can affectthe backscatter cross-section as measured by LIDAR systems. Better
understanding of the water content in controlled-release cloudsof biosimulants can aid in the development of improved standoff
detection systems. This study includes three components to further
understanding of how bioaerosols take up water. The laboratorycomponent measures hygroscopic growth of biosimulant material after
it is aerosolized and dried. The humidity is increased in small steps toobserve the efflourescence point, then the humidity is decreased toobserve the deliquescence point. Full hygrocopicity curves are created.
The field component of the study measures particle size distributionsof biosimulant material disseminated into a large, humidified chamber.
Measurements are made with a Twin-Aerodynamic Particle Sizer(APS,
TSI, Inc), -Relative Humidity apparatus. Two APSs, operated side-byside, were chosen for this study. The first operated under dry conditions
by sampling downstream of dessicant dryers, the second operated
under ambient conditions. The relative humidity was measured within
the sampling systems to determine the difference in the aerosol watercontent between the two sampling trains. The water content of thebioaerosols was calculated from the twin APS units following Khlystov
et al. 2005. Simulant material is measured dried and wet and compared
to laboratory curves of the same material. Lastly, theoretical curves areconstructed from literature values for components of the biosimulantmaterial.

8710-49, Session 9

Wavelength resolved polarized elastic scattermeasurements from micron-sized single
particles
Vasanthi Sivaprakasam, Jozsef Czege, Jay D. Eversole, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
The goal of this project is to investigate the polarimetric scattering
signatures of aerosol particles and correlate these signature patterns
to the structure and composition of the particles, providing a basis
for discrimination between man-made and natural occurring aerosol
particles. If we are successful, this could potentially lead to a paralleltechnique in BW detection for non-fluorescent threat agents. We havedeveloped an experimental arrangement to measure multi-angle,
multi-wavelength polarized scatter from single aerosol particles onthe-fly. Our novel technique is a radical departure from conventionalpolarimetric approaches, a key element being the use of a multiple-orderretarder that creates different light source polarization states dependingon the wavelength of the incident light. We will describe in detail our
experimental approach based on a super-continuum light source, anarray of optical fibers, an imaging spectrometer and EMCCD camera tosimultaneously acquire a two-dimensional snapshot of scattering data.
Initially Mueller matrix measurements have been made from individual
particles held in an optical trap (at 405 nm). Since particles can be stably
trapped for long periods (hours), we were able to change the opticalconfiguration to acquire multiple Muller matrix element measurements ona single particle. We have done initial modeling for these measurements
at specific angles and the comparison with experimental measurementsshows good agreement. Similar measurements have been made on
slowly drifting particles, and our current concentration is on improving
experimental parameters that will allow us to transition towards making
such measurements on slowly flowing particles.

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Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
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8710-50, Session 10

8710-52, Session 10

Micro-organisms detection on different
substrates using quantum cascade laser
spectroscopy

Advances in synthetic peptides reagent
discovery
Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, Bryn L. Adams, Deborah A. Sarkes,
Amethist S. Finch, Margaret M. Hurley, Michael S. Sellers,
Matthew B. Coppock, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Candice R. Warner, U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical BiologicalCtr. (United States)

Amira C. Padilla Jiménez, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (UnitedStates); Iris Vazquez-Ayala, Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal
Technology Div. (United States); John R. Castro-Suarez, Carlos
Ríos-Velázquez, Nataly Y. Galán-Freyle, Leonardo C. PachecoLondoño, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States); Ryan
S. Mackie, Kathrine Burns, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Dahlgren
Div. (United States); Samuel P. Hernandez-Rivera, Univ. de Puerto
Rico Mayagüez (United States)

Bacterial display technology offers a number of advantages overcompeting display technologies (e.g, phage) for the rapid discovery anddevelopment of peptides with interaction targeted to materials ranging
from biological hazards through inorganic metals. We have previously
shown that bacterial display technology is relatively simple and rapid toperform making laboratory automation possible. This included extensive
study of the protective antigen system of Bacillus anthracis, including
development of discovery, characterization, and computational biology
capabilities for in-silico optimization. Although the benefits towards
CBD goals are evident, the impact is far-reaching due to our ability
to understand and harness peptide interactions that are ultimately
extendable to the hybrid biomaterials of the future. In this paper, we
describe advances in peptide discovery including, new target systems
including non-biological materials, advanced library development andclone analysis including integrated reporting.

Infrared spectroscopy based detection systems using quantum cascadelasers sources were used to record mid infrared spectral signals ofbacteria: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermis and Bacillus
thuringiensis on different substrates such as glass, card board, travel
baggage, tags, aluminum and stainless steel. The experiments werecarried out in both modes reflection and transmittance. Chemometrics
statistical routines such as principal component analysis (PCA) regression
and partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) hyphenatedchemometrics techniques were applied to the recorded infrared spectra.
The results show that the infrared vibrational techniques investigated areuseful for classification/detection theses microorganisms in the types ofsubstrates studied.

8710-54, Session 118710-51, Session 10

The MODES_SNM project

Metaproteomics analyses as diagnostic toolfor differentiation of Escherichia coli strains
in outbreaks

Alessandro Curioni, ETH Zurich (Switzerland)
MODES_SNM is a collaborative project (funded under the FP7 - Security
program), aimed at developing a prototype for a mobile, modular
detection system for radioactive and Special Nuclear Materials (SNM). To
maximize the detection capability for SNM, the prototype will combine
detectors for fast and thermal neutrons, as well as for gamma-rays. The
key detector technology in the development is high pressure scintillation
cells filled with noble gases, as recently developed by ARKTIS. The
project started officially at the beginning of 2012, for a duration of 30
months. The goal of the project is to deliver a fully integrated and field
tested prototype of a modular mobile system capable of passively
detecting weak or shielded radioactive sources with accuracy higher
than currently available systems. We will present the status of the project,
preliminary results and future prospects.

Rabih E. Jabbour, U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Ctr.
(United States)
The recent fatal outbreak of food borne illness in Europe caused by
the enterohemorrhagic strain of Escherichia coli (EHEC) dictates the
improvement and development of effective rapid detection and reliablestrain-identification techniques to ensure timely and efficient medical
countermeasures. The secreted proteins of the enterohemorrhagic E.
coli (EHEC) strains are the most common cause of hemorrhagic colitis,which can lead to life threatening hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS). We
are reporting a metaproteomics approach as an effective diagnostic tooland complimentary technique to the genomic-based approaches. This
metaproteomics approach will evaluate the secreted proteins utilize theirsignatures as biomarkers for the differentiation of EHEC strains.

8710-55, Session 11

Combined, solid-state molecular property andgamma spectrometers for CBRNE detection

The extracted EHEC and EPEC secretome proteins were reduced
and then digested by trypsin. The tryptic peptides were separated ona reverse phase LC column and electrosprayed into an LTQ-XL-ETD(ThermoFisher) instrument. The mass spectrometry (MS) analytical cycle
consisted of a broad m/z range survey scan which was always followedby five MS/MS scans of the most intense peaks.

Ben S. Rogers, Nevada Nanotech Systems, Inc. (United States);
Jay W. Grate, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States);
Brett Pearson, Nevada Nanotech Systems, Inc. (United States);
Neal B. Gallagher, Barry M. Wise, Eigenvector Research, Inc.
(United States); Ralph Whitten, Jesse D. Adams, Nevada
Nanotech Systems, Inc. (United States)

The results identified several peptides that correlate with virulence
factor proteins. The distribution of strain-unique peptides was affectedby the type of biological matrix the bacterial strains were grown in. The
EHEC O157:H7 had less number of secretome proteins than that of the
EHEC H104:O4 . Taxonomic classification showed strain-differentiation
between the studied E. coli strains which are the common ones foundin outbreaks. Overall, the preliminary data showed that metaproteomics
analyses can provide complimentary and effective diagnostic tool tothose of genomic based ones.

Nevada Nanotech Systems, Inc. is developing a multi-sensor CBRN&E
solution utilizing Molecular Property Spectrometer™ technology—amicro-electro-mechanical chip-based technology capable of measuring
a variety of thermodynamic and electrostatic molecular properties ofsampled vapors and particles—and a compact, high-resolution, solidstate gamma spectrometer module for identifying radioactive materials,
including isotopes used in dirty bombs and nuclear weapons.
By carrying out a variety of measurement processes, the system canprovide a more complete characterization of an unknown sample, leading
to a more accurate identification. Positive identifications of threats are

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Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV
communicated using an integrated wireless module. Currently, systemdevelopment is focused on detection of commercial, military andimprovised explosives, radioactive materials, and chemical threats.
The system can be configured for a variety of CBRN&E scenarios,
including handheld wands and swab-type threat detection scenarios
requiring short sample times, and scenarios in which longer samplingtimes are used. Here we provide an overview of the system design andoperation and present results from preliminary testing.

8710-56, Session 11

Design and performance of the radiation
observations with communications (ROC)
sensorDimosthenis C. Katsis, Athena Energy Corp. (United States);David A. Burns, Marc S. Litz, John A. Russo, James J. Carroll,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
A network of compact, low cost gamma radiation sensors composed of
bismuth germinate (BGO) scintillators and avalanche photodiodes (APD)
has been developed to detect radiation levels in the energy range 400
keV to 2 MeV. These sensors can detect a 20 µCi source of 137Cs froma distance of three meters. Sensitivity increased 30% by modification of
the rectangular scintillator shape. Our philosophy however is that several
individual sensors meshed in a data network is the most effective way toincrease detection area. We present the design and development of the
low-power wireless link and associated software to process and present
the data from a large network of independent GPS-enabled sensors.
The most recent design supports spectroscopic mode in addition tothe original Geiger mode. Design challenges included developing a way
to measure data while accounting for the temperature sensitivity of theavalanche photodiode gain. We used our characterization of detector
sensitivity to support real-time adjustments allowing accurate operation
through a one-hour warm-up period.

8710-57, Session 11

Study and understanding of n/?
discrimination processes in organic plastic
scintillators
Matthieu Hamel, Pauline Blanc, Licinio Rocha, Stéphane
Normand, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique (France); Robert B.
Pansu, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan (France)
This paper lies in the context of nuclear detection through fast neutron
for nondestructive assay (NDA) applications to characterize radioactive
materials. This study specifically evaluates organic plastic scintillators
abilities to discriminate gamma from neutrons in comparison with otherorganic media. It also explores different approaches that would explain
photophysical processes brought into play after nuclear interactions.
Liquid and crystal scintillators discriminate efficiently gamma unlike
plastics. Neutron/gamma discrimination proceeds by luminescentcomponents separation after ionization leading to either singlet (S)or triplet (T) excited states. γ and n are respectively responsible forpopulating S and T and from those to generate prompt and delayed
luminescence.
After γ-interactions electrons produced originate the prompt component
emitted from S1 -> S0 direct de-excitation whereas protons recoil after
n-interactions lead to T-T annihilations processes (TTA) consisting in T1 +T1 -> S0 + S1 followed by a S1 -> S0 delayed de-excitation. Higher the
TTA rate is better the separation.

8710-58, Session 11

Probing the gamma-scintillation process insemiconductor nanomaterials using ultrafast
transient cathodoluminescenceJeffrey M. Pietryga, Lazaro A. Padilha, Wan Ki Bae, Victor I.
Klimov, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States); Richard D.
Schaller, Argonne National Lab. (United States) and Northwestern
Univ. (United States)
Energy-resolving gamma-ray detectors are of particular interest forthe detection of illicit radioactive materials at border crossings andother portals because they offer fast, contactless screening that candiscriminate between dangerous and benign materials. Among detector
classes, scintillators offer an intriguing balance between cost andperformance, but current technologies rely on single-crystal materials
that are not scalable to portal-relevant detector sizes. Thus, there is arecognized need for novel, processible, high-performance scintillating
materials or composites. Composites based on semiconductor
nanocrystal quantum dots (NQDs) are of interest because of theirpotentially high gamma-stopping power, high emission quantum yields,
and low-cost solution synthesis and processing. Yet the performance of
these and other granular nanomaterials has not met expectations. We
suggest that this is due to the general lack of insight into the gammato-photons transduction process within these inherently more complex
materials, which reduces the development and refinement of candidates
to simple trial-and-error. Here, we describe the development of ultrafast
transient cathodoluminescence as a unique spectroscopic tool for
probing the population of excited states formed within a material during
scintillation, and thus determining the major sources of energy loss.
Our analysis shows that in the case of CdSe/ZnS core/shell NQDs, any
efficiency loss due to previously blamed factors of low-stopping powerand high reabsorptive losses are likely dwarfed by the losses attributableto efficient, non-radiative Auger recombination. We examine how wereached this conclusion, and how this insight defines the characteristics
needed in the next generation of scintillating NQD composites.

8710-59, Session 12

Understanding the polymorphic nature of
UO3 to infer process history
Lucas E. Sweet, Thomas A. Blake, James E. Szecsody, David E.
Meier, Jon M. Schwantes, Timothy J. Johnson, Pacific Northwest
National Lab. (United States)
Uranium trioxide is produced in the chemical conversion steps of therefinement of uranium-containing ores and it is also generated as an
output from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel. This work focuseson how the different conditions used in the production of UO3 influence
the distribution of polymorphic forms in the UO3 product. By using
X-ray diffraction, along with infrared, UV/Vis, and Raman spectroscopies
we have correlated spectroscopic signatures of the UO3 product toproduction conditions. One of the more complex production pathways
studied was the conversion of (NH4)4UO2(CO3)3 to UO3. These studies
have revealed that this conversion results in three different phasesof UO3: amorphous-UO3, α-UO3 and β-UO3. The distribution ofphases in this conversion process is dictated by the heating conditions
used. Understanding the polymorphic nature of UO3 and developing
spectroscopic signatures for industrially relevant production pathways
can be a powerful tool for establishing and confirming the origin of thiscomponent in the uranium fuel cycle.

During 50 years, it was assumed that plastic scintillators were not able
to discriminate neutrons from gamma. In this work, we will demonstratethat such TTA can occur even in plastic scintillators, following
certain conditions. Thus, the presentation will deal with the chemical
preparation, the characterization and the comparison of n/γ pulse shapediscrimination of various plastic scintillators.
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Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
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8710-60, Session 12

8710-62, Session 12

Large-area high-efficiency self-powered solidstate neutron detector

Neutron/gamma pulse shape discrimination(PSD) in plastic scintillators with digital PSD
electronics

Rajendra Dahal, Kuan-Chih Huang, James J. Q. Lu, Yaron Danon,
Ishwara Bhat, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States)

Duane L. Simonson, Anthony L. Hutcheson, Marc
Christophersen, Bernard F. Phlips, Nicholas A. Charipar, Alberto
Piqué, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

The development of high efficiency large area solid state neutron
detectors is urgent for a wide range of civilian and defense applications.
The applications of present neutron detector system are limited by thecost, size, weight, power requirements, and performance of the system.
The self-powered or very low power consuming highly efficient solid stateneutron detector using highly matured silicon technology would provide
significant benefits in terms of cost and volume, as well as allow for
wafer level integration with charge preamplifier and readout electronics.
In this paper, we will present our research advances on the fabrication,and characterization of large area solid state thermal neutron detector
module with thermal neutron detection efficiency exceeding 30%. The
detector utilizes three dimensional honeycomb silicon micro-structureswith continuous p+-n junction diode filled with enriched boron (99%of 10B) as a converter material for thermal neutron detection. The very
low leakage current density of the fabricated device helps to increase
the detector surface area greater than 8 cm2. Further, these detector
modules operate under no external bias, showing the promise ofachieving highly efficient large area solid state thermal neutron detectors
with low gamma sensitivity at low cost using matured silicon processing
technology for future applications.

Pulse shape discrimination (PSD) is a common method to distinguishbetween pulses produced by gamma rays and neutrons in scintillation
detectors. This technique takes advantage of the property of many
scintillators that excitations by recoil protons and electrons produce
pulses with different characteristic shapes. Unfortunately, many
scintillating materials with good PSD properties have other, undesirable
properties such as flammability, toxicity, low availability, high cost, and/or limited size. In contrast, plastic scintillator detectors are relatively
low-cost, and are easily handled and mass-produced. Recent studies
have demonstrated efficient PSD in plastic scintillators using a highconcentration of fluorescent dyes. To further investigate the PSD
properties of such systems, mixed plastic scintillator samples were
produced and tested. The addition of up to 30 wt. % diphenyloxazole(DPO) and other chromophores in polyvinyltoluene (PVT) results inefficient detection with commercial detectors. These plastic scintillators
are produced in large diameters up to 4 inches by melt blending directly
in a container suitable for in-line detector use. This allows recycling andreuse of materials while varying the compositions. This strategy also
avoids additional sample handling and polishing steps required whenusing removable molds. In this presentation, results will be presented
for different mixed-plastic compositions and compared with known
scintillating materials.

8710-61, Session 12

Continuous p-n junction with extremely low
leakage current for micro-structured solidstate neutron detector applications

8710-63, Session 12

An imaging neutron/gamma-ray spectrometer

Kuan-Chih Huang, Rajendra Dahal, James J. Q. Lu, Yaron Danon,
Ishwara Bhat, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States)

Amanda Madden, Peter F. Bloser, The Univ. of New Hampshire(United States); Dominique Fourguette, Liane Larocque, Michigan
Aerospace Corp. (United States); Jason S. Legere, The Univ. of
New Hampshire (United States); Matt Lewis, Michigan Aerospace
Corp. (United States); Mark L. McConnell, Marissa Rousseau,
James M. Ryan, The Univ. of New Hampshire (United States)

As neutrons are a very specific indicator of fissile materials, efficientsolid-state neutron detectors with large detecting surface area and low
gamma sensitivity are urgently needed for border security and illicit
nuclear material detection.
Detectors made in silicon enable the fabrication of low-cost and largearea detectors. To detect neutrons, boron was deposited into a silicon
3-D structure having high aspect ratio honeycomb holes in such a waythat boron is thick enough for neutrons to interact with and at the sametime thin enough for alpha and lithium-7 particles to escape sideways.
Boron deposition process followed by boron diffusion process using
low-pressure chemical vapor deposition was conducted to form a
conformal p-n junction on the entire surface of the patterned detector.
The formation of continuous p-n junction not only removes the surface
states created by the fabrication of honeycomb holes for reducing theleakage current to the level of planar detector but also fully depletes thesilicon walls for enabling the operation of neutron detector without any
bias. TSUPREM-4 and MEDICI were used to simulate the thickness andsurface doping concentration of p+-Si layers and the depletion width
within p+-n diodes to optimize the boron diffusion process. With an
optimized fabrication process, the leakage current of an enriched boron
filled honeycomb type detector is reduced to an order of ~1E-9 A/cm2
and the device noise level is below 100 KeV, allowing the connection ofmultiple detectors into a large area detector without the loss of detection
efficiency. Without the need of bias, the low amount of depleted silicon
reduces gamma sensitivity, which still maintains optimal neutron
sensitivity.

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We present the test results of a neutron/gamma-ray imaging
spectrometer for the identification and location of radioactive and special
nuclear materials. Radioactive materials that could be fashioned intoa radiation dispersal device typically emit gamma rays, while fissile
materials such as uranium and plutonium emit both neutrons and gamma
rays via spontaneous or induced fission. The simultaneous detection ofneutrons and gamma rays is a clear indication of the presence of fissile
material. The instrument works as a double-scatter telescope, requiring
a neutron or gamma ray to undergo an interaction in two detectors to beconsidered a valid event. While this requirement reduces the detector
efficiency, it yields information about the direction and energy of theincident particle which is used to reconstruct an image of the emitting
source, thereby greatly improving its sensitivity. The gamma rays
interact with the detector via a Compton scatter in an organic scintillator
followed by photoelectric absorption in a dense inorganic scintillator. A
valid neutron event requires two neutron-proton interactions in each of
two organic scintillators. Because of the instrument’s ability to form a
coherent image of the source, background events can be subtracted,
decreasing the number of events required for high confidence detection.
The instrument is optimized for the detection of neutrons with energies
from 1-20 MeV and gamma rays from 0.4 to 10 MeV. Images and energy
spectra for neutron and gamma rays are reported for several sources
including enriched and depleted uranium, and plutonium. In addition, theeffect of neutron source shielding is investigated. Laboratory results arecompared to simulations where possible.

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87Conference 8710: Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XIV

8710-68, Session 12

Progress in the development of CdMnTe
nuclear radiation detectors
Ramin Rafiei, The Uni.v of Western Australia (Australia);
Mark Reinhard, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organisation (Australia); K. H. Kim, Univ. of Korea (Korea,
Republic of); Dale A. Prokopovich, Australian Nuclear Scienceand Technology Organisation (Australia); David Boardman,
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (United
Kingdom); Adam Sarbutt, Australian Nuclear Science andTechnology Organisation (Australia); Aleksey E. Bolotnikov, Ralph
B. James, Brookhaven National Lab. (United States)
CdMnTe is a promising compound semiconductor. Its distinct advantageof excellent compositional homogeneity compared to CdZnTe, which
has been the leading room temperature detector candidate for overthree decades, enables the growth of large-volume uniform CdMnTe
crystals. Inhomogeneity of CdZnTe crystals continues to limit theindustrial yields of usable material to 10% or lower, resulting in very highmaterial costs. An international collaboration investigates CdMnTe crystal
growth, detector fabrication and detector performance1,2,3,4. Major
obstacles towards realizing CdMnTe crystals that are advantageous innuclear radiation detector applications have been high levels of residual
impurities in the manganese source material and high concentrations oftellurium inclusions which are known to act as charge trapping centres.
These issues have recently been overcome in the growth of generation II
CdMnTe crystals.
Uniform charge-carrier transport is critical to the spectroscopic
performance of CdMnTe detectors. Ion beam induced charge (IBIC)
measurements, utilising 4He2+ beams from the ANTARES heavy ion
accelerator, have revealed the spatial distribution of charge transport inthese devices down to micron scale resolution. IBIC measurements on
generation II detectors show for the first time uniform large-area chargecollection at a value of 100%.
Generation II detectors are currently the world’s most advanced
CdMnTe radiation detectors and their charge transport properties areapproaching commercially available CdZnTe. With the increased demandfor compound semiconductor nuclear radiation detectors, higher yieldadvanced CdMnTe sensors may define the economical way forward.
1R. Rafiei et al., “Investigation of the charge collection efficiency of
CdMnTe radiation detectors”, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 59 (2012) 634-641.
2R. Rafiei et al., “Charge Transport Properties of CdMnTe radiation
detectors”, EPJ Web of Conferences 35 (2012) 02005.
3K. Kim et al., “New approaches for making large-volume and uniform
CdZnTe and CdMnTe detectors”, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 59 (2012) 1510.
4R. Rafiei et al., “High-purity CdMnTe radiation detectors: A highresolution spectroscopic evaluation”, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., (2013) DOI
10.1109/TNS.2013.2243167.

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Conference 8711: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security and Homeland Defense XII
Monday - Wednesday 29–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8711 Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (C3I)
Technologies for Homeland Security and Homeland Defense XII
modalities for maximizing footstep classification performance.

8711-1, Session 1

In order to obtain footstep data, a prototype of a basic, low-cost
UGS was created. Using an FPGA and several low-cost sensors,
including seismic and acoustic, data was recorded from footsteps invarious environments. This data is currently processed in MATLAB,
but will be transferred at a later stage to an FPGA and possibly a small
microcontroller. This combination of low-power hardware design andadvanced signal processing has the potential to result in practical anddisposable unattended ground sensors for military use.

Superhydrophobic materials for homeland
security applications (Keynote Presentation)
Panos George Datskos, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8711-2, Session 28711-4, Session 2

Real-time algorithms for human versus
animal classification using a pyroelectric
sensorIntegrated algorithm for footstep detection
in countermeasures conditions and incomplicated tactical situations

Jakir Hossen, Eddie L. Jacobs, Srikant Chari, Univ. of Memphis(United States)

Alexander A. Pakhomov, General Sensing Systems LLC (UnitedStates)Classification of human and animal targets imaged by a linear pyroelectic
array senor presents some unique challenges. In this paper, we apply
two approaches to address this problem. Both techniques start withthe variational energy functional level set segmentation technique toseparate the object from background. After segmentation, in the first
technique, we extract features like texture, invariant moments, edge,
shape information, and spectral contents of the segmented object. Thesefeatures are fed to classifiers such as Naïve Bayesian (NB), and Support
Vector machine (SVM) for human against animal classification. In thesecond technique, the speeded up robust feature (SURF) extraction
algorithm is applied to the segmented objects. A code book technique
is used to classify objects based on SURF features. Human and animal
data acquired, using the pyroelectric in different terrains, are used for
performance evaluation of the algorithms. The evaluation indicates thatthe features extracted in the first technique in conjunction with the NB
classifier provide the highest classification rates. Though, the SURF
feature plus code book approach provides a slightly lower classification
rate, it provides better computational efficiency lending itself for real time
implementation.

Common walking/running person makes periodic impacts on theearth surface and generate periodic footstep signal. Security&Defense
Research, LLC (S&DR) has designed corresponding algorithm fordetection and identification of such signals in extremely heavy
background noise conditions. Today “bad guys” are very smart, welleducated and trained. They use various countermeasure techniques
to reduce our seismic security systems efficiency. One of the ways ofthe effective countermeasure is using unstable footstep and moving
with variable speed. Moving with variable speed also can be a result ofwalking in a mountain area. Modern S&DR’s algorithms have special
modification that can detect a person moving that way.
As a result S&DR has created in fact integrated algorithm for detecting
both regular and irregular footstep. This paper describes performance
characteristics of the integrated algorithm in various conditions.
This algorithm allows to create essentially new generation of theseismic security systems that can reliably work in conditions of active
countermeasures.
This paper also presents and discusses the abilities of designed
integrated footstep detection algorithm in passive IR and active ultrasonicsecurity systems. This ability is based on deep similarity of the pattern of
the footstep signals in seismic, IR and ultrasonic systems. Corresponding
S&DR’s proprietary solutions can be used in various security systems
such as wireless and wired systems, perimeter protection and field androad monitoring systems, unattended ground sensors and fixed systems
etc. This fact allows to achieve absolutely new and much higher level of
security.

8711-3, Session 2

Applying matching pursuit decomposition to
UGS footstep classification
Brett W. Larsen, Hugh Chung, Alfonso Dominguez, Jacob
Sciacca, Narayan Kovvali, Antonia Papandreou, David R. Allee,
Arizona State Univ. (United States)

8711-5, Session 2

The challenge of rapid footstep detection and classification in remotelocations has long been an important area of study for defense
technology and national security. In addition, as military institutions
seek to create effective and disposable unattended ground sensors(UGS), power consumption becomes an essential consideration in thedevelopment of classification techniques. In response to these issues,
an undergraduate research project at ASU’s Flexible Display Center has
experimented with the application of matching pursuit decomposition
time-frequency (TF) analysis to footstep classification. The algorithm
iteratively matches components of an input signal to those stored in a
TF dictionary, producing a TF representation of the input signal that canbe used to obtain distinctive features for classifying specific categories
of footsteps, such as those of several people walking and those of ananimal. The approximation of the signal in terms of known footstep
patterns is then classified using standard Bayesian detection methods.
In addition, we considered the fusion of information from multiple sensor

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Evaluation of sensor hardware and signal
processing algorithms jointly for human/
animal discrimination
Ranga Narayanaswami, Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (UnitedStates)The Department of Homeland Security needs a low cost reliable
automated system to detect illegal border crossings across the Southernand Northern borders of the United States. Seismic Unattended Ground
Sensors (UGS) without cameras are considered low cost, and are also
covert, making them a suitable candidate for border patrol. However,current seismic UGS systems use cadence-based intrusion detection
algorithms and are easily confused between humans and animals. The·

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Conference 8711: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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poor discrimination ability between humans and animals results in missed
detections as well as higher false alarm rates. False alarms reduce thetrustworthiness of the system and also lead to unnecessary actions
which may be costly. In order for seismic UGS systems to be deployedsuccessfully, new signal processing algorithms with better discrimination
ability between humans and animals are needed.
We have developed novel signal processing algorithms that utilize
spectral, wavelet and entropy based features. We have validated ouralgorithms against real data collected using our data collection nodes
that can sample data at high frequency rate and also has multiple axeson the sensors for data collection. These data collection nodes were
purposely designed with the capability for higher sampling rate andmultiple axes (accelerometer and geophone). The idea is to collect dataat these high sampling rates and multiple sensor axes and run throughthe signal processing algorithms to determine the most optimal hardware
configuration.
SSCI has also developed a hardware independent data interface (HIDI)
in order to evaluate different sensor configurations, sampling rates axes
and sensor types. By clicking on suitable icons on the HIDI the signal
processing algorithms will be run only on the chosen configuration. The
HIDI offers a common ground to evaluate signal processing algorithms
and hardware configurations simultaneously and allows one to visualize
the best case scenario.
In this paper we will present our research on signal processing algorithm
development, data collection with humans and animals, and thedevelopment of the HIDI interface and testing of the signal processing
algorithms, and tradeoffs with hardware configurations.

8711-6, Session 3

Optimization of phase mask-based iris
imaging system through the opticalcharacteristics
Yuqing He, Jiaqi Li, Jing Pan, Yingjiao Li, Beijing Institute ofTechnology (China)
Iris recognition is the most reliable method in personal identification.
However, the drawback of current fixed-focus iris imaging system is thatthe depth of field(DOF) is too small, which limits the distinct imaging
range. In order to acquire the proper iris images, user should cooperate
accurately and stand in the specific area where the iris can be imaged
clearly. This slows the recognition speed and limits the wide applicationof the iris recognition system. The cost of the autofocus iris imaging
system is much higher than the fixed-focus system. This paper presents
the design method of a phase mask based iris imaging system. Throughwavefront coding, it can extend the DOF and enhance the convenienceof iris image acquisition.
This paper analyzes the fundamental principle for the generation of
the great DoF in optical system, which means that the modulationtransfer function of wavefront coding system is defocus-independent
under a special condition. According to study the evaluation functionof the optical imaging system, combining with the ambiguity function
and the stationary phase method, we deduce the cubic phase mask’smathematical expression which is defocus-independent. Through adding
the cubic phase mask on the specific iris imaging lens, which means
replace one of the lens’ surface into the cubic phase mask’s surface, we
optimize the parameters of the cubic phase mask to get a large DOF.
Through putting the phase mask in the position of traditional fixed-focus
system’s aperture diaphragm, it can make the imaging system insensitive
to defocus and the DOF of the system can be extended about 7 times.
But it may brings difficulties in aspheric manufacturing. Therefore, we
adjust the position of the aperture diaphragm and add a separated
phase mask on the system, which is easy to install the phase mask.
Optimization is also done to get good imaging quality and better DOF
extension. Experimental results show that the optimization can get 6times of the DoF extension, which is close to the optimal value of 7 times.
Experimental results also show that the extension characteristics of the
cubic phase mask is better than the quartic phase mask in iris imaging
system.

90

8711-7, Session 3

Angular dependence of source-targetdetector in active mode standoff infrared
detection
Leonardo C. Pacheco-Londoño, John R. Castro-Suarez, Univ.
de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States); Joaquín A. AparicioBolanos, Univ. Puerto Rico (United States); Carlos A. OrtegaZúñiga, Samuel P. Hernandez-Rivera, Univ. de Puerto Rico
Mayagüez (United States)
In active mode standoff sensing using infrared spectroscopy the backreflected intensity is extremely dependent on the alignment between thesource, the target and the detector. In this study we considered the effectof having the source out of alignment at small to relatively large angulardeviations from back reflection. The angle of the target with respect tothe source and the detector was varied from 0 (back reflection) to 70. The
experiments were made using three infrared sources/modalities: Fouriertransform infrared spectroscopy using a modulated source (MOD FT-IR),a non-modulated Globar (SiC) source (NON-MOD FT-IR) external to theinterferometer and a dispersive scanning Quantum Cascade Laser based
spectrometer and detector (QCL-IRS). The targets consisted of 200 ug/
cm2 PENT deposited on aluminum plates (25.4 cm x 25.4 cm) placed
at 1 meter from the sources. The evaluation of the three modalities wasaimed at verifying the influence of the highly collimated laser beam
(QCL) in the detection in comparison with other sources. The MOD FT-IR
performed better than the QCL source in terms of the intensity fall withincreasing angle. This performance is influenced by the fact that the
QCL source is polarized and this influences the scattering observed
from PETN particles deposited on the AL plates, depending critically on
the alignment between the surface and the electric field vector of the
IR laser beam. A better detection is expected from the higher intensity
QCL source, but this decreases rapidly with angle in the case of the laser
source.

8711-8, Session 3

A multiband spectral subtraction basedalgorithm for real-time noise cancellation
applied to gunshot acoustics
Antonio L. Ramos, Hogskolen i Buskerud (Norway)
Acoustical sniper positioning systems rely on the detection and directionof-arrival (DOA) estimation of the shockwave and the muzzle blast inorder to estimate the sniper’s location. In real life situations, the presenceof background noise sources, e.g., vehicle noise, results in non-negligible
inaccuracies in the detection and estimation processes which impacts
the system’s performance and reliability negatively, specially when
detecting the muzzle sound under long range distances and absorbing
terrains. This paper introduces a multi-band spectral subtraction basedalgorithm for real-time noise reduction, applied to gunshot acousticalsignals. When denoising short-time or impulsive events such as
gunshot signals, the background noise can be considered as short-timestationary. Moreover, owing to the fact that relatively long periods ofnoise only occur in real situations, the noise spectrum can be estimatedeffectively using a recursive method over successive overlapping
frames of predefined length and controlled by a smoothing parameter.
The shockwave and the muzzle blast signals exhibit distinct frequency
contents and are affected differently by the noise component. Thus, amulti-band spectral subtraction approach is used to reduce the presenceof artifacts in the resulting denoised signals. The proposed algorithm
is tested using a dataset generated by combining signals from realgunshots and real vehicle noise. The noise component was generatedusing a steel tracked military tank running on asphalt and includes,
therefore, the sound from the vehicle engine, which varies slightly infrequency over time according to the engine’s rpm, and the sound fromthe steel tracks as the vehicle moves.

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Conference 8711: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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8711-9, Session 38711-11, Session 4

The multipath propagation effect in gunshot
acoustics and its impact on the design ofsniper positioning systems

Advanced low-power personnel/vehicle
detecting radar for smart unattended groundsensor/munitions systems

Antonio L. Ramos, Hogskolen i Buskerud (Norway)

Mark A. Winston, Thomas Plummer, Steven W. Brady, Robert
Raines, McQ, Inc. (United States)

Counter sniper systems rely on the detection and parameter estimationof the sockwave and the muzzle blast in order to determine the sniper
location. In real-world situations, these acoustical signals can be
disturbed by natural phenomena like weather and climate conditions,multipath propagation effect, and background noise. The latter has
been addressed in previous work by the author and partially presented
at the 2012 edition of this conference. To the best of the author’s
knowledge, the remaining topics have not been discussed in details in
the technical literature with application to gunshot acoustics. That isparticularly true in the case of the multipath propagation phenomenon
whose effect can not be neglected, specially in urban environments.
Indeed, propagating sound waves are reflected at boundaries in thevicinity of sound sources or receivers, whenever there is a difference inacoustical impedance between the reflective material and the air. Thus,in multipath propagation environments, the received signal is generallycomposed of a direct path signal, which is not always present, plus M
scaled delayed copies of the direct path signal. The scaling factors are
dependent on the characteristics of reflective surfaces, whereas the timedelays are determined by the respective angles-of-arrival. This paper
presents a discussion of the multipath propagation effect and its impact
on the performance and reliability of sniper positioning systems. In ourformulation, propagation models for both the shockwave and the muzzle
blast are considered and analyzed. Supporting simulation results are
based on a dataset generated from actual gunshots signals.

McQ has developed a micro radar for unattended ground sensor (UGS)and smart munitions systems. The micro radar is designed to be a small
battery powered activity sensor that requires no operator adjustments
to provide reliable detection of people and vehicles with virtually nofalse alarms. The micro radar has the ability to detect, classify, and track
human and vehicular targets. Target characteristics such as 2D position(range and azimuth) and velocity are computed. Most novel about thisradar is its uniquely small size, low cost, and low power consumption.
McQ will present an overview of this radar and test results.

8711-12, Session 4

Detection of dismounts from ground-based
surveillance systems
William D. Reynolds Jr., Kenji Tashiro, Teledyne Scientific Co.
(United States)
Automated detection of dismounts and their activities in rural areas
continues to be a primary challenge for illegal border crossings,
trafficking and drug activity. While ground-based surveillance systems areoften deployed to provide early warnings, these systems traditionally failto overcome operational difficulties inherent to the natural surroundings.
Scene and background clutter due to, for example, trees, forests andwild-life often hinders detection performance, particularly in thermalbands. Thus, this research paper investigates the problem of long-range
human detection in infrared video from a ground-based surveillancesystem.

8711-10, Session 4

Recognition and localization of relevant
human behavior in videos

Common approaches to human detection and classification include
spatial feature (e.g., HOG) extraction followed by supervisedclassification to determine the presence/absence of a dismount. Typically,
spatial features such as the Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG)
are extracted from each video frame, which depend on the viewpoint
and scale. Our approach exploits the spatial-temporal characteristics
of human dismounts to improve the detection. We propose the Multiple
Instance Learning (MIL) framework to combine both spatial and temporalfeatures where each feature is considered as an instance of the target.
The advantage of the MIL approach helps address the target variability
due to pose, occlusion and background clutter. We present quantitative
results from sample thermal infrared video to demonstrate feasibility ofthe proposed approach. The results show that the MIL approach provides
a robust framework for combining multiple features for human detection
in cluttered environments.

Henri Bouma, Gertjan Burghouts, Leo de Penning, Patrick
Hanckmann, Johan-Martijn ten Hove, Sanne Korzec, Maarten
Kruithof, Sander Landsmeer, Coen van Leeuwen, Sebastiaanvan den Broek, Arvid Halma, Richard J. den Hollander, Klamer
Schutte, TNO Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands)
Ground surveillance is a mission normally performed by human assets.
Military forces would like to shift this mission to unmanned autonomous
systems, to reduce risks. However, unmanned systems lack a capability
that currently exists only in humans: visual intelligence. The Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is addressing this problem
with Mind’s Eye, a program aiming to develop a visual-intelligencecapability for unmanned systems, in which we developed the CORTEX
system.
In this paper, we present our improved CORTEX system, which canrecognize, localize and describe the most relevant actions of a humanand interactions between multiple humans in video. The central elementin our approach is an agent-based architecture, which allows activity
analysis of multiple persons (agents) in a single scene. Furthermore,
we use a filtering mechanism for selecting the most relevant relations
and computing multi-entity properties for them in order to describeinteractions effectively.

8711-13, Session 4

Swot Analysis of Using Aerostats for
Surveillance in Counter Terrorism
Huseyin Cetin, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)

The system is trained on thousands of videos and evaluated on realistic
persistent surveillance data in the DARPA Mind’s Eye program, which
includes hours of videos showing significant scene complexity withrealistic backgrounds, different camera positions, occlusion and multiple
people with a variety of clothing performing actions simultaneously. In thepaper, we show that our system is able to track the people, detect andlocalize events, and discriminate between different behaviors, such as
approach, carry and exchange.

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In today’s conjuncture, the terrorist activities are the most compellingissue for the defence forces in order to maintain homeland security.
Especially, the terrorist elements that penetrate the homeland may
give harm. This harm can be minimized by preventing the terrorist
penetrations from homeland borders. In counter terrorism, having
intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capability and using
this capability by twentyfour hours is a deterrence for the terrorist groups.
Aerostats emerge as the ideal platform which can provide this capability.
Aerostats are different from the other manned and unmanned air vehicles·

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because of their high altitude, long endurance and hig-resolution image
capabilities. Especially having uninterrupted image transmission andsurveillance capabilities are important for having advantages in counter
terrorism.
In this article, , the operational enviroment has been imagined by givinga brief definition and features of terrorism. In addition, “what are thetechnical capabilities, the usage areas and the purposes of aerostats?”
questions will be introduced as a result of literature search. Finally thestrengths and weaknesses of aerostats, opportunities and threats for theclose future will be introduced by “SWOT” analysis method.

8711-14, Session 4

The cross-border exchange of hyperspectral
materials in anti-terroristic and forensic
investigations
Jaana R. Kuula, Univ. of Jyvaskyla (Finland); Tapani Reinikainen,
National Bureau of Investigation (Finland)
The usage of hyperspectral imaging and other digital research methods
are increasing rapidly in forensic investigation. The speed of developing
new hyperspectral investigation methods can however not beat the
speed of committing new crimes. According to the European wide
study which the University of Jyväskylä and the National Bureau of
Investigation have carried out in Finland, new hyperspectral methods
could be taken in use faster in forensic investigation by increasing theelectronic cross-border exchange of hyperspectral materials between
forensic investigators. By joining forces in analysing hyperspectral data
in different countries, more of the police officers´ and investigators´time could be addressed in operational work of preventing ordinary
and organized crime. Cooperation would also release more resourcesin developing better investigation methods. In the survey that wasaddressed to forensic investigators in 36 European countries 70 percent
of respondents indicated that it would be necessary to exchange
hyperspectral data between forensic investigation units in European andother countries. The survey indicated also that 50 percentage of forensic
investigators would like to analyse hyperspectral data immediately at thecrime scene. This is however difficult, because proper on-site analysing
methods are missing and because many wireless telecommunication
networks do not support transferring confidential data or big data files
from the crime scene into the forensic analysing laboratories. The Finnish
research group is developing solutions for these questions.

8711-15, Session 4control and display technology will be described, and performanceexamples will be given from research and development testing andfor operational systems on pipelines, critical infrastructure perimeters,
railroads, and roadways. Potential new applications will be discussed
that can take advantage of existing fiber-optic telecommunications
infrastructure as “the sensor”—leading to low-cost and high-coveragesystems.

8711-43, Session 4

Assessment of risks of electromagnetic
interference for personal medical electronic
devices (PMEDs) from emissions of
millimeter-wave security screening systems
Don Witters, Howard Bassen, Joshua Guag, U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (United States)
An increasing number of body worn and implanted personal medical
electronic devices (PMEDs) are being used by the traveling public for awide range of medical conditions. Those who chose to fly are required
to undergo security screening at airports that can include screening withmillimeter wave (mmW) advanced imaging technology (AIT) security
systems. While high priority PMEDs such as implantable cardiac
pacemakers, ICDs, neurostimulators and insulin pumps are designed andtested for susceptibility to electromagnetic interference (EMI) the present
standards for medical device electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) do notaddress exposure to the much higher frequency fields that are emitted
by mmW security systems. In the present study the FDA performed ananalysis, measurements, testing, and simulations (including developmentof a novel exposure simulation system) to assess the EMI related risks
for these high priority PMEDs when exposed to the emissions from themmW AIT system. This presentation will report on this work and findings
for the sample PMEDs. No effects on the medical devices from theexposure to the mmW security system were observed.

8711-44, Session 4

A field test of mobile x-ray back-scattering
screening system for joint multi-agency
operation for detection of IED and otherdangerous organic substances in the nordic
conditions

OptaSense® distributed acoustic and seismic
sensing using COTS fiber optic cables
for infrastructure protection and counter
terrorism

Andre Samberg, Sec-Control Finland Ltd. (Finland)

Gregory L. Duckworth, Emery M. Ku, OptaSense (United States)

Dynamic data-driven sensor network
adaptation for border control

The OptaSense® Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) technology can turn
any single mode fiber optic cable (new or pre-existing) into a very large
and high sensor density acoustic/seismic sensor array—covering up to
50 km aperture per system with “virtual” sensor separations as small as 1
meter on the unmodified cable. The system uses Rayleigh scattering fromthe imperfections in the fiber to return the optical signals measuring local
fiber strain from seismic or air and water acoustic signals. The scalable
system architecture can provide high-security perimeter and linear asset
protection from nuclear facilities to oil and gas pipelines and borders.
This paper presents various application architectures and system
performance examples for detection, localization, and classification of
personnel footsteps, vehicles, digging and tunneling, gunshots, artillery,
explosions, aircraft, and earthquakes. The DAS technology can provide
a cost-effective alternative to unattended ground sensors and geophonearrays, and a complement or alternative to imaging and radar sensors
in many applications. The transduction, signal processing, and operator

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No Abstract Available.

8711-46, Session 4

Doina Bein, The Pennsylvania State Univ., ARL (United States);
Bharat B Madan, Old Dominion University (United States); Shashi
Phoha, Sarah M Rajtmajer, The Pennsylvania State Univ., ARL(United States); Anna C. Rish, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)
Given a specific scenario for the border control problem, we proposea dynamic data-driven adaptation of the associated sensor network
via embedded software agents which make sensor network control,
adaptation and collaboration decisions based on the contextual
information value of competing data provided by different multi-modal
sensors. We further propose the use of influence diagrams to guidedata-driven decision making in selecting the appropriate action or

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Conference 8711: Sensors, and Command, Control,
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course of actions which maximize a given utility function by designinga sensor embedded software agent that uses an influence diagram tomake decisions on whether to engage or not higher level sensors for
accurately detecting human presence in the region. The overarching goalof the sensor system is to increase the probability of target detection andreduce the rate of false alarms. The proposed software agent is validated
experimentally on a laboratory testbed for multiple border control
scenarios.

A framework of multi-valued decision for detecting portscanners is also
proposed.

8711-20, Session 6

Automated night/day standoff detection,
tracking, and identification of personnel for
installation protection

8711-16, Session 5

Brian E. Lemoff, Robert B. Martin, Mikhail Sluch, Kristopher M.
Kafka, William B. McCormick, Robert V. Ice, West Virginia HighTechnology Consortium Foundation (United States)

Advanced video analytics for criminal justiceapplications (Keynote Presentation)

The capability to positively and covertly identify people at a safe
distance, 24-hours per day, could provide a valuable advantage inprotecting installations, both domestically and in an asymmetricwarfare environment. This capability would enable installation security
officers to identify known bad actors from a safe distance, even if they
are approaching under cover of darkness. We will describe an activeSWIR imaging system being developed to automatically detect, track,and identify people at long range using computer face recognition.
The system illuminates the target with an eye-safe and invisible SWIR
laser beam, to provide consistent high-resolution imagery night andday. SWIR facial imagery produced by the system is matched against
a watch-list of mug shots using computer face recognition algorithms.
The current system relies on an operator to point the camera and toreview and interpret the face recognition results. Automation software is
being developed that will allow the system to be cued to a location by
an external system, automatically detect a person, track the person as
they move, zoom in on the face, select good facial images, and process
the face recognition results, producing alarms and sharing data withother systems when people are detected and identified. Progress on
the automation of this system will be presented along with experimentalnight-time face recognition results at distance.

Mark Greene, National Institute of Justice (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8711-17, Session 6

Plasma-field barrier sentry
Ernesto Gonzaga, Plasma Technologies Inc. (United States)
Background: The primary function of a security system is to counter
personnel attempting to breach security. This involves denying “access
to” , or “possession of” facilities or high valued establishments. Most
conventional security systems are reactive in design, requiring humans
to constantly monitor and respond in post-active mode. In this paper a
proactive system is introduced.
Result: The availability of related technologies that were blended together
for the purpose of improving security systems was pursued. This resulted
to design and development of innovative security systems introduced in
the market. To compete in this business we are exploring new conceptof access denial system. We believe the Plasma-field Barrier Sentry is
unique for it utilizes the plasma channel emissions of solid state Tesla
coils.

8711-21, Session 6

Conclusion: This system will provide several benefits including but notlimited to; delay/defend/respond capabilities’; reduction in manpower
and many associated cost, autonomous systems; reduces risks byreplacing man with machine; capable of various configurations; willfunction electronically with no mechanical components; reduces material
costs. By continually advancing research findings, and, as new ideas
evolve, we envision this new security technology to become flexible,
miniaturized and portable. As we strive to understand more and master
controlling plasma energy, we are being led into related research areasand contemplating different electromagnetic apparatuses that will unlock
and utilize the great resources that plasma holds available.

Robust and compact infrared video motion
stabilization for long-range surveillance
Kenji Tashiro, William D. Reynolds Jr., Teledyne Scientific Co.
(United States)
Long-range surveillance systems are typically used in rural areas
for detecting and tracking illegal border crossings, trafficking anddrug activity. These systems commonly deploy mast or tower-based
surveillance systems equipped with thermal infrared cameras, whichhave the advantage of providing early warnings and increasing the rangeof observation. However, these systems are subject to high frequency
vibration due to slight wind or wind gusts, which is difficult to correctmechanically. In order to identify the border activity, it is critical forthe vision system to robustly detect the objects in the scene, classify
the objects and track the detected targets. The performance of these
post-processing algorithms is known to suffer if the video is not properly
stabilized.

8711-18, Session 6

Adaptive sequential methods for detecting
network intrusions
Xinjia Chen, Ernest L. Walker, Southern Univ. and A&M College(United States)

Surveillance systems in rural areas, particularly in thermal band, poseseveral unique challenges to video stabilization algorithms. First, thescene rarely contains man-made objects. Water surface, trees andforests present very low contrast and ambiguous textures such thatstabilization algorithms struggle to consistently and repeatedly extract
distinctive corners and features. Second, even if the system captures
certain human activities or structural objects in the scene, the video
typically lacks sharpness in the background due to the motion blur at thelong range. In this research paper, we propose a biologically-inspired,robust and compact video motion stabilization algorithm, which is ideal
for rural areas. Our novel algorithm is compared quantitatively with othercompeting algorithms in terms of robustness and performance. Finally,
we demonstrate the real-time performance and evaluate the resource
usage on FPGA platforms.

In this paper, we propose new sequential methods for detecting
port-scan attackers which routinely perform random ``portscans’’ ofIP addresses to find vulnerable servers to compromise. In addition torigorously control the probability of falsely implicating benign remote
hosts as malicious, our method performs significantly faster than othercurrent solutions. Moreover, our method guarantees that the maximum
amount of observational time is bounded. In contrast to the previous
most effective method, Threshold Random Walk Algorithm, whichis explicit and analytical in nature, our proposed algorithm involve
parameters to be determined by numerical methods. We have developed
computational techniques such as iterative minimax optimization for
quick determination of the parameters of the new detection algorithm.

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8711-22, Session 78711-47, Session 7

Scaling issues in the selection of an approachfor sensor network configuration design

Novel mechanism of sensitive information
protection on personal mobile devices

Thomas A. Wettergren, Russell Costa, Naval Undersea Warfare
Ctr. (United States)

Alexander Milovanov, Leonid Bukshpun, Ranjit D. Pradhan,
Physical Optics Corp. (United States)

Sensor networks have become a viable technology for a deployable
surveillance solution in many military applications. In recent years, it
has become recognized that the proper configuration of the network(positioning of nodes) can greatly reduce the number of nodes that are
required to achieve a given level of system performance. This reduction
in nodes can lead to cost savings, increases in coverage area, or reduced
payload stress on the deployment platform. A variety of approaches
have been developed to perform this configuration planning – ranging
from sequential point placement to sensor density optimization. These
techniques further utilize a variety of numerical optimization techniques– from nonlinear programming, to hierarchical planning, to meta-heuristic
techniques. The selection of approach and numerical optimization
technique is as much a matter of personal experience as it is themathematics of the problem. Clearly some techniques perform better
than others based on certain scales of the problem at hand: for varying
numbers of sensors, level of network connectivity, uniformity of sensor
placement, etc. In this paper we review the most promising of the design
optimization approaches for sensor network configuration planning.
We illustrate the scales of problem for which each approach is best
utilized, demonstrating the scale effects on relative performance throughnumerical simulations. We begin with a taxonomy of sensor network
scale considerations, and conclude with guidance for practitioners on theselection of approach.

A new intelligent technology has been developed to provide information
security, data protection, and integrity on personal mobile devices,such as smartphones or mobile computers. The technology is based on
novel integration of a biometric signature as one factor of a two-factor
user authentication and uses biometric information for data protection
in transit and at rest. Biometric key-based data protection approachenhances security and provides reliable user authentication and remote
dynamic policy management. These enable secure integration of mobile
technologies with business systems. This novel technology can beincorporated into wired or wireless networks that require protectionof sensitive information residing on personal mobile devices when aconnection to the network is not always available.

8711-23, Session 7

Robotic disaster recovery efforts with ad-hoc
deployable cloud computing
Jeremy Straub, Atif Mohammad, The Univ. of North Dakota(United States); Ronald Marsh, Univ of North Dakota (UnitedStates)
The increasingly complex urban landscape dramatically increases thecomplexity of responding to natural or man-made disaster. When disasterstrikes, only limited a priori knowledge is available to guide decision
making; this requires human and robotic responders, alike, to makedecisions on-the-fly in a complex and potentially changing environment.
Thus, the autonomous operation of search and rescue (SaR) robots is
an ill posed problem, which is complexified by the dynamic disaster
response environment. Robotic responders reduce or eliminate the risk
to human response participants; however, a multitude of autonomous
capabilities are required to facilitate autonomous response. These
robots require different processing capabilities and use multiple
algorithms during the response effort. Placing these capabilities onboard
the robot is a less-than-optimal solution that precludes algorithm
specific performance optimization and results in sub-optimal system
performance. Cloud computing principles provide a possible solution
to this problem. An ad-hoc, scalable and deployable cloud-computing
network can be deployed to a disaster location to provide services toautonomous responder craft. While these craft must have some basic
capability for independent response onboard (in case of communications
interruption, etc.), most processing involved in situation analysis anddecision-making can be offloaded to the cloud providers.
An architecture for an ad-hoc, deployable cloud environment suitable foruse in a disaster response scenario is presented. Under this model, eachservice provider is task-optimized and maintains a database of situationrelevant information. The proposed framework is service-oriented
architecture 3.0 compliant.

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8711-26, Session 8

Estimation of target size using two passive
infrared sensors
Thyagaraju Damarla, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
James M. Sabatier, Univ. of Mississippi (United States)
Passive infrared (PIR) sensors are widely used as a part of unattended
ground sensor suite for situational awareness. Currently, the PIR sensor
is mainly used as a wakeup sensor for the imaging sensor in order toconserve power. Since the PIR sensor mainly responds to the thermalradiation by the target, animals in the vicinity of the sensor can cause
many false alarms. The number of false alarms can be cut drastically, if
the target size can be estimated and the decision is made based on thetarget size. For example, if the target is 5 ft 9 in tall and 1.5 ft wide, it ismost likely a human being as opposed to an animal. In this paper, we
present a technique to estimate the target size using two PIR sensors
with Fresnel lens arrays. One of the PIR sensors is mounted such that its
Fresnel zones are horizontal to the ground, and the second PIR sensor ismounted such that its Fresnel zones are at a slant angle to the horizontal
plane. The former is used to estimate the width/length, while the latter
is used to estimate the height of the target. The relative signal strength
between the two sensors is used to estimate the distance of the target
from the sensor. The time it takes to cross the Fresnel zones is used toestimate the speed of the target. The algorithm is tested using the datacollected in the woods, where several animals are observed roaming.

8711-27, Session 8

Searching social networks for subgraphpattern occurrences
Kirk Ogaard, Heather Roy, Sue E. Kase, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Rakesh Nagi, Kedar Sambhoos, Moises Sudit,
Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
Software tools for Social Network Analysis (SNA) are being developed
which support various types of analysis of social networks extracted
from social media websites (e.g. Twitter). Once extracted and stored
in a database such social networks are amenable to analysis by SNA
software. This data analysis often involves searching for occurrencesof various subgraph patterns to determine the types of subgraphspresent within the social network. The authors have developed theGraph Matching Toolkit (GMT). GMT is SNA software which provides anintuitive Graphical User Interface (GUI) for a heuristic graph matchingalgorithm called the Truncated Search Tree (TruST) algorithm. GMT isthus visualization software for graph matching algorithms for large social
networks. GMT enables a user to draw a subgraph pattern by using a

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mouse to select labels for nodes and links from drop-down menus. GMT
then executes the TruST algorithm to find the top five occurrences of thesubgraph pattern within the social network stored in the database. GMT
was tested using a simulated counter-insurgency dataset consisting of
email messages, reports, interviews, and sightings portraying day-today challenges within a populated area of operations in Iraq. The results
indicated GMT (when executing the TruST graph matching algorithm) is
a time-efficient approach to searching large social networks. Such a userinterface as GMT could enable intelligence analysts to quickly analyze
and summarize the large amounts of intelligence data necessary to
produce actionable intelligence reports.

hardware components of the sensor system, including the electric andmagnetic field sensors and the interrogation electronics module, andpreliminary test results obtained with a prototype system, are presented.

8711-30, Session 8

Cost and effectiveness analyse on unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAV) use at border security
Bahadir Yilmaz, Turkish War College (Turkey)
Border security is one of the tasks which is vital for any country. In
general, border security is against drugs / people and arms smugglers,
unauthorized migrations and terrorism. Classical border security isprovided by land and sea vehicles by using manpower. However forest,
desert, glacier, or mountainous terrains make it difficult to ensure thesafety of the homeland security by using the classical methods.

8711-28, Session 8

Unattended ground sensors, countermeasure,and counter-countermeasure: abilities,
techniques, and effectiveness

Unmanned air vehicles (UAV), satellites and high-resolution sensors are
the modern border security methods. UAV used in Afghanistan, Iraqi,
Kosova and Libya for Intelligence Reconnaissance and Surveillance ,attack, combat air patrol (CAP) and electronic warfare missions. UAV
which are used successfully in different countries and terrotories can be
use also in border security missions effectively.

Alexander A. Pakhomov, Security & Defense Research LLC(United States)
Contemporary advanced unattended ground sensors (UGS) usually
use seismic, IR, magnetic, acoustic and other detection channels.
Typically software for all those detection channels is optimized for using
in common, statistically average ambient conditions. Sometimes thesoftware is able to adapt to slow changing background noise. Most ofthat software can be successfully used for detection of the “occasional”
intruder who does not know about UGS present and does not try to
deceive it. But today “bad guys” are very smart, well-educated andtrained. They can use various countermeasure techniques and devices
that drastically reduce effectiveness of the UGS.

This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of UAV use
in homeland border security and figures out cost-effectiveness of UAV.
Medium altitude long endurance (MALE) UAV’s costs are more than it isexpected in border security.As a result to use a cost effective system thebest systems should be tactical UAV.

8711-31, Session 9

The most common general countermeasure techniques that can be usedagainst UGSs are the following:

Directional antenna array forcommunications, control and data linkprotection• Target masking, reducing of the target “visibility” and “recognizability”• Noise jamming• Deception & false target generation and imitation

Pavlo A. Molchanov, Ampac Inc. (United States); Vincent M.
Contarino, R Cubed Inc. (United States)

This paper describes specific techniques that can be used against
seismic, IR and acoustic detectors. We present and discuss basic
principal and particular solutions for providing protection of the various
detection channels from countermeasure. In other words this paper
presents counter-countermeasure solutions for UGS. We show also
effectiveness of possible countermeasure and counter-countermeasureactivities and approach to the effectiveness evaluation of both of them.
Presented data allows to achieve the higher level of security reliability.

Why do UAV’s transmit communication and sensor information throughan omni-directional antenna to everyone? This wastes valuable batteryenergy transmitting classified information in all directions even though thedirection to the receiving ground station or satellite is known.
Why do UAV’s use an omni-directional receiver antenna for command,
control, communication and GPS when the omni-directional antenna isvulnerable to jam or spoof by terrorist signals coming from any direction
and the direction to the transmitting ground station or satellite is known?

8711-29, Session 8

A directional antenna array (DAA) can transmit or receive signals inan exact direction providing counter terrorism protection for data link,control, communication and GPS. The proposed approach is basedon using a DAA, where each antenna is connected to its own separate
receiver.

Electric and magnetic-field sensor system forsmall unmanned aerial vehicles
John Matthews, Leonid Bukshpun, Ranjit D. Pradhan, Physical
Optics Corp. (United States)

First level of protection:- Convex shape of the directional antenna array provides protection inthat a jam signal from any one or even several directions cannot damage
or saturate all of the receivers at the same time.

Autonomous navigation around power lines in a complex urban
environment is a critical challenge facing small unmanned aerial vehicles(SUAVs). We report on the development of an electric and magnetic
field sensor system designed to provide SUAVs with the capability tosense and avoid power transmission and distribution lines by monitoring
their electric and magnetic field signatures. A system-level analysis of
the sensor system is presented, including system requirements, andexpected performance for representative SUAV platforms. We also
discuss the nature of the power line signatures to be detected, andoptimal strategies for detecting these signals amid SUAV platform noiseand environmental interference. Based on an analysis of measured
power line signals and vehicle noise, we have found that under certain
circumstances power line harmonics can be detected at greater range
than the fundamental. We explain this phenomenon by combining amodel of power line signal nonlinearity with the quasi-static electric andmagnetic signatures of multi-phase power lines. A description of the

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Second level of protection:- The multi-channel processor calculates the direction of arrival for eachsignal, compares this with true ground station or satellite positions fromonboard memory and exclude it if the direction does not corresponds.
Directional antennas have higher gain and in contrast to phase antenna
arrays have wide bandwidth. A few models of miniature directional GPS
antenna arrays with 7 helical directional antennas, 2” diameter, 1” tall and1” diameter, 0.7” tall will be exhibited at the conference.

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8711-32, Session 98711-34, Session 9

On a robust soft-input soft-output
demodulator for OFDM systems: whenunreliable channel state information ispresent

StunRay technology: nonlethal weapons forlaw enforcement, homeland security, andanti-piracy

Chulong Chen, Michael D. Zoltowski, Purdue Univ. (UnitedStates)In this paper an improved soft-input soft-output (SISO) QAM demodulator
with robust performance on unreliable channel information are proposed
for OFDM systems. The frequency-selective fading channel encounteredin OFDM systems are modeled as complex Gaussian random variables
with some mean and variance. And the AWGN variance is modeled as a
Gamma random variable. The uncertainty of the channels are expressedin the respective variances of the channel coefficients. The likelihood
function on the received symbols are derived by marginalizing over thefading channel coefficients and AWGN channel variance. It’s application
in a bit-interleaved coded modulation system (BICM) is demonstrated.
And schemes with reduced complexity are also discussed. Simulation
results show an improved performance when the estimated channel state
information (CSI) are less reliable.

8711-33, Session 9

Modeling emergent border-crossing
behaviors during pandemics
Eunice E. Santos, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States);
Eugene S. Santos Jr., Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth(United States); John Korah, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso
(United States); Jeremy E. Thompson, Qi Gu, Keumjoo Kim,
Deqing Li, Jacob A. Russell, Thayer School of Engineering at
Dartmouth (United States); Suresh Subramanian, The Univ. of
Texas at El Paso (United States); Yuxi Zhang, Yan Zhao, Thayer
School of Engineering at Dartmouth (United States)
Modeling real-world scenarios is a challenge for traditional social science
researchers, as it is often hard to capture the intricacies and dynamismsof real-world situations without making simplistic assumptions. This
imposes severe limitations on the capabilities of such models andframeworks. Complex population dynamics during natural disasters suchas pandemics is an area where computational social science can provide
useful insights and explanations. In this paper, we employ a novel intentdriven modeling paradigm for such real-world scenarios by causally
mapping beliefs, goals, and actions of individuals and groups to overallbehavior using a probabilistic representation called Bayesian Knowledge
Bases (BKBs). To validate our framework we examine emergent behavior
occurring near a national border during pandemics, specifically the2009 H1N1 pandemic in Mexico. The novelty of the work in this paperlies in representing the dynamism at multiple scales by including bothcoarse-grained (events at the national level) and fine-grained (events at
two separate border locations) information. This is especially useful for
analysts in disaster management and first responder organizations whoneed to be able to understand both macro-level behavior and changes in
the immediate vicinity, to help with planning, prevention, and mitigation.
We demonstrate the capabilities of our framework in uncovering
previously hidden connections and explanations by comparing
independent models of the border locations with their fused model toidentify emergent behaviors not found in either independent location
models nor in a simple linear combination of those models.

96

Carlton W. Carroll, EOVERM Consulting LLC (United States) andGenesis Illumination, Inc. (United States)
Genesis Illunination has developed and fielded a handheld StunRay unit
capable of causing disorientation and debilitating effects at ranges up
to 100 meters. A long range system is being developed to provide thesame effects at ranges of up to three quarters of a mile. The applications
include the use on ships for anti-piracy and security around docks,
ports, drilling rigs and anchorages. This presentation will cover thebasic technology involved in the stun effect and data on physical effects
on humans. The status of the long range system development will becovered, including performance specifications, physical characteristics
and potential integrated applications.

8711-35, Session 9

Development of an Intercom: anundergraduate case study
J. Alejandro Betancur Ramírez, Francisco Cardona, Univ. EAFIT(Colombia)
This paper make a short description of a communication device at low
cost. Wireless intercom devices presented here enable communication
between any two of these products through specialized synchronization
options. This communication system consists of two functionally linked
radiofrequency intercoms in the 2.4GHz free band. Each of these devices
consist of a free-hands cellular system containing a microphone anda loudspeaker which is connected individually to each communication
device through a plug of four (4) contacts and three point five (3.5) mm
in diameter, also has a single USB connector for battery charging (notdata bus), which is lithium polymer, and finally has three (3) buttons from
where are controlled the functions of: volume level, audio filters, on, off,among other functions.

8711-36, Session 10

Technologies to enhance next-generation
sensing for near shore and harbor security(Keynote Presentation)
Pierre J. Corriveau, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8711-45, Session 10

Pre-deployed distributed systems (Keynote
Presentation)
Andrew Coon, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)
No Abstract Available.

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Conference 8711: Sensors, and Command, Control,
Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies forHomeland Security and Homeland Defense XII

8711-37, Session 118711-42, Session 11

Electron dynamics for uncooled MWIR SiC
detector for digital imaging

Laser sensing of mid-wave infrared radiation
with wavelength selective dopant in siliconcarbideJohn W. Zeller, Tariq Manzur, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr.
(United States); Aravinda Kar, CREOL, The College of Optics andPhotonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

Geunsik Lim, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ.
of Central Florida (United States); Tariq Manzur, Naval Undersea
Warfare Ctr. (United States); Aravinda Kar, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

No Abstract Available.

No Abstract Available.

8711-38, Session 11

Near-marine boundary layer atmospheric andturbulence testing and modeling
Olaleye A. Aina, Epitaxial Technologies, LLC (United States); Tariq
Manzur, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8711-39, Session 11

ZnO nanowire UV detector technology formarine boundary layer
Abdiel Rivera, Mehdi F. Anwar, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates); John W. Zeller, Tariq Manzur, Naval Undersea
Warfare Ctr. (United States); Ashok K. Sood, Magnolia Optical
Technologies, Inc. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8711-40, Session 11

Atmospheric modeling near-marine boundary
layer for high-energy beam propagation
Eric P. Magee, MZA Associates Corp. (United States); John W.
Zeller, Tariq Manzur, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8711-41, Session 11

Electron dynamics for uncooled MWIR SiC
detector for digital imaging
Aravinda Kar, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States); John W. Zeller, Tariq
Manzur, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

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97Conference 8712: Biometric and Surveillance Technology for
Human and Activity Identification X
Thursday 2 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8712 Biometric and Surveillance Technology for Human and Activity Identification X

8712-1, Session 1

8712-4, Session 1

Advanced biometric technologies forhomeland security applications (Keynote
Presentation)

Performance characterization of structured
light-based fingerprint scanner

Arun Vemury, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8712-2, Session 1

A novel hand-type detection technique with
fingerprint sensor
Narishige Abe, Takashi Shinzaki, Fujitsu Labs., Ltd. (Japan)
The use of fingerprint authentication technologies is widespread in many
applications. In particular, for large-scale authentication systems suchas the US-Visit (USA) and AADHAAR project (India), a 10-fingerprints
scanner which can simultaneously capture four fingerprints is used.
As the popularity of the large-scale system increases, we have toconsider the situation in which there are no operators to train users
regarding the use of the system. In this situation, when the system
instructs users to apply a specific hand-type, it is important to detect
whether the applied hand is a left or right hand for appropriate
confirmation to be given in some cases.
First, the system enrolls or verifies his/her fingers incorrectly, when a user
put incorrect hand’s fingers which are not indicated by it. Especially, inenrollment phase, this becomes to be very critical issue. Secondly, in alarge-scale authentication system, it is easy to use hand-type information
for narrowing down the number of data for identification. In this system,
incorrect hand detection causes low authentication performance due tothe incorrect narrowing down result. Furthermore, hand-type detection
technique is utilized for assistance of an operator at the border control forcheck the put hand-type.
In this paper, we investigated the features which are effective fordetecting hand-type from general optical scanner images. We thendeveloped a trial system based on the obtained knowledge. As a result,in general optical scanner images, we obtained an accuracy of over 95%,
but in real fingerprint images, the accuracy was about 80%.

8712-3, Session 1

Security analysis for fingerprint fuzzy vaults
Jesse L. Hartloff, Maxwell Bileschi, Sergey Tulyakov, Jimmy
Dobler, Atri Rudra, Venu Govindaraju, Univ. at Buffalo (UnitedStates)In this work we place some of the traditional biometrics work on
fingerprint verification via the fuzzy vault scheme within a cryptographic
framework. We show that the breaking of a fuzzy vault leads to decodingof Reed-Solomon codes from random errors, which has been proposed
as a hard problem in the cryptography community. We provide a security
parameter for the fuzzy vault in terms of the decoding problem, which
gives context for the breaking of the fuzzy vault, whereas most of theexisting literature measures the strength of the fuzzy vault in terms of its
resistance to pre-defined attacks or by the entropy of the vault. We keep
track of our security parameter, and provide it alongside ROC statistics.
We also aim to be more aware of the nature of the fingerprints whenplacing them in the fuzzy vault, noting that the distribution of minutiae
is far from uniformly random. The results we show provide additional
support that the fuzzy vault can be a viable scheme for secure fingerprint
verification.

98

Laurence G. Hassebrook, Minghao Wang, Raymond C Daley,
Univ. of Kentucky (United States)
Our group believes that the evolution of fingerprint capture technology
is in transition to include 3-D non-contact fingerprint capture. Morespecifically we believe that systems based on structured light illumination
provide the highest level of depth measurement accuracy. However, forthese new technologies to be fully accepted by the biometric community
they must be compliant with federal standards of performance. At
present these standards do not exist for this new technology. We proposeand define a set of test procedures to be used to verify compliancewith the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s image quality specification
for Personal Identity Verification single fingerprint capture devices. The
proposed test procedures include: geometric accuracy, spatial and depth
resolution performance, gray level uniformity and flattened fingerprint
image quality. Several 2-D contact analogies, performance tradeoffs
and optimization dilemmas are evaluated and proposed solutions arepresented.

8712-5, Session 2

RDT&E for criminal justice applications:operational challenges, technical solutions,and managing expectations in the future(Keynote Presentation)
Mark Greene, National Institute of Justice, Office of Science andTechnology (United States)
The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) maintains a primary emphasis on
the needs and requirements of Federal, state, local and tribal criminal
justice systems in how it prioritizes a balance between basic and appliedresearch to support improved outcomes for practitioners. The Officeof Science and Technology (OST) at NIJ supports this goal by focusing
on challenging the research community to provide innovative solutions,building a rigorous scientific knowledge base to guide future RDT&E
directions, transitioning emerging technologies to RDT&E professionals,
and translating research efforts into practical results for operational use
cases. Several R&D projects in the areas of biometrics, sensors, andsurveillance will be presented to provide an overview the current state ofresearch in person identification such as matching forensic sketches tomugshot databases. However, a number of real-world examples will be
discussed to highlight operational challenges and the current limitationsin technology available to help solve person identification problems inlaw enforcement scenarios, particularly with respect to violent crime.
The possible root causes of the technical gaps with each scenario,
potential approaches to address the problems with each scenario, andthe similarities among the scenarios and potential overlap of solutions will
be discussed. Matching the needs from practitioners with the ideas fromthe research community assists OST with setting realistic expectations
regarding the particular efforts that would be required including costs andtimelines to address the outstanding problems in person identification incriminal justice.

8712-6, Session 2

Privacy information management for video
surveillance
Ying Luo, Sen-ching S. Cheung, Univ. of Kentucky (United

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Conference 8712: Biometric and Surveillance Technology for
Human and Activity Identification X
States)ILGP. The two newly developed feature selection methods are: (1)Genuine segment score-based thresholding and (2) AdaBoost inspired
methods. We further compare the performance of the original Boosted
ILGP face recognition method with the performance of the modiﬁed
method that involves one of the proposed feature selection approaches.

The widespread deployment of surveillance cameras has raised serious
privacy concerns. Many privacy-enhancing schemes have been
proposed to automatically redact images of trusted individuals in thesurveillance video. To identify these individuals for protection, the mostreliable approach is to use biometric signals such as iris patterns as
they are immutable and highly discriminative. In this paper, we propose
a privacy data management system to be used in a privacy-aware video
surveillance system. The privacy status of a subject is anonymously
determined based on her iris pattern. For a trusted subject, thesurveillance video is redacted and the original imagery is considered tobe the privacy information. Our proposed system allows a subject toaccess her privacy information via the same biometric signal for privacy
status determination. Two secure protocols, one for privacy information
encryption and the other for privacy information retrieval are proposed.
Error control coding is used to cope with the variability in iris patterns
and efficient implementation is achieved using surrogate data records.

Under a general parameter set up, signiﬁcant performance improvement
is observed.

8712-10, Session 3

Using crypts as iris minutiae
Feng Shen, Patrick J. Flynn, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States)
One important factor that prevents iris biometrics from being further
deployed in law enforcement is the way iris features are represented
and matched. The pattern of iris texture is claimed to be unique for each
person and each eye. Current iris recognition techniques are typically
based on the analysis of iris textures by their phase responses to local
band-pass filters. Because these features are not easily recognized byhuman vision system, it is difficult for forensic examiners to confirm theresult of automated identification.

Experimental results on a public iris biometric database demonstrate thevalidity of our framework.

8712-7, Session 2

In this paper we propose an identity verification system that concentrates
on iris crypts as the type of visible feature to represent the characteristics
of irises in a similar way to fingerprint minutiae. Crypts are a sequence of
openings located near the collarette on the anterior layer of the eye. They
appear as local dark regions surrounded by relatively strong edges under
NIR spectrum. The identity of the questioned iris image is confirmed if
there are sufficient number of common crypt pairs between this image
and the iris image enrolled in the dataset.

Eyebrow segmentation using active shapemodels
Karen P. Hollingsworth, Samuel Clark, Joseph Thompson, Patrick
J. Flynn, Kevin W. Bowyer, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States)
Prior research has shown that manually-segmented eyebrows can beused for recognition purposes. However, eyebrow recognition is not
as useful without an automated segmentation algorithm. We propose
a method to automatically outline the eyebrows in a face using active
shape models. We train several models using the images from the Face
Recognition Grand Challenge and find that including more landmark
points around the eyebrows and including the eyes in the model arebeneficial. Our eyebrow active shape model gives a 38.6% improvement
over eyebrow segmentation obtained using an open-source face active
shape model. When comparing the automatically segmented regions withmanual segmentation, we achieve 87% true overlap score with a 12%
false overlap score.

The crypt features are extracted by a sequence of morphologicaloperators and noise removal steps based on edges, intensities andpixel variations. The matching of crypts is based on their appearancesand locations. It is a three-level approach that includes global featurecomparison, template matching and manual inspection. The number ofmatching crypt pairs found between two irises can be used for identity
verification and the convenience of manual inspection makes iris crypts a
potential candidate for forensic applications.

8712-11, Session 3

Automatic detection of non-cosmetic soft
contact lenses in ocular images

8712-8, Session 3

Machines better than humans for generalface recognition? (Keynote Presentation)

Gizem Erdogan, Arun A. Ross, West Virginia Univ. (United States)
Recent research in iris recognition has established the impact of noncosmetic soft contact lenses on the recognition performance of irismatchers. Researchers in Notre Dame demonstrated an increase in False
Reject Rate (FRR) when an iris without a contact lens was comparedagainst the same iris with a transparent soft contact lens. Detecting
the presence of a contact lens in ocular images can, therefore, bebeneficial to iris recognition systems. This study proposes a method
to automatically detect the presence of non-cosmetic soft contactlenses in ocular images of the eye acquired in the Near Infrared (NIR)
spectrum. While cosmetic lenses are more easily discernible, theproblem of detecting non-cosmetic lenses is substantially difficult andposes a significant challenge to iris researchers. The lens boundary is
detected by traversing a small annular region located in the vicinity ofthe outer boundary of the segmented iris and locating candidate points
corresponding to the lens perimeter. Candidate points are identified
by examining intensity profiles in the radial direction within the annularregion. The proposed detection method is evaluated on two databases:
ICE 2005 and MBGC Iris. In the ICE 2005 database, a correct lensdetection rate of 72% is achieved. In the MBGC Iris database, a correctlens detection rate of 70% is obtained. To the best of our knowledge, thisis one of the earliest work attempting to detect the presence of noncosmetic soft contact lenses in NIR ocular images. The results of thisresearch suggest the possibility of detecting soft contact lenses in ocular
images but highlight the need for further research in this area.

Jonathon Philips, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
No Abstract Available.

8712-9, Session 3

Encoding and selecting features for boosted
multispectral face recognition: Matching
SWIR versus color
Sirisha Boothapati, Natalia A. Schmid, West Virginia Univ. (UnitedStates)In this paper, we propose a methodology for cross matching color
face images and Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) face images reliably andaccurately. We ﬁrst adopt a recently designed Boosted and Improved
Local Gabor Pattern (ILGP) encoding and matching technique toencode face images in both visible and SWIR spectral bands. We thenapply newly developed feature selection methods to prune irrelevant
information in encoded data and to improve performance of the Boosted

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99

Conference 8712: Biometric and Surveillance Technology for
Human and Activity Identification X

8712-12, Session 4

Challenges and opportunities in active
authentication (Keynote Presentation)
Richard Guidorizzi, DARPA/DoD (United States)

estimation accuracy for our biometric eye model with an average error of
approximately 3.5 degrees over a 50 degree range.

8712-18, Session PThu1

No Abstract Available.

Infrared enhanced imaging for security/
surveillance

8712-13, Session 4

Martin U. Pralle, Homayoon Haddad, Stephen Noble, SiOnyx Inc.
(United States)

Securing iris recognition systems against
masquerade attacks
Javier Galbally-Herrero, Marta Gomez-Barrero, Univ. Autónoma
de Madrid (Spain); Arun A. Ross, West Virginia Univ. (UnitedStates); Julian Fierrez, Javier Ortega-Garcia, Univ. Autónoma de
Madrid (Spain)
Among the various biometric traits that have been studied in the recent
past, iris is commonly believed to be reliable and accurate. The templates
used by most iris-based systems are the so called IrisCodes, which
are binary representations of the iris pattern. Since an IrisCode is anextremely compact representation of the iris, it has been a common belief
in the biometric community that binary templates do not divulge enoughinformation to reconstruct the original iris image from them.

SiOnyx has developed visible/infrared CMOS image sensors leveraging
a proprietary ultrafast laser semiconductor process technology. This
technology demonstrates 10 fold improvements in infrared sensitivity
over incumbent imaging technology while maintaining complete
compatibility with standard CMOS image sensor process flows.
Furthermore, these sensitivity enhancements (from 400 to 1200 nm) areachieved on a focal plane with state of the art noise performance of 2
electrons/pixel. By capturing light in the visible regime as well as infrared
light from the night glow, this sensor technology provides imaging in
daytime through twilight and into nighttime conditions. SiOnyx has
developed a family of IP based security surveillance cameras using
these groundbreaking new sensors. The benefits of these cameras overincumbent systems will be discussed as well as the benefits of enhanced
infrared sensitivity for biometric image capture.
Demonstrated performance characteristics:

However, this belief has been recently questioned in the literature byresearchers who have explored the reversibility of IrisCodes. In particular,a probabilistic reconstruction method based on genetic algorithms waspresented in a previous study by the authors, and used to evaluate
the vulnerabilities of a commercial iris recognition system (VeriEye, by
Neurotechnology) against several masquerade attacks.

Camera: IP based zoom block camera

In the present work we address the security issues disclosed in that
previous work by proposing a novel two-stage effective countermeasure
to detect the synthetic iris patterns reconstructed from a real IrisCode.
The protection scheme uses different characteristics of real iris images
to differentiate them from the synthetic ones. Thus, the main objectiveof the work is to develop a reliable solution to an actual vulnerability flaw
present in commercial biometric applications in order to enhance thelevel of security offered to the final users. Experiments are carried out on
the publicly available Biosecure DB and demonstrate the efficacy of the
proposed security enhancing approach.

Spectral sensitivity: 400 to 1200 nm (with 10x QE at 1064nm)

8712-14, Session 4

Wei Huang, Guiqiang Wang, Xiaojing Xu, Institute of Forensic
Science (China)

Gaze estimation for off-angle iris recognition
based on the biometric eye model
Mahmut Karakaya, Del Barstow, Hector J. Santos-Villalobos,
Joseph Thompson, David S. Bolme, Christopher B. Boehnen,
Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
Iris recognition is among the highest accuracy biometrics. However, its
accuracy relies on controlled high quality capture data and is negatively
affected by several factors such as angle, occlusion, and dilation. Nonideal iris recognition is a new research focus in biometrics. In this paper,
we present a gaze estimation method designed for use in an off-angle irisrecognition framework based on the ORNL biometric eye model. Gazeestimation is an important prerequisite step to correct an off-angle iris
images. To achieve the accurate frontal reconstruction of an off-angle
iris image, we first need to estimate the eye gaze direction from ellipticalfeatures of an iris image. Typically additional information such as wellcontrolled light sources, head mounted equipment, and multiple cameras
are not available. Our approach utilizes only the iris and pupil boundary
segmentation allowing it to be applicable to all iris capture hardware. We
compare the boundaries with a look-up-table generated by using our
biologically inspired biometric eye model and find the closest featurepoint in the look-up-table to estimate the gaze. Based on the resultsfrom real images, the proposed method shows effectiveness in gaze
100

Pixel size : 5.6 & 10 um
Array size: SVGA, 720P and SXGA
Frame rate: 60 Hz
Read noise: 2 ele/pixel
Daytime imaging: color (Bayer pattern)
Nighttime imaging: down below ¼ moon conditions
1064nm laser imaging: below 10 uJ in room light conditions

8712-20, Session PThu1

Detection of latent fingerprints by ultraviolet
spectral imaging

Spectral imaging technology research is becoming more extensivein the field of examination of material evidence. Ultraviolet spectral
imaging technology is an important part of the full spectrum of imaging
technology. Due to the limitations of previous devices, most research
has focused on technology of the near-infrared light and visible light.
The study of ultraviolet spectral imaging technology is much fewer. This
paper summarizes the application of the results of ultraviolet imaging
technology in the field of forensic science, explores the common objectof latent fingerprints of ultraviolet spectra characteristic for the research
objectives, which shows the potential traces of criminal using theultraviolet spectrum imaging method.
This paper finished the experiment contents of the ultraviolet spectrum
imaging method and image acquisition system ultraviolet spectral
imaging technology. The experiment of ultraviolet spectral imaging
method obtains the image set of the ultraviolet spectrum, and formats
a pseudo-color images to show the potential traces successfully byprocessing the set of spectral images; ultraviolet spectral imaging
technology explores the technology method of obtaining the image setof ultraviolet spectrometer and image acquisition system, and extensive
access to the ultraviolet spectrum information of latent fingerprints
on common objects, and study the characteristics of the ultraviolet
spectrum.
In this paper, the experimental ultraviolet spectral imaging method for

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Conference 8712: Biometric and Surveillance Technology for
Human and Activity Identification X

8712-24, Session PThu1

the ultraviolet spectral imaging technology provides a reference path topractical experience for future experiments. Ultraviolet spectroscopic
imaging experiments explores a wide variety of ultraviolet reflectancespectra of the object material curve and its ultraviolet spectrum of
imaging modalities, can not only gives a reference for choosing ultraviolet
wavelength to show the object surface potential traces of substances,
but also gives important data for the ultraviolet spectrum of imaging
technology development.

Palm Vein for Efficient Person Recognition
Based on 2D Gabor Filter
Jixing Wang, Yuqing He, Jiadan Zhu, Xinru Gao, Beijing Instituteof Technology (China); Yongsheng Cui, Zhejiang Univ. (China)
Palm vein recognition uses the vascular patterns of an individual’s palm
as personal identification data. A palm vein recognition system typically
performs the following steps: Image Acquisition, Preprocessing, Feature
Extraction and Recognition. This paper presents an effective palm vein
extraction of the region of interest (ROI) and feature extraction approach
for improving the efficiency of palm vein identification. In preprocessing,
we locate the finger-web to extract approximate immovable ROI of palmvein image. we also adopt Gaussian filter to smooth the image andfilter some noise. In feature extraction, multiple 2D Gabor filters with 4
orientations (0 °, 45 °, 90 ° and 135°) are employed to extract the phase
information on the ROI of palm vein image. The real part of the Gaborcoefficient of every pixel is used to encode as the distinctive feature ofpalm vein image. Since there are four 4 directions Gabor filter to extract
features in a image, the final feature is 4-rank binary string. In Palm vein
recognition we choose Hamming distance (HD) classifier to identify thepalm vein features. We conduct experiments on a self-made palm vein
database including 800 images of 80 hands. We evaluate our methodwith different parameters of Gabor filter. Furthermore, we compare ourmethod with another 2 methods (2D-FLD, Triangulation and Knuckle
Shape) to demonstrate the superiority of our method. Experimental
results show that the method in this paper achieved a higher correct
recognition rate (98.73%) and a faster speed.

8712-22, Session PThu1

The relationship between 2D static featuresand 2D dynamic features used in gait
recognition
Hamad Alawar, Hassan Ugail, Mumtaz Kamala, David R. Connah,
Univ. of Bradford (United Kingdom)
In most gait recognition techniques, both static and dynamic features
are used to define a subject’s gait signature. In this study, the existenceof a relationship between static and dynamic features was investigated.
The correlation coefficient was used to analyse the relationship between
the features extracted from the “University of Bradford Multi-Modal Gait
Database”. This study includes two dimensional dynamic and staticfeatures from 19 subjects. The dynamic features were compromisedof Phase-Weighted Magnitudes driven by a Fourier Transform of thetemporal rotational data of a subject’s joints (knee, thigh, shoulder, andelbow). The results concluded that there are eleven pairs of features thatare considered significantly correlated with (p<0.05). This result indicatesthe existence of a statistical relationship between static and dynamics
features, which challenges the results of several similar studies. These
results bare great potential for further research into the area, and would
potentially contribute to the creation of a gait signature using latent data.

8712-25, Session PThu1

Effects of mascara on iris recognition
Jay Doyle, Patrick J. Flynn, Kevin W. Bowyer, Univ. of Notre
Dame (United States)

8712-23, Session PThu1

Investigating gait recognition in the shortwave infrared (SWIR) spectrum: dataset andchallenges

Iris biometrics systems rely on analysis of a visual presentation of thehuman iris, which must be extracted from the periocular region. Topicalcosmetics can greatly alter the appearance of the periocular region, andcan occlude portions of the iris texture. In this paper, the presence of
topical cosmetics is shown to negatively impact the authentic distributionof iris match scores, causing an increase in the false non-match rate at a
fixed false match rate.

Brian DeCann, Arun A. Ross, Jeremy M. Dawson, West Virginia
Univ. (United States)
In the biometrics community, challenge datasets are often released todetermine the robustness of state-of-the-art algorithms to conditions
that can confound recognition accuracy. In the context of automatedhuman gait recognition, evaluation has predominantly been conducted onvideo data acquired in the active visible spectral band, although recent
literature has explored recognition in the passive thermal band. The
advent of sophisticated sensors has piqued interest in performing gait
recognition in other spectral bands such as short wave infrared (SWIR),
due to their use in military-based tactical applications and the possibilityof operating in nighttime environments. Further, in many operational
scenarios, the environmental variables are not controlled, thereby posing
several challenges to traditional recognition schemes. In this work,
we discuss the possibility of performing gait recognition in the SWIR
spectrum by first assembling a dataset, referred to as the WVU Outdoor
SWIR Gait (WOSG) Dataset, and then evaluate the performance of three
gait recognition algorithms on the dataset. The dataset consists of 155
subjects and represents gait information acquired under multiple walking
paths in an uncontrolled, outdoor environment. Detailed experimental
analysis suggests the benefits of distributing this new challenging
dataset to the broader research community. In particular, the following
observations were made: (a) the importance of SWIR imagery in acquiring
data covertly for surveillance applications; (b) the difficulty in extracting
human silhouettes in low-contrast SWIR imagery; (c) the impact ofsilhouette quality on overall recognition accuracy; (d) the possibility ofmatching gait sequences pertaining to different walking trajectories; and(e) the need for developing sophisticated gait recognition algorithms tohandle data acquired in unconstrained environments.

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8712-26, Session PThu1

A red-eye detector for iris segmentation using
shape context
Changpeng Ti, Univ. of Kentucky (United States); Xinyu Huang,
Alade Tokuta, North Carolina Central Univ. (United States);
Ruigang Yang, Univ. of Kentucky (United States)
In iris recognition systems, it is essential to accurately locate the pupil
and iris. Among segmentation algorithms for systems utilizing nearinfrared light, some make the assumption that the pupil is darker than
the rest of the image. For this class of algorithms, the red eye effect,
which makes the pupil region brighter than the iris, could damage theirperformance. Other segmentation algorithms use edge information to fit
circles, yet noisy images make them inaccurate. Therefore, it would bedesirable to use different segmentation algorithms for images with the red
eye effect and without. In this paper, we introduce a novel method which
distinguishes iris images exhibiting the red eye effect from those with adark pupil. Our detector starts with a 2D darkness map of the iris image,and generates a customized shape context descriptor from the estimatedpupil region. The descriptor is then compared with the reference
descriptor, generated from a number of training images with dark pupils.
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101Conference 8712: Biometric and Surveillance Technology for
Human and Activity Identification X
estimated pupil region is from a dark pupil. Tests with images captured
with our own acquisition system shows the proposed pupil detector ishighly effective.

8712-29, Session PThu1

8712-27, Session PThu1

R. C. Johnson, Univ. of Colorado at Colorado Springs (UnitedStates); Walter J. Scheirer, Harvard Univ. (United States);
Terrance E. Boult, Univ. of Colorado at Colorado Springs (UnitedStates)

Ear recognition: a complete system
Ayman A. Abaza, Mary Ann F. Harrison, West Virginia HighTechnology Consortium Foundation (United States)
Ear Recognition has recently received significant attention in theliterature. This paper presents an efficient complete ear-based biometricsystem that can process five frames/sec; Hence it can be used forsurveillance applications. The ear detection is achieved using Haarfeatures arranged in a cascaded Adaboost classifier. We propose the useof the Block-based Local Binary Pattern (LBP) to generate features for
ear recognition. We present detailed experiments to evaluate:- Performance optimization by tuning various LBP parameters such as
the uniform pattern, number of neighbor pixels, radius of neighbor pixels,
division of the input image into blocks, and feature selection techniques
to assign weights for the blocks.
- The LBP performance compared to bench mark techniques such as theprincipal component analysis (PCA), and scale-invariant feature transform(SIFT). Detailed experiments show that the proposed ear recognition
system achieves identification rate (rank1 = 94.34%) compared to Scaleinvariant feature transform (67.92%).
- The error accumulates from automation of various components of theear system. The identification rate (rank-1) for the mentioned experiment:(i) 94.34% using manually segmented and aligned ear regions, (ii)93.33% using automated alignment but manually segmentation, and(iii) 83.50% using automated detection and alignment. The general dropin performance returns to segmentation accuracy, in other words thesystem detects an ear but does not accurately segment the ear region.
- The system performance in case of occlusion. Experimental results
show that the proposed system can achieve about (78%) rank-1
identification rate, even in presence of 60% occlusion.

8712-28, Session PThu1

An efficient visualization method for analyzing
biometric data
Mark D. Rahmes, Michael D. McGonagle, John H. Yates, Ronda
R. Henning, Jay K. Hackett, Harris Corp. (United States)
We introduce a novel application for biometric data analysis. This
technology can be used as part of a unique and systematic approach
designed to augment existing processing chains. Our system provides
image quality control and analysis capabilities. We show how analysis
and efficient visualization are used as part of an automated process.
The goal of this system is to provide a unified platform for the analysis ofbiometric images that reduce manual effort and increase the likelihoodof a match being brought to an examiners attention from either amanual or “Lights Out” application. We discuss the functionality of
FeatureSCOPETM which provides an efficient tool for feature analysis
and quality control of biometric extracted features. Biometric databases
must be checked for accuracy for a large volume of data attributes. Our
solution accelerates review of features by a factor of up to 100 times
faster. Review of qualitative results and cost reduction is shown by using
efficient parallel visual review capability for quality control. Our process
automatically sorts and filters features for examination, and packs these
into a condensed view. An analyst can then rapidly page through screensof features and flag and annotate as necessary.

Secure voice based authentication for mobile
devices: vaulted voice verification

As the use of biometrics becomes more wide-spread, the privacy
concerns that stem from the use of biometrics are becoming more
apparent. As the usage of mobile devices grows, so does the desire to
implement biometric identification into such devices. A large majorityof mobile devices being used are mobile phones. While work is being
done to implement different types of biometrics into mobile phones,
such as photo based biometrics, voice is a more natural choice. The ideaof voice as a biometric identifier has been around a long time. One of
the major concerns with using voice as an identifier is the instability ofvoice. We have developed a protocol that addresses those instabilities
and preserves privacy. This paper describes a novel protocol that allows
a user to authenticate using voice on a mobile/remote device withoutcompromising their privacy. We first discuss the Vaulted Verification
protocol, which has recently been introduced in research literature, andthen describe its limitations. We then introduce a novel adaptation andextension of the Vaulted Verification protocol to voice, dubbed Vaulted
Voice Verification (V 3). Following that we show a performance evaluationand then conclude with a discussion of security and future work.

8712-15, Session PThu2

How reliable are your visual attributes?
Walter J. Scheirer, Univ. of Colorado at Colorado Springs (UnitedStates); Neeraj Kumar, University of Washington (United States);
Vijay Iyer, Securics, Inc. (United States); Peter Belhumeur,
Columbia University (United States); Terrance Boult, Securics,
Inc. (United States)
Describable visual attributes are a powerful way to label parts of animage, and taken together, build a detailed representation of a scene’s
appearance. Attributes enable highly accurate approaches to a variety oftasks, including object recognition, face recognition and image retrieval.
Recent published results have shown that attributes outperform more
traditional recognition algorithms over the latest unconstrained face data
sets, justifying their potential for real-world applications. An importantconsideration not previously addressed in the literature is the reliabilityof attribute classifiers as the relative quality of an image degrades. In
this paper, we introduce a general framework for conducting reliability
studies that assesses attribute classifier accuracy as a function of image
degradation. This framework allows us to bound, in a probabilisticmanner, the input imagery that is deemed acceptable for considerationby the attribute system, leading to fewer inaccurate results. To
demonstrate the utility of our framework, we present an extensive casestudy incorporating 64 unique facial attributes.

8712-16, Session PThu2

Local gradient Gabor pattern (LGGP) withapplications in face recognition, crossspectral matching, and soft biometrics
Cunjian Chen, Arun A. Ross, West Virginia Univ. (United States)
Researchers in face recognition have been using Gabor filters for image
representation due to their robustness to complex variations in texture
and illumination. Numerous methods have been proposed to model the
output of filter responses by employing either local or global descriptors.
In this work, we propose a novel but simple approach for encoding

102

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Conference 8712: Biometric and Surveillance Technology for
Human and Activity Identification X
Gradient information on Gabor-transformed images to represent the
facial features, which can be flexibly used to predict identity, gender andethnicity. Extensive results obtained from the standard face benchmark
FERET (Visible versus Visible), as well as the heterogeneous facedataset HFB (Near-infrared versus Visible), suggest that the performancedue to the proposed descriptor is comparable against state-of-theart approaches in face recognition applications. Furthermore, thesame feature set in the framework of a Collaborative Representation
Classification (CRC) scheme based on Sparse Representation
Classification (SRC) is demonstrated to be effective in deducing soft
biometric traits such as gender and ethnicity from face images in the AR,
Morph and CAS-PEAL databases.

8712-17, Session PThu2

Color constancy in 3D-2D face recognition
Manuel Meyer, Christian Riess, Elli Angelopoulou, FriedrichAlexander-Univ. Erlangen-Nürnberg (Germany); Georgios
Evangelopoulos, Ioannis Kakadiaris, Univ. of Houston (UnitedStates)Face recognition is one of the most popular biometric modalities.
However, up to now, color is rarely actively used in face recognition. In
contrast, it is known that when a person recognizes a face, color cues
can become as important as shape, especially when combined with theability of people to identify the color of objects independent of illuminantcolor variations. In this paper, we examine the feasibility and effect of
explicitly embedding illuminant color information in face recognition
systems. We empirically examine the theoretical maximum gain ofincluding known illuminant color to a 3D-2D face recognition system.
We also investigate the impact of using computational color constancy
methods for estimating the illuminant color, which is then incorporated
into the face recognition framework. Our experiments show that underclose-to-ideal illumination estimates, one can improve face recognition
rates by 16%. When the illuminant color is algorithmically estimated,
the improvement is approximately 5%. These results suggest that color
constancy has a positive impact on face recognition, but the accuracy of
the illuminant color estimate has a considerable effect on its benefits.

8712-19, Session PThu2

The impact of specular highlights on 3D-2D
face recognition
Vincent Christlein, Christian Riess, Elli Angelopoulou, FriedrichAlexander-Univ. Erlangen-Nürnberg (Germany); Georgios
Evangelopulos, Ioannis Kakadiaris, Univ. of Houston (UnitedStates)In this work, we analyze the impact of such highlights on a 3D-2D facerecognition system.

8712-21, Session PThu2

ASIE: application specific image
enhancement for face recognition
Emil Bilgazyev, Uday Kurkure, Shishir Shah, Ioannis Kakadiaris,
Univ. of Houston (United States)
We propose a novel method to enhance low quality images. In this paper,
we focus on face recognition.

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103Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X
Wednesday - Thursday 1 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8713 Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems andApplications X

8713-1, Session 1

What’s on the horizon for ISR? (Keynote
Presentation)

be included in architecture as a main recce systems, which is divided into
two parts as “soft recce” and “smart recce” to execute “recce-basedattack”. Furthermore, NTISR is defined as “Auxiliary Systems For Recce”
and ISR-NTISR dilemma is solved with the help of 7-year-experience asreconnaissance pilot.

Jay Harrison, Mav6, LLC (United States)
No abstract available.

8713-5, Session 1

8713-2, Session 1

Validating a UAV artificial intelligence control
system using an autonomous test casegenerator

Sensor and payload considerations for future
unmanned vehicles
Harry Koper, John Lehman, Navmar Applied Sciences Corp.
(United States)
Current military operations in uncontested airspace have permitted theuse of various types of turret mounted video sensors to collect persistenttypes of imagery of high valued targets day and night. In the future,with the high probability of operating in contested airspace against
lethal air to air and ground to air threats, can current tactics, vehicles
and sensors provide the quantity and quality of imagery required? This
paper will entertain how sensor and payload performance when fusedwith emerging technology and complimentary tactics will provide acapability that permits operation in a high threat environment. Futurereconnaissance systems will have to be capable of collecting therequired amount and acuity level of imagery under entirely different
operational conditions that exist in the current theater of operations.
Topics presented will include the following: trade-offs between the useof framing versus push broom sensors, imagery recorder requirements,
data link performance, data rate and data storage requirements. Vehicle,
sensor payload performance and operational considerations will be
addressed. Future payload design considerations will be presented alongwith concepts of operations on the use of futuristic payloads. A major
consideration presented will address current paradigms and tactics
might have to be modified to meet the needs and requirements of various
users in the future. Projected sensor designs, payload performance andoperational tactics envisioned for the future will be presented.

Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
The validation of safety-critical applications, such as autonomous UAV
operations in an unknown environment which may include human actors,
is an ill posed problem. To create user and regulator confidence in theautonomous control technology, a multitude of prospective scenarios
must be considered, many of which cannot be preconceived. Numerous
combinations of approach vectors, failure states and other factors must
be explored. In addition to the extreme expense of human-based designof these tests, humans may introduce (in many cases unintended) bias
towards or away from various test conditions or types of testing. This
paper expands upon previous work, related to autonomous testingof robotic control algorithms in a two dimensional plane, to evaluate
the suitability of similar techniques for validating artificial intelligencecontrol in three dimensions, where a minimum level of airspeed must be
maintained. The challenges of simulating this environment for testing
artificial intelligence techniques (without confounding the results withsensor and other issue-factors) are discussed. The testing environmentand conditions are presented. A near-worst-case scenario of a craftthat attempts to position itself to be struck by the AI system under test
(it will not collide with the AI craft, but will try to cause the AI craft tocollide with it) is utilized to validate the performance of a limited-scope
flight control AI. The results of human-conducted testing are comparedto this automated testing, in terms of error detection, speed and testing
cost. The cost benefits and other efficiencies of the automated testing
approach are detailed.

8713-45, Session 1

8713-3, Session 1

Gadget: a new model for tactical manned
reconnaissance
Bekir Arapsun, Adem Bora, Turkish Air Force (Turkey)
Fighter aircrafts are generally designed for attack, defense orreconnaissance (recce) missions. Since unmanned systems like UAV’s
and satellites are used for recce, the manned tactical recce assets
will not be in produce anymore. In this situation, recce missions will
be performed by any strike aircraft, as manned systems. Since UAVs
designed for recce missions can only fly at lower speed and satellites
can take photo at desired point lately, both of them are incapable ofespecially post attack recce needs. At this point, the importance oftactical manned recce, which has capability of high speed, all weather
condition and low altitude is easily understood. Yet, a recce missions
performed by a strike fighter reveals a concept dilemma between ISR and
Non Traditional ISR (NTISR). For instance, if this aircraft takes information
for recce with the help of its radar, SAR, targeting pods, this consept iscalled NTISR. But, if it executes mission with recce pods, this is called
ISR. So, the question:”what kind of a recce architecture can solve thisproblem?” is defined as the main objective of the study.

Solution space exploration of volumetricsurveillance using a general taxonomy
Naeem Ahmad, Muhammad Imran, Khursheed Khursheed,
Najeem Lawal, Mattias O’Nils, Mid Sweden Univ. (Sweden)
Visual surveillance systems provide real time monitoring of the events orthe environment. The availability of low cost sensors and processors has
increased the number of possible applications of these kinds of systems.
However, designing an optimized visual surveillance system for a given
application is a challenging task, which often becomes a unique design
task for each system. Moreover, the choice of components for a given
surveillance application out of a wide spectrum of available products
is not an easy job. In this paper, we propose a general surveillancetaxonomy as a base to structure the analysis and development ofsurveillance systems. We demonstrate the proposed method fordesigning a vision surveillance system for monitoring the movement ofeagles in wind parks aiming to avoid their collision with wind mills. The
analysis of the problem is performed based on taxonomy and behavioral
and implementation models are identified to formulate the solution space
to solve the problem.

In this study, Turkish Air Force (TurAF) recce architecture is analyzed andGadget model is built as a new one. It provides modern strike aircraft to104

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Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X

8713-6, Session 2

8713-8, Session 2

Advanced metal mirror processing for tactical
ISR systems

Gimbal system configurations and lineof-sight control techniques for small UAV
applications

John Schaefer, Raytheon EO Innovations (United States)

Rick Miller, Greg Mooty, Ascendant Engineering Solutions LLC(United States); James M. Hilkert, Alpha-Theta Technologies(United States)

Raytheon EO Innovations has been producing low scatter, low figure, andaffordable aluminum 6061 based mirrors in production since 2005 forlong stand-off ISR systems using our patented VQ™ finishing process.
These common aperture multi-spectral systems typically require λ/30
mirror figure and sub-20Å RMS finishes for optimal visible imaging
performance. Reflective, common aperture architecture enables multispectral performance and exceptional bore sight stability for long range
targeting. This paper will discusses process results, scatter performance,
fabrication capabilities, and will introduce a new lightweight substratematerial, MeRLOT™ that is enabling common aperture, broad-band
performance to be scaled down and put in the hands of the warfighter for
precision targeting and surveillance operations.

The proliferation of small Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) in the past
decade has been driven, in part, by the diverse applications that various
industries have found for these platforms. Originally, these applications
were predominately military in nature but now include law enforcement/ security, environmental monitoring / remote sensing, agricultural
surveying, movie making and others. Many of these require sensors /payloads such as cameras, laser pointer / markers / designators andeven weapon systems that must be pointed and/or stabilized andtherefore require a precision miniature gimbal or other means to control
their line-of-sight (LOS). Until now, these markets have been servedby traditional / larger gimbals; however, the latest class of small UAVs
demand much smaller gimbals while maintaining high-performance.
The limited size and weight of these gimbaled devices result in design
challenges unique to the small-gimbal design field. In the past five years,
Ascendant Engineering Solutions has engaged in designing, analyzing
and building several small-gimbal systems to meet these challenges andhas undertaken a number of trade studies to investigate techniques toachieve optimal performance within the inherent limitations mentioned
above. These have included investigating various gimbal configurations,feedback sensors such as gyros, IMUs and encoders, drive train
configurations, control system techniques, packaging and interconnect,
as well as technology such as fast-steering-mirrors and anti-bluralgorithms. This paper summarizes the results of these trade studies,
attempts to identify inherent trends and limitations in the various design
approaches and techniques, and discusses some practical issues suchas test and verification.

8713-7, Session 2

Cost effective multispectral three-mirror
anastigmat imaging system for highperformance surveillance applications using
electroformed free-form mirrors
Massimiliano Rossi, Robert Banham, Media Lario Technologies(Italy); Davide Blandino, Optec S.p.A. (Italy); Giuseppe Borghi,
Ivan Ferrario, Media Lario Technologies (Italy); Roberto Formaro,
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (Italy); Wolf C. Glage, Raytheon ELCAN
Optical Technologies (Canada); Nadia Missaglia, Stefano
Moretti, Media Lario Technologies (Italy); Iain A. Neil, ScotOptix(Switzerland); Antonio Ritucci, Media Lario Technologies (Italy);
Antonio Sposito, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (Italy); Viktor P.
Syvokin, Raytheon ELCAN Optical Technologies (Canada);
Giuseppe Valsecchi, Paolo Zago, Fabio E. Zocchi, Media Lario
Technologies (Italy)

8713-46, Session 2

A lightweight and wide-swath UAV camera forhigh-resolution surveillance missions

Limitations in the shape of mirrors due to manufacturing and cost
constraints make it difficult to achieve satisfactory compactness, fast
F-number, and good aberration correction in conventional multispectral
imaging systems. A three-mirror anastigmat (TMA) imaging system
overcoming these limitations has been designed and manufactured
by using thin free-form mirrors produced by electroforming replicas ofnegative masters. With this approach, manufacturing complexity andcost are directed towards fabrication of the masters, the contribution ofwhich to the imaging system cost decreases with the number of replicas,
achieving substantial series production cost/cycle time saving. At thesame time, electroforming replication allows the manufacturing of thinmirrors with a thickness of the order of 1 mm, helping to keep the overall
mass below 3 kg.

Bavo Delauré, Tanja Van Achteren, Bart Michiels, VITO NV(Belgium)
Designed to execute mapping and surveillance missions for crisis
monitoring on a solar powered UAV 18 km high up in the stratosphere,
the MEDUSA high resolution camera is able to acquire frame images witha ground sampling distance of 30 cm and swath of 3 km. Since mass isa dominant driver for the UAV performance the MEDUSA payload wasseverely mass optimised to fit within the physical boundaries of 2.6 kg,
12 cm diameter and 1 m length. An inertial navigation system and datatransmission equipment is included. Due to the innovative dual sensor on
single chip concept the MEDUSA payload hosts two independent frame
camera’s of each 10000x1200 pixels (one panchromatic and one colour
sensitive). The MEDUSA stratospheric camera has completed its systemlevel test campaign in autumn 2012 and is ready for its maiden flight.

The TMA that has been developed and tested employs F/1.4 optics witha focal length of 136 mm and a field of view of 4.3°x3.1°, and nominallyprovides a contrast better than 75% in the visible wavelength band at
25 cycles/mm. The optical design is free from vignetting, provides a cold
stop position, and has low distortion. By means of a beam-splitter, theimaging system provides two optical output channels, one in the visible
and one in the LWIR waveband.

Using the main building blocks of this stratospheric camera a modified
version is being developed which is adapted to more conventional
UAV’s flying at lower altitude. The current design is targeting a ground
resolution of 10 cm and swath of 1 km with each single image. First
test flights have been conducted with an engineering model version of
the camera generating representative image data. Also the functionality
is being expanded by adding hyperspectral sensitivity to high spatial
resolution image acquisition within the same compact camera system.
The presentation will address the MEDUSA stratospheric camera and thederived camera developments.

Thermal and structural design and analysis have been done to comply
with typical airborne conditions. Stray light analysis has been also
performed, leading to a preliminary baffle design.
The design of the instrument and the as-built measured performance arepresented in this paper.

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105Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X

8713-9, Session 3

8713-10, Session 3

LaserCom in UAS missions: benefits andoperational aspects

An autonomous surveillance system for blindsources localization and separation

Wolfgang Griethe, Frank F. Heine, Tesat-Spacecom GmbH &Co. KG (Germany); Lester L. Begg, Detao Du, General Atomics
Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (United States)

Sean F. Wu, Raghavendra Kulkarni, Wayne State Univ. (UnitedStates); Srikanth Duraiswamy, Wayne State University (UnitedStates)

Optical communication has made significant progress in recent years.
With the successful in-orbit verification of Tesat’s Laser Communication
Terminal (LCT), the coherent homodyne BPSK scheme advanced toa standard for optical free-space communication which now prevails
more and more. The LCT from Tesat is located not only on satellites like
TerraSAR-X and NFIRE in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), with spacecrafts like
Alphasat and EDRS the terminal will also exist in Geosynchronous Orbit(GEO) in the near future. In other words, the LCT from Tesat has reached
its practical application.

This paper aims at developing a technology that enables one to conduct
an autonomous and silent surveillance to monitor sound sources
stationary or moving in 3D space and a blind separation of target
acoustic signals. The underlying principle of this technology is a hybrid
approach that uses: 1) passive sonic detection and ranging methodthat consists of iterative triangulation and redundant checking to locate
the Cartesian coordinates of arbitrary sound sources in 3D space, 2)advanced signal processing including the wavelet transform to sanitizing
the measured data, and 3) impulse response functions and convolution
integrals to extract target acoustic signals. A prototype based on
this technology is developed and its hardware includes six B&K ¼-incondenser microphones, Type 4935, two 4-channel data acquisition
units, Type NI-9234, with a maximum sampling rate of 51.2kS/s perchannel, one NI-cDAQ 9174 chassis, a thermometer to measure the airtemperature, a camera to view the relative positions of located sources,
and a laptop to control data acquisition and post processing. Test
results for locating arbitrary sound sources emitting continuous, random,
impulsive, and transient signals, and blind sources separation in various
non-ideal environments are presented. This system is invisible to any
anti-surveillance device because it uses the acoustic signal emitted by atarget source. It can be mounted on a robot or an unmanned vehicle toperform a variety of covert operations, including intelligence gathering inan open or a confined field, and rescue mission to search people trapped
inside ruins or buried under wreckage.

With existence of such space assets the time has come for otherutilizations beyond of establishing optical inter-satellite links. Aeronauticalapplications, as for instance HALE / MALE UAS, have to be addressed
because the need to transfer large amounts of data in near real-time
is evident for UAS missions. In view of the global connectivity of
sensors, decision makers and shooters, LaserCom can yield extended
possibilities.
The paper describes driving factors and advantages of LaserCom in
HALE / MALE UAS missions. It shows in which way the laser link cancontribute also to the safety of the platform, as for instance by plausibility
check of SatNav signals or by increasing the interference immunity of
the radio Command and Control (C2) link. Moreover, numerous practicerelated issues are discussed, which are associated with the introductionof this technology in HALE / MALE platforms. That concerns the spacesegment, the airborne segment as well as the ground segment. Typicalexamples for these issues are- the design of the airborne LCT as counterpart to the spaceborne LCT- the strategy for Pointing, Acquisition and Tracking (PAT)- the dimensioning of the Forward Downlinks and the Return Uplink and- the Concept of Operations (CONOPS).
The paper highlights LaserCom as enabler for the integration of air andspace-based wideband Intelligence, Surveillance & Reconnaissance (ISR)
systems into military command and control systems in a way that was
not possible until now.
With existence of such space assets the time has come for otherutilizations beyond of establishing optical inter-satellite links. Aeronauticalapplications, as for instance HALE / MALE UAS, have to be addressed
because the need to transfer large amounts of data in near real-time
is evident for UAS missions. In view of the global connectivity of
sensors, decision makers and shooters, LaserCom can yield extended
possibilities.
The paper describes driving factors and advantages of LaserCom in
HALE / MALE UAS missions. It shows in which way the laser link cancontribute also to the safety of the platform, as for instance by plausibility
check of SatNav signals or by increasing the interference immunity of
the radio Command and Control (C2) link. Moreover, numerous practicerelated issues are discussed, which are associated with the introductionof this technology in HALE / MALE platforms. That concerns the spacesegment, the airborne segment as well as the ground segment. Typicalexamples for these issues are- the design of the airborne LCT as counterpart to the spaceborne LCT- the strategy for Pointing, Acquisition and Tracking (PAT)- the dimensioning of the Forward Downlinks and the Return
Uplink and- the Concept of Operations (CONOPS).
The paper highlights LaserCom as enabler for the integration of air andspace-based wideband Intelligence, Surveillance & Reconnaissance (ISR)
systems into military command and control systems in a way that was
not possible until now.

106

8713-11, Session 4

AV Sentry®: a high-dynamic range, ultra-low
noise ROIC for the visible through the infrared
bandwidths
John C. Liobe, ADVIS, Inc. (United States); Zhe Gao, Zeljko
Ignjatovic, Mark F. Bocko, Univ. of Rochester (United States)
Imaging systems for intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissanceapplications have highly demanding and often, conflicting requirements.
To obtain useful information from a scene, high dynamic range, highsignal to noise, and high-resolution images are needed. However such
performance must be achieved with a limited power budget and often
times, severe size and weight constraints. Transmission of the flood of
raw data from an imaging system is often impractical in remote viewing
applications so in-camera integration of video analytics is anotherhighly desirable feature for ISR systems, which makes further demandson the system power budget. Ideally, an ISR sensor could operate ina “monitoring” mode, perhaps with reduced resolution and image bitdepth, to collect only enough information to ascertain whether a specifictarget-of-interest is present. This event could trigger a closer lookwhere resolution and image quality could be increased and additional
information extracted. Such a scheme requires a sensor capable ofon-the-fly reconfigurability. In addition, ISR applications span theelectromagnetic spectrum from infrared to x-rays and span a large rangeof flux levels. Typically, ReadOut Integrated Circuits (ROICs) are designed
to meet the specifications of one region of this spectrum: visible, infrared(IR), or X-ray. The ADVIS AV Sentry® ROIC technology utilizes proprietary
digital signal processing techniques within each pixel to simultaneously
achieve the low readout-noise levels essential for the inspection of thevisible segment, the high dynamic range to prevent saturation for the
IR band, and fast frame and sample rates for the study of X-rays. This
scheme leverages the performance benefits of both an oversampling andan algorithmic analog-to-digital converter (ADC) at each pixel location
employing a common architecture. A prototype, visible-spectrum sensor
with a 320 x 180 pixel array has been developed in a generic 0.35-µm
CMOS process and results will be presented.

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Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X

8713-14, Session 4

NV-CMOS image sensors provide the low light sensitivity previously only
achievable with an analog image intensifier tube with the cost, power,ruggedness, flexibility and convenience of a digital CMOS imager chip.
NV-CMOS provides multi-megapixels at video frame rates with low noise(<2 e-), high sensitivity across the visible and near infrared (NIR) bands(peak QE >90%), high resolution (MTF at Nyquist > 50%), and extended
dynamic range (>90 dB). The latest test data from the NV-CMOS imager
technology will be presented.

A long-wave infrared hyperspectral sensor for
Shadow class UAVs
Paul G. Lucey, Univ. of Hawai’i (United States); Jason T. Akagi,
John L. Hinrichs, Spectrum Photonics, Inc. (United States); Sarah
T. Crites, Univ. of Hawai’i (United States)

Unlike conventional image intensifiers, the NV-CMOS image sensor
outputs a digital signal, ideal for recording or sharing video as well as
fusion with thermal imagery. The result is a substantial reduction inweight, power and size, ideal for SWaP-constrained missions such as
UAV’s and mobile operations. SRI’s motion adaptive noise reduction
processing further increases the sensitivity and reduces image smear.
Enhancement of moving targets in imagery captured under extreme low
light conditions imposes difficult challenges. SRI has demonstrated thatimage registration provides a robust solution for enhancing global scene
content under very low SNR conditions, improving sensitivity by up to
10x. In this paper, we present a method for enhancing global scene SNR
as well as detecting and enhancing locally moving objects in the scene.

We have developed an airborne LWIR hyperspectral imaging system
intended for use in Shadow class UAVs. The sensor features a 20 kg
mass in a 20x15x45 cm package that consumes 20W power. The sensor
also features 10 minutes from power on to data collection readiness.
The sensor is an uncooled static Sagnac spectral interferometer with acooled HgCdTe focal plane in a standard camera package. The sensor
is operated in pushbroom mode, and with the current cameras, has a
320 element swath width and a spectral resolution of 20 wavenumbers
yielding 23 bands from 8-10.5 microns. The current optics and camera
provides 20 cm ground resolution operating from 3500 ft at 100 kt
airspeed. We have tested the sensor in commercial air survey aircraft andobtained spectral imagery and detection of solid chemicals and chemical
vapors. Long range optics designed but not yet built would provide
similar ground sample distances from 10,000 ft.

8713-18, Session 5

The capability of time- and frequency-domain
algorithms for bistatic SAR processing

8713-15, Session 4

Novel compact airborne platform for HyperCam infrared hyperspectral imager for
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissanceViet T. Vu, Thomas K. Sjögren, Mats I. Pettersson, BlekingeInstitute of Technology (Sweden)
Bistatic SAR processing is based on algorithms which can be divided in
two groups: time- and frequency-domain. The time-domain algorithms
refer to the backprojection algorithms such as BiGBP, BiFBP, and BiFFBP[1],[2]. The processing of these algorithms is performed only in timedomain whereas other algorithms such as BiRDA [3], BiCSA [4] and
BiRMA [5] process the SAR data in frequency domain. In the monostaticcase, the frequency-domain algorithms generally have the advantage ofprocessing time over time-domain algorithms. However, the frequencydomain algorithms show the limitations while time-domain algorithms do
not.

Caroline S. Turcotte, Eldon Puckrin, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada, Valcartier (Canada); Marc-André Gagnon,
Jean-Alexis Boulet, Francoys Aube, Vincent Farley, Martin
Chamberland, Telops (Canada)
Persistent surveillance and collection of airborne intelligence, surveillance
and reconnaissance information is critical in today’s warfare against
terrorism. High resolution imagery in visible and infrared bands provides
valuable detection capabilities based on target shapes and temperatures.
However, the spectral resolution provided by a hyperspectral imager
adds a spectral dimension to the measurements, leading to additional
tools for detection and identification of targets, based on their spectral
signature.

The choice of an algorithm is seen as a practical issue in bistatic SAR
processing. Bases for this choice can be operating frequency range,
motion error, ratio of aperture length to minimum range and required
number of operations and thus determine the capability of algorithms.
The aim of this study is to investigate the capability of time andfrequency-domain algorithms for bistatic SAR processing. Twoalgorithms, BiFBP and BiRDA, are selected for the investigations. The
algorithms are examined with two different sets of parameters. One is of
LORA [6], a NB system, and the other CARABAS-II [7], a UWB system.
The simulation results indicate that both BiFBP and BiRDA work well withthe simulated LORA data. However, BiRDA faces to different challenges
when it is used for the simulated CARABAS-II data while BiFBP does not.
The processing time of BiRDA is analytically and experimentally shown to
be shorter than the one of BiFBP. Thanks to the flexibility of BiFBP, there
are also different ways to shorten its processing time.

The Telops Hyper-Cam sensor is an interferometer-based imaging systemthat enables the spatial and spectral analysis of targets using a single
sensor. It is based on the Fourier-transform technology yielding highspectral resolution and enabling high accuracy radiometric calibration.
It provides datacubes of up to 320×256 pixels at spectral resolutions as
fine as 0.25 cm-1. The LWIR version covers the 8.0 to 11.8 µm spectral
range. The Hyper-Cam has been recently integrated and floan on a novel
airborne gyro-stabilized platform in a fixed-wing aircraft.
The new platform, more compact and more advanced than its
predecessor, is described in this paper. The first results of target
detection and identification are also presented.

[1] V. T. Vu, T. K. Sjögren, and M. I. Pettersson, “Phase error calculation
for time-domain bistatic SAR algorithms,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron.
Syst., vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 38–46, 2013.

8713-17, Session 5[2] V. T. Vu, T. K. Sjögren, M. I. Pettersson, A. Gustavsson, and L.
M. H. Ulander, “Fast time-domain algorithms for UWB bistatic SAR
processing,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst., to be published.

Low-light NV-CMOS(TM) image sensors forday/night imaging[3] Y. L. Neo, F. H. Wong, and I. G. Cumming, “Processing of azimuth
invariant bistatic SAR data using the range Doppler algorithm,” IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, , vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 14–21, 2008.

Thomas L. Vogelsong, John Tower, Thomas Senko, Peter A.
Levine, Judy Zhu, David C. Zhang, Gooitzen S. van der Wal, SRI
International Sarnoff (United States)[4] F. H. Wong, Y. L. Neo, and I. G. Cumming, “Focusing bistatic SAR datausing the nonlinear chirp scaling algorithm,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote
Sensing, , vol. 46, no. 9, pp. 2493–2505, 2008.

Traditionally, daylight and night vision imaging systems have required
image intensifiers plus daytime cameras. But SRI’s new NV-CMOS image
sensor technology is designed to capture images over the full rangeof illumination from bright sunlight to overcast starlight. SRI’s low-light

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[5] B. Liu, T. Wang, Q. Wu, and Z. Bao “Bistatic SAR data focusing using
an omega-k algorithm based on method of series reversion,” IEEE Trans.
Geosci. Remote Sensing, , vol. 46, no. 9, pp. 2493–2505, 2008.

·

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107Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X[6] L. M. H. Ulander and H. Hellsten, “Low-frequency ultrawideband
arrayantenna SAR for stationary and moving target imaging,” in Proc.
SPIE Radar Sensor Technology IV, vol. 3704, Orlando, FL, Apr. 1999, pp.
149–158.
[7] A. Gustavsson, L. M. H. Ulander, B. H. Flood, P.-O. Frölind, H.
Hellsten, T. Jonsson, B. Larsson, and G. Stenstrom, “Development andoperation of an airborne VHF SAR system-lessons learned,” in Proc. IEEEIGARSS’98, vol. 1, Seattle, WA, Jul. 1998, pp. 458–462.
[8] Y. L. Neo, F. H. Wong, and I. G. Cumming, “A two-dimensional
spectrum for bistatic SAR processing using series reversion,” IEEE
Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 93–96, 2007.

8713-19, Session 5

Another possibility to focus moving targets bynormalized relative speed in UWB SAR
Viet T. Vu, Thomas K. Sjögren, Mats I. Pettersson, BlekingeTekniska Högskola (Sweden)
One of the most crucial applications of SAR is GMTI as it is of interest toboth military and civilian end users. Among the available GMTI methods,
the moving target detection by focusing technique [1] is considered as apromising technique aiming at UWB SAR systems such as CARABAS-II[2], LORA [3] and P-3 [4]. The technique has been experimented withdifferent sets of data collected by CARABAS-II [1]. However, an extensionof the technique to complicated cases like bistatic SAR may not be
possible.
The limitation of the technique originates from the assumptions in thederivation of the focusing approach. Hence, in the derivation [1], the flighttrack of a platform is assumed to be parallel to the x-axis of the Cartesian
coordinate system. Also, the derivation is strongly related to the minimum
range of a target. However, such assumptions may not be fulfilled in
more complicated cases, e.g. bistatic SAR. For bistatic SAR, the flighttracks of the transmitting and receiving platforms may not be parallel.
The minimum ranges may not be simultaneously obtained for both theplatforms.
The objective of this paper is to investigate the limitation of the currently
used focusing approach and to propose a new one which allows
extending the technique to complicated cases like bistatic SAR. The
proposal in this paper is validated and examined with both the simulated
data and the real data. It is also extended to the bistatic case and shownto overcome the limitation of the original approach. CARABAS-II isselected as a reference system in this research work.
[1] V. T. Vu, T. K. Sjögren, M. I. Pettersson, A. Gustavsson, and L. M. H.
Ulander, “Moving targets detection by focusing in UWB SAR – Theory
and experimental results,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, vol. 48,
no. 10, pp. 3799–3815, 2010.
[2] A. Gustavsson, L. M. H. Ulander, B. H. Flood, P.-O. Frölind, H.
Hellsten, T. Jonsson, B. Larsson, and G. Stenstrom, “Development andoperation of an airborne VHF SAR system-lessons learned,” in Proc. IEEEIGARSS’98, vol. 1, Seattle, WA, Jul. 1998, pp. 458–462.
[3] L. M. H. Ulander and H. Hellsten, “Low-frequency ultrawideband
arrayantenna SAR for stationary and moving target imaging,” in Proc.
SPIE Radar Sensor Technology IV, vol. 3704, Orlando, FL, Apr. 1999, pp.
149–158.
[4] D. R. Sheen, C. M. Strawitch, and T. B. Lewis, “UHF wideband
SAR design and preliminary results,” in Proc. IEEE IGARSS’94, vol. 1,
Pasadena, CA, Aug. 1994, pp. 289–291.
[5] L. E. Andersson, “On the determination of a function from spherical
averages,” SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis, vol. 19, no. 1, pp.
214–232, 1988.

8713-20, Session 6

Real-time focal-plane wavefront sensing forcompact imaging phased-array telescopes:
numerical and experimental demonstration
Bertrand Denolle, Frédéric Cassaing, Joseph Montri, ONERA(France); Jean-Philippe Amans, Observatoire de Paris à Meudon(France)Phase retrieval and phase diversity are wavefront sensing techniques
fed by focal-plane data. In phase retrieval, the incoming wavefront isestimated from a single (near-) focal image of an unresolved source. In
phase diversity, from at least two images of the same (complex) object
recorded in presence of a known optical aberration (eg. defocus), boththe unknown incoming wavefront and the observed object can bederived. These two techniques have many advantages: the hardware islimited to (or can be merged in) the usual imaging sensor, the number of
estimated modes can be continuously tuned and both are one of the very
few methods enabling the measurement of differential pistons/tip/tilts on
segmented or divided apertures. The counterpart is that complexity isreported to digital processing, which is either iterative and long, or fast
but limited to a first-order phase expansion.
Based on an innovative physical approach and mathematical inversion,
resulting from 20 years of work on stellar interferometers or imaging
spaceborne telescopes, new simple, analytical and exact algorithms
have been recently derived for phase retrieval and diversity. Conjugatedwith recent detector and processor advances, these algorithms can be
implemented in adaptive/active optics loops, or even provide a purelydigital on-the-fly alternative.
In this paper, for the first time, we present evaluations of thesealgorithms: by simulation in a wide range of application cases (object
structure, aperture shape, SNR, aberration type and amplitude,…), bycomparison with a traditional iterative Maximum a Posteriori algorithm,
by experiments with the cophasing of a segmented mirror.

8713-21, Session 6

Computational imaging for aberrated optics(CIAO): experimental results
Robert Saperstein, Eliseo Ranalli, Patrick C. Mock, Anis Husain,
Ziva Corp. (United States)
This paper presents simulations and experimental results obtained witha novel image processing algorithm called Computational Imaging for
Aberrated Optics (CIAO), which is a multi-image deconvolution algorithm.
CIAO enhances the performance of imaging systems by accommodating
wavefront error (WFE). This accommodation effectively increases theWFE budget of the imaging system, which allows the designer to improvesystem performance or reduce system cost. For example, simulations
show that CIAO can double the field of view or relax design tolerances toreduce cost by 10X. CIAO has been successfully tested in a wide field ofview, foveated imaging system, which has significant aberrations. Theseexperimental results show that CIAO can recover high quality images
from highly blurred images at the edge of the field of view. Specifically,
CIAO allows the pupil to open 50% beyond the diffraction limited
aperture, which allows more light capture and higher cut-off resolution.
Alternatively, CIAO can accommodate a commensurate increase inwavefront error with field, allowing higher resolution over an expanded
field of view for a given entrance pupil.

[6] V. T. Vu, T. K. Sjögren, and M. I. Pettersson, “Fast backprojection for
UWB bistatic SAR,” in Proc. IEEE Radar’2011, Kansas City, MO, May
2011, pp. 431–434.

108

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Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X

8713-22, Session 68713-24, Session 6

ATCOM: accelerated image processing
for terrestrial long-range imaging throughatmospheric effects

A simple yet effective real-time solution
to reduce total information loss in highlycompressed video

Petersen F. Curt, Aaron L. Paolini, EM Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates)Amber D. Fischer, 21st Century Systems, Inc. (United States)
Sensors are only becoming more powerful with increased fields of viewat higher resolutions, thus enabling ‘more pixels on target’. However, inaccessing this information, the bottleneck is the bandwidth… especiallyto mobile devices in remote locations where direct network connectivity
and WIFI are not an option.

Long-range imaging is a critical tool for law enforcement and bordersecurity. Enforcers are better protected if they can identify persons ofinterest or what they may be carrying at safe range. Border security cancover wider areas with fewer long-range sensors deployed. Unfortunately
resolution is generally degraded by atmospheric effects when thecoherence length approaches the aperture of the imaging system. Larger
apertures can reduce the effects, but at the cost of increased SWaP.
For better portability, we have developed a real-time digital processing
approach.

In UAV operations for example, the bandwidth available to accessonboard video in real-time can vary significantly and unpredictably
for many reasons. Adaptive lossy compression algorithms, such as
H.264 and MJPEG2000, provide capability to automatically adjust thecompression rate based on the available bandwidth, allowing streamingof video from the UAV to remain uninterrupted. However, this results ina variation in quality from frame to frame of the transmitted video data,
potentially omitting or obscuring operationally relevant information.

Originally developed by astronomers, the bispectrum speckle averaging
technique is a multi-frame algorithm that can enhance imagery degradedby atmospheric turbulence. The technique deblurs videos by averaging
in the bispectral domain to produce diffraction-limited imagery which
would otherwise be limited by the atmosphere. Using multi core- andGPU-based techniques, we have accelerated this algorithm to real-timeand demonstrated its fieldability using a laptop, cassegrain telescopeand digital IR camera. As a result, the potential for enhancement is nolonger limited to post-processing in the laboratory, but rather real-time
surveillance.

In this paper, we demonstrate a simple yet effective software-only based
solution that provides opportunity to recover information that would
otherwise be lost in highly compressed video. Our results demonstratethat you can obtain equal or even smaller size compressed video ascompared to the original uniformly compressed video with an obvious
quality gain in a subset region of the video. For bandwidth limited
environments, our approach can provide opportunity to communicate
operationally relevant information in streamed video that would haveotherwise been lost.

We present the results of our research and implementation,
demonstrating the potential for a small portable system capable ofidentifying signs, faces and objects at long-range.

8713-25, Session 68713-23, Session 6

A comparative analysis of dynamic range
compression techniques in IR images formaritime applications

A comparison of the mean square error
performance of speckle and MFBD
image reconstruction techniques underanisoplanatic, long horizontal-path imaging

Alessandro Rossi, Univ. di Pisa (Italy); Nicola Acito, Accademia
Navale di Livorno (Italy); Marco Diani, Univ. di Pisa (Italy); Cristian
Luison, Altran Italy S.p.A. (Italy); Monica Olivieri, Gianni Barani,
SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy)

Glen E. Archer, Jeremy P. Bos, Michael C. Roggemann, Michigan
Technological Univ. (United States)

Modern thermal cameras acquire IR images with a high dynamic range
which can be considered as a direct consequence of the joint effectsof (i) the high thermal resolution of modern IR devices and (ii) the great
temperature changes of monitored scenarios in specific surveillance
applications.

The simulation model assumed uniform atmospheric turbulence
distributions along a 1 kilometer path using low, Cn^2 = 2.25x10 -14m^(-2/3), moderate, Cn^2 = 3.25x10 -14 m^(-2/3)and severe, Cn^2 =5.25x10 -14 m^(-2/3) turbulence cases. Both bispectrum and KnoxThompson methods are compared using 5 estimates of the object phaseaveraged per spatial frequency. For the MFBD reconstruction, the original
object and aberration parameters are jointly estimated using multiple
input frames. The number of frames and number of Zernike terms werevaried for the MFBD technique and the number of input frames wasvaried for the bispectrum case. 15 input frames were found to be optimal
for all three techniques. For MFBD, optimal results were achieved using
30 Zernike coefficients to characterize the aberrations.

Initially developed for visible light images and recently extended
for display of IR images, high dynamic range compression (HDRC)
techniques aim at furnishing plain images to human operators for a
first intuitive comprehension of the sensed scenario without altering thefeatures of IR images.
In this context, the maritime scenario represents a challenging case to
test and develop HDRC strategies since images collected for surveillanceat sea are typically characterized by high thermal gradients among thebackground scene and classes of objects at different temperatures.

The comparison shows that speckle-imaging techniques reduce themean square error 46%, 42% and 47% on average for low, moderate,and severe cases, respectively using 15 input frames under daytime
conditions and moderate frame rates. Similarly, the MFBD method
provides, 40%, 25%, and 36% improvements in MSE on average
under the same conditions. The comparison is repeated under low light
conditions (less than 100 photons per pixel) where improvements of
39%, 29% and 27% are available using speckle imaging methods and 25
input frames and 38%, 34% and 33% respectively for the MFBD method
and 150 input frames.

In the development of a new IRST system, SelexGalileo assembled ademonstrator equipped with modern thermal cameras and planneda measurement campaign on a maritime scenario so as to collect IR
sequences in different operating conditions. This has led to build up acase record of situations suitable to test HDRC techniques.
In this work, a survey of HDRC approaches is introduced pointing out
advantages and drawbacks with focus on strategies specifically designed
to display IR images. A detailed analysis of the performance is discussed
in order to address the task of visualization with reference to typicalissues of IR maritime images, such as robustness to the horizon effectand displaying of very warm objects and flat areas.

Work is continuing in order to present details on execution time but
preliminary results indicate that MFBD is significantly slower than both
bispectrum and Knox-Thompson.

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109Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X

8713-26, Session 7

Material characterization using passive
multispectral polarimetric imagery
Melissa Sawyer, Milo W. Hyde IV, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States)
A new method for characterization of unknown targets using passive
multispectral polarimetric imagery is presented. Previous work makes
use of a pBRDF derived equation for the degree of linear polarization
and with the aid of multiple incidence angles estimates refractive index
and reflection angle. This work uses known incidence and reflection
angles along with dispersion equations and polarimetric data at multiple
wavelengths to recover the index of refraction. Experimental results arepresented showing the new method’s ability to characterize a range ofmaterials.

8713-27, Session 7

An estimation of geometric transformation
parameters of the multispectral image basedon multiple reference area tracking
Valery V. Strotov, Boris A. Alpatov, Ryazan State RadioEngineering Univ. (Russian Federation)
A new estimation algorithm of the multispectral images geometrictransformation parameters is suggested. Multispectral frames appear
to be a set of prior aligned grayscale images taken from various video
sources in different spectral ranges.
The main idea of the algorithm is to estimate the frame transformation
parameters using information about positions of small (32x32 pixels
or less) rectangle regions on separated images of this frame. The key
features of this algorithm are the procedures of region extraction andreplacement. The designed criterion for the optimal reference region
extraction is based on minimal position estimation error. The replacing
criterion is based on an evaluation of mismatch of the region position
to the transformation model. Usage of the described procedures allows
decreasing the number of reference regions downto 5-10 in dependencyof signal-to-noise ratio. The image transformation parameters can be
defined by analyzing the variation of the region positions in neighboring
frames.
The experimental research was performed on a set of multispectral frame
sequences. The algorithm showed a good performance, noise tolerance
and accuracy of image transformation parameter estimation.
The proposed algorithm has been successfully applied in real-time
airborne vision system based on Virtex-II FPGAs.

8713-28, Session 7

OREOS: a new EO-IR modeling andsimulation tool for US Coast Guard searchand rescue applications
Sarah E. Lane, C. Spencer Nichols, Alan M. Thomas, J. Michael
Cathcart, Georgia Tech Research Institute (United States)
Georgia Tech has developed a new modeling and simulation tool
under the Optimization of Radar and Electro-Optical Sensors (OREOS)
program; OREOS is a tool that predicts both RADAR and EO-IR lateral
range curves (LRCs) and sweep widths for Coast Guard Search andRescue (SAR) applications. In a search scenario when the location of thelost or overdue craft is unknown, the Coast Guard will conduct searches
based upon standard procedure, personnel expertise, experimental
findings, and models. One metric for search planning is the sweep
width, or integrated area under a LRC. Because a searching craft isequipped with RADAR and Electro-Optical Infrared (EO-IR) sensor suites,110

the Coast Guard is interested in accurate predictions of sweep width
for the particular search scenario. Here, we will discuss the physicalmodels that make up the EO-IR portion of the OREOS code. First,
GTSIG (Georgia Tech SIGnature) generates thermal signatures of searchtargets based upon the thermal and optical properties of the target andthe environment; a renderer then calculates target contrast. Sensor
information and these contrasts are input into NVESD models to generate
probability of detection (PD) vs. slant range. These PD vs. range values
are then converted into LRCs taking into account a continuous looksearch from a moving platform; sweep widths are then calculated. The
OREOS tool differs from previous methods in that physical models areused to predict the LRCs and sweep widths at every step in the process,whereas before heuristic methods were employed to generate final
predictions.

8713-29, Session 7

Situational awareness investigation using
tracking and enhancement of imagery withhighly dynamic lighting conditions
Andrey V. Kanaev, Christopher W. Miller, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Collin J. Seanor, Jeremy Murray-Krezan, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)
Situational awareness consisting of object detection and identificationfrom low-resolution low-frame rate video collected under highly dynamic
lightning conditions is an important but arduous task, necessary formany environments. One way to approach the problem is to enhance
image resolution using multi-frame super-resolution (SR) techniques. We
investigate applicability of classical SR algorithms that rely heavily on
motion estimation between the video frames and nonlocal SR algorithms
with implicit motion estimation. Complex motion between the frames isaddressed using optical flow (OF) techniques which are based on theassumption of illumination, or image intensity, constancy. The difficultyof applying OF algorithms to highly dynamic lighting conditions is thefact that these conditions often violate the constancy assumption. We
examine performance of illumination-change tolerant OF algorithms,
which use a gradient based fidelity term, a nonlinearized constancy
assumption, and feature tracking. Additionally, low video frame rates may
translate into large displacements between images, which represents asignificant hurdle to both OF algorithms and SR algorithms with implicit
motion estimation. The study of how the values of displacements
between images affect OF and SR performance is conducted8713-30, Session 7

Parallax visualization plug-in toolset forpursuer WAMI data
Christopher A. Mayhew, Craig M. Mayhew, Mark B. Forgues,
Vision III Imaging, Inc. (United States)
Effective use of intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR)
data gathered by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) missions is vital to
US Military combat operations. Recently, Parallax Visualization (PV)technologies have been introduced, which: (1) use existing UAV sensor
data, (2) provide critical alignment software tools, and (3) produce
autostereoscopic ISR work products. These work products can be
distributed across military networks and viewed on standard unaided
displays.
Parallax Visualization techniques produce a near-three-dimensional
visual response to standard two-dimensional UAV WAMI data. Parallax
Visualization applies to the WAMI data by the virtue of its overlapping
nature. This visualization is accomplished by using software tools
to critically align a common point in two views while alternately
displaying both views in a square-wave manner. Humans produce anautosteroscopic (automatic depth perception) response to criticallyaligned parallax information presented using Parallax Visualization on astandard unaided display at frequencies between 3 and 6 hertz.

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Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X
This simple technique allows for the exploitation of spatial and temporal
differences in image sequences to enhance depth, size, and spatial
relationships of terrain features and objects in areas of interest. Any
two images in a data set that contain different points of view can bevisualized in a manner that will render object shapes and ambiguous
surface features obvious.

foreground segmentation to automatic crowd density estimation. The
determination of crowd density is based on several features like edge
intensity or spatial frequency. They indicate the density and discriminate
between a crowd and other image regions like buildings, bushes or trees.
We compare the performance of our automatic system to the previous
semi-automatic system and to manual counting in images. By counting
a test set of aerial images showing large crowds containing up to 12,000
people, the performance gain of our new system will be measured. By
improving our previous system we will increase the benefit of an image
based solution for counting people in large crowds.

Previous evaluations have established that Parallax Visualization of the
ISR full motion video (FMV) data presents three-dimensional informationin an obvious and immediate manner. The authors are working with the
Air Force Research Lab (AFRL) Sensor Exploitation Applications Branch
to develop a WAMI Parallax Visualization Plug-in Toolset for the Pursuer
GUI.

8713-33, Session 9

Electronic image stabilization algorithms
based on flight characteristics of the small
UAV

8713-31, Session 8

Meta-image navigation augmenters forunmanned aircraft systems (MINA for UAS)

Sijie Liu, Hongying Zhao, Lu Wang, Ying Mai, Peking Univ.
(China)Koray Celik, Arun K. Somani, Iowa State Univ. (United States);
Bernard A. Schnaufer, Patrick Y. Hwang, Gary A. McGraw,
Jeremy Nadke, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States)

Small-UAVs have characteristics such as low flight height, fast flight
speed, light weight and so on. They have a wide application prospects
on military and civil applications. However, the video sequences arecommonly unstable and with complex motions. These bring manydifficulties to electronic image stabilization.

GPS is a critical sensor for Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs) due
to its accuracy, global coverage and small hardware footprint, but issubject to denial due to signal blockage or RF interference. When GPS isunavailable, position, velocity and attitude (PVA) performance from otherinertial and air data sensors is not sufficient, especially for small UASs.
Recently, image-based navigation algorithms have been developed
to address GPS outages for UASs, since most of these platforms
already include a camera as standard equipage. Performing absolutenavigation with real-time aerial images requires georeferenced data,
either images or landmarks, as a reference. Georeferenced imagery isreadily available today, but requires a large amount of storage, whereas
collections of discrete landmarks are compact but must be generated
by pre-processing. An alternative, compact source of georeferenced
data having large coverage area is open source vector maps from which
meta-objects can be extracted for matching against real-time acquired
imagery. We have developed a novel, automated approach called MINA
(Meta Image Navigation Augmenters), which is a synergy of machinevision and machine-learning algorithms for map aided navigation. As
opposed to existing image map matching algorithms, MINA utilizes
publicly available open source geo-referenced vector map data, such as
OpenStreetMap, in conjunction with real-time optical imagery from an
on-board, monocular camera to augment the UAV navigation computerwhen GPS is not available. The MINA approach has been experimentally
validated with both actual flight data and flight simulation data andresults are presented in the paper.

In this paper, based on analyses of flight characteristics of small-UAVs,
the author proposes effective electronic image stabilization algorithms.
Generally, the small UAV flies along with a preset route, its flight status
can be classified into two kinds: rectilinear flight and turning flight.
According to this, we find that:1)When the small UAV flies along with astraight line, while the wind and the flow are large, it will deviate fromthe preset route much, a large drift occurs. If compensating the images
to the intended line, much information of images will be lost. 2) Whensmall-UAVs are under the circumstances of large tilt angle, the motions ofimages are complicate. Simple motion models are not suitable.
To solve these problems, firstly,we prejudge the motion mode of thesmall-UAV by flying attitude, control command and other information.
Secondly,we adopt adaptive kalman filtering to obtain the steadyintentional motion and keep the most information. Thirdly,thehomography model is used to the global motion estimation. The
curve fitting and idea of uniform motion state are used to estimate theintentional motion. Then we reconstruct the global motion.
Lastly, carried out by actual airborne videos, the results indicate that our
methods are effective.

8713-34, Session 98713-32, Session 8

A method of intentional movement estimationof oblique Small-UAV videos stabilized basedon homography modelDensity estimation in aerial images of large
crowds for automatic people counting
Christian Herrmann, Juergen Metzler, Fraunhofer-Institut für
Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)

Shiyi Guo, Peking Univ. (China) and China Univ. of Mining andTechnology (China); Ying Mai, Hongying Zhao, Peking Univ.
(China); Pengqi Gao, National Astronomical Observatories,
Chinese Academy of Sciences (China)

Counting people is a common topic in the area of visual surveillance andcrowd analysis. While many image based solutions are designed to countonly a few persons at the same time like pedestrians entering a shop or
watching an advertisement, there is hardly any solution for counting large
crowds of several hundred persons or more. We addressed this problem
previously by designing a semi-automatic system being able to countcrowds consisting of hundreds or thousands of people based on aerial
images of demonstrations or similar events. This system requires majoruser interaction to segment the image. Our principle aim is to reduce thismanual interaction.

The airborne video streams of small-UAVs are commonly plagued with
distractive jittery and shaking motions, disorienting rotations, noisy anddistorted images and other unwanted movements. These problems
collectively make it very difficult for observers to obtain useful informationfrom the video. Due to the small payload of small-UAVs, it is a priority to
improve the image quality by means of electronic image stabilization.
But when small-UAV makes a turn, affected by the flight characteristics
of it, videos is easy to become oblique. This brings lots of difficulties toelectronic image stabilization technology. As the common used simplified
model cannot satisfy the tilt state, the homography model is applied
to estimate the motions between oblique images. Nevertheless, theTo achieve this, we propose a new and automatic system. Besides
counting the people in large crowds, the system yields the positionsof people allowing a plausibility check by a human operator. In order
to automatize the people counting system, we move from manual

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111

Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X
intentional movement estimation is still a problem.
Therefore, in this paper, we focus on solve the problem of the video
stabilized when small-UAVs banking and turning. We attend to thesmall-UAVs fly along with an arc of a fixed turning radius. For this reason,
after a series of experimental analysis on the flight characteristics andthe path how small-UAVs turned, we present a new method to estimate
the intentional motion in which the center of the image trajectory wasused to fit the video moving track. Meanwhile, the image sequences
dynamic mosaic was done to make up for the limited field of view. At
last, the proposed algorithm was carried out and validated by actual
airborne videos. The results show that the proposed method is effective
to stabilize the oblique video of small-UAVs.

8713-35, Session 10

Cognitive video quality analysis
Darrell L. Young, Raytheon Intelligence & Information Systems(United States); Charles Li, Raytheon Intelligence Information andServices (United States)
A cognitive architecture is described which uses a Deep Learning
approach to classify video sequences according to their quality. The
cognitive approach is compared to a previous technique which usedlogistic regression to estimate perceived quality.

8713-36, Session 10

Real-time video image quality estimation
supports enhanced tracker performance
John M. Irvine, Richard J. Wood, Draper Lab. (United States)
Numerous methods exist for quantifying the information potentialof imagery exploited by a human observer. The National Imagery
Interpretability Ratings Scale (NIIRS) is a useful standard for intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. Extensions of thisapproach to motion imagery provide an understanding of the factors
affecting interpretability of video data. More recent investigations haveshown, however, that human observers and automated processing
methods are sensitive to different aspects of image quality. This paper
extends earlier research to present a model for quantifying the quality of
motion imagery in the context of automated exploitation. In particular,
we present a method for predicting the tracker performance anddemonstrate the results on a range of video clips. Automated methods
for assessing video quality can provide valuable feedback for collection
management and guide the exploitation and analysis of the imagery.

8713-37, Session 10

Motion adaptive signal integration-highdynamic range (MASI-HDR) video processing
for dynamic platforms
Michael R. Piacentino, David C. Zhang, SRI International
Sarnoff (United States); David C Berends, Eduardo Gudis, SRI
International (United States)
Two of the biggest challenges in designing effective vision systems on
moving platforms are properly representing very high dynamic range
scene content using low dynamic range components (cameras anddisplays), and significantly reducing the motion blur caused by highplatform speeds and angular velocities.
SRI’s MASI HDR (Motion Adaptive Signal Integration: High Dynamic
Range) is a novel technique for generating blur-reduced video using
multiple camera captures per each frame of displayed video. MASI HDR
also increases the effective dynamic range of 8- to 12-bit COTS camerasby four bits (24dB) or more, allowing simultaneous dark and light areas

112

in scenes to be accurately captured with little or no loss of information
due to saturation. By running the video camera at frame rates typicallyfour times faster than the image display rate while varying exposure times
from very short (thus “freezing” scene motion) to “as long as possible”,
significant blur reduction is achieved while increasing the effective
dynamic range of the sensor. The resulting enhanced 12-bit video
may then be processed with SRI’s Laplacian Pyramid-based Contrast
Normalization—a powerful form of local area contrast enhancement—to
allow its representation on COTS 8-bit computer displays with virtually no
loss of information.
MASI HDR processing thus enables high performance video to be
captured from any rapidly moving platform in real-world conditions (e.g.
bright sunlight with deep dark shadows) and displayed in low latency realtime. MASI HDR provides thus high performance video for even the mostdemanding applications on air, ground and water.

8713-38, Session 11

3D target tracking using a pan and tilt
stereovision system
Moulay A. Akhloufi, Ayann Regent, Ctr. of Robotics and Vision(Canada); Rivonala Ssosse, Ctr of Robotics and Vision (Canada)
Tracking targets in video surveillance with the possibility of moving thecamera to keep the target within the field of view is an important task forsecurity personnel working in sensitive sites.
This work presents a real-time 3D tracking system based on stereovision.
The camera system is positioned on a Pan and Tilt platform in order tocontinuously track a detected target. Particle filters are used for tracking
and a pattern recognition approach is performed in order to keep thefocus on the target of interest. The 3D position of the target relative tothe stereovision frame is computed using stereovision techniques. This
computed position gives the possibility of following the target position ina site map in real-time.
Tests conducted in outdoor scenarios show the efficiency of the
proposed approach.

8713-39, Session 11

Reliable ISR algorithms for a very low power
approximate computer
Ross S. Eaton, Jonah C. McBride, Charles River Analytics, Inc.
(United States); Joseph Bates, Singular Computing LLC (UnitedStates)Computing with approximate arithmetic can provide 100x improvements
in size, weight, and power (SWaP) than the best traditional embedded
computing approaches (and 10,000x better SWaP than desktop CPUs).
DARPA and ONR are funding fabrication of a small, low power, single
chip machine, developed by Singular Computing, with many thousandsof cores. Industry and academia are exploring applications in vision,
speech, signals, learning, and other domains.
Producing reliable results efficiently on massively parallel approximate
machines sometimes requires adapting the core kernels of algorithms,
often to eschew the optimizations developed for typical serial computersin favor of more brute-force approaches. We describe two suchalgorithms for ISR. First, we describe a mover detection algorithm
suitable for use onboard a UAV. Second, we describe a feature-aided
tracking algorithm that uses appearance modeling to match detections
over time. Tests have shown these algorithms producing better quality
results than state-of-the-art traditional approaches and running on thenovel Singular Computing architecture roughly 89 times faster than on astandard CPU while using about 72 times less power, yielding a ~6400x
improvement in speed/power overall.

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Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X

8713-40, Session 118713-42, Session 11

Real-time low-power neuromorphic hardware
for autonomous object recognition

Object detection and tracking under planar
constraints

Deepak Khosla, Yang Chen, David J. Huber, Darrel J. Van Buer,
Kyungnam Kim, Shinko Y. Cheng, HRL Labs., LLC (UnitedStates)Qiang He, Mississippi Valley State Univ. (United States); Henry
Chu, The Univ. of Louisiana at Lafayette (United States); Aldo
Camargo, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)

Unmanned autonomous platforms are increasingly being used forsurveillance and reconnaissance in various military and commercial
applications. The ever-increasing resolution and fidelity of the video
sensors on these platforms requires unprecedented communication
bandwidth for the mostly mundane data, which puts higher workload on
the analysts. Therefore, there is an increasing need to perform on-board
data processing and transmit only potentially valuable information to theground stations to reduce both the data bandwidth requirements andanalyst workload.

Object detection and tracking is a very fundamental task in image
understanding, which has been widely applied in surveillance systems,
military reconnaissance, and homeland security. Here we develop an
algorithm for object detection and tracking under planar constraints.
Planar surfaces are important characteristics in man-made environment,such as architectural buildings, mechanical equipments, etc. Planar
surfaces encapsulate two-dimensional information of objects and havebeen successfully applied to camera calibration, interactive modeling,
and feature matching. Here we incorporate the planar constraints todetect and track objects in an image sequence. The objects with planar
surfaces are related by a planar homography, which could be computedfrom feature correspondences. In two-view image pair, the homography
between planar surfaces is limited by the fundamental matrix in epipolargeometry. As a consequence, the degrees of freedom for the planar
homography under epipolar constraint are reduced from eight to three.
In N-view images, the planar homography could be estimated using
RANSAC method based on feature correspondences. We will deal
with the two different cases separately. After the planar homogrpathy
is calculated, the man-made objects could be detected and tracked
through the correspondences between planar surfaces. Our algorithm
is tested on the image pairs and a series of images from simulated
structures and/or taken from UAVs (Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles).

In this paper, we present an experimental system for real-time video
object recognition that can be embedded in autonomous platforms
to provide on-board information extraction. Our system is based onmodels of human visual processing from neuroscience research and is
implemented in state-of-the-art COTS hardware using only CPUs and
FPGAs to achieve low size, weight and power, while maintaining real-timeprocessing. We use motion-and-form based visual attention methods for
detection and multi-scale convolutional neural networks for classification.
The algorithms have been mapped to COTS FPGA hardware, exploiting
neuromorphic principles of modularity, hierarchical processing, andparallelism to achieve streaming implementations. Evaluation of oursystem has shown that we can achieve real-time speeds of thirty frames
per second with up to five-megapixel resolution videos. In a systematic
evaluation conducted by DARPA on the Neovision2 program, our systemshowed three to four orders of magnitude in power reduction compared
to state of the art computer vision implementations while achieving thesame level of performance.

8713-44, Session PThur

Efficient parallel implementation of realtime airborne target tracking system onheterogeneous multicore SoC

8713-41, Session 11

An integrated multitarget tracking system forinteracting target scenarios

Xiang Gao, Arizona State Univ. (United States); Hongwei Mao,
Arizona State Univ. (United States) and Arizona State Univ.
(United States); Eric Munson, Arizona State Univ. (United States);
Glen P. Abousleman, General Dynamics C4 Systems (UnitedStates); Jennie Si, Arizona State Univ. (United States)

Hongwei Mao, Arizona State Univ. (United States); Glen P.
Abousleman, General Dynamics C4 Systems (United States);
Jennie Si, Arizona State Univ. (United States)

In real-world target tracking on airborne imagery, the system is designed
to be able to detect and track multiple targets from a moving camera
through occlusion and discriminate them when they are close to eachother. The algorithm in both detection and tracking must be sophisticatedenough to handle complicated scenarios. However, it also makes
the system miniaturization on a low power embedded system a very
challenging task. In our previous work, we presented a robust motionbased detection and tracking system achieved real-time performanceon a desktop computer. In this paper, we present a parallel scheme byreconstructing the traditional sequential motion estimation and tracking
process. In order to achieve real-time performance on a heterogeneouscore ARM+DSP platform, the DSP core is served as motion estimation
preprocessing unit for target detection. After the motion estimation
step on DSP, the descriptors of potential targets are passed to generalpurpose ARM for further tracking analysis. At the same time, theDSP will start preprocessing the next frame. The leveraging of DSP’s
parallel computation capability makes it possible do tracking on anembedded system. Experimental results demonstrate that this parallel
implementation greatly reduces the average processing time of eachframe up to 60%.

In real-world target tracking scenarios, interactions among multiple
moving targets can severely compromise the performance of the tracking
system. Closely spaced targets are difficult to distinguish, and targets
may be partially or totally invisible for uncontrolled durations whenoccluded by other objects. These situations are very likely to degrade
the performance or cause the tracker to fail because the system may use
invalid target observations to update the tracks. To address these issues,
we propose an integrated multi-target tracking system. A backgroundsubtraction-based method is used to detect moving objects in video
frames captured by a moving camera with arbitrary motion. The dataassociation method evaluates the overlap rates between newly detected
objects (target observations) and already-tracked targets, and makes
decisions pertaining to whether a target is interacting with other targets
and whether it has a valid observation. Thus, the system is capable ofrecognizing target interactions and will reject invalid target observations.
According to the association results, distinct strategies are adopted to
update and manage the tracks of interacting versus well-isolated targets.
The proposed system has been tested with a set of real-world airborne
video sequences and demonstrates excellent track continuity in thepresence of multiple target interactions. Moreover, the system operates inreal time on an ordinary desktop computer.

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Conference 8713: Airborne Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems and Applications X

8713-47, Session PThur

A wireless sensor network design andimplementation for vehicle detection,
classification, and tracking
Anwar Al-Assaf, King Abdullah II Design and Development
Bureau (Jordan)
Vehicle intrusion is considered a significant threat for critical zones
specially the militarized zones and therefore vehicles monitoring has
a great importance. In this project we designed and implemented asmall wireless sensor network for vehicle intrusion monitoring consistsof a five inexpensive sensor nodes distributed over a small area andconnected with a gateway using star topology. The system is able
to detect a passage of an intrusive vehicle, classify it either wheeledor tracked, and track the direction of its movement. Our approach isbased on Vehicle’s ground vibrations for detection, vehicle’s acoustic
signature for classification and the Energy- based target localization for
tracking. Detection and classification are implemented by using different
algorithms and techniques including Analog to Digital Conversion, Fast
Fourier Transformation and Neural Network .All of these algorithms andtechniques are implemented locally in the sensor node using Microchip
dsPIC digital signal controller. Results are sent from the sensor node to
the gateway using ZigBee technology and then from the gateway to a
web server using GPRS technology

114

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII
Monday - Wednesday 29–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8714 Radar Sensor Technology XVII

8714-1, Session 1

8714-3, Session 1

Detection of concealed metal objects andhuman targets in defilade using a wideband
millimeter-wave noise radar

A compressive radar system with chaoticbased FM signals using the Bernoulli map
Hector A. Ochoa, Charan Teja Enugula, The Univ. of Texas at
Tyler (United States)

Kyle A. Gallagher, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State
Univ. (United States)

Matched filters are used in radar systems to identify echo signals
embedded in noise. They allow us to extract range and Doppler
information about the target from the reflected signal. In high frequency
radars, matched filters make the system expensive and complex. For
that reason, the radar research community is looking at techniques likecompressive sensing or compressive sampling to eliminate the use ofmatched filters and high frequency analog-to-digital converters[1]-[7]. In
this work, compressive sensing is proposed to increase the resolution
and eliminate the use of matched filters in chaotic radars[8][9]. This
research considers two basic scenarios, one for stationary and one fornon-stationary targets. For the stationary targets, the radar scene was a
one dimensional vector, in which each element of the vector represents
a target position. For the non-stationary targets, the radar scene was a
two dimensional matrix, in which one direction of the matrix represents
the target’s range, and the other direction represents the target’s velocity.
Using optimization techniques it was possible to recover both radar
scenes from an under sampled echo signal[10][11]. The reconstructedscenes were compared against a traditional matched filter system. In
both cases, the matched filter was capable of recovering the radar scene.
However, there was a considerable amount of artifacts introduced by
the matched filter that made target identification a daunting task. On theother hand, using compressive sensing it was possible to recover bothradar scenes perfectly, even when the echo signal was under sampled.

This paper describes the application of a millimeter-wave (mm-wave)
radar system transmitting a composite signal consisting of a wideband
noise waveform combined with an embedded single tone for concealed
object detection. The radar was designed to detect human targets at longrange (greater than 100 feet) and through light foliage cover. This paper
will briefly describe the hardware architecture of the system and focus on
how the mm-wave system is applied in various applications. The system
has been used to detect the presence of concealed metal objects andto discriminate between objects in different orientations. This system’sability to discriminate between concealed metal objects at different
standoff distances from the radar is also presented. In addition, theradar’s ability to detect humans through foliage is also presented. Thisis done using different types of foliage at different standoff distances.
The standoff distance between the foliage and the human target isalso varied. For these applications, combinations of different antennas
were used to explore the tradeoff between antenna size and system
performance.

8714-2, Session 1

FPGA implementation of a software-definedradar processor

8714-4, Session 1

Hernan A. Suarez, Yan (Rockee) Zhang, The Univ. of Oklahoma(United States)

Influence of signal parameters in noise radar
sensor technologies used for sensing throughdispersive media

Real-time implementation of the pulse compression in reconfigurable
hardware device is a critical element of the next generation of airborneand spaceborne radars, which reply on solid-state transmitters, antenna
diversities and adaptive waveform diversities for the challenging missions
such as spaceborne precipitation measurement, sense-and-avoid(SAA), and imaging. This work proposes a unified digital transceiver andprocessor architecture that can utilize multiple waveforms, such as chirp,
phase coding, noise and chaotic waveforms, adjust these waveforms
adaptively based on missions and observation scenarios, and perform
real-time pulse compression processing independent of waveforms
activated. The hardware pulse compression can be reconfigured
at different levels of complexity depending on the requirements ofthe missions. For example, fast operation is needed for point target
tracking in SAA radars, so an efficient implementation is important.
For distributed target remote sensing, however, extreme low sidelobes
are needed and very high sensitivity is required, then the windowingcombined with adaptive pulse compression iterations are applied. For
covert and LPI operations, capability of handling random and continuous
wave waveforms is incorporated. The radar-application-specificprocessor (RASP) architecture has been initially implemented in themost advanced Xilinx FPGA platforms, the basic building blocks inside
the FPGA mix the commercial IP cores and in-house developments toachieve the optimized efficiency on resource utilization. The prototype
implementation is tested together with a Ku band spaceborne radar RF
transceiver testbed. It is verified that the system can smoothly handle
waveform diversities and different pulse compression requirements,
achieve good real-time performance and balance among cost/power
consumption/speed compared with competing options.

Ana V. Alejos, New Mexico State Univ. (United States) and Univ.
de Vigo (Spain); Muhammad Dawood, Zir Zeeshan, New Mexico
State Univ. (United States)
The frequency dispersive behavior of natural media such as soil,
vegetation, water, and atmosphere, can lead noise radar techniques andsensors to unexpected inaccuracies in their performance due to the likely
appearance of the precursor electromagnetic signals. The formationof these precursor fields is related to the chosen frequency spectrum
window, the desired frequency signal bandwidth, and the selected shapeof the transmitted signal.
For frequency-dependent media, the propagated signal then, becomesa critical part of the system and the final performance depends on its
proper configuration because this latter can decide the formation orabsence of the precursor field which appears as an additional component
superimposed to the propagated signal.
In case of a precursor arising out, the distortion undergone by thesignal transmitted through or reflected on a dispersive medium basicallyconsists of amplitude level modification and spreading of the pulse width
duration. These alterations introduce uncertainty in the received signal
making the information retrieval difficult and inaccurate.
However, the formation of the precursor fields can improve thepropagation by offering significantly better signal-to-noise ratio toachieve an enhanced sensing capability.

Submitted to Special Session on Noise and Noise-Like Radar

Theoretically for a LIDAR system and experimentally for a random noise
signal in the THz band, we have estimated that precursors can occur in adifferent way according to the input pulse setting.
We examine the theoretical evolution of various waveform shapes
through water, soil and vegetation. Measurements carried out in the THZ

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVIIband provide an experimental verification of the precursor formation
through water for random noise signals.

8714-5, Session 2

Demonstration of detection and ranging using
solvable chaos
Jonathan N. Blakely, U.S. Army Research, Development andEngineering Command (United States); Ned J. Corron, U.S. Army
Aviation and Missile Command (United States); Mark T. Stahl,NASA Marshall Space Flight Ctr. (United States)
Acoustic experiments demonstrate a novel approach to ranging anddetection that exploits the properties of a solvable chaotic oscillator.
This nonlinear oscillator includes an ordinary differential equation anda discrete switching condition. The chaotic waveform generated bythis hybrid system is used as the transmitted waveform. The oscillator
admits an exact analytic solution that can be written as the linear
convolution of binary symbols and a single basis function. This linear
representation enables coherent reception using a simple analog
matched filter and without need for digital sampling or signal processing.
An audio frequency implementation of the transmitter and receiver is
described. Successful acoustic ranging measurements are presented todemonstrate the viability of the approach.

8714-6, Session 2

Initial experimental results using the noisecorrelation radar
Mark A. Govoni, U.S. Army Research, Development andEngineering Command (United States); John Clark, Jerry
Silvious, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Charles
Overman, Univ. of Florida/Electronic Communications Lab(United States)
Experimental results from initial field testing with the Noise Correlation
Radar (NCR) are presented as proof of concept. The results are used
to validate the theoretical claims made regarding the novel pulse LFM
noise-modulated waveform. Compliments of a unique matched filter
solution, the so-called advanced pulse compression noise (APCN)
waveform promises low probability of intercept (LPI) and robustness toin-band RF interference.
We establish the actual target location error (TLE) of the radar systemusing real target data and known-geolocation information. In addition,
we extrapolate to what extent the APCN waveform disassociates itself
with the pulse LFM spectral characteristics. Lastly, we quantify thesignal-to-interference+noise (SINR) ratio when in-band interference ispresent during the system processing interval and compare those to aconventional radar system not practicing noise modulation.

8714-8, Session 2

GNSS-based passive radar sensing using
hybrid-aperture system
Randy S. Silver, Univ. of Oklahoma (United States); Yan (Rockee)
Zhang, Hernan Suarez, Yu Pan, Yih-Ru Huang, The Univ. of
Oklahoma (United States)
Passive radar using non-cooperative transmitters is becoming a criticalsolution to future RF surveillance that can be used on small-medium(Tier I and II) UAVs. The concept of using both synthetic aperture(SA) and real aperture (RA) array in the GNSS-based passive radarobservations has been mentioned before but a seamless combinationof two apertures in real-time observation has not been demonstrated.
A hybrid aperture system consisting of an electronic scanning array at
GPS frequency band and synthetic array processing is being developed
by University of Oklahoma. The radar adapts both downward looking
and side-looking modes. For downward looking mode, the electronic
scanning array antenna scans through the cross-range direction andperform synthetic aperture processing for signal received along flightpath at the same time. The key challenge of GNSS-based processing
is signal synchronization, which is achieved at both the hardware level(containing two synchronized software receiver and a WAAS receiverproviding Time and Space Position Information (TSPI) in real time forthe reference) and software level (precise code/phase-tracking, UTC
time decoding and local template generation technique). The current
real aperture array contains 32 active elements and scan in azimuth
direction with about 3 degree beam resolution, and the software-defined
GPS receivers are modified to perform radar image formation and target
detection. In addition to the covertness of ISR operation and reduced
SWaP, the significant advantages of the hybrid aperture system include
reduced computational complexity of onboard processor, good phasecoherency, integration with GNSS navigation system and potential
multiple functionalities.

8714-9, Session 38714-7, Session 2

Comparative analysis of transfer function
measurements on various lossy media using
an ultrawideband S-Band noise radar
Sonny Smith, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)
An S-Band noise radar for through-wall ranging and tracking of targets
has been developed at the Pennsylvania State University. Ranging totarget is achieved by the cross-correlation between the reflected return
signal and the time-delayed replica of the transmit signal; both arebandlimited ultra wideband (UWB) noise signals. Furthermore, successive
scene subtraction allows for target tracking using the range profiles

116

created by the cross-correlation technique. In this paper, we continue
our investigation in the viability of characterizing the “impulse response”
of varied, lossy media (e.g. a 4-inch thick brick wall, an 8-inch thick
brick wall and an 8-inch thick cinder-block wall) via transfer function-likemeasurements using the S-Band radar system. As purported by Yuk
Wing Lee and others, there exists a mathematical basis for determining
the impulse response of a linear system with inputs that are wideband,
white noise or noise-like. The principle hinges on cross-correlating
the inputs; and hence, since the correlation method is used in noiseradars, we believe that such radars are well-suited for characterization
applications. Moreover, we will present a sensitivity analysis for the
S-Band noise radar as operated under disparate testing configurations(i.e. different walls, targets, etc.) with different antennas (e.g. dual
polarized horns, helical antennas with different ground planes, etc.). In
addition, we will also share key concepts of noise radars and impulse
testing as well as some of the design and development of the helical(end-fire) antennas over diverse ground planes used by the system.

Detection and depth estimation of shallow
buried non-metallic dummy landmines
without explosives using Independent
Component Analysis (ICA) of multipolarization
data in microwave X band region
Kailash C. Tiwari, Delhi Technological Univ. (India); Dharmendra
P. Singh, Manoj K. Arora, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee(India)A lot of research has been conducted with single polarization dataobtained from different sensors with limited success. With the adventof satellites which can provide data in various polarizations, it has

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

Nacer D. Rezgui, Stuart W. Harmer, Manchester Metropolitan
Univ. (United Kingdom)

increasingly become relevant to investigate methods which can be used
to manipulate data in different polarizations for the purpose of landmine
detection. The conditions existing in the western borders of India matchthat of sandy deserts where surface roughness conditions are smoothmaking them extremely suitable for application of radar remote sensing
for detection of minefields using data obtained in different polarisations.
Independent component analysis (ICA) is an emerging signal processing
technique which has been used to extract statistically independent
signals from mixed signals. In this paper, application of Independent
component analysis (ICA) for detection of dummy landmines (without
explosives) using multipolarisation data has been investigated. The
data for the purpose was generated through lab experiments in HH andVV polarizations in microwave X band frequency (10 GHz, 3 cm) using
dummy landmines (without explosives). The backscatter data collected iscluttered due to several factors such as surface roughness and multilayerinteractions etc. It was found that Otsu’s thresholding when applied
to ICA components obtained using FastICA algorithm provided good
detections. The backscatter values obtained for the pixels segmented
as landmine were further input in an EM (electromagnetic) model andoptimized using a genetic algorithm based cost function for estimation of
the depth. The model does not have any requirement of any a priori dataand still highly accurate results.

A millimetre wave (75 - 110 GHz) polarimetric radar system (MiRTLE)
has been developed for the detection of threat objects, such as guns,
knives, or explosive devices, which had been concealed under clothing
upon the human body. The system though using geometric optics isable to successfully operate at stand-off ranges up to 25 metres. The
system uses an ultra-wideband Swept Frequency Continuous Wave
Radar high resolution (~ 1 cm) radar system and is capable of detecting
and measuring the range of a target. By interpretation of the response
the presence of a wide spectrum of threat items concealed on the humanbody may be identified. Threat detection is autonomously rendered byapplication of a neural network to the scattered time domain polarimetricradar returns and the system may be taught to alarm or reject certainclasses of objects; this allows for highly specific or broad spectrum threat
detection. The radar system is portable and operator steerable allowing
standoff monitoring of moving human targets. Through using rapid (1ms)sweep times and rapid signal acquisition and processing, decisions canbe obtained at video frame rates (20 fps) and can be integrated directly
to a video feed available to the operator showing the field of view of thesystem. Performance parameters for detection of guns and simulated
explosive devices will be presented for ranges up to 25 metres.

8714-10, Session 38714-12, Session 3

Design of spectrally versatile forward-looking
ground-penetrating radar for detection ofconcealed targets

Emulation of forward-looking radar
technology for threat detection in roughterrain environments: a scattering andimaging study

Brian R. Phelan, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States);
Marc A. Ressler, Gregory J. Mazzaro, Kelly D. Sherbondy, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Ram M. Narayanan, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

DaHan Liao, Traian V. Dogaru, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)The design of high-resolution radars which can operate in theater
involves a careful consideration of the radar’s radiated spectrum. While awide bandwidth yields better target detectability and classiﬁcation, it canalso interfere with other devices and/or violate federal and international
communication laws. The Army Research Laboratory (ARL) Partnerships
in Research Transition (PIRT) program is investigating the design anddevelopment of a Stepped-Frequency Radar (SFR) which allows for
manipulation of the radiated spectrum, while still maintaining an effective
ultra-wide bandwidth. The SFR is a forward-looking, ultra-wideBand(UWB) imaging radar capable of detecting concealed targets. This paper
presents the research and analysis undertaken during the design of the
SFR which will eventually be implemented in an existing ARL system, theSynchronous Impulse REconstruction (SIRE) radar. The SFR is capable ofexcising prohibited frequency bands, while maintaining the down-range
resolution capability of the original SIRE radar. The SFR, like the SIRE
radar, is a vehicle mounted, forward-looking, Ground Penetrating Radar(GPR) capable of using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) technology to
produce suitable cross-range resolution for detection of sub-surface
targets. Many contradicting design considerations are analyzed in thisreport. The selection of system bandwidth, antenna types, number ofantennas, frequency synthesizers, digitizers, receive ampliﬁers, wideband
splitters, and many other components are critical to the design of the
SFR. Leveraging commercial components and SIRE sub-systems
were design factors which will allow for an expedited time to the initial
implementation of the radar while reducing overall costs. This SFR design
will result in an ARL asset to support obscured target detection such as
improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and landmines.

To predict the performance of forward-looking radar technology deployedin complex environments, large-scale, full-wave analysis of multistatic target-imaging in a rough ground environment is described. The
emulation methodology employs a parallelized three-dimensional “nearfield” algorithm in characterizing the electromagnetic scattering fromthe ground-surface and buried and on-surface targets. The transmitting
antennas are represented by equivalent current sheets placed at thereal antenna aperture locations. Subsequent focusing of the scatteredfields at the receiver locations into an image is obtained by exploiting
the time-reversal technique, with the aid of asymptotics. The overallsimulator is expected to be a useful tool for studying the effects ofground properties—both physical and electrical—on the signatures ofvarious targets.

8714-13, Session 3

Multitone harmonic radar
Gregory J. Mazzaro, Anthony F. Martone, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)
The U.S. Army Research Laboratory is evaluating radar technologies
for detecting in-road threats. One technology that is well-suited forthe detection of threats containing RF electronics is nonlinear radar,which exploits the electronic response from a target whose reflected
frequencies are different from those transmitted. Reception of
frequencies that are not part of the transmitted probe distinguishes thereceived signal from a linear return produced by clutter and indicates thepresence of electronics. For the warfighter, the presence of electronics ina location that typically does not contain electronics implies the presenceof a threat.

8714-11, Session 3

Development of a longer range standoff
millimetre wave radar concealed threat
detector

Presented in this paper is a type of nonlinear radar that transmits
multiple frequencies and listens for a harmonic of these frequencies
as well as other frequencies near that harmonic. Upon reception of thenonlinear frequency content, the multitone radar registers a detection.
By measuring the amplitudes of multiple frequencies and matching these

Nicholas J. Bowring, Matthew J. Southgate, David A. Andrews,

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117Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

amplitudes against pre-recorded device responses, the radar classifies
the target as a particular electronic device.

8714-67, Session 4

Multitone harmonic radar has several advantages over existing nonlinear
radars. It enables a narrower-bandwidth antenna design while providing
target information comparable to wider-bandwidth designs, it enables
increased sensitivity and signal-to-interference ratio using multiple stagesof filtering, and it allows a single-transmit-antenna design for generating
and receiving mixing products that are usually stimulated from a target
using multiple transmit antennas.

Russell Vela, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

A laboratory test-bed has been constructed to demonstrate the multitone
radar concept. Measurements of nonlinear responses from RF devices
probed by multiple tones are reported.

8714-14, Session 3

Testing a transmission line model for buried
targets using ground penetrating radar
Berta Rodriguez Hervas, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (UnitedStates)In our previous work we showed the results obtained for an inversion
algorithm that calculates the intrinsic impedance of the subsurface media
from the received signal of a short-pulse Ground Penetrating Radar. We
simulated different environments with lossless and lossy media, modelingthe transmitted signal as a Ricker Wavelet. In this article, we extend thestudy to the analysis of experimental near field data. For this purpose,
we collected data in a controlled environment and analyzed the datausing the inversion algorithm. This analysis is not trivial and requires
multiple adjustments, since the use of a field system introduces several
unknowns, such as variations in the waveform used by the radar device,
the amplitude of the transmitted wave and the instantaneous position of
the radar antenna with respect to the ground. Furthermore, compensation
for the geometric spreading losses and conductivity spreading losses isrequired to accurately characterize the subsurface media. We develop
an approach to deduce characteristics of the transmitted wave based on
the shape of the received signal from buried targets of known shape witha specific dielectric constant and to compensate for geometric losses.
We demonstrate that using this methodology we are able to accurately
estimate the permittivity and depth of the buried targets used on theexperimental setup.

8714-57, Session 4

Cognitive processing for nonlinear radar
Anthony F. Martone, Kenneth Ranney, Abigail Hedden, David
McNamara, Gregory Mazzaro, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)An increasingly cluttered electromagnetic (EM) environment is a growing
problem for radar and radio frequency (RF) systems. This problem is
becoming critical as the available frequency spectrum shrinks due to
growing wireless communication device usage and changing regulations.
A possible solution to this problem is cognitive RF processing, where
the cognitive RF system learns from the environment and intelligently
modifies the tranmission waveform. In this paper a proposed cognitive
RF processing framework is discussed for nonlinear radar. Nonlinear
radar produces frequencies in a nonlinear target (e.g. electronics or metal
object) that are different from those transmitted by the radar thereby
separating natural clutter from the nonlinear target response. Examplesof nonlinear system applications include automobile accident avoidance;
junction range finder; detection of concealed weapons, electronics, andother man-made objects; electronic device detection for FCC Part-15
compliance; and insect tracking. The proposed processing framework,
i.e. the nonlinear cognitive radar (NCR) framework, utilizes a target
detection methodology applied to nonlinear radar. This methodology
has the advantage, as compared with other nonlinear radar systems that
do not implement a cognitive scheme, of being able to adapt to the RF
environment. By leveraging adaptive algorithms, it can intelligently selectthe best waveform parameters.
118

Noisy stepped frequency (NSF) waveform inthree-dimensional RF tomography
No Abstract Available.

8714-70, Session 4

Scattering and imaging of nonlinearlyloaded antenna structures in half-spaceenvironments
DaHan Liao, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The electromagnetic scattering responses of nonlinearly loaded antenna
structures excited by single-tone or multi-tone incident fields are
considered in the frequency domain by employing a combination of themethod-of-moments and a harmonic balance technique. Subsequently,
standoff detection and localization of the scatterers in the presence ofa half space is demonstrated with a subspace imaging procedure by
exploiting the harmonic scattering responses.

8714-19, Session 5

Effect of Pulse Fidelity on Detection ofLandmines
Hilmi Ozturk, Hakki Nazli, Hasan Belikli, TÜBITAK National
Research Institute of Electronics and Cryptology (Turkey); Korkut
Yegin, Yeditepe Univ. (Turkey); Mehmet Sezgin, TÜBITAK National
Research Institute of Electronics and Cryptology (Turkey);
Emrullah Bicak, Huseyin Kara, Levent Tura, Vural Ozbudak,
Rıdvan Gurcan, Ersin Ozkan, Mustafa Cayır, Mahmut Dag,
Tubitak Sensors and Radar Gr. (Turkey)
Detection of landmines based on complex resonance frequencies has
been studied in the past and no distinctive results have been reported.
Especially for low metal content landmines buried at depths greater than
9 cm, resonant frequencies become fairly distributed in the backgroundand no specific frequency of interest can be used. However, in a typicalimpulse radar, spectral energy density of the transmitted pulse can bevery broad and its peak can be located anywhere. Usually, a compromise
is made between penetration depth and feature resolution for spectralenergy peak allocation. Pulse amplitude, duration, symmetry, its spectralenergy distribution, ringing level all affect depth and resolution metrics in
a complicated way. Considering receiver dynamic range, we study two
distinct pulses having different spectral energy density peaks and theirdetection ability for landmines with little or no metallic content. We devise
several analytical bounds on pulse durations and their corresponding
energy spectrum. We also carry out experiments to show that pulse
shape/fidelity is critical to obtain desired contrast in post-processing of
data.

8714-20, Session 5

Buried target radar imaging with an ultrawideband, vehicle-mounted antenna array
Kenneth I. Ranney, DaHan Liao, Traian V. Dogaru, Lam H.
Nguyen, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The problem of detecting buried objects has engaged radar systemdevelopers for quite some time. Many systems—both experimental andcommercial—have been developed, including vehicle-mounted systems
that look beneath road surfaces. Most of these downward-looking
systems exploit multiple transmit and receive channels to enhance

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

8714-23, Session 5

resolution in the final radar imagery used for target detection. In sucha system, the configuration and operation of the various transmit andreceive elements play a critical role in the quality of the output imagery.

Textural feature based target detection inthrough-the-wall radar imagery

In what follows, we leverage high-fidelity electromagnetic model data
to examine a multi-static downward-looking radar system. We evaluate
the signatures produced by various targets of interest and describe,
both qualitatively and quantitatively, the variations in target signatures
produced by different system configurations. Finally, we analyze theunderlying physics of the problem to explain certain characteristics in theobserved target signatures.

Abdulkadir Sengur, Firat Univ. (Turkey); Moeness G. Amin, Fauzia
Ahmad, Villanova Univ. (United States); Pascale Sevigny, David J.
DiFilippo, Defence Research and Development Canada, Ottawa(Canada)In urban sensing and through wall imaging, biometric radars can facechallenges when dealing with exterior attenuative walls prohibiting
high frequency operations. In this case, detection of animate targets
would solely depend on high fidelity imaging and effective classification
techniques. The problem of stationary target detection in throughthe-wall radar imaging and urban sensing using image segmentation
techniques has recently been considered in the literature [1-2].
Specifically, histogram thresholding methods, such as the Otsu’s method[3] and maximum entropy segmentation [4], have been considered
to aid in removing the clutter, resulting in ‘clean’ radar images withtarget regions only. In this paper, we show that histogram thresholding
schemes are effective in enhancing the images by suppressing clutter
regions, which are distinct from target regions. However, target detection
using these methods becomes challenging, if not impossible, in thepresence of multipath ghosts and clutter that closely mimics the target
in size and intensity. Because of the small variations between the target
regions and such clutter and multipath ghosts, we investigate the useof texture based features for classifying target and clutter regions. Morespecifically, we extract textural features, such as contrast, correlation,energy, and homogeneity, from gray level co-occurrence matrices [5]. A
co-occurrence matrix is defined as the spatial-dependence probabilitydistribution matrix of pairs of pixels separated by a given offset in aparticular direction.We employ Mahalanobis distance to calculate thesimilarity and distinction between the textural features corresponding to
the target and clutter classes. The performance of the proposed scheme
is evaluated using real data collected with the multi-channel TWSAR,
which is the vehicle-borne through-the-wall radar imaging system by
Defence Research and Development Canada. The dataset corresponds
to through-the-wall measurements of multiple humans of different
heights, standing or sitting at different downranges in an empty room.
For the specific data analyzed, it is shown that the proposed feature
based method yields much improved results compared to histogram
thresholding based segmentation methods.

8714-21, Session 5

Three-dimensional radar imaging of buildings
based on computer models
Traian V. Dogaru, DaHan Liao, Calvin Le, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)
Through the wall radar imaging of building interiors is a topic thatreceived considerable attention by defense and law enforcement
agencies over last few years. Typically, low-frequency (under 4 GHz)
radar systems using ultra-wideband (UWB) waveforms are employed inthis application. The building layout and interior are imaged via synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) techniques, operating from either ground-based
or airborne platforms. Previous studies have shown the difficulty ofinterpreting two-dimensional radar images of buildings, especially when
multiple stories are involved.
In this paper, we demonstrate a three-dimensional (3-D) radar systemfor building imaging based on computer simulations of the radar
signature. We create the models of a single-story and a two-story
building containing multiple rooms, furniture, appliances and humans
down to a fine level of detail. We also consider two possible SAR
configurations: an airborne radar system operating in the spotlight mode
and a ground-based radar system operating in the strip-map mode.
The paper describes all the steps involved in this analysis: creating
the computational meshes, calculating the radar signals scatteredby the target, forming the radar images and processing the images
for visualization and interpretation. Particular attention is given to thescattering phenomenology and its dependence on the system geometry.
The images are created via the time-reversal technique and further
processed using a constant false-alarm rate (CFAR) detector. We discuss
methods of 3-D image visualization and interpretation of the results andpoint the way to possible improvements.

References[1] M. G. Amin, P. Setlur, F. Ahmad, P. Sevigny, D. DiFilippo, “Histogram
Based Segmentation for Stationary Indoor Target Detection,” Proc. SPIE
Radar Sensor Technology XVI Conference, Baltimore, MD, April 2012.

8714-22, Session 5[2] C. H. Seng, M. G. Amin, F. Ahmad, A. Bouzerdoum, “Segmentations ofThrough-the-wall Radar Images,” Proc. IEEE Radar Conference, Atlanta,
GA, May 2012.

Through-the-wall radar human detection via
spectral characteristics[3] N. Otsu, “A threshold selection method from gray-level histogram,”
IEEE Trans. on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 62–66,
1979.

Travis D. Bufler, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State
Univ. (United States); Traian V. Dogaru, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Erik H. Lenzing, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)[4] J. Kapur, P. Sahoo, and A. Wong, “A new method for gray-level picture
thresholding using the entropy of the histogram,” Computer Vision,
Graphics, and Image Process., vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 273–285, 1985.
[5] R. M. Harlick, K. Shanmugam, Itshak Dinstein, “Textural Features for
Image Classification,” IEEE Trans. Systems, Man, Cybernetics, vol. SMC3, no. 6, pp. 610-Nov. 1973.

This paper investigates the detection of stationary human targets forthrough-the-wall radar in complex scenarios. Utilizing Finite DifferenceTime Domain (FDTD) techniques, we examine the radar crosssection (RCS) of human and indoor clutter objects of complex indoor
environments. FDTD allows for the spectral characteristics to be acquired
over a wide range of frequencies, polarization, and aspect angle. We
observe that the spectral characteristics of humans show some uniquefeatures with peaks and troughs occurring generally in the vicinity of thesame frequencies for different humans. The proposed method makes useof the acquired spectral data from models to form ratios of radar returns
from multiple frequencies for discrimination of human targets. We aim
to apply the method and data to multiple wall and room configurations.
We hypothesize that the use of spectral information will yield an adaptive
approach to target identification of stationary humans within complex
indoor environments.

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8714-24, Session 6

SIRE: a MIMO radar for landmine/IED
detection
Ode Ojowu Jr., Jian Li, Yue I. Wu, Univ. of Florida (United States);
Lam H. Nguyen, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radar systems have been shownto have significant performance improvements over their single-input·

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119Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

multiple-output (SIMO) counterparts. For transmit and receive elementsthat are collocated, the waveform diversity afforded by this radar is
exploited for performance improvements. These improvements include
but are not limited to improved target detection, improved parameter
identifiability and better resolvability. In this paper, we present the
Synchronous Impulse Reconstruction Radar (SIRE) Ultra-wideband(UWB) radar designed by the Army Research Lab (ARL) for landmine andimprovised explosive device (IED) detection as a 2 by 16 MIMO radar(with collocated antennas). Its improvement over its SIMO counterpart
in terms of beampattern/cross range resolution are discussed anddemonstrated using simulated data herein. The limitations of this radarfor Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) suppression are also discussed
in this paper. A relaxation method (RELAX) combined with averaging
of multiple realizations of the measured data is presented for RFI
suppression; results show no noticeable target signature distortion after
suppression. In this paper, the back-projection (delay and sum) data
independent method is used for generating SAR images. A side-lobe
minimization technique called recursive side-lobe minimization (RSM)
is also discussed for reducing side-lobes in this data independent
approach. We introduce a data-dependent sparsity based spectral
estimation technique called Sparse Learning via Iterative Minimization(SLIM) as well as a data-dependent CLEAN approach for generating
SAR images for the SIRE radar. These data-adaptive techniques show
improvement in side-lobe reduction and resolution for simulated data for
the SIRE radar.

8714-26, Session 6

Robust adaptive beamforming for MIMO
monopulse radar
William T. Rowe, Jian Li, Univ. of Florida (United States); Marie
Ström, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of
Signals and Systems (Sweden); Petre Stoica, Uppsala University(Sweden)Submitted to Special Session on MIMO:
Researchers have recently proposed a widely separated multiple
input multiple output (MIMO) radar using (amplitude) monopulse
angle estimation techniques for target tracking. The widely separated
antennas provide improved tracking performance by mitigating complex
target radar cross section fades and angle scintillation (glint). It wasdemonstrated through numerical examples to provide better target
tracking than a standard phased array tracking system. An adaptive arrayis necessary in this paradigm as the direct path from any transmitter
could act as a jammer. In the original proposed system the standard
Capon beamformer was proposed to generate the necessary adaptive
beams required to perform monopulse estimation. The interference andnoise covariance matrix was always assumed to be measurable and did
not contain the signals of interest.
In this work, we examine robust adaptive beamforming techniques
for amplitude and phase monopulse estimation for a MIMO tracking
radar. Specifically, we examine the cases where the sample covariancematrix contains interference and noise only and when it also contains
the signals of interest. In the former, we review the optimal monopulse
weights and formulate them as a minimization problem that can besolved by Lagrange multipliers. In the latter case, it is critical to include
robustness into the beamformer weights since monopulse estimation
is formulated using the error in the angle of arrival estimate. Whenmultipath is of significant concern as well as interference, we consider
adaptive matrix approach (AMA) for amplitude monopulse beampatternsynthesis. Performance for all the methods is demonstrated via numericalsimulations.

8714-27, Session 6

New distributed radar technology based on
UAV or UGV application
Pavlo A. Molchanov, AMPAC Inc. (United States); Vincent M.
120

Contarino, R Cubed Inc. (United States)
A new concept of pocket size distributed radar based on the micro-UGV
for the tracking of low altitude low profile targets at short and medium
distances (stadium, camp, military facility protection) is proposed.
The distributed radar consists of a minimum of three micro-UGV with
illuminating devices distributed in a surveillance area transmits RF
illuminating signals synchronized with the reference clock and information
about its own position received from GPS. Cell phone size passive
observing devices with display is receive the signals directly from theilluminating devices as well as the same signals reflected from the target
and calculates target range and location by triangulation. High accuracyof target location is the result of combining the high accuracy of GPS
location of the illuminating and observing devices with the high accuracyof range measurement provided by an atomic reference clock andtriangulation. Illuminating devices transmit illuminating signals in desired
directions by directional antenna arrays to increase radar range andenergy efficiency.
In another concept of distributed radar a few UAV’s with passive
observing devices distributed in a surveillance area or along a borderuse regular radar signals transmitted from ground or ship based mainradar for target illumination. The observing devices can detect low profile
stealth targets because they a hundred times closer to the target than themain radar. The energy of the signal reflected from the target is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance to the target and can therefore
be detected by simple micro-size UAV receivers.

8714-28, Session 6

Tomographic imaging of ultra-wideband noiseradar using time-domain data
Hee Jung Shin, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States); Muralidhar Rangaswamy, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States)
Ultra-wideband (UWB) random noise radar has been widely considered
as a promising technique for covert high-resolution localization anddetection of the target due to several advantages such as excellent
immunity from jamming and interference, low probability of detection
and interception. However, the use of UWB random noise waveforms
for tomographic imaging has not yet been investigated. This paper
investigates the feasibility of using an arbitrary noise waveform in a
UWB radar system for 2D tomographic imaging of a stationary object
with a multistatic tomographic geometry. Multiple UWB transmittersand receivers are positioned along each side of the imaging area so thatreflected signals are collected by all receivers including the receiver at thetransmitter position. In the simulation, multiple i.i.d. random noise signals
with full 500-MHz bandwidth are transmitted, and the back projection
algorithm applied on all reflected signals to generate the final image. We
perform several numerical simulations in time-domain, and the successful
imaging of the target is achieved by visual inspection of the formed
images.

8714-29, Session 7

Concealed target detection using augmented
reality with SIRE radar
Philip J. Saponaro Jr., Chandra Kambhamettu, Univ. of Delaware(United States)
The Synchronous Impulse Reconstruction (SIRE) forward-looking radar,developed by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL), can detect
concealed targets using ultra-wideband synthetic aperture technology.
The SIRE radar has been mounted on a Ford Expedition and combinedwith other sensors, including a pan/tilt/ zoom camera, to test its
capabilities of concealed target detection in a realistic environment.
Augmented Reality (AR) can be used to coalesce the SIRE radar image
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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

information that is quicker to access and easier to understand than eachseparated.

typical data products include digital elevation maps of a target areaand features and shapes extracted from the data. A set of experiments
conducted to demonstrate the fusion of SAR and LIDAR data include a
LIDAR DEM used in accurately processing the SAR data of a high reliefarea (mountainous, urban). Also, feature extraction is used in improving
geolocation accuracy of the SAR and LIDAR data.

In this paper we present an AR system which utilizes a global positioning
system (GPS) and inertial measurement unit (IMU) to overlay a SIRE radar
image onto a live video stream. We describe a method for transforming
3D world points in the UTM coordinate system onto the video stream
by calibrating for the intrinsic parameters of the camera. This calibrationis performed offline to save computation time and achieve real time
performance. Since the intrinsic parameters are affected by the zoomof the camera, we calibrate at ten different zooms and interpolate theseparameters. Finally, we show the results of a real time transformation of
the SAR imagery onto the video stream. In the future, we will implement
our algorithms on the GPU to increase computation speed.

8714-32, Session 7

High-efficiency switching power amplifiers
for P, L, S, and X Band
Jarred W. Lawler, Justin S. Wells, Salvador W. Mendez, Timothy
J. Wurth, NuWaves Engineering (United States)

8714-30, Session 7

Traditional RF Power Amplifier (PA) classes based on limited conduction
angle topologies (i.e., Classes AB, B, and C) are unable to achieve
better than 50% efficiency over a large bandwidth. Hence, this study
concentrates on the more efficient breed of switching power amplifiers
while realizing improvements in the size, weight, power, and cost
(SWaP-C). In particular, the focus of this investigation is the Class F andInverse Class F PAs incorporating new techniques to operate on multiple
radar bands, specifically P, L, S, and X bands. This effort presents thetechniques involved in achieving amplifier designs at P, L, S, and X bandwith greater than 80% efficiency and peak output power greater than 25
Watts.

Lightweight SAR GMTI radar technology
development
John C. Kirk Jr., Goleta Star, LLC (United States)
A small liteweight Dual-Channel Radar (DCR) has been developed for
SAR data collections. Using standard Displaced Phase Center Antenna(DPCA) radar digital signal processing, SAR GMTI images have beenobtained. That is the moving targets embedded in a high-resolution SAR
image can now be detected using the dual radar channels. The signal
processing algorithms can be implemented in an on-board FPGA based
Radar Signal Processor (RSP) for real-time implementation. This radar issuitable, not only for data collections to support algorithm development,
but for real-time UAV applications as well. This DCR can provide
lite-weight SAR GMTI capability for Small UAVs. The prototype radar
weighs 5-lbs and has demonstrated the extraction of ground moving
targets (GMTs) embedded in high-resolution SAR imagery data. Sum
and difference channel data is used in the DPCA algorithm to extract the
GMTs and display them on the Sum channel high resolution SAR image.
Heretofore this type of capability has been reserved for much larger
systems such as the JSTARS. Previously small liteweight SARs featured
only a single-channel and only displayed SAR imagery. Now, with theadvent of this new capability, SAR GMTI performance is now possible forsmall UAV class radars. In this paper we show typical single-channel SAR
images from this radar, and also a 2-channel SAR MTI image where the
GMT detections are displayed as dots on the sum channel image. This
DCR is a first step in the development of a multi-channel MIMO radar
capability in the sub 10-lb category, for small UAVs.

The amplifier efficiency improvements were achievable by incorporationof innovative harmonic matching techniques based on Class F andInverse Class F topologies. By ingeniously choosing the bias point
and presenting defined impedances at the second and third harmonicfrequencies, it becomes possible to significantly increase the amplifier
efficiency. At P and L bands the peak power-added efficiency (PAE)
achieved was 81% over a 23% and 16% bandwidth, respectively. A
tradeoff exists between efficiency, power, and bandwidth. For this reason,
designs were realized for both narrowband and broadband operation.
The broadband designs achieved efficiencies greater than 50% at morethan 30% bandwidth. The amplifier designs also include fast voltage
switching circuits, making it possible to turn on and turn off the device
in under 280 ns. Presented herein are state-of-the-art power amplifier
technologies.

8714-33, Session 8

Calibration methods for phased array radars
8714-31, Session 7

Ilgin Seker, ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey)

SAR and LIDAR fusion: experiments andapplications

For successful beam shaping and scanning in phased array radars, it isessential to be able to precisely set the gain and phase of each antenna
element. However, considerable amplitude and phase differences among
the elements can occur due to the different RF hardware connectedto each element. Also, the phase and gain characteristics of most RF
devices depend on frequency and temperature and usually drift intime. Thus, phased array antennas need to be calibrated periodically toequalize the phase and gain of each element.

Matthew C. Edwards, Evan C. Zaugg, Joshua P. Bradley, Ryan D.
Bowden, ARTEMIS, Inc. (United States)
In recent years ARTEMIS, Inc. has developed a series of compact,
versatile Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems which have been
operated on a variety of small manned and unmanned aircraft.
The multi-frequency-band SlimSAR has demonstrated a variety ofcapabilities including maritime and littoral target detection, groundmoving target indication, polarimetry, interferometry, change detection,and foliage penetration. ARTEMIS also continues to build upon theradar’s capabilities through fusion with other sensors, such as electrooptical and infrared camera gimbals and light detection and ranging(LIDAR) devices. In this paper we focus on experiments and applications
employing SAR and LIDAR fusion. LIDAR is similar to radar in that it
transmits a signal which bounces off the target area and it records thesignal that is returned to the sensor. The differences are that a LIDAR
uses a laser as a transmitter and optical sensors as a receiver, and thewavelengths used exhibit a very different scattering phenomenology
than the microwaves used in radar, making SAR and LIDAR goodcomplementary technologies. LIDAR is used in many applications
including agriculture, archeology, geo-science, and surveying. Some

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In the literature, various phased array calibration methods are discussed.
However, the details of these methods are usually not given. Here,
we describe four of the most commonly used calibration methods indetail: near-field scanning probe, fixed peripheral probes, calibrationtransmission lines, and mutual coupling. The first method is preferred
for factory calibration whereas the others can be used in the field for
periodic calibration. The steps of each calibration method and relevant
formulas are given. The advantages and disadvantages of each method
for various phased array radar systems are also discussed. We conclude
by presenting experimental results of calibrating a phased array test
antenna.

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121Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

8714-34, Session 8

Cognitive nonlinear radar test-bed
Abigail S. Hedden, David A. Wikner, Anthony F. Martone, David
M. McNamara, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Providing situational awareness to the warfighter requires radar,
communications, and other electronic systems that operate in thepresence of co-site interference. In addition, the effective operation ofcurrent Army radar systems is threatened by the growing complexity of
today’s RF environment due partly to the ever increasing demand forelectromagnetic spectrum from the wireless communications community.
There is a growing need for cognitive RF systems that are capable ofmonitoring, adapting to, and learning from their environments in orderto maintain their effectiveness and functionality. This work focuses on
ongoing efforts at the Army Research Laboratory to develop a cognitive
radar test-bed based on an existing nonlinear radar system. We areworking toward implementing a test-bed that uses continuous real-time
spectrum monitoring to inform and dynamically change radar transmit
waveforms in order to maintain target detection with high confidence in
a complex RF environment. This work presents the architecture of thetest-bed system along with a discussion of its current capabilities andlimitations. The test-bed is used to determine requirements for a futurecognitive radar system.

8714-35, Session 8

Compact, autonomous, multi-mission
synthetic aperture radar
Thomas J. Walls, Michael L. Wilson, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Chad Knight, David Madsen, Mark Jensen,
Scott A. Anderson, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States); Mike
Addario, SRC Inc. (United States)
The utilization of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) for intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) applications continues to increase
and unmanned systems have become a critical asset in current andfuture battlespaces. With the development of medium-to-low altitude,
rapidly deployable aircraft platforms, the ISR community has seen
an increasing push to develop ISR sensors and systems with realtime mission support capabilities. This paper describes the design,development and presents demonstration flight test results of the
RASAR (Real-time, Autonomous, Synthetic Aperture Radar) sensor
system. RASAR is a modular, multi-band (L and X) synthetic apertureradar (SAR) imaging sensor designed for self-contained, autonomous,real-time operation with mission flexibility to support a wide range of
ISR needs within the size, weight and power constraints of Group III
UASs. SAR waveforms are generated through direct digital synthesis
enabling arbitrary waveform notching to enable operations in cluttered
RF environments and is capable of simultaneous dual-channel receive
to enable polarization based target discrimination. The sensor commandand control and real-time image formation processing are designed for
integration of RASAR into larger, multi-intelligence system of systems.
The multi-intelligence architecture and a demonstration of real-time
autonomous cross-cueing of a separate optical sensor will be presented.

8714-36, Session 8

Real-time beyond the horizon vessel
detection
Hugh J. Roarty, Michael Smith, Rutgers Coastal Ocean
Observation Lab. (United States); Donald E. Barrick, CODAR
Ocean Sensors (United States); Scott Glenn, Rutgers Coastal
Ocean Observation Lab. (United States)
The marine transportation system (MTS) is a vital component of theUnited States Economy. Waterborne cargo accounts for more than$742 billion of the nation’s economy and creates employment for 13
122

million citizens. A disruption in this system would have far reachingconsequences to the security of the country.
The US National High Frequency radar network, which comprises 130
radar stations around the country, became operational in May 2009. It
provides hourly measurements of surface currents to the US Coast Guardfor search and rescue (SAR). This system has the capability of being adual use system providing information for environmental monitoring aswell as vessel position information for maritime security.
Real time vessel detection has been implemented at two of the radar
stations outside New York Harbor. Several experiments were conducted
to see the amount vessel traffic that the radar could capture. The radars
were able to detect a majority of the vessels that are reporting via theAutomatic Identification System (AIS) as well as 30 percent of mid tolarge size vessels that are not reporting via AIS. The radars were able todetect vessels out to 60 km from the coast.
The addition of a vessel detection capability to the National HF radar
network will provide valuable information to maritime security sector. This
dual use capability will fill a gap in the current surveillance of US coastal
waters. It will also provide longer-range situational awareness necessary
to detect and track smaller size vessels in the large vessel clutter.

8714-37, Session 8

Remote concealed threat detection by novel
classification algorithms applied to multipolarimetric UWB radar
Dean O’Reilly, Nicholas Bowring, David Andrews, Nacer D.
Rezgui, Stuart Harmer, Manchester Metropolitan Univ. (United
Kingdom)
A method of effectively detecting remote concealed threats, particularly
knives and guns, has been developed, which uses multi-polarimetric ultra
wide band active millimeter wave radar to remotely scan a person underinvestigation. It has been shown that the radar signatures from suchscans can be used to detect whether a person is carrying a concealed
threat. A PCA data reduction technique followed by a neural network
is used to effectively classify the information extracted from the radar
signals.
The technique combines the co, 45 degree, cross, and 135 degreetransceived radar signals into a single data set for classification.
Illuminating the target with a range of polarisations, together withchoosing a radar beam size commensurate with the targets in question,
produces good discrimination between threat and non threat items. Oncecollected, the data sets obtained are reduced via Principal Component
Analysis, which significantly improves the correct classification rate at
the NN stage and makes the technique more tolerant of variations in
the target orientation and better able to detect a wider range of weapon
types. Experimental results are presented that show that a detection rateof up to 80% for knives can be achieved, with a false alarm rate as low
as 6%.

8714-48, Session PTue

A comparison of interferometric SAR antenna
options
Armin Doerry, Douglas L. Bickel, Sandia National Labs. (UnitedStates)
We examine the relative merits of several different antenna configurations
for radar interferometry, specifically SAR elevation interferometry.
Specifically, we examine a conventional arrangement where a dedicatedantenna is used to transmit and receive with another to receive only, a
MIMO configuration where transmit and receive operations are pingponged, and a monopulse configuration. Our figure of merit is the RMS
height noise in the DEM. We show that a monopulse configuration isequivalent to MIMO, and both offer an advantage over the conventionalarrangement.

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

8714-49, Session PTue

the finite bistatic angle affects both the range and Doppler resolutions
in such a way that the image resolution degrades as the bistatic angle
increases. Even though the imaging resolution degrades, bistatic ISAR
can increase the effective resolution of the target in many cases suchas for poor target aspect. Using a bistatic ISAR signal processing
formulation and the MUSIC super-resolution method, the effect of bistatic
angle on the bistatic ISAR image resolution will be explored in detail.

Random-phase radar waveforms with shaped
spectrumArmin Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Brandeis
Marquette, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates)8714-53, Session PTue

A random phase signal will also have random phase differences between
two independent random phases. A phase increment across a timeincrement is in fact a phase-rate, or frequency. A phase-rate change
is in fact a frequency-hop. By controlling the phase-rate, that is thecharacteristics of the phase increments, we can control the spectrumof the random-phase waveform. Spectrum precision and sharpness isenhanced by holding a frequency for some ‘chip’ length. For digitally
generated phase samples, this means that the chip length needs to be
many samples. This is a time-bandwidth issue. The definition of ‘many’
will depend on the sharpness desired, but often several tens’ of samples
will be adequate. To shape the ESD of a random-phase signal, we needto control the average energy at various phase-rates. This can be donewith either or a combination of 1) Controlling the likelihood of specificphase increments, and/or 2) Controlling the duration of a specific phaseincrement chip length. For range-Doppler images, it is the 2-dimensional
IPR that is of principal concern. This will tend to average out the random
effects of any single pulse.

A mathematical observation on synthetic
aperture radar
Yufeng Cao, Juan Lopez, Alejandro Martinez, Zhijun G. Qiao, The
Univ. of Texas-Pan American (United States)
We present the foundation of conventional strip-mode synthetic apertureradar form a mathematical point of view. We also show how a simple
antenna model can be used together with a scattering approximation
to predict the received signal, in conventional strip-mode synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) imaging, a plane or satellite flies along a straight
track, which we will assume is in the direction of the horizontal axis. The
antenna emits pulses of electromagnetic radiation in a directed beam
perpendicular to the flight track. The waves scatter off the terrain, andthe scattered waves are detected with the same antenna. The received
signals are then used to produce an image of the terrain.

8714-50, Session PTue

8714-54, Session PTue

Compound radar waveforms with multiple
framesPlatform for research and education on
ground penetrating radar

Armin Doerry, Sandia National Labs. (United States); Brandeis
Marquette, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates)Michelle J. Salvador, Virginia Jimenez, Rafael G Lopez, Ricardo
von Borries, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States)
Current commercial Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) systems are
expensive and allow little interaction between the user and the system.
In this work, we present a low cost and flexible GPR platform attractive
for use in education and research. The hardware for this platform isbased on the Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP) N210 and
SBX RF daughterboard developed by Ettus Research. The USRP anddaughterboard were chosen for their programmability, maximum RF
bandwidth at 50 MHz, and ability to handle frequency ranges of 4004400 MHz, ideal for GPR research. A software application developed
using National Instrument’s Labview enables users to select and modify
fundamental parameters of the transmission and reception stages ofthis GPR system. Users are able to modify parameters such as sampling
and carrier frequencies, waveform shape, amplitude, and bandwidth.
Furthermore, the users are given the opportunity to choose how theywish to define the waveform with two different options; either importa waveform data file created from an outside source or choose froma list of predefined Gaussian derived waveforms as their template.
Thus, this frees the user to explore and observe the results of different
signal modifications for research and education purposes in GPR. The
programmability of the USRP in conjunction with the developed softwaretools allows the creation of a user-friendly GPR platform.

A pulse may be divided into contiguous sequential frames, sometimes
called sub-pulses. In a typical pulse-Doppler radar, receiving echo energy
must be deferred until after the entire pulse waveform is transmitted.
This sets a nearest possible range at which the beginning of the echopulse can be processed. However, even when early frames or portionsof frames are occluded or eclipsed by the transmit pulse, the echo fromlater frames may still be received and processed. This allows latter
frames to be received in their entirety from nearer ranges than earlier
frames or the entire pulse. As long as the latter frames still exhibit
the desired resolution bandwidth, no loss of resolution is suffered byprocessing against only the latter frames. In this manner, a compound
multi-frame pulse can be processed against a larger range swath than amore conventional pulse modulation scheme. Essentially, the traditional
constraints between near-range detection and pulsewidth have been
considerably loosened. Relative frame durations can be optimized toallow SNR to exceed some minimum level.

8714-51, Session PTue

Effect of bistatic angle on bistatic ISAR image
resolution
Sung-Taek Chun, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Keunha Lee, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States) and U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Ronald D. Lipps, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)

8714-55, Session PTue

Lynx multi-mode SAR in support of NATO
Unified Vision 2012 trial

Bistatic inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) has been shown toovercome some of the limitations of monostatic ISAR by placing thetransmitter and receiver at different locations. Typically, the transmitterand receiver are not along the line of sight from the targets and a finite
bistatic angle exists between the transmitter and receiver. Though there
are many advantages of bistatic ISAR, it will be shown in this paper that

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Ralf Dunkel, Tobias Verge, Robert Linnehan, General Atomics
Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (United States); Armin W. Doerry,
Sandia National Labs. (United States)
In June 2012, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (GA-ASI)
Reconnaissance Systems Group participated in the NATO Unified Vision·

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123Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII2012 (UV12) Joint ISR (JISR) Trial at Orland Main Air Station in Brekstad,
Norway. GA-ASI supplied a modified King Air 200 as a Predator B/
MQ-9 Reaper RPA surrogate outfitted with a Lynx Block 30 Multi-mode
Synthetic Aperture Radar/Ground Moving Target Indicator (SAR/GMTI),
a FLIR Star SAFIRE 3800HD Electro-optical/Infrared (EO/IR) sensor,
and a L-3 Tactical Common Data Link. This airborne platform was
combined with GA-ASI’s new System for Tactical Archival, Retrieval, andExploitation (STARE) for full integration into the NATO ISR exploitation
community.
UV12 was an event sponsored by the NATO Joint Capability Group onIntelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) to focus on theinteroperability of national ISR assets and improving JISR concept ofoperations. The Predator B RPA surrogate flew alongside multiple NATOISR assets in nine missions that showcased the platform’s all weather
ISR capabilities focusing on the Lynx SAR/GMTI and Maritime Wide Area
Search (MWAS) modes.
The inclusion of the STARE technology allowed GA-ASI’s radar and Full
Motion Video (FMV) data to be seamlessly processed and passed tojoint networks where the data was fused with other NATO ISR products,
resulting in a full battlefield reconnaissance picture.

8714-56, Session PTue

An anisotropic SAR model incorporating
aspect and spatial filters
Chad Knight, Space Dynamics Lab. (United States); Jacob
Gunther, Todd Moon, Utah State Univ. (United States)
In theory integration over a wide-range of aspects provides enhanced
scene interpretability and target detection. However, because the radarcross section of both targets and background clutter varies with aspect
angle, integrating over wide aspect angles is inconsistent with standard
SAR imaging algorithms, which implicitly assume that radar cross section
is isotropic (i.e., constant with respect to aspect angle). This presentation
focuses on the development of an anisotropic model that can be used
for systems that integrate over wide aspects. The model is formulatedusing linear algebra in order to cast the image formation problem as an
optimization problem. The problem we pose is convex, which ensuresthat the globally optimal solution can be computed efficiently.
Since SAR is inherently the convolution of a beam with a 3-D scene, themodel equation is generally under-determined (unless a large amount ofdata is collected from different aspects). This means in most cases there
are many solutions to the inverse problem. Constraints are incorporated
into the optimization problem to find solutions consistent with priorinformation. This is accomplished by using spatial filters and aspectfilters that are tuned to targets of interest. This accentuates the targets
while suppressing the “clutter” or components of the scene that are of nointerest.
This presentation will go through a detailed formulation of the model, theoptimization problem, and constraint (filter) generation, discussing theinherent assumptions. Results on both real and synthetic data will becompared with traditional convolution back-projection SAR imagery.

8714-38, Session 9

Transforming optical image data into a SAR
system’s range based image space
Harald Anglberger, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrte.V. (Germany); Rainer Speck, German Aerospace Center (DLR)(Germany); Helmut Suess, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany)
The fusion of image data of different sensor types is an important
process for many remote sensing applications to maximize information
retrieval from a given area of interest. The basic process to fuse image
data is to select a common coordinate system and resample the data tothis new image space. Usually, this is done by orthorectifying all those124

different image spaces, which means a transformation of the image’s
projection plane to a geographic coordinate system. Unfortunately, theresampling of the slant range based image space of a space borne
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to such a coordinate system strongly
distorts its content and therefore reduces the amount of extractable
information. The understanding of the complex signatures, which
are already hard to interpret in the original data, even gets worse. To
preserve maximum information extraction, this paper shows an approach
to transform optical images into the radar image space. This can beaccomplished by using an orthorectified optical image along with a digital
elevation model and project it to the same slant range image plane as
the one from the radar image acquisition. This whole process will be
explained in detail along with practical examples. Specifically the fused
image data can be used to improve the understanding of radar signaturesin the imaged scene in general or can also assist the analyst in tasks liketarget recognition, the screening of time series for change detection oreven in radar image acquisition planning.

8714-39, Session 9

Rejection of interference and near-field
coupled LNA-noise on FPA-fed multibeam
dish antennas using 3-D analog filters
Arjuna Madanayake, The Univ. of Akron (United States); Leonid
Belostotski, The Univ. of Calgary (Canada); Chamith Wijenayake,
The Univ. of Akron (United States); Yongsheng Xu, Len Bruton,
Thushara Gunaratne, The Univ. of Calgary (Canada)
A fixed parabolic antenna can be combined with focal-plane array (FPA)
beamforming to realize multiple independent broadband RF beams.
Electronically scanned FPA-driven dishes provide both high directivity/
gain as well as rapid electronic steerability for emerging mm-wave radar,sensing and imaging systems. However, such FPAs for high-sensitivity
applications suffer from degradation in sensitivity due to reasons such as
clutter/noise from off-dish sources, and noise emerging out of inputs of
low-noise amplifiers (LNAs) connected to each FPA elements. The LNA
noise is re-radiated from elements in the FPA and coupled to neighboring
elements leading to an overall degradation of the noise figure of the FPA
receiver. Coupled noise from FPA LNAs therefore result in loss of systemsensitivity leading to a beamformer dependent (i.e. directional) noise
figure.
We propose multi-dimensional signal processing methods realized in
the analog RF domain to reduce the effect of near-field coupled LNA
noise. The proposed signal processing theory takes into account thethree-dimensional (3-D) spatio-temporal frequency-spectrum of incident
received signals, interference, clutter/jammers as well as coupled LNA
noise, and exploits geometric properties of the spectrum to improve thesignal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) of the receiver system.
We propose a 3-D spatio temporal filter bank having infinite impulse
response (IIR) and corresponding 3-D cone/frustum shaped frequency
response that achieves SINR improvement by setting a passband on
the 3-D region of support of the desired received signals of interest in
the spatio-temporal frequency domain. RF electromagnetic simulations,analog CMOS realizations, and estimated performance metrics of thefilter is described.

8714-40, Session 9

A method to evaluate residual phase error
for polar formatted synthetic aperture radarsystems
Cameron Musgrove, Richard M. Naething, Sandia National Labs.
(United States)
Synthetic aperture radar systems that use the polar format algorithm
are subject to a focused scene size limit inherent to the polar format
algorithm. The classic focused scene size limit is determined from the

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

dominant residual range phase error term. Given the many sources ofphase error in a practical synthetic aperture radar, a system designer isinterested in how much phase error results from the assumptions madewith the polar format algorithm. Autofocus algorithms have limits to theamount and type of phase error that can be corrected. Current methods
correct only one or a few terms of the residual phase error. A systemdesigner needs to be able to evaluate the contribution of the residual or
uncorrected phase error terms to determine the new focused scene size
limit. This paper describes a method to estimate the complete residual
phase error, not just one or a few of the dominant residual terms. A
benefit for the system designer is that additional correction terms can be
added or deleted from the analysis as necessary to evaluate the resulting
effect upon image quality.

proposed in this study to improve the filtering accuracy, and thus
to improve the target positioning accuracy. The proposed approach
uses the outputs of the Kalman filters within a sliding window torefine estimates of current target position and velocity, as well as theiruncertainties. These WLS estimates are then used to predict the target
position and uncertainty. The effectiveness of the proposed approach isdemonstrated by using Monte Carlo simulations. Impacts of contributing
factors to the target positioning uncertainty are also quantified via
simulations.

8714-43, Session 9

A global review of optronic synthetic apertureradar/ladar processing

8714-41, Session 9

Linda Marchese, Michel Doucet, Pascal Bourqui, INO (Canada);
Bernd Harnisch, Martin Suess, European Space Research
and Technology Ctr. (Netherlands); Mathieu Legros, Nochola
Desnoyers, Simon Turbide, Sandra Turgeon, Luc Mercier, Maxime
Savard, Anne Martel, Francois Chateauneuf, Alain Bergeron, INO(Canada)Analysis of SAR autofocus performance
Richard M. Naething, Roger D. West, Sandia National Labs.
(United States)
High quality focused SAR imaging dictates that the relative phase error
over an aperture must be kept below a fraction of a wavelength. On
most deployed SAR systems the internal measurement system’s ability
to measure position uncertainty is not sufficient to achieve this required
precision. This necessitates an additional step of data-driven phase error
mitigation. This additional post processing step is known as autofocus.

Synthetic aperture (SA) techniques are currently employed in a varietyof imaging modalities, such as radar (SAR) and ladar (SAL). The
advantage of fine resolution provided by these systems far outweighs the
disadvantage of having large amounts of raw data to process to obtainthe final image. Digital processors have been the mainstay for synthetic
aperture processing since the 1980’s; however, the original method was
optical that is, it employed lenses and other optical elements. This paper
provides a global review of a compact light weight optronic processor
that combines optical and digital techniques for ultra-fast generation ofsynthetic aperture images. The overall design of the optronic processor
is detailed, including the optical design and data control and handling.
As well, its real-time capabilities are demonstrated. Example ENVISAT/ASAR images generated optronically are also presented and comparedwith ENVISAT Level 1 products. As well, the extended capabilities of
optronic processing, including wavefront correction and interferometry
are discussed. Finally, a tabletop synthetic aperture ladar system is
introduced and SAL images are presented that were generated using theexact optronic processor designed for SAR image generation.

This step is typically performed using a parametric algorithm (such as
map-drift) that relies on a model of the effects of motion error on imaging,or a non-parametric estimation technique such as PGA (phase gradientautofocus). Recently, several new autofocus techniques have beenpresented in the literature based on the optimization of various image
quality metrics. These techniques assert that better performance than
PGA is achievable at the expense of greater computational complexity.
The performance of PGA, particularly in variants that excise data to
speed performance, can vary depending on algorithmic parameters. The
optimal parameters may be scene content specific. This necessitatescare when performing an assessment of autofocus quality to ensure
optimal performance of PGA.
We present results comparing the performance of a variety of autofocus
techniques, including image metric optimization based techniques andseveral variants of PGA. The degree of focusing is evaluated with animage focus metric, specific to SAR images, that is not biased toward
any particular autofocus algorithm. This evaluation is performed on avariety of scene types using both injected (known) phase errors and withreal uncompensated (unknown) motion errors.

8714-18, Session 10

High-resolution computation of electrical field
propagation in land mine detection

8714-42, Session 9

Yury A. Gryazin, Idaho State Univ. (United States)

Air target position estimation for track
declaration using air-to-air radar

In recent years, the problem of increasing the resolution of existing
numerical solvers has become an urgent task in many areas of scienceand engineering. Most of the existing efficient solvers for structured
matrices were developed for lower-order approximation discretizedpartial differential equations. The need for improved accuracy of theunderlying algorithms leads to modified discretized linear systems and as
a result to the modification of the numerical solvers.

Liu Guoqing, Jordan Ramrus, General Atomics Aeronautical
Systems, Inc. (United States)
General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. (GA-ASI) has recently
designed and prototyped an air-to-air radar to provide Due Regard andSense and Avoid capabilities for Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA). This
radar employs a Search While Track (SWT) mode to perform target
detection, acquisition, and tracking in a search volume. SWT utilizes a
set of Kalman filters for implementing multi-target tracking (MTT), andthe outputs of these Kalman filters are used to compute the track quality
for track declaration. To formally declare a track on a target, it is requiredthat the target position be predicted at a future time of interest and thatthe prediction uncertainty satisfies a certain criterion, which is derived
from the safety requirement of the RPA.

The goal of this paper is to describe a novel high-resolution 3D numericalmethod for the forward solution of high frequency electromagnetic
wave propagation. This method will be used later by the author tocomputationally simulate data for the solution of the inverse problem
of imaging mine-like targets. Thus the solution of the forward problem
presented in this paper is a necessary prelude to the future solution of a
related inverse problem.
In this paper, land mines are modeled as small abnormalities imbedded
in an otherwise uniform media with an air-ground interface. Theseabnormalities are characterized by the electrical permittivity and the
conductivity, whose values differ from those of the host media.

Since the Kalman filters are usually designed to handle tracking ofmaneuvering targets, a large amount of updates may be needed toachieve the required track quality if there is any mismatch in the target
maneuvering model. A Weighted Least Squared (WLS) approach is

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The main challenge in the calculation of the scattered electromagnetic
signal in these settings is the requirement of solving a Helmholtz-likeequation for high frequencies which is excessively time consuming using·

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

standard direct solution techniques. A novel high-resolution and rapid
numerical procedure for the solution of this equation is described inthis paper. The kernel of this algorithm is a combination of a sixth ordercompact finite-difference scheme and a preconditioned Krylov subspacemethod. The preconditioner in this method is based on a Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) algorithm. The extended problem of solving Helmholtzlike equations for many frequencies is also considered. Numericalresults for realistic ranges of parameters in soil and mine-like targets,the investigation of the impact of the size of the truncation region on
accuracy, and the sensitivity of detector readings to changes in the
media are presented.

8714-44, Session 10

Comparison of filtering and smoothingalgorithms for airborne radars
Bhashyam Balaji, Anthony Damini, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada, Ottawa (Canada); Kai Wang, MDA
Systems Ltd. (Canada); Martie Goulding, Kurt Hagen,
MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. (Canada)
In an airborne radar with ground-moving target indication capabillity(specifically, with an ability to detect targets buried under clutter Doppler),the detection algorithm is based on space-time adaptive processing(STAP). The outputs of the STAP processor for use in kinematic tracking
include the range, bearing, and Doppler. In this paper, we investigate theperformance of some of the standard filtering and smoothing algorithms
on simulated data as well as real airborne radar data. Specifically,
we use the extended Kalman filter (EKF), unscented Kalman filtering(UKF) algorithms (and the converted measurement variants) as wellas the Rauch-Tung-Streibel (RTS) algorithms that are based on the
outputs of the filtering algorithms. Note that while there is a large andgrowing literature of tracking algorithms and their performance in radar
applications, there are not many papers that investigate smoothing in thisapplication.
We find that there is a slight difference in performance between thevarious filtering algorithms, especially pertaining to the robustness
and reliability of state estimate. However, the smoother performanceis significantly better than the filtering performance. The smootherperformance is investigated as a function of the window length. It isinteresting to see that even a relatively small window (of the order of10) gives a markedly improved performance in terms track quality. In
other words, a marked improvement in performance is seen for a small
computational overhead in essentially real-time. A conclusion is that it isvery fruitful to focus effort on investigating the smoothing and retrodiction
algorithms in this application.

8714-45, Session 10

Instantaneous frequency and time-frequency
signature estimation using compressive
sensing
Branka Jokanovic, Univ. of Montenegro (Montenegro); MoenessAmin, Villanova Univ. (United States); Srdjan Stankovic, Univ. ofMontenegro (Montenegro)
Signal reconstruction from undersampled or randomly sampled stationary
signals using compressive sensing (CS) has proven effective in many
applications, including radar. The Fourier-domain is typically the domainof choice for sparse signal representation. For nonstationary signals,
such as microDoppler, the signals are wideband when viewed globally,
but narrowband when considered instantaneously or through a short
time-window.
This paper considers compressive sensing for time-frequency signal
representation (TFSR) of nonstationary signals which are instantaneously
narrowband. It is shown that the instantaneous frequency (IF), whether
the signal is represented by a full data volume or with a large number
126

of missing observations, cannot be accurately estimated using L1
minimization without invoking the signal local sparseness behavior
through windowing techniques, that is, portioning the data into
overlapping segments and carrying signal reconstruction over eachsegment separately.
In this paper, TFSR using L1 signal reconstruction is applied to thetime-domain data rather than using the Ambiguity Function (AF), as
previously proposed. The TFSR of the proposed approach depends on
both the data window and the employed signal reconstruction algorithm.
In this paper, we use both convex optimization and greedy algorithms
and show that they provide different TFSRs and, subsequently, different
IF estimates. We propose a follow-on step of the obtained TFSR whichapplies the S-method for improved IF estimation. The paper includes
several examples of linear and nonlinear FM signals with mono- andmulti-components. We compare the results, using microDoppler data,with existing techniques which use the AF and those that ignore thenonstationary nature of the data.

8714-46, Session 10

Riemannian mean and space-time adaptive
processing using projection and inversion
algorithms
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Ottawa (Canada); Frederic Barbaresco, Thales Air Systems SA(France)Space-time adaptive processing (STAP) is a well-known technique tocancel interference due to clutter or jammer in airborne radar. STAP isbased on the the ``clairvoyant’’ covariance matrix. This covariance matrix
is then used for calculating the interference cancellation weights, typically
based on covariance matrix inversion or projection/subspace methods.
However, the clairvoyant covariance matrix is never known in practice. It
needs to be estimated from the received signal vector using the signalfree secondary data set. The sample covariance matrix is widely usedbecause it can be shown to the maximum-likelihood estimate of theclairvoyant covariance matrix.
Recently, the relevance of some powerful concepts and methods ofRiemannian and Kahler geometry to the radar signal processing has
been proposed. Specifically, it has been to shown that the Riemannian
geometry of symmetric cones are the natural mathematical object forstudying covariance matrices. Also, the natural mathematical object forstudying auto-regressive processes is Kahler geometry. Riemannian
geometry is a vast, and extremely beautiful area of mathematics.
In a recent paper, significant gains were reported for the STAP applicationof information geometry based on computing the Riemannian meanof the snapshot covariance matrices. In this paper, we present anapplication of some further results to small sample-size STAP. We
compare the performance of projection and inversion based STAP
algorithms on a more challenging clutter scenario. It is found that theperformance of the projection-based STAP algorithm is significantly
better when the information-geometry inspired algorithm for estimating
the covariance matrix is utilized.

8714-47, Session 10

3D wavelets-based denoising of highfrequency ultra-wideband synthetic apertureradar images
Anna Brook, Edison Cristofani, Marijke Vandewal, Royal
Belgian Military Academy (Belgium); Carsten Matheis, Joachim
Jonuscheit, Rene Beigang, Fraunhofer-Institut für Physikalische
Messtechnik (Germany)
Recently, there has been an interest in employing high-frequency ultrawideband imagery for industrial oriented applications in general and

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Conference 8714: Radar Sensor Technology XVII

for non-destructive evaluation and testing of composite multi-layeredmaterials in particular. The main motivations for using this technology
are: it allows penetration of most non-metal and non-polarized materials,
it provides the ability for three-dimensional (3-D) imagery and in-depth
information, and these waves pose no health risk to the operator.

associate image detections with radar detections through micro-Doppler
extracted from both radar and imagery. We explain how radar and IR
together can produce an inexpensive alternative for wide-area persistentsurveillance.

Commercially available frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW)
systems most commonly consider a classical set-up, focusing the beamusing lenses. To overcome a negative effect of the beam waist, typicallypresent in focused systems, the possibility to operate the FMCW system
in a synthetic aperture (SA) mode is proposed. The main advantage
is that a significantly wider aperture is providing constant cross-range
resolution. The disadvantage is the random granular pattern noise,e.g. speckle, which is inherent to the data acquisition process and its
appearance degrades the image quality. The contribution of the applieddenoising technique is a higher image quality that will be further used inpattern recognition and image analysis.

8714-17, Session 11

Initial measurements of the angular velocity
of walking humans using an active millimeterwave correlation interferometer
Kojo S. Zilevu, Jeffrey A. Nanzer, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States); Kelly L. Kammerman, Syracuse
Univ. (United States)

The present study proposes a divergence-free coefficient (orthogonal
isotropic bases) 3-D wavelets-based denoising method for FMCW
(40 GHz bandwidth centered at 100 GHz) 3-D images, which are used
to reveal surface and in-depth information8. This method relies oncorrelation between residual and retrieved signal by applying both
qualitative and quantitative analysis for imagery data. The reported
results are based on a real data set, containing manufactured calibrationmaterials, which are commonly used in aeronautics and aerospaceindustries. Additionally, this study investigates and compares theseresults with other transformation and denoising techniques.

Measurement of the angular motion of moving objects is a desirable
function in remote security sensing applications. Doppler radar sensors
are able to measure the signature of moving humans based on microDoppler analysis; however, a person moving with little to no radial
velocity produces negligible Doppler returns. Measurement of the angularmovement of humans can be done with traditional radar techniques
however the process involves either continuous tracking with narrow
beamwidth or angle-of-arrival estimation algorithms. Recently, theauthors presented a new method of measuring the angular velocity ofmoving objects using interferometry. The method measures the angularvelocity of an object without tracking or complex processing. The
frequency shift imparted on the signal response is proportional to the
angular velocity of the object as it passes through the interferometerbeam pattern.

8714-15, Session 11

Micro-doppler and vibrometry at millimeterand sub-millimeter wavelengths

The design of a 29.5 GHz experimental active interferometer for themeasurement of the angular velocity of moving humans is presented
in this paper, as well as initial measurements of walking humans. The
experimental system consists of a transmitter and two separate receivers
with two widely spaced antennas. The received signals in each of the twochannels are downconverted and digitized, and post-processed in offline.
Initial results of a walking human passing through the interferometerbeam pattern are presented, which verify the expected operation of thereceiver derived from the initial theory.

Duncan A. Robertson, Scott L. Cassidy, Univ. of St. Andrews(United Kingdom)
Micro-Doppler is an emerging technique for the measurement andanalysis of target modulation characteristics. The topic emerged fromanalysis of X-band radar measurements of people and has led to a
rapidly developing field. However, despite the advantage of higher
Doppler sensitivity, there appears to be little work reported on microDoppler at millimeter or submillimeter wave frequencies.
We wish report on our current development of fully coherent solid state
FMCW radar systems operating at 94 and 340 GHz which are suitable
for micro-Doppler and vibrometry studies. Additionally, they can beapplied to range-Doppler imaging and SAR/ISAR. The use of DDS chirp
generation combined with upconversion and MMIC or Schottky diodefrequency multiplication schemes yields low phase noise and rapid,
contiguous chirps, necessary for Doppler studies and other coherent
processing techniques.
We will present a comparison of the phase noise of the chirp signal
compared with the measured phase variations from static point targets.
Due to the low phase noise architecture, high SNR targets can yield aphase (i.e. displacement) sensitivity which is below 1 micron in distance.
This high phase sensitivity demonstrates the advantage of performing
micro-Doppler and vibrometry measurements at millimeter andsubmillimeter wave frequencies.
Our paper will include a description of the radar hardware, measured
performance characteristics, and example micro-Doppler and vibrometry
results.

8714-16, Session 11

Micro-range micro-doppler for dismountclassification
David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
We demonstrate the effect high-range-resolution has on radar microDoppler dismount classification of individuals versus groups. We

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Conference 8715:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVIThursday 2 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8715 Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVI

8715-1, Session 1

140-220 GHz imaging front-ends based on
250 nm InP/InGaAs/InP DHBT process
Vessen Vassilev, Herbert Zirath, Rumen Kozhuharov, Yogesh
Karandikar, Vedran Furtula, Chalmers Univ. of Technology(Sweden)Detectors based on Teledyne 250 nm InGaP/InGaAs HBT process arepresented for the 140-220 GHz band – a passive where transistor’s baseemitter junction is used as a diode, and an active, where the transistor
is biased at all ports and the trans-conductance nonlinearity is used for
detection. Measurements of transistors noise-power spectrum density
at low frequencies are utilized to model and predict the NEP of thedetectors.
The responsivity and the NEP are compared to measurements. Bothmeasurements and modeling show that the diode detector offers lower
NEP than the active. The reason for this, as it will be shown, is that thedifferential base-emitter resistance is lower at its optimum bias point in
the case of diode detector. The same types of detectors are combinedwith LNA and integrated antenna. Characterization of these front ends
will be presented at the conference. Based on the results, a prediction
for the maximum temperature resolution of an imaging front end is given
using this technology.

dissipation, reduced cost, and enhanced image resolution. Existing
compound-semiconductor technologies for imaging solutions are
expensive and are not amenable to high integration. Several imaging
receivers in silicon technologies have been demonstrated recently,
but the reported NETD is far from acceptable due to a combination ofhigh noise figure, insertion loss of Dicke switch, and flicker noise. In
this paper, we report the first receiver chip in SiGe BiCMOS that meetsthe requirements of practical W-band passive imaging systems, andachieves an unprecedented performance that is even better than existing
III-V imaging receivers. Unlike other silicon-based imagers, our chip
does not need an SPDT switch at the receiver input, and hence does not
suffer from its insertion loss. The performance of III-V imagers that do notincorporate a Dicke switch is typically limited by flicker-noise. To address
this issue, a novel lossless flicker-noise cancellation technique wasdeveloped, which dramatically improves the imager NETD.
The design and measurements of the highly-integrated direct-detectiontype imaging receiver chip are presented. The receiver IC integrates
all necessary RF and analog functions including millimeter-wave
amplification and power detection, baseband amplification, sample-andhold, clock generation, imager calibration, bias, and digital control. Using
the flicker-noise cancellation technique, the imaging receiver achieves a
record NETD of 0.22K/0.15K/0.1K for 3ms/10ms/30ms integration-time,and a responsivity of 140 MV/W. The chip is fabricated in a 0.18-um
SiGe BiCMOS technology with 240/280-GHz fT/fmax and occupies
2.5x2.5mm2. The power dissipation of the receiver is 40 mW.

8715-4, Session 1

8715-2, Session 1

Enabling technologies for mmw and THz
imaging systems
Bryan Bothwell, TriQuint Semiconductor, Inc. (United States)
TriQuint Semiconductor, a leading RF products manufacturer and foundry
services provider, has the broadest portfolio of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
and Gallium Nitride (GaN) process technologies. These are leveraged
along with high volume/ high performance packaging capabilities
to provide RF solutions across Mobile Device, Infrastructure, andDefense markets. Combined with a strong history in radar applications,this unique portfolio provides enabling technologies to address theperformance and cost challenges facing the millimeter (mmw) andTerahertz (THz) imaging markets. This presentation will highlight thevariety of solutions TriQuint brings to the mmw and THz imaging markets
that may be considered non-traditional vs. current technologies. Initial
focus will be on mmw where there have been significant advances in low
cost GaAs based process/ packaging technology driven by the increased
demand for Mobile Devices. The achievable noise figure is differentiatedwith respect to historical volume commercial process technologies inthis case. The focus will then shift to the benefits of GaN and show theopportunities for both power and low noise solutions this technology
offers from the mmw range up through 500GHz. As a world pioneer in
GaN, TriQuint will address the Research and Development aspects of
where GaN technology is being focused, as well as the manufacturing
and reliability aspects that will be key for GaN commercialization acrossthe frequency bands.

8715-3, Session 1

A SiGe BiCMOS W-band passive imaging
receiver using lossless flicker-noise
cancellation

Recent developments using TowerJazz SiGe
BiCMOS platform for mmWave and THz
applications
Arjun Kar-Roy, David Howard, Edward J. Preisler, Marco
Racanelli, Jazz Semiconductor, Inc. (United States)
We report on the highest speed 250GHz/340GHz ft/fmax NPNs whichhave been demonstrated in the SBC18H4 process. This process is oneof the process offerings in TowerJazz’s high volume manufacturable
commercial SBC18 and SBC13 silicon germanium (SiGe) BiCMOS
technology platforms. NFmin of less than 2dB at 50GHz has beenobtained with these NPNs. In addition to the high-speed NPNs, theSiGe BiCMOS process platforms integrate dual gate oxide MOSFETs in
0.18um and 0.13um process nodes, high density 5.6fF/um^2 stacked
MIM capacitors, high value polysilicon resistors, high-Q metal resistors,
lateral PNP transistors, triple well isolation using deep nwell, varactors,
p-i-n diodes, Schottky diodes, compact high-Q inductors and deep
trench isolation. In this paper, we will also report on the various circuit
demonstrations obtained recently using the previous generation
240GHz/270GHz ft/fmax NPN SBC18H3 process for mmWave and THz
applications. We will report results on a 4-element phased array chipset
with both transmitter and receiver operating between 70 and 100GHz.
The receiver channels have a conversion gain of 33dB and noise figure of<7dB and the transmit channels have a flat saturated output power of >5dBm. Results from a 16-element array, operating at 110GHz frequency
range and with independent amplitude and phase control will also bereported. In imaging, results from a 3x3 FPA W-band imaging array with
NETD less than 0.5K and responsivity of 800MV/W will be presented.
Extension to wafer scale phased array and mmWave imaging array, using
available sub-field stitching process technology in SBC18 and SBC13
process platforms, will also be discussed. Other unique demonstrations
such as improved LNA results and 200GHz varactor-less VCO with -7
dBm output power will be described.

Vipul Jain, Farbod Behbahani, SaberTek, Inc. (United States)
High-performance highly-integrated millimeter-wave ICs will enablenext-generation passive imaging systems with smaller size, lower power
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Conference 8715:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVI

8715-6, Session 1

screening at airports and other high-security facilities. The cylindricalimaging techniques used in the deployed systems are based on licensed
technology developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. The
cylindrical and a related planar imaging technique form three-dimensional
images by scanning a diverging beam swept frequency transceiver over a
two-dimensional aperture and mathematically focusing or reconstructing
the data into three-dimensional images of the person being screened.
The resolution, clothing penetration, and image illumination quality
obtained with these techniques can be significantly enhanced throughthe selection the aperture size, antenna beamwidth, center frequency,
and bandwidth. The lateral resolution can be improved by increasing thecenter frequency, or it can be increased with a larger antenna beamwidth.
The wide beamwidth approach can significantly improve illumination
quality relative to a higher frequency system. Additionally, a wide antenna
beamwidth allows for operation at a lower center frequency resulting inless scattering and attenuation due to the clothing. The depth resolutionof the system can be improved by increasing the bandwidth. Utilization of
extremely wide bandwidths of up to 30 GHz can result in depth resolution
as fine as 5 mm. This wider bandwidth operation may allow for improved
detection techniques based on high range resolution. In this paper, theresults of an extensive imaging study are presented for both planar andcylindrical imaging techniques at frequency ranges of 10-20 GHz, 10 – 40
GHz, 40 – 60 GHz, and 75 – 105 GHz.

Near-field measurements of submillimeterwave reflectarrays
Aleksi A. Tamminen, Juha Ala-Laurinaho, Sampo Mäkelä, Aalto
Univ. School of Science and Technology (Finland); David GomesMartins, VTT Technical Research Ctr. of Finland (Finland); Janne
Häkli, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland (Finland); Päivi
Koivisto, Pekka Rantakari, Jussi Säily, Reijo Tuovinen, Arttu R.
Luukanen, Markku Sipilä, VTT Technical Research Ctr. of Finland(Finland); Antti V. Räisänen, Aalto Univ. School of Science andTechnology (Finland)
We present results of experimental characterization of a static 650-GHz
reflectarray. The reflectarray is based on a 124-um circular microstrip
patch antennas with a tuning stub as a phase shifter. The staticreflectarray is considered as a predecessor for active reflectarray, andtherefore reflectarray elements have two discrete phase-shift values:
0° and -180°. The reflectarray has 95 000 elements, and they haveseparation of 0.4 mm. The reflectarray is fabricated on a 150-mm
silicon wafer plated with ground plane and 20-um polyimide substrate.
The fabricated static reflectarrays are characterized in a near-fieldmeasurement range and their beam patterns at the focusing distance of
20 m are calculated with plane-to-plane transform. At this high frequency,
fabrication tolerances are difficult to meet and, e.g., over-etching of theantenna and phase-shifting structure may offset the resonance frequencyof the reflectarray element by more than its bandwidth. Also, near-fieldmeasurements require approximately 500 thousand data points in a daylong measurement. Together with presenting the measured performanceof the static 650-GHz reflectarrays, we discuss the challenges related tosuch near-field measurements of offset-fed reflectarrays.

8715-8, Session 2

Transceiver array development for
submillimeter-wave imaging radars
Ken B. Cooper, Theodore Reck, Cecile Jung-Kubiak, Choonsup
Lee, Jose Siles, Robert Lin, Alejandro Peralta, EmmanuelDecrossas, Erich Schlecht, Goutam Chattopadhyay, Imran
Mehdi, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)

8715-24, Session 1

The development of radar transceiver arrays is the surest way toincrease the frame rate of active submillimeter-wave imaging radars.
We have tackled considerable engineering challenges in building a
multi-pixel heterodyne terahertz transceiver and integrating it into aradar in a manner consistent with eventual commercialization. For thetransceiver array itself, we have developed and begun testing waveguideblocks fabricated from micromachined silicon, which has advantages
over conventional metal blocks in feature tolerance, manufacturing
uniformity, production cost, signal routing flexibility, and compatibility
with lithographically defined bias circuitry. For the radar’s backend
electronics, we have built hybrid analog/digital integrated microwave
assemblies spanning dc to Ka-band that can be mass-produced. These
include a four-channel down-converter unit with low cross-talk and a
chirped 36-38 GHz source capable of sweeping as fast as 80 MHz per
microsecond, with a phase noise better than -102 dBc/Hz at offsets
between 10 and 100 kHz. We have also parallelized our imaging radar
signal processing algorithm for multiple channels on an embedded,
off-the-shelf PC/FPGA platform. Real-time radar signal processing offour simultaneous channels has been verified with 80 microsecond pulse
repetition intervals. Modifications in the radar’s scanning optics have also
been implemented to increase the imaging speed, and the overall system
packaging has been lightened in weight and ruggedized.

Backscattering of ground terrain and building
materials at terahertz frequencies
David A. DiGiovanni, Andrew J. Gatesman, Robert H. Giles,
Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States); William E. Nixon,
National Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)
As terrestrial remote sensing and communication systems continue
to evolve in the 0.1 – 0.3 THz band, the need to understand thescattering behavior of common materials and ground terrain at thesefrequencies becomes important. Terrain features and surface roughness
that would otherwise appear smooth at longer wavelengths begin tosignificantly impact the radar cross section of the surfaces at thesehigher frequencies. The HH and VV polarized backscattering coefficientof several types of ground terrain and building materials were measured
in indoor compact radar ranges operating at 100 GHz and 240 GHz.
Measurements of the various materials were collected at elevation angles
ranging from 5 to 35 degrees. The goal of the effort was to begin tounderstand the polarimetric scattering behavior of materials in the 0.1 –0.3 THz region. The statistical scattering behavior of the materials was
also investigated.

8715-9, Session 28715-7, Session 2

Personnel screening with advanced
multistatic imaging technology

Wide-bandwidth, wide-beamwidth, highresolution, millimeter-wave imaging forconcealed weapon detection

Sherif S. Ahmed, Rohde & Schwarz GmbH & Co. KG (Germany)
Personnel screening is demanded nowadays for securing air traffic
as well as critical infrastructures. The millimeter-waves are capable
to penetrate clothes and detect concealed objects, making them anattractive choice for security screening. Advanced imaging methods
based on multistatic architecture can ensure high quality imagery interms of resolution and dynamic range. Following the advances inDavid M. Sheen, Justin L. Fernandes, Jonathan R. Tedeschi,
Douglas L. McMakin, Mark Jones, Wayne M. Lechelt, Ronald H.
Severtsen, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
Active millimeter-wave imaging is currently being used for personnel

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129Conference 8715:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVI
semiconductor technology, fully electronic solutions delivering real-time
imaging are becoming feasible. Furthermore, the continuously increasing
capabilities of digital signal processing units allow for the utilization ofdigital-beamforming techniques for image reconstruction, thus offering
new opportunities for imaging systems to use advanced operation
modes. Based on these modern technologies, an advanced realization
addressing personnel screening in E-band with planar multistatic sparsearray design is demonstrated.

8715-11, Session 3

Three-dimensional millimeter-wave imaging
for concealed threat detection in shoes
Justin L. Fernandes, Douglas L. McMakin, Jonathan R. Tedeschi,
David M. Sheen, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
This paper describes a study performed at the Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory investigating the use of active millimeter-wave radar imaging
to perform threat detection in non-divested shoes. The purpose ofthis study was to determine the optimal imaging system configuration
for performing this type of task. While active millimeter-wave imaging
systems have proven to be effective for personnel screening, thephenomenology associated with imaging within a heterogeneous
medium, such as a shoe, dictates limits for imaging system parameters.
Scattering, defocusing, and multipath artifacts are significantly
exaggerated due to the high contrast index of refraction associatedwith the boundary at the air and shoe interface. Where higher centerfrequency and bandwidth result in much improved lateral and range
resolution in the body scanning application, smaller wavelengths are
significantly defocused after penetrating the sole of the shoe. Increased
bandwidth, however, is essential for the shoe scanning application as
well. Obtaining fine enough depth resolution is critical in separating thescattering contribution of each layer of the shoes in range to isolate
possible threats embedded within the sole. In this paper the results ofthis study covering the optimization of the following imaging systemparameters is presented: antenna illumination beamwidth, antennapolarization, transceiver bandwidth, and physical scanning geometry.

8715-12, Session 3

Environmental control for improved Passive
Millimeter Wave concealed object detection
Thomas D. Williams, Millivision Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Passive Millimeter Wave Imaging for detection of concealed contrabandhas been demonstrated for decades in various forms. One vexing
problem is that when some emissive materials reach body temperature
they loose contrast. A solution to this problem is presented where bymanipulation of the environmental conditions can tease apart the thermal
conditions of materials from their emissive/reflective properties. This
manipulation of the environment is thermal, and so projects no energy
other than thermal at any wavelength onto the scene. Results of an
implementation are presented which demonstrate the ability to detect
heretofore undetectable objects of interest.

8715-13, Session 3

Development of passive submillimeter-wave
video imaging systems
Erik Heinz, Torsten May, Detlef Born, Gabriel Zieger, Katja Peiselt,
Anika Brömel, Solveig Anders, Vyacheslav Zakosarenko, Torsten
Krause, André Krüger, Marco Schulz, Hans-Georg Meyer, Institut
für Photonische Technologien e.V. (Germany)
Passive submillimeter-wave imaging has been in the focus of interest
as a promising technology for security applications for a number of130

years. It utilizes the unique optical properties of submillimeter waves
and promises an alternative to millimeter-wave and X-ray backscattering
portals for personal security screening in particular. Possible application
scenarios demand sensitive, fast, and flexible high-quality imaging
techniques. Considering the low radiometric contrast of indoor scenes
in the submillimeter range, this objective calls for an high detector
sensitivity that can only be achieved using cooled detectors.
Our approach to this task is a series of passive standoff video cameras
for the 350 GHz band that represent an evolving concept and acontinuous development since 2007. The cameras utilize arrays ofsuperconducting transition-edge sensors (TES) as radiation detectors.
The TES are operated at temperatures below 1 K, cooled by a closedcycle cooling system, and coupled to superconducting readout
electronics. By this means, background limited photometry (BLIP) modeis achieved providing the maximum possible signal to noise ratio. At
video rates, this leads to a pixel NETD well below 1 K. The imaging
system is completed by reflector optics based on free-form mirrors andintegrated mechanical scanners.
We present a new camera prototype featuring a linear array of 64 or 128
detectors and a linear scanner that can be adapted to different types ofreflector optics for different object distances. A field of view of 1×2 m2
and a frame rate of up to 25 Hz is provided.

8715-14, Session 3

Passive three-colour submillimetre-wave
video camera
Arttu R. Luukanen, Leif Grönberg, VTT Technical Research Ctr.
of Finland (Finland); Markus Grönholm, Asqella Oy (Finland);Mikko M. Leivo, Anssi Rautiainen, Hans Toivanen, VTT TechnicalResearch Ctr. of Finland (Finland)Stand-off detection for concealed weapons is one of the applications forpassive submillimetre-wave imaging. The operating frequency (neglecting
technology limitations) is often a compromise between the diffractionlimited angular resolution for a fixed maximum aperture diameter, and theextinction of the signal in obscurant layers: At high frequencies towards
the 1 THz mark, excellent angular resolution is readily achievable withmodest aperture diameters, while scattering and attenuation by clothingis high which creates potentially more clutter rather than improving
detection capability. At lower frequencies towards 100 GHz, attenuationand scattering by clothing is much less pronounced, albeit at significantly
reduced spatial definition thanks to increased diffraction.
In order to avoid the above-mentioned compromise, we have constructeda three-band passive imaging system operating at effective centre
frequencies of 250 GHz, 450 GHz and 720 GHz. Measurements andimagery acquired with the system will be presented.

8715-15, Session 3

Fully polarimetric differential intensity W-band
imager
Bruce E. Bernacki, Jonathan R. Tedeschi, James F. Kelly, David
M. Sheen, Thomas E. Hall, Patrick L. J. Valdez, Wayne M.
Lechelt, Douglas L. McMakin, Pacific Northwest National Lab.
(United States)
We present a novel architecture based upon a Dicke-switchedheterodyne radiometer architecture employing two identical input
sections consisting of horn and orthomode transducer to detect thedifference between the H and V polarization states of two separate object
patches imaged by the radiometer. We have constructed and described
previously a fully polarimetric W-band passive millimeter wave imager
constructed to study the phenomenology of anomaly detection using
polarimetric image exploitation of the Stokes images. The heterodyne
radiometer used a PIN diode switch between the input MMW energy andthat of a reference load in order to eliminate the effects of component

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Conference 8715:
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8715-18, Session 4

drifts and reduce the effects of 1/f noise. This differential approachdiffers from our previous work by comparing H and V polarization states
detected by each of the two input horns instead of a reference load toform signals delta H and delta V from closely adjacent paired pixels. This
novel imaging reduces common mode noise and enhances detectionof small changes between the H and V polarization states of two
object patches, now given as difference terms of the fully polarimetricradiometer. We present the theory of operation, initial proof of concept
experimental results, extension of the differential radiometer to a systemwith a binocular fore optics, and offer a concept for differential imaging
using a single fore optic combined with a novel quasi optical element toallow adjustment of the overlap or shear of the object patches viewed by
the differential polarimetric imager.

Realization of a video-rate distributed
aperture millimeter-wave imaging systemusing optical upconversion
Christopher A. Schuetz, Richard D. Martin, Thomas E. Dillon,
Peng Yao, Daniel Mackrides, Charles Harrity, Alicia Zablocki,
Kevin Shreve, Phase Sensitive Innovations, Inc. (United States);
James Bonnett, Petersen F. Curt, EM Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Dennis W. Prather, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
Passive imaging using millimeter waves (mmWs) has many advantages
and applications in the defense and security markets. All terrestrial
bodies emit mmW radiation and these wavelengths are able to penetratesmoke, fog/clouds/marine layers, and even clothing. One primaryobstacle to imaging in this spectrum is that longer wavelengths requirelarger apertures to achieve the resolutions desired for many applications.
Accordingly, lens-based focal plane systems and scanning systems
tend to require large aperture optics, which increase the achievablesize and weight of such systems to beyond what can be supported bymany applications. To overcome this limitation, a distributed aperture
detection scheme is used in which the effective aperture size can beincreased without the associated volumetric increase in imager size. This
distributed aperture system is realized through conversion of the received
mmW energy into sidebands on an optical carrier. This conversion
serves, in essence, to scale the mmW sparse aperture array signals onto
a complementary optical array. The optical side bands are subsequently
stripped from the optical carrier and optically recombined to provide areal time snapshot of the mmW signal. Using this technique, we haveconstructed a real-time, video-rate imager operating at 75 GHz. A
distributed aperture consisting of 220 upconversion channels is used torealize 2.5k pixels with passive sensitivity. Details of the construction andoperation of this imager as well as field testing results will be presented
herein.

8715-16, Session 4

SUMIRAD: a low-cost fast millimeter-wave
radiometric imaging system
Markus Peichl, Stephan Dill, Daniel Rudolf, Deutsches Zentrum
für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany)
For many military or peace-keeping operations it is necessary to provide
better situational awareness to the commander of a vehicle with respect
to possible threats in his local environment (predominantly ahead), at a
distance of a few ten to a few hundred meters. Such a challenging task
can only be addressed adequately by a suitable multi-sensor system. Asa beneficial part of that, an imaging radiometer system with a sufficiently
high frame rate and field of view is considered. The radiometer, working
24 hours in all weather and sight conditions, generates quasi-opticalimages simplifying the microwave image interpretation. Furthermore it
offers the advantage to detect and localise objects and persons undernearly all atmospheric obstacles and also extents the surveillancecapabilities behind non-metallic materials like clothing or thin walls andthin vegetation. Based on constraints of low costs and the observation ofa large field of view, the radiometer still offers a moderate resolution at amoderate scan speed.

8715-19, Session 4

The paper describes the challenges for the design of a vehicle-based
imaging radiometer system at W band, providing high-quality images ofsufficient resolution for a large field of view at a moderate frame rate. The
construction is briefly outlined and imaging results for several situations
are presented. Those comprise measurements on target detection andinvestigations on the variations of scenes over time.

VESAS: a novel concept for fully-electronic
passive MW imaging
Eric Schreiber, Markus Peichl, Helmut H. Suess, Deutsches
Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany); Helmut Suess,
German Aerospace Center (Germany)

8715-17, Session 4

These days passive microwave (MW) remote sensing has found many
applications. For example, in Earth observation missions, it is possible
to estimate the salinity of oceans, the soil moisture of landscapes, or to
extract atmospheric parameters like the liquid water content of clouds.
Due to the penetration capabilities of microwaves through many dielectricmaterials, and the purely passive character of this kind of remotesensing, this technique nowadays is considered as well in many security
and reconnaissance applications (e.g. observation of sensitive areas,
detection of concealed objects, trough-wall imaging, etc.). Presently
different imaging principles for MW radiometry are possible. Most of themstill are based on pure mechanical scanning or they combine this withelectronic scanning by using parts of a focal plane array. Due to many
advantages, the technological trend is going towards fully-electronic
beam steering or two-dimensional focal plane arrays. These systems
are able to achieve high frame rates, but they are still very expensive
because of a significantly higher number of receiver modules, compared
to a mechanical scanning system. In our approach a novel concept fora low cost Ka-band fully-electronic MW imaging radiometer system is
introduced. It is based on a combination of beam steering by frequency
shift using a slotted waveguide antenna, and the application of aperturesynthesis. In the following a proof of concept is outlined by presenting
different MW imaging measurement results, using this kind of imaging
principle.

Missile tracking and range safety: Tracking
Interferometer Pathfinder System (TIPS)David Dowgiallo, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
The tracking of missiles at close range proximity has been an ongoingchallenge for many launch environments. The ability to provide accurate
missile trajectory information is imperative for range safety and earlytermination of flight. In an effort to provide a potential solution to tracking
issues that have plagued many traditional techniques, the Tracking
Interferometer Pathfinder System (TIPS) was developed at the Naval
Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C.
In the past, radar and optical techniques have been used for short range
tracking with mixed results. Radar systems have experienced issues
with multipathing, clutter, and range gating. Expended rocket stages
contribute additional problems in tracking by disguising the primarytarget. Optical systems have had difficulty with varying cloud cover andnon-optimal viewing conditions. An alternative to the previous methods
is a passive interferometer, offering several benefits over other tracking
techniques: all weather operation, constant day/night imaging, no moving
parts, and no radio frequency emissions.
The development and field test of the TIPS sensor will be presented,
along with the data analysis and imaging of a launch event.

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8715-20, Session 48715-22, Session 4Sparse Interferometric Millimeter-wave Arrayfor Centimeter-level 100-m Standoff Imaging

Nonlinearity and phase noise effects in 340
GHz 3D imaging radar

Jonathan Y. Suen, Philip M. Lubin, Steven L. Solomon, Robert P.
Ginn, Acumen Scientific (United States)

Duncan A. Robertson, Scott L. Cassidy, David R. Bolton, Univ. of
St. Andrews (United Kingdom)

We present work on the development of a long range standoff concealed
weapons detection system capable of imaging under very heavy clothingat distances exceeding 100 m with a cm resolution. The system isbased off a combination of phased array technologies used in VLBI
radio astronomy and SAR radar by using a coherent, multi-frequency
reconstruction algorithm which can run at video frame rates and high
SNR with a multi-tone transceiver. The high power, low noise, and low
cost devices available from 30-100 GHz provide a practical solution
capable of detecting concealed weapons and IEDs at a reasonable
standoff with portable 80-cm aperture antennas.

IRAD is a 340 GHz coherent, heterodyne, 3D imaging radar with a frame
rate of up to 10 Hz. Recent efforts in the system’s development havefocused on optimising performance and we plan to report recent results.
Phase noise in FMCW radar systems can be a limiting factor when trying
to measure low reflectivity targets in the presence of high reflectivity
targets, as is the case for high resolution 3D imaging radars operating
at submillimeter wavelengths targeting security imaging applications.
Ken Cooper of JPL recently reported (IMS 2012) that phase noise is thelimiting factor in his system and that effort must be directed to lowering
source phase noise rather than increasing raw SNR. We will present
measurement of the phase noise of our DDS based chirp generator,
its relationship with the phase stability of fixed reference targets, andhow it affects the detection of weak reflectors in the presence of strong
ones. We have also compared the phase noise of our upconverted DDS
chirp generation scheme with that of a PLL based scheme as is often
employed in FMCW radars and will discuss the pros and cons of these
two approaches. Additionally, we examine the techniques for amplitude
and phase nonlinearity compensation in order to optimise the point target
response.

A major problem with phased-array systems is the need for phase
controlled receivers, wiring, element placement, and system calibration.
Here, we draw on the systems used for radio astronomy by using GPS
position and frequency synchronization to allow for algorithmic correctionof phase errors. Our system is portable, can be easily set up, and is selfaligning and battery powered.
We show the flexible design space of our system as well as algorithm
development, predicted system performance and impairments, andsimulated reconstructed images.

8715-5, Session PThur

8715-21, Session 4

Passive and active imaging at 94 GHz forenvironmental remote sensing
David G. Macfarlane, Duncan A. Robertson, Scott L. Cassidy,
Univ. of St. Andrews (United Kingdom); Henry M. Odbert, Univ.
of Bristol (United Kingdom); Mike R. James, Harry Pinkerton,
Lancaster Univ. (United Kingdom); Geoff Wadge, The Univ. of
Reading (United Kingdom)
We report on the use of the All-weather Volcano Topography Imaging
Sensor (AVTIS) 94 GHz dual mode radar/radiometric imager forenvironmental monitoring. The FMCW radar yields 3D maps of the terrain
whilst the passive radiometer records brightness temperature maps ofthe scene. AVTIS is a low power portable instrument and has been used
operationally to survey terrain at ranges up to 6 km.
AVTIS was originally developed for the ground-based measurement ofactive volcanoes and has been used successfully to measure the Arenal
Volcano in Costa Rica and the Soufrière Hills Volcano on Montserrat.
However, additional environmental remote sensing applications are
emerging for this technology and we will present details of how the
instrument is used to perform terrain mapping and thermal surveys of
outdoor scenes.
The extraction of digital elevation maps (DEMs) is the primary functionof the AVTIS radar mode. We will review this process covering range
drift compensation, radar cross section (RCS) histogram analysis andthresholding, and georeferencing to GPS. Additionally, we will present
how careful calibration enables RCS imaging of terrain and the extractionof the intrinsic reflectivity of the terrain material (normalized RCS, or
sigma-nought) which can be used to classify terrain types.
We have validated the passive mode imagery against infrared thermal
imagery and they show good agreement once the differences in spatial
resolution are accounted for. This comparison also reveals differences inpropagation due to obscurants (steam, gas, ash) in the two wavebands.

132

Dynamic beam steering at submm- andmm-wave frequencies using an opticallycontrolled lens antenna
Tom F. Gallacher, Univ. of St. Andrews (United Kingdom); Rune
Sondena, Institute for Energy Technology (Norway); Duncan
A. Robertson, Graham M. Smith, Univ. of St. Andrews (United
Kingdom)
We present details of our work which has been focused on improving theefficiency and scan rate of the photo-injected Fresnel zone plate antenna(piFZPA) technique that utilizes commercially available visible display
technologies.
This approach presents a viable low-cost solution for non-mechanicalbeam steering suitable for many applications at (sub) mm-wave
frequencies that require rapid beam steering capabilities in order tomeet their technological goals, such as imaging, surveillance and remotesensing. In particular, the piFZPA method enables rapid beam steering
spanning wide field-of-views (FOVs) using a limited number of receivers(commonly singular) which suffer from continued high costs at thesefrequency bands, and often limits the full potential of these systems. Thismethod has the advantage of being comparatively low-cost, is based ona simple and flexible architecture, enabling rapid and precise arbitrary
beam forming, which is scalable to higher frame-rates and higher
submm-wave frequencies.
We discuss the various optimization stages of a range of piFZPA designs
that implement fast visible projection displays, enabling up to 25,000
beams per second, presenting data which demonstrates near diffractionlimited performance that can be scanned precisely and arbitrarily within a
3D volume. We also discuss the suitability of this technology across mmwave and submm-wave frequencies as a low-cost and simple solution for
dynamic optoelectronic beam steering.

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Conference 8715:
Passive and Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging XVI

8715-23, Session PThur

20 meters standoff MMW imaging system
based on Glow Discharge Detector focal
plane array
Daniel Rozban, Ariel Univ. Ctr. of Samaria (Israel); NatanS. Kopeika, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel); Amir
Abramovich, Ariel Univ. Ctr. of Samaria (Israel); Assaf Levanon,
Avihai Aharon Akram, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel)
Glow discharge plasma, derived from direct-current gas breakdown,
was investigated in order to realize an inexpensive mm wave roomtemperature detector. It was found out that some commercially available($0.2-$0.5 per lamp) miniature lamps initially intended for lightning
purposes can serve as mm wave detectors, called glow discharge
detectors (GDDs). Good responsivity and noise-equivalent power were
measured. 8X8 and 16X16 GDD’s based focal plane array were designed
and tested showing quality images of both dielectric and metallic
objects. Recently a unique quasi optical setup consisting of a projection
system based on Cassegrain design was implemented for the purposeof longer distance detection and imaging. Direct detection signal was
obtained by the GDD from a distance of 20m. Experimental work on the
GDD showed that heterodyne detection using the GDD can significantly
reduce the noise equivalent power and the minimum detectable signal.
Based on the results shown here it is indicated that detection of signals
from larger distances is feasible. The feasibility of a 3 dimension imaging
based on radar principle and heterodyne detection was proven. Basedon the results given here we designed a first stage quasi optical system
intended for 3 dimensional imaging from a distance of 20m.

8715-25, Session PThur

Embedded electronics for a video-rate
distributed aperture passive millimeter-wave
imagerPetersen F Curt, James Bonnett, EM Photonics, Inc. (UnitedStates); Christopher A. Schuetz, Richard D. Martin, Phase
Sensitive Innovations, Inc. (United States)
Because of their unique ability to penetrate fog, dust, smoke, blowing
sand, and light-rain, MMW imaging systems are very attractive for many
defense applications. However, their use in deployed systems to date has
been limited due to the lack of suitable technologies that meet or exceed
mission specific criteria, e.g., resolution, sensitivity, speed, latency
and SWaP. For this reason, we have developed a real-time hardware
accelerated processor to help overcome some these limitations andthereby enable the use of MMW imagers on a broad scale.
The processor we designed is capable of controlling hundreds of distinct
MMW channels consisting of RF and optical portions. By tuning theperformance of each element, the distributed aperture of a phasedarray can be effectively focused. In order to maintain focus for real-time
imaging, the feedback must be constantly updated to compensate
for changes induced by temperature, humidity and vibration. We havedemonstrated that the resulting system can maintain accuracy within a
few degrees even under the simulated effects of being onboard an H-53
heavy-lift helicopter.
In addition to phase control of the antennas, our electronics also capture
the converted signals for processing and display. Using a combinationof high-performance hardware and software programming techniques,
the overall efficiency of the system has been significantly improved
compared to previous generations. Real-time low-latency display of theresulting imagery is now possible and completed embedded within thesensor enclosure.
We present the results of this research, including our architectural design
decisions for scalability, reconfigurability and embedded deployment.

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133Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8716 Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII: Advanced Applications in Industry
and Defense

8716-1, Session 1

8716-3, Session 1

Broadband photonic terahertz-wave emitter
integrating UTC-PD and novel planar antenna(Invited Paper)

Palm-size and real-time Terahertz imager, andits application to development of terahertz
sources

Hiroshi Ito, Kitasato Univ. (Japan); Toshihide Yoshimatsu, Nippon
Telegraph and Telephone Corp. (Japan); Hiroshi Yamamoto,Kitasato Univ. (Japan); Tadao Ishibashi, NTT Electronics Corp.
(Japan)Naoki Oda, Tsutomu Ishi, Seiji Kurashina, Takayuki Sudou, Takao
Morimoto, Masaru Miyoshi, Tokuhito Sasaki, NEC Corp. (Japan);
Taku Tsuboi, Takao Yamazaki, NEC Corp (Japan)

Photomixing is a promising technique for generating continuous terahertz(THz) waves due to its superior features, such as broad bandwidthand capability for long distance transmission of high frequency signals
through low loss fibers. To further extend the operation frequency ofthe photonic THz-wave emitters towards the lower frequency side,
considerable increase in chip size due to the increase in antenna area
is usually required. To solve this problem, we used a novel compact
planar antenna that merges a self-complementary bow-tie antenna
and a broad-area dipole antenna, and integrated it with an InP/InGaAs
uni-traveling-carrier photodiode (UTC-PD). Then, the fabricated device
was mounted on a Si hyper-hemispherical lens, assembled in a compact
quasi-optic package, and characterized in detail. The output power
peaked at around 160 GHz and decreased gradually with increasing
frequency. We detected output powers at frequencies from 30 GHz to
1.6 THz using a single device. The lowest operation frequency was about
five times smaller and the peak output power about four times larger thanthose for a device integrated with a standard bow-tie antenna, while theoutput characteristics on the higher frequency side were not apparently
influenced. These improvements were attributed to the characteristics ofthe merged antenna. The detected output powers were 120 uW at 200
GHz, 17 uW at 500 GHz, and 2.9 uW at 1 THz for a photocurrent of 10
mA with a bias voltage of only -0.6 V.

8716-2, Session 1

Antenna-coupled uncooled Nb5N6
microbolometers for terahertz imaging
Xue-Cou Tu, Nanjing Univ. (China); Qingkai Mao, Lei Xu, Cao
Wan, Zhenlong Sun, Nanjing Univ (China); Lin Kang, Jian Chen,
Pei-Heng Wu, Nanjing Univ. (China)
A novel room-temperature microbolometer array chip consisting of a
Nb5N6 thin film microbridge and a dipole planar antenna and applied
as a terahertz (THz) detector is described in this paper. Due to the hightemperature coefficient of the resistance, which is as high as -0.7% K-1,of the Nb5N6 thin film, such an antenna-coupled microbolometer is idealfor detecting signals from 0.22 THz to 0.33 THz. The dc responsivity,
calculated from the measured I-V curve of the Nb5N6 microbolometer,
is about -760 V/W at the bias current of 0.19 mA. A typical noise voltage
as low as 10 nV/√Hz yields a low noise equivalent power (NEP) of 1.3
× 10-11 W/√Hz at modulation frequency above 4 kHz and the best RF
responsivity, characterized using infrared device measuring method, isabout 580 V/W, with the corresponding NEP being 1.7 10-11 W/√Hz.
In order to further test the performance of Nb5N6 microbolometer,
we constructed a quasi-optical type receiver by attaching it to thehyperhemispherical silicon lens and the result was that the best
responsivity of the receiver is up to 320 V/W. This work could offer
another way to develop a large scale focal plane array in silicon withsimple technique and low costs.

134

This paper briefly describes features of both uncooled palm-size andreal-time Terahertz (THz) camera, and transmission-type THz microscope.
The former incorporates high sensitivity 320x240 THz focal plane arraywith 23.5 m pixel pitch and the camera has three orders of magnitude
of dynamic range with good linearity. The latter consists of THz camera
and quantum cascade laser (QCL). QCL is cooled at 50~60 K with
Stirling cycle cryocooler and can radiate powerful emission line with
time-average power of ca. milli-Watt. The combination of these twocomponents provides microscope with good signal-to-noise ratio.
THz images of string with 300 m in diameter were obtained at 4.3
THz and 2.0 THz with the THz camera in combination with Easy QCL(made by LongWave Photonics, LLC). Analyses of these images showthat sharper edge-contrast is obtained at higher frequency and spatial
resolutions evaluated at two frequencies, using the 10-90% criterion for
signal intensity profile, are consistent with Fraunhofer diffraction limit.
The THz cameras have been used by many researchers who havedeveloped THz radiation sources such as photoconductive antenna fortime domain spectrometer, amplifier multiplier chain, injection-seededTHz parametric generator, THz free electron laser, QCL, broad-band
THz source with tilted-pump-pulse-front scheme and so on. The beam
patterns for these THz sources are presented. The experimental results
on beam patterns show that the THz camera plays an important role in
improving beam patterns of THz sources by adjusting optical elements,
non-linear optical crystals and so forth.

8716-4, Session 1

Widely tunable (1-20 THz) narrowband (100GHz) THz source for spectroscopy andimaging
Mojca Jazbinsek, Tobias Bach, Blanca Ruiz, Carolina C.
Medrano, Peter Günter, Rainbow Photonics AG (Switzerland)
We developed a widely tunable coherent THz source emitting from 1
to 20 THz with a narrow bandwidth of below 100 GHz. The source isbased on difference-frequency generation in recently developed highly
efficient organic electro-optic crystals DSTMS and OH1 by using tunableinfrared wavelengths of a BBO based optical parametric oscillator. One
operational mode is at a chosen fixed THz frequency within this range for
imaging applications, where the frequency can be chosen to match thebest sensitivity range of investigated materials. The second mode allows
tuning between 1–20 THz for spectroscopy applications.
THz-wave generation in a broadband THz range is possible by usingorganic electro-optic crystals as THz generators due to their uniquematerial properties, which allow phase-matched frequency conversion
from the optical to THz waves with higher second-order susceptibilities
compared to inorganic materials. The optimum wavelength range of thepump infrared excitation for both DSTMS and OH1 is at 1400 ± 200 nm.
While most common THz sources based on photoconductive antennas
span to a few THz only, a larger range allows to extend the spectroscopy
and imaging to a much wider range of materials. The extended
fingerprints will allow discriminating with a high level of confidence thepresence and the type of hidden materials. Furthermore, large detection

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Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
Massachusetts Lowell (United States) and Metron, Inc. (UnitedStates); Robert H. Giles, Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (UnitedStates); William E. Nixon, National Ground Intelligence Ctr.
(United States)

distances for remote sensing can be possible with such a source,
since the atmospheric absorption may decrease up to three orders ofmagnitude when moving from the low-THz frequency range to the 10–20
THz range.

Remote sensing over long path lengths has become of greater interestin the Terahertz frequency region. Applications such as pollution
monitoring and detection of energetic chemicals are of particular interest.
Although there has been much attention to atmospheric effects overnarrow frequency windows, accurate measurements across a wide
spectrum is lacking. The water vapor continuum absorption spectrum
was investigated using Fourier Transform Spectroscopy. The continuum
effect gives rise to an excess absorption that is unaccounted for in justa resonant line spectrum simulation. The transmission of broadband
terahertz radiation from 300GHz - 1.5THz through air with varying relative
humidity levels was recorded for multiple path lengths. From these data,
the absorption coefficient as a function of frequency was determined
and compared with model calculations. The intensity and location of thestrong absorption lines were in good agreement with spectral databases
such as the 2008 HITRAN database and the JPL database. However, a
noticeable continuum effect was observed particularly in the atmospherictransmission windows. A small discrepancy still remained even after
accounting for continuum absorption using the best available data fromthe literature. This discrepancy, when projected over a one kilometer
path length, typical of distances used in remote sensing, can cause an
8dB difference between calculated and observed attenuation. From theexperimental and resonant line simulation spectra the air-broadening
continuum parameter was calculated and compared with values available
in the literature.

8716-5, Session 2

Terahertz spectroscopy and imaging toward
future medical and chemical applications(Invited Paper)
Chiko Otani, Hiromichi Hoshina, RIKEN (Japan); Shinya Ishii,
RIKEN (Japan) and Miyagi Univ. of Education (Japan); Hal Suzuki,
RIKEN (Japan); Koji Uematsu, RIKEN (Japan) and Tohoku Univ.
(Japan)[Invited] We will introduce two topics related to future possible medical
and chemical applications of Terahertz (THz) wave. The first topic will be
the discrimination of cancer and normal regions of human lever cancer byusing THz spectroscopic imaging and Chemometrics. Among 4 samples
we tried, we have succeeded to discriminate them by three samples.
In addition, we have shown that the information of biomedical samples
can be extracted from a frozen sample. This means that an instant THz
diagnosis of cancer can be possible once we freeze the sample. As
the next topic, we will talk about THz spectroscopy of polymers for theidentification of the spectral absorption peaks. In this talk, we will present
the meaning of terahertz spectroscopy of soft materials, the experimental
results of spectroscopy of Nylon, and the experimental results for thecontrol of THz frequency for future activation.

8716-8, Session 38716-6, Session 2

Scanning laser THz emission imaging system(Invited Paper)

Detection of covered materials in the TDSTHz setup

Masayoshi Tonouchi, Osaka Univ. (Japan)
We developed a scanning laser THz emission imaging system employing
fs fiber laser and THz emission plates such as DAST, (110)GaAs, andtheir modified. Near filed emission imaging enable us to visualize asingle human hair in a few second for 128x128 pixels. Also is possible
to obtain its spectroscopic data from a local position of the hair.In theconference we report its detail and other applications. We examine 2Demission tips for better imaging, we observe a dynamic local response ofmetamaterials i.e. Meta-Atom., we show how THz waves are generated
and propagate in nonlinear medium, and how it affect THz imaging.
Some are reported in OE 20(2012) 18397,12959, 3345. In addition to theabove, we report our recent application of THz emission microscope to
Solar cell, graphene, and so on.

Norbert Palka, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland)
We report on a signal processing method which can identify coveredmaterials in a reflection configuration in the Time Domain Spectroscopy(TDS) setup. THz radiation can transmit through most of covering
materials like plastic foils, paper, clothes, etc. If the covering layer is
far from the sample (more than about 2 mm) it slightly modifies thereflectance of the measured materials. However, if the layer is closer, we
obtain two impulses – one reflected from the layer and the second – fromthe sample. In this case, spectrum of the impulse is heavily deformed andthe spectral features of explosives are hard or impossible to identify.
The proposed method of identification of covered materials based on
the fact that the TDS signal reflected from a covered sample consistsof two peaks and some “waves” after the second peak, which carry thespectral information about the sample. FFT analysis of this part of thesignal reveals spectral features of the sample. The presented method isreference-free and bases only on analysis of the signal reflected from thesample.

8716-9, Session 3

Compact THz imaging detector with an
integrated antennae array matrix

The method is restricted to frequencies in the range 0.4-1.5 THz and,
therefore only some materials with characteristic features in this range,
like RDX-based explosives, lactose, paraaminobenzoic acid and tartaricacid can be analyzed. We covered the materials with foils, paper andcotton and obtained good results for solid and powder samples. The
method is sensitive to atmospheric water vapour.

J. Daniel Newman, Paul P. Lee, Andrew P. Sacco, ITT Exelis(United States); Dave Willems, ITT Communications Systems(United States); Robert D. Fiete, ITT Exelis (United States); MarkF. Bocko, Zeljko Ignjatovic, Xi-Cheng Zhang, Univ. of Rochester(United States)
We describe preliminary design, modeling and test results for thedevelopment of a monolithic, high pixel density, THz band focal planearray (FPA) fabricated in a commercial CMOS process. Each pixel unit
cell contains multiple individual THz band antennae that are coupled
to independent amplifiers. The amplified signals are summed either
coherently or incoherently to improve detection SNR. The sensor isdesigned to operate at room temperature using passive or active
illumination. In addition to the THz detector, a secondary array of Visible
or SWIR context imaging pixels are inter-disposed in the same area

8716-7, Session 2

Terahertz atmospheric attenuation andcontinuum effects
David Slocum, Thomas M. Goyette, Univ. of Massachusetts
Lowell (United States); Elizabeth J. Slingerland, Univ. of

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135

Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
matrix. Multiple VIS/SWIR context pixels can be fabricated within the THz
pixel unit cell. This provides simultaneous, registered context imagery
and “Pan sharpening” MTF enhancement for the THz image.
The compact THz imaging system maximizes the utility of a ~ 300 um x
300 um pixel area associated with the optical resolution spot size for a
THz imaging system operating at a nominal ~ 1.0 THz optical frequency.
RF modeling is used to parameterize the antenna array design for optimal
response at the THz frequencies of interest. The quarter-wave strip
balanced bow-tie antennae are optimized based on the semiconductor
fabrication technology thin-film characteristics and the CMOS detector
input impedance. RF SPICE models enhanced for THz frequencies areused to evaluate the predicted CMOS detector performance and optimal
unit cell design architecture. The models are validated through testing ofexisting CMOS ROICs with calibrated THz sources.

8716-10, Session 3

THz-vision system with extended functionality
Janez Trontelj, Aleksander Sesek, Andrej Svigelj, The Univ. of
Ljubljana (Slovenia)
A near real-time THz-vision system is presented. The most important partof it is the THz sensors focal plain array operating at room temperature,featuring low NEP (10pW/√Hz) and high sensitivity (1e6 V/W). Itsarchitecture allows direct digital processing of output signal. System
performance is upgraded with large parallel processing of up to 64
channels.
The second important building block is the FM THz source used forillumination. A wide FM range, of up to ±10% of the central frequency
allows using the system for various applications. The THz source is asolid-state source using a GHz range frequency synthetizer followed byfrequency multipliers and microwave amplifiers. Such a compact THz
source can cover the lower region of the THz spectra, i.e. below 1THz
using different frequency bands. The band selection depends on theapplication. Three different areas of applications are discussed in thepaper:- 3D imaging of hidden objects is one of the most attractive features ofthe presented system. Examples of 300GHz 3D images are shown.
- An accurate range finder is another feature of the system. The
resolution proved to be within a fraction of the wave lengths. The
standard deviation of the reading is in the range of a few micrometers,
using a 1mm wave-length illumination source. Possible improvements inresolution and absolute accuracy are discussed.
- The system is also used as a narrow band CW spectrometer which
operates in the FM range of the source. In this case the bolometer arrayis built with a broad band micro antenna. This could be used for target
material identification.

8716-11, Session 3

Spectral lines dynamics as an effective tool
for the identification of substance usingreflected THz signal
Vyacheslav A. Trofimov, Nikolay V. Peskov, Lomonosov Moscow
State Univ. (Russian Federation)
One of the modern problems arising in the detection and identification ofsubstances is a development of criteria for the assessment of a presenceof explosive (or other dangerous substance) fingerprints in investigating
THz signals reflected from a sample. Obviously, criteria depend on using
method for the detection and identification of the substance. Taking into
account on our previous experience, we use for a solution of this problem
the SDA method (method of the spectral dynamics analysis). In thiscase, we need, at least, developing the method for both getting requiring
dynamics of spectral lines and assessment criteria and their algorithmic
realization.
In this report we show that the SDA method allows to identify the136

explosive under real conditions. We compare the spectral lines dynamics
of THz pulse reflected from sample with the corresponding spectral lines
dynamics of the THz pulse transmitted through the explosive. Usedassessment and algorithm show both high probability of the substanceidentification and a reliability of realization in practice. Simultaneously, we
discuss some problems connected with the main problem of the paper.

8716-12, Session 4

Response of plasmonic terahertz detector tolarge signals: theory and experiment (Invited
Paper)
Sergey Rudin, Greg Rupper, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Alexey Gutin, Michael S. Shur, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute (United States)
In the Dyakonov-Shur terahertz (THz) detector, nonlinearities in theplasma wave propagation in the conduction channel of a heterostructureHigh Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) lead to a constant sourceto-drain voltage providing the detector output. For a small signal, theperturbation theory treatment shows that the response is proportional
to the intensity of the radiation, with the proportionality factor that canhave a resonant or a broad dependence on the signal frequency. For
submicron HEMTs, the measured response falls within the range of 0.1 to
4 THz. The deviations from this relation have been studied and reported
in the approximation of the local Ohm’s law and transmission line modelfor the non-resonant response. Here we present the results obtainedwith the hydrodynamic model using the electron plasma Navier-Stokes
equation, thus fully accounting for the hydrodynamic non-linearity, theviscosity and pressure gradients in the detector response. The model
is applicable to both resonant and broadband operations of the HEMT
based plasmonic detector. The relation between electron channel density
and gate voltage was modeled by the unified charge control model
applicable both above and below the threshold voltage. The theoreticalresults are compared with the response measured in the short channel
InGaAs HEMT and the analytical approximation. The THz source wasoperating at 1.63 THz and the response was measured at varying signal
intensities. The response of the detector operated in the open drainmode was measured above and below the threshold. The theoretical andexperimental results are in good agreement.

8716-13, Session 4

Broadband THz generation and detection at
10-nm scale
Yanjun Ma, Mengchen Huang, Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States);
ChungWung Bark, Gachon Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Chad
Folkman, Argonne National Lab. (United States); Chang-Beom
Eom, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States); Jeremy Levy,
Univ. of Pittsburgh (United States)
The terahertz region of the electromagnetic spectrum (0.1 THz-10 THz)probes a wealth of information relevant for material, biological, medical
and pharmaceutical sciences, as well as applications in chemical sensing
and homeland security. To date, there have been no methods capableof controlling THz radiation at scales relevant for single molecules. Here
we report the generation and detection of broadband terahertz radiationfrom 10-nm-scale nanojunctions which are “sketched” at the interfaceof LaAlO¬3/SrTiO3 (LAO/STO) heterostructure with a conductive atomic
force microscope (c-AFM) tip: By applying a positive voltage to thec-AFM tip and scanning over the LAO surface, a conductive pattern at
the LAO/STO interface with a characteristic dimension of 10 nm can becreated. Insulating nanojunctions are created by applying a negative
voltage to the c-AFM tip and crossing the nanowire. Pulses from 30 fs
Ti: Sapphire laser are focused onto the nanojunctions and trigger opticalrectification via a χ^((3)) process, producing a THz radiation that has
spectral content up to 10 THz. These same nanojunctions can detect THz

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Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
Frederic Demmerle, Walter Schottky Institut (Germany); Min
Jang, Aiting Jiang, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (United States);Gerhard Boehm, Augustinas Vizbaris, Markus C. Amann, Walter
Schottky Institut (Germany); Mikhail A. Belkin, The Univ. of Texas
at Austin (United States)

radiation with comparable spatial resolution. As a THz source and sensor,
the nanojunction structure offers several advantages: its dimension iscomparable to that of a single molecule; it is easy to fabricate and theTHz source and detector can be easily integrated in a micron-scale area.
These features allow this platform to be a promising lab-on-chip device
for THz near-field imaging of individual molecules.

Progress in developing a room temperature terahertz (THz) quantum
cascade laser (QCL) has slowed over the years. We report an alternative
method of generating room temperature terahertz (THz) emission basedon intra-cavity difference-frequency generation (DFG) in dual wavelength
mid-infrared quantum cascade lasers with giant optical nonlinearity.
Previously reported THz DFG QCL sources are highly inefficient sinceTHz radiation produced more than ~100 µm away from the exit facet isfully absorbed due to high THz losses in mid-infrared QCL waveguides.
Our lasers use a Cerenkov DFG scheme to extract THz radiation fromthe active region. Structures are grown on semi-insulating (SI) InP
substrates and devices are fabricated with a lateral contact current
extraction scheme. THz radiation is emitted at an angle with respect tothe the mid-infrared pumps into the substrate. Since SI InP is virtually
lossless to THz radiation, our scheme allows for efficient extraction ofTHz radiation along the entire length of the waveguide. As a result, oursources demonstrate high mid-infrared-to-THz conversion efficiency
and directional THz output over the spectral range of 1.2 to 4.5 THz.
Our devices have demonstrated a record conversion efficiency of ~300
µW/W2 and 20µW THz output power. The University of Texas groupacknowledges support from the National Science Foundation grants
ECCS-09352017 and ECCS-1150449 and by the ‘Norman Hackerman
Advanced Research Program’ award. The Walter Schottky Institutegroup acknowledges financial support from the excellence cluster ‘Nano
Initiative Munich (NIM)’.

8716-14, Session 4

New modeling techniques for terahertz
metamaterials
Mayer A. Landau, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Metamaterials are synthetic materials with periodic electromagnetic
inclusions. The interactions between inclusions can fundamentally alter
the macroscopic response of the material to electromagnetic radiation.
Simulating this response is costly in computer resources due to the sheer
number of cell elements involved in a 3D materials. It would be ideal tohave macroscopic constituitive parameters that capture the essenseof the materials response, as index of refraction and impedance due
for natural materials. But metamaterials are highly dispersive and theirlattice constant is on the cusp of being too large to model effectively withmacroscopic constituitive paramaters. Recently (2010)
Andrea Alu at UT Austin derived a theory of macroscopic material
parameters permittivity and permeability that are dispersion independent.
We use these dispersion independent parameters to simulate scatteringfrom finite slabs. These results are compared to FDTD simulations. We
also compare to actual experiments with metamaterial filters, i.e. slabs,
built to operate at W band and at 1THz. We find the Alu constituitive
parameters give good agreement with experiment and provide much
faster scattering calculation compared to standard FDTD.

8716-17, Session 5

Tunable terahertz plasmonic ring resonators

8716-15, Session 5

Mustafa Karabiyik, Nezih Pala, Florida International Univ. (UnitedStates)Widely tunable THz sources and security
applications (Invited Paper)

We introduce a new type of plasmonic terahertz ring resonator device
operating at deep sub-wavelength regime which supports plasmonicmodes with relatively high quality factors.

Kodo Kawase, Saroj R. S. R. Tripathi, Nagoya Univ. (Japan);Shin’ichiro Hayashi, RIKEN (Japan)

The device consists of a split ring resonator on top of a AlGaN/GaN
HEMT structure. The HEMT structure is etched as a ring with the same
inner and outer radius of the split ring on top. We investigated spectral
absorption characteristics of the proposed devices using FDTD numericalanalysis methods. The plasmonic modes are excited in between themetal split ring and 2 dimensional electron gas (2DEG). The modes areclose to each other in the spectrum which makes the device capable ofresponding at a broad band. The response of the device is in the rangeof 0.2 to 4 THz for a 3-micron diameter ring and it can be tuned by thegeometry or by an applied voltage to the split ring. The wavelength of theplasmonic modes fits in the perimeter of the split ring structure. The split
part of the ring causes the excitation of plasmonic resonance.

We report on the development of a high-peak-power (> 1kW), singlelongitudinal-mode and tunable injection-seeded terahertz-wave
parametric generator (is-TPG) using MgO:LiNbO3, which operates
at room temperature. The experimental setup consists of a pumping
source, amplifiers, seeding source (ECDL) and the nonlinear crystal(MgO:LiNbO3). The pumping source is a diode end-pumped single-mode
microchip Nd:YAG laser passively Q-switched by Cr:YAG saturable
absorber. In this experiment, the pumping beam from the microchip
laser was amplified by two tandem Nd:YAG amplifiers in double-passconfiguration. The pumping beam diameter on the crystal is about 1
mm (FWMH). We used a 50-mm-long nonlinear MgO:LiNbO3 crystal
with a Si-prism coupler. The terahertz-wave output was measured using
a calibrated pyroelectric detector (SpectrumDetector Inc.: SPI-A-65
THZ). The pumping energy was 14 mJ/pulse (28 MW at peak) and theseeding power was 500 mW (CW). The observed maximum peak powerof terahertz-wave was about 1 kW (@ 1.7 THz). This peak power was thehighest in our research. The tuning curve (1.0 - 2.8 THz) has a flat region
around 1.4 - 2.2 THz. The small footprint size are suitable for a variety of
applications. We also report on the security applications using this novel
THz source.

The quality factor of the plasmonic modes are calculated to be 5times higher than the HEMTs with linear grating structures with similarparameters. The same ring resonators have also been investigated byreplacing the HEMT with graphene. The high quality factor makes the
proposed devices attractive.

8716-18, Session 5

THz transmission and detection through glow
discharge detectors

8716-16, Session 5

Hakan Altan, Kamil Cinar, Middle East Technical Univ. (Turkey);
Asaf Behzat Sahin, Yildirim Beyazit Univ. (Turkey)

Room temperature terahertz quantum
cascade laser sources based on differencefrequency generation

Glow discharge detectors (GDDs) have been a topic of recent interest
after the pioneering work of N. Kopeika and others in the early 1970s.
The interaction of the relatively low plasma density with millimeter and/Karun Vijayraghavan, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (United States);
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137Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
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or THz waves has motivated researchers to study these devices and themechanisms involved in the detection of terahertz waves. These works
have shown that the interaction of the AC field with the glow region
is primarily due to the induced oscillations in the plasma that drive a
diffusive component to the current through the discharge region of thedetector. While studies continue in this area, the majority of them havefocused on using CW sources to drive the GDDs, due to their higher
average power compared to other sources. Here we have used a timedomain THz spectrometer to characterize the response though the GDD
in a wider bandwidth. We have found that the THz transmission has aquite abrupt change (~20dB) at frequencies which scale with the GDD
gap. Furthermore, we see that the transmission frequency and strengthof the decrease in transmission is also dependent on the strength ofthe discharge voltage. This change is explained in the context of thestructure of the device and plasma generated within the GDD.

8716-19, Session 5

Frequency tunable narrowband THz time
domain source
Masayoshi Tonouchi, Caihong Zhang, Osaka Univ. (Japan);Yuri H. Avetisyan, Osaka Univ. (Japan) and Yerevan State Univ.
(Armenia); Iwao Kawayama, Hiro Murakami, Osaka Univ. (Japan)
Abstract: During the last decades, narrowband terahertz (THz)radiation has attracted great interests in both fundamental and appliedsciences. Our group has reported a new scheme for bandwidth-tunable
narrowband THz radiation in a periodically pole lithium niobate (PPLN)
by using a wide-aperture beam [1]. In this technique, the bandwidth canbe readily and smoothly tuned from about 17 GHz to a few THz, and thegenerated THz frequency is determined by the period of the structureof the PPLN. However, many applications require a tunable frequency
in addition to a tunable bandwidth. In this paper, a simple scheme togenerate high energy, both frequency and bandwidth tunable THz time
domain source by optical rectification of femtosecond laser pulses in
PPLN is proposed and demonstrated. By changing the angle of incidenceof the pump laser beam from normal incidence instead of replace a
new PPLN crystal with different period, the central frequency of theTHz radiation can be tuned from 0.71 to 0.99 THz for a PPLN structurewith = 77 µm having a central frequency of 0.85 THz; the range oftunable frequencies is about ±16% with a high conversion efficiency. The
opportunity of easily tuning the bandwidth of THz generation from about
20 GHz to a few THz also exists by changing the pump spot size onto
the entrance face of the PPLN crystal, and the energy spectral density ofnarrowband THz generation is almost independent of the bandwidth.

8716-20, Session 6

Ceramic photonic crystals for THz
applications
Bradley T. Willis, Satya R. Ganti, S. K. Sundaram, New York State
College of Ceramics at Alfred Univ. (United States)
A photonic crystal is an optical analogue of a crystal, in which theperiodic potential is due to a lattice of macroscopic dielectric media
instead of the atoms or molecules. Generally, large contrast in dielectric
properties between the high and low dielectric regions is necessary
to fabricate useful photonic crystals. Three-dimensional ceramic-resin
photonic crystal prepared via sintering with a lattice constant of 500 ?m,a forming resolution of 10 µm, and a full band gap along three different
directions have been reported in the literature. A micro-stereolithographysystem has also been reported to fabricate 3D diamond structure
made of copper and alumina ceramics. Point or planar defects can be
introduced to localize the modes in these photonic crystals to control
of THz waves. We fabricated several photonic structures made of
Al2O3, TiO2, and Fe2O3 ceramic powders, via doctor-blade processing
followed by sintering. First, slurries of these oxides were prepared using
appropriate binders for doctor-blade processing. Then, the dry green
flexible sheets of about 100-200 µm thickness were stacked separately
138

as well as alternatively in different sequences, e.g., Al2O3-TiO2-Al2O3
and Al2O3-TiO2-Fe2O3. Finally, these stacks were sintered together tomake monolithic samples. These structures were characterized using
THz-time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS). These measurements used
a coherent emission and detection system that emits single-cycle THz
pulses, and detects them at a repetition rate of around 100 MHz. The
frequency-dependent optical and dielectric properties were extracted
from the experimental spectra. Our data were compared to the reported
data in the literature.

8716-21, Session 6

Employing phase modulation andsecond harmonic nulling to eliminate
interference fringes from the spectrum of
a portable coherent frequency-domain THz
spectrometer
Joseph R. Demers, K.K. Wong, Bryon Kasper, EMCORE Corp.
(United States)
Interpreting the spectrum from a continuous wave frequency domainterahertz spectrometer that employs coherent detection can bechallenging due to the presence of an interference pattern. We reporton the continued progress of a portable, battery-operated frequency
domain terahertz spectrometer with an integrated, fiber-coupled, lithiumniobate optical phase-modulator and how we achieve interference fringe
elimination using phase modulation and second harmonic nulling. The
implications for both transmission and reflection measurements are
discussed and data on the explosive compound RDX will be presented.

8716-22, Session 6

Subterahertz resonance spectroscopy of
biological macromolecules and cells
Tatiana Globus, Univ. of Virginia (United States); Aaron Moyer,
Vibratess, LLC (United States); Boris L. Gelmont, Igor Sizov,
Univ. of Virginia (United States); Tatyana Khromova, Vibratess,
LLC (United States); Jerome P. Ferrance, Univ. of Virginia (UnitedStates)Recently we introduced a Sub-THz spectroscopic system forcharacterizing vibrational resonance features from biological materials.
This new, continuous-wave, frequency-domain spectroscopic
sensor operates at room temperature between 315 and 480 GHz
with spectral resolution of at least 1 GHz and utilizes the source anddetector components from Virginia Diode, Inc. In this work we present
experimental results and interpretation of spectroscopic signatures frombacterial cells and their biological macromolecule structural components.
Transmission and absorption spectra of the bacterial protein thioredoxin,
DNA and lyophilized cells of Escherichia coli (E. coli), as well as sporesof Bacillus subtillis and B. atrophaeus have been characterized.
Experimental results for biomolecules are compared with absorption
spectra calculated using molecular dynamics simulation, and confirm
the underling physics for resonance spectroscopy based on interactions
between THz radiation and vibrational modes or groups of modes ofatomic motions. Such interactions result in multiple intense and narrowspecific resonances in transmission/absorption spectra from nanogram samples with spectral line widths as small as 3 GHz. The resultsof this study indicate diverse relaxation dynamic mechanisms relevant
to sub-THz vibrational spectroscopy including long lasting processes.
We demonstrate that high sensitivity in resolving specific absorption
fingerprints provides conditions for reliable detection, identification anddiscrimination capability, to the level of strains of the same bacteria, andfor monitoring interactions between biomaterials and reagents in nearreal-time. Additionally, it creates the basis for the development of new
types of advanced biological sensors through integrating the developed
system with a microfluidic platform for biomaterial samples.

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Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

8716-23, Session 68716-25, Session 7

Comparisons between continuous wave
and time-domain terahertz spectroscopy incarbon nanostructures

Micromachined probes for characterizationof submillimeter-wave on-wafer components(Invited Paper)

Ehsan Dadrasnia, Sujitha Puthukodan, Horacio Lamela Rivera,
Univ. Carlos III de Madrid (Spain); Guillaume Ducournau, JeanFrançois Lampin, Univ. des Sciences et Technologies de Lille(France); Mohan-Babu Kuppam, Frédéric Garet, Jean-Louis
Coutaz, IMEP-LAHC (France)

Robert M. Weikle II, N. Scott Barker, Arthur W. Lichtenberger,
Matthew F. Bauwens, Univ. of Virginia (United States)
In recent years, an infrastructure for measurement and characterizationof circuits and devices in the terahertz region of the spectrum has begun
to emerge. Vector network analyzes operating to 1 THz and above
are now commercially available and national metrology laboratories in
Europe, Japan, and the United States are currently evaluating standards
for waveguides, interfaces, and calibration that are needed for accurate
terahertz measurements. At present, terahertz components and devices
are typically interfaced with instrumentation and characterized using
measurement fixtures equipped with waveguide flanges and/or antennas.
However, such fixtures are known to introduce significant uncertainty
and error in measurements. It is preferable to characterize such devices
in-situ, where the device under test can be measured on-wafer, prior todicing and separately from the circuit housing to which it is ultimately
affixed. This is commonly done in the RF and millimeter-wave region
with a probe station equipped with coplanar launchers. Commercial
coplanar waveguide probes are generally available through the WR2.2 band (325—500 GHz) but few options currently exist for on-wafer
measurements above this band. This presentation describes recent workat the University of Virginia and Dominion MicroProbes, Inc. to extend
on-wafer measurement capabilities to terahertz frequencies throughthe design and implementation of coplanar probes based on silicon
micromachining. At present micromachined on-wafer probes operating
to WR1.2 (600 to 900 GHz) have been demonstrated and typically exhibit
insertion losses lower than 8 dB with return loss of 15 dB or greater overthe full waveguide band.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene have been considered as analternative material to Indium-Tin Oxide (ITO) for flexible transparent
conductive films since it has unique electrical, optical and mechanicalproperties (Wu et al., 2004, Bae et al., 2010). Coherent terahertz (THz)electromagnetic waves have been certainly interested in the boardof nanotechnology to study properties of semiconductor carbon
nanostructures. Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) can
characterize the precise absorption and dispersion properties of different
materials at high frequencies (Jepsen et al., 2011).
Since the first report on THz and Infrared study of CNTs published in thelate 90’s (Ugawa et al., 1999), THz-TDS technique has been intensively
used to study the properties of carbon nanostructures thin-films (Kang etal., 2004, Jung et al., 2010, Lamela et al., 2011). Recently, CNTs samples
have been subject to intense research in the THz range and recently
have permitted to define precise physical models to describe the THz
properties of CNTs films (Jeon et al., 2005, Kang et al., 2007, Parrott etal., 2009).
On the other hand, compact, fast and relatively low-cost continuous
wave (CW) sub-THz spectroscopy is considered as well in the region of
the electromagnetic spectrum by taking into account the range of 30
GHz-500 GHz (N. Karpowicz et al. 2005). Following our previous studies
in THz-TDS (0.1THz-2THz) of CNTs thin-films, in this work we will use thesub-THz CW transmission system to compare those techniques and findthe absorption properties of carbon nanostructures at the low frequency
ranges (325 GHz -500GHz).

8716-26, Session 7

Low-loss waveguides and devices forcompact THz systems (Invited Paper)

8716-24, Session 7

Graphene active plasmonic metamaterials for
new types of terahertz lasers (Invited Paper)

Azizur Rahman, Mohammad Uthman, Anita Quadir, Namassivaye
Kejalakshmy, Christos Markides, Christos Themistos, City Univ.
London (United Kingdom)

Taiichi Otsuji, Takayuki Watanabe, Akira Satou, Tohoku Univ.
(Japan); Viacheslav V. Popov, Institute of Radio Engineering andElectronics (Russian Federation); VIctor Ryzhii, Tohoku Univ.
(Japan)The THz technology is emerging strongly particularly for sensing andimaging applications, however, most of the present systems are freespace based due to lack of low-loss waveguides. At this frequency range
both dielectric and conductive losses of materials are considerably highand novel design approaches necessary to mitigate these effects.

Graphene is a one-atom-thick planar sheet of carbon atoms that aredensely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. The gapless and linear
energy spectra of electrons and holes lead to nontrivial features suchas mass-less relativistic transport of carriers called Dirac Fermions andhence the negative dynamic conductivity in the terahertz (THz) spectral
range, which may lead to a new type of THz laser. The two-dimensional
Dirac Fermion systems in graphene yield unique plasmonic properties;
the dispersion relation of the gated plasmons in graphene take a linear
dependence on wave vector and a 1/4-power dependence on carrier
density. Starting from the semi-classical Boltzmann’s transport equations,
one can lead to a set of hydrodynamic equations, giving rise to a new
insight for the plasmon dynamics for both heavily doped unipolar andundoped or optically excited bipolar graphene. The former case exhibitsa strong damping for any plasmons but non-ionic acoustic sound-likewaves are predominated whereas the latter cases are predominated by
the majority carriers’ plasmons. We theoretically discovered that whengraphene carrier populations are inverted by optical or electrical pumping
the excitation of graphene plasmons by the THz photons results inpropagating surface plasmon polaritons with giant gain in a wide THz
range. Furthermore, when graphene is patterned in a micro- or nanoribbon array by grating gate metallization, the structure acts as an active
plasmonic metamaterial, providing a super-radiant plasmonic lasing withgiant gain at the plasmon modes in a wide THz frequency range.

Recently, it has been shown that hollow-core metal clad waveguides
can support THz waves in the low-loss air-core. It is also shown thatby optimizing a dielectric layer between the air-core and metal layer,
waveguide loss for a circular or rectangular bore can be minimised.
Similarly, it has also been reported that photonic crystal fibres withporous core can confine most of the power in the low-loss air region to
reduce the overall propagation losses. The development of low-loss THz
guides is expected to provide impetus on the development of compact
THz integrated circuits combining various functional devices.

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Design optimization of such low-loss THz waveguides, power splitters,
and filters will be presented by using rigorous full-vectorial finite element
based numerical approaches.

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139

Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

8716-27, Session 8

Optically switchable matematerials in theterahertz regime (Invited Paper)
Ekmel Özbay, Mutlu Gökkavas, Bilkent Univ. (Turkey)
In this talk, we report the design, fabrication and experimental
characterization of optically tunable metamaterials in the terahertz(THz) regime. The metamaterial design is based around electric-fieldcoupled inductor capacitor (ELC) resonators. This results in two potential
resonance states, and the photoconductive semiconductor (silicon)
settled in the critical region plays the role of intermediary for switching
the resonator from mode 1 to mode 2. The metamaterials were fabricatedon commercially available silicon-on-sapphire (SOS) wafers. The thinsilicon layer was removed by RIE etching of all areas expect the 6x6
micron photoconductive region. In order to measure the tunable responseof the metamaterial, an optical pump beam (800 nm) was used to excite
photocarriers in the silicon. We observed a tuning range of the fabricateddevice as high as 26% (from 0.76 THz to 0.96 THz) by controllingthe conductivity of the silicon layer via optical illumination. Numericalsimulations yielded a simulated resonance around 0.69 THz. Following
the increasing pump fluxes, we selected different corresponding valuesof Si to roughly reproduce the experimental results. The resonance hasthen shifted close to the final frequency of 0.96 THz. The simulations
showed an all-optical blueshift with the tuning range of 40%, compared
to 26% in the experiments. The realization of broadband blueshift tunable
metamaterial offers opportunities for achieving switchable metamaterials
with simultaneous redshift and blueshift tunability and cascade tunabledevices. Our experimental approach is compatible with semiconductor
technologies and can be used for other applications in the THz re-gime.

8716-28, Session 8

Heterodyne detection at 300 GHz using glow
discharge detectors with efficient quasioptical design
Avihai Aharon Akram, Daniel Rozban, Assaf Levanon, Ben-Gurion
Univ. of the Negev (Israel); Amir Abramovich, Ariel Univ. Ctr.
of Samaria (Israel); Natan S. Kopeika, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the
Negev (Israel)
A miniature neon indicator lamp, also known as a Glow Discharge
Detector (GDD), costing about 50 cents, was found to be an excellent
room temperature THz radiation detector. A proof of concept of 300
GHz heterodyne detection using GDD is demonstrated in this paper.
Furthermore, a comparison to direct detection was carried-out andpolarization effects on heterodyne detection were investigated.
Preliminary results at 300 GHz showed better sensitivity by a factor of 20
with only 56 microwatt local oscillator power using heterodyne compared
to direct detection. Further improvement of the detection sensitivity canbe achieved if the Local Oscillator (LO) power (Plo) is increased. Effectsof orthogonal polarizations of signal and local oscillator powers onheterodyne sensitivity were found to be surprisingly weak. More efficientquasi optical design for heterodyne detection is presented in this study,
experimental results showed above 50% better performance compared
to conventional ones.

8716-29, Session 8

Realtime terahertz imaging for laser beamprofiling and medical imaging
Lei Zhang, Matthew Erdtmann, Shankar Radhakrishnan, Ning
Xue, Jack P. Salerno, Agiltron, Inc. (United States); Sigfrid K.
Yngvesson, Amulya Gullapali, Kan Fu, Paul R. Siqueira, Univ. ofMassachusetts Amherst (United States)

140

Terahertz radiation occupies the region between the infrared band andthe microwave band (~0.3 – 3 THz). This band offers unique imaging
capability. Unlike infrared radiation, which is strongly absorbed by mostmaterials, THz radiation has the ability to “see” through most materials
except metal and water. This unique characteristic of THz radiation
can be exploited by numerous military and commercial applications.
However there has been limited development of real time THz imaging
technology. THz imagers demonstrated to date at frequencies > 1 THz
require either cryogenic cooling or time consuming scanning. Agiltronand University of Massachusetts Amherst have successfully performed
THz imaging of concealed objects using Agiltron’s commercial real time
uncooled THz imager with an array size of 130x90 pixels, and employing
a gas laser source. We will also present images of medical specimensat the conference. The single pixel detection limit at 1.9THz is 76 pW/
Hz1/2. This THz imager has also proven to function exceptionally well
as a THz laser beam profiler; capturing, displaying and recording 3D
spatial intensity profile of THz laser sources. The uncooled, real time
THz imager is commensurate with many military or security applications
including detection of concealed weapons, land mines and improvised
explosive devices, chemical agents, and void and crack formation
on aircraft skins. Major commercial applications include passenger
screening for concealed weapons or contraband, product quality control
in the pharmaceutical and semiconductor industries, moisture detection
for agricultural applications, medical imaging applications, particularly
cancer detection and intraoperative imaging, and laser beam profiling.

8716-30, Session 8

Terahertz 3D imaging with a CW source andphase-shifting interferometry
Yoshiaki Sasaki, Chiko Otani, Hiroshi Kasuga, Hitoshi Ohmori,RIKEN (Japan); Masayuki Suga, Tetsuya Yuasa, Yamagata Univ.
(Japan)We will present two kinds of terahertz (THz) 3D imaging performed witha continuous-wave (CW) source and phase-shifting interferometry. The
first one is THz computed tomography (CT) by using phase information
instead of intensity information. This minimized the effect of change in thesignal strength due to diffraction and artifacts especially emerged aroundthe edge of boundary between different materials. The second one is forthe depth imaging of the surface of reflecting materials. By using a simple
Michelson interferometer, we achieved the depth resolution of 1.1 um,
corresponding to 1/440 of the used wavelength (480 um).

8716-31, Session PTues

Polar synthetic imaging
Jonathan George, The George Washington Univ. (United States)
For many applications, imaging in the terahertz and mm wave domain isprohibitively expensive, primarily due to the cost of the focal plane array.
Here we show a method for synthetic image reconstruction utilizing two
rotating masks. The two masks are disk shaped and made of a material
opaque to the frequencies we wish to examine. Each mask is cut witha slit such that energy can only pass through the plane of the maskby transiting the slit. The slits are cut in the pattern of an Archimedes
spiral. As the masks rotate at two constant but distinct and non-divisible
speeds, the intersection of the two slits forms a small area, which, overtime, covers the plane of rotation. By observing the energy passing
through this small area, and recording it over time, a synthetic image canbe constructed.
A method exists for calibrating the reconstruction algorithm bydetermining the two beat frequencies generated by the ambient noise
and a calibration point source. These beat frequencies are used todetermine the rotational velocity of both disks and subsequently the
relative position of the spiral intersection. The algorithm is not limited toa single intersection point. Multi-armed spirals will intersect in within asubset of a rotationally cyclic space. The algorithm for reconstruction
can be extended to integrate from these multiple intersection points.

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Conference 8716: Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems VII:
Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
The technique is suitable for high dynamic range terahertz imaging andprovides an affordable alternative to the focal plane array when imaging
stationary targets.

8716-32, Session PTues

Terahertz spectra of materials measured by
the OPO-based system
Michal J. Walczakowski, Military Univ of Technology (Poland);Norbert Palka, Tomasz Trzcinski, Mieczyslaw Szustakowski,
Military Univ. of Technology (Poland)
Development and implementation of terahertz (0.1-10 THz) technology
in security area is connected with unique features of this part ofelectromagnetic spectrum. Many explosives (e.g., Hexogen, Penthrite,
Trinitrotoluene, Octogen) and drugs have characteristic transmission/reflection features in the THz range, what is of great importance forsecurity and defense related applications. We report on measurementsof transmission spectra of chosen materials (Hexogen, Sucrose, Tartaric
Acid) in the range 0.7-2.5 THz. The measurements were carried out bymeans of a setup, which bases on an Optical Parametric Oscillator (OPO)
combined with a Hot Electron Beam (HEB) Bolometer. The setup consistsof commercially available tunable OPO from MSquared working in therange 0.7-2.5 THz with repetition rate 53 Hz, duration of the impulse ofabout 10ns and energy 10nJ. The beam was detected by a HEB from
Scontel (NEP ~ 10^-13W/Hz^-1/2) in a Pulse Tube cryocooler. The
spectra was compared to results obtained from a standard Time Domain
Spectroscopy setup (Teraview TPS 3000). Only small discrepancies
between spectra measured by both methods are observed. For therange 0.7-2THz typical features can be identified using both methods.
Above 2THz the TDS setup seems to have better performance in terms ofsignal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity.

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Conference 8717: Compressive Sensing II
Thursday - Friday 2 –3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8717 Compressive Sensing II

8717-2, Session 1

Array geometries, signal type, and sampling
conditions for the application of compressedsensing in MIMO radar
Juan Lopez, Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan American(United States)
MIMO radar utilizes the transmission and reflection of multiple
independent waveforms to construct an image approximating a target
scene. Compressed sensing (CS) techniques such as total variation (TV)minimization and greedy algorithms can permit accurate reconstructionsof the target scenes from undersampled data. The success of these CS
techniques is largely dependent on the structure of the measurement
matrix. A discretized inverse scattering model is used to examine theimaging problem, and in this context the measurement matrix consistsof array parameters regarding the geometry of the transmitting andreceiving arrays, signal type, and sampling rate. We derive someconditions on these parameters that guarantee the success of these CS
reconstruction algorithms. The effect of scene sparsity on reconstruction
accuracy is also addressed. Numerical simulations illustrate the successof reconstruction when the array and sampling conditions are satisfied,
and we also illustrate erroneous reconstructions when the conditions are
not satisfied.

8717-3, Session 1

Rate-adaptive compressive video acquisition
with sliding-window total-variationminimization reconstruction
Ying Liu, Duke Univ. (United States); Dimitris A. Pados, Univ. at
Buffalo (United States)
We consider a compressive video acquisition system where each frame
block is sensed independently. Varying block sparsity is exploitedfor individual per-block sampling rate allocation with minimal systemoverhead. At the decoder, video frames are reconstructed via slidingwindow inter-frame total variation minimization. Experimental results
demonstrate that such rate-adaptive compressive video acquisition
improves significantly the rate-distortion performance of the video stream
over fixed-rate acquisition approaches.

8717-5, Session 1

Compressive sensing for tomographic SAR
inversion in urban environment
Xiao Xiang Zhu, Richard Bamler, Deutsches Zentrum für Luftund Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany) and Technische Univ. München(Germany)
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) maps the 3D reflectivity distribution ofa scene into the 2D azimuth-range plane. It can be seen as a projection
along the third radar coordinate, elevation. This projection handicaps
the interpretation of SAR images. SAR tomography (TomoSAR) extends
the synthetic aperture principle of SAR into the elevation direction for 3D
imaging. It uses acquisitions from slightly different viewing angles (theelevation aperture) to reconstruct for every pixel the reflectivity function
along elevation. Modern SAR satellites provide a very high azimuth-range
resolution of up to sub-meters. However, the tight orbit control of thesesensors limits the elevation aperture size and leads to a low tomographic
elevation resolution of about 30-40m. This very anisotropic resolution
element calls for superresolution and it also renders the signal sparse inelevation.
A compressive sensing (CS) based algorithm (SL1MMER) is proposed142

for 4D (space-time) tomographic inversion of urban objects. It combines
the advantages of CS, e.g. superresolution capability, with the highamplitude and phase accuracy of linear estimators and features a modelorder selection step. The proposed SL1MMER algorithm is shown tobe efficient. Its superresolution power is derived by simulations anddemonstrated with real TerraSAR-X data. E.g., in the typical parameter
range of SAR, a super-resolution factor of 1.5~15 can be achieved.
3D reconstructions of buildings are presented including their seasonal
thermal deformation history at resolution and coverage levels notpossible so far. Although taken TomoSAR as the preferred application,
SL1MMER is generally applicable to sparse spectral estimation.

8717-6, Session 2

Compressive moving objects localization
techniques based on optical Radonprojections
Adrian Stern, Yuval Kashter, Ofer Levi, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the
Negev (Israel)
We overview some of the compressive motion detection and tracking
developed recently. We focus on two optical compressive techniques
we have developed. The first one is based on a compressive imaging
technique we have developed earlier. The compressive imaging
system reconstructs video frames from Radon projections acquired
optically. Then, a conventional motion detection method is applied on
the reconstructed video sequence. The second compressive motion
detection technique uses a specially designed optical motion detector.
The sensor takes concomitantly several Radon projections. The captured
data is insufficient to generate full images of the scene however
carry sufficient information about small moving targets. Compressive
motion tracking with compression ratio of 2-3 orders of magnitude isdemonstrated.

8717-7, Session 2

Compressive sensing underwater line scan
imaging system
Bing Ouyang, Florida Atlantic Univ. (United States); Fraser
R. Dalgleish, Anni K. Vuorenkoski Dalgleish, Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institute (United States); Frank M. Caimi, Walter
Britton, Florida Atlantic Univ. (United States)
In the last two years, the OVOL lab has conducted research on CS
based underwater laser imager. A frame based CS underwater laser
imager that is more advantageous for hover-capable platforms such
as HAUV was proposed as a result. Through the integration of theDistributed Compressive Video Sensing (DCVS) concept, this paper
intends to study CS Laser Line Scan (LLS) Imaging System that is morecompatible with the traditional underwater electro-optical system whereimages are formed in line-by-line fashion. While DCVS exploits temporal
redundancies among frames, here a DCVS-like principle is adopted to
exploit the spatial correlation among adjacent lines in the LLS imaging
lidar context: the key/non-key line will be the equivalent as the key/nonkey frame respectively. Each line will be measured independently withmore measurements dedicated to key lines. To measure each individual
line, a Digital Mirror Device (DMD) spatially modulates the laser source toilluminate one line on the target plane with a series of random patterns
at greater radiant intensity. A receiver consisting of an array of sensitive
narrow field of view photo-detection elements will record target reflection,
as it is known to improve SNR for underwater lidar applications. EODES
model will be used to predict the actual measurement patterns on thetarget line to be used in the signal reconstruction. As in DCVS, sideinformation (SI) derived from key line reconstruction will be used as initialcondition to jointly reconstruct the non-key lines. Simulation and initial
experimental results will be presented as part of this work.

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Conference 8717: Compressive Sensing II

8717-8, Session 2

complexity when they are directly applied to the raw data.
In this paper, we mainly focus on the Lq regularization based sparse
microwave imaging method with range-azimuth decoupled by a Chirp
Scaling operator. An accelerating algorithm is proposed, which exploits
the sparse microwave imaging model to establish the Lq regularization
optimization problem, constructs the decoupling operator by using
the principle of the chirp scaling algorithm and recovers the radarbackscattering with decoupled iterative shrinkage thresh-holding
algorithm. Since the decoupling operator is used in the recovery
algorithm, there is no need to construct the observation matrix of twodimensional reconstruction or to carry out large-scale matrix-vector
complex multiplications, thus the demands on memory and computing
are reduced and the imaging procedure is much accelerated. In thispaper, the details of the proposed algorithm are discussed, and then weanalyze the performance and calculate the computational complexityof it. The results of simulations and real data experiments verify theeffectiveness of the proposed method in speeding up the imaging
procedure and exhibit the improvement in imaging quality.

A higher-speed compressive sensing camera
through multi-diode design
Matthew A. Herman, James Tidman, Donna Hewitt, Tyler Weston,
Lenore McMackin, InView Technology Corp. (United States)
Obtaining high frame rates is a challenge with a single-pixel compressive
sensing camera since measurements of the required basis coefficientsare obtained sequentially. One strategy for increasing the frame rateis to divide the field of view into smaller areas that are sampled andreconstructed in parallel. Following this strategy, InView has developed
a multi-aperture CS camera using an 8 x 4 array of photodiodes
that essentially act as 32 individual simultaneously operating singlepixel cameras. Images reconstructed from each of the photodiodemeasurements are stitched together to form the full field of view.
To account for crosstalk between the sub-apertures, novel modulation
patterns have been developed to allow neighboring sub-apertures toshare energy. Regions of overlap not only account for crosstalk energythat would otherwise be reconstructed as noise, but they also allow for
tolerance in the alignment of the DMD to the lenslet array.

8717-11, Session 3

Multistatic compressive imaging under quasiinvariant occlusion models

Currently, the multi-aperture camera is built into a computational imaging
workstation configuration useful for research and development purposes.
In this configuration, modulation patterns are generated in a CPU andsent to the DMD via PCI express. This allows the operator to develop andchange the patterns used in the CS data acquisition process and also
provides a data path for off-board reconstruction via USB. Dependingon the amount of data taken and the amount of overlap between subapertures, frame rates of 2–5 frames per second can be achieved.
In a stand-alone camera platform, currently in development, patterngeneration and reconstruction will be implemented on-board.

Raghu G. Raj, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
A practical and significant complication that arises in radar imaging
applications is the phenomenon of occlusion whereby scatterers can
exhibit anisotropic behavior with respect the various aspects in which
the desired target or imagery is sensed. Compressive sensing (CS)thus far has primarily been confined to the case where the scatterers
exhibit isotropic behavior owing to the technical difficulties arising inincorporating non-linear occlusion models into the CS framework.
In this paper we offer a methodology whereby an important sub-class of
occlusions effects can be modeled in a tractable manner. We focus on
the multistatic scenario wherein a stationary target or scene of interest
is surrounded by widely spaced pairwise bistatic sensors that transmit
waveforms Ψ_i (t).

8717-9, Session 2

Measurement kernel design for compressive
imaging under device constraints

Given this the occlusion modeling is set-up as follows. First we consider
the simple case wherein the effective response seen by a virtual sensor
can be modeled by a LSI blurring of the scene. For this case we deriveprecise gradient equations for updating the optimal blurring levels foreach channel. In the second step we generalize this to a much more
realistic scenario where the occlusion effects for each virtual sensor
is modeled by a Quasi invariant Spatially Varying filtering operation
for which we develop gradient equations that respect the quantitative
approximation bounds that we developed in [1].

Robert R. Muise, Richard Shilling, Lockheed Martin Missiles andFire Control (United States)
We look at the design of projective measurements for compressive
imaging based upon image priors and device constraints. If one assumes
that image patches from natural imagery can be modeled as a low rank
manifold, we develop an optimality criterion for a measurement matrix
based upon separating the canonical elements of the manifold prior.
We then describe a stochastic search algorithm for finding the optimalmeasurements under device constraints based upon a subspacemismatch algorithm. The algorithm is then tested on a prototype
compressive imaging device designed to collect an 8x4 array of
projective measurements simultaneously.

The resulting framework is general in the sense that the spatially varying
filtering profiles can be chosen in a completely arbitrary manner based on
adaptively learnt structure of the scene etc.
References:[1]A.C.Bovik-R.G.Raj, IEEE-Trans.Img.Proc., vol.14,no.1,pp.23-35,
Jan.2005.

8717-10, Session 3

An efficient sparse microwave imaging
algorithm based on range-azimuth decoupled
Lq regularization method

8717-12, Session 3

Compressive Sensing for Sparse TimeFrequency Representation of Nonstationary
Signals in the Presence of Impulsive Noise

Bingchen Zhang, Chenglong Jiang, Zhe Zhang, Yao Zhao, Wen
Hong, Yirong Wu, Institute of Electronics (China)

Irena Orovic, Srdjan Stankovic, Univ. of Montenegro(Montenegro); Moeness G. Amin, Villanova Univ. (United States)

In recent years, as the sparse signal processing methods are introduced
to radar imaging, sparse microwave imaging is proposed as a novel
concept, theory and methodology of microwave imaging technology.
The imaging quality of current synthetic aperture radar data benefits
from adopting the sparse microwave imaging algorithms in improving
the distinguishing ability, reducing side-lobes and ambiguity. However,comparing with traditional matched filtering imaging algorithms, thesparse microwave imaging algorithms have much higher spatial-temporal

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A modified robust two-dimensional compressive sensing algorithm
for the reconstruction of sparse time-frequency representation (TFR)
is proposed. The ambiguity function domain is assumed to be thedomain of observations. The two-dimensional Fourier bases are used tolinearly relate the observations to the sparse TFR, in lieu of the Wigner·

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Conference 8717: Compressive Sensing II

distribution. We assume that a set of available samples in the ambiguity
domain is heavily corrupted by an impulsive type of noise. Consequently,
the problem of sparse TFR reconstruction cannot be tackled using
standard compressive sensing optimization algorithms. One approachis to change the entire minimization problem, i.e., adjust the norm andthe constraints to be consistent with the noise model assumptions.
This approach, however, proves difficult when searching for the optimal
parameter values and achieving stable and computationally efficientsolutions. Instead, we introduce a two-dimensional L-statistics based
modification into the transform domain representation so as to provide
suitable initial conditions that will further provide efficient convergenceof the reconstruction algorithm. This approach does not use a priori
knowledge about the impulsive noise distribution, but rather applies
sorting and weighting operations to discard an expected amountof samples corrupted by noise. In other words, a two-dimensional
L-statistics is employed to sort out the ambiguity function samples andselect those of high signal to noise ratio. In so doing, the employed
dictionary will map only those time-lag frequency-lag ambiguity domain
samples chosen by the L-statistics to a high resolution sparse TFR,
which is similar to the case of noise-free data. In essence, the L-statistics
approach provides an impulse noise resistant transition to the sparse
TFR. In the full-length paper, we dwell on these theoretical considerations
and furnish supporting examples.

8717-13, Session 3

Approximate message passing algorithm forcompressive sensing with random circulant
system matrices
Mahesh C. Shastry, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania
State Univ. (United States); Muralidhar Rangaswamy, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
The problem of compressively imaging targets using ultra-wideband
noise radar waveforms involves solving linear systems characterizedby partial circulant random system matrices. The performance of such
systems has been characterized and unique and stable solutions havebeen shown to exist. Convex optimization approaches outperform
other classes of compressive signal recovery algorithms in termsof the recovery-error. However, convex optimization algorithms arecomputationally expensive. Radar target recovery can involve solving
linear systems with dimensions as high as 10**6. In solving such large
systems, convex optimization solvers may take hours or even days toconverge to and compute the solutions. Further, it is difficult to derivetheoretical results about the distribution of the recovery-error in thecontext of convex optimization recovery. In order to overcome these
problems, the iterative approximate message passing (AMP) algorithm
has been proposed for compressive signal recovery. The AMP algorithm
is faster and for random system matrices, in the large system limit, therecovery-error has been theoretically shown to be equivalent to convex
optimization. However, the characterization of AMP for partial circulant
random system matrices remains an open problem. In this paper wegeneralize the AMP algorithm for compressive sensing with random
circulant system matrices. We study the performance of the estimation
error through theoretical and empirical investigations. We also analyze
the behavior of the algorithm in the presence of non-idealities specific toultra-wideband radar imaging.

8717-14, Session 3

High-efficiency imaging via systemcompression
Xiteng Liu, Univ. of Toronto (Canada)
In this talk, I will introduce the logical mechanism, methodology andapplications of system compression. System compression theory
describes a new computational phenomenon. It reveals that a linear
system may be compressed to a lower dimension and may be completely

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reconstructed afterward. The principle of system compression is akin tothat of data compression. In a large data set, data elements may havedifferent importance. The task of data compression is to identify andeliminate unessential data elements. Likewise, in a large linear system,
equations may have different importance. System compression is
purported to identify and eliminate unessential equations, in an effort to
reduce dimension of linear systems. Solution of a linear system can befound only from its essential equations, whence the entire system can bereconstructed. As one application, a signal may be reconstructed fromits partial samples. New mathematical transforms and visual thresholding
methods are specifically designed for implementation of systemcompression. Moreover, a variety of practical system compression
methods are designed for industrial applications. Experiment results may
well demonstrate the significance of new discoveries. Demo software andsimulation results are downloadable at website http://qualvisual.net .

8717-15, Session 4

Optimization of pseudorandom coded
apertures for spectrally selective compressive
imaging
Henry Arguello, Univ. of Delaware (United States) and Univ.
Industrial de Santander (Colombia); Gonzalo R. Arce, Alejandro
Parada, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
Compressive spectral imaging (CSI) senses the spectral information ofa scene by using 2 Dimensional (2D) coded projections which are thenemployed to recover the underlying discretized spectral information bysolving an l1 norm based optimization algorithm. An efficient architecture
implementing CSI is the Coded Aperture Snapshot Spectral Imager(CASSI). Our previous work determines a matrix system model for
multi-frame CASSI, which is used to design sets of spectrally selectivecoded apertures. There, the required number of CASSI measurements forreconstruction is dictated by the desired profile of spectral bands. This
work presents a new pseudorandom coded aperture design framework
for multi-frame CASSI, aimed at optimizing the set of selective coded
apertures such that the number of Focal Plane Array (FPA) CASSI
measurements is reduced to a desired number of shots, regardless ofthe targeted spectral profile. First, a matrix representing the ensembleof spectrally selective coded apertures is determined. Then, a rank
minimization algorithm is designed to estimate a set the pseudorandom
components of the coded apertures. The optimization of the coded
apertures is subjected to a user-defined number of shots. Further, theoptimal coded apertures are designed so as to satisfy a Restricted
Isometry Property (RIP) with high probability. Given a profile of desired
bands, the simulations shows that the PSNR achieved by the optimized
codes is up to 4dB higher than the systems using Hadamard or random
coded aperture sets.

8717-16, Session 4

Accurate reconstruction of hyperspectral
images from compressive sensing
measurements
Justin C. Flake, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States); John B.
Greer, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)
The emerging field of Compressive Sensing (CS) provides a new way
to capture data by shifting the heaviest burden of data collection fromthe sensor to the computer on the user-end. This new means of sensing
requires fewer measurements for a given amount of information than
traditional sensors. We investigate the efficacy of CS for capturing
HyperSpectral Imagery (HSI) remotely. We also introduce a new familyof algorithms for reconstructing HSI from CS measurements with Split
Bregman Iteration [Goldstein and Osher, 2009]. These algorithms
combine spatial Total Variation (TV) with smoothing in the spectral
dimension. We examine models for three different CS sensors: theCoded Aperture Snapshot Spectral Imager-Single Disperser (CASSI-SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing 2013·

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Conference 8717: Compressive Sensing IISD) [Wagadarikar et al., 2008] and Dual Disperser (CASSI-DD) [Gehm etal., 2007] cameras, and a hypothetical random sensing model closer toCS theory, but not necessarily implementable with existing technology.
We simulate the capture of remotely sensed images by applying thesensor forward models to well-known HSI scenes - an AVIRIS imageof Cuprite, Nevada and the HYMAP Urban image. To measure theaccuracy of the CS models, we compare the scenes reconstructed with
our new algorithm to the original AVIRIS and HYMAP cubes. The results
demonstrate the possibility of accurately sensing HSI remotely withsignificantly fewer measurements than standard hyperspectral cameras.

measurements with different compression sensing ratios for the spectral/
spatial, we can get hyperspectral reconstructed cubes with different
qualities. This asymmetry with some prior knowledge about the scene
can be used in order to achieve the highest reconstructed image quality
for a constant number of total compress sensing measurements.

8717-17, Session 4

Jingxiong Zhang, Ke Yang, Wuhan Univ. (China); Jianzhong Guo,
Wuhan Textile Univ. (China)

8717-29, Session PThur

Information theoretic bounds for compressedsensing in SAR imaging

Block-based reconstructions for compressive
spectral imaging

Compressed sensing (CS) is a new framework for sampling andreconstructing sparse signals from measurements significantly fewer thanthose prescribed by Nyquist rate in the Shannon sampling theorem. This
new strategy, applied in various application areas including synthetic
aperture radar (SAR), relies on two principles: sparsity, which is related
to the signals of interest, and incoherence, which refers to the sensing
modality. An important question in CS-based SAR system designconcerns sampling rate necessary and sufficient for exact or approximate
recovery of sparse signals. In the literature, bounds of measurements (orsampling rate) in CS have been proposed from perspectives including
information theory. However, these information-theoretic bounds need
to be reviewed and, if necessary, validated for CS-based SAR imaging,as there are various assumptions made in the derivations of lower andupper bounds on sub-Nyquist sampling rates, which may not hold true
in CS-based SAR imaging. In this paper, information-theoretic boundsof sampling rate will be analyzed. For this, the SAR measurement
system is modeled as an information channel, with channel capacity
and rate-distortion characteristics evaluated to enable the determinationof sampling rates required for recovery of sparse scenes. Experiments
based on simulated data will be undertaken to test the theoretic bounds
against empirical results about sampling rates required to achieve certain
detection error probabilities.

Claudia V. Correa, Henry Arguello, Univ. of Delaware (UnitedStates) and Univ. Industrial de Santander (Colombia); Gonzalo R.
Arce, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
Coded Aperture Snapshot Spectral Imaging system (CASSI) captures
spectral information of a scene using a reduced amount of focal planearray (FPA) projections. These projections are highly structured andlocalized such that each measurement contains information of a small
portion of the data cube. Compressed sensing reconstruction algorithms
are then used to recover the underlying 3-dimensional (3D) scene. The
computational burden to recover a hyperspectral scene in CASSI isoverwhelming for some applications such that reconstructions can takehours in desktop architectures. This paper presents a new method toreconstruct a hyperspectral signal from its compressive measurements
using several overlapped block reconstructions. This approach exploits
the structure of the CASSI sensing matrix to separately reconstructoverlapped regions of the 3D scene. The resultant reconstructions arethen assembled to obtain the full recovered data cube. Typically, blockprocessing causes undesired artifacts in the recovered signal. Verticaland horizontal overlaps between adjacent blocks are then used to avoid
these artifacts and increase the quality of reconstructed images. The
reconstruction time and the quality of the reconstructed images arecalculated as a function of the block-size and the amount of overlapped
regions. Simulations show that the quality of the reconstructions isincreased up to 6 dB and the reconstruction time is reduced up to 4
times when using block-based reconstruction instead of full data cube
recovery at once. The proposed method is suitable for multi-processor
architectures in which each core recovers one block at a time.

8717-30, Session PThur

Color-dependent PRNU (photo response nonuniformity) on CMOS image sensor
Changhui Ye, Sungsu Lee, Pixelplus Co., Ltd. (Korea, Republicof)8717-18, Session 4

To get higher resolution and higher SNR image, characterizing noise ofimage is one of the most important procedures.There are lots of manners
with regards to characterizing image quality of CMOS image sensors.
And one of the most important performances of FPN(fixed-patternnoise) of sensor can be measured by using PRNU method. PRNU is
the meaning of Photo response non-uniformity of each pixel on image
sensor and it depends on the uniform performance of sensitivity amongpixels. Additionally this uniformity of sensitivity is different from eachcolor filter channels depending on the distribution of it. In this paper,in order to diagnose the tendency of PRNU regarding each color filter
channel, it is introduced that techniques to minimize other noise sources
excluding PRNU from target images. And it also introduces that the resultof measuring PRNU and spatial resolution of mono sensor, RGB color
sensor by using various color temperature light sources. And it suggests
ways how to understand these results with simple manner as well.

Spatial versus spectral compression ratio
in compressive sensing of hyperspectral
imaging
Yitzhak August, Chaim Z. Vachman, Adrian Stern, Ben-Gurion
Univ. of the Negev (Israel)
Hyperspectral images are used in numerous fields such as bio-medical
imaging applications, remote sensing, food industry, art conservation
and restoration and many more. The amount of data typically captured
with hyperspectral imaging systems is very large and is often highly
compressible. This has motivated the application of compressive sensing
techniques for hyperspectral imaging. Compressive hyperspectral
imaging is based on the fact that hyperspectral data is highly redundant.
There is asymmetry between the compressibility of the spatial andspectral domains, which should be taken in account for optimalcompressive hyperspectral imaging design. Here we present a study on
the influence of the ratio between the compression in the spatial andspectral domains on the performance of a 3D separable compressive
hyperspectral imaging we developed. Separable sensing architectureis used to reduce the computational complexity associated withcompressive sensing of large data, which is typical to hyperspectral
imaging. We show that for the same number of total compress sensing

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8717-19, Session 5Sparse microwave imaging radar: initialsystem design and performance analysis
Yirong Wu, Wen Hong, Bingchen Zhang, Zhe Zhang, Chenglong
Jiang, Institute of Electronics (China)·

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Conference 8717: Compressive Sensing II

In this paper, we study the system design of sparse microwave imaging
radar and report initial results of ground-based and airborne experiments.
Sparse microwave imaging is a novel concept, which introduces thesparse signal processing theory to microwave imaging to reduce thesystem complexity and enhance system performance. According to therelationship among SNR, under-sampling ratio and scene sparsity, we
designed the radar parameters such as waveform, bandwidth and PRF.
We also analyzed the distinguishing ability, ambiguity, radiation resolution
and sidelobe level of designed radar. Finally, the validation of our design
was verified via ground-based and airborne experiments.

available power among the transmit antennas so that the coherence
between the target returns from different search cells, or equivalently, thecoherence of the columns of the sensing matrix is minimized. Numericalresults show that in the colocated MIMO radar systems with presenceof clutter, the DOA estimation performance under our proposal is muchbetter than Capon or CS method, respectively. Numerical results also
show that the estimation performance further benefits from the power
allocation.

8717-20, Session 5

Improved interior wall detection using
designated dictionaries in compressive urban
sensing problems

Enhanced through-the-wall radar imaging
using Bayesian compressive sensing

8717-22, Session 5

Van Ha Tang, Abdesselam Bouzerdoum, Son Lam Phung, Fok
Hing Chi Tivive, Univ. of Wollongong (Australia)

Eva Lagunas, Univ. Politècnica de Catalunya (Spain); MoenessG. Amin, Fauzia Ahmad, Villanova Univ. (United States); Montse
Najar, Univ. Politècnica de Catalunya (Spain)

In recent years, compressive sensing (CS) has been introduced inthrough-the-wall radar imaging (TWRI) to reduce the data acquisition time
while achieving high-resolution imaging. During the sensing operation,
each antenna emits a set of random frequencies to interrogate thescene. Then, compressive sensing is used to recover the un-measured
data samples before a backprojection method is applied for image
reconstruction. The recovery of the data samples at each antenna isformulated as a CS inverse problem, which is solved independently
by using a greedy or convex relaxation sparse recovery method.
However, this approach leads to a prolonged processing time and highcomputational complexity. Furthermore, this recovery approach ignores
the statistical dependencies between data samples that are useful for thesignal recovery.

Detection of walls and wall boundaries is part of a broader paradigm ofdetecting indoor stationary targets of interest in through-the-wall radar
applications. For these targets, change detection of Doppler processing
cannot be applied since targets and clutter are both of the same nature.
In this paper, we address the problem of localizing interior walls. We
propose a technique to detect the location and extent of internal building
structures when a large number of measurements are missing. Dealing
with reduced number of observations in space and/or time (frequency) for
surveillance and indoor imaging can be driven by the need for fast dataacquisition and quick gathering of actionable intelligence. It can also be
attributed to logistic difficulties to sense the behind-the-wall scene at
specific frequencies and antenna positions.

In this paper, we propose a distributed CS model based on Bayesian
theory for recovering the un-measured data samples across the array
aperture simultaneously. The proposed CS model takes into account of
the statistical correlations among the acquired measurements by jointly
reconstructing the high resolution radar profiles across the antennas asfull posterior distributions rather than point estimates, without the priorknowledge of the data noise variance. After the recovery of the range
profiles, a backprojection method such as delay-and-sum beamforming
is applied, in time or frequency domain, to form the radar image.
Experimental results based on real TWRI data demonstrate that the
proposed CS-TWRI method is more effective than existing approaches
and produces better radar images with high target-to-clutter ratio values.

8717-21, Session 5

A capon beamforming method for clutter
suppression in colocated compressive
sensing based MIMO radar

Within the compressive sensing (CS) framework, we propose a dictionarythat is consistent with building construction practices, where interior
walls are either parallel or perpendicular to the exterior walls. With aground-based SAR system, and considering radar returns from walls,
the antenna at each position would receive reflections from the walls
parallel to the synthetic aperture, as well as from the corners between
two meeting walls. We propose a two-step approach. In the first step,a dictionary of possible wall locations is built to sparsely represent theinterior wall layout. Conventional CS recovery algorithms are then applied
to recover the positions of both interior and exterior walls. A follow on
step is to use a dictionary of possible corner reflectors, which is the typeof reflection caused by the junction of walls perpendicular to each other.
Determining corner reflectors along the wall segments can indicate thewall extent. The utility of the proposed approach is demonstrated using
both real and simulated data. It is shown that accurate determination ofinterior wall positions can be achieved with substantial reduction in data
volume.

8717-23, Session 5

Shunqiao Sun, Yao Yu, Athina P. Petropulu, Rutgers, The State
Univ. of New Jersey (United States)

Detection Performance of Radar
Compressive Sensing in Noisy Environments

It has been shown that in compressive sensing (CS) based multiinput multi-output (MIMO) radar systems that explore the sparsity oftargets in the illuminated space enable to achieve either the same
localization performance as traditional methods but with significantly
fewer measurements, or significantly improved performance with thesame number of measurements. It is well known that in radar systems,
clutter would significantly degrade the detection performance. Clutter
suppression has been widely studied in traditional radar systems, while
little has been done in CS based MIMO radar systems. In this paper, we
propose a clutter suppression method in the colocated CS based MIMO
radar systems to improve the targets’ DOA estimation performance. The
compressed receive signals first go through a Capon beamformer, andthen are fed to the CS estimator. It is shown that the signal-to-clutternoise ratio (SCNR) at the CS estimator is much higher than that without
beamforming. The estimation performance can be further improvedby doing power allocation. An approach is proposed for allocating theAsmita Korde, Tinoosh Mohsenin, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore
County (United States); Damon Bradley, NASA Goddard Space
Flight Ctr. (United States)

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Compressive sensing is a novel technology which allows thereconstruction of a sparse signal by sampling at a much lower rate than
the nyquist rate. By using this technique in radar, the use of matchedfilter can be eliminated and high rate sampling can be replaced withlow rate sampling. Radar compressive sensing reconstruction in noisy
environments can lead to inaccurate results. Different reconstruction
algorithms can improve the detection probability and false alarmprobability in noisy environments. While CS has several advantages, CS
reconstruction algorithms are complex and high power consuming. In thispaper, several different reconstruction algorithms for Radar Compressive
sensing are analyzed and their detection performance and also hardware

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Conference 8717: Compressive Sensing II

8717-26, Session 6

complexity are compared against each other. We will compare algorithms
including L1 minimization and orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP) for
different scenarios. The type of random mask transmitted and the typeof reflectivity function used can also have an effect on the reconstructionof the signal and their impact will be analyzed. False alarm probability
and detection probability will be analyzed using Receiver operating
characteristics (ROC) curves for different SNR values by running Monte
Carlo simulations. We also propose a modified OMP reconstruction
algorithm which leads to faster reconstruction. The OMP algorithm
is implemented using both Xilinx Virtex-5 FPGA and also 65-nm
CMOS technology for a 256 length input vector. The FPGA and ASIC
implementations run at 85 MHz and 165 MHz respectively which result in
total reconstruction time of 27 and 13 us respectively.

L-Statistic Combined with Compressive
Sensing
Srdjan Stankovic, Ljubisa Stankovic, Irena Orovic, Univ. ofMontenegro (Montenegro)
The L-estimation signal analysis was introduced for signals disturbed
with high additive impulse noise. It has been employed in problems
involving Fourier transform, Cosine transform, and Hadamard transforms,
as well as in the time-frequency formulations of nonstationary with
time-varying spectra signals. The basic idea is that a certain, usuallylarge, number of arbitrary positioned signal samples is declared asheavily corrupted by noise, using the L-statistics. These samples arethen discarded from further processing and considered as absent or
unavailable. As a result, fewer samples, compared to the original data,
are considered for L-estimation signal representations. On the other
hand, compressive sensing, which is emerging as a power tool for signal
reconstruction, also deals with reduced observations. However, unlike theL- estimation, it attempts to reconstruct the missing samples using thesparseness property of the signal when viewed over particular basis.

8717-24, Session 5

UWB radar echo signal detection based oncompressive sensing
Shugao Xia, Jeffrey Sichina, Fengshan Liu, Delaware State Univ.
(United States)

This paper examines the performance of both L-estimation andcompressive sensing for signals that are sparse in the Fourier domain.
We discuss how the L-estimation can benefit from compressive
sensing solutions. In particular, we provide the analysis of the signal
errors in the Fourier-domain based on the application of the L-estimate
and compressive sensing. It will be shown that, in the case of asparse random signal with several realizations available, the mean of
L-estimation representations produces an ideal transform, providing thatthe remaining samples are disturbance-free. When only one realization
is available, the minimization algorithms, developed for the compressive
sensing, may be used to further improve the results obtained by theL-estimation transforms. In the examples included in the full-length paper,
discrete forms of the Fourier transform, short time Fourier transform andWigner distribution, are used to demonstrate the effective integration of
the two techniques.

Ultra-wideband (UWB) technology has been widely utilized in radarsystem because of the advantage of the ability of high spatial resolution
and object-distinction capability. A major challenge in UWB signal
processing is the requirement for very high sampling rate under Nyquist
sampling theorem which exceeds the current ADC capacity.
Recently, new approaches based on the Finite Rate of Innovation allow
significant reduction in sampling rate. A system for sampling UWB radar
echo signal at an ultra-low sampling rate and estimation of time-delay
is presented in the paper. An ultra-low rate sampling scheme based on
Xampling framework is applied, which often results in sparse parameter
extraction for UWB radar signal detection. The parameters such as timedelays are estimated in the framework of compressed sensing based
on total-variation norm minimization. With this system, the UWB radar
signal can be accurately reconstructed and detected with overwhelming
probability at the rate much lower than Nyquist rate. The simulation
results show that the proposed method is effective for sampling anddetecting UWB radar signal with ultra-low sampling rate.

8717-27, Session 6

Compressive detection of frequency-hopping
spread spectrum signals

8717-25, Session 6

Towards the use of learned dictionaries andcompressive sensing in wideband signal
detection

Feng Liu, BIO5 Institute (United States); Michael W. Marcellin,
The Univ. of Arizona (United States); Nathan A. Goodman, The
Univ. of Oklahoma (United States); Ali Bilgin, The Univ. of Arizona(United States)

Jerry Carreon, Novita Research Labs Corp. (United States);
Sergio D. Cabrera, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso (United States)

This paper introduces compressive detection strategies for detection ofFrequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) signals. In 2012, Liu et al.
introduced a compressive receiver architecture for interception of FHSS
signals. An underlying assumption in that work was that the presenceof the FHSS signal was already confirmed. In practice, detection ofcommunication signals is an important prerequisite in interception
applications. FHSS signals avoid detection by rapidly switching thecarrier frequency using a pseudorandom sequence known only to thetransmitter and a cooperative receiver. Since the transmission can occur
within a very large bandwidth, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) thatcan sample fast enough to capture the full communication spectrum
are needed ideally but such ADCs are often prohibitively expensive tobuild. The conventional approach to detect such signals is to rapidly
scan small segments of the full spectrum in a sequential manner. In thispaper, we propose compressive detection strategies that can sample
the full spectrum in a compressive manner. We introduce a simplified
model for FHSS signals and use this model to study theoreticaldetection performances of full-bandwidth Nyquist-sampled, scanning,and compressive detectors. We present the results from simulations
that show agreement with the proposed theory. Finally, the proposed
techniques are evaluated using Gaussian Frequency-Shift Keying (GFSK)
modulated FHSS signals at varying signal-to-noise and compression
ratios.

Recent literature on Compressive Sensing (CS) indicates an enormous
potential for reduced sampling rates and can bring cutting edge
capabilities to signal collection systems. Modern radio frequency (RF)receivers gather and process large amounts of data in order to detect,classify and or record targets. Today’s communication and radar systems
are becoming more complex and receivers have to accommodate to
emerging emitter capabilities. A need to improve the collection paradigm
has been shown by the U.S. government’s interest to alternative methodsof data sampling. In this work we introduce a framework that can beused to detect and classify signals of interest. The novelty of our work
lies in the choice of reconstruction basis because we use a generative
approach. This approach finds the basis where the signal of interest
shows the sparsest representation. Representative data will be used tosimulate detection and classification of wideband signals. The results ofthis work will contribute to the CS community by offering an alternative
to technology deployment. The demonstration from this work will be amonitor that detects, classifies, and or records complex emitters. Issues
and tradeoffs will be identified and addressed.

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Conference 8717: Compressive Sensing II

8717-28, Session 6

How to find real-world applications ofcompressive sensing
Leslie N. Smith, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
The field of Compressed Sensing (CS) has seen significant growth in
the past few years with recent work focused on the development of CS
cameras. Such cameras offer the possibility that low-cost, low-resolution
focal plane arrays (FPAs) can replace their expensive, high-resolution
brethren yet still provide comparable performance. Given data from a
low-resolution FPA, alternative methods of increasing resolution include
interpolation and super-resolution. In theory, CS methods should retain
high-frequency information that the interpolated solution discards.
We quantify performance differences by calculating the peak signalto-noise ratio (PSNR) between original high-resolution imagery andreconstructed results. Frequency performance is also quantified for thetwo competing methods. Super-resolution works by requiring multiple
observations spread over time. Alternatively, certain CS architectures
allow reconstruction of a high-resolution result from a single observationof the scene. We quantify these time and performance trade-offs for thetwo techniques. Finally, we consider the reduction in performance of
the CS solution versus a high-resolution-plus-compression architecture.
For a given task (such as detection) we can determine the cost savingsof a CS solution that offers acceptable performance relative to themore expensive compression option. We use the outcome of software
simulations on a set of common imagery to map the trade-space
between cost and performance for all four competing acquisition
solutions.

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Conference 8718: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies X
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8718 Advanced Environmental, Chemical, and Biological Sensing Technologies X

8718-1, Session 1

8718-4, Session 2

Innovative Raman spectroscopic concepts forin situ monitoring of chemicals in sea-water

A paper-based inkjet-fabricated substrate for
SERS detection and differentiation of PCR
products

Kay Sowoidnich, Maria Fernandez Lopez, Heinz-Detlef Kronfeldt,
Technische Univ. Berlin (Germany)

Eric P. Hoppmann, Ian M. White, The Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States)

Recently, Raman spectroscopy is increasingly moving from the lab
to field applications to enable analysis of samples in their nativeenvironment. This is accompanied by the ongoing development ofcompact microsystem diode lasers. Applying such devices, we present
a multi-spectral concept with excitation wavelengths in the blue, red,and NIR spectral range for in situ investigations of water incorporating
surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and shifted excitation
Raman difference spectroscopy (SERDS). Each laser source emits at twoslightly different wavelengths with a spectral distance in the order of 10
cm-1 necessary for SERDS operation.

Applying a specially designed miniaturized Raman and SERDS
measurement system suited for applications in the water body, we
are able to record spectra in seconds, minutes, or hours according to
the different measurement scenarios for buoys, moorings or sea trials
demonstrating the capability for rapid in situ investigations. Due to
its modular construction principle, the applied Raman system can beeasily modified and optimized to meet the demands of other analyticalapplications, as e.g. food inspection, medical diagnosis, forensics, andhomeland security usage.

Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is a highly sensitive
sensing technique, offering sensitivity comparable to that of fluorescence
while providing structure-dependent analyte information. In recent years,
we have developed an innovative optofluidic SERS substrate by inkjet
printing metal nanoparticles onto paper. By virtue of generating a SERS
substrate on cellulose, we gain a flexible SERS sensing device, as well as
the ability to harness the intrinsic wicking properties of paper to enableboth separation and concentration of analytes. Here we demonstrate theapplication of paper-chromatographic separation to allow on-substrate
separation, concentration and discrimination. By using inexpensive
single-labeled DNA probes in a typical PCR amplification, we obtain amixture containing whole probes (negative result) and probes which havebeen hydrolyzed by the Taq polymerase (positive result). Leveraging thesolubility differences between the whole and hydrolyzed probes andthe cellulose separation matrix, we are able to perform a multiplexedinterrogation of the targets. Notably, this does not require the use of dual
labeled DNA probes (expensive) or multiple excitation sources and filter
sets needed for a multiplexed fluorescence measurement (expensive
and bulky). We examine the dependence of migration on DNA length andsolvent polarity, two key factors which make this discrimination possible.
All SERS measurements are performed using a portable spectrometerand diode laser; in combination with a portable low-power DNA
amplification system, this technique has the potential to be used for rapid
on-site multiplexed genetic detection, without requiring complex opticalequipment.

8718-3, Session 1

8718-5, Session 2

THz absorption spectra and stability of Fe
water complexes calculated by density
functional theory

UV spectral behavior of Ag coated Al
plasmonic band gap nanocraters

SERS was applied for high sensitive chemical detection in water and
SERDS effectively reduces the fluorescence interference. With thatconcept, i.e. combined SERS/SERDS measurements, for the first time
we achieved detection limits of pyrene in sea water in the pmol/l range.
Furthermore, specially tailored SERS substrates which are well suited forlong term in situ monitoring in sea-water were realized. This offers a great
potential for environmental control with respect to the water body.

Hande Cavus, TÜBITAK Marmara Research Ctr. (Turkey) and
Istanbul Univ. (Turkey); Ibrahim Yusufoglu, Istanbul Univ. (Turkey);
Mustafa M. Aslan, TÜBITAK Marmara Research Ctr. (Turkey)

Lulu Huang, Samuel G. Lambrakos, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Andrew Shabaev, George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates); Lou Massa, Hunter College (United States); Constantine
Yapijakis, The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Scienceand Art (United States)

There is a great potential to use plasmonic band gap structures forbetter biosensing in UV spectra since understanding some molecularinteractions in UV is very vital in medical sciences. In this study
plasmonic band gap surface structures (nanocraters) with 44 - 93 nm
in diameter and 85 - 152 nm in inter-crater distance were fabricatedby anodizing aluminum foils and chemically removing the oxide layer.
Fabricated Aluminum surface nanocraters were coated with 40- and150-nm silver films in order to investigate effect of the coating thickness
on the UV reflectance (250 nm – 400 nm). Reflectance measurements
were taken with a UV/Vis/IR spectroscopy. Characterization of surface
morphologies was carried out with SEM and AFM. It was understood that
amplitude, location and number of the plasmonic resonance modes in UV
spectra can be altered by changing the dimensions of nanocraters andthe thickness of the Ag coating. Location of the main plasmon resonancemode shifts left or right relative to the resonance location of the thinAg film with a flat surface. Existence of nanocraters on the surface
generates another resonance point wider than the main one. Strength of
the resonance strongly depends on dimensions of nanocraters. As thecoating thickness increases, an additional plasmonic resonance mode
emerges. These features of the surface nanostructures studied promises
to develop novel plasmonic and hybrid biosensors in UV spectra.

Monitoring of water contaminants implies a need for determining
their dielectric response properties with respect to electromagnetic
wave excitation at various frequencies. Iron is a naturally occurring
water contaminant resulting from decaying vegetation, which is at
much higher concentrations than any other metal contaminant. The
present study uses density functional theory (DFT) for the calculationof ground state resonance structure and molecular stability analysis for
Fe water complexes. The calculations presented are for excitation byelectromagnetic waves at frequencies within the THz range. Dielectric
response functions calculated by DFT can be used for the analysis ofwater contaminants. These functions provide quantitative initial estimatesof spectral response features for subsequent adjustment with respect
to additional information such as laboratory measurements and othertypes of theory based calculations. In addition, with respect to qualitative
analysis, DFT calculated absorption spectra provide for molecular levelinterpretation of response structure. The DFT software GAUSSIAN wasused for the calculations of ground state resonance structure presented
here.

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Conference 8718: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies X

8718-6, Session 2

SERS barcoding for quick identification ofpathogens enabled by engineered plasmonicnanostructure arrays
Qiuming Yu, Jiajie Xu, The Univ. of Washington (United States);
Jeffrey Turner, Mark Strom, Northwest Fisheries Science Ctr.
(United States)
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a near field effect. The
highly confined electromagnetic energy in the nanoscale volume greatly
enhances the Raman spectroscopic signals of molecules adsorbed on
the nanostructured noble metal surfaces. Utilizing this unique property,
we designed novel quasi-3D plasmonic nanostructure arrays (Q3D-PNAs)
with the strongest electric filed (“hot spots”) at the top gold/air interfaces,
where bacterial cells land. In this way, we can acquire the SERS spectraof bacterial outer membranes. The complex chemical and biologicalcomponents embedded in cell outer membranes carry specific molecular
information related to strains, growth stages, expressions to stimulation,and even maybe geographic differences. Therefore, the SERS spectra
can be used to quick identify bacteria. In this work, we used marine
pathogen vibrio parahaemolyticus as a model system. Seven different
strains were selected to perform the SERS detection. The strains wereisolated from various sources including Pacific Northwest clinic andenvironmental clones (stool, water, oyster, and phytoplankton) and belong
to four different rep-PCR and MLST groups. All strains were cultured
under the same condition to the exponential-phase growth to ensure
the uniformity of bacterial cell walls and yield consistent SERS spectra
for each sample. SERS spectra were acquired in-situ by immersing the
SERS-active substrate in a bacterial solution. The high sensitivity andreproducibility provided by the unique SERS-active substrates enable us
to construct a color SERS barcoding for each strain. Unknown samples
and mixtures of the two out of seven strains can be quickly identified
by comparing the SERS barcoding. Furthermore, SERS barcoding ofstrains belonging to the same genomic group exhibit some common
characteristic peaks that are dramatically different from other groups,
indicating the correlation of genomic and phenotypic variation.

8718-7, Session 2

SERS plasmonic systems for environmental,
biodefesnse, and food safety applications
Hsin-Neng Wang, Tuan Vo-Dinh, Duke Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

two ridge waveguide (RW) sections with different deeply etched surface
DBR gratings are realized. The DBR mirrors were designed for a spectral
spacing suitable for SERDS. A Y-branch coupler section is implemented
for the realization of one output aperture at the front facet. Individual
contacts at all sections allow a separate trigger for both excitation
wavelengths. The device has a footprint of 0.5 x 3 mm2.
At a heatsink temperature of 25°C in cw-operation mode for both
wavelengths at 670.5 nm and 671.0 nm an output power of 100 mW wasachieved with an electric power consumption of about 1 W. The spectral
width was smaller than 0.02 nm (0.5 cm-1). In the power range up to 100
mW the spectral distance between both emission lines was (0.46 ± 0.02)
nm, i.e. (10.2 ± 0.5) cm-1. An electro-optical and spectral characterizationof this light source will be given. Raman experiments demonstrate thesuitability of this monolithic Y-branch dual wavelength diode laser for
SERDS.

8718-9, Session 3

Threefold enhancement in refractive index
sensitivity of internally bent long period
grating
Francesco Chiavaioli, Francesco Baldini, Cosimo Trono, Ambra
Giannetti, Sara Tombelli, Riccardo Falciai, Istituto di Fisica
Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy)
It was recently demonstrated that, by inducing an external bending
along the portion of an optical fiber containing a long period grating,this structure shows a refractive index sensitivity higher than the straight
counterpart, for values of external refractive indexes lower than thatof silica. On the basis of this principle, a novel structure of long period
grating (LPG) characterized by a specially-designed refractive index
profile has been developed for the first time. In the proposed structure,each grating plane, placed at a distance equal to the grating pitches in
the refractive index modulation, is tilted at increasing angles with respect
to the axis orthogonal to the optical fiber, as moving away from the centerof symmetry of the structure towards its both edges. This internallymanufactured geometric structure, which basically simulates thebending of the optical fiber, increases the LPG refractive sensitivity to thesurrounding medium, maintaining a straight configuration. The internallybent LPG shows a sensitivity of 68 nm RIU-1 against 22 nm RIU-1 ofthe straight counterpart, for the same refractive index range from 1.333
RIU to 1.4 RIU. Therefore, an improvement of three-order of magnitudein the refractive index sensitivity has been experimentally proved, thus
providing the basis for another step forward in the field of refractive index
sensors based on optical fiber gratings.

8718-10, Session 38718-8, Session 3

Monolithic Y-branch dual wavelength DBR
diode laser at 671 nm for Shifted Excitation
Raman Difference Spectroscopy (SERDS)(Invited Paper)
Martin Maiwald, Jörg Fricke, Arnim Ginolas, Johannes Pohl,
Bernd Sumpf, Götz Erbert, Günther Tränkle, Ferdinand-BraunInstitut (Germany)
Mobile Raman spectroscopy becomes more and more important forvarious application fields e.g. food safety, detection of explosives, or
medical diagnostics. However, weak Raman signals can be obscuredby fluorescence or elastic scattering. Amongst others, shifted excitation
Raman difference spectroscopy (SERDS) is a promising technique toseparate Raman signals from a disturbing background.
In this work a monolithic Y-branch dual wavelength distributed backreflection (DBR) diode laser at 671 nm for SERDS will be presented.

Optical properties of plasmonic sensor
structures consist of gold coated overnanostructured alumina films
Mustafa M. Aslan, TÜBITAK Marmara Research Ctr. (Turkey)
Plasmonic sensor structures consist of the gold coated overnanostructured alumina (GCON-A) films were investigated for layer
thicknesses and optical properties in between 400 and 800 nm. For
this purpose we have used a spectroscopic ellipsometry and a visible
spectroscopy. Layer thicknesses, effective refractive indices andabsorbtion coefficients of films were determined through regression
analysis on the ellipsometry data. To investigate the optical propertiesof the GCON-A films further, reflection measurements were taken by
the visible spectroscopy. Our results indicate that the GCON-A films
fabricated have wide ranges of effective refractive index, absorbtion
coefficent and reflectivty values in the spectrum of the interest. Suchnanostructured films with tuned optical properties may find place in many
plasmonic applications including sensor developments.

The semiconductor chip consists of two laser cavities. On the rear side
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Conference 8718: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies X

8718-11, Session 3

to separate Raman lines from the background are known. In this paper,
selected diode laser based light sources will be presented suitable forshifted excitation Raman difference spectroscopy (SERDS). The two
wavelengths are realized by varying the injection current, by addressing
two micro-integrated ECLs or by temperature tuning.

Rapid prototyping via 3D-printing of solarpowered, battery-operated microplasmas on
sugar-cube sized chips used either as a lightsource or for elemental analysis by portable
optical spectrometer

Due to the freedom of choice in the wavelengths using diode lasers,
the emission wavelength can be selected with respect to the addressed
application (e.g. the required penetration depth) or the plasmonicresonances of the substrates for surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy.
Devices were developed for the wavelengths 488 nm, 671 nm, and785 nm. The two emission wavelengths each were selected to have aspectral distance of 10 cm-1 according to the typical width of Ramanlines of solid or liquid samples. Output powers between 20 mW for the
shorter wavelength devices and 200 mW for the red emitting lasers wereachieved at electrical power consumptions below 1 W. With a footprintof only 25 x 25 mm2 including all collimation and filter elements, thesedevices are well suited for portable applications.

X. Zhang, D. Devathasan, Vassili Karanassios, The Univ. of
Waterloo (Canada)
A variety of battery-operated, atmospheric-pressure, self-igniting
microplasmas have been rapidly prototyped [1, 2]. Some of them
have been used as light-sources and others for elemental analysisof microsamples using a portable, fiber-optic spectrometer. In thispresentation, these applications will be briefly discussed.

The microsystem diode lasers were implemented into portable Raman
measurement systems. Experiments from food sciences for the control ofmeat ripeness and spoilage, and to detect colorants in drinks or candies
will be presented. The signal-to-background ratio could be improved byseveral orders of magnitude. Perspectives for future applications will begiven.

1. S. Weagant, V. Chen and V. Karanassios, Battery-operated, argonhydrogen microplasma on hybrid, postage stamp-size plastic-quartz
chips for elemental analysis of liquid microsamples using a portable
optical emission spectrometer, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry,
401(9), 2865-2880 (2011)
2. S. Weagant, G. Dulai, L. Li and Vassili Karanassios, Characterizationof rapidly prototyped, battery-operated, argon-hydrogen microplasma
on a hybrid chip for elemental analysis of liquid microsamples by aportable fiber-optic spectrometer, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry(submitted)

8718-14, Session 4

High-performance orthogonal spectroscopic
sensing system and algorithm for
identification of molecular fingerprints

8718-12, Session 3

Integrated electrophoretic capillarynanofluidic biochip (ECField-Nanochip) for
the fast-throughput separation and analysisof biological molecules

Samar K. Guharay, The MITRE Corp. (United States)
Significant improvement in detection technology and algorithms isneeded for rapid detection and identification of molecular fingerprints,
especially in the presence of clutter or interference. Toward this goal,a novel sensor system uniquely employs the best features of twocomplementary sensor modalities, namely, ion mobility spectrometry(IMS) and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). These two sensor
modalities, if effectively harnessed to work together, offer a significantly
improved solution in detection technology. In addition to registering the
IMS response, the IMS unit acts as a pre-filter for SERS. This operation
enhances operational reliability of SERS. As a final step in identificationof the analyte, the detection system needs “smart” algorithms for data
analysis enabling classification and identification of analytes of interest.
Systematic studies through modeling and experiments are made toaddress the underlying science and engineering questions for the hybrid
IMS-SERS system. A compact IMS system has been developed, andthis unit is coupled to a SERS substrate. Experimental measurements
showing characteristic spectra of numerous analytes including trace
targeted chemicals (explosives) and commonly-used materials have beenobtained. The crux of the data analysis is centered on several metrics,
namely, root-mean squared error, weighted cross-correlation average,
and earth mover’s distance. Illustrative results including discussions on
applications will be presented.

Edgar A. Mendoza, Redondo Optics, Inc. (United States)
The design and manufacture of custom genes or long DNA biomolecules
has become an indispensable tool in the life sciences, synthetic biology,
and protein engineering. Nanofluidic biochips have recent emerge as a
viable solution to manipulate and analyze biological samples in extremely
small quantities with fast analysis throughputs. This paper describes
the work conducted by our group in collaboration with Center for HighTechnology Materials at the University of New Mexico towards thedevelopment and demonstration of an integrated electrophoretic capillarynanofluidic biochip (ECField-Nanochip) spectroscopic sensor platform
suitable for the effective, reliable, and fast-throughput separation andanalysis of biological molecules for use in the detection, identification,and classification of biological species. The predicted simple, effective,
and fast-throughput operation of the ECField-Nanochip™ sensor
platform will provide solutions to the fast growing biochip market for thescientific investigation of biological materials as well as for the real time
detection of biological treats, and extended to gene expression, drugdiscovery, immunology, disease control, medical diagnosis, and foodquality among many other possibilities.

*Acknowledges Wansheng Su, Edward Danyliw, Burhan Necioglu andChristopher Saunders for collaboration in activities including experiments
and data analysis. Thanks are due to Prof. Herb Hill and his team forconstructing IMS.

8718-13, Session 4

Miniaturized diode laser-based light sources
for in-situ shifted excitation Raman difference
spectroscopy (Invited Paper)

8718-15, Session 4

Toward aerosols LiDAR scattering plots
classification and analysis

Bernd Sumpf, Martin Maiwald, Ferdinand-Braun-Institut(Germany); Kay Sowoidnich, Heinz-Detlef Kronfeldt, Technische
Univ. Berlin (Germany)

Amr H. Yousef, Khan M. Iftekharuddin, Mohammad A. Karim, Old
Dominion Univ. (United States)
A compact light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is used for the purposeof aerosols profile measurements. Aerosols are stable suspensions of

The weak Raman bands are often covered by pronounced backgroundsignals due to fluorescence or Rayleigh scattering. Several techniques

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Conference 8718: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies X
solid or liquid particles in air ranging in size from 1 nanometer to 10
microns. LiDAR is a powerful tool for atmospheric aerosol profiling as
it resolves the aerosol vertical distribution of an atmospheric column.
It produces a color plot that is a relation between the aerosol altitude
and its scattering ratio. These color plots can be treated as images withhigh intensities referring to high scattering ratios and low intensities
referring to low scattering ratios. Usually, these plots split into different
colored horizontal layers. Some of these layers may have uniform color
pattern and sometimes they may contain many mixed colors and appear
as a random dot patterns that makes their classification a challenging
problem. In this paper, we are stressing on the clustering of these plots
and classifying them into high, moderate and low scattering ratios
regions. In that sense, we revisited some of the unsupervised clusteringand classification techniques such Bayesian models as in mixture models
and fuzzy techniques and evaluate their performance on this type of data.
In addition, we propose a new clustering technique to work efficiently
on this type of images and compare its results against these regular
techniques. Furthermore, we do similarity analysis between different
aerosols profiles captured at different days and at different times withdifferent climate conditions to evaluate their information content. Basedon these results, we can describe the aerosol existence structure in
addition to finding linkage between these different profiles that leads tounderstanding of the aerosols behavior in the atmospheric layers.

to retrieve aerosol properties with frequent global coverage. At theLaboratory for Aerosols, Clouds and Optics (LACO) at the Universityof Maryland, Baltimore County we developed a new technique to
directly measure the aerosol phase function and the degree of linear
polarization of the scattered light (two elements of the phase matrix). We
designed and built a portable instrument called the Polarized Imaging
Nephelometer (PI-Neph). The PI-Neph successfully participated indozens of flights of the NASA Development and Evaluation of satellite
ValidatiOn Tools by Experimenters (DEVOTE) project and the Deep
Convective Clouds and Chemistry (DC3) mission. The ambient aerosol
enters the PI-Neph through an inlet and the sample is illuminated by laser
light (wavelength of 532 nm); the scattered light is imaged by a stationary
wide field of view camera in the maximum scattering angle range of2 degrees to 178 degrees. The phase function data was validated bycomparison to Mie scattering by polysterene spheres. Measurements ofambient phase function and the AERONET (AErosol Robotic NETwork)
retrievals have been compared in cases when the aircraft spiraled over
AERONET sites. The flight data showed good agreement between the PINeph measurements of volume scattering coefficient and the parallel TSI
integrating nephelometer measurements. Further analysis of the DEVOTE
and DC3 flight data is underway.

8718-27, Session 4

H2S sensing characteristics of Au: Fe2O3
thin films deposited using electron beam
evaporation method

A multimodal image reconstruction method
using ultrasonic waves and electrical
impedance tomography
Mahmoud Meribout, The Petroleum Institute (United ArabEmirates)
In this paper, a new method that improves the image obtained by anarray of ultrasonic sensors using electrical impedance tomography(EIT) is presented. One of its target applications can be in automatic
exploration of soft tissues, where different organs and eventual anomalies
exhibit simultaneously different electrical conductivities and different
acoustic impedances. The exclusive usage of the EIT technique usuallyleads to some significant uncertainties around the interior inclusions’boundaries and usually generates images with relatively low resolutions.
The proposed method shows that by properly combining this techniquewith an ultrasonic-based method, which can provide good localization ofsome edge points, the accuracy of the shape of the internal inclusions
can be improved. The performance of the proposed reconstruction
method was assessed by conducting extensive tests on some simulated
phantoms which mimic soft tissues. The obtained results clearly show
the performance of this method over single modalities techniques thatuse either ultrasound or EIT imaging.

8718-17, Session 5

Polarized imaging nephelometer for field
and aircraft measurements of aerosol phasefunction
Gergely Dolgos, Jose V. Martins, The Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States); Andreas J. Beyersdorf, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States); Jan D. Cieslak, Reed
W. Espinosa, The Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (UnitedStates); Johnathan W. Hair, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates); Eric Meyer, Haotian Sun, Bryant Szelistowski, The Univ.
of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States); Luke D. Ziemba,
NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
Aerosols have a significant impact on the radiative balance and water
cycle of our planet through scattering and absorbing solar light. Remotesensing of aerosols relies on scattering phase matrix information

1528718-18, Session 5

Vishal Baloria, Guru Nanak Dev Univ. (India); Niranjan S. Ramgir,
Ajay Singh, Anil K. Debnath, Bhabha Atomic Research Ctr.
(India); Aman Mahajan, Ratish K. Bedi, Guru Nanak Dev Univ.
(India); Dinesh K. Aswal, Shiv K. Gupta, Bhabha Atomic Research
Ctr. (India)
α-Fe2O3, an intrinsically n-type semiconductor has been widely exploited
as a gas sensitive material. In order to improve the sensing performance
it is often being modified with noble metals such as Au, Pt and Pd. H2S
is a colorless, highly flammable and toxic gas. As the lower exposure limit(LEL) for H2S is 10 ppm, there is a need for its detection in either ppm or
sub ppm level. In the present work, an improved H2S sensor based on
Au modified Fe2O3 thin film has been demonstrated.
Fe2O3 thin films were prepared in two steps. Fe film was first depositedby electron-beam evaporation and subsequently subjected to thermaloxidation at 800˚C/ 2 h under oxygen flow of 50 sccm. Au modification
was achieved by RF sputtering under 30 W power and duration of 30,
60 and 90 s corresponding to Au incorporation of 1.2, 2.33 and 3.7 at.
%, respectively. Both pure and Au incorporated films were found to be
selective towards H2S. Au incorporation (Au: 2.33 at. %) resulted not
only in increasing the base conductance but also enhancing the sensor
response towards H2S (~540% [(G/Ga) * 100] towards 10 ppm, responsetime ~90 s) with maximum at 250˚C. Sensor response was linear in theconcentration range of 1–50 ppm. Au is known to impart the sensitivity to
the host material as per the electronic sensitization mechanism. Wherein
it not only increases the adsorption of test gases but also facilitates theinteraction with the sensor surface.

8718-19, Session 5

Ambient detection of CH4 and N2O by
Quantum Cascade Laser
Paulo C. Castillo, Ihor Sydoryk, Barry M. Gross, Fred Moshary,
The City College of New York (United States)
A Quantum Cascade Lasers (QCL’s) [1] have been successfully used forsensing of atmospheric pollutants in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) region. In
this paper we report both laboratory and field measurements/results forambient simultaneous detection of green house gases (GHG), Methane
and Nitrous Oxide performed by tunable direct diode absorption

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Conference 8718: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies X
Optoelectronics Co., Ltd. (China)

spectroscopy (TDLAS). CH4 and N2O are long-lived greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere with significant global warming effects [2].

Gas analysis is an important tool in industrial process control andenvironmental monitoring, in which laser Raman spectroscopy gets more
and more attentions due to its wide suitability. In this paper, the recent
studes on the signal enhancement of laser Raman scattering for gas
analysis will be reported.

Gas spectra were recorded by tuning of the quantum cascade laser
wavelength over 1298 - 1300cm-1 spectral window. To achieve ultrafast
wavelength sweeping, a thermal down chirp technique [3] is used.
Based on careful optimization of the spectral window for absorption
features of CH4 and N2O as well as interfering gases, a dual-species,
cost-effective, robust and rapid response open-path laser based monitor
has been developed for ambient trace gas monitoring.

The first work we will report is on the improvement of collection
efficiency. A hollow fiber gas cell and a newly designed collector are
tested separately. The pumping laser is a diode-pumped solid state laser
with 50 mW output of 532 nm laser radiation. High sensitivity is obtainedin the case of hollow fiber gas cell, usually signal of major consistentin air can be obtained in less that 1 sec. But strong background of
scattering from the fiber wall constricts its application in detecting ofminor consistent. In the case of newly designed parabolic collector,
continuous background becomes much smaller, but still exists, it seems
that high quality reflecting coating is a key factor to obtain high contrast
signal.

SNR /link budget analysis of our laser pulse detection approachobtained over different ranges as well as limits of detection (LOD) will bepresented. Special focus will be on the stability of the laser spectra andwavelength tuning. Finally, a demonstration of the open path system overa 200 meter range will be reported and compared to link budget analysis.
References:[1] J. Faist, F. Capasso, D. L. Sivco, C. Sirtori, A. L. Hutchinson, and A. Y.
Cho, “Quantum cascade laser”, Science 264, pp. 553-556, 1994.

The second work we will report is on the improvement of laser intensity.
Intra-cavity Raman scattering of gases in a He-Ne lasers is studied.
There’s no continuous background in the Raman scattering spectrum,and the rotational spectral structure of molecules can be recognized
clearly after a little longer integration.

[2] http://www.epa.gov/globalmethane[3] E. Normand, M. McCulloch, G. Duxbury, and N. Langford, “Fast, realtime spectrometer based on a pulsed quantum-cascade laser”, Opt. let.
28, pp. 16-18, 2003.

The last work we will report is on the shortening of laser wavelength. We
are now building an experimental setup for Raman scattering of gases
based on a home-made narrow-linewidth 405 nm diode laser. We believethat a robust, compact and sensitive gas sensor will be possible basedon diode laser and cavity-enhancement technology.

8718-20, Session 5

Recent progress in extended-length fiber
optic carbon dioxide monitoring
Robert A. Lieberman, Jesus Delgado-Alonso, Intelligent Optical
Systems, Inc. (United States)

8718-23, Session 6

No Abstract Available.

Fast response cavity-enhanced ozone
monitor8718-21, Session 6

Anthony Gomez, Elias P. Rosen, Southwest Sciences, Inc.
(United States)

Comparative analysis of alternative spectral
bands of CO2 and O2 for the sensing of CO2
mixing ratios

Ozone is an important atmospheric gas due to its role in air quality andradiative forcing. Using an optically resonant cavity, sensitive and rapid
monitoring of ambient ozone is achieved in a compact platform using
relatively inexpensive components. Based on Incoherent Broadband
Cavity Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy (IBB-CEAS), the device
utilizes an optical cavity of just 14.5 cm and moderately high reflectivity
mirrors (R = 99.3%). Performance of the instrument has been compared
to direct absorption measurements in a single-pass measurement
cell. Currently, the IBB-CEAS ozone instrument can achieve 1 ppb
sensitivities at 0.1 s integration time with a dynamic range over fourorders of magnitude, accessing relevant ozone concentrations in boththe stratosphere and troposphere. This technology will enable improvedozone mapping by airborne platforms.

Denis V. Pliutau, Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research
Ctr. (United States)
We performed comparative studies to establish favorable spectral
regions and measurement wavelength combinations in alternative
bands of CO2 and O2, for the sensing of CO2 mixing ratios (XCO2) inmissions such as ASCENDS. The analysis employed several simulation
approaches including separate layers calculations based on preanalyzed atmospheric data from the modern-era retrospective analysis
for research and applications (MERRA), and the line-by-line radiativetransfer model (LBLRTM) to obtain achievable accuracy estimatesas a function of altitude and for the total path over an annual span ofvariations in atmospheric parameters. Separate layer error estimatesalso allowed investigation of the uncertainties in the weighting functions
at varying altitudes and atmospheric conditions. The parameters
influencing the measurement accuracy were analyzed independently andincluded temperature sensitivity, water vapor interferences, selectionof favorable weighting functions, excitations wavelength stabilities andother factors. The results were used to identify favorable spectral regions
and combinations of on / off line wavelengths leading to reductions ininterferences and the improved total accuracy.

8718-24, Session 6

Relaxation of photoconductivity in porous
silicon for gas sensing
Liubomyr S. Monastyrsky, Ivan Franko National Univ. of L’viv(Ukraine)
One of urgent today’s problem is control of toxic and other harmful
substances in air atmosphere, drinking-water, foods of feed and others.
In this connection there is a necessity for development of microelectronicsystems of detection of gases for industrial, office and housing
apartments which can be components of integral systems of protectionof human’s life and health. Of special interest is the sensors basedon nanoporous semiconductors, in particular porous silicon. Opticalsensers of such type are described in a number of papers . Among suchsensors one can distinguish the structures from porous silicon, basedon the change of photoconductivity and its kinetics under the action ofdifferent gas environments which can be used as effective gas analyzers.

8718-22, Session 6

Studies on sensitive Raman gas detectors
Duluo Zuo, Yongyue Xu, Xingbing Wang, Huazhong Univ. of
Science and Technology (China); Youhui Xiong, Wuhan Cubic

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Conference 8718: Advanced Environmental, Chemical, andBiological Sensing Technologies X
For designing such sensors it is necessary to know dependences ofphotoconductivity of porous silicon on the state of surface, depending ona gas environment which it is in, as well as on the degree of porosity of amaterial and geometry of pores.
Adsorption of gas molecules results in rising the surface recombination
velocity of photocarriers at the expense of increasing the capture of
charge carriers on the trap energy levels created by adatoms, as wellas the change of structure “dangling bond” Si - Si bonds . Change ofamount of trap centers was observed at adsorption of a number of gases: N, NO2, Cl2, Br2J2, and others.
The model of relaxation of photoconductivity of porous silicon, in which
recombination of photocarriers is taken into account on the surfaceof spherical pores at the shutdown of illumination, is presented andnumerically investigated. By the finite element method it is calculated
time evolution of the photoconductivity of porous silicon and dependenceof the relaxation time of photoconductivity on the surface recombination
velocity, which is determined by a concentration and nature of adsorbed
gas, as well as on the radius of pores and avarage distance between
them8718-25, Session 6

Miniature and non-invasive multiparameter
integrated optic respiratory monitor(ResHealth™) device
Edgar A. Mendoza, Yan Esterkin, Connie Kempen, Sonjian Sun,
Redondo Optics, Inc. (United States)
Periodic breathing disorders associated with hypoxemia in infants
suffering from apnea or at risk of sudden infant death syndrome(SIDS) can become life threatening in a few minutes. According to theAmerican Hospital Association non-invasive continuous monitoring ofbreathing activity in infant and children patients suffering with respiratory
breathing disorders is critical, and appropriate breathing monitoring
equipment could be life saving. Our strategy in addressing this need isto develop and provide a new, unintrusive, multi-parameter integrated
optic respiratory breathing monitor (ResHealth™) device to continuously
monitor, with near-zero false alarms, the inspiratory and expiratory
breathing activity of infants and children suffering from SIDS andapnea in high risk, life threatening, clinical conditions. The ResHealth™
device is based on the use of a miniature optical sensor microchip thatincorporates an array of self-referenced, accurate, and highly reliable,
fluorimetric breathing gas sensors for the real time measurementof oxygen, carbon dioxide, and humidity gas concentration, as well
as exhaled and inhaled gas temperature in nasal, oral, or oro-nasal
breathing activity, all integrated in a miniature disposable microchip. The
miniature sensor microchip is placed unintrusively in close proximity to
the nose or mouth of the infant or child patient.

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Conference 8719:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology X
Wednesday - Thursday 1 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8719 Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology X

8719-1, Session 1

8719-3, Session 1

Fitness approach for inferring intent inmarkerless mutated genomes

Quantum dot FRET-based rapid detection of
biological pathogens

Dontcho V. Jelev, Mia Hunt, Anna Le, Christopher Dupuis,
Suelynn Ren, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Henry S.
Gibbons, U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Ctr. (UnitedStates)Christopher Anton, Episensors, Inc. (United States)
The ability to detect the presence of a biological specimen in air, water,
solid surfaces and food is of critical importance. In order to addressthese needs, a biological detection platform based on a novel quantum
dot (QD) fluorescent resonant energy transfer (FRET) technology has
been developed. A variety of surface functionalizations are applied to
the nanoscale QDs to create colloidal sensing elements. These elements
link the QDs to the quencher molecules and are selected based upon
the target organism, with monoclonal antibodies being most commonlyused due to their high specificity and binding affinity. Quencher
molecules are bound to the sensing elements in order to greatly reducethe initial optical output of the QDs under ultraviolet excitation. Whenthe sensing elements are exposed to the pathogens of interest, thequencher molecules are displaced by live pathogens and an increasein fluorescence is observed. A variety of experimental results will bepresented, ranging from bench-top studies demonstrating the capabilitiesof the QD FRET technology, to field tests of a fully-integrated prototype
sensor system capable of simultaneously collecting, detecting, andidentifying biological pathogens. Through these experiments, a rapid (2-5minute assay time), sensitive (102 CFUs/ml), and versatile (multiplexed
detection of up to 8 pathogens simultaneously) detection system has
been demonstrated.

Whole genome profiling is a benchmark for new strain identificationand determining intent in forensic genomics. However, whole genome
profiling alone often reveals more mutations than are easily assigned toa specific phenotype. The utility of this approach is further challenged
by the emergence of markerless recombineering techniques. There is aneed for developing alternative approaches for characterizing minimallyengineered genomes. We argue that wild type bacterial strains are
optimally adapted to their natural environments and the introductionof phenotype enhancing mutations is likely to adversely affect strain
fitness. We use strains from a recently sequenced collection of Bacillus
atrophaeus var. globigii (BG) strains which reveals clear evolutionary
trajectory beginning with an archival 1942 culture from the Universityof Wisconsin and proceeding through Camp Detrick and several othermilitary laboratories into modern day strains (Gibbons et al., 2011, PLoS
ONE 6:e17836). Mutation of metabolic genes in strain Detrick-1 appeared
to precede the emergence of a hypersporulating mutant Detrick-2(Spo0F H101R), variants of which have been utilized as anthrax simulants
since the 1940’s. We show that the culturing of wild type BG strains incorn steep liquor (CSL) during 1940’s has resulted in the emergence ofstrain Detrick-1; adapted for growth in the presence of lactic acid. This
adaptation impairs the strain fitness in media lacking lactic acid. Similarly,
the acquiring of sporulation-enhancing mutation in Spo0F has resulted
in impairment of strain fitness. Based on these findings we propose afour stage fitness approach for inferring intent in markerless engineered
genomes.

8719-4, Session 1

Zinc oxide nanorod platforms in highly
sensitive biodetection (Invited Paper)
Jong-in Hahm, Georgetown Univ. (United States)
The talk pertains to high sensitivity biodetection enabled by theexquisite optical property of well-controlled zinc oxide nanorods that areassembled into arrays directly after their CVD synthesis. Many different
biosystems including cytokines, helicase, telomerase, and B. anthracis
are used to demonstrate such ability of our zinc oxide nanorod platforms.
The efforts will be highly beneficial for large population screening, earlybiomarker studies and biosecurity-related detection.

8719-2, Session 1

Developing a cell-based sensor for thedetection of Autoinducer-2
Matthew D. Servinsky, Patrick C. Allen, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Chen-Yu Tsao, The Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States); Christopher M. Byrd, Christian J. Sund, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); William E. Bentley, The Univ.
of Maryland, College Park (United States); Katherine Germane,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

8719-5, Session 1

Surface functionalization for sensitive
detection of glucose in complex medium
using SERS

Bacteria are now known to utilize an intricate communication system
for sensing and interpreting environmental cues that coordinate
population-based behavior. Quorum sensing is one of these systems,
and it involves the production, release, and detection of small chemicalsignaling molecules. Recent research has revealed the role of these
quorum sensing molecules in control of microbial activities such as
biofilm formation. In this presentation, we outline the development of anenhanced E. coli cell based sensor for detection of the quorum sensing
molecule Autoinducer-2 (AI-2) as well as engineering strategies to remove
sugar and anoxic inhibition of the sensor.

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Fang Sun, Shaoyi Jiang, Qiuming Yu, The Univ. of Washington(United States)
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy has
emerged as a powerful analytical and sensing tool for use in biomedical
diagnostics. However, protein fouling is a major issue for SERS detection
under physiological condition. Fouling could cover the entire sensing
surface preventing the analytes from diffusion to the sensing surface,resulting in significantly reduced sensitivity. Here, we report several
new approaches to modify the SERS sensing surface to allow specificbinding of glucose and in the meantime to reduce fouling. It is known
that glucose binds to boronic acid. Molecules with phenylboronic acid
were immobilized on SERS surfaces. The binding of glucose induces
the change of vibrational peaks of benzene ring providing a sensitive
detection of glucose. We demonstrated the detection of glucose in
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Conference 8719:
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serum and plasma. We used quasi-3D plasmonic nanostructure arrays
developed in our group as SERS-active substrates. The nanostructures
were designed and optimized using finite-difference time-domain (FDTD)
simulations and fabricated in PDMS using soft lithography for low costmass production of SERS chips. Furthermore, the SERS nanopatterns
were made in microfluidic systems to allow in-situ dynamic detections.

8719-9, Session 38719-6, Session 2

Cell surface peptide display systems are large and diverse libraries of
peptides (7-15 amino acids) which are presented by a display scaffold
hosted by a phage (virus), bacteria, or yeast cell. This allows the selfsustaining peptide libraries to be rapidly screened for high affinity
binders to a given target of interest, and those binders quickly identified.
Peptide display systems have traditionally been utilized in conjunction
with organic-based targets, such as protein toxins or carbon nanotubes.
However, this technology has been expanded for use with inorganic
targets, such as metals, for biofabrication, hybrid material assemblyand corrosion prevention. While most current peptide display systems
employ viruses to host the display scaffold, we have recently shown thata bacterial host, Escherichia coli, displaying peptides in the ubiquitous,
membrane protein scaffold eCPX can also provide specific peptide
binders to an organic target. We have, for the first time, extended the useof this bacterial peptide display system for the biodiscovery of aluminumbinding 15-mer peptides. We will present the process of biopanning withmacroscopic inorganic targets, binder enrichment, and binder isolationand discovery. A modeling approach will also be present to explore theinteraction of the peptides with aluminum surface target.

Biological engineering approaches for cellularand biomolecular detection and sensing(Invited Paper)
D. Marshall Porterfield, NASA Headquarters (United States) andPurdue Univ. (United States)
Sensor technologies have broad applications and benefit from broadinterdisciplinary approaches for sensor technology development arealso important in drawing upon various technologies in the developmentof new sensing and detection systems. The Physiological Sensing
Facility in Purdue University’s Discovery Park is a collaborative corefacility, organized and physically housed in order to bridge the resourcesof the Birck Nanotechnology Center, and the Bindley Bioscience
Center. Ongoing work does integrate the fundamental sciences withengineering to create the tools and technologies for discovery acrossthe life sciences. Research includes advanced sensing and biosensing
technology based on nanomaterial development, bioMEMS and lab-ona-chip systems, optrodics, and self-referencing microsensor technology.
These technologies are engineered in the context of hypothesis driven
science to facilitate physiology, the study of form and function, foragriculture, the environment, biomedical, and space science applications.
Inspiration is from biology to engineering for new technology, but also
from engineering for biology to advance interdisciplinary development.
These new technologies have been developed and used for in many
innovative scientific studies. The knowledge gained in the application ofthese new sensor technologies has advanced basic biological sciences,
but also strengthens interdisciplinary ties for future engineering advances.

8719-7, Session 3

Optical fiber nanotips coated with molecularbeacons for mRNA detection in cells
Ambra Giannetti, Andrea Barucci, Sara Tombelli, Cosimo Trono,
Franco Cosi, Istituto di Fisica Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy);
Giancarlo C. Righini, Istituto di Fisica Applicata Nello Carrara(Italy) and Enrico Fermi Ctr. (Italy); Stefano Pelli, Francesco
Baldini, Istituto di Fisica Applicata Nello Carrara (Italy)
Molecular beacons (MB) are single-stranded DNA molecules thatpossess a stem-and-loop structure. The loop portion of the moleculecan form a double-stranded DNA in the presence of a complementary
sequence. A MB is labeled with a fluorophore and a quencher on thetwo ends of the stem. The stem keeps these two moieties in close
proximity to each other, causing the fluorescence of the fluorophore to
be quenched by energy transfer. The fluorophore fluorescence is restored
when the MB hybridizes to the target sequence. In this paper we present
a molecular beacon used as bioreceptor for mRNA detection immobilized
at the distal end of a tapered fiber. The attention was focused on
the mRNA for survivin, a protein highly expressed in most types ofcancer. Survivin-MB was characterized by hybridization studies with acomplementary sequence to prove its functionality both free in solution
and once immobilized onto the fiber tip. The nanotips were fabricated bychemical etching, starting from 500 micron diameter multimode opticalfiber and tapering it down to about 100 nm at the tip. Next, the MB
was attached to the nanotips via covalent binding and the fluorescenceof the MB fluorophore was externally collected after direct excitation
through the optical fiber ending with the tip. The MB coated nanotips areproposed as innovative tool for entering the cytoplasm of living cells, anddirectly measure the intracellular RNA.
156

Biodiscovery of aluminum binding peptides
Bryn L. Adams, Deborah A. Sarkes, Amethist S. Finch, Margaret
M. Hurley, Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)

8719-10, Session 3

XPairIt: novel toolkit design for smart reagent
development
Margaret M. Hurley, Michael S. Sellers, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
The development of smart peptide binders requires an understandingof the fundamental mechanisms of recognition which has remained anelusive grail of the research community for decades. Recent advances in
automated discovery and synthetic library science show great promisefor the development of recognition elements with improved stability,
affinity and specificity. In addition, these advances provide a wealth of
information to probe these fundamental details and develop improved
models for a priori prediction of affinity and specificity. Here we present
the modeling portion of an iterative experimental/computational study
to produce high affinity peptide binders to the Protective Antigen (PA)of Bacillus anthracis. The result is a general usage, HPC-oriented,
python-based toolkit based upon powerful third-party freeware, which
is designed to provide a better understanding of peptide-protein
interactions and ultimately predict and measure new smart peptide
binder candidates.

8719-11, Session 3

Modeling of CdZnTe single crystals growthfor detectors and sensors (Invited Paper)
Liliana Braescu, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique(Canada) and West Univ. of Timisoara (Romania)
CdZnTe is a promising semiconductor material for its potential as aroom temperature X-ray and γ-ray detection medium. The industrial
applications require high structural quality and homogeneous single
crystals with a very low dislocation density, no grains nor twins. These
improvements are facilitated by dewetting phenomenon in which the
crystal is grown detached from the ampoule wall by a liquid free surface
at the level of the solid-liquid interface, called liquid meniscus, which
creates a gap between the grown crystal and the ampoule wall.
Toward the goal of obtaining a more complete understanding ofdewetting phenomenon, computational models of crystal growth

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Conference 8719:
Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology X
processes are developed and applied. For evaluating numerically theeffect of the menisci shapes on the Zn distribution in CdZnTe crystals
grown by dewetted Bridgman technique using a pyrolitic boron nitride(pBN)-coated quartz ampoule, a pseudo quasi-steady state model isconsidered in the framework of a 2D axisymmetric geometry containing
two types of stable menisci: (i) a “S” shape meniscus that correspond to
the sum-of-the-angles criterion α_e+θ_c<180° (α_e is growth angle and?_c is wetting angle); (ii) a globally convex meniscus that correspond tochemical contamination, i.e., α_e+θ_c>180°. Numerical computations
including incompressible fluid flow in the Boussinesq approximation, heatand mass transfer, and Marangoni effect, prove that a convex meniscus
assures the best Zn distribution.

of the detection cell with or without a combination with external lenses
will be presented. The best result - 10-fould out-coupling efficiency
increase – was achieved for a combination of a structured and metallized
detection cell with an external short-focus lens.
[1] Kao Hung Pin, Yang Xing, International Patent WO 01/20309, 2001.
[2] J. Steigert, L. Riegger, M. Grumann, T. Brenner, J. Harter, R. Zengerle,
J. Ducree, Rapid alcohol testing in whole blood by disk-based real-timeabsorbance measure ment, Proc. 9th Int. Conf. on Miniaturized Systems
for Chemistry and Life Science µTAS2005, ed. by K.F. Jensen, J. Han, D.
J. Harrison, J Voldman, 2005, pp. 1-3.
[3] T. Mairal, I. Frese, E. Llaudet, C. Bermudo Redondo, I. Katakis, F.
von Germar, K. Drese, C. O’Sullivan, LAB on a Chip(2009)9, 3535-3542,
DOI:10.1039/b914635k

8719-12, Session 4

From microfluidic modules to an integrated
Lab-on-a-Chip system for the detection ofFrancisella tularensis

8719-14, Session 4

Purification of Bacillus thuringiensis DNA withpolymer-based, microfluidic lab-on-a-chipsystems

Nadine Hlawatsch, Marco Krumbholz, Anna Prüfer, Christian
Moche, Holger Becker, Claudia Gärtner, microfluidic ChipShop
GmbH (Germany)

Sandra Julich, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (Germany); Nadine
Hlawatsch, microfluidic ChipShop GmbH (Germany); Rok
Kopinc, Ales Lapanje, Institute of Physical Biology (Slovenia);
Herbert Tomaso, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (Germany)

Lab-on-a-chip (LoC) systems translating the whole process of pathogen
analysis to an integrated, miniaturized, and automatically functioning
microfluidic platform are generally expected to be very promising future
diagnostic approaches. The development of such a LoC system forthe detection of bacterial pathogens applied to the example pathogen
Francisella tularensis is described in this report. To allow functional
testing of the whole process cascade before final device integration,
various bio-analytical steps such as cell lysis, DNA extraction andpurification, continuous-flow PCR and analyte detection have been
adapted to unique functional microfluidic modules. As a successive step,
positively tested modules for pathogen detection have been successfully
assembled to an integrated chip. Moreover, technical solutions for asmooth interaction between sample input from the outer world as well
as microfluidic chip and chip driving instrument have been developed. In
conclusion, a full repertoire of analytical tools have been developed andsuccessfully tested in the concerted manner of a functionally integrated
microfluidic device representing a tool for future diagnostic approaches.

We present results obtained in the course of the development of labon-a-chip systems to be applied for the detection of bacterial B-agentsusing Bacillus (B.) thuringiensis as simulant for B. anthracis that can behandled outside BSL-3 laboratory conditions.
To enable reliable detection purification of the sample matrix is usuallyrequired. Methods for chip-based sample preparation of selectpathogens using magnetic beads with special surface modifications were
established and evaluated in comparison to commercial routine methods.
Quantification of DNA yield was achieved using real-time PCR assays
with TaqMan probes targeting the cryT gene.
The assays were optimized regarding sample and elution volume aswell as bead quantity. Methods for cell lysis and sample concentration
on chip were also tested. PCR assays with two-step protocols anduniform temperature and time settings were chosen in order to allow
simultaneous detection.

8719-13, Session 4

Lab-on-a-chip systems are intended for point-of-care analysis andprovide several advantages in comparison to conventional diagnostic
techniques. Analysis can be faster, purification of DNA and PCR analysis
can be integrated and the instrumentation can be miniaturized. Therefore,such tests can be useful in medical and veterinary diagnostics.

Effect of surface structuring onto theefficiency of the in- and out-coupling of lightfrom a chip in Lab-on-a-chip approaches with
optical detection

8719-15, Session 4

Ines Frese, Rainer Gransee, Institut für Mikrotechnik Mainz
GmbH (Germany)

Microchannel impedance for quasi Newtonian
fluids with spatial modulated viscosity

Optical detection methods have been implemented on chips with microfluidic channels or cavities in different geometries e.g. for colorimetry or
fluorescence measurements with excitation in the chip plane [1-2]. The
most prominent problem of the read-out from a chip is the limitation of
the optical yield. Without e.g. an immersion liquid for compensation of
the total reflection on the boundary, only about 12-13% of rays crossover the boundary from a mostly polymer chip to air. One of the efficientmethods to increase the optical yield from a chip is a ray reorientation
inside the chip using an additional surface structuring creating new
refraction boundaries before leaving the chip. The use of 45°-tilted mirror
arrangements for in- and out-coupling of the fluorescence signal from a
micro-fluidic chip and approaching of this principle for realization of lowcost fluorescence detection unit have been recently published [3].

Tatiana Tabares, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Using the Navier-Stokes equation and assuming a viscosity radiallymodulated for a quasi-Newtonian fluid, we obtain the impedance of a
fluid through microchannels and their corresponding electrical analogs.
To solve the Navier Stokes equation will use the Laplace transform, theBromwich integral, the residue theorem and Bessel functions. This will
give a formula for the impedance in terms of Bessel functions and fromthese equations to be constructed equivalent electrical circuits. These
solutions correspond to the case of quasi-Newtonian fluid it is to say a
fluid that does not stagnate in the channel wall as is the case if the fluid is
Newtonian. The formulas obtained may have applications in the general
theory of microfluidics and microscopic systems design for drug delivery.

Our report here includes the investigation of the effect of different tilt
angles of total reflection and metallized-surface mirrors for a volume
emitted analyte using the ray-tracing simulation tool OptiCAD10.
Furthermore, an estimation of the influence on the out-coupling efficiency
of a surface-emitted signal for different geometries of metallized walls

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8719-16, Session 48719-18, Session 5

Cylindrical matrix device with a circularrelease area with inhomogeneous diffusivity(Invited Paper)

Compatibly interfacing electrochemicalsensors with biology

Carlos A. Cuartas, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Cylindrical Matrix Device with a Circular Release Area with
Inhomogeneous Diffusivity.
A cylindrical matrix device with a circular release area withinhomogeneous diffusivity was analyzed using a Laplace transform–
based method, using Bromwich integral and residue theorem. The
two-dimensional model represented a pharmaceutical agent uniformly
distributed in a polymeric matrix with a diffusivity spatially modulated,surrounded by an impermeable layer. The pharmaceutical agent could
be transferred only through a small hole centered at the top surface ofthe cylinder. A closed-form solution was obtained in terms of Bessel
functions with the aim to help study the effects of design parameters andgeometries on the cumulative amount of pharmaceutical agent released.
The cumulative flux of pharmaceutical agent increased with the masstransfer and diffusion coefficients and decreased with any incrementin the device’s length and variations of the diffusivity coefficients. The
delivery rate was described by an effective time constant calculated from
Laplace transforms and using Bessel functions and their zeros. Reducing
the orifice diameter or fabricating a longer system would delay transportof the medication. Simplified expressions for the release profile and thetime constant were derived for special design cases.

8719-17, Session 5

Lignin and silicate based hydrogels forbiosensor applications
Stephanie L. Burrs, Suguna Jairam, Diana C. Vanegas, ZhaohuiTong, Eric S. McLamore, The Univ. of Florida (United States)
Immobilization of biorecognition elements on nanomaterial platforms isan efficient technique for developing high fidelity biosensors. Advancesin biocompatible materials and electrocatalytic nanomaterials haveextended and enhanced the field of biosensors by allowing developmentof nanomaterial platforms. While single layer (i.e., Langmuir–Blodgett)films and ordered nanomaterial platforms are highly efficient, fabrication
is often expensive and time consuming. In addition, application ofsome of these devices in complex solutions can be subject to surface
fouling and signal error. Thus, there is a need for facile biosensor
nanomaterial platforms which can be developed in laboratories(i.e., outside class rooms). In recent years high purity nanomaterials
are widely available, and high performance biomaterials are being
developed from waste products. In this research, we develop high fidelity
nanomaterial platforms for developing electrochemical biosensors
using sustainable biomaterials and user-friendly deposition techniques.
Catalytic nanomaterial platforms are developed using a combinationof self assembled monolayer chemistry, electrodeposition, and pulsed
electrosonication. High performance biomaterials (e.g., nanolignin) arerecovered from paper pulp waste. These facile techniques have beenused to develop electrochemical biosensors to study physiologicaltransport in biomedical, agricultural, and environmental applications.

158

Lauren Schoukroun, Samiullah Wagan, Ryan J. White, The Univ.
of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
Biosensors have the potential to revolutionize how we study living
systems and provide detailed information about the molecular basis oforganism function. This new information can lead to new paradigms
in biology and the life sciences. Unfortunately, while examples of new
biosensor platforms continue to grow, two major barriers impede
utilization of devices outside the controlled laboratory setting: 1)
Sensors fail to respond when challenged in complicated biologicalsample matrices due to “biofouling,” which masks the true biologicalresponse of interest, and/or 2) The sensor perturbs the environment andthereby elicits an unnatural response by the biological system being
studied. New biosensor designs are thus needed to enable properinterfacing with the biological environment. Herein, a new general sensing
interface that couples the sensitive, specific and selective detection
properties of electrochemical, aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors with thebiocompatibility of hydrogel membranes is introduced. By employing
this multidisciplinary approach we are able to obtain stable, quantitative
measurements of small molecule targets directly in complex sample
matrices including undiluted serum. Specifically, by encapsulating anelectrochemical, aptamer-based sensor for the specific detection ofaminoglycoside antibiotics with polyacrylamide hydrogel membranes, weachieve quantitative and reliable detection of the small molecule directlyin unadulterated serum while mitigating sensor biofouling from serum
proteins. Furthermore, we explore the effects of hydrogel properties
including mesh size and membrane thickness on analytical sensor
performance.

8719-19, Session 5

Utilizing metalized fabrics for liquid and rip
detection and localization
Stephen Holland, The Univ. of Tennessee Knoxville (UnitedStates) and Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States); Cody
Mahan, Western Kentucky Univ. (United States); Michael Kuhn,
Nathan Rowe, Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)
This paper proposes a novel technique for utilizing conductive textiles as
a distributed sensor for detecting and localizing liquids (e.g., blood), rips
(e.g., bullet holes), and potentially biosignals. The proposed technique isverified through both simulation and experimental measurements. Circuit
theory is utilized to depict conductive fabric as a bounded, near-infinite
grid of resistors. Solutions to the well-known infinite resistance gridproblem are used to confirm the accuracy and validity of this modelingapproach. Simulations allow for discontinuities to be placed within theresistor matrix to illustrate the effects of bullet holes within the fabric. A
real-time experimental system was developed that uses a multiplexed
Wheatstone bridge approach to reconstruct the resistor grid across the
conductive fabric and detect liquids and rips. The resistor grid model isvalidated through a comparison of simulated and experimental results.
Results suggest accuracy proportional to the electrode spacing in
determining the presence and location of discontinuities in conductive
fabric samples. Future work is focused on refining the experimental
system to provide more accuracy in detecting and localizing events
as well as developing a complete prototype that can be deployed forfield testing. Potential applications include intelligent clothing, flexible,
lightweight sensing systems, and combat wound detection.

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8719-20, Session 58719-22, Session 5

Noninvasive mechanical properties
estimation of embedded objects using tactile
imaging sensor

Remote sensing of heart rate using
millimeter-wave interferometry andprobabilistic interpolation

Firdous Saleheen, Vira Oleksyuk, Amrita Sahu, Chang-Hee Won,
Temple Univ. (United States)

Ilya V. Mikhelson, Northwestern Univ. (United States); Sasan
Bakhtiari Sr., Thomas W. Elmer, Shaolin Liao, Argonne National
Lab. (United States); Alan V. Sahakian, Northwestern Univ.
(United States)

Non-invasive mechanical properties estimation of an embedded object
can be used in medicine for characterization between malignant andbenign lesions. We developed a tactile imaging sensor which consistsof a flexible and transparent sensing probe, light sources, and a camera.
Here we investigate the capability of a non-invasive optical tactile
imaging sensor to differentiate malignant and benign tumors throughelasticity. Studies show that stiffness of tumor is a key physiologicaldiscerning parameter for malignancy. As our sensor compresses thetumor from the surface, the sensing probe deforms, and the lightscatters. This forms the tactile image. Using the features of the image,
we can estimate the mechanical properties such as size, depth, andelasticity of the embedded object. To test the performance of themethod, a phantom study was performed. Silicone rubber balls wereused as embedded objects inside the tissue mimicking substrate madeof Polydimethylsiloxane. The average relative errors for size, depth, andelasticity were found to be 67.5%, 48.2%, and 69.1%, respectively.
To test the feasibility of the sensor in estimating the elasticity of tumor,
a pilot clinical study was conducted on six breast cancer patients.
The estimated elasticity was correlated with the biopsy results. Outof six tumors, three were malignant. Preliminary results show that thesensitivity of 67% and the specificity of 67%. Results from the clinicalstudy suggest that the tactile imaging sensor may be used as a tumor
malignancy characterization tool.

Using a 94-GHz homodyne interferometer employing a highly-directional
quasi-optical lens antenna aimed at a human subject’s chest, we canmeasure chest wall displacement from up to 10m away and throughcommon clothing. Within the chest displacement signal are motions
due to cardiac activity, respiration, and gross body movement. Our goal
is to find the heart rate of the subject being monitored, which implies
isolation of the minute movements due to cardiac activity from themuch larger movements due to respiration and body movement. To
accomplish this, we first find a subset of the true heartbeat temporal
locations (called “confident” heartbeats) in the displacement signal using
a multi-resolution wavelet approach, utilizing Symlet wavelets. Although
the chest displacement due to cardiac activity is orders of magnitude
smaller than that due to respiration and body movement, wavelets findthose heartbeat locations due to several useful properties, such as
shape matching, high-pass filtering, and vanishing moments. Using theassumption that the “confident” heartbeats are randomly selected fromthe set of all heartbeats, we are able to find the maximum likelihood
statistics of an inverse Gaussian probability distribution modeling theinter-heartbeat times. We then analyze each interval between “confident”
heartbeats and decide how many interpolated heartbeats belong in thatinterval based on the inverse Gaussian distribution we calculated earlier.
The union of the “confident” set and the interpolated set forms a very
close approximation to the true heartbeat temporal location set, and thus
allows us to accurately calculate a heart rate.

8719-21, Session 5

Ambulatory EEG neuromonitor platform
for engagement studies of children with
development delays

8719-23, Session 6

Non-invasive microsensors for studying cell/tissue physiology

Ruhi Mahajan, Sergi Consul-Pacareu, Mohammed Abu Saude,
Md Nazmus Sahadat, Bashir I. Morshed, The Univ. of Memphis(United States)

Diana Vanegas, Masashige Taguchi, Prachee Chaturvedi,
Stephanie L. Burrs, Eric S. McLamore, The Univ. of Florida(United States)

Engagement monitoring is crucial in many biomedical diagnostics
applications such as evaluation of teaching strategies for children with
developmental delays including autism spectrum disorder, attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder, or cerebral palsy; as it is challenging
for the instructors to gauge responses of these children to determine
the effectiveness of the teaching strategies. This paper presents anambulatory EEG neuromonitor platform to study such brain activities. In
comparison to commercial EEG system, the developed miniature (size:
1.4” x 2.2” x 0.7”, weight: ≤150gm) and low-power (active mode: <18
mA, sleep mode :<100 µA) EEG module can have 1 or 2 channels withflexible leads to record activities of the subject and can be embedded
within a headband or a visor. The signals from the electrodes at thefrontal lobe are amplified with a low-power instrumentation amplifier, thena 4th-order low-pass Chebyshev-I filter (fc = 80Hz) followed by a notch
filter (fc = 60Hz) are used for signal conditioning. A PSoC ADC (16-bit,
256 Hz) samples this filtered signal and transmits it through a Class-2
Bluetooth transceiver to a PC or a handheld device for real-time analysis.
This battery-powered device (~40 hours runtime) will be used to monitor
the engagement of children with developmental delays in classroom
settings, to study the effectiveness of various teaching strategies towards
the development of personalized instruction plans. The ambulatory
EEG neuromonitor platform offers its applications for many biomedical
diagnostics studies in real-life settings of brain engagements or disorders
such as epilepsy and post-traumatic stress disorder.

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Self-referencing (SR) is a microsensor modality designed to quantify
biophysical flux. This technique uses phase sensitive detection throughamplification of differential concentration signals to “self-correct” forambient drift and noise and increase spatial and temporal resolution.
SR enhances the ability to measure the physiological activity of anorganism, tissue, or cell while maintaining a high signal to noise ratio. The
SR technique can be run with potentiometric, optical or amperometricsensors. SR is used to measure ions (e.g., Ca2+, H+, K+, and Na+),
oxygen, electroactive molecules (e.g., nitric oxide, indole aceticacid) and biomolecules (glucose, glutamate, lactate). Incorporating
new biocompatible materials preserves the fragile three dimensional
structures of sensor biorecognition elements, improving selectivity andhysteresis. Furthermore, addition of catalytic nanomaterials (e.g., multi/
single walled carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, and nanoplatinum)
increases sensor sensitivity, response time and operating range.
SR sensors allow researchers to ask new hypothesis driven questions
in a number of agricultural, biomedical, and environmental research
problems. For example, SR sensors are being used to study the role ofgravitropism and Ca2+ flux in Ceratopteris richardii, methyl-jasmonate
induced proton flux in Arabidopsis thaliana guard cells, oxygen flux
and stress signaling in plants (Glycine max L merrand Brassica Napus),
methanol and acetic acid production in methanogenic biofilms for biofuel
production, and xanthine and hypoxanthine flux from contaminatedseafood. Non-invasive SR microsensors allow rapid determination of·

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Conference 8719:
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temporally and spatially dynamic transport at the cell, tissue, organ, andorganismal level.

8719-24, Session 6

A multiplexing fiber optic microsensor system
for monitoring oxygen concentration in plants
during simulated climate change
Prachee Chaturvedi, Bernie Hauser, Eric S. McLamore, The
Univ. of Florida (United States); Eric Karplus, Science Wares,
Inc. (United States); L. H. Allen, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (UnitedStates); K. J. Boote, The Univ. of Florida (United States)
In biological systems, real-time measurement of oxygen levels andflux provides critical information for understanding the dynamics andphysiology of this metabolite. Our research focus investigates theunknown effect of limited oxygen availability in plants due to climatechange. Global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and temperatures
are predicted to increase rapidly in coming centuries. This may reduce
oxygen availability in seed and reproductive structures, because
higher temperature is expected to decrease oxygen solubility andincrease metabolic demand for oxygen more than it increases oxygen
molecular diffusivity. These changes are expected to adversely impact
the reproductive processes and grain yield of seed-producing plants.
For example, rising temperature decreases oxygen availability insoybean ovules, which in turn increases seed failure. To improve ourunderstanding of the underlying physiological mechanism related
to these adverse effects, we developed a multiplexing fiber optic
microsensor system for monitoring oxygen concentration near or withindifferent parts of plants, such as developing ovules, pollen grains andflowers. The fiber optic sensor tip diameters range in size from 0.1 mm
to 800nm, and the sensors interface with a mechanical fiber multiplexer
for multichannel monitoring. The detection system includes a frequency
modulated LED for excitation (400nm), a B-390 filter to block longer
wavelength emission, blue dichroic beamsplitter, and photomultiplier tube
with O-56 filter and 10x objective. Sensor performance was enhanced
by immobilizing titanium dioxide nanoparticles on the sensor surface.
Selection of optical components may be easily optimized to improvesensitivity if desired, and real time flux of other biologically significant
molecules in plant systems, such as calcium, pH, and nitric oxide isalso possible. This versatile, mobile microsensor platform allowed us tomeasure real time oxygen concentration in up to ten different soybean
flowers, ovules, or seed-pods under various temperature and oxygen
concentration conditions.

8719-25, Session 6

Towards a modular, robust, and portablesensing platform for biological and point ofcare diagnostics
Amethist S. Finch, Justin R. Bickford, Marvin A. Conn, Matthew
B. Coppock, Deborah A. Sarkes, Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
The ability to conveniently and immediately test and diagnose in adiverse and rapidly changing environment is critical for field diagnostics.
Smart biomedical sensors employ many different diagnostic/therapeutic
methodologies; however, an ideal system would include the ability
for results to be shared instantaneously with all members of the teamthrough a software interface. We discuss our efforts towards thedevelopment and use of a robust, mobile platform (Android based smart
phone) that incorporates stable molecular recognition elements in sensor
development. The inexpensive, compact, robust, archival, and portable
design is ideal for rapid field diagnostics.

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8719-26, Session 6

High-sensitivity pulsed laser vibrometer for
detection of biological life signatures andmicrophone applications (Invited Paper)
Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates); Chen-Chia Wang, Sudhir B. Trivedi, Brimrose Corp. of
America (United States)
A highly sensitive pulsed laser vibrometer has been developed using an
advanced photo-emf detector. Using a high repetition rate diode laser
in an interferometric setup, vibrations are detected from a vibrating
diaphragm or a target surface located in one of its arms. So far, less than
4 pm displacements from a vibrating surface have been detected. Using
this approach, detailed, time-phased mechanical workings of various
parts of the human heart have been recorded and analyzed. Results
are validated by electrocardiography and accelerometer readings.
Sensitivities greater than conventional ECG’s have been achieved. This
technique allows remote and nonintrusive operation with no contact
wires. Furthermore, applications in photoacoustics for detecting
explosives have been explored. In this paper, we present the principles ofoperation of this new kind of laser vibrometer together with experimental
validations for detection and monitoring of biological life signatures andfor microphone based applications for detection of explosives.

8719-27, Session 6

Nanowire-nanocluster hybrid sensor
technology for environmental, industrial, andsecurity monitoring (Invited Paper)
Abhishek Motayed, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States) and The Univ. of Maryland (UnitedStates); Geetha S. Aluri, Ritu Bajpai, Albert V. Davydov, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States); Rao V.
Mulpuri, George Mason Univ. (United States); Mona Zaghloul,
The George Washington Univ. (United States)
Next-generation of environmental monitors suitable for integration
with smart-phone and other mobile platforms require single-chip, ultra
low-power sensor technology capable of recognizing multiple threats.
Traditional sensor technologies, such as electrochemical, catalytic, andphotoionization based detectors all have significant limitations in termsof physical size, power requirement, sensitivity, selectivity, range, andoperating life.
We have developed a novel chemical sensor architecture by combining
the sensitive transduction capability of gallium nitride (GaN) nanowires
together with the enhanced catalytic efficiency of metal and metal-oxides
nanoclusters (with diameters in the range of 2 – 10 nanometers). Using
multicomponent nanocluster design, we can produce sensors with highselectivity to any small set of chemicals, currently not possible with anyother technology. We have shown that GaN nanowires decorated with
nanoclusters of titanium dioxide can be used to detect volatile organic
compounds, such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene –commonly referred to as BTEX at concentration levels as low as 50 ppb.
The photocatalytic metal-oxide nanoclusters allowed room-temperature
sensor operation using only UV excitation. These sensors also detected
nitroaromatic explosive compounds such as trinitrotoluene at levels of
500 ppt in air. By adding platinum to the titanium dioxide nanoclusters,
the same sensors can be “retuned” to respond to hydrogen, methanol,and ethanol. The unique strength of our technology is that it allows us
to design sensors for variety of applications by simply re-designing themetal/metal-oxide nanocluster. This enables fabrication of arrays ofmultiple sensors on a single chip capable of identifying various types ofchemical threats.

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8719-28, Session 6enhanced imaging details will permit more precise diagnosis and control
of treatments.

Tunable graphene-based SPR sensors

In this paper, we present the synthesis and characterization a dualimaging contrast agent based on bifunctional gold nanoparticles
designed for the targeting of tissue ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme)
and monitoring of cardiovascular diseases. Lisinopril was derivatized with
thioctic acid to form the targeting ligand and the complex Gd(DOTA) was
also modified to provide a ligand for MRI imaging. The gold core served
as the CT contrast agent.

Ergun Simsek, The George Washington Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8719-29, Session 7

The new nanoprobes prepared could not only target tissue ACE but
also provided bimodal imaging capabilities (CT and MRI). This bimodal
molecular imaging will improve the ability to accurately target diseased
tissue at a very early stage, thus diagnosing and then treating patients inthe most efficient way.

Development and characterization of
two-photon fluorescent miniemulsion
nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery
Suproteem K. Sarkar, Conestoga High School (United States)
and The Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States); Lian Li,
The Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States); Marina V.
Backer, Joseph M. Backer, SibTech, Inc. (United States); Jayant
Kumar, The Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell (United States)

8719-31, Session 7

Imaging spectral techniques with applications
to biomedical science (Invited Paper)

Side effects of chemotherapy are major problems associated with current
cancer treatment. One way to improve the efficacy of cancer treatment
and decrease side effects is to deliver drugs specifically targeted totumors. This can be achieved by encapsulating chemotherapy drugs
inside nanoparticles that aggregate in tumors due to the enhanced
permeability and retention effect. In order to monitor the delivery of
nanoparticle-drug conjugates, it is important to develop systems toimage the nanopaticles. Towards that goal we have developed twophoton fluorescent nanoparticles through the miniemulsion process,using poly [2-(3-thienyl)ethanol butoxycarbonyl-methyl urethane], aconjugated polymer developed in our laboratory, and two surfactants,
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and cetyl trimethylammonium bromide(CTAB). Two-photon fluorescent probes can lead to significant reductionof background fluorescence compared to single photon fluorescentprobes.

Richard G. Madonna, Andrew Paylor, Northrop Grumman
Electronic Systems (United States)

Nanoparticle size decreased as surfactant concentration increased, andparticle size remained constant for surfactant concentrations above thecritical micellar concentration (CMC), which was 8.2 µM for SDS and1 µM for CTAB. The average size of the nanoparticles with surfactants
at CMC was 31.67 nm for SDS nanoparticles and 25.60 nm for CTAB
nanoparticles. Both nanoparticle systems exhibited strong one-photon
and two-photon fluorescent signals. We evaluated the cell penetration
ability of the nanoparticles in rat cardiomyocytes using fluorescentmicrscopy. Our results suggest that these nanoparticles may be used forhigh-contrast imaging of tumor cells.

Performance of acousto-optical imagers forchemical and biological detection

This paper provides an overview to the different spectral imaging
techniques developed largely in the remote sensing community, anddescribes how these techniques can be used in the biomedical field. The
discussion of spectral imaging techniques embraces both the hardware(imaging spectrometers, fixed filters, etc.) and the algorithms used tounderstand the spectral images. Extension of these remote sensing
based techniques is made to the biomedical field through applications
such as quality control screening in drug manufacturing, and detection offoreign matter in tissues.

8719-32, Session 7

Narsingh B. Singh, Bradley Arnold, The Univ. of Maryland,
Baltimore County (United States); Mohan Singh, Veer Bahadur
Singh Purvanchal Univ. (India); Milton Gottlieb, Dennis Suhre,
DRS Scientific, Inc. (United States)
Thre is a strong need for spectral and imager sensor for chemical
biological detection. Although a variety of hyperspectral imagers areavailable, but these require huge processing problems. We propose
technology for sweeping a wide range of transparency and capability toachieve desired sensitivity in the region of interest.

8719-30, Session 7

Bifunctional gold nanoparticles for targeted
dual imaging of angiotensin converting
enzyme (Invited Paper)

8719-33, Session 7

Hyperspectral imaging system to discern
malignant and benign canine mammary
tumorsMarie-Christine F. Daniel, William E. Ghann, The Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
The aim of nanodiagnostics is to identify disease at its earliest stage,
particularly at the molecular level. Nanoparticle-based molecular imaging
has set a unique platform for cellular tracking, targeted diagnostic
studies, and image-monitored therapy. In the preclinical setting, several
modalities, such as fluorescence, positron emission tomography (PET),
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT) andultrasound imaging are used for imaging of the cardiovascular system.
Although this conventional imaging describes extent and severity ofcardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis or ischemia, molecularimaging is needed to identifying precursors of disease development andprogression. Bringing multimodality capability to the molecular imaging
will harness the complimentary abilities of different techniques, thus
optimizing the overall resolution and sensitivity of the resulting scans. The

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Amrita Sahu, Temple Univ. (United States); Cushla McGoverin,
Temple Univ. (United States) and Temple Univ. (United States);
Nancy Pleshko, Temple Univ. (United States); Karin Sorenmo, The
Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States); Chang-Hee Won, Temple
Univ. (United States)
Hyperspectral imaging is an emerging technology in the field ofbiomedical engineering which may be used as a non-invasive modality
for cancer characterization. In this project, a hyperspectral imaging
system was used to characterize malignant and benign canine mammary
tumors. The system consisted of a CCD camera, a liquid crystal tunablefilter and a controller. The filter operated in the near-infrared spectral·

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Conference 8719:
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range of 650-1100 nm. Using the hyperspectral data, the spectral
signatures of malignant and benign canine mammary tumors wereextracted and analyzed. The reflectance intensities of malignant tumor
spectra were generally lower than benign tumor spectra over the entire
wavelength range. Previous studies have shown that cancerous tissues
are associated with higher hemoglobin and water content, and lower lipid
concentration with respect to benign tissue. The decreased reflectanceintensity observed for malignant tumors is due to the increased
microvasculature and therefore higher blood content of cancerous
tissue relative to benign tissue. Peaks at 700, 840, 900 and 970 nm
were observed in the second derivative absorption spectra, these peaks
were attributed to deoxy-hemoglobin, oxy-hemoglobin, lipid and water
respectively. A ‘Tissue Optical Index’ was developed that enhances
contrast between malignant and benign canine tumors. This index isbased on the ratio of the reflectance intensity values corresponding to
the wavelengths associated with the four chromophores. Preliminary
results with 22 canine mammary tumors showed that the sensitivity andspecificity of the proposed method is 85.7% and 94.6% respectively.
This study shows promise in the optical diagnosis of canine mammary
cancer.

8719-34, Session 8

Modeling photothermal safety for pulsed
laser diagnostic systems: experimental
validation and applications
Taylor Gould, Quanzeng Wang, Do-Hyun Kim, Joshua Pfefer,
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (United States)
Photothermal safety is a primary concern for in vivo pulsed laser
diagnostic devices such as novel photoacoustic imaging systems. While
much progress has been made in development of these technologies,
there has been relatively little study of the factors that influence
temperature rise and thermal damage. To assess laser-tissue interaction
mechanisms and factors of safety, a three-dimensional computationalmodel including (1) a Monte Carlo light propagation algorithm, (2)a finite difference heat transfer routine and (3) an Arrhenius thermal
damage calculation was developed, validated and implemented. The
model provides estimates of fluence distributions as well as transient
temperature and damage profiles in bulk tissue and discrete bloodvessels. Thermal imaging and fast flash photography of the thermal
damage front were used to experimentally confirm the simulation
results using tissue-simulating phantoms. The effect of factors suchas wavelength, beam diameter, beam energy and pulse duration werestudied. Overall, the model indicated good agreement with experimental
results. For a constant radiant exposure, increased beam diameter
causes both local fluence and temperature to rise in subsurface
blood vessels. The relationship between repetition rate, thermal
superpositioning and potential for tissue injury by repetitive laser pulses
was characterized. Computational modeling provides a powerful tool for
elucidating photothermal mechanisms and effects in novel pulsed laser
diagnostic devices.

8719-35, Session 8

Characterization and application of
3D-printed phantoms for biophotonic imaging

Administration (United States); Joshua Pfefer, U.S. Food andDrug Administration (United States)
The emerging technique of three-dimensional (3D) printing provides
a simple, fast, and flexible way to fabricate structures with arbitrary
spatial features. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) is commonlyused in the printing process, given its low cost and strength. In
this study, we evaluate 3D printing as an approach for generating
phantoms for evaluation of biophotonic imaging systems, throughoptical property measurements, optical coherence tomography (OCT)
imaging and hyperspectral imaging. The initial phase of this work
involved characterization of absorption and scattering coefficients using
spectrophotometric and fiberoptic diffuse reflectance approaches.
The morphology of phantoms incorporating vessel-like channels withdiameters on the order of hundreds of microns was examined by
microscopy and OCT. A near-infrared absorbing dye was injected intochannels located at a range of depths within the phantom and imaged
with a near-infrared hyperspectral reflectance imaging (HRI) system (6501100 nm). ABS was found to have scattering coefficients comparable tobiological tissue and low absorption throughout much of the visible andinfrared range. Channels with dimensions on the order of the resolution
limit of the 3D printer (~200 microns) exhibited pixilation effects as well
as a degree of distortion along their edges. Contrast-enhanced channel
visualization with HRI was possible to a depth of nearly 1 mm – a level
similar to that seen previously in biological tissue. Overall, our ABS
phantoms demonstrated a high level of optical similarity to biologicaltissue. While limitations in printer resolution, matrix homogeneity andoptical property tunability remain challenging, 3D printed phantoms havesignificant promise as samples for objective, quantitative evaluation of
performance for biophotonic imaging modalities such as HRI.

8719-36, Session 8

Biomimetic self-assembly of polymerinorganic hybrid nanocompartments withbiomedical applications
Zhihong Nie, The Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States)
The controllable self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) into larger
specific structures provides an effective route for the fabrication of newmaterials with unique optical, electronic, and magnetic properties. In
particular, the incorporation of inorganic NPs into polymeric assemblies
can endow them with new advanced functionalities (e.g. plasmonic andmagnetic properties), while preserving the well-established propertiesof the organic components. Inspired by self-assembly in nature, wehave been devoted to design synthetic polymer-inorganic hybrid
nanocompartments that mimic viral capsids from the aspects of suchas surface, topology, and mechanical properties. These nanostructures
may find applications in biological imaging, controlled drug/gene release,biosensors, and catalysis. This talk will present a new paradigm tothe organization of NPs (i.e., metal NPs, magnetic NPs, and quantumdots) into a diverse range of complex hierarchical nanostructures
such as clusters, wires, vesicles, tubules, and so on by controlling thethermodynamic or kinetic pathways of assembly. I will also present our
preliminary experimental results on the biomedical applications of theassembled hydrid structuers, including remote-controlled release, photothermal therapy, and two-photon luminescence imaging.

Jianting Wang, The Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates) and U.S. Food and Drug Administration (United States);
Du V. N. Le, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States) and
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (United States); James
Coburn, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (United States);
Nicholas C. Woolsey, Yu Chen, The Univ. of Maryland, College
Park (United States) and U.S. Food and Drug Administration(United States); Jessica C. Ramella-Roman, The Catholic
Univ. of America (United States) and U.S. Food and Drug

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8719-37, Session 8

Characterization and determination ofendogenous species involved in brain
tumors using multiphoton photoacoustic
spectroscopy
Sudhir Dahal, Brian M. Cullum, The Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore
County (United States)
It has been shown that using non-resonant multiphoton photoacoustic
spectroscopy (NMPPAS), excised brain tumor and healthy tissue can bedifferentiated with over 99% accuracy. This powerful technique bears
a great potential for use as a surgical guidance technique for tumor
margining with up to cellular level spatial resolution. Our research focuses
on characterizing the NMPPAS spectra obtained from excised tissues
to determine the endogenous chemicals responsible for producing such
spectra.
Previously, NMPPAS spectra were obtained in the optical diagnostic
window (740nm-1100nm) for excised healthy brain tissues and brain
tumor (grade III astrocytoma). Normalized spectra for healthy andtumor tissues were different in terms of intensity and a distinct peak intumor spectra at 970nm. Such differences are suspected to be caused
by variations in certain endogenous biochemical species between
healthy and malignant tissues. Species such as NAD+, NADH, collagen,tryptophan, collagen, elastin and porphyrin were analyzed using
NMPPAS at the wavelength range of 740nm-1100nm. Each species wasembedded into gelatin tissue phantoms and NMPPAS measurements
were performed. Additionally, the effects of hemoglobin on these spectra
were also investigated as it is the major source of background whenstudies with blood perfused tissues are conducted. The talk will discuss
the potential roles of each of the species for tumor determination and theeffect of hemoglobin background.

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
Commercial, and Harsh Environments IV
Monday - Wednesday 29–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8720 Photonic Applications for Aerospace, Commercial, and Harsh Environments IV

8720-1, Session 1

8720-3, Session 1

Fiber optic oxygen sensor detection
system for harsh environment of aerospace
applications (Invited Paper)

Investigation of the losses in coupling
polymer optic fiber link for avionics data
network

Alex A. Kazemi, The Boeing Co. (United States); Edgar A.
Mendoza, Redondo Optics, Inc. (United States); Kishology
Goswami, InnoSense, LLC (United States); Lothar U. Kempen,
Hochschule Ruhr West (Germany)

Sandy Cherian, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
(Germany)

This paper describes the first successful Plastic Optical Fiber (POF)
oxygen detection sensor systems developed for the Boeing Delta IV
Launch Vehicle harsh environment of engine section. It illustrates anovel multi-point fiber optic microsensor (optrode) based on dynamic
luminescence quenching that is being developed for measuringoxygen leak detection for space applications. The sensor optrodes
employ the quenching by oxygen of the fluorescence from a ruthenium
complex. These optrodes were fabricated using Ruthenium-based
fluorescent indicator immobilized in a porous glass rod placed at theend of multimode fiber. The light from a blue LED is launched into theoptrode via a fiber optic bundle and used as the excitation source. The
optrode’s fluorescent emission intensity in the range of 0% to 10%
oxygen is measured as a function of time. The measuring system isbased on high reliability and low cost. The system consists of four units:
1) temperature compensated oxygen optrodes combined with a opticalsetup, 2) multipoint sensor communication fiber optic network cable,
3) digital/analogue optoelectronic signal processing unit with built-in
micro controller for control of data acquisition and processing, and 4)
a laptop computer for data display and storage. In testing, the sensor
exhibited excellent response time and reversibility. To qualify the POF andglass cables, performed detail investigation of POF + glass cables forattenuation loss, tension, bend, thermal, humidity, temperature, vibration
and accelerate testing for life expectancy and harsh environmental ofengine section. Extensive networking using MatLab were carried out forlab and actual field demonstrations.

As there are several disconnects in any avionic data links and as they
are functioning under wider and unique operating conditions, it isimportant to know the losses at each coupling point for the system
performance analysis. Since there is an air gap at the end face of militaryconnectors, the coupling loss at the fiber optic interconnect is mainly
due to the fundamental mechanical misalignment and Fresnel loss
under extended operating conditions. Mechanical misalignment includes
lateral, longitudinal and angular misalignment. Apart from the mechanicalmisalignment, coupling losses are also caused from the reflection
occurring at the interfaces, by virtue of the differences in refractive
indices such as PMMA to air and air to PMMA.
Therefore, in this study we consider two different sections of fiber
coupling for avionics links: temporary connections or connectorized
coupling and permanent connections or splicing. To analyze the coupling
losses at any interconnect in the data link, the power distribution
among the modes, field patterns associated with the modes and othergeometrical characteristics are studied. Characterizations of modal
power distribution using field patterns are conducted for attaining
reproducible and accurate coupling loss measurements. An equilibrium
launch condition is also considered for all test cases.

8720-4, Session 1

Study of a fiber optic sensor for hydrogenleak detection

8720-2, Session 1

Translucent triboluminescent coatings forparticle detection
Melissa E. Jansen, Leo R. Gauthier Jr., David R. Bisson, John R.
Meyer, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)
Triboluminescent phosphors provide a method for converting kinetic
signals to optical signals for particle detection. Several methods,
including vapor deposition, electron beam, and spray-on were evaluatedfor depositing a thin translucent coating of ZnS:Mn phosphor material
onto transparent substrates. The objective was to be able to opticallydetect impact events on the back side of the substrate while still retainingsome capacity to view distant optical events. During the experiments,
optical detectors within a light-tight test chamber were used to measure
the optical signals generated by the coatings. The measurements
resulted from optical signals that were generated by particle impacts andsample phosphorescence, along with electrical interferences between
the particle sources, the ambient background, and the detectors.
Signal levels and translucency measurements from various coatings aredescribed, along with lessons learned about the coating processes, thedetectors, and the limitations of the measurements.

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With the objective of integrating polymer fiber based physical layer foravionic data network, the present paper studies the impact and causes ofcoupling losses on power distribution at the fiber optic interconnect.

Nicolas Javahiraly, Univ. de Strasbourg (France)
We present a study of a fiber optic sensor for leak detection based on
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR). We use Palladium as the sensitive
material for hydrogen detection. In this configuration, the transducer
layer is a multilayer stack made of a silver, a silica and Pd layer. The
spectral modulation of the light transmitted by the fiber allows to detect
hydrogen on the environment. The multilayer thickness defines thesensor performance. The silica thickness tunes the resonant wavelength
whereas the silver and Pd thickness determines the sensor sensitivity.
The study of the sensor performance as function of several thicknesses(Pd/Si/Ag) is achieved and we present the optimal configuration at aconcentration of 4% hydrogen in argon.

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
Commercial, and Harsh Environments IV

8720-5, Session 1

8720-7, Session 2

Distributed fiber optic fuel leak detection
systemRugged spinel windows and optics for harshenvironments

Edgar A. Mendoza, Yan Esterkin, Sunjian Sun, Redondo Optics,
Inc. (United States)

Shyam S. Bayya, Guillermo Villalobos, Woohong R. Kim, Lynda
E. Busse, Jasbinder Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ish D. Aggarwal, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (UnitedStates)With the increase worldwide demand for hydrocarbon fuels and thevast development of new fuel production and delivery infrastructure
installations around the world, there is a growing need for reliable fuelleak detection technologies to provide safety and reduce environmental
risks. Hydrocarbon leaks (gas or liquid) pose an extreme danger andneed to be detected very quickly to avoid potential disasters. Gas leaks
have the greatest potential for causing damage due to the explosion
risk from the dispersion of gas clouds. This paper describes progress
towards the development of a fast response, high sensitivity, distributed
fiber optic fuel leak detection (HySense™) system based on the use ofan optical fiber that uses a hydrocarbon sensitive fluorescent coating todetect the presence of fuel leaks (vapors and liquids) present in close
proximity along the length of the sensor fiber. The HySense™ system
operates in two modes, leak detection and leak localization, and will
trigger an alarm within seconds of exposure contact. The fast andaccurate response of the sensor provides a reliable vapor and fluid leakdetection for pipelines, tanks, airports, pumps, and valves to detect andminimize any potential catastrophic damage.

Rugged window materials with good visible and IR transmission and highthermal conductivity are needed for high speed applications. We havebeen developing transparent spinel ceramics in different shapes andsizes for various DoD applications in the visible to mid-IR wavelength
region. We have focused on improving the physical properties, such as
reducing absorption and scattering losses as well as increasing strengthand environmental ruggedness. We have demonstrated excellent
transmission from 0.2 – 5.0 µm, thus covering the UV, visible, near IR andmidwave IR wavelength regions. Spinel has better IR transmission thansapphire and AlON in the 4-5 µm wavelength region. We demonstrated
record low absorption loss of 6 x 10-6 cm-1 at 1.06 µm. Spinel
possesses thermal shock resistance superior to that for glass windows
and has significantly superior strength and ruggedness as compared tozinc sulfide. We have also demonstrated its environmental ruggedness
through successful rain and sand erosion resistance tests at speeds
at or greater than 460 mph. Because of these superior optical andmechanical properties, we have been developing spinel for various DoD
applications. These include low absorption loss windows for High Energy
Laser systems, thick windows for submarine photonic masts, large
windows for reconnaissance, and low scattering loss domes for Infrared
Countermeasure jam heads. The status of these development efforts will
also be discussed at the meeting.

8720-6, Session 2

No-reference image quality assessment forhorizontal-path imaging scenarios
Carlos Rios, Szymon Gladysz, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)

8720-8, Session 2

Obtaining visual information through turbulence is challenging, more sowhen imagery is being recorded along horizontal line of sight. For such
scenarios, software rather than hardware solutions seem to be more
appropriate. It is foreseen that real-time image sharpening algorithms
would find application in surveillance and reconnaissance over the next
few years.

Image enhancement for deep turbulence
propagation scenario using hybrid adaptive
optics and image processing compensation:
preliminary experimental results

A large variety of image restoration methods have been proposed forthese tasks. On the other hand there has been little effort directed
toward objective assessment of the actual usefulness of these methods
in operational scenarios such as person, or weapon ID. Simulating
the effect of strong turbulence on electromagnetic waves alonghorizontal paths and over wide fields of view is hard, and therefore
there is an interest in developing metrics that can be used on the raw,
and processed field data which is easier to get. The metrics have to
be “blind” in the sense that they cannot depend on the existence of apristine reference image of the scene. The applications of no-reference
image quality metrics include: performance comparison of de-blurring
methods, stopping criteria for iterative image processing algorithms,“lucky imaging”-type fusion, and image registration.

Mathieu Aubailly, The Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates); Gary W. Carhart, Jony J. Liu, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Mikhail A. Vorontsov, The Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates)Adaptive optics (AO) systems were originally developed for astronomical
applications. Conventional AO systems allow compensation of
turbulence-induced wavefront aberrations and typically result in image
quality improved over a narrow field-of-view (FOV) with size related
to the isoplanatic angle. However under strong (deep) turbulence
conditions – which are typical for optical systems operating over long
and/or near-horizontal atmospheric propagation paths – anisoplanatism
prevents them from performing well. In a different approach, numerous
digital image processing techniques have been recently developed for
mitigating image degradation over full FOVs. We present preliminary
experimental results for a hybrid system combining both approaches: AO
based on image quality optimization and image processing based on the“lucky-region” fusion algorithm. Results are obtained for a near-horizontal
2.3km propagation path and show significant improvement of image
quality compared to either of the two approaches applied individually.

We have addressed all of these tasks using simulated and real data.
The field data comes from experiments performed by the NATO SET
165 research group over a 7km distance in Dayton, Ohio, USA. Using
this data we have tested several metrics found in the literature, andalso some new metrics. We discuss ways of evaluating the usefulnessof these metrics even when a fully objective comparison is impossible(because of the lack of reference image and/or human observers formean opinion score tests).

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8720-9, Session 2

8720-12, Session 3

Recent development in cryogenic optical andmechanical design

Optical gesture sensing and depth mapping
technologies for head-mounted displays: an
overview

Simon Thibault, Univ. Laval (Canada)
Making a lens design working at cryogenic temperature is a real
challenge. Both optical and mechanical designer must work together toprevent problems during operation. This paper describes the processfrom the first preliminary design to the final cryogenic system for both
optical and mechanical design to achieve cryogenic working solution.
We present the most recent data regarding cryogenic optical material
properties such cold index of refraction, CTE including coating behaviors.
We present different optomechanical mounting geometry. We also
discussed the assembly procedure (room temperature vs cryogenic
compensation) and the test support equipments.

8720-10, Session 3

A review of head-mounted displays (HMD)
technologies and applications for consumer
electronics (Invited Paper)
Bernard C. Kress, Google, Inc. (United States)
The main optical element in a see through HMD is the optical combiner.
In military HMDs, traditional 45 degrees tilted 50/50 windows or freeform refractive combiners have been used, however the industrial design
constrains for consumer electronics see through HMDs are triggering aninterest on other technologies, slim and light weighted optical combiners,
such as guided wave and holographics.

8720-11, Session 3

Hardware acceleration of lucky-region fusion(LRF) algorithm for image acquisition andprocessing
William Maignan, David Koeplinger, The Univ. of Delaware (UnitedStates); Gary W. Carhart, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Mathieu Aubailly, The Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States); Fouad Kiamilev, The Univ. of Delaware (UnitedStates); Jony J. Liu, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)“Lucky-region fusion” (LRF) is an image processing technique thathas proven successful in enhancing the quality of images distorted byatmospheric turbulence. The LRF algorithm extracts sharp regions of animage obtained from a series of short exposure frames, and “fuses” theminto a final image with improved quality. In previous research, the LRF
algorithm had been implemented on a PC using a compiled programming
language. However, the PC usually does not have sufficient processing
power to handle real-time extraction, processing and reduction required
when the LRF algorithm is applied not to single picture images but
rather to real-time video from fast, high-resolution image sensors. This
paper describes a hardware implementation of the LRF algorithm on a
Virtex 6 field programmable gate array (FPGA) to achieve real-time video
processing. The novelty in our approach is the creation of a “black box”
LRF video processing system with a general camera link input, a user
controller interface, and a DVI video output.

Bernard C. Kress, USI Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Head mounted displays (HMD), and especially see through HMDs havegained renewed interest in the last months, for the first time outside
the traditional military and defense realm, due to several high profile
consumer electronics companies presenting their products to hit market
soon. Consumer electronics HMDs have very different requirements andconstrains as their military counterparts.
Voice comments are the de-facto interface for such devices, butwhen the voice recognition does not work (not connection to thecloud for example), gesture sensing technologies have to be used tocommunication information to the device.
We review in this paper the various technologies developed today that
can integrate such optical gesture sensing in a small footprint, as well as
the various related 3d depth mapping sensors.

8720-13, Session 3

Key challenges to affordable see-throughwearable displays: the missing link for mobile
AR mass deployment
Khaled Sarayeddine, Kayvan Mirza, OPTINVENT S.A. (France)
The market for augmented reality wearable displays (or AR glasses) is
potentially massive. Some estimates say that in a relatively short time,
AR glasses could be the user interface of choice and will replace theconventional hand held smart-phone touchscreen interface. The target
market therefore is the ubiquitous use of mobile video, navigation,
augmented reality, and gaming. See through wearable AR displays that
don’t obstruct the line of sight of the end user allow a non-intrusive,hands free, large screen experience and are therefore a very desirable
alternative which will allow full use of the available computing power ofsmart devices. Wearable displays are compelling because they offer theability to run video, navigation, messaging, AR, and gaming applications
on a large virtual screen hands free. However, any such device will need
to be affordable and should have a form factor that is discrete enoughso that users will easily adopt it. If a wearable display device can hit thesweet spot of price, performance, and form factor, then it will enable this“Wearable Smartphone” revolution. The wearable display will be nothing
less than the creation of a brand new product category that will open up
a world of possibilities. We present in this paper an overview of several
see-through wearable glasses techniques and detail recent developmentof Optinvent see-through technology.

8720-14, Session 3

Real-time polarization difference imaging(rPDI) reveal surface details and textures inharsh environments
Denis Brousseau, Univ. Laval (Canada); Jim Plant, Q5
Innovations, Inc. (Canada); Simon Thibault, Univ. Laval (Canada)
Extensive peer reviewed scientific research has demonstrated the utilityof polarization difference imaging (PDI) to reveal subtle surface details
and textures in poor lighting conditions caused by fog, smoke, clouds or
turbid water. However, real world use of polarimetric imaging and sensing
has been limited by the sequential rather than simultaneous captureof the polarization states. A prototype of a custom polarization beamsplitting assembly, developed and patented by Q5 Innovations Inc., hasbeen built and tested by our group. This real-time polarization difference
imaging (rPDI) camera simultaneously captures two (orthogonal)

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
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polarization states on two imaging sensors and uses the captured images
to compute a contrasted enhanced output image.

matrix is real-valued. This paper shows how optimization can beaddressed using the formal gradient and formal Hessian.

We present sample results showing the ability of the camera to enhanced
imaging in fog and turbid water.

8720-18, Session 58720-15, Session 4

Micro-Packaging in High Power LED

Using high-power LED in harsh environment

Alex A. Kazemi, The Boeing Co. (United States); Allen Panahi,Pentair (United States)

Simon Thibault, Sébastien Bouchard, Univ. Laval (Canada)

In this paper describe an improved micro soldering method of hermetic
seal mini-DIL (dual in line) laser diode module. Normally, reliable,
reproducible, high-yield packaging technologies are essential for meetingthe cost, performance, and service objectives for the harsh environmentof aerospace applications. The decision to use a softer solder of indium
resulted in failure mechanisms of mini-DIL laser diode module in laser
firing unit (LFU) for ordinance ignition of a missile system. These include:(1) catastrophic failure in light output pulse power, (2) fiber pigtail damage
inside the package snout which cause low LFU production yield andmission failure. One of the challenges for the package was its very small
size. For this package a new technique for the hermetic seal using apatented micro-soldering process was developed. The process is able
to confine the solder seal to a small region inside the snout near the fiber
feed-through hole on the wall of the mini-DIL package. After completingthe development, the final process which included temperature andthermal cycling, X-rays showed the improved method had no fiber
damage after the micro-soldering seal. The new process resulted in
100% success in our packaging design.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are becoming common as energy
efficient light sources. Their long life, small footprint and their low
energy consumption are great promises to use it in many applications
including harsh environment. However, to design efficient lightsource, a mathematical model is required. The development of such amathematical model was pointed as a priority task by U.S. Departmentof Energy in 2010 for general lighting. In this presentation, we reportan experimentation for two high-power white LED models which were
stressed with different currents and junction temperatures. It shows thelarge variation between different models and stress conditions that takes
place in the degradation process. This is part of an effort to develop atool for the simulation of LED degradation for harsh environment lighting
condition.

8720-16, Session 4

LED-based solid state lighting: challenges
and opportunities

8720-19, Session 5

Allen S. Panahi, Pentair, Inc. (United States)

Damage-tolerant modeling validationof wireless sensory composite panel ofstructural health monitoring system

Solid state Lighting technology has made great advances over the last
decade and has become the technology of choice to displace legacy
incandescent and as well as the more efficient fluorescent lights. While
efficiencies have been improved and cost of the LEDs have been steadily
lowered still many challenges exist in the thermal, electrical, optical, andpackaging implementations.

Frank Abdi, AlphaSTAR Corp. (United States)
The paper proposes the modeling and test validation of Wireless/Integrated Strain Monitoring and Simulation System (WISMOS).. The
effort verifies a hardware and software web based tool that will be able toevaluate and optimize sensorized aerospace structures. The tool will be
extension of an existing suite of structural health monitoring (SHM) anddiagnostic prognostic system (DPS). The goal of the extended SHM-DPS
is to apply multi-scale nonlinear physics-based finite element analyses
to the “as-is” structural configuration to determine residual strength,
remaining service life, and future inspection intervals and procedures.
The proposed solution will meet the JTI GRA goals in low weight anddurable/reliable commercial aircraft. It will take advantage of the current
developed European Clean Ski JTI “Wismos Project with capability toprocess/store/transmit network of sensors data (e.g., FBGA, WirelessSensors), and realization of DPS-based condition based inspection andmaintenance.

8720-17, Session 4

Use of formal derivative for extremizing realvalued functions of complex variables
Sudarshan R. Nelatury, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College(United States); Charles W. Nelatury, Charles F. Nelatury, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
Maxima and minima of real-valued functions of several variables canbe found from the critical points that are found by equating the gradientto zero. In order to confirm whether a critical point corresponds to aminimum or maximum is determined by standard tests. The Hessian H,
which is defined as the Jacobian of the gradient is found at the given
critical point and whether the Hessian is positive definite or negative
definite must be ascertained. All the eigen values of H are positiveor negative depending on whether the critical point is minimum or
maximum. If the Hessian is indeterminate, the critical point corresponds
to a saddle point. In the unfortunate case when the Hessian is singular,
the test fails.

Information from a distributed system of sensors is used to determine
the “as-is’ state of the structure versus the “as-designed” target. Two
stiffened panels is instrumented with wireless sensors; the second with
an optimized sensor network. It is shown that the sensor system output
is routed and integrated into a nonlinear multi-scale physics-based finite
element analysis (FEA) tool to determine the panel’s residual strength,
remaining service life, and future inspection interval. The FEA utilizes the
GENOA Multi-Scale Progressive Failure Analysis (MS-PFA), a web based
software suite, which is applicable to metallic and advanced composites.

Many an objective function to be extremized, although is real-valued, isa function of complex variables and their conjugates. These functions
do not satisfy Cauch-Riemann equations and hence cannot be
differentiated in the traditional sense. However, using a formal gradient,and a corresponding a formal Hessian, we can still find the critical points
and perform the necessary tests from the eigen profile thereof. Such
operations are extremely necessary in the field of array processing, andproblems like maximum power transfer in case of multiport network
described by their Thevenin model involving NxN matrices. Of special
significance is the problem of maximizing power when the NxN load

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As part of the Prognostic system validation of models, two composite
stiffned panel models were analyzed and verifieid against tests undercompressive loading: 1) Undamaged stiffened buckling panel; 2)
Stiffened buckling panel including an initial diamond cut. For analyzing
the damage behavior we utilized GENOA MS-PFA tool: 1) deriving the
micromechanical properties from a set of ASTM strandard coupon
experimental test results. The calibrated fiber/matrixa stress-strain curves
for five ASTM standard coupon tests were compared with experimental
coupon test data. In Longitudinal tension/ Transverse tension·

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
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Longitudinal compression/ Transverse compression and In-plane shear
directions. Next. The adhesive material between the stiffeners and theplate were modeled using cohesive elements. MS-PFA Analysis results
showed fiber failure during compression and predicted matrix cracks forthe model with the diamond cut. Damage evolution process of predicted
delamination initiation at the cut, as well as delamination growth pattern,
and detachment of the stringer with the skin were predicted andcompared with test data with close agreement.

A fiber optic system when compared to an electrical system is notnecessarily more difficult to install and maintain, but training for key
different issues is a must. With appropriate component selection at thedesign stage and adequate training of installers/handlers is completed,the fiber optic system will be successful.

8720-23, Session 6

8720-20, Session 5

In-flight fiber optic acoustic emission
sensor (FAESense) system for the real time
detection, localization, and classification ofdamage in composite aircraft structures.
(Invited Paper)
Edgar A. Mendoza, Yan Esterkin, Connie Kempen, John
Prohaska, Sunjian Sun, Redondo Optics, Inc. (United States)
Acoustic emission sensing is a leading structural health monitoring
technique use for the early warning detection of structural damage
associated with impacts, cracks, fracture, and delaminations in advanced
materials. This paper describes progress towards the development of
a wireless in-flight distributed fiber optic acoustic emission monitoring
system (FAESense™) suitable for the onboard-unattended detection,
localization, and classification of damage in avionics and aerospacestructures.

8720-21, Session 5

Performance impact of optical interconnects
as a result of mechanical and environmental
testing
Roger Rutz, Experior Labs., Inc. (United States)
Experior Laboratories, a DLA Land and Maritime and Verizon approved
qualification test facility, with an expertise in fiber optic component andsub-system testing, will present information relating the performance
impact and possible degradation of optical interconnect systems due tomechanical and environmental stress exposure. Experior will compare
Singlemode, Multimode and Expanded Beam contacts and connectors
based on mechanical shock, vibration, thermal shock and humidity
cycling testing.

8720-22, Session 5

Selection of fiber optic system passive
components and installation training
Douglas A. Parker, Deutsch UK (United States)
A fiber optic system can be designed, assembled and installed withmany options for active and passive components and system elements.
Interconnection systems should be designed with a detailed BOM,
including fiber/cable, connectors, ruggedization materials and otherpassive components for the desired application. The selection ofthese items should be specific to the requirements of the system when
considering environmental and mechanical limitations, and from thestandpoint of the users who will be installing, maintaining and possibly
repairing the system sometime in the future.
The paper will review various up-to-date alternatives available whenselecting components at design-in stage and discussing options fordifferent scenarios of required optical performance. Considerationsof component selection with regard to capabilities of the installers,maintenance and repair personnel and other key people who will be

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responsible for the success of the system will also be discussed. Training
resources will be discussed.

Optical latches using optical amplifiers
Wenbo Li, Hongyu Hu, Niloy K. Dutta, The Univ. of Connecticut(United States)
Optical latches are important for a wide range of applications including
communication systems, optical logic systems, optical random accessmemory (RAM) and encryption. All optical logic operations using quantum
dot (QD) based semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) and Mach-Zehnderinterferometer (MZI) have been studied. The building block of an opticallatch such as NAND gate has been fabricated and their operation
experimentally demonstrated at ~ 80 GHz. This SOA-MZI was fabricatedusing hybrid integration technology. The waveguides of the MZI (which
include attenuators, phase shifters, splitters) are fabricated using silica
based planar lightguide circuits and the SOA is fabricated using InP/
InGaAsP based semiconductor materials.
A rate equation model has been developed for the QD-SOA-MZI and it
has been used to analyze the Boolean logic operation. The model has
been used to analyze the Set-Reset (S-R) latch and the D-Flip-Flop (DFF)
devices. The DFF has the property that the output Q is the same as D(data) if the gate (G) is high and Q will remain latched to whatever state it
was in before the high to low transition in gate (G). The DFF is the basic
device for building larger logic circuits. The results show that the latches
would work to speeds of ~ 250 Gb/s

8720-25, Session 6

Compact wavelength monitor for remotesensing applications suitable to precisely
measure the wavelength of individual laser
pulses (Invited Paper)Peter Kiesel, Palo Alto Research Center, Inc. (United States)
Remote sensing of chemicals in a cloud can be accomplished, forexample, with a tunable LIDAR system. The principle is to direct a seriesof laser pulses with different wavelengths at the cloud and measure
the response (amount of reflected, scattered, or transmitted light) for
each wavelength. The observed features in the recorded spectra reveal
information on the constituents in the cloud. The most informative
spectral bands for chemical identification are the wavelengths near 3
and 10um where gas molecules have characteristic vibrational modes
that contribute characteristic structure in the spectra. For chemical
identification it is essential to have precise wavelength information foreach individual laser pulse.
We will describe a compact and fast wavelength monitor that candetermine the wavelength of individual laser pulses with a resolutionof a few pm. It combines a position sensor with a linear-variable-filter
optical coating that converts the wavelength information of the incident
light into a spatial intensity distribution on the photo-detector. Differential
read-out of the position detector is used to determine the centroid of
this distribution. Wavelength change between individual laser pulses is
detected as a shift of the centroid of the spatial light distribution on thedetector.
We tested our wavelength monitor with a wavelength-tunable fiber laser
which can produce randomly accessible sequences of laser pulses. The
laser emits 100ns long laser pulses at 2kHz with selectable, well-defined
wavelengths in the spectral range from 1030 to 1075nm. Such lasers
can be used in combination with an OPO to convert the wavelength

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
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sequences in the 3um band for remote sensing. Our wavelength detector
can measure the wavelength of each individual laser pulse with aresolution better than 10pm over the entire wavelength range.

shorter lifetimes, emission wavelength shifts and catastrophic device
failure. It has been predicted previously that the lifetime of a device
decays exponentially as the temperature increases. This can result in a
lifetime decrease from 42,000 hours to 18,000 hours when the device
temperature increases from 40°C to 50°oC

8720-26, Session 6

This paper explores the various improvements and advances made in the
packaging of LEDs to enhance their performance.

Spectral observation of fuel additives ingasoline-ethanol blends using a Fouriertransform Raman spectrometer prototype

8720-27, Session 7

Depth perception camera for autonomousvehicle application

Valentin Ortega Clavero, Hochschule Offenburg (Germany) andEcole Nationale Supérieure de Physique de Strasbourg (France);
Nicolas Javahiraly, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Physiquede Strasbourg (France); Andreas Weber, Werner W. Schröder,Hochschule Offenburg (Germany); Patrick P. Meyrueis, Ecole
Nationale Supérieure de Physique de Strasbourg (France)

Philipp G. Kornreich, Syracuse Univ. (United States)
The application of a camera that can measure the distance from eachpixel to the point on the object that is in focus at the pixel is described.
In the 2006 and 2007 DARPA autonomous vehicle challenges it was
found that information from binocular cameras was insufficient to guidethe vehicles. Additional range information from a rotating LIDAR on theroof of the vehicle was required. To this day autonomous vehicles use
a LIDAR for range information. This camera would eliminate the needfor the LIDAR. A single Depth Perception Camera would be sufficient toguide the vehicles. Other applications are in robotic vision. An interesting
application is as part of a crude teleportation system consisting of a
Depth Perception Camera and a three dimensional printer at a remotelocation.

The combination of fossil fuels with bio-fuels, specially ethanol andmethanol, has acquired relevance and attention in several countries inrecent years. A variety of factors have induced this trend: market prices,
constant geopolitical events, new sustainability policies and laws, etc.
The fuels used in the automotive industry, including bio-fuels, normallycontain additives as anti-shock agents and as octane booster. These
additives may endanger (beside the high volatility implied) public healthor environment due to the nature of its chemical composition.
Raman spectral information from different additives, specially toluene,
contained in E10 gasoline-ethanol blends has been obtained by using
an own-design Fourier-Transform Raman spectrometer (FT-Raman).
This information has been also compared with Raman spectra from pure
additives and with standard Raman lines in order to validate its accuracy
in frequency. The spectral information is presented in the range of 0
cm-1 to 3500 cm-1 with a resolution of 1.66 cm-1 . The Raman spectra
obtained shows a reduced frequency deviation (less than 0.4 cm-1 whencompared to standard Raman spectra from different calibration materials,
e.g. cyclohexane and toluene, without compensation for instrumental
response).

The range measurement is performed by a short p - n junction lightguidesection at each pixel. The device uses broad band ambient light. Eachfrequency component arriving at a pixel has a phase proportional to the
distance from object point to image point. Light arriving at a pixel troughthe lens adds constructively only if it comes from the object point thatis in focus at this pixel. Light waves from all other object points cancel.
Thus, the lightguide at this pixel receives light from one object point only.
The p - n junction lightguide has contacts along its length. The charge
carriers in the lightguide are generated by the light intensity mode patternof each frequency component. The light intensity mode patterns and thus
the photo voltage shift in response to the phase of the input signal. Thus,
the photo voltage is a function of the distance from the pixel to the object
point that is in focus at the pixel.

The Fourier-Transform Raman spectrometer prototype used for the
spectral analysis, consisting of a Michelson interferometer and a selfdesigned photon counter cooled down on a three stage Peltier element
arrangement, is able to extract high resolution and precise Raman
spectra from the additives in the fuels analyzed. The proposed FT-Raman
prototype has no additional complex hardware or software control. The
mechanical and thermal disturbances affecting the FT-Raman system aremathematically compensated by extracting the optical path informationfrom the generated interference pattern of a l = 632.8 nm Helium-Neonlaser (HeNe laser), which is used at the spectrum evaluation. This allows
the device to be used in complicated environments where certain level of
security is required (e.g. fuel production, storage, transportation, etc.).

8720-28, Session 7

Novel polyimides for optical applications
Lei Wang, Frank W. Harris, TE Circuit Protection (United States)
Optical communication systems have been extensively investigated in
the past few decades due to their advantages over traditional electronic
communication systems. For example, they offer larger information
capacity, less interference and less transmission loss. An importantcomponent of these systems is an optical waveguide, which is used in
optical interconnects to transport the light signal. Silica-based materials
were first used in the waveguide industry due their low optical loss,
good manufacturing reproducibility, and long term reliability. However,these materials have some problems that limit their applications, such asvery high manufacturing temperatures that can damage the previously
installed components, difficulties in controlling their refractive index andtheir inherent brittleness. Thus, polymer materials have been investigatedto replace the silica based materials in optical waveguides due to theirvery good processability, light weight and low cost. The conventional
optical polymers include polystyrene (PS), poly ( methyl methacrylate)(PMMA) and polycarbonate (PC). However, the thermal stabilities of thesepolymers are not high enough.

8720-47, Session 6

Intersatellite laser communication systems
Alex A. Kazemi, The Boeing Co. (United States)
Recent Advanced High Power LED (HPL) is poised to replace traditional
lighting sources such as Fluorescent, HID, Halogen and conventional
incandescent bulbs in many applications. Due to the solid state compact
nature of the light source it is inherently rugged and reliable and has been
the favored lighting source for most indoor and outdoor applications
including many hazardous locations that impact, and safety environments
including mining, bridge, Aerospace, Automotive . In order to accelerate
this transition many enhancements and advances are taking place toimprove on the reliability, and thermal performance of these devices.

Aromatic polyimides have excellent thermal stability, good chemical
resistance, low dielectric constants, and good mechanical properties.
However, common aromatic polyimides have many shortcomings thatprevent their application in optical communication systems, such as
their insolubility and their yellow color. Their films also display large
birefringence and high absorption at communication wavelengths. The
objective of this research work was to develop new polyimide structures

With the use of large LED arrays, it is possible to generate large heatloads at the system level which can cause challenges for overall heatdissipation, especially when cooling requirements call for passive
methods. These two challenges work together to cause elevated LED
die temperatures, which have been linked to lower quantum efficiencies,

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
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with twisted biphenyl configurations so as to improve the polymer
optical properties. Thus, new diamines and new dianhydrides were to besynthesized and polymerized that contained twisted biphenyl linkages.
The new polymers were expected to have good solubility that would
allow them to the solution cast into thin films. The non-planar, twistedbiphenyl linkages were expected to disrupt the backbone in-planeorientation and chain packing in the films. Thus, the films were expected
to display low birefringence. The polymers properties were to be carefully
evaluated.

8720-29, Session 7

Thermal and vibration testing of ruggedized
IR-transmitting fiber cables
Lynda E. Busse, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);Frederic H. Kung, Univ. Research Foundation (United States);
Brandon Shaw, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Ish
D. Aggarwal, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States);
Jasbinder S. Sanghera, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Mid-IR transmitting glass fiber cables are needed for many applications
involving laser power transmission, including directing IR energy from acentralized laser to outgoing pointers in anti-missile aircraft protection
systems and chemical sensing applications. However, there is very
limited commercial availability of environmentally ruggedized cables forthe specialty IR-transmitting fibers. We will present successful results
obtained for thermal/ vibration testing of ruggedized, IR-transmitting
chalcogenide glass fiber cables using NRL’s state-of-the-art equipment
capable of mil-spec environmental testing. We will also present resultsfor high infrared power transmission. We report results for a novel, direct
imprinting process to create “moth eye” patterned surfaces on the IR
fiber cable ends that significantly reduces endface reflection losses.
The cables with these imprinted “moth eye” ends transmit much higher
IR laser power without damage than was obtained for previous cables
with traditional AR coatings. This work has direct impact on the practicalutilization of these fiber cables for a variety of applications.

8720-30, Session 7

Fiber optic sensor for angular position
measurement: application for an electrical
power-assisted steering system
Nicolas Javahiraly, Ayoub Chakari, Ecole Nationale Supérieure dePhysique de Strasbourg (France)
An effective automotive power steering system needs two important
datas, the angular position of the wheel and the torque applied on theshaft by the driver of the car. We present a new accurate optical fiber
angular position sensor connected to an automotive power steeringcolumn. In this new design, the sensor allows the measurement of theangular position of a car steering wheel over a large and adjustable range(± several turns of the wheel). The wheel rotation induces micro-bending
in the transducer part of the optical fiber sensing system. This system
operates as an amplitude modulation sensor based on mode coupling in
the transducing fiber in the case when all the modes are equally excited.
We study the sensor response both theoretically and experimentally witha multimode step index optical fiber [rf (fiber radius) = 300 µm; rc (coreradius) = 50 µm; nc (core index) = 1,457; N.A. = 0, 22 and the wavelengthis 632, 8 nm at the ambient Temperature (20°C)]. We show that thesensitivity can be controlled as a function of the sensor’s length. We
compare modeling and experimental validation and we conclude with aperspective on what could soon be an industrial sensor.

8720-31, Session 7

Developing aircraft photonic networks for
airplane systems (Invited Paper)
Henry J. White, BAE Systems (United Kingdom); Nick Brownjohn,
Airbus Deutschland (Germany); João Baptista, GMV (Portugal);
Vincent Foucal, Radiall (France); Anders Clausen, Technical Univ.
of Denmark (Denmark); Luis Pessoa, INESC Porto (Portugal);
Thomas Pistner, EADS Astrium (Germany); Mark Farries, Gooch& Housego (Torquay) Ltd. (United Kingdom); Stéphane Gauchy,
Draka (France); Ilja Kopacek, SQS Vláknová optika a.s. (Czech
Republic); Andrew Lee, AVoptics Ltd. (United Kingdom); Bruce
Napier, Vivid Components (Germany); Massimo Traversone,
SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy); James Vincent, AgustaWestland(United Kingdom); Armin Zimmermann, Technische Univ. Ilmenau(Germany)
Using high speed fiber optic communication networks for airplanesystems has proved to be challenging and faces complex issues,
especially in achieving affordable systems. In this paper we describe asummary of the EU Framework 7 project DAPHNE (Developing Aircraft
Photonic Networks) which aimed at addressing these issues.
DAPHNE addresses the exploitation of photonic technology fromterrestrial communications networks, and the development andoptimization of aircraft photonic networks to take advantage of potential
cost savings. The project’s main areas of emphasis are on multiplexing
networks; providing standard components for aircraft use; simplifying
installation; and reducing through life support costs. The DAPHNE
project started in September 2009 and finishes in February 2013. It has
fifteen partners from seven nations and was supported by the European
Commission’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7).
The main advantages of photonic networks for aircraft systems are:reduced size & weight; enormous transmission bandwidth; and excellent
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) without heavy and bulky shielding.
The networks that have been developed include switched Gigabit and 10
Gigabit Ethernet using multi-mode fibre, CWDM single-mode systems
for switched Gigabit Ethernet and the development of a passive optical
network (PON) for aircraft use. The integration of digital and analogue
data via wavelength division multiplexing down the same fibre will also bereported.
The presentation will include results from the final component
evaluations, system demonstrations and modeling work of the DAPHNE
project.

8720-32, Session 8

Contamination effects on single-mode opticalfibre connectors
Henry J. White, Geoff M. Proudley, BAE Systems (United
Kingdom)
Multi-mode fibre optic networks are becoming more and moreprevalent on aircraft, while the use of single-mode fibres on aircraft
has been limited due to the perceived robustness of connectors andcost implications. However, single-mode fibres are required for certain
functions such as wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), analogue
RF over fibre and fibre Bragg grating systems for structural healthmonitoring. In this paper a selection of connectors using single-mode
fibres have been assessed in the presence of internal contaminants, bothparticulate and fluid. Butt-coupled connectors and expanded beam typeconnectors were assessed under the same conditions.
The results showed that different types of connector behave differently inthe presence of contaminants and no single design could survive the test
conditions fully. The results of the tests will be shown and discussed.

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8720-33, Session 8

8720-48, Session 8

Optical fiber-based full-spectral monitoring
system for weathering testing

A new double FFT-based filter to reduce theeffect of 1/f noise spectrum in a tunable diodelaser spectrometer (TDLS)

Yana Z. Williams, Atlas Material Testing Technology, LLC (UnitedStates); Jacob Zhang, Kurt P. Scott, Henry K. Hardcastle, Ametek- Atlas Material Testing Technology, LLC (United States)

Samira Mahdi, The Univ. of Arkansas at Little Rock (UnitedStates); Youhua Chen, Gary Anderson, The Univ. of Arkansas(United States)

A fiber-based full-spectral monitoring system has been developedand implemented for weathering testing. The system can provide insitu, real-time irradiance monitoring and control inside the weatheringchamber. Compared to the conventional radiometer-based monitoring
systems, this represents a revolutionary step forward for the weathering
industry. The FSM system consists of a receiver, optical fiber, a CCD
based miniature spectrometer, and a LabVIEW control program for datacollection and analysis. The optical fiber conveys the collected lightby the optical receiver inside the weathering chamber to the miniature
spectrometer outside the chamber. A Design of Experiment study has
been carried out to characterize the measurement capability of the FSM
system under various harsh weathering test conditions.

A Tunable Diode Laser Spectrometer (TDLS) system has been designed
to scan the near-surface atmosphere on the Marth for ammonia gas overa wide range of distances (10 m to 1 Km). Since the system is designed
for space applications, it needs to be small, lightweight, and low power,
which dictates the use of relatively low frequency measurement scans.
The spectrometer uses a diode laser, which is subject to a large 1/f
noise component at these low frequencies. In this work, digital signal
processing techniques are used to maximize the measurement sensitivityof a low frequency TDLS system depending on Double Fast Fourier
Transform (DFFT) based filter. Simulations and experiments of the 1/f
noise spectrum and ammonia gas absorption peak are performed using
a sinusoidal injection current waveform to drive the diode laser. A DFFT
method is proposed that reduces the average of the error in the gas
readings to nearly 50 percent. This method is proved to be capable ofdecreasing the effect of 1/f noise while keeping the measurement signal
relatively constant.

A Xenon lamp based calibration process has been developed toperform wavelength calibration as well as spectral calibration of the
FSM system. This calibration process greatly simplifies the traditional
Mercury plus FEL lamp based calibration process. The total uncertaintyof this FSM has also been analyzed. The major uncertainty contributors
such as the optical system itself, the transfer calibration process, aswell as the spectrometer used to calibrate the optical system have been
evaluated and the total uncertainty has been calculated. A stray lightcharacterization method is also described.

8720-49, Session 8

Enabling aspects of fiber optic sensing inharsh environments

8720-34, Session 8

Indu F. Saxena, DynamedX (United States)

Plastic optical fiber (POF) technology fortransportation systems

The advantages of optical fiber sensing in harsh electromagnetic aswell as physical stress environments make them uniquely suited forstructural health monitoring and non-destructive testing. In addition toaerospace applications they are making a strong footprint in geophysicalmonitoring and exploration applications for higher temperature andpressure environments. Deeper oil searches and geothermal explorationand harvesting are possible with these novel capabilities. Progress incomponents and technologies that are enabling these systems to be
fieldworthy are reviewed and emerging techniques summarized that canleapfrog the system performance and reliability.

Kazuki Nakamura, Mitsubishi Rayon Corp. (Japan)
Plastic Optical Fiber (POF) technology is utilized for wide variety
of applications for its easiness of handling and robustness against
environmental variation. Thanks to its large core diameter (typically1mm) and large numerical aperture (typically 0.5) which provides wider
acceptance angle, dimensional tolerance of POF can be extremely large.
This benefits a simple and low cost connection technology for systemintergration.
POF manufactures are primarily focusing on growing automotive andindustrial data-com areas besides the traditional lighting and sensing
applications. As an application in the transportation industry, automotive
data-com with POF has been used in in-vehicle networks for infotainment
systems and safety information bus under the well developed MOST
standard.

8720-35, Session PTues

Improved packaging of hermetic seal minidual inline laser diode module for harshenvironments of aerospace applications

The paper reports the evolution of POF application starts from theautomotive industry to its latest possibility in an in-airplane or aerospaceenvironment. It explains about the technology and the features of thosejacketed POF for harsh environment. These environment demands POF
to be durable against high temperature (100C+), mechanical movement(dynamic repeated bending), and material compatibility with machine oil,chemical substances, fungus, flammability and smoke density, and a longlife time (20 years).

Alex A. Kazemi, Eric Y. Chan, Dennis G. Koshinz, The Boeing Co.
(United States)
This paper will focus on the requirements of the space-based lasers
and optics used for beam forming, as well as receiver antenna gain anddetectors used in free space communications. Also discussed are thecritical parameters in the transmitter, channel, receiver, and link budgetthat are employed in successful low cost laser for high-speed intersatellite communications system.

Through the jacketed cable development activities, POF technology
will further evolve into a well adopted aerospace industrial standard,
which in return will push another great opportunity to challenge the POF
application limitation.

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Building low cost laser for high speed communications network using
optical links in space has proven to be an extremely complicatedtask and many such schemes were tried without success in the past.
Space-based optical communications using satellites in low earth
orbit (LEO) and Geo-synchronous orbits (GEO) hold great promise forthe proposed Internet in the Sky network of the future. However in thelast few years, there has been impressive progress made to bring theconcept to fruition in civilian and government-non classified projects.
Laser Communications offer a viable alternative to established RF·

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
Commercial, and Harsh Environments IV
communications for inter-satellite links and other applications where highperformance links are a necessity. High data rate, small antenna size,
narrow beam divergence, and a narrow field of view are characteristics
of laser communications that offer a number of potential advantages for
system design.

8720-44, Session PTues

Propagation characteristics considering
modulation and type of wavefront in freespace laser communications
Kayo Ogawa, Maiko Sakamoto, Japan Women’s Univ. (Japan)
In recent years, free-space laser communication is drawing attention
as one that complements radio waves, due to circumstances such as
stringency of radio wave resources caused by increased demand for
wireless radio communication. As free-space laser communication
has such advantages as high-speed large-capacity communication,requiring no license, while having a flaw in that its communication quality
is lowered by rain, fog, and atmospheric refractive index fluctuations
called scintillation, it is required to provide high-quality communicationthat overcomes the flaw. Conventional circuit designs considered only
visibility distance and transmission power. However, among circuit design
variables are modulation method, carrier wave length, type of wavefront,
and communication circuits should be designed appropriately dependingon the installation environment. Amplitude modulation has been themainstream modulation method in the past, but multilevel modulation
has started to be considered for increased transmission quantity andenhanced noise immunity. Optical device technology to realize phasemodulation is developing day by day, and phase modulation using
optical waveguides, photorefractive crystals, etc., has already been
adopted in optical fiber communication. Due to that, expectations for
multilevel phase modulation are becoming greater in o free-space laser
communication as well.
Therefore, this study has performed an evaluation of the propagation
characteristics of combinations of each modulation method and carrier
waves, and considered indexes for communication circuit designs
that suit the installation environment. As a result, the result has beenobtained that modulation method needs to be selected depending on the
CNR, and the length and wavefront of carrier waves depending on the
propagation distance.

8720-36, Session 9

High-power-handling linear-integrated
coherent photoreceivers for RF photonics
Abhay M. Joshi, Shubhashish Datta, Jim Rue, Sruti Rajagopalan,
Shaun Lemke, Discovery Semiconductors, Inc. (United States)
During the past few years, commercial digital telecommunications
networks have started to deploy optical coherent technologies at data
rates of 40Gb/s and 100Gb/s. In these long-distance networks, coherent
reception produces linearly-recovered electrical data signals which
include the linear impairments of the received electric field. Through theuse of high-speed Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) and Digital Signal
Processing (DSP), these impairments can be corrected for to a large
extent. The general trend for these commercial digital coherent systems
is to implement standardized opto-electronic components which aredesigned and optimized specifically for these 40G / 100G systems.
RF Photonics links can also benefit by implementing such coherent
technologies, however optimal performance requires the use of
appropriate opto-electronic devices. For example, a critical component ina typical RF Photonic link is a linear high power-handling photoreceiver.
In this paper, we report integrated coherent optical receivers designed
specifically for RF Photonics applications. These receivers may be
implemented in either single- or dual-polarization (DP) systems which
utilize I/Q (in-phase, quadrature) phase modulation. The integrated
receivers incorporate a monolithic 90 degree optical hybrid followed
172

by eight high power-handling InGaAs photodiodes. Linear operation
to +27dBm of total optical input power, 20mA photocurrent per diode,
output third-order intercept (OIP3) > 40dBm, third-order harmonic
distortion < -100dBc, and RF bandwidths from 4GHz to >20GHz ispresented. Such photoreceiver power-handling and linearity is required to
optimize the photonic system spurious free dynamic range (SFDR), noise
figure (NF) and link gain.

8720-37, Session 9

High-dynamic-range and high-capacity RF
and microwave fiber optic links
Frank Weiss, EMCORE Corp. (United States)
Novel fiber optic transmitter control methodologies, high opticalpower and low RIN source lasers, high performance photodiodes and
DWDM laser capability provide high dynamic range and high capacitytransport for a wide range of sensing and communications applications.
Measured component and system level test data demonstrates
these performance improvements. Higher spur free dynamic range
in excess of 110 dB·Hz2/3 over broad range of K-band frequencies
is demonstrated, increasing the practical use of fiber as a transport
method for high sensitivity applications. Multichannel DWDM operation
provides simplified capacity expansion without compromising system
performance, allowing arrayed photonic systems to be deployed.
System characterization for a wide range of optical wavelengths and RF
frequencies is provided to demonstrate these levels of performance inpractical applications. Photonic component cost reductions combinedwith compact packaging further increase the ability of high performancefiber optic transport to address a wider range of applications, as the size,
weight and performance barriers are eliminated.

8720-38, Session 9

Optical access system by Y-00 protocol
at 2.5-Gb/s data rate for secure fiber
communications
Fumio Futami, Osamu Hirota, Tamagawa Univ. (Japan)
Recently, optical fiber transmission lines have flows of huge data
including confidential information. Presently, the mathematical cipher is
employed to protect eavesdropping. However, the cipher break history
shows such mathematical cipher is not reliable enough. Such fact
demands an urgent development of more reliable cipher and drives us
to focus actively on the research and development of Y-00 cipher. Y-00
cipher is an encryption scheme combined with physical phenomena andmathematical cipher, and it provides extremely high speed performanceand a provable security. So far, the authors have successfully applied
Y-00 cipher to the optical fiber transmission experiment over 120 km
at data rate of 40 Gb/s. For practical use, a prototype of Y-00 cipher
at 2.5-Gb/s data rate has been developed and its long term operation
characteristic for more than a month has been verified in the installed
optical fiber cable. The multiple remote point access system from a
local point is practically useful. In this report, the authors demonstrate
a secure multiple point access system for the homeland security using
the intensity modulated Y-00 cipher. A one-to-three point secure accesssystem using the wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) scheme isconstructed where Y-00 ciphers encrypted with three different secretkeys are transmitted from a local point to three users in different
remote access points. For the first time to our knowledge, Y-00 cipher
communications between users with the correct keys are successfully
demonstrated at 2.5-Gb/s data rate while users with the different keys
are out of communication.

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Conference 8720: Photonic Applications for Aerospace,
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8720-39, Session 9

includes a fiber-coupled semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA), allowing
for higher powers, fast pulsing, and additional shuttering. The laser
source, LC shutter, and SOA represent enabling technology for field
deployable cold atom sensors, replacing a laboratory table’s worth of
optics with a system the size of a paperback novel.

Architecture of an all optical de-multiplexer
for spatially multiplexed channels
Syed H. Murshid, Gregory L. Lovell, Michael F. Finch, Florida
Institute of Technology (United States)

8720-42, Session 10

Multiple channels of light can propagate through a multimode fiber
without interfering with each other and can be independently detected
at the output end of the fiber using spatial domain multiplexing (SDM).
Each channel forms a separate concentric ring at the output. The typicalsingle pin-diode structure cannot simultaneously detect and de-multiplex
the multiple channel propagation supported by the SDM architecture.
An array of concentric circular pin-diodes can be used to simultaneously
detect and de-multiplex the SDM signals; however, all optical solution
is generally preferable. This paper presents simple architecture for an all
optical SDM de-multiplexer.

Infrared light emitting quantum dots for
defense applications
Matthew Stevenson, Zhaoqun Zhou, James Perkins, Melanie
Bunda, Justin Kamplain, Peter Kazlas, QD Vision, Inc. (UnitedStates)We report on infrared quantum dot light emitting diodes (QLEDs) whose
emission spans the wavelength range from 900 nm to 1.35 µm. QLEDs
are a printable, large-area, thin film electroluminescent technology basedon colloidal quantum dots that delivers precise wavelength control andpower efficiency at a low cost of manufacture. Today, these devices emit
sufficient power for short-range lighting applications and long-range
sensing. Infrared QLEDs run at very low drive voltages, and function as
diffuse large area emitters that are very thin and light weight.

8720-40, Session 9

Omnidirectional free-space optical receiverarchitecture

In this paper, we demonstrate narrow band infrared QLEDs that emit in
the wavelength range of 900 to 1350 nm.. The devices discussed arecharacterized with respect to their efficiency, power output, and lifetime,
and these data are used to evaluate their suitability for use in a variety ofdefense-related applications. We discuss devices with active areas up to
4 cm2. Experimental results are presented that demonstrate a low turnon voltage of 1.4 V, a maximum efficiency of 0.58 %, a power efficiencyof 2 mW/W, and a peak power output of 5 mW for these large area
devices with no heat sinking. Operational lifetimes of up to 1000 hours
at operating drive levels are also shown. We also present a radiometry
model that accurately predicts the performance of infrared QLEDs in
illumination applications.

Syed H. Murshid, Michael F. Finch, Gregory L. Lovell, Florida
Institute of Technology (United States)
Free Space Optical (FSO) communication is the fusion of wirelesstechnology and optical fiber communications systems. It has thepotential of providing fiber optic data rates without the physical restraintsof optical fiber cables. This endeavor presents a novel receiver structurewith potential for omnidirectional free space optical communications.
Interesting approaches for accomplishing omnidirectional free spacelasercomm such as direct detection and solar blind non-line of sight
UV scattering have been reported over the last few years. However,these technologies have resulted in limited distances of the order of
10 to 100 meters and data rates often limited to less than 1 Mb/s. Thisendeavor reports the architecture of an omnidirectional receiver setup
by integrating an off the shelf detector and a fiber bundle, where thefiber bundle couples omnidirectional photons within its field of viewand delivers these photons to the detector. The coupling of light fromall directions into a detector is regulated by the cone of the acceptanceangle of the fiber. Multiple fibers with overlapping acceptance angles
provide the necessary coverage that may be needed to extract the
optical signal from the free space optical channel. Simulated results,
showing the normalized power pattern of the system, are presented
to demonstrate omni-directional potential of the structure. Theoreticalpower level versus distance plot for an FSO System employing On-Off
Keying (OOK) is also presented.

8720-43, Session 10

Fiber optic-based laser systems for terahertz
frequency-comb spectroscopy
Yevhen Rutovytskyy, Kimberly Kaltenecker, Fahad A. Althowibi,
Eric Donkor, The Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
We present a dual channel THz frequency comb spectroscopy technique
for the detection and classification of trace agents. Our approach isbased on measuring the rotational, vibrational and polarization state of
the line spectra. Simultaneous measurement of the polarization and thefrequency of the lines greatly enhance the sensitivity of the spectrometer.
The continuous THz waves are generated through spectral filteringof the broadband spectrum (1450nm-1650nm) of the spontaneous
amplified emission of the semiconductor optical amplifier. The comb has
orthogonal polarizations in each channel, which are used in a tandem asa probe for spectral characteristics of gas species. Such set up allows us
to characterize both the wavelength and a polarization of the rotationaland vibrational spectral signatures of a trace agent, thus increasing thesensitivity of a sensing system. We shall present results for common
atmospheric trace agents.

8720-41, Session 10

Miniature, compact laser system for ultracold
atom sensors
Juan M. Pino, Mike A. Anderson, Benjamin Luey, Vescent
Photonics, Inc. (United States)
As ultracold atom sensors begin to see their way to the field, there is a
growing need for small, accurate, and robust laser systems to cool andmanipulate atoms for sensing applications such as magnetometers,
gravimeters, atomic clocks and inertial sensing. In this paper we present
an absolutely referenced, frequency-agile laser source. The laser source
is in a butterfly package roughly the size of a stack of business cards,
and includes two copackaged lasers, one referenced to an atomic
transition (780 nm), and the other a frequency agile laser, offset phaselocked up to 10 GHz to the first laser.

8720-45, Session 10

Experimental demonstration of all-opticalmemory based on wave mixing in asemiconductor optical amplifier
Kimberly Kaltenecker, Yevhen Rutovytskyy, Fahad A. Althowibi,
Eric Donkor, The Univ. of Connecticut (United States)

We will also present the entire laser system. The laser system features
a liquid crystal (LC) shutter/demux stage, to both shutter laser beams
and divert power to different optical paths as needed. The system also

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We present an experimental demonstration of an all optical memory
consisting of a single semiconductor optical amplifier as the active
medium based on wave mixing. The circuit is designed as a fiber ringconsisting of the semiconductor amplifier, a bi-directional 2x2 fiber
coupler, an isolator, a polarization controller, and a Faraday mirror. The
output is observed on the spectrum analyzer, which consists of thepeak wavelength of the SOA plus an additional signal generated throughwave mixing, which is tunable within the band gap of the SOA. We shalldemonstrate two modes of operation of the device, which will consist of
a flip flop switch between three states, as well as a single data storage
memory. The stable states consists of two modes, where the mode
amplitude represents the state. Mode 1 corresponds to 1574 nanometersand mode 2 corresponds to 1580 nanometers. A contrast ratio between
an “on” and “off” state is measured for each mode and the mode ofoperation is based on the polarization. We shall present the state diagram
for the circuit, the effect of power on the system, the effect of the SOA
structure, wave mixing effects, and how to operate the device for both
logic operation and data storage.

8720-46, Session 10

Phase-shifted fiber-Bragg-grating-based
humidity sensor
Hao Wang, The Univ. of Waterloo (Canada); Honglei Guo, Gaozhi
Xiao, National Research Council (Canada); Nezih Mrad, Defence
Research and Development Canada, Ottawa (Canada); Dayan
Ban, The Univ. of Waterloo (Canada)
A humidity sensor based on the phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating (PSFBG) is presented. The sensor is fabricated by coating the PS-FBG
surface with a thin polyimide layer. Exposure to moisture swells this thinpolyimide coating and induces a tensile stress on the PS-FBG, thus PSFBG sensor Bragg wavelength. Experimental results illustrate that Bragg
wavelength of the sensor increased linearly with increase in relative
humidity. It was also found that the humidity sensitivity of the sensor
decreased with the temperature. Temperature compensated relative
humidity approach is proposed.

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Conference 8721:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety V
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8721 Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety V

8721-1, Session 1

active substrates in microfluidic systems for in-situ real time analysis anddetection.

Development of a Raman chemical image
detection algorithm for authenticating dry
milk

8721-3, Session 1

Detection of pesticide residues at paprika
surface based on Raman spectroscopy

Jianwei Qin, Kuanglin Chao, Moon S. Kim, Agricultural ResearchService (United States)

Namkyoung Choi, Korea Research Institute of Standards andScience (Korea, Republic of); Changyeun Mo, National Academyof Agricultural Sciences (Korea, Republic of); Hyun Geun Oh,
Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (Korea,
Republic of); Sukwon Kang, National Academy of Agricultural
Sciences (Korea, Republic of); Kangjin Lee, National Academyof Agricultural Sciences (Korea, Republic of); Byoung-Kwan
Cho, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Ki-Bok Kim,
Yong-Il Kim, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science(Korea, Republic of)

Various adulterants have been found to be deliberately added to milk
powder to produce increased contents of particular compositions
as perceived by conventional testing methods. The adulterants cancause illnesses and deaths for consumers, and thus there is a need todevelop a rapid and accurate method for authentication of milk powder.
This research aims to investigate the potential of macro-scale Raman
chemical imaging for rapid detection of multiple adulterants in milk
powder. Potential chemical adulterants, including ammonium sulfate,dicyandiamide, melamine, and urea, were mixed together into skim drymilk in the concentration range of 0.1–5.0% for each adulterant. Using a
785-nm laser, a benchtop point-scan Raman chemical imaging system
acquired hyperspectral images from the mixed powder samples. The
Raman images were obtained in the wavenumber range of 102–2538
cm–1 for a 25x25 mm2 area of each mixture sample, with a spatial
resolution of 0.25 mm. Important Raman shift positions for adulterant
detection were determined based on the reference Raman spectra of thepure chemicals and the milk powder. An image classification method wasdeveloped using the selected wavenumbers to differentiate the adulterant
particles from the milk powder background. The detection method
developed in this study has the potential to be adopted by a future highthroughput inspection system for rapid and accurate authentication ofdry milk powder and other food ingredients.

In this paper, the pesticide residue measurement of the agricultural
products based on the diffuse reflectance Raman spectroscopy (DRRS)
is described. The Raman spectroscopic system consists of diode laser
generating continuous wave with wavelength of 785 nm, multimodeoptical fibers, focusing probe with two prism to detect the Stokes
radiation, multi-channel detectors with charge couple device, sample
holder, personal computer and so on. The DRRS spectra of 10 kindsof pesticides for paprika sample were measured and analyzed. The
differences in intensities and absorptions Raman shift at Raman spectra
among pesticides were found. The principal component analysis wasused to recognize the kinds of pesticides. By using DDRS, it is possible
to detect the multi-elements of pesticide residues on the paprika sample.
As a conclusion, a rapid inspection of food safety will be possible basedon diffuse reflectance Raman spectroscopy.

8721-2, Session 1

Rapid identification and quantitative
detection of pesticides and pathogens using
surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)
spectroscopy

8721-5, Session 2

Development of a multi-spectral imaging
system for the detection of bruises on apples

Qiuming Yu, Univ. of Washington (United States); Yan Deng, Univ.
of Washington (United States) and Tsinghua Univ. (China)

Wenqian Huang, National Engineering Research Ctr. for
Information Technology in Agriculture (China) and Beijing
Institute of Technology (China); Chunjiang Zhao, National
Engineering Research Center for Information Technology inAgriculture (China); Qingyan Wang, Jiangbo Li, Chi Zhang,
National Engineering Research Ctr. for Information Technology inAgriculture (China)

Rapid identification and quantitative detection of food contaminants fromsmall molecules to large pathogens is highly desired. Currently, there isa lack of detection techniques capable of simultaneous detection of all
types of food contaminants. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)
spectroscopy enabled by the advance of nanotechnology has immerged
as a powerful analytical tool. We developed novel quasi-3D plasmonicnanostructure arrays (Q3D-PNAs) that can be rationally designed tomake the SERS “hot spots” either at the top of gold nanohole arrays
or at the bottom of gold nanodisk arrays for sensitive detection oflarge pathogens or small pesticides molecules, respectively. Unlike
the SERS substrates made out of nanoparticles, Q3D-PNAs provide
not only high sensitivity but also reproducibility. The finite-differencetime-domain (FDTD) electromagnetic simulations were conducted todesign the Q3D-PNAs that were made on silicon or ITO coated glass
substrates or in PDMS. The nanostructures were designed to exhibit
a surface plasmon wavelength around 785 nm, the laser excitation
wavelength and the estimated enhancement factor from the relationshipof the fourth power of the ratio of the maximum local electric field tothe incident light electric field (|Emax/E0|4) to be ~106 (electromagnetic
enhancement only). Electron beam lithography and soft lithography wereapplied to fabricate the optimized Q3D-PNAs. Insecticides (malathion)and herbicides (atrazine and simazine) were detected and quantified.
The limit of detection in the ppb level was demonstrated. Gram negative(A. calcoaceticus, E. coli K12, P. aeruginosa) and gram positive (S.
epidermidis) bacteria were detected and identified using principle
component analysis (PCA). We further integrated the Q3D-PNAs SERS-

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Detection of bruises on apples is important for an automatic apple sorting
system. Two effective wavelengths of 850 and 960nm for the detection ofbruises on apples was selected based on a 400-1000nm hyperspectral
imaging system and segmented principal component analysis (PCA) in
our previous study. In this study, a multi-spectral imaging system withtwo bands 850 and 960nm in the near-infrared range was developed
for detecting bruises on ‘Fuji’ apples. The system was consisted of two
dichroic mirror/beamsplitters at 805 and 900nm, two bandpass filters at
850 and 960nm, and two 2-channel CCD cameras. Two LED line lightsources at 850 and 960 nm provided uniform illumination on apples.
Multi-spectral images of 50 intact and 50 bruised apples were acquired.
The bruises on the apples were manually made on the equator region
using a steel ball dropping from a 40 cm height. The principal component
analysis (PCA) was conducted on the two-band images to determine
the weighted coefficients for a PC image, which improved the intensity
contrast between the bruised region and the sound peel. A bruise
detection algorithm based on the PC images and a global thresholdmethod was developed. Results show that 100% of the intact apples arecorrectly classified, 96% of the bruised apples are correctly recognized.
·

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Conference 8721:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety V

8721-6, Session 2

Rapid non-destructive assessment of pork
edible quality by using VIS/NIR spectroscopic
technique
Leilei Zhang, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China);
Sagar Dhakal, China Agricultural University (China) and China
Agricultural Univ (China); Yulin Song, Juan Zhao, Songwei Zhao,
China Agricultural University (China)
This research was to develop a rapid nondestructive method to evaluate
the edible quality of chilled pork. Forty-two samples were packed inseal plastic bags and then stored at 4°C. Vis/NIR reflectance spectra in
the range of 380 nm to1100 nm were collected from 2 samples on eachday across 21 days. Microbiological, physicochemical and organoleptic
characteristics such as the total viable counts (TVC), total volatilebasic-nitrogen (TVB-N), pH value and color parameters (L*, a*, b*) were
determined to appraise pork edible quality. Savitzky-Golay (SG) basedon five and eleven smoothing points pre-processing methods were
employed to eliminate the spectra noise. The least-square support vector
machines (LS-SVM) regression was applied to establish the prediction
models with the de-noised spectra. A single model was developed to
predict the quality of the pork meat based on TVC, TVB-N, pH and color
parameter L* indexes with the prediction accuracy of 90%. The results
demonstrated that Vis/NIR spectroscopic technique combined with LSSVM algorithm is a feasible assessment tool. It can provide a potential
rapid and nondestructive tool to detect pork edible quality.

8721-7, Session 2

Development and evaluation of a vision based
poultry debone line monitoring system
Colin T. Usher, Wayne D. Daley, Georgia Tech Research Institute(United States)
Efficient deboning is the key to optimizing production yield (maximizing
the amount of meat removed from a chicken frame while reducing thepresence of bones). Many processors evaluate the efficiency of theirdeboning lines through manual yield measurements, which involves using
a special knife to scrape the chicken frame for any remaining meat after it
has been deboned. Researchers with the Georgia Tech Research Institute(GTRI) have developed an automated vision system for estimating
this yield loss by correlating image characteristics with the amount ofmeat left on a frame. This same system is also able to determine theprobability of bone chips remaining in the output product. The yield loss
estimation is accomplished by the system’s image processing algorithms,
which correlates image intensity with meat thickness and calculates thetotal volume of meat remaining. The team has established a correlation
between transmitted light intensity and meat thickness with an R2 of.92. Employing a special illuminated cone and sophisticated softwarealgorithms, the system can make measurements in a few seconds andhas at least a 90-percent correlation with yield measurements performed
manually. The system is able to determine the presence/absence ofclavicle bones with an accuracy of ~95% and fan bones with an accuracyof ~80%. This paper describes in detail the approach and design ofthis system, results from field testing, and potential benefits that such asystem can provide to the poultry processing industry.

8721-23, Session PTues

Development of VIS/NIR spectroscopic
system for real-time prediction of fresh pork
quality
Haiyun Zhang, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China);
Songwei Zhao, China Agricultural Univ (China); Akira Sasao,
Tokyo Univ. of Agriculture & Technology (Japan)
Water content of fresh meat is one of the most important parameters inmeat classification, which influences nutritional value and consumers’purchasing power. The research was aim to develop a prototype forreal-time detection of water content in meat. A VIS/NIR spectrographin the range of 350 to 1100 nm was used to collect the spectral data.
In order to acquire more potential information of the sample, opticalfiber multiplexer was used. A cylindrical device was designed andfabricated to hold optical fibers from multiplexer. Light unit consistedof four tungsten halogens each with power of 10w. A conveyor belt
was designed to transport the samples at a prescribed speed, and aphotosensor was used to detect the position of the sample. The spectral
data were obtained with the exposure time of 30ms from the samples
moving at the speed of 0.4m/s in the conveyor belt. A total of 70 fresh
pork samples were used to develop prediction model for real time
detection. The spectral data were pretreated with standard normalized
variant (SNV) and partial least squares regression (PLSR) was used todevelop prediction model. The correlation coefficient and root meansquare error of the validation set was 0.893 and 0.546 respectively. 26
independent samples were tested to verify the accuracy of the module,with the correlation coefficient of 0.871 and root mean square error of
0.637. The research shows that the real-time detection system basedon VIS/NIR spectroscopy can be efficient to predict the water content offresh meat.

8721-24, Session PTues

8721-22, Session PTues

Optical instrument development for detectionof pesticide residue in apple surface
Sagar Dhakal, Yongyu Li, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ.
(China); Kuanglin Chao, Jianwei Qin, Agricultural ResearchService (United States)

176

Apple is the world largest produced and consumed fruit item. At thesame time, apple ranks number one among the fruit item contaminatedwith pesticide. This research focuses on development of laboratory
based self-developed software and hardware for detection ofcommercially available organophosphorous pesticide in apple surface. A
laser light source of 785nm was used to excite the sample, and Raman
spectroscopy assembled with CCD camera was used for optical dataacquisition. A hardware system was designed and fabricated to clamp
and rotate apple sample of varying size maintaining constant working
distance between optical probe and sample surface. Graphical Users
Interface (GUI) based on LabView platform was developed to control
the hardware system. The GUI was used to control the Raman system
including CCD temperature, exposure time, track height and track centre,
data acquisition, data processing and result prediction. Raman fingerprintof pure chlorpyrifos placed in aluminum foil and pesticide free wholesome
apple were acquired first. Different concentrations of commerciallyavailable 48% chlorpyrifos pesticide solutions were prepared and gently
placed in apple surface and dried. Raman spectral data at different points
from same apple along the equatorial region were then acquired. The
results show that prominent peaks at 341cm-1 and 632cm-1 represent
the pesticide residue. The laboratory based experiment was able todetect pesticide solution of 1% (by volume) within 1 second. The resultof the research is promising and thus is a milestone for developing
industrially desired real time, non-invasive pesticide residue detection
technology in future.

A noninvasive technique for real-time
detection of bruises in apple surface basedon machine vision
Juan Zhao, Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ. (China); Sagar
Dhakal, Leilei Zhang, China Agricultural Univ (China); Akira
Sasao, Tokyo Univ. of Agriculture & Technology (Japan)

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Conference 8721:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety V
Apple is one of the highly consumed fruit item in daily life. However, due
to its high damage potential and massive influence on taste and export,
the quality of apple has to be detected before it reaches the consumer’shand. This study was aimed to develop a hardware and software unit for
real-time detection of apple bruises based on machine vision technology.
The hardware unit consisted of a light shield installed two monochrome
cameras at different angles, LED light source to illuminate the sample,
and sensors at the entrance of box to signal the positioning of sample.
Graphical Users Interface (GUI) was developed in VS2010 platform tocontrol the overall hardware and display the image processing result.
The hardware-software system was developed to acquire the images of
3 samples from each camera and display the image processing result inreal time basis. An image processing algorithm was developed in Opencv
and C++ platform. The software is able to control the hardware system toclassify the apple into two grades based on presence/absence of surface
bruises with the size of 5mm. The experimental result is promising andthe system with further modification can be applicable for industrial
production in near future.

the measurements of the stress responses in rice crops exposed to thedrought and salt, respectively.

8721-27, Session PTues

Cross-correlation of temperature-dependent
Raman and NIR data for glycine
Julie Nguyen, Walter F. Schmidt, Agricultural Research Service(United States)
Frequencies in Raman data are discrete, sharp, and large in number
and mostly independent of each other. Frequencies in NIR data arebroad, non-discrete, often overlapping, few in number, and routinely
co-vary. Spectral interpretation in both regions therefore can prove to
be complicated. Glycine (Gly) chemical structural features are discreteand limited: thus cross correlation of spectral interpretation withtemperature is possible. Raman peaks can verify NIR interpretation andcorrespondingly, NIR peaks can confirm Raman structural interpretation.
Spectral analysis of Gly allows access to interpretation of structurally
more complicated amino acids and potentially also peptides, i.e. more
complicated structural analogs of amino acids.

8721-25, Session PTues

Hyserspectral imaging for different
geographical origin of red pepper powder
Sukwon Kang, Kangjin Lee, Changyeun Mo, Jongguk Lim,
Jongryul Park, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Korea,
Republic of)8721-28, Session PTues

Raman spectroscopy and imaging to detect
contaminants for food safety applications

The red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) powder is one of the mostimportant seasonings and widely utilized in processed foods at Korea.
Because of unique pungency and sweet taste compared to those fromother geographical origins, the most Korean consumers want to buy
red pepper powder grown and produced in Korea, and then price of
Korean red pepper power is higher than imported one. Thus the violationof geographical origin for red pepper powder happens frequently every
year. Trace elements (strontium and barium) in red pepper powder wereanalyzed to determine the geographical origins. However, to analyze
the trace elements, this method was not easy to use. The simple andnod-destructive analytical method has been required to determine thegeographical origins of red pepper powder. It is known that the nearinfrared spectroscopic analysis can distinguish between the Korean andChinese red pepper powder. However, if those are mixed, the accuracy isdecreased. Hyperspectral image has been used as quantity and quality
analysis for agricultural products. In this study, the hyperspectral image
processing method was investigated whether it can discriminate thegeographical origin of red pepper powder. The objective of this study isto evaluate if near infrared spectra from the hyperspectral imaging could
be used to discriminate between the red pepper powder produced in
Korea and imported red pepper powder.

Kuanglin Chao, Jianwei Qin, Moon S. Kim, Agricultural ResearchService (United States); Yankun Peng, China Agricultural Univ.
(China); Diane E. Chan, Yuche Cheng, Agricultural ResearchService (United States)
Pesticides are used in agricultural production to control pests, diseases,
weeds and other plant pathogens to minimize yield losses and maintainhigh product quality. Since residues from those chemical compounds
can be present on the surfaces of vegetables and fruits which may cause
major health problems. However, the chronic effects of pesticides fromfood intake on human health are not well defined, but there is increasing
evidence of carcinogenicity and genotoxicity, as well as disruption of
hormonal functions. (It is not easy to establish how much of a pesticide
is “safe” for people. ) It is thus essential that pesticide exposure be
minimized and the presence of pesticide residues in food be regulated
and monitored. This study established a rapid method using a laboratorybased point-scanning Raman chemical imaging system to quantify
the presence of selected pesticide compounds. Pesticide chemicals(thiabenazole, acetamiprid, Diphenylamine, azinphos-methyl, andPyrimethanil) were mixed with organic solvents at various concentrations,to investigate spectral detection and quantification. Relationships
between ingredient concentration and the height and area of Raman
spectral peaks were determined. Models were developed for quantitative
analysis of these pesticides.

8721-26, Session PTues

Hyperspectral fluorescence imaging formeasuring responses of drought and salt
stresses in rice crop

8721-29, Session PTues

PLSR model development for prediction ofmelamine concentration in milk powder by
NIR hyperspectral reflectance imaging

Park Eunsoo, Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service(United States); Jin-Won Kim, Do-Sun Kim, Seoul National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of)

Jongguk Lim, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Korea,
Republic of); In-Suck Baek, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea,
Republic of); Moon S. Kim, Hoyoung Lee, Agricultural ResearchService (United States); Sang Ha Noh, Seoul National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Xiaping Fu, Zhejiang Univ. (China)

Spectral imaging technique has been used as a useful phenotyping
tool for high throughput screening in plant breeding. In this study, theresponses of drought and salt stresses in rice crop were investigatedusing hyperspectral fluorescence imaging. Fluorescence spectral
images were acquired for the rice crops with and without drought
and salt stresses. Optimal spectral wavebandsof the fluorescence
imagewere investigated for the measurements of the stress responsesof the rice crops. The results showed that fluorescence images of the
wavebands of 688 nm and 630 nm were the most effective images for

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Hyperspectral imaging technology is the latest spectroscopic techniques
for measuring the quality and safety evaluation for agricultural products
and food quickly and non-destructively. In this study, near-infrared·

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Conference 8721:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety V(NIR) hyperspectral imaging system (1000 ~ 1700 nm) combined withpartial least square regression (PLSR) analysis was used to predict themelamine concentration contained in milk powder. Mixture concentrationlevels of melamine and milk powder was set to weight ratio (g/g) at 0%,
0.02%, 0.04%, 0.06%, 0.08%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8% and
1%. The PLSR model was developed to correlate the hyperspectralreflectance spectrum data (independent variables) with melamine
concentration (dependent variables) in milk powder. Several pretreatment
methods were adapted for removing of spectrum distribution according
to the scattering of light and irregular surface of mixture samples. The
determination coefficient for the calibration (RC2) and standard errorof prediction for calibration (SEC) of developed PLSR model for nonpretreatment (raw spectrum) were 0.9619 and ±0.0657% for calibration,
respectively. The determination coefficient for the validation (RV2),
standard error of prediction for validation (SEP) and number of factors (F)were 0.9432, ±0.0809%, and 10, respectively. The optimal result acquiredfor predicting melamine in milk powder was a PLSR model using a 1st
Derivative pretreatment with RV2= 0.9562, SEP=±0.0711%, and F=8,
respectively.

8721-30, Session PTues

Detection of liquid hazardous molecules
using linearly focused Raman spectroscopy
Soo Gyeong Cho, Jin Hyuk Chung, Agency for Defense
Development (Korea, Republic of)
It is an important issue to identify and analyze hazardeous materials in
the water in a nondestructure manner and very short time. Particularly,
prompt nondestructive checking at the gate of crowded malls, stadiums,
or airports is of particuar importance. We have used linearly focused
Raman spectroscopy to analyze liquid materials in transparent or semitransparent bottles without opening their caps. Continuous laser with
532 nm wavelength and 54 mW/130 mW beam energies were used for
Raman spectroscopy. Various hazardous materials including flammableliquids and explosive materials in the water have successfully been
distinguished and identified within a couple of seconds. We believe that
our technique will be one of suitable methods for fast screening of liquidmaterials in bottles.

8721-31, Session PTues

Rapid and sensitive determination of benzo[a]pyrene in black ginseng using fluorescence
detector and high-performance liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometryHyun-jeong Cho, Hye-jin Kim, Byeong-cheol Son, Dong-geun
Cho, National Agricultural Products Quality Management Service(Korea, Republic of)
A black ginseng is produced by steaming a ginseng root followed bydrying repeatedly 9 times during the process and it is changed to be
black color, so it is known that a black ginseng has more contents ofsaponins than a red ginseng. However a fake black ginseng which is
produced to be black color at high temperature in a short period oftime generate carcinogenic benzo[a]pyrene(BaP) through the process.
In South Korea this year, maximum residue level (MRL) for BaP wasestablished to 2 ?g/kg in black ginseng and more sensitive method wasdeveloped to quantitatively analyze the BaP by high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) coupling with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Chromatographic separation was performed on a SupelcosilTM
LC-PAH column (3 ?m, 3 mm x 50 mm). Mobile phase A was acetonitrile
and mobile phase B was water. Bap was separated other 15 polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which have been selected as priority
pollutants by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Linearity ofdetection was in the range of 0.2–20 ng/mL and limit of detection (LOD)
for BaP was lower than 0.1 ?g/kg, limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.2
ng/kg. The recovery of Bap was 92.54%±6.3% in black ginseng.
178

8721-37, Session PTues

A multifrequency, self-calibrating, in-situ
soil sensor with energy-efficient wirelessinterface
Gunjan Pandey, Ratnesh Kumar, Robert J Weber, Iowa State
Univ. (United States)
Real time and accurate measurement of sub-surface soil moistureand nutrients is critical for agricultural and environmental studies. This
paper presents a novel on-board solution for a robust, accurate andself-calibrating soil moisture and nutrient sensor with inbuilt wirelesstransmission and reception capability that makes it ideally suited toact as a node in a network spread over a large area. The sensor works
on the principle of soil impedance measurement by comparing theamplitude and phase of signals incident on and reflected from the soil
in proximity of the sensor. Accuracy of measurements is enhanced
by considering a distributed transmission line model for the on-board
connections. Presence of an inbuilt self-calibrating mechanism which
operates on the standard short-open-load (SOL) technique makes thesensor independent of inaccuracies that may occur due to variations intemperature and surroundings. Moreover, to minimize errors, the parasitic
impedances of the board are taken into account in the measurements.
Measurements of both real and imaginary parts of soil impedance atmultiple frequencies gives the sensor an ability to detect variations inionic concentrations other than soil moisture content. A switch-controlled
multiple power mode transmission and reception is provided to support
highly energy efficient medium access control as introduced by Sahota
et al.

8721-8, Session 3

Determination of optimal excitation andemission wavebands for detection of
defect cherry tomato by using fluorescenceemission and excitation matrix
In-Suck Baek, Byoung-Kwan Cho, Chungnam National Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service(United States); Young-Sik Kim, SangMyung Univ. (Korea,
Republic of)Fluorescence imaging technique has been widely used for quality andsafety measurements of agro-food materials. Fluorescence intensity ofthe target materials is influenced by spectral wavebands of excitation
sources. Hence, selection of the proper wavelength of the excitation
source is important to differentiate target materials effectively. In thisstudy, optimal fluorescence excitation wavelength was determined on
the basis of fluorescence emission intensity of defect and sound areasof cherry tomatoes. The result showed that fluorescence responses ofdefect and sound surfaces were most distinctively separated with theexcitation of the spectral range between 400 and 410 nm. Fluorescence
images of defect cherry tomatoes were acquired with the LEDs of thecentral wavelength of 400 nm to verify the detecting performance of thedefect cherry tomatoes. The resultant fluorescence images showed thatthe defects were discriminated from sound areas on cherry tomatoes
with above 95% accuracy. It was indicated that the excitation of 400 nm
LEDs is suitable for fluorescence imaging for defect detection of cherry
tomatoes.

8721-9, Session 3

Development of fluorescence-based
handheld imaging devices for food safety
inspection
Hoyoung Lee, Moon S. Kim, Kuanglin Chao, Diane E. Chan,

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Conference 8721:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety V
Agricultural Research Service (United States)from a landscape phage library serves as the bio-recognition elementthat has the capability of binding specifically with S. Typhimurium. This
mass-sensitive ME biosensor is wirelessly actuated into mechanicalresonance by an externally applied time-varying magnetic field. When thebiosensor binds with S. Typhimurium, the mass of the sensor increases,
resulting in a decrease in the sensor’s resonant frequency. Until now,
ME sensors had to be collected from the tomato surface where they are
exposed to S. Typhimurium and inserted into a measurement coil for thedetection of the bacterium. In contrast, the newly designed test device
allows the whole detection process to take place directly on the tomato.
Changes in resonant frequency over time due to the accumulation of S.
Typhimurium on the sensor were measured and are presented. Realtime in-situ detection of 20 minutes was achieved. In addition, this new
methodology effectively decreases the measurement error and enables
the simultaneous detection of multiple sensors.

For sanitation inspection in food processing environments, we recently
designed and developed inexpensive handheld imaging devices. The aim
is to use the devices as assistive tools for human inspectors performing
visual sanitation inspection of food processing/handling equipment
surfaces. Many organic materials emit fluorescence. The devices use
fluorescence techniques to detect the presence of fecal contaminants,
organic residues, and bacterial biofilms at multispectral emission
bands. The inexpensive visual aid devices utilize miniature cameras,
multispectral (interference) filters, and high power LED illumination with
wi-fi capabilities to display live inspection images on smart phone ortablet devices. The devices can provide objective means to assess
the effectiveness of sanitation procedures and can help processors
minimize food safety risks or determine potential problem areas. This
paper presents the design and development including evaluation andoptimization of the hardware components of the imaging devices.

8721-12, Session 48721-10, Session 3

Novel approach for Salmonella detection
in soil using phage-based magnetoelastic
biosensors

Time efficient methods for scanning afluorescent membrane with a fluorescent
microscopic imager for the quality assuranceof food

Mi-Kyung Park, Suiqiong Li, Kanchana Weerakoon, Shin
Horikawa, Yating Chai, Nitil Hirematha, Bryan A. Chin, AuburnUniv. (United States)

Steffen Lerm, Silvio Holder, Mathias Schellhorn, Peter Brückner,
Gerhard Linss, Technische Univ. Ilmenau (Germany)Fresh produce can become contaminated by direct contact withirrigation water, animal waste, insects, and soil that carry pathogens. The
identification of the original source of a contamination is necessary tobetter control and prevent foodborne illnesses caused by consumptionof fresh produce. Hence, a previously developed phage-basedmagnetoelastic (ME) biosensor was applied to detect Salmonella in soil.
The ME biosensors are composed of a magnetostrictive strip (1-mm size)and filamentous E2 phages as a biorecognition element. The principle
advantage of ME biosensors is that they can be applied and read directlyin the field providing a near real time detection of bacterial contamination.
Initial results from the direct application of the ME biosensors to soil
did not provide reliable results. It was found that the sensor boundnonspecifically with numerous components (organic matter, humic
acid, and minerals) of the soil. Therefore, multiple filtration procedures
were introduced in order to isolate target bacteria from the soil while
minimizing the extraction of other soil components. A procedure
involving simple soil preparations that can be conducted in the field wasdeveloped. Using this preparation, it was demonstrated that Salmonellain the soil can be successfully detected with reliable and reproducible
results. This study demonstrates that the ME biosensor method may
serve as a simple, inexpensive, sensitive, and practical detection method
for on-site detection of Salmonella in soil, and this approach enhancesafety of fresh produce.

One part of the quality assurance of meat is the estimation of germs
in the meat exudes. The kind and the number of the germs in themeat configure the medical risk for the consumer of the meat. Stateof-the-art analyses of meat are incubator test procedures. The main
disadvantages of such incubator tests are the time consumption, thenecessary equipment and special skilled employees. These facts cause
a high inspection cost. For this reason a new method for the quality
assurance is necessary which combines low detection limits and lesstime consumption. One approach for such a new method is fluorescencemicroscopic imaging. The germs in the meat exude are caught in special
membranes by body-antibody reactions. The germ typical signature
could be enhanced with fluorescent chemical markers instead of
reproduction of the germs. Each fluorescent marker connects with afree germ or run off the membrane. An image processing system is used
to detect the number of fluorescent particles. Each fluorescent spotshould be a marker which is connected with a germ. Caused by the small
object sizes of germs, the image processing system needs a high opticalmagnification of the camera. A high optical magnification causes a small
field of view and a small depth of focus. For this reasons the whole areaof the membrane has to be scanned in three dimensions. To minimize thetime consumption, the optimal path has to be found. This optimization
problem is influenced by features of the hardware and is presented in thispaper. The traversing range in each direction, the step width, the velocity,
the shape of the inspection volume and the field of view have influenceon the optimal path to scan the membrane.

8721-13, Session 4

Automatic colony detection and counting
using hyperspectral imaging for pathogen
detection

This work is encouraged by funds of the Free State of Thuringia and theEuropean Regional Development Funds ERDF (2011 FE 9022).

8721-11, Session 4

Seung-Chul Yoon, William R. Windham, Scott Ladely, Bosoon
Park, Kurt C. Lawrence, Agricultural Research Service (UnitedStates)A new wireless detection device for the insitu identification of Salmonella Typhimurium
on food surfaces

This paper reports the development of a technique for detecting andcounting bacterial colonies on an agar plate using hyperspectral
imaging for pathogen detection. Colony counting is widely used forenumerating microbial counts within food products, such as groundbeef and chicken carcass rinses. Colony detection and segmentation
to locate colonies on Petri dishes is fundamental to many image-based
automatic colony counting systems with RGB color cameras. Image
segmentation algorithms adopted in automatic colony counters often
utilize a high contrast and a color difference between agar and colonies.
However, phenotypic difference in genetically similar microorganisms

Yating Chai, Suiqiong Li, Shin Horikawa, Bryan A. Chin, AuburnUniv. (United States)
This paper presents a new device and method for the direct andreal-time detection of Salmonella Typhimurium on tomato surfaces.
This real-time in-situ detection was accomplished with phage-basedmagnetoelastic (ME) biosensors on fresh food surfaces. The E2 phage

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179Conference 8721:
Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety V
and presence of background microflora often make a color-basedcolony-detection technique difficult in determining and counting specificbacterial types. Separation of touching colony objects is also difficult
because the information about how many colonies are present in a clump
is not available a priori. We propose to use hyperspectral imaging fordetecting and counting specific types of bacterial colonies on an agar
plate. Multivariate data analysis based absorbance data was used to findoptimal wavelengths that maximize the contrast between colonies andagar and the accuracy of determining bacterial types, and that provide
colony-object sizes to reduce mixed spectral effects from backgroundagar. The developed image segmentation technique consisted of a
local maxima search, an automatic intensity threshold algorithm, and atouching-object separation technique with the Delaunay triangulationthat was constructed from the estimated number of colonies in a clump.
Experimental results with spread plates of non-O157 E. coli are provided.
When combined with a type-identification method, the fully developed
system provides a rapid and accurate tool to enumerate and identify
pathogens in food products.

8721-14, Session 4

Development of hyperspectral imaging
technique for detecting Salmonella on agar
media
Youngwook Seo, Seung-Chul Yoon, Bosoon Park, Arthur HintonJr., Willian R. Windham, Kurt C. Lawrence, Agricultural ResearchService (United States)
Salmonella bacteria are the second leading cause of foodborne disease
outbreaks resulting from the consumption of contaminated foods(commonly poultry products) in the United States. This paper reports
the development of hyperspectral imaging technique for detecting anddifferentiating two most common Salmonella serotypes, Salmonella
Enteritidis (SE) and Salmonella Typhimurium (ST), from backgroundmicroflora that are often found in poultry carcass rinse. Presumptive
positive screening of colonies with a traditional direct plating method islabor intensive and prone to human subjective errors. Thus, this paper
is concerned with the detection of differences in spectral characteristics
among pure SE, ST, and background microflora grown on Brilliant
Green Sulfa (BGS) and Xylose Lysine Tergitol 4 (XLT4) agar media
with a spread plating technique. Visible near-infrared hyperspectral
imaging providing the spectral and spatial information unique toeach microorganism was utilized to differentiate SE and ST from thebackground microflora. Various classification algorithms using some ofclassical machine learning techniques and multivariate data analysis
methods such as PCA-DA, PLS-DA, kNN, LDA, QDA, and SVM were
tested and compared to find the best method in classification accuracy.
The classification accuracy for determining the presence of SE and/or
ST on BGA agar was over 99% although it was difficult to differentiate
between SE and ST. The classification accuracy for ST detection on
XLT4 agar was over 99%. Thus, an automatic decision making algorithmwith over 99% classification accuracy was developed to determine thepresence of Salmonella regardless of serotypes. Once fully developed,
this hyperspectral imaging technique is expected to become a rapid andaccurate technique for positive-presumptive screening of Salmonella onagar plates.

8721-15, Session 5

Investigation of NIR hyperspectral imaging
for discriminating melamine in milk powders
Xiaping Fu, Zhejiang Univ. (China); Moon S. Kim, Agricultural
Research Service (United States)
Identification of food ingredients rapidly and accurately is an important
issue in food safety analysis. In the past five years, melamine(2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-triazine) contamination of food has become anurgent and broadly recognized topic as a result of several food safety
180

scares. In this study, the feasibility and effectiveness of near infrared(NIR) hyperspectral imaging (from 990 to 1700 nm, 144 spectral bands)
techniques that combine the advantages of spectroscopy and imaging
was investigated for discriminating low levels (<=1%) of melamine
particles in milk powders. Pure and mixture samples were put in Petridishes and the top layer was smoothed for imaging. Following image
preprocessing, bands with the most significant difference between
pure milk and pure melamine were selected. Then, band math method
was applied to the spectrum of each pixel in the sample images to
identify melamine particles in milk powders. The result images allowed
visualization of the distribution of melamine particles within images ofmilk powder mixture samples that were prepared with various melamine
concentrations. The classification results were verified by spectralfeature comparison between separated mean spectra of melamine
pixels and milk pixels. The study demonstrated that NIR hyperspectral
imaging technique was an effective way to detect melamine adulterationin milk powders. It may be feasible to detect melamine at very lower
concentrations in milk powders by spreading the sample mixtures in athin layer in large containers to increase the surface area presented for
NIR hyperspectral imaging.

8721-16, Session 5

The development of a line-scan imaging
algorithm for the detection of fecal
contamination on leafy geens
Chun-Chieh Yang, Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service(United States); Yung-Kun Chuang, National Taiwan Univ.
(Taiwan)
The paper reported the development of a line-scan imaging algorithm
to detect fecal contamination on leafy greens. The fresh cow feces wereapplied to the front and back surfaces of baby spinach and romaine
lettuce leaves. The contaminated leaves were line-scanned underfluorescence light to obtain hyperspectral images. The main componentsof the line-scan hyperspectral imaging system included an EMCCD
camera, a spectrograph, and a pair of fluorescence line lights. The
multispectral algorithm was developed from hyperspectral image analysis
to quickly and precisely detect feces on leafy greens. The algorithm
can be applied to the machine vision system for food safety in the fresh
produce processing lines.

8721-17, Session 5

Hyperspectral imaging system for whole corn
ear surface inspection
Haibo Yao, Russell Kincaid, Zuzana Hruska, Mississippi State
Univ. (United States); Robert Brown, Deepak Bhatnagar, Thomas
Cleveland, Agricultural Research Service (United States)
Aflatoxin is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus (A.flavus) andAspergillus parasiticus fungi that grow naturally in corn. Ingestion of thetoxin is associated with serious health problems including liver damage
and lung cancer if the level of the toxin is high. Consequently, many
countries have established strict guidelines for permissible levels in
consumables. There has been a continuing effort within the researchcommunity to find a way to rapidly and non-destructively detect andpossibly quantify aflatoxin contamination in corn. One of the more recent
developments in this area is the use of spectral technology. The current
hyperspectral imaging system is designed for scanning flat surfaces,
which makes it suitable for imaging a single kernel or a group of cornkernels. In the case of a whole corn ear, it is preferable to be able toscan the circumference of the corn cob for whole ear inspection. This
study describes a hyperspectral imaging system for whole corn ear
imaging. The new instrument is based on a hyperspectral line scannerincorporated with a rotational stage for turning the corn cob. Lab andfield corn ears inoculated with A. flavus were used to test the instrument.

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Conference 8721:
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8721-18, Session 58721-20, Session 6

Wavelength-configurable hyperspectral
imaging system and image-guided robot for
detecting foreign material in food products

A study on germination characteristics
of pumpkin seed using hyperspectralreflectance imaging

Seung-Chul Yoon, Agricultural Research Service (United States);
Richard Driver, Blair Simon, Sam Hill, Headwall Photonics Inc.
(United States); Gerald W. Heitschmidt, Kurt C. Lawrence,
Bosoon Park, William R. Windham, Agricultural Research Service(United States)

Kangjin Lee, Changyeun Mo, Sukwon Kang, Jongguk Lim,
Jongryul Park, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Korea,
Republic of)This study investigated the potential of hyperspectral reflectance imaging
for selecting the high quality pumpkin seed by classifying into viable ornon-viable one. A hyperspectral imaging system with the range 400 nm
to 1000 nm was used to examine reflectance images of pumpkin seeds.
The partial least squares–discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to predict viable
seeds was developed with spectra extracted from reflectance images
and results from germination test. Various pretreatments for spectra wereapplied to find the proper classification models. The results of developed
PLS-DA models using the spectra with 1st order derivatives showed
96% discrimination accuracy. These results showed that hyperspectralreflectance imaging technology can be used to select the high quality
pumpkin seeds.

This paper reports the development of a real-time machine visionsystem utilizing a wavelength-configurable hyperspectral camera andintegration of the vision sensor with a robot for detecting and rejecting
foreign material (FM) on high-speed food processing lines. FM either
naturally or unintentionally introduced into food products is a physicalhazard that causes a thread to the consumer. Most machine visionsystems to detect FM in food products predominantly rely on an area
sensor capturing a small number of broad wavelength bands, such asa RGB color camera. Recently, researchers at the USDA and Headwall
Photonics developed a VNIR line-scan hyperspectral imaging systembeing capable of producing over 1000 of narrow wavelength bands
and wavelength-configurable for high-speed multispectral imaging that
requires a few non-contiguous narrow wavelength bands, such as online
poultry carcass inspection for disease and fecal contamination detection.
To further expand the previous research, we investigate the feasibility of
the real-time line-scan hyperspectral imaging system integrated with animage-guided robot for FM detection and rejection. The system consistsof a wavelength-configurable line-scan VNIR hyperspectral camera, twoline lights, a conveyor system, a robotic picker, and application software.
Real-time multispectral image processing algorithms for detecting small
color blocks moving on a blue conveyor system at about 0.46 m/s (about
400 Hz) were also developed to demonstrate the system performance indetecting and picking FM with different and/or similar spectral responses.
The fully developed, commercially-available, in-line hyperspectral
imaging system provides the food industry with flexibility, speed andaccuracy necessary for FM detection.

8721-21, Session 6

Whole-surface produce inspection using
hyperspectral line-scan imaging
Moon S. Kim, Agricultural Research Service (United States);
Hyun Jeong Cho, Univ. of Michigan (United States); In-Suck
Baek, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Hoyoung
Lee, Agricultural Research Service (United States); Byoung-Kwan
Cho, Chungnam National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Kuanglin
Chao, Diane E. Chan, Agricultural Research Service (UnitedStates)Researchers have made significant progress in the development ofhyperspectral imaging-based detection for contaminants and defects
on fruits and vegetables. From hyperspectral imaging and analysis,
multispectral imaging algorithms using visible/near-infrared reflectanceand fluorescence, respectively, have been developed to detect defects
and fecal residues. These multispectral image-based methods canbe implemented into online inspection in processing lines. However,the complete surfaces of produce must be fully inspected for defects
or contamination in order to assure safety of products for humanconsumption. We recently developed prototype device/conveyor systems
for whole-surface inspection of round fruits and of relatively flat leafygreens; currently, no such whole-surface online imaging inspection
technologies exist for industry use. We present mechanical designs andmethods for wholes-surface inspection of produce using a hyperspectral/
multispectral line-scan imaging system.

8721-19, Session 6

Geographical classification of apple based on
hyperspectral imaging
Zhiming Guo, Wenqian Huang, Liping Chen, National Engineering
Research Ctr. for Information Technology in Agriculture (China);
Chunjiang Zhao, National Engineering Research Center ofIntelligen Equipment for Agriculture (China); Yankun Peng, China
Agricultural Univ. (China)
Attribute of apple according to geographical origin is often recognized
and appreciated by the consumers. It is usually an important factor todetermine the price of a commercial product. Hyperspectral imaging
technology and supervised pattern recognition was attempted todiscriminate apple according to geographical origins in this work.
Hyperspectral images of 208 Fuji apple samples were collected byhyperspectral camera (400-1000nm). Principal component analysis (PCA)
was performed on hyperspectral imaging data to determine main efficient
wavelength images, and then characteristic variables were extracted by
texture analysis based on gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) fromeach image. All characteristic variables were obtained by fusing the dataof images in efficient spectra. Support vector machine (SVM) was used toconstruct the classification model. The classification rates were 95% and
92% in the training and prediction sets, respectively. The SVM algorithm
shows excellent performance in classification results in contrast withother pattern recognitions classifiers. The overall results demonstrated
that the hyperspectral imaging technique coupled with SVM classifier canbe efficiently utilized to discriminate Fuji apple according to geographicalorigins.

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181

Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X
Thursday - Friday 2 –3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8722 Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

8722-1, Session 1

A personal review of 25 years of fiber grating
sensor development (Invited Paper)
Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge Research (United States)
Early efforts developing smart structures started with strain sensors
based on interferometeric techniques. It immediately became apparent
that structural engineers were used to dealing with conventional electricalstrain gages and thermocouples with much shorter gage lengths. The
fiber grating offered a competitive solution for the measurement ofstrain and temperature with the advantages of electrical isolation andimproved ruggedness. The principal draw back was cost. So early
applications involved high value projects where the unique capabilitiesof the technology offered superior performance. One area of particularinterest involved the usage of fiber gratings to sensor more than one
parameter simultaneously. Multi-dimensional strain and the measurementof pressure and temperature were two key examples of multi-parameter
sensing. In parallel efforts were conducted to operate at high speed.
Early examples in aerospace and civil structures were at speeds in therange of 10 kHz. Ballistic work later dictated increasing speeds to 5
MHz. Much more recent work with burn, deflagration and detonation has
involved measurements from more than 100 MHz to multiple GHz. This
paper provides a personal history of some of these developments andhow fiber grating sensor technology is moving into the future.

8722-2, Session 1

The use of fiber Bragg gratings in acoustic
sensing applications (Invited Paper)
Anthony Dandridge, Clay Kirkendall, Geoff A. Cranch, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
No abstract available.

8722-3, Session 1

Fiber Bragg grating sensing of detonation andshock experiments at Los Alamos National
Laboratory (Invited Paper)George Rodriguez, Richard L. Sandberg, Scott I. Jackson, Dana
M. Dattelbaum, Quinn McCulloch, Samuel W. Vincent, Los
Alamos National Lab. (United States); Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge
Research (United States)
An all optical-fiber-based approach to measuring high explosive
detonation front position and velocity is described. By measuring total
light return using an incoherent light source reflected from a fiber Bragg
grating sensor in contact with the explosive, dynamic mapping of thedetonation front position and velocity versus time is obtained. We
demonstrate two calibration procedures and provide several examples
of detonation front measurements: PBX 9502 cylindrical rate stick,radial detonation front in PBX 9501, and PBX 9501 detonation along
curved meridian line. In the cylindrical rate stick measurement, excellent
agreement with complementary diagnostics (electrical pins and streak
camera imaging) is achieved, demonstrating accuracy in the detonation
front velocity to below the 0.3% level when compared to the resultsfrom the pin data. In a similar approach, we use embedded fiber grating
sensors for dynamic pressure measurements to test the feasibility ofthese sensors for high pressure shock wave research in gas gun driven
flyer plate impact experiments. By applying well-controlled steadyshock wave pressure profiles to soft materials such as high density
polyethylene, PMMA, and explosives, we study the dynamic pressure
response of embedded fiber Bragg gratings to extract pressure amplitudeof the shock wave. Comparison of the fiber sensor results is then made182

with traditional methods (velocimetry and electro-magnetic particle
velocity gauges) to gauge the accuracy of the approach.

8722-4, Session 1

Development of high-speed fiber grating
sensor solutions for measuring velocity,
position, pressure and temperature duringburn, deflagration, and detonation of highly
energetic material (Invited Paper)
Eric Udd, Columbia Gorge Research (United States); Jerry J.
Benterou, Lawrence Livermore National Lab. (United States)
In order to fully characterize highly energetic material it is necessary
to measure velocity, position, pressure and temperature during burn,deflagration and detonation. This paper summarizes a series of fiber
grating sensor system approaches to this important problem andoverviews selected results that have been obtained over the past five
years.

8722-5, Session 2

Analysis, compensation, and correction oftemperature effects on FBG strain sensors(Invited Paper)
Todd C. Haber, Steve Ferguson, Dan Guthrie, Tom W. Graver,Micron Optics, Inc. (United States); Alexis Mendez, MCH
Engineering LLC (United States)
Over the last few years, optical fiber sensors have seen an increased
acceptance as well as widespread use in structural sensing andmonitoring in civil engineering, aerospace, marine, oil & gas, composites
and smart structure applications. One of the most common fiber optic
sensor (FOS) types used are fiber Bragg gratings (FBG, and the mostfrequently measured parameter is strain. Hence, FBG strain sensors are
one of the most prevalent FOS devices in use today. However, since
FBGs are simultaneously sensitive to both temperature and strain, it
becomes essential to utilize sensors that are either fully temperature
insensitive or, alternatively, properly temperature compensated to avoid
erroneous measurements.
In this paper, we review and analyze the temperature and strain
sensitivities of FBG strain sensors and decompose the total measured
strain into thermal and non-thermal components. We also present
specific guidelines to achieve proper temperature-insensitive strain
measurements by combining adequate installation, sensor packaging
and data correction techniques. Additionally, we present details of
a novel, dual-grating, temperature-compensating FBG strain sensor
design.

8722-6, Session 2

Nondestructive inspection of CFRP
adhesively bonded joints using embedded
FBG sensors
Sean C. Webb, Peter H. Shin, Kara J. Peters, North Carolina
State Univ. (United States); Stephen Schultz, Richard Selfridge,
Brigham Young Univ. (United States)
One challenging need for inspection capabilities is in adhesively
bonded joints between composite components, a common location ofpremature failure in aerospace structures. In this work we demonstrate

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

that dynamic, full-spectral scanning of FBG sensors embedded in
the adhesive bond can identify changes in bond quality through themeasurement of non-linear dynamics of the joint. Eighteen lap joint
specimens were fabricated with varying manufacturing quality. Ten
samples also included fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors embeddedin the adhesive bond for real-time inspection during a simulated
flight condition of these single-lap joints. Prior to testing, pulse phasethermography imaging of the pristine specimens revealed defects
such as air bubbles, adhesive thickness variations, and weak bonding
surface between the laminate and adhesive. The lap joint specimens
were then subjected to fatigue loading, with regular interrogation of
the FBG sensors at selected load cycle intervals. The FBG data wascollected during vibration loading of the lap joint to represent an in-flightenvironment. Changes in the lap joint dynamic response, including thetransition to non-linear responses, were measured from both the fullspectral and peak wavelength FBG data. These change were correlated
to initial manufacturing defects and the progression of fatigue-induced
damage independently measured with pulse phase imaging and visualinspections of the failure surfaces.

advantages of this sensor over traditional thermocouples are light weight,
multiplexing capability, no electromagnetic interference and shorter
response time, all of which show great potential of distributed fiber-optic
sensors for engine health monitoring.

8722-9, Session 3

Draw tower fiber Bragg gratings inpolarization-maintaining fibers for the
independent measurement of strain andtemperature (Invited Paper)
Eric Lindner, Julia Mörbitz, Christoph Chojetzki, FBGSTechnologies GmbH (Germany); Alexander Hartung, Manfred
Rothhardt, Kay Schuster, Institut für Photonische Technologien
e.V. (Germany)
The development of the draw tower grating technology in the last 5 years
enabled a great variety of use for different sensing applications dueto the flexible fiber and grating specification. It is now a cost effective
industrial production of draw tower fiber Bragg gratings (DTG®). In thispaper we want to report about the new possibility of writing FBGs inpolarization maintaining (PM) fibers during the fiber drawing process.
For that purpose a photosensitive PM preform based on stack anddraw technology was designed and fabricated to enable a high stressbirefringence in the resulting fiber. During the fiber drawing process of
the PM fiber we were able to generate arrays of UV single pulse fiber
Bragg gratings. By using a Talbot interferometer configuration for thegrating writing we are able to generate multiple Bragg wavelengths inthe telecommunication C band within one fiber. The reached gratingreflectivity is around 10%. The polarization separated peak splitting is in
the range of 0.4 nm which leads to a refractive index difference between
the slow and the fast axes of approximately 3.8x10-4. By interrogating
both polarization peaks of the PM DTG it is possible to measure strain
and temperature simultaneously but independent.

8722-7, Session 2

Distributed fiber optic laser ultrasoundgeneration
Ming Han, Jiajun Tian, Qi Zhang, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln(United States)
We propose and experimentally demonstrate a distributed fiber-optic
laser ultrasound generation technology that can generate ultrasoundin a controllable way along a single span of fiber at selected multiple
locations. The proposed technology is based on a smart light tapping
method enabled by titled fiber Bragg gratings and a highly absorptive
coating material made from a mixture of graphite powder and an epoxy
resin. We demonstrate that laser pulses are coupled out of the fiber at
a location determined by the laser wavelength and are absorbed by thegraphite/epoxy coating for ultrasonic generation. Key performances ofthe proposed laser ultrasound generation system, such as the number ofultrasound generation nodes, the effect of the laser pulse width and laser
energy on the ultrasound generation efficiency is studied.

8722-10, Session 3

Distributed vibration and temperature sensing
using fiber optics, a technology whose time
has come with the automation of the Femto
second laser grating writing process

8722-8, Session 2

Engine test for wavelength-multiplexed fiber
Bragg grating temperature sensor

Peter Kung, QPS Photronics Inc. (Canada)

Li Yu, Dorothy Y. Wang, Yunmiao K. Wang, Christopher M.
Collins, William C. Schneck III, Justin M. Bailey, Walter F. O’Brien
Jr., Anbo Wang, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
(United States)

Two Novel technologies will be discussed in this paper, First a Femto
second laser with 800 nm wavelength will be used to write an array of up
to 600 fiber Bragg gratings onto the same fiber without any splice. Theselow reflectivity gratings have the same center wavelength are resulted
from mechanical damage. Writing will be performed through the coating
material. Fiber does not need stripping nor recoating thus maintains close
to its original strength. Further more, they will not get erased at higher
temperatures because they are not index gratings. They would work up
600 degrees C limited only by the coating material. This technology isideally suited to be applied to another novel technology platform: The
FDM technology. The technology is targeted at distributed sensing oftemperature and vibration in the most hostile environment.

A temperature sensor based on wavelength-multiplexed fiber Bragg
grating (FBG) was designed and fabricated for distributed temperature
measurement in a jet engine nozzle under field condition. The Bragg
wavelength shift of the FBG structure induced by elevated temperatureenables accurate measurement of temperature change. Eight FBGs withdifferent Bragg wavelengths ranging from 1520 nm to 1560 nm were
fabricated along one single-mode fiber protected inside a stainless steel
tube with 0.5 mm ID. The reflected signal from the sensor was collectedby an optical sensing interrogator and interrogated into temperature data
simultaneously. After sensor fabrication, the fiber was coated by silver,
and annealed before the insertion into the tube. No adhesion between thefiber and the tube was observed during the test so the sensor was strainfree. The steel tube was embedded in a steel flange assembly attached
to a jet engine. Three engine cycles were performed from 55% (idle) to
80% of the engine’s full power to test the sensor response under hightemperature, vibration and strong exhaust flow. Test results show good
survivability of the sensor, and the temperature around the nozzle wasmeasured up to 290 °C. The system has temperature measurement range
from 20 °C to 600 ° and the response time is less than 1 second. The

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It involves chirping of the transmitter to give a band of continuously
changing frequency labels. The laser light will get reflected at each
FBG element with distinct frequency label, allowing one to locate their
origin on this long stretch of fiber. Automation of this process makes the
FBG array affordable. Writing time for each element is kept below 10
seconds, aided by specially developed high speed testing equipment.
This platform technology will open up many important applications in
distributed sensing of vibration, temperature or strain. The presence of
FBG improves the sensitivity of the system by 10 fold when comparedwith simple fiber based distributed temperature (DTS) or distributed
acoustic sensing (DAS)·

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

8722-12, Session 3

Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (United States)

Isolation of thermal and strain responses
in composites using embedded fiber Bragg
grating temperature sensors

We proposed a Brillouin optical fiber time domain analysis (BOTDA)based fully-distributed temperature sensing system in which one pulse
and one continuous-wave (CW) light counter propagate in a fiber.
Temperature induced Brillouin Frequency shift of single mode fiber shows
good linearity with temperature in relatively low temperature(<100 c),
we captured the Brillouin Frequency Shift for high temperature from 100
c to 1000 c with a 100 c step by sweeping the frequency difference ofthe two light beams. In the experiment, 200 ns pulse was implemented
to increase signal to noise ratio (SNR). Our experiment showed that for
single mode fiber, temperature induced Brillouin Frequency shift shows
good linearity in high temperature as well. Then we heated up an arbitrary
10 meter portion of a single mode fiber (500 meter total length) to 1000
c while the other portions were still kept in room temperature. We could
achieve 5 meter spatial resolution, locate position of heated portion, andestimate heated length by means of the increase of CW light power, asa function of time. Same experiment was repeated at 980 c and 990 c
respectively. They both showed coherency with previous results. Our
system can be applied to even higher temperature and stress sensing;
therefore it is expected to be capable of other fully-distributed sensing
application.

Kyle Elam, Brian Jenkins, Peter Joyce, Deborah Mechtel, U.S.
Naval Academy (United States)
In this research, fiber Bragg grating (FBG) optical temperature sensors
are used for structural health monitoring of composite materials.
Specifically, the goal is to detect the thermal response that results whenhigh energy radiation is incident on the surface of a composite. The
unique optical characteristics of FBG sensors make them well-suited forsuch an application because they can detect highly localized temperature
gradients.
To accomplish this, the FBG temperature sensors are embedded in
the composite in a multidimensional array. However, FBG sensors also
respond to any axial strain in the optical fiber. When an optical fibercontaining an FBG is embedded in a composite matrix, the epoxy
bonding serves to couple structural strain experienced by the composite
into the optical fiber. As a result, embedded FBG sensors respondto the strain of the host structure. Recent research has focused on
distinguishing differences between the temperature and strain responses
to ensure that mechanical strain does not drown out any potential
temperature response.
Similarities and differences between FBG responses due to structural
strain and localized temperature gradients will be discussed. The
effectiveness of in-plane and through-plane sensor arrays in composite
materials will be presented as a means to isolate the temperature
response. Furthermore, a signal processing scheme will be presented
as a software technique that interprets the combined strain-temperature
responses. The degree to which these advances increase thefunctionality of FBG sensors in composites will be assessed. Finally,further research regarding alternative composite architectures and other
FBG technologies will be discussed.

8722-13, Session 4

High-resolution, high-sensitivity, dynamic
distributed structural monitoring using opticalfrequency domain reflectometry (Invited Paper)
Stephen T. Kreger, Alex K. Sang, Dawn K. Gifford, Mark E.
Froggatt, Luna Innovations Inc. (United States)
Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry is used to measure distributed
strain and temperature change with very high sensitivity and precision
by measuring the phase change of an optical fiber sensor as a functionof distance with high spatial resolution and accuracy. Semi-continuous
Bragg gratings or Rayleigh Scatter can be used as the sensor. The higher
reflection amplitude of gratings favors high acquisition rate environments,
but at a higher sensor cost. Continuously tracking the phase change
along the length of the fiber sensor enables high resolution distributed
measurements that can be used to detect very small displacements,
temperature changes, or strains. The distributed, high spatial resolution
nature of the measurement makes the technique well-suited for detecting
structural defects as well as deducing subtle structural shape changes.
Measurement examples depicting sub-cm spatial resolution and > 100
Hz acquisition rates will be described.

8722-14, Session 4

Fully-distributed fiber optic high-temperaturesensing based on stimulated Brillouinscattering
Jing Wang, Di Hu, Dorothy Y. Wang, Anbo Wang, Virginia
1848722-15, Session 4

Novel optical fibers for Brillouin-based
distributed sensingPeter D. Dragic, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates); John Ballato, Stephanie Morris, Alex Evert, Clemson
Univ. (United States); Robert R. Rice, Dreamcatchers Consulting(United States); Thomas Hawkins, Clemson Univ. (United States)
Optical fiber sensors utilizing Brillouin scattering rely on the principlethat the Brillouin frequency shift is a function of the local temperature or
strain. Conventional optical fibers, such as standard telecommunications
single-mode fibers, have been successfully used in these applications,and most typically in the time domain, such as with BOTDR. Such
conventional fibers however are susceptible simultaneously to bothtemperature and strain, requiring either at least two fibers or specialized
cabling to distinguish the effects of a local stress from those of a local
change in temperature. Recently, methods utilizing fibers possessing atleast two Brillouin frequency shifts, each with different temperature or
strain coefficients have been proposed. However, realizing such fibers ischallenging, requiring fibers with regions of very different compositions,
all of which must have substantial overlap with the optical field, posing
significant manufacturing challenges. We present several new specialty
optical fibers based on novel and unconventional fabrication techniqueswith significant potential for use in distributed fiber sensor systems.
First, we describe a class of fibers fabricated from materials whose
Brillouin frequency shifts are immune to either temperature or strain, witha demonstration of the former using fiber derived from sapphire crystal,and modeling and measurements predicting the latter. The ‘Brillouinathermal’ fiber enables the measurement of a local strain, independentof the local temperature. Second, we describe and demonstrate anovel group of longitudinally-graded (chirped) fibers enabling easilyimplemented frequency-domain systems; affording the potential tosimplify and reduce the cost of Brillouin-based distributed sensors.

8722-16, Session 4

Improved distributed fiber optic sensing
system based on single-ended double-pulse
input Brillouin scattering
Tianying Chang, Ruijuan Yang, Jilin Univ. (China); Yongliang
Wang, Beijing Pegasus, Ltd (China); David Y. Li, L.C. Pegasus
Corp. (United States); Lei Jia, Shandong Univ. (China); HongLiang Cui, Jilin Univ. (China)

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

For traditional single-end input distributed fiber optic sensing system
based on spontaneous Brillouin back-scattered light, input light intensity
should be less than the threshold value which is much smaller thanthat of Raman scattering. If the intensity of the input light is higher
than the threshold value, stimulated Brillouin back-scattered light will
be generated in the fiber. Stimulated Brillouin back-scattered light isunstable, and as a result it is not generally used as a sensing medium forsingle-end input distributed system.

8722-21, Session PThur

In this paper, we propose a new method of using stimulated Brillouinback-scattered light to measure strain accurately in distributed fiber optic
sensing system with single-end input. In this system, we make use of thefrequency-demodulation method based on Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)to determine the Brillouin frequency shift accurately. For given input lightand sensing fiber, the same acoustic phonons are responsible for bothspontaneous and stimulated Brillouin back-scattering of photons, leading
to the same frequency shift. Thus the frequency-demodulation method
can ignore the intensity instability of stimulated Brillouin back-scattered
light, while still obtains accurately the frequency shift due to Brillouinscattering.

The U-shape optical fibers have been used in optical fiber sensing forthe enhancement of sensitivity due to the increase of evanescent wave
interaction with analyte around fiber cladding region. However, the effects
of increase of loss due to the U-shape bending and NA of optical fiber israrely exploited.

The semi-explicit formulation of U-shape
optical fiber for sensing applications
Jau-Sheng Wang, Yen-Hsiu Wu, National Sun Yat-Sen Univ.
(Taiwan)In this paper, the potential of developing a semi-explicit function ofabsorption/loss increases and refractive index difference between
core and cladding in U-shape optical fiber on sensitivity of sensing
applications is discussed. The emphases of study are:(1) Sensitivity enhancement: The magnitudes of sensitivity enhancement
for various U-shape fiber designs are presented.

Compared to the system based on the spontaneous Brillouin backscattered light, spatial resolution in the new system could potentiallybe higher since the duration of the input light pulse is unconstrained by
the life time of the acoustic phonons, while accurate frequency shift canbe obtained by the frequency-demodulation method. Therefore, in thissystem, we can easily obtain high strain resolution and spatial resolution.
Moreover, the distributed strain sensing system requires single-ended
input, and its sensing distance can be very long since stimulated Brillouinback-scattered light is used. We have estimated the performance
characteristics for this system as follows: strain resolution < 10µx, spatial
resolution < 1 m, and sensing distance > 30 km.

(2) Detection limit/Accuracy: On the other hand, the effect of U-shapedesign on detection limit and accuracy is also studied, which are rarely
discussed in literatures.
(3) Optimization design of fiber: An optical fiber with optimal U-shapedesign toward high detection sensitivity is proposed in terms of opticalfiber design and U-shape bending parameters.

8722-33, Session PThur

Large-area, vertically-aligned GaN n-core/pshell arrays for UV photodetectors

8722-11, Session PThur

Jong-Yoon Ha, Sergiy Krylyuk, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States) and Univ. of Maryland (UnitedStates); Dipak Paramanik, Albert V. Davydov, National Instituteof Standards and Technology (United States); Matthew King,
Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems (United States); Abhishek
Motayed, National Institute of Standards and Technology (UnitedStates) and Univ. of Maryland (United States)

Development of polymer Bragg grating based
strain, temperature, and chemical sensors
Sebastiampillai G. Raymond, Adam J. Swanson, Mohamed D. H.
Bhuiyan, Andrew J. Kay, Industrial Research Ltd. (New Zealand)
Advances in photosensitivity lead to the development of fibre Bragg
grating (FBG) sensors that have a wide variety of applications.
These applications include the monitoring of civil structures, smart
manufacturing and non-destructive testing, remote sensing, as well as
traditional strain, pressure and temperature sensing. This type of sensor
has many benefits over conventional sensors such as a small size, totally
passive, extremely low sensitivity to electromagnetic interference, good
resistance to corrosion, large capacity for multiplexing, high temperature
capacity, long working lifetime and excellent sensitivity to strain andtemperature.

Significant advances have been made in the fabrication methods of
GaN nanostructures, including large-area growth of vertically aligned
core-shell structures. Despite successes of bottom-up growth methods,
there are significant challenges in terms of controlled scalable growthof these nanoscale structures suitable for device applications. By
combining standard top-down micro- and nano-fabrication methods withselective epitaxial overgrowth, we can address these challenges. As thedimensions and orientations are defined by mature technologies suchas lithography and etching, and dopant profiles are established during
the growth of thin films, these methods promise reproducible large-areafabrication of arrays of nanostructures with precisely controlled geometry.

Conventional fibre Bragg gratings are ideally designed for themeasurement of the strain magnitude. However, There are applications
that require the ability to determine two dimensional strain fields. Bragg
grating sensors arranged in a rosette configuration is generally used inexperimental stress analysis to measure the state of strain at a pointon the surface. Furthermore, strain sensors are also needed for strain
measurements at high temperatures. For these reasons we have been
researching new materials and methods for strain tensor and temperaturecompensated strain measurements.

We have demonstrated dense arrays of vertically-oriented, individual GaN
core-shell structures realized with a combination of top-down etching of
the n-type pillars and subsequent p-shell growth using selective epitaxy.
Silicon-doped GaN epitaxial thin film grown on silicon substrates were
patterned using lithography and metal liftoff. The patterned samples
were then etched in an inductively coupled plasma system using a Cl2/
N2 /Ar gas mixture to form n-GaN pillars. Mg-doped GaN shells were
epitaxially grown over the etched GaN pillars in a custom-built horizontal
hot-wall halide vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) reactor. Room-temperature
photoluminescence and Raman scattering measurements indicate strainrelaxation in the etched pillars and shells compared to the as-grown GaN
on Si. Complete devices have been fabricated using three-layer dielectricplanarization. The top p-contact was made using conductive indium-tinoxide and the n-contact was made by backside metallization of the Si
substrate. Detailed device characterization was correlated with crosssectional TEM microstructural correlation observations.

In this report we discuss our optics-based strain/temperature sensing
system as well as development of new polymer sensors for themeasurement of the strain tensor and temperature. Simulations predictthat a Bragg reflection of more than 90% can be achieved for Bragg
Gratings in polymer thin films containing chromophores for grating
lengths as small as 200 µm. A small Bragg grating length means thatit should be possible to create waveguides and four Bragg gratings forstrain tensor and temperature measurements within an area as small
as 5x5 mm2. We present the results performed to validate the above
prediction. We will also describe our work towards the development offibre Bragg grating based chemical sensor.

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

8722-34, Session PThur

A process for co-molding a visiblewavelength photonic crystal and microfluidic
channel for biosensing applications
Maurya Srungarapu, Chloe E. Snyder, Anand Kadiyala, Jeremy
M. Dawson, West Virginia Univ. (United States)
Rapid DNA analysis systems show promise for reduced DNA analysis
times, and can be used by untrained operators in point-of-use
applications. Throughput improvements can be gained by reducing
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cycle count, which is used inconventional DNA processing to amplify the DNA to an easily measurable
amount. A Photonic Crystal (PhC) can be integrated within a microfluidic
channel to enhance fluorescence emission, enabling a reduction in PCR
cycling. Most PhCs are fabricated using serial top-down fabrication
techniques, resulting in a structure that is challenging to integratewith microfluidic system components. Here, we present a process forfabricating a silicon master mold consisting of a visible range PhC lattice
and a microfluidic channel. This process can be used to co-fabricate
microscale channel and nanoscale lattice structures in polymer orthermoplastic materials. Two-dimensional visible range PhCs with aphotonic bandgap centered at 520nm fluorescein (FAM) emission are
fabricated by patterning electron beam resist via E-Beam Lithography.
The patterned features (~100nm features with ~200nm pitch) are cured
to a glass-like material that is used as a direct-etch mask for Reactive
Ion Etching. A 200µm wide and 25µm high ridge “strip” is fabricatedaround the PhC region using Photolithography and KOH wet etching toform the completed channel & lattice mold. Results indicating the qualityof features resulting from the molding process and repeatability acrossmultiple molding iterations will be discussed as well.

8722-35, Session PThur

Quantum dot photoemission optic sensors

is more dominated to polarization and remains steady but birefringencevaries to the wavelength. The results also shows that as the bending
radius increased the delta and DGD decreased and polarization issteady for the corresponding bending and wavelength but the delta beta
is varying with wavelength for the corresponding bending radius andspooled tension is increased the delta beta and DGD increases and also
these increases as bending radius decreased.

8722-37, Session PThur

Strain response of metal-encapsulated
regenerated grating strain sensors forstructural health monitoring under hightemperature environments
Yun Tu, Yi-Hua Qi, ShanTung Tu, East China Univ. of Science andTechnology (China)
Regenerated gratings (RG) with titanium (Ti) - silver (Ag) - nickel(Ni) coatings have been embedded in flexible metal substrates
for encapsulation as strain sensors by electroplating Ni process.
After bonded to a plate tensile specimen by spot welding, a metalencapsulated RG strain sensor has been evaluated by a tensile test at
a constant temperature range from room temperature to 400°C. For
comparison, the tensile test has also been performed on a bare RG
sensor. Experimental results show that the shifts in the wavelengths ofthe metal-encapsulated RG strain sensor and RG sensor are both linear
function of applied tensile strains at a constant temperature. It is also
shown that the metal-encapsulated RG strain sensor presents a higher
sensitivity of strain, compared with the bare RG sensor. It is found thatthe sensitivity of stain is enhanced up with the increase of temperature
with respect to the metal-encapsulated RG strain sensor, whereas it isalmost temperature-independent with respect to the bare RG sensor.
The metal-encapsulated RG strain sensor also exhibits a satisfactory
repeatability and provides a great potential for the measurement of strain
for structural health monitoring under high-temperature environments.

Subhamoy Singha Roy, JIS College of Engineering (India)
I study theoretically the external photoelectric effect from quantum dotsof non-linear optical and optoelectronic nanostructure materials on thebasis of a newly formulated electron dispersion law considering theanisotropies of the the spin-orbiting constants, effective mass electrons,
and control of crystal field splitting within the framework of k.p formalism.
The external photoelectric effect has also been calculated for quantum
confined optoelectronic II-VI materials . It has been found taking quantum
confined Hg1-xCdxTe, CdGaAs2 and In1-xGaxAsyP1-y lattice matched
to CdS, InP as examples that the external photoelectric effect exhibits
plateaus as function of incident photon energy, which is vital fromexperimental point of view. The numerical results of quantum confined
optoelectronic III-V degenerate semiconductors form the special case of
our generalized analysis. The external photoelectric effect also exhibits
oscillatory variation with changing for all types of quantum confinement
and the photo emitted power is the greatest for quantum dots and theleast for quantum dots.

Position determination of disturbance along a
modified saganac interferometer
Pang Bian, Yuan Wu, Bo Jia, Qian Xiao, Fudan Univ. (China)
An interferometric technique is described to detect and locate
disturbance along two different optical fibers at the same time. Thissystem is based on the sagnac interferometer and modified by a faraday
rotator mirror, changing the traditional sagnac loop into a linear structure.
With the technique of the frequency-division-multiplexing, disturbancesfrom different areas can be detected and located at the same time. The
result of the experiment shows that the error of the location is less than
500 m.

8722-17, Session 58722-36, Session PThur

Effect of extrinsic perturbation by transverse
pressure, bending, and tension birefringence
Chandrakant M. Jadhao, Mauli College Of Engineering andTechnology, Shegaon (India)
Birefringence and polarization dispersion caused by elliptical core,
twist, pure bending, transverse pressure and axial tension are studied
by treating these deformations as perturbations to step-index singlemode fiber with a round core. These effects are formulated in termsof fiber structure and perturbation parameters and are compared
comprehensively. The results show that as the transverse pressure isincreased, the birefringence also increases and the transverse pressure
1868722-39, Session PThur

Long-period gratings in photonic crystal fiber
for layer-by-layer assembly of pH responsive
polyelectrolytes
Fei Tian, Stevens Institute of Technology (United States); Jiri
Kanka, Institute of Photonics and Electronics of the ASCR, v.v.i.
(Czech Republic); Svetlana A. Sukhishvili, Henry H. Du, Stevens
Institute of Technology (United States)
The accessible cladding air channels of photonic crystal fiber (PCF) andthe high-index sensitivity of its long-period gratings (LPG) inscribedby CO2 laser have been exploited to deposit poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)(PVPON)/poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) polyelectrolyte thin films via

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

8722-20, Session 5

layer-by-layer assembly (LbL). We show that LbL can be controllably
carried out within the air channels with diameters ranging from a fractionof a micron to tens of microns. PCF-LPG is highly sensitive to monolayer
deposition for in-situ monitoring of the LbL process and the release of
PVPON from crosslinked polyelectrolytes. The latter step results in theformation of pH-responsive PMAA hydrogel. PCF-LPG containing thehydrogel exhibits well-behaved response to changes in solution pH over
2 to 7.5. We demonstrate that PCF-LPG is two orders of magnitude
more sensitive than its traditional all-solid counterpart through parallelinvestigation. Numerical simulations are used to correlate the response of
PCF-LPG with the behavior of pH-responsive hydrogel.

Impact time measurement by using the fiber
optic sensor in the pendulum ball collision
Jongkil Lee, Andong National Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Alex
Vakakis, Larry Bergman, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign(United States)
In case of two pendulum balls collision, detected signal contains steel
plate of the shaft vibration after collision. It cannot identify the impact
force because of the shaft vibration. Because of soft shaft it comes out
inconsistent responses. So collision system was changed to the fixed ballcase. To measure impact force and other physical quantities when twoballs collide fiber optic sensor with Sagnac interferometer was fabricated.
To compare detected signal accelerometer also attached near the fixedball. Colliding ball was determined by increasing the hit angle, i.e. 20,
30, and 50 degrees. Voltage response of the collide in time domain andfrequency spectrum were analyzed. The response was consistent. Impact
duration time is about 0.14ms for FOS and 0.12ms for accelerometer.
FOS also detect free vibration of the optical fiber which passing throughthe fixed ball. But this unwanted signal can not avoid using Sagnac
interferometer.Using fiber optic sensors to measure the impulsive force,
this experiment is useful.

8722-18, Session 5

Mode coupling and mode-field distribution
in long period gratings tri-directionally anduni-directionally inscribed in photonic crystal
fiber
Fei Tian, Stevens Institute of Technology (United States); Jiri
Kanka, Institute of Photonics and Electronics of the ASCR,
v.v.i. (Czech Republic); Kin-Seng Chiang, City Univ. of Hong
Kong (Hong Kong, China); Henry H. Du, Stevens Institute ofTechnology (United States)

8722-22, Session 5

We report the inscription and measurements of long period gratings(LPG) in photonic crystal fiber (PCF) by unidirectional as well as tridirectional CO2 laser irradiation with the aid of a pair of 120° angled, Aucoated reflective mirrors. We show that tri-directional inscription resultsin symmetric mode coupling, while uni-directional inscription leads toasymmetric mode coupling in PCF-LPG. We reveal that mode couplingis facilitated by reflective index modulation resulting from residual stressrelaxation in the outer solid cladding for LPG inscribed in the low load
range (1-5 g). In contrast, mode coupling stems from refractive index
modulation due to combined residue stress relaxation and structuraldeformation for LPG inscribed in the high load range (10-30 g). We
attempt to arrive at a unified understanding of the mode coupling andmode-field distributions in the various PCF-LPG structures with further
investigation involving near-field imaging and numerical simulations.

An integrated theoretical and experimental
study of SERS nanotags on competitive
Raman gain and signal attenuation in PCF
Polina Pinkhasova, Svetlana A. Sukhishvili, Stevens Institute ofTechnology (United States); Jiri Kanka, Institute of Photonics andElectronics of the ASCR, v.v.i. (Czech Republic); Henry H. Du,
Stevens Institute of Technology (United States)
The complexity of designing a PCF platform for SERS detecting arises
from the competitive Raman gain and scattering/absorption-induced
signal attenuation over the length of a waveguide decorated with SERSactive Ag or Au nanoparticles, which critically depends on the particle
size and coverage density. We have carried out a combined theoreticaland experimental investigation of this complex interplay to ascertain
optimal nanoparticle parameters for SERS-active photonic crystal fiber
sensors. In particular, discrete dipole approximation (DDA) and finite
difference time domain (FDTD) simulation methods have been used toevaluate the interaction of the evanescent field of the guided core withimmobilized nanoparticles. Favorable nanoparticle parameters have been
experimentally assessed using well-behaved, individually SERS-active Au
shell-Ag core nanotags that are immobilized on the cladding air channels
of a suspended core PCF. The theoretical calculations and experimental
findings will be compared and contrasted, using the optical path length(i.e., fiber length) as a means of further increasing the detection sensitivityof the SERS-active PCF.

8722-19, Session 5

Compact, fiber-based, fast-light enhanced
optical gyroscope
Caleb A. Christensen, Anton Zavriyev, MagiQ Technologies, Inc.
(United States); Mark Bashkansky, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Craig Beal, MagiQ Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates)
It has been proposed that fast-light optical phenomena can increase thesensitivity of a Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG) of a given size by several
orders of magnitude. MagiQ is developing a compact fully-fibered fast
light RLG using Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) in commercial
optical fiber. We will discuss our experimental results on SBS pumped
lasing in commercial fibers and analyze their implications to the fast light
generation. Based on these results, we envision a fast light enhanced
Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG) that will use only a few meters of fiber andrequire reasonable pump power (only a few 100’s of mW). We will present
the design that is based on proven, commercially available technologies.
By using photonic integrated circuits and telecom-grade fiber
components, we created a design that is appropriate for mass productionin the near term. We eliminated all free-space optical elements (such as
atomic vapor cells), in order to enable a compact, high sensitivity RLG
stable against environmental disturbances. Results of this effort will havebenefits in existing applications of RLGs (such as inertial navigation units,
gyrocompasses, and stabilization techniques), and will allow wider use
of RLGs in spacecraft, unmanned aerial vehicles or sensors, where thecurrent size and weight of optical gyros are prohibitive.

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8722-23, Session 5

Fabry-Perot microstructured polymer opticalfiber sensors for ultrasonic and optoacoustic
endoscopic biomedical applications
Daniel C. Gallego, Horacio Lamela, Univ. Carlos III de Madrid(Spain); David Saez-Rodriquez, Aston Univ. (United Kingdom);
Kristian Nielsen, Technical Univ. of Denmark (Denmark); David J.
Webb, Aston Univ. (United Kingdom); Ole Bang, Technical Univ.
of Denmark (Denmark)
Recently, it has been presented the images of internal organs in vivousing a 2.5-mm diameter optoacoustic and ultrasonic dual-mode·

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

endoscope. In order to extend the use of this kind of dual modeendoscopes to complement the intravascular ultrasound (IVUS), adding
to the morphological information the specifity of the optoacoustic
imaging, is necessary to miniaturize the probe to be fitted in less than
1mm to pass through thin vasculature. Moreover, for a practical IVUS/
IVPA catheter is mandatory to have a wideband ultrasonic detector up to
50MHz with enough sensitivity despite the necessary miniaturization. The
optical detection of ultrasound provides the compactness, sensitivity andbandwidth required for this application
Our group, previously, has demonstrated that ultrasonic sensitivity of
an interferometric single mode polymer optical fiber sensor (SMPOF)
is one order of magnitude higher than a silica counterpart. However,these SMPOF are not easily commercially available and its performancein terms of loss and coupling light into is very poor what makes them
impractical for real implementation. In contrast, microstructured
polymer optical fiber (mPOF), exhibiting the same acoustic sensitivity,
presents moderate low loss at visible wavelength regime and can bemade endlessly single-mode. These ultrasonic characterizations havebeen carried out over mPOF based on PMMA and TOPAS. Most of the
POFs are based on PMMA. However, TOPAS presents the fundamental
advantage over PMMA of the humidity insensitive. This is important for
ultrasonic measurements due to the sensor must be in an inherently wet
medium.
In this contribution, we present an ultrasonic characterization it the
MHz regime of FBG in PMMA and TOPAS mPOFs. Besides this, theresponse of a Fabry-Perot interferometer sensor made from two FBG isinvestigated. The results are compared with a straightforward fiber optic
Mach-Zehnder interferometric sensor based on the same mPOFs.

8722-24, Session 6

Temperature sensing in high-voltage
transmission lines using fiber Bragg grating
and free-space-optics
Joao B. Rosolem, Claudio Floridia, Ariovaldo A. Leonardi,
Claudio A. Hortencio, CpqD Foundation (Brazil); Romeu F.
Fonseca, Rodrigo O. C. Moreira, Giovani C. L. Souza, Altair L.
Melo, Carlos Alexandre M. Nascimento, Companhia Energetica
de Minas Gerais (Brazil)
A major problem in the electricity transmission is the heating of the
conductor due Joule effect caused by the circulating electric current. The
temperature sets the limit for safe operation of the conductors. Thus itis very important to monitor the temperature manly in power cables andsubstation bus bars.
Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor is one of the best technologies tomonitor temperature in high voltage systems. The main problem is toconnect the fiber and the sensors in the high voltage lines. The traditional
solution is change the ordinary isolator by one containing the optical fiber
embedded inside the isolator. A solution that is expensive.
In this work we proposed the use of free-space-optics (FSO) to transmit
and receive the optical signals from optical fiber placed in ground
potential to the FBG fiber optics at high voltage potential, using a pair of
optical collimators. The use of collimators fixing kits avoids the change ofan ordinary isolator to one with embedded fiber optic.
The evaluation of this technique was performed in a laboratory prototype
for the study of sensitivity to optical alignment and in an external
environment using a chain of insulators. For misalignment sensitivity
studies several types of collimators and optical fibers were used. It has
been shown that the FSO system allows collimators operate at distancesof 500 mm to 2.000 mm. This range of distances is similar to the lengthof insulator’s chain up to 230 kV.

8722-25, Session 6

Single fiber Bragg grating for themeasurement of liquid level and temperature
Srimannarayana Kamineni, Dipankar Sengupta, Sai S.
Madhuvarasu, National Institute of Technology, Warangal (India)
The present work proposes a simple sensor head design making
use of single FBG, for simultaneous measurement of Liquid level andTemperature eliminating usage of two separate FBGs. To implement
this, exactly half the portion of a long FBG was glued to the sensor headand embedded on a cantilever with suitable adhesive while the otherhalf which is chemically etched was left free. As a result of chemical
etching, the reflection peak of the FBG will split into two at normal room
temperature, corresponding to the two halves of the grating. The two
peaks responded differently, when the grating was stretched due todeflection of the cantilever and change in temperature. The sensitivity
coefficient of these peaks obtained from the graph for the change inliquid level and temperature allows the simultaneous measurement ofliquid level and temperature. From the knowledge of the temperature in
the tank containing liquid, a correction can be made from the specificgravity and temperature characteristic curve equation of the liquid for
accurate determination of liquid level.

8722-26, Session 6

Design and sensing research of the stepped
metal film on optical fiber
Yang Gao, State Key Lab. for Marine Corrosion and Protection,
Luoyang Ship Material Research Institute (China) and Institute ofMaterials Science and Engineering, Ocean Univ. of China (China);
Wenhua Cheng, Luoyang Ship Material Research Institute(China); Weimin Guo, State Key Lab. for Marine Corrosion andProtection, Luoyang Ship Material Research Institute (China);
Shanshan Zhang, State Key Lab. for Marine Corrosion andProtection, Luoyang Ship Material Research Institute (China) andCollege of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Ocean Univ.
of China (China); Yubin Fu, Institute of Materials Science andEngineering, Ocean Univ. of China (China); Liangmin Yu, College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Ocean Univ. of China(China)Optical fiber corrosion sensor with metal film was usually made by metal
film replacing cladding, and monitored corrosion proceeding through theoptical signal change caused by metal film corrosion. Now optical fiber
corrosion sensor with metal film had much more studied, but the opticalsignal influenced with film thickness and structure was complicated,so the further research was needed. In this paper, an optical fiber
corrosion sensor with stepped metal film was designed and fabricated.
The principle of the optical fiber sensor for corrosion monitoring wasanalyzed. The stepped metal film was prepared by magnetron sputteringand electroplating on the core of multimode optical fiber with cladding
removed. The optical performance of the sensor with different steps
was investigated by optical power measuring. The result showed thata stepped metal film on optical fiber could enhance the properties of
sensor, and the detective range was enlarged.

8722-27, Session 6

Escherichia coli biosensors forenvironmental, food industry and biological
warfare agent detection
Regina C. Allil, Ctr. Technological of Brazilian Army (Brazil) andUniv. Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Marcelo M. Werneck,

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

José L. Silva-Neto, Ctr. Technological of Brazilian Army (Brazil);
Marco Miguel, Univ. Federal do Rio de Janiero (Brazil); Domingos
M. Rodrigues, Ctr. Technological of Brazilian Army (Brazil); Gisele
L. Wandermur, Ctr. Technological of Brazilian Army (Brazil) andUniv. Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Dora C. Rambauske,
Univ. Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)

by femtosecond laser micromachining, is proposed and demonstrated.
Pd film is deposited on the interferometer micro-cavity as the sensing
material for hydrogen detection. The micro-cavity of 20 m in length andcoated with 50 nm Pd film has been investigated in the hydrogen volume
ratio rang of 0%–16%, and experimental results show that the sensor
exhibits a hydrogen sensitivity of ~0.3846 nm/%. The compact opticalfiber hydrogen sensor developed in this work is easy to fabricate and has
high potentials in hydrogen sensing.

This work has the objective to research and develop a plastic optical fiber
biosensor based taper and mPOF LPG techniques to detect Escherichia
coli by measurements of index of refraction.

8722-30, Session 7

Generally, cell detection is crucial in microbiological analysis of clinical,
food, water or environmental samples. However, methods current
employed are time consuming, taking at least 72 hours in order toproduce reliable responses as they depend on sample collection and cell
culture in controlled conditions. The delay in obtaining the results of theanalysis can result in contamination of a great number of consumers.

A hybrid plasmonic whispering gallery modesensor for single bionanoparticle detection
Stephen Holler, Fordham Univ. (United States); Venkata R.
Dantham, Polytechnic Institute of New York Univ. (United States);
Vasily Kolchenko, New York City College of Technology (UnitedStates); Zhenmao Wan, Hunter College (United States); Stephen
Arnold, Polytechnic Institute of New York Univ. (United States)

Plastic Optical Fiber (POF) biosensors consist in a viable alternative for
rapid and inexpensive scheme for cells detection. A study the sensitivityof these sensors for microbiological detection, fiber Tapers and Long
Period Grating (LPG) both in poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA) wererealized as possible candidates to take part of a biosensor system todetect Escherichia coli in water samples.

Biological warfare agents pose a real threat to national security. Exposure
to harmful pathogenic material through contaminated media such as
food and water supplies can result in severe outbreaks, and lead tomass hysteria in the civilian sector and impairment of resources in the
military sector. Rapid detection of pathogenic material in vital resources
and infected, or potentially infected individuals requires high sensitivity
and responsivity. Resonant systems have long been known to be highly
responsive and highly sensitive to changes in the local environment,
but the ability to perform single bionanoparticle detection has provendifficult. Though not impossible, optical resonator systems exhibit
detection limits for biological particles to be >100 nm. We have recently
demonstrated detection and characterization of the smallest known
RNA virus (13.5 nm radius) using a plasmonically enhanced hybrid
whispering gallery mode biosensor. By affixing gold nanoparticles to thesurface of a whispering gallery mode resonator, one locally enhances
the electric field of the circulating light. When a target analyte binds withthis nanoscopic antenna the result is an enhanced response (spectral
shift) of the resonator system to the binding event. We have observed
shift enhancements ~70x over the response of the bare resonator,
thereby permitting the detection and characterization of all known viralparticles and even some large protein molecules. Further enhancements
are expected to push the detection limits into a range that would allow
detection of toxins from pathogens such as Bacillus anthracis.

In this work we adopted the immunocapture technique, which consists ofquantifying bacteria in a liquid sample, attracting and fixing the bacteriaon the surface of the polymer optical fiber, by the antigen-antibody
reaction.
The results showed the possibility of the POF in biosensor application
capable to detect E. coli for envi-ronmental and food industry and for
detecting and identifying biological-warfare agents using a very rapid response sensor, applicable to field detection prototypes.

8722-28, Session 7

Fiber optic refractive index sensors based on
etched pi-phase-shifted fiber Bragg gratings
Ming Han, Qi Zhang, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln (United States)
We present a highly sensitive refractive index sensor based on etchedpi-phase shifted fiber Bragg gratings (piFBG). Due to the pi-phase shift at
the center of the grating structure, the transmission spectrum features anextremely narrow peak. When the fiber is etched into the fiber core, thenarrow transmission peak of the piFBG can be used for highly sensitiverefractive index sensing. A 7 mm-long strong piFBG at ~1550 nm with
an ultra-high Q factor of 5x10^6 is fabricated using a UV laser and aphasemask. The fiber diameter is then etched to be < 10 microns todemonstrate highly-sensitive refractive index sensing of NaCl solutions
in water. The effect of the absorption from water solution on the Q-factor
and the sensitivity of the piFBG sensor is analyzed.

8722-31, Session 7

Novel compact architecture for highresolution sensing with plasmonic gratings inconical mounting
Gianluca Ruffato, Univ. degli Studi di Padova (Italy) and
Veneto Nanotech s.c.p.a. (Italy); Elisabetta Pasqualotto,
Univ. degli Studi di Padova (Italy); Agnese Sonato, Univ. degliStudi di Padova (Italy) and Veneto Nanotech s.c.p.a. (Italy);Gabriele Zacco, Veneto Nanotech s.c.p.a. (Italy) and Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy); Davide Silvestri, Univ. degliStudi di Padova (Italy); Monica Dettin, Univ. of Padova (Italy);
Margherita Morpurgo, Alessandro De Toni, Univ. degli Studi di
Padova (Italy); Filippo Romanato, Il LaNN - Lab. di ricerca per laNanofabbricazione e i Nanodispositivi (Italy) and Univ. degli Studi
di Padova (Italy) and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy)

8722-29, Session 7

Integration of thin films with fiber
microstructures for sensing applications
Minghong Yang, Min Wang, Guilin Zhang, Wuhan Univ. ofTechnology (China)
The combination of fiber optics with micro-structure technologies
and sensitive thin films offers great potential for the realization ofnovel sensor concepts. Minitured optical fiber sensors with thin films
as sensitive elements could open new fields for optical fiber sensor
applications. Thin films work as sensitive elements and transducer to
get response and feedback from environments, optical fiber here are
employed to signal carrier. Micro-structured Farby-Perot (F-P) sensors
on single mode fiber (SMF) could be realized with femtosecond (fs)laser, and could be integrated with sensitive thin films for new sensing
applications. In this paper, an optical fiber hydrogen sensor based on
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Recent research concerning the excitation of Surface Plasmon Polaritons(SPPs) on metallic gratings in conical mounting revealed new phenomena
unexpectedly promising for sensing applications. More SPPs can be
excited by the same wavelength with a refractive index sensitivity one
order greater than conventional mountings[1]. In addition, the critical roleof incident polarization on SPPs excitation[2] provides a new degree of·

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Conference 8722: Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications X

freedom with high impact on sensing performance and architecture[3].
Here we provide the results of a first compact prototype implementing
a Grating-Coupled Surface Plasmon Resonance (GCSPR) techniquebased on polarization modulation in conical mounting[4]. A metallic
grating is azimuthally rotated in order to support a double excitation ofhigh-sensitivity SPPs. At resonance, a polarization scan of the incident
light is performed and reflectivity is collected before and after the sensing
procedure. Output signal exhibits a harmonic dependence and the phaseterm is exploited as sensing parameter. The mechanical complexity of
the SPR system is significantly reduced and benefits in sensitivity andresolution are assured, with values down to 10-7 Refractive Index Units(RIU). The system has been tested with saline solutions flowing throughan integrated microfluidic setup and for the multiplexed detectionof binding events (avidin/biotin, DNA/PNA probes) on the properlyfunctionalized gold pattern (Cysteine-thiolated polyethyleneoxide
antifouling layer).
[1]F. Romanato, et al., Optics Express 17, 12145 (2009).
[2]F. Romanato, et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 111103 (2010).
[3]G. Ruffato and F. Romanato, Opt. Lett. 37, 2718-2720 (2012).
[4]G. Ruffato et al., submitted to Scientific Reports (Sept 2012).

8722-32, Session 7

Multiplexed detection of aquaculture
fungicides using a pump-free optofluidic
SERS microsystem
Soroush Yazdi, Ian M. White, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States)
We report the development of an optofluidic surface enhanced Raman
spectroscopy (SERS) microsystem that is optimized for on-site foodand water quality and safety control. The microdevice consists of aporous matrix of packed silica microspheres inside a microchannel that
passively concentrates silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and adsorbs analytemolecules, resulting in a significant increase in SERS signal intensity ascompared to conventional open channel microfluidic SERS systems.
The signal boost is due to molecule accumulation and SERS “hot spot”
formation within the detection zone. Moreover, two multimode fiber optic
cables are integrated into the detection zone for optical excitation andcollection. This improves the detection automation since no traditional
microscope alignment/focusing is necessary. In addition, the optofluidic
SERS microsystem does not require a bulky syringe pump for sample
loading. Instead, the sample is introduced into the device simply byapplying negative pressure at the outlet using a pipette. Utilizing our
optofluidic SERS device, multiplexed detection of three highly regulated
fungicides in aquaculture is demonstrated. Malachite green, thiram,and methyl parathion were simultaneously detected in concentrations
as low as 0.1 ppb, 5 ppb, and 5 ppm respectively. Integration of the
optofluidic microsystem with state-of-the-art portable spectrometers andlaser diodes may lead to improved portability and practicality of SERS
for on-site detection of environmental contaminants. The device has
the potential to integrate with other microfluidic functions (e.g. on-chip
chromatographic separation), which makes it suitable for contaminants
detection in complex real world samples.

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III
Monday - Wednesday 29–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8723 Sensing Technologies for Global Health, Military Medicine, and Environmental
Monitoring III

8723-1, Session 1

8723-7, Session 1

The oral-systemic connection: role of salivary
diagnostics (Invited Paper)

Computing Tutte polynomials of contact
networks in classrooms

Daniel Malamud, New York Univ. (United States)

Doracelly Hincapie-Palacio, Univ. de Antioquia (Colombia); Juan
Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Salivary diagnostics is a rapidly advancing area of research, applying
microfluidic technology to address major biomedical challenges.
Surprisingly, most of the publications that utilize saliva for diagnostics are
related to systemic rather than oral diseases. The field has blossomed
into a range of applications involving diverse areas of basic andtranslational research and most recently has generated corporate interestand investments. The connections between the oral cavity and systemic
diseases have fueled the progress in oral-based diagnostic technologies.
In this presentation we will look at the origins of oral diagnostics and theoral-systemic connection, and then present recent results from our owngroup in developing point-of-care diagnostics for HIV, TB, and Malaria.
This constellation of these three infectious diseases occurs in the samegeographic regions, and typically infected individuals succumb to TB and
Malaria which flourish due to HIV-induced immunosuppression.

Objective: The topological complexity of contact networks in classrooms
and the potential transmission of an infectious disease were analyzed by
sex and age.
Methods: The Tutte polynomials, some topological properties andthe number of spanning trees were used to algebraically computethe topological complexity. Computations were made with the Maple
package GraphTheory. Published data of mutually reported social
contacts within a classroom taken from primary school, consisting ofchildren in the age ranges of 4–5, 7–8 and 10–11, were used.
Results: The algebraic complexity of the Tutte polynomial and theprobability of disease transmission increases with age. The contact
networks are not bipartite graphs, gender segregation was observed
especially in younger children.
Conclusion: Tutte polynomials are tools to understand the topology of
the contact networks and to derive numerical indexes of such topologies.
It is possible to establish relationships between the Tutte polynomial ofa given contact network and the potential transmission of an infectious
disease within such network.

8723-6, Session 1

Detection of congenital cytomegalovirus
infection using real-time polymerase chain
reaction of saliva

8723-8, Session 1

Shannon A. Ross, Masako Shimamura, The Univ. of Alabama
at Birmingham (United States); April Palmer, The Univ. ofMississippi Medical Ctr. (United States); Amina Ahmed, LevineChildrens Hospital (United States); Marian Michaels, Univ. of
Pittsburgh School of Medicine (United States); Pablo Sanchez,
Univ. de Cantabria (Spain); David Bernstein, Cincinnati Children’s
Hospital Medical Ctr. (United States); Robert Tolan, Saint Peter’s
Healthcare System (United States); Novak Zdenek, Nazma
Chowdhury, William Britt, Karen Fowler, Suresh Boppana, The
Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham (United States)

Detection of herpesviruses andpapillomaviruses in saliva
Jennifer Webster-Cyriaque, The Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8723-11, Session 1

Therapeutic monitoring of HIV/AIDS using
saliva biomarkers

Congenital cytomegalovirus (cCMV) infection is the most common
congenital infection and a leading cause of hearing loss in children.
As most infants with cCMV have no clinical abnormalities at birth,screening all infants for CMV will permit early identification of those atrisk for hearing deficit. The gold standard for the diagnosis of cCMV
infection in newborns has traditionally been viral culture of urine or saliva,
however, culture based methods are labor and time intensive. PCR
based detection of CMV in blood has been used in immunocompromised
patients to detect and monitor CMV disease, However, PCR of dried
blood spots was shown to be insensitive for the identification of
newborns with cCMV. Since infants with cCMV shed large amounts ofvirus in saliva and urine, we developed a real-time PCR assay of saliva
for newborn CMV screening. This assay was highly sensitive and specificfor detecting CMV when compared with the gold standard, saliva viralculture, in over 34,000 newborns. Saliva PCR was also found to beequivalent to urine PCR for diagnosis. Therefore, saliva PCR appears tobe the ideal assay for newborn CMV screening and diagnosis due to highsensitivity and specificity, as well as ease of sample collection, transport,
and storage.

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Sárka Southern, Gaia Medical Institute (United States)
We have developed a large panel of saliva-based biomarkers (n=100)
using new methods for saliva proteomics. The methods provide
quantitative measures of distinct biomarkers with high sensitivity andspecificity. The new saliva biomarkers can be translated into a rapid
point-of-care (POC) test and have clinical applications in diseasediagnostics and therapeutic monitoring. Current applications of thetechnology include monitoring the outcome of anti-retroviral therapy(ART) in HIV/AIDS patients. Saliva biomarkers for this application werevalidated using a clinical study of HIV/AIDS patients at AIDS Healthcare
Foundation in Los Angeles. The biomarkers are clinically specific for HIV
and correlate with standard blood tests for therapeutic monitoring of
HIV/AIDS: the CD4 T cell count and the HIV-RNA viral load. The saliva
biomarkers provide a new approach to HIV/AIDS monitoring, and offer
new insights into the molecular mechanism of HIV persistence and AIDS
progression. The new saliva ART test will significantly improve clinical
HIV/AIDS care by allowing real-time, cost-effective assessment of ART
efficacy during routine patient visits in community clinics.

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III

8723-13, Session 1

8723-2, Session 2

Diagnostic microRNA profiling distinguishes
infection types

Salivary analytes for interdisciplinary
biomedical research and diagnostics (Invited
Paper)

Dirk P. Dittmer, Pauline E. Chugh, Sang-Hoon Sin, Seonjoo Lee,
Haiping Shen, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Ctr., The Univ.
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (United States)
Micro RNAs are a new class of transcripts, which function to modulate
gene expression. They themselves are regulated by host gene signaling
pathways and thus can be used as a read-out of the host cell state.
MicroRNA profiling is gaining increasing popularity as a means ofexpression profiling owing in part to the extraordinarily stability of thesesmall RNAs within the cell and within body fluids. We initially used
miRNA profiles to differentiate among viral cancers (PLoS Pathog. 2009
Apr;5(4):e1000389) using custom real-time qPCR arrays. Here, wewill present data using TaqMan qPCR as well as NextGen sequencing(Virology. 2012 Nov 10;433(1):220-5. ) to distinguish among viral
infections (herpes B virus vs. HSV1) and to delineate disease progressionin Kaposi sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV or HHV8) infections.
We will present a new concept for the classification of data based on
NextGen sequencing.

8723-57, Session 1

Oral microbiome in health and disease:lessons from HIV
Mahmoud Ghannoum, Case Western Reserve Univ. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available.

8723-58, Session 1

NIDCR overview on salivary biology and oral
fluid-based diagnostics for diseases (Invited
Paper)
Isaac Rodriguez-Chavez, Penny Wung Burgoon, National
Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (United States)
The principle of using novel technologies for clinical diagnosis of
non-infectious and infectious comorbidities that affect millions ofpeople globally relies on biomedical advances and the development
and implementation of cost effective, rapid and minimally invasive
procedures for biospecimen collection and testing in robust assays. The
latter incorporates analytes’ detection with high sensitivity, specificity
and reproducibility in diverse settings including clinical diagnostic
laboratories and field conditions. Based on this principle and the readily
accessibility of the oral cavity with its constituting oral fluids, which
represent an ideal milieu of plentiful biomarkers –the analytes- for theidentification of oral and systemic diseases, the clinical diagnostics field
has embraced salivary biology and the use of oral-fluid-based assays
as a novel and powerful alternative to the more traditional blood andplasma biospecimens collected and tested in routine, time-consuming
clinical diagnostic assays. This presentation will provide an overview ofthe field of salivary biology and oral fluid-based diagnostics for diseases,
discussing emerging trends and future directions.

192

Douglas A. Granger, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8723-4, Session 2

Update on a lab-on-a-chip system for saliva
diagnostics: link to oral cancer
Pierre N. Floriano, Rice Univ. (United States); A. Ross Kerr,
Brian L. Schmidt, Patricia Corby, Ismael El Khouly Castilla,
New York Univ. College of Dentistry (United States); Martin
H. Thornhill, Katy D’Apice, Craig Murdoch, Paul Speight, The
Univ. of Sheffield (United Kingdom); Spencer Redding, Stan
McGuff, Chih-Ko Yeh, Steve Westbrook, Mark Diburro, Stephanie
Rowan, The Univ. of Texas Health Science Ctr. at San Antonio(United States); Nadarajah Vigneswaran, Etan Y. Weinstock, Nagi
Demian, Tammy Tran, Maga Sanchez, The Univ. of Texas Dental
Branch at Houston (United States); Nicolaos Christodoulides,
Surabhi Gaur, Kailash Karthikeyan, Humberto Talavera, Michael
Nguyen, Cathy Le, Leander Taylor, John McDevitt, Rice Univ.
(United States)
A large multi-site international clinical was conducted to develop andvalidate a lab-on-a-chip (LOC) method to analyze exfoliated oral cells.
Three groups of subjects: PMOD (potentially malignant oral disorders),
OSCC (oral squamous cell carcinoma) and normal controls were enrolled
at three sites. Three-color immunofluorescence analysis of cellular
samples for up to 25 cytomorphometric parameters and biomarker
expression (of 7 candidate biomarkers) were generated in an automatedmanner with image analysis algorithms based on pattern recognition
techniques and advanced statistical methods. Based on preliminary
results, we expect the outcome of this study to produce a tool based on
LOC analysis of exfoliated cells collected noninvasively and capable ofdiscriminating between benign and dysplastic or OSCC lesions with highsensitivity and high specificity with multivariate panels of molecular andcytomorphometric parameters.

8723-5, Session 2

Saliva diagnostics for respiratory diseases
using an automated integrated device
Shuai Nie, Huaibin Zhang, David R. Walt, Tufts Univ. (UnitedStates)Multiplexed antibody microarrays have been used for a variety of clinicaldiagnostics applications. Saliva has been considered as a preferreddiagnostic fluid as its collection is safe, noninvasive, and requires minimal
personnel training. We have developed an automated integrated device
based on sensitive, multiplexed protein microarrays for the quantificationof biomarkers in human saliva samples. Monoclonal antibodies arecovalently bonded to fluorescent-encoded cross-linked polymer
microspheres. Different types of antibody-modified microspheres are
mixed and then loaded in microwells integrated into a microfluidic
chip. The protein biomarkers are quantified via fluorescence sandwich
immunoassays. A saliva sample is introduced into the microfluidic chip,and automatically analyzed by the integrated analyzer. This multiplexed
platform enables fast, accurate, and reproducible analysis of different
proteins over a wide concentration range. The test requires only 10 ?L ofsaliva and the results are reported within 75 minutes. The performanceof the integrated device has been verified using standard solutions

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III
Houston (United States)

constituted with recombinant proteins. Saliva samples collected frompatients with different respiratory diseases as well as healthy controls
have also been tested. Statistical analysis on six protein biomarkers forasthma and cystic fibrosis demonstrates the possibility of using humansaliva samples for point-of-care diagnostics of respiratory diseases.

The objective of this study was to compare the salivary protein profiles ofsaliva specimens from individuals diagnosed with breast cancer with andwithout HER2/neu overexpression.Pooled (n=10 pooled) stimulated whole
saliva specimens from women were analyzed. One pooled specimen wasfrom healthy women, another was from women diagnosed with Stage IIa(T2/N0/M0) invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) without positive HER2/neu
receptor status. A third pooled specimen was from women diagnosed
with Stage IIa (T2/N0/M0) IDC with a positive HER2/neu receptor status.
Isotopically tagging proteins in the tumor groups and comparing them tothe healthy control group measured differential expression of proteins.
Experimentally, saliva from each of the pooled samples was trypsinized
and the peptide digests labeled with the appropriate iTRAQ reagent.
Labeled peptides from each of the digests were combined and analyzed
by reverse phase (C18) capillary chromatography on an LC-MS/MS
mass spectrometer equipped with an LC-Packings HPLC. The resultsof this study yielded 20 proteins unique to HER2/neu positive receptor
status and 28 proteins that were unique to HER2/neu negative status.
In conclusion, results of this study provide support to the novel idea ofusing salivary biomarkers to study breast cancer progression.

8723-9, Session 2

The proteome of human saliva (Invited Paper)
Timothy J. Griffin, Pratik Jagtap, Univ. of Minnesota (UnitedStates); Sricharan Bandhakavi, Bio-Rad Labs., Inc. (UnitedStates); Susan K. Van Riper, Univ. of Minnesota, Rochester(United States); Ebbing de Jong, Nelson L. Rhodus, John V.
Carlis, Univ. of Minnesota (United States); Joel D. Rudney, Univ.
of Minnesota School of Dentistry (United States)
Human saliva holds tremendous potential for transforming disease
and health diagnostics given its richness of molecular information andnon-invasive collection. Enumerating its molecular constituents is an
important first step towards reaching this potential. Among the moleculesin saliva, proteins and peptides arguably have the most value: they candirectly indicate biochemical functions linked to a health condition/disease state, and they are attractive targets for biomarker assay
development. However, cataloging and defining the human salivary
proteome is challenging given the dynamic, chemically heterogeneousand complex nature of the system. Presented here will be a summaryof communal efforts to meet this challenge, focusing on the current
snapshot of the human salivary protein catalog, and including efforts tocharacterize the chemical heterogeneity of the proteome (e.g. posttranslational modifications). A summary of work aimed at identifying thecontribution from the oral microbiome to the human saliva proteome
will also be presented. Implications of these efforts to characterize thesalivary proteome in the context of disease diagnostics will be discussed.

8723-14, Session 2

Nanosensor for saliva-based glucose
monitoring
Jonathan C. Claussen, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8723-15, Session 2

Cell phone-based imaging and sensing
architectures (Invited Paper)

8723-10, Session 2

Aydogan Ozcan, Univ. of California, Los Angeles (United States)

Emerging technologies for salivary
diagnostics: lessons from chronic graftversus-host disease (Invited Paper)

Today there are more than 6 billion cell-phone users in the world, andthe majority of these cellphones are being used in developing parts of
the world. This massive volume of wireless phone communication brings
an enormous cost-reduction to cellphones despite their sophisticatedhardware and software capabilities. Utilizing this advanced state-ofthe-art cell phone technology towards point-of-care diagnostics and/or microscopic imaging applications can offer numerous opportunities
to improve health care especially in the developing world where medical
facilities and infrastructure are extremely limited or even do not exist.

Jacqueline W. Mays, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial
Research, National Institutes of Health (United States)
Saliva is a protein-rich oral fluid that contains information aboutsystemic and oral-specific disease pathogenesis and for their diagnosis.
Technologies are emerging to improve detection of protein components
of saliva for use not only in biomarker discovery, but also for theillumination of pathways involved in oral disease. These include theoptimization of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry
analysis of saliva in health and disease. Downstream of saliva component
identification and validation comes the complex task of connecting
salivary proteomic data to biological function, disease state, and otherclinical patient information in a meaningful way. Augmentation of
database information with biological expertise is crucial for effective
analysis of potential biomarkers and disease pathways in order toimprove diagnosis and identify putative therapeutic targets. This
presentation will use LC-MS/MS analysis of saliva from chronic Graftversus-Host disease patients and from Sjogren’s syndrome patients toillustrate these principles.

This talk will introduce new imaging and detection architectures thatcan compensate in the digital domain for the lack of complexity of
optical components by use of novel theories and numerical algorithms
to address the immediate needs and requirements of Telemedicine for
Global Health Problems. Specifically, I will present an on-chip cytometry
and microscopy platform that utilizes cost-effective and compact
components to enable digital recognition and 3D microscopic imaging
of cells with sub-cellular resolution over a large field of view without theneed for any lenses, bulky optical components or coherent sources suchas lasers. This incoherent holographic imaging and diagnostic modality
has orders of magnitude improved light collection efficiency and is robust
to misalignments which eliminates potential imaging artifacts or theneed for realignment, making it highly suitable for field use. Applicationsof this lensfree on-chip microscopy platform to high-throughput
imaging and automated counting of whole blood cells, monitoring of
HIV+ patients (through CD4 and CD8 T cell counting) and detection ofwaterborne parasites towards rapid screening of water quality will also
be demonstrated. I will discuss lensfree implementations of various othercomputational imaging modalities on the same platform such as pixel
super-resolution imaging, lensfree on-chip tomography, holographic
opto-fluidic microscopy/tomography. Finally, I will demonstrate lensfree
on-chip imaging of fluorescently labeled cells over an ultrawide field ofview of >8 cm2, which could be especially important for rare cell analysis

8723-12, Session 2

Salivary proteome as an in vivo model tostudy breast cancer progression (Invited
Paper)Charles F. Streckfus, The Univ. of Texas Dental Branch at
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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III(e.g., detection of circulating tumor cells), as well as for high-throughput
screening of DNA/protein micro-arrays.

8723-59, Session 2

Saliva-based testing for malaria
Sungano Mharakurwa, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8723-18, Session 3

The military’s approach to TBI and PTSD
(Invited Paper)
Geoffrey S. F. Ling M.D., Uniformed Services Univ. of the Health
Sciences (United States); Jason S. Hawley, Walter Reed National
Military Medical Ctr. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8723-20, Session 3

Prevention and reduction of injuries insoldiers: current and future challenges (Invited
Paper)
Richard Shoge, U.S. Army Medical Research and Material
Command (United States)
The mission of the Military Operational Medicine Research Program(MOMRP) and USAMRMC is to develop effective countermeasuresagainst stressors and to maximize Soldier health, performance, andfitness. Soldiers are susceptible to debilitating injuries. Head and neckinjuries, including severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), have been reported
in 25% of evacuated service members. In FY10, over 700,000 veteransexperienced a hearing disorder (tinnitus) and over 600,000 sufferedhearing loss. Chronic musculoskeletal injuries are the leading cause(78%) of discharge for male and female Soldiers. To address injury rates,
the medical research community is tasked to develop injury criteriathat will lead to better preventive standards and strategies to protect
against current and future threats which include blast overpressure,blunt and penetrating trauma, musculoskeletal and training injuries, andacoustic trauma. Addressing future challenges will require maturationof the science in areas such as mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), injury
prediction and reduction models, injury criteria for equipment design
specifications and guidelines, health hazard injury assessment criteria,
and validated standards to assess return to duty following physical andneurosensory injury. In the end this will help the overall military challengeof optimizing the soldiers’ survivability, protection, and mobility toenhance mission success.

8723-23, Session 3

Clinical detection of brain damage in militaryand civilian TBI
Ava M. Puccio, UPMC Presbyterian (United States)
No Abstract Available.

1948723-24, Session 3

Systems biomarkers as acute diagnostics
and chronic monitoring tools for traumaticbrain injury (Invited Paper)
Kevin K.W. Wang, Univ. of Florida (United States)
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant biomedical problem among
military personnel and civilians. There exists an urgent need to develop
and refine biological measures of acute brain injury and chronic recovery
after brain injury. Such measures, “biomarkers,” can assist cliniciansin helping to define and refine the recovery process and developing
treatment paradigms for the acutely injured to reduce secondary injury
processes. Recent biomarker studies in the acute phase of TBI havehighlighted the importance and feasibilities of identifying clinically usefulbiomarkers. However, much less is known about the subacute andchronic phases of TBI. We propose here that for a complex biologicalproblem such as TBI, multiple biomarker types might be needed toharness the wide range of pathological and systemic perturbations
following TBI, including acute neuronal death, neuroinflammation,neurodegeneration and neuroregeneration to systemic responses.
In terms of biomarker types, they range from brain-specific proteins,
microRNA, genetic polymorphism, inflammatory cytokines, autoimmmune
markers and neuro-endocrine hormones. Furthermore, systems biologydriven biomarkers integration can help present a holistic approach tounderstand scenarios and complexity pathways involved in brain injury.

8723-50, Session 3

Blast-induced TBI: recovery and rehabilitation
Yelena Bogdanova, Boston Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8723-53, Session 3

A review of glutamates role in traumatic brain
injury mechanisms
Cameron Good, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter used by the central
nervous system for synaptic communication, and its extracellularconcentration is tightly regulated by glutamate transporters locatedon nearby astrocytes. Both animal models and human clinical studies
have demonstrated elevated glutamate levels immediately following
a traumatic brain event, with the duration and severity of the risecorresponding to prognosis. This rise in extracellular glutamate likely
results from a combination of excessive neurotransmitter release fromdamaged neurons and down regulation of uptake mechanisms inlocal astrocytes. The immediate results of a traumatic event can leadto necrotic tissue death in severely injured neurons, while prolonged
increases in excitatory transmission can cause secondary excitotoxic
injury through activation of delayed apoptotic pathways. Initial TBI animalstudies utilized a variety of broad glutamate receptor antagonists tosuccessfully combat secondary injury mechanisms, but unfortunately
this same strategy has proven inconclusive in subsequent human trials
due to deleterious side effects and heterogeneity of injuries. Morerecent treatment strategies have utilized specific glutamate receptor
subunit antagonists in an effort to minimize side effects and have shownpromising results. Future challenges will be detecting the concentrationand kinetics of the glutamate rise following injury, determining which
patient populations could benefit from antagonist treatment based on
their extracellular glutamate concentrations and when drugs should
be administered to maximize efficacy. This talk will review our current
thinking of glutamates role in the pathophysiology of TBI and highlightpotential avenues for future research in injury mechanism and detection.

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III

8723-60, Session 3

distinguish the disease state. Here we will show examples of brain tumor
markers found in/on exosomes from cell culture and patient sera, and wewill suggest that aspects of the biology of disease may have a relevant
place in the search for biomarkers.

Mechanisms of traumatic and degenerative
brain injury and repair
Vassilis Koliatsos, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)

8723-28, Session 4

No Abstract Available.

Monitoring astronaut health in space (Invited
Paper)

8723-61, Session 3

Virginia Wotring, NASA Johnson Space Ctr. (United States)Intelligent mouthguard: new technology tomeasure head impact in soldiers and athletes

During spaceflight missions, NASA crewmembers experience monthsof ordinary medical events, as well as certain syndromes associatedwith the extreme environment of spaceflight. It is well documented
from current and past missions that many spaceflight-associatedalterations are observed in human physiology, including changes inbone remodeling, muscle atrophy, immune system status, sensorimotor
integration, circadian rhythms, and fluid distribution in the body. Current
missions are approximately 6 months in length, but preparation for
long-duration exploration missions will require additional examinationof these physiological changes over longer periods of time. NASA uses
microgravity-compatible aspects of remote medicine to enable better
diagnosis and treatment of crewmembers, but currently the medical andphysiological research systems still rely heavily on return of physiologicalsamples (blood, urine, and saliva) from the ISS to ground laboratories
for analysis. NASA is developing additional analytical instrumentation
onboard the ISS to improve both diagnostic and research capabilities. To
reduce risk to the crewmembers during sample collection as well as toimprove crew compliance and participation, NASA is also exploring the
expanded use of saliva as a physiological fluid for both clinical tests andresearch studies.

Adam Bartsch, Cleveland Clinic (United States)
Nearly 2 million Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI) occur in the U.S. eachyear, with societal costs approaching $60 billion. Including mild TBI
and concussion, TBI’s are prevalent in soldiers returning from Iraq and
Afghanistan as well as in domestic athletes. Long-term risks of single
and cumulative head impact dosage may present in the form of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, suicide, Chronic Traumatic
Encephalopathy (CTE), dementia, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
Quantifying head impact dosage and understanding associated risk
factors for the development of long-term sequelae is critical toward
developing guidelines for TBI exposure and postexposure management.
This fundamental gap limits the understanding of underlying TBI
mechanisms, including effective treatment protocols and prevention
methods for soldiers and athletes.
To address this fundamental gap, Cleveland Clinic is developing theIntelligent Mouthguard (IMG) to measure head impact dosage in soldiersand athletes. Dynamic benchtop IMG testing under real-world impact
conditions have shown a 3% under prediction in linear acceleration(R2 = 0.99) up to 200g, a 3% under prediction in angular velocity (R2 =0.99) up to 40rad/s and a 19% under prediction in angular acceleration(R2 = 0.97) up to 10,000rad/s2. In vitro impact tests are ongoing andhave demonstrated the need to co-localize IMG sensor positions andorientations with respect to each user’s head center of gravity as well as
identify impact frequency content. In vivo testing has been completed onhockey players (n=4) and continues on amateur boxers (n=10). The IMG
will assist in developing injury assessment reference values (IARV) for
head impact dosage related to clinical neurocognitive functional deficit
data for TBI, mTBI and concussion.

8723-29, Session 4

High-altitude physiology: Lessons from Tibet(Invited Paper)Peter D. Wagner, T. S. Simonson, Univ. of California, San Diego(United States); G. Wei, Qinghai Univ. Medical School (China); H.
Wagner, Univ. of California, San Diego (United States); T. Wuren,
Qinghai Univ. School of Medicine (China); M. Yan, G. Qin, R. L.
Ge, Qinghai Univ. Medical School (China)

8723-65, Session 3

Polycythemia is a universal lowlander response to altitude; healthy
Andean high-altitude natives also have elevated hemoglobin [Hb].
While this may enhance O2 transport to tissues, studies have shownthat acute isovolumic changes in [Hb] do not affect exercise capacity.
Many high-altitude Tibetans have evolved sea-level values of [Hb],providing a natural opportunity to study this issue. In 21 young healthy
male Tibetans with [Hb] between 15 and 23 g/dl, we measured V .
O2MAX and O2 transport capacity at 4200m. V . O2MAX was higher when
[Hb] was lower, enabled by both higher cardiac output and muscle O2
diffusional conductance, but neither ventilation nor the alveolar-arterial
PO2 difference (AaPO2) varied with [Hb]. In contrast, Andean highaltitude natives remain polycythemic with larger lungs and higher lung
diffusing capacity, a smaller exercising AaPO2, and lower ventilation. The
challenges now are to understand the different adaptive pathways usedby Andeans and Tibetans, and determine in Tibetans whether, during
evolution, reduced [Hb] appeared first, causing compensatory cardiac
and muscle adaptations, or if enhanced cardiac function and muscle O2transport capacity appeared first, permitting secondary reduction in [Hb].

Circulating exosomes as new biomarkers forbrain disease and injury
Michael W. Graner, Univ. of Colorado Denver (United States);
Laura M. Epple, Univ. of Colorado Denver (United States) andColorado State Univ. (United States); Nathaniel L. Dusto, Alex M.
Lencioni, Univ. of Colorado Denver (United States)
Brain diseases such as cancers, neurodegenerative disorders, or trauma
are frequently diagnosed with imaging modalities and sometimes withintracranial biopsies. Treatment response is similarly monitored, alongwith clinical indications. While these technologies provide important
windows into the disease state, they fail to provide us a detailed
molecular portrait of the disease and of the changes taking place
during therapy. Exosomes are virus-sized nanovesicles derived fromthe endosomal system and are released extracellularly from essentially
all cell types. Exosomes contain intracellular entities (proteins, nucleic
acids, metabolites), membrane proteins and lipids, and even extracellular
proteins bound to them. Exosomes may be considered as minisurrogates of their cells of origin, with some content common to allcells/exosomes, but some of the content would be cell-specific. Thesevesicles are found in all biofluids in humans, and are thus accessible
to “liquid biopsy” with harvest of vesicles from such fluids. Current
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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III

8723-30, Session 4

Molecular diagnostics of osmotic stress anddehydration
Sárka O. Southern, Gaia Medical Institute (United States)
We have developed a large panel of saliva-based biomarkers (n=100)
using new methods for saliva proteomics. The methods provide
quantitative measures of distinct biomarkers with high sensitivity andspecificity. The new saliva biomarkers can be translated into a rapid
hand-held test for point-of-care settings. Clinical applications include
noninvasive disease diagnostics, monitoring systemic health andtreatment outcomes. Saliva biomarkers for noninvasive monitoring of
hydration status were validated in two DoD-sponsored clinical studies
of hypertonic and isotonic dehydration. The biomarkers provide a
new approach to dehydration diagnostics, and offer insights into themolecular mechanism of osmotic stress and dehydration. Dehydration isa significant public health issue. Over 90 million people are expected to
become dehydrated in the U.S. each year. Most of them are children, theelderly, sports participants, and patients with trauma, diabetes, kidney
dialysis, cancer or Alzheimer’s disease. Proper fluid balance is criticalfor Warfighter performance and health during training and deployment.
Dehydration is one of the fundamental physiological mechanisms of
illness and injury in extreme environments such as Afghanistan. The new
dehydration test will allow improved hydration management and returnto-duty metrics during training and combat for Warfighters, and will
provide early detection of dehydration in pediatrics, geriatrics and sports
medicine.

8723-31, Session 4

Thermal physiology: research approaches
and clinical applications

intensity. Regardless of the mode of manipulation, decreases in strokevolume associated with cardiovascular drift result in directionally andproportionally similar decreases in maximal aerobic capacity. Maximal
aerobic capacity is determined by maximal heart rate, maximal tissue
oxygen extraction, and maximal stroke volume. Because maximal heart
rate and maximal tissue oxygen extraction are unaffected during exercise
in the heat, decreased stroke volume associated with cardiovasculardrift likely persists during maximal efforts and explains the decrease inmaximal aerobic capacity. Decreased maximal aerobic capacity results
in a greater perceptual and physiological strain accompanying any
given level of work. Therefore, sustaining and enhancing performance
involves sophisticated monitoring of physiological strain combinedwith development of countermeasures that mitigate the magnitude ofdeleterious phenomena like cardiovascular drift.

8723-33, Session 4

Energy-aware Activity Classification using
Wearable Sensor Networks
Bo Dong, Alexander Montoye, Rebecca Moore, Karin Pfeiffer,
Subir Biswas, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
This paper presents a wearable sensor network for human activity
analysis and energy expenditure estimation for telemedicine based
remote health monitoring applications. The primary military application of
the proposed system can be real-time soldier monitoring in battlegroundsettings. We characterize the energy and processing constraints of
on-body sensors. Machine learning mechanisms are implemented forrecognizing 14 activities with both out-of-body and on-body processing
arrangements. Impacts of energy consumption and processing limitationof the on-body sensors and the number of sensors are analyzed in termsof activity detection accuracy. Conclusively, it is shown that an efficienthuman activity analytics system can be designed under energy andprocessing constraints of on-body sensors.

Thad Wilson, Ohio Univ. (United States)
Exposure to acute cold and heat stress elicits robust physiologicalresponses aimed at maintaining body temperature in humans. Cold
ambient temperatures cause cutaneous vasoconstriction in an effort
to increase the thermal insulation properties of the skin. If cooling is ofsignificant magnitude, whole body metabolic rate increases via shiveringand non-shivering thermogenesis. The precise response to a cold stressis highly dependent on the type, duration, severity, and pain involvement
during the stress, but these stresses have the potential to model aspectsof hypertension and myocardial ischemia in humans.
Hot ambient temperatures induce cutaneous vasodilation to offload heat.
To increase skin perfusion, heart rate and cardiac output increase andconductance to renal and splanchnic vascular beds decreases. Sweat
glands are engaged to increase evaporative heat loss, but this candecrease plasma and interstitial fluid volumes. These cardiovascular andfluid changes decrease cardiac preload and central blood volume. The
precise cardiovascular and autonomic responses to heat stress are highly
dependent on the type (passive or active), duration, and severity of thestress, but these stresses have the potential to model aspects of shock
and orthostatic intolerance in humans.

8723-32, Session 4

Exercise science: research to sustain andenhance performance
Jonathan Wingo, The Univ. of Alabama System (United States)
Cardiovascular adjustments accompanying exercise in high ambient
temperatures are likely responsible for diminished aerobic capacityand performance in such conditions. These adjustments include aphenomenon known as cardiovascular drift in which heart rate rises andstroke volume declines progressively over time during constant-rate
exercise. A variety of factors modulate the magnitude of cardiovasculardrift, e.g., elevated core and skin temperatures, dehydration, and exercise
1968723-62, Session 4

How cells detect and survive osmotic stresscaused by dehydration (Invited Paper)
Maurice Burg, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (UnitedStates)Hypertonicity, such as caused by high NaCl, shrinks cells by osmosis,
acutely reducing cell water and increasing both intracellular ionic strengthand macromolecular crowding. Those intracellular alterations perturb
proteins, but also serve to sense the dehydration. In cell culture, highlevels of hypertonicity kill cells by apoptosis, but cells adapt to lesser
hypertonicity after cell cycle delay. Damage from high NaCl includes
increased DNA double strand breaks and increased reactive oxygen
species resulting in oxidation of proteins. Remarkably, those damages
persist in otherwise normal seeming cells adapted in culture and in thehypertonic renal medulla in vivo. Within minutes of hypertonicity cells
restore their volume by importing extracellular electrolytes, followed byosmotic uptake of water. This reduces macromolecular crowding, but not
the high intracellular ionic strength. The latter becomes normalized overhours by accumulation of nonperturbing organic osmolytes that replace
the elevated electrolytes. The organic osmolytes accumulate because
of increased transcription of transporters that that take them up into
the cells and of enzymes that catalyze their synthesis. The responsible
transcription factor is NFAT5. Activation of NFAT5 is signaled by acomplex system, including numerous protein kinases and phosphatasesthat cause widespread phosphorylation of proteins, including NFAT5,
itself.

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III

8723-63, Session 48723-44, Session PTues

Integrative environmental physiology andfluid regulation

Generalized Mathematical-computationalelectronic model of MPTP- induced
Parkinsonism

Nina S. Stachenfeld, Yale Univ. (United States)

Daniela Jaramillo Raquejo, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Sweating during exercise in the heat causes sodium and water losses.
The extent of these losses depends upon the intensity and duration of
the activity, the individual’s genetic predisposition and acclimation, andenvironmental factors. Integrated neural and hormonal systems have
evolved to control thirst and fluid regulation. These systems respondto stimuli that arise from a deficit of fluid arising in both the intracellularand extracellular fluid compartments or to systemic hypertonicity. During
or after dehydrating exercise, sodium ingestion helps to restore plasma
volume and osmolality by continuing thirst sensation (thus drinking)and by increasing body fluid retention. This talk provides a discussionof acute sodium exposure on the sodium and fluid regulation systems,
and describes how sodium is an intrinsic part of the thirst response atrest, during and after exercise. Intravascular hypertonic saline infusion
may cause transient osmotically mediated blood pressure increases insensitive people. Moreover, these fluid regulatory systems are sensitive toaging and sex. In young women, estradiol lowers the operating point for
osmoregulation of arginine vasopressin and thirst and increases plasma
volume. This talk will briefly address aging effects on sodium and water
regulation.

The substance has been studied is 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), which has been studied as a major
cause of neurodegeneration dopaminica, which is specifically related
to Parkinson’s disease, the analysis is in terms of the diffusion of thesubstance to the mammalian brain, by evaluating the diffusion equation
in a spherical coordinate system, although the progress of the disease
with respect to time has not been established with certainty, below
are trying to find a stable pattern of the concentration of MPTP and its
effects.

8723-45, Session PTues

Processing of medical images using Maple
Veronica Toro, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Maple’s Image Tools package was used to process medical images. The
results showed clearer images and records of its intensities and entropy.
The medical images of a rhinocerebral mucormycosis patient, who
was not early diagnosed, were processed and analyzed using Maple’s
tools, which showed, in a clearer way, the affected parts in the perinasal
cavities.

8723-40, Session PTues

Assessing satellite AOD based and WRF/
CMAQ output PM2.5 estimators

8723-46, Session PTues

Lina Cordero, Chowdhury Nazmi, Barry M. Gross, Fred Moshary,
The City College of New York (United States); Yonghua Wi, City
College of New York (United States)

Application of the diffusion-convection
equation to modeling the infection byhistoplasmacapsulatum

Fine particulate matter with particle diameters < 2.5 microns (PM2.5)
has been linked to respiratory and pulmonary difficulties and for thisreason, strong concentration guidelines have been developed by the
EPA to limit exposure. While the EPA utilizes an extensive network ofground stations to monitor PM2.5 concentrations on an hourly basis, theinstruments and procedures are expensive and time consuming. Efforts
to connect surface PM2.5 to satellite retrieval of Aerosol Optical Depth(AOD) have been made and real time spatial maps of PM2.5 based on
this methodology have been made operational . In this methodology,
regression analysis is applied to provide coefficients for different seasonsand geographic regions.

Sergio A. Jaime, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Using computer algebra, the respiratory infection of the histoplasma
capsulatum humus was modeled and analyzed; the effects of theinfection could also be described as a change in the lungs elastic
modulus. A further analysis to the immune system was also done inorder to describe and model the way the body can handle those kindsof infections once they get to the body. Using those models we candescribe the behavior of the respiratory infection and then how to reduceor control its effects. As an investigation in the medical field, we need totest the models obtained and compare the results with the real infection
behavior. The models where made based on the diffusive-convective
equation; giving some initial and boundary conditions, we can get to theresults obtained, which can describe how the infections spreading andwith a previous study of the immune system, the infection control doneby the body can also be modeled.

However, since these estimates are based on satellite AOD retrievals,
systemic biases in these retrievals will result in PM2.5 biases. However,in urban areas such as NYC, significant overestimates of AOD from
MODIS is observed leading to PM2.5 hotspots being predicted. These
overestimates can be traced to underestimates of the urban surface
reflection and can be compensated using regional land classification
information .
In this presentation, PM2.5 estimator regression coefficients used in the
IDEA operational algorithm are applied to both MODIS operational C005
AOD and regional model estimates for PM2.5 averaged over both urban
and non urban AQS stations. In particular, we see significant overbias in
the operational PM2.5 estimates which are significantly reduced when
the regional model is used . More details of the satellite algorithm and abetter understanding of the urban surface model for satellite retrieval will
be presented.

8723-47, Session PTues

Refining environmental satellite data using astatistical approach
Md. Z. Rahman, LaGuardia Community College (United States);
Leonid Roytman, The City College of New York (United States);
Abdel Hamid Kadik, LaGuardia Community College (UnitedStates)The proposed approach in this article applies an efficient and novel
statistical technique to accurately describe radiometric data measured
by Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometers (AVHRR) onboard
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Polar

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III
Orbiting Environmental Satellites (POES). The corrected data set will thenbe applied to improve the strength of NOAA Global Vegetation Index(GVI) data set for the 1989-2010 period produced from AVHRR. The GVI
is used extensively for studying and monitoring land surface, atmosphereand recently for analyzing climate and environmental changes. The POES
AVHRR data, though useful, cannot be directly used in climate change
studies because of the orbital drift in the NOAA satellites over the lifetimeof the satellites. This orbital drift causes inaccuracies in AVHRR data
sets for some satellites. The main goal is achieved by implementing astatistical technique that uses an Empirical Distribution Function (EDF) to
produce error free long-term time-series for GVI data sets. This techniquepermits the representation of any global ecosystem from desert totropical forest and to correct deviations in satellite data that are due
to orbital drifts and AVHRR sensor degradations. The primary focus of
this research is to generate error free satellite data by applying the EDF
technique for climatological research.

8723-48, Session PTues

Health hazards of cell phone radiation andthe zebrafish as a model in this study
Mary C. Vagula, Ryan V. Harkless, Gannon Univ. (United States)
Radio wave frequency (RF) radiation emitted from cellular telephones
has become increasingly ubiquitous as a result of the popularity of thesephones. With the increasing and unavoidable exposure to RF radiation a
reality, it is imperative that the effects of such radiation on living tissue bewell understood. In particular, it is critical to understand any effects that
RF radiation may have as a carcinogen and on embryonic development,
as pregnant women are not exempt from such exposure. As a modelorganism, zebrafish (Danio rerio) have been studied extensively, and theirvalue in studies of gene expression cannot be overstated. This study isto understand the effects of RF radiation on the embryonic developmentof zebrafish. The expression of several genes that are the key to theearly development of the fish will be presented, and all such genes havehomologs in humans as well as in other model organisms; in particular,
the gli1 gene (and its human homolog) has been implicated as a possible
carcinogen. The goal of this study is twofold: firstly, to provide data on
the effects of RF radiation on zebrafish development, very little of which
exists; and secondly, to elucidate the effects of RF radiation on zebrafish
genes which have homologs in humans and other model organisms.

8723-49, Session PTues

The toxic effects of flame retardants: Thegene expression study in elucidating theircarcinogenicity
Mary C. Vagula, Ali Al-Dhumani, Sajaad Al-Dhumani, Alexandra
Mastro, Gannon Univ. (United States)
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) are flame retardants widelyused in many commercial products, including building materials,
electronics, furnishings, motor vehicles, airplanes, plastics, polyurethane
foams, and textiles. Although the specific toxic action of thesechemicals is not clear, it is proven that they can cause serious damage
to the nervous, reproductive, and endocrine systems. In addition, theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) has placed PBDEs as a classof possible carcinogens. Out of 209 possible congeners in this class offlame retardants, two are selected for this study namely BDE-209 andBDE-85. BDE- 209 is one of the most abundantly used flame retardantworldwide and BDE-85 is one of the most toxic congeners of this class.
Few reports have shown an increased tumor formation in animals
exposed to PBDE’s in large amounts, however very little information isavailable on the effects of these compounds on cell division, apoptosis,
and their link to cancer. Therefore this study is taken up to investigate
the expression of genes involved in apoptosis, DNA repair and cell cycle
regulation. The gene expression study is employed in this investigation to
examine their role in cancer. The study has targeted human umbilical vein

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endothelial cells in this study and this not only reveals the toxic effects
of PBDEs and their role in cancer but also give new insights into how
fetuses might be exposed to higher levels through mother’s circulations
via damaged umbilical vein endothelial cells.

8723-54, Session PTues

Integrative paradigms bridging defense andbioscience
George C. Giakos, Suman Shrestha, Yinan Li, Chaya Narayan,
Aditi Deshpande, Tannaz Farrahi, Chris Mela, Ryan Koglin, The
Univ. of Akron (United States)
Active polarimetric sensors using laser sources offer predictable
illumination levels, polarimetric filtering to minimize specular reflections,and the ability to operate independent of sunlight illumination andtemperature, have been applied successfully for an array of defense
applications.
Polarimetric sensing and imaging offer unique advantages for a wide
range of detection and classification problems due to the intrinsic
potential for high contrast in different polarization components of thebackscattered light. Indeed, polarized imaging can yield high-specificity
images under high-dynamic range and extreme condition scenarios,
in scattering media, or cluttered environments, offering at the same
instance information related to the object material composition and its
surface characteristics.
In this study, a new imaging approach based on polarimetric detection
principles will be introduced and the Mueller matrix formalism
will be defined, aimed at enhancing the detection, identification,
characterization, and angular discrimination of different early-stage lungcancer carcinomas, under backscattered geometry. The design principlesof the liquid crystal polarimetric imaging system will be introduced andrelated to operating conditions and system performance metrics. The
depolarization, diattenuation, and retardance of the materials will be
estimated using Mueller matrix decomposition for different aspect angles.

8723-55, Session PTues

Polymer nanostructure materials for space
defense applications
George C. Giakos, Tannaz Farrahi, Diya Bandopadhayay,
Alamgir Karim, Suman Shrestha, Yinan Li, Chaya Narayan, Aditi
Deshpande, Mohit Kumar Agarwal, The Univ. of Akron (UnitedStates)The unique functional characteristics of nanostructured material
stemming mainly from a large surface-to-volume-ratio and on quantum
effects; can yield numerous potential space applications.
Space-based electronic systems such as communications satellites,
interplanetary space probes, are some of the examples that havebecome increasingly important during the last few years. Similarly,
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and micro UAV, and missile defense
systems are of extremely significance for the national defense. As thesesystems become smaller, and more sophisticated, the design constraints
regarding their ability to carry to optical instrumentation, guidance andavionics systems, and radiation shielding to protect against the cosmic
radiation becomes more stringent and challenging. Therefore, newlightweight, miniaturized radiation resilient electronics, and high strength
materials, as well as materials with with high agility, tunability, scalability,
reconfigurability, programmable intrinsic sensing and compensating
properties are needed to meet the demands of new space systems
designs.
The objective of this study is to explore the polarimetric characterizationof polymer nanomaterials, using Mueller matrix and Stokes parameters
analysis. Specifically, gold nanoparticles were dispersed within a matrixof two-different polymer domains and their polarimetric response to
infrared light was studied. The outcome of this study indicates that thisSPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing 2013·

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III

8723-35, Session 5

polymer nanomaterial yields to enhanced properties of the backscattered
light.

Continuous, real-time bioimaging ofchemical bioavailability and toxicology using
autonomously bioluminescent human celllines

8723-56, Session PTues

Bio-inspired polarization navigation sensor
for autonomous munitions systems

Tingting Xu, The Univ. of Tennessee (United States); Dan Close,
The Univ. of Tennessee (United States) and 490 BioTech Inc.
(United States); James Webb, The Univ. of Tennessee (UnitedStates); Sarah Price, The Univ. of Tennessee Knoxville (UnitedStates); Steven Ripp, Gary Sayler, The Univ. of Tennessee (UnitedStates)George C. Giakos, The Univ. of Akron (United States)
By utilizing the polarimetric-spectral capabilities of insects enhanced
munition guidance, navigation, and control capabilities, may result interms of robustness, performance, and agility.
While the human eye can practically cope only with two aspects of light,
brightness and colour, many animals use polarization as a further sourceof visual information.

Bioluminescent imaging is an emerging biomedical surveillance strategy
that uses external cameras to detect in vivo light generated in small
animal models of human physiology or in vitro light generated in tissue
culture or tissue scaffold mimics of human anatomy. At the core ofthis technology are cells expressing light emitting reporter genes thatreveal the activation dynamics of cellular and molecular functions. The
most widely utilized of these reporters is the firefly luciferase gene;
however, it carries a disadvantage in that it generates light only upon
the addition of a chemical substrate. This limits its informational output
to only intermittent single time point data snapshots. To overcome
this disadvantage, we have demonstrated substrate independent
bioluminescent imaging in human cells using a synthetically optimized
bacterial luciferase (lux) reporter system. Unlike firefly luciferase,bacterial luciferase produces bioluminescence autonomously using
components found naturally within the cell, thereby allowing imaging
to occur continuously and in real-time over the lifetime of the host.
We have validated this technology in human cells with demonstrated
chemical toxicological profiling against antibiotic and exotoxin exposuresat photon emission strengths comparable to existing firefly luciferase
reporter systems (~1.33x10^7 photons/second). As a proof-in-principle
demonstration of its utility, we have engineered breast carcinoma cells
to express bacterial luciferase for the real-time screening of chemicals
displaying endocrine disrupting activity and validated detection of
17b-estradiol at low 1 picomolar concentrations (EC50≈10 pM). Theseand other applications of this new reporter technology will be discussed
as potential new pathways towards improved models of target chemicalbioavailability, toxicology, efficacy, and human safety.

Development of future highly efficient, low cost munition systems,
small UAVs (SUAVs) and micro air vehicles (MAVs) for more challenging
engagement environments is limited by the capabilities of current
guidance system technologies as well as by their competing design
requirements.
Therefore looking to biology for inspiration for MAV designs, enhanced
guidance, navigation and control capabilities (GNC) of the munition
systems, in terms of agility and robustness, can result.
The purpose of this study is to explore the optical polarimetric, spectral
and structural characteristics of insects, for enhanced guidance, control,and navigation. Key-paradigm experimental results will be presented.

8723-34, Session 5

Aptamer functionalized metal oxide
nanostructures for optical microbe sensing(Invited Paper)
Shayla Sawyer, Irina Barash, Kethia Matieu, Sydney Halperin, DaliShao, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States); Stephan
Weeks, Kevin Kyle, National Security Technologies, LLC (UnitedStates)DNA aptamers are immobilized on metal oxide nanostructures tobecome a hybrid inorganic/organic layer on a sensitive, wavelength
selective photodetector. Low-dimensional, metal oxide semiconductor
nanomaterials are of great interest for their biocompatibility and novel
electronic and optical properties. Specifically, the surfaces of indium
oxide (In2O3) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures are modified using
a chemical protocol that facilitates thiol/silica binding. The intended
sensor will detect intrinsic fluorescence of captured microbes for signaltransduction in UV-blue wavelength range allowing for visible blind
operation in ambient light. Previous work demonstrated nanostructurebased photodetectors with wavelength selectivity and high responsivity.
Wavelength selectivity was created by nanostructure deposition on an
independent substrate that blocks unwanted light. High responsivities
are due to a high internal photoconductive gain as a result of the oxygen
desorption/adsorption process, nanomaterial quality, and the highresolution of interdigitated electrodes. In2O3 and ZnO materials werechosen for band gap properties that correspond with the detectionof NADH and tryptophan intrinsic fluorescence within biohazards
respectively. These materials fill a significant niche where traditionallyused photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and silicon (Si)-based photodetectors
show a marked reduction in responsivity. This work presents the target
capture layers of a compact, low power sensor using an E-coli DNA
aptamer as a biorecognition layer on metal oxide nanoparticles andnanowires. The ability of the aptamer to immobilize are determined withvariations of temperature, buffer solutions, and surface area. Progress
is made toward a rugged, lower power, compact, multipurpose microbe
sensor array through optical transduction.

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8723-36, Session 5

Biosensing with semiconductor quantum dots
(Invited Paper)
Kelly B. Gemmill, James B. Delehanty III, Kimihiro Susumu,
Michael Stewart, Eunkeu Oh, Igor Medintz, Alan Huston, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
CdSe/ZnS semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are ideal materials forbiological sensing applications due to their superior photophysicalproperties in comparison to fluorescent proteins or dyes, and their easeof conjugation to biological materials. We have previously developed
numerous Foerster resonance energy transfer (FRET) based in vitro
sensors for a variety of proteases. The quantum dots are conjugatedto a dye labeled peptide substrate specific for each protease allowing
FRET to occur between the QD and the acceptor dye. In the presenceof the protease of interest, the peptide is cleaved resulting in a loss of
FRET signal. While we are continuing our work to create improved invitro sensors for biological and chemical agents, we concurrently would
like to expand this capability to sense biological processes inside ofliving cells in real-time. This would improve our ability to observe andunderstand biological processes, and could also impact the developmentof targeted diagnostics and therapeutics. We will present some of ourcurrent successes and challenges in translating our in vitro proteasesensor systems to intracellular use and discuss future implications of thisresearch.

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III

8723-37, Session 5

Development of a field-deployable prototype
device for the rapid point-of-care detection of
cyanide in whole blood (Invited Paper)
Hans Boehringer, Winnie Tong, Roy Chung, Diagnostic
Consulting Network (United States); Gerry Boss, Univ. of
California, San Diego (United States); Sari Mahon, Beckman
Laser Institute and Medical Clinic (United States); Matthew
Brenner, Univ. of California, Irvine (United States); Brendan
O’Farrell, Diagnostic Consulting Network (United States)
Cyanide is an extremely potent and rapid acting poison with as little as
50 mg being fatal to humans. Cyanide poisoning has been recognized asa threat from smoke inhalation and potentially through weapons of mass
destruction. There are currently no commercially available portable rapid
tests for the detection of cyanide in whole blood.
We have now demonstrated the feasibility of a prototype fielddeployable device for the rapid and early diagnosis of cyanide
poisoning in whole blood based on the spectral shift of the vitamin
B12 precursor Cobinamide upon binding with cyanide as an indicator.
Cobinamide has an extremely high affinity for cyanide and rapidly binds
hemoglobin associated cyanide in whole blood. Upon binding cyanide,
Cobinamide undergoes a spectral shift that can be measured with aspectrophotometer.
For our prototype device, Cobinamide is first conjugated to a polymer
while retaining its spectral properties. The cobinamide conjugate is thenattached to and immobilized on solid surfaces as the sensor. The lysed
whole blood sample is passed over and through the immobilized sensor
in a prototype rapid flow-through test. The spectral shifts in cyanidespiked buffer, plasma and whole blood have been detected within 5
minutes using a handheld, off-the-shelf reader. In addition, whole blood
samples from rabbits that have been exposed to cyanide were tested.
Our prototype rapid test was able to detect cyanide in those samples atlevels of 10-30uM, well within the critical clinical range of the levels foundin potential victims of cyanide poisoning.

8723-38, Session 5

SdAb heterodimer formation using leucine
zippers (Invited Paper)
Ellen Goldman, George Anderson, Dan Zabetakis, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Audrey Lee, Nova Research, Inc.
(United States)
Single domain antibodies (sdAb) derived from the heavy-chain antibodies
found in camelids have a number of properties that make them attractive
reagents for use in bioassays. Although they bind antigen through theuse of only three complementarity determining regions, many sdAb
have excellent affinity for their cognate antigens with binding constants
as good as conventional antibodies. In addition to their affinity andspecificity, most camelid sdAb are able to refold and bind antigen
after heat denaturation, in contrast conventional antibodies aggregate
irreversibly after heating. We have developed sdAb specific towards avariety of potential biothreat targets including ricin, abrin, staphylococcal
enterotoxin B , Botulinum neurotoxin A complex, and Bacillus anthracis.
Recently we have modified sdAb by expressing them as genetic fusions
with c-terminal peptides or proteins to expand their usefulness. For
example, these fusions can facilitate conjugation to nanoparticles,
provide more efficient capture and/or reporter reagents, and improve
protein solubility. Expressing sdAb with a triple histidine tail enabled self
assembly onto DHLA coated quantum dots (QD); we incorporated thesdAb-QD conjugates into several assay formats. Expressing sdAb as
fusions with a streptavidin core produced a stable, multivalent capture
reagent that enabled improved limits of detection. Some sdAb areprone to aggregation when heated at high concentrations, we havedemonstrated a charged peptide fusion that helps to overcome thispotential limitation. The ability engineer these unique, recombinantly
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expressed binding elements for improved utility offers the potential totailor make sdAb-based reagents for optimum performance in biosensors
and bioassays.

8723-39, Session 5

Liquid Intake Monitoring Through Breathing
Signal Using Machine Learning
Bo Dong, Subir Biswas, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
This paper presents a wireless and wearable noninvasive diet monitoring
system, which provides a brand new platform for instrumented dietmonitoring applications. The primary application is diet and drinking
habit monitoring of soldiers and military personnel in the battlegroundsettings. Food and drink intake can be detected by the way of detecting
a person’s swallow events. The system works based on the key
observation that a person’s otherwise continuous breathing process isinterrupted by a short apnea during swallowing. We detect the swallows
through the difference between normal breathing cycle and breathingcycle with swallows using a wearable piezoelectric chest-belt. Popularmachine learning algorithms have been applied. It is shown that the
proposed system provides a reliable and easy-to-use solution for dietmonitoring.

8723-41, Session 6

Discrimination of airborne material particles
from light scattering (TAOS) patterns (Invited
Paper)
Giovanni F. Crosta, Univ. degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca (Italy);
Yong-Le Pan, Gorden Videen, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Kevin B. Aptowicz, West Chester Univ. of Pennsylvania(United States); Richard K. Chang, Yale Univ. (United States)
TAOS is an experimental technique which collects the intensity patternof LASER light scattered by a single, air-borne material particle, ≈ 1µm in size. Since phase-less data make reconstruction of the scatterer
very difficult, the interpretation of TAOS patterns has been restatedin statistical terms. An algorithm based on feature extraction (Fourier
analysis and non-linear filtering) and linear classification (principal
components analysis) has been developed and implemented in twostages. In stage one the classifier is repeatedly trained and validated on
different sets formed by TAOS patterns from reference materials. In stage
two the trained classifier is applied to patterns from bacterial sporesand environmental sampling: pattern recognition occurs by information
fusion. A large data set (> 3, 000 patterns) has been analysed. Bacillus
subtilis patterns (Bq class) are discriminated from those of other, airborne
materials (from outdoor sampling) and from confounders (Diesel enginesoot).
By assuming all training and recognition patterns to come from therespective reference materials only, the most satisfactory discrimination
result corresponds to ≈ 17% false negative Bq’s and ≈ 22% false
positives from all other materials.

8723-42, Session 6

Optical remote sensing a potential tool forforecasting malaria in Orissa, India
Mohammad Nizamuddin, The City College of New York (UnitedStates); Kawsar A. Akhand, The City Univ. of New York (UnitedStates); Leonid Roytman, The City College of New York (UnitedStates); Felix Kogan, National Environmental Satellite, Data, andInformation Service (United States); Mitch Goldberg, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (United States)

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Conference 8723: Sensing Technologies for Global Health,
Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III
Information on current and anticipate moisture and thermal condition
from satellite data represents a source of affordable yet careful
information for Malaria forecasters to prevent and to control of epidemic.
During the last decades Orissa state in India suffered from highest levelof malaria incidence. This situation requires frequent monitoring ofenvironmental conditions and dynamics of malaria occurrence. During
1985 to 2004 the NOAAA AVHRR global vegetation index (GVI) dataset
and its vegetation health (VH) have been studied and used as proxy formalaria fluctuation. This paper discusses applications of VH for early
detection and monitoring malaria incidence in Orissa. A significant
relationship between satellite data and annual malaria incidences isfound at least three months before the major malaria transmission period.
Principal component regression (PCR) method was used to develop amodel to predict malaria as a function of the TCI. The simulated results
were compared with observed malaria statistics showing that the error ofmalaria estimation is small.

impedance, the model has been validated by making multi-frequency
impedance measurements of a soil mixture at different concentrationsof various components. The model provides a good estimate ofindividual components such as soil, air, bound and bulk water andions like nitrates and chlorides. While the paper is written with theperspective of soil content determination, the underlying principle ofdetermining individual component concentration using multi-frequency
impedance measurement is useful for many other applications, including
characterizing biological systems like pathogens, quality control ofpharmaceuticals etc.

8723-64, Session 6

Assessing satellite AOD based and WRF/
CMAQ output PM2.5 estimators

8723-51, Session 6(Invited Paper)

A multifrequency, self-calibrating, in-situ
soil sensor with energy-efficient wirelessinterface (Invited Paper)

Lina Cordero, Chowdhury Nazmi, Yonghua Wu, Barry M. Gross,Fred Moshary, The City College of New York (United States)
Fine particulate matter with particle diameters < 2.5 microns (PM2.5)
has been linked to respiratory and pulmonary difficulties and for thisreason, strong concentration guidelines have been developed by the
EPA [1] to limit exposure. While the EPA utilizes an extensive network ofground stations to monitor PM2.5 concentrations on an hourly basis, theinstruments and procedures are expensive and time consuming. Efforts
to connect surface PM2.5 to satellite retrieval of Aerosol Optical Depth(AOD) have been made [2] and real time spatial maps of PM2.5 based on
this methodology have been made operational [3]. In this methodology,
regression analysis is applied to provide coefficients for different seasonsand geographic regions. However, it is quite clear that even if the satellite
retrievals of Aerosol Optical Depth are accurate, many factors play a rolein complicating the simple regression relationships used. Such factors
may include: RH modification of aerosols, inhomogeneous or plumelayering above the PBL, aerosol speciation inhomogeneity and complex
Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) height dynamics . On the other hand,
the WFR/CMAQ model builds on a combination of physically based
meteorological factors together with emission inventories to estimate
particulate concentrations and vertical distributions [4,5].

Ratnesh Kumar, Gunjan Pandey, Robert J. Weber, Iowa State
Univ. (United States)
Real time and accurate measurement of sub-surface soil moistureand nutrients is critical for agricultural and environmental studies. This
paper presents a novel on-board solution for a robust, accurate andself-calibrating soil moisture and nutrient sensor with inbuilt wirelesstransmission and reception capability that makes it ideally suited toact as a node in a network spread over a large area. The sensor works
on the principle of soil impedance measurement by comparing theamplitude and phase of signals incident on and reflected from the soil
in proximity of the sensor. Accuracy of measurements is enhanced byconsidering =a distributed transmission line model for the on-board
connections. Presence of an inbuilt self-calibrating mechanism which
operates on the standard short-open-load (SOL) technique makes thesensor independent of inaccuracies that may occur due to variations intemperature and surroundings. Moreover, to minimize errors, the parasitic
impedances of the board are taken into account in the measurements.
Measurements of both real and imaginary parts of soil impedance atmultiple frequencies gives the sensor an ability to detect variations inionic concentrations other than soil moisture content. A switch-controlled
multiple power mode transmission and reception is provided to support
highly energy efficient medium access control as introduced by Sahota
et al.

One issue that has not been studied is the statistical performance ofthe satellite based PM2.5 estimators in comparison to the WRF/CMAQ
model outputs. In making this comparison, it is well known that strong
biases in the PM2.5 model exist and manifests themselves on seasonal
periods [6]. However, in making a relevant comparison with regression
based satellite estimates, a suitable regression based post-analysis
can be made to the CMAQ PM2.5 in comparison to EPA AQS surface
network station measurements for seasonal and diurnal periods to better
understand the relative merits of satellite based and model based PM2.5
estimates.

8723-52, Session 6

Determination of soil ionic concentration
using impedance spectroscopy (Invited Paper)
Gunjan Pandey, Ratnesh Kumar, Robert J. Weber, Iowa State
Univ. (United States)
This paper presents a novel approach to determine the soil ionicconcentration by developing a mathematical model which takes
the results of soil impedance spectroscopy as its input parameters.
The model combines the dielectric mixing models with the dielectricrelaxation models and forms a unified multi-frequency model to efficiently
determine the individual ionic concentration in a multi-component soil
mixture. To develop this model, the permittivity of different components
found in a soil mixture has been measured at multiple frequencies
and parameter-fitted in dielectric relaxation models (Cole-Cole,
Havriliak-Negami). The permittivity values of individual components
are then applied to a generalized dielectric mixing model (ShivolaKong) at multiple frequencies to form equations which have only theconcentrations of the components as the unknown variables. Using
the fact that the impedance of a dielectric mixture is proportional to its

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201

Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8724 Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

8724-1, Session 1

8724-7, Session 1

State-of-the-art tools for next-generation
underwater optical imaging systems

An undersea free space laser
communications and imaging network
simulator

Linda J. Mullen, Shawn O’Connor, Brandon Cochenour, Naval Air
Systems Command (United States); Fraser R. Dalgleish, Harbor
Branch Oceanographic Institute (United States)
Emerging underwater threats have increased the required range,
resolution, and sensitivity of optical sensors operating in this challenging
environment. The detection and identification of these threats is neededat ranges exceeding the 3-4 attenuation length limit of conventional
underwater optical imaging systems. As the threats become smaller andare better camouflaged by the surrounding environment, the required
resolution and sensitivity of the sensor are difficult if not impossible
to achieve with existing technology. In response to these challenges,
new transmitters and receivers are being developed to develop anext-generation underwater optical imaging system. This system isbased on the modulated pulse concept where the pulsed laser sourceis encoded with a radar signal, and a range-gated, high-speed opticalreceiver recovers the radar signal. The advantages of this approach
includes higher immunity against backscatter ‘clutter’, enhanced
ranging accuracy, and potentially better image resolution. The challengeof implementing this concept in hardware is the lack of commerciallyavailable transmitter and receiver components that meet therequirements of the modulated pulse technique. Researchers at the Naval
Air Systems Command are working closely with industry and academia todevelop these needed state-of-the-art tools to advance the developmentof next-generation optical imaging systems. This presentation will
review the progress that has been made in both transmitter and receiver
hardware and the tests that have been completed to evaluate themodulated pulse concept in a controlled laboratory environment.

8724-5, Session 1

Fraser R. Dalgleish, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute(United States); David Rashkin, Univ. of Florida (United States);
Bing Ouyang, Florida Atlantic Univ. (United States); Anni K.
Vuorenkoski, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute (UnitedStates); Mihaela Cardei, Ionut Cardei, Florida Atlantic Univ.
(United States)
Mobile, high throughput mid-range data communications androbust real-time data networking in the subsea environment that canaccommodate high bandwidth sensors such as optical imagers have apotentially high impact as enabling technologies for a variety of future
subsea operations in the areas of distributed sensing and real-timewireless feedback and control of unmanned undersea vehicles. Althoughmuch work has been done recently in the field of undersea optical freespace communications and networking, to date there has yet to be an
implementation of a complete multi-node undersea wireless optical data
communications network. The deployment and testing of optical wirelessnetwork equipment in the undersea environment is expensive and timeconsuming, and there is a clear need for a network simulation frameworkthat will allow researchers to explore higher level networking concepts
and the effects of operational and environmental factors on network
performance.
This paper combines experimental laser results that were collectedduring littoral field exercises with prototype distributed laser serial
imaging and communications channel characterization apparatus with a
network simulation approach that uses an accurate physical layer timedependent Monte Carlo channel model, as well as higher network layer
protocols to simulate larger scale network performance.

Polarimetric imaging of underwater targets

8724-8, Session 2

Alex Gilerson, Alberto Tonizzo, Carlos Carrizo, Ahmed El
Habashi, Samir Ahmed, The City College of New York (UnitedStates)Characterization of optical communication
in a leader-follower unmanned underwater
vehicle formation

Underwater imaging is challenging because of the significant attenuationof light due to absorption (by water and suspended/dissolved matter) andscattering (by water and suspended particulates) which results in rapid(in respect to the distance) blurring and degradation of an image. Using
polarization properties of light is one of the options to improve image
quality. Some of the living and manmade objects in water have partiallypolarized surfaces, whose properties can be advantageous for the
purpose of target camouflage or, oppositely, for better detection and thus
are of significant scientific and technical interest. Here we present resultsof imaging of a polarized target in various water conditions.
A target in the shape of a square is divided into several smaller squares,
each of which is covered with a polarizing film with different polarization
orientations or transmission coefficients. The target was placed on astainless steel, first surface mirror and was imaged by a green-band fullStokes polarimetric video camera in a custom-made underwater housing.
The housing was mounted on our system which includes a multi-angularpolarimeter and underwater thrusters. The system was rotated underwater by thrusters, permitting imaging at different azimuth angles against
the Sun and at different depths. Several other instruments measured theinherent and apparent optical properties (which were further used in thevector radiative transfer calculations) while the polarimeter measured
polarization characteristics of light in water. The images taken in open
ocean (Curacao), coastal (NY Bight) and turbid (Long Island Sound)waters are compared with the image of the target in the air and theimpact of the water body on the polarized underwater image is evaluated.

202

Firat Eren, Shachak Pe’eri, May-Win Thein, The Univ. of New
Hampshire (United States)
Over the past few decades, the control design and mechanics
of unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) has advanced to allow
commercial underwater operations, such as inspection of underwater
infrastructure, seafloor mapping and the installation of cables and pipes.
The use of multiple UUVs for the same mission can reduce survey/
operation time. However, the challenge is to be able to communicate
between all UUVs in order to control the UUV fleet. A common approachis to control only one UUV (leader UUV) that the rest of the UUVs will
follow. The key for this approach is a cost-efficient communication
between the leader and the follower UUVs. This will also allow a larger
variety of UUV formations for different tasks. This study presents an
optical communication design of a leader-follower formation between
UUVs, specifically remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). As an initial stepin this study, the light field produced from a light source mounted on theleader UUV was empirically characterized and modeled. Based on thelight field measurements, a photo-detector array for the follower UUV
was designed. Evaluation of the communication algorithms to monitor
the UUV’s motion was conducted through underwater experiments in
the Ocean Engineering Laboratory at the University of New Hampshire.
Preliminary results show that the array and the communication algorithms
are able to detect translation and rotational motion of the leader UUV.

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Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

8724-9, Session 28724-12, Session 3

Measurements of turbulent dissipation during
the Bahamas Optical Turbulence Experiment

Effect of surface roughness on lidar overlap
function

Silvia Matt, Weilin W. Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Sarah Woods, SPEC, Inc. (United States); Ewa Jarosz,
Wesley Goode, Alan Weidemann, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)

James H. Churnside, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States)
The lidar overlap function is defined as the fraction of the transmitted
beam that is within the receiver field of view. It is an important part ofthe calculation of lidar performance for bistatic lidars at close ranges.
Generally, one considers a uniform transmitted beam that illuminates
a circular cross section at any range, and a receiver field of view that
also has a circular cross section at that range. The overlap function isthe area of the overlap of these two circles divided by the area of thetransmitter circle. For the case of bistatic oceanographic lidar from thedeck of a ship, the overlap function can vary from pulse to pulse under
the influence of the rough sea surface. The problem arises because thetransmitted beam and the receiver field of view are affected by different
regions of the sea surface.

The Bahamas Optical Turbulence Experiment (BOTEX) was conductedin the summer of 2011 to investigate the impact of turbulence onunderwater optical imaging. Underwater optical properties can beaffected by turbulence in the water, due to localized changes in theindex of refraction. We discuss measurements of current velocity andtemperature, made with a Nortek Vector Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter(ADV) and PME Conductivity-Temperature (CT) probe, as well as
observations made with a Rockland Scientific Vertical Microstructure
Profiler (VMP). The instruments were deployed in close proximity inthe field and in the context of measurements of optical target clarity.
Turbulent kinetic energy dissipation (TKED) and temperature dissipation(TD) rates are calculated from the ADV/CT measurements and compared
to TKED and TD estimated from the data collected with the VMP.
The results show reasonable agreement between the two methods;
differences are attributed to turbulence patchiness and intermittence, as
well as sampling challenges. The study also highlights the importance ofcollecting concurrent data on temperature, current velocity, and current
shear to assess the turbulence impact on underwater optical properties.

This paper considers the overlap function as a function of depth for abistatic lidar operating from the deck of a ship. The effect is calculatedusing a Monte-Carlo approach, with a Pierson–Moskowitz spectrumof surface roughness and optical ray tracing through that surface. The
results show that even low winds can affect the surface enough toaffect the overlap function. For this not to be the case, the transmitter
divergence and receiver field of view have to be much larger than thewind-generated surface slopes. At a wind speed of 5 m s-1, the standard
deviation of the surface slope is almost 10 degrees.

8724-10, Session 28724-13, Session 3

Multiuser sonar watermarking and detection
in an underwater acoustic channel

CZMIL (coastal zone mapping and imaging
lidar): from first flights to first mission
through system validation

Bijan G. Mobasseri, Villanova Univ. (United States); Robert
S. Lynch, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States); David
Andiario, Villanova Univ. (United States)

Viktor Feygels, Joong Yong Park, Optech International, Inc.
(United States); Jennifer M. Wozencraft, U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers (United States); Jennifer Aitken, Optech International,
Inc. (United States); Christopher L. Macon, U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers (United States); Abhinav Mathur, Andy Payment, Vinod
Ramnath, Optech International, Inc. (United States)

Active sonars broadcast wideband signals that are only distinguished byphysical properties such as bandwidth, frequency, duration and pulse
shape. Watermarking is a method where a digital fingerprint is added tothe sonar pulse in a secure, robust and transparent manner. This work
expands previous results to the multiuser case. The issue with multiuser
watermarking is the challenge of keeping user codes orthogonal after
transmission through acoustic channel. This has been achieved byembedding the watermark the in proper time-frequency cells of the sonar.
Truth tables are produced to illustrate cross classification rates.

CZMIL is an integrated lidar-imagery sensor system and software
suite designed for the highly automated generation of physical andenvironmental information products for mapping the coastal zone in theframe of US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) National Coastal Mapping
Program.

8724-11, Session 2

This paper presents the results of CZMIL system validation in turbid
water conditions in the Gulf Coast of Mississippi and in relatively clear
water conditions in Florida in late spring 2012 and results of May-October
2012 mission in Green Bay, WI and Lake Erie. The system performance
test shows that CZMIL successfully achieved 7-8m depth in Kd =0.46m1 (Kd is the diffuse attenuation coefficient) in Mississippi and up to 41m
when Kd=0.11m-1 in Florida.

Using computer vision to analyze the images
obtained from ocean mapping
Irene Fernandez Florez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Nowadays there is a significant interest in the study of the ocean´smapping. This research goal is to find a way through computer vision toautomate image analysis obtained underwater, skip handwork; people
may have the aptitude to do it on paper, however it might not be as
precise, trustful and quick. The basis of this case study is the shadespresent in pictures. There are several techniques that can be used toapproach this purpose. In order to develop this idea, there will be used
Fourier transform, Wavelet transform and computer vision filters, among
other methods. Underwater mapping is difficult because of the noise andlack of high resolution marine technologies; there is needed more than
one procedure to obtain a sharp map.

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CZMIL measured depths were compared with multi-beam sonar dataover Cat Island, MS and off the coast of Ft. Lauderdale, FL. Validation
demonstrated that CZMIL meets USACE specifications ( two standard
deviation, 2s, ~32 cm).
To measure topographic accuracy we made direct comparisons of CZMIL
elevations to GPS surveyed ground control points and vehicle-based
lidar scans of topographic surfaces. Results confirmed that CZMIL meets
the USACE topographic requirements (2s, ~15 cm). Upon completion of
the Lake Erie mission we had 89 flights with 2231 flightlines. The general
hours of aircraft engine time (which doesn’t include all transit/ferry flights)
was 441 hours with 173 hours of flightlines. We generated 4.8 billions (!)
laser shots and recorded 38.6 billion digitized waveforms. 1025 miles ofshoreline were surveyed.

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203Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

8724-14, Session 3

Sea floor classification with satellite data andairborne lidar bathymetry
H. Michael Tulldahl, Swedish Defence Research Agency(Sweden); Petra Philipson, Brockmann Geomatics Sweden AB(Sweden); Hans Kautsky, Stockholm Univ. (Sweden); Sofia A.
Wikström, AquaBiota Water Research (Sweden)
Classification of the sea floor and its vegetation is of great interestfor characterizing, mapping, and monitoring coastal environments.
While land maps of vegetation cover and substrate types exist, similar
underwater maps are rare or almost non-existing. We developed theuse of airborne bathymetric lidar mapping and high-resolution satellite
data to a combined method for shallow sea floor classification of seabedsubstrate type and vegetation. A classification accuracy exceeding 80%
is possible, when validated against field data taken from underwater
video recordings. The method utilizes lidar data directly (topography,
slopes) and as means for correction of image data for water depth
and turbidity. The lidar data and corrected satellite image data areused as classification variables. In this paper we present results using
WorldView-2 imagery and data from the HawkEye II lidar system in a
Swedish archipelago area. The classification was performed using amodel-based maximum likelihood approach. In situ documentation of thebottom substrate and vegetation was made using a towed underwater
video recorder equipped with an integrated GPS positioning system.
The classification models were created with lidar and satellite data takenfrom locations documented with underwater video. A separate set ofunderwater video data was used for evaluation of the classification
accuracy. Apart from the mapping capabilities, our results also indicatethat a method using high resolution depth data together with remote
imagery data distributed either over short periods of time or over
several years can be applied for monitoring changes in shallow benthic
environments.

8724-15, Session 3

Active laser sensing of mixed layer turbulence
Fraser R. Dalgleish, Anni K. Vuorenkoski, Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institute (United States); Bing Ouyang, Florida
Atlantic Univ. (United States); Gero Nootz, CREOL, The College
of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States);
Weilin W. Hou, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
This talk will discuss and compare some recent ocean and laboratory test
results that were conducted over path lengths of many meters in both the
backward and forward directions using both tightly collimated short laser
pulses and multiple beam illumination patterns to examine the effect ofrefractive index microstructures existing within the turbulent thermocline
mixing layer.

are Doppler shifted by the sum of the speed of the waves through thewater and the component of the surface velocity in the radial direction
to the receive antenna. If the water depth is sufficient for the deep-water
approximation to hold (in this case deeper than 20 m), the wave speed
is a function of only the wavelength, so it is known from the Braggscattering condition. Thus, the component of the surface velocity radial
to the receive antenna can be computed from the amount of Doppler
shift, and these components are known as “radials”. Where there isoverlapping coverage of radials, the total surface current vectors are
estimated. The HFR stations cover much of the Mississippi Bight (MSB)
seaward of the 20 m isobath. The surface current fields have been
analyzed for annual and seasonal climatology, as well as for tides. The
tidal analysis allows for tidal predictions of surface currents to be madefor most of the MSB.

8724-17, Session 3

Assimilation of bio-optical properties into
coupled physical, bio-optical coastal model
Igor Shulman, Sergey Frolov, Stephanie Anderson, Bradley
Penta, Richard W. Gould Jr., Peter Sakalaukus, Sherwin Ladner,
U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Data assimilation experiments with the coupled physical, bio-opticalmodel of Monterey Bay are presented. The objective of this study is
to investigate whether the assimilation of satellite-derived bio-opticalproperties can improve the model predictions (phytoplankton population,
chlorophyll) in a coastal ocean on time scales of 1-5 days. The Monterey
Bay model consists of a physical model based on the Navy Coastal
Ocean Model (NCOM) and a biochemical model which includes threenutrients, two phytoplankton groups (diatoms and small phytoplankton),
two groups of zooplankton grazers, and two detrital pools. The Navy
Coupled Ocean Data Assimilation (NCODA) system is used for theassimilation of physical observations. For the assimilation of bio-opticalobservations, we used a stationary Kalman filter. The approach isbased on the representation of the error covariances in the subspaceof the multivariate (bio-optical, physical) empirical orthogonal functions(EOFs) estimated from a month-long model run. With the assimilationof satellite-derived bio-optical properties (chlorophyll-a and absorption
due to phytoplankton), the model was able to reproduce intensity andtendencies in subsurface chlorophyll distributions observed at water
samples locations in the Monterey Bay, CA. Data assimilation also
improved agreement between the observed and model-predicted ratios
between diatoms and small phytoplankton populations. Model runs withor without assimilation of satellite-derived bio-optical observations show
underestimated values of nitrate distributions in comparison to the water
samples observations. We found that an instantaneous update of nitrate
based on statistical relations between temperature and nitrate corrected
the model underestimation of the nitrate fields during the multivariate
update.

8724-19, Session 48724-16, Session 3

Circulation on the continental shelf within theMississippi Bight
Stephan D. Howden, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (UnitedStates); Amy Kern, Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States)
The University of Southern Mississippi’s Central Gulf of Mexico Ocean
Observing System (CenGOOS) operates three long-range (~200 km) 5
MHz CODAR high frequency radar (HFR) stations at Singing River Island
in Pascagoula, Mississippi, Gulf State Park in Orange Beach, Alabama,and Henderson Beach State Park in Destin, Florida. Each station
broadcasts electromagnetic (EM) waves that follow the conducting
sea surface and are Bragg-scattered preferentially by surface gravity
waves with a wavelength of one half the wavelength of the EM waves
moving towards or away from the antenna. The back-scattered waves
204

Optical backscattering in water:
measurements and uncertainties
James M. Sullivan, Michael S. Twardowski, J. Ronald V.
Zaneveld, Casey C. Moore, WET Labs., Inc. (United States)
Instrumentation for estimating the backscattering coefficient bymeasurement of the volume scattering function over various angularweightings in the backward direction has been in common use for over a
decade. Principles of operation, calibration and measurement protocols,
and measurement uncertainties for WET Labs ECO-BB sensors will be
discussed. Improved calibration techniques to minimize backscattering
measurement uncertainties will be presented in a preliminary analysis tobetter understand the variability in the spectral backscattering ratio indifferent particle fields.

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Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

8724-20, Session 4

to the possibility of finding oil deposits that haven’t been discovered, andas a way of monitoring the ocean limits of Colombia with other countries
not only covering the possibility of naval intrusion but as a chance todetect submarine devices that are used by illegal groups for different
unwished purposes.

On the eigenvalue analysis using HH-VV dualpolarization SAR sata and its applications tomonitoring of coastal oceans

In the development of this topic it would be necessary to use Standard
Hydrodynamic Equations to model the mathematical shape of ocean
waves that will take differential equations forms.

Mitsunobu Sugimoto, Kazuo Ouchi, National Defense Academy(Japan); Chan-Su Yang, Korea Institute of Ocean Science &Technology (Korea, Republic of)Those differential equations will be solved using computer algebra
software and methods. The mentioned solutions will involve the use ofSpecial Functions such as Bessel Functions, Whittaker, Heun, and so on.

In the conventional SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) polarimetry, fullypolarimetric HH-HV-VH-VV quad-polarization data are used. The
advantage of using quad-polarization data is more information on the
scattering objects than the single- and quad-polarization data; while
the disadvantages are narrower swath and less frequent data takes.
To fill the gap in-between, the present study examines the polarimetricanalysis using HH-VV dual polarization. The model-based three- andfour-component scattering power decomposion analyses are notpossible with dual-polarization data, and thus, the study is focused on
the eigenvalue decomposition analysis by comparing the entropy andmean alpha angle derived from dual-polarization data with those derived
from quad-polarization data, acquired by ALOS-PALSAR (Advanced
Land Observing Satellite – Phased Array L-band SAR) PLR (PoLaRimetricmode) and TerraSAR-X dual-polarization SpotLight mode over the
Tokyo Bay, Japan. The preliminary results indicate that the values ofdual-polarization entropy and alpha angle are almost the same as thequad-polarization values, indicating that dual-polarization data are ascapable as quad-polarization data in the eigenvalue decomposition.
The technique is then applied to ship detection and estimating theunderwater laver cultivation fields in the same data sets of Tokyo Bay.

Using the Special Functions mentioned above, the obtained results will
be simulated by numerical methods obtaining the typical patterns aroundthe Colombian coasts (both surface and bottom). Using this simulation
as a non-perturbed state, any change in the patter could be taken as anexternal perturbation caused by a strange body or device in an specificarea or region modeled, building this simulation as an ocean radar or an
unusual object finder.
It’s worth mentioning that the use of stronger or more rigorous methods
and more advanced Special Functions would generate better theoreticalresults, building a more accurate simulation model that would lead to afinest detection.

8724-43, Session PTues

Spectral stability of the Libya 4 site using
EO-1 Hyperion
Taeyoung Choi, Sigma Space Corp. (United States); Xiaxiong
Xiong, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States); Amit
Angal, Science Systems and Applications, Inc. (United States);
Gyanesh Chander, U.S. Geological Survey (United States)

8724-21, Session 4

Estimating oil layer thickness: a vibrational
spectroscopic approach

To assess the long-term on-orbit radiometric calibration stability,
pseudo-invariant calibration sites (PICS) sites have been utilized by manysatellites and recommended by the Committee on Earth Observation
Satellites (CEOS) as reference sites. Libya 4 is one of best CEOS
reference sites because of its spatial uniformity, temporal stability, andlow atmospheric aerosol loading and has been frequently used to detectand quality long-term change. In this study, a region of interest (ROI) fromthe Libya-4 site centered at the latitude and longitude of 28.55 and 23.99
degrees with an area of 75 km by 75 km was used. A proper spectral
characterization assessment of the test site is critical for accurate crosscalibration studies.

Lance E. Besaw, Gregory F. Hewitt, John W. Haas III, Applied
Research Associates, Inc. (United States); Neal E. Van Wyck,
Applied Research Associates Inc (United States); Ryan C.
Langlois, Applied Research Associates, Inc. (United States);David W. Sweeten, BP p.l.c. (United States)
To assist in oil spill cleanup operations, it may be desirable to have a
map of oil thickness in the slick. We are investigating Fourier transform
infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy for the in situ measurement of oil thickness.
In our experiments, layers of Light Sweet Louisiana, West Texas
Intermediate, Argentinian, Omani, Russian, and North Slope crude oils
were prepared in a fixed area over an optically deep column of waterat thickness ranging from 0.1 to 1000 µm. With a broad band IR source
impinging on the samples, a stand-off FT-IR instrument with a large
aperture recorded reflectance spectra from the oil slicks. The data can begrouped into three spectral regimes based on oil thickness. Each regime
has different spectral features well correlated to the thickness of the oil
slick. In this presentation, we will show the spectral results, describe thethree thickness regimes, and demonstrate the ability to use statisticalmethods to quantify oil thickness, as well as classify the oil at a particularin situ location as “thick” or “thin.” Funding for this project is provided by
BP as part of an oil spill technology R&D program that is enhancing thescience of oil spill response.

In this study, nine Earth Observing-1 Hyperion hyperspectral collections
over the Libya 4 site are used. The day of year (DOY) of the eachcollection is selected to be around 170 to avoid yearly oscillations.
Because of the limited narrow swath (7 km) of Hyperion sensor, a seriesof ROIs covering an approximate area of 3 by 3 km with 100 by 100
pixels is selected in the along-track direction from 28.07 to 29.55 degrees
of latitude (about 170 km long) including a subset of CEOS target asa reference. In each ROI, there are 197 valid Hyperion bands covering
spectral range from 0.42 µm to 2.4 µm with 10 nm spectral resolution.
The top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflectance variations in each ROI andbands are analyzed by using percentile information and spectral angle
mapper (SAM) were used to characterize spectral signature of the Libya 4
CEOS reference site.

8724-44, Session PTues
8724-22, Session 4

Long-term band-to-band calibration stabilityof MODIS thermal emissive bands

Colombian ocean waves and coasts modeledby special functions

Brian N. Wenny, Sigma Space Corp. (United States); Xiaoxiong
Xiong, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States); Aisheng
Wu, Yonghong Li, Sigma Space Corp. (United States)

Simon Duque, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Modeling the ocean bottom and surface of both Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans near the Colombian coast is a subject of increasing attention due

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Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

over 12 and 10 years respectively and are key contributors to the NASA
Earth Observing System mission. The calibration for the 16 thermal
emissive bands (TEB) is maintained on-orbit through scan-by-scanobservations of a temperature controlled blackbody and deep space.
Recently a potential calibration issue with Terra Band 29 (8.55 µm) was
identified resulting in a possible long-term drift in Band 29 detector
response. The long-term performance of Band 31 (11 µm) is consideredstable and is used as a reference to track the relative stability of other
TEB. Multiple observations of different Earth targets with a range ofscene temperatures as a function of time are analyzed to assess MODISTEB band-to-band calibration stability, especially for Band 29.

8724-45, Session PTues

Design of integrated ship monitoring systemusing SAR, RADAR, and AIS
Chan-Su Yang, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology(Korea, Republic of) and Univ. of Science and Technology (Korea,
Republic of); Danbee Hong, Hyung-Wook Ahn, Korea Institute of
Ocean Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); Tae-ho Kim,
Univ. of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of)from TRMM satellite. SSS showed regions of lower value, with slightly
increased SST, during the slower movement of storm just before landfall
on the vicinity of Louisiana Shelf, along with increased precipitation.
This increased trend of SST during the storm might be caused by
the entrainment of vertical mixing by activated barrier layer (BL) due
to heavy rainfall (Jacob and Koblinsky, 2007; Mignot et al., 2012;
Balaguru et al., 2012). The SMOS L2 salinity retrievals were processed
corrections by statistical removal of high uncertainty considering strong
surface roughness which was known to create inaccuracy of brightness
temperature (TB) under hurricane conditions. It is significant to use
microwave remote sensing for relating distinctively low SSS, which may
create a barrier layer and more effectively provide heat energy to thestorm. Although further research is required, this study does show that
there is a TB signal from the sea surface beneath a tropical cyclone, that
does provide information on roughness and salinity.

8724-23, Session 5

The Navy’s focus on future remote sensing
capabilities
Todd E. Bowers, Naval Oceanographic Office (United States)

This paper presents the idea behind the system which can give thecomplete overview of the ship monitoring by means of the fusion of
microwave sensor data such as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) andland-based RADAR and Automatic Identification System (AIS) which
are onboard on to the ships. This work describes the preliminary designconcept and prototype demonstration for an integration system ofships obtained from RADAR, SAR and AIS in the field experiment incoastal waters of Pyeongtaek Port, South Korea. Each system has its
characteristics in ship detection or monitoring. SAR are used to acquire
image data over large coverage area, AIS reports are obtained fromship-based transmitter, and FMCW and Pulse RADARs can monitor
continuously ships for a limited area. We conducted field experiments
for displaying the SAR (here, TerraSAR-X) and AIS, and the RADAR(X-Band) and AIS, separately. Simultaneous observation of RADAR, SAR
and AIS is scheduled on the same date as of the SAR acquisition for the
purpose to perform integration test. Here our main aim is to present thesmall integrated system results based on the time, area of coverage,
geographic location for SAR, RADAR and AIS sensors. This system
which is operating on Electronic Chart Display and Information System(ECDIS) may be useful in the near real time vessel surveillance.

Battlespace characterization, which combines meteorological,
oceanographic, and other information into a comprehensive pictureof the evolving battlespace environment from sea bed to space, is an
inherently scientific enterprise dependent on scientific and technologicalinnovation. Most of the data that drives numerical weather and ocean
forecasts is derived from the constellation of satellite remote sensors,
and airborne sensors will become an increasingly vital part of thelocal environmental sensing plan in the Navy of the future. To better
communicate the Navy’s future environmental air and spaceborne remotesensing needs, the Navy Meteorology and Oceanography Command(NMOC) is drafting the first comprehensive Remote Sensing Strategic
Plan. This plan is a first effort to identify in one document the overarching
medium and long term guidance, bridging short term efforts with longer
term operational command support requirements and future capabilities
vision. It is designed to link validated COCOM and TYCOM requirements,
near-term CNMOC and, longer-term strategies such as the Navy Vision
for Information Dominance (NVID), Naval Oceanography 2025, theQuadrennial Defense review, other Navy Enterprise S&T strategies, andthe Naval S&T Strategic Plan. In this paper we overview this developing
strategic plan; highlighting the enterprise remote sensing operational
vision for the next decade.

8724-46, Session PTues

8724-24, Session 5

Sea surface signature of tropical cyclones
using microwave remote sensing

Evaluating VIIRS ocean color products forWest Coast and Hawaiian waters

Bumjun Kil, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States);
Derek M. Burrage, Joel Wesson, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Stephan D. Howden, The Univ. of Southern
Mississippi (United States)

Curtiss O. Davis, Nicholas Tufillaro, Jasmine Nahorniak, Oregon
State Univ. (United States); Burt H. Jones, The Univ. of Southern
California (United States); Robert A. Arnone, Univ. of Southern
Mississippi (United States)

Measuring the sea surface during tropical cyclones is challenging due
to severe weather conditions which prevent shipboard measurements,
and clouds which mask the sea surface for visible satellite sensors.
However, the recent development of L-band microwave remote sensing
which can see through clouds, such as the European Space Agency(ESA) Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) sensor on the MIRAS
satellite enables a view of the sea surface from which affects of tropical
cyclones on sea surface emissivity can be measured. SMOS is used toestimate sea surface salinity (SSS) by measuring the L-band brightness
temperature and by measuring and/or using ancillary sources of sea
surface temperature (SST), and surface roughness to solve for the
SSS from its modeled effect on surface emissivity (tropospheric andionospheric effects have to be taken into account as do microwave
and galactic radiation). In this research, we show correlations during
Hurricane Isaac, in August 2012, by correlating the L2 sea surface
temperature (SST) and the precipitation collected by NASA TMI sensor

Automated match ups allow us to maintain and improve the ocean color
products of current satellite instruments MODIS, and since February
2012 the Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer Suite (VIIRS). As partof the VIIRS mission Ocean Calibration and Validation Team, we havecreated a web based automated match up tool that provides accessto searchable fields for date, site, and products, and creates matchups
between satellites (MODIS, VIIRS), and in-situ measurements (HyperPROand SeaPRISM). The goal is to evaluate the standard VIIRS ocean color
products produced by the IDPS and available through NOAA’s CLASS
data system. Comparisons are made with MODIS data for the same
location, and VIIRS data processed using the NRL Automated Processing
System (APS) used to produce operational products for the Navy. Results
are shown for one year of VIIRS data matching the satellite data with thedata from Platform Eureka SeaPRISM off L. A. Harbor in the Southern
California Bight, and HyperPRO data from Station ALOHA near Hawaii.

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Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

8724-25, Session 5

along with observations of seasonal and temporal trends in aerosol
optical thickness data for coastal AERONET-OC sites and analysis of the
impact of aerosol mode selections on OC satellite imagery processing.

Analyzing radiometric requirements fordiurnal observations of coastal/oceanic
waters from geostationary orbits

8724-27, Session 5

Nima Pahlevan, Zhongping Lee, Univ. of Massachusetts Boston(United States); Chuanmin Hu, Univ. of South Florida (UnitedStates); John R. Schott, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States)

Bathymetry estimations using HOPE on
vicariously calibrated HICO data
Mark D. Lewis, Richard W. Gould Jr., Alan Weidemann, Sherwin
Ladner, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); ZhongPing
Lee, Univ. of Massachusetts Boston (United States)

Over the decades, ocean color imaging sensors placed in Low Earth
Orbits (LEO) have enabled nearly daily measurements of ocean water
properties. Such observations, however, are restricted by cloud/atmospheric conditions. More importantly, such systems could notprovide sufficient number of measurements to study the diurnal dynamics
of coastal/oceanic ecosystems. One way to surmount such limitations
is to leverage Geo-stationary orbits to significantly improve temporal
sampling over such dynamical coastal/oceanic environments. In thisstudy, top-of-atmosphere radiance (Lt) is modeled for the planned GEOCAPE mission intended for monitoring coastal/oceanic waters. The input
to this end-to-end radiometric modeling include diurnal remote sensing
reflectances (Rrs), which are propagated through various atmosphericconditions, i.e., upper-air and aerosols, using a radiative transfer code.
The simulations are carried out for different hours/seasons to encompass
wide range of solar conditions. From these simulations and different
intended system specifications (spectral bandwidths, ground sample
distance (GSD), optical transmission, etc.), the baseline/thresholdrequirements of band-specific noise-equivalent-difference in radiance(NE∆L) as well as signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) desired for quantifying
diurnal variability of biogeochemistry properties are characterized.
In addition, for a given SNR and calibration accuracy, the extent of
measuring diurnal change of water properties from Geo-stationary
platform is evaluated.

8724-26, Session 5

The Hyperspectral Imager for Coastal Oceans (HICO) is a prototype
sensor installed on the International Space Station (ISS) designed to
explore the management and capability of a space-borne hyperspectral
sensor. The Office of Naval Research (ONR) funded the development
and management of HICO. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) built
and now provides the day-to-day management of HICO. Bathymetry
information is essential for naval operations in coastal regions. However,bathymetry may not be available in denied areas. HICO has a 100 meterspatial resolution, which makes it more capable for providing information
within bays and estuaries than other sensors with coarser resolutions.
Furthermore, its contiguous hyperspectral range is well suited to be uses
as input to the Hyperspectral Optimization Process Exemplar (HOPE)
algorithm, which along with other absorption and backscattering values,
estimates bottom albedo and water depth. Vicarious calibration uses
in situ data to generate new gains and offsets that when applied to the
top-of-atmosphere radiance values improves atmospheric correction
results and the measurement of normalized water-leaving radiances. In
situ remote sensing reflectance data collected in St. Andrews Bay wereused to vicariously calibrate a coincident HICO scene. NRL’s AutomatedProcessing System (APS) was used to perform atmospheric correctionand estimation of remote sensing reflectances (Rrs). The HOPE algorithm
used the vicariously calibrated HICO Rrs values to estimate water depth
and bottom type. The results were validated with bathymetry maps fromthe National Coastal Data Development Center (NCDDC).

Evaluation of VIIRS ocean color data using
measurements from the AERONET-OC sites

8724-29, Session 6

Monitoring bio-optical processes in coastal
and lake waters using high spatial resolution
channels on the NPP-VIIRS sensor

Samir Ahmed, Alex Gilerson, Soe Hlaing, The City College of
New York (United States); Ionnis Ioannou, The City Univ. of New
York (United States); Alberto Tonnizo, The City College of New
York (United States); Menghua Wang, NOAA / NESDIS (UnitedStates) and The City College of New York (United States); Alan
Weidemann, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Robert A.
Arnone, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States)

Ryan A. Vandermeulen, Robert A. Arnone, The Univ. of Southern
Mississippi (United States); Sherwin Ladner, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Paul M. Martinolich, Qinetiq North America,
Inc. (United States)

As an integral part of the VIIRS sensor calibration and validation efforts,
we have been continuously monitoring the validity of the VIIRS’s Ocean
Color (OC) and atmospheric data stream through time series in-situ
data acquired at our Long Island Sound Coastal Observatory (LISCO)
platform, which supports multi- and hyper-spectral validations of present
and future OC satellite missions for coastal water environments. The
multispectral measurements at LISCO are part of the SeaPRISM NASA
AERONET – Ocean Color Network. LISCO expands these observational
capabilities with a HyperSAS instrument suite for continuous monitoring
and assessment of the hyperspectral and polarized properties of coastal
waters. Results of initial OC data retrievals of the VIIRS sensor basedon LISCO water leaving radiance and aerosol data suggested that VIIRS
data is strongly correlated with LISCO field data as well as data fromcurrent and heritage satellite missions: namely MODIS and MERIS.
However, more recent match up comparisons between satellite andfield data point out slight overestimations of aerosol optical thickness,
resulting in underestimations in the water leaving radiance data for all
three satellite missions. This is discussed along with results of further
investigations of the impact of atmospheric corrections, specifically
aerosol model selection, on the VIIRS’s OC data retrieval performanceusing data acquired from LISCO as well as other coastal AERONET-OCsites. Updated validation results for the VIIRS sensor will be presented,

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A spatially improved ocean color product is demonstrated by combining
the 750 meter (M- channels) with the 375 m (I-channels) to produce
an atmospherically corrected bio-optical product at a resolution of
375 m. The dynamic and small-scale spatial variability of bio-opticalprocesses that occurs in coastal regions and inland lakes requires highresolution satellite ocean color feature detection. The Visual Infrared
Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) sensor currently utilizes eight ocean
color M-bands as well as two atmospheric correction M-bands in thenear infrared (NIR; 765,865 nm) to produce ocean color products at
a resolution of 750 m. VIIRS also has several high resolution (375 m)
Imaging (I)-bands, including two bands centered at 640 nm and 865
nm. The new approach replaces the M7-band (865 nm) with the I2-band(865) nm to determine the atmospheric correction and aerosol opticaldepth at a higher resolution. Next, using the I-bands and the M-bands(bi-linearly interpolated to 375 m resolution), an estimate of remotesensing reflectance (Rrs) is determined. These true (I-band) and pseudo(M-band) high resolution Rrs are then utilized as input parameters into
the Quasi Analytical Algorithm (QAA) to produce high resolution opticalproducts, including absorption (total, detrital, CDOM, phytoplankton)
and backscattering (particles). These finer resolution products aredemonstrated and compared to 750 m resolution products as well as in·

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Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

situ measurements in coastal estuaries and bays. The results show newcapability for the VIIRS sensor for monitoring bio-optical processes incoastal waters.

8724-30, Session 6

Neural network approach for the derivation ofchlorophyll concentration from ocean color
sensors
Ioannis Ioannou, The City Univ. of New York (United States); Alex
Gilerson, Barry M. Gross, Fred Moshary, Samir Ahmed, The City
College of New York (United States)
Using a data-set consisting of 9000 reflectance spectra simulatedusing HYDROLIGHT for a broad range of observable natural waterconditions, we have developed three neural networks (NN) working
in parallel to model the inverse problem for both oceanic and coastal
waters. These NNs are used to relate the remote sensing reflectanceat available MODIS visible wavelengths (412, 443, 488, 531, 547 and667nm) to the phytoplankton , non-phytoplankton particulate, dissolved
absorption and particulate back-scattering coefficients at 443nm. These
reflectance derived parameters are then combined with the measured
reflectance values and used as input to a fourth NN, to derive chlorophyll
concentration ([Chl]). Unlike the previously developed networks that weretrained based on a synthetic data-set and tested on the NOMAD, the last
network was trained and tested solely on the NOMAD: although we canderive the inherent optical properties (IOP) through the optical signal, as
they are directly related to the Rrs, the relationship of [Chl] to IOP varies
with location and season and therefore it is difficult to model a global
relationship. In order to show that including derived IOP estimates alongwith the radiance measurements can improve the derivation of [Chl], weconstruct a neural network that is trained to derive the [Chl] only from thereflectance measurements. Finally we compare our [Chl] product to thecurrent MODIS OC3 algorithm.

8724-32, Session 6

Monitoring bio-optical processes using VIIRS:NPP and MODIS ocean color products
Robert A. Arnone, Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States);
Sherwin Ladner, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Ryan
A. Vandermeulen, The Univ. of Southern Mississippi (UnitedStates); Paul M. Martinolich, Giuletta S. Fargion, Jennifer Bowers,
QinetiQ North America, Inc (United States); Adam Lawson, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Ocean color products from the NPP and MODIS provides new capability
to monitor changes in the bio-optical processes occurring in the coastal
waters. The combined use of multiple looks per day from several
sensors can be used to follow the water mass changes of bio-opticalproperties. The dynamic changes in coastal waters in response to tides,
resuspension and river plume dispersion, requires sequential ocean
products per day to resolve bio-optical processes. We examine howthese changes in bio-optical properties can be monitored using the NPP
and MODIS ocean color products. Additionally, when linked to ocean
circulation, we examine the changes resulting from current advection
compared to bio-optical processes. The inter-comparison of NPP and
MODIS ocean products are in agreement so that diurnal changes surface
bio-optical processes can be characterized.

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8724-34, Session 7

S-NPP/VIIRS SST and Radiance products:
accuracy, stability, and consistency with
AVHRR/MODIS
Alexander Ignatov, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States); Xingming Liang, National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (United States) and Cooperative
Institute for Research in the Atmosphere/Colorado State Univ.
(United States); Prasanjit Dash, National Environmental Satellite,
Data, and Information Service (United States) and Cooperative
Institute for Research in the Atmosphere/Colorado State Univ.
(United States); John Stroup, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States) and STG, Inc. (United States); Yury
Kihai, Boris Petrenko, National Environmental Satellite, Data,and Information Service (United States) and Global Scienceand Technology, Inc. (United States); John Sapper, National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (UnitedStates)The S-NPP satellite launched in October 2011 with VIIRS instrument
onboard is a bridge mission from POES/EOS towards JPSS. Sea surface
temperature (SST) Team coordinated by NESDIS/STAR is in charge ofgenerating high quality SST and clear-sky ocean radiance products.
This presentation discusses status of two VIIRS products, the Interface
Data Processing Segment (IDPS) and the Advanced Clear-Sky Processor
for Oceans (ACSPO). The products are monitored in two STAR online
systems: the SST Quality Monitor (SQUAM; www.star.nesdis.noaa.
gov/sod/sst/squam/) and Monitoring of IR Clear-sky Radiances over
Oceans for SST (MICROS; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/micros/).
In situ data used for Cal/Val of satellite SST retrievals from anotherSTAR system, in situ Quality Monitor (iQuam; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/
sod/sst/iquam/). Both VIIRS SST products are monitored in SQUAM,
along with similar products from NOAA-16, -18, -19 and Metop-A and-B AVHRRs, and Aqua and Terra MODIS. Corresponding radiances aremonitored in MICROS. VIIRS radiances in SST bands have been very
stable since their activation in January 2012, and consistent with AVHRR
and MODIS radiances in similar bands. VIIRS SSTs have graduallymatured and generally are consistent with SSTs from other sensors. The
availability of several well-performing SST sensors in orbit (five AVHRRs,
two MODIS, and VIIRS), offers unique opportunity for comprehensive
consistency checks, quality control and product improvements.

8724-35, Session 7

VIIRS derived SST at the Naval
Oceanographic Office: From evaluation tooperation.
Jean-Francois Cayula, Qinetiq North America (United States);
Doug May, Bruce Mckenzie, Keith Willis, Naval Oceanographic
Office (United States)
The Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) produces Sea Surface
Temperature (SST) retrievals from satellite data. NAVOCEANO also
obtains satellite-derived SST data sets from other groups. To provide
consistency for assimilation into analyses and models, all the SST data
sets are evaluated for their accuracy with the same methodology. In
this presentation, the focus is SST derived from the Visible Infrared
Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) sensor on-board the S-NPP satellite.
Of particular interest is the evaluation of NAVOCEANO-produced SST
with its NAVOCEANO Cloud mask (NCM), the VIIRS cloud mask (VCM),
and VIIRS Environmental Data Record (EDR) SST. The evaluation results
show that these products are in some ways comparable, with similar
strengths and weaknesses, although they target different customers.
For comparison, the reliability results for the Meteorological Operational(METOP-A) satellite-derived SST, which is a NAVOCEANO operational

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Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

8724-38, Session 8

product, are presented. As a by-product of the NAVOCEANO VIIRS SST
evaluation, the non-linear SST (NLSST) equations used to derive the SST
values were found to be less than optimal depending on the unit of the
field temperature term. NAVOCEANO VIIRS SST employs an expanded
NLSST equation, which in effect refines the approximation of the gamma
term by adding an offset. In view of the evaluation results, NAVOCEANOVIIRS SST is scheduled to become operational by the end of 2012.

Evaluation and selection of SST regression
algorithms for S-NPP VIIRS
Boris Petrenko, NOAA/NESDIS/STAR (United States) and Global
Science and Technology, Inc. (United States); Alex Ignatov,
NOAA/NESDIS/STAR (United States); Yury Kihai, NOAA/NESDIS/STAR (United States) and Global Science & Technology, Inc.
(United States)

8724-36, Session 7

Improvements of Satellite SST Retrievals at
Full SwathSea surface temperature (SST) is a key environmental variable. Currently,
several global SST products are generated at NOAA/NESDIS, OSI-SAF,
NAVO, NASA and U. Miami from thermal IR measurements by multiple
satellites and sensors. Most of SST retrieval algorithms use regression
to derive SST from satellite brightness temperatures at similar bands(11 and 12 µm during day and 3.7, 11 and 12 µm at night). Although
regression equations are designed to optimize retrieval accuracy, theirforms essentially differ in different processing systems. This presentationcompares regression SST equations with the objective to select the mostefficient formulation for the VIIRS instrument onboard S-NPP launchedin October 2011. The evaluation is based on several months of multisatellite matchup dataset (MDS) created at STAR, between satellite data
(NOAA-16, -18, -19 and METOP-A AVHRRs, Aqua and Terra MODIS and
NPP VIIRS) and quality controlled in situ SST produced by in situ quality
monitor system (iQuam; www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/iquam/).
All satellite data are processed with a single processing system, theAdvanced Clear Sky Processor for Oceans (ACSPO), which minimizes
the impact of the difference in the cloud masks on the SST statistics
from different satellites and instruments. The algorithms are comparedusing the following characteristics averaged over the MDSs: global mean
SST biases and standard deviations of “retrieved minus in situ SST”,
uniformity of these statistics as functions of view zenith angle and total
precipitable water vapor content, stability of regression coefficients and
SST statistics in time, and sensitivity of retrieved SST to variations in true
SST.

Walton McBride, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); Bob
A. Arnone, Univ. of Southern Mississippi (United States); JeanFrancois P. Cayula, QinetiQ North America (United States)
An ultimate goal of the prediction of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) fromsatellite data is to attain an accuracy of 0.30C or better when compared
to floating or drifting buoys located around the globe. Current daytime
SST algorithms are able to routinely achieve an accuracy of 0.50C for
satellite zenith angles up to 53 degrees. The full scan swath of VIIRS(Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) contains satellite zenith angles
up to 70 degrees, so that successful retrieval of SST from VIIRS at thesehigher satellite zenith angles would greatly increase global coverage.
However, the accuracy of the SST algorithms steadily degrades tonearly 0.70C as the satellite zenith angle reaches its upper limit, due toincreased atmospheric path length and lower ocean surface emissivity.
Both MCSST (Multiple-Channel) and NLSST (Non-Linear) algorithms
were evaluated using a global data set of in-situ buoy and satellite
brightness temperatures, in order to determine the impacts of satellite
zenith angle on accuracy. Evaluation, testing and algorithm refinements
and comparisons are demonstrated with an interactive MATLAB analysis
tool. The analysis shows how accuracy in SST retrievals is impacted byfiltering of buoy matchup using spatial and temporal constraints, andillustrates the importance of fully exploiting the information containedin the first guess temperature field used in the NLSST algorithm. The
influence of the satellite zenith angle on the different algorithms is also
reported. Preliminary results suggest that SST retrievals can be obtainedusing the full satellite swath with a 30% improvement in accuracy at large
satellite zenith angles.

8724-39, Session 8

Reduction of stripe noise in ACSPO clear-sky
radiances and SST
Marouan Bouali, Alexander Ignatov, National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (United States)

8724-37, Session 7

OSI-SAF operational NPP/VIIRS SST chain

Uncertainties in detectors radiometric responses introduce stripe noise in
the images captured by multidetector spectroradiometers. Consequently,
native resolution clear-sky radiances and derived sea surface
temperature (SST) maps often display pronounced striping. This reduces
the accuracy of the data and its usefulness for low-level processing tasks
such as thermal front detection.

Pierre Le Borgne, Gérard Legendre, Anne Marsouin, Sonia Péré,
Hervé Roquet, Meteo-France (France)
Data of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) onboard
Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) have been acquired at
Centre de Météorologie Spatiale (CMS) in Lannion (Brittany) in direct
readout mode since April 2012. CMS is committed to produce SST
products from VIIRS data twice a day over an area covering North-East
Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. A cloud mask has been developed(Lavanant, 2012) and cloud mask control techniques have been
implemented. SST algorithms have been defined, as well as quality level
attribution rules. Since Mid October 2012 a VIIRS SST chain, similar tothat used for processing METOP AVHRR (EUMETSAT, 2010) has been
run in a preoperational mode. The corresponding bias and standard
deviation against drifting buoy measurements (up to December 2012)are -0.07 and 0.40K for nighttime and -0.08 and 0.46K for daytime,
respectively.

An algorithm is being designed and investigated at the National
Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS) to reduce
the effect of striping and improve the imagery quality of the Advanced
Clear-Sky Processor for Ocean (ACSPO) BT and SST products.
Using three days of Terra/Aqua MODIS and NPP VIIRS top of atmosphereclear-sky calibrated radiances, the performance of the proposed
method was tested via quantitative and qualitative analysis. Preliminary
results reported in this paper demonstrate substantial improvement inimage quality without any impact on the geometrical features or global
validation statistics of SST data.

This presentation will describe the algorithm determination, and thequality level attribution methods that have been implemented. The firstvalidation result distribution as a function of these quality levels will beshown.

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209Conference 8724: Ocean Sensing and Monitoring V

8724-40, Session 88724-42, Session 8

Evaluating calibration of MODIS thermal
emissive bands using infrared atmosphericsounding interferometer measurements

Simultaneous measurement of temperatureand pressure sensor for oceanography using
Bragg gratings

Yonghong Li, Aisheng Wu, Sigma Space Corp. (United States);
Xiaoxiong Xiong, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (UnitedStates)I. V. Anudeep Kumar Reddy, Parne Saidi Reddy, Sandeep
M., G. R. C. Reddy, Sanjeev Afzulpurkar, National Institute ofTechnology, Goa (India); R. L. N. Sai Prasad, National Institute ofTechnology,Warangal (India)

This paper evaluates the performance of MODIS (Terra and Aqua)
thermal emissive bands using current Collection 5 (C5) and upcoming
Collection6 (C6) Level 1 B products with a focus on relative differences
between the two instruments. Data from Infrared Atmospheric Sounding
Interferometer (IASI) serves as a transfer reference. Comparison was
conducted using observations from simultaneous nadir overpasses(SNO) of Metop-A satellite and Terra/Aqua satellites. SNO times andlocations were determined based on satellite orbital two-line element
sets and the SNO time difference was limited to within 30 seconds.
Each IASI instantaneous field of view of 12km is co-located with multiple(typically 30~40) MODIS pixels. The corresponding IASI simulated MODIS
radiances are derived by convolutions of IASI hyperspectral data and
MODIS relative spectral response functions. Data analysis results showthat correlations of MODIS aggregated brightness temperature (BT)and IASI simulated BT are greater than 0.9. Differences between Aquaand Terra MODIS C5 are larger with a range of 2 ~ 8°K at lower BT andbecome smaller within ±1°K at higher BT for PV bands. For PC bands,
measurements from MODIS C5 and C6 are within ±1°K between Aquaand Terra.

8724-41, Session 8

Terra and Aqua MODIS on-orbit spectral
characterization for reflective solar bands
Taeyoung J. Choi, Sigma Space Corp. (United States); Xiaoxiong
Xiong, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (United States); Zhipeng
Wang, Daniel Link, Sigma Space Corp. (United States)

Pressure and temperature are fundamental properties of the oceanic
water. They have varying effects on the processes that take place inoceans, be they biological, physical or chemical. While pressure always
increases with respect to surface when you go down, temperature has
a more complex variation with respect to the depth. Various tools andtechniques are available to measure these properties. A combination
sensor with high accuracy and response time would enable bettermeasurements of these two parameters.
This paper presents a novel structure based on simultaneous
measurement of temperature and pressure sensing using Fiber Bragg
grating (FBG) sensors. For this, proposed sensor heads for bothtemperature and pressure. Temperature measurement, two different
types of sensor heads has been designed for this implementation. The
first sensor head consists of a FBG which is fixed between ceramic blockon one side and a bimetallic strip made up of aluminum and copper on
the other. The second sensor head consists of the FBG which is fixed
between two bimetallic strips. For pressure, in first type the FBG is fixed
between silicon rubber foil and sensor head wall. In second method the
FBG is fixed between two silicone rubber foils. The pressure on walls ofsilicon rubber foils elongates FBG, which results in shift of wavelength.
Theoretical studies carried out on these proposed sensor heads resulted
in an increase in temperature sensitivity of about six times greater thanthat of bare FBG sensor and pressure sensitivity of about eight times
greater than that of bare FBG. Further, the proposed sensors have shown
good linearity and stability.

The MODrate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) onboard
the NASA EOS Terra and Aqua spacecraft was launched on December
18, 1999 and May 4, 2002 respectively. They have successfully operated
on-orbit for more than a decade. The spectral characteristics of the
MODIS instruments were calibrated pre-launch using a ground calibration
device called the Spectral Measurement Assembly (SpMA). The ground
spectral characterization was transferred to an on-board device called
the Spectro-Radiometric Calibration Assembly (SRCA) for the Reflective
Solar Bands (RSB) by measuring the sensor spectral responses at thesame time with both SRCA and SpMA. After transferring calibrationreference from the SpMA, the SRCA was able to track the on-orbit
spectral changes by performing periodical spectral mode operations.
This paper provides brief descriptions of MODIS on-orbit spectral
characterization via its on-board SRCA. In the algorithm description
section, functional steps and spectral calibration methodologies arepresented. This study will focus on MODIS SWIR band (bands 5, 6 and 7)
as their center wavelengths are longer than the 1µm, which is beyond thespecified SRCA spectral calibration range. In addition to the SWIR bands,
band 2 results are also included. Because of the pre-launch and on-orbit
configuration differences, band 2 spectral characterization is referenced
to the first on-orbit results. A summary of Terra and Aqua MODIS onorbit relative spectral response changes, such as center wavelength
bandwidth changes, is provided in this paper for all the RSB bands.

210

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V
Monday - Friday 29–3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8725 Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors, Systems, and Applications V

8725-1, Session 1

8725-3, Session 1

Nano-electro-mechanical-systems (NEMS)
and Energy-efficient Electronics and theEmergence of Two-dimensional Layered
Materials beyond Graphene (Keynote
Presentation)

Graphene-Si heterogeneous nanotechnology(Invited Paper)Deji Akinwande, Li Tao, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (UnitedStates)Wafer-scale monolayer graphene has been grown on annealed Cu(111) films on standard oxidized 100-mm Si wafers with high quality
comparable to exfoliated graphene. Raman studies reveal outstanding
uniformity (>99% coverage), and high nanomaterial quality (~95%
negligible defect-density) on SiO2/Si wafer substrates. Key to theseresults is the phase transition of evaporated copper films from
amorphous to (111) preferred crystalline orientation, which resulted in thesubsequent growth of high quality graphene, as corroborated by X-ray
diffraction and electron backscatter diffraction. Noticeably, such phasetransition of copper film was observed on technologically ubiquitous Si
wafer with a standard amorphous thermal oxide. In addition, insights
gained from growth studies has resulted in large cu grain growth, abouta factor of two larger than current achievements on cu film. The same
growth insights have led to the CVD growth of graphene ribbons for the
first-time and indicates the potential for as-grown graphene nanoribbons
with atomically smooth edges. A modified two-step wafer-scale transfer
process was introduced to preserve the clean material surface andelectrical property of transferred monolayer onto 100mm wafers yielding
over 10,000 graphene devices. In addition, a wafer bonding transfer
strategy is investigated indicating that wafer-scale automated transfer
process is within technological reach in the near future. Fabricatedtransistors yield high mobilities of ~5,000cm2/V-s and an on/off current
ratio of about ten. This work enables industrial adoption and practical
VLSI applications of graphene/Si heterogeneous systems.

Anupama B. Kaul, National Science Foundation (United States)
Keynote - Carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene and carbon
nanotubes have been explored extensively by researchers as well as
the semiconductor industry as viable alternatives to Si-CMOS. Besides
nanoscale transistors, the exceptional mechanical, electrical, thermaland optical properties of carbon-based nanomaterials has stirred
intense interest in considering these materials for applications ranging
from interconnects, field-emission displays, photo-voltaics and nanoelectro-mechanical-systems (NEMS). In particular, although graphene
has been shown to exhibit remarkable electronic, thermal, mechanicaland optical properties, the absence of a band-gap poses concerns for
its attractiveness in some applications, particularly in digital electronics
where high ON/OFF ratios desired. While a band-gap is inducedin graphene through quantum confinement by creating graphene
nanoribbons, the band gaps nonetheless are small (few hundred meV)and it is challenging to maintain pristine edge chirality due to defects thatare induced during nanofabrication of the ribbons. Recently, layered 2D
crystals of other materials similar to graphene have been realized which
include insulating hexagonal-BN (band gap ~5.5 eV) and transition metal
di-chalcogenides which display properties ranging from superconducting
NbS2 to semiconducting MoS2. The device applications of such systems
show promising characteristics where transistors derived from 2Dmonolayers of MoS2 show ON/OFF ratios many orders of magnitudelarger than the best graphene transistors. In this talk, I will provide an
overview of the Electronics, Photonics and Magnetic Devices (EPMD)
program in the ECCS division where graphene, as well as other layered
2D nanomaterials, are playing an important role for enabling innovative
device applications in electronics, photonics and sensing.

8725-4, Session 1

Photodetection with heterojunctions ofgraphene and silicon (Invited Paper)
Fangze Liu, Xiaohong An, Swastik Kar, Northeastern Univ.
(United States)

8725-2, Session 1

Twisted bilayer graphene: synthesis, Raman
scattering, and highly sensitive tunable
photodetector (Invited Paper)

We present photodetection properties of heterojunctions of silicon
formed with graphene and carbon nanotube networks. In thesejunctions, the photoexcitation processes occur in silicon, and graphene/carbon nanotubes act as carrier collectors with voltage-tunable nonlinear photoresponses resulting from their unique density of states.
The graphene/Si photodetectors were investigated for multi-mode
operation. In the photodiode mode responsivities as high as 10^7V/W
with sub-picoWatt/Hz^½ noise equivalent power and millisecond
response-times were observed. With contrast sensitivity exceeding 10^6
V/W, these devices can potentially distinguish materials that transmit
up to 99.95% of incident light, making them attractive for imaging andspectroscopy of ultra-transparent materials. In the second mode, which
is a newly developed Quantum Carrier Reinvestment (QCR) Mode, thedevice utilizes the ultrafast carrier dynamics in graphene vis-à-vis theslow carrier recombination rate in silicon that results in extremely highquantum gain values with photocurrent responsivities obtained as highas 10^7 V/W. The single-wall Carbon Nanotube/Si (SWNT/Si) junctions
have similar tunable responses with switching ratios as high as 10^4.
The tunability of these devices can be traced to the manner in which thephotoexcited carriers fill up the sparsely available but voltage tunable
number of accessible states. We demonstrate their potentials for a varietyof advanced applications, including arrays of photodetector elements
mimicking camera pixels, bidirectional phototransistors, and novel digital
optoelectronic switches (that combines both electrical and optical input
signals) such as optoelectronic AND gates, ADDERs, and optoelectronic
Digital-to-Analog converters. These architectures are highly suitable
for tunable and scalable, low-power, on-chip photodetection, imaging,

Jiming Bao, Univ. of Houston (United States)
Two dimensional superlattices with tunable periodicity can becreated by stacking two single layer graphene with relative rotation.
Such superlattices have attracted considerable attention, but theirexperimental evidences remain elusive. Using chemical vapor deposition,
we synthesized twisted bilayer graphene islands with well defined edge
termination such that the relative rotation can be determined from theedge misalignment. The band structure of superlattice is revealed by newphonon mode and enhanced 2D line in Raman scattering. The folded
phonons arise from the reduced Brillouin zone of the superlattices, while
the enhanced 2D Raman intensity is due to the constructive quantum
interference between two Raman paths as a result of degenerate Diraccone. The spectra of the folded phonon and 2D line depend strongly
on rotation angle and laser excitation energy, in agreement with ourtheoretical calculation. The rotation dependent band structure and highenhanced tunable optical absorption opens up new optoelectronic
applications of bilayer graphene

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211Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V
photometry, millisecond-switching, and on-chip ultrasensitive
spectroscopy.

8725-5, Session 1

Band gap and correlated phenomena inbilayer and trilayer graphene (Invited Paper)
Chun Ning Lau, Yongjin Lee, Jairo Velasco Jr., Kevin Myhro,
Nathaniel Gilgren, David Tran, Univ. of California, Riverside(United States)
Band Gap and Correlated Phenomena in Bilayer and Trilayer Graphene
For Electronics and Optoelectronics
Graphene, a two - dimensional single atomic layer of carbon, has recently
emerged as a new model system for condensed matter physics, aswell as a promising candidate for electronic materials. Though single
layer graphene is gapless, bilayer and trilayer graphene have tunableband gaps that may be induced by out-of-plane electric fields or arise
from collective excitation of electrons. Here I will present our results ontransport measurements in bilayer and trilayer graphene devices withmobility as high as 400,000 cm2/Vs. We demonstrate atomic switching,tunable band gap under applied electric field, spontaneous band gap
opening, and stacking-order dependent transport. Our results have
implications for band gap engineering for graphene electronics andoptoelectronic applications.

8725-6, Session 1

New generation transistor technologies
enabled by 2D crystals (Invited Paper)
Debdeep Jena, Univ. of Notre Dame (United States)
The discovery of graphene opened the doors to 2D crystal materials.
The lack of a bandgap in 2D graphene makes it unsuitable forelectronic switching transistors in the conventional field-effect sense,though possible techniques exploiting the unique bandstructure andnanostructures are being explored. The transition metal dichalcogenides
have 2D crystal semiconductors, which are well-suited for electronic
switching. In this presentation, we experimentally demonstrate field
effect transistors with current saturation and carrier inversion madefrom layered 2D crystal semiconductors such as MoS2, WS2. We also
evaluate the feasibility of such semiconducting 2D crystals for tunnelingfield-effect transistors for low-power digital logic.

8725-8, Session 2

Adaptive frequency selective surfaces (Invited
Paper)
Walter R. Buchwald, Univ. of Massachusetts Boston (UnitedStates); Joshua R. Hendrickson, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States); Justin Cleary, Air Force Research Lab./Sensors
Directorate (United States); Junpeng Guo, The Univ. of Alabamain Huntsville (United States)
Split ring resonator (SRR) arrays are investigated for use as controllable
optical impedance matching elements in the mid-IR wavelength range.
Finite difference time domain (FDTD) simulations suggest such metallic
plasmonic nanostructures can be externally controlled to resonate
between the two conditions associated with a perfect SRR with acompletely open SRR gap and a metallic ring with a completely closed
SRR gap through modifications of the SRR gap impedance. Controlof the SRR gap impedance is obtained through the addition of an
appropriately designed semiconducting material located within the SRR
gap region. This material can be engineered to provide voltage control,
via the formation of a two dimensional electron gas and the addition212

of a gate electrode, or optical control through the use of low-doped
material and an external optical source providing photogenerated free
carriers excitations. The SRR ring dimensions investigated, namely a 2µm
diameter, 0.5µm SRR line width and a 0.5µm SRR gap, indicate a mid-IR
resonance at 6µm for the closed, low gap impedance case, and 11µm
for the open, high gap impedance case, placing such frequency active
resonators well within the range of typical ebeam lithographic fabrication
capabilities. Such active frequency selective surfaces are proposed, forexample, for use as tunable absorbing layers in mid-IR optical detectors
or as active mid-IR filters.

8725-9, Session 2

Adaptive multifunctional composites (Invited
Paper)
Daniel J. Inman, Ya D. Wang, Univ. of Michigan (United States)
This paper develops an adaptive wing spar which can sense thepresence of wind gust disturbances and suppress consequent vibrations
using a micro fiber composite actuator powered by self-harvesting theenergy. Energy harvesting refers to the capture of ambient waste energy
in order to power wireless sensing and telemetry control system. The
equivalent electromechanical representations of this adaptive wing spar
is derived theoretically and simulated numerically. A recent experimental
result for a wing spar has shown that it is feasible to alleviate wind gustdisturbance using harvested power from ambient vibrations, but requires
the harvesting time to be 0.42 times longer than the wind gust duration.
Special attention is given to adaptive gust alleviation with the goal ofusing available harvested energy. A two mode reduced energy control
law is implemented to reduce the actuation energy and the dissipatedheat. This law integrates saturation control with a positive strain feedback
controller, and is represented by a positive feedback operation amplifier(op-amp) and a voltage buffer op-amp for each mode. Experimental
results exhibit that the system with reduced energy control requires
76% less energy than its conventional counterparts. Experiments also
reveal the presence of substantial piezoelectric nonlinearities in thetransducer. The voltage-dependent behavior of the electromechanicalcoupling coefficient is identified empirically and represented by curvefit expression. A real-time adaptive control algorithm is developed toaccount for the voltage-dependent behavior of the electromechanicalcoupling coefficient, existing in the micro fiber composite transducer,
enabling good agreement between the simulation and experimental
results.

8725-10, Session 3

Materials research at DARPA addressing
multifunctional and adaptive structural
materials (Invited Paper)
Brian C. Holloway, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)
The mission of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) is to maintain the technological superiority of the U.S. militaryand prevent technological surprise from harming our national security bysponsoring revolutionary, high-payoff research that connects fundamental
discoveries and their military use. Within the Defense Sciences Office(DSO) at DARPA, several ongoing programs address both fundamental
materials development, as well as the advancement of multifunctionaland structural materials to address current Department of Defense
technology needs. This talk will introduce some of these programs andconcepts, including information on DSO programs in the areas of thinfilm processing, architectural design for structural materials, materials
for mission-critical portable power and energy, and more, followed bya prospective on how novel materials science concepts can generate
DARPA innovation.

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V

8725-11, Session 3

Vyacheslav V. Popov, Institute of Radio Engineering andElectronics (Russian Federation); Wojciech Knap, Univ.
Montpellier 2 (France)

Adaptive quantum-dot based materials
for detection and broadband photovoltaic
conversion (Invited Paper)This paper reviews recent advances in emission and detectionof terahertz radiation using two dimensional (2D) plasmons insemiconductor nano-heterostructures for nondestructive evaluations.
The 2D plasmon resonance is first presented as the operation principle todemonstrate its potentiality of broadband intense emission and sensitive
detection of terahertz radiation. The Doppler-shift effect of the plasma
wave velocity under an asymmetric plasmon cavity boundary and/or
the spatial modulation of electron transit time in a sub-micrometer scale
2D plasmon system with a non-uniform 2D electron density distribution
can promote the plasmon instability, resulting in self-oscillation ofplasmons in the terahertz regime. The hydrodynamic nonlinearity of 2D
plasmons can rectify the incoming electromagnetic radiation, resulting
in photovoltaic detection of terahertz radiation under an asymmetric
2D plasmon cavity boundary. Second, the device structure that can
provide practical emission and detection performances are addressed,
which is based on a high-electron mobility transistor and incorporates
the authors’ original asymmetrically interdigitated dual-grating gates(DGGs). Numerical analysis reveals that in comparison with conventional
symmetric DGG structure the asymmetric DGG can substantially improvethe detection sensitivity as well as the instability (emissivity) by three
to four orders of magnitude. Third, excellent terahertz emission anddetection performances including coherent, monochromatic emission
beyond 1-THz range and the record detection responsivity of 6.4 kV/W
at 1 THz at 300 K are experimentally demonstrated by using InAlAs/
InGaAs/InP and/or InGaP/InGaAs/GaAs heterostructure material systems.
Finally their applications to nondestructive material evaluation based on
terahertz imaging are demonstrated.

Vladimir V. Mitin, Nizami Z. Vagidov, Univ. at Buffalo (UnitedStates); Kimberly A. Sablon, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Andrei V. Sergeev, Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
Currently IR sensing is widely used in radar and imaging applications.
Advanced radar systems are employed for target detection, tracking,and identification. Numerous imaging applications include such large
market segments as security, driving, and navigation. IR spectroscopy
is also used in global environmental and industrial monitoring as wellas in homeland security. All above applications will strongly benefit
from the development of IR sensors with adaptable parameters. Even
relatively simple firefighting IR camera should have large dynamic
range to detect targets at varying background temperature. In general,
optoelectronic materials for advanced IR sensing should combine wide
spectral tunability, adjustable dynamic range for detection of high- andlow-intensity radiation, manageable trade-off characteristics (such as
noise equivalent power and operating time in the direct detection, andbandwidth and local oscillator power in the heterodyne detection), andhigh scalability to use in large sensor arrays. Also advanced photovoltaic
materials, especially for concentrating photovoltaics, should provide
optimal efficiency in a wide range of solar radiation and cover IR part ofsolar spectrum. In the current presentation we report results of theoreticaland experimental investigations of adaptive nanomaterials based on
charged quantum dots (QDs). We show that the charge of QDs may beeffectively managed by the bias current and optical radiation (opticalpumping). At the same time, the main photoelectron processes in QD
structures are controlled by the dot charge. Therefore, manageable QD
charge provides wide possibilities to control the photoelectron lifetime,
spectral characteristics, detector responsivity, generation-recombinationnoise, and recombination losses.

8725-14, Session 3

Graphene-based integrated electronic,
photonic and spintronic circuit (Invited Paper)
P. Potasz, National Research Council of Canada (Canada)
and Wroclaw University of Technology (Poland); A. D. Güçlü,National Research Council Canada (Canada) and Izmir Instituteof Technology (Turkey); I. Ozfidan, National Research Council
Canada (Canada) and Univ. of Ottawa (Canada); M. Korkusinski,
Pawel Hawrylak, National Research Council Canada (Canada)8725-12, Session 3

Functional supramolecular nanomaterials:
robust yet adaptive (Invited Paper)
Boris Rybtchinski, Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel)
Self-assembled nanoscale systems that are robust yet adaptive andprone to facile fabrication and reversible disassembly are of primary
importance for creating multifunctional adaptive nanomaterials. We will
introduce the emergent field of robust noncovalent nanomaterials and,using this context, will present our work on water-based noncovalent
membrane materials that can be used for size-selective separations of
nanoparticles and biomolecules. These findings advance a paradigm ofnoncovalent nanomaterials as a versatile and environmentally friendly
alternative to covalent systems. We will also describe emerging rational
design principles for creating highly ordered functional nanoarrays
assembled from well-defined molecular units, enabling a generalapproach to photonic nanomaterials. In this context, directionalhydrophobic interactions and kinetically controlled processes will be
discussed.

It has been recently predicted theoretically[1-10] that there exists a
special class of nanoscale graphene triangular quantum dots (GTQD)
with zigzag edges which fullfils all three functions needed for information
processing: (1) size quantization turns graphene, a semimetal, into asemiconductor, like silicon, with bandgap tuneable from THz to UV, hence
GTQD can be used for information processing, (2) unlike silicon, GTQD
are equivalent to direct gap semiconductors, absorb/emit light hence
can be used for communication, and (3) GTQD exhibit voltage tunablemagnetic moment hence can be used for information storage. Therefore,
it appears feasible that graphene quantum dots can form the basis ofintegrated electronic, photonic and spintronic circuits. Since carbon
does not have nuclear spin, graphene based chips could form the basisof quantum technology. We will describe results of extensive numericalsimulations of gated graphene quantum dots which demonstrate thatthe electronic, photonics and spintronic properties can be controlled bysize, shape and edge engineering[4-10]. In particular, new results showthat in a single graphene triangle with zigzag edges one can erase themagnetic moment by adding additional electron with a gate and restore
the magnetic moment by absorption of a photon. This results in opticalcontrol of magnetization and optical spin blockade[11].

8725-13, Session 3

Emission and detection of terahertz
radiation using two-dimensional plasmons
in semiconductor nano-heterostructures for
nondestructive evaluations (Invited Paper)
Taiichi Otsuji, Takayuki Watanabe, Stephane Albon Boubanga
Tombet, Akira Satou, Victor Ryzhii, Tohoku Univ. (Japan);

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213Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V

8725-15, Session 48725-17, Session 4

Harsh environment sensor development
for advanced energy systems (Keynote
Presentation)

Miniaturized resonant sensors for harshenvironments (Invited Paper)

Robert R. Romanosky, Susan M. Maley, National Energy
Technology Lab. (United States)
Highly efficient, low emission power systems have extreme conditions ofhigh temperature, high pressure, and corrosivity that require monitoring.
Sensing in these harsh environments can provide key information that
directly impacts process control and system reliability. To achieve thegoals and demands of clean energy, the conditions under which fossil
fuels are currently converted into heat and power are extremely harshcompared to previous combustion/steam cycles. Temperatures arereaching 1600 Celsius (C) in certain systems and pressures are reachingas high as 5000 pounds per square inch (psi)/340 atmospheres (atm).
The lack of suitable measurement technology serves as a driver for the
innovations in harsh environment sensor development. Two of the major
considerations in the development of harsh environments sensors are
the materials used for sensing and the design of the sensing device
This paper will highlight the US Department of Energy, Office of Fossil
Energy and National Energy Technology Laboratory’s Program in Sensors
which is aimed at addressing the technology development needs anddrivers through the development of new sensor materials and designs
capable of withstanding these extreme harsh environment conditions.
Historical developments with harsh environment sensors as well as future
directions towards the development of monitoring approaches for harshenvironment will be highlighted.

8725-16, Session 4

Chemical sensor systems for environmental
and emission control (Invited Paper)
Anita Lloyd Spetz, Linköping Univ. (Sweden); Christian Bur, Univ.
des Saarlandes (Germany); Joni Huotari, Univ. of Oulu (Finland);Robert Bjorklund, Linköping Univ. (Sweden); Jyrki Lappalainen,
Univ. of Oulu (Finland); Andreas Schütze, Univ. des Saarlandes(Germany); Mike Andersson, Linköping Univ. (Sweden)
Sensor systems based on SiC-FET sensors have been developed forenvironmental and emission control. Recently a sensor system forcontrol of small and medium sized power plants was commercialized(www.sensic.se). A new layout of the SiC-FET device has considerably
improved the high temperature operation and long term stability
performance. Through applying different sensing layers, e.g. catalytic
porous metals like Pt and Ir, and the choice of operation temperature,
the SiC-FET sensors are able to monitor and control toxic emissions
like CO, NO/NO2, SO2, H2S, VOCs and NH3. Operation of the sensors
in temperature cycling mode and smart data evaluation improves thesensor performance and number of possible applications considerably.
An NH3 sensor was for example developed for control of urea injection insmall and medium sized power plants and stationary engines.
Recently it has been recognized that also particulate matter (PM10,
PM2.5, ultra-fine particles) may pose danger to health. The adverse
effects of particles seem to depend on size, concentration, shapeand content. We recently started to develop methods like impedance
spectroscopy of particles collected between IDEs (interdigital electrodes)
for detection of e.g. concentration and size of particles. Controlled
deposition of carbon nanotubes is used to develop the method. We havealso worked on the issue of detecting content of particles by collection,
heating, detection of emitted gases by gas sensor arrays and smart data
evaluation. Environmental mass spectrometry is of high importance as areference for emitted gases.

214

Silja Schmidtchen, Denny Richter, Jan Sauerwald, Holger Fritze,Technische Univ. Clausthal (Germany)
Numerous energy conversion processes and safety monitoring
approaches require operation temperatures up to 1000 °C. In order
to control such high-temperature processes miniaturized sensor andactuator systems are increasingly demanded.
The research is focused on miniaturized active structures for operation
temperatures between 500 and 1000 °C. Crystals like langasite(La3Ga5SiO14) [1,2] exhibit piezoelectrically excited bulk acoustic
waves up to at least 1000 °C. Consequently, resonant sensors basedon those materials enable new sensing approaches. Thereby, resonant
high-temperature microbalances are of particular interest. They correlatevery small mass changes during film deposition onto resonators or gas
composition-dependent stoichiometry changes of thin films alreadydeposited onto the resonators with the resonance frequency shift of suchdevices.
In this work the high-temperature properties, the operation limits andthe measurement principles of langasite resonators are reviewed.
Membranes and cantilevers are prepared and characterized with respect
to their electrical (impedance, resonance frequency,..) and mechanical(displacement, ..) properties.
The stability of small langasite structures is confirmed up to 1350 °C.
Further, biconvex membranes could be operated in the fundamental andovertone resonance modes up to 700 °C. The fundamental modes of 16
MHz resonators show quality factors of 500 at 700 °C. The mechanicaldisplacement and the electrical response of vibrating membranes andcantilevers is characterized simultaneously and found to be consistent.
Consequently, those active structures are suited to be applied at hightemperatures as sensor platform.
Finally, application examples demonstrate the capabilities of hightemperature stable piezoelectric resonators. The simultaneous
determination of mechanical and electrical properties of thin sensor
films by resonant sensors enables, for example, the detection of CO inhydrogen-containing atmospheres at 600 °C.
1H. Fritze, High-temperature bulk acoustic wave sensors, Meas. Sci.
Technol. 22 (2011) 12002 (28pp).
2H. Fritze, High-temperature piezoelectric crystals and devices, J.
Electroceramics 26 (2011) 122-161.

8725-18, Session 4

III-N nanostructures for optical gas detection
and pH sensing in liquids (Invited Paper)
Sumit Paul, EADS Deutschland GmbH (Germany); Konrad Maier,
EADS Innovation Works (Germany); Aparna Das, Commissariat
à l’Énergie Atomique (France); Florian Furtmayer, Justus-LiebigUniv. Giessen (Germany); Andreas Helwig, EADS DeutschlandGmbH (Germany); Jörg Teubert, Justus-Liebig-Univ. Giessen(Germany); Eva Monroy, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique(France); Gerhard Müller, EADS Deutschland GmbH (Germany);
Martin H. Eickhoff, Justus-Liebig-Univ. Giessen (Germany)Group III-nitride (III-N) nanostructures as e.g. quantum dots (QD) andnanowires (NW), were grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam
epitaxy on low-resistivity n-type Si (111) and on optically transparent
sapphire substrates. The low dimensional structures exhibit a strong
photoluminescence (PL) which persists up to temperatures of 150°C andabove. When QD samples are in contact with an electrolyte solution,
the PL intensity shows a highly sensitive response to changes in thepH-value. The pH response of the QD transducers can be analyzed in an
all-optical sensor system with a reduced number of electric contacts at

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V
the place of detection.

focus on remarkable advances in scanned probe-based approaches
such as dip-pen nanolithography (DPN) and its recent analogs, whichhave greatly enhanced the patterning resolution, speed and versatility ofnanostructures spanning soft, hard and hybrid multifunctional materials.
The various fundamental interactions between tip-substrate, mediated bydiverse “inks” and the environment as well as practical considerations inextending probe-based nanopatterning approaches to diverse materials
systems will be elaborated with examples from molecular, biomolecularand physical nanostructures. Advanced scanning probe, in-situ and exsitu electron, ion and photon microscopy, spectroscopy and synchrotron
x-ray scattering approaches are being employed to fathom the mostintricate details of the “internal” structure of nanopatterns, coupledwith innovative tools to validate their functional identity and localized
properties.

Considering III-N nanowires with a large surface to volume ratio these
opto-chemical transducers are also ideal for the detection of various
gases. Depending on the specific application the NWs can be trimmed
to detect the desired gas species. With a thin Pt coating, the PL intensity
is dependent on the concentration of hydrogen or hydrocarbons in thesurrounding atmosphere. Contrary to commercially available hydrogensensors e.g. Pd or Pt gated transistors or catalytically activatedmetal-oxide-silicon-carbide FETs our all-optical sensor system allows
detection of ppm concentrations of H2 at low operating temperatures(30°C-120°C). Without deposition of a catalytic metal layer the NWs are
sensitive to oxidizing gases in low concentrations (few ppb) at room
temperature. The opto-chemical transducer sensing principle is best
suited for harsh environment and safety-critical applications where areliable media separation between the medium to be sensed and thesensor’s electrical circuitry is required.

It will be argued that despite impressive progress in probe-based
nanopatterning approaches, there are considerable opportunities toextend and refine the probe-based techniques.

8725-19, Session 48725-21, Session 5

Metal oxide nanowire gas sensors for indoor
and outdoor environmental monitoring (Invited
Paper)

Dip-pen nanolithography on inorganicand biological surfaces: challenges andopportunities (Invited Paper)

Anton Köck, Elise Brunet, Thomas Maier, Giorgio C. Mutinati,
Stephan Steinhauer, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH(Austria); Franz Schrank, Jochen Kraft, Jordi Teva, Joerg Siegert,
austriamicrosystems AG (Austria)

Albena Ivanisevic, North Carolina State Univ. (United States)
Scanning probe based lithography has been widely used to explore
and manipulate micro- and nanoscale surfaces. Many efforts have been
directed towards engineering microfabricated devices that can function
as ink cartridges and well systems. We present a simple modification
scheme that allows one to place ink-reservoirs on cantilevers forchemical patterning by utilizing living spores of Bacillus Subtilis. AFM
tips terminated with spore cells are used to directly pattern onto glassand tissue surfaces. The spore cells act as sponges and eliminate theneed to use macrofabricated ink reservoirs during lithography. By varying
the size of the spore at the end of the cantilever we can increase anddecrease the gap between the spore tips and the surface. Therefore wecan produce controlled, actuated patterning on the tissues without theneed to heat, or apply current to forcibly actuate the tips. This resultsin essentially a low force patterning technique. Further, the tunable
nature of the tips makes this technique applicable to a wide variety ofusers far beyond any other such developed technique. Variations to themicroparticle system, such as progressively smaller spores or particles,
could allow for complex actuation schemes.

Gas sensors are of great importance for various applications ranging
from indoor air quality monitoring and industrial process control tobreath analysis or outdoor environmental monitoring. The employmentof metal oxide nanowires as sensor components is a very powerfulstrategy to improve gas sensor performance. Due to their high surface
to volume ratio they show a strong interaction with the surrounding gas.
With respect to the development of smart gas sensors heterogeneous
integration of nanowires with CMOS devices is a great issue. We reporton the implementation of SnO2, CuO and ZnO nanowires with CMOS
fabricated micro-hotplate chips and demonstrate the extraordinary
sensitivity of nanowire gas sensors, such as CuO-nanowire sensors,which are able to detect a H2S concentration as low as 10 ppb. Problemsof nanowire fabrication, the challenging integration of nanowires withCMOS chips, and reliability issues with respect to device reproducibility
and long-term stability will be discussed.
An important aspect is the fabrication of integrated gas sensor arraysfor multi-parameter gas sensing, which will be discussed in detail.
3D-System-in-Package integration based on Through-Silicon-Via
technology is a very promising approach for nanosensor integration bystacking them on CMOS electronic chips. 3D-integration provides bothvery small form factor as well as very low total power consumption,
which are important issues for the realization of smart sensor systems.
Such sensor systems could be integrated in portable devices, such as
mobile or smart phones for individual environmental monitoring bothindoors as well as outdoors.

8725-22, Session 5

Humidity effects in dip-pen nanolithography:
multiple inks and hollow features (Invited
Paper)
Brandon L. Weeks, Texas Tech Univ. (United States)
Ring shaped features were patterned with mercaptohexadecanoic acid
(MHA) ink by Dip-pen Nanolithography (DPN) These features have ahollow inner core and are different from the filled dots usually obtained
when writing with MHA. A model describing this effect will be presented
along. By relying on the meniscus alone we propose the possibility topattern multiple inks with a single tip soley by changing the humidity.

8725-20, Session 5

Emerging approaches for nanopatterningof soft, hard, and hybrid structures (Keynote
Presentation)
Vinayak P. Dravid, Northwestern Univ. (United States)

8725-23, Session 5

Surface patterned nanoscale architecture offers unprecedented
opportunities for fundamental science as well as engineering
technologies in diverse fields. Surface-patterned nanostructures flirt withthermodynamics of constrained systems on one hand and dynamics ofnanoscale processes on the other.

Nanoelectromechanical systems fabricatedusing tip-based nanofabrication (Invited Paper)
Huan Hu, Parsian K. Mohseni, Xiuling Li, Mark A. Shannon,
William P. King, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates)The presentation will cover emerging nanopatterning, with an emphasis
on multifunctional structures and associated phenomena. It will primarily

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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We present progress on fabricating silicon nanoelectromechanicalsystems (NEMS) using Tip Based Nanofabrication (TBN). A heatedAtomic Force Microscope (AFM) probe deposits dense molten polymer
on substrate to form nanopatterned polymer masks, which aretransferred to silicon by etching processes.
In our first approach, the TBN-created polymer mask is used alongwith an aluminum wet etch and Bosch silicon etch. The polymer nanopatterns are written onto a 25 nm thick aluminum film on a single crystal
silicon substrate. A wet aluminum etch transferred the polymer features
into aluminum feature, which served as mask for subsequent Boschsilicon etching. This approach produced an array of vertical silicon
nanowires with diameter as small as 200 nm and spacing varied from 800
nm to 3 µm. We also show an array of etched fins having width with 200
nm fin length varied from 5µm to 50µm. Various other structures such asrings, curved Fin arrays are also demonstrated.
In our second approach, we use Metal Assisted Chemical Etching(MacEtch) to transfer the polymer nanopatterns into silicon. Thisapproach is capable of producing high aspect ratio silicon nanowires.
Here, we wrote the polymer nanopatterns and transferred thenanopatterns to 35 nm thick gold film. In the next step, we used MacEtch
to etch the silicon region that directly contacts the gold. The approach
could produce an array of vertical silicon nanowires of height 20 µm anddiameter 200 nm, achieving an aspect ratio of 100. The MacEtch process
produced silicon nanostructures with smooth sidewalls.

8725-24, Session 5

Using heatable AFM probes for thenanolithography of graphene, polymers, andnanoparticles (Invited Paper)Paul E. Sheehan, Woo K. Lee, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates); William P. King, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign(United States)
Heatable AFM probes have proven to be a powerful means of shaping
advanced materials on the nanometer scale. We have used these probes
in two ways—as a stylus for directly writing material or as a heater toreact small regions of existing films.
When used for deposition, the heat from the probe regulates the viscosityof an ink coated on its surface, a technique we call thermal Dip Pen
Nanolithography (tDPN). Control over writing is exceptional—deposition
may be turned on or off and the deposition rate easily changed without
breaking surface contact. Moreover, the technique may be performed in
UHV and is compatible with standard CMOS processing. tDPN has beensuccessful at depositing metal, polymers, semiconducting and magnetic
nanoparticles, quantum dots, etc. at speeds up to 200 µm/s. Importantly,
the ability to shear and anneal the deposited material can engender
new properties not present in the bulk such as conduction anisotropy
in conducting polymers or to force alignment of nanoparticles into rows
narrower than 10 nm.
The heatable probes can also focus heat to localize chemical reactions.
Of recent interest has been using this heat to convert chemicallymodified graphenes back to pristine graphene. For example, the heatableprobe can directly write graphene nanoribbons by locally reducing
graphene oxide back to graphene. The reduced GO nanostructures show
an increase in conductivity up to four orders of magnitude as compared
to pristine GO. No sign of tip wear or sample tearing was observed.
Variably conductive nanoribbons with dimensions down to ~12 nm havebeen produced in oxidized graphene films in a single step that is clean,
rapid and reliable. The method is fast, applies both to conducting andinsulating substrates, and is reproducible.

Alberta (Canada)
Metallic nano dots and nanowires can be formed on semiconductor
surfaces using tip-induced effects in a scanning probe microscope. Metal
features form on tip-induced surface defects on semiconductor surface
such as GaAs. The nano-scale features were fabricated by placing adrop of gold chloride solution on the semiconductor surface. The size ofthe nanodots could be controlled under 20 nm. In addition to nanodots,
nanowires with widths around 20 nm could be fabricated using the sameprocess. The AFM and SEM were used to image the nonodots andnanowires. This process can be used for direct fabricating of nanometerfeatures on semiconductor surfaces. The mechanism of lithography andthe limits of this technique will be discussed.

8725-26, Session 6

How adaptive optics may have won the coldwar (Keynote Presentation)
Robert K. Tyson, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte (UnitedStates)
The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, during
the Reagan, Bush, and the Gorbachov leadership era, had many paths
leading to it. One simplified theory is that the Strategic Defense Initiative(“Star Wars”) beginning in 1983 could not be economically matched by
the Soviets and eventually bankrupted them. Prior to the 1983 Reagan
speech, missile defense in general and high-energy laser developmentin particular were being intensely studied. Projecting a multi-kilowatt
high energy laser beam through the Earth’s atmosphere to a target or
relay satellite required the development of adaptive optics. In addition
to x-ray laser weapons development, space-based high energy infraredlasers required technologies for beam control and wavefront correction tocompensate aberrations on multi-megawatt systems. This talk will follow
the timeline of adaptive optics development and show the relationshipbetween the mostly classified research and geopolitical actions that
resulted in a new map of Europe. By extending the timeline from the past
to the future, we can argue that further adaptive optics advances andtheir spinoffs in micro-sensors, high-speed controllers, and micro-mirrors
may help prevent another Cold War.

8725-27, Session 6

The use of MEMs and other micro-technology
devices for adaptive optics (Invited Paper)
Sergio R. Restaino, Christopher C. Wilcox, Jonathan R. Andrews,
Ty Martinez, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Adaptive Optics (AO) is an ensemble of techniques that aims at theremedial of the deleterious effects that the Earth’s turbulent atmosphereinduces on both imagery and signal gathering in real time. It has beenover four decades since the first AO system was developed and tested.
During this time important technological advances have changed
profoundly the way that we think and develop AO systems. The use of
Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) devices and Liquid Crystal
Devices (LCD) has revolutionized these technologies making possible
to go from very expensive, very large and power consuming systems tovery compact and inexpensive systems. These changes have rendered
AO systems useful and applicable in other fields ranging from medical
imaging to industry. In this paper we will review the research efforts at theNaval research Laboratory (NRL) to develop AO systems based on both
MEMs and LCD in order to produce more compact and light weight AO
systems.

8725-25, Session 5

Tip-induced nanolithography on
semiconductors (Invited Paper)
Thomas G. Thundat, Ravi Gaikwad, Stojan Djokic, Univ. of216

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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8725-28, Session 68725-32, Session 7

Adaptive optics for fiber-fed interferometers(Invited Paper)

Nanostructured black silicon forphotovoltaics and photoelectrochemistry(Keynote Presentation)

Michael Hart, Hart Scientific Consulting International L.L.C.
(United States); Thomas E. Stalcup Jr., Olivier Durney, Nicholas
Emerson, Keith B. Powell, Jeffery Hagen, Michael Ward, The
Univ. of Arizona (United States)

Howard M. Branz, Todd G. Deutsch, Hao-Chih Yuan, Jihun Oh,
National Renewable Energy Lab. (United States)
We demonstrate 18.2% nanostructured black silicon photovoltaic (PV)cells by closely controlling the nanostructured surface morphology
and doping density. Our nanostructured black silicon surface provides
excellent anti-reflection without any additional coating layers. To reachthis high efficiency, it was necessary to understand the mechanisms ofrecombination at the nanostructured surface and reduce the amountof Auger and surface recombination. These silicon nanostructures canalso provide good performance as photocathodes for solar hydrogenproduction because of their excellent anti-reflection (AR) properties andhigh surface area.

Optical interferometry has for a century now been a cost-effective means
to extend the resolving power of astronomical instruments. Although
the original stellar interferometer of Michelson was smaller than today’s
largest single-aperture telescopes, the same motivation has led to theconstruction of newer facilities with baselines of hundreds of meters. The
approach typically has been to employ a number of separate collecting
telescopes of modest aperture, a meter or less, with beams brought
through vacuum pipes to a central combiner where the interference
occurs. By making the telescopes movable, an image may beconstructed whose fidelity is limited only by the time available to collectdata at distinct baselines.

Novel processing schemes enable us to control both surface and emitter
Auger recombination mechanisms in the nanostructures. The structures
are fabricated by simple metal-assisted etching techniques, and consistsof vertically aligned nanopores of random depths of more than 300
nm, and can have feature sizes smaller than about 50 nm. The etchingprovides a density-graded layer that reduces the reflection of silicon in air
to below 4% across the usable solar spectrum with <1.2 µm.

Concurrently with the new long-baseline interferometers, adaptive
optics (AO) has been developed as a highly successful technology for
improving the resolving power of large telescopes. In recent work, wehave begun to develop a new generation of AO systems to allow the twotechnologies to be mated. In this concept, the interferometer’s vacuum
lines are replaced with optical fibers to reduce cost and allow greater
flexibility in the choice of baselines. The role of AO, included on each of
the interferometer’s collecting telescopes, is not to enhance resolution
per se, but rather to concentrate the light on the fiber inputs to achieve
the greatest optical throughput. We describe the design of the AO
systems under development, how their requirements differ from thoseof a traditional AO system, and how the addition of AO enables further
enhancements to the design and performance of optical interferometers.

Because reflection is reduced without the need for an insulating AR
coating, our use of 1-D nanostructured surfaces in photocathodes forwater splitting provides approximately 20 % increase in the rate ofsolar hydrogen production compared to planar Si. The nanostructured
photocathodes also facilitate H2 bubble evolution and reduces theoverpotential required for the water-splitting half-reaction by increasing
the surface density of reaction sites.

High-actuator-count MEMS deformablemirrors (Invited Paper)

All work was performed under DOE Contract No. DE-AC36-08-GO28308.
The PEC H2 work was supported by the SISGR program of the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Divisionof Chemical Sciences, Biosciences, and Geosciences. The photovoltaic
work was entirely supported by the U.S. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy, mainly through an American Recovery andReinvestment Act (ARRA) grant.

Michael A. Helmbrecht, Min He, Carl J. Kempf, Iris AO, Inc.
(United States)

8725-33, Session 78725-30, Session 6

Adaptive optics technology has enabled dramatic improvement
in imaging performance for fields spanning astronomy, defense,
microscopy, and retinal imaging. A critical component within theadaptive optics systems is the deformable mirror (DM) that applies the
optical-path length corrections that compensate aberrated wavefronts.
Iris AO has been actively developing microelectromechanical systems(MEMS) based DMs. The use of MEMS technology has both increased
mirror performance and has reduced costs nearly tenfold compared to
traditional piezoelectric DM technologies developed primarily for DoD
applications. The segmented architecture enables high-stroke (5 or 8 µm)
and high spatial frequency corrections in a compact form factor (1000actuators / cm^2) that is suitable for clinical and industrial applications.
Recent development into scaling and dielectric coatings to increase
laser-power handling make the DM suitable for defense applications as
well.

Semiconductor nanorods in energy devices(Invited Paper)Paul D. Dapkus, Ting-Wei Yeh, Yen-Ting Lin, Chun-Yung Chi,
Maoqing Yao, Chongwu Zhao, The Univ. of Southern California(United States)
Semiconducting nanorods offer potentially revolutionary advancementsin the cost and performance of light emitting diodes for solid state
lighting and photovoltaic energy converters. GaN based LEDs are usuallyfabricated on expensive substrates and suffer from a high density of
threading dislocations. In addition, the high current performance of thedevices is degraded by efficiency decreases (efficiency droop) that seemto be inherent to current designs. GaN nanorods have been grown thatare free of dislocations and serve as templates for the growth of InGaN
active emitting regions on nonpolar facets of the nanostructures that may
eliminate the causes of the high current efficiency droop. Dense arraysof dislocation free nanorods with InGaN quantum well active regions andLEDs made from them will be described.

This paper introduces the Iris AO segmented MEMS DM technology
to the DS&S community. It provides an overview of the fabrication
process as well as a detailed description of the DM operation. The paper
demonstrates correction capabilities of 111 and 489 actuator DMs anddescribes recent efforts into scaling to 1000-actuator class DMs. Finally,
the paper presents laser testing results of dielectric coated DMs anddescribes the development path for MEMS DMs capable of handling 2
kW/cm^2 of average laser power.

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High efficiency multijunction solar cells are among the most promising
structures to increase the efficiency of solar cells to 50%. Achieving cellswith efficiencies that high is impeded by the lack of appropriate sets oflattice matched materials to create multicomponent current matchedmonolithic structures. Nanorods of semiconductors to form the cellcomponents of such structures are promising because the dislocations
that typically form in lattice matched epitaxy can be avoided with thenanorod geometry to yield low defect-free, lattice mismatched structures.
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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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As an example, dense, uniform arrays of GaAs nanorods on Si have beendeveloped that promise to enable a new paradigm for the generation ofefficient solar cells. We will describe the properties of these materials anddiscuss our progress towards realizing efficient solar cells.

Emerging nanomaterials for photovoltaic
energy harvesting (Invited Paper)
Silvija Gradecak, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)8725-34, Session 7

Towards low-cost high-efficiency GaAs
photovoltaics and photoelectrodes grown via
vapor transport from a solid source (Invited
Paper)
Shannon W. Boettcher, Andrew Ritenour, Univ. of Oregon (UnitedStates); Jason Boucher, Univ. of Oregon (United States)
GaAs is an attractive material for high-efficiency photovoltaics and watersplitting photoelectrodes, but its widespread implementation is limited
in part by the high cost of metal-organic chemical vapor deposition,
which employs toxic and pyrophoric gas-phase precursors. We report
the study of GaAs grown by close-space vapor transport (CSVT), whichuses solid GaAs as a source and water vapor as a transport agent as analternative, and possibly low-cost, technique for depositing GaAs films.
The photovoltaic properties of films grown under a variety of conditions
are evaluated using a non-aqueous photoelectrochemical test cell andcorrelated with the film structure and impurity content.

8725-35, Session 7

Direct-bandgap nanopillar photovoltaics
based on patterned catalyst-free epitaxy(Invited Paper)
Giacomo Mariani, Diana L. Huffaker, Univ. of California, Los
Angeles (United States)
In this work, we present nanostructured core-shell solar cells based on
patterned GaAs nanopillars (NPs) grown by MOCVD[1]. The patterns arelithographically defined and center-to-center pitch, hole size and tiling
pattern can be precisely determined a-priori at nanometer resolution. The
inherently catalyst-free approach eliminates any metal (i.e.) diffusion into
the NPs that could reduce the carrier lifetime.
In the first part, hybrid core-shell solar cells comprised of n-doped
GaAs NP cores and PEDOT conducting shells will be presented[2].
PEDOT is electrodeposited to ensure high controllability at low costand high optical absorption coefficient whereas the semiconducting
nanostructures are responsible for high mobility required in carrier
extraction. The properties of the polymer are tuned in-situ byincorporating different anionic dopants in the backbone, allowing for the
lowering of the HOMO level (|DE| ~ 0.28 eV) that leads to an increased
open-circuit voltage (Voc) and short-circuit current density (Jsc). A
systematic tuning of the device properties results in a JSC of 13.6 mA/cm^2, VOC of 0.63 V, peak external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 58.5 %,leading to a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 4.11 %.
In the second part, high-bandgap in-situ passivation[3] is applied to coremultishell GaAs NP photovoltaics. Optoelectronic modeling correlated toexperimental results highlights Voc values yet partly affected by residual
surface states after epitaxial passivation. Optically, dome-shaped ITO top
electrode functions as a 2-D periodic array of subwavelength lenses that
focus the local density of optical states within the NP region. Figures ofmerit such as rectification ratios in the order of >105, ideality factors of n
~ 1.86 and dark currents of ~ 48 nA at -1 V are indicative of high-quality
p-i-n junctions. Under AM 1.5G conditions, VOC of 0.57 V, JSC of 18.9
mA/cm^2, fill factors of 69 % are measured, leading to PCE of 7.43 %.
The data is presented in a comparative fashion with respect to state-ofthe-art literature in the field.

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8725-36, Session 7

Despite the fact that solar radiation accounts for most of the available
renewable energy, only a small portion of it is currently being harnessed,
mostly due to the production and installation costs of commercial
photovoltaic (PV) devices. Emerging PV devices based on solutionprocessable conjugated polymers offer opportunities for the productionof low-cost solar cells. To obtain high efficiencies of exciton dissociationand high photocurrent, it is desirable to have an interpenetrating networkof electron-donor and electron-acceptor components within the device,referred to as a bulk heterojunction (BHJ). However, current limitationsof the all-organic PV devices are inefficient hopping charge transport
through the discontinuous percolation pathways in the BHJ films, andtherefore modest power conversion efficiencies or non-competitive costin the case of devices based on C60 derivatives.
We have developed a new type of nanowire-based solar cells that are
based on organic/inorganic hybrid device structures and demonstrated
two distinct hybrid BHJ architectures with enhanced power conversion
efficiencies. The first device structure was composed of GaAs nanowires
blended with a conjugated polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) to
form a uniform film consisting of dispersed nanowires in a polymer
matrix. We observed that above a certain nanowire loading threshold, thenanowires facilitate P3HT molecular ordering, which leads to improved
charge transport and yields devices with >2.3% power conversion
efficiency. In the second device structure, CdS quantum dots werebound onto crystalline P3HT nanowires through solvent-assisted graftingand ligand exchange, leading to controlled organic-inorganic phaseseparation and an improved maximum power conversion efficiency of
4.1%.
In both cases, our results clearly demonstrate some of the benefits oforganic-inorganic BHJ devices, mostly through enhanced absorption andimproved carrier transport in the active region of the device. We havealso identified several critical parameters to further boost the device
efficiency and enable scalable, cost-efficient production, and these will
be discussed.

8725-38, Session 8

Microscale technologies for imaging
endogenous gene expression in individual
cells within 3D tissues (Invited Paper)
Nitin Nitin, Univ. of California, Davis (United States)
Imaging gene expression in individual living cells within an intact tissue
has significant potential to improve clinical detection and prognosis
of diseases and to advance our fundamental understanding of celland tissue physiology in a 3-d environment. For example, in situ gene
imaging in cells of 3-d tissues can allow the scientists to probe how
cells seeded in tissue engineering scaffolds react to biophysical forces
and chemical cues in real time, and to understand the heterogeneity insolid tumors to find possible cures. Although significant development
has been made in the design of imaging probes that can detect gene
expression in 2-d culture models, there is lack of translation of thesepromising technologies to image gene expression in intact tissues. The
key scientific challenges that limit this translation are: (i) lack of effective
intra-tissue and intra-cellular delivery methods that can allow the probes
to easily access cells in the tissue, and (ii) limited specificity of molecularsensing probes. To address these challenges we have developed
a unique combination of microscale and imaging technologies that
integrates the unique benefits of 1) microneedle technology to achieve
minimally invasive intra-tissue delivery of oligonucleotide probes; 2)
biochemical approaches to enhance intra-cellular cytoplasmic delivery ofoligonucleotide probes; and 3) RNA-hybridization activated fluorescenceresonance energy transfer (FRET) probes to improve specificity and

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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8725-43, Session 9

sensitivity of RNA detection in tissues. The results of this study will
demonstrate efficient delivery of nucleic acid probes and sensitivity ofimaging RNA in individual cells within a tissue.

Radiation effects in solar cells (Invited Paper)
Mitsuru Imaizumi, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Japan);Takeshi Ohshima, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute(Japan)8725-40, Session 8

NIBIB activities in the areas of sensing,molecular sensing, mobile health andsystems (Keynote Presentation)

Radiation effects in solar cells are described. Degradation behaviorof space solar cells, such as silicon solar cells and InGaP/GaAs/Ge
triple-junction solar cells, due to high-energy electrons and protons areelaborated in the presentation. Space solar cell design technology is also
explained. In addition, technologies for practical application of solar cells
in space including methodology for radiation protection and degradation
prediction are interpreted. Furthermore, recent development status ofstate-of-the-art space solar cells is introduced.

William Heetderks, National Institutes of Health (United States)
The National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB)
mission is improve human health by leading the development andaccelerating the application of biomedical technologies. The Instituteis committed to integrating the engineering and physical sciences withthe life sciences to advance basic research and health care. Health care
globally is poised to undergo major changes in the near future. This isbeing driven by multiple causes including a major shift in disease burden
from acute diseases to chronic disease conditions, an aging population,a shift in the provider population toward less highly trained personnel
especially in rapidly developing countries, and a significant expansion in
the role of technology ranging from advanced medical decision support
to mobile health and new diagnostic and delivery technologies.

8725-44, Session 9

Radiation tolerance of silicon and diamonddetectors exposed to MeV ion beams:
characterization using IBIC technique (Invited
Paper)

Advanced sensing and mobile health will only be effective when they
are integrated into a complete care delivery system that is capable ofproviding best available information about decisions that are made in an
exceptionally complex medical decision space. This increasingly requiresthat the physical and life scientists work together to answer questions
that exist at the convergence of the more traditional disciplines.

Milko Jaksic, Natko Skukan, Veljko Grilj, Rugjer Boskovic
Institute (Croatia); Tomihiro Kamiya, Wataru Kada, Japan Atomic
Energy Agency (Japan); Michal Pomorski, CEA-Ctr. de Saclay(France)
Ion beam of the MeV energy range focused in the nuclear microprobe
facility has been used to induce localized regions (50 x 50 µm2) withelevated defect concentrations in silicon and diamond detectors.
Another microbeam technique - IBIC (ion beam induced charge), that
employs single ions as a probe for the measurement of charge transport
properties, was used to compare effects that different irradiation
conditions (ion species, ion energy, fluence and rate) have on bothmaterials. Additional information could be also acquired with the time
resolved IBIC including the temperature dependent measurements.
Results of comparison show that, for the exposure by MeV energy ions,silicon is more radiation tolerant than diamond. Although somehow
controversial, this finding is not in conflict with approved superior
hardness of diamond irradiated by GeV energy particles, where heavier
nuclear reaction fragments for silicon are those responsible for its faster
degradation. However, the high defect concentration and thus small
drift lengths of charge carriers, does not exclude possibility of creating
diamond detector with collection distance of only few micrometers,
making them very resistant to excessive radiation by heavy ions in the
MeV energy range. One such example that will be presented here is amembrane diamond detector that acts both as a trigger and as a vacuum
window for single heavy ion irradiation in air.

NIBIB supports a variety of sensor technologies that have potential foradvancing health care. We will review some of these and also consider
how such technologies might become integrated into a 21st century
system of health care delivery. In particular we will consider some ofthe performance characteristics that will be needed if diagnostic andtherapeutic systems are required to provide optimal care outside thetraditional setting with less highly trained providers.

8725-41, Session 9

Present status and prospects of R&D ofradiation-resistant semiconductor devices at
JAEA (Keynote Presentation)
Hisayoshi Itoh, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (Japan)
Research and development of radiation resistant semiconductor
devices have been performed at Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)
for their application to electronic system used in harsh environments
like space, accelerator and nuclear facilities. Such radiation resistantdevices are also indispensable for robots and other remote-controlled
equipment necessary for inspection of internal reactor pressure
vessel as well as removal of fuel debris at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear
Power Plants, which were severely damaged owing to the earthquake
and following tsunami disaster on March 11, 2011. In this R&D, we
are focusing on wide band-gap semiconductor silicon carbide (SiC)
because of its high temperature stability, excellent electrical properties
and high radiation tolerance. So far, we have fabricated SiC-basedtransistors and examined their radiation degradation by using Co-60
gamma-rays. As a result, no significant degradation was observed for
SiC-based transistors by gamma-ray irradiation at doses up to 1MGy
whereas Si-based transistors were drastically damaged at 10kGy,
indicating excellent radiation hardness of SiC devices. On the basis of
the results, further investigations of radiation resistant devices used forthe decommissioning of the damaged nuclear power plants are now inprogress. Details of our R&D results and outline of future plans will bepresented.

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8725-45, Session 9

Radiation-tolerant microprocessors inJapanese scientific space vehicles: how to
maximize the benefits of commercial SOI
technologies (Invited Paper)
Daisuke Kobayashi, Hirose Kazuyuki, Hirobumi Saito, Institute ofSpace and Astronautical Science (Japan) and Japan Aerospace
Exploration Agency (Japan)
Semiconductor devices are inherently susceptible to high-energy
particles such as cosmic rays; they create noise charge in materials,
causing static parameter shifts and transient malfunctions or soft errors incircuits. Coping with these radiation problems has been the major hurdle
in device development for applications in harsh radiation environments
such as space and nuclear power plants–and now is also for ground·

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V
based systems: Today’s consumer products that include microprocessors
and power transistors suffer from natural terrestrial neutrons. To clear
this hurdle textbooks often suggest use of the silicon-on-insulator (SOI)
structure—but its drawbacks are seldom spoken. Careful optimization ofdevice and circuit structures is necessary for maximizing the merits of the
SOI use, as demonstrated in this communication.
Our optimization, which includes RC filters in SRAM cells, relies on acomprehensive study on static and dynamic responses of SOI devices
to high-energetic particle bombardments. Highlighted is characterizationof sub-nanosecond transient noise pulses due to single particle strikes,
also known as single-event transients. Describing exactly what they
are is the key to assure circuit reliability. Full waveforms of the pulses
are experimentally revealed, also explained with curves estimated fromsingle transistor responses. The revealed temporal-width evolution of thepulses conforms to a developed analytical model, a logarithmic functionof a parameter of the radiation particle. Our expertise results in a design
platform for space-use digital chips. Through this platform, low-powersystem-on-chips that include a 32-bit RISC-based microprocessor aredeveloped; the SOI chips will be launched in the next Japanese scientificsatellites.

8725-46, Session 9

Results of the CEASE instrument onboard
TacSat-4 with associated solar cell
experiment damage calculations (Invited
Paper)
Scott R. Messenger, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Chadwick D. Lindstrom, William Johnston, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Stu Huston, Atmospheric and Environmental
Research, Inc. (United States); Phillip P. Jenkins, Jeffrey H.
Warner, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Proton fluxes ten times higher than mission baseline are reported by
the CEASE instrument onboard TacSat-4 since launch in September
2011. The NRL SCREAM code is used to compare proton displacement
damage effects on solar cells from both modeled and on-orbit
measurements from the CEASE experiment. The extreme radiation
effects on the solar cell experiments are found to be well correlated with
CEASE on-orbit data using SCREAM. These results have prompted a
new paradigm on solar cell shielding in space where thinner coverglass
designs can be used in spacecraft power systems without enhanced
power loss due to radiation.

illustrated for two significant devices: a complex processor, the PowerPC 7448 executing a program issued from a real space application and acryptoprocessor application implemented in an SRAM-based FPGA. Thisapplication was accepted to be embedded in the payload of a scientificsatellite of NASA . Predicted error-rates will be confronted to the ones
obtained from accelerated ground-tests performed with the cyclotron
Cyclone cyclotron of HIF (Heavy Ion Facility) of Louvain-la-Neuve(Belgium).

8725-48, Session 9

Ion beam-induced charge analysis ofradiation damage in semiconductors (Invited
Paper)
Ettore Vittone, Univ. degli Studi di Torino (Italy)
The ion beam induced charge (IBIC) technique is a well-establishedanalytical technique, which uses focused ion beams raster scanning
the surface of a semiconductor device to evaluate its electronictransport properties. The physical observable is the charge induced ata sensing electrode by the movement of the free carriers generated byionization, which is simultaneously acquired with the position of the ion
beam, allowing the realization of micrometer resolution maps of chargecollection efficiency (CCE) and, hence, allowing recombination sites, drift
or diffusion lengths to be imaged.
IBIC can be considered also a valuable technique to study thedegradation of CCE induced by radiation damage. It offers the advantage
of providing wide range of damage levels induced by ions with different
masses and energies in different regions of the same sample, and ofusing the same ions to monitor the CCE degradation as well as otherion probes to analyze the damage effects on the performances ofsemiconductor devices.
In this talk, an overview of the current research of IBIC analysis on the
CCE degradation in semiconductor devices is presented. Particularemphasis will be given on an experimental protocol based on IBIC [1],which exploits the features of the IBIC technique to study the effectsof radiation damage in different semiconductors. Moreover, this talkproposes an interpretative model of the IBIC experiment, which includes
the displacement damage dose approach as a special case, andprovides a general method to evaluate the effective radiation hardness ofa material.
[1] Z. Pastuovic et al., “Probability of divacancy trap production in silicon
diodes exposed to focused ion beam irradiation”, Applied Physics Letters
98, 092101 (2011)8725-47, Session 98725-49, Session 10

Error-rate prediction for programmablecircuits: methodology, tools and studied
cases (Invited Paper)

Reduction and identification for hybrid
dynamical models of terrestrial locomotion(Invited Paper)

Raoul Velazco, TIMA Lab. (France)

Sam Burden, S. Shankar Sastry, Univ. of California, Berkeley(United States)

As present applications require more and more data processing
power, this entails the use of complex advanced integrated circuits,
such as processors and FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Arrays). The
complexity of those devices makes difficult to achieve the evaluationof the sensitivity to errors provoked by radiation. Among these errors,
SEU (Single Event Upsets) which result in the change of memory cell’scontent can have a large scope of consequences in the operation of theimplemented application. Most of digital system architectures include
processors (or processors implemented by means of FPGAs). In thiswork is described a methodology allowing to predict SEU error-rates forsuch complex devices. The approach is based in combining static-crosssections issued from radiation ground-testing with results obtained from
hardware/software fault injection experiments, performed off-beam.
The goal of this strategy is to obtain accurate results about different
applications’ error rates, without using particle accelerator facilities, thus
significantly reducing the cost of the sensitivity evaluation. This will be
220

The study of terrestrial locomotion has compelling applications ranging
from design of legged robots to development of novel prosthetic devices
and rehabilitation programs. From a first-principles perspective, thedynamics of legged locomotion seem overwhelmingly complex as
nonlinear rigid body dynamics couple to a granular media substrate
through viscoelastic kinematic chains called limbs. However, there is asurfeit of empirical data demonstrating that animals use a small fractionof their available degrees-of-freedom during locomotion on regularterrain, suggesting that a reduced-order model can accurately describe
the dynamical variation observed during steady-state locomotion.
Exploiting this emergent phenomena has the potential to dramaticallysimplify design and control of legged robots. Operationalizing thisapproach requires analytical techniques to extract a reduced-ordermodel from a morphologically accurate description of the locomotor,

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V

8725-52, Session 10

and compatible computational algorithms that fit the resulting model
to empirical data collected from the physical system. Since models ofterrestrial locomotion are invariably non-smooth and typically nonlinear
due to intermittent contact of the limbs with the substrate, these tools
must be developed for nonlinear hybrid dynamical systems. We present
an analytical technique for model reduction applicable to hybrid modelsof terrestrial locomotion and an associated scalable computational
technique for parameter identification based on nonlinear programming.
The tools are applied to a family of models for micro-scale robots withmultiple legs.

Robust multi-robot mapping and exploration(Invited Paper)
Henrik I. Christensen, John G. Rogers III, Carlos P. Nieto, Georgia
Institute of Technology (United States)
The ability to deploy multiple mobile platforms for exploration andmapping of an environment before humans enter is essential to a numberof scenarios both within the military and as part of rescue missions. A
number of solutions have been presented in the past, but few of them
have scaled to a large (N>>1) number of platforms, and robustness
is typically a major challenge. To address these challenges we havedesigned a new strategy to multi-robot mapping and exploration. The
approach utilizes a graphical model for representation of space covered
and features detected. The graphical model allow easy integration of
a diverse set of features. The diverse set of features are needed toachieve robustness in the presence of uncertain environment. Further
the identification of unexplored space is easy to organize. Using
evolving frontiers areas that have not been explored can be assigned tomembers of the year through an auction. A system has been designed,
implemented and evaluated for exploration of buildings, urban settings,
and major facilities. In this presentation we will present the overall
framework for multi-robot mapping and exploration. We will discuss
how robustness can be achieved. In addition we will present results ofreal-world evaluation with teams involving up to 10 robots. Finally we will
present some of the open challenges for design of future systems.

8725-50, Session 10

Flight of the fruit fly (Invited Paper)
Itai Cohen, Cornell Univ. (United States)
There comes a time in each of our lives where we grab a thick section of
the morning paper, roll it up and set off to do battle with one of nature’s
most accomplished aviators - the fly. If however, instead of swatting
we could magnify our view and experience the world in slow motion wewould be privy to a world-class ballet full of graceful figure-eight wingstrokes, effortless pirouettes, and astonishing acrobatics. After watchingsuch a magnificent display, who among us could destroy this virtuoso?
How do flies produce acrobatic maneuvers with such precision? Whatcontrol mechanisms do they need to maneuver? More abstractly, what
problem are they solving as they fly? Despite pioneering studies offlight control in tethered insects, robotic wing experiments, and fluid
dynamics simulations that have revealed basic mechanisms for unsteadyforce generation during steady flight, the answers to these questions
remain elusive. In this talk I will discuss our strategy for investigatingthese unanswered questions. I will begin by describing our automatedapparatus for recording the free flight of fruit flies and a new techniquecalled Hull Reconstruction Motion Tracking (HRMT) for backing out thewing and body kinematics. I will then show that these techniques canbe used to reveal the underlying mechanisms for flight maneuvers, wing
actuation, and flight stability. Finally, I will comment on the implications ofthese discoveries for investigations aimed at elucidating the evolution offlight.

8725-53, Session 10

Bio-inspired multi-mode optic flow sensors
for micro air vehicles (Invited Paper)
Seokjun Park, Jaehyuk Choi, Jihyun Cho, Euisik Yoon, Univ. of
Michigan (United States)
Monitoring wide-field surrounding information plays a key role in avision-based autonomous navigation system for micro-air-vehicle(MAV) applications. Our image-cube (iCube) module, which consists ofmultiple sensors that are facing different angles in 3-D space, can beapplicable to the wide-field of view optic flows estimation (µ-Compoundeyes) and to attitude control (µ-Ocelli) in the MAST platforms. In thispaper we report an analog/digital (A/D) mixed-mode optic-flow sensor,
which generates both optic flows and normal images in different modesfor µ-Compound eyes and µ-Ocelli applications. The sensor employs
a time-stamp based optic flow algorithm which is modified from theconventional EMD algorithm to give an optimum partitioning of hardware
blocks in analog and digital domains as well as adequate allocation of
pixel-level, column-parallel, and chip-level processing. Temporal filtering,which may require huge hardware resources if implemented in digitaldomain, is remained in a pixel-level analog processing unit. The restof the blocks, including feature detection and time-stamp latching, areimplemented using digital circuits in column parallel. Finally, time-stamp
information is decoded into velocity from look-up tables, multiplications,and simple subtraction circuits, thus significantly reducing core digitalprocessing power consumption. In the normal image mode, the sensor
generates 8-b digital images using integrated single slope ADCs. In
the optic flow mode, the sensor estimates 8-b 1-D optic flow fromthe integrated mixed-mode algorithm core and 2-D optic flow with an
external time-stamp processing.

8725-51, Session 10

Stochastic receding horizon control:
application to an octopedal robot (Invited
Paper)
Shridhar K. Shah, Herbert G. Tanner, Univ. of Delaware (UnitedStates)This paper deals with the application of a stochastic receding horizon
control framework for navigation of an eight-legged miniature robot in aconstrained environment. The objective is to show real-time applicationof a stochastic predictive control framework on miniature robots thatare perturbed by stochastic noise and can carry processors at the lower
end of the frequency scale. The kinematics of the eight-legged robot isabstracted as kinematics of a Dubin’s car, while various effects due toun-modeled dynamics are abstracted using an additive stochastic noise,yielding a model description in the form of a continuous time stochastic
differential equation (SDE). The control is achieved by a two-stage
approach, where a path is planned using existing deterministic methods
and local stochastic optimal controllers are used to navigate this pathin a stochastic hybrid control framework. The framework provides
probabilistic guarantees of convergence and obstacle avoidance. Our
approach exploits developments in path planning methods to compute
motion plans with lower computational burden while local stochastic
controllers are pre-computed in an off-line manner through solution of the
Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) partial differential equation (PDE) arisingthrough the local stochastic optimal control problem. The algorithm isimplemented on a 5.5 g, 720 MHz processor and experimental results
are presented that show the effectiveness of our control framework forminiature autonomous systems perturbed by stochastic noise.

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8725-54, Session 10

Structure from motion in computationallyconstrained systems (Invited Paper)
Joseph Conroy, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); JamesS. Humbert, Univ. of Maryland (United States)·

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221Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V
Micro-autonomous, robotic systems must be capable of navigating
through complex environments without the aid of human guidance toaccomplish the missions envisioned for them. This level of autonomy
requires that the vehicle is able to perceive the immediate surroundings
to obtain navigation landmarks and avoid obstacles. Vision is a promisingsensing modality as it is utilized so effectively in biological systems
and permits a large area of the environment to be perceived at once.
The three dimensional structure of the environment can be extracted
from sequences of monocular images and known motion using widely
known structure from motion techniques. These techniques are typically
performed using the power of a desktop PC and typically do not exceed
a real-time update rate of 30 frames/s (fps). For our micro-autonomous
applications, processing is extremely limited, suggesting the traditional
techniques are not sufficient.
This research pursues an approach to estimating structure from motionthat utilizes both visual perception hardware and processing algorithms
specifically designed for micro-autonomous applications. The hardware
setup is designed to provide high frame rates, nearly omni-directional
vision, and parallel computing while using light-weight inexpensive
sensing and processing.
Our approach to the estimation of structure from motion takes cues from
insect neurophysiology to leverage the unique properties of high-frame
rate, omni-directional vision. We compute optical flow, the apparent
motion of the visual field, to provide input to an iterative, filter-based
approach to update a continuously refining estimate of the surrounding
structure.

8725-55, Session 10

Low power analog odometry circuit forminiature robotics (Invited Paper)
Pamela A. Abshire, Michael J. Kuhlman, Tsung Hsueh Lee, Univ.
of Maryland, College Park (United States)
Miniature robots present a number of challenging problems in controls,
as they often exhibit nonlinear dynamics and have strict power andsize constraints. These constraints limit the sensing and processing
capabilities drastically. Autonomous operation generally requires local
modeling of system dynamics, since many control strategies require
knowledge of the system state and direct realtime sensing of position
is not always possible due to size and power constraints. On-board
computation for small platforms is limited by available microcontrollers,
which are relatively large, power-hungry, and slow. To alleviate thischallenge we describe a mixed-signal circuit implementing an odometryfunction that maps motor commands to position using a kinematic
model. The architecture is designed to support control of a differentialdrive miniature robot.
The inputs to the kinematic model are assumed to be the left and rightmotor commands or the linear and angular wheel velocities. The outputsof the kinematic model are the coordinates from the nonlinear differential
equations of motion. This approach requires 4 signal scaling elements,
two summing nodes, three integrators, two trigonometric function blocks
and two signal multipliers to model the nonlinear system dynamics.
The circuit consumes 80 pJ per odometry computation, in comparison
with approximately 35 nJ for an implementation on a low power
microcontroller.

8725-58, Session 11

Bio-integrated electronics and sensor
systems (Invited Paper)John A. Rogers, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates)Advances in materials, mechanics and manufacturing now allow
construction of high quality electronics and optoelectronics in forms thatcan readily integrate with the soft, curvilinear and time-dynamic surfacesof the human body. The resulting capabilities create new opportunities
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for studying disease states, improving surgical procedures, monitoring
health/wellness, establishing human-machine interfaces and manyothers. This talk summarizes these technologies, and illustrates their use
in forms integrated with the brain, the heart and the skin.

8725-59, Session 11

Carbon nanotube macroelectronics: toward
system-on-plastic (Invited Paper)
Chuan Wang, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States);
Kuniharu Takei, Toshitake Takahashi, Univ. of California, Berkeley(United States); Ali Javey, Univ. of California, Berkeley (UnitedStates)Single-walled carbon nanotubes possess fascinating electrical properties
and offer new entries into a wide range of novel electronic applications
that are unattainable with conventional Si-based devices. In this talk, wereport our recently developed platform for solution-based processingof high-purity semiconducting carbon nanotube networks that has led
to low-cost fabrication of large quantity of thin-film transistors (TFTs)
with excellent yield and highly uniform, respectable performance onmechanically flexible substrates. Such transistors exhibit excellent
performance with on-current, transconductance, and field-effectmobility up to 15 uA/um, 4 uS/um, and 50 cm2/Vs. Based upon thesemiconducting carbon nanotube TFTs, a wide range of macro-scale
system-level electronics have been demonstrated including flexible
integrated circuits (logic gates, ring oscillators, d-flip-flops, decoders,and counters), flexible full-color active-matrix organic light-emitting diodedisplay, and a smart interactive skin sensor that can simultaneously
map and respond to the outside stimulus. With emphasis on large-areasystems where nm-scale accuracy in the assembly of nanotubes is
not required, our demonstrations present a unique niche for nanotube
electronics by taking full advantage of their superior electrical andphysical properties. Our work shows carbon nanotubes’ immense
promise as a low-cost and scalable TFT technology for nonconventional
electronic systems with excellent performances.

8725-60, Session 11

Heterogeneously integrated multifunctional
systems via high-throughput transfer printingof micro/nano devices (Invited Paper)
M. Saif Islam, Hakan Karaagac, Mark Triplett, Logeeswaran
Veerayah Jayaraman, Univ. of California, Davis (United States)
We will present a high-throughput method for large area fabricationof single crystal devices via transfer printing of 1D and 2D devices
from mother substrates onto arbitrary low cost and flexible carrier
substrates while simultaneously preserving the integrity, order, shapeand fidelity of the transferred device arrays. The original substrates
are repeatedly used for continual production of new devices and areminimally consumed. This method greatly decreases the cost of device
fabrication by drastically reducing the material consumption and making
it an environmentally benign process while offering high performance,
flexibility, ease of packaging and integration. This heterogeneous
integration technique offers the ability to integrate various single
crystal micro- and nano-devices on secondary substrates to enable
heterogeneously integrated systems for computing, communication,energy conversion, storage, sensing and imaging.

8725-61, Session 11

Skin-inspired sensor sheets for touch,chemical, and biological sensing (Invited
Paper)
Zhenan Bao, Stanford Univ. (United States)

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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Organic and carbon nano materials are attractive for low cost
electronic units for electronic skin as well as medicinal, food storage,
and environmental monitoring applications. The ability to couple thesensory electrical output with on-chip signal processing can overcome
the need for bulky, expensive equipment typically required for most
optical detection methods. In this talk, I will present recent progress inmaterials and fabrication of chemical, biological and pressure sensors forelectronic skin application.

semiconductor nanomembranes provide us with the unprecedented
opportunities to develop fast flexible electronics, new types of electronic
devices, optoelectronics and photonics devices. In this talk, I will present
our recent research in these areas. Future research directions along thispath will be outlined.

8725-64, Session 11

Biointerfaced nanopiezoelectrics (Invited
Paper)

8725-62, Session 11

Mechanically flexible optically transparent
silicon fabric with high thermal budget
devices from bulk silicon (100) (Invited Paper)

Michael C. McAlpine, Princeton Univ. (United States)
The development of a method for integrating highly efficient energy
conversion materials onto soft tissue could yield breakthroughs inenergy harvesting systems for implantable biomedical devices. Further,
the scaling of such materials down to nanometer levels may yield novel
probes for studying fundamental mechanical responses of cells. Of
particular interest are materials and devices which can conform to soft,
curved surfaces such as skin, and operate in vital environments that may
involve both flexing and stretching modes. Piezoelectric crystals are aparticularly interesting category of energy conversion materials whose
properties have been extensively characterized in the bulk. They arebrittle inorganic crystals which are processed at high temperatures, andthus are thermally and mechanically incompatible with soft biologicalmatter. Our group has shown advances in the fabrication and integrationof highly efficient nanopiezoelectrics on flexible and stretchable
substrates. Yet, questions remain about how to engineer these interfaces
to be compatible with fragile biological systems. Here we propose newstrategies for addressing these questions. First, we have investigated
the fabrication, characterization, and device integration of new classesof nanopiezoelectrics. Next, we have interfaced these materials withcells to act as fundamental probes of mechanical deformations ofcells in response to electrical excitations. Finally, we have scaled thesenanopiezoelectrics to macroscopic dimensions and biointerfaced themwith tissue. This research suggests exciting implications for the direct
biointerfacing of nanomaterials with cells and tissue, both as fundamental
probes and for bioelectromechanical energy harvesting.

Muhammad M. Hussain, Jhonathan P. Rojas, Galo Torres Sevilla,
King Abdullah Univ. of Science and Technology (Saudi Arabia)
A foldable high performance computer at an affordable price will
empower us with instant access to information and communication
for defense, health and societal purpose. However, wearable gadgets
need to be bendable or flexible. Since 1990, many options of organic
electronics to hybrid approach involving inorganic nano-ribbons or
discrete device transfer to plastic substrate have been explored forflexible electronics such as displays, sensors, photovoltaic, etc. However,they have suffered from poor inherent electron mobility in organic
electronics, limited thermal budget for plastic substrate, utilizationof expensive substrate like silicon-on-insulator (SOI) or silicon (111),
uncertain transfer process involved in hybrid approach and finallyabsence of a truly competitive high performance devices required intoday’s computers (3.2 GHz) or in cell phones (1.8 GHz). As of today
a reliable process where semiconductor industry’s most widely used
low-cost bulk silicon (100) has not been used for macro-scale highperformance device integration for an application like flexible computers.
Here we will show a generic process to release macro-to-nano-scale
flexible and transparent silicon fabric (membrane) from bulk silicon(100) and then large-scale monolithic integration of semiconductor
industry’s most advanced high-k/metal gate technology based devices
and thermoelectric generators on this released silicon fabric withoutcompromising high-performance operation, high-thermal budget
processing, low-cost, widely used substrates and state-of-the-art CMOS
centered large-scale integration. With the rise of cloud computation,
we believe our approach is the most pragmatic step towards highly
flexible high performance mobile computation devices to empower world
population with the power of information at an affordable price.

8725-65, Session 11

Ultraflexible and stretchable organic
transistor integrated circuits for medical
sensors (Invited Paper)
Takao Someya, Tsuyoshi Sekitani, The Univ. of Tokyo (Japan)
We will report recent progress of ultraflexible and stretchable, large-area
sensors and actuators using printed organic transistor integrated circuits.
Moreover, the issues and the future prospect of organic transistors
and memories will be addressed. We will describe our recent research
activities to apply ultraflexible and stretchable electronic systems for bio/
medical applications

8725-63, Session 11

Transferable single-crystalline semiconductor
nanomembranes and their versatile
applications (Invited Paper)
Zhenqiang Ma, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (United States);
Weidong Zhou, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)

8725-66, Session 12

Graphene scaled up and down (Keynote
Presentation)

Rigid semiconductor-based integrated circuit chips have changed
our life for many decades. While they offer superior performance withhigh packing density, the rigidity of these chips often makes themhard to be implemented in many applications, such as very large-area,
conformal, easy-to-bend and space-limited systems, and particularly bioimplantation systems. Traditional flexible electronics employing organic
semiconductors, amorphous and polycrystalline silicon can fulfill someof these applications, but lacking the high performance that is neededin many of the advanced systems. Single-crystalline semiconductor
nanomembranes that are released from various semiconductors
are mechanically bendable, stackable, strainable, transferrable andconformal to any flexible and rigid substrates, with equivalent electronic
properties as their bulk counterparts. These unique properties of

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Chagaan Baatar, Office of Naval Research (United States)
In the early days of graphene research, the Office of Naval Research(ONR) played a key role by championing and supporting the nascentgraphene emerging, both in US and overseas. In this talk I will cover abrief history of graphene research sponsored by ONR and will describe
the current scope and future vision for the program. Current ONRgraphene portfolio range from molecular scale atomic precision synthesisof graphene nanostructures to larger scale graphene based flexible
electronics research. I will draw examples from recent projects to giveaudience a snapshot of the current graphene portfolio at ONR.
·

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V

8725-67, Session 128725-71, Session 12

Controlling growth of large area graphene on
SiC (Invited Paper)Flexible transparent conducting networks ofmetal nanowires (Invited Paper)

D. K. Gaskill, Luke O. Nyakiti, Virginia D. Wheeler, Rachael L.
Myers-Ward, Nelson Y. Garces, Charles R. Eddy Jr., U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)

Benjamin Wiley, Aaron Rathmell, Duke Univ. (United States)

The Si sublimation approach for forming uniform layers of grapheneon large area SiC substrates amenable to Si processing technology is
described. Properties of SiC wafer technology that impact large area
epitaxial graphene (EG) are illustrated. EG formation depends upon
(0001)SiC surface preparation and uniform EG thickness on terraces is afunction of surface misorientation. The impact of processing factors suchas temperature control, laminar gas flow and substrate rotation on large
area EG uniformity are described using examples from a commercial SiC
epitaxy reactor. Contactless Lehighton resistivity maps of 100 mm wafers
illustrate the current state-of-the-art, which is ±3%.

8725-68, Session 12

Single-walled carbon nanotubes andgraphene for transparent electronics (Invited
Paper)
John A. Rogers, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates)High mobilities and other attractive features of single-walled carbon
nanotubes (SWNTs) and graphene create interest in their use in highspeed (i.e. radio frequency) or unusual (i.e. flexible, stretchable,transparent) forms of electronics. This talk focuses on growth strategies
that use chemical vapor deposition onto crystalline quartz substrates
yield nearly perfectly linear, perfectly aligned, horizontal arrays of
individual SWNTs. We describe methods for achieving high density arrays
and for removing metallic SWNTs, and the properties of devices formed
with them. Strategies for integrating graphene with such configurationsof SWNTs provide routes to transparent transistors, with the capacity for
integration onto plastic or rubber substrates.

8725-69, Session 12

Monodisperse carbon nanomaterials forelectronic, optoelectronic, and energy
conversion technologies (Invited Paper)Mark C. Hersam, Northwestern Univ. (United States)
Recent years have seen substantial improvements in the structural,chemical, and electronic monodispersity of carbon nanomaterials,
leading to improved performance in a variety of device applications.
This talk will highlight our latest efforts to functionalize and assemble
monodisperse carbon nanomaterials into architectures relevant toelectronic, optoelectronic, and energy conversion technologies. For
example, semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)
allow the fabrication of thin-film field-effect transistors with concurrently
high on-state conductance and on/off ratio. Using dielectrophoretic
assembly, arrays of individual SWCNT transistors are also realized withhigh yield. Similarly, high performance digital circuits are fabricatedfrom semiconducting SWCNT inks via aerosol jet printing. Beyond
transistors, semiconducting SWCNTs have been utilized for light-emitting
optoelectronic devices or chemical sensors, while metallic SWNCTs are
well-suited as transparent conductors. This talk will also explore the utilityof chemically functionalized graphene for high-frequency transistors,
photovoltaics, and supports for the photocatalytic production of solar
fuels.

There is an ongoing drive to replace rigid flat-panel devices (e.g. touch
screens, solar cells) with devices that are more flexible in order toimprove resistance to mechanical damage, and reduce cost by enablinghigh-throughput, roll-to-roll production. The brittleness and slow,
vapor-based coating process (<0.01 m/s) of the standard transparent
conducting material, indium tin oxide (ITO), are significant barriers to the
production of low-cost, flexible electronics. This presentation will discuss
the replacement of ITO with networks of copper nanowires. Copper
nanowires can be produced in scalable, solution-phase syntheses, andcan be coated from liquids at high rates (>1 m/s). Copper nanowire
networks can be flexed more than 1000 times with no change in theirconductance, can carry high currents (0.5 A/cm2), and can be renderedstable against oxidation with a Ni coating. A barrier to the use of copper
nanowires for transparent conductive films was the fact that they had
to be annealed under hydrogen to render them conductive due to thepresence of a non-conductive oxide layer. This presentation will present
new results showing that copper nanowire networks can be renderedhighly conductive simply by dipping them in acetic acid.

8725-72, Session 12

Graphene-based hybrid films for highperformance transparent electrodeapplications (Invited Paper)
Iskandar Kholmanov, Rodney Ruoff, The Univ. of Texas at Austin(United States)
Today, indium tin oxide (ITO) is the main material used for transparent
conductive films (TCFs). However, the brittle ceramic structure, poor
compatibility with organic materials, and the growing cost of indium,
seriously limit the use of ITO in TCFs. Therefore, several other materials
including new oxide films, conductive polymers, carbon nanotubes(CNT), metal nanostructures, and graphene-based nanostructures
have been investigated as alternatives to ITO. Among these materials,
carbon nanotubes, metal nanowires (NWs), and graphene-based films
garner interest due to their good TCF characteristics, i.e., low sheet
resistance (Rs) and high optical transmittance (T),. However, their use ina wide range of devices is restricted by several specific drawbacks. In
particular, metal NW and CNT films, are characterized by open spaces
between nanostructures, high surface roughness, and poor adhesion
to substrates. Drawbacks of graphene films include the currently costly
fabrication that use vacuum and high temperature and the timeconsuming and challenging multiple transfer steps from metal to thetransparent substrate.
Here, we demonstrate a general strategy for fabrication of hybrid TCFs
composed of metal nanostructures and graphene-based materials. We
demonstrate that the shortcomings of single component TCFs might beovercome by hybrid films, in which the film properties can be improved
due to synergy between individual components. Moreover hybrid TCFs
may exhibit additional functionalities that can vary depending on theircomposition. This feature opens up possibilities for developing next
generation multi-component and multifunctional TCFs.

8725-73, Session 12

Graphene and nanowire-based tunable andtransparent RF front end (Invited Paper)
Kyung-Ah Son, H. C. Seo, David W. Barnes, Hyok J. Son, James
H. Schaffner, Jeong S. Moon, HRL Labs., LLC (United States)
Optically transparent electrical conductors benefit a wide range of224

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V
applications, including RF shielding, transparent antennas, frequency
selective surfaces (FSS), and transparent electronics. Nanostructured(nanowires and graphene) transparent conductor materials are wellsuited for these applications potentially beyond current Indium Tin Oxide
films. We have developed nanowire films with optical transmission of
89% or 72% and sheet resistance of 15 ohm/sq or 4 ohm/sq at 550
nm wavelength. Recently we demonstrated microwave rejection of 25
dB in X-Ku band [1], transparent X-band antennas and Ku-band FSS
using a metal nanowire network, with good antenna gain and efficient
blocking of the Ku band with the FSS. In this talk, we present nanowirebased transparent conductors, graphene-based FETs, varactors, andpassive electronic devices fabricated for a transparent RF front end andfrequency-tunable transparent FSS.

not demonstrate a measureable shift in the reflectance spectra under
the same conditions, we believe QD oxidation plays a major role in theobserved CWPL quenching under x-ray irradiation. In order to further
investigate the effects of ambient oxygen on the optical properties of
QDs, PSi-QD films were subjected to gamma-ray irradiation in a nitrogenenvironment. The significantly higher energy gamma-rays demonstrated
strong quenching of QD CWPL but no measurable shift in the reflectancespectra. Furthermore, a 20% reduction in the carrier lifetime for a
600 krad (SiO2) total dose and almost complete quenching of the QDCWPL at a total dose of 2.2 Mrad (SiO2) was observed suggestingthat the creation of non-radiative defects may significantly alter QD
properties under gamma irradiation. We believe that this study enables
a better understanding of the interaction of high-energy radiation withsemiconductor QDs and PSi, thereby improving the reliability of QD
based devices subjected to high-dose radiation environments.

[1] K.-A. Son et al., NT4D, 2012

8725-91, Session PThu

8725-93, Session PThu

Ion irradiation effects on electric properties ofhydrogenated amorphous silicon thin films

Nonlinear-optical up and down frequencyconverting backward-wave metasensors andmetamirrors

Shin-ichiro Sato, Takeshi Ohshima, Japan Atomic Energy Agency(Japan)Alexander K. Popov, Univ. of Wisconsin-Stevens Point (UnitedStates); Igor S. Nefedov, Aalto Univ. School of Science andTechnology (Finland); Sergey A. Myslivets, Kirensky Institute ofPhysics (Russian Federation); Mikhail I. Shalaev, Vitaly V. Slabko,
Siberian Federal Univ. (Russian Federation)

Progress in high energy physics and space technologies requires thedevelopment of semiconductor devices with high resistance to radiation.
Since hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) semiconductors are
expected to be utilized as a material for radiation-hardened devices suchas space solar cells, particle detectors, and photo sensors, radiation
effects on a-Si:H has been investigated. However, the radiation effects
have not yet been systematically understood. In this paper, we report
semiconductor properties of a-Si:H thin films irradiated with proton
and Si ion irradiations. Variations of the dark conductivity (DC), thephotoconductivity (PC), and the Seebeck coefficient of ion-irradiateda-Si:H are investigated in detail and their mechanisms are discussed.
Also, the physical application limit for a-Si:H photoelectric devices in
the radiation environments is found. The conductivity variations due toirradiation can be explained by the donor-center generation in the low
fluence regime and the accumulation of dangling bonds. Both the DC
and PC of undoped and n-type a-Si:Hs increase due to low fluence
proton irradiation. However, with increasing the fluence, the decrease in
DC and PC is caused by the carrier removal effect and the decrease incarrier lifetime. The further irradiation causes the loss of photoconduction
and the drastic increase in DC. This indicates that the dominant electric
conduction mechanism changes from the band transport to the hoppingtransport due to the excessive accumulation of dangling bonds. These
complicated conductivity variations can be systematically categorizedaccording to the ratio of the nuclear energy deposition to the electronicenergy deposition of incident ions.

A concept of a family of unique backward-wave (BW) photonic devices,such as frequency up and down converting sensors, modulators, filters,
amplifiers and oscillators is proposed. Novel materials are considered,
which support coexistence of ordinary and BWs and thus enableenhanced nonlinear-optical (NLO) frequency-conversion processes.
Extraordinary properties of coherent NLO energy exchange between
ordinary and BWs are investigated. Energy flux and phase velocity
are contra-directed in BWs. Two different classes of such materials
are proposed: metamaterials (MM) with specially engineered spatial
dispersion and crystals that support optical phonons with negative groupvelocity. Both do not rely on nanoresonators which provide negative
optical magnetism and constitute current mainstream in fabricating
negative index metamaterials (NIM). The appearance of electromagnetic
BW (BEMW) in metaslabs made of standing carbon nanotubes, thepossibilitiy and extraordinary properties of phase matched BW second
harmonic generation in such a MM is described. The possibility toreplace plasmonic NLO MMs, which are very challenging to make, by
the ordinary, readily available crystals is another proposed option. The
possibility to mimic extraordinary NLO frequency-conversion propagation
processes attributed to NIMs is shown for some of such crystals
whereby optical phonons with negative group velocity and a proper
phase-matching geometry are implemented. Here, optical phonons are
employed instead of BEMWs.

8725-92, Session PThu

Effects of x-ray and gamma-ray irradiationon the optical properties of quantum dots
immobilized in porous silicon

1. A.K. Popov and V.M. Shalaev, “Merging nonlinear optics and negativeindex metamaterials,” Proc. SPIE, 8093-06, 1-27 (2011).
2. A.K. Popov, “Nonlinear optics of backward waves and extraordinaryfeatures of plasmonic nonlinearoptical microdevices,” Eur. Phys. J. D, 58,
263-274 (2010).

Girija Gaur, Dmitry S. Koktysh, Sharon M. Weiss, Vanderbilt Univ.
(United States)

8725-95, Session PThu

In this work, we analyze the effects of X-ray and gamma-ray irradiationon the optical properties of colloidal CdTe/CdS quantum dots (QDs)
immobilized in a porous silicon (PSi) film for potential applications in
dosimeters, scintillators, solar cells, and light emitting diodes operatingin acute, high-dose radiation environments. The PSi-QD samples
were irradiated for variable total doses up to 10 Mrad(SiO2) under 10
keV X-rays and up to 2.2 Mrad(SiO2) under 662 keV gamma-rays.
Quenching of QD continuous wave photoluminescence (CWPL) was
observed, accompanied by an increasing blue shift of the reflectancespectra with increasing x-ray radiation exposure dose. The blue shift is
attributed to a reduction in the effective refractive index of the PSi-QD
film. Since surface-functionalized PSi control samples without QDs did

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Advanced nanoelectromechanical switcheswith longevity in ambient and extreme
conditions
Philip Feng, Case Western Reserve Univ. (United States)
We report experimental demonstration of genuinely nanoscale
electromechanical contact-mode switches with high performance,
enabled by silicon carbide (SiC) nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS).
For the first time, we experimentally record the real-time evolution·

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications Vof robust switching events in ambient air and high temperatures, by
switching devices on and off for >10^4 to 10^6 cycles without failure(devices still alive, more cycles available if tests continue). These
switches in SiC NEMS show >=10^4 on/off ratios, with highly repeatableperformance over days. The real-time recorded long switching cycles
also enable us a unique platform for studying the time evolution of thenanoscale contacts.
Contact-mode MEMS/NEMS switches (relays) have been rapidly
emerging, and have been actively explored as a promising alternative
toward ultralow-power applications. NEMS switches offer compelling
advantages including ideally abrupt switching with minimal off-state
leakage, suitable for extreme environments, and small footprints. In
pursuing these advantages, however, challenges remain: (i) all the highperformance mechanical switches recently demonstrated are still wellin the MEMS domain and are orders of magnitude larger in size/volume
than today’s mainstream transistors. In fact, recent MEMS switcheswith high cycle numbers are all >10,000 times larger in volume thanour devices in this work. (ii) Most of today’s truly nanoscale mechanicalswitches suffer from very short lifetimes, and some literally can merely
switch one or a few cycles before failure. Here we report robust, gatecontrolled NEMS switching, recorded in ambient and at high temperature(500 C), based on SiC, which is uniquely suited for NEMS logic for its
outstanding properties.
Our NEMS devices typically have thicknesses, widths and gaps mostly~200nm or smaller, and thus having motional volumes of ~1um^3 or less.
For such small devices with orders of magnitude reduction in devices andcontacts dimensions, our SiC NEMS has been unique and impressive
in demonstrating switching and contact longevity, amongst all today’scontact-mode NEMS devices. We expect such studies and lifetime
engineering would accelerate the development of the technology.

8725-96, Session PThu

Effects of radiation-induced defects on
the charge collection efficiency of a siliconcarbide particle detector
Naoya Iwamoto, Shinobu Onoda, Takahiro Makino, Takeshi
Ohshima, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (Japan); Kazutoshi
Kojima, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand Technology (Japan); Shinji Nozaki, The Univ. of ElectroCommunications (Japan)
Silicon carbide (SiC) is an attractive semiconductor material for highenergy particle detectors used under visible lights and a high temperature
condition. Because of wide band gap, SiC particle detectors can be
operated with a sufficient signal to noise ratio even at such conditions.
In order to develop a particle detector, it is also important to study its
radiation resistance. In this paper we study defects in 6H-SiC particle
detectors created by high-energy electrons and discuss their impacts on
the charge collection efficiencies (CCEs) of the detectors.
6H-SiC p+n diodes were used as particle detectors in this study. The
diodes were irradiated with electrons with the energies of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5
and 1.0 MeV in order to create defects in the SiC crystal. CCEs of these
diodes were measured using 5.5 MeV alpha particles with a standard
pulse height analysis method. Defects in these diodes were characterized
by a charge transient spectroscopy technique using alpha particles.
The CCE was not changed by 0.1 MeV electron irradiation. On the other
hand, degradations of CCE were found in the diodes irradiated withelectrons with 0.2 MeV and higher. A defect level with the activationenergy of 0.5 eV, labeled as X, was found in diodes whose CCEs weredegraded. Degraded CCEs were recovered to the initial value as thedefect X was removed by thermal annealing. From these results, it isconcluded that the defect X is responsible for the degradation of CCE of
6H-SiC particle detectors.

2268725-97, Session PThu

Subwavelength resonant nanostructured
films for sensing
Kyle J. Alvine, Bruce E. Bernacki, Wendy D. Bennett, Danny
J. Edwards, Albert M. Mendoza, Jonathan D. Suter, PacificNorthwest National Lab. (United States)
We present a novel subwavelength nanostructure architecture that may
be utilized for optical standoff sensing applications. The subwavelength
structures are fabricated via a combination of nanoimprint lithography
and metal sputtering to create metallic nanostructured films encased
within a transparent media. The structures are based on the open ring
resonator (ORR) architecture and have their analog in resonant LC
circuits which display a resonance frequency that is inversely proportional
to the square root of the product of the inductance and capacitance.
Therefore, any perturbation of the nanostructured films due to chemicalor environmental effects can alter the inductive or capacitive behaviorof the subwavelength features, which can shift the resonant frequency
and provide an indication of the external stimulus. This shift in resonancecan be interrogated remotely actively using either laser illumination or
passively using hyperspectral or multispectral sensing. These structures
may be designed to be either anisotropic or isotropic, which can also
provide polarization-sensitive interrogation. Due to the nanometerscale of the structures, they can be tailored to be optically responsivein the visible or near infrared spectrum with a highly reflective resonantpeak that is dependent solely on structural dimensions and material
characteristics. We present experimental measurements of the opticalresponse of these structures as a function of wavelength, polarization,and incident angle demonstrating the resonant effect in the nearinfrared region. Numerical modeling data showing the effect of different
fabrication parameters such as structure parameters are also discussed.

8725-98, Session PThu

Cross-spectrum noise spectroscopy ofsilicon nanowire transistors
Deepak K. Sharma, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States) and George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates); Sergiy Krylyuk, Univ. of Maryland (United States);
Abhishek Motayed, Univ. of Maryland (United States) andNational Institute of Standards and Technology (United States);
Qiliang Li, George Mason Univ. (United States) and National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States); Albert V.
Davydov, National Institute of Standards and Technology (UnitedStates)
Large surface to volume ratio in nanowire sensors leads to enhanced
current modulation when various analytes adsorb on the surface.
However, random current fluctuations resulting from bulk and surface
generation and recombination (G-R) processes compromise theresolution of the sensors. Low frequency noise (LFN) spectroscopy
is a highly sensitive technique to study these stochastic fluctuations.
Since the device noise is proportional to the current signal, it becomesincreasingly difficult to accurately measure the noise signal in lowcurrent nanoscale devices. Furthermore, the noise measurement setup
itself introduces instrumental noise which adds to the intrinsic noise of
the device-under-test. To address these issues, we have implemented
a noise measurement method based on dual-channel cross-spectrum
analysis technique. This technique allowed us to reduce the power
spectral density (PSD) by three orders of magnitude by effectively
reducing the parasitic background 1/f noise and thus significantly
enhance the sensitivity of the noise measurements. As a test-bed, we
utilized Silicon nanowires (SiNWs) grown by vapor-liquid-solid method
using Au and Ni catalysts. Field-effect transistors (FETs) were fabricatedusing both n- and p-doped SiNWs. Noise measurements were performedon the SiNW FETs in 80K to 320K temperature range. The PSD showed
clear Lorentzian peaks due to the G-R processes. Temperature-

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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8725-102, Session PThu

dependent noise analysis indicated that the traps responsible for the G-R
noise correlate well with the deep-levels introduced by Ni and Au atoms
diffused into the SiNWs during the growth.Important parameters such as
trap energies and concentrations of the deep levels were calculated forboth Ni and Au deep-levels. Such sensitive noise measurements will be
useful in characterizing nanoscale devices, such as chemical-sensors,
photodetectors, and transistors.

Radiation detection with CdTe quantum dots
in silica-glass and polymer nanocomposites
Kavin Manickaraj, SENSIAC (United States); Brent K. Wagner,
Georgia Tech Research Institute (United States); Zhitao Kang,
Georgia Tech Research Institute (United States) and Georgia
Institute of Technology (United States)

8725-100, Session PThu

Optically based radiation detectors in various fields of science still
suffer from low resolution, low sensitivities, and efficiencies that restrict
their overall performance. Quantum dots (QD) are well-suited for suchdetectors due to their unique optical properties. CdTe QDs show fast
luminescence decay times, high conversion efficiencies, and have bandgaps strongly dependent on the particle radius. These properties areadvantageous for alpha-particle and potentially neutron detection. In
this work, CdTe QD-based polymer or glass matrix nanocomposites will
be synthesized and used in alpha-particle scintillators by absorbing theincident particle energy and re-emitting it in the form of visible or nearinfrared radiation. Since QD particle sizes are well below the wavelengthsof their emissions, they remain optically transparent when incorporated
in both polymer and sol-gel based silica glass due to negligible opticalscattering. The fast photo-response and decay times provide excellent
time resolution. Also, the QD emission photon can be fine-tuned to thatbest suited for the photo-detector. We will study the radiation responseof such nanocomposites, and the energy transfer between the polymer
or glass matrices and the QDs will be compared. In addition, as thesecomposite materials can greatly improve the mechanical robustnessof alpha-particle detectors, conventionally known to have delicatecomponents, CdTe QDs show high promise for radiation sensing
applications.

Energy and power balance at interaction ofultrafast laser pulse train with a bandgap
material
Michael K. Rafailov, Univ. of Alberta (Canada)
Here we report analysis and experimental verification of energy andpower balance during the interaction of ultrafast laser with bandgap
material when ultrafast bandgap photonic phenomena can be observed.
Optically (light) induced superconductivity as well as multiple photonic
phenomena observable at interaction of ultrafast laser and bandgap
material are based on two effects: electron bandgap transfer hypersaturation along bleaching of bandgap material and following changes
in electronic (and) magnetic properties of the material that occur
between pulses in ultrafast laser pulse train. At that point power andenergy balance that needs to be maintained between peak power that is
sufficient to induce bleaching and corresponding energy that is depositedin the material is the key point of ultrafast bandgap photonics. Applying
concept to ultrafast bandgap photonics to laser interaction with InSb
allows to demonstrate how this balance can be successfully managed inengineering photonic application with pretty common bandgap material.
As a result practical engineering recommendations is made toward
system engineering and architecture of8725-103, Session PThu
8725-101, Session PThu

Super-period metal nanostructures for
integrated surface plasmon resonancespectrometer sensors

Development of a versatile lab-on-achip enzyme assay platform for pathogen
detection in CBRNE scenarios

Junpeng Guo, Hai-Sheng Leong, The Univ. of Alabama in
Huntsville (United States)

Richard Klemm, Sebastian Schattschneider, Tobias Jahn,
Nadine Hlawatsch, Holger Becker, Claudia Gärtner, microfluidic
ChipShop GmbH (Germany)

Extraordinary optical transmission through subwavelength period metal
nanohole arrays occurs when the frequency of incident light is tuned
to the surface plasmon resonance frequency of the periodic metalnanostructures. The phenomena have been widely investigated forbiochemical sensing applications. Presence of chemical or biologicalagents onto surfaces of metal nanostructures changes the local surface
plasmon resonance. Change of the surface plasmon resonance can bemeasured by using optical spectrometers. In this talk, a new type of
surface plasmon resonance spectral sensors will be presented. In our
new surface plasmon resonance spectral sensors, super-period metal
nanohole array gratings are created for surface plasmon resonancesensing. A super-period metal nanohole array grating has two periods:
one is a small subwavelength period that contributes to localized
surface plasmon resonance and another is the “super-period,” thatis created by periodically removing lines of the nanoholes in a regularperiodic nanohole array. The super-period nanohole array is a surface
plasmon resonance nano-grating that diffracts local surface plasmons
into non-zeroth order diffractions. Due to the intrinsic angular dispersionof diffractions, the resonance spectrum in diffraction orders can bemeasured with a linear photodetector array or a CCD. A surface plasmon
resonance spectrometer sensor using an e-beam lithography patterned
super-period gold nanohole array grating is experimentally demonstrated[1]. The surface plasmon resonance spectrometer measures the surface
plasmon resonance from the spatially dispersed first order diffraction witha CCD. Surface plasmon resonance in super-period metal nanohole arraygrating was investigated by measuring resonance spectra in the zerothorder transmission and the first order diffraction. It is found that the firstorder diffraction resonance peak wavelength is slightly blue-shifted fromthe zeroth order transmission peak wavelength. The integrated surface

Being able to integrate complex assays on a single microfluidic chiphelps to greatly simplify instrument requirements and allows the use oflab-on-a-chip technology in the field. A core application for such fieldportable systems is the detection of pathogens in a CBRNE scenario
such as permanent monitoring of airborne pathogens, e.g. in metro
stations or hospitals etc. As one assay methodology for the pathogen
identification, enzymatic assays were chosen. In order evaluate different
detection strategies, a generic enzyme assay module has been designed
as a general chip-based test platform. In all application cases, the assays
are based on immobilized probes located in microfluidic channels.
Therefore a microfluidic chip was realized containing a set of three
individually addressable channels, not only for detection of the sample
itself but also to have a set of references for a quantitative analysis.
It furthermore includes two turning valves and a waste container forcontamination-free storage of potential pathogenic liquids. All liquids
remain in the chip and can be disposed of in proper way after running theassay. The chip design includes four inlet ports consisting of one sample
port (Luer interface) and three mini Luer interfaces for fluidic support ofe.g. washing buffer, substrate and enzyme solution. The sample can beapplied via a special, sealable sampling vessel with volumes between 0.5
and 5 ml with integrated female Luer interface. Thereby also pre-anayticalcontamination of the environment can be prevented. Other reagents thatare required for analysis will be stored off chip.

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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plasmon resonance spectrometer eliminates the use of external optical
spectrometer for surface plasmon resonance spectral measurement andsensing
Reference[1] H. Leong and J. Guo, “A surface plasmon resonance spectrometerusing a super-period nanohole array,” Optics Express, vol. 20, no. 19, pp.
21318-21323, 2012.

8725-104, Session PThu

Solution-based photodetectors formonolithically integrated low-cost short-wave
infrared focal plane arrays
Emre Heves, Huseyin Kayahan, Yasar Gurbuz, Sabanci Univ.
(Turkey)
Conventional IR detectors are typically composed of crystalline
substrates that are different from silicon and they require mechanicalbonding with silicon electronics to from the complete imaging array.
Therefore, size, yield, reliability and the cost of the bonds between thesesubstrates dominate the size and resolution of these arrays. Solutionprocessed photodetectors allow monolithic integration of IR sensitive
imaging arrays and eliminate the restrictions of these mechanical bonds.
In most of the previous works, colloidal quantum dot IR detectors are
implemented on glass substrates discretely. In this work, however, inthe direction of fully integration of PbS CQD photodiodes on read out
electronics (ROIC) that are fabricated using conventional IC processes;
we fabricated mimics of top layers of ROICs on Si substrates andfabricate our self-aligned PbS CQD Schottky diodes on top of them. This
work presents a proof of concept of fabricating PbS CQD photodiodes
on ROICs in order to have monolithically integrated SWIR focal planearray. Under 140 µW/cm2 illumination at 1550 nm, the PbS photodiodethat is realized on ROIC mimics, achieved responsivity of 0.2 A/W andefficiency of 15% at 1 V reverse bias with a normalized detectivity of
1.36 x 10^11 Jones, extracted assuming that shot noise is dominating
the noise current. Under 2V reverse bias, they show a photoconductor
behavior with a responsivity of 5.73 A/W and 1.41 x 10^12 Jones
detectivity, which is comparable with the single crystal compound
semiconductor detectors.

8725-105, Session PThu

Large-aperture active optical carbon fiber
reinforced polymer mirror
Matthew E. L. Jungwirth, Honeywell, Inc. (United States) andSandia National Labs. (United States); Christopher C. Wilcox,
U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States); David V. Wick,
Michael S. Baker, Clinton G. Hobart, Jared J. Milinazzo, Sandia
National Labs. (United States); Joseph L. Robichaud, L-3
Communications IOS-SSG (United States); Robert C. Romeo,
Robert N. Martin, Composite Mirror Applications (United States);
Jerome Ballesta, Imagine Optic (United States); Emeric Lavergne,
Imagine Optic (France); Eustace L. Dereniak, College of Optical
Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona (United States)
Active optical elements can be used to induce a spatially varying phaseshift in incoming wavefronts (for imaging) or outgoing coherent beams(for directed energy applications). This paper presents initial results fora large-aperture variable radius of curvature (ROC) mirror constructedof carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). Specifically, we will present
opto-mechanical designs and initial closed-loop actuation results
showing that closed-loop control maintains good optical performance
when the active CFRP mirror is used in conjunction with a commercial
deformable mirror. The base ROC is increased from 2000mm to 2010mm
using a novel annular ring actuation method.

2288725-74, Session 13

Biointerfaced graphene nanosensors (Invited
Paper)
Michael C. McAlpine, Princeton Univ. (United States)
Direct interfacing of nanosensors onto the human body could
revolutionize areas ranging from health quality monitoring to adaptive
threat detection. Due to its exceptional electrical properties, nanosensors
based on graphene have been shown to exhibit extremely sensitive
analyte detection. Further, the high interfacial adhesion exhibited bygraphene renders it ideal for interfacing onto curvilinear and rugged
surfaces. Here we introduce a new approach to directly interfacing
graphene nanosensors onto biomaterials. Specifically, we demonstratethat graphene can be printed onto water-soluble silk. This in turn
permits intimate biotransfer of graphene nanosensors onto biomaterials
including tooth enamel and skin, like the attachment of a temporary
tattoo. The result is a fully biointerfaced sensing platform, which can betuned to detect specific target analytes. For example, via bifunctional
self-assembly of antimicrobial peptides onto graphene, we demonstrate
bioselective detection of bacteria at single-cell levels. The incorporationof a resonant circuit consisting of interdigitated electrodes and an
inductive coil eliminates the need for onboard power and external
connections. Combining these elements yields two-tiered interfacingof peptide-graphene nanosensors with biomaterials. In particular, wedemonstrate integration onto a tooth for remote monitoring of breath anddetection of bacteria in saliva at single cell levels. The key functionalitiesof this hybrid sensing element are thus derived from a synergistic
integration of the individual materials properties and components.
Overall, this strategy of hierarchically interfacing biomolecules withnanosensors and biomaterials represents a versatile approach forubiquitous detection of biochemical targets.

8725-75, Session 13

Microbial culture and cell manipulation inpicoliter droplet microfluidics (Invited Paper)
Joshua T. Wolfe, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.
(United States)
Viral evolution in response to selective pressures is a complex processthat is currently difficult to predict. We have developed a high-throughput
microfluidic culture system for viral infection of host cells. This waterin-oil emulsion system results in large numbers (kiloHertz) of single-cell
infection chambers with volumes as low as 65pL. These droplet-based
reaction chambers can be sorted, merged, split, injected and sampled.
Furthermore the integrity of the droplet reaction vessels can be
maintained over several days and at temperatures of 95 degrees Celsius.
Our model system for platform testing and evaluation is infection of
RAW264.7 cells by murine norovirus. We have demonstrated infection of
single cells encapsulated with virus, with a corresponding increase in viral
number. At droplet multiplicities of infection of 0.025, 0.25, and 2.5 weobserved a 1000-fold increase in viral genome number after cell infection
compared to the number of viruses encapsulated initially by Taqmanbased quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). We
also demonstrate that the droplet-infection-derived viral particles retain
infectivity by plaque assay. Despite working with adherent cells, we also
demonstrate that cells encapsulated in droplets can be transfected withrecombinant DNA constructs using Lipofectamine, and remain viable
for up to 48 hrs. We are currently demonstrating droplet-based onestep reverse-transcriptase-PCR for amplifying viral RNA, and a seriesof other manipulations for coupling this microfluidic technology withreverse-genetics, and next-generation sequencing platforms. Data fromthis culture system will be used to inform predictive algorithms of viralevolutionary trajectory.

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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8725-76, Session 138725-78, Session 14

Energy-transfer based nanocomposites forradiation detection (Invited Paper)

Non-intrusive telemetry applications in theoilsands: from visible light and x-ray video, toacoustic imaging and spectroscopy (Keynote
Presentation)

Wei Chen, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (United States)
Scintillation nanoparticles have a bright future in radiation detection
for preventing terrorism and enhancing homeland security. However,
nanoparticles must be in the forms of thin films or ‘crystals’ for practicalapplications. Encapsulation of nanoparticles is surely a good strategy
to fabricate bulky nanostructured thin films or ‘crystals’. While almost
all polymers are not transparent to ultraviolet (UV) light and most Ce3+
doped scintillators have emissions in the UV range. Thus, simply
encapsulation of Ce3+ doped nanoparticles into polymers cannot
obtain transparent ‘crystals’ with high detection efficiency. Here we
investigate LaF3:Ce/CdTe nanocomposites for radiation detection
based on the energy transfer from Ce3+ to CdTe quantum dots not only
can have visible emission which is transparent to the polymer selected
but also have very fast decay lifetimes. In addition, the energy transfer
can enhance the quantum yield of the quantum dots, and the system
combines high stopping powers, high sensitivity and high energy
resolution of LaF3:Ce with the high quantum efficiency, short decay
lifetimes and size tunnability of CdTe quantum dots. In this presentation,
we report the progresses in nanoparticle synthesis, X-ray luminescenceas well as our plans for integrating of research with education andtraining for the purpose of homeland security.

John M. Shaw, Univ. of Alberta (Canada)
While the production, transport and refining of oils from the oilsandsof Alberta, and comparable resources elsewhere is performed atindustrial scales, numerous technical and technological challenges andopportunities persist due to the ill defined nature of the resource. For
example, bitumen and heavy oil comprise multiple bulk phases, selforganizing constituents at the microscale (liquid crystals) and the nanoscale. There are no quantitative measures available at the molecular level.
Non-intrusive telemetry is providing promising paths toward solutions,be they enabling technologies targeting process design, development
or optimization, or more prosaic process control or process monitoring
applications. Operation examples include automated large object
and poor quality ore during mining, and monitoring the thickness andlocation of oil water interfacial zones within separation vessels. These
applications involve real-time video image processing. X-ray transmission
video imaging is used to enumerate organic phases present within avessel, and to detect individual phase volumes, densities and elemental
compositions. This is an enabling technology that provides phaseequilibrium and phase composition data for production and refining
process development, and fluid property myth debunking. A highresolution two-dimensional acoustic mapping technique now at the proof
of concept stage is expected to provide simultaneous fluid flow and fluid
composition data within porous inorganic media. Again this is an enabling
technology targeting visualization of diverse oil production process
fundamentals at the pore scale. Far infrared spectroscopy coupled withdetailed quantum mechanical calculations, may provide characteristic
molecular motifs and intermolecular association data required for fluid
characterization and process modeling. X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS/USAXS) provides characteristic supramolecular structure information that
impacts fluid rheology and process fouling. The intent of this contribution
is to present some of the challenges and to provide an introduction
grounded in current work on non-intrusive telemetry applications - froma mine or reservoir to a refinery! challenges from a mine or reservoir to arefinery!

8725-77, Session 13

SpinDx: a rapid, sensitive, and deployable
platform for diagnostics of biological andradiological threats (Invited Paper)
Chung-Yan Koh, Stanley A. Langevin, Matthew E. Piccini, Anup
K. Singh, Sandia National Labs., California (United States)
There remains an unmet need for deployable diagnostic platforms
that are rapid, sensitive, and amenable to biodefense applications in
low resource areas. Existing technologies tend to be fast and portable(e.g. lateral flow) or sensitive and quantitative (e.g. ELISA or qPCR)
but platforms which are both are rare. Here we present SpinDx™, asedimentation-based centrifugal microfluidic platform which is both fast(<20 minute) and sensitive (pg/mL limit of detection) while maintaining
a simple one-step assay format amenable to multiplexed protein andnucleic acid detection (up to 64 parallel assays) directly from complex
samples (i.e., clinical and environmental) with no sample preparation
required.

8725-79, Session 14

Micro- and nanostructure of asphaltene
aggregates in situ characterization via
monochromatic x-ray microtomography(Invited Paper)

For protein detection, a sandwich immunoassay format is used.
Antibody-conjugated microparticles are incubated with the analyteof interest as well as a fluorescently-labeled reported antibody. Upon
application of centrifugal force, the resulting sandwich immunocomplex
travels through a pre-loaded density medium. Any antigen, detection
antibody, or matrix component that is unbound remains above thedensity medium. The microparticles pellet to the bottom of the channel
where the signal is read; this novel approach both concentrates thesignal and thoroughly washes the particles thereby dramaticallyreducing background while increasing signal. Similarly, for nucleic aciddetection, a double stranded quenched FRET DNA probe is used and theresulting signal corresponds to hybridization of the target strand to thefluorescently-labeled reporter strand. For known pathogenic sequences,
new assays can be developed and optimized in just a few days. We
demonstrate sensitive detection using this platform for both viral nucleic
acids and toxin proteins from the NIAID ABC list.

Michael K. Rafailov, Univ. of Alberta (Canada) and The Reger
Group (United States); Victor E. Asadchikov, Alexei V. Buzmakov,
Denis A. Zolotov, Anna S. Osadchaya, Arsen E. Muslimov, A.V.
Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography (Russian Federation);
Svetlana A. Rubtsova, Ctr. for Nano-Technology (RussianFederation)
Here we report work done toward detection and characterization of
micro-and nano-structures containing V, Co, Mo, Re, Ni Co or othermetals in colloidal mixture. X-ray micro-tomograph with monochromaticradiation has been used to detect nano-and-microstructures containing
metal-organics formed by metals particularly, as porphyrines in oil
disperse systems. In order to detect and characterize nano-and microstructures containing metal-organics the tomograph’s operational
wavelength has been tuned to a wavelength of absorption in X-ray
spectrum of one of the metals. Contrast between resonant X-ray
absorption of specific metal and average colloidal mixture absorption
provides a tool for measurement of metal mass concentration in
the structures as well as distribution of micro-and nano structures

The simplified disc-based assay architecture facilitates readyincorporation into an integrated deployable diagnostic platform. This
assay’s rapid (<20 min) sample-to-answer time, low limits of detection(pg/mL), compatibility with complex biological samples, low cost(~$2,200 per instrument, <$2.00 per disk), and rapid assay development
time provide vast improvements over current state-of-the-art approaches
for deployable pathogen diagnostics in low resource areas.

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
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not only on surface but in the volume. Work specifically has been
focused at measurement of oil disperse system containing porphyrines
where concentration of metals changing as a function of asphalten
concentration changing along oil processing.

8725-80, Session 14

Chemical sensing and imaging in microfluidic
pore network structures relevant to naturalcarbon cycling and industrial carbon
sequestration (Invited Paper)
Jay W. Grate, Changyong Zhang, Michael Wilkins, Marvin G.
Warner, Norman C. Anheier Jr., Jonathan D. Suter, Ryan Kelly,Mart Oostrom, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
Energy utilization and climate change represent significant factors inglobal security in the twenty first century. Atmospheric carbon dioxidelevels, while global in scope, are influenced by pore-scale phenomenain the subsurface. Specifically, natural terrestrial carbon cycling storesand releases carbon, processes that could offset or exacerbate
anthropogenic carbon releases. Alternatively, industrial sequestration ofcarbon from fossil fuel combustion may directly inject carbon dioxide
into subsurface reservoirs to prevent release into the atmosphere. We
are developing tools to visualize, measure, and investigate pore scale
processes using pore network microfluidic structures with transparent
covers as pseudo two dimensional representations of poreous media.
For the study of processes related to terrestrial carbon cycling we havedeveloped in situ fluorescent oxygen sensing methods and cellulosic
materials that can be imaged using fluorescence, where the pore network
serves as a habitat for cellulytic respiring microorganisms. Related tocarbon sequestration, we are using pore network structures to investigate
the displacement of water from pore spaces by hydrophobic fluids
including liquid and supercritical carbon dioxide, using fluorescencemicroscopy for quantitative measurements.

8725-81, Session 14

Intercalation of Asphaltene nano-aggregates
into natural and artificial substrates (Invited
Paper)
Michael K. Rafailov, Univ. of Alberta (Canada); Vladimir F. Sapega,
A.P. Karpinsky Russian Geological Research Institute (RussianFederation)
Here we report work done in oil nano-aggregates intercalation.
Asphaltene precipitation is the foundation of oil processing technology.
Convenient oil processing is based on high temperature water
consumptive technology with extensive use of chemicals. However,separation of asphaltenes from oil disperse system may happen naturally
via intercalation into natural mineral substrates. Process of asphaltene
natural precipitation appears to be quite effective in some types of oilsands: oil sands with elevated concentration of specific minerals andpresence of mineral substrates. We did reverse engineering of naturally
occurred processes of asphaltene precipitation. Rare and heavy metals
have been used to mark asphaltene nano-aggregates. Metals that are
widely presented in oil disperse system mostly in form of porphyrines
have been able to mark asphaltene nano-aggregates and to indicate oiland bitumen phase changing processes that occur via precipitation ofasphaltenes. Reverse engineering of naturally occurred intercalation iseffective tool for simulation of intercalation of asphaltene aggregates ofoil disperse system. Reverse engineering demonstrated high efficiency
of intercalation with specific types of mineral substrates. Our focus is todevelop non-aquatic non-chemical ambient temperature oil processing
technology.

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8725-82, Session 15

Micro- and nanodevices in millimetre andsub-millimetre imaging systems (Keynote
Presentation)
Roger Appleby, Queen’s Univ. Belfast (United Kingdom)This paper will review the impact of micro and nano technology on
millimetre and sub millimetre wave imaging from the post war years
to the present day. Where possible simulation based on OpenFx will
be used to demonstrate how changes in this technology impacted on
imaging performance. Whisker contacted diodes in mixers and vacuum
tubes were used in the post war years to realise both radiometers
and radars but required considerable skill to realise the performancerequired. Development of planar semiconductor diodes revolutionised
mixer performance and provided considerable improvement. The next
major breakthrough was high frequency transistors based on gallium
arsenide which were initially used at intermediate frequencies but later
after further development at higher frequencies. More recently Monolithic
Microwave Integrated circuits(MMICs) now offer exceptional performanceand when coupled with Monolithic Electro-Mechanical Switches(MEMS)
offer the opportunity for innovative design in imaging systems. In the
future the use of micro and nano technology will continue to drive system
performance and we can expect to see more integration of antennae,
millimetre wave and sub millimetre wave circuits and signal processing.

8725-83, Session 15

Airborne nanoparticle detection withnanomechanical string resonators (Invited
Paper)
Silvan Schmid, Maksymilian Kurek, Anja Boisen, Technical Univ.
of Denmark (Denmark)We present a nanomechanical sensor for the real-time detection of
single airborne nanoparticles for the implementation in low-cost portablepersonal nanoparticle monitors. The use of engineered nanoparticles incommercial applications has increased and personal monitoring devices
for the assessment of nanoparticle exposure doses are highly demanded.
Nanomechanical sensors have a low power consumption and an
unprecedented mass sensitivity required for the application as a portable
nanoparticle exposure monitor.

8725-84, Session 15

Antenna coupled detectors for 2D staring
focal plane arrays (Invited Paper)
Michael A. Gritz, Leonard P. Chen, Robert Burkholder, RaytheonCo. (United States); Brian A. Lail, Florida Institute of Technology(United States); Borys P. Kolasa, Raytheon Co. (United States)
Millimeter-wave (mmW)/sub-mmW/THz region of the electro-magnetic
spectrum enables imaging thru clothing and other obscurants suchas fog, clouds, smoke, sand, and dust. Therefore considerable
interest exists in developing low-cost passive millimeter-wave imaging(PMMWI) systems. Previous PMMWI systems have evolved fromcrude mechanically scanned, single element receiver systems into very
complex multiple receiver camera systems. Initial systems required
many expensive mmW integrated-circuit low-noise amplifiers. In order toreduce the cost and complexity of the existing systems, attempts havebeen made to develop new mmW imaging sensors employing direct
detection arrays. In this presentation, we report on Raytheon’s recent
development of a unique focal plane array technology, which operates
broadly from the mmW through the sub-mmW/THz region. Raytheon’s
innovative nano-antenna based detector enables low-cost productionof 2D staring mmW focal plane arrays (mmW FPA), which not only have

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Conference 8725: Micro- and Nanotechnology Sensors,
Systems, and Applications V

8725-88, Session 16

equivalent sensitivity and performance to existing PMMWI systems, but
require no mechanical scanning. We also present recently generated
images of objects obscured under clothing using our 2D mmW staring
FPA.

Comparison of thermal and laser sourcesin standoff IR detection experiments (Invited
Paper)

8725-85, Session 15

Samuel P. Hernandez-Rivera, Leonardo C. Pacheco-Londoño,
Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States); Iris VazquezAyala, Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Div.
(United States); Carlos A. Ortega-Zúñiga, Nataly Y. Galán-Freyle,
John R. Castro-Suarez, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (UnitedStates)Diffraction limit investigation with subwavelength pixels (Invited Paper)
Alain Bergeron, Marc Terroux, Linda Marchese, Denis G. Dufour,
Loic Le Noc, Claude Chevalier, INO (Canada)
Current state-of-the-art pixel dimensions for both visible and long-wave
infrared (LWIR) imagers are approaching the wavelength of measurement.
It is expected that technological advances will continue and that subwavelength pixels for these wavebands will become a reality. In light ofthe diffraction limit, scientists and engineers in the visible and infrared
domains have now begun pose the question as to whether it is worth
having a focal plane array (FPA) with pixel dimensions smaller that theimaging wavelength. Meanwhile, in the terahertz domain, FPAs havealready been fabricated and cameras designed around them with subwavelength pixels. INO has developed two versions of THz cameras, onewith dimensions 160x120 pixels with a pixel pitch of 52 µm and the other
388x284 pixels with pixel pitch of 35 µm. The THz wavelength range of
40 µm to 1 mm and thus both FPAs have pixel dimensions below thatof the imaging illumination. This paper discusses experimental results ofdiffraction limit investigations using sub-wavelength pixel THz cameras.

Standoff infrared (SOIR) detection systems were evaluated in detectionof threat chemicals and biological agents simulants. Chemometrics
enhanced data analysis provided with robust methodologies for
identification, quantification and discrimination highly energetic materials(HEM) and microorganisms using infrared spectroscopy. SOIR systems
were evaluated in terms of their sources: modulated heated ceramics(Globar: SiC), non-modulated heated sources, and mid-IR laser
sources; in terms of range; in terms of quantification capabilities at the
maximum range attained; and in terms of the off normal incidence (backreflection/scattering, even at angles as large as 70. A laser induced
thermal emission (LITE) standoff infrared system was also evaluatedand compared with active sensing using the mentioned sources. Low
limits of detection values were as low as ng/cm2. HEM used in this work
were both nitroaromatic (DNT and TNT) and nitroaliphatic (PETN and
RDX). Calibration curves were based on the use of robust chemometrics
routines such as partial least squares (PLS) regression analysis. Thesealgorithms were used to evaluate the angular dependence, range
dependence, quantification of surface concentration of HEM depositedand the detection limits and statistical significance of analyses
performed.

8725-87, Session 16

Raman and photothermal spectroscopies for
explosive detection (Invited Paper)

8725-89, Session 16

Eric Finot, Thibault Brulé, Padmnabh Rai, Univ. de Bourgogne(France); Aurélien Griffart, Univ. de Bourgogne (France);
Alexandre Bouhélier, Univ. de Bourgogne (France); Thomas G.
Thundat, Univ. of Alberta (Canada)

Data Analysis of Multi-Laser Standoff
Spectral identification of chemical andbiological compounds (Invited Paper)

Detection of explosive residues using portable devices for locating
landmine and terrorist weapons must satisfy the application criteriaof high reproducibility, specificity, sensitivity and fast response time.
Vibrational spectroscopies such as Raman and infrared spectroscopies
have demonstrated their potential to distinguish the members of thechemical family of more than 30 explosive materials. The characteristic
chemical fingerprints in the spectra of these explosives stem fromthe unique bond structure of each compound. However, these
spectroscopies, developed in the early sixties, suffer from a poorsensitivity. On the contrary, MEMS-based chemical sensors have shownto have very high sensitivity lowering the detection limit down to lessthan 1 picogram, (namely 10 part per trillion) using sensor platforms
based on microcantilevers, plasmonics, or surface acoustic waves. The
minimum amount of molecules that can be detected depends actually on
the transducer size. The selectivity in MEMS sensors is usually realizedusing chemical modification of the active surface. However, the lack ofsufficiently selective receptors that can be immobilized on MEMS sensors
remains one of the most critical issues. Microcantilever based sensors
offer an excellent opportunity to combine both the infrared photothermal
spectroscopy in their static mode and the unique mass sensitivity in theirdynamic mode. Optical sensors based on localized plasmon resonancecan also take up the challenge of addressing the selectivity by monitoring
the Surface Enhanced Raman spectrum down to few molecules. The
operating conditions of these promising localized spectroscopies will be
discussed in terms of reliability, compactness, data analysis and potential
for mass deployment.

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Ali Passian, Rubye Farahi, Viktor Zaharov, Laurene Tetard, Oak
Ridge National Lab. (United States); Thomas Thundat, Univ. ofAlberta (Canada)
While obtaining compositional information for objects from a distanceremains a major challenge in chemical and biological sensing, recently
we demonstrated that capitalizing on mid-infrared excitation of target
molecules by using quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) and invoking a
pump–probe scheme can provide spectral fingerprints of substancesfrom a variable standoff distance. By employing a variation of thephotothermal process, we present the non-contact detection of thedominant thermal effects due to response to an infrared source thatallows compositional analysis of the target sample via absorption
spectroscopy. Pump–probe photothermal spectroscopy configurations
which have demonstrated vibrational spectroscopy, such as mirage
detection and photothermal deflection spectroscopy, where the pumpand probe beams are transverse, are not scalable to measurements
at longer distances. Near co-linear pump-probe spectroscopy
configurations where the pump and probe beams are nearly parallel andare able to interrogate a target sample at distances have not previously
employed vibrational spectroscopy. We have demonstrated QCL-based
pump–probe vibrational spectroscopy that can be applied to standoff
sensing without the use of elaborate infrared cameras, telescopes
or detectors in acquiring a return signal, as is the case with current
scattered radiation collection and thermal infrared imaging methods.
For cases where the molecular species, the substrate on which they arefound, or the superstrates in which they reside exhibit strong absorption
in the spectral part of interest, the presented technique can provide animportant circumvention to the often difficult collection of weak infraredemission.
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8725-90, Session 16

Recent advances in quantum cascade lasers
for standoff detection (Invited Paper)
Timothy O. Day, William B. Chapman, David B. Arnone, Allen
Priest, David B. Caffey, Michael Pushkarsky, Alex Whitmore,
Vivek Kamath, David Ruiz, Justin Kane, Christopher Armacost,
Leigh J. Bromley, Daylight Solutions Inc. (United States)
For standoff detection of trace amounts of material, only laser-based
techniques appear to offer the potential to provide sufficient detection
sensitivity. Mid-infrared (mid-IR) laser spectroscopy presents aparticularly promising approach, given the presence of strong molecularabsorption features—and windows of atmospheric transparency—in
the well known mid-IR spectral ‘fingerprint’ region. Further, the highbrightness, power, and broad mid-infrared tuning ranges inherent toExternal Cavity quantum cascade lasers (ECqcLs™) make them ideallysuited to the remote detection requirements for: safe standoff distance;high chemical sensitivity and specificity; and the ability to identify arange of threats unambiguously with one instrument. Commercial ECqcL
systems, such as those pioneered by Daylight Solutions for commercial
and military markets, have also demonstrated that these platforms canprovide the ruggedness, compact size, efficiency and turn-key operationnecessary for field-deployable standoff detection systems. This paper
surveys several key recent results obtained with ECqcL systems by
researchers in standoff detection. New ECqcL product developments by
Daylight Solutions that bring new, unique performance capability to thisfield will also be reviewed.

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Conference 8726:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VI
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8726 Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VI
scanning hyperspectral imagers and standoff sensors, enhancing theirperformance and unlocking new application areas. In essence, theanamorphic elements of the HTVS optical system provide a means
to decouple the spatial (iFOV) and spectral resolution of nearly any
HSI system. In some scenarios, HTVS can be used to achieve better
spectral resolution with the same input slit width. Alternatively, the slit
can be widened (to increase the collected signal) while maintaining
the same spectral resolution. This newfound flexibility in optimizing
critical performance parameters not only improves the performance of
HSI systems in existing remote sensing contexts, but also opens up
numerous new application areas which were previously inaccessible
to hyperspectral techniques. This method adds substantial value toexisting HSI designs, particularly in applications involving targets withlarge spatial extent and requiring high spectral resolution (e.g. standoff
Raman spectroscopy). We present recent experimental results fromour prototype HTVS pushbroom imager and discuss case studies ofstandoff Raman detection of hazardous materials, passive detection offaint narrowband and monochromatic sources, and optimal disentanglingof target spectral signatures from the solar spectrum under daytime
illumination.

8726-1, Session 1

Snapshot hyperspectral imaging systems forreal-time applications (Invited Paper)
Robert T. Kester, Rebellion Photonics (United States)
Rebellion Photonics has developed innovative products based on its core
innovation of “snapshot”, i.e. non-scanning, hyperspectral imaging whichis capable of collecting an entire datacube in a single moment in time.
This has several advantages for applications where the scene or object
is moving and changing in time. Some of these advantages include
increase sensitivity, improved robustness, and the elimination of motion
artifacts. Current products and their applications as well as systems
under development will be discussed.

8726-2, Session 1

A full-spectrum VNIR and SWIR hyperspectral
imager in a single instrument8726-4, Session 1

Timo Hyvärinen, Kari J. Kataja, Risto Jaskari, Jukka T. Okkonen,
Ilkka Kormano, Esko Herrala, Aappo A. J. Roos, Petri Nygren,Specim Spectral Imaging Ltd. (Finland)

Development of a handheld widefield
hyperspectral imaging (HSI) sensor for
standoff detection of explosive, chemical andnarcotic residues

The best full spectrum solutions currently integrate two separate pushbroom hyperspectral cameras, VNIR and SWIR, in a platform where
they are mechanically aligned to image the target with two parallel
field of views (FOV). It results in a bulky construction which is prone tomisalignment. The biggest issue with two separate FOVs is that pixel
registration in the VNIR and SWIR image changes with varying distanceto the target. It complicates image processing, particularly in nearreal-time applications, like detection of IEDs and camouflaged objects,
environmental monitoring and mineral mapping on open mine wall andore processing lines.

Matthew P. Nelson, Marko Horvat, Patrick J. Treado, ChemImage
Corp. (United States)
The utility of Hyper Spectral Imaging (HSI) passive chemical detection
employing widefield, standoff imaging continues to be advanced in
detection applications. With a drive for reduced SWaP and increased
speed of detection and sensitivity, developing a handheld platformthat is robust and user-friendly increases the detection capabilities of
the individual warfighter. In addition, easy to use handheld detectors
could improve the effectiveness of locating and identifying threats while
reducing risks to the individual.

This paper presents the first commercial full spectrum push-broom
imager that resolves all the above problems. It images the target in380-2500 nm spectral region with 650 bands through single front optics
and single input slit, keeping all wavebands spatially co-registeredindependently of the distance to the target. The imager employs
an innovative imaging spectrometer which, behind the single input
slit, consists of two diffraction gratings and focal plane arrays (FPA),
separately optimized for highest sensitivity and SNR (1000:1) in both the
VNIR and SWIR region. Spot size matches the FPA pixel size and smileand keystone remain smaller than 20% of the pixel size. The imager is
independent of polarization and high image rate (up to 130 Hz) enables
excellent spatial sampling resolution.

ChemImage has developed a handheld sensor that uses HSI for realtime, wide area surveillance and standoff detection of explosives,
chemical threats, and narcotics. Employing liquid crystal tunable filter
technology, the HSI system has an intuitive user interface that produces
automated detections and real-time display of threats with a built
in library of threat signatures that is easily updated allowing for new
hazardous materials.
Unlike existing detection technologies that often require close proximity
for sensing and so endanger operators and costly equipment, thehandheld sensor allows the individual operator to detect threats from asafe distance. Uses of the sensor include locating production facilities
of illegal drugs or IEDs by identification of materials on surfaces suchas walls, floors, doors, deposits on production tools and residue on
individuals. In addition, the sensor can be used for longer-range standoff
applications such as hasty checkpoint or vehicle inspection of residue
materials on surfaces or bulk material identification.

The imager is extremely compact, weighs 15 kg, is temperature stabilized
and meets MIL-specification for vibration and shock. It fits to pan&tilt
platforms, stabilized airborne turrets and UAVs.

8726-3, Session 1

High-performance hyperspectral imaging
using virtual slit optics

8726-6, Session 1

Bradford B. Behr, Tornado Spectral Systems (United States);
Jeffrey T. Meade, Arsen R. Hajian, Andrew T. Cenko, Tornado
Spectral Systems (Canada)

MEOMS-based Fabry Perot array for SWIRMWIR imaging spectroscopy

The High Throughput Virtual Slit (or HTVS) is a new optical technology
which can significantly increase the throughput and spectral resolutionof a dispersive spectrometer. The HTVS is able to preserve spectrometer
etendue, mitigating photon losses normally associated with a slit.
Originally implemented in multimode fiber-input spectrometers, HTVS has
now been shown to be broadly applicable to a wide variety of spatially

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Michele Hinnrichs, Pacific Advanced Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates); Neelam Gupta, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
MOEMS based Fabry-Perot tunable infrared filter array uses electrostatic
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Conference 8726:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VI
spring mounted movable mirrors which are metal plated and act as theelectrodes in the electrostatic control system. The Fabry-Perot tunable
array (FPTA) has 16 elements in a 4 x 4 configuration. When coupled toa 1024 x 1024 pixel element focal plane array give 256 x 256 pixel based
resolution. Each Etalon in the FPTA is tuned to a different quiescentfrequency between 1 and 4 microns thus allowing simultaneous spectral
imaging each frame of the camera. Coupling the MOEMS based FPTA
with a lenslet array and a fore-optic collimator will give simultaneous
spectral imaging of the same target in the field of view. Then tuning
the Etalon gap each frame will fill in the spectral bands between thequiescent wavelengths thus allowing hyperspectral imaging in less than 1
second over the SWIR and MWIR bands in a single sensor.

on one substrate in a batch process, without assembling separate
pieces together. The gap is adjusted by moving the upper mirror withelectrostatic force, so there are no actual moving parts.

The concept design of the FPTA along with the fundamental processing
techniques used to manufacture the MOEMS device will be presented. A
conceptual system architecture will also be presented.

VTT will design and manufacture a handheld size demonstrator device
during 2012 based on technique presented in this abstract. This device
will demonstrate gas analyze by detecting cigarette lighter gas and also
various plastic materials. The handheld size demonstrator will contain alight source, gas cell, MEMS-FPI, detector and also control electronics. It
is connected to a laptop by USB connection.

This work is being sponsored by an SBIR program with the US Army.
It is anticipated that this technology can be used for both defense
and commercial applications in the area of gas imaging and analysis,
IED threat detection, chemical and biological warfare agent detection,
medical and chemical imaging just to name a few.

8726-7, Session 2

Performance modeling of MEMS standingwave Fourier transform microspectrometers
Dilusha K. Silva, John M. Dell, Lorenzo Faraone, The Univ. ofWestern Australia (Australia)
Due to the bulk and fragility of existing grating based and Fouriertransform spectrometers, many efforts are under way in a search for aspectrometer technology that is miniature while maintaining many ofthe performance features of the bench-top systems. Of key interest are
MEMS based technologies because of their potential low cost, vibration
resistance, and ruggedness.
The MEMS standing wave spectrometer, originally demonstrated byKung et al., in 2002 is one attempt in this search. This spectrometer
operates on the principle of sampling a portion of the interferogram,and reconstructing the optical spectrum via transform techniques. The
spectrometer consists of a partial MEMS movable mirror in opposing
configuration with a static photodetector. Light is incident from the sideof the photodetector, part of which passes through to the movable MEMS
mirror. Light reflected from the movable mirror interferes with incident
light at the photodetector. Moving the mirror position changes the optical
path difference (OPD) and allows measurement of the interferogram
within the OPD range allowed by the moving mirror.
We present here the development of a simple mathematical model,
and the resulting simulations to illustrate the operation of this device,
the expected spectral resolution, and spectral range. In particular,
we demonstrate that the finite thickness of the photodetector places
a limit on the ability of this system to accurately reconstruct the
optical spectrum of a broad-band input signal. However, the system
can measure the spectrum of a narrow-band optical signal with highaccuracy.

8726-9, Session 2First application close measurements
applying the new hybrid integrated MEMS
spectrometer
Heinrich Grüger, Tino Puegner, Jens Knobbe, Harald Schenk,
Fraunhofer-Institut für Photonische Mikrosysteme (Germany)
NIR (780nm – 2500nm) spectroscopy is a very often used technique forboth qualitative and quantitative material analyses. It provides accessto molecular transitions of organic compounds. In combination with thetypical penetration depth of several millimetres, NIR spectroscopy is very
important for food quality sensing, environmental monitoring, medical
analysis and many other applications.
Grating spectrometers have been designed in many different
configurations. Today potential high volume applications ask for
extremely miniaturized and ultra low cost systems. By the use of an
integrated MEMS (micro electro mechanical systems) scanning grating
device a less expensive single detector can be used in the NIR instead ofarray detectors required for fixed grating systems. Meanwhile the designof a hybrid integrated MEMS scanning grating spectrometer has beendrawn. The MEMS device was fabricated in the Fraunhofer IPMS own
clean room facility. This chip is mounted on a small circuit board together
with the detector and than stacked with spacer and mirror substrate. The
spectrometer has been realized by stacking several planar substrates by
sophisticated mounting technologies. Finally the optical bench has an
outline of 17mm x 12mm x 16mm. The spectrometer is working in the
950nm – 1900nm range with 9nm resolution.
First measurements have been performed on organic solutions andsamples of thin plastic stripes. The performance of the new hybrid
integrated spectrometer is compared with the established MEMS
scanning grating spectrometer SGS 1900. Options for applications indifferent field will be discussed in detail.

8726-10, Session 38726-8, Session 2

Hydrocarbon gas detection withmicroelectromechanical Fabry-Perot
interferometer
Rami Mannila, Mikko Tuohiniemi, Jussi H. Mäkynen, Ismo Näkki,Jarkko E. Antila, VTT Technical Research Ctr. of Finland (Finland)
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland has developed
microelectromechanical (MEMS) Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) forhydrocarbon measurements. Fabry-Perot interferometer is a structure
where is two highly reflective surfaces separated by a tunable air
gap. The MEMS FPI is a monolithic device, i.e. it is made entirely
234

Manufactured MEMS-FPIs will be characterized. According of thesimulations the tuning wavelength range of the MEMS-FPI is 3.1-3.7µm and its spectral resolution is 30-50nm. In this wavelength range
hydrocarbon gases has a strong absorption. Each hydrocarbon gas has
its own spectral signature, thus they can be detected and identified. The
developed MEMS-FPI can be utilized for example in methane, propane
or butane gas detection. The size of the MEMS-FPI chip is 3x3mm,
therefore it is possible to design small size gas detection system basedon this chip.

Real time CRDS detection of explosives
precursors using widely tunable QCLs
Charles C. Harb, The Univ. of New South Wales (Australia);
Thomas G. Spence, Loyola Univ. New Orleans (United States);David S. Moore, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States)
We have developed a real-time Cavity Ringdown Spectroscopy system
as a high-throughput screening tool for trace explosive detection. Our
new approach has been implemented in the mid-infrared region of theelectromagnetic spectrum, between 6.4 and 7.4 micrometers, where
we can take advantage of chemically specific molecular vibrations tounambiguously identify explosives and explosive-related compounds in

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Conference 8726:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VI
terms of each compound’s molecular fingerprint. Particular applicationof this spectroscopic technique is screening, perimeter protection andmitigation of threats from large vehicle-borne improvised explosive
devices. We expect to develop this broadly applicable, highly sensitive,
real-time chemical detection system for post-blast forensic analysis.
Our system has enabled us to make various general advances in cavity
ringdown spectroscopy. In particular, we have successfully devised anefficient, and sensitive instrument for mid-IR CRDS that reach an MDAL
of 4e-9cm^-1 Hz^-0.5 from a 1s scan and gathered 150000 data points
from a widely tuneable pulsed QCL (between 6.4 and 7.4 micrometers),
and used this instrument mid-IR CRDS instrument for molecularfingerprinting of explosives at trace level. For example, we were able todetect unambiguously the presence of TNT, nitromethane, acetonitrile,and acetone in real time. To date this type of molecular fingerprinting has
not, to our knowledge, been achieved in any other instrument.

relatively low-cost lightweight aerial leak detectors. The underlying
technology is near-infrared Standoff Tunable Diode Laser Absorption
Spectroscopy (sTDLAS). In one configuration, currently in commercial
operation, sTDLAS is combined with automated data reduction, alerting,navigation, and video imagery, integrated into a single-engine singlepilot light fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter platform. At airspeeds of 200
km/h and altitudes of 150 – 400 m AGL, it detects plumes from natural
gas leaks smaller than 20 m3/hr, corresponding to the flow through a
sub-millimeter hole in a transmission pipeline pressurized at 5500 kPa.
In a novel configuration, a miniaturized ultra-lightweight (1.4 kg) sTDLAS
sensor flies pre-programmed routes at altitudes up to ~50 m aboard asmall (3.2 kg) quad-rotor unmanned aerial vehicle. The sensor requires
less than 1.5W and operates for several hours from a pair of AA-sizedbatteries. In open field controlled methane releases, this system has
detected leaks as small as 1.0 m3/hr.

8726-11, Session 38726-13, Session 3

Tunable picosecond spectroscopy for
detection of nitric oxide (NO)Trace-gas sensing using the compliancevoltage of an external cavity quantum
cascade laser

Chakree Tanjaroon, Christopher J. Lue, Scott W. Reeve, Jeffrey
B. Johnson, Susan D. Allen, Arkansas State Univ. (United States)

Mark C. Phillips, Matthew S. Taubman, Pacific Northwest
National Lab. (United States)

Nitric oxide (NO) is a major chemical byproduct of many photochemically
active nitrogen-containing compounds. As a prototypical free radical withvery well characterized high resolution spectrum, NO provides a standard
spectroscopic fingerprint for indirect quantitative analysis and detectionof a number of low vapor nitroaromatic compounds in air through either
direct photochemical decomposition of a parent molecule or from its
relatively high vapor pressure chemical constituents. In this paper, we will
discuss application of picosecond laser spectroscopy for measurements
and detection of NO and the nascent NO generated from photolysis.
We will give a general overview of our tunable picosecond laser anddetection system that we routinely use for probing and exciting the NO
gamma band in the 200 - 300 nm wavelength range.

Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) are increasingly being used to detect,
identify, and measure levels of trace gases in the air. External cavity
QCLs (ECQCLs) provide a broadly-tunable infrared source to measureabsorption spectra of chemicals and provide high detection sensitivity
and identification confidence. Applications include detecting chemical
warfare agents and toxic industrial chemicals, monitoring building
air quality, measuring greenhouse gases for atmospheric research,monitoring and controlling industrial processes, analyzing chemicals
in exhaled breath for medical diagnostics, and many more. Compact,
portable trace gas sensors enable in-field operation in a wide range ofplatforms, including handheld units for use by first responders, fixedinstallations for monitoring air quality, and lightweight sensors for
deployment in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

This broad wavelength tuning capability of our laser allows us to set
up pump-probe type experiments for detecting blue-shifted rovibronic
bands, transferring population via stimulated emission pumping, andprobing the relative population distribution for NO.

We present experimental demonstration of a new chemical sensing
technique based on intracavity absorption in an external cavity quantum
cascade laser (ECQCL). This new technique eliminates the need for
an infrared photodetector and gas cell by detecting the intracavity
absorption spectrum in the compliance voltage of the laser device itself.
To demonstrate and characterize the technique, we measure infraredabsorption spectra of chemicals including water vapor and Freon-134a.
Sub-ppm detection limits in one second are achieved, with the potential
for increased sensitivity after further optimization. The technique enables
development of handheld, high-sensitivity, and high-accuracy trace gas
sensors for in-field use.

In all cases, experiments were performed using laser pulses with aduration of less than 10 ps. As a result, our measurements could becomplete before NO undergoes collisional relaxation.

8726-12, Session 3

Low-cost lightweight airborne laser-based
sensors for pipeline leak detection andreporting8726-14, Session 3

Michael B. Frish, Richard T. Wainner, Matthew C. Laderer,
Mark G. Allen, Physical Sciences Inc. (United States); James
Rutherford, Paul Wehnert, Heath Consultants Inc. (United States);
Sean Dey, John Gilchrist, Ron Corbi, New Era Technology, Inc.
(United States); Daniele Picciaia, TEA Sistemi S.p.A. (Italy); Paolo
Andreussi, Univ. of Pisa (Italy); David L. Furry, Leak Surveys Inc.
(United States)

Mid-infrared spectroscopic imaging with aquantum cascade laser
Kevin Yeh, Matthew V. Schulmerich, Rohit Bhargava, Univ. of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (United States)
Conventional mid-infrared (FT-IR) spectral imaging systems employ
an incoherent glow bar source and gain spectral contrast throughinterferometry. While this approach is suitable for many generalapplications, recent advancements in broadly tunable external cavity
Quantum Cascade Lasers (QCL) offer new approaches to and perhaps
new possibilities in mid-IR micro-spectroscopic imaging as QCLs offer
orders of magnitude greater intensity. While QCLs have yet to achieve thefull mid-infrared range that FTIR instruments record, the full spectrum is
not always necessary if only a few spectral bands are needed for sample
diagnostics. Here, we present a QCL based infrared microscope andexplore its utility in mid-infrared imaging. In our prototype instrument,
spectral contrast by tuning the QCL to bands in our spectral region of

Aircraft, especially helicopters, are routinely deployed to survey natural
gas transmission pipelines. Traditionally, sensors onboard the aircraft
sample the surrounding air to detect increased methane concentration
indicating a pipeline leak. Such sampling requires the aircraft to fly
through a gas plume, usually at low altitude, to detect the leak. Lasersensing technology enables remote or standoff detection: a laser beam
directed from the aircraft to the ground below detects the amountof gas transited by the laser; only the laser beam, not the aircraft,need penetrate the gas plume. This paper describes adaptations ofcommercial laser-based methane sensing technology that provide

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Conference 8726:
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interest. Detection is achieved with dual liquid nitrogen cooled Mercury
Cadmium Telluride (MCT) detectors. We demonstrate raster scanning
using the single element MCT. We also demonstrate wide-field imaging
employing a 128x128 pixel focal plane array (FPA), coupling to objectivesof various magnifications for spatial resolutions as high as 1 micron
per pixel, as well as mitigating the consequences of beam coherence
on image quality where images with single wavenumber resolution
are achievable in less than a second. We will discuss the effects ofcoherence on the image and compare our instrument to conventional
mid-IR imaging instrumentation.

8726-15, Session 4

Performance characterization of a combinedmaterial identification and screening
algorithm
Robert L. Green, Michael D. Hargreaves, Craig M. Gardner,
Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. (United States)
Portable analytical devices based on a gamut of technologies (Infrared,
Raman, X-Ray Fluorescence, Mass Spectrometry, etc.) are now widely
available. These tools have seen increasing adoption for field-based
assessment by diverse users including military, emergency response, andlaw enforcement. Frequently, end-users of portable devices are nonscientists who rely on embedded software and the associated algorithms
to convert collected data into actionable information. Two classes ofproblems commonly encountered in field applications are identificationand screening. Identification algorithms are designed to scour a libraryof known materials and determine whether the unknown measurement is
consistent with a stored response (or combination of stored responses).
Such algorithms can be used to identify a material from many thousandsof possible candidates. Screening algorithms evaluate whether at leasta subset of features in an unknown measurement correspond to one
or more specific substances of interest and are typically configured
to detect from a small list potential target analytes. Thus, screening
algorithms are much less broadly applicable than identification
algorithms; however, they typically provide higher detection rates whichmakes them attractive for specific applications such as chemical warfare
agent or narcotics detection. This paper will present an overview andperformance characterization of a combined identification/screening
algorithm that has recently been developed. It will be shown that the
combined algorithm provides enhanced detection capability more
typical of screening algorithms while maintaining a broad identification
capability. Additionally, we will highlight how this approach can enable
users to incorporate situational awareness during a response.

8726-17, Session 4

Discrimination methodologies using
femtosecond LIBS and correlation techniques
Venugopal Rao Soma, Sreedhar Sunku, Nageswara Rao
Epuru, Manoj Kumar Gundawar, Surya Prakash Tewari, Univ. of
Hyderabad (India)
Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an attractive, versatile
spectroscopic technique employed successfully for the detection of
hazardous substances with encouraging attributes such as stand-off
detection capability, trace detection, and high speed capability. Using
ultrashort lasers, novel and sensitive systems for (LIBS) analysis could
be developed. The specific advantages of using ultrashort pulses for
efficient detection of explosives include lower ablation threshold, andreduced background Continuum emission. An amplified femtosecond(fs) pulse at 800 nm (1 kHz, ~40 fs FWHM, ~2.5 mJ) was used for theexperiments. For detection of spectral emission a gated spectrometer(ANDOR, Mechelle spectrograph ME5000, coupled to an ANDOR iSTAR
DH734 ICCD) with resolving power 5000 was used in our experiments.
Most of the energetic materials are composed of hydrogen, carbon,
oxygen, and nitrogen the task of discriminating one material from theother is complicated. In addition to atomic peaks in the plasma themolecular peaks (CN and C2) assay an important role in classifying thesesamples. Effort have been made to discriminate HEMs using statisticalanalytical techniques to classify the several chemical warfare samples
like RDX, NTO, TNT, ANTA and DADNE. LIBS spectra were recorded fromsamples made in the form of pellets and also mixed in PMMA matrix.
Correlation statistics were used to discriminate the samples. This paper
will discuss in detail the simple correlation techniques applied for the
LIBS spectra recorded with fs pulses.

8726-18, Session 58726-16, Session 4

Progress in implementing spectroscopic
recognition algorithms for standoff detection
on solids using quantum cascade lasers in
diffuse reflectanceFrederick G. Haibach, Richard Fauconier, Erik R. Deutsch, BlockEngineering, LLC (United States)
Short-range, non-destructive standoff detection of CWA/TICs andexplosives on a variety of surfaces has been demonstrated for bulk andareal concentrations as low as 1-10 &mu;g/cm< sup>2< /sup> using
mid-infrared quantum cascade lasers (QCL) with specificity for eachcompound presented. The detection modality, absorption by diffuse
infrared reflectance, is enabled by the high spectral radiance of the QCL.
The QCL is also inherently compact and suitable for use in a handheld
device.
The combination of portability, sensitivity and specificity is unique among
the proposed technologies for use by the dismounted warfighter. The
difference between demonstration of the technology capabilities andpractice is taking the expertise of a spectroscopist and the software236

tools available and encapsulating that in an expert algorithm so that
accurate detection can occur in real-time. The parameters that need to
be encapsulated inside the instrument are: a degree of environmental
awareness; knowledge of the compounds to be detected, and whatkinds of surfaces those compounds can contaminate; how thosecompounds present themselves in diffuse reflectance at different levels ofcontamination from bulk to trace; and what optical effects occur for eachcompound and contamination level that affects the absorption spectrum.
Clearly, the algorithms are complex. This paper will review the important
effects, how they have been dealt with historically in a number of different
fields, and indicate the level of success in encapsulating that knowledge
in an algorithm in laboratory testing.

Portable sub-terahertz resonancespectrometer combined with microfluidic
sample cell
Jerome P. Ferrance, J2F Engineering (United States); Alexander
Khromov, Aaron Moyer, Tatyana Khromova, Vibratess, LLC(United States); Boris L. Gelmont, Univ. of Virginia (United States);
Igor Sizov, Vibratess, LLC (United States); Tatiana Globus, Univ.
of Virginia (United States)
Radiation in the Terahertz frequency range interacts with vibrationsin the weakest molecular couplings such as hydrogen bonding, vander Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions. The work presented
here demonstrates our recently developed, portable, sub-Terahertz
spectrometer integrated with a microfluidic device as the sample cell forpresenting liquid samples within the detection region of the spectrometer.
An improved design of the continuous-wave, frequency-domain
spectrometer, operating at room temperature between 315 and 480 GHz
with spectral resolution of 0.5 GHz, demonstrates highly intense andspecific signatures from nano-gram samples of dry biological molecules
and whole bacterial cells. The microfluidic device design utilizes a single

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Conference 8726:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VI
channel or set of channels formed with metal sidewalls to enhance theinteraction between the THz radiation and the sample, increasing thesensitivity of the system. Combined with near field effects, through useof a detection probe close to the surface of the sample cell, spatial
resolution less than the diffraction limit can be achieved, reducing theamount of sample required for analysis. The work focuses on the design,
fabrication methods, and implementation of the microfluidic sample
cell device within our THz spectrometer. The very low absorption bywater in this sample cell and a low disturbance from a water vapors in
the near field sensor configuration, allow for the use of liquid samples
and eliminate the need for purging of the detection system. The device
is utilized for characterization of different cell types, showing that THz
interrogation of liquid samples is possible and effective.

waveguide fabrication for use with harsh gas streams containing sulphur
compounds or laden with steam and oil. Material systems for waveguidelinings including gold, silver, silver iodide, and cyclic olefin polymer will
be discussed with respect to those contaminants. Instrument sensitivity
improvements are demonstrated using techniques like polarization
control and optical component noise minimization. Sample stream
cleanup and delivery are also optimized to provide gas samples without
removing measurable steam and heavy hydrocarbon constituents.
Such improvements are aimed at the energy, natural gas, chemical, andpharmaceutical manufacturing markets. Auxiliary system components
such as the on-board laser, miniature spectrometer, coupling optics, andsupport electronics are optimized for use with the hollow-waveguidesample cell. Together, these techniques permit the feed-forward control
of industrial processes through a-priori determination of the compositionof gaseous reactants, fuels, or products. Recent real-world industrial fieldtrials and laboratory experiments report considerable advantages overmost existing gas-analysis methods.

8726-19, Session 5

THz-Raman: accessing molecular structurewith Raman spectroscopy for identification,
analysis and monitoring8726-21, Session 5

High-throughput spectrometer designs
in a compact form-factor: principles andapplications

Randy A. Heyler, James T. Carriere, Frank Havermeyer, Ondax,
Inc. (United States)
Spectroscopic measurement of rotational and vibrational modes is ofincreasing interest for many applications, since these spectra can reveal
unique and important structural and behavioral information about a wide
range of materials including hazardous chemicals, biological agents,
radionuclides and explosives. However these modes correspond to very
low frequency (10cm-1 - 100cm-1, or 300 GHz-3THz) emissions, whichhave been traditionally difficult and/or expensive to access throughconventional Raman and Terahertz spectroscopy techniques.

Scott M. Norton, Wasatch Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Many compact, portable Raman spectrometers have entered themarket in the past few years with applications in narcotics andhazardous material identification, as well as verification applications
in pharmaceuticals and TSA screening. Often, the required compact
form-factor has forced designers to sacrifice throughput and sensitivity
for portability and low-cost. There is a misconception that transmissive
designs using high-efficiency VPH gratings require large footprints andthus most designers have chosen the compact Czerny-Turner designusing reflective optics to achieve their required compact packaging.
In this presentation we will describe the VPH-based design and detail
how it can lead to superior f/# designs over the Czerny Turner design.
We will outline advantages and disadvantages of each. An in-depth
look at throughput, f/# and the influence of front-end optics and S/N inspectroscopy will highlight the discussion Limit of detection experiments
will be used to illustrate the sensitivity offered by a VPH-based
spectrometer system and it will be shown that enhanced sensitivity canlead to new applications.

Terahertz spectroscopy can directly measure these low energy modes
by emitting radiation in the 300GHz to 3THz frequency range (10cm-1 to
100cm-1 region) and detecting the corresponding absorption spectrum,
however source and detector availability and expense have limited thepotential sensitivity, resolution, and/or economics of using this technique.
Alternatively, traditional Raman systems employ edge or notch filters toblock Rayleigh scattered light that remove most, if not all of these low
frequency signals, as well as the entire anti-Stokes region.
We present results from a new approach for extending the range ofRaman spectroscopy into the Terahertz regime using an ultra narrowband volume holographic grating (VHG) based notch filter system. An
integrated, compact Raman system is demonstrated utilizing a single
stage spectrometer to show both Stokes and anti-Stokes measurements
down to <10cm-1 on a wide variety of materials including but not limited
to explosives, pharmaceuticals, and biological specimens. These all are
shown to exhibit characteristically different low frequency peaks that canbe exploited for chemical analysis, identification, monitoring, forensics,
and contamination.

8726-22, Session 5

Spectral analysis of improvised explosives
Amy J. R. Bauer, Applied Research Associates, Inc. (UnitedStates); Andrzej W. Miziolek, U.S. Army Research, Development
and Engineering Command (United States)

8726-20, Session 5

The analysis of suspected Improvised Explosives (IEs) and theiringredients is challenging, especially in the field, due to the fact thatthe broad IE umbrella contains a wide variety of chemistry including
nitro/nitrate/nitrite, metals (e.g. Al, Mg), chlorates/perchlorates or,peroxide. They have also been observed to include food products
such as cumin, sugar, flour, and other powders. The wide variety ofpossible chemistry poses a major challenge for current field analytical
tools which largely tend to focus on specific subgroups such as nitro/
nitrite/nitrate, metals, and peroxides. A better detector would be a more
universal one where a single device could be used to identify many
more types of unknown materials. Unfortunately, such a universal sensor
does not yet exist. Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)
has potential toward the solution of this problem in that it provides theelemental inventory of the unknown material, regardless of the form of
the material (e.g. solid, residue, liquid, aerosol, vapor). With the recent
progress in using advanced chemometrics, there is a growing bodyof literature that demonstrates very good performance with regards tounknown identification/classification, usually with >95% True Positiveand <5% False Positives. Additionally new commercial LIBS devices

Design and industrial testing of ultrafast
multi-gas Raman spectrometer
Michael P. Buric, Steven D. Woodruff, Benjamin Chorpening,
Jessica C. Mullen, National Energy Technology Lab. (UnitedStates)We previously reported the use of hollow metal and dielectric lined
waveguides as gas cells used in real-time gas-Raman spectroscopy.
Our team has constructed a multi-gas Raman sensor system capable ofmeasuring molecular components in most gas mixtures with sub-percent
accuracy and a sub-second sampling rate. This combination of speed
and accuracy is enabled by the novel combination of optimized samplecell collection and appropriate gas-stream configuration. We believethat this system will produce a paradigm shift in the use of Raman
spectroscopy by eliminating issues with low-density samples or weak gas
Raman cross-sections. Current research seeks improvements in hollow

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Conference 8726:
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are now available that are suitable for field use (battery operated). This
presentation will discuss recent results in evaluating the potential of LIBS
for the correct identification/classification of various IE materials andprecursor ingredients.

8726-23, Session 5

A novel laser-based approach for cleaning
contaminated metallic surfaces coupled with
rapid residue analysis
Robert V. Fox, Idaho National Lab. (United States); Frank C. De
Lucia Jr., U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Andrzej W.
Miziolek, U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering
Command (United States); Andrew I. Whitehouse, Applied
Photonics, Ltd. (United Kingdom); Lauren Roberts, Idaho
National Lab. (United States)
We are developing a novel approach for cleaning and confirming
contaminated metallic surfaces that is based on laser ablation to clean
the surfaces followed closely in time and space by laser analysis of
the degree of cleanliness. Laser based surface cleaning is a wellestablished technology and is commercially available (e.g. Adapt Laser).
The new development involves the integration of a LIBS (Laser Induced
Breakdown Spectroscopy) surface analytical capability to analyze thesurface right after the cleaning step for presence or absence of unwanted
residues. This all-laser approach is being applied to stainless steel
vessels which are being used for the destruction of chemical munitions
using explosives. This destruction results in the creation of contaminatedand corroded surfaces that need to be cleaned down to the acceptablelevels. The initial focus is on chemical munitions that involve Arsenic
where LIBS has been demonstrated to analyze surfaces at below 1
microgram per square centimeter surface loading levels. Recent progress
and future directions will be presented.

8726-25, Session 5

Frequency-agile, rapid scanningspectroscopy
David A. Long, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States); Gar-Wing Truong, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States) and the Univ. of Western
Australia (Australia); Kevin O. Douglass, Stephen Edward
Maxwell, Roger D. van Zee, Joseph T. Hodges, National Instituteof Standards and Technology (United States)
We present frequency-agile, rapid scanning (FARS) spectroscopy, anovel, high bandwidth technique in which laser radiation is stepped
between successive optical frequencies. FARS removes the need forslow thermal or mechanical wavelength tuning and allows for fast
and accurate measurements of trace gas analytes. We have recently
combined FARS with cavity ring-down spectroscopy to produce anultrasensitive spectrometer capable of recording entire absorption
spectra at rates up to 100 Hz with sensitivity of 2x10-11 cm-1 Hz-1/2
and an absolute frequency accuracy of 10 kHz (3x10-7 cm-1). Thisrate is orders of magnitude faster than traditional cavity ring-down
spectrometers and does not rely upon sweeping the laser frequency or
cavity length which would significantly reduce the measurement duty
cycle. We present initial measurements of trace atmospheric gases anddiscuss avenues for the use of the technique in low-cost sensors.

8726-26, Session 5

The evaluation of a new technology forgunshot residue (GSR) analysis in the field
Danielle M. Andersen, Ellen Hondrogiannis, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates); Andrzej W. Miziolek, U.S. Army Research, Development
and Engineering Command (United States)
There continues to be a need for improved technology to be used intheater to quickly and accurately identify the person who shot any
weapon during a terrorist attack as well as to link a suspect to the actual
weapon fired during a crime. Beyond this, in areas of conflict it would
be desirable to have the capability to establish the source country
for weaponry and ammunition. Gunshot residue (GSR) analysis is areasonably well-studied technology area. Recent scientific publications
have reported that the residues have a rich composition of bothorganic and inorganic compounds. For the purposes of identifying the
manufacturer or country of origin for the ammunition, the inorganic
components of GSR appear to be especially promising since theirpresence in the propellant and primer formulations are either specific to agiven chemical formula, or they represent impurities in the manufacturing
process that can be unique to a manufacturer or the source country
for the chemicals used for propellants and primers. The Laser Induced
Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) technology has already demonstrated
considerable capability for elemental fingerprinting, especially for
inorganic/metallic components. A number of reports have demonstrated
LIBS capability in forensics for matching materials such as inks, fabrics,
paper, glass, and paint. This presentation will describe the results of astudy to assess a new commercial field-portable (battery operated) LIBS
system for GSR analysis.

8726-27, Session 5

Spectroscopy methods for identifying thecountry of origin
Erin C. Ehrlinger, Ellen Hondrogiannis, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates); Andrzej W. Miziolek, U.S. Army Research, Development
and Engineering Command (United States)
There is a need in many industries and government functions to identify
the source of origin for various materials. For example, the food industry
needs to ensure that the claimed source of some of the food products(e.g. coffee, spices) are in fact legitimate due to the variation of quality
from different source locations world-wide. Another example is to identify
the source country for imported commodities going through Customs
so as to assess the correct tariff which varies depending on the source
country. Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) holds promisefor being a field-portable tool for rapid identification of the country oforigin of various materials. Recent research at Towson University has
identified the elemental markers needed for discrimination of selectspices back to their country of origin using Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray
Fluorescence (WDXRF). The WDXRF device, however, is not particularly
suitable for convenient and fast field analysis. We are extending thisstudy to evaluate the potential of a new commercial field LIBS device(battery operated) and to compare its performance with WDXRF. The
presentation will provide the results of this study and the comparison.

8726-28, Session 6

Handheld spectrometers: the state of the art
Richard A. Crocombe, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. (UnitedStates)“Small” spectrometers fall into three broad classes: small versions oflaboratory instruments, providing data, subsequently processed on a PC;
dedicated analyzers, providing actionable information to an individual
operator; and process analyzers, providing quantitative or semi-

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Conference 8726:
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Leonid Krasnobaev, Kenneth Vachon, Thermo Fisher ScientificInc. (United States)

quantitative information to a process controller. The emphasis of thispaper is on handheld dedicated analyzers.
Increasingly, the lab is moving to the field. Many spectrometers havehistorically been large, possible fragile, expensive and complicatedto use. The challenge over the last dozen years has been to make
spectrometers smaller, affordable, rugged, easy-to-use, but most of
all capable of delivering actionable results. Actionable results candramatically improve the efficiency of a testing process and transform theway business is done.

ThermoFisher Scientific (formerly Ahura Scientific) has developed
a handheld, modular detection and identification system for tracelevel gases, chemical vapors and aerosols, and swab analyses. The
system main housing contains a single, miniature FTIR spectrometer,
batteries, and the user interface keypad and screen. The sample
chamber is contained in a separate, removable module that clamps tothe main housing. The modules are interchangeable and can be tailoredspecifically to the users’ needs. A vapor/aerosol module pulls ambient air
into a four-meter pathlength White cell. This single module can operate
in three modes: ambient sampling, vapor/aerosol preconcentration,and direct injection. A swab module can be used to analyze thermallydesorbed vapors from a sample swab, allowing analyses of bulk
liquids or solids or trace chemicals swabbed from surfaces. Limits ofidentification for vapors are approximately 20 ppm ambient or as low as
0.1 ppm following a 15-min preconcentration period. The swab module
is able to detect as little as 5 ug of TNT in the presence of various
interferents.

There are several keys to this handheld spectrometer revolution.
Consumer electronics has given us powerful mobile platforms, compact
batteries, clearly visible displays, new user interfaces, etc., while
telecomm has revolutionized miniature optics, sources and detectors.
While these technologies enable miniature spectrometers themselves,
actionable information has demanded the development of rugged
algorithms for material confirmation, unknown identification, mixture
analysis and detection of suspicious materials in unknown matrices.
These algorithms are far more sophisticated than the ‘correlation’ or ‘dotproduct’ methods commonly used in benchtop instruments.
Finally, continuing consumer electronics advances now enable many
more technologies to be incorporated into handheld spectrometers,
including Bluetooth, wireless , GPS, cameras and bar code readers,
and the continued size shrinkage of spectrometer ‘engines’ leads to theprospect of dual technology or ‘hyphenated’ handheld instruments.

8726-31, Session 6

Advanced sampling techniques for hand-held
FT-IR instrumentation

This talk will describe the applications and the technologies (hardware
and software) in handheld analyzers, and prospects for the future.

Josep Arnó, Michael Frunzi, Chris Weber, Dustin Levy, Smiths
Detection (United States)

8726-29, Session 6

FT-IR spectroscopy is the technology of choice to identify solid andliquid phase unknown samples. The challenging ConOps in emergency
response and military field applications require a significant redesign ofthe stationary FT-IR bench-top instruments typically used in laboratories.
Specifically, field portable units require high levels of resistance against
mechanical shock and chemical attack, easy of use in restrictive gear,
quick and easy interpretation of results, and reduced size. In the last 20
years, FT-IR instruments have been re-engineered to fit in small suitcases
for field portable use and recently further miniaturized for handheld
operation. This article introduces a FT-IR instrument designed to balance
the portability advantages of a handheld device with the performancechallenges associated with miniaturization. Special focus will be given
to the different alternatives to collect and interrogate samples using
the on-board ATR press. Specifically, the application of a novel sample
swipe accessory to collect material from surfaces will be discussed.
The accessory was tested and evaluated for the detection of explosive
residues before and after detonation. Experimental results derived
from these investigations will be described in an effort to outline theadvantages of this technology over existing sampling methods.

A microfabricated, low dark current a-Se
detector for measurement of microplasma
optical emission in the UV for possible use
on-siteShiva Abbaszadeh, Karim S. Karim, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of
Waterloo (Canada)
In classical chemical analysis, samples are collected in the field (e.g.,
on-site) and are shipped to a laboratory for chemical analysis. In thelast few years, an attractive alternative began to emerge in the form ofminiaturized, portable instruments that can be used for chemical analysis
on-site (i.e., in the field).
For measurements by optical emission spectrometry in the UV region,
we recently reported use of a portable, fiber-optic spectrometer. The
spectrometer utilizes a linear, un-cooled CCD-detector. To take fulladvantage of the capabilities of CCDs (and in order to obtain improved
chemical analysis performance for use on-site), cooling of the CCD andthermal management are required. But cooling and thermal management
hinder portability because they add weight and burden the power budget.
Based on these considerations, an alternative was sought and utilized.

8726-32, Session 6

Tapered air-core Bragg waveguide
spectrometers for lab-on-a-chip applications

In this presentation, a miniaturized detector for UV detection that does
not require cooling (due to its low dark current) will be described in detail.
Unlike crystalline Silicon CCD-detectors, this low-cost detector utilizes
amorphous Selenium [1] . Spectra acquired using a microplasma will becompared and contrasted with those obtained with a portable, fiberoptic, CCD-based spectrometer.

Brian Drobot, Aaron Melnyk, Trevor Allen, Ray G. DeCorby, Univ.
of Alberta (Canada)Lab-on-a-chip and optofluidic micro-systems often rely on bulky off-chip
optical components such as lenses and spectrometers for detection.
There is a growing demand for compact microspectrometers that canbe integrated on-chip, to increase portability and potentially reduce thecost and complexity of these systems. Portability is especially important
in applications such as point-of-care diagnostics and field-deployable
threat detectors.

1. S. Abbaszadeh, K. S. Karim and V. Karanassios, Measurement of UVfrom a microplasma by a microfabricated amorphous selenium detector,
IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices (submitted)

8726-30, Session 6

We have previously reported chip-scale microspectrometers basedon tapered air-core Bragg waveguides with omnidirectional Bragg
claddings. Position-dependent cut-off results in spatial dispersion of apolychromatic signal. By tailoring the Bragg cladding materials, we havefabricated prototype devices operating in both the near-infrared and thevisible ranges, exhibiting operational bandwidths of several hundred

A handheld FTIR spectrometer withswappable modules for chemical vapor
identification and surface swab analysis
Walter J. Doherty III, Brendan Falvey, Greg Vander Rhodes,
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239

Conference 8726:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VI
nanometers and resolution on the order of 1 nm. Here, we describe theintegration of these air-core waveguide spectrometers with PDMS-based
microfluidics, including results for a prototype sensing system basedon spectrally-resolved fluorescence detection. We will also describe
preliminary work aimed at applying these techniques to on-chip surfaceenhanced Raman spectroscopy.

8726-33, Session 7

Feasibility study of birefringent electro-optic
NIR FTS imaging systems
Valerie A. Finnemeyer, Philip J. Bos, Liquid Crystal Institute, KSU(United States)
Fourier-transform imaging systems can rapidly provide a great dealof information in a scene. Many applications require systems with nomoving parts. One proposed approach uses birefringent crystal stages
interspersed with liquid crystal cells acting as achromatic polarization
rotators. Previous research has revealed that this system may have
limited applicability because of severe limitations of the field-of-view forsystems with large OPD. We provide a more in-depth analysis of theselimitations using mostly Extended Jones Matrix simulations. We also
propose a design modifications which greatly improves FOV, allowing
higher resolutions to be achieved.

Standards and Technology (United States)
Correlated bi-photon spectroscopy is the technique used to measure
the spectrum of an object by monitoring the coincidence counts fromcorrelated signal and idler photon pairs generated by spontaneous
parametric down-conversion (SPDC). We describe a scheme using astrongly non-degenerate SPDC source and a tunable up-conversion
detector. The spectral function at one wavelength range of a remoteobject can be reproduced exactly by locally measuring anotherwavelength range using a tunable single-photon sensitive up-conversion
detector and monitoring the coincidence counts. The up-conversion
detector operates in the difficult to detect infrared range and thus
extends remote spectroscopy into the infrared. The spectral resolutionof the system is better than 0.1-nm corresponding to the acceptancewidth of the up-conversion detector while the measurement range isdetermined by the spectral bandwidth of the source.
Applications include remote spectroscopy since only a spectrally nonresolving intensity detector, rather than a spectrometer, is needed forphotons interacting with the object. The spectral measurements canbe achieved by spectrally resolving the correlated photon beam locally.
This technique may also provide a solution where security or privacy
is required but difficult to achieve at the object site since neither the
spectrally non-resolved signal, having interacted with the object, nor the
spectrally resolved idler, having no interaction with the object, containany spectral information individually – both are required to complete thespectral profile. And since the spectrum is generated on the basis ofcoincidence measurements, rather than intensity, a significantly improved
signal-to-noise ratio can be achieved.

8726-34, Session 7

Continuous-wave near-photon counting
spectral imaging detector in the mid-infrared
by upconversion

8726-36, Session 7

Jeppe S. Dam, Peter Tidemand-Lichtenberg, Christian Pedersen,
Technical Univ. of Denmark (Denmark)Elizabeth C. Schundler, David J. Mansur, Robert Vaillancourt,
Ryan Benedict-Gill, Scott P. Newbry, James R Engel, Julia R
Dupuis, OPTRA, Inc. (United States)

Imaging and detection of light at infrared wavelengths are of great
technical and scientific interest due to many important applications, e.g.
within thermal imaging and spectroscopy. Low light level detection in the
mid-infrared is challenging, and typically requires cryogenic cooling toreach low noise levels. Although significant advances have been madewithin the electronics and detector materials, fundamental noise issues
are considered unavoidable for efficient detection at longer wavelengths.
However, we demonstrate a different, fundamentally noise free principle
where mid-infrared light, containing image and/or spectral information,
are converted to near visible wavelengths with high quantum efficiency.
After conversion the radiation can be detected by any near visible lightdetector, thus effectively extending its working range of e.g. Si-based
detectors to the mid-infrared. The method is based on upconversion ina non-linear crystal by mixing with a strong laser field. Since the crystal
is transparent there is virtually no dark noise in the system - even whenworking at room temperature. The dark noise has been measured to beless than 0.2 photons per spatial element per second. The conversion
principle is generic, and can be applied over a huge dynamic range fromsingle photons to milliwatts of power. The generic principle presented,
even allows for further build-in functionality, e.g. multi- and hyperspectral
imaging, allowing for identification of substances with a specific spectral
fingerprint. Furthermore, the mixing process allows for high temporal
resolution and high image frame rate, in principle limited only by available
Si-technology.

8726-35, Session 7

Remote bi-photon spectroscopy using asingle-photon up-conversion detector
Oliver T. Slattery, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States) and Univ. of Limerick (Ireland); Paulina Kuo,
Young-Su Kim, Lijun Ma, Xiao Tang, National Institute of240

Fourier transform infrared phase-shift cavity
ring-down spectrometer

We report on our current status towards the development of a prototype
Fourier transform infrared phase shift cavity ring down spectrometer(FTIR-PS-CRDS) system under a U.S. EPA SBIR contract. Our system
uses the inherent wavelength-dependent modulation imposed by the
FTIR on a broadband thermal source for the phase shift measurement.
This spectrally-dependent phase shift is proportional to the spectrallydependent ring down time, which is proportional to the losses of thecavity including those due to molecular absorption. Our approach isa broadband and spectral range enhancement to conventional CRDS
which is typically done in the near IR at a single wavelength; at the sametime our approach is a sensitivity enhancement to traditional FTIR owing
to the long effective path of the resonant cavity. In this paper we present
a summary of the theory including performance projections and thedesign details of the prototype FTIR-PS-CRDS system.

8726-37, Session PTues

Broadband absorption and emission
millimeter-wave spectroscopy between 220
and 325 GHz
Michael Szymkiewicz, Axel Hülsmann, Axel Tessmann,
Arnulf Leuther, Michael Schlechtweg, Fraunhofer-Institut fürAngewandte Festkörperphysik (Germany); Oliver Ambacher,Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik (Germany)and Univ. of Freiburg (Germany); Ingmar Kallfass, FraunhoferInstitut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik (Germany) andKarlsruher Institute of Technology (Germany); Stefan Koch,
Matthias Riedel, Sony Deutschland GmbH (Germany)

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Conference 8726:
Next-Generation Spectroscopic Technologies VI
A millimeter-wave spectroscope for the detection of triatomic gases has
been constructed and characterized for frequencies between 230 GHz
and 325 GHz (H-band).The spectrometer achieved results as well as highsensitivity and low threshold detection. A circular lensed horn antennatransmits millimeter- waves into a gas-filled vacuum tube and excites
three atomic gas molecules to a higher energy level, if the rotational
resonance frequency of the molecule matches with the excitation
frequency. At the other end of the tube a second lensed horn antenna
receives the propagated electromagnetic wave and the millimeter-wave
power is measured by a heterodyne receiver. By sweeping the radiatedtransmit frequency, the molecule specific absorption can be detected.
The measured absorption results are superposed by standing wave
effects within the tube.
To eliminate the standing wave effects, spectroscopy on the basis ofrotational spontaneous millimeter-wave emission were examined. Thiskind of spectroscopy decouples the transmitted from the received
signal, whereby independent excitation and detection of the molecules
are realized. The use of additional absorbers at the end of the gas tube
decreases the decay-time of the radiated wave inside the gas cell.
In this paper, the detection of spontaneous emission of three atomic gas
molecules with the use of a pulse controlled transmitter and receiveris shown. Optimizations improved the stability and reproducibility ofthe measurements and the detections threshold of nitrous oxide could
be decreased to a ratio of 1/400. Furthermore, the implementation ofa differential measurement method reduces the measurement time byfactor 150 and simultaneously decouples of environmental influences.

8726-38, Session PTues

Probing vibrational absorption of ultra-thinsamples by plasmonic-enhanced infrared
photoexpansion nano-spectroscopy
Feng Lu, Mikhail A. Belkin, The Univ. of Texas at Austin (UnitedStates)Mid-IR photoexpansion nano-spectroscopy measures spectra ofsamples on nanoscale by detecting local thermal expansion associatedwith light absorption using standard AFM. Cantilever deflection is
directly proportional to sample absorption. This method results in a
simple experimental setup with no optical detectors. We have recently
demonstrated that the sensitivity of photoexpansion nano-spectroscopy
can be dramatically enhanced by moving the laser pulses repetition
frequency in resonance with the mechanical frequency of the AFM
cantilever. We were able to produce spectra from ~100 nm thin films
using low energy (4 nJ) pulses from a tunable quantum cascade laser(QCL). The spatial resolution, which is determined by thermal diffusion
length, has been demonstrated to be better than 50 nm. Sample heating
is limited to ~10 mK.
Here we present a novel approach to increase both the sensitivity andspatial resolution of photoexpansion nano-spectroscopy. We utilize theplasmonic local-intensity enhancement below a gold-coated AFM tip.
We successfully produced high-quality vibrational absorption spectrafrom samples as thin as 10 nm positioned on top of gold-coated silicon
substrates. In addition to higher photoexpansion signal, our techniquefeatures higher spatial resolution, which is no longer limited by thermal
diffusion length but is instead determined by the dimensions of the highintensity field region below the metal tip, which can be 10 nm or smaller.
This work is supported by the Welch Foundation grant No. F-1705 andphase I DOE STTR grant.

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241Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII
Wednesday - Thursday 1 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8727 Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII

8727-1, Session 1

Hyperentanglement and related technologies
for quantum telecommunications (Invited
Paper)
Nicholas A. Peters, Anjali Agarwal, Applied Communication
Sciences (United States); Thomas E. Chapuran, Telcordia
Technologies, Inc. (United States); Paul Toliver, Applied
Communication Sciences (United States)
We demonstrate the first measurement of hyperentangled photon pairs,
both of which are at telecom wavelengths, via simultaneous polarization
tomography and time-bin interference measurements. Without cryogenic
cooling of the nonlinear element, we measure polarization entanglementwith tangle of 0.4 ± 0.2 and time bin entanglement with visibility of 83% ±6%, both exceeding classical thresholds by approximately two standard
deviations.

8727-3, Session 1

Towards spatially dense time-domain multiview detection in diffuse optical tomography
with single-photon avalanche diodes andintegrated TCSPC electronics (Invited Paper)
Yves Bérubé-Lauzière, Univ. de Sherbrooke (Canada); Matteo C.
Crotti, Ivan Rech, Politecnico di Milano (Italy)
The advent of high timing resolution (<50ps) single photon avalanche
diodes (SPADs) and progresses in time-correlated single photon counting(TCSPC) integrated electronics opens the way to multi-view higher
spatial detection density time-domain (TD) diffuse optical tomography(DOT) scanners with unprecedented temporal resolution down topossibly below 30ps. The alternative to achieve high spatial density TD
optical detection is to resort to time-gated cameras. However, suchcameras have timing resolutions of ~300ps, and the time gate overwhich photons are acquired needs to be scanned resulting in a waste of
useful photons and increased acquisition times compared to what could
possibly be achieved. In recent years my group has been developing a
TD DOT scanner for small animal imaging using discrete detectors andhigh performance TCSPC electronics. A first generation scanner using
photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) has been realized, achieving a temporal
resolution of ~200 ps. This scanner comprises 7 dual-wavelength
channels for detecting excitation and fluorescence light. Its performancesin terms of number of channels, acquisition time, and temporal resolution
are, however, limited by the use of PMTs, expensive TCSPC cards
and routers. Recently, work has been initiated on the development of
a second generation scanner using SPADs and fully parallel TCSPC
electronics (one TCSPC channel per detector). The development of thefirst generation scanner and a first prototype of the second generation
scanner will be presented, along with results obtained therewith. Future
work and promising applications of such technology, notably in in vivo
FLIM-FRET imaging will also be described.

8727-4, Session 2

Ladar detection methods and an updateon photon-counting detector arrays (Invited
Paper)
Richard M. Marino, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)
The size, weight, and electrical power requirements (SWaP) for laserbased remote sensing systems, such as lidar or laser radar (ladar),are often critical constraints in sensor system architecture design242

considerations and tradeoffs. Additional requirements that affect systemdesign often include ranges of operations, thermal management andoperating environments, data acquisition times, and data processing
and data product latencies. The choice of ladar detection method andassociated detection statistics will directly affect the performance ofthe sensor system and man be a critical driver in the design spacethat can satisfy mission and system requirements. For example, ladarsystems that use optical receivers that can minimize the effects ofnoise and unwanted clutter while efficiently extracting information fromthe detection of minimal optical signal (i.e. single photons) can havesuperior performance to those with more conventional receivers. Recent
advances in photon-counting detector array technologies have enableddevelopment and instantiation of ladar sensor systems that demonstrateunprecedented high-performance and capabilities.
In this talk, a variety of ladar detection methods are compared, and an
outline is provided of recent and ongoing advances in photon-counting
detector arrays.

8727-5, Session 2

Laser ranging at few-photon level with aphoton-number-resolving detector (Invited
Paper)
Guang Wu, Zhiyuang Wang, Weibin Kong, Min Ren, Yan A. Liang,
Xiaomeng Wang, Jianhua Huang, E. Wu, Heping Zeng, East
China Normal Univ. (China)
We demonstrated a system for laser ranging and remote reflection
coefficient discrimination at few-photon level with a multi-pixel photon
counter (MPPC) at 532 nm. Thanks to the photon-number-resolving
capability of the detector, the laser ranging system could distinguish thereflected photon pulses from a non-cooperation target successfully inhigh-illumination sunlight environment by increasing the discriminationthreshold to multi-photon level to reduce the error counts. Moreover, tworemote targets with different reflection coefficient could be fast figuredout through comparing the number of detected photons. Compared withthe technique of conventional single-photon detection, this system could
make full use of the capability of photon number to obtain the distanceinformation as well as the reflection coefficient difference, which maylead to a breakthrough in remote sensing.
Furthermore, an eye-safe 3D laser imaging system was achieved,
working at 1550 nm with an InGaAs/InP-APD single-photon detector
operated in 1.5-GHz sinusoidally gated Geiger mode. In the system, thefocal-plate array consisting of 100-fiber bundles was employed to guidethe photons from the telescope to a single-photon detector. As the timing
jitter of the system was about 300 ps when the laser pulse source andthe single-photon detector was free running without synchronization, thedepth resolution was measured to be about 3 cm. Since the high speed
single-photon detector applied in the system, the laser imaging systemwith low-energy level for long-distance measurement outdoor may bepromoted.

8727-6, Session 2

Laser depth ranging and imaging using lowjitter SNSPD system
Lixing You, Sijin Chen, Dengduan Liu, Shanghai Institute ofMicrosystem and Information Technology (China); Yuhao He,
SIMIT, CAS (China); Wenxing Zhang, Shanghai Institute ofMicrosystem and Information Technology (China)
Superconducting nanowire single photon detection (SNSND) technology
is a promising technology due to its high quantum efficiency, low darkcount rate, low timing jitter, high repetition rates and broad spectrum
response ability. SNSPD has been demonstrated to be a good candidate

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Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII

for quantum information, single photon source characterization, time offlight mass spectroscopy as well as time of flight depth ranging.

with superconducting single-flux-quantum (SFQ) logic circuits. Anotherchallenge is the bias current feeding to each pixel of the SSPD array. If
the bias current is introduced to each pixel individually, the large numberof required cables for bias feeding is necessary. To solve this problem,
we proposed the parallel bias scheme with a single introduced cable. We
show the implementation and successful operation of four pixels SSPD
array connected to SFQ readout electronics with parallel bias scheme ina 0.1W GM cryocooler system.

Using the SNSPD made of NbN ultrathin film with a typical meander
structure, we developed a SNSPD system based on G-M cryo-cooler
for 1550 nm wavelength, which is feasible for unmanned long-term
operation. By extensively analyzing the origin of the timing jitterand system optimization, the system timing jitter was successfully
suppressed to be lower than 35 ps. Using time of flight approachbased on time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) method,
we demonstrated the laser depth ranging experiment at the stand-off
distance of 100 m. The surface to surface depth resolution of 5 mm isachieved directly, which is the best result reported at the wavelengthof 1550 nm to our knowledge. The result shows potential applicationsof SNSPD in improving the performance of light detection and ranging(LIDAR) systems. The preliminary results of imaging experiments will also
be shown and discussed.

8727-9, Session 3

Membrane-integrated superconducting
nanowire single-photon detectors (Invited
Paper)
Faraz Najafi, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Jacob Mower, Xiaolong Hu, Francesco Bellei, Prashanta
Kharel, Columbia Univ. (United States); Hasan Korre, Adam
McCaughan, Kristen Sunter, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (United States); Dirk R. Englund, Columbia Univ.
(United States) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology(United States); Karl K. Berggren, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (United States)

8727-7, Session 3

Advanced time-correlated single-photon
counting applications with superconducting
nanowire single-photon detectors (Invited
Paper)
Robert H. Hadfield, Heriot-Watt Univ. (United Kingdom)Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors (SNSPDs)[Gol’tsman et al., APL 79, 705-707 (2001)] based on sub-100-nm-wide
Niobium Nitride (NbN) nanowires offer a unique combination of sensitivity[Korneev et al., IEEE T Appl Supercon 15, 571-574 (2005)], speed[Hadfield, Nat Phot 3, 696-705 (2009)] and timing jitter [Dauler et al., IEEE
T Appl Supercon 17, 279-284 (2007)]. We have previously demonstrated
sub-35-ps timing jitter [Najafi et al., APL 100, 152602 (2012)], which
could enable GHz-rate Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) [Takesue et al.,Nat Phot 1, 343-348 (2009)] with previously unmatched secure key rates.
However, system efficiencies with NbN-SNSPDs have been limited to
24% at 1550nm wavelength [Hu et al., Opt Lett 34, 3607-3609 (2009)].
When trying to integrate SNSPDs efficiently with optical components wefaced two major challenges: Matching the optical mode with the active
area of the detector, and non-destructive fabrication of efficient SNSPDs
on top of delicate optical structures. We have developed membraneintegrated SNSPDs that have the potential to overcome those challenges:
SNSPDs based on 20- to 80-nm-wide NbN nanowires were fabricatedon top of silicon nitride (SiN). Wet and dry etch processes were used torelease small SiN membranes (100x50µm2) with SNSPDs on top. These
membrane-SNSPDs were then picked up from the SiN substrate andplaced on top of waveguides in tight contact to ensure high absorption(evanescent coupling). Mode matching was achieved by aligning theactive area of the membrane-SNSPD to the optical waveguide with
sub-micron accuracy. We report on our detector design, fabrication andalignment processes.

Single-photon detectors are a key enabling technology for a host of
applications at the frontiers of science, from imaging and ranging toquantum information processing. These advanced photon counting
applications place exacting demands on detector performance,
spurring the development of new detector technologies. A new class of
single-photon detector, based on a superconducting nanowire, holds
particular promise for time-correlated single-photon counting at infrared
wavelengths. These detectors offer wide spectral sensitivity (visible tomid-infrared) combined with low dark counts, short recovery times andexquisite timing resolution. These low temperature detectors can now be
integrated into practical cryogen-free refrigerator systems. I will discuss
how these high performance detectors have been demonstrated in arange of important new applications including quantum key distribution,
time-of-flight depth imaging, fibre temperature sensing and singlet
oxygen luminescence detection.
References
1. CM Natarajan, MG Tanner, RH Hadfield ‘Superconducting nanowire
single photon detectors: physics and applications’ Superconductor
Science and Technology 25 063001 (2012)

8727-8, Session 3

Technologies for superconducting nanowire
single-photon detector array system (Invited
Paper)

8727-10, Session 3

Superconducting nanowire single-photon
detectors integrated with waveguide circuits
for quantum information science (Invited
Paper)

Shigehito Miki, Taro Yamashita, Hirotaka Terai, Kazumasa
Makise, Zhen Wang, National Institute of Information andCommunications Technology (Japan)
We present the development of key technologies for realization ofsuperconducting nanowire single photon detector array system, whichenables high counting rates, and allow spatial and pseudo photon
number resolution. Toward the realization of practical large-scale SSPD
array system, primary issue is how to avoid heat flow into cryocooler
system. One of the challenging tasks is the development of their readout
electronics. In the conventional readout technique used for single
pixel devices, the number of high-frequency coaxial cables increases
proportionally with the number of arrays. This causes a significant
increase in the heat load from room temperature, which makes theimplementation of the SSPD arrays in a compact refrigerator difficult.
To overcome this problem, we proposed applying readout electronics

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Alessandro Gaggero, Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie(Italy); Döndü Sahin, Technische Univ. Eindhoven (Netherlands);
Francesco Mattioli, Roberto Leoni, Istituto di Fotonica e
Nanotecnologie (Italy); Giulia Frucci, Saeedeh Jahanmirinejad,
Arjan Sprengers, Technische Univ. Eindhoven (Netherlands);
Johannes Beetz, Matthias Lermer, Sven Höfling, Martin Kamp,
Julius-Maximilians-Univ. Würzburg (Germany); Andrea Fiore,
Technische Univ. Eindhoven (Netherlands)
The integration of single-photon sources and single-photon detectors·

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243Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VIIwith passive quantum photonic circuits would enable importantfunctionalities in the field of quantum information processing. In this work
we present our progress in the integration of superconducting nanowire
single-photon detectors with waveguide optical circuits. The GaAs
technology is the promising platform for the integration of quantum-dot
single-photon sources and passive photonic circuitry. In the past wedeveloped a superconducting single-photon detector on a GaAs/AlAs
distributed Bragg reflector mirror [1], showing that a full integration ofactive and passive elements is possible using the GaAs technology. We
have recently demonstrated the first waveguide single photon detectors(WSPDs), based on superconducting nanowires patterned on top of a
GaAs/AlGaAs ridge waveguide, with a quantum efficiency of ~20% anda jitter of ~60ps [2]. Here we present the development of an integrated
autocorrelator based on two separated detectors integrated on topof the same ridge waveguide. An efficiency >2% at 1300 nm for both
detectors and independent of the polarization of the incoming photons,
is reported. The g(2)(t) measurement of a laser source is experimentallydemonstrated as a proof of principle. This ultracompact device enables
the on-chip measurement of the second-order correlation function g(2)(t).
We will further discuss ongoing work on the integration of detectors withsingle-photon sources.

8727-11, Session 4

Multiphoton detection in superconducting
nanowires: nonlinear optics in the detector(Invited Paper)
Andrea Fiore, Zili Zhou, Giulia Frucci, Saedeeh Jahanmirinejad,
Döndü Sahin, Rosalinda Gaudio, Technische Univ. Eindhoven(Netherlands); Francesco Mattioli, Alessandro Gaggero, Roberto
Leoni, Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (Italy); Jelmer J.
Renema, Michiel J. A. de Dood, Martin P. van Exter, Leiden Univ.
(Netherlands)
The absorption of single photons in superconducting nanowires
biased close to the critical current triggers a transition to the resistive
state, resulting in a voltage pulse. This process is at the basis ofsuperconducting single-photon detectors [1]. We have recently studied a
different regime of lower bias currents in superconducting nanodetectors,
where two or more photons are needed to trigger the transition [2-4].
This results in a N-photon threshold detector, where the threshold N iscontrolled by the bias current, and opens the way to integrating nonlinear
functions, such as squaring, with the detector. We will show how this canbe used to realise an optical autocorrelator with a sensitivity orders ofmagnitude better than conventional approaches using nonlinear optics[4]. The temporal and spatial dynamics associated to the multiphoton
detection process will also be discussed.
[1] G.N. Gol’tsman et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 705 (2001).
[2] D. Bitauld et al., Nano Lett. 10, 2977 (2010).

States)We report on a detector system employing superconducting nanowire
single photon detectors (SNSPDs) based on amorphous tungsten silicide(WSi) nanowires with system detection efficiency (SDE) of ≈ 93 % atof 1550 nm wavelength (l); system dark count rate of ~ 1 kcps (dueto the room temperature blackbody radiation); device dark count rate(measured with the device shielded from room-temperature blackbody
radiation) of ≈ 1 cps, timing jitter of ≈ 150 ps FWHM; and reset time of
40 ns. Because our WSi superconducting films were amorphous andhad a factor of ~ 3 lower energy gap than the materials traditionally used
to fabricate SNSPDs (NbN or NbTiN), we could easily fabricate 15 µm x
15 µm -active-area SNSPDs based on 150 - 200 nm (width) nanowires
on Si substrates and embed the devices in an optical stack to enhancethe detector absorption. The optical stack was designed to allow
front-illumination, and it consisted of a metal mirror beneath the device
and a dielectric coating on top of the device. Because the detector
stack was fabricated on a silicon substrate, we were able to use silicon
micromachining of the detectors to implement a self-aligned packaging
scheme with telecommunication single mode optical fibers. This scheme
improves the reproducibility, robustness and simplicity of the optical
coupling with respect to traditional approaches. The packaged devices
could be operated in the temperature range 120 mK to 2 K without
degradation of the detector sensitivity.

8727-13, Session 4

Tungsten silicide superconducting nanowire
single-photon detector arrays for deep-space
optical communication
Matthew D. Shaw, Jeffrey A. Stern, Andrew D. Beyer, Jet
Propulsion Lab. (United States); Francesco Marsili, Varun B.
Verma, Richard P. Mirin, Sae Woo Nam, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States); William H. Farr, Jet
Propulsion Lab. (United States)
We present progress in the development of arrays of tungsten silicide
superconducting nanowire superconducting single photon detectors(SNSPDs) for deep-space optical communication. We present resultsfrom two array architectures, a fiber-coupled 12-pixel array with anactive diameter of 66 µm, and a free-space coupled 64-pixel array witha 160 x 160 µm active area. We will discuss measurements of detection
efficiency, achievable count rate, dark counts, timing jitter, and crosstalk.
We will discuss progress in the development of custom SiGe ROIC
circuitry to perform cryogenic analog-to-digital conversion and signal
processing. We will discuss the use of 8-channel signal combiner ROICs
with integrated amplifiers to form 16:1 channel combiner boards. We will
also discuss the details of the cryogenic platform and wiring required torealize a practical deep-space optical communication ground terminalbased on WSi SNSPDs.

[3] J.J. Renema et al., Opt. Express 20, 2806 (2012).
[4] Z. Zhou et al., arxiv:1209.2747 (2012)

8727-14, Session 48727-12, Session 4

93% system detection efficiency withtungsten silicide superconducting nanowire
single photon detectors (Invited Paper)
Francesco Marsili, Varun B. Verma, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States); Jeffrey A. Stern, Jet
Propulsion Lab. (United States); Sean Harrington, Adriana E. Lita,
Thomas Gerrits, Igor Vayshenker, Burm Baek, National Instituteof Standards and Technology (United States); Matthew D. Shaw,
Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States); Richard P. Mirin, Sae Woo
Nam, National Institute of Standards and Technology (United
244

Vertically-stacked superconducting nanowire
avalanche photodetectors based on
amorphous tungsten silicide (Invited Paper)
Varun B. Verma, Francesco Marsili, Sean Harrington, Richard
P. Mirin, Sae Woo Nam, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)
In conventional superconducting nanowire single photon detectors(SNSPDs) the device detection efficiency depends on the polarizationof the light. This polarization dependence ultimately limits the detection
efficiency of SNSPDs in single photon applications. By vertically stacking
the two sections of a superconducting nanowire avalanche photodetector(SNAP), it is possible to enhance the detection efficiency and reduce thepolarization dependence by using orthogonal nanowire orientations in

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Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII

each layer.

is applied on the APD. In most of the cases, the single-photon light
resulting from the interaction with the matter is in the visible spectral
range. Hence, Si-based single-photon detectors are more likely used
for light-matter interaction experiments. Si-APDs are normally used infree-running and not in gated mode. In this work, we present results ofa Si-APD single photon detection module working in pulsed mode. We
show that the noise performance of this module just after that the intenselight pulse reaches the detector is better by orders ofHere we report on the fabrication and electrical characterization ofvertically-stacked 2-SNAPs based on tungsten silicide (WSi) nanowires.
Our devices consist of two vertically-stacked WSi nanowire meanders
separated by a patterned electrical insulator (hydrogen silsesquioxane,
HSQ) and connected in parallel. This geometry is made possible by
the amorphous nature of WSi which can be deposited on a wide rangeof substrates without affecting the superconducting properties of the
nanowires.
Fabricated devices demonstrated an increase in switching current bya factor of two (~8 µA) compared to a single-layer device (~4 µA). The
critical temperature (Tc ~ 3.2 K) of each layer was identical to the Tc
of a single layer device, indicating that stacking did not degrade thesuperconducting properties of the WSi nanowires. We measured asystem detection efficiency of 86 % at 1550 nm.

8727-17, Session 5

Balanced detection in single-photon counting
Zhiwen Lu, Joe C. Campbell, Univ. of Virginia (United States);
Xudong Jiang, Mark A. Itzler, Princeton Lightwave, Inc. (UnitedStates)8727-15, Session 5

We demonstrate balanced InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche diodes(SPADs) operated in both gated mode and sinusoidal gating mode fordata transmission rate up to 20 MHz. The photodiode pair is biased
in a balanced configuration with only one of the SPADs illuminated.
The common-mode signal cancellation realized with the balanced
configuration enables detection of small avalanche pulses. The afterpulse
effect is significantly suppressed due to the capability of detecting small
avalanche pulses at high laser repetition rate. For gated mode operationand laser repletion rate of 20 MHz at 240 K, the dark count probability forphoton detection efficiency of 13% is 1.9x10-5. The afterpulse probability
is 0.3% for 2 ns pulse width, hold off time of 20 ns, and 10% PDE, at
240K. For sinusoidal gating mode, using a phase shifter to achieve bettersynchronization between signals, at laser rate of 20 MHz and 240 K, thedark count probability and photon detection efficiency are 2.8x10-5and
10.8%, respectively.

GHz-gated InGaAs SPAD system withavalanche charge sensitivity approaching thefundamental limit (Invited Paper)
Alessandro Restelli, Joint Quantum Institute (United States);
Joshua C. Bienfang, Alan L. Migdall, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)
It is well known that the count rate of InGaAs single-photon avalanche
diodes (SPADs) is critically limited by afterpulsing, and that highspeed periodic gating systems ameliorate this problem by reducing
the total avalanche charge, thereby populating fewer traps, reducing
the afterpulse probability, and maintaining useful signal to noise ratios
at higher count rates. In practice, the degree to which this approachis successful is determined by three factors: the duration of the bias
gates, the rejection of the gating waveform, and the preservation of
the avalanche signal. We present an approach to GHz periodic gating
designed to optimize these three critical factors. The threshold foravalanche discrimination in our system is less than 1 mV referenced to
the SPAD anode, which approaches the Johnson noise limit for lownoise avalanche discrimination over a 50 Ohm load. With this approach
applied to an InGaAs/InP SPAD operating at a gate frequency of
1.25 GHz and detection efficiency greater than 40 % at 1310 nm, we
measure a discrimination threshold below 10 fC per avalanche, and we
observe per-gate afterpulse probabilities below 0.002 only 7 ns after anavalanche. With the detection efficiency reduced to 20 % the per-gateafterpulse probability at 7 ns drops below 0.0004. We present design andperformance of our approach, and discuss tradeoffs between detection
efficiency, afterpulse probability, and maximum count rate.

8727-18, Session 5

Near-IR photon number resolving detector
designJan Bogdanski, Elanor H. Huntington, The Univ. of New South
Wales (Australia)
Photon-Number-Resolving-Detection (PNRD) capability is crucial formany Quantum-Information (QI) applications, e.g. for Coherent-StateQuantum-Computing, Linear-Optics-Quantum-Computing. In QuantumKey-Distribution and Quantum-Secret-Sharing over 1310/1550 nm
fiber, two other important, defence and information security related,
QI applications, it’s crucial for the information transmission security toguarantee that the information carriers (photons) are single. Thus a PNRD
can provide an additional security level against eavesdropping. Currently,
there are at least a couple of promising PNRD technologies in near-IR,
but all of them require cryogenic cooling (e.g. a Transition-Edge-Sensor
requires cooling to 100mK). Thus a compact, portable PNRD, basedon commercial APDs, could be a very useful instrument for many QIexperiments.

8727-16, Session 5

Advantages of silicon single-photon
detectors in gated mode

For an APD based PNRD it is crucial to measure the APD-current in the
beginning of the avalanche. Thus an efficient cancellation of the APD
capacitive spikes is a necessary condition for the very weak APD current
measurement.

Damien Stucki, Matthieu Legré, id Quantique SA (Switzerland);Tommaso Lunghi, Hugo Zbinden, Univ. of Geneva (Switzerland)More and more quantum optics experiments are based on or study
interaction between light and matter. In general, a preparation of thismatter system, which is performed with intense light pulses, is required.
Hence, strong optical pulses can precede single-photon level signal,
which is one of the possible results of this interaction. This intense light
can strongly reduce the performance of the single-photon detector at
the time of detection of the weak signal if this detector is active whenstrong optical pulses reach it. Indeed, the detector can either be blinded
or experience additional noise (afterpulsing) when single-photon levelsignal reaches the detector. For APD-based single photon detectors, thebest known strategy to mitigate this effect is to use the detector in theso called gated mode. In this working mode, the detector is activatedin the Geiger mode only for short periods of time when an electric gate

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Our detector’s principle is based on two commercial (Princeton
Lightwave), pair-matched InGaAs/InP APDs, connected in series, whichleads to a great cancelation of the capacitive spikes caused by thenarrow 300 ps gate-pulses of max 4Vp-p amplitude. The cancellation
scheme could also be used for other APD technologies, e.g. Germanium
and Silicon. Thus the detection spectrum from visible to 1550 nm could
easily be covered by a simple exchange of the module containing PairMatched APDs.
The design distinguishes itself from other PNRD APD-based schemes by
its scalability feature providing adjustable Gating-Rate from 1 kHz to 1
GHz and Gate-Width down to 300 ps.

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Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII

8727-19, Session 5

8727-20, Session 6

High-speed photon detectors operated insinusoidally gated mode

MiSPiA: microelectronic single-photon 3D
imaging arrays for low-light high-speed
safety and security applications (Invited Paper)

Yan A. Liang, Min Ren, E. Wu, Guang Wu, Heping Zeng, East
China Normal Univ. (China)

Franco Zappa, Alberto Tosi, Politecnico di Milano (Italy)

Recently, the sinusoidal gating technique has been widely used to
improve the single-photon detectors based on avalanche photodiodes(APDs), for its obvious convenience in suppressing the APD’s capacitive
response. However, in the typical sinusoidal gating scheme, the bandelimination ﬁltering unavoidably causes detrimental distortions to theavalanche signals and accordingly results in a relatively large timing jitter.
Here, we demonstrated an efﬁcient way to improve the timing jitter of thesinusoidally gated InGaAs/InP APD by combining low-pass ﬁltering andsinusoidally balanced differencing techniques, achieving a 1-GHz gatedsingle-photon detector with the timing jitter of about 60 ps. The detection
efﬁciency could reach 10% at 1550 nm, with afterpulse probability 3%
considering the dead time of 10 ns.

MiSPiA concept is to provide simultaneously high frame-rates andsingle-photon sensitivity CMOS chips with monolithic integration of SPAD
detectors and in-pixel processing for 2D intensity-data and 3D depthranging information. The two 3D ranging applications are short-range (10– 40 m) phase-resolved ranging for automotive safety systems and longrange (200 m - 1 km) time-of-flight in-pixel time-to-digital conversion
for security surveillance. The talk will present the on-going activities on
microelectronic design of CMOS chips for both front- and back-side
illuminated SPAD imagers and the experimental validation with 2D and
3D movie acquisitions.

Moreover, a high-speed photon-number-resolving detector was exhibited,which was based on a 200-MHz sinusoidally gated multipixel photon
counter (MPPC). Two steps of low-pass ﬁlters with the attenuation ratio
higher than 40 dB at 200 MHz were employed to minimize the MPPC’s
capacitive response noise, resulting in the efﬁcient detection of weak
photon-induced avalanche currents. The quantum efﬁciency of the MPPC
was measured to be about 20% at 709 nm at room temperature. By
using the sinusoidal gates, the recovery time for each pixel of the MPPC
to detect the next coming photons was shortened, thus improving thedetector’s photon-number-resolving capability at a high repetition rate.

8727-21, Session 6

Both the detectors promise various applications with high-speed
single-photon or photon-number-resolving detection, such as quantum
cryptography, quantum random-number generators, and photon counting
reﬂectometry.

8727-33, Session 5

Precise Monte Carlo simulation of singlephoton detectors
Mario Stipcevic, Rudjer Boskovic Inst. (Croatia) and Duke Univ.
(United States); Daniel J. Gauthier, Duke Univ. (United States)
We demonstrate the importance and utility of Monte Carlo simulation ofavalanche-photodiode based single-photon detectors. Using a simple
yet very demanding example of random number generation via detectionof time-wise Poissonian photons exiting a beam splitter we present
an ab ovo Monte Carlo simulation that incorporates detector effects
like frequency dependent dead time, noise, afterpulsing and twilight
events. Furthermore, we have built a beam-splitter random number
generator using two detectors made from Perkin Elmer SPCM avalanche
diode and a home-made avalanche quenching circuit. Parameters ofthe detectors (such as afterpulsing probability, afterpulsing lifetime,dead time etc.) are obtained by measurements independent of thesimulation. Based on these parameters the simulation (which allows fortwo physically different detectors) faithfully reproduces experimentaly
obtained serial autocorrelation coefficient of random bits as a functionof detection frequency over four orders of magnitude of the incident
photon flux. We find that our beam-splitter based RNG suffers from pretty
large unreducible imperfections in form of autocorrelation. At low bit
production rate the imperfections are dominated by afterpulsing whereas
dead time dominates at high bit rate. Interestingly, there is a point at
which the two effects cancel each other. We also note a surprisingly
large role of twilighting - an effect in single photon detectors which isless studied and which, together with other imperfections, may degrade
security of quantum cryptographic protocols that use APD based
detectors.

246

New silicon technologies enable highperformance arrays of single-photon
avalanche diodes (Invited Paper)
Angelo Gulinatti, Ivan Rech, Politecnico di Milano (Italy); Piera
Maccagnani, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (Italy);
Sergio D. Cova, Massimo Ghioni, Politecnico di Milano (Italy) andMicro Photon Devices S.r.l. (Italy)
The design of a Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) is a complex taskthat requires to trade off between many device parameters including Dark
Count Rate (DCR), Photon Detection Efficiency (PDE), photon timing jitter,
afterpulsing probability and active area diameter. This has historically
led to the development of detectors optimized either for high temporal
resolution (thin SPAD) or for high PDE in the red/near infrared region of
the spectrum (thick SPAD). In particular, the latter are devices fabricatedwith a non-planar process that is unsuitable for the fabrication of arrays.
On the other hand, in the last years many applications emerged that
require arrays of SPADs with improved PDE in the red region of thespectrum. While for some of those (e.g. Fluorescence Correlation
Spectroscopy) a nanosecond-accuracy in photon detection is sufficient,
others require a picosecond timing jitter (e.g. spectrally resolved
Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging).
In order to fulfill the requirements of those applications, we recently
developed a new technology aimed at combining the advantagesof thin and thick SPAD. In particular we demonstrated a remarkable
improvement in PDE at the longer wavelengths (e.g. 40% at 800nm)
while maintaining a timing jitter better than 100ps. Moreover, to makethis technology compatible with the fabrication of arrays of SPADs, we
introduced some modifications to the device structure such as dielectricisolation by means of deep trenches.
We will present a detailed experimental investigation of the new detectors
and we will discuss the effects of dielectric isolation on main device
properties.

8727-22, Session 6

Compound semiconductor SPAD arrays(Invited Paper)
Eric S. Harmon, James T. Hyland, Mikhail N. Naydenkov,
LightSpin Technologies, Inc. (United States)
Single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) are revolutionizing ultrasensitive photodetection applications, providing single photon sensitivity,
high quantum efficiency and low dark noise at or near room temperature.
When aggregated into arrays, these devices have demonstrated the

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Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII

8727-26, Session 8

ability to operate as photon number resolving detectors with wide
dynamic range, or as imaging detectors. SPAD array performancehas reached a point where replacing vacuum tube based MCP and
PMT photodetectors for most applications is imminent. Compound
semiconductor SPAD arrays can be tailored to match application specificwavelength, speed and radiation hardness requirements. We presenta theoretical framework describing performance limits to compound
semiconductor SPAD arrays and our latest experimental results
detailing the performance of GaAs SPAD arrays. These devices achievenanosecond rise and fall times, excellent photon number resolving
capability, and low dark count rates. Room temperature dark count rates
below 10 Mcps have been achieved for a 1 mm x 1 mm device at 10%
single photon detection efficiency. Compound semiconductor SPAD
arrays have the opportunity to provide orders of magnitude improvement
in dark count rate and radiation hardness compared to silicon SPAD
arrays, as well as the ability to detect wavelengths where silicon is blind.

Single-photon detectors in the logwavelength infrared through sub-millimeterwave regions (Invited Paper)
Susumu Komiyama, The Univ. of Tokyo (Japan)
Long-wavelength infrared through sub-millimeter-wave regions (l≈10µm ~ 1mm) are richest areas of spectroscopy of matters, including
the rotationa/vibrational spectra of molecules, liquids and solids, andthe electron energy spectra of insulators, semiconductors and metals.
Unfortunately, however, extensive measurements in these spectral ranges
have been hindered, primarily due to the lack of ultra-highly sensitive andconvenient photo-detectors.
Described here are single-electron transistors (SETs) coupled withsemiconductor quantum dots as well as charge-sensitive infrared
photo-transistors (CSIPs) based on bi-layer semiconductor quantum
wells, which are the only sensors capable of counting individual photons
at present, with the highest sensitivity (NEP≈10-21 W/Hz1/2), in awavelength range of 15µm ~ 600µm [1]. In addition to the sensitivity,huge current responsivity (106–1010 A/W) and extremely large dynamic
range (106 –108 ) make those detectors extremely suitable device forapplication. The mechanism of detection as well as several applications[2,3] of the detectors will be discussed.

8727-23, Session 7

InP-based Geiger-mode avalanche
photodiodes for photon-counting (Invited
Paper)
Erik K. Duerr, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)[1] S. Komiyama, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum
Electronics, 17(1), 54-66 (2011)

At MIT Lincoln Laboratory, avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are being
developed for detection of photons with wavelengths from 1-um to
2.2-um in the indium-phosphide (InP) material system. While APDs
composed of bulk semiconductor crystal layers are used for photon
counting at the short end of this wavelength range, detecting photons
beyond 1.65 um requires bandgap-engineering techniques in the photon
absorption layer of the APD in order to remain in the InP material system.
These novel absorber layers allow a proven, high-quality, bulk InP
layer to be used for carrier avalanche while extending the wavelengthof operation beyond that of a bulk, indium-gallium-arsenide (InGaAs)
absorber layer. Both lattice-matched and strain-compensated multiplequantum-well structures can be used for extended wavelength detection.
Geiger-mode operation in APDs with strain-compensated In(x)Ga(1-x)As/
In(y)Ga(1-y)As superlattice absorbers designed for detection of 1.8-um
photons has been achieved at operating temperatures from 200 K to 295
K. Research is ongoing to extend the detection wavelength.

[2] K. Ikushimaa and S. Komiyama, Comptes Rendus, Physique 11, 444456 (2010)[3] Y. Kajihara, K.Kosaka and S. Komiyama, Opt. Express 19, 7695-7704(2011)

8727-27, Session 8

New single-nanocrystal spectroscopy
approaches for investigation of emission
efficiency and recombination dynamics ofmulti-excitons (Invited Paper)
Benjamin D. Mangum, Young-Shin Park, Yagnaseni Ghosh,Jennifer A. Hollingsworth, Han Htoon, Los Alamos National Lab.
(United States)

8727-24, Session 7

Integrated single-photon detectors
combining the avalanche, bipolar, and fieldeffect transistor gain (Invited Paper)

Understanding and controlling the emission efficiency and recombination
dynamics of bi-excitonic states (i.e. QBX and BX) in semiconductor
nanocrystal quantum dots (NQDs) holds the key to many novel
technological applications including optical amplification, entangled
photon-pair generation and carrier multiplication. Traditionally,
QBX and BX are extracted by performing multi-exponential fits on
photoluminescence decay curves measured as a function of pump
power. Such measurements require many fitting parameters andassumptions on scaling of radiative and non-radiative recombination
rates with exciton multiplicity. Here we present novel single particle
spectroscopy approaches capable of measuring these parameter
directly. Our approaches are based onsecond order photon correlation
spectroscopy (g(2)) and can also be applied to small clusters of NQDs todetermine the number of NQDs in a cluster together with average valueof QBX and BX.

Yu-Hwa Lo, Samia Rahman, David Hall, Univ. of California, San
Diego (United States)
We discuss the invention of a novel InGaAs/InP photodetector that
integrates three amplification mechanisms: avalanche multiplication,
bipolar gain, and field-effect transistor gain. The device is capable ofdetecting optical signals containing thousands of photons to a few
photons and produce output signals of increasing intensities with thenumber of photons in the signal. To our best knowledge, this is the first
infrared semiconductor photodetector with an integrated preamplifier toproduce high dynamic range (over 60 dB) and ultra-high sensitivity.

Specifically, first we demonstrate that the ratio of the areas of centerand side peaks of the g(2) function of the spectrally integrated PL of asingle NQD provide a precise measure of the ratio of the quantum yieldof single and bi-exciton states. Next, we present a time gated photon
correlation spectroscopy approach that allows separation of the effects
of multi-exciton emission and NQD clustering in g(2) measurements.
Finally, we present how the emission of bi-excitons can be separated ing(2) measurements and extract decay dynamics of bi-excitons without
any ambiguity.

8727-25, Session 7

Progress towards APD imagers (Invited Paper)
Daniel R. Schuette, Brian F. Aull, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States)
No abstract available.

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Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII

8727-28, Session 9

Performance of a compact position-sensitive
photon counting detector with image charge
coupling to an air-side anode (Invited Paper)
Ottmar Jagutzki, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Univ. Frankfurt
am Main (Germany) and RoentDek GmbH (Germany); Sven
Schössler, Achim Czasch, RoentDek GmbH (Germany)
We discuss a novel MCP photo-multiplier with resistive screen as adetection device for space and time correlated single photon counting,illustrated by several applications. The photo-multiplier tube resembles
a standard image intensifier model, however the rear phosphor screen is
replaced by a ceramic “window” with resistive coating which capacitycouples image charge from an MCP charge could to a read-out electrodeoutside the tube. This design allows an easy reconfiguration of theread-out electrode (e.g. pixel, charge sharing, cross strip, delay-line) for
optimizing the detector performance towards a certain task and also
eases the design and manufacturing process of such a multi-purpose
photomultiplier tube. Temporal and spatial resolutions well below 100
ps and 100 micron (FWHM) have been reported at event rates as highas 1 MHz, for up to 40 mm effective detection diameter. Among theapplications discussed in the presentation are wide-field fluorescencemicroscopy and dual gamma/fast neutron radiography for air cargo
screening.

8727-29, Session 9

Detection of faint moving space objects witha photon counting imager
Phan D. Dao, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Photon counting imager (PCI) technology offers large format imaging
sensors with sub-nanosecond time resolution, hence provides a uniquecapability for astronomy, active imaging and passive photometry ofartificial satellites. Signal is recorded as arrival times which are used to
calculate positional information, with equivalence to 200-2000 resolution
elements, and photon arrival times stamped at 250 ps resolution. The
PCI sensor head, used in our laboratory, has a 40 mm diameter and 100
micron spatial resolution in both x and y. The ability to time tag eachphoton results in a clear advantage in detecting objects that move in thefield of view at a speed that would result in streaking for conventionalframe-based imager such as CCDs and reduced sensitivity. The PCI
advantage is attributed to the dramatic difference in photon number
densities between a 2-D array and a 3-D cube. We demonstrate insimulations and with actual measurement data on space objects thatthe limiting magnitude can be improved by up to 6 visual magnitudes.
A quasi blind search algorithm that identifies the streak of photons,
assuming no prior knowledge of orbital information, will be discussed
and results will be shown.

multiplier structures, thus producing large detectable signal. Efficientphoton detection in a GPM requires maximum photoelectron yield fromthe photocathode surface and also high electron multiplication in theelectron multiplier. In this work we have investigated the parametersthat affect the photoelectron yield from the photocathode surface
and methods to improve them thus ensuring high detection efficiencyof the GPM. The parameters studied here are the electric field at thephotocathode surface, surface properties of the photocathode andpressure of gas mixture inside the GPM. It is observed that photocurrent
increases with increase in electric field. But at higher electric field, theprobability of focusing the photoelectrons inside the electron multiplierdecreases. This conflicting requirement needs to be kept in mind whilechoosing the electric field to be applied. Investigations on the effect offilled gas pressure on the photoelectron emission show that with increaseof pressure, the photocurrent decreases. Investigations are also carriedout to see the effect of surface properties of the photocathode on thephotoelectron emission. It is observed that longer duration of evacuation
before gas filling helps to increase the photoelectron yield.

8727-31, Session 10

Low-noise high-speed single photon detector
in gated Geiger mode
Xiuliang Chen, Yan A. Liang, E. Wu, Guang Wu, Heping Zeng,
East China Normal Univ. (China)
Single Photon detection is widely used in quantum cryptography, laser
ranging, single photon spectrograph and so on. InGaAs/InP avalanche
photodiodes (APDs) are the most popular components for the nearinfrared single photon detection. InGaAs/InP APDs are normally operated
in the gated Geiger mode, in which fast gating pulses are applied to
the APDs. Due to the APD capacitive response of the gating pulses, aspike-signal is produced, while most weak photo-excited avalanche
signal is buried in the spike-signal, which limits the detection efficiency
and operating frequency of the single photon detection. Recently, theself-differencing spike-signal cancellation technique was introduced tosuppress the spike-signal, by subtracting the identical signal in the APD
response of the two successive gating cycles.
In this paper, we demonstrate the double-self-differencing spike-signal
cancellation technique, which is on the basis of the self-differencing
spike-signal cancellation. By adding a post-self-differencing circuit
to the pre-self-differencing circuit, the average voltage of photoexcited avalanche signal is increased while the background noise isfurther suppressed. In order to qualify the ratio of the avalanche signal
to background noise, a photon-number resolving method is used.
Comparing the signal at the outputs of the pre-self-differencing circuitand the post-self-differencing circuit, the signal to noise ratio is improved
more than 10 dB. The detection efficiency and error count probability are
improved, and the typical error count probability is reduced to less than
2.5% and 6.5% at the detection efficiency of 20% and 30%, respectively.

8727-32, Session 10
8727-30, Session 9

Study on the detection efficiency of gaseous
photomultipliers

High-speed multichannel time-correlated
single-photon counting electronics based on
SiGe integrated time to digital converters

Baishali Garai, Indian Institute of Science (India); V. Radhakrishna,
ISRO Satellite Ctr. (India); V. Koushal, K. Rakhee, Space
Astronomy Group, ISRO Satellite centre (India); K. Rajanna,
Indian Institute of Science (India)

Michael Wahl, Tino Röhlicke, Hans-Jürgen Rahn, PicoQuantGmbH (Germany); Nick Bertone, PicoQuant Photonics
North America, Inc. (Canada); Gerald Kell, Fachhochschule
Brandenburg (Germany)

Photomultipliers are sensitive detectors of light in the ultraviolet, visible,and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. In gaseous
photomultipliers (GPM) operating in the UV spectral range, a thin film of
CsI coated over UV transparent quartz window act as the photocathode.
UV photons release photoelectrons into the gas volume of the detector;
these photoelectrons undergo avalanche multiplications across electronTime Correlated Single Photon counting with picosecond timing has
become a key method in many areas of applied physics. One of themost important areas is that of fluorescence lifetime measurementin biophysics and the life sciences. Precisely timed photon counting
for the purpose of coincidence correlation is now also emerging
as the most common approach to quantum state interpretation in

248

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Conference 8727: Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VII

experimental quantum optics. Therefore, time-correlated single photon
counting (TCSPC) electronics, traditionally mostly used in time-resolved
fluorescence research are facing new challenges in different emerging
areas. Consequently such instruments are undergoing a fresh cycle ofinnovation, some of which we try to highlight here. The new picosecond
TCSPC system we specifically present provides several interesting newfeatures resulting from a high speed monolithic integration in one of thefastest semiconductor technologies available today.
The result is a high timing resolution by direct digital conversion and avery short deadtime. Apart from conventional histogramming over a very
long time span, we can implement continouos single photon recording
modes hat allow picosecond timing of all photon events with respect
both to a sync signal as well as on a virtually infinite time scale. Multiple
timing channels can also be operated indpendently and in parallel, e.g.
for picosecond correlation analysis between signals from multiple photon
detectors. In this paper we describe some implementation details and theresults of an evaluation of the new electroncis in synthetic benchmarks
and real quantum optical applications

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249

Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications IV
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8728 Energy Harvesting and Storage: Materials, Devices, and Applications IV

8728-37, Session 1A

8728-4, Session 1

Power and Energy at DARPA: enabling aparadigm shift for the Warfighter and DoD(Keynote Presentation)

Three-dimensional lithium-ion batteries withinterdigitated electrodes (Invited Paper)

Brian C. Holloway, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)
No Abstract Available.

8728-1, Session 1

High-rate performing Li-ion batteries for
defense applications (Invited Paper)
Palani Balaya, Vishwanathan Ramar, Srirama Hariharan, Kuppan
Saravanan, Chad Mason, National Univ. of Singapore (Singapore)
The major concern about the existing rechargeable Li-ion battery
technology for defense applications is that it takes too long time forrecharging and raises safety concerns upon fast charging. My talkprovides a battery technology solution for military applications with all theadvantages of batteries and supercapacitors in one unit. In other words,
the supercap battery proposed here will have energy density comparable
to batteries and high power density as that of supercapacitors.
The proposed technology will use non-carbonaceous anode materials
to avoid lithium electroplating upon charging at high rate. On the other
hand, this technology employs phosphate based high voltage cathodematerials to achieve high energy density.
Potential cathode materials such as LiMnFePO4 and Li3V2(PO4)3 andanode materials based on titanates such as Li4Ti5O12 and TiO2-bronze
or transition metal oxides such as Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 will be considered
for designing Li-ion battery with high energy and high power. Recent
development in these electrode materials will be presented.

8728-2, Session 1

New developments in lithium sulfur batteries(Invited Paper)
Ilias Belharouak, Xiaofeng Zhang, Argonne National Lab. (UnitedStates); Bryant Polzin, Argonne National Lab. (United States);
James Li, Univ. of Rochester (United States)
Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries were first commercialized by Sonyin early 90’s. The high cost of cobalt and relatively low specific capacityof LiCoO2 (140Ah/kg) have been major obstacles against the wide
application of these batteries in transportation where the battery energy
density should significantly increase to meet the goals for plug-in hybrid
vehicles (PHEVs), and essentially for electric vehicles (EVs). Also, despite
the abundance of iron and manganese, olivine LiFePO4 and spinel
LiMn2O4 will not likely be adequate candidates since neither of themcan provide enough gravimetric and volumetric energy densities forautomotive applications. Therefore, research groups have been under thechallenge of inventing and developing new advanced positive electrodematerials whose main characteristics is to store more and more electricity
per mass and volume. Of these materials, advanced composite materials
were found to deliver a high reversible capacity (250Ah/kg) while being
structurally and electrochemically stable upon charge and discharge.
These thermally stable materials are considered as potential candidates
to surmount the energy density shortfall of current lithium ion batteries.
The journey for materials design and discovery will be unveiled in thelight of the most recent developments in lithium-ion batteries. Also, theimplementation of the very challenging lithium-sulfur will be discussed.

250

Derek Johnson, Prieto Battery, Inc. (United States); Amy L.
Prieto, Colorado State Univ. (United States) and Prieto Battery,
Inc. (United States)
Lithium-ion batteries have become the primary energy choice for low
power applications, and are now being sought after for high power
applications that require long cycle life. These applications range fromstationing sources, such as grid stabilization, to more mobile platforms
such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles(PHEV), and electric vehicles (EV). To meet the performance requirements
for high power density applications, the shortcomings that have relegated
the use of conventional lithium-ion batteries to low-power applications
needs to be addressed. These shortcomings are, in part, a result of
two-dimensional planar electrodes that have the inherent trade-off
between energy and power density. The use of a three-dimensional (3D)
architecture with interdigitated electrodes has been proposed to alleviate
the shortcomings because it allows a significant decoupling of energy
and power density. While the use of 3D battery architectures promisesa significant leap forward in terms of performance, many synthetic
challenges must be overcome. Our approach is to use electrodeposition
as the main synthetic tool for the fabrication of the 3D solid-statelithium-ion cell. Electrodeposition is used to plate copper antimonide
onto a copper foam substrate. Since the anode is highly conducting, it issubsequently used as the substrate to which a solid-state electrolyte is
directly electrochemically deposited. A nanoparticle based cathode slurryis then applied to the surface of the solid-state electrolyte to complete
the cell. Characterization and performance of the individual components
as well as the composite structures will be presented.

8728-5, Session 2

Nanostructured vanadium pentoxides ascathodes for lithium-ion batteries (Invited
Paper)
Guozhong Cao, Univ. of Washington (United States)
Nanostructured vanadium pentoxide films were fabricated using various
wet chemical processes including sol-gel processing, electrodepositionand electrospinning with or without the assistant of organic additives orsurfactants. The appropriately controlled nanostructures possess highsurface area and short distant for charge and mass transport, and thus
lead to much enhanced power density. The higher surface energy alsofavors the higher lithium intercalation capacity.
Controlled doping of less than 5% manganese and tin in vanadium
pentoxides has demonstrated an appreciable enhancement in lithiumion intercalation properties with the most significant improvement in thecyclic stability. Such enhancement was attributed to increased electricalconductivity and lithium ion diffusivity due to the introduction of oxygen
vacancies, and reduced energy barrier for phase transformation withdoping.
Further study has revealed the surface defects exert an appreciable
impact on the lithium-ion intercalation capacity, allowing the storage
capacity exceeding the theoretical capacity of bulk counterpart. Althoughmore research is required to obtain a better understanding, it is believedthat the surface defects or coating may alter the surface energy, and thus
enable the reversible phase transition to occur at a much higher lithiumcontent.

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Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
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8728-6, Session 2

depending on the arrangement of Mn and Ni on the lattice positionsin the spinel structure. The degree of disorder varies with sintering
conditions, which influence the transport properties and electrochemical
performance. The charge-discharge behavior of both structures havebeen tested by several research groups, however still it is not clear which
structural composition is suitable for a high performance batteries. It
is also not clearly understood if the rate performance of the material islimited by bulk transport properties or charge transfer reactions. Manyof the unknown questions can be resolved if the transport propertiesof the material are reliably characterized. The transport properties ofthe material are scarcely known, i.e. only electronic conductivity of
the fully lithiated phase has been measured. Here we report the ionicand electronic conductivities as well as ionic diffusivity of ordered anddisordered phases separately by using ion and electron blocking cellconfigurations. The measurements have been performed by direct
current polarization technique and impedance spectroscopy on a thicksintered pellet. In order to elucidate the mechanistic understanding
we measured the transport properties as a function of lithium content
as well as of temperature. We found that the electronic conductivity ofthe ordered phase increases with a certain amount of lithium removal(electrochemically) after which the conductivity remains almost constantwith further lithium removal. Conversely, the disordered phase exhibitsa sudden drop of conductivity upon complete delithiation at the 4.1 volt
plateau i.e. complete conversion of Mn3+ into Mn4+. Hereafter, it exhibits
similar conductivity behavior as the ordered structure. Comparing ionic
conductivities and diffusivities between ordered and disordered fullylithiated phases shows them to be the same order of magnitude. Initial
measurements of partially delithiated phases indicate decrease of ionic
conductivities and diffusivities in comparison with lithiated phases.

New directions on rechargeable nanobatteries: lessons from in-situ electron
microscopy (Invited Paper)
Reza Shahbazian, Anmin Nie, Michigan Technological Univ.
(United States)
Nanostructured anode materials have received considerable attention inenergy storage devices due to the enhanced electrochemical reactions at
the surface and their unique electrical and mechanical properties. Silicon
and titanate nanostructures are promising anode materials because of
their energy capacity and safer performance for Li-ion batteries. Oneof the hurdles in developing better and long lasting batteries is the lackof scientific knowledge on the electrochemical reactions that happen
inside a battery under charging and discharging conditions. Using realtime microscopy at atomic resolutions should shed light into some of
the fundamental questions in this regard. This presentation focuses on
the in-situ observation of lithiation and delithiation in Si nanorods andTiO2 nanotubes. The electrochemical testing of these low dimensional
structures were conducted inside a transmission electron microscope
equipped with a novel in-situ electrical probing holder. The intercalationof Li-ions in Si nanorods was monitored during charging and the fractureof nanorods was quantified in terms of size. In addition, the intercalationof crystalline anatase and amorphous TiO2 was studied and their fracture
events were monitored in real time.

8728-7, Session 2

Nanostructured olivine phosphate cathodematerial for rechargeable lithium ion batteries(Invited Paper)

8728-10, Session 3

Lithium intercalation into Li1+x V1-xO2 a low
voltage anode for lithium batteries (Invited
Paper)

Sevi Murugavel, Raza Shahid, Univ. of Delhi (India)
A different solid state preparation of undoped cathode material LiFePO4(LFP) olivine compound has been synthesized at low temperatures withdifferent particle sizes with an emphasis towards understanding thesize dependent physical and electrochemical properties of LFPs. The
phase purity and structural properties of as prepared sample has beencharacterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman Spectroscopy, FTIR
and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Based on the obtained
results, we confirm that as obtained nano-sized particles are without any
parasitic phases. The spectroscopic studies on these samples show thatthe observed vibrational modes are intrinsic part of LFP samples. The
consequences of phonon confinement are noticeable in the vibrational
spectra when the particle size becomes less than 200 nm. The measured
room temperature electronic conductivity and optical band gap shows
the systematic dependence on particle size. We ascribe the variation of
the optical band gap and electronic conductivity with particle size is dueto the quantum confinement effects. Furthermore, we have extended thetemperature and frequency dependent conductivity measurements onthese samples and identify the charge transport mechanism responsible
in LFPs.

Pooja Panchmatia, Univ. of Huddersfield (United Kingdom) andUniv. of Bath (United Kingdom); Robert Armstrong, Univ. of St.
Andrews (United Kingdom); M. Saitul Islam, Univ. of Bath (United
Kingdom); Peter G. Bruce, Univ. of St. Andrews (United Kingdom)
Graphite remains the dominant anode for rechargeable lithium batteries.
Oxides represent an attractive alternative because of their significantly
greater density, leading to higher volumetric energy densities; essential
for future applications in portable electronics and electric vehicles.
Lithium can be reversibly intercalated into layered Li1+xV1-xO2 (LiCoO2
structure) at ~0.1V, but only if x > 0. Here we have investigated theintercalation process focusing on the crucial role of stoichiometry inswitching on intercalation. Atomistic simulation and DFT studies showthat intercalated Li+ occupying tetrahedral sites are energetically morestable for Li-rich compositions, since they share a face with a Li+ on
the V site in the transition metal layers [1]. The unprecedented low
intercalation voltage in an oxide renders the material of interest as an
anode for lithium batteries.
[1] Armstrong A R, Lyness C, Panchmatia P, Islam M S, Bruce P G,
Nature. Mater. 10, 223-229 (2011).

8728-8, Session 3

Transport properties of ordered anddisordered spinel LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 (Invited
Paper)

8728-11, Session 3

Water-based sodium battery for energy
storage (Invited Paper)

Ruhul Amin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)Manickam Minakshi, Murdoch Univ. (Australia)
The global drive for the electrification of road transport for fuel supply
and environmental reasons has put rechargeable batteries at the forefrontof new energy technologies. Lithium-ion batteries have been considered
one of the most attractive rechargeable technologies suitable for electric

LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4- ( = 0-0.05) is a high voltage cathode material for lithium
ion batteries, which has attracted great attention within the battery
community due to its high power density and flat voltage plateau.
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251Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications IV
vehicles (EVs) due to their high energy density and multiple cycling
characteristics. EVs with extended range powered by lithium-ion storage
batteries already exist in the consumer market.
The high cost of lithium is concerning, having roughly doubled fromthe first practical application in 1991 to the present. The cost of lithium
is expected to dramatically increase as demand for it increases in
response to demand for large-scale industrial, household and EV energy
storage. Alternative energy storage mechanisms using abundant andenvironmentally friendly materials are critical for the development ofenergy storage technology. In contrast to lithium resources, sodium
sources are plentiful and cheap. Next to lithium, the electrochemical
properties of sodium are the most attractive for battery applications.
This proposed project paves the way for an alternative energy future by
removing global reliance on fossil fuels, replacing them with sustainablesodium-based energy storage technology, reducing our environmental
impact and ensuring short and long term energy supply. At theconference, our recent work on water-based sodium-ion battery will bepresented.
In one of the author’s earlier works, the commercial alkaline Zn-MnO2primary battery has been transformed into a secondary battery using
LiOH electrolyte. In the current study, a novel Zn-MnO2 battery using
NaOH (aqueous) electrolyte is demonstrated. The sodium battery is fully
reversible with an improved energy density of 300 Wh/Kg. The aqueous
cell showed an excellent efficiency exhibiting reversible electrochemicalintercalation and extraction of sodium from the host MnO2 that make thebattery suitable for energy storage applications. Longer term stability is
yet to be proved.

8728-12, Session 3

From lithium to sodium: the case of olivinematerials (Invited Paper)
Pierre Kubiak, Montse Casas-Cabanas, Vladimir Roddatis,
Damien Saurel, Teofilo Rojo, CIC Energigune (Spain)
There is a rising interest in the development of new low cost energy
storage technologies for grid storage. Sodium-ion batteries are aparticularly attractive alternative because they could potentially bemuch less expensive, safer and environmentally benign than Li-ion
batteries. However, the choice of electrode materials available for thesodium technology is significantly smaller than for lithium technology.
Additionally, fundamental differences between lithium and sodium
insertion mechanisms in the same host structure have been observed. Na
insertion/extraction can induce successive phase transitions that are lesscommon on the lithium counterparts. This is the case of the NaFePO4
material with olivine structure. While Li extraction/insertion from/into
LiFePO4 olivine occurs via a biphasic mechanism, the mechanism of theelectrochemical Na extraction/insertion from/into NaFePO4 involves theformation of an intermediate Na0.7FePO4 phase. This intermediate phasecan be isolated on battery charging or prepared by chemical delithiationof LiFePO4 followed by partial chemical sodiation of the obtained
FePO4 material. X-rays and electron diffraction techniques revealed
the existence of an ordering of Na+ and vacancies resulting in a large
associated supercell. In this study, we have investigated the structuraland electrochemical properties of various NaxFePO4 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) materials.
The NaxFePO4 materials show remarkable electrochemical properties
in the sodium cell, such as long charge–discharge cycle life and good
capacity. Preliminary results on NaxFe1-yMnyPO4 will also be presented
and discussed during the meeting.

portable electronics and may become the main power sources forelectrical vehicles and grid storage. The development of improved
high-energy electrodes for a new generation of lithium-ion batteriesrequires better understanding of the physical and chemical processes
that occur during cycling and the ability to predict and ultimately control
the key properties of the electrode materials. We developed and utilized
specialized in situ reactors to investigate hydrothermal synthesis
reactions in real-time using synchrotron x-ray diffraction. This uniquecapability allows us to track the chemical reaction in real time, and help
us better understand how reaction conditions affect phase nucleation,
crystallization, particle size, morphology and defects. Those new insights
can be used to develop novel high-energy electrodes. I will show ourin-situ studies of hydrothermal synthesis high-capacity Cu-V-O cathodes.
In situ synchrotron x-ray diffraction, absorption spectroscopy (XRD,
XAS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were also used toinvestigate the chemical and structural changes that take place during
the lithium displacement/intercalation reaction process in Cu-V-O andprovide new insights into the lithium reaction mechanisms in this system.

8728-14, Session 4

Heat generation in Li-ion cells during charge
and discharge (Invited Paper)
Rengaswamy Srinivasan, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics
Lab. (United States)
The conventional dialogues on the reasons for thermal runaway, venting
and fire during fast charging and discharging, and during overcharging
of Li-ion cells point to temperature increase and gas formation. There is,however, no consensus on which of these events occurs first, thereby
enabling research to correctly target the root cause. The recent work
conducted at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory(JHU/APL) demonstrates that neither the temperature increase nor gas
formation may be the primary reason for the venting or fire. Instead, theprimary reason could potentially be a thermodynamic parameter that isoften associated with both anode and cathode, namely entropy. Typically,a decrease in entropy, and a concomitant increase in the electrodetemperature have been observed in the anode during charging, and in
the cathode during discharging. We find that under ambient operating
conditions (0 to 30 ºC), entropy-driven thermal energy accounts for morethan 2/3rd of the heat. More importantly, sudden changes in the entropy
increases the electrode temperature by an order-of-magnitude that ifleft unchecked could drive the electrode temperatures sufficiently highto disrupt the SEI layer, bringing the active materials in the electrodes
in direct contact with the electrolyte, enabling exothermic reactions.
Battery internal temperature sensor (BITS), a technique that we recently
developed at JHU/APL enables one to follow the anode and cathodetemperatures in real time, while the cell is under charge and discharge.
We will discuss the application of BITS in estimating the entropy changes
that define the limits of safety in Li-ion cells.

8728-15, Session 4

Lithium ion diffusion kinetics in lithium metal
phosphates (LiMPO4, M= Fe, Mn and Ni) inpresence of 2 M Li2SO4 aqueous electrolyte(Invited Paper)
Gurukar Shivappa Suresh, NMKRV College for Women (India)

8728-13, Session 4

In situ studies of synthesis and lithium
reaction of high-energy electrodes forlithium-ion batteries (Invited Paper)
Feng Wang, Brookhaven National Lab. (United States)
Lithium-ion batteries are the preferred energy storage devices for
252

Here we report a comparative study of kinetics of lithium ion insertion
process at LiMPO4 (M = Fe, Mn & Ni) electrodes in 2 M L2SO4 electrolyte
using cyclic voltammetry, potentiostatic intermittent titration technique(PITT), Galvanostatic intermittent titration technique and electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy technique (EIS) for calculating the kinetic
parameters of the lithium insertion processes at these cathode materials.
The dimensionless kinetic parameter, L, whose magnitude determines
the deviation of the electrode process from pure diffusion, is found to
be 108.1, 2.3 & 0.78 for LiFePO4, LiMnPO4 & LiNiPO4 respectively in 2

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Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
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M Li2SO4 solution. Higher the value of L, smaller is the deviation frompure diffusion and vice verse. The diffusion of lithium ion in LiMnPO4 and
LiNiPO4 is found to be retarded by kinetic limitations like ohmic potential
drops, resistance due to charge transfer and resistance due to phasetransition and are the intrinsic properties of these materials neglecting
the limitation of current by the SEI layer formed in case of these twomaterials. LiFePO4 is found to be the best among the olivine family to
use as cathode material for aqueous rechargeable lithium batteries.

significant change in Isc, the I-V curves shift shows reduction in Voc. We
observed about 15 % decreases in Voc for irradiated devices compared
to an unirradiated device, which will result in similar degradation in solar
cell efficiency. However, when the radiation experiment was performed
with the InGaN solar cell structure on top of the silicon solar cells, we did
not observe any degradation as shown in figure 1 (b). In this experiment
the sapphire substrate from InGaN solar cell was first removed by laser
liftoff technique and then we performed the irradiation experiment with
only the thin layer (about 3 microns) of InGaN solar cell structure on topof the silicon solar cells. Hence, it is concluded that by using hybrid solar
cell structure with InGaN solar cell on top of the silicon solar cell thedamage due to high-energy irradiation can be reduced. We will discussin detail the results of irradiation experiments with different energies anddoses for the hybrid solar cell and the InGaN solar cell compared withthat of the bare silicon solar cells in the full paper.

8728-16, Session 5

The future of high-efficiency photovoltaics
from materials and applications perspective(Invited Paper)

REFERENCES:[1] N.C. Das et al, “Heterogeneous integration of InGaN and Silicon solar
cells for enhanced energy harvesting”, Proc. of 38th IEEE PVSC, June
3-8, Austin, TX, (2012).

Robert J. Walters, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
This talk will begin with a discussion of next generation, high efficiency
photovoltaic (PV) concepts, including nano-structures cells for hot
carrier and intermediate band solar cells as well as multijunction solar
cell materials such as the inverted metamorphic (IMM) technology andnovel, alternative concepts using Sb-containing, InP-based materials.
In the talk, material scarcity issues will be touched on and emphasized,
as material abundance combined with the amount of material neededmust be a driving factor in PV technology development. The talk will thenshift to a discussion of PV applications with a focus on portable power
for military and commercial use, and building integrated PV (BIPV) suchas the new Dow roofing shingle, and space applications. This sectionof the talk will cover thin film technologies and highlight their efficiency
limitations and potential paths for eliminating the limitations, concluding
with a discussion of future prospects.

[2] J. Wu et al, “Superior radiation resistance of InGaN alloys: Full-solarspectrum photovoltaic material system,” J. Appl. Phys., 94, pp. 6477,(2003)

8728-18, Session 5

A maximum power point tracking algorithm
for photovoltaic applications
Sudarshan R. Nelatury, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College(United States); Robert Gray, Penn State Harrisburg (UnitedStates)The voltage and current characteristic of a photovoltaic (PV) cell ishighly nonlinear and operating a PV cell for maximum power transfer
has been a design challenge for a long time. Several techniques havebeen proposed to estimate and track the maximum power point (MPP)in order to improve the overall efficiency of a PV panel. Hitherto, MPP
is analytically found only to within a certain neighborhood, but anexact solution in closed form is not yet published. This problem can beformulated analytically as a constrained optimization for which recursivealgorithms could yield a reasonably good solution. Suppose the voltage
current characteristic and the constant power contours are plotted on
the same voltage current plane, we need to identify the point of tangency
between the device characteristic and the power curves. This point is thesought for MPP and is subject to change with the incident irradiation andtemperature and hence the algorithm that attempts to maintain the MPP
should be adaptive in nature and is supposed to have fast convergenceand the least misadjustment. Analytically, the equations to be solved
happen to be a system of nonlinear equations. An iterative algorithm is
proposed and the existence of solution, its uniqueness, and convergenceare dealt in this paper. Based on the steps involved in its implementation,a novel MPP tracker is proposed. The actual circuitry for the MPP tracker
requires selection of various power electronics stages, but the scope of
the present work is restricted only to MATLAB simulations.

8728-17, Session 5

Enhanced radiation tolerance of InGaN/
silicon hybrid solar cell
Naresh C. Das, Meridith Reed, Anand V. Sampath, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
InGaN solar cells can be used to extend the short wavelength
performance of Si solar cells, leading to greater efficiency in energy
harvesting. Thus, broad solar spectrum absorption and energy
conversion can be achieved by combining InGaN solar cell(s) (UVvisible part) with silicon cells (visible-IR part) in a vertical structure using
voltage matching [1]. It has also been reported [2] that InGaN material
has superior radiation resistance and hence will be helpful in protecting
the silicon solar cells when used as the window material in a radiation
environment. Recently we reported [1] enhanced solar energy harvestingby using a hybrid voltage matched solar cell with an InGaN solar cellon top and 4 silicon solar cells on bottom. We report here increased
radiation tolerance of the silicon solar cells in the hybrid solar cellstructure compared to silicon solar cells only.
InGaN/GaN multiple quantum well (MQW) solar cell structures weregrown on double-side-polished 50 mm (0001) sapphire substrates bymetal-organic chemical-vapor deposition (MOCVD) technique. The InGaN
solar cell structures consist of a 1 m unintentionally doped GaN template
layer, a 2 m Si-doped n-GaN layer ([Si]=6x1018/cm3), a 10 nm highly
Si-doped n+-GaN layer ([Si]=2x1019/cm3), a 30 period undoped MQWactive region with 2.6 nm In0.2Ga0.8N QWs and 6.7 nm GaN barriers,
a 40 nm highly Mg-doped smooth p+-GaN layer ([Mg]=5x1019/cm3),
a 30 nm Mg-doped smooth p-GaN layer ([Mg]=2x1019/cm3), and a 15
nm highly Mg-doped p+-GaN contact layer. An unfiltered Newport solar
simulator provided broadband illumination with an equivalent AM1.5G
illumination intensity of approximately 1.0 sun (100 mW/cm2). We used a
Varian Linac model 200A 2 MeV gamma radiation source with the dose
rate of 2 kRad/min to determine the radiation hardness of the silicon solar
cells in the hybrid structure.

8728-19, Session 5

Flexible high-efficiency solar cells:
approaches and advanced design concepts
Roger E. Welser, Gopal G. Pethuraja, Magnolia Solar, Inc.
(United States); Adam W. Sood, Ashok K. Sood, Magnolia
Optical Technologies, Inc. (United States); Nibir K. Dhar, Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (United States)
Photovoltaic (PV) devices can provide a mobile source of electrical power
for a wide variety of defense applications in both space and terrestrial
environments. Many of these mobile and portable power applications
can directly benefit from the development of flexible, lightweight, high-As shown in figure 1 (a), the I-V curves of the silicon solar cell before andafter irradiation shifted on voltage axis. Though we did not observe any

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253

Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications IV
efficiency solar cells. Emerging technical approaches for achieving
flexible photovoltaic power include the growth of copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS) cells on flexible substrates and the epitaxial liftoff (ELO)of III-V devices onto thin metal film handles. With both approaches,
advanced designs are needed which can further increase power
generating performance, lower module weight, enhance robustness, andreduce costs.
In this paper, we review recent demonstrations of flexible, high-efficiency
solar cells. Solar electric conversion efficiency in excess of 12% has
been achieved on CIGS cells deposited on ultra lightweight titanium
substrates. Higher conversion efficiency approaching 30% has beenobtained from multiple junction III-V devices fabricated using ELO
processes. In both cases, the current output can be further increased byincluding nanostructured coatings on the front surface of the thin-film
solar cells to minimize reflection losses. Nanostructured coatings with areduced refractive index can also be incorporated into omnidirectionalreflector (ODR) structures capable of achieving high internal reflectivity
over a broad spectrum of wavelengths and a wide range of angles. Such
conductive, high-performance ODR structures on the back surface of athin-film solar cell can potentially increase both the current and voltage
output by scattering unabsorbed and emitted photons back into theactive region of the device.

8728-20, Session 5

Photonic and plasmonic solar energy
conversion (Invited Paper)
Jeremy N. Munday, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates)The main driving force in current photovoltaic research is the desire forcheaper and more efficient devices. We have taken two approaches tothis problem by considering the photonic aspects of light absorption inthin layers and the thermodynamic requirements of such devices. We findthat the use of photonic and plasmonic waveguiding and light localization
can greatly improve the absorption characteristics of thin film solar cells
and lead to absorption enhancements in excess of the traditional lighttrapping limit of 4n2, where n is the index of refraction of the absorber.
Further, by considering the photonic aspects of the detailed balance
formulation of solar converters, we find several interesting directions
to improve solar cell efficiencies, e.g. by modifying the radiative
recombination rate. In this talk, I will overview our recent results and ongoing experiments aimed at next generation photovoltaics.

area and deteriorate the solar cell performance. Corresponding selective
n-doping of QD medium provides micro- and nanoscale potential
profiles favorable for effective photovoltaic conversion. Potential barriers
around charged QDs decrease the photoelectron capture and suppress
recombination processes via QDs. Filling QDs predominantly fromdopants in QD medium allows one to maintain the macroscale potential
profile analogous to that in the best conventional single-junction solar
cells.

8728-22, Session 6

Flexible copper indium gallium diselenide
photovoltaics for unmanned aircraft systems
Jesse A. Frantz, Jason D. Myers, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Robel Y. Bekele, Univ. Research Foundation(United States); Vinh Q. Nguyen, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Allan J. Bruce, Sergey V. Frolov, Michael Cyrus,
Sunlight Photonics (United States); Jasbinder S. Sanghera, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
The availability of electrical power frequently limits mission lifetime andscope for unmanned aircraft Systems (UASs). Photovoltaic (PV) panels
have been proposed as an appealing alternative or supplement totraditional power sources for these platforms. Silicon and III-V material
based PVs, however, employ thick substrates that add significant weight
to UAS platforms. Furthermore, their rigidity limits design options,requiring large, flat surfaces. Thin film PVs offer one potential solution
with specific power (measured in W/kg) significantly higher than that of
traditional PV and the potential for flexible devices. Among the thin film
PV materials, copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) has produced
the best laboratory results on rigid glass substrates. Typically, CIGS
is deposited by co-evaporation or, alternately, by deposition of themetals with, or followed by, treatment in a selenium environment. We
present results from an alternative deposition method that instead
uses RF magnetron sputtering from a single quaternary target without
additional selenization. This technique has already produced devices
with conversion efficiencies over 11%. The novel fabrication methods
are especially well suited to fabrication on flexible polyimide substrates
and have the potential to result in performance improvements overevaporated CIGS devices. This will ultimately result in SWAP advantages
over existing technology, longer mission lifetimes, and may potentiallylead to continuous operation of UASs.

8728-21, Session 68728-23, Session 6

Solar cell with charged quantum dots:
optimization for high efficiency (Invited Paper)

Evaluation of the temperature dependence ofthermoelectric properties of materials understeady-state isothermal conditions

Kimberly A. Sablon, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Vladimir V. Mitin, Nizami Z. Vagidov, Andrei V. Sergeev, Univ. at
Buffalo (United States)
Charging of quantum dots (QDs) significantly improves the performanceof QDs solar cells due to the following factors. First, it increases electron
coupling to sub-bandgap photons and provides effective harvesting of IRenergy. Second, QD charging is also an effective tool for managing thepotential profile at micro- and nanoscales. QDs are always charged sinceelectrons from the dopants fill QDs. Under solar radiation QDs are also
filled by photocarriers. In the last case the filling of QDs is determined by
the condition of equality of electron and hole capture rates. Because ofstrong difference in effective masses of electrons and holes, an electronlevel spacing in QDs substantially exceeds a level spacing for holes.
Therefore, QDs play a role of deep traps for electrons, but they are justshallow traps for holes. Thus, the holes trapped in QDs may be excitedby thermal phonons, while excitation of localized electrons requires IR
radiation. Therefore, n-doping of QD structures is strongly preferable forphotovoltaic applications. Moreover, without adequate electron dopingof QD medium, QDs are filled by electrons from the n-doped junction

254

Jay R. Maddux, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
A rapid, simple, and highly accurate method for characterizing thetemperature dependence of thermoelectric properties of materials ispresented. In this special method, two well-controlled heat flows into/out of a sample are balanced. The two heat flows are non-contact
radiative-input heat and Peltier heat caused by electrical current passed
through a sample. [1] Radiative-output heat loss from the sample tothe surroundings would normally cause error. However, in this methodthat is eliminated by performing the measurements within a small
copper chamber whose temperature exactly matches the sample. By
exactly balancing Peltier and radiative-input heat flows, the temperature
difference across a sample can be forced to converge to exactly zero:the isothermal condition. Under isothermal conditions, all steady-stateheat flows can be uniquely determined because all parasitic heat flowsthat could cause error become negligible and that enables accurate
measurements. In this presentation, we employ this method at increasing
temperature to evaluate the temperature dependence of three principal
thermoelectric properties of (Bi,Sb)2(Se,Te)3 alloys [2]: Seebeckcoefficient, electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity. Determination of

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Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications IV
Z (or ZT) from these data is therefore straightforward.

size of the system, thus enabling future ruggedization of the system for
defense applications. Designed from a systems engineering approach,the CPV system has been optimized to maximize efficiency while
reducing system size and cost per kilowatt-hour. Results from systemtests will be presented and design trade-offs will be discussed.

[1] J. Maddux, P. Taylor, Proc. SPIE 8035, Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications II, 803511 (2011).
[2] P.J. Taylor, J. Maddux, W. Jesser, F. D. Rosi, Journ. Appl. Phys., Vol.85
No.11 p.7807 (1999).

8728-26, Session 78728-24, Session 6

High-efficiency boost convertor for remotesensors

Piezoelectric-based electrical energy
harvesting and storage methods andelectronics for munitions

Mark R. Morgenstern, David M. Mackie, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States)

Carlos M. Pereira, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development
and Engineering Ctr. (United States); Jahangir S. Rastegar, Dake
Feng, Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States)

Unattended remote sensors (URSs) are a critical asset to enable threat
monitoring, border and perimeter security, and situation awareness.
Currently, many URSs have a large portion of their size and weight
attributed to large battery packs required to support their operation. This
limits missions to a few months, even with state-of-the-art batteries.
Battery replacement after deployment is expensive, is hazardous in
hostile areas, and reveals the URS’s location. Many alternative powersources have been proposed, such as windmills, solar panels, and fuelcells. However, large installations are often undesirable because the
URSs must remain inconspicuous. Unfortunately, small alternative powersources typically produce voltage and current outputs that are unusableby the radio, data, and sensory electronics in URSs. We have tailored
existing boost convertor technology in order to raise low-voltage / lowcurrent power to voltage levels appropriate to trickle-charge capacitor
banks or small battery packs. To maximize efficiency and utility, switchinglosses (e.g. drain to source current during coil charging, inductor corelosses, and switching energies) are minimized. Component values are
tailored with SPICE modeling to the available source and intended load.
Components used are inexpensive and commercially available. We havedemonstrated that power sources as low as 200mV and 30mA can beconverted to useable voltage levels of 5 – 12 volts, with occasional burstsof hundreds of milliamps of current. The overall measured efficiency ofthe boost converter is >65%. This new high-efficiency boost converter
will enable completely new mission profiles and increased persistence ofsurveillance.

The Armament Research development Center (ARDEC) and the Army
Research Laboratories in Adelphi, Maryland, and their small businesscollaborator (Omnitek Partners, LLC) have been developing energy
systems that can serve as alternatives to current reserve batteries incertain applications in gun-fired munitions. These energy systems relyon electrical energy that is harvested during the launch and the flight.
Harvested energy from the launch and the flight of gun–launchedmunitions is used to charge a storage device such as a capacitor oran ultra-capacitor. The work to be presented focuses on the couplingof the energy harvester and the appropriate matching of the harvester
output parameters with the storage medium in order to achieve optimum
efficiency considering the strict requirements of munitions applications.
It is shown that using a novel passive method, efficiencies of over 70
percent could be achieved in the transfer of the generated electricalcharges to appropriately selected storage medium.
The paper also describes the development of test-beds that simulate
electrical charge generation of the energy harvesting power sources
during the firing and the flight. These test-beds provide the means totest the conversion electronics in realistic conditions and to conduct
further studies of the internal structure and design of storage medium.
Results of tests with the energy conversion electronic circuitry developed
for different applications using the above firing and flight simulation
test-beds are presented. A discussion is also presented on the methods
to improve energy conversion efficiency and high-G survivability for
operation in harsh gun-launch environment.

8728-27, Session 7

Energy harvesting and energy scavenging
approaches to power micro-instruments foron-site use

8728-25, Session 7

System-level solar module optimization

Gurjit Dulai, Donghyun Lee, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo(Canada)Monica Rivera, Grahm C. Roach, Joseph N. Mitchell, Jeffrey L.
Boehme, Southwest Research Institute (United States)

In classical plasma-based elemental analysis, plasmas can consume
as much as 25 L/min of Ar gas and require 1-2 kW of power. But
when plasmas are scaled down to become microplasmas, power andgas consumption also scale down. Thus, size sets power and gas
consumption requirements. For power, how does one either harvest
energy or scavenge energy to power postage stamp-size or sugar-cube
size devices (for example, for elemental analysis of metallo-proteins)?
In this presentation [1], energy harvesting and energy scavenging
approaches will be discussed.

Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systems achieve the highest levelof solar conversion efficiency of all photovoltaic (PV) technologies bycombining solar concentration, sun tracking, and high-efficiency multijunction PV cells. Although these design features increase the overall
efficiency of the device, they also dramatically increase the cost andphysical volume of the system and make the system fragile and unwieldy.
In this paper, we present recent progress towards the development of arobust, reduced form-factor CPV system. The CPV system is designed
for portable applications and utilizes a series of low profile optical andoptomechanical components to concentrate the solar spectrum, enhanceenergy absorption, and track the sun throughout the diurnal cycle. Basedon commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) single-junction PV cells, the system
exploits the efficiency gains associated with tuning the wavelength of theincoming light to the band-gap of a PV material. This is accomplishedby spectrally splitting the concentrated incident beam into multiple
wavelength bands via a series of custom optical elements. Additionalenergy is harvested by the system through the use of scavenger PV
cells, thermoelectric generators, and biologically inspired anti-reflective
materials. The system’s compact, low-profile active solar tracking module
minimizes the effects of wind-induced loads and reduces the overall

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1. V, Karanassios, Powering mobile micro- and nano-instruments,
Materials Research Society (MRS) conference, Boston, MA, USA,
November 28-December 2, 2011 (Invited)8728-28, Session 7

Vehicle to grid: electric vehicles as an energy
storage solution
Nicole Wells, Nicholas Waite, Rodney McGee, Fouad E. Kiamilev,·

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Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications IV
Willett M. Kempton, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
With increased focus on intermittent renewable energy sources such as
wind turbines and photovoltaics, there comes a rising need for largescale energy storage. The vehicle to grid (V2G) project seeks to meet thisneed using electric vehicles, whose high power capacity and existing
power electronics make them a promising energy storage solution. This
paper will describe a charging system designed by the V2G team thatfacilitates selective charging and backfeeding by electric vehicles. The
system consists of a custom circuit board attached to an embedded
linux computer that is installed both in the EVSE (electric vehicle supply
equipment) and in the power electronics unit of the vehicle. The boards
establish an in-band communication link between the EVSE and thevehicle, giving the vehicle internet connectivity and the ability to makeintelligent decisions about when to charge and discharge. This isdone while maintaining compliance with existing charging protocols(SAEJ1772, IEC62196) and compatibility with standard “non-intelligent”
cars and chargers. Through this system, the vehicles in a test fleet havebeen able to successfully serve as portable temporary grid storage,
which has implications for regulating the electrical grid, providing
emergency power, or supplying power to forward military bases.

8728-29, Session 7

Performance of a bending mode energy
harvester using Fe-Ga alloy (Galfenol)
Robert Haynes, JinHyeong Yoo, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Alison B. Flatau, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States)
Magnetostrictive materials are distinguished by the phenomenon ofdimensional changes in response to changes in the magnetization ofa ferromagnetic material. Magnetostrictive materials also experience
an inverse effect whereby magnetization changes occur in response tochanges in applied stress fields. Iron-Gallium alloys (Galfenol, Fe_(100x)Ga_x, 12 < x < 30) are promising transducer materials that combine
desirable mechanical properties with advantageous magnetostrictive
properties. These characteristics make it possible to design robust
structural sensors and energy harvesters which exhibit temperature
insensitivity and high strength under mechanical loads.
In this work, an investigation will be performed into the power potentialof a magnetostrictive energy harvester constructed from a cantilevered
Galfenol-Aluminum unimorph beam subject to vibratory loads. The
Galfenol strip is offset from the neutral axis. As the beam alternates
between tension and compression during bending, strain-inducedchanges in magnetic permeability occur. A pickup coil wound around thebeam harvests the power produced as a result of the time rate of changeof the magnetic flux within the Galfenol strip. Through optimization of
the beam configuration, the permeability change during bending can be
maximized. This paper will show an optimal design for a bending modeenergy harvester based on base excitation level. Power generation andefficiency data are presented for a given size limitation of the device.

combined with a long lifetime. Both large scale nuclear power plants andradiothermal generators are based on converting nuclear energy to heat,but do not scale well to small sizes. Furthermore, thermomechanicalpower plants depend on moving parts, and RTG’s suffer from low
efficiency. To address the need for compact nuclear power devices,
RMD is developing a novel beta battery, in which the beta emissions
from a radioisotope are converted to visible light in a scintillator andthen the visible light is converted to electrical power in a photodiode. By
incorporating strontium-90 into the scintillator SrI¬2 and coupling thematerial to a wavelength-matched solar cell, we will create a scalable,compact power source capable of supplying milliwatts to several watts ofpower over a period of up to 30 years. We will present the latest results ofradiation damage studies and materials processing development efforts,
and discuss how these factors interact to set the operating life andenergy density of the device.

8728-31, Session 7

Review of the energy harvesting systems formunitions and firing platforms
Carlos M. Pereira, U.S. Army Armament Research, Development
and Engineering Ctr. (United States); Jahangir S. Rastegar, Dake
Feng, Omnitek Partners, LLC (United States)
A review is presented of energy harvesting systems developed at the U.
S. Army Armament Research Development Engineering Center (ARDEC)
and its small business partners for munitions. The efforts include thedevelopment of a number of novel piezoelectric-based energy harvesting
power sources for gun-fired munitions and weapon platforms and thedevelopment of Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) based energy harvesting
power sources for supersonic rounds. The piezoelectric devices use
mass-spring elements. Firing shock loading is used to store mechanicalenergy in the device springs. Vibration of the device mass-spring
following firing provides a cyclic load on the piezoelectric element, whichconverts it to electrical energy. The power source spring-mass units aredesigned to harvest additional energy from vibratory motions during theflight. The developed piezoelectric-based power sources provide safe
sources for initial powering of munitions electronics since they have nostored electrical energy before firing. They are designed to survive launch
accelerations in the range of 10-200 KGs and depending on application
and available volume, power requirements in the range of 5 mJ to 150 mJ
can be met.
The Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) based energy harvesting power sources
are designed to generate electrical energy from heating of the leadingedges of supersonic munitions during the flight. Prototypes of such
TPV-based power sources were constructed and successfully tested insupersonic munitions.
In this paper, a number of developed piezoelectric-based and TPV-basedenergy harvesting power sources are presented and their operation andcharacteristics as well as their potential applications in munitions andweapon platforms are described.

8728-30, Session 78728-32, Session 7

Scintillator-based beta-batteries

Tritium power source for long-lived sensors

Noa M. Rensing, Timothy C. Tiernan, Urmila Shirwadkar, Patrick
O’Dougherty, Sara Freed, Rastgo H. Hawrami, Michael R.
Squillante, Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. (United States)
Some long-term, remote sensor installations do not have access toconventional harvestable energy in the form of solar radiation (or otherambient light), wind, environmental vibration, or wave motion. Radiation
Monitoring Devices, Inc. (RMD) is carrying out research to address themost challenging applications, inaccessible sensors that must operate
for many months or years and which have undependable or no accessto environmental energy. Radioisotopes are an attractive candidate
for this energy source, as they can offer a very high energy density

256

Marc S. Litz, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Dimosthenis C. Katsis, Athena Energy Corp. (United States);
John A. Russo, David A. Burns, James J. Carroll, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
The first report of charge storage from isotopes was documented in
1913. [1] In the experiment, Moseley showed that in an evacuatedchamber surrounding 20 mCi of radium, he could develop 100s of kV ofvoltage potential due to the charge emitted (beta decay) from the radium.
Charge collection using isotope emission showed just how versatile were
Moseley’s experimental talents. It was particularly challenging at that time
because few materials were available to sustain high-voltage. This result
was simply described and had great impact.

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Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
Materials, Devices, and Applications IV

8728-39, Session 7

Low-power applications are well suited to using micro-grams of isotope.
Long-lived applications are particularly well suited to isotope powersources. These include sensors located in remote locations, buried
sensors in infrastructure/building/bridge, compact devices for tracking
animals, self-powered MEMS and Micro-robots. Flight recorders using
60Co providing 100uW power [2] have been proposed for commercial
use. Protections of electronics controlled by field programmable gatearrays (FPGAs) can be inhibited/destroyed for applications requiring antitamper (AT) circuits. The most compelling applications are those requiring
energy sources for long-lived sensor elements for space, oceanographic
exploration, bio-medical engineering & structural engineering.

Controlling the interplay of photonics,
electronics, and thermodynamics in solar
upconversion (Invited Paper)
Jennifer A. Dionne, Stanford Univ. (United States)
Upconversion of sub-bandgap photons is a promising approach toexceed the Shockley-Queisser limit in solar technologies. Calculations
have indicated that ideal upconverter-enhanced cell efficiencies canexceed 44% for non-concentrated sunlight, but such improvements have
yet to be observed experimentally. In this presentation, we develop boththeoretical and experimental methods to understand and improve solar
upconversion, considering photonic, electronic, and thermodynamic
design constraints.

Isotope power sources provide a continuous flow of energy fromdecaying isotopes. When isotopes decay they emit alpha, beta or gamma
particles. The energy from the emitted particles can be converted toelectrical current without intermediate thermalization. Avoiding heatsignatures is accomplished by energy conversion efficient practices andkeeping the devices low power. Isotopes decay in five possible modes, 1)alpha decay, 2)beta decay, 3)positron emission, 4)electron capture, and 5)
isomeric transitions. Combinations of particles (a, b, positron, and ?) arecommonly emitted during a given type of decay. Alpha particles (5 MeV)
typically carry more energy than b or g emitters but few materials canstand-up to the a-bombardment without significant deterioration.

First, we develop a thermodynamic model of an upconverter-cellconsidering a highly realistic narrow-band, non-unity-quantum-yield
upconverter. As expected, solar cell efficiencies increase with increasing
upconverter bandwidth and quantum yield, with maximum efficiency
enhancements found for near-infrared upconverter absorption bands.
Our model indicates that existing bimolecular and lanthanide-based
upconverters will not improve cell efficiencies more than 1%, consistent
with recent experiments. However, our calculations show that these
upconverters can significantly increase cell efficiencies from 28% to over
34% with improved quantum yield, despite their narrow bandwidths.
Then, we develop the experimental techniques to enhance upconversion
efficiencies, tailoring both the optical density of states via plasmonics
and the electronic density of states via pressure measurements.

Tritium encapsulated in glass vials, lined with phosphor, has met all thelevels of examination that have earned a general license for commercial
lighting systems. These devices are used in emergency exit signs in
airplanes and public buildings. Extending their use to provide power as along-lived battery is a step that should be achievable in the near future.
The commercial companies that package light sources for exit signs andemergency lighting can provide the cells, which we propose to use as alight emitter for a power source. By adding photovoltaic conversion of
the light to electrical current, a small (100uW) power source has been
designed. The device is inexpensive compared to other approaches that
may offer more efficient conversion techniques, higher energy-density
and more compact packaging. While iterative steps can be taken to
make a tritium power source more efficient, (encapsulation techniques,more efficient phosphors, tuned PV) these rudimentary sources offer apractical first step. These long-lived power sources can have impact on
sensors and network arrays now.

Our results highlight the interplay of absorption and quantum-yield
in upconversion, and provide a platform for optimizing future solar
upconverter designs.

8728-33, Session PSTUE

8728-38, Session 7

Design and modeling of the trapezoidal
electrodes array for electrets energy
harvester

Betavoltaic power sources for ultra-low
power electronics

Mohamad Radzi Ahmad, Mohd Haris Md Khir, Univ. Teknologi
Petronas (Malaysia); John Ojur Dennis, Universiti Teknologi
Petronas (Malaysia)

Christopher Thomas, Samuel Portnoff, Widetronix, Inc. (UnitedStates); Michael G. Spencer, Cornell Univ. (United States)

Electret-based electrostatic energy harvester technique to harvest
electrical energy from ambient vibration is introduced in this paper.
Specifically, a new design of the electrode structure called trapezoidal
electrodes is developed, modeled, simulated and then fabricated intoa miniaturized silicon device. The trapezoidal electrodes and electrets
designs are thoroughly analyzed to evaluate its performance. Theoreticalanalysis is first modeled with Matlab/Simulink tool and later simulatedwith Finite Element Analysis (FEA) tool. Analysis result shows that thetrapezoidal electrodes is able to harvest an average output power ofapproximately 1 mW from a 20 Hz frequency and 1 g acceleration input
vibrations. Further mechanical and electrostatic analyses conducted with
FEA, indicates that the trapezoidal electrodes structure vibrates at 113
Hz resonance frequency and induced 1895 pC of charge from 450 VDCelectrets surface potential. The optimized parameters derive from theanalysis and the simulation are used to fabricate the physical device on astandard 0.35 micron CMOS-MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical System)
process technology.

Betavoltaic power sources enable remote sensing devices that can run
unattended in the field for decades. They use the electron voltaic effectin semiconductor junctions to harvest the energy of beta particles,
producing a direct current output. Betavoltaics have key advantages
due to their long lifetimes, ability to operate in harsh environments,and high energy density. Widetronix is developing silicon carbide (SiC)
betavoltaics, which, due to its wide bandgap, enables the design ofbetavoltaic devices with high conversion efficiencies (> 20%) and a highopen circuit voltage (2.0 V). The current line of planar SiC devices, whenconnected in series and parallel like traditional batteries, can generate
up to 0.38 µW/cc continuously for over a decade. With wafer thinning,
the output of a planar betavoltaic stack can be increased to over 1.0 µW/
cc. Widetronix has also begun to fabricate textured betavoltaics that will
increase the power density of a 1 cc betavoltaic stack by a factor of 100.
In addition, Widetronix has built ultra low power microcontroller driven
electronics that alternate between sleep and active modes on a given
duty cycle to perform real time clock functions for a power budget of
150 nW. Charge from the betavoltaic is accumulated in either capacitors
or thin film rechargeable batteries and is burst out when drawn by thecircuit. The next generation of Widetronix electronics are designed to takeand store sensor measurements in the active portion of the duty cycle,
and Widetronix has demonstrated betavoltaic enabled transmission over
100 yards.

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8728-34, Session PSTUE

Pseudocapacitive and hierarchically ordered
porous electrode materials supercapacitors
Bilge Saruhan-Brings, Yakup Gönüllü, Benedikt Arndt, Deutsches
Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany)·

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Conference 8728: Energy Harvesting and Storage:
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Batteries require long time to charge but store greater charges, while
capacitors can be charged very rapidly within seconds, but suffer fromlower energy densities. With new electrodes which introduce pseudocapacitance and higher surface area, super-capacitors charge rapidly andalso have higher electrical energy densities and supply this longer. Thesefeatures are desirable for a range of applications, in electric vehicles
and for storage of energy from renewable energy supplies such as solar
and wind power which can come in short bursts. Other applications ofsuper-capacitors and more specifically pseudo-capacitors that combine
features of both rechargeable battery and standard capacitor are in
mobile digital technologies and flash photography.
This work demonstrates the fabrication of pseudocapacitive films
grown by electrochemical deposition and nano-tubular layers achievedby anodisation of metallic plates. The electrochemical testing of theelectrodes in half-cells indicates improvement of charge storage
behaviour relying on combination of atomic- and nano-scale structuresin films. The redox pseudo-capacitive behaviour of the films is analysedby means of cyclic voltammeter measurements. Capacitive chargestorage properties of mesoporous films made of complex metal-oxides
in core + shell architecture are superior to those of non-porous andcrystalline metal-oxides. Cation intercalated, aligned nano-structured(titania) combined with redox capable oxides (such as Mn, Co, Ni, Li etc.)
introduces enhanced capacitance and storage capabilities. Mn-based
mixed redox oxides yield higher cyclic charge/discharge stability.

be scavenged from native ecosystems or from waste streams. While
microbial fuel cells (MFCs) can efficiently use various sugars as fuel,they suffer from low power densities. Here we investigate a bio-hybrid
fuel cell: yeast ferments glucose to ethanol; the filtered fermentate
fuels a direct alcohol fuel cell (DAFC) in batch mode. There are no
additional measures such as pumping. We use small, commercialoff-the-shelf DAFCs, both as-bought and slightly modified to enlarge
the fuel reservoir. Shifting the DAFC from purified aqueous alcohol tofermented media raises many questions. These include how the starting
materials, byproducts of the fermentations, and DAFC waste products
affect the long-term performance of the catalytic oxidation of ethanol
at metal catalysts in batch mode. This study examines the effects ofionic strength, cation size, buffering strength, alcohol concentration,
fermentation / fuel cell byproducts, interfering organics, and load
resistance. The performance obtained is comparable to that of a DAFC
with purified aqueous ethanol. The modified DAFC can provide useable
amounts of power for weeks.

8728-35, Session PSTUE

Modeling of high-efficiency ITO/ZnO quantum
wire photovoltaic
Fahad A. Althowibi, Kimberly Kaltenecker, Yevhen Rutovytskyy,
Eric Donkor, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
This paper presents a new nanofiber ITO/ZnO/ITO photovoltaic cell
designed to have higher efficiency of solar energy conversion. The
ZnO is the active medium and it also serves as the core of the fiber. It
is sandwiched between ITO cladding layers. The thickness of ZnO film
ranges between 20-30nm while ITO thickness is between 200-300 µm.
By virtue of the higher refractive index of the ZnO and its higher bandgap
relative to ITO, the incident light is impinging on ITO cladding couples
to ZnO core. The resultant photogenerated carriers in the ZnO are thentransferred across ITO/ZnO heterointerfaces to the ITO due to bandgap
discontinuity between ITO and ZnO. As a result, the optical and electricalpaths of the solar cell are effectively separated.
A model of light absorption and propagation for the energy conversion
will be presented. The optical model will be based on guided-wave
theory and the energy conversion model will be based on energy-bandtheory for the ITO-ZnO heterojunction. Results will be presented for highefficiency generated photocurrents (cell short-circuit current) and highvoltage across cell terminals (cell open-circuit voltage) as function ofmaterial parameters and device geometry.

8728-36, Session PSTUE

Performance study of glucose-yeast-ethanol
bio-hybrid fuel cellDavid M. Mackie, Sanchao Liu, Marcus S. Benyamin, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States); Rahul Ganguli, Teledyne ScientificCo. (United States); James J. Sumner, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
Renewable alternatives to fossil hydrocarbons for energy generation
are of great interest, for a variety of political, economic, environmental,
and practical reasons. These alternatives must also be environmentally
sustainable and convenient to implement. Proton exchange membrane(PEM) fuel cells provide clean, quiet power from hydrogen or alcohol,
but these fuels are inflammable and/or toxic. These hazards impose
additional logistics burdens and safety issues. Sugar as a fuel has
many positives: energy density, safety, sustainability, and the ability to
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Conference 8729: Scanning Microscopies 2013:
Advanced Microscopy Technologies for Defense, Homeland
Security, Forensic, Life, Environmental, and Industrial Sciences
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8729 Scanning Microscopies 2013: Advanced Microscopy Technologies for Defense,
Homeland Security, Forensic, Life, Environmental, and Industrial Sciences

8729-1, Session 1

8729-3, Session 1

SEM/EDS fixed-beam or overscan analysis
of particles can miss the real structure: x-ray
spectrum image mapping reveals the true
nature (Keynote Presentation)

Electron microscopy and forensic practice(Invited Paper)

Dale E. Newbury, Nicholas W. M. Ritchie, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)

Electron microscopy is one of the essential techniques of forensic
inorganic microanalysis. The use is facilitated by versatility, availability,
rapidity of analysis and routinely by unequivocal interpretation of
results. SEM and EDS/WDS systems are predominately applied due
to versatility and simplicity in sample preparation. Systems enable theprocessing of a vast spectrum of samples and materials - classic micro
traces - glass fragments, gunshot residues, post-blast residues (PBR),
explosives and propellants, pigments and paint systems, colour layers ofart works, soils phases, mineralogical and petrologic samples, unknown
samples (including extortionate letters), fillers and additives of paper andplastics,building materials, fillers of safety boxes, bulb filaments fromroad accidents, gemmological objects., etc. Another field of the use issurface characteristics, grain size and analysis of inorganic phases inorganic matrices - cosmetic and pharmaceutical products, narcotics, etc.
The potential use can be found in forensic defectoscopy when analysing
fracture areas and other defects. Next field comprises biological andanthropological disciplines - analysis of hair and hairs, determination of
insect eggs, etc. Less traditional areas include analysis and comparisonsof nanoparticles and nanocomposites, analysis of intersecting lines
in documents, analysis of holograms and other protecting elements.
From successive techniques, cathode luminescence is widely used not
only in forensic mineralogy and gemmology. Ion microscopy (FIB) - hasbeen gaining ground recently, particularly for analyses and comparisonsof nanocomposite structures, micro-and nanoparticles, functional
glass layers and the like, coupled with 3D reconstruction and particle
documentation. TOF-SIMS technique in FIB systems will probably
provide further future development as well.

Marek Kotrly, Ivana Turková, Institute of Criminalistics Prague(Czech Republic)

The typical strategy for analysis of a microscopic particle by scanningelectron microscopy/ energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM/EDS) x-ray
microanalysis is to use a fixed beam placed at the particle center or tocontinuously overscan to gather an “averaged” x-ray spectrum. Whileuseful, such strategies inevitably concede any possibility of recognizing
microstructure within the particle, and such fine scale structure is often
critical for understanding the origins, behavior, and fate of particles.
Elemental imaging by x-ray mapping has been a mainstay of SEM/
EDS analytical practice for many years, but the time penalty associatedwith mapping has discouraged its general use and reserved it more fordetailed studies that justified the time investment. The emergence ofthe high throughput, high peak stability silicon drift detector (SDD-EDS)
has enabled a more effective particle mapping strategy: “flash” x-ray
spectrum image maps can now be recorded in seconds that capture thespatial distribution of major (concentration, C > 0.1 mass fraction) andminor (0.01 ≤ C ≤ 0.1) constituents. The NIST DTSA-II software engine
is a powerful aid for quantitatively analyzing this mapping information(available free at: http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div837/837.02/epq/dtsa2/
index.html).

8729-2, Session 1

Does your SEM really tell the truth: How
would you know? Part 2 (Keynote Presentation)8729-4, Session 2

Michael T. Postek, András E. Vladár , National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)

A Large range metrological atomic force
microscope and its uncertainty analysis

The first paper in this series, discussed some of the issues related tosignal generation in the SEM, instrument calibration, electron beaminteractions and the need for modelling to understand the actual image
formation process. All these were summed together in a discussionof how these issues effect measurements made with the instrument.
This second paper, discusses two other major issues confronting
the microscopist, specimen contamination and instrument vibration/
motion. NIST has done a great deal of research into both of these issues
especially sample contamination and its removal and elimination andsome of this work is reviewed here. Today, given the proper accessory
equipment, such as oxygen or hydrogen plasma cleaner, attached tothe instrument, contamination can be eliminated. The second topic
discussed is instrument/sample instability, vibration and drift. SEMs
need to be highly stable especially at high magnification and resolution.
The motion of a sample either through vibration or stage drift modifies
the image being viewed and compromises any measurement made withthat instrument. NIST has developed approaches to solving this problem
and this presentation discusses both of these issues and their effects on
imaging and measurements made with the SEM that every user should
know, and understand before any critical quantitative work is attempted.

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Sitian Gao, Qi Li, Wei Li, Mingzhen Lu, Yushu Shi, National
Institute of Metrology (China)
The Scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) are widely used in
nanotechnology research and industry. To ensure the quantity
consistency, metrological instruments are developed to calibrate thestandard artifacts. The grating pitch artifacts are used to calibrate thelateral magnification of instrument as SEM and SPM.
A large range metrological atomic force microscope (AFM) with
50mm?50mm?4mm scan range has been designed and constructed.
In this paper, the structure and the performance of the instrument arebriefly introduced. The AFM is a sample scanning instrument and thedisplacement is traced to SI unit with multi-pass interferometer. One
dimensional grating pitch specimens are measured and the pitch values
are investigated with gravity center method. The mean pitch values
are estimated by fitting the gravity canter positions. The error sources
are analyzed and the errors caused by sample oblique due to sample
arrangement are corrected. The measured standard deviation of 400 nm
grating pitch is 0.2 nm.

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Conference 8729: Scanning Microscopies 2013:
Advanced Microscopy Technologies for Defense, Homeland
Security, Forensic, Life, Environmental, and Industrial Sciences

8729-5, Session 2

Lin, Mingzhang Chu, Institute of Electrical Engineering (China)

Performance improvement of a largerange metrological AFM through parasitic
interference feedback artifacts removing byusing laser multimode modulation method

The control of a typical Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) is throughsome variant on a Proportional-Integral (PI) controller. As the well known
tedious and complicated parameters tuning procedure, this paper showsa novel automatic tuning method for PI parameters based on graphics.
It maps the four main indices about step response such as rise time,overshoot, resolving time and steady-state error to one cost function.
Then it generates 3-D plot using P, I and value of the cost function with
objective to search for maximum value. Grain analysis algorithm is used
to select the optimal parameter group. Experimental results in AFM showthat this approach offers system with optimal step response and better
feedback control while getting less error signal in line scan.

Qi Li, Sitian Gao, National Institute of Metrology (China); Zheng
Ming Lu, Wei Li, Shu Yu Shi, national institute of metrology P.R
China (China)
A large range multi-functional metrological atomic force microscope has
been set up at NIM, which is based on optical beam deflection method
to make traceable measurement of standard samples, this machine isdeliberately designed to use three axes stacked piezoceramics actuators,
homodyne interferometer framework associated with eight times optical
path multiplier interferometer mirror and compact AFM head withspecial track and convergence lens. However in practical a parasitic
interferences by sample surface and cantilever influence calibration
results quite well, so in paper a laser multimode modulation method is
mentioned to remove the effect.

8729-6, Session 2

Development of atomic force microscope(AFM) tip width calibration standards
Ronald G. Dixson, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States); Boon Ping Ng, A*STAR Singapore
Institute of Manufacturing Technology (Singapore); Craig McGray,
Ndubuisi Orji, Jon Geist, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has amultifaceted program in atomic force microscope (AFM) dimensional
metrology. A major component of this program is the use and traceablecalibration of critical dimension atomic force microscopy (CD-AFM) –which uses flared tips and two-dimensional surface sensing to scan the
sidewalls of near-vertical and reentrant features. [1]Since the calibration of tip width is an essential element of traceable
CD-AFM metrology, a closely related effort is the development of a newgeneration of the NIST single crystal critical dimension reference material(SCCDRM) project, using a novel self-aligned selective etching process.
[2] This effort is pushing toward feature widths below 10 nm, with theprospect of CD-AFM tip width calibration having expanded uncertainty (k= 2) below 1 nm.
Line width roughness is an important contributor to the uncertainty, so
we are working to improve feature uniformity through refinement of theetch process. We will report the results of etching experiments on Si(111)
surfaces to minimize the surface roughness.
1. R. Dixson, N. G. Orji, C. D. McGray, J. Bonevich, J. Geist, “Traceable
Calibration of a Critical Dimension Atomic Force Microscope,” J. Micro/
Nanolith. MEMS MOEMS Vol. 11, 011006 (2012).
2. C. McGray, R. Kasica, N. G. Orji, R. Dixson, M. Cresswell, R. Allen, and
J. Geist, “Robust Auto-Alignment Technique for Orientation-Dependent
Etching of Nanostructures,” J. Micro/Nanolith. MEMS MOEMS Vol. 11,023005 (2012).

8729-7, Session 2

Automatic tuning of proportional-integral
controller for atomic force microscopy basedon graphics
Daixie Chen, Institute of Electrical Engineering (China); Bohua
Yin, Institute of Electrical Engineering (China); Li Han, Yunsheng260

8729-8, Session 2

Hybrid metrology for critical dimensions data
to enable 1X node production
Johann Foucher, CEA-LETI (France)
To fulfil advanced process control requirements for 1X node production,
the semiconductor industry must cope with multiple parallel metrology
requirements such as resolution, precision and accuracy enhancement
in all directions to answer to new 3D integrated circuit fabrication
methods. Current limitations of conventional techniques (i.e., CDSEM and Scatterometry) tend to complicate global process control
configuration in the semiconductor industry. Recently, a new approach,so-called hybrid metrology, has been proposed that consists of using intandem multiple techniques that collectively reduce global measurement
uncertainty. To successfully integrate data from multiple measurements,
data fusion algorithms are employed in hybrid metrology to reduce
measurement uncertainty. Through this approach, various topologies canbe used—for example parallel, serial or tree topologies—to satisfy ITRS
recommendations.
In this paper, we will discuss various configurations of hybrid metrology
dedicated to critical dimensions data. Our objective is to study andpropose the best real-time multiple data analysis dedicated to thesemiconductor industry. To do so, we propose the development of auniversal platform dedicated to the main techniques such as CD-SEM,
Scatterometry, TEM and CD-AFM. The added value on the global
uncertainty of the fleet of tools we want to control is a function of theindividual data quality that comes from various tools. Therefore we also
focus our study on the constraints to impose on data set quality and data
format. Finally, we will propose potential manufacturing solution that will
enable better advanced process control for 1X nodes production.

8729-9, Session 2

Physical-chemical measurement methods for
self-assembled core-shell nanostructures
Natalia Farkas, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States); Puthupparampil V. Scaria, Martin C. Woodle,
Aparna Biosciences (United States); John A. Dagata, National
Institute of Standards and Technology (United States)
Improvements in dimensional metrology and innovations in physicalchemical characterization of functionalized nanoparticles are criticallyimportant for the realization of enhanced performance and benefitsof nanomaterials. Toward this goal, we propose a multi-techniquemeasurement approach, in which correlated atomic force microscopy(AFM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), high performance liquid
chromatography and mass spectroscopy measurements are used
to assess molecular and structural properties of self-assembled
polyelectrolyte nanoparticles with a core-shell structure. In this approach,measurement methods are first validated with a model system consistingof gold nanoparticles functionalized with synthetic polycationic branchedpolyamide macromolecules. Shell thickness is measured by AFM and
DLS, and the polyelectrolyte uptake determined by chromatographic

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Conference 8729: Scanning Microscopies 2013:
Advanced Microscopy Technologies for Defense, Homeland
Security, Forensic, Life, Environmental, and Industrial Sciences
separation and mass spectrometric analysis. Statistical correlation
between size, structure and stability provide a basis for extending
the methods to more complex self-assembly of nucleic acids andmacromolecules via a condensation reaction. From these size andanalytical chemical measurements, we obtain a comprehensive spatialdescription of these assemblies, obtain a detailed interpretation of thecore-shell evolution, and identify regions of the parameter space wherestable, discrete particle formation occurs.

this presentation, we will describe the partnership including the use of
the SEM in our Research Experience for Teachers (RET) program and in
our community outreach programs. Our experiences will also serve as atemplate for similar partnerships at other institutions.

8729-12, Session 3

Using the Hitachi TMS 3000 in a middle
school classroom*Work performed under a NIST-Aparna cooperative research anddevelopment agreement (CRADA) CN-11-0014.

Mary Ellen Wolfinger, Takoma Park Middle School (United States)8729-10, Session 3

A middle school science teacher in Montgomery County, Maryland
had the opportunity to have a tabletop scanning electron microscope,
the Hitachi TMS 3000, in her classroom for one week. During theweek the sixth grade science students used the microscope to learn
about how measurements are made at the nanometer scale throughmeasuring objects of their choice. Students compared scanning electron
microscopes to optical microscopes, learned uses of nanotechnology,
and practiced converting metric measurements from the measurements
made with the SEM to measurements on a scale to which they are
more accustomed, for example, from nanometers to micrometers.
In an Open House for parents and students one evening that same
week the microscope was used to teach students and their families
about microscopy, nanotechnology, electrons and the electromagnetic
spectrum. The Hitachi TMS 3000 was a useful instrument to integratescience, technology, engineering and mathematics in the classroom.

HTA educational outreach program andchange the equation participation
Robert Gordon, Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc. (UnitedStates)In this talk, Hitachi High Technologies America (HTA) introduces its
Educational Outreach Program and explains it’s involvement with Change
The Equation (CTEq), a nonprofit, nonpartisan, CEO-led initiative that is
mobilizing the business community to improve the quality of science,technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) learning in the UnitedStates.
Change the Equation was started by five Chief Operating Officers fromsome of the largest companies in the U. S. along with the Carnegie
Corporation of New York and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundationin September 2010. In that time, CTEq has helped its more than 100
members connect and align their philanthropic and advocacy efforts sothat they add up to more than the sum of their parts. CTEq is meant toanswer President Obama’s Educate to Innovate Campaign to move theU.S. to the top of the pack in science and math education over the next
decade.

8729-13, Session 3

Use of a tabletop scanning electron
microscope in the classroom
Carolyn Holcomb, Western Heights Middle School (UnitedStates)CTEq is interested in improving STEM education for every child, witha particular focus on girls and students of color which have long been
underrepresented in STEM fields. Some of the key focuses of CTEq areon scalability, sustainability, an emphasis on long term impact, supportof teachers in the STEM field and encouragement of hands-on-learning.
With some of the long term goals of CTEq being improving corporate
member philanthropy, inspiring and capturing the imagination ofAmerica’s youth, providing insight to students into STEM postsecondaryand career options, and advocating change at the state and national level
for STEM education, the CTEq coalition will look to speak and act as a
unified voice for change in STEM education in the years to come.

It often happens in academic settings that gifted opportunities arereserved for those students marked as gifted. STEM funds andtechnological equipment are often earmarked for special programs
and charter schools. Hitachi’s school loan program for their TMS 3000
allowed a Title 1 school to offer an opportunity to its students whose
math and reading scores are well below state and national levels.
Each class of 7th grade students was split into two learning groups of
approximately 10-15 students. One group used computers to investigate
a virtual electron microscope, examining samples and generating awritten response regarding interesting facts discovered. Meanwhile, theother group was given an introductory lesson on how an SEM works
in relation to a light microscope. Students were given a manufactured
scenario of a bioterrorist attack in which they were forensic scientists
who had to make a positive identity of a neurotoxin, comparing threeplant samples. Using the TMS 3000, students learned how to loadsamples, scan, take pictures and focus the TEM. After 45 minutes,
learning groups were switched, all of them taking turns having handson exposure with the equipment. This experience was an eye opener
to students, who otherwise would never have had such a learning
opportunity. As a result many verbalized interest in pursuing careers in
STEM related fields, if only to be able to use such fun equipment!

8729-11, Session 3

Bringing students to the mountain: a modelfor developing partnerships to introduce
students to cutting-edge research
AnneLynn Gillian-Daniel, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison (UnitedStates); Robert Gordon, Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc.
(United States); Benjamin L. Taylor, Jon J. McCarthy, Univ. of
Wisconsin-Madison (United States)8729-14, Session 3

Many materials science education and outreach activities are designed tobe easy and cost-effective to implement in K-12 classrooms. While these
activities are extremely effective at teaching broad materials science
concepts such as size and scale, materials properties, and the use oftools in science, they do not connect very closely to the work being donein materials science research laboratories. In an effort to more closely
connect our outreach efforts to the work being done by our researchers,
the University of Wisconsin–Madison’s Materials Research Scienceand Engineering Center (UW-MRSEC) has developed a partnershipwith Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc. This partnership allows us
to introduce public audiences to a state-of-the-art tabletop scanningelectron microscope (SEM) that is being used by UW researchers. In

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Integrating independent research into sciencecurricula to foster STEM leadership
Craig Queenan, Alyssa Calabro, David L. Becker, Bergen County
Academies (United States)
The Bergen County Academies (BCA) is a public magnet high school
in New Jersey focused on science, technology, engineering andmathematics (STEM) education. The research program offered at the·help@spie.org

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Conference 8729: Scanning Microscopies 2013:
Advanced Microscopy Technologies for Defense, Homeland
Security, Forensic, Life, Environmental, and Industrial Sciences
school offers students the opportunity to conduct, present and defend
their own scientific research using advanced tools and techniques,
including scientific equipment unavailable in most high schools.
One of the highlights of STEM education at the school is the integrationof advanced microscopy into the curriculum and research programs.
The school is home to the Nano-Structural Imaging Lab (NSIL) wherestudents have access to a scanning electron microscope (SEM), atransmission electron microscope (TEM), and a laser scanning confocal
microscope (LSCM).
Through their journey into research, students are given a skill set thatcan be transferred to future education and their careers, and will help
shape the next generation of leaders in the fields of science, technology,
engineering and math. By serving as an educational model for reformed
STEM education, BCA is at the forefront of what STEM education in the
United States will look like in the years ahead.

8729-15, Session 5

Metrological scanning electron microscopeand imaging method(which is twice the diffraction limit due to the weak IR sources) is often
insufficient. Raman micro-spectroscopy provides adequate spatial
resolution (~1 micron), but is not always practical because of its low
throughput and for samples exhibiting strong fluorescence. We aredeveloping a non-contact and non-destructive technique we call photothermal infrared imaging spectroscopy (PT-IRIS). It provides similar
information to FTIR or Raman spectroscopy and can be applied in bothstand-off and microscopy configurations. It involves photo-thermal
heating of the sample with a (focused) tunable quantum cascade laser(or other suitable infrared laser) and measuring the resulting increase inthermal emission by either an infrared detector or a laser probe in thevisible spectral range. The latter case allows for a further increase of
the spatial resolution from the diffraction limit (~10 microns for mid-IR
wavelengths with a NA=0.5 objective) to ~1 micron, under the rightexperimental conditions. Since the thermal emission signal from thesurface is directly proportional to the absorption coefficient, by tuning
the laser wavelength we directly measure the IR absorption spectrumof the sample. With minor modifications, we can also measure theIR reflectance spectrum. By raster-scanning over the surface of thesample we can obtain chemical composition maps. We demonstrate
this technique by imaging different materials with structures on the
microscale.

Bohua Yin, Daixie Chen, Li Han, Institute of Electrical Engineering(China); Sitian Gao, Mingzhen Lu, National Institute of Metrology(China)8729-17, Session 5

Generally, as one of the strong and popular microstructure imaging
and analysis tools, scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used towatch the surface micro or nanometer scale structure of conductor orsemiconductor materials. The SEM has great magnification ability up
to several hundred thousand multiple with resolution of 1~2 nanometer.
Although the SEM has above advantage characters, it normally could not
be considered as a standard metrology tool with trace to standard meter.
There are several factors which can influence SEM metrological accuracy,such as aperture size, acceleration voltage, work distance, and so on.

Tao Tang, Zengming Zhang, Zejun J. Ding, Univ. of Science andTechnology of China (China); Karoly Tokesi, Hungarian Academyof Sciences (Hungary); K. Goto, Nagoya Institute of Technology(Japan)In this paper, a metrological SEM based on precision stage moving ispresented. In ordinary SEM mode, the image is acquired by e-beamscanning action in x and y direction. In our metrological SEM system,
the image is obtained by the x-y stage scanning motion while the
e-beam is stationed at somewhere. The dual axis flexure stage isused to realize step-by-step nano scale moving during obtaining two
dimension SEM image. In order to getting large range moving, theflexure stage is fixed on the surface of the large displace stage which
is driven by piezoelectricity motors. This double stages structure canrealize both sample positioning in 50mm?50mm range and accuracy
imaging in several tens of micron scale. In order to trace to the defineof the standard meter, the interferometer is used to measure the stage
displacement during acquiring SEM secondary electron image or backscatter electron image.
In order to acquiring scanning image with above SEM system, the control
system is indispensability. The control system based on digital signal
processing (DSP) is constructed, including TMS320-6713 DSP, precision
AD/DA modules, Galil motion controller, high speed data bus interface,and so on.
In this paper, the measuring accuracy is discussed in several aspects:
image resolution, e-beam floating, mechanical assembling error, x-y axis
orthogonality error, etc.

Surface optical properties for copper basedon surface Kramers-Kroning analysis

The differential surface excitation probability (DSEP) for medium energy
electrons traveling in Cu is extracted by using the Werner’s eliminationretrieved algorithm acting on different reflection electron energy loss
spectroscopy (REELS) spectra including from thin film and bulk materials
and by applying different theoretical methods. Other than a conventional
treatment of the contributions to DSEP from surface and bulk excitations
by simply using the bulk optical data under an implicit assumption thatthe dielectric function at the surface is the same as that in the bulk, we
use in this work a surface Kramers-Kronig dispersion relationship for thesurface energy loss function to derive the complex dielectric function .
In all cases, the present results display that the optical property curves
between surface layer and bulk are similar in shape, while deviatequantitatively for energies below 60 eV, which may be caused by thedifferent electronic structures at surface and in bulk. The optical datafrom different theoretical methods are similar which stand on the surface
optical constant of bulk material from Cu. There is some deviation
among the surface optical constant from different theoretical methods
and the Werner’s experimental method acting on the film material’s
REELS spectrum which approximately represents the surface opticalconstant of Cu’s film material. The obtained optical data is dependent on
the shape and intensities of DSEP. These present data would be good
approximations to the dielectric function of surface layer of different
materials.

8729-18, Session 68729-16, Session 5

Advances in photo-thermal infrared imaging
microspectroscopy
Robert Furstenberg, Christopher A. Kendziora, Michael R.
Papantonakis, Viet Q. Nguyen, R. Andrew McGill, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
There is a growing need for chemical imaging techniques with spatial
resolution in the range of 1-10 microns. While FTIR micro-spectroscopy
is commonly used, its practical resolution limit of about 20 microns
262

Monte Carlo simulation for realistic beamsample interaction in SEM: application
to evaluation of sharpness measurement
methods
Zhu Ruan, S. F. Mao, Peng Zhang, Univ. of Science andTechnology of China (China); H.M. Li, University of Science andTechnology of China (China); Zejun J. Ding, Univ. of Science andTechnology of China (China)

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Conference 8729: Scanning Microscopies 2013:
Advanced Microscopy Technologies for Defense, Homeland
Security, Forensic, Life, Environmental, and Industrial Sciences
Simulated SEM images by Monte Carlo method under realistic
instrumental conditions are used for evaluation of sharpness
measurement methods. The Monte Carlo simulation of the SEM image
is based on a physical model for electron-solid interaction with Mott
elastic cross section and dielectric functional approach, a finite element
triangle model for delicate complex sample topography and a modelfor description of SEM instrumental conditions (focus, astigmatism,drift and vibration). A series of simulated SEM images of a realistic
sample structure, golden particles on a carbon film, under different
instrumental condition parameters are generated, which can beconsidered as experimental results where all instrumental conditions
are precisely known and controlled. An estimation of three SEM image
sharpness measurement methods, i.e. FT, CG and DR method, has been
performed for the simulated images. The responses of image sharpness
measurement methods to various instrumental conditions are studied.
All three methods show reasonable response on focus situation. For
astigmatism, the variations of measured sharpness are complicated.
For drift and vibration, FT method responses reasonably but CG and DR
methods are not satisfied.

8729-19, Session 6

Monte Carlo Study of the Influence ofElectron Beam Focusing to SEM Linewidth
Measurement
Peng Zhang, Shifeng Mao, Zengming Zhang, Zejun J. Ding, Univ.
of Science and Technology of China (China)
In critical dimension scanning electron microscopy (CD-SEM), themeasurement error resulted from a finite electron beam spot size can
not be neglected for nanoscale structure. In this work, an analysis on theinfluence of electron beam focusing to linewidth measurement for silicon(Si) trapezoid lines by scanning electron microscopy image has been
carried out based on a Monte Carlo simulation method. The electronprobe focusing with finite width due to aberration for simulating incident
electron trajectories is taken into account by two different models. The
simulation has been verified through a comparison with experiment. The
research result shows that: 1. For a certain trapezoidal line, the largerof aperture angle and the extent of focusing position away from the justfocusing plane, the bigger bias of linewidth is. 2. The focus point shouldbe placed between the trapezoidal top surface and substrate surface fora precise measurement of the linewidth. 3. On the specimen surface theelectron beam profile is deviated from the Gaussian probe shape andchanges with the surface topography due to the beam focusing stateespecially when the vertical size of the specimen is over submicron order.
The results will benefit further researches on linewidth measurement.

8729-20, Session 6

Monte Carlo simulation of x-ray
photoemission electron microscopic image
Zengming Zhang, Tao Tang, Univ. of Science and Technology
of China (China); Shifeng Mao, University of Science andTechnology of China (China); Zejun J. Ding, Univ. of Science andTechnology of China (China)
A new Monte Carlo method is built to describe the photoelectrons
excited by incident X-ray generation processes and the transport processof photoelectron in solid and XPEEM image is also obtained. For contrast
with experimental result, XPEEM images for Ag dot array on Si are
simulated in TEY mode in the X-ray energy region upon and below Ag L3edge and Al . The image of dots of Au on Si substrate is also simulatedwith the x-ray energy at M-shell absorption edge. And the trajectories ofelectrons scattered among dot sides and substrate surface were given
to visualize the penetrating processes. Silicon substrate was substitutedby the polymer PMMA for imaging, which was usually used in photon
etching. The simulated XPEEM images in TEY mode are very close to theexperimental pictures.

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Conference 8730: Flexible Electronics
Wednesday 1 –1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8730 Flexible Electronics

8730-1, Session 1

8730-3, Session 1

Technology horizons: the U.S. Air Force
Headquarters level science and technology
vision for 2010-2030 (Invited Paper)Flexible packaging and integration of CMOS
IC with elastomeric microfluidics

Werner J. A. Dahm, Arizona State Univ. (United States)

Bowei Zhang, Quan Dong, Can E. Korman, Mona Zaghloul,
Zhenyu Li, The George Washington Univ. (United States)

Roughly once every decade since its inception as a separate Service,
the U.S. Air Force has undertaken a Headquarters-level assessment
identifying the scientific and technological areas it must focus on over thefollowing decade to gain the capabilities it needs to perform its mission.
Six such Headquarters-level visions have guided Air Force S&T from1945-2010, beginning with “Toward New Horizons” led by Theodore von
Kármán for General Hap Arnold, through “New World Vistas” conducted
in 1995. In 2009, the Secretary of the Air Force and the Air Force Chiefof Staff called on the Chief Scientist of the U.S. Air Force to conduct“Technology Horizons” as the next major Air Force S&T vision. The
resulting effort received inputs ranging from the MAJCOM and Air Staff
level to the operational unit level, from other DoD Services and agencies,
other Federal entities, FFRDCs, national laboratories, industry, andacademia. Released in 2010, the first volume of “Technology Horizons”
is publicly accessible. It provides an overview of the strategic context
that defines technologies likely to be “disproportionately valuable” overthe 2010-2030 time frame. From this it identifies twelve overarchingthemes highlighting technology characteristics that are consistent
with this strategic context. Technology Horizons then used a “10+10
Technology-to-Capability” process to identify a set of potential capability
areas and a further set of key supporting technology areas that the Air
Force must focus on to meet the strategic, technology, and budget
challenges it faces over the next two decades. This paper gives an
overview of “Technology Horizons” and key insights gained from it, andtheir implications for technology development efforts relevant to defense,
security, and sensing.

Significant progress has been made in flexible electronics in the past few
years. However, current flexible electronic systems have not yet matched
the high performance, low power consumption, low cost and scalability
offered by traditional CMOS technology. In addition, current flexible
electronic systems rely on either organic molecules which often have
low carrier mobilities, or ultrathin inorganic semiconductor membranes
which require delicate fabrication processes and are prone to mechanicaldamages. Another constraint on current flexible electronic systems is thatthey often provide only electronic functionalities with little or no fluidic
functions. Here we demonstrate, to our knowledge, the first flexible
packaging and integration of a CMOS die with polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS) elastomeric microfluidics. Microfluidic channels are used todeliver both liquid samples and room temperature liquid metals to the
CMOS integrated circuits (ICs). The liquid metals are used to realize
electrical interconnects to the CMOS chip. This avoids the traditional
IC packaging challenges, such as wire-bonding and flip-chip bonding,which are not compatible with current microfluidic technologies. Asa demonstration we integrated a CMOS magnetic sensor chip andassociate microfluidic channels on a flexible PDMS substrate that allows
precise delivery of small liquid samples to the sensor area. Furthermore,
the packaged system is fully functional under bending curvature radius of
three centimeters. The flexible integration of CMOS ICs with microfluidics
enables compact and low-cost flexible electronic and lab-on-a-chipsystems, which hold great potential for wearable health monitoring,handheld point-of-care diagnostics and environmental sensing among
many other applications.

8730-2, Session 1

8730-4, Session 1

High-performance logic circuits using
solution-based, low-temperature
semiconductors for flexible electronics

Biomimetic functionalization of graphene forflexible sensing platform

Israel Mejia, Ana L. Salas-Villasenor, John W. Murphy, The Univ.
of Texas at Dallas (United States); George R. Kunnen, ArizonaState Univ. (United States); Kurtis D. Cantley, The Univ. of Texas
at Dallas (United States); David R. Allee, Arizona State Univ.
(United States); Bruce E. Gnade, Manuel A. Quevedo-Lopez, The
Univ. of Texas at Dallas (United States)
In this work we demonstrate high performance and low-power n-typeinverters using solution-based CdS as the semiconductor in thinfilm transistors. Our fabrication process consists of five mask levels
and a maximum temperature of 150 ºC. The CdS is deposited usingchemical bath deposition at 70 ºC to provide full compatibility withflexible substrates. Isolated TFTs showed mobilities ~10 cm2/V-s andthreshold voltages ~0.5V. Inverters were biased at 1, 3 and 5 V, resulting
in maximum gains in the range of 60. The devices and circuits are fully
patterned using standard photolithographic techniques that can be used
to design more complex circuitry for flexible and large area electronic
applications. In addition we used an extraction parameter method for our
TFTs that allows the use of regular SPICE simulation software to design
and test the circuits. Our simulations are in good agreement with theexperimental data for isolated devices and inverters. Other circuits suchas NAND gates are also demonstrated.

264

Steve S. N. Kim, Yen H. Ngo, Zhifeng Kuang, Sharon E. Jones,
Barry L. Farmer, Rajesh R. Naik, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Miniaturized, energy efficient and biocompatible sensors, actuators,
and batteries are expected to play key roles in advancing the humandevice interface. Nanosized graphene-based electronics have beenrecognized as a platform for creating flexible sensing devices due totheir excellent electronic and mechanical properties. Biomolecules suchas peptides and DNAs offer exquisite sensitivity and selectivity towards
analytes. Nanomaterials such as graphene can serve to transduce thebinding activity of the biomolecules into an electronic output. Our work
has focused on developing designer biomolecules that interact withnanomaterials and be used in the development of sensors. In this paper,
we discuss the nature of the interaction, structural conformation of thebiomolecules that interact with graphene, the binding reaction kinetics,
and sensing performance.

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Conference 8730: Flexible Electronics

8730-5, Session 1

devices. one axis of work is the analysis of the electromagnetic field tothe microstrip antennas using Bessel function and after generalize forapplication in flexible microstrip antennas.

Nanobio manufacturing of flex devices foraerospace (Invited Paper)

8730-11, Session 3

Richard Vaia, Michael F. Durstock, Rajesh R. Naik, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

FlexTech Alliance: partnering for progress inflexible, printed electronics (Invited Paper)

Nano-bio manufacturing is the construction of macroscopic devices
that integrate multiple functions, such as sensing, communication,
logic and/or power into a single compliant package. The subcomponent function relies on the unique properties provided bynanostructures or nanomaterials and on the unique specificity provided
by biomacromolecules or biomaterials. Through an open architecture,modular manufacturing framework that builds off current flexible andprinted electronics manufacturing, multifunctional devices packaged
into a pliable form factor could be efficiently fabricated from concept-toproduct for both high and low volume markets. For the future warfighter,
flexible manufacturing of such conformal nano-bio devices will delivertechnologies, including ultralight conformal RF antennas, energy
harvesting appliqués, and wireless human cognition monitors, thatare critical path enablers for a vast array of DoD capabilities, including
persistent ISR, human augmentation, autonomy, and sustainment
through prognostics. Commercially, the integration of these material
and manufacturing technologies underpin future point-of-care concepts
and ubiquitous sensing. This presentation will highlight the status ofgovernment –industry partnership and associated technologies toward
these goals.

Michael F. Ciesinski, FlexTech Alliance (United States)
The flexible, printed electronics (FPE) industry has been recognized bydiverse publications such as CNN Tech to EE Times as among the top
10 future technologies. Applications have been identified in both defense
and commercial market sectors.
In order to move from “lab to fab”, FPE requires a robust supply chain,reliable manufacturing facilities and, most importantly, a collaborative
effort amongst industry, academia and government in order to thrive.
FlexTech Alliance’s formula for collaboration is to identify technology
gaps, develop underlying elements of the supply chain, and partner toprovide pilot manufacturing sites. We also offer a suite of valued businessservices.
This presentation will review the compelling interest in FPE, projects
recently funded by FlexTech, and provide some perspective on the futureof the FPE industry.

8730-12, Session 38730-6, Session 2

Hybrid electrospinning casting method to
produce multifunctional flexible transparent
conductive films

Flexible electronics for Army applications(Invited Paper)

Miko Cakmak, The Univ. of Akron (United States)

Eric Forsythe, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); David
R. Allee, Arizona State Univ. (United States); Jianmin Shi, David
C. Morton, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Nicholas
Colaneri, Arizona State Univ. (United States)

There is a strong need to develop new transparent electrodes thatare robust enough to take the flexing requirements in a wide range ofdeveloping flexible electronics markets. In the past few years, we havebeen working on a patent pending process that can produce nanowire
embedded polymer films with electrical conductivities in 250 -1000 ohm/
sq with optical transmittances from 60% to over 95% in the visible range.
With special testing equipment we developed, we found that the cyclic
bending of these films to small radii of curvatures down to 1/3 mm-1(e.g.
1/4” radius rod) has little or no effect on their electrical conductivities
whereas the industry standard ITO coated films rapidly degrade theirelectrical conductivities through crack formation mechanism An added
benefit of these films is their unprecedented thermoformability as they
can be stretched as much as 2 times the original length with moderate
loss in conductivities as revealed by real time tracking of mechanoelectric properties during deformation. This property makes them ideal
for future flexible electronics including displays that require double
curvature surfaces.

The talk will present the Army’s advancements in flexible displays at theFlexible Display and Electronics Center. Reflective electrophoretic flexible
displays have made significant advances towards commercialization andsystem integration. The electronics requirements for flexible displays will
be presented to include manufacturing approaches. Based on the display
technology platform, we will present future Army applications and theunderlying electronics performance necessary to achieve these concepts.
The paper will present the thin film transistor performance necessary
for flexible displays and the current commercial trends towards
manufacturing flexible and glass-based organic light emitting diodes
and reflective electrophoretic displays. Based on these performance
demands, emerging Army applications will be discussed for large-area
sensors and imaging arrays. The paper will highlight the underlying
electronics requirements and possible manufacturing solutions for largearea arrays through high performance flexible electronics for analog anddigital processing.

8730-13, Session 3

Flexible Amorphous Silicon PIN Diode X-Ray
Detectors

8730-9, Session 2

Flexible microstrip antennas

Michael Marrs, Edward J Bawolek, Joseph T Smith, Gregory B
Raupp, Arizona State Univ. (United States); David Morton, US
Army Research Laboratory (United States)

Camilo A. Cano, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Actually the technological community has an interest in developing
flexible circuits and antennas with particular characteristics e.g. robust,
flexible, lightweight load-bearing, economical and efficient antennas for
integrated millimeter wave systems. Microstrip antennas are an excellent
solution because those have all the characteristics before mentioned, butthey have the problem of being rigid antennas and this makes impossiblethat those antennas can be use in portable devices.A practical solution isdeveloping flexible microstrip antennas that can be integrated to different

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A low temperature amorphous indium gallium zinc oxide (IGZO) thin filmtransistor (TFT) and amorphous silicon PIN diode backplane technology
for flexible passive pixel detector arrays has been developed using active
matrix display technology. The flexible detector arrays can be mounted to
non-planar surfaces with the potential to detect x-rays or other radiation
with an appropriate conversion layer. The thin, lightweight, and robust
backplanes may enable the use of highly portable x-ray detectors for use·

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265Conference 8730: Flexible Electronics

in the battlefield or in remote locations.
Mixed metal oxides, such as IGZO, have been extensively researched
due to their improved stability under electrical bias stress and higher
mobility compared to amorphous silicon. We have fabricated detector
arrays up to 200 millimeters along the diagonal on a Gen II (370 mm
x 470 mm rectangular substrate) flat panel scale pilot line using IGZO
as the active layer and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition(PECVD) silicon oxide as the gate dielectric and passivation. The IGZO
based TFTs exhibited an effective saturation mobility of 11.7 cm2/V-s.
The PIN diode material was fabricated using a low stress amorphoussilicon (a-Si) PECVD process. The PIN diode dark current 1.7 pA/mm2,
the diode ideality factor was 1.36, and the diode fill factor was 0.73. We
report on the critical steps in the evolution of the backplane processfrom qualification of the low temperature (180°C) IGZO TFT and a-Si PIN
process on the 150 mm pilot line, the transfer of the process to flexible
plastic substrates, the stability of the devices under forward bias stress,
and finally a discussion and demonstration of the scale-up to the Gen II(370 x 470 mm) panel scale pilot line.

8730-14, Session 3

Functional electronic and optical devices via
additive driven self-sssembly and nanoimprint
lithography: towards solution-based R2R
fabrication (Invited Paper)
James Watkins, Univ. of Massachusetts Amherst (United States)
The NSF Center for Hierarchical Manufacturing (CHM) at University of
Massachusetts Amherst, a National Science Foundation supported
nanotechnology center, is developing materials and processing
approaches to enable the fabrication of nanotechnology enabled devices
on a R2R platform. Specifically we employ additive-driven self-assembly
to produce well-ordered polymer/nanoparticle hybrid materials that canserve as active device layers, we use highly filled nanoparticle/polymer
hybrids for applications in high k dielectrics and light/EM management
and we employ R2R nanoimprint lithography for device scale patterning.
Our newly constructed R2R processing facility includes a custom
designed, precision R2R UV-assisted nanoimprint lithography (NIL)
system and hybrid nanostructured materials coaters.
Here we illustrate the capabilities of these approaches by the fabricationof floating gate field effect transistor memory devices (FGM) and the
production of large area patterned films for light/EM management. For
the FGM devices the charge trapping layer is comprised of well-orderedpolymer/gold NP composites. This layer is sandwiched between adielectric layer and a poly(3-hexylthiophene) semiconductor layer. We canachieve facile control of the memory windows by changing the densityof gold nanoparticles. The devices show high carrier mobility (> 0.1 cm2/
Vs), high on/off ratio (>105) between memory states and long retention
times. Strategies for patterning of the device using NIL and incorporationof solution coat-able high k dielectric layers will be discussed. The
optical/EM films are comprised of patterned polymer/NP films withtunable refractive indices.

8730-15, Session 4

Epidermal electronics (Invited Paper)John A. Rogers, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates)We summarize recent advances in classes of electronic systems that
achieve thicknesses, effective elastic moduli, bending stiffnesses
and areal mass densities matched to the epidermis. Laminating suchdevices onto the skin leads to conformal contact, and adequate
adhesion based on van der Waals interactions alone, in a manner thatis mechanically invisible to the user. We describe systems incorporating
electrophysiological, temperature and strain sensors, as well astransistors, light emitting diodes, photodetectors and radio frequency
inductors, capacitors, oscillators and rectifying diodes. Solar cells and266

wireless coils provide options for power supply. We use this type oftechnology to measure electrical activity produced by the heart, brain andskeletal muscles and we show that the resulting data contain sufficient
information for an unusual type of computer game controller and ahuman/machine interface.

8730-16, Session 4

Flexible digital x-ray technology for farforward remote diagnostic and conformal
x-ray imaging applications
Joseph T. Smith, Michael Marrs, Mark Strnad, Arizona State
Univ. (United States); Raj B. Apte, Palo Alto Research Center,
Inc. (United States); Julie Bert, Palo Alto Research Center (UnitedStates); David R. Allee, Nicholas Colaneri, Arizona State Univ.
(United States); Eric Forsythe, David C. Morton, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
Today’s digital x-ray image sensors, which have been in production since
the mid-1990s, are produced exclusively on glass substrates. While
acceptable for use in a hospital or doctor’s office, conventional glass
substrate digital x-ray sensors are simply too fragile for use outsideof these controlled environments without extensive reinforcement.
Reinforcement, however, significantly increases weight, bulk, andcost, making them impractical for far-forward remote diagnostic
applications, which demand thin, portable, and lightweight x-ray
detectors. Additionally, glass substrate x-ray detectors are inherently
rigid. This limits their use in curved or bendable conformal x-ray imaging
applications such as NDT (non destructive testing) of pipelines.
However, by extending low temperature thin film transistor technology(TFT) previously demonstrated on plastic-substrate-based electrophoretic
and OLED flexible displays, it is now possible to manufacture a very thin,lightweight, and flexible digital x-ray detectors. In this paper, we discuss
the principal technical challenges and approaches used in extending
flexible display technology into two new large-area flexible digital
x-ray sensors for defense, security, and industrial applications and will
demonstrate their imaging capabilities.
Our results include a 4.8” diagonal, 353 x 463 resolution, flexible
digital x-ray, fabricated on a 6” polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) plastic
substrate; and a larger, 7.9” diagonal, 720 x 640 resolution flexible digital
x-ray detector also fabricated on PEN and manufactured on a Gen 2
substrate.

8730-17, Session 4

Sol gel ZnO films doped with Mg and Li
evaluated for charged particle detectors
John W. Murphy, Alexander Eddy, The Univ. of Texas at Dallas(United States); George R. Kunnen, Arizona State Univ. (UnitedStates); Israel Mejia, Kurtis D. Cantley, The Univ. of Texas at
Dallas (United States); David R. Allee, Arizona State Univ. (UnitedStates); Manuel A. Quevedo-Lopez, Bruce E. Gnade, The Univ. of
Texas at Dallas (United States)
In this work we assess the feasibility of ZnO films deposited from asol gel precursor as a material for thin film charged particle detectors.
There are many reports of polycrystalline ZnO thin film transistors (TFTs)
in the literature, deposited by sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, andsol gel. There are also reports of sol gel derived ZnO doped with Li
or Mg to increase the resistivity, however, these works only measure
resistivity of the films, without determining the effect of doping on the
carrier concentration. We study the effects of doping the ZnO with
Mg and Li as well as the effects of thickness on the films’ resistivity,
mobility, and carrier concentration, since these material parameters are
critical for a charged particle sensor. Carrier concentration is particularly
important because it must be kept low in order for the intrinsic

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Conference 8730: Flexible Electronics

region of a p-i-n diode to be depleted. In order to accomplish this wefabricate and electrically characterize test structures for resistivity, test
structures for hall measurement, common back-gate TFTs, and metalinsulator-semiconductor (MIS) capacitors. We also conduct physicalcharacterization techniques such as x-ray diffraction, atomic force
microscopy, electron microscopy, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and ellipsometry
to determine the effect of doping and film thickness on the microstructure
and optical properties of the ZnO.

8730-18, Session 4

Development of a Testbed for Flexible a-Si:H
Photodiode Sensing Arrays
Alfonso Dominguez, George R. Kunnen, Michael Vetrano, Joseph
T. Smith, Michael Marrs, David R. Allee, Arizona State Univ.
(United States)
Large area, flexible sensing arrays for imaging, biochemical sensing andradiation detection are now possible with the development of flexible
active matrix display technology. In particular, large-area flexible imaging
arrays can provide considerable advancement in defense and security
industries because of their inherent low manufacturing costs and physicalplasticity that allows for increased adaptability to non-planar mounting
surfaces. For example, a flexible array of photodetectors and lenslets
formed into a cylinder could image simultaneously with a 360 degreeview without the need for expensive bulky optics or a gimbaled mount.
Here we report the design and development of a scalable 16x16 pixel
testbed for flexible sensor arrays using commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)
parts and demonstrate the capture of a shadow image with an array ofphotodiodes and active pixel sensors on a plastic substrate. In addition,
the image is transferred via a Bluetooth link to a cell phone. The image
capture system makes use of an array of low-noise, InGaZnO active pixel
amplfiers to detect changes in current in 2.4 µm-thick reverse-biased
a-Si:H PIN diodes. At the back end, analog capture circuitry progressively
scans the array and constructs an image based on the electrical activity
in each pixel. The use of correlated-double-sampling to remove fixedpattern noise is shown to significantly improve spatial resolution due
to process variations. The testbed can be readily adapted for thedevelopment of neutron, alpha-particle, or X-ray detection arrays given
an appropriate conversion layer.

8730-19, Session 4

Towards a flexible electronic flying carpet(Invited Paper)
James C. Sturm, Noah T. Jafferis, Princeton Univ. (United States)
Electronic devices (e.g. TFT’s) and sensors (e.g. for light, X-rays, etc)
are well known in flexible electronics. Research in actuators in flexible
electronics is less common. In this talk, we will discuss progress towards
the creation of a flexible electronic “flying carpet” – a flexible sheet which
can propel itself forward and lift itself off the ground by the applicationof electrical inputs. The device consists of a thin sheet of a piezoelectric
polymer, which is electrically driven to move in a travelling wave shape.
This causes air beneath the sheet to be propelled along with the wave,
and thus a propulsive force in response to move the sheet in the opposite
direction. This effect is one well-known in biology (to move in water), but
has only recently been explored in air, theoretically [1] or experimentally[2,3]. This talk will first describe the fundamental physical requirements
for the travelling wave, and then describe the physical implementation of
our experiments. A critical enabling technology was integrated sensors tomeasure the real-time shape of the travelling wave. Finally, the observed
propulsive forces and forward motion, and requirements for lift will be
described.
1. M. Argentina, J. Skotheim, and L. Mahadevan, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99,
224503 (2007).
2. N.T. Jafferis, H.A. Stone, and J.C. Sturm, Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 114102(2011).

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267

Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII
Tuesday - Thursday 30–2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8731 Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

8731-1, Session 1

Extraction and classification of vehicles inladar imagery
Hans C. Palm, Trym V. Haavardsholm, Halvor R. Ajer, Cathrine V.
Jensen, Forsvarets Forsknings Institute (Norway)
The work presented in this paper is based on a dataset recorded with
the CMRTR-sensor from NAVAIR (CMRTR = Cruise Missile Real Time
Retargeting). It comprises targets like M-60, M-47, M-113, bridge layers,tank retrievers, in various types of scenes.
The segmentation consists of first estimating the ground level everywherein the scene, and then for each sample simply subtracting the measured
height and ground level height. No assumptions concerning flat terrain
etc. are made.
Samples with height above ground level higher than a certain threshold
are clustered by utilizing a straightforward agglomerative clustering
algorithm. Around each cluster the bounding box with minimum volume
is determined. Based on these bounding boxes, too small as well as toolarge clusters can easily be removed.
However, vehicle-sized clutter will not be removed. Clutter detection isbased on estimating the normal vector for a plane approximation aroundeach sample. This approach is based on the fact that the surface normals
of a vehicle is more “modulo 90o” distributed than clutter.
The aim of the classification has been to classify main battle tanks(MBTs). Two types of algorithms have been studied, one model based,
and one based on Dempster Shafer fusion theory.
Our dataset comprises clusters of 269 vehicles (among them 131 MBTs),and 253 clutters (i.e. in practice vehicle-sized bushes). The experiments
we have carried out show that the segmentation extracts all vehicles, theclutter detection removes 90% of the clutter, and the classification finds
more than 95% of the MBTs.

8731-2, Session 1

Methods for lidar point-cloud classification
using local neighborhood statistics
Angela M. Kim, Richard C. Olsen, Fred A. Kruse, Naval
Postgraduate School (United States)
LiDAR data are available in a variety of publicly-accessible forums,
providing high-resolution, accurate 3-dimensional information about
objects at the Earth’s surface. Automatic extraction of information from
LiDAR point clouds, however, remains a challenging problem. The focusof this research is to develop methods for point cloud classification andobject detection which can be customized for specific applications. The
methods presented rely on analysis of statistics of local neighborhoodsof LiDAR points. A multi-dimensional vector composed of these statistics
can be classified using traditional data classification routines. Localneighborhood statistics are defined, the impacts of local neighborhood
size and point cloud density are analyzed, and examples are given of
the methods for specific applications such as building extraction andvegetation classification. Results indicate the feasibility of the local
neighborhood statistics approach and provide a framework for the designof customized classification or object detection routines for LiDAR point
clouds.

8731-3, Session 1

Enhancing online waveform processing byadding new point attributes
Martin Pfennigbauer, Andreas Ullrich, RIEGL Laser Measurement
Systems GmbH (Austria)

268

Besides the basic spatial information, RIEGL LIDAR instruments basedon echo digitization and on-line waveform processing or subsequent
full waveform analysis provide additional valuable information to every
detected target: calibrated amplitude, calibrated estimated target
reflectance, and echo pulse width or deviation of the echo pulse shapefrom the expected one. These attributes significantly improve theinterpretation of the point cloud and add much to its usability for various
applications in airborne, terrestrial and mobile laser scanning.
By introducing new and extended algorithms to RIEGL’s reliable andproven on-line waveform processing it is possible to provide even further
attributes. For example in hydrography an estimate for the backscattering
coefficient of a water column is determined, allowing to determine its
turbidity and thus also the reflectance of the ground. For topographic
laser scanning it is possible to estimate the width of a slanted solid
flat target’s backscatter cross-section and subsequently to provide anestimate of the angle of incidence of the laser beam on that target from asingle point without the necessity to analyze surrounding targets.
We present data sets based on on-line waveform processing with theadditional attributes of RIEGL’s V-Line and compare these with the resultsfrom off-line full waveform analysis demonstrating the potential of thetechnique. Additionally we provide insight into the underlying concepts
and algorithms.

8731-4, Session 1

Classification and extraction of trees andbuildings from urban scenes using discrete
return lidar and aerial color imagery
Madhurima Bandyopadhyay, Jan van Aardt, Kerry CawseNicholson, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
Airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is used in many 3D
applications such as urban planning, city modeling, facility management,
and environmental assessments. LiDAR systems generate dense 3D
point clouds, which provide a distinct and comprehensive geometricaldescription of object surfaces. However, the challenge is that most of theapplications require correct identification and extraction of objects from
LiDAR point clouds. This paper presents a feature-level fusion approach
between LiDAR and aerial color (RGB) imagery to detect urban vegetation
and buildings from other urban classes/cover types. The classification
method used structural and spectral features derived from LiDAR and
RGB imagery. Features such as flatness, horizontality and distribution of
normal vectors were estimated from LiDAR data, while the normalized
difference vegetation index (NDVI) was calculated by combining LiDAR
intensity at 1064 nm with the red channel from the RGB imagery. For
example, building roof tops have regular surfaces with smaller variationin surface normal, whereas tree points generate irregular surfaces. Treepoints, on the other hand, exhibit higher NDVI values when compared
to returns from other classes. Accuracy was assessed by comparing
the extraction result with manually digitized reference data generated
from the RGB image. Preliminary results of a region growing algorithm,
based on smoothness constraints, gave good separation between
smooth and irregular surfaces and exhibited greater than 80% accuracy.
Inclusion of NDVI in the algorithm is expected to improve the accuracy ofclassification. Final results will be presented at the conference.

8731-5, Session 1

Reconstruction of 3D tree stem models fromlow-cost terrestrial laser scanner data
David Kelbe, Paul Romanczyk, Jan van Aardt, Kerry CawseNicholson, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
The Digital Imaging and Remote Sensing (DIRS) Laboratory at Rochester
Institute of Technology (RIT) conducted a data collection campaign
in September 2012 to collect coincident multi-modal imagery of the

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Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

8731-7, Session 2

greater Rochester area. The SpecTIR Hyperspectral Airborne Rochester
Experiment (SHARE) 2012 was conducted in conjunction with several
ground-based experiments. Here we introduce one such experimentusing airborne and terrestrial laser ranging. In particular, we focus on
using coincident terrestrial LiDAR for 3-D scene reconstruction of a 0.025
ha subset of the SHARE collection area.

3D graph segmentation for target detection in
FOPEN lidar data
Nicholas S. Shorter, Judson Locke, Anthony O. Smith, Emma
Keating, Philip W. Smith, Harris Corp. (United States)

The study area is a section of Avon Sports Park with mixed canopy
cover. Three large cubes (side length 5-10 ft.), were constructed from
PVC piping and fabric, and placed beneath the canopy. Terrestrial LiDAR
was used to sample below-canopy object structure. The objective of thispaper is to evaluate the feasibility of 3-D scene reconstruction of a mixed
natural and built environment using terrestrial LiDAR.

A novel use of Felzenszwalb’s graph based efficient image segmentation
algorithm* is proposed for segmenting 3D volumetric foliage penetrating(FOPEN) Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data for automated target
detection. The authors propose using an approximate nearest neighbor’s
algorithm to establish neighbors of points in 3D and thus form the graphfor segmentation. Following graph formation, the angular difference in the
points’ estimated normal vectors is proposed for the graph edge weight.
Then the LiDAR data is segmented, in 3D, and metrics are calculated
from the segments to determine their geometrical characteristics andthus likelihood of being a target. Finally, the bare earth within the scene
is automatically identified to avoid confusion of flat bare earth with flattargets. The segmentation, the calculated metrics, and the bare earth
all culminate in a target detection system deployed for FOPEN LiDAR.
General purpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs) are leveraged toreduce processing times for the approximate nearest neighbors and point
normal estimation algorithms such that the application can be run in nearreal time. Results are presented on several data sets.

We use a topology-based approach to reconstruct object surfaces basedon the sampled points. Objects are characterized by approximating thestructure tensor of point cloud cover sets, using principal component
analysis. Objects are then modeled based on simple geometricconstraints (e.g., cylinder, plane, etc.)
Because of the complementary perspective of terrestrial LiDAR systems,
this below-canopy structural characterization provides a unique potential
for future airborne target detection and below-canopy studies.

8731-49, Session 1

Lidar data processing for scalable
compression

8731-8, Session 2

Ruben D. Nieves, ITT Exelis Inc. (United States)

Fusing lidar-based voxel geometry with multiangle visible imagery

Compression of LIDAR point cloud offers many challenges to the signal
processing community. Compression schemes must preserve both thenumerical and geometrical aspects of the data, while dealing with thesparsely distributed three-dimensional nature of it. Very few effective
compression methods have been developed for this type of data, andonly a handful of those methods offer the advantages of scalability.
The focus of this research and development activity was to design
and implement a series of preprocessing techniques that address thecommon obstacles found when pursuing scalable LIDAR point cloudcompression. Three main areas being addressed are: spatial scalability
by means of effective indexing techniques; range reduction andredundancy exploitation; and resolution scalability by means of subband decomposition and sampling. These techniques will be combinedwith two different entropy encoding schemes –namely LZW and MQ
encoding, yielding scalable 12:1 compression rates.

Shea Hagstrom, David W. Messinger, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Modern airborne LIDAR instruments are capable of accurately measuring
fine detail, making them ideal for producing 3D models. A closely related
problem is how best to map passive aerial imagery to the LIDAR-derived
models. Typical solutions to this problem involve first constructing asurface representation from the LIDAR, then projecting imagery onto
this surface. Unfortunately, a surface model can introduce errors into theprocess because it is not a good representation of the underlying scene
geometry in areas containing overlapping or complex surfaces. A voxelbased 3D model of the LIDAR geometry is one alternative to the surface
representation, and we show how this achieves more accurate resultsin complex areas when compared to existing approaches. Additional
information we derive for the voxel model can also be used to assist withfusing the aerial imagery by driving quality metrics, and we demonstrate
how this gives improved results. Multiple images covering the same
area are required in order to capture details occluded in any single aerial
photograph. We show how this occlusion affects fusion with the 3Dmodel, and how any redundant color information can be filtered further
to produce better products. Results are presented from our voxel-based
fusion technique using LIDAR and coincident visible aerial imagery
collected in the summer of 2011 over downtown Rochester, NY.

8731-6, Session 2

Registration of multiple texel images (fusedladar/digital imagery) for 3D image creation
Scott E. Budge, Neeraj Badamikar, Utah State Univ. (UnitedStates)Creation of 3D images through remote sensing is a topic of interest in
many applications such as terrain/building modeling and automatictarget recognition. Several photogrammetry-based methods have been
proposed that derive 3D information from digital images from different
perspectives, and ladar-based methods have been proposed that merge
ladar point clouds and texture the merged point clouds with digital
imagery. Image registration alone has difficulty with smooth regionswith low contrast, whereas point cloud merging alone has difficulty withoutliers and lack of proper convergence in the merging process.

8731-9, Session 2

Point spread function (PSF) noise filter
strategy for Geiger-mode lidar
Anthony O. Smith, Robert Stark, Philip W. Smith, Randall St
Romain, Steven G. Blask, Harris Corp. (United States)

This paper presents a method to create 3D images that uses the uniqueproperties of texel images (pixel-fused ladar and digital imagery) toimprove the quality and robustness of fused 3D images. The proposed
method uses both image processing and point-cloud merging to combine
texel images in an iterative technique. Since the digital image pixels
and the ladar 3D points are fused at the sensor level, more accurate
3D images are generated since registration of image data automatically
improves the merging of the point clouds, and vice versa. Examples
illustrate the value of this method over other methods.

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LiDAR is an efficient optical remote sensing technology that hasapplication in geography, forestry, and defense. The effectiveness isoften limited by signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Geiger mode avalanche
photodiode (APD) detectors are able to operate above critical voltage,
and a single photoelectron can initiate the current surge, making thedevice very sensitive. These advantages come at the expense of
requiring computationally intensive noise filtering techniques. Noise is a·

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Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

problem which affects the imaging system and reduces the capability.
Common noise-reduction algorithms have drawbacks such as overaggressive filtering, or decimating in order to improve quality andperformance. In recent years, there has been growing interest on GPUs
(Graphics Processing Units) for their ability to perform powerful massive
parallel processing. In this paper, we leverage this capability to reduce
the processing latency. The Point Spread Function (PSF) filter algorithm
is a local spatial measure that has been GPGPU accelerated. The idea
is to use a kernel density estimation technique for point clustering. We
associate a local likelihood measure with every point of the input data
capturing the probability that a 3D point is true target-return photons or
noise (background photons, dark-current). This process suppresses noise
and allows for detection of outliers. We apply this approach to the LiDAR
noise filtering problem for which we have recognized a speed-up factorof 30-50 times compared to traditional sequential CPU implementation.

8731-12, Session 3

Foliage-penetration optimization for Geigermode avalanche photodiode lidar

and operates with signal to noise ratios as low as -20 dB. In the first
approach, the acquired return signal is gated in time and the squaremodulus of the fast Fourier transform is accumulated for each of therange gates, producing a series of power spectra as a function of range.
Wind speed decisions based on numerical estimators can then be madeafter transferring the range gated accumulated power spectra to a hostcomputer, enabling the line of sight wind speed as a function of range
gate to be calculated and stored for additional processing. In the second
FPGA approach, a digital IQ demodulator and down sampler reduces thedata flow requirements so that an auto-correlation matrix representing apreselected number of lags can be accumulated, allowing for the processof range gating to be explored on the host computer. The added featureof the second approach is that it allows for an additional capability toadjust the range gate period dynamically as the state of the atmosphericboundary layer (e.g. backscatter coefficient and stability condition)changes. A simple beam scanning technique is used to calculate
the wind field vector which is graphically displayed on time-heightcross section plots. A comparison to other observed wind information
is presented suggesting the usefulness for the characterization of
microscale meteorology.

Steven E. Johnson, OG Systems (United States)

8731-15, Session 4

Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GMAPD) Lidar systems can be used
to image targets that are partially concealed by foliage.

Adapting a Ground-Based Laser Ranging
System at NASA-GSFC for Identification andTracking of Orbital Debris

This application is challenging because most GMAPDs report only one
range-to-target value per transmitted laser pulse.
If a GMAPD makes a foliage range measurement, it cannot make a target
range measurement.
When too much laser energy is received, the vast majority of range
measurements are from the foliage and few are from the target.
GMAPD Lidar systems often report their average detection probability
during operation.
The average detection probability is calculated over an array of GAMPDs,
over multiple laser pulses, or over both.
However, the detection probability does not distinguish between target
and foliage measurements.
In this paper, it is shown that the probability of detecting a target
obscured by foliage can be maximized by varying the detection
probability.
It is shown that for many foliage penetration scenarios, operating witha detection probability of about 70% produces a near-maximum target
detection probability.

8731-13, Session 3

3D image formation by maximum likelihood
estimation of Geiger-mode lidar data
Gary W. Kamerman, Philip E. Johnson, FastMetrix, Inc. (UnitedStates)Donald B. Coyle, Paul Stysley, Romae Young, Kenneth
Getzandanner, Jan F. McGarry, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr.
(United States); Scott Hull, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center(United States)
We propose to demonstrate laser ranging and optical tracking
capabilities on selected orbital debris targets from the Goddard
Geophysical and Astronomical Observatory (GGAO) laser ranging facility.
We expect to show an up to 85% improvement over current RF andpassive debris orbit prediction methods by achieving meter-level ranging
precision on these optically passive targets. These experiments will
determine our initial ranging link boundary conditions in debris size andorbit altitude, and will quantify many ranging system improvements thatwill be needed to maximize this much-needed capability. Our proposed
tracking plan will describe a near term effort by employing the GGAO’s48” (1.2m) diameter laser ranging telescope and station. With this facility
we will rapidly achieve meter-level laser range returns on cooperative
targets. This will create a new capability in ground-based laser ranging
as both a proof-of-concept demonstration and as a critical experimental
baseline for further developing an optimized system for laser ranging to
the smallest targets possible. The long-term plan will start with tracking
large uncooperative orbital debris, focusing on first identifying the target
then tracking it so that a more accurate trajectory can be calculated.
From there we will enhance both laser and detector technology which
will increase GSFC’s ability to track smaller targets on the order of 10 cm.
Long term goals also include forming partnerships with other RF and SLR
facilities to create a global capability for tracking orbital debris at a highprecision level.

No Abstract Available.

8731-16, Session 48731-14, Session 3

A comparison of two embedded
programming techniques for high-rep-ratecoherent Doppler lidar

Doppler lidar sensor for precision navigationin GPS-deprived environment

Mark F. Arend, Sameh Abdelazim, Miguel Lopez, Fred Moshary,
The City College of New York (United States)

Farzin Amzajerdian, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Diego F. Pierrottet, Coherent Applications, Inc. (United States);
Glenn D. Hines, Larry B. Petway, Bruce W. Barnes, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

Two FPGA embedded programming approaches are considered
and compared for a 20 kHz pulse repetition rate coherent Doppler
lidar system which acquires return signals at 400 Msamples/second

Future robotic and manned exploration missions to the Moon, Mars, andother planetary bodies demand accurate knowledge of ground relative
velocity and altitude in order to ensure soft landing at the designated

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Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

landing location with high degree of precision. To meet this requirement,a Doppler lidar is being developed by NASA Langley Research Center
under the Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology(ALHAT) project. The range and velocity measurements provided bythis lidar sensor will be used by an autonomous Guidance, Navigation,
and Control (GN&C) system to accurately navigate the vehicle to thedesignated location and achieve soft landing. Compared with radars,such as the ones used by previous Mars landres, this sensor offers
several benefits including much lower mass and smaller size, higher
precision and data rate, and lower false alarm rates. The Doppler lidar will
begin its operation during the powered descent phase from an altitudeof a few kilometers above the ground. The lidar data enables the GN&C
system to improve its position and attitude data and accurately update
the vehicle trajectory toward the landing point. The lidar data will also
allow for controlling the vehicle velocity during terminal descent to avoid
the risk of tipping over and ensure a gentle touchdown. In addition to its
space application, this Doppler lidar can benefit military aircraft and UAVs
that require operation in GPS-deprived environment. A prototype versionof this lidar sensor has been completed for a closed-loop demonstration
onboard a rocket-powered terrestrial free-flyer vehicle.

stratification by using aerosol as a tracer for convective and mixing
processes. A PBL height and structure detecting technique based on thefractal dimension of three-wavelength backscatter signals is advanced.
In this PBL height detecting technique, the three-wavelength backscattersignals are obtained by the Hampton University (HU, 37.02° N, 76.33° W)
Lidar. The fractal dimension was calculated using the three-wavelength
Lidar signals. The PBL heights obtained from fractal dimension of threewavelength Lidar signals was compared with PBL heights obtained fromthe potential temperature profiles which are provided by NASA Langely
Research Center (10 miles from HU). And results of the two methods
agree well. Moreover, fractal dimension method can reduce the influenceof the geometrical form factor on the PBL detecting to expand thedetecting range of PBL and remove the effect of plume. Also, the fractal
dimension method can show the PBL dynamics and the PBL evolution
clearly.

8731-17, Session 4

Sarah R. Bickman, Scott R. Davis, Benjamin Luey, Scott D.
Rommel, Michael H. Anderson, Vescent Photonics Inc. (UnitedStates)8731-18, Session 5

Frequency locking and control technologies
for remote lidar systems

Helicopter flight test of 3D imaging flash
LIDAR technology for safe, autonomous, andprecise planetary landing

The ASCENDS mission will be the first to utilize active laser sensing fromspace; using LIDAR or laser sounding it will provide a part-per-million
sensitive global map of CO2 sources and sinks as required for future
global climate science. To realize this, an absolute frequency reference
on board the satellite is necessary to precisely control the probe laser
detuning from line center for both CO2 and O2. Since the transitions arenecessarily weak (atmosphere of path length) new technologies for thereference laser lock and detuning are required. In this effort we utilize
a combination of: i) frequency-modulation (FM) spectroscopy for noise
suppression, ii) high-finesse cavity-enhanced sampling to compressa large path-length (can be km’s) into a few cm’s, and iii) frequency
offset locking for precise laser detunings. This is all in a very compact,rugged, and versatile package as required for space deployment. These
technologies will be generally applicable and potentially enabling to
the nascent arena of space based laser spectroscopy. The wavelengthreference technology has broad application to laser-sounding
measurements and could be used for CO2, H2O, O2, CO, CH3 and othermolecules of interest for Earth and planetary science. While particularly
suited for weak transitions, the technology can be used for stronger
transitions simply by reducing the finesse of the optical cavity to therequired level.

Vincent E. Roback, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Alexander Bulyshev, Analytical Mechanics Associates, Inc.
(United States); Farzin Amzajerdian, Robert A. Reisse, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States)
Two flash lidars, integrated from a number of cutting-edge components
from industry and NASA, are lab characterized and flight tested for
determination of maximum operational range under the Autonomous
Landing and Hazard Avoidance (ALHAT) project (in its fourth development
and field test cycle) which is seeking to develop a guidance, navigation,and control (GNC) and sensing system based on lidar technology
capable of enabling safe, precise human-crewed or robotic landings
in challenging terrain on planetary bodies under any ambient lighting
conditions. The flash lidars incorporate pioneering 3-D imaging cameras
based on Indium-Gallium-Arsenide Avalanche Photo Diode (InGaAs
APD) and novel micro-electronic technology for a 128 x 128 pixel array
operating at 30 Hz, high pulse-energy 1.06 µm Nd:YAG lasers, and highperformance transmitter and receiver fixed and zoom optics. The two
flash lidars are characterized on the NASA-Langley Research Center(LaRC) Sensor Test Range, integrated with other portions of the ALHATGNC system from partner organizations into an instrument pod at NASAJPL, integrated onto an Erickson Aircrane Helicopter at NASA-Dryden,
and flight tested at the Edwards AFB Rogers dry lakebed over a fieldof human-made geometric hazards. Results show that the maximum
operational range goal of 1000m is met and exceeded up to a value of
1200m. Several hazards are imaged at medium ranges to provide threedimensional Digital Elevation Map (DEM) information.

8731-19, Session 5

A new method to retrieve aerosol extinction
coefficients from elastic-Raman lidar data
Jia Su, Patrick McCormick, Liqiao Lei, Hampton Univ. (UnitedStates)Atmospheric aerosols have a significant impact on climate change
through the scattering and absorption of incoming solar and outgoing
thermal radiation. The aerosol optical properties can be directly
measured using an elastic-Raman lidar. However, extraction of theextinction coefficient from the optical depth profile requires the use ofnumerical differentiation with these lidars, which suffers the random andsystematic noises limitation and thereby reducing the detection sensitivity
and accuracy. A new method to improve the quality of Raman lidar dataprocessing is presented. Compared to the conventional method, theproposed method has the advantage, which can directly retrieve theaerosol extinction coefficients without numerical differentiation. Trialvalues of lidar ratio (from 10 to 90 sr with an increment of 1 sr) are applied
to Fernald solution of the elastic lidar signals at 354.7 nm and all aerosol
backscatter coefficients are obtained. The exact aerosol backscatter
coefficients retrieved by combing elastic and Raman signals are used as

8731-39, Session PTues

Planetary boundary layer detection withfractal dimension of three-wavelength lidar
signals
Liqiao Lei, Hampton Univ. (United States) and Hefei Univ.
Technology (China); M. Patrick McCormick, Jia Su, Hampton
Univ. (United States)
Lidar backscatter signal resulting from laser light scattering from theaerosol and molecular in the atmosphere contains various information
about the geometrical and physical properties of aerosol and molecular.
The lidar backscatter signal can provide information about the PBL

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Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

constrain of these results of Fernald method to determine aerosol true
lidar ratios as well as extinction coefficients. The numerical simulations
demonstrated that the proposed method provides good accuracy andresolution of aerosol profile retrievals. And the method is also applied toelastic-Raman lidar measurements at the Hampton University, Hampton,
Virginia.

8731-20, Session 5

Airborne wind profiling algorithms for thepulsed 2-micron coherent Doppler lidar at
NASA Langley Research Center
Jeffrey Y. Beyon, Grady J. Koch, Michael J. Kavaya, NASA
Langley Research Ctr. (United States); Taylor J. Ray, Colorado
School of Mines (United States)
Two versions of airborne wind profiling algorithms for the pulsed
2-micron coherent Doppler lidar system at NASA Langley ResearchCenter in Virginia are presented. Each algorithm utilizes different numberof line-of-sight (LOS) lidar returns while compensating the adverse
effects of different coordinate systems between the aircraft and the Earth.
One of the two algorithms APOLO (Airborne Wind Profiling Algorithm
for Doppler Wind Lidar) estimates wind products using two LOSs. The
other algorithm utilizes five LOSs. The airborne lidar data were acquired
during the NASA’s Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes (GRIP)
campaign in 2010. The wind profile products from the two algorithms arecompared with the dropsonde data to validate their results.

8731-21, Session 5

Semi-empirical validation of the crossband relative absorption technique for themeasurement of molecular mixing ratios
Denis V. Pliutau, Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research
Ctr. (United States)
Studies were performed to carry out semi-empirical validation of a
new measurement approach we propose for molecular mixing ratios
determination. The approach is based on relative measurements inbands of O2 and other molecules and as such may be best described as
cross band relative absorption (CoBRA). The current validation studies
rely upon well verified and established theoretical and experimental
databases, satellite data assimilations and modeling codes such as
HITRAN, line-by-line radiative transfer model (LBLRTM), and the modernera retrospective analysis for research and applications (MERRA). The
approach holds promise for atmospheric mixing ratio measurementsof CO2 and a variety of other molecules currently under investigation
for several future satellite lidar missions. One of the advantages ofthe method is a significant reduction of the temperature sensitivity
uncertainties which is illustrated with application to the ASCENDS
mission for the measurement of CO2 mixing ratios (XCO2). Additional
advantages of the method include the possibility to closely match crossband weighting function combinations which is harder to achieve using
conventional differential absorption techniques and the potential for
additional corrections for water vapor and other interferences without
using the data from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models.

Lidar is a powerful tool for measuring the vertical profiles of aerosols in
the atmosphere using Rayleigh and Raman lidar techniques. Most of theaerosol studies have been done in the wavelength regions with nearly
constant values of refractive index; however, dust aerosol examinedin the LWIR wavelengths provide a formidable challenge. Dusts tend
to be irregularly-shaped particles with varied composition. In order tosimulate the lidar returns from dust aerosols, the optical properties ofthe dust itself must be well characterized and understood. The indicesof refraction are combined with scattering calculations to simulate
atmospheric dust profiles using Lorentz-Mie and MODTRAN calculations
to represent the atmospheric extinction. Previous measurements of dust
indices of refraction have varied widely. We approach the characterizationof the dust indices from two directions, one using ellipsometry
measurements of pressed dust pellets and the other measuring directtransmission of dust suspended in a potassium bromide matrix pellets.
We find that ball milling of the dust is required to minimize scattering
effects. Milling makes the ellipsometry data independent of incidence
angle, and causes the values obtained from ellipsometry to converge
with those from transmission measurements followed by Kramers-Kronig
analysis. The spectra of a milled quartz bearing dust approach that ofpure quartz, indicating a decrease of absorption efficiency for particles
larger than the absorption length. These laboratory measured indicesof refraction are used to simulate the extinction expected for a lidar
operating in the LWIR region using a CO2 laser transmitter.

8731-23, Session 5

Optical extinction dependence on wavelengthand size distribution of airborne dust
Garrett E. Pangle, D. A. Hook, North Carolina State Univ. (UnitedStates); Brandon J Long, North Carolina State Univ (UnitedStates); Hans D. Hallen, C. R. Philbrick, North Carolina State
Univ. (United States)
Optical properties of Arizona Road Dust (ARD) have been measured
in a chamber that disperses particles to simulate the atmosphericenvironment of dust aerosols. Particle size distribution and extinction
measurements were made during several minutes as the larger dust
particles settled to the floor of the chamber. Examining the extinction
on the beam paths of horizontal laser beams at wavelengths of 532 nm,
1064 nm, and 10.6 µm shows the dependence of the combination of
wavelength and the particle size. The lofting and circulation of the dust
within the chamber allows a study of the change of the particle size
distribution over time. Larger particles relative to wavelength increase theoverall scattering, but settle out of the volume quickly. Optical extinctionof the beams at visible and near infrared wavelength is dominatedby scattering. Optical extinction at long wave infrared is dominatedby absorption when the wavelength corresponds with the molecularabsorption of the chemical species composing the dust; however
scattering is observed when large particles are present. The relative
scattering in the visible and near infrared provides general information
about the particle size distribution. These findings are discussed in termsof the measured data from the chamber and Lorentz-Mie calculations of
scattering.

8731-24, Session 5

Using a laser aureole to study aerosols

8731-22, Session 5

Understanding lidar returns from complex
dust mixtures
D. A. Hook, Garrett E. Pangle, North Carolina State Univ. (UnitedStates); Brandon J. N. Long, Physics Dept. North Carolina State
Univ (United States); C. R. Philbrick, Hans D. Hallen, North

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Carolina State Univ. (United States)

Brandon J. Long, D. A. Hook, Garrett E. Pangle, Hans D. Hallen,
C. R. Philbrick, North Carolina State Univ. (United States)
Aerosol scattering experiments are often large, expensive, and provide
poor control of dust uniformity and size distribution. Solar aureole
experiments, where measurements are taken by observing the nearforward scattering of sunlight by aerosols, are especially effected.
The size distribution is difficult to control in atmospheric suspension
measurements since particles larger than 10 microns settle quickly. In the

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Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

8731-27, Session 6

lab-scale experiment, particles are suspended in a mineral oil colloidal
solution. Pellets with different concentrations or size distributions enable
control of these variations. Images of laser aureole scattering frommineral oil colloidal solution containing a few percent Arizona Road
Dust (ARD) by volume with blue (400 nm), green (532 nm) and red (650nm) lasers are compared to data from a 44.5 m3, open-air chamber
containing 70 grams of ARD. Although the densities differed by several
orders of magnitude, the volume fractions of dust multiplied by thelength of the scattering region are similar. The measured extinctions arealso similar. We discuss aureole analysis, the differences expected inscattering due to the index of refraction of the mineral oil medium versus
air, and effects of scattering by a KBr pellet. In summary, the use of
scatters suspended in a mineral oil medium simulates aerosol scatteringin air, while offering reproducibility and ease of parameter variation to
study dust properties.

Difference modeling enhancement of
topographic superresolution
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
Super resolution techniques have been previously used enhance
topographic data directly (instead of via enhancement of imagery).
However, system performance degrades as the pattern database’s
size increases. To keep system performance at an acceptable level,a smaller-than-optimal database must be utilized. This results in error
being introduced due to differences in feature and average region height
between the training and presented data.
With the proposed approach, an area-average height value (AAHV) is
computed. Each grid element is then compared to the AAHV and thedifference is computed. The difference value is stored for each patterncell. High, medium and low-resolution versions of the pattern area stored;
the relative size of these patterns are application-configurable.

8731-25, Session 5

Multistatic lidar measurements ofnonspherical aerosols

The work presented compares the average-height-and-differencepattern-based topographic approach to the previous actual-height-based
version. It also compares the utility of incorporating an overlap of patternareas (designed to have a smoothing effect on the resulting data) witha non-overlapping approach, for both approaches. These comparisons
are made both quantitatively (in terms of the average difference value)and qualitatively (in terms of the apparent smoothness of the resulting
topographic map compared to the original source data). The paper
concludes by discussing possible applications for the proposed
approach including reducing collection costs (through reducing therequired collection accuracy), increasing map accuracy and decreasing
map storage requirements (via storing an average value and differencesin stead of numerous grid location height values).

Hans D. Hallen, Brandon J Long, D. A. Hook, Garrett E. Pangle,
C. R. Philbrick, North Carolina State Univ. (United States)
Lidar is a powerful tool for measuring the vertical profiles of aerosols in
the atmosphere using Rayleigh and Raman lidar techniques. Bistatic lidar
can be used to obtain the angular structure of the scattered light. Whenthe aerosols are uniformly distributed, this information can be analyzed
to provide particle size distribution information. However, dusts tend tobe irregularly-shaped particles with varied composition. We investigate
the impact of the irregular shape with optical scattering at several
wavelengths, scanning electron microscopy, and T-matrix calculations.
In particular, we study the rapid loss of Mie scattering resonances as
the particle shape departs from spherical. Different size distributions
produced by different size-cuts of Arizona Road Dust (ARD) are studied.

8731-28, Session 6

A study on the calibration of pitch-angle
deviation for airborne lidar system

8731-26, Session 5

Xiangyang Hao, Lixing Jiang, Songlin Liu, Zhengzhou Institute ofSurveying and Mapping (China)

Optical signatures of dust
Andrea M. Brown, Shadrian B. Strong, David M. Brown, Johns
Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)

Airborne Lidar measurement technology, as an efficient way of acquiring
three-dimensional geographic information, plays an important role inbuilding DSM and DEM rapidly. Because the airborne Lidar measurement
system usually integrates multiple devices including GPS receiver, INS,laser rangefinder and CCD camera, the relative geometric position andattitude relationships among these devices must be accurately measured
in order to get the points with high precision and thereby satisfy theaccuracy requirements of produced DSM and DEM. It is proved thatthe misalignment of airborne Lidar system, which is represented byangle deviations of yaw, pitch and roll, is the most significant source ofsystematic error in airborne Lidar measurement. In this paper, the effectof pitch angle error on the 3D coordinates of measured point is firstly
analyzed. On this basis, a calibration method of the pitch angle deviation
for airborne Lidar system by using the geometric characteristics of spire
houses is put forward. The proposed pitch angle deviation calibration
method consists of four key steps: (1) Initial pitch angle calculation. In
the light of the offset distance between the ridge lines of the same houseacquired by airborne Lidar system flying in opposite directions, an initialpitch angle deviation can be calculated. After separating the effect ofpitch angle deviation, the rectified laser point cloud data are obtained.
(2) Roof plane equation determination. The plane equations of both roof
slopes are determined by fitting algorithms with the 3D coordinatesof points located in the same spire roof. (3) Distance standard error
calculation. The distance of each point to the roof plane is computed
and applied to the calculation of distance standard error. (4) Final pitch
angle deviation calculation. Taking the distance standard error as theoverlapping criterion, the pitch angle deviation correction is iteratively
calculated according to the aforesaid procedure until the distancestandard error is less than a given value. The final pitch angle deviationis the sum of all the pitch angle deviation corrections. Experiments showthat the proposed calibration method is correct and effective.

Elastic backscatter lidar has become a popular approach for remotesensing of the environment, whether the primary interest is stand-off
detection and identification of aerosol clouds or the characterization of
the atmosphere for removal from passive ground-based, airborne, orsatellite data. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
has simultaneously operated two micro-pulse lidar (MPL) systems in
multiple dusty locations throughout the United States: a 527 nm Sigma
Space depolarization system and a 1047nm depolarization system from
Science and Engineering Services, Inc. (SESI). Oftentimes, these MPL
collects will be coordinated with observations by a Cimel sunphotometer,
Stellarnet spectroradiometer, or a tethered balloon carrying a TSI, Inc.
Aerodynamic Particle Sizer (APS). The MPL systems were also used tocollect backscatter and extinction data during a controlled experimentfocused on understanding the optical properties of Arizona road dust.
Backscatter-to-extinction measurements from the controlled experimentare presented, as well as the two-wavelength extinction profiles extracted
from dusty atmospheric profiles collected by the MPLs. This collection ofdata from multiple field campaigns and laboratory tests is assembled forthe purpose of better understanding the active and passive signatures ofdust across the optical spectrum.

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Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

8731-30, Session 6

Information density and 3D image quality
Gary W. Kamerman, FastMetrix, Inc. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8731-31, Session 7

Simulation of the performance of laser
imaging and range profiling of small-surface
vesselsOve K. Steinvall, Magnus Elmqvist, Tomas R. Chevalier, Swedish
Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
The detection and classification of small surface targets at long ranges isa growing need for naval security.
This paper will discuss simulations of a laser radar at 1.5 µm aimed forsearch, detect and recognition of small maritime targets. Example ofsupporting measurements will be given. The data for the laser radarsystem will be based on existing technology.
The simulations will incorporate typical target movements at different
sea states, the vessel course, the effect of the atmosphere and thelaser system parameters such as beam size, beam jitter, pulse energy,
repetition rates as well as detector sensitivity and bandwidth.
A discussion of the classification accuracy based on information in 1D,
2D and 3D data separate and in combination will be made vs. different
environmental conditions and system parameters. System issues
when combining the laser radar with range-Doppler radar will also be
discussed.

8731-32, Session 7

Scintillation effects on round-trip ladar
imaging through turbulence with finite-sized
objects and collecting apertures: modelingadvances
Douglas G. Youmans, SPARTA, Inc. (United States)
Atmospheric scintillation affects laser radar imaging through atmosphericturbulence both on the outward path and the return path, as is wellknown. Quantitative previous studies have used tiny flat mirrors andcorner-cube-retro-reflectors as their objects. In actuality, the real world
finite sized object creates scintillation averaging on the outgoing path andthe finite sized telescope aperture produces scintillation averaging on the
return path. We will quantify these effects and compare them to the tiny
mirror and to the corner-cube retro-reflector quantitative data from theliterature. Methods for modeling the scintillation effects and modeling theladar signal-to-noise ratio (SNRp), or mean squared over a variance, will
be discussed.

8731-48, Session 7

Comparison of LIDAR system performancefor alternative single-mode receiverarchitectures: modeling and experimental
validation
Paul Toliver, Applied Communication Sciences (United States);
Ibrahim T Ozdur, Anjali Agarwal, Ted K Woodward, Applied
Communications Sciences (United States)
In this paper, we describe a detailed performance comparison of274

alternative single-pixel, single-mode LIDAR architectures including(i) linear-mode APD-based direct-detection, (ii) Geiger-mode APD
photon-counting, (iii) PIN-based coherent-detection, and (iv) opticallypreamplified receivers. Such a comparison is useful when considering
next-generation LIDAR on a chip, which would allow one to leverage
extensive waveguide-based structures and processing elements
developed for telecom and apply them to small form-factor sensing
applications.
Models of four LIDAR transmit and receive systems are describedin detail, which include not only the dominant sources of receivernoise commonly assumed in each of the four detection limits, butalso additional noise terms present in realistic implementations.
These receiver models are validated through the analysis of detection
statistics collected from an experimental LIDAR testbed. The receiver isreconfigurable into four modes of operation, while transmit waveforms
and channel characteristics are held constant. The use of a diffuse
hard target highlights the importance of including speckle noise terms
in the overall system analysis. All measurements are done at 1550
nm, which offers multiple system advantages including less stringent
eye safety requirements and compatibility with available telecomcomponents, optical amplification, and photonic integration. Ultimately,
the experimentally-validated detection statistics can be used as part ofan end-to-end system model for projecting rate, range, and resolution
performance limits and tradeoffs of alternative integrated LIDAR
architectures.

8731-33, Session 8

Large-format Geiger-mode ladar camera
Ping Yuan, Rengarajan Sudharsanan, Xiaogang Bai, Paul
McDonald, Eduardo L. Labios, Spectrolab, Inc. (United States);
Bryan Morris, John P. Nicholson, Gary M. Stuart, Harrison Danny,
Boeing-SVS, Inc. (United States)
Recently Spectrolab has successfully demonstrated a compact 32x32
Laser Detection and Range (LADAR) camera with single photo-levelsensitivity with small size, weight, and power (SWAP) budget for threedimensional (3D) topographic imaging at 1064 nm on various platforms.
With 20-kHz frame rate and 7.5-cm range resolution, this LADAR systemprovides coverage down to inch-level fidelity and allows for effectivewide-area terrain mapping. At a 10 mph forward speed and 1000 feetabove ground level (AGL), it covers 0.5 square-mile per hour with 5-inground sample distance (GSD). In order to increase the forward speed tofit for more platforms and survey a large area more effectively, Spectrolab
developed 32x128 Geiger-mode LADAR camera with 50-kHz frame rate.
With the increase in both frame rate and array size, the data collection
rate is improved by 10 times. With a programmable bin size from 0.3 ps
to 1 ns and 14-bit timing dynamic range, LADAR developers will havemore freedom in system integration for various applications. Most of
the special features of Spectrolab 32x32 LADAR camera, such as nonuniform bias correction, variable range gate width, windowing for smaller
arrays, and short pixel protection, are implemented in this camera.

8731-34, Session 8

Highly sensitive lidar with a thumb-sized
sensor-head built using an optical fiber
preamplifier (3)Daisuke Inoue, Tadashi Ichikawa, Hiroyuki Matsubara, Manabu
Kagami, Toyota Central R&D Labs., Inc. (Japan)
We have developed a LIDAR system with a sensor head which, although
it includes a scanning mechanism, is less than 20 cc in size. The system
is not only small, but is also highly sensitive.
Our LIDAR system is based on time-of-flight measurements, andincorporates an optical fiber. The main feature of our system is theutilization of optical amplifiers for both the transmitter and the receiver,and the optical amplifiers enable us to exceed the detection limit set by

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Conference 8731: Laser Radar Technology and Applications XVIII

8731-40, Session 8

thermal noise. In conventional automotive LIDAR systems the detection
limit is determined by the thermal noise, because the avalanche photodiodes (APD) and trans-impedance amplifiers (TIA) that they use detect
the received signals directly. In the case of our LIDAR system, thereceived signal is amplified by an optical fiber amplifier before reaching
the photo diode and the TIA. Therefore, our LIDAR system boosts thesignal level before the weak incoming signal is depleted by thermal noise.

Ice sheet surface elevation retrieval fromCALIPSO lidar measurements
Xiaomei Lu, Yongxiang Hu, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates)We have previously demonstrated scanning up to a range of 80 mwith this LIDAR system with a 2 mm diameter of receiving lens. We
improved the optical amplifier and the peak output power of LIDAR wasover 10KW. We re-designed the sensor-head and improved coupling
efficiency. As a result, we succeeded in scanning over a range of 100 m.

Since launching in April 2006 the main objective of the Cloud-Aerosol
Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) mission
has been studying the climate impact of clouds and aerosols in theatmosphere. However, CALIPSO also collects information about othercomponents of the Earth’s ecosystem, such as lands, oceans and polar
ice sheets. The objective of this study is to propose a new technique toprovide high resolution of polar ice sheet surface elevation from CALIPSO
single shot lidar measurements (70 m spot size). The new techniquerelies on an empirical relationship between the peak signal ratio andthe distance between the surface and the peak signal range bin centerto achieve high altimetry resolution. The ice sheet surface results in theregion of Greenland and Antarctic compare very well with the Ice, Cloudand land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) laser altimetry measurements. The
comparisons suggest that the obtained CALIPSO ice sheet surface
elevation by the new technique is accurate to within 1 m. Based on the
new technique, the preliminary data product of along-track topography
retrieved from the CALIPSO lidar measurements is available to thealtimetry community for evaluation.

This small and highly sensitive measurement technology shows great
potential for use in LIDAR.

8731-36, Session 8

Development of a scanning polarimetric laser
detection and ranging system
Renu Tripathi, Yuri Markushin, Nicholas P. Calvano, Gour S. Pati,
Delaware State Univ. (United States)
Laser Detection and Ranging (LADAR) is an established optical sensing
technology for creating three-dimensional image of a target object using
the time-of-flight (TOF) information.
In this presentation, we will present the development of a scanning
LADAR (Scan-LADAR) prototype system with polarimetric imaging
capability. The basic system consists of two parts: a transmitter anda receiver. Transmitter arm employs a Q- switched Nd:YAG laser
operating at 1064 nm and a fast-scanning two-axis galvanometer
mirror which is synchronized with the pulsed laser. The receiver arm
employs a large aperture telescope, focusing optics, a light-sensitive
discrete amplification photon detector (DAPD) with a fast rise time(1ns), and a multiple-event time-to-digital converter (TDC). The systemscans the target object using galvanometer mirrors and multiple laser
pulses. Fraction of the scattered/reflected light is collected by using thetelescope for measuring the TOF and the intensity of the detected signal
to create a 3-D image of the target scene. The system also includes anin-line polarimeter to generate Stokes images of the target scene. The
polarimetric scan-LADAR will have the ability to see parts of the scenethat are not visible under intensity-only-imaging, such as object hidden
behind highly reflective surfaces.

8731-37, Session 8

Handheld laser imaging for military forensic
useHåkan Larsson, Dietmar Letalick, Swedish Defence Research
Agency (Sweden)
One of the main threats for armed forces in conflict areas are attacks
by improvised explosive devices (IED). After an IED attack a forensic
investigation of the site is undertaken. In many ways military forensic
work is similar to the civilian counterpart. There are the same needs toacquire evidence in the crime scene, such as fingerprints, DNA, andsamples of the remains of the IED. Photos have to be taken and thegeometry of the location shall be measured, preferably in 3D. A maindifference between the military and the civilian forensic work is the timeslot available for the scene investigation. The military must work very
fast and under the threat of fire assault, e.g. snipers. The short timeslot puts great demands on the forensic team and the equipment theyuse. We have done performance measurements of the Mantis-Vision F5
sensor and evaluated the usefulness in military forensic applications.
This presentation will describe some applications and show possibilities
and also limitations of using a handheld laser imaging sensor for military
forensic investigations.

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Conference 8732: Atmospheric Propagation X
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8732 Atmospheric Propagation X

8732-20, Session PTues

USAF high energy laser (HEL) systems: multispectral algorithm efficiencies susceptibilities
during missile staging (Case: GHADR 110
MOD 2 (SEJIL-2)
Clifford A. Paiva, BSM Research Associates (United States)
This comprises continued research addressing missile exhaust plumeionization adverse effects; such HEL ionization processes occurring
as a function of altitude, exhaust and attitude control systems (DACS)
plume expansion and reverse (Prandtl-Meyer) exhaust flows, applied to
Iranian Sejil-2. It is demonstrated that these processes adversely affectthe USAF/Navy multi-wavelength Discriminating Interceptor Technology
Program (DIT)’s infrared and millimeter wave fused system. Boostphase and Early Midcourse (Ascent) missile exhaust and DACS plumes
have been shown to generate a variety of very challenging plasma andelectromagnetic HEL extinction effects.

8732-7, Session 1

Atmospheric transmission from an instrument
measuring scatter at 1550 nm
Michael J. Vilcheck, Christopher I. Moore, Rita S. Mahon, JamesL. Murphy, Harris R. Burris Jr., Linda M. Thomas, William S.
Rabinovich, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) has extensively investigatedatmospheric effects on maritime lasercomm in both long term researchstudies and short term system demonstrations. A current effort isunderway in the ONR Tactical Line-of-Sight Optical Communications(TALON) program to better characterize atmospheric transmission at
1550 nm in multiple climates to enable prediction of communication
link performance. In order to allow long term unmanned measurementsin these multiple climates, NRL developed a scatter-based 1550 nm
transmission sensor similar in function to commercial visible wavelength
visibility monitors. After the system was built and calibrated, it was
deployed to numerous sites with various climate types to collectdata over a 1-month period for each site. This paper describes thedevelopment of the instrument and the software. It also presents some ofthe data collected.

8732-8, Session 1

Characterization of, and imaging through,horizontal-path turbulence
Szymon Gladysz, Gabriele Marchi, Fraunhofer-Institut für
Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)
We have performed a series of experiments aiming at understanding
the statistics of deep turbulence. That data were collected over a 2.5
km horizontal path, at a height of approximately 20 m. The experimental
setup consisted of a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor and an imaging
camera that simultaneously recorded wavefront-, and focal-plane data.
Various objects, of sizes ranging from 1 cm (quasi point-source) to 10 cm(isokinetic patch), were used as targets.
The observations constitute a rich source of information: from the
wavefront-sensor we have measured temporal power spectra of thephase and of the Zernike polynomials. From the images we haveestimated power spectra and auto-correlations of image motion. Using
double sources we have estimated the magnitude of the isokinetic patch.
Calibration of the measurements was done with a novel method of
estimating turbulence strength directly from the target images: a suitabletransformation of the images makes the objects “disappear”, in principle
276

leaving only the turbulence effects. The method visualizes the size (andfor anisotropic turbulence also the shape) of Fried’s parameter. The
results were compared to those from the image motion analysis.
The spatial and temporal characteristics of deep-turbulence-induced
optical aberrations were compared to predictions resulting from theKolmogorov model. Performance of a theoretical adaptive-optics
system was modeled based on the measurements. Finally, we show theusefulness of semi-automatic image deconvolution from speckle images.

8732-10, Session 1

Multi-wavelength operation of a control
algorithm for mobile FSO node alignment
Peter G. LoPresti, The Univ. of Tulsa (United States); Dayong
Zhou, Hazem Refai, The Univ. of Oklahoma - Tulsa (UnitedStates)This paper investigates the performance of a recently proposed pointing,acquisition and tracking algorithm for mobile FSO node alignment
through experimental methods that include multi-wavelength operation.
The performance is evaluated on key parameters including power
availability at the receiver, switching time, link recapturing time, andcoverage area at the receiver plane. Optical sources operating at 850
nm, 1310 nm and 1550 nm are coupled to the transmitter through oneof three possible distribution fabrics. The fabrics used are a 1x4 splitterthat illuminates all four output fibers, a 1x4 switch fabric that selects
one output fiber at a time, and a hybrid switch-splitter fabric that allows
switching between pairs of illuminated fibers. The receiver is moved
through a plane illuminated by the transmitter, and the collected poweris monitored by the control system. Based on the collected power andvarying levels of information about the receiver motion, the control
system searches for a new connection when the current connection
fails. The dependence of performance on the fiber-lens distance at thetransmitter, the wavelength, and the transmitter fabric was examined. The
results show that the alignment control system successfully recovered
and maintained the link while the receiver was in motion, and eachwavelength operation has one optimal transmitter fiber-lens distance thatprovides largest coverage.

8732-1, Session 2

Cloud-free line-of-sight estimation for freespace optical communications (Invited Paper)
Radha A. Venkat, David W. Young, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8732-2, Session 2

Effectiveness of using gridded forecast datain hyperspectral radiative transfer analyses
and high energy laser research and mission
planning
Steven T. Fiorino, Michelle F. Via, Kevin J. Keefer, Stephen
Shirey, Justin T. Engel, Brannon J. Elmore, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States)
This study demonstrates the effectiveness of using gridded numerical
weather prediction (NWP) data from the NOMADS (NOAA National
Operational Model Archive & Distribution System) website in
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Conference 8732: Atmospheric Propagation X

research and mission planning software. The radiative transfer analysis
code utilized is the Laser Environmental Effects Definition and Reference(LEEDR) model, the HEL research model is the high energy laser
end-to-end operational simulation (HELEEOS), and the HEL mission
planning software is the high energy laser tactical decision aid (HELTDA).
Analyses of example simulated HEL mission engagements are describedbased on: (1) geographic location and associated atmospheric effects,
defined through the LEEDR model, and (2) laser performance andengagement dynamics via HELEEOS or HELTDA. These models enable
development of climatologically- or NWP-derived vertical profiles oftemperature, pressure, water vapor content, optical turbulence, andatmospheric particulates and hydrometeors as they relate to line-byline or band-averaged layer extinction coefficient magnitude at any
wavelength from 350 nm to 8.6 m. Output derived from NWP data
are compared to seasonal, generalized boundary layer, and time of
day variations for a range of relative humidity percentile conditions todetermine optimum efficiency in a specific environment. Results using
4-dimensional past reanalysis NWP in analyses of long-path HEL or otherlaser field testing in HELEEOS simulations indicate horizontal variationsin atmospheric effects can be important. Coupling forecast/nowcast
weather data with climatological properties for aerosols and turbulence
offers significant advantages in HELTDA that optimize potential laser
weapon engagements, whether air-to-air, air-to-surface, or surface-to-air
scenarios.

photocurrent. This work describes how this can be accomplishedthrough stochastic processes simulations. Although most of the theory
on stochastic field simulation has been developed for application inmechanics and fluids engineering, it is well suited for signal analysis in
wireless optical systems. If it is possible to artificially create signals withcharacteristics of a real one that is transmitted over the atmosphericchannel, it can be used for system analysis and design without mountinga real transceiver. This dramatically reduces development costs and time.
A technique that has been widely applied in engineering is the spectral
representation method. The concept of spectral representation ofGaussian random processes was introduced in 1944. Its use, however, ingenerating simulations of random processes was only proposed in 1972.
This method deals with the summation of a large number of weighted
trigonometric functions, which is computationally very inefficient.
Although fast Fourier transforms algorithms can dramatically reduce
the required computational effort, it is not suitable for communication
signals, since there are restrictions in defining the range of the variable
time. This work assesses the generation of turbulence-corrupted signals
using the above mentioned method and its application in simulating datatransmission over the atmospheric channel.

8732-5, Session 2

Strehl ratio simulation results understrong turbulence conditions for actively
compensated free-space opticalcommunication systems

8732-3, Session 2

Sparse spectrum model for the turbulent
phase simulations

Juan C. Juarez, David M. Brown, David W. Young, Johns Hopkins
Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)

Mikhail I. Charnotskii, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (United States)

No Abstract Available.

Monte-Carlo simulation of the phase front perturbations by atmosphericturbulence finds numerous applications for design and modeling of
the adaptive optics systems, laser beams propagation simulations andevaluating the performance of the various optical systems operating in
the open air environment. Accurate generation of the two-dimensionalrandom fields of the turbulent phase is complicated by the enormous
diversity of scales that can reach five orders in magnitude in eachcoordinate. In addition there is a need for generation of the long“ribbons” of the turbulent phase that are used to represent the time
evolution of the wave front. This makes it unfeasible to use the standard
discrete Fourier transform-based technique as a basis for the MonteCarlo simulation algorithm. We propose a novel concept for the turbulent
phase – Sparse Spectrum (SS) random field. The principal assumption of
the SS model is that each realization of the random field is has a discreterandom spectral support. Statistics of the random amplitudes and wave
vectors of the SS model is arranged to provide the required spectral
and correlation properties of the random field. SS-based Monte-Carlomodel offers substantial reduction of computer costs for simulation of thewide-band random fields and processes, and is capable of generating
long aperiodic phase “ribbons”. We report the results of the model trials
that determine the number of the sparse components, and the range ofwavenumbers that are necessary to accurately reproduce the random
field with power-law spectrum.

8732-11, Session 3

Buffer requirements of an opticalcommunication system in atmosphericturbulence
Troy T. Leclerc, Florida Space Institute (United States); Ronald
L. Phillips, Larry C. Andrews, Robert F. Crabbs, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States)
Free-space optical communications are predominantly hindered by
optical turbulence induced signal fades, an effect caused by temperatureand pressure variations within the atmosphere. The result is an opticalwave interfering with itself due to multipath propagation via tiny
refractive-index fluctuations across the wave-front. Data collected during
past free-space optical experiments in the atmosphere support the
gamma-gamma distribution as a practical model for received irradiancefluctuations, although the irradiance fluctuations do occasionally tend
towards a lognormal distribution.
Utilization of the gamma-gamma irradiance model allows for calculationof statistical moments of the irradiance threshold level-crossing
distribution. Expressions for the mean and variance of signal fade timeof a gamma-gamma distributed irradiance are derived and presented.
Outcomes of the derived expressions are presented in relation to freespace optical communication system performance.

8732-4, Session 2

Simulation of stochastic signals for FSO
communication systems through spectral
representation

Comparisons are made between the theoretical analysis andexperimental data taken at the Innovative Science and Technology
Facility (ISTEF) located at the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral,
Florida. The strength of the atmospheric turbulence is often characterized
by three measurable parameters: the refractive index structure constantCn2, the inner scale l0, and the outer scale L0. The 1km optical path was
instrumented with commercial scintillometers. Variance of fade time data
were found to agree well for smaller apertures where effects of aperture
averaging are not present and in cases where scintillation is weak tomoderate. It is suggested that a more appropriate PDF, with a heavier

Jose Paulo G. de Oliveira, Univ. de Pernambuco (Brazil) and
FITec (Brazil)
Recent studies have been carried out, in which the statistical propertiesof the received signal of free space communication systems areassessed by means of simulations. The obtained results, however, havebrought no information about the temporal behavior of the generated

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Conference 8732: Atmospheric Propagation X

focus on aperture averaging, may be applied in future studies of thesefade statistics.

signal collected in the receiver and the misalignment tolerance of receiverin reality.

8732-12, Session 38732-15, Session 4

Propagation statistical analysis for SMFcoupled free-space optical signal under weak
to medium atmospheric turbulences

World-wide analysis of combined thermal
blooming and turbulence effects applying
convolved, high energy laser

Yoshinori Arimoto, National Institute of Information andCommunications Technology (Japan)

scaling law models

The SMF-coupled free-space optical (FSO) communication terminals,
through which a diffraction limited laser beams at 1550-nm wavelengthband are transmitted and received, have been developed at NICT torealize multi-Gbps to Tbps class point-to-point wireless optical links. This
paper reports a follow-on study on the propagation statistical analysis of
direct SMF-coupled optical signal as well as the received beacon signal
using area photo-detector using recent outdoor experimental data over
100-500 m horizontal link under medium to weak atmospheric turbulence
conditions.
The analysis has been performed based on the continuous one-second
statistical data at 1-kHz and 100-Hz sampling which include angle ofarrival of beacon laser beam at 980 nm wavelength and received intensity
for both the beacon beam and the signal beam coupled to a single mode
fiber at 1550 nm wavelength. Fade depth, as a minimum intensity foreach one second, and surge height as a maximum in the same period
are compared with the theoretical calculation of the tail cumulative
distribution based on log-normal assumption and measured scintillationindex. The author found good agreement for surge heights for bothbeacon and signal beam, but, the fade depth of the signal intensities
was 2-3 times larger than the log-normal prediction. The angle ofarrival measurement result show limited correlation with the scintillationindex and the frequency spectrum analysis shows the finite outer scalecharacteristics due to terrestrial horizontal link configuration. These
analysis results provide a method to compare atmospheric turbulencemodel such as lognormal or gamma-gamma distribution with realexperimental data and predict the SMF-coupled signal intensity based on
the scintillation index determined by Cn2 profiles.

8732-14, Session 3

Wavelength diversity assessment of fiber
bundle receiver under misalignment andturbulencePeter G. LoPresti, Wei Yi, Eric Rohlman, The Univ. of Tulsa(United States); Hazem Refai, The Univ. of Oklahoma - Tulsa(United States)
Recently, a novel receiver design with an array of small lenses coupling
to a fiber bundle made up of large-core fibers was investigated to
improve the issue of transmission misalignment, including the angular
misalignment and translational misalignment, between the transmitterand receiver in a free-space optical link, and to analyze the effectsof turbulence and weather. As the result of previous research, theimplementation of wavelength diversity, which consists of multiple
wavelengths operating the transmission, is investigate to reducethe impact of turbulence. We present an experimental evaluation of
the feasibility of using three diverse wavelengths, 850nm, 1310nm,
and 1550nm, for maintaining an FSO link as the link experiences
misalignment and turbulence. The first experiments were performedin the laboratory with the receiver on a mobile platform, three different
transmitter wavelengths, and a turbulence generator placed between
them. The receiver retained the link for a reduced range of misalignment
at all wavelengths without adjustment. For outdoor experiments,
the 1550nm wavelength is chosen due to power availability, and theexperiment investigated how the turbulences or weather, such as thesun, the wind and the temperature, have an impact on the quality of

278

Kevin J. Keefer, Noah R. Van Zandt, Steven T. Fiorino, Air ForceInstitute of Technology (United States); Justin T Engel, AFIT /CDE (United States)
Recognizing Defense as well as other Federal Agencies’ rapidly evolving
desire to further the fielding and/or understand the implications of
directed energy systems, this study quantifies the combined effect ofthermal blooming and turbulence interactions on system performance fortactical scenarios at representative world-wide locations with propagation
occurring through or wholly within the atmospheric boundary layer.
The analysis benefits from applying recent, more rigorous theoreticaltreatment of thermal blooming and turbulence and their interaction,
as well as a completely new take on the distortion number expression
more sensitive to atmospheric variations. The resulting changes toour fast-running end-to-end high energy laser propagation model areapplied to show the anticipated effect of combined thermal blooming
and turbulence on world-wide HEL propagation scenarios assessed at
multiple wavelengths, including here-to-for non-anchored wavelengths
such as 1.07 µm. Atmospheric conditions are defined for all scenarios
based on world-wide, probabilistic climatology or gridded numerical
forecasts, the latter enabling first-ever 4D calculations of anticipatedeffects. The engagement scenarios are defined for various platform
and target altitudes, speeds, headings, and slant ranges focusing on
the effects of representative turbulence and elevated aerosol profiles.
Results indicate that most world-wide locations and their associatedatmospheric boundary layer conditions can greatly change the combined
thermal blooming and turbulence effect as compared to that suggested
by applying standard atmospheres, which have significant implications
for system development and application. Further, we show the utilityof worldwide variability analyses for long-term system development
and wargaming, as well as the benefit of applying numerical forecast
predictions for shorter term operational mission planning, whether
traditional force-on-force or emerging scenarios such as predictive
avoidance.

8732-16, Session 4

Scattering from a rough impedance surface inpresence of atmospheric turbulence
Santasri Basu, Milo W. Hyde IV, Jack E. McCrae Jr., Steven T.
Fiorino, Air Force Institute of Technology (United States)
In directed energy applications that use Adaptive optics (AO), a beacon
is usually created at the target to measure and to correct for atmosphericaberrations. A Gaussian Schell Model (GSM) might be a convenient way
to model these beacons, which have a finite spatial extent and exhibit
varying degrees of spatial coherence. In our earlier work, a full wave
computational technique, known as the Method of Moments (MoM) wasused to evaluate the scattered field from a rough impedance surface
in vacuum. The full wave method captures all aspects of laser-target
interaction such as masking, shadowing, multiple reflections etc. andhence improves the fidelity of the analysis. The full wave beacon model
showed deviations from GSM, including exhibiting non-stationary
behavior. The present work extends this analysis to include atmosphericturbulence. A fully coherent beam is propagated through turbulence
and is incident on the rough surface. The light scattered from the roughsurface is again propagated through turbulence and the properties ofthe scattered radiation (irradiance profile, coherence function etc.) in

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Conference 8732: Atmospheric Propagation X

the far field are studied through numerical simulations. A statisticallyhomogenous and isotropic turbulence is assumed in the analysis. The
full wave model results are compared with a GSM. This analysis will aid
in understanding the key parameters of extended beacons and how they
can impact the overall performance of an AO system.

8732-19, Session 48732-17, Session 4

The adaptive optic (AO) method of the correction now is using for
improvement image quality in broad area applications: beginning fromastronomical, where it was proposed, for imaging through turbulent
atmosphere, medical imaging through biological tissue, and other. Now it
is very important application concerned with correction the atmosphericpropagation of the high power laser beams.

Adaptive optics with extended target
Anatoliy Khizhnyak, Vladimir B. Markov, Advanced Systems &Technologies, Inc. (United States)

Laser beam control with nonlinear phaseconjugation
Vladimir B. Markov, Anatoliy Khizhnyak, Advanced Systems& Technologies, Inc. (United States); Phillip Sprangle, Joseph
Penano, Antonio Ting, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Lewis Desandre, Office of Naval Research Global (United States);
Chris Davis, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States)

The AO processing is based on using a beacon that is situated on
the imaged target or near it on the line of site. The localized characterof beacon allows detection the needed wavefront perturbations.
Unfortunately in overwhelming numbers of possible applications this
scenario can’t be used due to lack of beacon.
In case forming beacon by laser illumination the backward scatteredwaves have essentially difference structure in comparison to theilluminating beam. The reciprocity principle, which is determined
AO system processing, doesn’t applicable in this scenario. In thispresentation we will describe how to use AO in case the fully resolved
image target that plays beacon role. In presentation will be shown
examples of proposed approaches processing.

Beam control technique is critical for effective laser beam propagationin turbulent atmosphere. Performance most of the current approaches
require information on the impact of perturbations on the propagating
wavefront. Such information can be acquired by measuring thecharacteristics of the target-scattered light that comes from a small,preferably diffraction-limited size, beacon. This presentation discusses aninnovative beam control approach that can support formation of a tightlaser beacon in deep turbulence conditions. The technique employs a
Brillouin enhanced four-wave mixing (BEFWM) technique for generating a
localized beacon spot on a remote image-resolved target. This techniqueenables formation of the tight beacon without using any wavefront
sensors, AO system or predictive feedback algorithms. Total (amplitude
and phase) conjugation is critical for beam control in presence of strong
turbulence, whereas conventional adaptive optics (AO) methods do nothave such capabilities. The phase information retrieved from the beacon
beam can be used then in conjunction with an AO system to effectively
propagate the laser beam in deep turbulence.

8732-18, Session 4

PITBUL: a physics-based modeling package
for imaging and tracking of airborne targets
for HEL applications including active
illumination
Noah R. Van Zandt, Jack E McCrae, Steven T. Fiorino, Air ForceInstitute of Technology (United States)
Aimpoint acquisition and maintenance is critical to High Energy Laser(HEL) system performance. This study demonstrates the developmentby the AFIT/CDE of a physics-based modeling package, PITBUL, fortracking airborne targets for HEL applications, including atmospheric andthermal effects, active illumination, and sensor effects. High-resolution
simulated imagery of the 3D airborne target in-flight as seen from thelaser position is generated using the HELSEEM model, and includes
solar illumination, laser illumination, and thermal emission. Both CW andpulsed laser illumination are modeled, including the effects of illuminatorscintillation, atmospheric backscatter, and speckle. The HEL’s heatingof the target and atmosphere is modeled. Realistic vertical profiles ofmolecular and aerosol absorption and scattering, as well as opticalturbulence, are generated using AFIT/CDE’s Laser Environmental Effects
Definition and Reference (LEEDR) model. The spatially and temporally
varying effects of turbulence are calculated and applied via a fastrunning wave optical method known as light tunneling. Sensor effects,
for example blur, sampling, read-out noise, and random photon arrival,
are applied to the imagery. Track algorithms, including centroid and Fitts
correlation, as a part of a closed loop tracker are applied to the degradedimagery and scored, providing a high fidelity estimate of overall system
performance. Tracking results are presented as a function of signal tonoise ratio to gauge performance of a laser system against a moving
UAV target. Additionally, validation efforts to date involving comparisons
between simulated tracking and real tracking of UAVs and other aircraft
are presented.

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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8733 Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

8733-1, Session 1

8733-3, Session 1

Advances in AlGaInN laser diode technology
for defence applications

Recent advances in power scaling of highpower optically-pumped semiconductor
lasers for ultrashort pulse generation andcontinuous wave single frequency operation

Stephen P Najda, TopGaN Ltd. (Poland)
The latest developments in AlGaInN laser diode technology are reviewed
for defence applications such as underwater telecommunications,sensor systems etc. The AlGaInN material system allows for laser diodes
to be fabricated over a very wide range of wavelengths from u.v., i.e,
380nm, to the visible, i.e., 530nm, by tuning the indium content of thelaser GaInN quantum well. Advantages of using Plasma assisted MBE(PAMBE) compared to more conventional MOCVD epitaxy to grow
AlGaInN laser structures are highlighted. Ridge waveguide laser diodestructures are fabricated to achieve single mode operation with opticalpowers of >100mW in the 400-420nm wavelength range with highreliability. High power operation of AlGaInN laser diodes is also reviewed.
We demonstrate the operation of a single chip, high power AlGaInN
laser diode ‘mini-array’ consisting of a 3 stripe common p-contact
configuration at powers up to 2.5W cw in the 408-412 nm wavelength
range. Low defectivity and highly uniform GaN substrates allow arrays
and bars of nitride lasers to be fabricated. Packaging of nitride laser
diodes is substantially different compared to GaAs laser technology andnew processes & techniques are required to optimize the optical powerfrom a nitride laser bar. Laser bars of up to 5mm with 20 emitters haveshown optical powers up to 4W cw at ~410nm with a common contact
configuration. An alternative package configuration for AlGaInN laser
arrays allows for each individual laser to be individually addressable
allowing complex free-space and/or fibre optic system integration withina very small form-factor. TopGaN are developing a new range of highpower laser array technology over the u.v.- visible spectrum together withnew packaging solutions for optical integration.

8733-2, Session 1

Development of advanced seed laser
modules for lidar and spectroscopy
applications
Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (UnitedStates); Alex Rosiewicz, Steve Coleman, EM4, Inc. (UnitedStates)We report on recent progress made in the development of highly
compact, single mode, distributed feedback laser (DFB) seed laser
modules for lidar and spectroscopy applications from space based
platforms. One of the intended application of this technology is in
the NASA’s Active Sensing of CO2 Emissions over Nights, Days, andSeasons (ASCENDS) mission. The DFB laser modules operating at
1571 nm and 1262 nm have advanced current and temperature drivers
built into them. A combination of temperature and current tuning allows
coarse and fine adjustment of the diode wavelengths. The current tuning
was demonstrated at a rate of ~0.7 pm/mV over a working range of~1 V for a total of 0.7 nm. Also, temperature tuning at a rate of ~2 pm/
mV over a working range of ~1 V for a total wavelength range of ~2 nm
was demonstrated. The current tuning was performed at a rate of up to
200 kHz allowing rapid adjustment and dithering of the laser frequency.
Furthermore, the laser linewidth was measured to be at ~100 kHz
with frequency stability <10 MHz over 1 hour period. The micro-cooler
arrangement embedded inside these modules has provided significant
reduction in power consumption. The electronics has been designed,
prototyped and tested using space-qualified components within ahermetically sealed package of volume less than 2” x 2” x 0.5”. The DFB
seed laser technology is suited for NASA’s future laser based missions
including the ASCENDS mission.

280

Alexandre Laurain, Maik Scheller, Tsuei-Lian Wang, Jorg Hader,
Jerome Moloney, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of
Arizona (United States)
Despite many decades of research and development, high-power tensof Watt to kilowatt class semiconductor lasers manifest themselves as
low brightness (incoherent) diode bars emitting highly divergent beams
of very poor beam quality. Parallel developments in doped crystal highpower solid state lasers have shown much greater promise in deliveringhigh-brightness beams. The more recent development of OPSLs,
semiconductor disk lasers pumped by incoherent diode bars, has led
to the promise of developing a whole new generation of high-power,
high-brightness all-semiconductor laser sources that have the added
advantage of versatility in operating wavelength without constraints
on the pump wavelength because of the extremely broad barrier state
absorption.
Here we will report on our research in power scaling OPSL around 1µm
to exceed 100W per chip by combining a rigorous quantum design ofan optimized MQW epitaxial structure, highly accurate and reproducible
wafer growth and an efficient thermal management strategy. Recently
we have utilized these state-of-the-art optimized OPSL chips to achieve
a new record for a mode-locked OPSL with an intra-cavity SESAM. The
average output power of the laser in the optimum operation point ofmode-locked operation was 3.4W while being pumped with 24W of net
pump power. This corresponds to a pulse energy of 7.5nJ and a pulse
peak power of 13.3kW. Both are record values for a semiconductor
laser operation in the femtosecond regime. These optimized structures
have also been used to demonstrate high power operation with a highly
coherent TEM00 mode and to demonstrate a record single frequency
output power of 13W.

8733-4, Session 1

High-energy laser activities at MBDA
Germany
Bernd Mohring, Stephan Dietrich, Leonardo Tassini, Rudolf Protz,
Franz Geidek, Jürgen Zoz, MBDA Germany (Germany)
At MBDA Germany a concept for a high-energy laser weapon system isinvestigated, which is based on existing industrial laser sources. Due tothe enormous progress in the field of high-power fiber lasers, commercial
industrial fiber lasers are now available delivering a nearly-diffraction
limited beam with power levels of up to10 kW. By using a geometricbeam coupling scheme, a number of individual high-power fiber laser
beams are combined together using one common beam director
telescope. A total laser beam power of 100 kW or more can be achieved,
which is sufficient for an operational laser weapon system.
The individual beams from the different lasers are steered by servoloops, using fast tip-tilt mirrors. This principle enables the concentrationof the total laser beam power at one common focal point on a distanttarget, also allowing fine tracking of target movements and first-ordercompensation of turbulence effects on laser beam propagation. The
proposed beam combination concept was demonstrated by using
different experimental set-ups. A number of experiments were performed
successfully to investigate laser beam target interaction and target fine
tracking, also at large distances and at moving targets. Content andresults of these investigations are reported, which demonstrate thecomplete engagement sequence for a C-RAM scenario. This includes thesubsequent steps of target acquisition by radar and IR optics, followed
by large angle coarse tracking, active fine tracking and destruction of

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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

the target by the laser system. This successful application of geometricbeam combining is an important step for the realization of a laser weapon
system in the near future.

vapors (such as Rb or Cs). Here we present development of a highbrightness, high-efficiency, narrow-linewidth, and wavelength-tunable
780-nm fiber-coupled diode laser for use in diode-pumped Rb vapor
alkali laser experiments. The diode laser module consists of multiple
single-emitter diode lasers that are free space coupled into the fiber, andis wavelength locked through wavelength-selective feedback provided
by means of a external volume Bragg grating (VBG). The module delivers
a maximum power of over 120 W and >50% conversion efficiency asmeasured from the output of a 200 um, 0.22 NA fiber. To the best of ourknowledge, this is the highest conversion efficiency reported for a fibercoupled 100-W linewidth narrowed diode laser at 780 nm. The moduleis wavelength locked to <0.05 nm FWHM up to 60 W output power and<0.1 nm up to 100 W output power, and integrated wavelength tunability
is included to provide center wavelength adjustment of >0.6 nm, covering
Rb absorption at 780.0 nm and providing compatibility for closed-loop
control of the wavelength. An excellent 98% power percentage in the
narrowband is measured for the spectrum, with broadband emission
suppressed by more than 22 dB. Broadening of the emission bandwidth
at >60 W of power is constrained by self-heating of the VBG due tooptical absorption in the VBG glass.

8733-5, Session 1

Beam-guidance optics for high-power fiber
laser systems
Bernd Mohring, Leonardo Tassini, Rudolf Protz, Jürgen Zoz,
MBDA Germany (Germany)
The realization of a high-energy laser weapon system by coupling a large
number of industrial high-power fiber lasers is investigated. To performthe combination of the individual beams of the different fiber lasers within
the optical path of the laser weapon, a special optical set-up is used. To
achieve a good overall beam quality, it is important that the mechanicalstructure of the beam-guidance optics possesses a good mechanicalstability and the optical components show low distortions, also when
loaded with high laser power.
The components and the optical assemblies of the beam guidance
optics have to fulfill different tasks, e.g. the collimation of the individual
beams, the combination of several beams or the discrimination ofdifferent wavelengths. To perform this, either reflective components likemirrors can be used or refractive optics, like windows and lenses. Bothpossibilities were investigated by simulations and experiments. The
results are compared, regarding various optical components.

8733-42, Session 2

Military applications of the laser weapons in
the future battlefield
Hasan Celik, Saban Adana, TAF (Turkey); Erhan Yahsi, Turkish
War College (Turkey)

From the results, the general aspects for the layout of the beam-guidance
optics for a high-power fiber laser system are derived.

Contemporary operating environment requires a wide range of tools
to respond to a myriad of regular and irregular threats. Accordingly,
conventional weapons do not suffice in some cases. As technology
improves exponentially, the dominance of conventional weapons isslowly fading away by the advances in laser technology. This study firstoutlines the characteristics of laser weapons and then provides themilitary applications of them in land, maritime, air and space domains.
This study concludes that any country that is seeking primacy in militaryterms must allocate extra time and resources to obtain this emerging
technology. Since it seems that there are not adequate studies about the
military applications and operational concepts of the laser weapons, thisstudy tries to increase awareness about their potential advantages.

8733-8, Session 2

Narrow-line, tunable, high-power diode laser
pump for DPAL applications
Rajiv Pandey, David D. Merchen, Dean Stapleton, David A.
Irwin, Marvin C. Humble, Steve Patterson, DILAS Diode Laser,
Inc. (United States); Heiko Kissel, Jens Biesenbach, DILAS
Diodenlaser GmbH (Germany)
We report on a high-power diode laser pump source for diode-pumped
alkali lasers (DPAL), specifically rubidium alkali vapor lasers at 780nm.
This pump is based on a microchannel water-cooled stack withcollimation in both-axes. Wavelength-locking of the output spectrum
allows absorption in one of the very narrow resonance lines of the atomic
rubidium alkali vapor. To achieve these results, research was conducted
to deliver the highest performance on all key components of the productfrom the diode laser bar which produces the optical power at 780nm
to the external Bragg gratings which narrow the spectrum line width.
We highlight the advancements in the epitaxy, device design, beamcollimation, grating selection, alignment, tunability and thermal control
that enable realization of this novel pump-source for DPALs. Design
trade-offs will be presented.

8733-10, Session 3

Compact and efficient nanosecond pulsed
tuneable OPO in the mid-IR spectral range
Jonas Hellstrom, Peter Jänes, Gunnar Elgcrona, Håkan Karlsson,
Cobolt AB (Sweden)
A compact, robust and efficient nanosecond pulsed optical parametricoscillator (OPO) generating radiation in the mid-IR spectral range isreported. The OPO is based on periodically poled material for theefficient non-linear processes of up-converting 1064 nm radiation to 1570
and 3300 nm respectively. Pulsed emission exceeding 90 mW average
power at the idler (3300 nm) with a total conversion efficiency of 18%,
including both signal and idler, has been reached. The maximum pulse
energy of the idler is 15 µJ, pulse duration around 4 ns and peak power
up to 4 kW. The results are achieved for an optical pump power of 1.2 W
at the entrance of the OPO and an electrical pump power of 14 W. The
total size of the OPO device is only 125x70x45 mm3 (LxWxH) including
the pump laser at 1064 nm. The output radiation is narrowed by spectral
filtering to < 2 nm at the idler and smoothly temperature tuneable over 14
nm. The OPO has a robust design and withstands shocks in operation up
to 60g at 8 ms. Storage temperature is -20 to + 60 degree C.

8733-9, Session 2

High-efficiency narrow linewidth diodelaser pump source for Rb vapor alkali laser
systems
Zhigang Chen, Kevin Bruce, Keith W. Kennedy, Ling Bao, Kirk
Price, Shuang Li, Mitch Reynolds, Charley McGowan, Aaron
Brown, Manoj Kanskar, nLIGHT Corp. (United States)

The compact size and low power consumption make this OPO device
suitable for many kinds of spectroscopy applications in the areas ofenvironmental monitoring and pollution control as well as in combustion
physics and process control.

High-power, narrow-linewidth and wavelength-stabilized diode laser
pump sources operating in the 78x-nm to 85x-nm band are expected
to enable high-energy CW laser systems based on low pressure alkali

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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

8733-11, Session 38733-13, Session 3

Interband cascade lasers with highcontinuous-wave output powers at room
temperature

Wide-band coherent supercontinuum
generation

Charles D. Merritt, William W. Bewley, Chadwick L. Canedy, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Mijin Kim, Sotera Defense
Solutions, Inc. (United States); Chul S. Kim, Joshua Abell, Igor
Vurgaftman, Jerry R. Meyer, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)The performance of mid-IR interband cascade lasers (ICLs) was improved
recently by rebalancing the electron and hole densities in the active wells,
which has led to a more efficient utilization of the injected current. As aresult, the threshold current density at room temperature has decreasedto ≈130 A/cm^2 for lasers with 5 stages emitting at 3.7 um. Maximum
cw output powers >290 mW into a nearly diffraction-limited (M^2 ~ 2.2)
output beam are realized at room temperature by adding corrugations tothe sidewalls of a 25-um-wide ICL epitaxial-side-down mounted ridge,
with the purpose of suppressing higher-order lateral modes. Comparing
devices with corrugated and straight sidewalls, it is shown that thecorrugations result in a 20% improvement in the maximum brightness. A
0.5-mm-long ridge with an HR-coated back facet and an uncoated front
facet exhibited a maximum cw wall-plug efficiency of nearly 15% at room
temperature. The ICL ridges with corrugated sidewalls are compared tolasers with tapered ridge widths that also raise the loss of higher-order
lateral modes. The tapered laser emits >190 mW of cw power into anearly diffraction-limited beam (M^2 ~ 1.5). The effect of taper angle
and the dimensions of the tapered section are studied in detail. We also
discuss distributed-feedback ICLs capable of emitting up to 27 mW ofcw output power into a single lasing mode at 40 deg. C. Another device
lased in a single spectral mode with <100 mW of drive power.

8733-12, Session 3

Performance and reliability of quantum
cascade lasers
Tanya L. Myers, Bret D. Cannon, Matthew S. Taubman, Bruce E.
Bernacki, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)
We present the burn-in behavior and power stability of multiple quantum
cascade lasers (QCLs) that were measured to investigate their long-term
performance. For these experiments, the current to the QCL was cycled
every ten minutes, and the output power was monitored over time fordurations as long as two months. A small increase in power for a given
injection current is observed for almost all of the QCLs tested during theburn-in period. Although the amount and duration of the burn-in variedamong the devices tested, we observed that QCLs that operated witha lower threshold current exhibited a smaller burn-in change from initialconditions for the first ten hours of operation.
The effect of packaging the QCLs is also investigated to determine its
impact on performance and reliability. The power stability is measured forthe packaged QCLs along with the effect of changes in the operational
conditions. Although the set point temperature of the QCL is kept
constant, the case temperature is varied to monitor its correlation withany changes in power or frequency. Power changes and small frequency
shifts are observed under these conditions. One possible explanation forthese changes is the influence of optical feedback from the AR-coatedwindow in the package due to the window’s change in optical andmechanical properties arising from temperature fluctuations. The datafrom all of these experiments will be presented along with its impact on
QCL performance and reliability.

282

Hongyu Hu, Wenbo Li, Niloy K. Dutta, Univ. of Connecticut(United States)
We have studied broadband mid-IR supercontinuum generation (SCG)
in a lead-silicate microstructured fiber (the glass for simulation is SF57).
The total dispersion of the fiber can be tailored by changing the core
diameter of the fiber so that dispersion profiles with two zero dispersion
wavelengths (ZDWs) can be obtained. Numerical simulations of the SCG
process in a 4 cm long SF57 fiber/fiber taper seeded by femto-second
pulses at telecommunications wavelength of 1550 nm are presented. The
results show that a fiber taper features a continuous shift of the longer
zero dispersion wavelength. This extends the generated continuum
to longer wavelength region compared to fibers with fixed ZDWs. The
phase-matching condition (PMC) is continuously modified in the fiber
taper and the supercontinuum generated extends from ~1000 to ~ 5000
nm. We have also studied the coherence properties of the generated
supercontinuum. Simulations are conducted by adding quantum noise
into the input pulse at 1550 nm, and the complex degree of first-ordercoherence function and the overall spectral degree of coherence areboth calculated. Although the spectral broadening is comparable,
the degree of coherence is shown to vary with different pumping
conditions. It decreases with higher peak power and longer duration
due to the significant competition between the soliton-fission process
and the noise-seeded modulation instability. By a suitable choice of
the input pulse parameters, it is possible to generate perfectly coherent
supercontinuum with a flat broadened spectrum extending to ~5000 nm
in this fiber taper.

8733-14, Session 3

Tunable mid-infrared generation using a
synchronized programmable fiber laser:
extending to the 2nd atmospheric window
Mathieu Giguere, Yasaman Soudagar, Alain Villeneuve, Joseph
Salhany, Youngjae Kim, Alexandre Dupuis, Bryan Bourgoyne,
Genia Photonics Inc. (Canada); Douglas J. Bamford, PhysicalSciences Inc. (United States)
Over the last years, the interest level has grown significantly towards
the development of Mid-Infrared (Mid-IR) laser sources for applications
in remote sensing, laser-based countermeasures, pollutant monitoring,and narcotic/explosive detection. However, the number of commerciallyavailable lasers on the market is still limited and the tunability of thosesources is restrained.
We present here our latest development results in Mid-IR laser based
difference-frequency generation (DFG) in a nonlinear crystal pumped
by synchronized and tunable picosecond near-infrared fiber lasers.
The system is based upon a programmable laser where the emitted
wavelength can be varied continuously and rapidly (up to 80,000 different
wavelengths per second) and a tunable Master Oscillator Power Amplifier(MOPA) synchronized to the programmable laser. The synchronized laser
does not have any moving parts and both the wavelength tuning andthe synchronization are performed electronically. Furthermore, a long(several 10s of meters) of standard optical silica fiber (not IR fiber) can beused to deliver the light to the DFG crystal, allowing for many versatileconfigurations not possible with current technologies.
The programmable laser was tuned from 1910nm up to 1980nm andwas mixed with 1530nm, 1575nm and 1585nm MOPA wavelengths in
AgGaSe2, AgGaS2 and Orientation-Patterned GaAs (OP-GaAs) crystals.
Wavelengths from 6.7µm and up to 9.3µm were generated continuouslywith up to the a few mW power level. We expect to increase this tuning
range by increasing the tunability of the PL and the MOPA to longer
wavelengths to allow us to cover the 6-12 um range.

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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

8733-17, Session 4

Lab. (United States)

Spectroscopic analysis of efficient lasermaterial Ho3+:YVO4

Sesquioxides are good hosts for rare earth laser ions, as they have better
thermal properties than the more commonly-used YAG. We recently
studied the spectroscopy of Er:Lu2O3 in the 1400 1700 nm wavelength
range, and here report its comparison with our earlier results on Er:Y2O3
and Er:Sc2O3, in which we have observed efficient laser operation
at cryogenic temperatures. These studies include absorption andfluorescence spectra, fluorescence lifetimes, and inference of absorption
and stimulated emission cross sections, all as a function of temperature.

Zackery Fleischman, Larry D. Merkle, George A. Newburgh, Mark
Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
The spectroscopic properties of Ho3+-doped YVO4 were studied atcryogenic temperatures in the 2 µm spectral region to clarify our recent
observation of efficient dual-wavelength laser operation in this material.
Polarized absorption cross sections were measured, and stimulated
emission cross sections were determined using the reciprocity method
coupled with Füchtbauer-Ladenburg calculations. The observed laser
emission wavelengths were at 2053 nm and 2068 nm; the former
corresponding to a pi transition with peak cross section 1.7x10-19 cm2and the latter to a sigma transition with a peak cross section of 2.0x10-20
cm2. Radiative lifetimes for the 5I7 manifold were calculated to be 3.3
ms, and fluorescence lifetimes were measured to be 2.9 ms, indicating
a quantum efficiency of ~90% for transitions to the ground state. The
relevance of these results to the dual wavelength laser operation will be
discussed.

At room temperature, optical absorption limits practical laser operation
to wavelengths longer than about 1600 nm. In that spectral range, thestrongest stimulated emission peak is that at 1665 nm in Er:Sc2O3, with
an effective cross section considerably larger than those of Er:Y2O3 and
Er:Lu2O3.
At 77K, the absorption is weak enough for efficient laser operation at
considerably shorter wavelengths, where there are peaks with muchlarger stimulated emission cross sections. The three hosts all have peaks
near 1575-1580 nm with comparably strong cross sections. As we havereported earlier, it is possible to lase even shorter wavelengths efficiently
at this temperature, in particular the line at 1558 nm in Er:Sc2O3. Our
new spectroscopic studies of Er:Lu2O3 indicate that its corresponding
peak, like that of Er:Y2O3, is somewhat weaker and thus less favorable.
Reasons for the differences will be discussed.

8733-18, Session 4

We conclude that for most operating scenarios, Er:Sc2O3 is the mostpromising of the Er-doped sesquioxides studied for laser operation
around 1.5-1.6 microns.

Rare-earth ions doped PTR glass DBR laser
Aleksandr Ryasnyanskiy, OptiGrate Corp. (United States); Nikolai
Vorobiev, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States); Vadim Smirnov, OptiGrate Corp.
(United States); Julien Lumeau, CREOL, The College of Optics
and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Larissa
Glebova, Oleksiy Mokhun, Christine Spiegelberg, OptiGrate
Corp. (United States); Michael A. Krainak, NASA Goddard Space
Flight Ctr. (United States); Alexei Glebov, OptiGrate Corp. (UnitedStates); Leonid Glebov, CREOL, The College of Optics andPhotonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)

8733-35, Session PTues

Compact passively mode-locked fiber laser
near 1.55 um with low timing jitter of 8 fs
Kan Wu, Perry Ping Shum, Nanyang Technological Univ.
(Singapore)
We report a compact all fiber passively mode-locked laser with arepetition rate of 250 MHz, a center wavelength at 1563 nm and a 3-dB
bandwidth of 11 nm. The laser has a timing jitter of ~8 fs (100 Hz - 1
MHz) measured at third harmonic of 750 MHz.

The need of compact, narrow line laser sources stimulated thedevelopment of hybrid devices such as distributed feedback (DFB) lasers
and distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) laser.

8733-38, Session PTues

Recent development in recording of volume holographic elements in
PTR glass has led to the production of high efficiency volume Bragg
gratings(VBGs), which allow narrowband filters in both spectral andangular spaces.On the other hand, co-doping of PTR glass withluminescent ions and recording VBGs inside the glass paves a way forcreation of compact monolithic DFB and DBR volume solid state lasers.

Ray matrix approach for the analysis of
optical-axis perturbation in nonplanar ring
resonators based on appropriate coordinate
systemWe report on the first Distributed Bragg Reflector solid state laser
recorded in Nd-doped PTR glass.An emitting at 808-nm laser diode withmaximum power of 40 W was used as a pump source. In order to prevent
heating, the pumping was in pulsed regime with pulse duration of 1 ms
and repetition rate of 50 Hz. The DBR element (2% Nd-doped PTR glass)with an aperture of 2?6 mm2 and thickness of 11 mm was kept in acopper housing mounted on the TEC for temperature control.

Meixiong Chen, Jie Yuan, Xingwu Long, Zhenglong Kang,
Yingying Li, National Univ. of Defense Technology (China)
Non-planar ring resonators are widely used for high precision ring laser
gyroscopes including Zero-Lock Laser Gyroscopes. The analysis of
optical-axis perturbation in nonplanar ring resonators is important forresonator design. Ray matrix approach based on appropriate coordinate
systems has been employed to analyze the optical-axis perturbation in
nonplanar ring resonators. The sensitivities of optical-axis decentration(SD) and optical-axis tilt (ST) in nonplanar resonators with 90° and 270°
image rotation are discussed in detail in the region of 0< K <8, where K
is the ratio of the total cavity length to the radius of the curvature mirrors.
There are both four singular points in the whole region of 0< K<8. On
the left of the first singularity, it is found that the longer the mirror radius,
the less the optical-axis decentration sensitivity. This is opposite thebehavior of planar ring resonators, but the behaviors of optical-axis tilt
sensitivity in planar and nonplanar ring resonators are similar. In planar
resonators, it also demonstrates that in the region of 0< K<2, larger the
mirror radius is, higher sensitivity of optical-axis decentration will be, but
lower sensitivity of optical-axis tilt will be. These results are confirmed byrelated experiments. It is worth to note that SD and ST in the nonplanar

The telescope type laser cavity was formed by a broadband
mirror,focusing lens and DBR element which was acting as an active
element (Nd-doped PTR glass) and output coupler (VBG with diffraction
efficiency ~99%). The DBR laser produced 3W narrow line (~30 pm)
radiation around 1060 nm. The laser was operating in a single transverse
mode and no signature of saturation caused by a thermal lens effect wasobserved.

8733-19, Session 4

Er-doped sesquioxides for 1.5-micron lasers:
spectroscopic comparisons
Larry D. Merkle, Nikolay Ter-Gabrielyan, U.S. Army Research
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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

resonator with certain parameters have the similar singularities. The
analysis in this paper is important for the resonator design, improvement
and beam position control nonplanar ring resonators.

10%) is maintained over temperature extremes. This work also enables
the development of a compact and high peak power eye safe laser
system for defense applications.

8733-39, Session PTues

8733-41, Session PTues

Simulation of atmospheric turbulencecompensation through piston-only phase
control of a laser phased array

Methods of optimizing APD optical receiver
performance characteristics for low SWaP
laser rangefinders

Jack E. McCrae Jr., Noah R. Van Zandt, Salvatore J. Cusumano,
Steven T. Fiorino, Air Force Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)David Barsic, Andrew Huntington, Adam Lee, George Williams,
Joseph G. LaChapelle, Voxtel, Inc. (United States)

Beam propagation from a laser phased array system through the
turbulent atmosphere is simulated and the ability of such a system tocompensate for the atmosphere via piston-only phase control of the
sub-apertures is evaluated. Directed energy (DE) applications demand
more power than most lasers can produce, consequently many schemes
for high power involve combining the beams from many smaller lasers
into one. When many smaller lasers are combined into a phased array,
phase control of the individual sub-apertures will be necessary to createa high-quality beam. Phase control of these sub-apertures could then be
used to do more, such as focus, steer, and compensate for atmosphericturbulence. Atmospheric turbulence is well known to degrade theperformance of both imaging systems and laser systems. Adaptive optics
can be used to mitigate this degradation. Adaptive optics ordinarily
involves a deformable mirror, but with phase control on each subaperture the need for a deformable mirror is eliminated. The simulation
conducted here evaluates performance gain for a 127 element phasedarray in a hexagonal pattern with piston-only phase control on eachelement over an uncompensated array for varying levels of atmosphericturbulence. While most simulations were carried out against a 10 km
tactical scenario, the turbulence profile was adjusted so performance
could be evaluated as a function of the Fried Parameter (r0) and the
log-amplitude variance somewhat independently. This approach isdemonstrated to be effective as long as r0 is larger than the sub-aperture
diameter, degrading smoothly as this constraint is exceeded.

8733-40, Session PTues

Experimental evaluation and performance
optimization of a flash lamp pumped er: glass
laser system over temperature extremes
Sachendra K. Shrivastava, Lokesh Soni, Ravindra Y. Chaudhari,
Bharat Electronics Ltd. (India)
In this study, behavior of flash lamp pumped, opto-mechanicallyQ-switched Er: glass laser system has been experimentally investigatedover temperature extremes (-30 deg C to +65 deg C). In one set ofexperiments, dependence of performance of high speed motor as partof opto-mechanical Q-switch at different temperatures is examined. It
is found that motor speed varies with temperature and this will result
into change in laser performance, as the synchronization between
flash lamp current pulse and rotating Q-switch changes with motor
speed. In another set of experiments, dependence of laser thresholdon temperature extremes is investigated experimentally in two phases.
First, laser thresholds for laser transmitter (laser optical head) alone ismeasured and later on laser thresholds of entire laser system (i.e. lasertransmitter including flash lamp pulse forming network) is evaluated atvarious temperatures. It is observed that laser threshold of laser opticalhead alone and same for complete laser system, varies differently
especially at (-) negative temperatures. In order to understand thisdifference, electrolytic capacitors of flash lamp pulse forming network
were subjected to temperature test and observations were recorded. It isobserved that equivalent series resistance (ESR) of electrolytic capacitors
significantly changes with temperature, especially below zero degrees
Celsius. Next, all observations of experiments were analyzed and systemparameters were optimized such that fairly constant laser output (+/284

The performance of gain controlled, high performance APD’s operated
in linear mode can be optimized in real time over a 125°C operationaltemperature range resulting in an order of magnitude decrease in
NEP at comparable SWaP to current state of the art PIN devices. We
have demonstrated this device using a linear mode, low excess noise
avalanche photo-diode (APD) flip-chip die bonded to a custom low noiseASIC.
The ASIC functions include a wide dynamic range amplifier, thresholdcomparator, temperature sensor and optimization algorithms. Various
use case scenarios are optimized for sensitivity, range walk and damage
threshold utilizing an on-board microprocessor. In this paper we discuss
test results of the device, provide comparison with current state of the art
PIN and APD solutions and discuss the advantages of this approach tohigher performance, lower cost laser rangefinders.

8733-20, Session 5

Highly efficient resonantly pumped Er:YAG
large area channel waveguide laser withdiffraction limited output
Nikolay Ter-Gabrielyan, Viktor Fromzel, Mark Dubinskii, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Xiaodong Mu, David
Meissner, Onyx Optics Inc. (United States)
We demonstrated nearly quantum defect limited, quasi-CW operation ofa resonantly pumped Er:YAG crystalline channel waveguide laser withdiffraction limited output. The 41 mm long waveguide consisted of a 61.2
um x 61.6 um Er(0.25%):YAG core embedded into a 3 x 5 mm undoped
YAG cladding. A QCW output power of 9.1 W with slope efficiency of
92.8% with respect to absorbed pump has been achieved with 1532-nm
resonant pumping by a narrow-bandwidth Er-fiber laser. A measured
divergence of the output laser beam was ~ 28 mrad, which was in anagreement with the expected low value of the numerical aperture (NA ~0.02) of the waveguide. A spectrum of the waveguide laser consisted of
two wavelengths centered at 1617 nm and 1645 nm, when laser cavity
outcoupling loss was relatively small (less than 20-25%). The output
exhibited only one wavelength, 1617 nm, for higher outcoupling loss.

8733-21, Session 5

Stimulated Brillouin scattering in opticalfibers excited by broad-band pump waves in
the presence of feedback
Mark S. Bowers, Robert Afzal, Lockheed Martin Aculight (UnitedStates)Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is the main limitation on achieving
high-power, narrowband laser light from fiber laser systems. Various
techniques have been used to increase the SBS threshold in fiber laser
designs. One widely used technique for SBS suppression is modulating
the pump wave to broaden its linewidth to a value larger than the
Brillouin linewidth, resulting in an increase in the SBS threshold. In thisSPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing 2013·

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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

paper, we extend the transient theory of SBS in passive optical fibers,
excited by a broad-band pump wave, by including the effects of pumpfeedback. We find, when the pump linewidth approaches the Brillouinfrequency shift, a weak reflection of the pump can effectively seed the
Stokes wave resulting in a decrease in SBS threshold. In one example,
a 0.01% reflection of a pump wave with a linewidth equal to the Brillouinfrequency shift is predicted to reduce the SBS threshold by as much as afactor of 1.5. Furthermore, fluctuations of the Stokes wave near threshold
are greatly reduced in the presence of feedback. The implications ofthese results on the design of high-power fiber laser systems that utilize
spectral broadening to suppress SBS are presented.

instabilities is analytically verified. Using this model, the dependence ofthreshold on seed power, gain-tailoring, and core size is investigatedand compared to experiments. Furthermore, the thresholds of the modal
instabilities for different pumping configurations, such as co-pumping
and counter-pumping, are computed and compared. The effect oflaser linewidth on the instabilities by solving an expanded system ofcoupled nonlinear equations is examined and presented along with theexperimental findings. Finally, we suggest several techniques to mitigate
the instabilities.

8733-22, Session 5

Melt growth and equilibria of cesium
germanium chloride

8733-25, Session 6

High power modal instability measurementsof very large mode area (VLMA) step index
fibersNicholas J. Condon, Steven R. Bowman, Shawn O’Connor, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
The cesium germanium halides, CsGeCl3 and CsGeBr3, are a highly
promising class of nonlinear optical frequency conversion materials. We
have successfully grown single crystals of CsGeCl3 from the melt anddevised a method for the direct synthesis of CsGeCl3 from ultra-highpurity starting materials. We have also studied the composition of thegases that evolve from a CGC melt in order to understand the relevant
equilibria and apply that knowledge to improving the growth conditions.

Doruk Engin, Wei Lu, Horacio Verdun, Shantanu Gupta, Fibertek,
Inc. (United States)
High average power lasers with diffraction limited outputs are key
subsystems of Directed-Energy Weapons (DEW). The most promising
approach for generating such high brightness laser beam is coherent
combining of multiple beams from Yb-doped fiber amplifiers. Stimulated
Brillion Scattering (SBS) and thermal-modal instability are the two main
physical phenomena that limit fiber amplifier output powers. SBS is awell understood fiber non-linearity and can be effectively suppressed byincreasing laser line-width. Coherent combining requires line-width lessthan 10GHz, corresponding to sub-millimeters path matching distances.
Modal instability is a much less well understood mechanism that resultsin excitation of higher order modes above a threshold power level.
Currently modal instability limits power levels to ~1.6kW (with ~10GHz
line-width) for 25um core sized step index fiber. Available theories
for modal instability do not predict power threshold accurately andexperimental results are very important in base-lining empirical models.
Here a comprehensive set of high power (~1kW) experiments using
VLMA step index and gain tailored fibers are presented. Characterized
step index and gain tailored fibers are: (core/clad size) 35/500um,
45/375um, 60/500um; (doped-core/undoped-core/clad size) 40/60/400,
50/80/530um with core NA-0.08. Experimental results include: mode
quality degradation, intensity noise broadening and line-width variation
with output power. Except for 35um fiber, all the fibers exhibit modal
instability thresholds below 1kW. In controlled experiments bend radiusand seeding content dependence of power threshold are sought. Current
model that treat power exchange between LP01 and LP11 modes is
extended to multiple modes and is base-lined using experimental results.

8733-26, Session 6

Optimizing laser performance in Er and Yb
codoped phosphate glasses
Simi A. George, Nathan Carlie, Mark Davis, Joseph S. Hayden,
Matthew Roth, Eric H. Urruti, SCHOTT North America, Inc.
(United States)
Erbium doped bulk glasses are of high interest to many applications in
the defense and medical fields. Current active use of these materials
are in amplifiers for optical fiber communications, fiber lasers, LIDAR,
q-switched, microchip lasers for laser range finding and in bulk solidstate lasers. The dominant laser transition for the Er3+ ion is of a threelevel nature, from the 4I13/2 metastable manifold to the ground-state
manifold, 4I15/2. The transition between these two manifolds is strongly
influenced by the local fields generated in the host materials leading toemission wavelengths that may peak somewhere in the 1.53?m – 1.6?mregion. Moreover, the three level nature of the transition necessitateshigh population densities resulting in high pump thresholds and low
efficiencies.
The Er3+ laser performance in materials, especially in glass, can beenhanced by codoping with large amounts of Yb3+. This enables laser
diode pumping near 980 nm. Here, absorption by the Yb 2F5/2 statetransfers energy to the 4I11/2 state of Er3+, giving rise to sensitizedemission with significant reduction in the absorption length of the gain
medium. Aside from Yb, Cr and Ce doping is also used in glasses inorder to enhance laser performance.

8733-23, Session 5

Analytical and numerical studies of modal
instabilities in high-power fiber amplifiers
Shadi A. Naderi, Iyad Dajani, Craig Robin, Timothy Madden, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States)

For the development of future eye-safe laser products, the study reported
here focused on examining the complex interactions between Cr, Ce,
Yb and Er. The effect of these dopants on the thermal, physical, optical,
and laser properties of a single host glass composition is evaluated indetail. Our goal is to understand how the dopant concentrations may
be optimized for various laser cavity configurations in order to increase
the overall output efficiency in phosphate glasses. The main variables
that are related in this study are the absorption and emission crosssections at key wavelengths, emission bandwidth and thereby gain
coefficient, radiative and excited state lifetimes of the various dopants,
and the thermo-mechanical performance of the glass in relation tothermal lensing effects. We show that significant improvement in laser
performance can be achieved by utilizing the findings outlined.

There have been recently several reports that large mode area (LMA)
high-power fiber amplifiers are susceptible to the onset of modal
instabilities. These instabilities are characterized by sudden anddramatic increase in the modal content of higher-order modes as wellas rapid temporal oscillations. We present a detailed theoretical andnumerical investigation of modal instabilities in high-power Yb-doped
fiber amplifiers using a time-dependent temperature solver coupled
into the optical fields. An alternating direction implicit (ADI) method isimplemented in polar coordinates to solve for the thermal effects as
this coordinate system is well-suited to describe the fiber geometry andboundary conditions. The convergence and accuracy of the numericalsimulations are validated through a series of comparisons to analyticalsolutions as well as other numerical techniques. The need to capture
the temporal evolution in order to accurately predict the threshold of the

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8733-27, Session 6

Intrinsically-low Brillouin gain optical fibers
Peter D. Dragic, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UnitedStates); John Ballato, Stephanie Morris, Thomas Hawkins,
Clemson Univ. Research Foundation (United States)
Numerous methods to increase the stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)
threshold have been previously implemented. Some are passive, basedon acousto-optic fiber designs that incorporate longitudinally- or radiallytailored optical and/or acoustic index profiles, leading to broadened
Brillouin gain spectra (BGS) with reduced peak gain. Some are active,
relying on an applied temperature or strain distribution, also resulting in
broadened BGS. Broadening the laser spectrum still represents the mosteffective method to-date to obtain large-scale (> 20 dB) decreases in thegain, but the suitability of this method depends largely on the applicationand system requirements on the laser spectrum. Despite thesetechnologies, some introduced only in the last decade, the vast majorityof high-energy, narrow-linewidth fiber laser systems are still limited by
SBS rather than the availability of pump power. We present an alternative
approach; rather than focusing on ‘suppressing’ SBS in waveguide orother designs, we propose implementing materials with intrinsicallylow Brillouin gain. We focus on high-density, high-sound-velocity, large
acoustic-damping-coefficient, and low-photoelastic-constant materials
wherein the correct balancing of physical characteristics gives rise to
extremely low Brillouin gain. In general, the approach requires the use ofcompositions that would be considered to be highly unconventional andunachievable utilizing standard fiber fabrication methods. For example,
we describe recent results on sapphire-derived fibers (among othercompositions) wherein a Brillouin gain nearly 20 dB lower than those of
more conventional fibers has been realized. Other compositions will also
be presented, including those predicted to have zero-valued photoelastic
constants, and therefore zero Brillouin gain.

8733-28, Session 6

Recent progress in ceramic YAG cladding
technology for fiber laser applications
HeeDong Lee, Brian Sirn, Ii-Seok Park, UES, Inc. (United States)
In order to realize high energy and high power fiber laser systems basedon the single or polycrystalline doped YAG fibers, high quality YAG
cladding layer with tens of microns in thickness needs to be coatedaround the fiber cores. However, suitable cladding technology has
not been identified yet. UES has been developing the advanced fiber
cladding technologies via EB-PVD process. The preliminary results
showed that it was highly feasible to produce optically transparent
YAG cladding with 20 ~ 30 microns in thickness by a modified codeposition process The properties of YAG cladding including thermal
conductivity, CTE, and refractive index appear to be strongly dependent
on crystallinity and off-stoichiometry, and that needs to be further tuned
and characterized in the near future.

effort in material synthesis, combined with spectroscopic investigationof Er- and Nd-doped MgO, powder and ceramic. Nd3+ or Er3+:MgO
powder was synthesized by either blending of rare earth precursor withcommercial MgO high purity powder or by a co-precipitation synthesisof high surface area powder. Subsequently, Nd3+ or Er3+:MgO ceramic
samples were produced via pressureless sintering of synthesized powder
at 1350-1550°C. The results of spectroscopic investigations for a numberof states of Nd3+ and Er3+ ion doped MgO ceramic are presented.
The fluorescence lifetime for Nd3+ 4F3/2 and Er3+ 4I13/2 levels wasmeasured in a temperature range of 10 - 300K. The stimulated emission
cross-section for Nd3+ 4F3/2 4I11/2 and Er3+ 4I13/2 4I15/2 transitions
was inferred from fluorescence and excitation spectra using FuchtbauerLadenburg relationship. The potential for laser action at room andcryogenic temperatures is analyzed and presented.

8733-30, Session 7

Recent advancements in transparent
ceramics and crystal fibers for high power
lasersWoohong R. Kim, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Catalin Florea, Sotera Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States);Colin Baker, Guillermo Villalobos, Daniel Gibson, Brandon Shaw,
Steven R. Bowman, Shawn O’Connor, Shyam S. Bayya, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Bryan Sadowski, Sotera
Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States); Michael Hunt, Univ.
Research Foundation (United States); Ish D. Aggarwal, Sotera
Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States); Jasbinder S. Sanghera,
U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
In this paper, we present our recent results in the development of rareearth (Yb3+ or Ho3+) doped sesquioxides such as Lu2O3 or Y2O3
for high power solid state lasers. We have fabricated various highquality transparent ceramics using nano-powders synthesized by aco-precipitation method. This was accomplished by developments inhigh purity powder synthesis and low temperature scalable sintering
technology developed at NRL. The optical, spectral and morphologicalproperties as well as the lasing performance from highly transparent
ceramics are presented. In the second part of the paper, we also discuss
our research effort in developing cladded-single crystal fibers for highpower single frequency fiber lasers potentially significantly exceeding thecapabilities of existing silica fiber based lasers. Single crystal fiber coreswith diameters as small as 35µm have been drawn using high purity rareearth doped ceramic or single crystal feed rods by Laser Heated Pedestal
Growth (LHPG) process. The mechanical, optical and morphologicalproperties of these fibers have been characterized. The fibers are very
flexible and show good overall uniformity. We also measured the opticalloss as well as the non-radiative loss of the doped crystal fibers andthe results show that the fibers have excellent optical quality. The gain
coefficient of the crystal fiber matches the low quantum defect laser
model and it is a good indication of the high quality of the fibers. Our
recent results on the development of suitable claddings on the crystal
fiber core are also discussed.

8733-29, Session 6

Synthesis and spectroscopic properties of
Nd3+ and Er3+:MgO ceramics
Tigran Sanamyan, Anthony C. Sutorik, Christopher Cooper,
Gary A. Gilde, Mark Dubinskii, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)MgO is an attractive material with thermal properties very favorable forhigh energy laser applications. Unfortunately, doping single crystals of
this material with laser-active rare earth (RE3+) ions has always been achallenge due to significant ionic radius differences between the Mg3+
site and RE3+ dopant. This work reports significant advances toward
developing RE3+ doped MgO ceramic laser material based on our

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8733-31, Session 7

M2 and power in the bucket measurementsof the beams diffracted by volume Bragg
gratings
Christopher Lantigua, Julien Lumeau, CREOL, The College of
Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States);
Vadim Smirnov, OptiGrate Corp. (United States); Leonid Glebov,
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. of Central
Florida (United States)
Volume Bragg gratings (VBG) provide a very efficient way to control the

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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

spectral and angular properties of high power lasers. The fabrication of
VBGs with high quality of diffracted beams requires perfect control of
the glass homogeneity and the holographic recording process. In thispaper, the methods and challenges associated with measuring the qualityof the beams diffracted by such VBGs are presented. First a thoroughstudy of the measurement of the M2-value of the beams diffracted by
VBGs is performed. The presence of wings in the beam profile is shown
to be one common source of deterioration in the beam quality; such ameasurement of the M2-value after diffraction on a VBG is a challenging
process and cannot be easily achieved using commercial systems andconventional software. In addition, while these wings can represent only atiny fraction of the total power, they can result in a dramatically increased
M2-value of the diffracted beam. However, their exact role in deteriorating
the overall beam quality is not obvious. To overcome this difficulty, powerin the bucket measurements are introduced and compared with M2
measurements for the same beams. Correlation and differences between
these two methods are discussed.

output (with simultaneous signal output at 1.6 µm) when pumped at 1.2µm using a Raman-shifted fiber laser or a high-power optically-pumped
semiconductor.
Orientation-patterned gallium arsenide (OPGaAs) is a new quasi-phasematched (QPM) semiconductor which is comparable in performance to
ZGP under 2-m pumping but enables high power output in the 8-12 m
window. It is grown using an all-epitaxial processing technique basedon the use of polar-on-nonpolar molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) to growa polar GaAs film on a thin non-polar lattice-matched Ge layer withan orientation that is inverted with respect to the GaAs substrate: theinverted layer is then photo-lithographically patterned with the grating
period(s) for the desired wavelength interaction(s) and alternate domains
are etched back to the original substrate surface. Both orientations arethen re-grown, first by MBE then by hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE)
at rates > 150 µm /hr to produce thick QPM layers for in-plane laser
pumping. We routinely produce 3-inch OPGaAs wafers with > 1.5-mmthick QPM layers capable of generating pulsed multi-watt mid-IR OPO
output, and recently demonstrated the first continuous wave OPO in thismaterial which produced 5W of average power (3.8- m signal and 4.68m idler) from a low-loss 40-mm-long OPGaAs crystal. We are currently
developing a new QPM semiconductor OPGaP compatible with 1-?mpump laser sources.

8733-32, Session 7

Coilable single crystal fibers of doped YAG
for high power laser applications

8733-50, Session 7

Gisele Maxwell, Nazila Soleimani, Bennett Ponting, Eminet
Gebremichael Gebremichael, Shasta Crystals (United States)

Advances in semiconductor core opticalfibersSingle crystal fibers are an intermediate between laser crystals anddoped glass fibers. They can combine the advantages of both by guiding
laser light and matching the efficiencies found in bulk crystals, making
them ideal candidates for high-power laser and fiber laser applications. In
particular, a very interesting feature of single crystal fiber is that they cangenerate high power in the eye-safe range (Er:YAG) with a high efficiency,
opening new possibilities for portable directed energy weapons. This
work focuses on the growth of a flexible fiber with a core of dopant(Er, Nd, Yb, etc…) that will exhibit good waveguiding properties. Direct
growth or a combination of growth and cladding experiments aredescribed. We have, to date, demonstrated the growth of a flexible footlong 45 microns doped YAG fiber. Scattering loss measurements at
visible wavelengths along with dopant profile characterization are alsopresented. Laser characterization for these fibers are in progress.

John Ballato, Advanced Materials Ctr. (United States); Stephanie
Morris, Thomas Hawkins, Clemson Univ. Research Foundation(United States)
Glass-clad optical fibers comprising cores of crystalline semiconductormaterials have garnered considerable attention in recent years. However,despite much progress, losses remain high. This talk will focus on
optimization efforts including annealing, tapering, core geometry
control, and reactive chemical processes to reduce losses towards
device-practical levels. Selected devices and applications-relevantmeasurements made to date will also be presented.

8733-34, Session 78733-33, Session 8

New nonlinear optical crystals for powerscalable mid-IR lasers (Invited Paper)

Enhanced power scaling potential for solidstate and fiber laser systems incorporating
anti-reflection microstructures

Peter G. Schunemann, BAE Systems (United States)

Douglas S. Hobbs, Bruce D. MacLeod, Ernest Sabatino III,
TelAztec LLC (United States)

Great advances in mid-infrared nonlinear optical (NLO) crystals havebeen achieved in the last five years, and these are having – and willcontinue to have - a significant impact on current and emerging militarylaser applications requiring high energy or high average power output inthe 2 to 12 µm spectral range. ZnGeP2 (ZGP) in particular has emerged
as the NLO material of choice for 2-to-8 m operation, and has grown inimportance with the advent of high power thulium fiber lasers. Larger
ZGP aperture sizes, lower losses, and higher laser damage thresholds
have enabled mid-IR OPOs to operate at higher energies and output
powers. ZGP still has two main limitations, however: 1) its transparency
and phase-matching range make it incompatible with 1- and 1.5-micron
laser pumping; and 2) its usefulness for generating output in the 8-12µm
atmospheric window is limited by severe multi-phonon absorption. We
have developed two new mid-infrared nonlinear crystals which overcome
these limitations: cadmium silicon phosphide (CdSiP2, or CSP) andorientation-patterned gallium arsenide (OPGaAs).

Single crystal yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), widely used as a hostmaterial in metal-ion doped solid state lasers, is difficult and expensive
to grow in the large sizes needed to power scale by increasing aperturesize. Polycrystalline YAG materials are more versatile and can be
fabricated at low costs in the larger scales needed for kilowatt class highenergy laser (HEL) programs such as the Army’s Robust Electric Laser
Initiative (RELI) and the Department of Energy’s National Ignition Facility(NIF). In these solid state HEL configurations, very high intensity light is
propagated through free-space optics or launched from fused silica fiber
laser oscillators into YAG slab amplifiers where internal reflections mustbe eliminated at every interface, often through the deposition of thin-film
material anti-reflection (AR) coatings (ARCs). These ARCs however, suffer
permanent damage at intensity levels well below the untreated material
damage threshold, forcing elaborate work-arounds such as the Brewster
angle configuration, fiber end caps, and wavefront distorting angle cutson fiber facets. In addition, ARCs present problems with uniformity,
consistency, adhesion, absorption, thermal lensing, and degradationfrom water absorption or carbon contamination. Non-scattering AR
micro-textures (ARMs) etched into fiber and planar waveguide facets,
offer a more reliable single material alternative to ARCs. Prior work has
demonstrated pulsed laser damage thresholds for ARMs in fused silica

CdSiP2 is a large band gap analog of ZnGeP2 (ZGP) with low near-IR
losses and a negative birefringence (-0.05) large enough for phasematched frequency shifting of 1 m, 1.5 m, and 2 m lasers into the midinfrared. The nonlinear coefficient of CSP - 84.5 pm/V - is even higher
than that of ZGP (the highest of any new bulk phase-matchable crystal in
the last 40 years), and its 2-µm absorption coefficient is lower by a factorof 10. It offers non-critically phase-matched (NCPM) generation of 4.6 µm

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Conference 8733: Laser Technology for Defense and Security IX

that are up to 5 times higher than equivalent performance ARCs. In thiswork, the results of continuous-wave laser damage tests completedwith Raytheon and Textron, will be presented for ARMs in fused silica,
Yb:YAG, and Nd:YAG relative to untreated and thin-film AR coatedsubstrates.

through extensive environmental testing for flight qualification in highaltitude aircrafts. This laser provides unprecedented performance (highbrightness and efficiency) from a ruggedized pulsed fiber laser source.

8733-36, Session 8

Recent progress towards efficient andpowerful fibre laser emission at 3 µm (Invited
Paper)

Tunable fiber laser with external transverse
chirped Bragg grating as an output coupler
Aleksandr Ryasnyanskiy, OptiGrate Corp. (United States); Nikolai
Vorobiev, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ. ofCentral Florida (United States); Vadim Smirnov, Larissa Glebova,
Oleksiy Mokhun, Eugeniu Rotari, Alexei Glebov, OptiGrate Corp.
(United States); Leonid Glebov, CREOL, The College of Optics
and Photonics, Univ. of Central Florida (United States)
Cost effective, tunable laser sources at 1 µm are important for nowadays
science and technology. A combination of high output power and wall
plug efficiency makes double clad Yb-doped fiber laser an attractive
solution for many applications, such as spectroscopy,sensing, frequency
doubling, etc.

8733-49, Session 8

Stuart D. Jackson, Darren D. Hudson, The Univ. of Sydney(Australia)
There is a strong applications requirement for the development of highpower and efficient light sources with emission in the 3 µm region of thespectrum. The use of the fibre laser is preferable to solve this problem
but there are many outstanding challenges. In this talk we will briefly
review our work in the area of fluoride-glass-based fiber lasers withemission at 3 µm.

In this paper we report on a simple scheme for realization of compact,
narrow line, tunable Yb-fiber laser source with a transverse chirped
Bragg grating (TCBG) acting as a narrow band tunable output coupler.
A fiber coupled laser diode with a fiber diameter of 105 µm, NA of 0.12,
maximum output power - 30 W was used as a pump source. A 120-cmlong Yb-doped double-clad fiber with a core diameter of 10 ?m andcladding diameter of 125 ?m was used as a gain medium. The external
cavity was formed by a dichroic mirror with a high transmission for thepump (976 nm) and high reflection for the signal wavelengths (1020-1100nm) and a TCBG as an output coupler.
The TCBG had a fan-shaped structure with a transversely chirped grating
period, providing a variation of the reflected wavelength over the grating’stransverse direction. We used the TCBG with a chirp rate of 0.8 nm/mm,
spectral bandwidth of 160 pm and diffraction efficiency of 50%. Linear
translation of TCBG in transverse direction allowed continuous tuningof an emission line of the Yb-fiber laser operating in a single transverse
mode in the wavelength range of 1025-1035 nm with a power up to3 W
and linewidth ~50 pm.

8733-37, Session 8

High-efficiency, high-pulse energy fiber laser
systemMark S. Bowers, Jason Henrie, Megan Garske, Dan Templeman,
Robert Afzal, Lockheed Martin Aculight (United States)
In this paper, we report a master-oscillator/power-fiber-amplifier (MOFA)
laser system flight qualified for high altitude aircrafts. The MOPA
system consists of a fiber-coupled single-frequency diode laser (master
oscillator), which is directly modulated by an electronically controlled
pulsed driving current thus setting the pulse duration and repetition
rate. The diode output is pre-amplified using two stages of singletransverse-mode, Yb-doped fiber pumped by single-stripe diode lasers.
This is followed by two stages of photonic crystal fiber (PCF) amplifiers,
with both stages using a single-polarization, single-mode Yb-doped
PCF (40 µm core-diameter, 200 µm cladding diameter). Both PCF are
end-pumped in a counter-propagating direction, and beam-expanding
endcaps are fabricated on their output end to prevent facet damage.
To couple pump light into the PCF and for injecting amplified pulses
from one PCF stage to the next, environmentally rugged subassemblies
featuring connectorized fibers and fiber collimating ports along with
non-adjustable free-space optics were developed. In this configuration,
the laser achieves 1.2 mJ in a 3.4 ns pulse width at a repetition rateof 19 kHz with near diffraction limited beam quality (M2 < 1.1) and anelectrical to optical efficiency of 20%. Furthermore, the laser was put

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Conference 8734: Active and Passive Signatures IV
Wednesday - Thursday 1 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8734 Active and Passive Signatures IV

8734-1, Session 1

spatial diversity to simultaneously track more than one person.
Several radar technologies can be used to detect micro-Doppler
signatures of human activity, including CW, FMCW, pulse compression,and pulse radar. CW radar, however, is limited to certain applications
which do not require target range information. CW with dual frequency
can be used for range detection as well, but subject to multipath.
Wideband FMCW and pulse compression radars are quite complicatedand expensive to implement. UWB pulse-Doppler radar technology
is used because of its relatively low prototyping cost, and capabilityof providing high resolution range profile using a versatile range-timefrequency.

Simulation and Signal Processing of ThroughWall UWB radar for Human Being’s Periodic
Motions Detection
Jing Li, Fengshan Liu, Penglong Xu, Delaware State Univ. (UnitedStates)The ultra wideband (UWB) radar has numerous applications in searching
and rescuing at disaster relief site. Identifying vital sign and locating
the buried survivor are two important research areas. Comparison withmoving human, the stationary human’s weak vital sign, such as breathing
and heartbeat are difficult to be identified due to the environment
interference and weak amplitude of itself. In this paper, we build themodel which two survivors buried in a collapsed building and apply finite
difference time domain (FDTD) method to simulate vital sign response.
Advancements in signal processing may improve imaging and analysis
signal. Firstly, apply the cross-correlation analysis and Curvelet transformto remove direct wave and decompose the background clutter, thenuse singular value decomposition (SVD) to reduce the noise in the life
signals and present the results base on FFT and ensemble empiricalmode decomposition (EEMD) combines with the Hilbert-Huang transform(HHT) to separate and extract vital signs frequencies of breathing andheartbeat and human’s micro-Doppler shift characteristic. The laboratory
test results also demonstrate that combination of UWB radar and various
processing methods has potential for human’s vital sign detection
and location in complex environment, such as disaster search, rescue
operation and so on. Submitted to Special Session on Human MicroDoppler Radar Signatures.

A UWB pulse-Doppler radar has been developed recently. The developed
radar is used for intelligent human gait recognition. Several experiments,
including human marching and walking, multiple people walking, havebeen performed. Promising experimental results have been achieved
from joint range-time-frequency representation. The developed radaris also capable of detecting vibrations of respiration and heartbeat for
stationary human targets buried in collapse for searching and rescuing
operations.

8734-4, Session 2

A measurement approach based on microdoppler maps for signature and motion
analysis
Roberto Ricci, Alessandro Sona, Univ. degli Studi di Padova(Italy)Over the last few years, the development of modern and powerful
technologies in the field of electronic, informatics, sensors andmicrowave, has significantly increased the effectiveness and potentialities
of tools and applications for the detection and tracking of objects,
animals and humans. Doppler effect is an interesting phenomenon thatcan be exploited for motion analysis purposes. It consists in a frequency
shift affecting a generic wave when the source, generating the wave,
is moving relative to an observer. The Doppler processing outputs are
typically in the form of bi-dimensional spectrograms. With respect to the
Doppler maps, which account only for gross translation, micro-Doppler
ones are more complex. They typically appear as a set mixed trajectories,difficult to analyse and assess separately. In this paper, a novel andcomprehensive measurement approach is proposed for the detection andanalysis of human motion signature. The approach combines theoreticalconcepts and tools of micro-Doppler theory, image processing, andhuman modeling, in a original way. The attention is primarily focusedon the description of the most meaningful parameters influencing theaccuracy of the obtained signature. The ultimate purpose is to provide
a framework through which organizing, comparing, and merging future
research activities, ideas and results in the field of human motion
signature analysis for security, health and disaster recovery purposes.
Some simulation and experimental results underlying the feasibility andeffectiveness of the measurement approach are also summarized andanalysed.

8734-2, Session 1

Wideband radar micro-doppler applications
David Tahmoush, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Wideband radar provides a significant improvement over traditional
narrowband radars for micro-Doppler analysis because the highbandwidth can be used to separate many of the signals in range,
allowing a simpler decomposition of the micro-Doppler signals. Recent
work has focused on human micro-Doppler, but there is a point where
the narrowband approximation used to analyze the micro-Doppler signals
breaks down. The effect is shown to be independent of frequency, but
the relative error is shown to be inversely proportional to the frequency.
This error can create a smearing effect in the observed Doppler if it is notcorrected, leading to more diffuse targets with reduced signal-to-noise.
The possible applications of wideband micro-Doppler radar are also
shown, including the separation of arm movement from human motion
which could enable the classification of armed versus unarmed.

8734-3, Session 2

Micro-doppler radars for human gait
analysis using joint range-time-frequency
representation

8734-5, Session 2

An image-based approach for classificationof human micro-doppler radar signatures

Aly E. Fathy, Yazhou Wang, The Univ. of Tennessee Knoxville(United States)

Fok Hing Chi Tivive, Abdesselam Bouzerdoum, Son Lam Phung,Univ. of Wollongong (Australia)

Human physical activity is a complex motion that is comprised of
movements of individual body parts, including head, torso, leg, armand foot. For example, the people walking activity generates a numberof different frequency shifts in the radar returned signal, also calledmicro-Doppler frequency shifts and could be a distinctive signatureof the person. Radar micro-Doppler signatures can be used to detect
the presence of human beings and their movement behind walls. The
detection of multi-static micro-Doppler can be enhanced by adding

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There has been an increasing interest in new technology for S-band andmm-wave micro-Doppler radars due to its numerous potential civilian andmilitary applications. This type of sensing modality can be deployed in awide range of weather conditions, during the day or at night. It captures
the kinematics properties of a moving target by generating sidebands
about the target Doppler frequency, which are referred to as the micro·

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Doppler signature or phenomenon in radar. In this paper, we propose animage-based approach to classify different human movements basedon their micro-Doppler radar signatures. The proposed image-basedclassification framework can be briefly described as follows.
Since the radar signals are time-varying, a joint time-frequency analysis
is firstly performed to capture the target micro-motions from the radar
trace. The time-frequency representation is cast as a two-dimensional
image where an image enhancement technique, Naka-Rushtontransformation, is used to highlight the weak micro-Doppler frequencies
characterizing the feet and arms motions of a walking human. In contrast
to existing image-based classification approaches which employ theentire time-frequency representation of the recorded radar signal, we
propose a local-based feature extraction method to extract the timevarying frequency features around the human torso frequency. The
rationale for this feature extraction scheme is that it is independent of
the target speed and it is robust against occlusion as the classification
is done on local windows centered on the torso frequency depicted in
the time-frequency representation. In other words, overlapping local
windows along the torso frequency are extracted from the time-frequency
representation, and each local window is transformed into a feature
vector by using the proposed image-based feature extraction method.
The feature vectors corresponding to the overlapping location windows
are then sent to an SVM classifier. To classify the radar trace, theclassification scores are aggregated via a majority voting rule.
To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach, we used afrequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) radar system operating
at a carrier frequency of 24GHz to interrogate a person walking withdifferent arm motions in outdoor environments. The operation radar
range is from 1m to 20m. Each person is required to perform three typesof motions: (1) walking normally with both arms swinging, (2) walking
while carrying an object in one hand, and (3) walking while holding aheavy object with both hands. These types of motions can be useful forsituation awareness or rise assessment. The database consists of 20
subjects where half of them are males and the other half are females,
performing motions (1) to (3) for three times. For evaluation, a five-foldcross-validation procedure was employed and several existing microDoppler classification methods were tested on the same database.
The experimental results showed that the proposed image-basedclassification approach successfully classifies the human motions and its
classification is comparable with those of the existing approaches.

8734-7, Session 2

Multi-aspect angle classification of humanradar signatures
Cesur Karabacak, TOBB Univ. of Economics and Technology(Turkey); Sevgi Z. Gurbuz, TOBB Univ. of Economics andTechnology (Turkey) and TÜBITAK UZAY (Turkey); Mehmet B.
Guldogan, Turgut Özal Univ. (Turkey); Ali Cafer Gurbuz, TOBB
Univ. of Economics and Technology (Turkey)
Micro-motion dynamics, such as the vibration or rotation of any part ofa target, generate frequency modulations of the return signal in addition
to the Doppler shift caused by translational motion that are known as
micro-Doppler. For example, the rotation of the wheels of a vehicle,
treads of a tank, and blades of a helicopter all result in radar microDoppler. The human micro-Doppler signature - caused by the complex
time-varying motion of the human body, arms, legs, hands, and feet – isa unique signature that can be easily visually discriminated from thoseof any other target type, including animals, and is strongly dependent
on the activity being engaged in. Thus, the micro-Doppler signature of ahuman walking, running, crawling, or jumping all differ, while maintainingsome commonalities stemming from physical constraints imposed by thehuman body. Classification of targets based on micro-Doppler generally
involves joint time-frequency analysis of the radar return coupled withthe extraction of features that may be used to identify the type orcharacteristics of a target. Many techniques have been investigated,
including artificial neural networks, support vector machines, andwavelets; however, most techniques suffer from a drastic drop inclassification performance as the aspect angle of human motion relative
to the radar increases.

8734-6, Session 2

This paper aims at ameliorating the dependence on target motion byusing a radar network to obtain micro-Doppler data at multiple aspect
angles. It has been shown in the literature that a target’s multi-static
micro-Doppler signature contains unique information in addition to thatprovided by the mono-static micro-Doppler signature. In this work,
knowledge of human walking kinematics is exploited to fuse the multiaspect data obtained from the radar network in the time-frequency
domain. The quality of features extracted from the fused spectrogram
is compared to that from features extracted from the spectograms
generated from each antenna independently. A multi-aspect classifier isdesigned based on the features extracted and performance compared tothat of mono-static systems.

Radar classification of human motions undervarious training scenarios

8734-9, Session 3

Dustin P. Fairchild, Ram M. Narayanan, The Pennsylvania State
Univ. (United States)
The identification and classification of human motions has become
a popular area of research due to its broad range of applications.
Knowledge of a person’s movements can be a useful tool in surveillance,
security, search and rescue operations, and the medical fields.
Classification of common stationary human movements has been
performed under various scenarios for two different micro-Doppler radarsystems: S-band radar and millimeter-wave (mm-wave) radar. Each radarsystem has been designed for a specific scenario. The S-band radar isdesigned for through-the-wall situations at close distances, whereas the
mm-wave radar is designed for long distance applications and also forthrough light foliage. Here, the performance of these radars for different
training scenarios is investigated. The S-band radar will be analyzed
for classification without a wall barrier, through a brick wall, and also
through a cinder-block wall. The effect of a wall barrier on micro-Doppler
signatures will be briefly discussed. The mm-wave radar will be analyzed
for classification at distances of 100 feet, 200 feet, 300 feet, and throughlight foliage. Because a given classifier may be very sensitive to thetraining scenario (dependent on the distance to the target, the presenceor absence of a barrier, barrier material, etc.), it will be shown thatclassification under one scenario will not necessarily produce accurateclassification results under another scenario.

290

A probabilistic model for simulating the effectof airborne dust on ground-based LIDAR
Christopher Goodin, Phillip J. Durst, U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Ctr. (United States); Zachary Prevost,
Univ. of Mississippi (United States); Patrick Compton, U.S. Air
Force Academy (United States)
The U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center developed
a high-fidelity simulation environment, called the Virtual Autonomous
Navigation Environment (VANE), which includes physics-based
simulations of LIDAR sensors as well as other sensors commonly usedin robotics. The LIDAR simulations in the VANE include the target surface
properties and laser-beam divergence effects. A set of experiments
was recently conducted to develop a model for quantifying the effect ofairborne dust on LIDAR sensors for inclusion in the VANE.
Field and laboratory measurements of LIDAR interactions with dust were
performed for two types of common ground-based LIDAR sensors. The
laboratory experiments revealed a strong linear correlation between
the probability for a return from the dust and the optical depth of thedust. Based on the experimental correlation, a probabilistic model for
quantifying LIDAR interactions with dust was developed and integrated
into the VANE high-fidelity ray-tracing simulation. The probabilistic model
was verified in field experiments at three locations with different road

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Conference 8734: Active and Passive Signatures IV

8734-32, Session 3

conditions including crushed limestone, clay, and sandy loam soil. In thispaper, the experiments will be described, and the resulting model will bepresented. The results of integrating the model with the VANE simulation
will also be shown.

Challenges in multimodal spectral tracking
Mark A. Sartor, RDIS, LLC (United States)

Permission to publish was granted by Director, Geotechnical and
Structures Laboratory

No Abstract Available.

8734-10, Session 38734-14, Session 4

Image and signal processing algorithm
performance in the CloudApproaches to modeling composite
signatures

Kelly W. Bennett, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
James Robertson, Clearhaven Technologies LLC (United States)

Beverly Richardson, TASC, Inc. (United States)
Composite Signatures expand the possibilities for remote sensing
exploitation by introducing data fusion into the definition of a signature.
The Composite Signature expands the notion of a signature toencompass activities and contexts rather than a singular focus on
an object being identified. This approach enables remote sensing
applications to use lower thresholds, or exploit phenomenology which
previously unusable due to excessive false alarms in the environment.
This paper explores the benefits and draw-backs of two different
composite signature data fusion methodologies. A predictive analytics
approach can be employed to define the best algorithms for fusing
multiple data sources when a data set of true positives is available
for algorithm training. Dempster-Shafer Combination of Evidence canbe employed when too few true positive examples are available andadditionally has the benefit of being designed to quantify uncertainty.

The U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) supports and performs
classification, detection, tracking, and localization algorithm developmentusing geophysical (acoustic, seismic, E-field, magnetic field, PIR)
and imaging sensors (visual and IR). Development and testing of thealgorithms using large data set signatures of various modalities requires
high-performance computing resources, which increases and challenges
existing infrastructures. Cloud services offering low-cost, pay-as-yougo pricing models, scalability, and elasticity may provide solutions todevelop and optimize algorithms without having to procure additional
hardware and resources. This paper provides a detailed look at using acommercial cloud service provider, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS),
to develop and test simple image and signal processing algorithms in acloud environment using large data sets. Analytical results will compare
the existing ARL infrastructure with a commercial cloud infrastructure.
A discussion on security best practices for using the cloud withgovernment data will provide insight into security concerns of using acloud-computing environment.

8734-15, Session 4

Raman albedo and deep-UV resonanceRaman signatures of explosives

8734-11, Session 3

Balakishore Yellampalle, Brian E. Lemoff, West Virginia HighTechnology Consortium Foundation (United States)

Amplification of radar and lidar signaturesusing quantum sensors

Deep-ultraviolet resonance Raman spectroscopy (DUVRRS) is apromising approach to stand-off detection of explosive traces due tolarge Raman cross-section and background free signatures. In orderto design an effective sensor, one must be able to estimate the signal
level of the DUVRRS signature for solid-phase explosive residues.
The conventional approach to signal estimation uses scattering crosssections and molar absorptivity, measured on solutions of explosives
dissolved in an optically-transparent solvent. Only recently haveresearchers started to measure solid-state cross-sections. For mostsolid-phase explosives and explosive mixtures, neither the DUV Raman
scattering cross sections nor the optical absorption coefficient are
known, and they are very difficult to separately measure. Therefore, for atypical solid explosive mixture, it is difficult to accurately estimate Raman
signal strength using conventional approaches. To address this issue, wehave developed a technique to measure the Raman scattering strengthof optically-thick (opaque) materials, or “Raman Albedo”, defined as thetotal power of Raman-scattered light per unit frequency per unit solid
angle divided by the incident power of the excitation source. We havemeasured Raman Albedo signatures for a wide range of solid explosives
at four-to-six different DUV excitation wavelengths. These results will bepresented, and we will describe the use of Raman Albedo measurementsin the design and current construction of a novel stand-off explosive
sensor, based on dual-excitation-wavelength DUVRRS.

Marco O. Lanzagorta, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
One of the major scientific thrusts from recent years has been to try toharness quantum phenomena to dramatically increase the performanceof a wide variety of classical devices. These advances in quantum
information science have had a considerable impact on the developmentof photonic-based quantum sensors. Even though quantum radarand quantum lidar remain theoretical proposals, preliminary results
suggest that these sensors have the potential of becoming disruptive
technologies able to revolutionize reconnaissance systems. In this paper
we will discuss how quantum entanglement can be exploited to increase
the radar and lidar signature of a variety of targets. In particular, we willshow how the effective visibility of certain targets is increased if observedwith an entangled multi-photon quantum interferometer. In addition, we
will examine how this effect can be used to beat the Rayleigh diffraction
limit that bounds the performance of traditional sensing devices. Finally,
we will present a new set of equations that describe how photon
redundancy can be used to beat the effects of a noisy environment.

8734-13, Session 3

Applications of composite signatures fornatural disasters 2.0

8734-31, Session 4

Chadwick Todd Hawley, National Signature Program (UnitedStates)Infrared enhanced detection for laser imaging
and biometrics

No Abstract Available.

Martin U Pralle, SiOnyx, Inc (United States); J Carey, SiOnyx(United States); Homayoon Haddad, SiOnyx, Inc (United States)
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291

Conference 8734: Active and Passive Signatures IV

SiOnyx has developed infrared enhanced CMOS image sensors
leveraging a proprietary ultrafast laser semiconductor process
technology. This technology demonstrates 10 fold improvements ininfrared sensitivity over incumbent imaging technology while maintaining
complete compatibility with standard CMOS image sensor process
flows. Furthermore, these sensitivity enhancements are achieved on a
focal plane with state of the art noise performance of 2 electrons/pixel.
The focal plane is color enabled but high transmission of near infrared
light allows for near infrared imaging from 850 to 1200 as well. The
quantum efficiency enhancements have significant performance benefits
in imaging 1064nm laser light as well as 850nm imaging of iris signatures
for improved biometric identification.

8734-35, Session 4

Multimodal contributions for volumetricobject and scene recovery (Invited Paper)
Charmaine Gilbreath, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States);
Chadwick Todd Hawley, National Signature Program (UnitedStates)In this paper, we present a description of an experiment to capture datafrom objects and scenes using VIS, SWIR, MWIR, LWIR, and RF SAR
sensors. We describe how the data from this spectrum of signaturemodalities combine to enable volumetric reconstructions of specifictargets and scenes. True volumetric imaging provides significantly
improved situational awareness with applications spanning the Defense
and Civil sectors.

8734-16, Session 5

Significance test with data dependency inspeaker recognition evaluation
Jin Chu Wu, Alvin F. Martin, Craig S. Greenberg, Raghu N.
Kacker, Vincent M. Stanford, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)
The National Institute of Standards and Technology conducts an ongoingseries of Speaker Recognition Evaluations. To evaluate the performanceof speaker recognition systems, a detection cost function defined as aweighted sum of the probabilities of type I and type II errors is employed.
The sampling variability can result in measurement uncertainties.
Hence, the standard errors (SE) of the detection cost functions must
be taken into consideration in speaker recognition evaluations. In ourprevious studies as presented in the last SPIE Conference, the SEsof the detection cost functions were computed using the two-layer
nonparametric two-sample bootstrap method by taking account of
the data dependency which was caused by multiple uses of the same
subjects. In this article, using such SEs, a significance test is performed
to determine whether the difference between the measured performancelevels of two speaker recognition algorithms is statistically significant.
While conducting hypothesis testing for comparing two algorithms’
performances, the correlation coefficient between the two systems’ costfunctions is taken into account. An algorithm for computing SEs of costfunctions and a synchronized algorithm for calculating the correlation
coefficients are presented. And also examples involving five speakerrecognition systems are provided.

8734-17, Session 5

Active-SWIR signatures for long-range night/
day human detection and identification
Robert B. Martin, Mikhail Sluch, Kristopher M. Kafka, Robert V.
Ice, Brian E. Lemoff, West Virginia High Technology Consortium
Foundation (United States)
292

The capability to detect, observe, and positively identify people at a
distance is important to numerous security and defense applications.
Traditional solutions for human detection and observation include
long-range visible imagers for daytime and thermal infrared imagers fornight-time use. Positive identification, through computer face recognition,requires facial imagery that can be repeatably matched to a databaseof visible facial signatures (i.e. mug shots). Night-time identification atlarge distance is not possible with visible imagers, due to lack of light, orwith thermal infrared imagers, due to poor correlation with visible facial
imagery. An active-SWIR imaging system was developed that is both
eye-safe and invisible, capable of producing close-up facial imagery at
distances of several hundred meters, even in total darkness. The SWIR
facial signatures correlate well to visible signatures, allowing for biometricface recognition night or day. Night-time face recognition results forseveral distances will be presented. Human detection and observation
results at larger distances will also be presented. Example signatures will
be presented and discussed.

8734-18, Session 5

On the use of Hough transform in an
ultrasound measurement system for humansignature analysis
Roberto Ricci, Alessandro Sona, Univ. degli Studi di Padova(Italy)Human motion analysis is a task of increasing interest in several modern
application fields. It can be carried out in a number of different ways
and technologies such as for example: cameras-based systems, inertial
mechanisms, and wireless devices, based on optic, sound, ultrasound,or radiofrequency waves. Wireless technologies rely on the fact that abackscattered signal coming from a human target, once illuminated bya suitable direct wave, may contain the signature of the target. Such asignature is often represented by a spectrogram, and it depends on the
result of many phenomena and factors, including the Doppler effect,
environmental conditions, and target behavior. The measurement andanalysis of such information are not easy: it typically implies nontrivial
operations in terms of measurement and post-processing operations. In
this work, the use of Hough transform is considered and studied in thecase of human signature analysis. In particular, the choice of some of its
meaningful set-up characteristics is pointed out and some helpful hints
are finally provided. The purpose is to deduce helpful information about
how to optimally set some Hough transform parameters (specifically,
quantization step and range), in order to improve human signature
analysis. To this aim, Hough transform has been applied to a set ofreference images (spectrograms) achieved by using a measurement
system, ultrasound waves and a purposely developed reference target.
The obtained results underlines the importance of Hough transform in thehuman signature analysis as well as the proper set-up of some its set-up
parameters.

8734-22, Session 5

An inverse-kinematic appraoch using
Groebner basis theory applied to gait cycle
analysis
Kimberly Kendricks, Central State Univ. (United States); Anum
Barki, Ronald F. Tuttle, David J. Bunker, Christoph C. Borel, Air
Force Institute of Technology (United States)
Kinematics of the human body has been researched for a long time
for clinical studies, sports and human recognition. Over the years,
human recognition has become an important task in applications
such as security and surveillance. Studies in the past have shownthat gait signatures can be extracted out of video and used to identify
individuals. The political issues of today, such as national security, arethe main causes that have motivated the team at The Air Force Instituteof Technology (AFIT) to research pattern recognition in the human gait

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Conference 8734: Active and Passive Signatures IV

8734-20, Session 6cycle to identify individuals carrying a concealed load on his or her body.
The goal of INSPIRE (Integration of a Sensor Package for Identifying
Radical Extremists) is to identify gait signatures of human subjects anddistinguish between subjects carrying a concealed load to subjects
without load. This research will focus on studying the human gait cycle
as well as methods used in identifying gait signatures. The main focus isconcerned with the movement of the lower extremities, in particular, theplacement of the foot and how the joint angles are affected with carrying
extra load on the body. A method of Inverse Kinematics using GroebnerBasis Theory is applied to derive a model of the lower extremities todetermine all possible configurations of the joint angles, given a specificposition and orientation of the foot, and specifically determine how thesejoint angles behave at different intervals of the gait cycle when load isapplied.

Reflectance measurements of human skinfrom the ultraviolet to the shortwave infrared(250 nm to 2500 nm)
David W. Allen, Catherine A. Cooksey, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)
While published literature of the optical properties of human skin isprevalent for the visible region, data is lacking in the shortwave infrared.
This paper details an initial study of the reflectance properties of different
skin tones over the spectral range of the ultraviolet to the shortwave
infrared. A commercial spectrophotometer was used to collect thedirectional-hemispherical reflectance of each participant’s skin from
250 nm to 2500 nm. The portion of skin under test was located on theparticipant’s forearm and was approximately 2.5 cm in diameter. The
results will serve as a point of reference for researchers developing
optical measurement methods for applications ranging from security
surveillance to medical imaging technologies.

8734-34, Session 5

Preview of the newly acquired NVESD-ARL
multimodal face database
Kenneth A. Byrd, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

8734-21, Session 6

This paper previews the newly acquired multi-modal database of humanfacial images collected by the U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC Night Vision
and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) and the Army ResearchLaboratory (ARL). The database is comprised of Visible-Color (VISCOLOR), Visible-Monochrome (VIS-MONO), Shortwave Infrared (SWIR),
Midwave Infrared (MWIR) and Longwave Infrared (LWIR) images acquired
from 50 volunteers in our indoor testing facility. Images were acquired
for three different scenarios. In scenario 1, a total of 5 volunteers wereimaged before and after exercise, in daytime and nighttime conditions.
In scenario 2, 25 volunteers were imaged in daytime conditions, without
exercise, and in scenario 3, 20 volunteers were imaged during daytime
conditions, before and after exercise. Images were collected from eachvolunteer at three ranges: 1m, 2m, 4m, for a duration of 15 seconds
per capture at 30Hz. A digital photometer was also used to record theluminance level off the forehead of each volunteer prior to image capture.
For volunteers participating in scenarios requiring exercise, rest time
was recorded prior to capture, after exercise. It is our intention that thisdatabase be used to benchmark the performance of existing and future
facial recognition algorithms, in addition to predicting the probability of
facial identification task performance using human perception.

Multimodal gait signatures and motion
studies
Christoph C. Borel, David J. Bunker, Ronald F. Tuttle, Anum Barki,
Air Force Institute of Technology (United States); Charmaine
Gilbreath, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
AFIT has analyzed a database of gait videos captured under the INSPIRE(INtegration of a Sensor Package for Identification of Radical Extremists)
program. The aim of INSPIRE was to distinguish between normal people
and potential terrorists carrying a load on the upper body in the formof a suicide vest. We propose to perform high-precision laboratory
measurements to find clearer signatures through test dynamic changes
in step sizes, direction and obstacles. We are using multiple sensor
modalities (passive optical (visible, near infrared and thermal), active
optical (Kinect), acoustic, microwave Doppler and millimeter wave
imaging) and extended the signature library from walking and climbing
signatures to other high-value motions such as vehicle dismounts anddigging.
We describe a multi-modal sensing signature library of natural motions
by using a number of the above described sensors for a limited setof subjects with different loads, clothing and typical activities such as
walking, climbing/descending stairs, exiting and getting in a car or truck,
waiting, sitting down and getting up, digging, chopping, cooking, etc.
Capturing such activities by multiple sensor modalities simultaneously
might make their identification more robust and reduce the number offalse positives. From a research point of view it might be possible to thenbetter understand observables such as measured Doppler spectra of aperson digging and develop aspect angle dependent signatures which
could be used in imaging Radar and periodic movements of a head in
persistent surveillance video data.

8734-19, Session 6

Unmixing hyperspectral skin data using nonnegative matrix factorization
Asif Mehmood, Jeffrey D. Clark, Air Force Institute of Technology(United States)
The ability to accurately detect a target of interest in a scene is largely
dependent on the spatial and spectral resolution. While hyperspectral
imaging provides high spectral resolution, the spatial resolution is mostly
dependent on the optics and distance from the target. Many times thetarget of interest does not cover a complete pixel and thus is concealed
within a pixel, i.e. the target signature is mixed with other constituent
material signatures within the field of view of that pixel. Extraction ofspectral signatures of constituent materials from a mixed pixel can
assist in the detection of the target of interest. Hyperspectral unmixing
is a process to identify the constituent materials and estimate thecorresponding abundances from the mixture. In this paper, we present
a framework based on non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) that is
utilized to extract the spectral signature and fractional abundance ofhuman skin in a scene. The NMF technique is employed in a supervisedmanner such that the spectral basis of each constituent are computed
first, and then these basis are applied to the mixed pixel. Experiments
using synthetic and real data demonstrate that the proposed algorithm
provides an effective supervised technique for hyperspectral unmixing ofskin signatures.

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8734-23, Session 7

Influence of surface of explosive on its
detection and identification using the SDA
method for analysis of the reflected THz
signalVyacheslav A. Trofimov, Svetlana A. Varentsova, Lomonosov
Moscow State Univ. (Russian Federation); Mieczyslaw
Szustakowski, Norbert Palka, Military Univ. of Technology(Poland)The SDA (Spectral Dynamics Analysis) method is applied for the·help@spie.org

293Conference 8734: Active and Passive Signatures IV

detection and identification of the PWM C4 explosive, having
inhomogeneous surface after its surfacing by the sandpaper with grit
and without inhomogeneity. The second case corresponds to a disk withvarious curvature of the surface.These problems are considered with theaim of the possibility for the detection and identification of the material.
In this report we illustrate that the problem of explosive detection canbe solved using the dynamics of spectral lines of substance response.
We show that the SDA-method is good tool for the detection andidentification of explosive using THz signal reflected from the sample.

8734-33, Session 7

An evaluation of electric field sensors forsmall-arms bullet detection
Cassandra A. Browning, Stephen J. Vinci, David M. Hull, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); Maciej A. Noras, The Univ.
of North Carolina at Charlotte (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8734-24, Session 7

Active-mode standoff IR sensing of
explosives: angular dependence, LOD values,
and substrates
Carlos A. Ortega-Zúñiga, Nataly Y. Galán-Freyle, John R. CastroSuarez, Leonardo C. Pacheco-Londoño, Samuel P. HernandezRivera, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States)
A standoff calibration for detection of highly energetic materials (HEM)
using infrared spectroscopy is presented in this report. The procedure
consists in the detection at 1 meter distance and the variation of threeparameters of detection. The first parameter considered was the angulardependence: 0 to 70 for source-target with respect to alignment oftarget-detector. The second parameter was the use of different surfaces
in which the material was deposited. The substrates used were smoothaluminum, roughened aluminum and anodized aluminum. The thirdparameter studied was the dependence on analyte loading: surface
concentration: from 10-200 ug/cm2. Calibration curves were based on
the use of robust chemometrics routines such as partial least squares(PLS) regression analysis. These algorithms were used to evaluate theimpact of the angular dependence, the surface concentration of HEM
deposited and the detection limits and statistical significance of analyses
performed.

8734-36, Session 7

Shape recognition using voxel representationof point cloud data collected with motion
stereoscopy
David Bonanno, Frank Pipitone, Charmaine Gilbreath, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States); Chadwick Todd Hawley, National
Signature Program (United States); Brendan Berman, Paul
McGee, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
We address the challenge of creating useful surfaces from noisy point
cloud data generated from motion stereoscopic systems. These systems
allow for better side registration of objects and can be used to generatevery dense point clouds yet tend to have lower accuracy than other 3D
sensing systems. As such, we look at the effects of converting these data
sets into voxel representations. We explore simple methods of removing
poorly registered voxels. In addition we demonstrate how various
sensing algorithms can be used to rapidly identify objects based on theirgeometric profile in a voxel space.

8734-25, Session 7

Passive RF imaging: transparent urban
structures
Thomas Carpenter, CACI International Inc. (United States)
Applied Systems Research (ASR) is developing interferometric Passive
RF Imaging (PRFI) techniques that enable precision geolocation,
identification, and display of low-level RF source locations emanatingfrom within urban structures. PRFI, an adaption of radio astronomy
interferometry methods, uses multiple coherent receivers with a sparsely
populated antenna array to perform the geolocation. By using multiple
observations to remove ambiguities and appropriate comparison of thephases of the common signals at the different antenna locations, thefull width of the antenna array can be used to provide fine resolutionof the emitter location. The presence of buildings along RF paths willalter the signal phases but it has been found that for many buildingsof interest, the distortions in the phase differences are modest andgeolocation accuracy is generally good to better than one meter. ASR
has performed a number of field tests to demonstrate this technology
using existing commercial-off-the-shelf hardware. Recently ASR
designed and developed a limited prototype version of PRFI for a mobile
platform. The PRFI mobile prototype system calculated the location of
the sources with measured accuracies to within 0.5 meters. These tests
successfully demonstrated the capability for the precision geolocation ofemitters of interest inside a building using a stand-alone moving mobile
platform. The imaging and identification results were provided to theoperator within a few seconds following the vehicle passing along thebuilding of interest. Test data from the Camp Lejeune demonstration will
be presented along with the methodology employed as a pre-prototype
mobile system.

294

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Conference 8735: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XVIII:
Design and Applications
Wednesday 1 –1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8735 Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XVIII: Design and Applications

8735-1, Session 1

8735-5, Session 1

Scorpion hybrid-optical-based inertial tracker(HObIT)

Active matrix organic light emitting diode(AMOLED)-XL performance and life test
results

Robert Atac, Eric Foxlin, Gentex Corp. (United States)

David A. Fellowes, Michael E Botkin, Russell S Draper, U.S. Army
Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (United States);
Jason Coletta, USSOCOM HQ (United States)

Gentex Corporation has developed a new helmet tracker based on a
hybrid inertial optical approach. It uses the inside-out concept and dualInterSense NavChip Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs). A unique featureof the tracker is that there is no aircraft mounted equipment. A few
circular bar code like fiducial stickers are placed on the interior surfaceof the cockpit. The tracker allows operation in both hybrid inertial/opticaland inertial alone. This paper describes the tracker, its features and flight
performance results.

The US Army and eMagin Corporation established a Cooperative
Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) to characterize theongoing improvements in the lifetime of OLED displays. This CRADA
also called for the evaluation of OLED performance as the need arises,
especially when new products are developed or when a previously
untested parameter needs to be understood. In 2006, eMagin
Corporation developed long-life OLED-XL devices for use in their
AMOLED microdisplays for head-worn applications. Through Researchand Development programs from 2007 to 2012 with the US Government,eMagin made additional improvements in OLED life and developed thefirst SXGA (1280 X 1024 triad pixels) and WUXGA (1920 X 1200) OLED
microdisplays. US Army RDECOM CERDEC NVESD conducted life andperformance tests on these displays, publishing results at the 2007,2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012 SPIE Defense, Security and Sensing
Symposia. Life and performance tests have continued through 2012,
and this data will be presented along with a recap of previous data. Thisshould result in a better understanding of the applicability of AMOLEDs
in military and commercial head mounted systems: where good fits are
made, and where further development might be desirable.

8735-3, Session 1

De-interlacing: a helmet-mounted display
application perspective
Erkan Yavuz, Ismail Ozsarac, ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey)
Helmet mounted displays (HMD) increase the situational awarenessand reduce workload of the warfighter by displaying day and night
imagery and symbology in front of his eye and head tracking capability
to slave the sensor and weapon systems on the platform according tohead movements. The usage of HMD is increasing by integrating theminto both newly developed and existing platforms. In helmet mounted
display systems, the video displayed on miniature display is projected
to pilots visor via optical components. While the previous systems
include cathode ray tube (CRT) based displays, the recent systems havepixel based ones. Most of the sensor systems installed on the existing
platforms still have analog interlaced video outputs. Hence, for the pixel
based displays, it is necessary to convert interlaced videos to progressive
ones before the other image processing steps. The de-interlacing method
is crucial if the symbology of the sensor could not be re-generated andthere is a need to de-interlace the symbology overlaid interlaced video.
Moreover, as far as total system latency is concerned, this process
should be real-time such that it will not cause an annoying delay. In thisstudy, spatial and spatio-temporal methods using a few interlaced lines
or frames in the literature are applied on the symbology overlaid infrared
videos, implemented on Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), real time
analysis are made and compared via HMD application perspective.

8735-6, Session 1

Dynamic sunlight filter (DSF) for HMD:
controlling background illumination in a
passive way
Ariela Donval, Noam Gross, Eran Partouche, Ido E. Dotan, Ofir
Lipman, Moshe Oron, KiloLambda Technologies, Ltd. (Israel)
Some HMDs allow the computer generated image (CGI) to besuperimposed on a real-world view. Combining real-world view with CGI
can be done by projecting the CGI through a partially reflective mirror andviewing the real world directly. This method is often called Optical SeeThrough. In see-through HMD the background illumination is a crucial
factor influence the ability of viewing the display. When using the HMD
at a very bright day, the display image risks vanishing due to the sun
illumination. However, at a very cloudy day, one needs all the light to passthrough the display to the user eye. The need for a better light control
was the trigger for our effort in developing Dynamic Sunlight Filter (DSF),
which is a passive solution dedicated to regulate sunlight overpower
events.

8735-4, Session 1

Novel method for characterization andcompensation for canopy distortion over alarge head-box
Robert Atac, Mark Edel, Gentex Corp. (United States)

KiloLambda’s Dynamic Sunlight Filter (DSF), is a passive solution
dedicated for sunlight controlling and regulating applications, and isbased on limiting mechanism. The limiting function implies that in thenormal state, when incident light is below a predefined level the DSF
is highly transparent, light just passes through it. As the light level isincreased and gets more intense, such as in the case of direct sun, theDSF transmission decreases, eventually reaching a darkened state. This
process is reversible and the filter returns to its transparent state once
the intensity of light decreases to its normal level. When placing sucha DSF at the outer face of the HMD, it provides the benefit of keeping
background illumination at the desired level, regardless of the real
weather conditions, such as bright sun or clouds. We present at this talkthe DSF functionality and the benefits for the HMD application.

Gentex Corporation has developed a novel method for characterizationof canopy distortion for a large head box. Canopy distortion occurs
when the user is looking through any curved transparency. Any helmet
mount display system must either add canopy distortion error to its total
error budget or compensate for the error. To date, canopies have beencharacterized for only a few discrete locations in the cockpit. This results
in a partial reduction of canopy distortion error as the pilot will rarely sit
in one of the few defined locations. The described method allows forcanopy distortion characterization and compensation for the entire HMD
head-box.

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Conference 8735: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XVIII:
Design and Applications

8735-18, Session 1

Sampled MTF of fused fiber optic
components and bonded assemblies$80 million in airframe losses. These results have been instrumental to
the success of the Air Soldier System program, as well as an exemplar
application of human systems integration research early in a program
lifecycle. The investigation is being continued by further optimizing the
3D HMD symbology for aircraft operations in DVE.

Thomas E. Carter, SCHOTT Lighting and Imaging (United States)
Fused fiber optic devices are bundles of glass optical fibers that havebeen successively drawn and re-bundled to smaller and smaller sizes,
effectively creating a zero optical path window. Due to the nature offiber’s clad and core design, pixelization or sampling of the resulting
image occurs; this sampling fundamentally degrades the image. Typically,
and most conveniently, the degradation of a resulting image caused by
an optical system can be quantified by way of its Modulation Transfer
Function. However, since fused fiber optic devices first sample theneffectively project the original image (object), they do not meet the Fourier
Transform’s prerequisite conditions of being linear and isoplanatic.
This paper discusses the test methods developed and subsequent
measurement of the sampled modulation transfer function for varying
designs of fused fiber optic straight through bundles. Additionally,
current technologies at Schott Lighting and Imaging have initiated astudy to determine methodology for measuring the MTF of bonded
assemblies, such as bonded Faceplate-to-OLED and Faceplate-tosensor assemblies. The use of randomly generated targets imaged
through the bonded assemblies proved to be a useful tactic. The results
are discussed.

8735-7, Session 2

Insight into vergence/accommodation
mismatch (Invited Paper)
Martin S. Banks, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8735-8, Session 2

Investigation of rotary wing pilot cueing
and helmet mounted display symbology forincreased pilot situational awareness in adegraded visual environment
Bradley M. Davis, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
Jared J. Sapp, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States) and US
U.S. Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering
Ctr. (United States); Michael S. Jessee, Anthony W. Morris, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States); James J. Hauser, Mark A.
Salverson, Product Manager Air Warrior (United States)
An investigation of rotary wing pilot cueing and helmet mounted
display (HMD) symbology was conducted for the US Army’s Air Soldier
System program. Six US Army Aviators flew a UH-60L flight simulator
through realistic mission scenarios, including very challenging takeoff
and landing tasks in a brown-out degraded visual environment (DVE).
Takeoffs were executed in both DVE and visual conditions. As a partof the Army’s crew station working group method, pilots evaluatedvarious cueing technologies including combinations of helmet mounted
display symbology, 3-dimensional audio, moving map displays, andtactile feedback. Of these technologies, symbology cues presented
in a HMD provided the largest improvement in situational awareness.
The focus of this paper is on the HMD symbology, which included two
conditions, legacy 2D symbology and the proposed 3D head tracked
conformal symbology. The investigation indicated that the 3D symbology
significantly improved crew situation awareness, reduced pilot workload,
and improved takeoff and landing safety over the legacy 2D symbology.
Most critically, the 3D symbology eliminated the 4 crashes out of 54 DVE
landings (7.4%) observed in the 2D symbology condition. This result
alone represents the prevention of up to 60 fatalities and approximately
296

8735-11, Session 2

Testing and evaluation of a wearable
augmented reality system for natural outdoor
environments
David C. Roberts, Alberico Menozzi, James Cook, Todd Sherrill,
Stephen Snarski, Patrick Russler, Brian Clipp, Robert Karl, Eric
Wenger, Matthew Bennett, Jennifer Mauger, William Church,
Herman Towles, Stephen MacCabe, Jeffrey Webb, Jasper Lupo,
Applied Research Associates, Inc. (United States); Jan-Michael
Frahm, The Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (United States);
Enrique Dunn, The Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UnitedStates); Christopher Leslie, Univ. of North Carolina Chapel-Hill(United States); Greg Welch, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates)This paper describes a low-SWaP soldier-worn augmented reality
prototype system that provides intuitive ‘heads-up’ visualization oftactically-relevant geo-registered icons. The system combines a soldierpose estimation capability with a small wearable computer and helmet
mounted see-through display to accurately overlay geo-registerediconography (i.e., navigation waypoints, blue forces, points of interest)on the soldier’s view of reality. Applied Research Associates (ARA), in
partnership with BAE Systems, Mercury Computer Systems, EVO Design,
the University of Central Florida, and the University of North Carolina– Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), has developed this system in Phase 3 of the
DARPA ULTRA-Vis (Urban Leader Tactical, Response, Awareness, andVisualization) program.
We achieve accurate and robust pose estimation through fusion ofinertial, magnetic, pressure, GPS, and computer vision data acquired
from helmet kit sensors. Icons are rendered on a full-color, highbrightness, 40°x30° field of view see-through display. The system
incorporates an information management engine to convert CoT (Cursoron-Target) external data feeds into mil-standard icons for visualization.
The user interface provides intuitive information display to support soldiernavigation and efficient communication of tactical information to andfrom external sources.
In this paper, we report on Phase 3 efforts to minimize size, weight, andpower of the helmet- and body-worn sensor and computing platform
components. We discuss development of a full-color see-throughdisplay and enhanced pose estimation algorithms. We evaluate Phase
3 prototype performance for a broad range of outdoor operational
conditions, including the presence of magnetic disturbances, highlydynamic user head motions, and low-light conditions.

8735-12, Session 3

Advancements in HMD technology: theDARPA-sponsored SCENICC program (Invited
Paper)
Randall Sprague, Arthur Zhang, Scott Cookson, Innovega
Inc. (United States); Lee Hendrick, Tyrone O’Brien, Rockwell
Collins (United States); Joseph Ford, UCSD (United States); Eric
Tremblay, EPFL (Switzerland); Todd Rutherford, Doug Reinert,
Greenlight Optics (United States); Adam Johnson, Distant Focus(United States)
No Abstract Available.

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Conference 8735: Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XVIII:
Design and Applications

8735-13, Session 3

25.6 degrees vertically, an exit pupil diameter of 8mm (non-vignetted),
and an eye clearance of 18mm. The optics weights about 20 grams pereye. Our proposed occlusion capable OST-HMD system can easily findmyriads of applications in various military and commercial sectors suchas military training, gaming and entertainment.

HMD Digital Night vision System for Fixed
Wing Fighters
Bobby D. Foote, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States)
Digital night sensor technology offers both advantages anddisadvantages over standard analog systems. As the digital night sensor
technology matures and disadvantages are overcome, the transition
away from analog type sensors will increase with new programs. In
response to this growing need Rockwell Collins is actively investing indigital night vision systems that will provide the performance needed forthe future.
Rockwell Collins continues to invest in digital night technology and hascompleted laboratory, ground and preliminary flight testing to evaluate
the important key factors for night vision. These evaluations have led toa summary of the maturity of the digital night capability and status of the
key performance gap between analog and digital systems.
Introduction of Digital Night Vision Systems can be found in the roadmapof future fixed wing and rotorcraft programs beginning in 2015. This willbring a new set of capabilities to the pilot that will enhance his abilities toperform night operations with no loss of performance.

8735-14, Session 3

Advances and trends of head-up displays
systems in land vehicles
J. Alejandro Betancur Ramírez, Alejandro Mejía, Felipe Cadavid,
Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Currently, in the automotive industries the interaction between thedriver and augmented reality systems is a subject of research, specially,
the identification of advantages and risks that this kind of interaction
represents. This paper attempts to put in evidence the potential of thehead-up displays applied to automotive vehicles, pretending to show
applications and tendencies that at the moment are being studied. In
general, the automotive research associated with augmented reality
devices, suggests the partial integration of the head-up displays in theautomotive vehicles; however, its still a matter of discussion which shouldbe the right way to do it.

8735-15, Session 3

Optical see-through head-mounted display
with occlusion capability
Chunyu Gao, Augmented Vision, Inc. (United States); Hong Hua,
Yuxiang Lin, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona(United States)
Lack of mutual occlusion capability between computer-rendered andreal objects is one of fundamental problems for most existing opticalsee-through head-mounted displays (OST-HMD). Without the properocclusion management, the virtual view through an OST-HMD appears“ghost-like”, floating in the real world. To address this challenge, wehave developed an innovative optical scheme that uniquely combines
the eyepiece and see-through relay optics to achieve an occlusioncapable OST-HMD system with a very compelling form factor and highoptical performances. The proposed display system was based on
emerging freeform optical design technologies and was designed forhighly efficient liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) type spatial light modulator(SLM) and bright Organic LED (OLED) microdisplay. The proposed
display technology was capable of working in both indoor and outdoor
environments. Our current design offered a 1280x720 color resolution
based on 0.7” microdisplay and SLM. The MTF values for the majorityof the fields at the cutoff frequency of 40lps/mm, which is determinedby the pixel size of the microdisplay, are better than 15%. The design
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Conference 8736: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VII
Thursday 2 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8736 Display Technologies and Applications for Defense, Security, and Avionics VII

8736-1, Session 1

A SWIR radiance model for cockpit
instrumentation (Invited Paper)John Green, Tim Robinson, Esterline Control Systems (UnitedStates)Night Vision Imaging Systems technology is advancing at a rapid pace.
These advances can be broadly divided in two distinct categories;
performance and data management. There is an encouraging trend
towards higher sensitivity, better resolution, and lower power consuming
devices. These improvements, coupled with the shift from analog todigital data output, promise to provide a powerful night vision device.
Given a digital system, the data can be managed to enhance the pilot’sview (image processing), overlay data from multiple sensors (image
fusion), and send data to remote locations for analysis (image sharing).
The US Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) has an active program
to introduce a helmet mounted digital imaging system that extends thedetection range from the near infrared (NIR) band to the short-wave
infrared (SWIR) band. Aside from the digital output, part of the motivation
to develop a SWIR imaging system includes the desire to exploit the
SWIR ambient night glow spectrum, see through some levels of fog andhaze, and use a robust sensor technology suitable for 24 hours per day
imaging.
Integrating this advanced SWIR imaging system into a cockpit presents
some human factor issues. Light emitted from illuminated instruments
may hinder the performance of the imaging system, reducing the pilot’s
ability to detect low-visible objects at night. The transmission of lightthrough cockpit transparencies and through the atmosphere may also
impact performance. In this paper we propose a model that establishes
cockpit lighting SWIR radiance limits, much like MIL-STD-3009 specifies
NVIS radiance limits for NVGs. This model is the culmination of a twoyear program sponsored by AFRL.

8736-19, Session 1

Towards a metric of antialiasing sufficiency
for stereoscopic displays
Charles J. Lloyd, Visual Performance, LLC (United States)
This paper describes the development, measurement, computation,and initial testing of a metric of antialiasing sufficiency for stereoscopic
display systems. A summary is provided of two previous evaluations
that demonstrated stereoscopic disparity thresholds in the range of 3 to
10 arcsec are attainable using electronic displays with a pixel pitch ascoarse as 2.5 arcmin, however, only if sufficient antialiasing is performed.
Equations are provided that describe the critical level of antialiasing
required as a function of pixel pitch. The proposed metric uses a radial
test pattern that can be photographed from the user eyepoint using ahand held consumer color camera. Several candidate unitary metrics thatquantify the spatial sampling noise in the measured test pattern were
tested. The correlation obtained between the best candidate metric andthe stereoscopic disparity threshold model from our previous paper was
R2 = 0.994. The standard deviation of repeated measurements of themetric was no greater than 0.5% of the range of the metric, indicating
the metric is capable of discriminating fine differences in sampling noise.
The proposed method is display technology independent and requires
no knowledge of the display pixel structure or how the antialiasing is
implemented.

8736-6, Session 28736-4, Session 1

Task analysis modeling to improve sensor
and display system design
Gail M. Nicholson, Tanya Geiersbach, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr.
Crane Div. (United States)
Translating requirements for a sensor and display system application canbe difficult, leading to increased design costs, rework, and ineffective
or even unused systems. A task analysis model was developed to solve
this issue that was utilized during sensor and display research on a ring
mount gunner situational awareness application. The techniques werevalidated and successfully applied to additional research areas. Thismodeling method can also be applied throughout the DoD Acquisition
lifecycle. The methodology and examples of successes and impacts will
be presented.

8736-5, Session 1

Neuroergonomic methods to identify cockpit
display improvements (Invited Paper)
Steven D. Harbour, U.S. Air Force (United States); James C.
Christensen, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
This study utilized a workload protocol that employed Electrocardiogram(EKG) data collection for the assessment of pilot workload and situation
awareness in-flight during various phases of airborne operation.
Contrasts and evaluations were made between the original Head Up
Display (HUD) configuration which has not been endorsed as a Primary
298

Flight Display (PFD) and the Head Down Display (HDD) which waspreviously certified by the FAA as a PFD. Quantitative results were
produced to guide the resource decision making regarding cockpit
systems for this aircraft. Low and no cost improvements were identified
and recommendations were implemented. This work developed aneuroergonomic methodology for display improvements.

An innovative algorithm for panoramic
representation in observation systems (Invited
Paper)
Cristian Luison, Valeria Aquilanti, Altran Italy S.p.A. (Italy); Aldo
Riccobono, Claudio Liberace, SELEX Galileo S.p.A. (Italy)
This paper presents the study and the experimental work carried out inSelex Galileo on an innovative algorithm for panoramic representation insituational awareness system, operating with passive optical sensors (IRand CCD).
The aim of the algorithm is to allow a planar representation of 360°
scenario, by using staring sensors and overcoming drawbacks due tomoving platform, optical lens distortion and scenario evolution. The
stitching algorithm is developed “sensor independent” and completely
real time and does not require complex scanning systems. The sensor
scans the scene rotating continuously at a constant speed dependingon the required scanning rate. The algorithm recovers stabilization errors
due to motion platform, making itself suitable for several application(land, naval and airborne).
The algorithm has been implemented and tested on the vision system
JANUS NAVAL, property of Selex Galileo. The vision system consists ofan IR camera (640 x 512 pixels operating in the MWIR band) and a CCD
camera (4 Mega Pixels) located inside an electro-optical head, mounted
upon a two-axis-stabilized platform. Both cameras output a PAL
standard video signal, whose are digitalized and processed according to
the described algorithm. The panoramic representation is showed on a
LCD display, dividing the entire 360° scene into four horizontal stripes of
90° each one, with the proper azimuth scale. Furthermore, the algorithm
allows to zoom a selectable area into an additional window located below

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Conference 8736: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VII
the four stripes. This final representation has been agreed and validated
by the Italian Navy.

a very low mental demand allows the system to be run for extended
periods of time. This work was applied to Phases 2 and 3 of DARPA
Cognitive Technology Threat Warning System (CT2WS) program andused during field testing.

8736-7, Session 2

Design of graphics display manager (GDM)
software for naval combat management
systems (CMS)8736-9, Session 2

Testing a collision avoidance display withhigh-precision navigation (Invited Paper)

Tushar K. Patra, Kranti Lal, Deepika Gupta, Bharat Electronics
Ltd. (India)

Niklas Peinecke, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrte.V. (Germany); Maarten Uijt de Haag, Pengfei Duan, Ohio Univ.
(United States); Rene Küppers, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (Germany); Bram Beernink, Technische Univ. Delft(Netherlands)

In modern Command and Control Systems (C4I), Surveillance andDecision Support Systems vast amount of digital data needs to beprocessed, correlated, stored and displayed in synchronization with thereal time change of information in the operational clusters or external
world. Display, being the front end of such systems, plays a key rolefor providing comprehensive tactical pictures to the war fighters withrequisite accuracy and timeliness and also for Command and Control andDecision-making. With the ever increasing complexity of graphical userinterfaces (GUI) requirements and advanced display concepts and withlimitations of graphics hardware subsystems, the Modeling and Design ofTactical Display Software for CMS (C4I) Systems is of particular interestand has become a big challenge over the years.

Recent years have seen a rise in sophisticated navigational positioning
techniques. Starting from classical GPS, differential GPS, ground based
augmentation, and raw data submission have opened possibilities forhigh precision lateral positioning for beyond what was thinkable before.
This yields new perspectives for technologies like ACAS/TCAS, byenabling last-minute lateral avoidance as a supplement to the establishedvertical avoidance maneuvers.
Working together with Ohio University’s Avionics Department, DLR has
developed and tested a display for situational awareness and laterallast-minute avoidance in a collision situation. The display includes thepossibility to foresee the hazard zone of a possible intruder and thus
avoid that zone early. The display was integrated into Ohio University’s
experimental airplane, and a flight experiment was conducted to make afirst evaluation of the applicability. The tests were carried out in fall 2012.

In this paper we have presented the design model and advanced display
concepts we have used for development of tactical display software(we call it Graphics Display Manager, GDM) for CMS Projects for IndianNavy. Also a widely accepted Graphical User Interface, which has been
designed and developed with extensive interaction with customers,
is presented. Though the GDM currently runs on Dual Multi Function
Consoles (DMFC) and Multi Function Horizontal Consoles (MFHC), it has
been designed with a view of providing platform independent display
solution for the ongoing as well as futuristic defense projects in the
country.

We will present the principal architecture of the display and detail theimplementation into the flight carrier. Furthermore, we will give first resultsof the display performance.

The GDM software has been designed as per the Object Oriented Design
paradigm and thus has been modeled as collections of cooperating
objects, treating individual objects as instances of a class within thehierarchy of GDM Classes. The levels of hierarchy represents the different
levels of abstraction, each built upon others and each understandable byitself.

8736-10, Session 3

Advances in liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS)
spatial light modulator technology (Invited
Paper)

8736-8, Session 2

William P. Bleha Jr., Lijuan A. Lei, HOLOEYE Systems Inc. (UnitedStates)A low-bandwidth graphical user interface
for high-speed triage of potential items ofinterest in visual imagery

LCOS (Liquid Crystal on Silicon) is a reflective microdisplay technology
based on a single crystal silicon backplane which drives a liquid crystal
layer. Using standard CMOS processes, microdisplays with extremely
small pixels, high fill factor (pixel aperture ratio) and low fabrication costs
are created. Recent advances in integrated circuit design and liquid
crystal materials have increased the application of LCOS to displays
and other optical functions. Pixel pitch below 3 µm, resolution of 8K x
4K, and sequential contrast ratios of 100K:1 have been achieved. These
devices can modulate light spatially in amplitude or phase, so they act
as an active dynamic optical element. Liquid crystal materials can bechosen to modulate illumination sources from the UV through far IR. The
new LCOS designs have reduced power consumption to make portabledisplays and viewing elements more viable. Also innovative opticalsystem elements including image and illumination waveguides and laser
illuminators have been combined into LCOS based display systems
for HMD, HUD, projector,and image analysis/surveillance direct viewmonitor applications. Dynamic displays utilizing the fine pixel pitch andphase mode operation of LCOS are advancing the development of true
holographic displays. The paper will review these technology advances of
LCOS and the display applications and related system implementation.

David J. Huber, Deepak Khosla, Kevin Martin, Yang Chen, HRL
Labs., LLC (United States)
A great deal of interest has been generated in automated surveillancesystems that detect anomalies in real-time visual imagery. These systems
employ a fast, high-detection front-end that analyzes a scene andextracts items of interest, which are forwarded to some other system foranalysis and/or identification of threats. Many employ a “human-in-theloop” configuration, where the final decision about whether a particularanomaly is an actual threat falls to a human operator. However, sincehumans are easily fatigued and cannot process raw data as quickly as acomputer, the method by which data is presented to a user is critical.
In this paper, we introduce a user interface called the “Threat Chip
Display” (TCD) for rapid human-in-the-loop analysis and detectionof “threats” in high-bandwidth visual imagery from a list of “Items ofInterest” (IOI), which includes objects, targets and events that thehuman is interested in detecting and identifying. Typically some frontend algorithm (e.g., computer vision, cognitive algorithm, EEG RSVP
based detection, radar detection) has been applied to the video and has
identified a list of potential IOI. The TCD facilitates rapid analysis of thislist of IOI to detect and confirm actual threats and is designed for easeof use, fast triage of IOI, and a low bandwidth requirement. Additionally,

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Conference 8736: Display Technologies and Applications for
Defense, Security, and Avionics VII

8736-11, Session 3

Precision guided firearms: disruptive smallarms technology
Bret Boyd, John Lupher, TrackingPoint, Inc. (United States)
Based on fighter jet “lock and launch” technology, Precision Guided
Firearms (PGFs) deliver a quantum leap in shooting accuracy byemploying target tracking, heads-up displays and advanced fire control
technology to amplify shooting precision, particularly at long range. PGFs
eliminate many of the most common sources of shooter error including,aiming, trigger jerk and shot setup miscalculation. Regardless of skill
level or experience, PGFs can significantly increase First Shot Success
Probability (FSSP) up to 5-times compared to traditional technology,
even at extreme ranges of 1200 yards or more. More than just a scope,Precision Guided Firearms are fully integrated systems based onstandard caliber bolt action or semi-automatic rifles with a networked
tracking scope, guided trigger and precision conventional ammunition.
Onboard wireless technology allows PGFs to connect with local andwide area networks to deliver voice, video and data to mobile devices
and systems. PGF technology is the most revolutionary technologicaldevelopment in long-rage shooting in decades and has both military andcommercial applicability.
TrackingPoint is the Austin, Texas-based applied technology company
that created the first Precision Guided Firearm (PGF). In this presentation,
TrackingPoint developers will outline the electro-optical-mechanicalintegration effort behind the system, and the advantages PGFs present
for defense and security applications.

8736-12, Session 3

High brightness AMLCD overlay displays in
man portable applications
Timothy J. Edwards, Timothy Hogan, Kopin Corp. (United States)
Overlay display applications require very high brightness levels to provide
images that are viewable when combined on see-through daytime
scenery. Most current and historic micro-display applications support
low to moderate brightness suitable for non see-through systems. Highbrightness levels have been demonstrated in existing and legacy daytime
HMDs but not at power levels that can be supported in portable battery
driven applications.
In this paper we will discuss evolutionary improvements made in theapplication of Kopin display technology for high brightness daytime
overlay applications. To achieve required luminance performance atbattery power levels Kopin has implemented higher efficiency backlights,
lower power drive electronics and improved display performance.
Backlight efficiencies, which dominate total display power in highbrightness conditions, have been improved by more than 20x. Graphics
generation and bi-level display drive electronics have been implemented
with at less than half the power. Results for display configurations
including VGA, SVGA, SXGA and 2kx2k will be presented. The ability
to combine a high brightness display onto a daytime scene provides
dramatic new capabilities for direct view optical sights. This paper will
discuss the performance and capability of Kopin displays in both clip-on
and integrated configurations

produced an HMD testbed system that provides the capability to
explore display designs and operational concepts in analogous
field environments. The system was designed as an extension of anestablished spacesuit informatics system that included a variety ofdata including procedures, photo, video, and navigational parameters.
Using a Near To Eye optical solution, the device was housed in a militarystyle dust goggle. The system also implemented a spacesuit glove
compatible user interface device and intuitive user interface hosted ona fanless, small form factor, low power PC. The purpose of this paper isto provide an overview of the various parts of this system, describe thesoftware architecture, and describe its initial testing that was conductedprior to delivery. The paper will also address field testing that occurred
post delivery. Challenges for integrating this technology in a spacesuit
platform are also discussed.

8736-14, Session 4

The use of optical waveguides in head up
display (HUD) applications
Malcolm G. Homan, BAE Systems (United Kingdom)This paper addresses the design drivers behind the development of thenext generation of Head Up Displays and their compatibility with evolving
cockpit architectures and structures. The implementation of large scale
optical waveguide combiners capable of matching and exceeding thedisplay performances normally only associated with current digital
display sourced HUDs has enabled BAE Systems Electronic Systems tosolve the volume and installation challenges of the latest military and civil
cockpits with it’s LiteHUD technology.
Glareshield mounted waveguide based HUDs are compatible with thetrend towards the addition of Large Area Displays (LAD) in place of the
traditional multiple Head Down Displays (HDD) within military fast jet
cockpits. They use an “indirect view” variant of the display which allows
the amalgamation of high resolution digital display devices with theinherently small volume and low mass of the waveguide optics. This isthen viewed using the more traditional technology of a conventional HUD
combiner. This successful combination of technologies has resulted
in the LPHUD product which is specifically designed by BAE Systems
Electronic Systems to provide an ultra-low profile HUD which can beinstalled behind a LAD; still providing the level of performance that is
at least equivalent to that of a conventional large volume glareshield
mounted HUD.
In many current Business Jet and Air Transport cockpits overhead
mounted HUDs employ a conventional optical combiner to relay thedisplay from a separate projector to the pilot’s eyes. In BAE Systems’Electronic Systems Q-HUD configuration this combiner is replaced by
the waveguide and the bulky, intrusive overhead projector completely
eliminated. The result is a significant reduction in equipment volume andmass and a much greater head clearance combined with a substantiallylarger Head Motion Box. This latter feature is a fundamental outturn ofwaveguide optical solutions which removes the restrictions on pilot eye
positioning associated with current conventional systems.
LiteHUD, developed by BAE Systems Electronic Systems, achieves
equivalent optical performance to in-service HUDs for less cost, mass
and volume.

8736-15, Session 48736-13, Session 3

Development of a spacesuit helmet mounted
display testbed system
Daryl J. Schuck, Honeywell International Inc. (United States)
The next generation spacesuit, currently under development by NASA,is anticipated to incorporate Helmet or Head Mounted Display (HMD)
technologies in order to make the crew more autonomous through arobust informatics system. In anticipation of this, NASA and Honeywell300

Integration of head-up display systems
in automobile industry: a generalized
application approach
J. Alejandro Betancur Ramírez, Alejandro Mejía, Univ. EAFIT(Colombia); Gilberto Osorio, Universidad EAFIT (Colombia)
Throughout the development of the automotive industry, driving aid
and support has been a subject of research and analysis, always
looking for new ways to provide security to the driver and passengers;

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Conference 8736: Display Technologies and Applications for
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in order to contribute to this subject, this paper summarises from past
research experiences the use of head-up display systems applied tothe automobile industry, covering it from two main points of discussion:
the first one, from a technical point of view, in which the main principles
of optical design associated with an experimental set up are brought
out; and the second one, an operational approach where an applied
driving graphical interface is presented. Up to now, the results suggestthat the experimental set up here discussed could be adaptable to any
automobile vehicle, but it is needed further research and investment.

8736-22, Session 4

Head up and eyes out: advances in headmounted displays capabilities
Alexander A. Cameron, BAE Systems (United Kingdom)
There are a host of helmet and head mounted displays, flooding themarket place with displays which provide what is essentially a mobile
computer display. What sets aviators HMDs apart is that they provide
the user with accurate conformal information embedded in the pilots
real world view (see through display) where the information presented
is intuitive and easy to use because it overlays the real world (mix of
sensor imagery, symbolic information and synthetic imagery) and enables
them to stay head up, eyes out, - improving their effectiveness, reducing
workload and improving safety.
Such systems are an enabling technology in the provision of enhanced
Situation Awareness (SA) and reducing user workload in high intensity
situations. Safety Is Key; so the addition of these HMD functions cannot
detract from the aircrew protection functions of conventional aircrew
helmets which also include life support and audio communications.
These capabilities are finding much wider application in new types ofcompact man mounted audio/visual products enabled by the emergenceof new families of micro displays, novel optical concepts and ultracompact low power processing solutions. This papers attempts tocapture the key drivers and needs for future head mounted systems forboth aviation and non-aviation applications and to set out a vision for
future product capabilities, capability gaps and technology drivers.

8736-17, Session 5

Bio-inspired adaptive color arrays
Richard Fu, Eric Forsythe, Steven Blomquist, Eric Wetzel, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
Cephalopods, the class of mollusks that include squid, cuttlefish, andoctopus, have unique abilities to mimic the color and texture of theirenvironments through arrays of chromatophores. The chromatophores
are pigment sacs beneath the transparent epidermis layer allowing for
selective presentation of yellow, red and brown pigments. The research
objective is to demonstrate an analog color reflecting device that mimics
the nature of the chromatophore which modifies color by expanding
and contracting a pigment sac thereby changing the color state fromtransparent to reflecting in a color spectrum.
Two basic approaches are developed: an electrostatic field actuates aparallel plate and moves the liquid contained between the plates; and agas pressure applies a force on a liquid and moves the liquid in and out
from a transparent window. The electrical signal is utilized to regulate thepressure flow through two related designs, microblower and microvalve.
The individual pixel was expanded into an array of pixels. In addition
to color changes in the pixels, these device concepts can undergo astructural change similar to the biological chromatophore and unlike
traditional display designs.
A microblower is shown with promising results for both generating andcontrolling air flow applied to the device with lower power consumption,and is able to achieve cephalopod chromatophore-like effects in an
efficient manner. A microvalve alone can only be used to regulate aconstant pressure source; however, its design and fabrication details canbe used as a basis for future work.

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301Conference 8737: Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced,
Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 2013
Thursday 2 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8737 Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced, Synthetic, and External Vision
Solutions 20138737-1, Session 1

8737-4, Session 1

Enhancing old helicopters search and rescue
capabilities through using synthetic visionsystem (SVS)

Sensor supported pilot assistance for H/Cflight in DVE

Karim A. Fouad, Egyptian Air Force (Egypt)
In this paper, an implementation of navigation grade AHRS system, VOR
and Flux valve, in addition to GPS and multifunction displays to an oldhelicopter in order to get low-altitude flying risks lower, and increase flightcapabilities in bad weather conditions. This is accomplished throughadding navigation displays that can display basic flight data , terrain andreal time altitude for the helicopter with respect to surrounding terrains.
Accomplishing this project involved many activities which are mainly thedesign and implementation of real time system for integration of added
navigational systems, building terrain database with different resolution,
design and implementation of basic flight display embedded with terrain
digital map. Finally integrating different system components and running
final flight tests. The tests showed great improvements in ordinary
flights and especially rescue ones, where reaching to destination was
faster, more accurate location identification in addition to an important
psychological fact which is the added confidence to flight and rescue
crew to fulfill the required missions.

8737-3, Session 1

Operational requirements for helicopter
operations low level in degraded visualenvironment
Thorsten W. Eger, German School of Army Aviation (Germany)
In order to assist the pilot to safely operate helicopters in degraded visualenvironment (DVE), an integrated system of various technologies that will
provide improved situation awareness (SA) with minimal interpretationwhilst controlling the aircraft is essential.
DVE is defined as reduced visibility of potentially varying degree, whereinsituational awareness (SA) and aircraft control cannot be maintained ascomprehensively as they are in good visual meteorological conditions(VMC) and may be lost. DVE can be caused by dust or sand (brownout),
snow (whiteout), rain, fog, smoke, salt spray or any element that
degrades the use of visual cues. DVE can be experienced in all modes offlight, day and night.
To determine the most effective and affordable solution set to enhance
helicopter operations in degraded visual environments at low altitudes
and to help scope the potential range of solutions, the critical tasks ofhelicopters are to be defined. Crew workload must be managed at an
acceptable level in all scenarios.
Solutions should be considered for existing as well as future aircraft
and for legacy, non-digital aircraft as well as modernized aircraft withdigital cockpits. It is envisioned that a combination of handling qualities,
human factors design, active or passive sensors, and annunciations willproduce effective solutions and that any one of these things alone will notadequately address the problem.
This presentation will provide an overview on the operational environment
and the resulting requirements for operating helicopters low level indegraded visual environment.

302

Tim Waanders, Eurocopter Deutschland GmbH (Germany);Thomas R. Muensterer, Martin J. Kress, Cassidian (Germany)
Helicopter operations at low altitude are to this day only performed under
VFR conditions in which safe piloting of the aircraft relies on pilot’s visual
perception of the outside environment. However, there are situations inwhich a deterioration of visibility conditions may cause the pilot to lose
important visual cues thereby increasing workload and compromisingflight safety and mission effectiveness.
This paper reports on a pilot assistance system for all phases of flightwhich is intended to:• Provide navigational support and mission management• Support landings/take-offs in unknown environment and in DVE• Enhance situational awareness in DVE• Provide obstacle and terrain surface detection and warning• Provide upload, sensor based update and download of database
information for debriefing and later missions.
The system comprises a digital terrain and obstacle database, tacticalinformation, flight plan management combined with an active 3D sensor
enabling the above mentioned functionalities. To support pilots during
operations in DVE, an intuitive 3D/2D cueing through both head-up andhead-down means is proposed to retain situational awareness.
This paper further describes the system concept and will elaborate
on results of simulator trials in which the functionality was evaluatedby operational pilots in realistic and demanding scenarios such as a
SAR mission to be performed in mountainous area with different visualconditions. The objective of the simulator trials was to evaluate thefunctional performance and HMI aspects.

8737-5, Session 1

Vision assisted aircraft lateral navigation
Mohamed Ibrahim Mohideen, Honeywell Technology Solutions
Lab (India); Peter Seiler, Univ. of Minnesota (United States);
Dinesh Ramegowda, HCL Technologies Ltd (India)
Surface operation is currently one of the least technologically equipped
phases of aircraft operation. The increased air traffic congestionnecessitates more aircraft operations in degraded weather and atnight. The traditional surface procedures worked well in most cases asairport surfaces have not been congested and airport layouts were lesscomplex. Despite the best efforts of FAA and other safety agencies,
runway incursions continue to occur frequently due to incorrect surface
operation. Several studies conducted by FAA suggest that pilot induced
error contributes significantly to runway incursions. Further, the reportattributes pilot’s lack of situational awareness - local (e.g., minimizing
lateral deviation), global (e.g., traffic in the vicinity) and route (e.g.,
distance to next turn) - to the problem. An Enhanced Vision System(EVS) is one concept that is being considered to resolve these issues.
These systems use on-board sensors to provide situational awarenessunder poor visibility conditions. In this paper, we propose the use of an IR
camera to estimate the aircraft position and orientation relative to taxiway
markings to use as lateral guidance aid. We estimate aircraft yaw angle
and lateral offset from slope of the taxiway centerline and horizontal
position of vanishing line. Unlike automotive applications, several cues
such as aircraft maneuvers along assigned route with minimal deviations,clear ground markings, even taxiway surface, limited aircraft speed areavailable and enable us to implement significant algorithm optimizations.

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Conference 8737: Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced,
Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 2013
States)We present experimental results to show high precision navigation
accuracy with sensitivity analysis with respect to camera mount, optics,
and image processing error.

Following the Advanced Dristributed Aperture System program, and newadvance Mil Spec Multiimage processor was funded to enable testing of
the ADAS Distributed Aperture system, that gives full spheriacl coverageof the aircraft, with two independant Helmet Mouted Displays. enablingan evaluation of the system in Degraded Enviroments like Brownout

8737-6, Session 1

Helicopter synthetic-vision-based DVE
processing for all phases of flight8737-9, Session 2

Patrick L. OBrien, David Baughman, Honeywell, Inc. (UnitedStates); Bruce Wallace, Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (United States)

Fused sensor image display for degradedvisual environment
Carlo L. Tiana, Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States); Keith W.
Alter, xVS, LLC (United States); Chris Holser, Aireyes, Inc. (UnitedStates); Joy Matsumoto, Monterey Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates)Helicopters experience nearly ten times the accident rate of fixed wing
platforms, due in large part to the nature of their mission, requiring
frequent operations in close proximity to terrain and obstacles. Degradedvisual environments (DVE) including brownout or whiteout conditions
generated by rotor downwash results in loss of situational awarenessduring the most critical phase of flight, and are a significant contributor
to this accident rate. Considerable research into sensor and systemsolutions to address DVE has been conducted in recent years; however,the promise of a synthetic vision avionics backbone (SVAB) extends far
beyond this single issue and enables improved situational awarenessand mission effectiveness during all phases of flight and in all visibility
conditions.

We describe a Fused Sensor Image Display System (FSIDS) designed
to guide the landing of helicopters during brownout conditions. FSIDS
employs multiple sensors concurrently to create a high resolution
synthetic scene of the landing area and potential obstacles. We
developed methods for overcoming degraded visual environments forhelicopter pilots attempting to land in brownout or other compromised
visibility conditions. The system utilizes multi-sensor image fusion
integrated with a Synthetic Vision System. In a novel aspect of thissystem, sensor inputs are evaluated in real time to determine the point at
which each sensor’s contribution to the assessment of the landing area is
no longer of value, and to remove that sensor’s input from the information
presented to the pilot. Each sensor has its own unique rejection point,
determined through sophisticated processing and algorithms. The
research demonstrated the feasibility and robustness of algorithms andsystems that might be used to detect brownout in an imaging sensor (orother sensors, e.g., 3D radar, lidar). The Synthetic Visual System provided
a realistic representation of the landing area using detailed data from thebest sensor output and adding detection and visual representation of
obstacles in and around the landing area. To support the identification
and representation of obstacles, an ontological system provided detailed
classification and definition of obstacles and terrain types and theircontribution to determining appropriately safe landing zones of potential
obstacles. FSIDS has direct application to improving the safety ofhelicopters operating in degraded visual environments including civilian
helicopters.

Advantages of a “sensor agnostic” SVAB allow platform and mission
diversity with an efficient upgrade path, even while research continues
into new and improved sensors for use in DVE conditions. Through thecareful integration of multiple sources of information: sensors, terrain
and obstacle databases, mission planning information and aircraft state
information; enhancements to operations in all conditions and all phasesof flight will be discussed.

8737-7, Session 2

Enhanced vision presentation in a commercial
cockpit for low-visibility surface operations
Jarvis J. Arthur III, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States);
Robert M. Norman, The Boeing Co. (United States); Lynda J.
Kramer, Lawerence J. Prinzel III, Kyle K. Ellis, NASA LangleyResearch Ctr. (United States); Stephanie Harrison, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (United States); James R.
Comstock, NASA Langley Research Ctr. (United States)

8737-10, Session 2

Sensor-based 3D conformal cueing for safeand reliable HC operation specifically forlanding in DVE

NASA Langley Research Center and the FAA collaborated in an effort
to evaluate the effect of displaying enhanced vision system information
in a commercial flight deck during low visibility surface operations. Asinterest grows in using Enhanced Flight Vision Systems (EFVS) and
Enhanced Vision Systems (EVS) such as Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR)in commercial flight decks, the FAA and NASA wanted to collect dataon the influence and efficacy of EFVS and EVS for low visibility surface
operations. Surface operations were simulated at the Memphis, TN (FAA
identifier: MEM) airfield during nighttime with 500 Runway Visual Range(RVR) in a high fidelity, motion simulator. Twelve commercial airline crews
participated in the research that included manipulation of the locationof an EVS/EFVS display designed to test location effects in addition
to issues of parallax and minification of the EVS image. The research
paper shall discuss qualitative and quantitative results of the simulation
experiment, including the effect of EVS display placement on eye gaze(attention) as measured by the use of non-obtrusive oculometry and pilot
workload.

Thomas R. Muensterer, Martin J. Kress, Stephanus Klasen,
Cassidian (Germany)
The paper describes the approach of a sensor based landing aid forhelicopters in degraded visual conditions. The system concept presented
employs a long range high resolution ladar sensor allowing for identifying
obstacles in the flight and in the approach path as well as measuring
landing site conditions like slope, roughness and precise position relative
to the helicopter during long final approach. All these measurements
are visualized to the pilot. Cueing is done by 3D conformal symbology
displayed in a head tracked HMD enhanced by 2D symbols for data
which is perceived easier by 2D symbols than by 3D cueing. All 3D
conformal symbology is placed on the measured landing site surface
which is further visualized by a grid structure for displaying landing site
slope, roughness and small obstacles. Due to the limited resolution of
the employed HMD a specific scheme of blending in the information
during the approach is employed. The interplay between in flight andin approach obstacle warning and CFIT warning symbology with thislanding aid symbology is also investigated and exemplarily evaluatedfor the NH90 helicopter which has already today implemented a long

8737-8, Session 2

Degraded environment enhanced pilotage
Trevor L. Bushell, Raytheon Network Centric Systems (United
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Conference 8737: Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced,
Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 2013
range high resolution ladar sensor based obstacle warning and CFIT
symbology. The paper further describes the results of simulator and flighttests performed with this system employing a ladar sensor and a headtracked head mounted display system. In the simulator trials a full modelof the ladar sensor producing 3D measurement points was used working
with the same algorithms used in flight tests.

8737-11, Session 2

Contribution of TopOwl Head Mounted
Display System in Degraded Visual
Environments
Olivier Lemoine, Jean-Michel François, Thales Avionics S.A.
(France); Pascal Point, Thales Avionics (France)
Piloting an Helicopter in a Degraded Visual Environment (DVE) is a very
complex task, and the evolution of the H/C missions tend to augment theprobability of such degraded flight conditions (increase of night flights,
all-weather flights, with brownout or whiteout phenomena…). When the
direct view of the external situation is degraded, the avionic system canbe of great help to the crew to recover the lost visual references. TopOwl
Head Mounted Display (HMD) is particularily adapted to such situations,allowing the pilot to remain “eyes-out” while visualizing the on-board
DVE-penetrating imaging sensor (EVS), the flight symbology, the terrain
elevation data (SVS), and/or the night vision images coming from theintegrated Image Intensifier Tubes. To achieve this, TopOwl is composedof a see-through display with a large binocular field of view, a robust headtracking system to allow (the) display of conformal data (symbology andimage), an integrated binocular night vision system, an enhanced humanmachine interface, and an integrated SVS processing with stereoscopic
display for “true 3D” SVS. The benefits of such an HMD in the full scale
experiment are described in this article.

8737-12, Session 3

Increasing situational awareness in DVE withadvanced synthetic vision
Tobias Schafhitzel, Michael Hoyer, EADS Deutschland GmbH
(Germany); Philipp Völschow, Cassidian (Germany)
One of the major causes for hazardous situations in aviation is the lack ofa pilot’s situational awareness. Common causes for degraded situationalawareness are Brownout and Whiteout situations, low level flights, andflights in DVE.
In this paper, we propose advanced synthetic vision (ASV), a modern
situational awareness solution. ASV combines both synthetic vision(SVS) and enhanced vision in order to provide the pilot most timelinessinformation without being restricted in the areal coverage of the synthetic
representation. The advantages to a common Enhanced Synthetic
Vision System are the following: (1) ASV uses 3D ladar data instead of
a 2D sensor. The 3D point cloud is classified in real-time to distinguishbetween ground, wires, poles and buildings; (2) the classified sensor data
is merged with onboard data base contents like elevation or obstacles.
The entire data fusion is performed in 3D, i.e. output is a merged 3D
scenario instead of a blended 2D image. Once the sensor stopped
recording due to occlusion, ASV switches to pure data base mode; (3)the merged data is passed to a 3D visualization module, which is fully
configurable in order to support synthetic views on head down displays
as well as more abstract augmented representations on helmet mounted
displays; (4) the extendable design of ASV supports the graphical linkingof functions like 3D landing aid, TAWS, or navigation aids.

8737-13, Session 3

Investigations on intense solar exposure andrecovery of long-wave infrared sensors
Carlo L. Tiana, Gary B. Kingsley, Daniel J. Henry, Gladys Yanez,
Rockwell Collins, Inc. (United States)
Sensitive infrared cameras are often deployed in airborne, maritime andground systems where exposure to solar radiation cannot be avoided.
We investigated the impact of and recovery from such exposure innatural settings as well as the laboratory, and report on both the impact
and relevant mitigation techniques.

8737-14, Session 3

Characterization of the OPAL obscurant
penetrating LiDAR in various degraded visualenvironments
Evan Trickey, Philip M. Church, Xiaoying Cao, Neptec DesignGroup Ltd. (Canada)
The OPAL obscurant penetrating LiDAR was developed by Neptec
and characterized in various degraded visual environments (DVE) overthe past five years. Quantitative evaluations of obscurant penetration
were performed using the Defence Research and Development Canada
instrumented obscurant chamber for obscurants such as dust and fog.
Experiments were done with the sensor both at a standoff distanceand totally engulfed in the obscurants. Field trials were also done tocharacterize the sensor in snow conditions and in smoke. Finally, theOPAL was also mounted on a Bell 412 helicopter to characterize its
dust penetration capabilities, in environment such as Yuma Proving
Ground. The paper provides a summary of the results of all of the OPAL
evaluations demonstrating it to be a true “see through” obscurant
penetrating LiDAR and explores commercial applications of thetechnology

8737-15, Session 3

Real-time passive millimeter-wave imaging
for brownout mitigation
Christopher A. Schuetz, Richard D. Martin, Thomas E. Dillon,
Daniel Mackrides, John P. Wilson, Phase Sensitive Innovations,
Inc. (United States); James Bonnett, Petersen F. Curt, EM
Photonics, Inc. (United States); Charles Harrity, Alicia Zablocki,
Phase Sensitive Innovations, Inc. (United States); Dennis W.
Prather, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
Passive millimeter-wave imaging presents an attractive sensor modality
for DVE mitigation due to its unique capability to both penetrateobscurants and FLIR-like imagery to pilots. To date, however, such
imagers have been technologically limited to size, weight, and power
consumptions that are too high for most military platforms. Herein, we
present video-rate passive millimeter-wave imager based on opticalupconversion. This imaging modality offers a distributed aperture withlow size and weight that is amenable to many platforms. Such an sensor
has been realized and field tested and results from these field tests
will be presented. Real time imagery has been demonstrated throughextremely dense dust clouds generated by rotorcraft downwash with little
to no degradation in image quality.

This paper discusses the technology ASV, its intended operational
application, and gives some insight to the latest results of our HMI
workshops.

304

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Conference 8737: Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced,
Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 20138737-16, Session 3

This paper will show results from recent flight tests at Yuma Proving
Grounds from a CH-53 platform.

MMW radar enhanced vision systems: thehelicopter autonomous landing system(HALS) and radar-enhanced vision system(REVS) are rotary and fixed wing enhanced
flight vision systems that enable safe flight
operations in degraded visual environment.

8737-18, Session 4

Diffusion and normalized cross correlation
combined image registration
Bing Li, Lockheed Martin Systems Integration-Owego (UnitedStates)Jack Cross, John Schneider, Pete Cariani, Sierra Nevada Corp.
(United States)

Image registration is a process of transforming a data set from one
coordinate system into another. There are two typical approaches forimage registration: Intensity-based and feature-based. The feature-based
approach is relatively fast, using points to establish the correspondence
between two images, but it involves feature extractions and parameterselection to create feature points. Feature extractions are usually
ill-posed problems that often involve derivatives and may lead torobustness issues. The intensity-based approach compares intensity
patterns using a correlation metric such as normalized cross correlation(NCC). Since it does not require feature extraction, it is simple and notsensitive to noise,however its computational cost is high. Even whensome fast techniques like FFT are used to reduce the computational cost,
the implementation is still time consuming. In this paper, we propose
a combined diffusion equation and normalized cross correlation (NCC)
method to perform robust image registration with low computational
cost.

Sierra Nevada Corporation is developing rotary and fixed wing millimeterwave radar enhanced vision systems. The Helicopter Autonomous
Landing System (HALS) is a rotary-wing enhanced vision system thatenables multi-ship landing, takeoff, and enroute flight in Degraded
Visual Environments (DVE). HALS has been successfully flight tested
in a variety of scenarios, from brown-out DVE landings, to enroute
flight over mountainous terrain, to wire/cable detection during low-level
flight. HALS recently completed a 5th round of US Army flight tests
while a hardened version of the system is being produced for fielduser evaluation by the US Army. The Radar Enhanced Vision Systems(REVS) is a fixed-wing Enhanced Flight Vision System (EFVS) undergoingprototype development testing. Both systems are based on a fastscanning 3-dimensional 94 GHz radar that produces real-time terrain andobstacle imagery. The radar imagery is fused with synthetic imagery of
the surrounding terrain to form a long-range, wide field-of-view display. A
symbology overlay is added to provide aircraft state information and, for
HALS, approach and landing command guidance cuing. The combinationof see-through imagery and symbology provide the key information apilot needs to perform safe flight operations in DVE conditions. This
paper discusses the HALS and REVS systems and technology, presents
imagery, and summarizes the recent flight test results.

We first apply the diffusion equation to two images received from two
sensors (or the same sensor) and allow these two images to evolve by
this diffusion equation. Based on the characteristics of evolutions, weselect a very small percentage of stable points in the first image andperform the normalized cross correlation to the second image at eachtransformation point. The highest NCC point provides the transformation
parameters for registering these two images. The new method is resistant
to noise since the evolution of the diffusion equation reduces noise andit chooses only stable points for the NCC computation. Furthermore, the
new method is computationally efficient since just a small percentageof pixels is involved in the transformation estimation. Finally, theexperiments for video motion estimation and image registration will bepresented to demonstrate that the new method is able to estimate theregistration transformation reliably in real time.

8737-17, Session 4

Real-time imaging DUSPEN lidar forhelicopter situational awareness in DVEJames T. Murray, Jason Seely, Jeffrey J. Plath, Gregory J. Fetzer,
William L. Ryder, Neil R. Van Lieu, Ronald W. Goodwin, Eric
Gotfreson, Tyler J. Wagner, Nick Kridler, Chris Melancon, John R.
Engel, Ken Panici, Arete Associates (United States)

8737-19, Session 4

Improvement algorithm for the unfocused
image captured by CMOS camera module

One of the major technical challenges of military rotary wing aviation isthe ability to effectively and safely operate in brownout, whiteout, seaspray, fog, and rainy conditions. Landing or maneuvering in a Degraded
Vision Environments (DVE) is a common problem for pilots. Blinding
plumes of dust, snow, sea-spray, fog, and rain can envelop helicopters
as they land or take-off, increasing the likelihood that pilots will lose
their bearings and drift into unseen obstacles, including other rotary
wing aircraft in multi-ship operations. These conditions can escalate
into crashing descents, lateral drift rollovers, and collisions with groundfeatures or obstacles.

Woonchul Ham, Chonbuk National Univ. (Korea, Republic of)In this paper, we present an algorithm for obtaining original image whichbecomes blurred because of size of aperture of CMOS camera module incapturing object near to camera. We introduce the mathematical propertyof circulant matrix which can used for describing the PSF and propose a
new algorithm based on this matrix. We suggest new algorithms for both
one dimensional signal processing case and two dimensional processing
case. The validness of proposed algorithm is checked by computer
simulation results for two dimensional image sythesized by using CMOS
camera model based on pinhole camera model proposed by our researchteam previously. We also comments on the fact that the implemetationof restoring procedure is more easy and efficient when the weighted
averaging mask of blurr is rectagular. But the difficulty to implement therestoring algorithm comes from the fact that the inverse filtering transfer
function is marginally stable. The algorithm to enhancement the marginof stability should be researched for improving the sensitivity problem ofrestoring algorithm.

Imaging laser radar (ladar or lidar) is a particularly promising DVE sensor
technology because it can provide wide field-or-regard, high-resolution,
3-dimensional real-time imagery of the region surrounding a helicopter insevere DVE conditions. Areté Associates has developed and flight tested
next-generation real-time dust-penetrating (DUSPEN) lidar system under
Office of Naval Research, Future Naval Capability program Helicopter
Low-Level Operations (HELO) Product 2.
Areté’s DUSPEN system captures full lidar waveforms and uses
sophisticated real-time detection and filtering algorithms to discriminate
hard target returns from dust and other obscurants. Down-stream 3D
image processing methods are used to enhance visualization of threat
objects (e.g. wires, cables, poles, posts, foliage, obstacles, etc.) andground features (e.g. ditches, berms, rocks, boulders, sloping terrain,etc.). Areté is maturing the DUSPEN packaging under separate DoD
funding for integration into an existing FLIR turret.

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Conference 8737: Degraded Visual Environments: Enhanced,
Synthetic, and External Vision Solutions 20138737-20, Session 48737-21, Session 4

An adaptive approach for visibility
enhancement in aerial imagery

ALLFlight: detection of moving objects in IR
and ladar images

Numan Unaldi, Suleyman Demirci, Turkish Air Force Academy(Turkey)

Hans-Ullrich Doehler, Sven Schmerwitz, Niklas Peinecke,Thomas Lueken, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
(Germany)

Due to limited dynamic range of currently available imaging and display
devices, images captured in high dynamic ranges scenes commonly
suffer from poor visibility due to either overexposure causing saturationor underexposure resulting in low contrast dark images in which some
important features are lost or become hard to detect by human eyes.
It is well known that human eyes perform much better than cameras
when imaging real world scenes, which generally presents high dynamic
range that can span more than six orders of magnitude. Human eyes
have about 10^8:1 absolute range from fully adapted dark vision to fully
adapted lighting conditions at noon on the equator. They can see about
3*10^4:1 range of luminance when adapted to a normal working range.
This is achieved through a series of adaptive mechanisms for brightness
perception. First, the size of pupil is variable to accommodate different
levels of radiance from different regions in a scene while the camera
aperture is fixed when capturing the scene. When staring at a highlybright region in the scene, the pupil will shrink to compress the dynamic
range so that the eyes can deal with it. Secondly, and more importantly,
the major dynamic range compression process is taking place via thelateral processing at the retinal level. Finally, the early visual cortex is also
found participating in some of the dynamic range processing.
Although real world scenes generally have high dynamic ranges, there aresome exceptions such as turbid (e.g. fog, heavy rain or snow) imaging
conditions under which acquired images and the direct observation
resembles each other. The extreme narrow dynamic range of such scenes
leads to extreme low contrast in the acquired images. Aerial images
captured from aircrafts, spacecraft, or satellites usually suffer from lackof clarity, since the atmosphere enclosing the Earth has effects upon theimages such as turbidity caused by haze, fog, clouds or heavy rain. The
visibility of such aerial images may decrease drastically and sometimes
the conditions at which the images are taken may only lead to near zero
visibility even for the human eyes. Even though human observers may not
see much than smoke, there may exist useful information in those images
taken under such poor conditions.

Supporting a helicopter pilot during landings and takeoffs in a degradedvisual environment (DVE) is one of the challenges within DLR’s project
ALLFlight (Assisted Low Level Flight and Landing on Unprepared Landing
Sites). Different types of sensors (TV, Infrared, mmW radar and Ladar) are
mounted onto DLR’s research helicopter FHS (flying helicopter simulator)
for gathering different sensor data of the surrounding world. A highperformance computer cluster architecture acquires and fuses all theinformation to get one single comprehensive description of the outside
situation.
While both TV and IR cameras deliver images with frame rates of 25
Hz or 30 Hz, Ladar and mmW radar provide georeferenced sensor
data with only 2 Hz or even less. Therefore, it takes several seconds
to detect or even track potential moving obstacle candidates in mmW
or Ladar sequences. Especially if the helicopter is flying with higher
speed, it is very important to minimize the detection time of obstacles inorder to initiate a replanning of the helicopter’s mission timely. Applying
feature extraction algorithms on IR images in combination with data
fusion algorithms of extracted features and Ladar data can decrease
the detection time appreciably. Based on real data from flight tests, thepaper describes applied feature extraction methods for moving object
detection, as well as data fusion techniques for combining features from
TV/IR and Ladar data.

In this paper, a new spatial domain image enhancement algorithm is
proposed, in which high dynamic range of the scene illumination iscompressed from the human visual perspective to improve the visualquality and visibility in digital images captured under degraded visualconditions. The enhancement algorithm employs an adaptive approachin which local image statics, namely the local standard deviation andthe local mean in the image are enhanced simultaneously using an
intensity transform via an “S” shape curve whose curvature parameteris determined adaptively followed by a local contrast clipping/stretchingprocess.
The image in hand is first converted into an intensity image which isthen split into overlapped sub-regions and in each region the intensities
are transformed iteratively so that the brightness and contrast in that
region become greater than predefined values which are indicators ofhigh visual quality. Four-time calculated pixel values in the overlapped
regions are weighted averaged, that the weights are determined basedon how far the pixels are from the region borders to provide a smoothtransition. Finally, the color of the enhanced image is restored by simply
multiplying the values of each color channel in the original image withthe ratios calculated between the enhanced and original intensity image.
Thus, image features such as edges, boundaries and local contrast areenhanced via adaptive local operations by which global dynamic range
is compressed while local contrast is increased in a way human visualsystem (HVS) does.
Preliminary results are encouraging in showing the superiority of the
proposed algorithm over the state-of-the-art enhancement techniques interms of rendition and statistical visual quality measures.

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Conference 8738:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2013
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8738 Three-Dimentional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 20138738-1, Session 1

Republic of); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)

Is augmented reality glass a reality? (Invited
Paper)

Three-dimensional integral imaging (II) has been used for 3D sensing
and visualization. In an integral imaging system, a lens or camera array(laterally distributed) is used to capture 3D information from the scene
constructed by multiple 2D images with different perspectives. Anotherapproach, axially distributed sensing (ADS), has also been proposed torecord 3D data from the scene by moving a single image sensor along its
optical axis. However, the mechanical movement of the image sensor in
ADS may be impractical for a compact 3D image sensing system.

Hong Hua, College of Optical Sciences, The Univ. of Arizona(United States)
Abstract (Keynote address): An augmented reality (AR) display, whichenables the ability to overlay computer-generated imagery on a person’s
real-world view, has long been portrayed as a transformative technology
to redefine the way we perceive and interact with digital information.
With the rapidly increased bandwidth of wireless networks and theminiaturization of electronics, a significant research and market drive
is to realize an eyeglass-style, unobtrusive AR display that integrates
the functions of a wearable display, mobile devices and miniature
GPS technologies within the volume of a pair of eyeglasses. Such an
AR display will make access to wireless networks, video display, 3D
contents, and location-specific information easier than ever, and has thepotential to revolutionize many fields of practices and penetrate throughthe fabrics of life. In this keynote address, I will provide an overview
on the various optical technologies that have been explored for thedevelopment of lightweight AR glasses, review recent technologicaladvancements, demonstrate applications of AR glasses in 3D
visualization, and discuss potential impacts of such technologies.

In this paper, we propose a 3D sensing system that combines the axiallydistributed sensing technique with a liquid crystal lens whose focal
length can be electronically tuned. Varying the focal length electronically,
multiple 2D images with slightly different perspectives can be obtained.
Therefore, the axially distributed images can be obtained without moving
a sensor. Finally, experimental results of computational 3D reconstruction
show that our proposed method is suitable to be implemented for a 3D
sensing system.

8738-4, Session 2

Global view and depth (GVD) format for
FTV/3DTV (Invited Paper)
Masayuki Tanimoto, Kazuyoshi Suzuki, Nagoya Industrial
Science Research Institute (Japan)

8738-2, Session 1

FTV (Free-viewpoint Television) is 3DTV with infinite number of views andranked as the top of visual media. It enables to view a 3D world by freelychanging the viewpoint. MPEG has been promoting the international
standardization of FTV since 2001. The first phase of FTV is MVC (Multiview Video Coding) and the second phase of FTV is 3DV (3D Video).
MVC completed in 2009 encodes multiple camera views efficiently andhas been adopted by Blu-ray 3D. 3DV is a standard that targets serving
a variety of 3D displays and is currently in progress. 3DV employs MVD(Multi-View and Depth) for data format. MVD is a set of views and depths
at various viewpoints. 3DV sends MVD data at a few viewpoints andsynthesizes many views at other viewpoints to be displayed on various
types of multi-view displays at the receiver side. We propose GVD (Global
View and Depth) as an alternative data format. GVD consists of baseview, base depth, residual views and residual depths. GVD is a compact
3D expression compared to MVD since redundancy of MVD is removed
in GVD.

Flickerless 3D shutter glasses for fullresolution stereoscopic display (Invited Paper)
Dae-Sik Kim, SAMSUNG Electronics Co., Ltd. (Korea, Republicof); Ho-Sup Lee, Sergey Chestak, Samsung Digital City (Korea,
Republic of)
We propose the new structure of shutter glasses to develop flickerless
shutter glasses by ambient light as well as crosstalk caused by viewer’s
head tilt,. In structure of the shutter glasses, front polarizer is replacedwith 4/? retardance film, not just omitted. And, instead of single TN
cell, we use the combination of two cells which rubbing directions
are same, but twist directions are different each other (front cell isclockwise, and rear cell is counter-clockwise). This is for shutter glasses
to have retardance range from -l/2 to l/2. Replacing front polarizer toretardance film is for ambient light passing through shutter glasses not
to have certain directionality. It makes ambient light flicker doesn’t occur.
Besides, function of retardance film is to adjust polarized light from thescreen to the retardance of LC cell according to tilt angle. Tilt sensor
attached to the shutter glasses is sensing the tilt angle, and we haveeach LC cell operate with different voltages corresponding to measured
tilt angle. In this shutter glasses, when tilt direction is right, front cell has
the incident light transform from circular-polarized light to linear-polarized
one. And, rear cell has the incident light bypass without any function. On
the contrary to right direction, for left directional tilt, light just bypasses
the front cell, and then is transformed from circular-polarized light tolinear-polarized light by passing through rear cell. Lastly, we can see thatlight cannot pass through rear polarizer in any directional tilt with off state
shutter glass. That means crosstalk does not happen with any directionaltilt.

8738-5, Session 2

Elemental images for integral-imaging display(Invited Paper)
Manuel Martinez-Corral, Adrian Dorado, Anabel Llavador, Genaro
Saavedra, Hector Navarro, Univ. de València (Spain); Bahram
Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
One of the differences between the near-field integral imaging (NInI)
and the far-field integral imaging (FInI), is the ratio between numberof elemental images and number of pixels per elemental image. While
in NInI the 3D information is codified in a small number of elemental
images (with many pixels each), in FInI the information is codified in many
elemental images (with only a few pixels each). The later codification issimilar that the one needed for projecting the InI field onto a pixelated
display when aimed to build an InI monitor. For this reason, the FInI
cameras are specially adapted for captur-ing the InI field with display
purposes. In this contribution we search for the optimum capture device,
and develop the algorithm that allows adapting the captured field to thespecific characteristics of the pixelated display device.

8738-3, Session 1

Liquid crystal lens for axially distributed
three-dimensional sensing (Invited Paper)
Yi-Pai Huang, Chih-Wei Chen, National Chiao Tung Univ.
(Taiwan); Myungjin Cho, Hankyong National Univ. (Korea,
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Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 20138738-14, Session 2

Projection-type 3D display system
considering cross-talk between viewing zone
Hyoung Lee, Yonsei Univ. (Korea, Republic of) and Korea Instituteof Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); Young-Sub Son,
Yonsei Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Sung-Kyu Kim, Korea Instituteof Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); Kwang-Hoon
Sohn, Yonsei Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
In Auto-stereoscopic multi-view 3 dimensional system, crosstalk(ratio
of being overlapped) and low resolution have been a interrupt-driventhat disturb observer to perceive the clear depth perception of images.
To solve this problem, it is possible to control the crosstalk of adjoining
viewing zone at the observation area, with adjusting interval between
each projector lens, in projection-type Auto-stereoscopic multi-view 3
dimensional system. Also, making the ray of light pass through a point
located in the front of the image position, the amount of crosstalk can be
minimized and the ratio of the amount of overlap along the distance are
maintained. At last, by merging adjoining viewing zone. the crosstalk can
be improved and the luminance of image can be increased.

8738-8, Session 3

Usage of moving nanoparticles for improved
holographic recording (Invited Paper)
Zeev Zalevsky, Amihai Meiri, Bar-Ilan Univ. (Israel); Eran Gur,
Jerusalem College of Engineering (Israel); Javier Garcia,
Vicente Micó, Univ. de València (Spain); Bahram Javidi, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)
In this paper we present a technique that uses the random movement of
nanoparticles for improving the holographic recording performance. In
the first part of our paper we show how the movement of the particles
can eliminate the unwanted terms in a Gabor hologram. In the second
part we show how their movement can improve resolution and increase
the field of view of the reconstruction.
In both cases the free randomly distributed nanoparticles are in proximity
to the object and their Brownian motion encodes the spatial features ofthe object in the recorded hologram. The nanoparticles are localized anda decoding pattern is calculated for each frame. This decoding pattern isthen used either to remove the reference beam and the conjugate beamin the reconstruction of the Gabor hologram or to improve resolution or toextend the obtainable field of view in the reconstruction process.

8738-9, Session 3

Identification of malaria-infected RBC withdigital holographic microscopy (Invited Paper)
Arun Anand, Vani Chhaniwal, The Maharaja Sayajirao Univ. of
Baroda (India); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)Malaria is regarded as one of the most widespread and potentiallyfatal diseases especially in Africa and Asia. Correct diagnostics ofmalaria is essential for proper medication and cure. Main clinicaldiagnostics of malaria is based on microscopic inspection of bloodsmears, treated with reagents, which stains the malarial parasites. A
technician visually inspects these smears to identify malaria infected
red blood cells (RBC). In developing countries, visual identification ofmalarial RBCs may become unreliable due to lack of sufficiently trained
technicians, poor quality microscopes and reagents. Also in remoteareas, malaria diagnostics could benefit from the use of portable andeasy to use instruments to automatically discriminate between malarial
and healthy RBCs. So an automatic compact diagnostics tool will beadvantageous especially for health care personal working in developing
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countries, which lack trained professionals and high quality equipments.
Digital holographic microscopy is one of the advanced techniques forquantitative evaluation of cells, providing cell thickness information
directly. This information obtained by interferometric comparison can beused to identify as well as to compare cells. Here, we describe the useof digital holographic interferometric microscopy (DHIM) with numericalfocusing for automatic identification of malaria infected red blood cells(RBC). Identification is done by comparing its shape profile with that ofa healthy RBC. A correlation function was used to separate healthy andmalaria infected RBCs.

8738-10, Session 3

An alternative approach to develop digitalhologram interaction system using bounding
volumes for identifying object collision
Sungjin Cho, Korea Photonics Technology Institute (Korea,
Republic of) and Korea Institute of Science and Technology(Korea, Republic of); Dong-Su Lee, Min-Chul Park, Korea
Institute of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of);
Byeong-Kwon Ju, Korea Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Jung-Young
Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Many studies on holographic displays have been conducted. However,studies on interaction methods for holographic displays are still in an
early stage. Digital holography technology is not yet fully developed tomake holograms capable of naturally responding to human behaviors
and providing a wide viewing angle to humans. Thus, this study
proposes an alternative approach for making it possible to naturallyinteract with digital holograms by utilizing bounding volume methods,
which have been employed in virtual space. In order to propose an
intuitive interaction method, we utilize a Kinect. In doing so, humans
and environment surrounding them are captured by the depth camera.
The captured depth images are simulated on a virtual space, thencomputer graphic objects are generated on the same virtual space.
Detailed location information of humans is continuously extracted toprovide a natural interaction with the generated objects. In order toeasily identify whether two objects are overlapped or not, bounding
volumes are generated around both humans and objects, respectively.
The local information of the bounding volumes is correlated with one
another, which makes it possible for humans to control the computergenerated objects. The proposed system also tracks the virtual objects’
movements and records them as CGH (Computer-Generated Hologram).
The recorded fringe patterns generated by CGH can be reconstructedin digital holographic displays, which will help lead to an interactive
holograms. The proposed method is expected to be a starting point forestablishing an optimized interaction method for digital holograms.

8738-11, Session 4

Generation of flat viewing zone in DFVZ
autostereoscopic multiview 3D display byweighting factor (Invited Paper)Sung-Kyu Kim, Seon Kyu Yoon, Ki Hyuk Yoon, Korea Institute of
Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of)
A new method is introduced to reduce the three crosstalk problems
and the bright change in 3D image by means of the dynamic fusion ofviewing zones (DFVZ) using weighting factor. The new method effectively
generates the flat viewing zone at the center area of viewing zone.
Therefore the new type autostereoscopic 3D display can give less brighttolerance of 3D image when observer moves.

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Conference 8738:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 20138738-12, Session 4

be an expanded one viewing zone having a high brightness uniformity bysuperposition process. Second, let define the useable number of view
and address image mapping to prevent color dispersion in the expanded
viewing zone. The logical validity of our proposal is verified by opticalsimulation of an actual case.

Effect of Viewing Distance on 3D Fatigue
Caused by Viewing Mobile 3D Content(Invited Paper)

8738-15, Session 4

Sungchul Mun, Dong-Su Lee, Min-Chul Park, Korea Instituteof Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); Sumio Yano,
Shimane Univ. (Japan)

Light-intensity simulation in real space byviewing locations for autostereoscopic
display design

With an advent of autostereoscopic display technique and increased
needs for smart phones, there has been a significant growth in mobile TV
markets. The rapid growth in technical, economical, and social aspects
has encouraged 3D TV manufacturers to apply 3D rendering technology
to mobile devices so that people have more opportunities to comeinto contact with lots of 3D content anytime and anywhere. Even if themobile 3D technology leads to the current market growth, there is an
important thing to consider for consistent development and growth in
the display market. To put it briefly, human factors linked to mobile 3D
viewing should be taken into consideration before developing mobile 3D
technology. Many studies have investigated whether mobile 3D viewing
causes undesirable biomedical effects such as motion sickness andvisual fatigue, but few have examined main factors adversely affecting
human health. Viewing distance is considered one of the main factors toestablish optimized viewing environments from a viewer’s point of view.
Thus, in an effort to determine human-friendly viewing environments,
this study aims to investigate the effect of viewing distance on humanvisual system when exposing to mobile 3D environments. Recording andanalyzing brainwaves before and after watching mobile 3D content, we
explore how positively and negatively viewing distance influences viewing
experience from physiological and psychological perspectives. Results
obtained in this study are expected to provide viewing guidelines forviewers, help ensure viewers against undesirable 3D effects, and lead tomake gradual progress towards a human-friendly mobile 3D viewing.

Jung Guen Jo, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (Korea,
Republic of); Kwang-Hoon Lee, Korea Photonics Technology
Institute (Korea, Republic of); Dong-Su Lee, Min-Chul Park,
Korea Institute of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of);Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Autostereoscopic technique is a common method for providing 3D
perception to viewers without glasses. Although autostereoscopic
displays produce 3D images with a wide perspective, crosstalk is still
an obstacle to solve. It is generally accepted that the crosstalk causes
distortion of perceived images, and degradation of image quality, which
can induce eye fatigue. Many studies have proposed crosstalk simulation
systems in autostereoscopic displays to address the problems andoffer comfortable 3D views to humans. However, most have focusedheavily on calculation of crosstalk regardless of viewers’ positions. Thus,
the purpose of this study was to propose a light intensity simulator
that can calculate crosstalk according to variable viewing positions
by automatically tracking heads of viewers. This study is novel in thefollowing aspects. In contrast to previous methods to estimate crosstalkand viewing zones, the proposed system presents a simulation system toautomatically provide optimized viewing zones to viewers by estimating
crosstalk as a function of viewers’ positions. In doing so, we utilize
head tracking technique based on infrared laser sensors to detect theobservers’ viewing positions. In our preliminary experiment, geometricalparameters, such as aperture, barrier, and display size, related toautostereoscopic displays were used to calculate the light intensity
distributions and suggest the optimized viewing zones to viewers. The
experimental results showed that the proposed system was appropriate
to be operated in real space. The proposed method would help to design
autostereoscopic display panels in that simulated virtual results projected
into the real space ensuring human safety. It is also expected to shorten
the term of product development.

8738-13, Session 4

Expanding the degree of freedom of
observation on depth-direction by the
triple-separated slanted parallax barrier inautostereoscopic 3D display
Kwang-Hoon Lee, Korea Photonics Technology Institute (Korea,
Republic of); Yeong-Seon Choe, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of); Dong-Kil Lee, Yang-Gyu Kim,
Youngsik Park, Korea Photonics Technology Institute (Korea,
Republic of); Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of)8738-16, Session 5

Study on basic problems in real-time 3D
holographic display (Invited Paper)
Yongtian Wang, Jia Jia, Juan Liu, Yijie Pan, Xin Li, Beijing
Institute of Technology (China)

In the proposal the triple segmented-slanted parallax barrier (TS-SPB)
is designed to form the triple viewing zones with that their centers standin line on depth direction having an inter distance to enough them bemerged to one viewing zone. Therefore the superposed viewing zone
makes an expanded viewing area on depth direction. So we can obtain
the increased degree of freedom on depth direction by using TS-SPB.
In TS-SPB, three segmented barrier rows are consisted and the groupof them is periodic arranged on the vertical direction covered to thedisplay. The position of the center of each barrier row is corresponded
to the center of sub-pixel in the same row. And the vertical length of
the segmented barrier is equal to the sub-pixel height. The unit pixel
will be constructed as a slanted shape and consisted tree types of
RGB alignments. The center of sub-pixels are separated on the verticaldirection having a inter distance as the height of sub-pixel and horizontal
direction having the width of sub-pixel in the slanted unit pixel. Core
technologies in our work are as follow that first, let the outgoing raysfrom each R,G,B sub-pixel having a phase difference in the slanted
unit pixel of the view image are passed through the aperture of thesegmented barrier in the same row, and they make the triple viewing
zones in ordered on the depth direction, and three viewing zones are to

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In recent years, real-time three-dimensional (3D) holographic display
has attracted more and more attentions. Since a holographic display
can entirely reconstruct the wavefront of an actual 3D scene, it can
provide all the depth cues for human eye’s observation and perception,and it is believed to be the most promising technology for future 3D
display. However, there are several unsolved basic problems for realizing
large-size real-time 3D holographic display with a wide field of view. For
examples, commercial pixelated spatial light modulators (SLM) always
lead to zero-order intensity distortion; 3D holographic display needs
a huge number of sampling points for the actual objects or scenes,
resulting in enormous computational time; The size and the viewing
zone of the reconstructed 3D optical image are limited by the space
bandwidth product of the SLM; Noise from the coherent light source aswell as from the system severely degrades the quality of the 3D image;and so on. Our work is focused on these basic problems, and some
initial results are presented, including a technique derived theoreticallyand verified experimentally to eliminate the zero-order beam caused by·

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Conference 8738:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2013
a pixelated phase-only SLM; a method to enlarge the reconstructed 3D
image and shorten the reconstruction distance using a concave reflecting
mirror; and several algorithms to speed up the calculation of computer
generated holograms (CGH) for the display.

8738-17, Session 5

A holographic display based on spatial
multiplexing
Jung-Young Son, Oleksii Chernyshov, Konyang Univ. (Korea,
Republic of); Min-chul Park, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of); Wookho Son, Beom-Ryeol Lee,
Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (Korea,
Republic of); Jinwoong Kim, Electronics and Telecommunication
Research Institute (Korea, Republic of)
10 DMD chips of 1280X800 resolution for each chip are combined
spatially to construct a large size holographic image. The chips arealigned 5X2 to get the reconstructed images of 15cm X 3cm. The chips
produced clear and continuous images of the size.

8738-18, Session 5

Computer-generated hologram for 3D scenefrom multiview images
Eun-Young Chang, Electronics and Telecommunications
Research Institute (Korea, Republic of); Yun-Suk Kang, Gwangju
Institute of Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of);
KyungAe Moon, Electronics and Telecommunications ResearchInstitute (Korea, Republic of); Yo-Sung Ho, Gwangju Institute of
Science and Technology (Korea, Republic of); Jinwoong Kim,
Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (Korea,
Republic of)
We propose a new method of generating holograms from multi-view
images. For capturing multi-view images, the multi-view camera systemcomposed of five color cameras and one depth camera is implemented.
For color camera setup, convergent arrangement is used. The depth
camera is positioned appropriately to encompass the field-of-view
covered by five color cameras. Five depth maps are calculated bydepth calculation process from captured multi-view images. Our depth
calculation process is composed of camera calibration, pre-processing
for color correction, lens un-distortion, and distortion correction, andstereo matching. Due to the convergent camera setup, we leave image
rectification out during the depth calculation process. If we would liketo apply image rectification for easy computation, a considerable extent
of image regions will be disappeared. Each depth map is converted into
3-D point clouds using intrinsic/extrinsic camera parameters from thecamera calibration. 3-D point clouds for each viewpoint are unified into
a 3-D point cloud set by erasing duplicated 3-D point clouds severally
presented on multi-view images and merging remaining unique 3-D
point clouds. A hologram supporting motion-parallax is generated fromthe unified 3-D point cloud by examining which 3-D point clouds arecontributed to each pixel of it.
In order to evaluate the performance of proposed methods numerical andoptical reconstructions are used. For numerical reconstruction, several
reconstruction images are calculated according to different distancesby the HoloVision application in order to verify correct depth effect.
Besides the numerical reconstruction, optical reconstructions are also
accomplished by our own optical setup. We confirmed that 3-D scenes
are correctly reconstructed by the both evaluations.

8738-19, Session 5

Spherically-arranged piecewise planar
hologram for capturing a diffracted-object
wavefield in 360 degree
Seungtaik Oh, Electronics and Telecommunications ResearchInstitute (Korea, Republic of); Hoyong Seo, Electronics andTelecommunication Research Institute (Korea, Republic of); ChiYoung Hwang, Beom-Ryeol Lee, Wookho Son, Electronics andTelecommunications Research Institute (Korea, Republic of)Spherical hologram is most ideal since it can record the object wave
propagating in all directions. However, computing a diffracted light field
on a curved surface is not an easy task and, in general, one cannot use
the efficient discrete Fourier transform for curved cases.
In this paper, we propose a practical method to record an object wave
propagating in 360 degree. Our idea is to use spherically-arranged
elementary planar holograms with the same physical size and number ofpixels instead of a single spherical hologram. Every elementary hologram
meets a given sphere tangentially at its center and so the total spatial
frequency vectors determined by elementary holograms cover the entire
directions with almost uniform angular spacing. The range of spatial
frequency vectors for a single elementary hologram is determined by thediffraction angle supported by the elementary hologram.
With this arrangement of elementary planar holograms, we can sample
plane wave components of an object wave for all directions in a rate, theinverse of the physical hologram size and therefore we can synthesize
a new planar hologram tangent to sphere for an arbitrary viewpoint byefficient computation of DFT and angular spectrum transform suchas propagation and rotation. This synthesis process can be also used
for numerical reconstruction at an arbitrary viewpoint for the given
elementary holograms. Numerical results are presented to show theeffectiveness of our method as well.

8738-20, Session 5

Holographic 3D display with 1D spatial light
modulator with a large pixel number
Osamu Matoba, Ayaka Ueno, Kouichi Nitta, Kobe Univ. (Japan)
Holographic 3D display with 1D spatial light modulator (SLM) can reducethe calculation cost to prepare numerically hologram data from virtual
object. We evaluate the reconstructed image quality of 3D object bychanging the pixel number of 1D SLM such as 4096 x 1, 8192 x 1 andmore.
We also show the experimental verification of the effect of the pixel
number on the reconstruction quality.

8738-21, Session 5

A 3D visual conformity with numerical andoptical holographic content reconstruction on
the stereoscopic holographic display system
Beom-Ryeol Lee, Chi-Young Hwang, Wookho Son, Electronics
and Telecommunications Research Institute (Korea, Republic of);
Joonku Hahn, Kyungpook National Univ. (Korea, Republic of);Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of)
Stereoscopic Holographic System consists of hologram reconstruction
optics symmetrically for viewer’s each eye with RGB colors.
We compare to reconstructed hologram image numerically from CGH
with optically reconstructed hologram image on the system.
For visually fitting of numerical and optical reconstructing hologram
image, we tried to manipulate and evaluate parameters of numerical

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Conference 8738:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2013
hologram generation to getting enhanced visual similarity ofreconstruction hologram and adjust and adapt optical setup applicably toconforming with each hologram image on the system.

compensation for different color holograms, which are subsequently
superimposed using a correlation-matching procedure. We test our
procedure in different experimental case considering digital color
holograms recorded in both microscope configuration and lenslessconfiguration. A synthetic hologram, containing the information ofdifferent color recorded holograms of the same object, is designed using
the national television systems committee coefficients and the opticalreconstruction by a spatial light modulator at one wavelength allows us
to display all color features. Finally, using again the stretching technique,a 3D scene of multiple optically recorded digital color holograms ofdifferent objects is synthesized and displayed by the spatial light
modulator.

8738-22, Session 6

Observation of femtosecond light pulse
propagation by using digital light-in-flightrecording by holography (Invited Paper)
Takashi Kakue, Chiba University (Japan); Peng Xia, Tatsuki
Tahara, Yasuhiro Awatsuji, Kenzo Nishio, Shogo Ura, Toshihiro
Kubota, Kyoto Institute of Technology (Japan); Osamu Matoba,
Kobe Univ. (Japan)

8738-25, Session 7

3D integral imaging using compressive
sensing: an overview (Invited Paper)

Light pulse propagation is one of the ultrafast phenomena, and it is usefulto record and observe the propagation for clarifying optimal conditionsof light pulse irradiation in nano surgery and characterizing optical andphotonic devices. Although there are several techniques for

Abhijit Mahalanobis, Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control(United States); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)visualizing ultrashort light pulses, visualization of femtosecond light pulse
propagation by using a single pulse is impossible for them in principle
because they require repetitive light pulses or sequential recording ofimages. Then, we adopt light-in-flight recording by holography as atechnique for recording and observation of femtosecond light pulse
propagation because it is possible to observe light pulse propagation
as a motion picture which is temporally and spatially continuous andframeless at a desired speed with a single-shot exposure by using thetechnique. In particular, digital LIF holography, which combines digitalholography wth LIF holography, has some features such as development
process free, quantitative analysis and evaluation, and low wavelength
dependence. In this paper, we introduce a motion picture of femtosecond
light pulse propagation obtained by digital LIF holography.

Compressive Sensing (CS) provides a way to dramatically reduce theamount of data that needs to be collected to form images, which in turncan reduce the storage and bandwidth requirements. In this paper, we
explore the effects of CS in acquisition of the elemental images, andultimately on passive 3D scene reconstruction and object recognition.
Our experiments show that the performance of passive 3D sensing
systems remains robust even when elemental images are recovered fromvery few compressive measurements.

8738-27, Session 7

Compressive sensing for improved
depth discrimination in 3D holographic
reconstruction (Invited Paper)

8738-23, Session 6

Evaluation of reconstructed quality inincoherent digital holography (Invited Paper)

Yair Rivenson, Adrian Stern, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev(Israel); Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)

Osamu Matoba, Yoshiki Tone, Kouichi Nitta, Kobe Univ. (Japan);Yasuhiro Awatsuji, Kyoto Institute of Technology (Japan)

In a recent work we have investigated the reconstruction of a three
dimensional object acquired using the single exposure on-line (SEOL)
holographic setup. The object’s reconstruction was formulated as acompressive sensing problem. Compressive sensing is a joint signal
acquisition-reconstruction paradigm, which has gained much attention
recently since it provides a framework for the reconstruction highly
subsampled signals. Digital holography was demonstrated to be a highly
efficient object sensing scheme. This combination has already createdmany new holographic applications, since its introduction in 2009. In
this work we concentrate on the ability to reconstruct a 3D volume fromits 2D recorded hologram. Using the single-exposure on-line (SEOL)
setup, we show how CS applied to this naturally underdetermined
problem enables the improved sectioning (or depth discrimination) of thereconstructed volume when compared to standard in-line holography.
This is due to the fact that using the two arms configuration of the SEOL,
can be used to produce higher SNR holograms when compared tostandard in-line holography.

Incoherent diigtal holography is expected to open new applications ofdigital holography for fluorescence 3D imaging or LED illumination to 3D
object. In this presentation, we evaluate the reconstructed image quality
in incoherent digital holography by changing the coherence degree oflight source.

8738-24, Session 6

Synthesis and 3D display of multiwavelength
digital holograms through adaptive
transformation (Invited Paper)
Pasquale Memmolo, Melania Paturzo, Andrea Finizio, Pietro
Ferraro, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica (Italy); Bahram Javidi, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)

We also discuss mathematical guarantees for the reconstruction of
the 3D volume features from its single 2D hologram and their physicalimplications for sectioning of 3D objects.

Digital color holography was established by Yamaguchi et al, who useda phase shifting method for the recording at different wavelengths.
The reconstruction of digital color holograms can be performed
using the discrete Fresnel transform or the convolution method witha zero-padding. Other different numerical methods are based on thecontrol of the size of digital holograms, the pixel resolution, the image
scaling. In this paper we propose a new reconstructing algorithmof multi-wavelengths digital holograms based on the stretchingtransformation. This method was proposed in the 2010 by Paturzo et al.
and the numerical manipulation of the holograms allows the adaptive

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8738-28, Session 7

Advantage of diverging radial type for mobile
stereo camera (Invited Paper)
Lee Dong-Su, Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of); Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ.
·

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Conference 8738:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2013
(Korea, Republic of)8738-31, Session 8

Distortions in the perceived image characteristics for three different
camera arrangements of parallel, conversing, and diverging are different
according to each focal length, focus distance, field of view angle,
color, magnification, and camera aligning direction. The distortions inperceived image for the parallel and converging arrangements have been
researched commercially available stereoscopic TV based on high speed
LCD and shutter glasses, and mobile devices. However, the distortion in
the perceived image for diverging arrangement is not well known. This
paper discusses the distortion in perceived image characteristics ofdiverging type stereo camera and they are compared with those of othercamera arrangements such as parallel and converging types. Also, thedistortion induces the image closer to the viewers for the diverging typewhile away for the converging. The inducement is more prominent as thecamera distance between two component cameras of the stereo camera
for the diverging type. Furthermore, the effect of diverging angle on
disparity will be considered that the inter-camera distance can be madeas small as possible.

Three-dimensional polarimetric imaging
based on integral-imaging techniques
Xiao Xiao, Bahram Javidi, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
In this paper, we overview a 3D polarimetric computational integral
imaging system by using polarization diversity of objects undernatural illumination conditions. In the system, we first measure Stokes
polarization parameters and generate degree of polarization images ofa 3D scene. Then we utilize a modified computational reconstruction
method to perform 3D polarimetric image reconstruction by using
the calculated degree of polarization for all the elemental images.
Experimental results are also given to verify the feasibility of the 3D
polarimetric integral imaging. The system may be used to detect orclassify objects with distinct polarization signatures in 3D space.

8738-32, Session 88738-29, Session 7

Information-theoretic metrics for 3D photoncounting integral imaging (Invited Paper)
Majeed Hayat, Srikanth R. Narravula, Matthew P. Pepin, The
Univ. of New Mexico (United States); Bahram Javidi, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States)
Photon-counting integral imaging has been introduced recently andits applications in 3D object sensing, visualization, recognition andclassification under photon-starved conditions have been demonstrated.
This paper reviews recent developments of the underlying informationtheoretic foundation behind the observation that such complex
tasks can be performed by means of imaging with far fewer photons
than conventional imaging systems. To this end, recently developed
information-theoretic metrics for 3D image fidelity, measured by theentropy-normalized mutual information associated with a given imaging
system, as well as the photon-information-content metric, represented
by the mutual information per photon, are reviewed and discussed in
the context of 3D photon-counting imaging. The trade-off between
image fidelity and photon-information-content metrics are discussed byexamples from 3D integral imaging.

8738-30, Session 8

Concealed object segmentation and threedimensional localization with passive
millimeter-wave imaging (Invited Paper)

Real-time motion artifacts compensation of
ToF sensors data on GPU
Damien Lefloch, Thomas Hoegg, Andreas Kolb, Univ. Siegen(Germany)
Over the last decade, Time-of-Flight (ToF) sensors brought increasing
interest for researchers in computer vision and graphics field. And arenowadays widely used in many applications. Nevertheless, due to theiracquisition principle which roughly consists of a temporal phase-shift
signal sampling, ToF devices are subjects to strong motion artifacts inthe case of dynamic scene. Mainly present on depth and intensity edges,
motion leads to incorrect range measurement. Furthermore, ToF cameras
solely provide low-resolution depth data which strongly justifies theimportance of a robust motion artifacts detection and a valid correction
procedure.
To counter this effect, a pre-processing approach is introduced to greatly
improve range image data on dynamic scene. Our method is using
optical flow algorithm on raw phase data, sampled during the acquisition
process and can operate with both, lateral and axial motion. Since raw
data is not accessible from all ToF cameras on the market, a discussionis also provided concerning other methods dealing with motion
compensation.
We first demonstrate the correctness and robustness of our approach
using both “realistic” simulated and real range sensor data. As well as anevaluation of motion compensated depth image based on groundtruth
data generates from our ToF simulator. Secondly, our method is validated
using live range data from the acquisition of simple groundtruth objects
with known dimension, distance and motion. And finally, our GPU based
processing pipeline enhances range data reliability in real-time, with noframe rate loss.

Seokwon Yeom, Daegu Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Millimeter waves imaging draws increasing attention in security
applications for the detection of objects under clothing. In this paper,
concealed object segmentation and three-dimensional localization
schemes are reviewed. The segmentation has two stages: global andlocal segmentation stages. Each of them comprises k-means andexpectation maximization algorithms. A segmentation-based stereomatching method estimates the longitudinal distance from a concealed
object. The distance from a concealed object is estimated on the basisof discrepancy between corresponding centers of the segmented objects
in the stereo pair. Experimental results are provided with millimeter wave
images indoors and outdoors.

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8738-6, Session PTues

Analysis of three-dimensional image, using
Tutte polynomial for polyhedral graphs
Alejandro Gómez Montoya, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
All three-dimensional image, could be represented with a polyhedralgraphs, where the number of edges and vertices is proportional to thequality of the image, and this image could be stored in an algebraic
expression like a Tutte polynomial, allowing the reconstruction of any
three-dimensional image. The Tutte polynomial is calculated using the
package Graph Theory of Maple 16, which has been optimized forpolyhedral graphs with a lot of edges and vertices, so this could be very
useful with three-dimensional complex images or three-dimensional HD
image. In this paper, I will present some examples of the useful Tutte
polynomial, and for future work, I will investigate the use of BollobásRiordan polynomial.

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Conference 8738:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 20138738-33, Session PTues

8738-36, Session PTues

A new system parameters analysis method toimprove image quality in digital microscopic
hologram reconstruction

Automated analysis of 3D morphology ofhuman red blood cells via off-axis digitalholographic microscopy

Jiansu Li, Zhao Wang, Jianmin Gao, Kun Chen, Xi’an Jiaotong
Univ. (China); Yun Liu, Xi’an Jiaotong Univ. (China) and Xi’an Univ.
of Technology (China)

Inkyu Moon, Chosun Univ. (Korea, Republic of)In this paper we overview an automated methods to analyze threedimensional (3D) morphology of human red blood cells (RBCs) for the
purpose of the various types of RBCs identification. Off-axis opticalinterferometry setup captures the digital holograms of multiple RBCs
by CCD camera. The phase images of the RBCs are retrieved from therecorded hologram. The image segmentation algorithm based on markercontrolled watershed is applied to the reconstructed phase image withmultiple red blood cells. All of the single RBCs are extracted by using
the segmentation method. Finally, the 3D morphology information of
RBC such as surface area, mean phase value, dry-mass and density
are automatically obtained using digital image processing techniques.
Experimental results demonstrate the presented methods can
automatically and quantitatively analyze the 3D morphology of RBCs.

Digital holographic microscopy can accurately analyze the threedimensional surface shape structure of the object and the phase
information of phase objects. It is divided into the hologram recording
and digital reconstruction. The qualified hologram is the foundationof obtaining non-overlapping and high-quality reconstructed image.
Therefore, it is vital to analyze the system parameters in digitalholographic microscopy. This paper focuses on the system parameters
analysis of the pre-magnification digital holographic recording system,
which is the most widely used in digital holographic microscopy
recording system.
In order to obtain the non-overlapping and high-quality reconstructed
image, this paper proposes a new analysis method to determine systemparameters in digital holographic microscopy. Nowadays a few scholars
have analyzed the system parameters, but they mainly analyze themfrom the hologram, which need to satisfy the sampling theorem andseparate spectrum conditions. So there are three aspects being studied,which are the sampling theorem, spectrum separation conditions andthe relationships between the CCD size and reconstructed image. Thenthe system parameters relationships are proposed, which contribute toacquire the reconstructed image with high quality. The max object size
is directly proportional to the wavelength and microscope objective focal
length, and it is inversely proportional to the sampling interval. And themin magnification and recoding distance range have been describedaccurately after analyzing these three aspects. Comparing with thesystem parameters relationships described by previous papers, these
relationships are more accurate and comprehensive. Experiment further
demonstrates the proposed analysis method’s validity.

8738-37, Session PTues

Coherent scattering stereoscopic microscopy
for mask inspection of extreme ultraviolet
lithography
Ki Hyuk Kim, Korea Institute of Science and Technology(Korea, Republic of); Jung Guen Jo, Korea Institute of Scienceand Technology (Korea, Republic of) and Korea Univ. (Korea,
Republic of); Min-Chul Park, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of); Byeong-Kwon Ju, Korea Univ.
(Korea, Republic of); Sungjin Cho, Korea Institute of Science andTechnology (Korea, Republic of) and Korea Univ. (Korea, Republicof); Jung-Young Son, Konyang Univ. (Korea, Republic of)8738-34, Session PTues

Mask inspection is essential for the success of any pattern-transfer
lithography technology, and extreme ultra-violet(EUV) Lithography inparticular faces unique challenges. The phase of structures and defects
on EUV masks were quantitatively reconstructed based on aerial image
measurements, using a pair of stereoscopic images reconstructed byhybrid input-output algorithm. The reconstructed images interpolate
pixel of each other as complementary then they provide detector withthe stereoscopic 3D Displays. The stereoscopic microscope elevatesthe accuracy of mask inspection. In this paper, we proposed a simulated
solution of stereoscopic coherent scattering microscopy for mask
inspection used extreme ultra-violet lithography.

Recognition of facial expression from variable
quality 3D pose data
Manar D. Samad, Khan M. Iftekharuddin, Old Dominion Univ.
(United States)
Although recognition of facial expression from 3D models has been
advanced for over a decade, it still suffers challenges due to head pose inspontaneous human-computer interaction. Moreover, the reconstructed
3D face models may be incomplete, redundant or inconsistent in termsof discriminative data content for facial expression recognition. Therefore
the quality of the reconstructed 3D models becomes an issue in such
recognition purpose. We propose a method that computes normal
vectors and their angles from 3D models with vertex and face information
to represent each expression. A projection of normal vectors on tangent
plane would provide distinctive pattern for facial expression. Furthermore,a histogram representation of this projected normal vectors andcorresponding angles will show the principal direction of an expression
class. These will help us obtain pose and expression related features
which will in turn facilitate classification for recognition. We will test andcompare the performance of our algorithm over a set of poorly versus
neatly reconstructed 3D facial expression data. Similarly, we will study
the recognition of facial expression from 3D data subjected to pose. Our
method will not require any assignment of landmark, rather it will map
all nonuniform datasets into a uniform grid to compute and compare the
distribution of projected normal vectors and their angles of orientation.
We will evaluate the performance after 10-fold cross validation and theconfusion matrix will show the accuracy for different expression.

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8738-38, Session PTues

3D profile reconstruction and analysis
of liquid crystal lens using fluorescence
confocal polarizing microscopy
Yi-Pai Huang, Po-Yuan Hsieh, Lin-Yao Liao, Han-Ping D. Shieh,
National Chiao Tung Univ. (Taiwan)
Liquid Crystal (LC) Lens owns a very unique property that focal length iselectrically tunable without any mechanical moving and shape changing.
The lens effect of LC lenses is achieved by electrically controlling the tilt
angle of LC molecules. Therefore, the phase retardations of the light after
passing through the LC lens and polarizer will be induced. By plotting
the cutting profile of the fringe pattern, the optical path length (OPL)is calculated to estimate the optical properties. However, the fringing
pattern is an integral result which is difficult to observe the significant
behavior of light inside the LC cells. In this paper, we proposed thatusing the Fluorescence Confocal Polarizing Microscopy (FCPM) method·

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Conference 8738:
Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display 2013
for analyzing LC lens. The FCPM is a 3D confocal microscopy system
recorded the fluorescent light intensity distribution in the cell layer bylayer. After that, by calculating the recorded results, the spatial refractive
index of the LC lens is obtained. Furthermore, the lens 3D profile could
be reconstructed by stacked these layers. Finally, a real experiment isalso demonstrated to verify our approach. For advanced design, FCPM
method is necessary for the analysis of LC lens.

8738-39, Session PTues

CSpace® scalable, high-resolution 3D display
Mark Willner, 3DIcon Corp. (United States)
Three-dimensional display technologies are under investigation for a wide
range of potential applications in the commercial, defense, and security
market spaces. Key performance criteria include: ease of viewing,high-resolution, high-fidelity, full-color, scalability of the image size,
and reliability. This paper describes 3DIcon research and development
efforts that have demonstrated a promising three-dimensional volumetricdisplay, called CSpace® display, with the capability of satisfying
the aforementioned performance criteria. CSpace® display utilizes
commercial off-the-shelf micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
based mirror arrays and special line generation system to direct infrared
light beams into an image space. The image space is occupied by aphotonic material suitable to convert the incident infrared light to visible
images. To date, monochromatic images have been demonstrated in animage space material that exhibits two-photon upconversion. However,the display system optics are designed to allow the production of fullcolor images and, to that end, materials research is underway to enable
the demonstration of polychromatic images. CSpace® display prototype
requires no special viewing aids and produces a volumetric image that isviewable from 360 degrees. The display as presently designed is capableof producing 800 million voxels, or volumetric pixels, of image content.
The display design facilitates the scalability of the image space. The
use of MEMS based mirror arrays and 3DIcon’s line generation systempromise improved reliability by avoiding large moving parts. This paper
describes the progress of the research to date and critically examines theprospects for future development.

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Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI
Monday - Wednesday 29–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8739 Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

8739-1, Session 1

designed a miniature solar wind flux detector for the lunar mission.
The mother ship that releases the cubesats on impact trajectories
has been designed by NASA Ames Research Center and is known
as Planetary Hitch Hiker (PHH). PHH is low mass (<150 kg), and iscapable of carrying two 3-unit cubesats to the Moon, after achieving
geostationary transfer orbit as a secondary payload. PHH enters a highly
elliptical orbit around the Moon before releasing the cubesats, and thenrelays their data to the Earth after they impact. We are also designinga 3-unit cubesat that may be capable of reaching the Moon without amother ship.

SUCHI: The Space Ultra-Compact
Hyperspectral Imager for small satellites
Sarah T. Crites, Paul G. Lucey, Robert Wright, Univ. of Hawai’i(United States); Jeremy Chan, Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory(United States); Harold Garbeil, Keith A. Horton, Univ. of Hawai’i(United States); Amber Imai, Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory(United States); Mark Wood, Univ. of Hawai’i at Manoa (UnitedStates); Lance Yoneshige, Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory(United States)

8739-3, Session 1

Large diffractive/refractive apertures forspace and airborne telescopes

The Space Ultra Compact Hyperspectral Imager is a long wave infrared
hyperspectral imager being built at the University of Hawaii. The sensor
will be the primary payload on the HiakaSat small satellite scheduled
for launch on the Office of Responsive Space mission ORS 4 andplanned for 6 month primary mission extendable to two years operation
on orbit. SUCHI is based on a variable-gap Fabry-Perot interferometer
employed as a Fourier transform spectrometer and uses an uncooled
320x256 microbolometer array to collect the images. The sensor is low
volume (10x10x36 cm3) and low mass (<9kg), to conform to the volume,
mass, and power requirements of the small satellite. The commercial
microbolometer camera and vacuum-sensitive electronics are contained
within a sealed vessel pressurized to 1 atm. The sensor will collectspectral radiance data in the long wave infrared region (8—14 microns)
and demonstrate the potential of this instrument for advancing thegeological sciences (e.g. mapping of major rock-forming minerals) as well
as for volcanic hazard assessment (mapping volcanic ash, quantificationof volcanic sulfur dioxide pollution and lava flow cooling rates). The
sensor is scheduled for delivery to the satellite in Spring 2013 with launchscheduled for September 2013.

Howard A. MacEwen, Reviresco LLC (United States); James
B. Breckinridge, Breckinridge Associates, LLC (United States);
Richard L. Baron, EFOS Corp. (United States)
Over the past decade, a number of projects have addressed thepossibility of replacing the main aperture in large space telescopeswith a much lighter, more easily packaged and deployed, diffractive/
refractive membrane transmissive optical element. In particular, theseprojects have included the Lawrence Livermore (LLNL) Eyeglass andthe DARPA MOIRE program. A new innovative approach to the theoryof the diffractive and refractive effects and the fabrication of large
membrane optics will be given and analyses presented to show how abroadband and high transmission diffractive/refractive membrane would
be developed. Potential applications will be drawn from both the defense
and astronomical communities:• Geosynchronous surveillance satellites• Space situational awareness and debris detection

8739-2, Session 1• Active surveillance systems (i.e., lidar) for defense and planetaryobservation

Lunar magnetic field measurements with acubesat• Unmanned aerial surveillance, both recoverable and expendable• Balloon-borne astronomical observations

Ian Garrick-Bethell, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz (United States)
and Kyung Hee Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Robert Lin, Univ. of
California, Berkeley (United States); Hugo Sanchez, Belgacem
S. Jaroux, NASA Ames Research Ctr. (United States); Manfred
Bester, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States); Patrick
Brown, Imperial College London (United Kingdom); Daniel
Cosgrove, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States); Michele
K. Dougherty, Imperial College London (United Kingdom); Jasper
S. Halekas, Univ. of California, Berkeley (United States); Doug
Hemingway, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz (United States);Paulo C. Lozano, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Francois Martel, Espace Inc. (United States); Caleb W.
Whitlock, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States)• Very large space astrophysical observatories for the UV through NIR
spectra8739-4, Session 1

An onboard computing system design for aremote sensing cubesat
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
This paper focuses on the onboard computing subsystem for a 1U
CubeSat, comprised of standard subsystems (excluding propulsion) anda payload consisting of a visible light camera, a limited radio science
package and a GPS receiver. The craft also features extensive onboard
computing capabilities for performing mosaicking, super-resolution
and rudimentary image feature identification and analysis. The onboard
computing subsystem consists of a flight computer based on the ATMEL
AT91SAM9G20 chipset and a supplemental processing unit based on
GumStix computer-on-module (COM) units.

The scientific targets of the mission are strongly magnetic regions of thelunar crust that have been studied since the Apollo era. The magnetic
regions are associated with anomalous surface color markings known
as “swirls.” The origins of the crustal magnetism and color markings
are unknown. Measurements in these regions have been performedby orbiting spacecraft at altitudes >15 km, but near-surface data are
required to understand these features.

The key design requirement, having an always-on primary processing
unit and supplemental capabilities (including a digital signal processor)that can be powered up on an as-needed basis, is discussed andrequirement-satisfaction is evaluated. The performance of the
supplemental processing unit (in both single and double COM modes)
for model-based transmission reduction (MBTR) and mosaicking ischaracterized, based on an analysis and comparison to the performanceof these technologies running on conventional computer hardware.
Based on this, a characterization of the prospective mission-utility (theamount of effective knowledge that can be collected, processed andIn addition to magnetic field measurements, we would like to measure
the near-surface solar wind flux, which is likely involved in forming thesurface markings. The CINEMA 3-unit cubesat built by UC Berkeley
Space Sciences Laboratory and Kyung Hee University is well suitedfor these purposes. CINEMA carries a 1 m boom-based magnetometerthat can perform measurements at sufficiently high frequency to capture
the last ten milliseconds of data before impact. UC Berkeley has also

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315Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

conveyed to Earth) is presented comparative to a traditional mission
approach.
An overview of the spacecraft’s design and mission operations plan ispresented. The numerous trades required to allow the requisite payload
and onboard processing hardware to fit within the size and weight
limitations posed by the 1U CubeSat form factor are discussed. Finally,
the paper concludes with a review of the functionality provided by the
spacecraft and the future capabilities that this functionality will facilitate.

8739-5, Session 1

Mission design and operations of aconstellation of small satellites for remotesensing
Trevor C. Sorensen, Eric J. Pilger, Mark S. Wood, Miguel A.
Nunes, Lance K. Yoneshige, Univ. of Hawai’i at Manoa (UnitedStates)The Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory (HSFL) at the University of Hawaii
at Manoa is developing the capabilities to design, build, and operate
constellations of small satellites than can be tailored to efficiently executea variety of remote sensing missions. With the Operationally Responsive
Space (ORS) Office, HSFL is developing the Super Strypi launch vehicle
that on its initial mission in 2013 will launch the HSFL 55-kg HawaiiSat-1
into a near polar orbit, providing the first deployment of thesetechnologies. This satellite will be carrying a miniature hyperspectral
thermal imager developed by the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics andPlanetology (HIGP). HSFL has also developed a method to efficiently
deploy a constellation of small satellites using a minimal number oflaunch vehicles.
Under a three-year NASA grant, HSFL is developing a Comprehensive
Open-architecture Space Mission Operations System (COSMOS) to
support these types of missions. COSMOS is being designed as a
System of Systems (SoS) software integrator, tying together existingelements from different technological domains. This system shouldbe easily adaptable to new architectures and easily scalable. It will be
provided as Open Source to qualified users, so will be adoptable by evenuniversities with very restricted budgets. In this paper we present the useof COSMOS as a System of Systems integrator for satellite constellationsof up to 100 satellites and numerous ground stations and/or contact
nodes, including a fully automated “lights out” satellite contact capability.

8739-6, Session 2

Design of ground motion compensation servo
systemTan Chan, Ding Lei, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics(China)There is relative motion between staring imager loaded in low orbit
satellite and detected aim during exposure time, so the target image
recorded in detectors is moved and blur. Thus it is necessary tocompensate image shift especially in high resolution aerospace
imaging due to the limitation of MTF (Modulation Transform Function).
There are several methods for image compensation, for swing mirror
compensation, if the swing pointing mirror is installed in the part ofobject, the whole system’s scan range could be large and observe low
speed dynamic aims. To eliminate the image shift, the swing pointing
mirror has to swing at certain speed during satellite’s forward flight,
so how to design the servo system of swing compensation mirror is a
key to achieve image compensation. This paper designs and simulates
an image compensation control system base on swing pointing
mirror compensation. The principle of pointing mirror compensation
is presented and the mathematical model of pointing mirror’s driving
motor is established. Based on this model, a high accuracy controller
which consists of current loop and velocity loop is designed andsimulated. Considering that there is disadvantage of traditional speed

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PID controller in dynamic performance, which is speed overshoot, thespeed loop adopts pseudo derivative feed-forward (PDFF) controller.
Theoretical analysis and simulation results show that the designed
image compensation control system has good characteristic in following
performance, dynamic response and noise resistance.

8739-7, Session 2

Rapid orbital characterization of local area
space objects utilizing image-differencing
techniques
Paul McCall, Florida International Univ. (United States);
Madeleine Naudeau, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Marlon Sorge, The Aerospace Corp. (United States); Thomas
Farrell, Schafer Corp. (United States); Malek Adjouadi, Florida
International Univ. (United States)
Satellites in geostationary orbit have limited awareness of nearby
objects that might pose a collision hazard. Small, relatively inexpensive
on-board optical local area sensors often have limited performance.
Proposed are methods to increase the Local Area Awareness provided
by such sensors by means of classical and novel image processing
techniques. This analysis utilizes image differencing-based techniques,in the development of a detection algorithm and for a novel objectvelocity classifier, providing a means of rapidly distinguishing local
area objects that pose a possible collision or interference hazard. The
latter part of the aforementioned analysis may provide an accelerated
means of determining if there is cause for concern of local area objects
when an orbital two-line element set is not available. The researchpresented in this paper focuses on a viable alternative to signal-tonoise ratio intensity-based detection method by proposing a variancebased technique utilizing the stellar background as a reference. The
observed object is simulated having multiple orbits, which consists ofnearby circular orbits or possible debris orbits, which bring the object
within the local area of the observing satellite. This alternative detection
method is of significance as it may allow for detection of objects within
the local area of the observing geostationary satellite in conditions orenvironments when the signal-to-noise ratio of the object is sufficiently
low. Results presented in this paper further demonstrate the ability of the
proposed classifier to provide a means of rapidly distinguishing objects
that pose a possible collision or interference hazard within the local areaof the sensor platform or observing satellite.

8739-8, Session 2

A close proximity assessment andcommunications relay satellite for corrective
measure determination
Atif Mohammad, Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota(United States)
The assessment of physical and other problems with a deployed satellite
is a significant challenge, due to the lack of a direct mechanism forascertaining information about its state. Physical defects or attitude
may render the spacecraft incapable of communication with the Earth’s
surface; logical failures may result in unintended responses to issued
commands. Numerous examples of satellites that have experienced
loss-of-control problems exist; one such example is the University ofMichigan’s M-Cubed spacecraft which was believed to be coupledwith the E1-P spacecraft (potentially due to insufficient P-POD launchseparation).
The Open Space Box (OSB) framework is designed to support recovery
in a post-catastrophe situation. This is accomplished via a low-levelinterrogation-response mechanism that allows state data and stored data
products to be accessed, with proper authentication. This paper details aprospective assessment and recovery mission that could be conducted,using a 6-U CubeSat to attempt to restore service and recover data fromSPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing 2013·

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Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

a failed high-value spacecraft. The OSB protocol used for this service
recovery is detailed. Mission plans for an OSB versus non-OSB recovery
and data retrieval (R&DR) missions are presented and compared. Basedon this, the value of the OSB framework, for facilitating (comparatively)
low-cost R&DR from a high-value spacecraft using a low-cost, small
spacecraft is ascertained. The potential for utilizing this technology onplanetary science and other more distant missions is also assessed. Thechanges that would be required are identified and presented.

measuring the spectral solar irradiance, a bolometer, and an imaging
telescope to determine the solar diameter and asphericity. Thermal
control of the payload is fundamental. The telescope of the PICARD
mission is the most critical instrument.

Above the cloud computing: creating an
orbital service model using cloud computing
techniques

To provide a stable measurement of the solar diameter to few
milliarcseconds over three years duration of mission, telescope
mechanical stability has to be excellent intrinsically, and thermallycontrolled. Current and future space telescope missions require everhigher dimensionally stable structures. Main difficulty was with respect toscientific performances to ensure the thermal stability of the instruments.
Space is a harsh environment for optics with many physical interactions
leading to potentially severe degradation of optical performance. Thermal
control surfaces, and optics of the payload are exposed to spaceenvironmental effects including contamination, atomic oxygen, ultraviolet
radiation, and vacuum temperature cycling. Environmental effects on theperformance of the payload will be discussed.

Jeremy Straub, Atif Mohammad, The Univ. of North Dakota(United States); Josh Berk, Anders K Nervold, University of North
Dakota (United States)

Telescopes are placed on spacecraft’s to avoid the effects of the Earthatmosphere on astronomical observations (turbulence, extinction, ...).
Atmospheric effects however may subsist when satellites are launched in
low orbits, typically mean altitudes of the order of 700 km.

8739-9, Session 2

Traditionally, large satellites and interplanetary spacecraft have been
self-contained. Each craft includes the capabilities required for mission
completion. As a result, the spacecraft carries hardware that is only
occasionally utilized, despite incurring its full development and launchcosts. Smaller spacecraft cannot use this approach. Due to mass andvolume constraints, they cannot carry numerous pieces of scarcely
utilized equipment. This paper proposes a cloud computing / serviceoriented architecture model for exposing satellite services in anorbital environment. Under this approach, each satellite with available
capabilities broadcasts a service description for each service that it can
provide (e.g., general computing capacity, DSP capabilities, specialized
sensing capabilities, transmission capabilities, etc.) and its orbital
elements. Consumer spacecraft retain a cache of service providers
and select one utilizing decision making heuristics (e.g., suitability of
performance, opportunity to transmit instructions and receive results– based on the orbits of the two craft). The two craft negotiate service
provisioning (e.g., when the service can be available and for how long)
based on the operating rules prioritizing use of (and allowing accessto) the service on the service provider craft and the credentials of theconsumer. Service description, negotiation and performance protocols
are presented. The required components (e.g., autonomous control anda lightweight orbit determination routine) of participating (consumer
or provider) spacecraft are reviewed. The system’s performance iscompared to traditional approaches, in terms of task performance (e.g.,quality and time) and task performance as a function of cost. It is also
compared to other spacecraft control architectures.

8739-12, Session 4

Optical analysis of a membrane photon sieve
space telescope
Olha Asmolova, Air Force Academy (United States); Geoff P.
Andersen, HUA, Inc. (United States); Michael E. Dearborn, U.S.
Air Force Academy (United States)
We present FalconSat-7, a CubeSat satellite being constructed at the
US Air Force Academy. In a world’s first we plan to image the Sun using
a deployable membrane primary. In this case the optic is a photon
sieve - a diffractive optic consisting of billions of tiny circular pads on
a transparent polymer substrate. The 20cm telescope is optimized for
H-alpha imaging (656nm) and deployed from a satellite with a total
volume of just 3U (30cmx10cmx10cm).
Diffractive optics are a promising technology for creating ultra-large
space telescope primaries deployed from compact packages. Aside frombeing lightweight and compactable, the use of flat optics greatly reduces
engineering constraints over conventional reflective elements. At the US
Air Force Academy, cadets and faculty are constructing FalconSat-7: amembrane solar telescope deployed from a 3U CubeSat. In a world’s first
we plan to demonstrate the deployment of a membrane primary to image
the Sun at H-alpha (656nm) wavelengths. The primary in question is aphoton sieve – a diffractive optic consisting of billions of tiny pads on aflat transparent polymer sheet.

8739-11, Session 4

Our 20cm-diameter, F/2 primary uses a 25 micron thick zero-CTE
polyimide having a mass less than 10 grams. The membrane is pulled
taut by a triangular pantograph support structure. The membrane,
support structure, secondary optics, camera and associated control
electronics are all packaged within just half the overall satellite volume.
When deployed in a low Earth orbit the deployed telescope will collectimages of the Sun for transmission to a ground station at the Academy.
Cadets are involved in every aspect of the project from program
management to component design and testing. In this talk we will
present results of initial experiments and provide details of zero-G testing
and 2014 launch.

PICARD payload thermal control system andgeneral impact of the space environment on
astronomical observations
Mustapha Meftah, Abdanour Irbah, Alain Hauchecorne, JeanFrançois Hochedez, Lab. Atmosphères, Milieux, Observations
Spatiales (France)
PICARD is a spacecraft dedicated to the simultaneous measurement of
the absolute total and spectral solar irradiance, the diameter, the solar
shape, and to the Sun’s interior probing by the helioseismology method.
The mission has two scientific objectives, which are the study of theorigin of the solar variability, and the study of the relations between the
Sun and the Earth’s climate. The spacecraft was successfully launched,on June 15, 2010 on a DNEPR-1 launcher.

8739-13, Session 4

Monitoring and predicting rate of VIIRS
sensitivity degradation from telescopecontamination by tungsten oxide

PICARD spacecraft uses the MYRIADE family platform, developedby CNES to use as much as possible common equipment units. This
platform was designed for a total mass of about 130 kg at launch. This
paper focuses on the TCS (Thermal Control System) design, testing, andfirst in-orbit performances of the payload, which mainly consists in two
absolute radiometers measuring the total solar irradiance, a photometer

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Slawomir Blonski, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates); Changyong Cao, NOAA/NESDIS/STAR (United States)
VIIRS (Visible-Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) instrument was·

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Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

launched onboard the Suomi NPP (National Polar-orbiting Partnership)
spacecraft on October 28, 2011. Shortly after the Earth observations
with VIIRS began, it was observed that sensitivity of the sensor’s several
spectral bands decreases with time much faster than expected. The NIR(near infrared) bands have been the most affected by the degradation,
but radiometric response of the neighboring visible and SWIR (shortwave infrared) bands has degraded as well. After an investigation, theanomaly resolution team determined that the VIIRS telescope mirror
contamination with tungsten oxide is the root cause of the degradationand that the degradation is controlled by exposure of the mirror surfaces
to the UV (ultraviolet) illumination, which cannot be reduced on orbit.
We have monitored progress of the degradation using both Earth view
measurements from the pseudo-invariant Antarctic Dome C site andonboard calibrator measurements of light reflected from the solar
diffuser when it is illuminated by the Sun. After the first year of the VIIRS
operations on orbit, kinetics of the degradation is best modeled witha three-exponential function, and an additional exponential term does
not improve the fit of the model to the solar diffuser measurements.
With the largest time constant of 139 days, the model predicts that thedegradation will effectively level off during the second year on orbit.
By then, radiometric response of the VIIRS bands most affected by thedegradation will be reduced by 33%. Despite this loss, VIIRS radiometricsensitivity will remain within the specified requirements.

8739-14, Session 4

Thermoelectric radiation sensors for the
space mission BepiColombo to mercury
Frank Hänschke, Ernst Kessler, Ulrich Dillner, Uwe Schinkel,
Andreas Ihring, Hans-Georg Meyer, Institut für Photonische
Technologien e.V. (Germany); Jörg Knollenberg, Ingo Walter,
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (Germany)
We present a newly designed thermoelectric detector chip of highdetectivity for the space mission BepiColombo to Mercury. The sensor ispart of the MERTIS radiometer, which enables radiometric measurementsin the spectral range from 7-40 micron to study the thermo-physicalproperties of the planet’s surface material.
In collaboration with the DLR Institute of Planetary Research, theInstitute of Photonic Technology has developed a sensor array witha specific detectivity D* of 1.1x 10^9 Jones in vacuum environmentand 2 x 15 individual readable channels. In addition, it has an opticalslit in the middle, which serves as the entrance slit of a spectrometer
downstream. The sensor area is coated with an absorbing layer, in thiscase silver black having an absorption coefficient of nearly 100 percent
in a wavelength range from 0.4 up to 20 micron. To minimize the thermal
cross talk between the individual pixels, each pixel is separated by a
50 micron slit in the self-supporting silicon nitride membrane. For goodmechanical stability of the pixels, the pixel membrane is tensioned by 10
micron bridges like braces. The sensor is electrically contacted with astarr-flex PCB by direct wire bonding and both are mounted on a milled
aluminum housing.
At the Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT), high detectivity radiation
sensors are developed and based on the thermoelectric principle. The
thermoelectric materials used are the highly effective combination ofn-bismuth(87%)-antimony(13%) / p-antimony. The sensors are designed,in the main, as miniaturized multi-junction thermocouples and madeby state of the art thin film technologies allowing for achievable andreproducible detectivities D* in the range of 10^8 up to 2x10^9 Jones.

8739-15, Session 4

High-performance, water-absorption free
antireflective optical coatings in the shortwave and mid-wave for earth observing
optical systems
Adam M. Phenis, Joseph E. Sauvageau, Robert D. Smith II, SAIC
318

(United States); David C. Utley, CEB Metasystems, Inc. (UnitedStates)The performance of space-based earth observing optical systems
operating in the short-wave and mid-wave infrared can be severelycompromised in throughput due to optical absorption associated withwater/hydroxyl groups trapped in various coatings. These systems
also require high-performance optical coatings to maximize throughput
and reduce stray light. Water (H2O) and hydroxyl groups (-OH)
can contaminate an optical coating during the deposition process
and via general exposure to water vapor and humid environments
throughout assembly, integration and testing prior to deployment. Water
incorporated into the film’s polycrystalline grain structure, can be trappedin the deposition process and permanently degrade transmission. This
presentation will discuss the antireflective optical coating development
process including design and specification of the respective coatings,
deposition, optical and environmental testing and present a developed
and tested coating process with a coating identifier that the generalcommunity can use for optical components that serve similar missions.

8739-16, Session 5

Next-generation photonic true time delay
devices as enabled by a new electro-optic
architecture
Scott R. Davis, Seth T. Johnson, Scott D. Rommel, Neil A.
Rebolledo, Michael H. Anderson, Vescent Photonics Inc. (UnitedStates)We present new photonic-true-time-delay (PTTD) devices, which are a
key component for phased array antenna (PAA) and phased array radar(PAR) systems. These new devices, which are highly manufacturable,
provide a previously unattainable combination of performance
characteristics: large time delay tunability and low insertion loss, all ina form factor that enables integration of many channels in a compact
package with very modest power consumption. The low size, weight, andpower are especially enabling for satellite deployment. These devices
are enabled by: i) “Optical Path Reflectors” or OPRs that compresses a>20 foot change in optical path length, i.e., a >20 nsec tuning of delay,
into a very compact package (only centimeters), and ii) electro-optic
angle actuators that can be used to voltage tune or voltage select the
optical time delay. We have designed and built OPRs that demonstrated:large time delay tunability (>30 nsecs), high RF bandwidth (>40 GHz andlikely much higher), high resolution (<200 psec), and low and constantinsertion loss (< 1 dB and varying by < 0.5 dB). We also completed a full
design and manufacturing run of improved EO angle actuators that met
the scanner requirements. Finally, a complete optical model of these
integrated devices will be presented, specifically; the design for a multichannel (400 channels) PTTD device will be discussed. The applicability
and/or risks for space deployment will be discussed.

8739-17, Session 5

New electro-optic laser scanners for smallsat to ground laser communication links
Scott R. Davis, Scott D. Rommel, Seth T. Johnson, Stephanie
M. McMahon, Neil A. Rebolledo, Michael H. Anderson, Vescent
Photonics Inc. (United States); Yijiang Chen, Tien-Hsin Chao, Jet
Propulsion Lab. (United States)
In this talk we will discuss revolutionary electro-optic beam steering
technology and efforts to combine it with optical telecommunication
technology, thereby enabling low cost, compact, and rugged free space
optical (FSO) communication modules for small-sat applications. Smallsatellite applications, particularly those characterized as “micro-sats”
are often highly constrained by their ability to provide high bandwidthscience data to the ground. This will often limit the relevance of even

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Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

highly capable payloads due to the lack of data availability. FSO
modules with unprecedented cost and size, weight, and power (SWaP)
advantages will enable multi-access FSO networks to spread acrosspreviously inaccessible platforms. An example system would fit within a
few cubic inch volume, require less than 1 watt of power and be able toprovide ground station tracking (including orbital motion over wide angles
and jitter correction) with a 50 Mbps downlink and no moving parts. Thisis possible, for the first time, because of emergent and unprecedented
electro-optic (EO) laser scanners which will replace expensive, heavy,
and power-consuming gimbal mechanisms. In this paper we will describe
the design, construction, and performance of these new scanners.
Specific examples to be discussed include an all electro-optic beamsteer
with a 60 degree by 40 degree field of view. We will also present designs
for a cube-sat to ground flight demonstration. This development would
provide a significant enhancement in capabilities for future NASA andother Government and industry space projects.

a 2.3-degree field of view telescope was coupled to the original MéO
telescope 3-arcmin narrow field of view. The wide field of view telescope
aimed at pointing, adjusting and acquiring images of the space debris for
astrometry measurement. The achieved set-up allowed performing laser
ranging and angular measurements in parallel, on several rocket stages
from past launches.
After a brief description of the set-up, development issues andcampaigns, the paper discusses added-value of laser ranging
measurement when combined to angular measurement for accurate orbit
determination. Comparison between different sets of experimental results
as well as simulation results is given.

8739-21, Session 6

Large phase angle observations of GEO
satellites

8739-19, Session 5

Rita L. Cognion, Oceanit Space Surveillance (United States)

Demonstration of space optical transmitter
development for multiple high-frequency
bands

Observations of satellites in geosynchronous orbit (GEO) are routinely
performed by optical sensors at night when the phase angle—the angle
between the satellite’s lines of sight to earth and to sun—is less thanabout 85 degrees. Daytime optical observations of satellites in the GEO
belt will be performed at larger phase angles. In afternoon and morning
hours, small phase angles are available, but at mid-day the phase angle
is constrained to be greater than a minimum value that depends upon
the latitude of the sensor and time of year. On Maui at summer solstice,for example, the minimum phase angle is 110 degrees at mid-day forobservations of the GEO belt.

Hung Nguyen, NASA Glenn Research Ctr. (United States)
As the demand for increasingly multiple radio frequency carrier bands
continues to grow in space communication system, the design ofcompact space optical transmitter having the capability of transmitting
selective multiple RF bands is of great interest, particularly for NASASpace Communications Network Programs. This paper presents
experimental results that demonstrate the feasibility of a concept basedon an optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technique thatenables multiple microwave bands with different modulation formats andbandwidths to be combined and transmitted all in one unit, resulting inmany benefits to space communication systems including reduced size,
weight and complexity with corresponding savings in cost. Experimental
results will be presented including the individual received RF signal
power spectra for the L, C, X, Ku, Ka, and Q frequency bands, andmeasurements of phase noise associated with each RF frequency.
Also to be presented is a swept frequency power spectrum showing
simultaneous multiple RF frequency bands transmission. The RF
frequency bands in this experiment are among those most commonlyused in NASA space environment communications.

In order to predict their visibility during the daytime, observations of GEO
satellites were conducted at night with a small-aperture telescope at thelarge phase angles available soon after dusk and before dawn. Analysisof the satellite images reveals a flattening in the light curve for phaseangles greater than 100 degrees, and the data provide an empiricalmodel of the expected satellite signal at all phase angles.

8739-22, Session 6

Conformal prediction for anomaly detection
and collision alert in space surveillance
Huimin Chen, Univ. of New Orleans (United States); Genshe
Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Khanh
D. Pham, Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

8739-20, Session 6

laser ranging with the MéO telescope to
improve orbital accuracy of space debris

Anomaly detection has been identified as an important technique fordetecting critical events in a wide range of data rich applications wherea majority of the data is considered inconsequential, “normal,” and/or
uninteresting. We consider the detection of anomalous behaviors amongspace objects using the theory of conformal prediction for distributionindependent on-line learning to provide collision alerts with a desirable
confidence level. We exploit the fact that conformal predictors givevalid forecasted sets at specified confidence levels under the relatively
weak assumption that the (normal) training data, together with (normal)
observations to be predicted, have been generated from the same
distribution. If the actual observation is not included in the (possibly
empty) prediction set, it is classified as anomalous at the corresponding
significance level. Interpreting the significance level as an upper boundof the probability that a normal observation is mistakenly classified asanomalous, we can conveniently adjust the sensitivity to anomalies while
controlling the rate of false alarms without having to find any application
specific thresholds. The proposed conformal prediction method wasevaluated for a space surveillance application using recorded dataassumed to be normal. The validity of the prediction sets is justified
by the empirical error rate which is just below the significance level.
In addition, experiments with simulated anomalous data indicate thatanomaly detection sensitivity is superior to that of the existing methods indeclaring potential collision events.

Laurent Hennegrave, Marine Pyanet, Hervé Haag, EADS Astrium(France); Etienne Samain, Dominique Albanese, Jocelyn Paris,
Observatoire de la Côte d’AZUR (France); Guillaume Blanchet,
Sophie Vial, Bruno Esmiller, EADS Astrium (France)
Improving orbital accuracy of space debris is one of the major
prerequisite to performing reliable collision prediction in low earth
orbit. The objective is to avoid false alarms and useless maneuvers for
operational satellites. This paper shows how laser ranging on debris canimprove the accuracy of orbit determination.
In March 2012 a joint OCA-Astrium team had the first laser echoesfrom space debris using the MéO (Métrologie Optique) telescope of the
Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur (OCA), upgraded with a nanosecond
pulsed laser. The experiment was conducted in full compliance with theprocedures dictated by the French Civil Aviation Authorities.
To perform laser ranging measurement on space debris, the laser
link budget needed to be improved. Related technical developments
were supported by implementation of a 2J pulsed laser purchased by
ASTRIUM and an adapted photo detection. To achieve acquisition of
the target from low accuracy orbital data such as Two Lines Elements,

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Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

8739-23, Session 6

Analysis of orbits of hostile satellites
Genshe Chen, Carl Looney, Intelligent Fusion Technology,
Inc. (United States); Khanh D. Pham, Erik P. Blasch, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
The onboard transponders and GPS receivers are not available fortracking hostile satellites, so multiple radars and laser rangers canbe used. We transform polar coordinates (r(tn), q(tn), f(tn)) at multiple
radar sites to Earth Centered Inertial (ECI) coordinates and fuse themby inverse mean-square error weightings. For an ECI state s(tn) = (x(tn),y(tn), z(tn), x´(tn), y´(tn), z´(tn), x˝(tn), y˝(tn), z˝(tn)), we iterate by: 1) reading
new values (r(tn+1), q(tn+1), f(tn+1)) at tn+1 at each radar, transformto ECI and fuse them to get the new state snew(tn+1); 2) extrapolating
the current state s(tn) forward to sex(tn+1); 3) fusing the extrapolated
and new states, sex(tn+1) and snew(tn+1), for the updated state s(tn+1)= (x(tn+1), y(tn+1), z(tn+1), x´(tn+1), y´(tn+1), z´(tn+1), x˝(tn+1), y˝(tn+1),
z˝(tn+1)). From multiple fused states the perturbed elliptical orbit
parameters (eccentricity, semi-major lengths, period) are determined.
The ECI position coordinate values over time are analyzed by Fouriercomponents to obtain the major orbit cycle and those due to total
perturbation from the Moon, Sun, drag, etc.). The state needs to be reestablished every week or so and its changes are a key to determining
any threat it poses.

8739-27, Session 7

Blind and beacon-less TDMA scheduling for
ad-hoc LEO Satellite communications
Tien M. Nguyen, Raytheon Co. (United States)
Future satellite missions require low SWAP (Size, Weight and Power) RF
subsystem architecture that can support UAVs data rates at the order ofGbps for both uplink and downlink. To meet the UAVs communications
capacity requirements, the most commonly used multiple accesstechnique employing dual polarization with TDMA will be considered for
the CONOPs discussed in this paper with a LEO satellite constellation.
Currently, the TDMA technique for LEO requires a beacon (or a pilot tone)
to perform TDMA scheduling. Satellite payload requires a beacon system
which increases the SWAP requirements. This paper discusses potential
approaches using Blind and Beaconless TDMA Scheduling (BBTS) to
perform TDMA scheduling including:• Approach to search for satellite availability• On-board TDMA scheduling• Disseminate schedules to UAV platforms
This paper also discusses advantages associated with BBTS including
satellite payload SWAP reduction and unknown priori information of thesatellite location.

8739-24, Session 8

An efficient QoS-aware routing algorithm for
LEO polar constellations
Xin Tian, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Khanh D. Pham, Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Zhi Tian, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States);
Dan Shen, Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc.
(United States)
In this work, a Quality of Service (QoS)-aware routing (QAR) algorithm
is developed for low-Earth orbit (LEO) polar constellations. LEO polar
orbits are the only type of satellite constellations where inter-plane intersatellite links (ISLs) are implemented in real world. The QAR algorithm
exploits features of the topology of the LEO satellite constellation, whichmakes it more efficient than general shortest path routing algorithms
320such as Dijkstra’s, extended Bellman-Ford algorithms. Traffic density,
priority, and error QoS requirements on communication delays can beeasily incorporated into the algorithm through satellite distances. The
QAR algorithm also supports efficient load balancing in the satellite
network by utilizing the multiple paths from the source satellite to
the destination satellite, and effectively lowers the rate of network
congestion. The QAR algorithm supports a novel robust routing scheme
in LEO polar constellation, which is able to significantly reduce theimpact of ISL congestions on QoS in terms of communication delay
and jitter. Examples are shown through implementation of a known LEO
constellation communicating with a series of dynamic satellites.

8739-25, Session 8

QoS-aware dynamic spectrum access forcognitive radio networks
Xin Tian, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Zhi
Tian, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States); Khanh D.
Pham, Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)
Ubiquitous wireless networking requires efficient dynamic spectrum
access (DSA) among heterogeneous users with diverse transmission
types and bandwidth demands. To meet user-specific quality-of-service(QoS) requirements, the power and spectrum allocated to each user
should lie inside a power/spectral-shape bounded region in order to bemeaningful for the intended application. Most existing DSA methods aim
at enhancing the total system utility. As such, spectrum wastage mayarise when the system-wide optimal allocation falls outside individual
users’ desired regions for QoS provisioning. In this work, novel QoSaware DSA algorithms are developed for both non-cooperative andcooperative users in cognitive radio (CR) networks. The algorithms
maximize the “useful utilities” to the users, and minimize the power
consumption and mutual interference within the CR network. In addition,
the proposed algorithms can be used with a Frequency Agile Waveform
Adaption (FAWA) framework, where generalized signal expansion
functions can not only represent physical-layer radio resources but alsosynthesize the transmitter and receiver waveforms. The FAWA frameworkin combination with the notion of useful utilities, two procedures that are
currently carried out separately, provides a joint solution of QoS-aware
Dynamic Resource Allocation with waveform adaptation.

8739-26, Session 8

Spatial-proactive routing algorithm (SPRA)
algorithms for IP-based satellite networks
Wei Yu, Sixiao Wei, Guobin Xu, Chao Lu, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates); Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates); Khanh D. Pham, Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
The defense satellite communication system (DSCS) seeks to provide
worldwide high-volume and secure communication infrastructure forsupporting real-time voice and data communication. Nevertheless,the lack of network resources in satellite networks is a major issue forsupporting a large number of war-fighting users, who seek to transmit
imagery data, provide networking for navigation, and support secure data
communications for mission critical applications.
To address this issue, we introduce a unique framework and develop
novel IP routing algorithms over satellite networks, which link user
preferences and network conditions to improve end-to-end performance.
Our proposed framework adopts a cross-layer design and considers
the characteristics of satellite networks (e.g., heterogeneity on satellite
nodes, interferences of satellite links, and others). We propose a
Spatial-Proactive Routing Algorithm (SPRA) on satellite networks thatallow users to bargain based on the traffic priority, flow characteristics,
and satellite link quality. For SPRA, we consider both the Single-Path

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Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

Spatial-Proactive Routing Algorithm (SP-SPRA) and the Multiple-Path
Spatial-Proactive Routing Algorithm (MP-SPRA), which can be formalized
as an integer multi-commodity flow problem. SP-SPRA can guarantee
the flow arrived at the destination is in sequence, while MP-SPRA canincrease network throughput and resource utilization. We also develop
the Multilevel Precedence and Preemption Service (MLPP) at both packet
and flow levels in satellite networks to conduct bandwidth guarantee fortransmitting data demanded by urgent needs. Via the combination oftheoretical analysis and simulation study, we evaluate of our proposedrouting algorithms for enhanced DSCS performance.

WSN applications is very challenging, because most of the available
sensor nodes on the market (such as MicaZ, TelosB, Tmote Sky, etc.)
only provide a few on-board blinking LEDs as debug aids. This makes
code development on the actual platform virtually impossible. Although
Hardware-In the Loop (HIL) debugging has been commonly used fordebugging single embedded device, but it cannot be applied to WSNs
easily. Because WSN nodes could be located in multi-hops distance,and hence direct physical connection to node is not feasible. In RSDWSN framework, we propose a framework that connects wirelessly witha multi-hop distance node and synchronizes clock to debug application
behavior in real time. This framework allows a programmer to develop
an application using high level abstractions (Finite State Machine) andthen automatically generate code for target platforms. The complied
generated code could be then directly mounted on sensor nodes andthe RSD-WSN framework provides interfaces by which an application
developer can bind execution sequences of a remote sensor node with avirtual simulated node, so that the developer can monitor node behavior
and refine the application in case of unexpected behavior.

8739-28, Session 8

On effectiveness of digital signal processing
and image-based intrusion detection
techniques for cyber security situation
awareness8739-30, Session 9

Wei Yu, Xiao Wei Shi, Guobin Xu, Chao Lu, Towson Univ. (UnitedStates); Misty Blowers, Erik P. Blasch, Khanh D. Pham, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); Dan Shen, Genshe Chen,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)

Multiple sensor estimation using high-degree
cubature information filter
Jia Bin, Columbia Univ. (United States); Ming Xin, Mississippi
State Univ. (United States); Khanh D. Pham, Erik Blasch, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); Genshe Chen, Intelligent
Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)

Networking technologies are growing explosively to meet worldwide
social, business, military, and commercial communication needs.
Because networks are vulnerable to various types of attacks, there isan urgent call for cyber security methods. To conduct cyber security
situation awareness including both situation assessment and attack
mitigation, we investigate both digital signal processing and image
processing detection techniques to accurately track anomalies in network
traffic.

In this paper, high-degree cubature information filter is proposed for
multiple sensor estimation. The statistical linear error propagation method
is used to incorporate the high-degree cubature rules into the frameworkof the extended information filter. The new proposed information filter ismore flexible to use due to the fact that a different number of points andaccuracy levels can be chosen to achieve arbitrarily higher estimation
accuracy than the extended information filter and the unscented
information filter. In addition, the high-degree cubature information filter
can achieve a close performance to the highly accurate Gauss-Hermite
information filter. However, it does not suffer the curse of dimensionality
problem existing in the Gauss-Hermite information filter since thecubature points only increase polynomially with the dimension. Therefore,
it is computationally more efficient to obtain arbitrary degree of accuracy.
The performance and robustness of this new information filter iscompared with other information filters via a target tracking problem. The
high-degree cubature information filter is shown to be the best in terms ofboth estimation accuracy and computational efficiency.

Our contributions in this paper are listed below. First, we develop thedigital signal processing technique to detect stealth attacks, which
dynamically manipulate attack traffic. Using collected real-world traffic
data and simulated representative attacks, test scenarios are created.
Based on mixture traffic, a discrete wavelet transform (DWT)-based
detection algorithm is compared with a network traffic volume (NTV)based detection algorithm. Second, we develop algorithms to transform
real-world network traffic information (i.e., IP source and detection
addresses) into images and develop the image-based detection toeffectively learn the pattern of attacks and predict future attacks.
To highlight the critical information in the image, a novel gray-scale
image representation uses luminance to highlight the intensity of
traffic anomaly. The image-based toolset provides an intelligent user
a top-down systems-level perspective of traffic anomalies. Third, we
present algorithms to identify the attack patterns in images based on thecorrelation of source and destination addresses. Our experimental data
show that our cyber image-based intrusion detection (CI2D) techniques
can detect stealthy attacks, including worm/malware propagation
denoted as many-to-many attacks, distributed denial-of-service threats
denoted as many-to-one attacks, and scan threats denoted as one-tomany attacks.

8739-31, Session 9

The Doppler wind and temperature sounder:
enabling next-generation weather and space
weather forecasts
Martin J. McHugh, Larry L. Gordley, David F. Fritts, GATS,
Inc. (United States); Wayne F. J. Evans, NorthWest Research
Associates (United States); Benjamin T. Marshall, GATS, Inc.
(United States)

8739-29, Session 8

RSD-WSN: remote source-level debugger for
rapid application development in wirelesssensor networks

Over the last decade it has been established that medium to long range
weather patterns are significantly affected by stratospheric events.
However, existing observations of the dynamical atmosphere above
the tropopause are sparse and irregular, and remote measurements ofupper atmospheric winds have historically proved challenging. Current
numerical models must rely on data from widely separated land-based
instruments and satellite observations with modest precision andcoverage. Even less plentiful are observations of the neutral atmosphereabove 100 km, despite the high potential impact of space weather
on global navigational and electrical systems. We present here a new
instrument concept, the Doppler Wind and Temperature Sounder

Mohammad Mozumdar, California State Univ., Long Beach(United States); Weiyuan Bian, Politecnico di Torino (Italy);Jose Perez, California State Univ., Long Beach (United States);
Luciano Lavagno, Politecnico di Torino (Italy)
The landscape of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) applications has
been extending rapidly in many fields such as factory and building
automation, environmental monitoring, security systems and in a wide
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321Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI(DWTS) that will enable global daily measurements of temperature andhorizontal wind fields from 15 to 250 km. The measurement concept
leverages the high spectral resolution inherently available with gas-filter
correlation radiometry. By exploiting the Doppler shifts resulting froma limb-viewing low Earth orbit satellite, DWTS spectrally resolves large
ensembles of atmospheric emission features. From this, we extract
kinetic temperature and horizontal wind vectors with unprecedented
precision. We review the measurement concept, present simulation
results, and conclude by describing a low-cost operational system thatwould quantify atmospheric dynamics from the lower stratosphere into
the mid thermosphere for the first time.

8739-32, Session 9

A highly sensitive multi-element HgCdTe
e-APD detector for IPDA lidar applications
Jeff Beck, DRS RSTA, Inc. (United States); Mark Skokan, Richard
Scritchfield, DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems, Inc. (UnitedStates); Chris Kamilar, Terry Welch, James M. McCurdy, DRS
RSTA, Inc. (United States); Pradip Mitra, DRS Technologies,
Inc. (United States); Xiaoli Sun, James Abshire, NASA Goddard
Space Flight Ctr. (United States); Kirk Reiff, Analog Digital
Integrated Circuits (United States)
The HgCdTe electron avalanche photodiode (e-APD) is a unique APD thatprovides visible to IR sensitivity with high gain. This device is notable dueto that fact that the gain is “noiseless” (excess noise factor near unity)and very uniform. The fact that it provides photon level sensitivity fromthe visible to the IR opens up a range of active electro-optics systems
applications.
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is currently developing
CO2 LIDARs at 1.57µm wavelength for the Active Sensing of CO2
Emission over Days, Nights, and Seasons (ASCENDS) mission. One of
the major technical challenges is photodetectors that must operate in
the short wave infrared wavelength region with photon level sensitivity
requirements. A HgCdTe e-APD approach is being developed which
promises significant improvements in current technology, and extended
response out to 1.65 µm for CH4 detection. The HgCdTe APD SWIR
detector assembly is expected to improve the receiver sensitivity of the
CO2 LIDAR by at least a factor of two with high dynamic range.
A 4x4 APD array, ROIC, Dewar, and support electronics were designed
for an ASCENDS demonstration sub-system. The APD arrays met thedark current specification in all pixels and the goal dark current in thecenter 4 pixels. For example, one representative APD had a specification
compliant gain of 170 and gain normalized dark current of 4.5 fA. The
ROIC provides a 10 MHz bandwidth with low noise and 21 selectable
gains. Performance of the detector, ROIC, and integrated system will bepresented.

8739-33, Session 9

Designing optimized lightweighted a 700mm
diameter mirror and structures made of sic
for spaceborne EO/IR telescope
Haengbok Lee, Agency for Defense Development (Korea,
Republic of)
Silicon carbide(SiC) is a new type of telescope material developed
in recent years for space applications due to its attractive properties
such as high stiffness, low density, low CTE, high thermal conductivity,
big special heat, long term stability against varying thermal loads andpotential cost and schedule. The combination of its high stiffness, low
CTE, low density and good thermal conductivity, make SiC one of themore appropriate material for the space opto-mechanical applications.
In this paper, we address a design trade studies that explores the
structural views for the lightweight primary mirror was fabricated by both322

reaction bonded (RB)sic, sintered sic and chemical vapor deposition(CVD) sic process as well as the metering structure in sub-metric GSD
class spaceborne EO/IR telescope.

8739-34, Session 9

Engineered plasma interactions for
geomagnetic propulsion of ultra-small
satellites
Jeremy A. Palmer, System Planning Corp. (United States);Thomas P. Hughes, Jeremiah J. Boerner, Guy R. Bennett, Sandia
National Labs. (United States)
Previous astrophysical studies have explained the orbital dynamics
of particles that acquire a high electrostatic charge. In low Earthorbit, the charge collected by a microscopic particle or an ultra-small,
low-mass satellite referred to here as an attosat, interacts with thegeomagnetic field to induce the Lorentz force which, in the ideal case,may be exploited as a form of propellantless propulsion whereby
Earth’s rotational kinetic energy is indirectly converted to useful work.
In specific orbits, an attosat consisting of a multi-chip module withmass not exceeding 0.01 kg may realize Lorentz augmented orbits bymodulating electrostatic charge, the magnitude of which is impacted byits mass, materials, geometry; and interactions with the ionosphere’s
neutral magnetized plasma. Efficient mechanisms for negative andpositive electrostatic charging of an attosat are proposed considering
material, geometry, and emission interactions with the ionosphere’s
neutral plasma with characteristic Debye length. A novel model-based
plasma physics study was undertaken to optimize the positive charge
mechanism quantified by the system charge-to-mass ratio. In the context
of the practical system design considered, a positive charge-to-mass
ratio on the order of 1.9?10-9 C/kg is possible with maximum spacecraft
potential equal to the sum of the kinetic energy of electrons from active
field emission (+43V) and less than +5V from passive elements. The
maximum positive potential is less than what is possible with negativeelectrostatic charging due to differences in thermal velocity and number
density of electronic and ionic species. These insights are the foundationof a practical system design.

8739-36, Session 9Long-integration star tracker image
processing for combined attitude-attitude
rate estimation
Brad Sease, University of Central Florida (United States); Ryan
Koglin, The Univ. of Akron (United States); Brien Flewelling, Air
Foce Research Lab. (United States)
Typical star trackers require the precise centroid information of multiple
stars for attitude determination.
In fact, as rotation rates increase for a fixed exposure, star tracker
attitude accuracy necessarily decreases. The proposed algorithm utilizes
streaked star camera information contained in a single image to provide
past and present attitudes, as well as rate estimation. Streaked starcamera images are generated from a pinhole camera model applied to
the Hipparcos star catalog. Morphological image processing reduces
noise inherent to the camera system as well as low SNR streaks, andcentroiding identifies contiguous areas of interest. Endpoints of individual
star streaks are localized through traditional corner detection methods.
Multiple corner detection methods are implemented and compared,
including the Harris Corner Detector, the Minimum Eigenvalue Method,
and the Trajkovic 4- and 8- Neighbor methods [1, 2]. Discovered
endpoints are grouped according to time of occurrence by considering
a least-squares solution for the center of rotation as projected into theimage plane. Each set is identified against the reference catalog as ina typical star tracker [3]. Preliminary Monte Carlo simulation results
indicate rate estimates within 2% of actual. Single endpoint attitude

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Conference 8739: Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VI

accuracies for various methods and camera boresight orientations withrespect to rotation axis are shown below. The algorithm has potential to
be used in conjunction with or as an alternative to satellite systems’ IMU
components.

pattern CPRGB. A color segmentation algorithm iteratively applies the
FCE to segment the entire image. The experiments demonstrate theeffectiveness and robustness of the proposed algorithms.

Future work will focus on reducing computation cost for continuous
operation as well as feedback in closed-loop attitude control systems.

8739-38, Session 108739-35, Session 10

A holistic image segmentation framework forcloud detection and extraction

A color component texture approach tolocate a vehicle license plate
Jianjun Gao, Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology,
Inc. (United States); Erik P. Blasch, Khanh D. Pham, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)

Dan Shen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Haotian Xu, Temple Univ. (United States); Erik P. Blasch, Khanh
D. Pham, Gregory Horvath, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Zhonghai Wang, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc.
(United States); Haibin Ling, Temple Univ. (United States);
Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)

License plate recognition is popular for highway monitoring and robust
methods would enable future options such as toll-payment primarylane user validation, and parking validation to enable smoother traffic
flows. To locate the vehicle license plate is the first key problem tosolve in automatic vehicle license recognition within an image. Basedon color composition analysis, this paper provide a novel approachof color component texture location. As we know the ordinary vehicle
license plates have fixed colors for the letters and a known backgroundpicture. The color of the plate base is the background which seeks tohave a distinguishing color contrast with the letters. The most common
approach is to decompose the license plate into sub-blocks, and every
block in the plate consists of one or two of the plate colors within a
block. This method involves heavy calculations which results in low
efficiency. Considering the two base colors of block is the co-existingcolor texture of license plate, we only need to recognize the two colors
as adjacent colors based on edges. The calculation of this method isshown to have lower computational costs versus the common approachand thus is higher cost effective. The experiment with 200 plate picturesin various conditions shows 98.5% location rate. Integrated with a theneural network to recognize the license plate colors, NN functions from
OpenCV are used to calculate the color edge detections, and denoise
calculations. The approach shows high accuracy and robustness even inskew, blurred , noisy, and various lighting conditions.

Clouds are a commonly encountered phenomena associated with aerial
or or space-borne visual tracking with electro-optical sensors. Generally
clouds are difficult to detect and extract/segment because they arecomplex in shape and vary with the lighting conditions. In this paper, we
propose a clustering game-theoretic image segmentation (CGIS) based
approach to detect, identify, and segment clouds. In our framework,
the first step is to decompose a given image containing clouds. We
consider the problem of image segmentation as a “clustering game”.
Within the clustering game context, the notion of a cluster turns out
to be equivalent to a classical equilibrium concept from game theory,
as the game equilibrium reflects both the internal and external cluster
conditions. To obtain the evolutionary stable strategies, we explore three
evolutionary dynamics: fictitious play, replicator dynamics, and infection
and immunization dynamics (InImDyn). As for the second step, we use
the shape and color features of known cloud types (e.g., cirrus, stratus,and cumulus) to refine the cloud segments and lower the false alarm rate.
In the third step, we will remove cloud-like objects (such as glaciers or
white buildings) based on the paring of clouds and shades (which arealso segments extracted in the first step). We demonstrate our clouddetection framework on a video clip and obtain supportive results. We
also apply the segmentation results for cloud region inpainting using
region replication approaches. The results support all-weather full-motion
video tracking.

8739-37, Session 108739-39, Session 10

A fuzzy-logic based approach to color
segmentation

Infrared target tracking using multiple
instance learning with adaptive motion
prediction and spatially template weighting

Wei Li, Tianjin Univ. (China) and California State Univ., Bakersfield(United States); Yunyi Li, Duke Univ. (United States); Genshe
Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Quoxing
Zhao, Qinghao Meng, Tianjin Univ. (United States)

Xinchu Shi, Institute of Automation (China) and Temple Univ.
(United States); Weiming Hu, Institute of Automation (China); Yun
Cheng, Hunan University of Humanities, Science and Technology(China); Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates); Jingjing Ji, Temple University (United States); Haibin
Ling, Temple Univ. (United States)

Image segmentation is a fundamental issue in image processing
and computer vision. Especially, color images can provide much
more information than gray-level, so algorithms for color image
segmentation have attracted more and more attention. A number ofimage segmentation techniques have been proposed in past decades.
However, most of the proposed techniques provide a crisp segmentationof images, where each pixel is classified into a unique subset. This
classification may not reflect an understanding of images by humanvery well, as the image segmentation problem is basically one of
psychophysical perception, and therefore not susceptible to a purely
analytical solution.

In this paper, we formulate the problem of infrared target tracking as abinary classification task and extend the online multiple instance learning
tracker (MILTracker) for the task. Compared with many color or texture
based tracking algorithms, the MILtracker highlights the difference
between the target and the background or similar objects, and is thus
suitable for infrared target tracking which undergoes serious textual
information loss. To address the specific challenges in the infrared
sequences, we extend the original MILtracker from two aspects. Firstly,an adaptive motion prediction procedure is integrated in to enhancethe efficiency of the tracker. This step helps discriminate disturbing
objects that are visual very similar to the target under tracking. Secondly,a spatial weight mask is introduced into the target representation toaugment its robustness against similar background clutters, especiallydistracters. We apply the proposed approach on several challenging IR
sequences. The experimental results clearly validate the effectiveness of
our method with encouraging performances.

This paper presents an approach to segmenting colors in an image
using fuzzy logic. Its basic idea is to use a color extractor (FCE) tomeasure color similarity for segmentation. In this study, colors in animage are described in the RGB space, where colors are represented
by their red, green, and blue components in an orthogonal Cartesian
space. The color of each pixel is processed to separate its red, green,
and blue components. The FCE extracts a cluster of colors based on
the color component differences between the pixel and a defined color

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323

Conference 8740: Motion Imagery Technologies,
Best Practices, and Workflows for Intelligence, Surveillance,
and Reconnaissance (ISR), and Situational Awareness
Tuesday 30–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8740 Motion Imagery Technologies, Best Practices, and Workflows for Intelligence,
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR), and Situational Awareness8740-1, Session 1

8740-5, Session 1

Overcoming ISR data challenges

Low-power multi-camera system andalgorithms for automated threat detection

David Bottom, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (UnitedStates)
The accelerating growth in motion imagery and other ISR data presents amajor challenge to Information Technology (IT) organizations. This paper
will exam those challenges as relates to the NGA mission and strategic
objectives. The paper will focus on creating an open IT environment thatwill facilitate tools that provide the GEOINT analysts with an integrated
workspace to perform their evolving role. It will also look at how thisenvironment can support the use of motion imagery and other ISR data
to support activity based intelligence.

8740-2, Session 1

The convergence of GEOINT and ISR
Michael G. Lee, Blue Canopy Group, LLC (United States)
This paper will address the integration of FMV into the larger GEOINT
enterprise and how industry can support this objective. When FMV ispaired with other technology it can be a major source for persistentsurveillance. The paper will compare traditional GEOINT and persistentimagery surveillance. FMV fills a number of gaps in the GEOINT
enterprise and these are things industry can help with. The paper will
elaborate on these and provide some Do’s and Don’ts to be considered.

8740-3, Session 1

David J. Huber, Deepak Khosla, Yang Chen, Darrel J. Van Buer,
Kevin Martin, HRL Labs., LLC (United States)
A key to any robust automated surveillance system is continuous, wide
field-of-view sensor coverage and high accuracy object-of-interest (i.e.,target) detection algorithms. Newer systems typically employ an arrayof multiple fixed cameras that provide individual data streams, each ofwhich is managed by its own processor. This array can continuously
capture the entire field of view, but actual data collection and backend detection algorithm processing consumes additional power andincreases the Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP) of the package. This isoften unacceptable, as many potential surveillance applications havestrict system SWaP requirements.
In this paper, we present a wide field-of-view video system that employs
multiple fixed cameras and exhibits SWaP similar to a single-camera
system without compromising the detection rate. To do this, we cycle
through the sensors, fetch a fixed number of frames from each, andprocess them through a modified target detection algorithm. During thistime the other sensors remain powered-down. Since we don’t process allof the sensors simultaneously, we reduce both the number of processors
required for detection and the power requirements of the system. We
show that the small gaps in coverage and irregular frame rate from themethod do not affect the detection rate of the underlying detection
algorithms. With this approach, we were able to reduce the power ofa ten-camera system by approximately 10x compared to the baseline
normal operation. This work was applied to Phase 2 of DARPA Cognitive
Technology Threat Warning System (CT2WS) program and used during
field testing.

Activity based intelligence
Collin Agee, U.S. Army (United States)

8740-6, Session 1

Activity Based Intelligence (ABI) is a neophyte sub-discipline ofintelligence. In the past decade, there have been significant advancesin collection in the form of Wide Area Persistent Surveillance (WAPS)
and advanced analytics, its operational employment is in the nascentstage. This presentation will provide an operational perspective, setting
the stage by reviewing the evolution of Wide Area Surveillance (WAS),
looking at both collection and Processing, Exploitation and Dissemination(PED), and discussing the applications from the past decade of conflict.
It will posit the tremendous potential of ABI, as the logical maturationof WAS, but also as an integrating analytical approach to Multi-INTIntelligence. It will examine the explosive growth in collection, whichsome have characterized as “swimming in sensors, drowning in data,”
which necessitates some combination of data compression and data
reduction. And it will consider the relevance of ABI to meet futurechallenges, beyond the immediacy of the COIN challenge that has driven
early development.

Delivering FMV in tactical (low bandwidth)environments

Uses of motion imagery in activity-based
intelligence
No abstract available.

Mr. Snevely will present a paper on the challenges and opportunities
for delivering Full Motion Video (FMV) in tactical (low bandwidth)environments. He will discuss the current and planned Military Service
posture for access and dissemination of motion imagery through the
Department’s Distributed Common Ground/Surface Systems (DCGSs).
Mr Snevely will also examine the considerations and limitations for
Motion Imagery in this constrained environment.

8740-7, Session 2

Transporting live video over high packet loss
networks8740-4, Session 1

Tom Lash, SAIC (United States)

John Snevely Jr., U.S. Dept. of Defense (United States)

Dave Werdin, Superior Access Solutions (United States)
Deep Packet Recovery (DPR) Technical Overview
DPR technology provides correction to network induced issues including
Jitter, Out of Order Packets, Dropped Packets, and Burst Loss. DPR
is designed to provide much broader and stronger protection than
traditional Forward Error Correction techniques enabling transport of live
video across severely impaired networks.
The DPR packet recovery mechanism is essentially a buffer

324

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Conference 8740: Motion Imagery Technologies,
Best Practices, and Workflows for Intelligence, Surveillance,
and Reconnaissance (ISR), and Situational Awarenessmanagement system that is based on a Negative Acknowledgmentwith Retransmission. The video packet stream runs continuously fromsource to destination with the DPR process monitoring the packet arrival
characteristics at the destination end of the link.

highest efficiency can be satisfied while keeping OPEX costs undercontrol.
This presentation will highlight both technical and practical challengesof operators in the airborne ISR missions, going from technicalrequirements to efficiency-driven solutions and final results in the field
when transmitting ISR data and video from the airborne platform oversatellite in highly adaptive environments. The existing qualified anddeployed BLoS airborne solution already achieves over 20Mbps fromthe aircraft to the ground in active operations, but requirements andcapabilities continue to increase as more comprehensive ISR data is
being transmitted.

Packets are de-jittered and re-ordered at the destination end asnecessary. If the system discovers missing or corrupt packets, a request
to retransmit the missing packets is sent to the source end of the link.
The missing packets are then sent from the source to the destination
end and inserted into the egress buffer of the system. The retransmission
request and the retransmitted packets flow over unique UDP ports acrossthe same physical connection as the video. The system has the ability torequest and retransmit missing packets several times as the network may
also drop retransmitted packets. The ability to attempt retransmission
multiple times is required in high packet loss networks.

The first part of presentation will be focusing on current trends andtechnical solutions for ISR operations over satellite. Second part will
cover practical challenges and the results achieved during previous
missions.

The DPR system process and algorithm is fully adjustable enabling the
DPR to be optimized for particular expected impairments and for latency
requirements.

8740-11, Session 2

A results-based process for evaluation ofdiverse visual analytics tools

8740-8, Session 2Intelligent video surveillance communication
systems

Gary Rubin, David H. Berger, System Planning Corp. (UnitedStates)Eric P. McCulley, Christopher M. Durso, Vislink US Billerica(United States)

With the pervasiveness of still and full-motion imagery in commercial andmilitary applications, the need to ingest and analyze these media has
grown rapidly in recent years. Additionally, video hosting and live camera
websites provide a near real-time view of our changing world with
unprecedented spatial coverage. To take advantage of these controlled
and crowd-sourced opportunities, sophisticated visual analytics (VA)
tools are required to accurately and efficiently convert raw imagery
into usable information. Whether investing in VA products or evaluating
algorithms for potential development, it is important for stakeholders tounderstand the capabilities and limitations of visual analytics tools.

Recent advances in video encoding and transport technologies
can greatly improve the reliability and expansion of Public Safety
Command and Control Communication Systems. The need forshared communication resources between public safety agencies
has never been greater. The tragic terrorist events of September
11, 2001 underscored the importance of reliable and secure sharedcommunication resources between disparate public safety agencies.
Such communications solutions require a high degree of synergy acrossmultiple collection and delivery mediums.

Visual analytics algorithms are being applied to problems related toIntelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR), facility security, andpublic safety monitoring, to name a few. The diversity of requirements
means that a one-size-fits-all approach to performance assessment will
not work. We present a process for evaluating the efficacy of algorithms
in real-world conditions, thereby allowing users and developers of video
analytics software to understand software capabilities and identify
potential shortcomings. The results-based approach described inthis paper uses an analysis of end-user requirements and Concept ofOperations (CONOPS) to define Measures of Effectiveness (MOEs), test
data requirements, and evaluation strategies. We define metrics that
individually do not fully characterize a system, but when used together,
are a powerful way to reveal both strengths and weaknesses. We provide
examples of data products, such as frame heat maps, target trails,
detection timelines, and rank-based probability of detection curves.

Video delivery systems employing IP packet-based architectures
have become essential to the successful sharing of interagency
communication systems. This digital format medium allows for multiple
workflows to transpire simultaneously and for mission critical video,
audio and data to be strategically deployed.
Software Defined Surveillance (SDS) platforms featuring web-based
software interfaces help to mitigate concerns of interoperability andpremature equipment obsolescence. They make it easier for the user
to manage the system technology after deployment and facilitatea level of customization and product specialization unique to thespecific requirements of the end user. Further, SDS platforms provide
a key element for the seamless expansion of high-performance videocommunication systems as public safety needs evolve.

8740-9, Session 2

8740-12, Session 2

Increased efficiency for beyond line-of-sightin airborne ISR operations

Full motion video optical navigation targeting(FMV ON-target)

Koen Willems, Newtec (Belgium); Slava Frayter, Newtec (UnitedStates)Scott D. Robbins, The MITRE Corp. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

Airborne platforms are increasingly being used as vehicles to capture
intelligence data for defense, state and civil applications. The aerial
vehicles are equipped with technology for both video and data collection;
the data is then sent to a ground command center for further processing.
When airborne platform is outside the reach of direct data relay due todistance or environment, satellite communications is used for beyond lineof sight (BLoS) communication.

8740-13, Session 3

Video quality across the defense intelligence
information enterprise ( DI2E)

Key requirement for the satellite link in ISR operations is to get as muchdata and video as possible through the available bandwidth. The satellite
link also needs to be available at all times during operations to insure
mission critical communications and not endanger ground operations.
Only using robust satellite technology the demand for more data andReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

Kevin West, U.S. Dept. of Defense (United States)
Mr. West will present a paper on the challenges of ensuring Video
Quality across the Defense Intelligence Information Enterprise (DI2E).
He will discuss the challenges and on-going activities that Department·

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Conference 8740: Motion Imagery Technologies,
Best Practices, and Workflows for Intelligence, Surveillance,
and Reconnaissance (ISR), and Situational Awarenessof Defense (DoD) is considering to define a repeatable method for
implementing video quality metrics across the DI2E.

evaluation is presented, comparing the gaze-based interaction techniquewith mouse interaction in the context of object selection in UAS videos.

8740-14, Session 3

8740-20, Session 3

Improving geolocation performance for ISR

Smart systems, dumb data: impact on ISR
operations

Michael J. Lenihan, Todd E. Johanesen, National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (United States)
The presentation will provide the audience with a high-level overview of
the critical role geopositioning plays into turning full motion video into
actionable intelligence. The value of implementing a core geospatial
framework, based on the science of photogrammetry, will be shown asa key enabler for a myriad of on-going operational missions including
detection, identification, location determination, and video analytics. This
foundational capability transcends all phase of the traditional intelligenceproduction cycle and includes improvements to the sensor to enablewide-area motion imagery and activity based intelligence capabilities;
it also covers changes to upstream and downstream processing
architectures; and lastly the implementation of rigorous geopositioning
capabilities at the users level - national, theater, tactical, or forwarddeployed.

Just as we face a global environment where the latest technology ismost needed by DoD and the IC, we find ourselves hindered by thelack of smart, useful data that our intelligent systems and workforce
can fully exploit. The resulting impact on ISR operations is detrimental,
if not catastrophic. Consider the ISR Enterprise “system of systems.”
Our inability to properly populate metadata fields for making data
discoverable and useful is as harmful to system performance as putting
low-grade fuel in a race car. In order for our downstream ISR Enterprisesystems (and analysts) to achieve their full performance potential, we
must take measures upstream to make the data stream smart. This
paper will examine the challenges and propose solutions that will benefit
analysts at all echelons.

8740-18, Session 48740-15, Session 3

Foreground estimation in motion imagery
using multiframe change detection
techniques
Andrew Lingg, Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ. (United States)
Using multi-frame change detection methods, we are able to estimate
which pixels include objects that are in motion relative to the background.
We utilize both a sequential statistical change detection method anda sparsity-based change detection method. We are able to perform
foreground estimation in videos in which the background is static as wellas in images in which apparent background motion is induced by camera
motion. We show the results of our techniques on the backgroundsubtraction data set from the Statistical Visual Computing Lab at the
University of California, San Diego.

8740-16, Session 3

Gaze interaction in UAS video exploitation
Jutta E. Hild, Stefan T. Bruestle, Norbert F. Heinze, Elisabeth
Peinsipp-Byma, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik, Systemtechnik
und Bildauswertung (Germany)
A frequently occurring interaction task in UAS video exploitation is themarking or selection of objects of interest in the video. If an object ofinterest is visually detected by the video analyst, its selection for further
exploitation, documentation and communication with the team is anecessary task. Today, object selection is usually performed by mouseinteraction. As due to sensor motion all objects in the video move, object
selection can be rather challenging. Particularly, if strong and fast egomotions are present, e.g., with small airborne sensor platforms, objectsof interest are sometimes not long enough visible to enable the analyst
to reliably select them using mouse interaction. To address this issue,
we propose an eye tracker as input device for object selection. As theeye tracker provides continuously the gaze position of the analyst on themonitor, it is intuitive to use the gaze position for pointing at an object.
The selection is then actuated by pressing a button. We integrated thisgaze-based object selection into Fraunhofer IOSB’s exploitation station
ABUL using a Tobii X60 eye tracker and a standard keyboard for the
button press. Representing the selected objects in a spatial relational
database, ABUL enables the video analyst to efficiently query the video
data for these objects with respect to their geographical and otherproperties in a post processing step. In this contribution, an experimental
326

Gregory Creech, U.S. Dept. of Defense (United States)

InnoVision’s focus areas for motion imagery
R&D
Kenneth E. Rice, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (UnitedStates)Exploiting the volumes of Full Motion Imagery (FMV) and Wide Area
Motion Imagery (WAMI) hereto referred to collectively as “Motion
Imagery”, is the focus of a tremendous amount of research anddevelopment (R&D) across the Department of Defense and Intelligence
Community (DoD/IC). The National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA)
is the DoD/IC Functional Manger for Motion Imagery and the researchand development arm of NGA, InnoVision, is the functional manager for
R&D for Motion Imagery. While there has been tremendous progress in
exploiting Motion Imagery, there are still opportunities for improvement.
InnoVision’s charter is to enable and focus R&D efforts across the DoD/ICwith the goal of extracting the most information as efficiently as possible
from Motion Imagery in all phases of exploitation. This paper outlines the
specific focus areas and objectives of InnoVision.

8740-19, Session 4

Reel-to-realWilliam Craig, WiSC Enterprises LLC (United States)
Reel-to-Real addresses the challenges of achieving an Integrated
Intelligence Environment (IIE) with emphasis on emerging GEOINT
information; and, posits a two-pronged way-ahead through: 1) theconcepts of capability-based interoperability and conformance,
performance and operational evaluations; and, 2) changes to theacquisition process

8740-21, Session 4Standards for efficient employment of widearea motion imagery (WAMI) sensors
Scott Randall, Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. (United States); Paul
Maenner, Exelis Visual Information Solutions (United States)
Airborne Wide Area Motion Imagery (WAMI) sensors provide theopportunity for continuous high-resolution surveillance of geographic

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Conference 8740: Motion Imagery Technologies,
Best Practices, and Workflows for Intelligence, Surveillance,
and Reconnaissance (ISR), and Situational Awarenessareas covering tens of square kilometers. This is both a blessing and acurse. Data volumes from “gigapixel-class” WAMI sensors are orders ofmagnitude greater than for traditional “megapixel-class” video sensors.
The amount of data greatly exceeds the capacities of downlinks toground stations, and even if this were not true, the geographic coverage
is too large for effective human monitoring. Although collected motion
imagery is recorded on the platform, typically only small “windows”
of the full field of view are transmitted to the ground; the full set ofcollected data can be retrieved from the recording device only after the
mission has concluded. Thus, the WAMI environment presents several
difficulties: (1) data is too massive for downlink; (2) human operator
selection and control of the video windows may not be effective; (3)post-mission storage and dissemination may be limited by inefficient
file formats; and (4) unique system implementation characteristics may
thwart exploitation by available analysis tools. To address these issues,
the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency’s Motion Imagery Standards
Board (MISB) is developing relevant standard data exchange formats: (1)moving target indicator (MTI) and tracking metadata to support tippingand cueing of WAMI windows using “watch boxes” and “trip wires”;(2) control channel commands for positioning the windows within thefull WAMI field of view; (3) 3D model-based compression to address
downlink bandwidth and storage capacity limitations; and (4) a full fieldof view spatiotemporal tiled file format for efficient storage, retrieval,and dissemination. The authors previously provided an overview of thissuite of standards. This paper describes the latest progress, with specificconcentration on a detailed description of the spatiotemporal tiled fileformat.

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV
Wednesday - Friday 1 –3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8741 Unmanned Systems Technology XV

8741-1, Session 2

Aerial robot experimental design fordecentralized visual SLAM
Alexander G. Cunningham, Kyel Ok, Jason Antico, Vadim
Indelman, Frank Dellaert, Georgia Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)This paper presents an analysis of real-world experimental design for
multi-robot decentralized simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM)
algorithm evaluation algorithms using small, teleoperated, off-the-shelfquadrotor platforms equipped with visual and inertial sensing. We present
data from field experiments collected at a military urban training site inCamp Lejeune, NC, which simulates multi-robot reconnaissance.
Because of the inherent complexity of the multi-robot problem, weconsider three core subproblems across the design of different scenarios.
The first is multi-robot loop closure, which is when robots split up andrendezvous at a new location, a multi-robot mapping algorithm should be
able to treat this as a loop closure from a single-robot mapping scenario.
The second is using between-robot observations, in which one robot acts
as a “spotter” for another robot exploring a more cluttered environment,
which can help overcome the limited field of vision on individual robots.
Finally, we control robots to improve mapping because monocular SLAM
is relatively challenging, particularly in the robust calculation featurecorrespondences, and were careful to use trajectories that would avoid
data association failure cases.

The multi-robot patrolling task has practical relevance in surveillance,
search and rescue, and security applications. In this task, a team ofrobots must repeatedly visit areas of interested in the environment,
minimizing the time in-between visits to each. A team of robots canperform this task efficiently; however, challenges remain related to teamformation and task assignment.
Conventional strategies for performing this task assume that the robots
will perform as expected and do not address situations in which someteam members patrol inefficiently. However, reliable performance of teammembers may not always be a valid assumption. This paper presents
an approach for monitoring patrolling performance and dynamicallyadjusting the task assignment function based on these observations.
Experimental results demonstrate that robots that model team member
performance using this approach can dynamically and more efficiently
distribute tasks in a multi-robot patrolling application.
In this paper, a patrolling scenario is presented with multiple UAVs
patrolling areas of interest. The UAVs on the patrol team have different
performance characteristics. The teaming and task partitioning approachis adjusted using both centralized and decentralized approaches topartitioning the patrol areas based on observed UAV performance.
Multiple dimensions of task performance are presented for evaluatingteam member performance, along with monitoring approaches. Eachteam member uses a reputation model that is updated through repeatedinteractions. Finally, the approach is demonstrated through experiments
performed in realistic simulations of a patrolling scenario using a UAV
platform.

This paper details the design of these experiments, with both “mission”oriented scenarios, as well as testing scenarios varying size andcomplexity. Finally, this paper presents results from visual and inertial
SLAM techniques applied to this dataset, with additional analysis on its
impact on decentralized SLAM techniques.

8741-4, Session 2

8741-2, Session 2

Josh Harguess, Jacoby Larson, Space and Naval Warfare
Systems Ctr. Pacific (United States)

Visual template tracking based MAV
localization for hovering over low-textured
surfaces
Roland Brockers, Larry H. Matthies, Jet Propulsion Lab. (UnitedStates)This paper introduces a new vision aided localization method for
micro air vehicle (MAV) position estimation in low textured GPS-denied
environments with a minimal sensor suite (camera, IMU, sonar altimeter).
The approach uses images from a downward looking camera to perform
full image template tracking for lateral MAV motion estimation with theassumption of a ground plane in view. Tracked frames are sub-sampled
and aligned horizontally based on IMU attitude information. The lateraldisplacement is calculated with a fast, ESM type, iterative algorithm ina key frame approach. Sonar height measurements are used for altitude
estimation and to regain metric scale. The algorithm runs in real-time
on-board a MAV with a frame rate of up to 60Hz. Results demonstrate
stable MAV hovering-in-place over surfaces with very low unique texture
content (new concrete, uniform carpet, grass) where conventionalfeature-based tracking approaches have significant difficulties.

Vegetation versus man-made object
detection from imagery for unmanned
vehicles in off-road environments

There have been several major advances in autonomous navigation
for unmanned ground vehicles in recent years in controlled urban
environments. However, off-road environments still pose several
perception and classification challenges. This paper addresses two ofthese challenges: detection and classification of vegetation vs. manmade objects. In order for a vehicle or remote operator to traverse
cross-country terrain, automated decisions must be made about
obstacles in the vehicle’s path. The most common obstacle is vegetation,
but some vegetation may be traversable, depending on the size of thevehicle and the type of vegetation. However, man-made objects should
generally be detected and avoided in navigation. We present a solution
to vegetation and man-made object detection which fuses several recent
advances in computer vision, focusing our efforts in the visible spectrum.
Vegetation and man-made objects are detected and identified by fusing
the information discovered from image segmentation with Markov
random fields, visual saliency and natural scene statistics. Each of themethods are compared and contrasted along with our fusion approach.
Experimental results are presented on several images and video takenfrom a small unmanned ground vehicle.

8741-5, Session 2
8741-3, Session 2

Dynamic, cooperative multi-robot patrollingwith a team of UAVs
Charles E. Pippin, Georgia Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates); Henrik I. Christensen, Georgia Institute of Technology(United States); Lora G. Weiss, Georgia Tech Research Institute(United States)
328

Landing spot selection for UAV emergency
landing
Pieter T. Eendebak, TNO (Netherlands); Adam W. M. van
Eekeren, Richard J. den Hollander, TNO Defence, Security and
Safety (Netherlands)
During UAV emergency landings safety is one of the top priorities.
Detection of human activity near the UAV is a key element in improving

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV

the safety.

The system can utilize a variety of different sensors such as the Velodyne
32E, Kinect style cameras, or a Hokuyo sensor mounted on a nodding
pan-tilt unit such as the Direct Perception PTU-46.

We present a robust method for moving object detection to be used for
UAV emergency landings. The method uses a downward facing camera,
either visual or infrared. The method is simple enough to allow real-time
implementation on a UAV system and is at the same time robust against
camera motion and noise. The method is able to detect objects in thepresence of camera movement and motion parallax. Other approaches
to activity detection are optic flow, keypoint trajectory analysis and static
object detection. In the paper we compare our method for detecting
human presence against these other approaches. We show that our
method is more suitable for this application than the other methods.
At the end of the paper we discuss selection of suitable landing areas,
based on the results of moving object detection and other detection
results.

The system has been tested for use in office buildings, at militarytraining facilities and in large scale mixed in-and-out-door environments.
We will present both the underlying system, the implementation, andexperimental results from a variety of difficult, real-world environments.

8741-8, Session 3

Cooperative mobile agents search using
beehive partitioned structure and Tabu
Random search algorithm
Saba Ramazani, Rastko R. Selmic, Delvin Jackson, Louisiana
Tech Univ. (United States)

8741-45, Session 2

Feature detection and SLAM on embedded
processors for micro-robot navigation

In search and surveillance operations, deploying a team of mobile agents
provides a robust solution that has multiple advantages over using asingle agent in efficiency and minimizing exploration time. This paper
addresses the challenge of identifying a target in a given environment
when using a team of mobile agents by proposing a novel method of
mapping and movement of agent teams in a cooperative manner. The
approach consists of two parts. First, the region is partitioned into ahexagonal beehive structure in order to provide equidistant movementsin every direction and to allow for more natural and flexible environment
mapping. Additionally, in search environments that are partitioned into
hexagons, mobile agents have an optimized travel path while performing
searches due to this partitioning approach. Second, we use a team ofmobile agents that move in a cooperative manner and utilize the Tabu
Random algorithm to search for the target.

Paul Robinette, Thomas R. Collins, Georgia Tech ResearchInstitute (United States)
The drive to create smaller, man-portable robots has lead to a conflict
between increasingly resource hungry algorithms for mapping andefficient but less capable processors onboard. The Surveyor SRV-1 robot
is uniquely suited to address this conflict as a micro-scale robot withBlackfin processors and considerable payload capabilities for additional
electronics. We have developed an algorithm to perform feature detection
on images and calculate localization at approximately one hertz. While
this is considerably slower than many existing systems, our system islimited by the onboard embedded processing power.

Due to the ever-increasing use of robotics and Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle (UAV) platforms, the field of cooperative multi-agent search hasdeveloped many applications recently that would benefit from the useof the approach presented in this work, including: search and rescue
operations, surveillance, data collection, and border patrol. In this paper,
the increased efficiency of the Tabu Random Search algorithm method
in combination with hexagonal partitioning is simulated, analyzed, andadvantages of this approach are presented and discussed.

Our system uses the SRV-1 with SVS (two cameras, each with a Blackfin
BF537 processor) and an onboard Gumstix Overo. We start by taking
an image with each camera and performing FAST corner detection.
Thresholding is set such that approximately 100 corners are detected.
The appropriate threshold can be calculated using a binary search withlittle additional time per frame. FAST detection takes 0.06 seconds perframe on the Blackfin processor. Using the scoring function built into
FAST, we then find the ten best features in each image. Descriptors arecalculated for each feature using the SURF descriptor calculation. Eachdescriptor requires 0.07 seconds of calculation on the Blackfin, so 0.7
seconds per frame. Finally, these features and their descriptors are sent
to the Gumstix so that the GTSAM algorithm can calculate the most likely
position of both the SRV-1 and the landmarks.

8741-9, Session 3

Cognitive patterns: giving autonomy somecontext
Danielle A. Dumond, Webb Stacy, Alexandra Geyer, Jeffrey
Rousseau, Mike Therrien, Aptima, Inc. (United States)

8741-7, Session 3

Robot mapping in large-scale mixed indoor
and outdoor environments

Today’s robots require a great deal of control and supervision, and are
unable to intelligently respond to unanticipated and novel situations.
Interactions between an operator and even a single robot take place
exclusively at a very low, detailed level, in part because no context
information about a situation is conveyed or utilized to make theinteraction more effective and less time consuming. Moreover, the robot
control and sensing systems do not learn from experience and, therefore,
do not become better with time or apply previous knowledge to newsituations.

John G. Rogers III, Georgia Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Jason M. Gregory, Stuart H. Young, U.S. Army ResearchLab. (United States); Henrik I. Christensen, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Tactical situational awareness in unstructured and mixed indoor/ outdoor
scenarios is needed for urban combat as well as rescue operations.
Two of the key functionalities for utilization of robot systems is theability to estimate the position of a platform and to generate a map, a
representation of the environment.

With human-robot teams, human operators, in addition to managing the
low-level details of navigation and sensor management while operating
the robot, are also required to maintain mission situational awareness. To
make the most use of robots in combat environments, it will be necessary
to have the capability to assign new missions (including providing them
context information), and to have them report information about theenvironment they encounter as they proceed with their mission.

With the introduction of a wider variety of sensors that can generate
dense point clouds, it is of interest of provide mapping systems that canutilize these sensors for generation of detailed maps and to utilize theextra information to solve challenging problems such as loop closing. We
present a strategy to build dense maps and to do automatic loop closing.

The Cognitive Patterns Knowledge Generation system (CPKG) has theability to connect to various knowledge-based models, multiple sensors,
and a human operator. The CPKG system comprises three major internal
components: Pattern Generation, Perception/Action, and Adaptation,
enabling it to create situationally-relevant abstract patterns, match

The system is designed to have two parallel threads, one building a map
and the other detecting potential loop closures. The approach has been
integrated into a new mapping module named emph{Omni_Mapper}.

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329

Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XVsensory input to a suitable abstract pattern in a multilayered top-down/bottom-up fashion similar to the mechanisms used for visual perception
in the brain, and generate new abstract patterns. The CPKG allows theoperator to focus on things other than the operation of the robot(s).

8741-13, Session 3

Semantic data association for planar featuresin outdoor 6D-SLAM using lidar
Cihan Ulas, TUBITAK UME (Turkey) and Istanbul Technical Univ.
(Turkey); Hakan Temeltas, Istanbul Technical Univ. (Turkey)

8741-11, Session 3

Real-time adaptive off-road vehicle navigationand terrain classification
Urs Muller, Net-Scale Technologies, Inc. (United States);
Lawrence Jackel, North-C Technologies, Inc (United States);
Yann LeCun, New York Univ. (United States); Beat Flepp, NetScale Technologies, Inc. (United States)
We are developing a complete, self-contained autonomous navigation
system for mobile robots that learns quickly, uses commodity
components, and has the added benefit of emitting no radiation
signature. It builds on the autonomous navigation technology developed
by Net-Scale and New York University during the DARPA LAGR program(Learning Applied to Ground Robots) and takes advantage of recent
scientific advancements achieved during the DARPA Deep Learning
program. In this paper we will present our approach and algorithms,
show results from our vision system, discuss lessons learned from thepast, and present our plans for further advancing vehicle autonomy.

8741-12, Session 3

Multi-robot exploration strategies for tacticaltasks in urban environments
Carlos P. Nieto, John G. Rogers III, Henrik I. Christensen, Georgia
Institute of Technology (United States)
Projects like the ARL MAST CTA seek to introduce the application oflarge numbers of inexpensive and simple mobile robots for situationalawareness in urban military and rescue operations. Human operators
are required to teleoperate the current generation of mobile robots forthis application; however, teleoperation is increasingly difficult as thenumber of robots is expanded. In the multi-robot scenario, resources are
distributed amongst a team of robots instead of concentrated on one
large and expensive machine. The distributed team is able to continue
its mission even if some of the robots are disabled or destroyed. A single
robot can only explore or monitor at one location at a time; however, themulti-robot team can provide situational awareness in many locations at
once. Unless the single robot is able to move much faster than the multirobot agents, the lone robot will be slower in performing the explorationand mapping task. These advantages are taken for a multi-robot team at
the cost of increased complexity in communication and coordination.
The coordination strategy used by the members of a mobile robot teamcan have a big impact on the team’s performance. We have developed
a set of coordination strategies which consist of various degrees ofcooperation and noninterference. On one extreme, the Reserves strategy
keeps team members at the starting area until they are needed to
explore a branching intersection. On the other extreme, the Divide andConquer strategy allocates all robots and splits the team into two when abranching intersection is reached.
This paper will present experiments conducted with teams of mobile
robots exploring and mapping in a military training facility. Eachcoordination strategy is evaluated in several types of building shapescenarios to determine which is most effective in terms of mapping
speed and completion time.

Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) is a fundamental
problem of the autonomous systems in GPS (Global Navigation System)
denied environments. The traditional probabilistic SLAM methods uses
point features as landmarks and hold all the feature positions in theirstate vector in addition to the robot pose. The bottleneck of the pointfeature based SLAM methods is the data association problem, which aremostly based on a statistical measure. The data association performanceis very critical for a robust SLAM method since all the filtering strategies
are applied after a known correspondence. For point-features, twodifferent but very close landmarks in the same scene might be confused
while giving the correspondence decision when their positions and error
covariance matrix are solely taking into account. Planar features can beconsidered as an alternative landmark model in the SLAM problem tobe able to provide a more consistent data association. Planes containrich information for the solution of the data association problem andcan be distinguished easily with respect to point features. In addition,
planar maps are very compact since an environment has only very limited
number of planar structures. The planar features does not have to belarge structures like building wall or roofs; the small plane segments
can also be used as landmarks like billboards, traffic posts and somepart of the bridges in urban areas. In this paper, a probabilistic planefeature extraction method from 3D-LiDAR data and the data association
based on the extracted properties (semantic) of the planar features
is introduced. The experimental results show that the semantic dataassociation provides very satisfactory result in outdoor 6D-SLAM.

8741-14, Session 5

Robust leader tracking from an unmanned
ground vehicle
Camille Monnier, Stan German, Andrey Ost, Charles River
Analytics, Inc. (United States)
While many leader-follower technologies for robotic mules have beendeveloped in recent years, the problem of reliably tracking and reacquiring a human leader through cluttered environments continues topose a challenge to widespread acceptance of these systems. Recent
approaches to leader tracking rely on leader-worn equipment that may bedamaged, hidden from view, or lost, such as radio transmitters or special
clothing, as well as specialized sensing hardware such as high-resolution
LIDAR. We present a vision-based approach for robustly tracking a leader
using a simple monocular camera. The proposed method requires nomodification to the leader’s equipment, nor any specialized sensors on
board the host platform. The system learns a discriminative model of theleader’s appearance to robustly track him or her through long occlusions,changing lighting conditions, and cluttered environments. We evaluate
the system’s tracking performance on a publicly available benchmark
dataset, as well as in representative scenarios captured using a small
unmanned ground vehicle (SUGV).

8741-15, Session 5

Multimodal interaction for human-robot
teams
Dustin Burke, Nathan Schurr, Jeanine Ayers, Jeffrey Rousseau,
John Fertitta, Alan Carlin, Aptima, Inc. (United States); Danielle
Dumond, Aptima, Inc (United States)
Unmanned ground vehicles have the potential for supporting small
dismounted teams in mapping facilities, maintaining security in cleared

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XVbuildings, and extending the team’s reconnaissance and persistentsurveillance capability. In order for such autonomous systems to integratewith the team, we must move beyond current interaction methods using
heads-down teleoperation which require intensive human attention andaffect the human operator’s ability to maintain local situational awarenessand ensure their own safety.

Currently fielded small unmanned ground vehicles (SUGVs) are operated
via teleoperation. This method of operation requires a high level ofoperator involvement within line of sight of the robot. As advances are
made in autonomy algorithms, capabilities such as automated mapping
can be developed to allow SUGVs to be used to provide situationalawareness with an increased standoff distance while simultaneously
reducing operator involvement.

Within this work, we designed and developed a multimodal interaction
system that incorporates naturalistic human gestures, voice commands,
and a ruggedized tablet interface. By providing multiple, partiallyredundant interaction modes, our system degrades gracefully in complex
environments and enables the human operator to robustly selectthe most suitable interaction method given the situational demands.
For instance, the human can silently use arm and hand gestures forcommanding a team of robots when it is important to maintain stealth.
Uniquely, our system utilizes the physical presence of the human withrespect to the robot systems within a common map frame to enable thehuman to utilize pointing to objects within the environment, including therobots as well as sensed objects, for commanding intents. The tablet
interface provides an overhead situational map allowing waypoint-basednavigation for multiple ground robots in beyond-line-of-sight conditions.
Using lightweight, wearable motion sensing hardware either worn
comfortably beneath the operator’s clothing or integrated within theiruniform, our non-vision-based approach enables an accurate, continuous
gesture recognition capability without line-of-sight constraints. To
reduce the training necessary to operate the system, we designed theinteractions around familiar arm and hand gestures.

In order to realize these goals, it is paramount the data produced by
the robot is not only accurate, but also presented in an intuitive mannerto the robot operator. The focus of this paper is the evaluation of how
to effectively present map data produced by a SUGV in order to drive
the design of a future user interface. The effectiveness of several 2D
and 3D mapping capabilities was evaluated by presenting a collectionof pre-recorded data sets of a (SUGV) mapping a building in an urban
environment to a user panel of Soldiers. The data sets were presented toeach Soldier in several different formats in order evaluate multiple factors,
including update frequency and presentation style. Once all of the data
sets were presented, a survey was administered. The questions in thesurvey were designed to gage the overall usefulness of the mapping
algorithm presentations as an information generating tool. In this paper
the development of this test protocol along with the results of the survey
are presented.

8741-18, Session 58741-16, Session 5

Evolution of a radio communication relay
systemAn intuitive graphical user interface for small
UAS

Hoa G. Nguyen, Narek Pezeshkian, Abraham Hart, Joseph D.
Neff, Leif Roth, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr. Pacific(United States)

Nicholas C. Stroumtsos, Gary Gilbreath, Scott Przybylski,
Michael R. McWilliams, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Ctr.
Pacific (United States)

Providing long-distance non-line-of-sight control for unmanned groundrobots have long been recognized as a problem, considering the natureof the required high-bandwidth radio links. In the early 2000s, the DARPA
Mobile Autonomous Robot Software (MARS) program funded the Space
and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SSC) Pacific to demonstrate acapability for autonomous mobile communication relaying, implemented
on a number of Pioneer laboratory robots. This effort also resulted in thedevelopment of ad hoc networking radios and software that were later
leveraged in the development of a more practical and logistically simpler
system, the Automatically Deployed Communication Relays (ADCR).
Funded by the Joint Ground Robotics Enterprise and internally by SSC
Pacific, several generations of ADCR systems introduced increasingly
more capable hardware and software for automatic maintenance ofcommunication links through deployment of relay nodes from mobile
robots. This capability was finally tapped in 2010 to fulfill an urgent needfrom theater. Two hundred and forty-three kits of ruggedized, robotdeployable communication relays were produced and sent to Afghanistan
to extend the range of EOD and tactical ground robots in 2012. This
paper provides a summary of the evolution of the radio relay technology
at SSC Pacific, then focuses on the latest two stages, the manuallydeployed communication relays and the latest attempt at automating the
deployment of these ruggedized and fielded relay nodes.

Thousands of small UAVs are in active use by the US military and are
generally operated by trained but not necessarily skilled personnel. The
user interfaces for these devices often seem to be more engineeringfocused than usability-focused, which can lead to operator frustration,
poor mission effectiveness, reduced situational awareness, andsometimes loss of the vehicle. In addition, coordinated control of both
air and ground vehicles is a frequently desired objective, usually with
the intent of increasing situational awareness for the ground vehicle.
The Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific (SSCPAC) is
working under a Naval Innovative Science and Engineering projectto address these topics. The UAS currently targeted are the Raven/
Puma/Wasp family of air vehicles as they are small, all share the samecommunications protocol, and are in wide-spread use. The stock groundcontrol station (GCS) consists of a hand control unit, radio, interconnect
hub, and laptop. The system has been simplified to an X-box controller,
radio and a laptop, resulting in a smaller hardware footprint, but mostimportantly the number of personnel required to operate the system
has been reduced from two to one. The stock displays, including video
with text overlay on one and FalconView on the other, are replaced witha single, graphics-based, integrated user interface, providing the user
with a much improved situational awareness. The SSCPAC governmentdeveloped GCS (the Multi-robot Operator Control Unit) already has
the ability to control ground robots and this is leveraged to realize
simultaneous multi-vehicle operations including autonomous UAV overwatch for enhanced UGV situational awareness.

8741-52, Session 5

Multilateral haptics-based immersive
teleoperation for improvised explosive device
disposalDavid R. Erickson, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Suffield (Canada); Hervé Lacheray, John M. Daly, Quanser Inc.
(Canada)8741-17, Session 5

Evaluating the presentation of autonomous
mapping algorithm results

Of great interest to industry, academia, and military is the developmentof effective improvised explosive device (IED) disposal technology toaid in activities such as mine field clearing and bomb disposal, while atthe same time minimizing risk to personnel. This paper presents new

David Q. Baran, Jason M. Gregory, Arthur W. Evans, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

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331Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XVresults in the research and development of a next generation mobile
immersive teleoperated explosive ordnance disposal system. Thissystem incorporates elements of 3D vision, multilateral teleoperation
for high transparency haptic feedback, immersive augmented reality
operator control interfaces, and a realistic hardware in the loop (HIL) 3D
simulation environment incorporating vehicle and manipulator dynamics
for both operator training and algorithm development. In the past year,
new algorithms have been developed to facilitate incorporating COTS
robotic hardware into the teleoperation system. In particular, a real-time
numerical inverse position kinematics algorithm that can be applied toa wide range of manipulators has been implemented, an IMU-based
attitude stabilization system for manipulators has been developed andexperimentally validated, and a voice-operated manipulator control
system has been developed and integrated into the operator control
station. The integration of these components into a vehicle simulation
environment with half-car vehicle dynamics has also been successfully
carried out. A physical half-car plant is currently being constructed for
HIL integration with the simulation environment.

8741-20, Session 6

Position-adaptive MAV in emitter localization
mission using RSSI and Path Loss Exponent
metrics
Miguel D. Gates, Rastko R. Selmic, Louisiana Tech Univ. (UnitedStates)
We consider a Micro-Aerial Vehicle (MAV), in conjunction withstatic nodes, in a mission of detection and localization of a hidden
Electromagnetic (EM) emitter. This paper, submitted to SPIE Intelligent
Behaviors session, explores the position adaptation segment of the
Position Adaptive Direction Finding (PADF) concept by providing analgorithmic framework for MAVs to reposition themselves to avoid
obstructions or locations that may disrupt the propagation of theemitter, hence reducing the accuracy of the receivers’ combined emitter
location estimation. Given the cross Path Loss Exponents (PLEs)
between the static and mobile nodes, we propose a cost function for
MAVs’ position adjustments that is based on the combination of crossPLEs and Received Signal Strength Indications (RSSI). The mobile
nodes adjust algorithmically by minimizing a gradient descent costfunction such that the average PLE is minimized while maximizing
RSSI, thereby, minimizing the inconsistency of the environment, andreducing the echo and multipath disturbances. In the process, MAVs
find a more uniform measuring environment that increases localization
accuracy. In addition to using cross PLEs, we propose to study thecomplex cepstrum between mobile nodes and the hidden emitteras a metric for MAV control. Complex cepstrum is correlated with areceived echo in EM signals; therefore, reducing the cepstrum leads toimproving measurement and estimation in an environment (similar tophenomenon in biological species with built-in cepstrum minimizationand detection, or echo reduction, capabilities that allow movement awayfrom large objects/animals). We propose to embed such capabilities andfunctionalities into MAV control algorithms.

8741-21, Session 6

Learning consensus in adversarial
environments
Kyriakos Vamvoudakis, Luis Rodolfo Garcia Carrillo, Joao P.
Hespanha, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara (United States)
Due to the highly uncertain and dynamic nature of military conflict,enabling autonomous agents to gracefully adapt to mission andenvironmental changes is a very challenging task. These capabilities
are necessary in the asymmetric battles waged against insurgencies,
where enemy combatants quickly adapt to Army strategies and tactics.
The United States Army, Air Force, and Navy have recently shown
interest in the cyber security aspect of UAVs and UAGs, which rely

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heavily on their on-board autopilots and controllers to function. Mostof the currently available autopilot systems were built without cybersecurity considerations, and are thus vulnerable to cyber attacks. This
research provides knowledge to the problem of commanding multiple
tactical assets in military and adversarial environments, attending Army’s
expectations that networked teams will perform in a reliable mannerespecially when being attacked by advanced and persistent threats.
This work presents a game theory-based consensus problem forleaderless multi-agent systems in the presence of adversarial inputs
that are corrupting the measurements. Given the presence of enemy
components and the possibility of malicious cyber attacks compromising
the security of networked teams, a velocity and position agreement
must be reached by the networked mobile team based on environmental
changes. The problem is addressed under a distributed decision making
framework that is robust to possible cyber attacks, which has anadvantage over centralized decision making in the sense that a decision
maker is not required to access information from all the other decision
makers. The proposed framework derives three tuning laws for every
agent; one associated with the cost, one associated with the controller,
and one with the adversarial input.

8741-22, Session 6

Stable structures of coalitions in competitive
and altruistic military teams
Muhammad Aurangzeb, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (UnitedStates); Dariusz G. Mikulski, Gregory R. Hudas, U.S. Army Tank
Automotive Research, Development and Engineering Ctr. (UnitedStates); Frank L. Lewis, The Univ. of Texas at Arlington (UnitedStates); Edward Y. Gu, Oakland Univ. (United States)
Battlefield teams are generally heterogeneous coalitions consisting ofinteracting humans, ground sensors, and unmanned airborne (UAV) or
ground vehicles (UGV). In these teams relations are based on direct local
interactions, yet information is conveyed along a chain of command.
The balance between coalitional and individual objectives forms thebasis for the internal topological structure of coalitions. In this paper, thecoalitional structure is studied by presenting a novel graphical coalitional
game (GCG), with Positional Advantage (PA). PA is based on Shapley
value strengthened by the Axioms of value. Axioms of valve are basedon its connectivity properties within the coalition. Under the Axioms ofValue the GCG is convex, fair, cohesive, and fully cooperative. Three
measures of the contributions of agents to a coalition are introduced:
marginal contribution (MC), competitive contribution (CC), and altruistic
contribution (AC).
Moreover, the paper examines the dynamic team effects such as theformation of teams by adding agents, the destruction of teams by
defection of agents, and other issues involving sequential decisions byagents to join, leave, or form teams. To study the dynamic team effects,
three online sequential decision games are defined. These sequential
decision games are based on the three contributions MC, CC, and AC.
It is shown that the stable graphs under the objective of maximizing the
MC are any connected graph. The stable graphs under the objective of
maximizing the CC are the complete graph. The stable graphs under theobjective of maximizing the AC are any tree.

8741-23, Session 6

Adaptive neural network consensus-based
control for mobile robot formations
Haci Mehmet Guzey, Jagannatan Sarangapani, Missouri Univ. of
Science and Technology (United States)
In this paper, an adaptive optimal consensus based control scheme isderived for mobile robot formation in the presence of uncertain dynamics
and reduced communication. First, it is shown that uncertain agent
dynamics, if unaccounted for, can make the overall formation unstable

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XVwhen utilizing consensus-based control. Next, an optimal adaptive
consensus scheme for such agents with uncertain dynamics is proposedin the presence of full communication capability. Subsequently, analgorithm to reduce communication among the agents using consensus
based formation control scheme is introduced. This proposed optimal
adaptive scheme is designed to minimize not only the control effort
and formation error but also maximizes the time interval between two
communication periods. It is shown that the propagation of formation
errors between any two communication periods remains in a predefinedbound. In addition, the optimal control law ensures the desired
performance by maintaining the formation. Lyapunov method is used toprove stability of the overall consensus-based formation control. Finally,
Simulation results are given to verify theoretical claims.

communication windows. It examines an optimal way of schedulingtasks for autonomous operation (which is required for scheduling when
not in communication with ground controllers and desirable at all times
during the mission). It compares a genetic algorithm-based approach, an
exhaustive search-based approach and a heuristic-based approach. A
data-driven requirement conflict resolution mechanism is also discussed.
The benefits and detriments of these techniques are presented. The
techniques are compared and performance maximization is considered(in light of both decision-making time-cost and reducing activity timecost). The automatic fault-recovery techniques and payload/operating
software separation implemented on the OpenOrbiter Spacecraft are also
discussed.

8741-46, Session PSThu

8741-24, Session 6

Human and tree classification based on
its model using 3D ladar in GPS-denied
environment

Maintaining robust connectivity inheterogeneous robotic networks
Patricio J. Cruz, Rafael O. Fierro, The Univ. of New Mexico(United States); Wenjie Lu, Silvia Ferrari, Duke Univ. (UnitedStates); Thomas A. Wettergren, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr.
(United States)

Kuk Cho, Univ. of Science & Technology (Korea, Republic of);
Seung-Ho Baeg, SangDeok Park, Korea Institute of Industrial
Technology (Korea, Republic of)This paper describes a method for a human and a tree classification
based on their 3D geometric models in GPS-denied environment. To
cooperate an unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) with a human, a leader
should sequentially provide a local target position to the UGV without ahuman interference. The one of methods is that a trajectory of the leader
becomes the local target position to the UGV. In a wooded mountain,
the UGV needs to recognize a leader during both movements. However,the feature of a human and a tree are unclear to distinguish using avision sensor and a 2D LRF sensor. Our approach makes a human anda tree models with 3D measurement and estimates them by a statisticalclassifier: kinematic B-spline model and neural network. For a human, thealgorithm decomposes a human body into its main composition parts: ahead, two arms, two legs, and a trunk. In case of a tree, it is constructeda stem, several branch, and some bush. Each part is a resourceof a model and the composition of the objects is the feature for its
classification. In conclusion, we show how to implement efficient humanand tree detection and classification and how to track a leader.

The scenario envisioned in this paper is intended for surveillanceand search operations and concerns the exploration of hazardous
buildings, caves and collapsed structures. In these situations, the useof heterogeneous systems made up of aerial and ground robotic agentswould maximize the probability to efficiently and successfully accomplish
the mission. For instance, aerial vehicles have the capability to coveran area faster but cannot have a detailed view of caves or buildings
where line-of-sight is lost. On the other hand, multi-legged robotic
platforms can only explore a limited area, but do so with much moreaccuracy. In addition, maintaining wireless connectivity is an importantfactor to be considered when dealing with multi-agent systems. Dueto several limitations in the communication channel, especially when
the transmission is through the air medium, complications such as
shadow effects and secondary reflections arise. These phenomena
create a variety of constrains on the possible relative positions of theheterogeneous agents. Thus, we are interested in developing strategies
to enhance connectivity of the network of robots while exploring an areaof interest as quickly as possible. To be more specific, we describe asearch algorithm for a ground mobile sensor network by relaxing theassumption of network connectivity and introduce specialized aerial
relay agents to the network which are better equipped to communicate
over longer distances. Furthermore, we present an approximate dynamic
programming (ADP) algorithm based on potential navigation functions
for vehicle control under a two-component communication constraint:
range and line-of-sight. Numerical simulations validate the proposed
methodologies.

8741-47, Session PSThu

Universal framework for unmanned systems
penetration testing
Philip Kobezak, Sam Abbot-McCune, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State Univ. (United States); Joseph Tront, Randy
Marchany, Alfred Wicks, Virginia Tech (United States)
Multiple industries, from defense to medical, are increasing their use of
unmanned systems. Today, many of these systems are rapidly designed,
tested, and deployed. To aid the quick turnaround, commerciallyavailable subsystems and embedded components are often used.
These components may introduce security vulnerabilities particularly if
the designers do not fully understand their functionality and limitations.
Because of this, there is a need for thorough testing of unmannedsystems for security vulnerabilities, which includes all subsystems. Usinga penetration testing framework would help find these vulnerabilities
across different unmanned systems applications. The framework should
encompass all of the commonly implemented subsystems including
but not limited to, wireless networks, CAN buses, passive and active
sensors, positioning receivers, and data storage devices. By looking at
the unique characteristics of these subsystems, potential attacks andvulnerabilities can be identified. The framework will clearly outline theattack vectors as they relate to each subsystem. If any vulnerabilities
exist, a mitigation plan can be developed prior to the completion of thedesign phase. Additionally if the vulnerabilities are known in advance of
deployment, monitoring can be added to the design to alert operators of
any attempted or successful attacks.

8741-44, Session PSThu

An open-source scheduler for small satellites
Donovan Torgerson, Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota(United States); Atif Mohammad, Christoffer Korvald, Dayln
Limesand, University of North Dakota (United States)
The limited power generation capabilities of small satellites, such as
CubeSats, dictate the need for robust scheduling software. Limited
communications windows drive a need for this scheduling to be
performed onboard the spacecraft. The scheduling needs include
long-term planning and near-real-time response capabilities. The
scheduling approach must be power-conservative as attempting to
run all onboard systems concurrently would, generally, far exceed thepower generation capabilities and result in a brownout condition. This
paper presents an autonomous, onboard scheduling approach for small
satellites. It considers subsystem inter-dependency (where co-operationis required, desirable or prohibited), operational requirements and ground

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333Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV

The proposed framework will help evaluate security risks quickly andconsistently to ensure new unmanned systems are ready for deployment.
Verifying that a new unmanned system has passed a comprehensive
security evaluation will ensure greater confidence in its operational
effectiveness.

8741-48, Session PSThu

The need for alternative munition integrationon unmanned aircraft systems in order tobypass the identification problem
Mehmet Durkan, Ozgur Otkun, Ugur Uzunoglu, Turkish Air Force
Academy (Turkey)
Hardships and obstacles on the identification phase of security
operations are the most challenging problems for security decision
makers. Due to changing nature of threats, security forces cannot exactly
distinguish friend and foe. Furthermore, some detected groups can bea mixture of friend, foe and unidentified people. Because of these facts
and problems, the decision process before using hard power on detected
but unidentified groups is too complicated and results with late decision,
wrong decision or no decision at all. From other glance, when the risk
level is high and uncertainties are a lot, decision makers at medium
level expect approval from upper level managers. Occasionally, security
forces cannot use initiative and ask political seniors for their decision.
To sum up; threat analysis is often difficult even impossible, the decision
process is not timely and using initiative is not plausible in that kind ofenvironment.
Air force has dynamic, flexible, agile and rapid effects on operational
domain. If decision makers cannot decide to use this kind of force timely,
it will not be effective as thought to be. In other words, identification
problems decrease the core abilities of air power. As world market
roadmaps show that unmanned aircraft systems will take the place ofmanned systems, air force executives should solve the above-mentioned
problem in order to use UASs in security operations. In this study, theproblem mentioned above is discussed widely and a solution is definedfrom the perspective of users.

8741-50, Session PSThu

A perspective of applications of unmannedsystems in asymmetric warfare
Saban Adana, Isa Haskologlu, Ali Kemel Duzgun, Alper Alparslan
Eker, Harp Akademileri Komutanligi (Turkey)
The history of war witnessed several technological innovations thatfundemantally changed the battlefield. The ones who could adapt andimprovise acccordingly dominated the others and became superpowers.
(spear-arrow-horse-rifle-artillery-tanks-balistic missiles- computer
Technologies-unmanned Technologies and cyber..) with this, asymmetricthreats are increasingly beacoming a reality of our today’s operating
environment and most of the time technology does not seem to be
the answer. Conventional armies need to adopt certain measures tocounteract these threats that do not bind themselves with any kind oflaw. In this study, we will provide some insights on one of the measures,
Unmanned technologies, and how they can be synchronized in to theoverall operational planning.”

8741-25, Session 7

Common world model for unmanned systems
Robert Dean, General Dynamics Robotic Systems (United States)
The Robotic Collaborative Technology Alliance (RCTA) seeks to provide
adaptive robot capabilities which move beyond traditional metricalgorithms to include cognitive capabilities. Key to this effort is the334

Common World Model, which moves beyond the state-of-the-art by
representing the world using metric, semantic, and symbolic information.
It joins these layers of information to define objects in the world. These
objects may be reasoned upon jointly using traditional geometric,
symbolic cognitive algorithms and new computational nodes formed by
the combination of these disciplines. The Common World Model must
understand how these objects relate to each other. Our world model
includes the concept of Self-Information about the robot. By encoding
current capability, component status, task execution state, and their
histories we track information which enables the robot to reason andadapt its performance using Meta-Cognition and Machine Learning
principles. The world model also includes models of how aspects of theenvironment behave which enable prediction of future world states. To
manage complexity, we have adopted a phased implement approach to
the world model. We discuss the design of “Phase 1” of this world model,
discuss interfaces for metric, symbolic and meta-cognition by tracing
perception data through the system from source to the meta-cognitive
layers provided by ACT-R and SS-RICS, and close with lessons learned
from implementation and how the design relates to Open Architecture.

8741-26, Session 7

Using expectations to monitor robotic
progress and recover from problems
Unmesh Kurup, Christian Lebiere, Anthony Stentz, Martial
Hebert, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)
How does a robot know when something goes wrong? Our researchanswers this question by leveraging expectations – predictions about theimmediate future – and using the mismatch between the expectations
and the external world to monitor the robot’s progress. We use thecognitive architecture ACT-R to learn the associations between thecurrent state of the robot and the world, the action to be performedin the world, and the future state of the world. These associations areused to generate expectations that are then matched by the architecturewith the next state of the world. A significant mismatch between these
expectations and the actual state of the world indicate a problem
possibly resulting from unexpected consequences of the robot’s actions,
unforeseen changes in the environment or unanticipated actions of otheragents. When a problem is detected, the recovery model can suggest
a number of recovery options. If the situation is unknown, that is, themismatch between expectations and the world is novel, the robot canuse a recovery solution from a set of heuristic options. When a recovery
option is successfully applied, the robot learns to associate that recovery
option with the mismatch. When the same problem is encountered later,
the robot can apply the learned recovery solution rather than using theheuristics or randomly exploring the space of recovery solutions. We
present results from execution monitoring and recovery performed during
an assessment conducted at the Combined Arms Collective Training
Facility (CACTF) at Fort Indiantown Gap.

8741-27, Session 7

Terrain identification for RHex-type robots
Camilo Ordonez, Jacob Shill, The Florida State Univ. (UnitedStates); Aaron M. Johnson, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States);
Jonathan Clark, Emmanuel G. Collins Jr., The Florida State Univ.
(United States)
Terrain identification is a key enabling ability for generating terrain
adaptive behaviors that assist both robot planning and motor control.
This paper considers running legged robots from the RHex family, which
the military plans to use in the field to assist troops in reconnaissancetasks. Important terrain adaptive behaviors include the selection of gaits,
modulation of leg stiffness, and alteration of steering control laws thatminimize slippage, maximize speed and/or reduce energy consumption.
These terrain adaptive behaviors can be enabled by a terrain
identification methodology that combines multiple proprioceptive sensors
already available in RHex-type robots. The proposed classification

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XVapproach is based on the characteristic frequency signatures of datafrom leg encoders, motor current sensors, and the recently developed leg
observers, which combine current sensing with a dynamic model of theleg motion. The leg observers are utilized here as an effective “software”
sensor that filters out expected changes in motor current readings due totransitions between the flight and stance phases of the legs. The paper
analyzes the classification accuracy obtained using both a single leg
and groups of legs (i.e., leg tripods) on different outdoor terrains such asasphalt, grass, gravel, and dirt. Additionally, it investigates the robustnessof the classification methodology to gait and speed changes.

robot’. Histogram based representations (bag-of-words) of each feature
type as well as their combinations to better represent these videos will
be discussed and evaluated. The experimental results will enable explicit
comparison of suitability of motion features for understanding firstperson videos.

8741-28, Session 7

Christoph Mertz, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)

8741-30, Session 8

Performance of a scanning laser line striper
in outdoor lighting

An architecture for online semantic labelingon UGVs

For search and rescue robots and reconnaissance robots it is important
to detect objects in their vicinity. We have developed a scanning laserline striper (C. Mertz et al.) that can produce dense 3D images using
active illumination. The scanner consists of a camera and a MEMSmicro mirror based projector. It can also detect the presence of opticallydifficult material like glass and metal. The sensor can be used forautonomous operation or it can help a human operator to better remotely
control the robot. In this paper we will evaluate the performance of thescanner under outdoor illumination, i.e. from operating in the shade tooperating in full sunlight. We report the range, resolution and accuracyof the sensor and its ability to reconstruct objects like grass, wooden
blocks, wires, metal objects, electronic devices like cell phones, RPG
and other explosive devices. Furthermore we evaluate its ability to detect
the presence of glass and polished metal objects. Lastly we report on auser study that shows a significant improvement in a grasping task. The
user is tasked with grasping a wire with the remotely controlled hand ofa robot. We compare the time it takes to complete the task using the 3D
scanner with using a traditional video camera.

Arne Suppe, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States); Luis NavarroSerment, Carnegie Mellon University (United States); Daniel
Munoz, Drew Bagnell, Martial Hebert, Carnegie Mellon Univ.
(United States)
We describe an architecture to provide online semantic labelingcapabilities to field robots operating in urban environments. At thecore of our system is the stacked hierarchical classifier developed by
Munoz et al., which classifies regions in monocular color images using
models derived from hand labeled training data. The classifier is trained
to identify buildings, several kinds of hard surfaces, grass, trees, andsky. When taking this algorithm into the real world, practical concernswith difficult and varying lighting conditions require careful control of
the imaging process. First, camera exposure is controlled by software,examining all of the image’s pixels, to compensate for the limitationsof the rudimentary algorithm used on the camera. Second, by merging
multiple images taken with different exposure times, we are able tosynthesize images with higher dynamic range than the ones producedby the sensor itself. The sensor’s limited dynamic range makes it difficult
to, at the same time, properly expose areas in shadow along with highalbedo surfaces that are directly illuminated by the sun. Texture is a key
feature used by the classifier, and under/over exposed regions lacking
texture are a leading cause of misclassifications. Finally, we present
techniques to recover classification performance despite image artifacts
produced in cases where the sun is imaged directly. The results of theclassifier are shared with higher-level elements operating in the UGV inorder to perform tasks such as building identification from a distance andfinding traversable surfaces.

8741-31, Session 8

Visual and tactile interfaces for bi-directional
human robot communication
Daniel J. Barber, Stephanie Lackey, Lauren Reinerman-Jones,
Univ. of Central Florida (United States); Irwin Hudson, U.S. Army
Research Laboratory, Simulation and Training Technology Center(United States)
Seamless integration of unmanned and systems and Soldiers in theoperational environment requires robust communication capabilities.
Multi-Modal Communication (MMC) facilitates achieving this goal due
to redundancy and levels of communication superior to single modeinteraction using auditory, visual, and tactile modalities. Visual signaling
using arm and hand gestures is a natural method of communication
between people. Visual signals standardized within the U.S. Army Field
Manual and in use by Soldiers provide a foundation for developing
gestures for human to robot communication. Emerging technologies
using Inertial Measurement Units (IMU) and Electromyography(EMG) enable classification of arm and hand gestures for direction
communication with a robot without the requirement of line-of-sightneeded by computer vision techniques. These devices improve therobustness of interpreting gestures in noisy environments and arecapable of classifying signals relevant to operational tasks. Closing
the communication loop between Soldiers and robots necessitates
them having the ability to return equivalent messages. Existing visualsignals from robots to humans typically require highly anthropomorphic
features not present on military vehicles. Tactile displays tap into anunused modality for robot to human communication. Typically used forhands-free navigation and cueing, tactile displays previously delivered
equivalent visual signals from the U.S. Army Field Manual. This paper
describes ongoing research into developing interfaces for classificationof visual signals and communication with Soldiers using tactile displays,
including examples involving live and virtual robotic platforms.

8741-29, Session 7

Features and representations for first-person
human activity recognition
Michael S. Ryoo, Larry H. Matthies, Jet Propulsion Lab. (UnitedStates)In this paper, we discuss human activity recognition methodologies toanalyze videos obtained from a robot’s perspective. The objective isto enable recognition of dangerous and suspicious activities targetedto the robot (e.g., attacking the robot) from its first-person viewpoint,
and provide it activity-level situation awareness for protection andmore intelligent interactions. This paper compares various types ofvideo features and representations for recognizing multiple categories
of friendly, neutral, and hostile human activities. Together with baselineclassifiers, features designed to capture global/local motion informationof first-person videos are quantitatively evaluated, illustrating whichfeature/representation/classifier benefits the analysis of first-person
videos most.
More specifically, we test several types of local spatio-temporal featuresand global motion features on our first-person video dataset obtained
while humans are interacting with the robot. These activities include anegative interaction of ‘a person throwing an object to the robot’ anda neutral interaction of ‘two people having a conversation in front of a

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335

Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV

8741-32, Session 8

Dynamic whole-body robotic manipulation
Yeuhi Abe, Benjamin Stephens, Michael P. Murphy, Alfred A.
Rizzi, Boston Dynamics (United States)
Using legs to augment and enhance manipulation capabilities ofmobile robots has the potential to increase overall performance ofrobots in the field. In particular, lower limbs can be used to increase thestrength, velocity, and workspace of the robot if used in coordination
with manipulator arms, as we have shown previously on the BigDog
platform with static foot placements. This increase in performance canbe further extended by utilizing stepping motions in addition to leg forces
to inject additional body momentum into a manipulated object, as wellas to recover from a dynamic task and maintain balance, similar to how
a discus thrower or baseball pitcher uses steps to maximize throwing
performance. We present techniques and results of whole body dynamic
manipulation on the BigDog platform with the task of throwing a 16kg
cinder block. The challenge to a whole-body dynamic manipulation
strategy is the coordination of the high degree of freedom system. Thisis especially challenging when operating at the limits of stability, where
maximum performance is often achieved, because control authority
on one or more degrees of freedom may be reduced due to actuatorsaturation, kinematic state, or stability requirements. We generate
dynamic throwing behaviors by optimizing feed-forward inputs to therobot offline and then using feedback control schemes online to reject
disturbances and overcome modeling errors. Videos of the real robot
performing these behaviors are available.

8741-33, Session 8

Leaping experiments with a powerautonomous, compliant-spined quadruped
Jason L. Pusey, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Jeffrey
Duperret, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States); G. Clark Haynes,
National Robotics Engineering Ctr. (United States); Ryan Knopf,
Daniel E. Koditschek, Univ. of Pennsylvania (United States)
We document initial experiments with Canid, a free-standing, powerautonomous quadrupedal robot equipped with an actuated compliant
spine. Research into robotic bounding and galloping platforms holds
scientific and engineering interest because it can both probe biologicalhypotheses regarding bounding and galloping mammals and also
provide the engineering community with a new class of rapidlylocomoting legged robots. We very briefly review the biological literature
concerning properties of high-speed mammalian runners and equally
briefly compare Canid to a number of contemporary bounding robotic
quadrupeds by way of identifying its specific distinguishing hypotheses
regarding bioinspired compliant-spine locomotion. We then detail thedesign features of Canid that promote our goals in a relatively cheap,
conventionally prototyped power-autonomous platform. Finally we
present initial joint motor, inertial and motion capture data taken from
Canid’s initial leaps into regimes of high kinetic energy and large
accelerations.

8741-34, Session 9

Collaborative experiments of small
autonomous systems at the SOURCE ATO
capstone experiment
Jason M. Gregory, David Q. Baran, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)

Operations of Unmanned Systems for Reconnaissance in Complex
Environments (SOURCE) Army Technology Objective (ATO). We present
the findings from this large-scale experiment which spanned several
research areas, including 3D mapping and exploration, communications
maintenance, visual intelligence, platform characterization, and quadrotor
development.
For 3D mapping and exploration, the evaluated capabilities
encompassed loop closure using Iterative Closest Point (ICP), object
classification-driven exploration, autonomous, outdoor exploration,
collaborative mapping using ground robots, and collaborative mapping
using off-the-shelf quadrotors. To improve current communications
systems, the limitations of an existing mesh network were analyzed and a
distributed state information sharing system using the Dandelion protocol
was tested. Further, an algorithm to map pairwise radio connectivity
during exploration of indoor environments was evaluated. Using a Point
Grey Chameleon camera, data was collected to assess the performanceof existing visual localization algorithms and experimental semantic
filtering algorithms. Similarly, camera data from a Microsoft Kinect wasused to test autonomous stairway detection and modeling algorithms.
A platform-specific model was created so that empirically-determined
predictions of slip conditions could be added to the control loop for morereliable control. Finally, the current state of station-keeping and waypoint
navigation capabilities wer assessed using quadrotors. This paper will
detail the experiment procedure and the preliminary results for each ofthese tests.

8741-35, Session 9

Achieving integrated convoys: Cargo
Unmanned Ground Vehicle development andexperimentation
Noah Zych, Oshkosh Corp. (United States); David Silver, DavidStager, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States); Colin Green,
Thomas Pilarski, Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon Univ.
(United States); Jacob Fischer, Oshkosh Corp. (United States)
The Cargo UGV project was initiated in 2010 with the aim of developing
and experimenting with advanced autonomous vehicles capable of being
integrated unobtrusively into manned logistics convoys. The intent was
to validate two hypotheses in complex, operationally representativeenvironments: first, that unmanned tactical wheeled vehicles provide aforce protection advantage by creating standoff distance to warfighters
during ambushes or improvised explosive device attacks; and second,that these UGVs serve as force multipliers by enabling a single operator
to control multiple unmanned assets.
To assess whether current state-of-the-art autonomous vehicle
technology was sufficiently capable to permit resupply missions to be
executed with decreased risk and reduced manpower, and to assess
the effect of UGVs on customary convoy tactics, the Marine Corps
Warfighting Laboratory and the Joint Ground Robotics Enterprisesponsored Oshkosh Defense and the National Robotics Engineering
Center to equip two standard Marine Corps cargo trucks for autonomous
operation.
This paper details the system architecture, hardware implementation,and software modules developed to meet the vehicle control, perception,and planner requirements compelled by this application. Additionally,
the design of a custom human machine interface and an accompanying
training program are described, as is the creation of a realistic convoy
simulation environment for rapid system development.
Finally, results are conveyed from a warfighter experiment in which theeffectiveness of the training program for novice operators was assessed,
and the impact of the UGVs on convoy operations was observed in avariety of scenarios via direct comparison to a fully manned convoy.

Autonomous systems operating in military-relevant environments arevaluable assets due to the increased situational awareness that they
provide to the Warfighter. To further progress the current state of thesesystems, a collaborative experiment was conducted as part of the Safe
336

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV

8741-36, Session 98741-38, Session 9

Mobile dexterous manipulator for material
handling and shipping box loading andunloading

Development of a non-contextual model for
determining the autonomy level of intelligent
unmanned systems

Yi-Je Lim, John Hu, Jayson Ding, Robert Hsiung, Hstar
Technologies (United States)

Phillip J. Durst, Wendell Gray, U.S. Army Engineer Research andDevelopment Ctr. (United States); Michael Trentini, Defence R&D
Canada - Suffield (Canada)

Hstar Technologies is developing a bimanual, highly dexterous humanoid
robotic system that will be strong enough to load and unload goods
from commercial and military ISO containers, operate safely aroundhumans, with dexterity sufficient to unlock and open cargo doors. In thispresentation we will discuss the technology and application challenges ofHstar’s ‘a mobile Dexterous Manipulator (D-Man) project, and describe asolution architecture that we believe will prove applicable to a wide range
of uses.

A simple, quantitative measure for encapsulating the autonomous
capabilities of intelligent unmanned systems (UMS) has yet to beestablished. Several models for measuring a UMS’s autonomy level
have been proposed, most notably the Autonomy Levels for Unmanned
Systems (ALFUS), but these models require extensive, operational leveltesting of the UMS and provide a means for assessing the autonomy
level for a specific mission/task and operational environment. A morerobust technique for quantifying autonomy using component leveltesting of the UMS platform alone, outside of mission and environment
context, is desirable. In search of such a technique, a generic, highlevel model of UMS architectures defining the UMS’s hardware andsoftware systems was developed. Using this high level framework for
UMS architectures, a new model for determining UMS level of autonomy
was developed. The model uses a combination of developmental andcomponent level testing for each aspect of the UMS architecture todefine a non-contextual autonomous potential (NCAP). The NCAP
provides an autonomy level, ranging from fully non-autonomous to fullyautonomous, in the form of a single numeric parameter describing the
UMS’s performance capabilities. It defines a predictive measure of anautonomous UMS’s potential performance as opposed to a retroactive
measure of autonomous performance. Presented in this paper are the
UMS architecture model developed, the NCAP model for determining
autonomy level, a comparison between the NCAP and the ALFUS, someexample applications of the NCAP to several commercially available
UMS, and plans for future development and refinement of the NCAP.

The Hstar D-Man product line brings an autonomous robotic operation
to warehouse and shipping material handling, creating significant
opportunities for cost reduction, the reduction of worker injury, and in thebattlefield, unmanned materiel loading and unloading, protecting military
personnel from hostile fire and potential injury or death.
D-Man is designed for non-line-of-sight robotic operation under
telepresence control, leveraging core features of Hstar’s robotic nursing
assistant (RoNA) system. These include human-safe compliance arm,
strength to pick up and move up to 300 pound objects, and a holonomic
mobile platform with robotic navigation control, augmented by semiautonomous container door opening, and dexterous manipulation ofshipping boxes. D-Man incorporates innovative compliant actuation
technology, an advanced robotic hand and robust perception sensors.
This presentation will highlight the diverse challenges relating todesigning and implementing a robust, autonomous freight handlingsystem, including system architecture for telepresence and direct control;
human-safe, high strength manipulators, dexterous manipulation andstable posture control, supporting both high strength lifting and semiautonomous door-opening, telepresence and direct control architecture,and safety monitoring and intervention.

8741-39, Session 9

Simple but novel standards for quantitatively
comparing robot mapping algorithms, using
SLAM and dead reckoning as controls

8741-37, Session 9

MTRS-scale combat engineer vehicle
mechanisms, behaviors and capabilities

Neil S. Davey, Haris Godil, National Institute of Standards andTechnology (United States)

Gary Witus, Wayne State Univ. (United States); Douglas C.
MacKenzie, Todd A. Kappauf, Mobile Intelligence Corp. (UnitedStates)Storage and retrieval of goods in banks, military arsenals, or factories
could be made much more efficient and error-free with the use of
autonomous robots. A system for robotically retrieving and storing
goods requires accurate map-making. Map-making algorithms in thepast have been analyzed by comparing the map of an area generated
by an algorithm to a ground truth map, an actual blueprint map of anarea. This method does not show which parts of the algorithm are moreaccurate and how much more accurately the algorithm performs in a
specific aspect of mapping. We created a new method for evaluating
map-making algorithms by separating mapping into five main base-casescenarios and comparing the effectiveness of all algorithms at eachscenario. In our experiments, we used the P3DX, a skid-based turning
robot, and tested ROS’s (Robot Operating System) SLAM (Simultaneous
Localization and Mapping) algorithm by comparing it to a standard Dead
Reckoning algorithm. The data indicated that SLAM was overall a bettermap-making algorithm than Dead Reckoning, as it excelled in a majorityof the base-case scenarios. With improved mapping, robots can be used
in a multitude of environments to store and retrieve goods.

This paper describes the design and performance of MTRS-scale
manipulators modeled after combat engineer vehicle mechanisms
for obstacle breaching and terrain improvement. The manipulators
were implemented as attachments for a “Badger” robot platform. The
manipulators include a 3-degree-of-freedom front loader with a grapple
bucket (used TARDEC’s Canine competition) and a 3-degree-of-freedom
excavator arm with pick and shovel. The front loader can be modified,with different motion patterns, to act as a fork lift. The capture behavior
with the front loader was modeled after a canine animal behavior pattern:lower head with open mouth, run forward to scoop up the object while
closing the mouth, then raise the head. The excavator arm is also
capable of self-extrication of mobile robot stuck in a ditch, at a verticalobstacle, or high centered. This paper describes the engineering design
and performance envelopes.

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV

8741-49, Session 9

Development of a spherical aerial vehicle forurban search
Kang Hou, Hanxu Sun, Qingxuan Jia, Beijing Univ. of Posts andTelecommunications (China)
SAV (small aerial vehicle) is one of the hottest research fields in robotics
because of its low cost, operational environment, and small size. It
is a kind of person-portable aircraft which has flexible movement in
the relatively small areas. Spherical aerial vehicle is a new and novel
kind of small aerial vehicles in the last few years. Compared with otherconventional small aerial vehicles, spherical air vehicle has significant
advantages due to its special structure. It has a spherical hollow shell
to protect the propeller, motor systems, all control circuits, and power
supply devices inside. And the spherical shell should be made to
result in little loss of rotor system aerodynamic efficiency. Due to thecharacteristics of its structure, the spherical air vehicle can effectively
protect its inner parts with the spherical shell when the vehicle lands onthe ground in any posture. In this paper, the spherical aerial vehicle andits aerodynamics model is presented and studied. Firstly, the uniquestructure and features of spherical aerial vehicle are introduced in detail.
And then the aerodynamics theory based on this vehicle’s structure
is analyzed, and the equations of force and moment acting on thespherical aerial vehicle were deduced. Due to the above analysis, theaerodynamics model based on the unique structure features of sphericalaerial vehicle is established and derived to get the relationship between
the aircraft physical parameters and the aerodynamics parameters. At
last, the simulations and experimental results are provided to confirm
the feasibility of the spherical aerial vehicle’s aerodynamics theory andmodel.

8741-40, Session 10

Robust speech recognition and speaker
identification in noisy environments
Ranga Narayanaswami, Raman K. Mehra, Scientific Systems
Co., Inc. (United States)
Speech recognition is of primary importance in several applications
including, robot control and interaction, unattended ground vehicles(UGV), automatic call routing and answering systems, and audio-based
search of databases and data mining. Speech recognition and speaker
identification are both challenging problems, particularly with respect
to robustness, which arises from environmental noise, reverberation,
channel distortion, computational limitations on small form factor devices
such as mobile phones and tablets.
We present our recent research on Speaker Identification and Speech
Recognition using beamforming with multiple microphones. The
beamformer approach has two significant advantages in this context.
First, it can significantly improve the signal to noise ratio (SNR), second,it can be used for delay estimation as an additional input in estimating
the direction of the sound source, speaker identification and speaker
tracking, and identifying a new speaker. Both single channel (spectral
subtraction, cepstral mean normalization) as well as multichannel
algorithms (beamforming, blind source separation) are applied forrobustness. We perform Speaker identification using Gaussian Mixture
Models (GMM) as well as delay estimation from the beamformer, which
gives better results than only relying on the speech signal. Speech
recognition is done through speech recognition toolkits (PocketSphinxand HTK).
We present our results on speaker identification and speech recognition
with multiple speakers at a conference table. Speaker identification is
performed using a combination of delay estimation, online building of
GMM models for a speaker and pitch tracking. Speech recognition is
performed using the PocketSphinx/HTK speech recognition engines with
SNR improvement from the beamformer.
The research results indicate that a multi microphone beamforming
approach is feasible for small handheld devices and offers a robust338

method for audio based control of robots, UGV and teleoperated
vehicles. Our direction of ongoing research and discussion includes:
Development of Compact Beamformer- Shrink to small form factor for use with a hand-held device as a clip on
device- Try to be as close to a COTS system as possible- Suitable electronics for data acquisition and hardware based
beamforming
Robustness of Beamformer- Provide tilt and accelerometer sensors to keep track of hand-heldorientation when moved- Voice Training on Beamformer
Train speech recognition engine on beamformer- Develop better microphone adaptation algorithms- Develop better speaker adaptation algorithms
Environmental Robustness- Consider frequency invariant beamforming as well as noise cancellationby spectral subtraction, echo and reverberation cancellation
Microphone adaptation- Consider microphone adaptation techniques for robust speech
recognition
Speaker ID- Implement speaker tracking by beamforming and GMM models forspeaker ID
User Interface- Develop graphical layouts and user interface for audio-based control,transcription, Speaker ID

8741-41, Session 10

A preliminary cyber-physical security
assessment of the robot operating system(ROS)
Jarrod McClean, Harvard Univ. (United States); Christopher
J. Stull, Charles R. Farrar, David L. Mascarenas, Los Alamos
National Lab. (United States)
Over the course of the last few years, the Robot Operating System (ROS)
has become a highly popular software framework for robotics research.
ROS has a very active developer community and is widely used for
robotics research in both academia and government labs. The prevalence
and modularity of ROS cause many people to ask the question,“What prevents ROS from being used in commercial or government
applications.” One of the main problems that is preventing the use of
ROS in these applications is the question of characterizing its security.
In the summer of 2012, a crowd-sourced cyber-physical security contest
was launched at the cyber-security conference DEFCON-20 to begin
the process of characterizing ROS. A small-scale, car-like robot was
configured as a cyber-physical security research honeypot running ROS.
DEFFCON-20 attendees were invited to find exploits and vulnerabilities
in the robot while data on network traffic was collected. The results ofthis experiment provided some interesting insights and opened up many
security questions pertaining to deployed robotic systems. The Federal
Aviation Administration is tasked with opening up the civil airspace tocommercial drones by September 2015 and driverless cars are alreadylegal for research purposes in a number of states. Given the integration ofthese robotic devices into our daily lives, the authors pose the following
question: “What security exploits can a motivated person with little-to-no
experience in cyber security execute, given the wide availability of freecyber security penetration testing tools such as Metasploit. This research
focuses on applying common, low-cost, low-overhead, cyber-attacks ona robot featuring ROS. This work documents the effectiveness of those
attacks.

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Conference 8741: Unmanned Systems Technology XV

8741-42, Session 10

UGV: security analysis of subsystem control
network
Sam Abbott-McCune, Philip Kobezak, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State Univ. (United States); Al Wicks, Joseph Tront,
Randy Marchany, Virginia Tech (United States)
Unmanned Ground vehicles (UGVs) are becoming prolific in theheterogeneous superset of robotic platforms. The sensors which provide
odometry, localization, perception, and vehicle diagnostics are fused togive the robotic platform a sense of the environment it is traversing. The
automotive industry CAN bus has dominated the industry due to the fault
tolerance and the message structure allowing high priority messages
to reach the desired node in a real time environment. UGVs are being
researched and produced at an accelerated rate to preform arduous,
repetitive, and dangerous missions that are associated with a military
action in a protracted conflict. The technology and applications of theresearch will inevitably be turned into dual-use platforms to aid civil
agencies in the performance of their various operations. Our motivationis security of the holistic system; however as subsystems are outsourced
in the design, the overall security of the system may be diminished. We
will focus on the CAN bus topology and the vulnerabilities introduced in
UGVs and recognizable security vulnerabilities that are inherent in thecommunications architecture. We will show how data can be extracted
from an add-on CAN bus that can be customized to monitor subsystems.
The information can be altered or spoofed to force the vehicle toexhibit unwanted actions or render the UGV unusable for the designed
mission. The military relies heavily on technology to maintain information
dominance, and the security of the information introduced onto the
network by UGVs must be safeguarded from vulnerabilities that can be
exploited.

8741-43, Session 10

The characteristics of future UAVs against
asymmetric threats
Ugur Uzunoglu, Mehmet Durkan, Turkish Air Force Academy(Turkey)Countries threat perceptions have changed after the Cold War. During
last 20-30 years, a conventional war has been occurred in few regions.
Nowadays, asymmetric threats such as terrorism, illegal formations,insurgency, counterinsurgency etc. become the biggest national security
problem. Countries use their national forces against asymmetric threats
in different ways. The countries have airpower as a unique asymmetricpower against these kind of threats. Afghanistan and Libya operations
are validating this argument.
Air power have been using unmanned aircraft vehicles (UAVs) against
asymmetric threats at attack and ISR functions. Different UAVs will
be produced in the future. When we think the future operational
environments, the UAVs should have artificial intelligence for evaluationand decision making. With the help of this kind of UAVs, we can haveforce structure with that ISR, C2, attack and evaluation functions can bemade at the same time.
In this study, characteristics of such UAVs are described and modelledwith the help of value focused thinking method.

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Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV
Monday - Thursday 29–2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8742 Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability, Integration, and Networking for Persistent
ISR IV

8742-2, Session 1

Context-rich semantic framework for
effective data-to-decisions in coalition
networks
Keith Grueneberg, Geeth de Mel, IBM Thomas J. Watson
Research Ctr. (United States); David Braines, IBM United
Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom); Seraphin Calo, Xiping Wang,
IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States); Tien Pham,- (United States)
IIn a coalition environment, data fusion involves combining soft data (e.g.,field reports, intelligence reports) and hard data (e.g., acoustic sensory
data, imagery) such that the resulting output provides a richer basis formaking decisions than what would have been possible if the data weretaken individually. However, due to the lack of explicit semantics attachedwith such data, it is difficult to automatically disseminate and put theright contextual data in the hands of the decision makers. In order tounderstand the data, explicit meaning needs to be added by means of
categorizing and/or classifying the data in relationship to each other frombase reference sources.
In this paper, we present a semantic framework that provides automatedmechanisms to expose real-time raw data effectively by presenting
appropriate information needed for a given situation so that an informed
decision could be made effectively. The system utilizes controlled natural
language capabilities provided by the ITA (International Technology
Alliance) Controlled English (CE) toolkit. CE provides a human-friendly
semantic representation language that is directly processible in human/machine hybrid environments. The semantic enrichment service adds
relevant contextual information to raw data streams from domain
knowledge bases using declarative rules. The rules define how theadded semantics and context information are derived and stored in asemantic knowledge base. The software framework exposes contextual
information from a variety of hard and soft data sources in a fast, reliable
manner so that an informed decision can be made using semantic
queries in intelligent software systems.

8742-5, Session 2

The terra harvest open software environment:
remote interface
Kevin Klawon, Kristen M. Bachman, Joshua Gold, Univ. of
Dayton Research Institute (United States)
The DIA wants to create an UGS controller that is interoperable acrossall controller platforms, capable of easily adding new sensors, radios,and processes, etc., as well as backward compatibility with existing UGS
systems. To achieve this, a Terra Harvest controller was created that usedJava JRE 1.6 and an OSGI platform, name Terra Harvest Open Software
Environment (THOSE). OSGI is an extensible framework that provides
a modularized environment that allows functionality to be deployed in“bundles”. These bundles can publish, discover, and share services
available from other bundles or bundles provided by the controller core.
A nature step was then to correct a common remote interface that allows
3rd party real-time interaction with the controller.
This paper will give you architectural overview of the remote interface,
including how to interact with the controller via the remote interface
including an overview of the ICD for the remote interface.

8742-6, Session 2

How to use the terra harvest open softwareenvironment (THOSE): GUI
Kevin Klawon, Nicholas Marcucci, David Humeniuk, Univ. of
Dayton Research Institute (United States)

8742-3, Session 1

A system architecture for decision-making
support on ISR missions with stochastic
needs and profit
Nan Hu, Thomas F. LaPorta, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States); Diego Pizzocaro, Alun D. Preece, Cardiff Univ.
(United Kingdom)
In this paper, we propose a system architecture for decision-making
support on ISR (i.e. Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance) missions
via optimizing resource allocation. We model a mission as a graph oftasks, each of which often requires exclusive access to some resources.
Our system guides users through refinement of their needs throughan interactive interface. To maximize the chances of executing new
missions, the system searches for pre-existent information collected on
the field that best fit the needs. If this search fails, a set of new requests
representing users’ requirements is considered to maximize the overall
benefit constrained by limited resources. If an ISR request cannot besatisfied, feedback is generated to help the commander further refineor adjust their information requests in order to still provide support tothe mission. In our work we model both demands for resources and theimportance of the information retrieved realistically in that they are notfully known at the time a mission is submitted and may change overtime
during execution. The amount of resources consumed by a mission may
not be deterministic; i.e., a mission may last slightly longer or shorter
340

than expected, or more of a resource may be required to complete atask. Furthermore, the benefits received from the mission, which wecall profits, may also be non-deterministic; e.g. successfully localizing
a vehicle might be more important than expected for accomplishing
the entire operation. Therefore, when satisfying ISR requirements wetake into account both constraints on the underlying resources anduncertainty of demands and profits.

The DIA wants to create an UGS controller that is interoperable acrossall controller platforms, capable of easily adding new sensors, radios,and processes, etc., as well as backward compatibility with existing UGS
systems. To achieve this, a Terra Harvest controller was created that usedJava JRE 1.6 and an OSGI platform, name Terra Harvest Open Software
Environment (THOSE). OSGI is an extensible framework that provides
a modularized environment that allows functionality to be deployed in“bundles”. These bundles can publish, discover, and share services
available from other bundles or bundles provided by the controller core.
The next step the project was to create a GUI interface that interacts with
the THOSE.
This paper will give you architectural overview and then show you
how to use the THOSE GUI to deploy a bundle for your asset,
communications device, or algorithms; plan missions, configure assets
and communication devices real-time; command and control of assets,
and viewing of operations of the various assets, etc.

8742-7, Session 2

Development of terra harvest compliant
plug-ins for McQ unattended ground sensors(UGS)
Brent W. Roeder, Robert C. Fish, McQ, Inc. (United States)

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Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV

8742-12, Session 4

The Army Research Lab (ARL) in collaboration with the DefenseIntelligence Agency (DIA) and representatives from industry recently
validated the feasibility of the Terra Harvest architecture by successfully
integrating dozens of Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance(ISR) assets at the Trident Spectre 12 (TS12) exercise in Fort Story, VA.
Based on the exercise, it is evident that Terra Harvest will greatly simplify
the process of integrating disparate ISR systems. By reducing thiscomplexity, Terra Harvest will increase the variety of devices U.S. soldiers
have at their disposal giving them a greater technological advantage overtheir adversaries than ever before. This paper describes McQ’s effort todevelop Terra Harvest compliant plug-ins for its UGS and the results of
their demonstration.

U.K. MoD land open system architecture andcoalition interoperability with the U.S.
Gavin Pearson, Defence Science and Technology Lab. (United
Kingdom); Michael A. Kolodny, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Tien Pham, - (United States)
The UK Land Open System Architecture (LOSA) is an open, servicebased architecture for systems integration and interoperability in theland environment. It is being developed in order to deliver coherent andagile force elements at readiness to operations. LOSA affects planning,delivery and force generation, and supports Future Force 2020.

8742-41, Session 2

LOSA aims to combine the progress made with the Generic Vehicle
Architecture (GVA, DefStan 23-09), Generic Base Architecture (GBA,
DefStan 23-13) and Generic Solider Architecture (23-12)

Using advanced manufacturing to produce
unmanned aerial vehicles

This paper will review the objectives of LOSA and the progress made todate; before focusing on the Oct 2012 experimental period undertakenin the UK at Caerwent by a combined MoD (Ministry of Defence)and Industry team. This experiment focused on data and powerinteroperability across the LOSA pillars of Soldiers, Vehicles and Bases.

Michael A. Balazs, Jonathan Rotner, The MITRE Corp. (UnitedStates); Steven Easter, Jonathan Turman, Dave Sheffler, Univ. ofVirginia (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8742-13, Session 48742-42, Session 2

Practical experience in deploying andcontrolling the data sharing interoperability
layer at the UK land open systems
architecture (LOSA) field trials in October
2012

UGS SWG and terra harvest overview (Invited
Paper)No Abstract Available.

8742-8, Session 3

Flavio Bergamaschi, Dave Conway-Jones, IBM United Kingdom
Ltd. (United Kingdom); Gavin Pearson, Defence Science andTechnology Lab. (United Kingdom)

Slew to cue of persistent imagers using
ground sensors

In October 2012 the UK MoD sponsored a multi-vendor field integration
exercise in support of its Land Open Systems Architecture (LOSA),an open, service based architecture for systems integration andinteroperability which builds on the progress made with the Generic
Vehicle Architecture (GVA, DefStan 23-09), Generic Base Architecture(GBA, DefStan 23-13) and the Generic Soldier Architecture (DefStan 2312) programs.

Thomas W. Walker, Nino Srour, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)No abstract available.

8742-9, Session 3

The aim of this exercise was to experiment with a common data andpower interoperability across and in support of the Soldier, Vehicles andBases domains.

ISR information: new paradigms, priorities
and interoperability…everything your motherwas afraid to tell you (Invited Paper)This paper presents an overview of the field exercise and discusses indetails how the ITA Information Fabric, technology originated in the US
and UK International Technology Alliance program, was extended tosupport the control of the data interoperability layer across various data
bearers. This includes:

Michael A. Kolodny, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
No abstract available.

- interoperability and information sharing across multiple stove piped andlegacy solutions,- command and control and bandwidth optimization of streamed data
(e.g. video) over a peer-to-peer ad-hoc network across multiple domains

8742-11, Session 3- integration of disparate sensor systems,

Demonstration of the terra harvest controller
architecture- integration with DDS based C2 systems.

Gary H. Stolovy, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

8742-14, Session 4This paper will discuss the integration and demonstration of multiple
sensor assets into the Terra Harvest controller architecture for
Unattended Ground Sensors (UGS).

Future interoperability of camp protection
systems (FICAPS)
Sylvie Caron, Direction Générale de l’Armement (France);
Rainer Gündisch, Wehrtechnische Dienststelle für Schutz- undSondertechnik (Germany); Karl-Hermann Stahl, Rheinmetall

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341

Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV
Defence Electronics GmbH (Germany); Alain Marchand, TDA
Armements S.A.S. (France)
The FICAPS Project has been established as a Project of the European
Defence Agency based on an initiative of Germany and France.
Goal of this Project was to develop Interoperability Guidelines in terms ofoperational and technical requirements and definitions to allow:· Real-time information exchange between equipments and systems ofdifferent suppliers and nations,· Quick and easy replacement of equipments at run-time in the field bymeans of plug and play capability,· Enhancement of system capabilities in the field by adding new
equipments with new capabilities,· Remote control of a system with its equipments by another system.
The guide lines have defined the IP-based Data Distribution Service(DDS) standardised by the OMG as basis for any information exchange
between equipments and systems.
Different sensors and effectors have been defined. Detailed data models
have been developed for EO/IR-Sensors and for Directional Effectors,
both on Pan/Tilt-Platform, and for the Information exchange between
Systems.
To allow integration of legacy equipments “Interoperability Adapter” havebeen foreseen to convert proprietary interfaces to standardised interface
definition.
To prove the Guidelines, a French and a German Demonstration Systemhave been prepared (based on legacy equipments).
Demonstrations have been performed. The required interoperability
functionality was shown successfully.
Even if the focus of the FICAPS project was on camp protection, thesolution found is also appropriate for other force protection and ISR tasks
not only due to its flexibility but also due to the chosen interfacing.

8742-15, Session 4

Coalition warfare program (CWP) projecton policy controlled information query anddissemination
Andrew Toth, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Todd
Karr, NATO Intelligence Fusion Ctr. (United Kingdom); Graham
A. Bent, Dominic Harries, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United
Kingdom)
In 2006, the US Army Research Laboratory (ARL) and the UK Ministryof Defence (MoD) established a collaborative research alliance withacademia and industry, called the International Technology Alliance (ITA)
to address fundamental issues concerning Network and Information
Sciences. Under the ITA research program, a US-UK transition project on“ITA Policy Controlled Information Query & Dissemination” was funded in2011 by OSD’s Coalition Warfare Program (CWP). The goal of this CWP
project is to develop an extensible capability of performing distributed
federated query and information dissemination across a coalition networkof distributed disparate data/information sources with access control
policies.
The CWP project is lead by US Army Research Laboratory (ARL)and UK Defence Science Technology Laboratory (Dstl) with softwaredevelopment by IBM UK and IBM US. The CWP project exploits two
key technology components developed within the ITA, namely the Gaian
Database and integrated Access Policy Decision and Enforcement
mechanisms. The Gaian Database (GaianDB) is a Dynamic Distributed
Federated Database (DDFD) that addresses a need to share information
among coalition members by providing a means for policy-controlled
access to data across a network of heterogeneous data sources.
GaianDB implements a SQL-compliant Store-Locally-Query-Anywhere(SLQA) approach providing software applications with global access todata from any node in the database network via standard SQL queries.
Security policy is stored locally and enforced at the database node level,342

reducing potential for unauthorized data access and waste of network
bandwidth.
The paper discusses the CWP project and the two key technologies(Gaian Database and integrated Access Policy Decision and Enforcement
mechanisms) developed within the US-UK ITA research program. Also
covered are the CWP technology demonstration at the NATO Intelligence
Fusion Centre (NIFC) in January 2013, extensions to the Kerberos
protocol necessary for integration into the NIFC, source data parsing for
Analysts, and future plans for the program.
References:
G. Bent, P. Dantressangle, D. Vyvyan, A. Mowshowitz and V. Mitsou. “Adynamic distributed federated database.” Second Annual Conference of
ITA, Imperial College, London, September 2008.
A. Toth, T. Pham, T. Karr, G. Bent, and D. Harries. “Coalition Warfare
Program (CWP) Project on Policy Controlled Information Query &Dissemination.” NATO IST112/SET813 Symposium on “Persistent
Surveillance: Networks, Sensors, Architecture”, April 2012.
G. Bent, D. Harries, and A. Toth. “Extending the Kerberos Protocol forDistributed Data as a Service.” Annual Conference of the ITA, September
2012.

8742-16, Session 4

Flexible procedural interoperability acrosssecurity and coalition boundaries using
rapidly re-configurable boundary protection
definitions
Nicholas Peach, 2IC Limited (United Kingdom)
Existing configuration of boundary protection devices, which validate
the content and context of information crossing between security
domains, uses a set of accreditor-agreed steps individually agreed forevery situation. This has traditionally been a slow and exacting processof negotiation between integrators and accreditors. The Decentralised
Operation Procedure (DOP) technique allows interoperability definitionsof system interactions to be created as XML files and deployed acrossthe battlefield environment. By extending the security information
definitions within the DOP technique, the additional information willallow boundary protection devices to utilise a DOP XML file and apply
the required standards of security. This allows boundary devices to be
updated simultaneously with the deployment of new DOP definitions to
exploit coalitional capabilities having crossed security boundaries.
The paper describes an open and published boundary definition to
support the aims of the MOD 23-13 Generic Base Architecture Defence
Standard when working with coalition partners. The research aims are; a)to identify each element within a DOP that require security characteristics
to be described; b) create a means to define security characteristics
using XML; c) determine whether external validation of an approved DOP
requires additional authentication; d) determine the actions that end
users will have to perform on boundary protection devices in support ofthese aims.
The paper will present the XML security extensions and the results ofa proof of concept implementation extending the functionality of an
existing accredited barrier device.

8742-17, Session 5

The science of autonomy: integrating
autonomous systems with the ISR enterprise
Gregory Creech, U.S. Dept. of Defense (United States)
Consider a future where joint, unmanned operations are the norm. A fleet
of autonomous airborne systems conducts overwatch and surveillance
for their land and sea brethren, accurately reporting adversary position
and aptly guiding the group of autonomous land and sea warriors into
position to conduct a successful takedown. Sounds a bit like science

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Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV

8742-21, Session 6

fiction, but reality is just around the corner. The DoD ISR Enterprise has
evolved significantly over the past decade and has learned many a harshlesson along the way. Autonomous system operations supporting thewarfighter have also evolved, arguably to a point where integration into
the broader ISR Enterprise is a must, in order to reap the benefits thatthese highly capable systems possess. Achieving meaningful integration,
however, is not without its challenges. The ISR Enterprise, for example,
is still plagued with “stovepipe” efforts – sufficiently filling a niche for an
immediate customer need, but doing little to service the needs of thegreater enterprise. This paper will examine the science of autonomy,
the challenges and potential benefits that it brings to the ISR Enterpriseand recommendations that will facilitate smooth integration of emerging
autonomous systems with the mature suite of traditional manned andunmanned ISR platforms.

River as a part of ground battlefield
Miodrag S. Vracar, Ivan P. Pokrajac, Predrag Okiljevic, MilitaryTechnical Institute (Serbia)
The rivers are in some circumstances part of ground battlefield.
Elastically deformations of the riverbed and ground at the riversurrounding might be consequence of the military activities (military
ground transports, explosions, troop’s activities, etc). Vibrations of those
fluid-solid structures are modeled in terms of solid displacement and fluidpressure. This time varying fluid pressure in river, which originates fromground vibrations, is possible measure with hydrophones. Therefore,hydroacustic measurements in rivers enable detecting, identification andlocalization of various military activities at the ground (ground vibrations)as and those, which originate in river water (hydrodynamics of water flow,
wind, waves, river vessels, etc). In this paper are presented river ambient
noise measurements of the three great rivers: the Danube, the Sava andthe Tisa, which flows in north part of Serbia in purpose to establish limits
in detection of the ground vibrations in relatively wide frequency range
from zero to 20 kHz. Parallel analysis of the ground vibrations inducedby military vehicle is performed experimentally by geophone placed inground and hydrophone in the river. Event classification is based on poly
spectral analysis.

8742-18, Session 6

NATO SET battlefield acoustics sensing
activities (Invited Paper)
Michael V. Scanlon, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Acoustic sensing and networked multimodal sensor fusion have beenongoing areas of research within the NATO Sensors & Electronic
Technology (SET) Task Groups. The US Army Research Laboratory has
led numerous SET groups over the years, and the successful international
collaborations have helped advance the state-of-the-art in networked
acoustic sensing. The presentation will include descriptions andexperiments from the current SET-189 on “Battlefield Acoustic Sensing,Multi-modal Sensing and Networked Sensing for ISR Applications,”
and previous SET-142 on “Acoustics & Autonomous Sensing for ISR
Applications” (2009-12), SET-093 on “Advanced Concepts of Acoustic& Seismic Sensor Technology” (2005-08), and SET TG-25 “Sniper
Detection and Unattended Ground Sensors” (Early 2000’s). Current SET189 participants include NATO, Partners-for-Peace, and Mediterranean
Dialogue countries.

8742-22, Session 7

Air route selection for improved air-to-groundsituation assessment
Marc Oispuu, Massimo Sciotti, Alexander Charlish, Fraunhofer
FKIE (Germany)
Situation Assessment from airborne platforms implies collecting
information on the entities (e.g., people, vehicles) evolving in the scenario,
and inferring the relations among them and with the surrounding
environment. Well-established Ground Moving Target Indication (GMTI)
techniques provide positional/kinematics data, and estimates of target
features/identity. These reports are inputs for higher inference techniquesdevoted to Situation and Impact Assessment (JDL Data Fusion Level2-3). Consequently, the estimated “Situation/Impact” can be seen
as an error-affected estimate of the “ground truth”, hence subject toimprovement by properly steering the data acquisition process.

8742-19, Session 6

Hostile fire indicator threat data collection forhelicopter-mounted applications
Pierre Naz, Sebastien De Mezzo, Sébastien Hengy, Institut
Franco-Allemand de Recherches de Saint-Louis (France)

Specifically, we consider the selection of the aircraft route on the basisof long-term prediction of the tactical picture, i.e., the “Situation” inferredat Level-2. Our target state is composed by positional, kinematics
and behavioral components, as estimated from GMTI reports, context
information (e.g., streets, tunnels, buildings), and observed target
relationships. The optimization problem is solved globally, by taking into
account all sources of uncertainty. Specifically, we model the processing
scheme through a context-aided Particle Filter with feedback from a
Bayesian Network, devoted to inferring target behavior. The optimization
goal is to maintain the required accuracy on the long-term predicted
target state. This implies predicting the accuracy of each track inadvance, as a function of the environment (e.g., sensor obstructions), andthe likely paths followed by the target. Taking inspiration from CramérRao-Bound (CRB) based optimization techniques, the best observationgeometry is calculated iteratively over discrete time intervals, hence
identifying the aircraft route with highest payoff.

This paper briefly describes the set-up of the sensors and the
instrumentation deployed by the French-German Research Instituteof Saint-Louis (ISL) during the last NATO/ACG3/SG2 HFI Threat Data
Collection (Trial PROTEUS which has been conducted during the summer2012 in Slovenia). The main purpose of this trial was the measurementsof weapon and ammunition signature for threat warning / hostile fireindicator (HFI) system development. Weapons vary from small caliber
rifles to anti-tank rockets in ground-to-ground shooting configurations.
For the ISL team, the objectives consisted in measuring the acoustic
signals for detection and localization of weapon firing events.
Experimental results of sound waves obtained using ground based
sensors are presented and analyzed for snipers shots obtained in various
conditions.
This work is included in national/international efforts for the developmentof Hostile Fire Indicator for helicopters taking into account small caliber
guns, RPG, rockets or missiles. For small caliber weapons, acoustic
detection may provide valuable and complementary data to increase theprotection capabilities of helicopters. On the other hand the integration
on such a platform is challenging due to flow noise, engine and rotor
noise. This paper briefly describes the main constrains for such an
application.

8742-23, Session 7

Integrating UAV and UGS for persistent ISRJames Morrison, McQ, Inc. (United States)
McQ Inc. is a leading provider of high performance, advanced technology
unattended ground sensor (UGS) systems. Our research spans two
decades of investigating technologies suitable for automaticallydetecting, classifying, identifying, imaging, and tracking targets in remote

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Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV
regions. In this program, we developed an UGS system specificallytailored for integration with existing and planned UAV ISR systems. Ourinvestigations and engineering have lead to an operational prototype
system. The UGS system can be integrated with and demonstrated witha UAV imaging system. The system demonstrates the ability of integrated
systems to effectively detect, classify, identify, image and track targets
within the airborne imagery using UGS systems with very long life.
UAV systems are valuable ISR assets, but are in high demand for
missions support and do not have the numbers or endurance to provide
persistent surveillance at numerous areas of interest. Long life UGS
distributed over these numerous points of interest provide persistentsurveillance without requiring continuous monitoring by UAV pilots
or data analysts. This capability allows large geographic areas to bepatrolled by fewer UAVS that can immediately respond to target reports
at areas of interest. This technology offers an efficient application of UAV
technology to support the Warfighter over large regions by supplying
timely target position information.

ground surveillance systems to fill this growing demand.
The primary advantage of L3B UGS is their field-deployment scalability,
which allows them to suit a wide range of surveillance applications. L3B
UGS can also be utilized as effective tripwires for more sophisticatedsensors in situations where a high level of scene detail is needed
but power consumption is a factor. Newer image profilers offer eventclassification directly on the unit, which considerably reduces thesystem’s bandwidth as well as the level of human supervision required.
A mix-and-match scheme of deploying various types of L3B UGS canincrease the robustness of event detection and discrimination. This paper
discusses the capability of L3B UGS, specifically linear and 2D profilers
such as Brimrose’s SPOT system, to address growing industry demands.

8742-26, Session 88742-24, Session 7

A key management scheme for tiered
wireless sensor network with self-healing
capability

Clustering of estimated spatial locations in
networked sensors

Maoyu Wang, Communications Research Ctr. Canada (Canada);
Helen Y. Tang, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Ottawa (Canada); F. Richard Yu, Carleton Univ. (Canada)

Miodrag S. Vracar, Ivan P. Pokrajac, Predrag Okiljevic, MilitaryTechnical Institute (Serbia)
Multisensor data fusion combines data from multiple sensors to
overcome interferences that may not be possible from a single sensor
or source alone. In military application data fusion can be used tointegrate the individual sensor data into common operational picture of
the battlefield. However, there is still possibility to improve quality of theindividual sensor. Improving of accuracy in estimation of spatial location
is investigated in this paper. Some novel methods and algorithms for
estimation of spatial location are compared such as Discrete Probability
Density (DPD) method, fusion of multiple bearing lines and mean-squaredistance algorithm. These methods for estimation of spatial location use
two-step positioning technique (indirect technique) based on estimationof a specified parameter such as angle of arrival (AOA). In the network
where is possible to provide multiple spatial locations from the spatiallyclose sources, clustering of estimated spatial location is very important.
The estimated spatial locations that correspond to a source are spatiallyclose to one another will have a larger likelihood than those estimatedspatial locations that are not correspond to the source. In this paper
methods and algorithms for estimation of spatial location are compared
where it is multiple spatial locations, for the same sources spatially close.
Clustering has been performed based on estimated spatial locations andappropriates the covariance matrix.

8742-25, Session 7

Application of inexpensive, low-cost, lowbandwidth silhouette profiling UGS systems
to current remote sensing operations
Feng Jin, Brimrose Corp. of America (United States); Emir Y.
Haskovic, Sterling Walsh III, Brimrose Technology Corp. (UnitedStates); Glenn Cloud, Brimrose Corp. of America (United States)
Traditional surveillance technology development has been focused onincreasing the sensitivity and accuracy of a system at the expense ofhigh production cost and power consumption. However, the increased
need for surveillance in remote environments (such as Iraq, Afghanistan
and the US border) has heightened the demand for inexpensive, lowpower and low bandwidth sensor systems. With military missions
sometimes requiring up to 6 months of constant surveillance in remoteand dangerous areas it has become increasingly prohibitive to deploy
more traditional surveillance equipment, which often rely on humansupervision and a large power source. Advancements in high-efficiency/
low production-cost sensors and embedded systems has allowed forthe development of L3B (low bucks, batteries, bandwidth) unattended
344

Wireless sensor network (WSN) has promising future in many civil
and military applications such as environment monitoring and bordersurveillance , etc. Communication Research Centre designed andimplemented a novel WSN, called Self-healing Autonomous Sensor
Network (SASNet) that has a tiered networking architecture with selfhealing capability. The tiered architecture of SASNet is implemented asfollows. Sensor nodes (SN) in tier-1 communicate in a multi-hop fashion
to reach a fusion node, fusion nodes (FN) forms an ad hoc network intier-2. Some fusion nodes provide long-haul connectivity to backend
command and control stations, called management node.
Self-healing capability, which allows the network to re-configure without
operator intervention if some nodes ceased working, is a highly desiredfeature to provide robust and persistent communication. In SANSet,when any fusion node stops working, the sensor nodes that formed acluster with that fusion node can re-associate with another fusion nodeautonomously. To the best of our knowledge, SASNet is the first WSN toprovide the self-healing feature which makes it suitable to be deployedin unattended and adversarial environments to offer agile surveillanceservices.
SANSNet also has a very strong security mechanism. The security
emphasis is put on how to control a SN’s or a FN’s participation andthen how to assure the collected data is coming from a reliable source.
Besides SN’s or FN’s participation, any unauthorized user are notallowed to query/task the system. To protect SASNet against various
security attacks, we designed a novel key management scheme which
can also be applied to other tiered WSNs. Our key management
scheme supports the cluster membership and the self-healing features
through re-keying when joining a new cluster. The security analysis
demonstrates the proposed scheme is effective and efficient with respect
to communication, computation and memory overhead for operation in a
hostile environment.

8742-27, Session 8

A data collection decision-making
framework for a multi-tier collaboration ofheterogeneous orbital, aerial and ground craft
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
This paper presents an algorithm for the autonomous identificationof and tasking to collect additional data that is required to complete
an experimental or surveillance goal. This goal, which is stated as an
assertion (e.g., ‘a given element is present in a region of a planet’ or‘enemy forces are not present along a given route’) is decomposed by
the autonomous control software into an initial set of data collection

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Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV
tasks. Once these are completed, information gaps may exist or new
information collection requirements may be identified. These needs can,prospectively, be satisfied in numerous different ways with different datacollection activities.

and physical networks.
To address these concerns, we created the Dynamically AllocatedVirtual Clustering management system. This system leverages existing
open-source software to create private clusters of nodes that areeither virtual or physical machines. These clusters can be utilized forsoftware development, experimentation, and integration with existing
hardware and software. The system uses the Grid Engine job scheduler
to efficiently allocate virtual machines to idle systems and networks. The
system deploys stateless nodes via network booting. The system uses
802.1Q Virtual LANs to prevent experimentation crosstalk and to allow
for complex, private networks eliminating the need to map each virtual
machine to a specific switch port. The system monitors the health ofthe clusters and the underlying physical servers. The system maintains
cluster usage statistics for historical trends. Users can start private
clusters of heterogeneous nodes with root privileges for the duration of
the experiment. Users also control when to shutdown their clusters.

A utility-maximization, as a function of cost, metric is applied to assign
follow-on tasks. The utility value is computed based upon heuristics
that are utilized to estimate the value of each class of data that could
be collected towards validating or refuting the assertion. The heuristic
considers the value of previous data (of a given type) collected in
proximity to a potential target, the value of exploring unexplored areas(or alternate data type collection in explored areas) and the potential forchange occurring during collection (thus, the value of validation). Cost is
estimated based on a combination of localized historical movement cost
and task performance time-cost estimates.
This decision making process is performed at every (applicable) level ofthe hierarchy, decomposing large-scale needs into progressively smallergroup, sub-group and individual craft task assignments. The utility of thiscontrol approach is assessed for persistent surveillance and planetaryscience applications.

8742-31, Session 9

Low Frame Rate Video Target Localization
and Tracking Testbed

8742-28, Session 9

On-line data validation in distributed data
fusionPu Pang, Temple Univ. (United States); Dan Shen, Genshe Chen,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Pengpeng
Liang, Temple University (United States); Khanh D. Pham, Erik P.
Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Zhonghai Wang,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States); Haibin Ling,
Temple Univ. (United States)

Jurgo Preden, Tallinn Univ. of Technology (Estonia); James Llinas,
Univ. at Buffalo (United States); Galina L. Rogova, Encompass
Consulting (United States); Raido Pahtma, Leo Motus, Tallinn
Univ. of Technology (Estonia)

Traditional tracking frameworks are challenged with low frame ratescenarios because the appearances and locations of the target may
change drastically in consecutive frames. We present a Low Intensity andFrame Rate (LiFR) framework to deal with such scenario and demonstrate
it in our robot testbed. First, we use median filter to construct abackground of the scene and apply background subtraction to every new
frame to decide the potential target positions. Using the target dynamics,
obtained through communication, target positions are projected tothe image space so as to further narrow down the search range in thecurrent frame. With the help of markers on the target (e.g., robots), a
gradient direction voting algorithm is designed to detect the likely target
locations. Finally, a template matching with branch pruning is used toobtain the finer estimation of the target position. To make the track-bydetection LiFR framework stable, we further introduce the temporal andspatial association constratints using previous detected target positions. Our experiments in the robot testbed show that the proposed method
can achieve a very stable tracking result and outperform some general
trackers such as meanshift, MIL, TLD etc. With all techniques used in our
LiFR framework, we are also able to make our algorithm real-time under
the low frame rate and low image quality (i.e., intensity) requirement.

Data acquisition and data fusion systems are becoming increasingly
complex, being in fact system of systems, where every component
may be an autonomous system by itself. Possible changes in system
configuration by entities joining or being removed from the system makethe system design even more complex. As synchronous operation cannot
be expected in such a system configuration the temporal and spatial
correctness of data must be achieved via other means.
The paper presents the concept of mediated interactions as a method
for ensuring correctness of computation in a distributed system. The
mediator associated with each computing entity is responsible foronline checking of the data both before it is sent out at the sender sideand before it is received at the receiver side, ensuring that only datasatisfying the validity constraints of the data processing algorithm isused in computation. This assumes that each data item is augmented
with temporal and spatial validity information which enables online data
validation. The mediator is able to cope with the unknowns that occur atruntime and are not predictable, such as channel delay, jitter of clocks,
changes in processing delay (especially a factor in multi tasking systems
and in configurations when a computing entity may have to process avariable number of parallel streams of data).
Both the middleware architecture using mediators and a simulation casestudy of a distributed data fusion scenario are presented in the paper.

8742-32, Session 108742-29, Session 9

Acoustic network event classification using
swarm optimization
Jerry A. Burman, Intelligent Recognition Systems (United States)

Dynamically allocated virtual clustering
management system

An acoustic event classifier uses particle swarm optimization to perform
a flexible time correlation of a sensed acoustic signature to reference
data. In order to mitigate the effects of sound interference such as
multipath, the classifier fuses signatures from multiple sensors toform a composite sensed acoustic signature and then automaticallymatches the composite signature with reference data. The approach isapplicable to classify all types of acoustic events but is particularly well
suited to classify explosive events such as gun shots, mortar blasts andimprovised explosive devices that produce an acoustic signature having
a shock wave component that is aperiodic and non-linear. The classifier
was applied to field data and yielded excellent results in terms ofreconstructing degraded acoustic signatures from multiple sensors and inclassifying disparate events.

Kelvin M. Marcus, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Jess
A. Cannata, Dynamics Research Corp. (United States)
In our current experimentation environment, our researchers need to beable to run clusters of heterogeneous nodes to model emulated wirelesstactical networks where each node could contain a different operating
system, application set, and physical hardware. To complicate matters,
most experiments require the researcher to have root privileges. Our
previous solution of using a single shared cluster of statically deployedvirtual machines did not sufficiently separate each user’s experiment due
to undesirable network crosstalk, thus only one experiment could be run
at a time. In addition, the cluster did not make efficient use our servers

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Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV

8742-33, Session 10

Virtual GEOINT Center: C2ISR through anavatar’s eyes
Sanjay Kumar Boddhu, MetaCarta, a Div. of Qbase (UnitedStates); Robert L. Williams, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Mark Seibert, Wright State Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8742-34, Session 10

Characterization and definition of a software
stack for a reference experimental framework
Andrew Toth, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Flavio
Bergamaschi, IBM United Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom)
In 2006, the US Army Research Laboratory (ARL) and the UK Ministryof Defence (MoD) established a collaborative research alliance withacademia and industry, called the International Technology Alliance (ITA)
to address fundamental issues concerning Network and Information
Sciences. Research performed under the ITA was extended through acollaboration between ARL and IBM UK to characterize and define asoftware stack and tooling that will become the reference framework for
network science experimentation.
A key element to the success and validation of ITA theoretical researchis experimentation in a controlled environment that can, as best as
possible, emulate the real world conditions and context. Experimental
validation in a network emulation environment contributes to thevalidation of theoretical concepts and algorithms, the investigation of
more complex scenarios that span multiple research areas, exposing
gaps in the theory that may need special attention, identifying additional
areas where the research might focus and develop, and reproducible
experimentation, which enables and facilitates the comparison of resultsfrom multiple executions of the same experiment. To accomplish theseexperimentation goals, the framework needs to foster the collaboration
across multiple disciplines and facilitate the sharing of existing and new
assets in a common emulation environment. The framework also needs
to be extensible for the integration of new features, emulation models,monitoring, and integration with real, external assets that can be linked toany given experiment.
The paper discusses the experimentation framework resulting fromthe ARL/IBM UK collaboration. It describes the characterization anddefinition of a software stack and tooling that has become the reference
experimental framework that builds on the goals stated above. The
experimentation framework makes use of open source technologies,
namely the Common Open Research Emulator (CORE) and theExtendable Mobile Ad-hoc Network Emulator (EMANE). Additional
ITA assets such as Controlled English (CE) Store, Declarative, the ITA
Services Composition Framework, the ITA Distributed State Machine
are integrated into the framework and available as core infrastructure forexperimentation.

8742-35, Session 10

Managing ISR sharing policies at the networkedge using Controlled English
Christos Parizas, Diego Pizzocaro, Alun D. Preece, Cardiff
Univ. (United Kingdom); Petros Zerfos, IBM Thomas J. Watson
Research Ctr. (United States)
In domains such as emergency response and military operations
the sharing of Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR)
assets among different coalition partners is regulated through policies.
Traditionally, policies are created at the center of a coalition’s network by
high-level decision makers and expressed in low-level policy languages
346(e.g. Common Information Model SPL) by technical personnel, whichmakes them difficult to be understood by non-technical users at theedge of the network. Moreover, policies must often be modified bynegotiation among coalition partners, typically in rapid response to thechanging operational situation. Commonly, the users who must copefirst with situational changes are those on the edge, so it would be very
effective if they were able to create and negotiate policies themselves.
We investigate the use of Controlled English (CE) as a means to definea policy representation that is both human-friendly and machineprocessable. We show how a CE model can capture a variety of policy
types, including those based on a traditional asset ownership model,
and those defining team-based asset sharing across a coalition. The
use of CE is intended to benefit coalition networks by bridging the gap
between technical and non-technical users in terms of policy creationand negotiation, while at the same time being directly processable bya policy-checking system without transformation to any other technicalrepresentation.

8742-36, Session 10

Diagnosing Degradation of Services in Hybrid
Wireless Tactical Networks
Srikar Tati, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States); Petr
Novotny, Imperial College London (United Kingdom); Bong
Jun Ko, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States);
Alexander L. Wolf, Imperial College London (United Kingdom);Thomas F. LaPorta, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
In this paper, we consider a diagnosis problem related to service
deployment and management in tactical military networks. In tactical
networks, performance degradation in services could prove fatal, so it
must be diagnosed quickly. Performance of services can be affected
due to various reasons that span across different layers of networks.
The causes of network disconnectivity could be inferred using known
service relationships and partial deployment information. In this paper, we
provide a network model for hybrid wireless networks in military tacticalscenarios and a monitoring model of services, whose infrequent updates
are used to generate service layer dependency graphs. We then discusstechniques that could be used to infer the causes of the degradation .

8742-37, Session 11

A collaborative smartphone sensing platform
for detecting and tracking hostile drones
Sanjay Kumar Boddhu, MetaCarta, a Div. of Qbase (UnitedStates); Robert L. Williams, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Matt Macarthny, Wright State University (United States)
In recent years, not only United States Armed Services but other Lawenforcement agencies have shown increasing interest in employing
drones for various surveillance and reconnaissance purposes. Further,
the recent advances in drone control technology has led to completely
autonomous and self-sustaining drones that can be pre-programmedwith mission requirements devoid of any traditional necessity for humanin-the-loop control. These autonomous drone technology advancements
have tremendously increased the geographic extent of the drone based
missions beyond the traditional line-of-sight control coverage without
any sophisticated requirement of data links to control them remotely,
proving to be tremendously reliable and effective for security personnel(and soldiers) operating in hostile environments. But, these autonomous
drones can prove to be hostile, when acquired by anti-social groups who
can target the property and life in urban settlements. To further escalate
the issue, the traditional detection techniques like RADARs, RF datalink signature scanners, etc..., prove futile as the drones are smaller insize to evade successful detection by a RADAR based system in urban
environment and being autonomous have capability of operating without
an active data link (RF) that can be traced. Hence, a research team at
AFRL’s Tec^Edge Labs has developed a highly scalable, geographically

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Conference 8742: Ground/Air Multisensor Interoperability,
Integration, and Networking for Persistent ISR IV
distributable and easily deployable smartphone-based collaborative
platform that can aid in detecting and tracking hostile drones in an
urban environment. In its current state this collaborative platform, built
on the paradigm of “Human-as-Sensors”, mainly consists of intelligent
Smartphone application that leverages appropriate sensors on the device
to capture a drone’s attributes in a semi-automated fashion with realtime collaboration capabilities thru a highly composable sensor cloudarchitecture and an intelligent processing module that can estimate thepossible flight of the hostile drone based on the multiple observation
data points and provide real-time alerting mechanism for the personnel
in the field to avert or subdue the damages caused by the detect hostiledrones.

affected by those events. This spatiotemporal information, when madeavailable for first responders in the event vicinity (or approaching it) cangreatly assist them to make effective decisions to protect property andlife in a timely fashion. In this vein, under SATE and YATE programs, theresearch team at AFRL Tec^Edge Discovery labs had demonstrated
the feasibility of developing Smartphone applications, that can provide
a augmented reality view of the appropriate detected events in a given
geographical location (localized) and also provide an event searchcapability over a large geographic extent. In its current state, theapplication thru its backend connectivity utilizes a data (Text & Image)processing framework, which deals with data challenges like; identifying
and aggregating important events, analyzing and correlating the events
temporally and spatially and building a search enabled event database.
Further, the smartphone application with its backend data processing
workflow has been successfully field tested with live Twitter feed.

8742-38, Session 11

Smartphones for distributed multimodesensing: biological and environmental
sensing and analysis

8742-40, Session 11

Smartphone citizen sensors for urban groundtracking

Sanjay Kumar Boddhu, MetaCarta, a Div. of Qbase (UnitedStates); Robert L. Williams, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Tyler Feitshans, Ohio Northern Univ. (United States)

Sanjay Kumar Boddhu, MetaCarta, a Div. of Qbase (UnitedStates); Robert L. Williams, Air Force Research Lab (UnitedStates); Michael Fox, Wright State Univ. (United States)

Active and Agile Environmental and Biological sensing are becoming
obligatory to generate prompt warnings for the troops and law
enforcements conducting missions in hostile environments. The
traditional static sensing mesh networks which provide a coarse-grained(far-field) measurement of the environmental conditions like air quality,
radiation , CO2, etc … would not serve the dynamic and localizedchanges in the environment, which requires a fine-grained (near-field)
sensing solutions. Further, sensing the biological conditions of (healthy
and injured) personnel in a contaminated environment and providing apersonalized analysis of the life-threatening conditions in real-time would
greatly aid the success of the mission. In this vein, under SATE and YATE
programs, the research team at AFRL Tec^Edge Discovery labs had
demonstrated the feasibility of developing Smartphone applications , that
employ a suite of external environmental and biological sensors, which
provide fine-grained and customized sensing in real-time fashion. In its
current state, these smartphone applications leverage a custom designed
modular standalone embedded platform (with external sensors) thatcan be integrated seamlessly with Smartphones for sensing and further
provides connectivity to a back-end data architecture for archiving,
analysis and dissemination of real-time alerts. Additionally, the developed
smartphone applications have been successfully tested in the field withvaried environmental sensors to sense humidity, CO2/CO, wind, etc…, ;and with varied biological sensors to sense body temperature and pulse
with apt real-time analysis.

No abstract available.

8742-39, Session 11

Context-aware event detection smartphone
application for first responders
Sanjay Kumar Boddhu, MetaCarta, a Div. of Qbase (UnitedStates); Robert L. Williams, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)
The rise of social networking platforms like Twitter, Facebook, etc…,
have provided seamless sharing of information (as chat, video andother media) among its user community on a global scale. Further,
the proliferation of the smartphones and their connectivity networks
has powered the ordinary individuals to share and acquire information
regarding the events happening in his/her immediate vicinity in areal-time fashion. This human-centric sensed data being generated in“human-as-sensor” approach is tremendously valuable as it delivered
mostly with apt annotations and ground truth that would be missing in
traditional machine-centric sensors, besides high redundancy factor(same data thru multiple users). Further, when appropriately employed
this real-time data can support in detecting localized events like fire,
accidents, shooting, etc…, as they unfold and pin-point individuals being

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
Monday - Thursday 29–2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8743 Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral
Imagery XIX

8743-1, Session 1

The remarkable success of adaptive cosine
estimator in hyperspectral target detection(Invited Paper)
Dimitris G. Manolakis, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Eric
Truslow, Northeastern Univ. (United States); Michael L. Pieper,
MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Thomas Cooley, Michael
Brueggeman, Steven J. Lipson, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)A challenging problem of major importance in hyperspectral imaging
applications is the detection of subpixel targets of military and civilianinterest. The background clutter surrounding the target, acts as aninterference source that simultaneously distorts the target spectrum
and reduces its strength. Two additional limiting factors are the spectral
variability of the background clutter and the spectral variability of thetarget. Since a result in applied statistics is only as reliable as theassumptions from which it is derived, it is important to investigate
whether the basic assumptions used for the derivation of matched filter(MF) and adaptive cosine estimator (ACE) algorithms are a reasonable
description of the physical situation. Careful examination of the linear
signal model used to derive the MF and ACE algorithms and thereplacement signal model, which is a more realistic model for subpixel
targets, reveals a serious discrepancy between modeling assumptions
and the physical world. Contrary to this discrepancy and additional
mismatches between assumed and actual signal and clutter models,the ACE algorithm shows an “amazing effectiveness” in practical target
detection applications. The objective of this paper is an attempt to
explain this unbelievable effectiveness using a combination of classicalstatistical detection theory, geometrical interpretations, and a novel
realistic performance prediction model for the ACE detector.

8743-2, Session 1

Extending continuum fusion to create
unbeatable detectors
Alan P. Schaum, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Amongst the many versions of continuum fusion (CF) algorithm, one
flavor has been shown to produce the uniformly most powerful solution
to any detection problem that admits one. It was hoped, therefore, thatthe flexibility in design afforded by CF principles would permit one tofind with them solutions to any reasonably defined optimization problem.
The class of unbeatable algorithms solve one such problem category.
However, for many discrete composite hypothesis problems, unbeatabledetectors are known that elementary CF methods cannot produce. Here
we generalize the CF methodology in a way that converts any discrete
fusion problem into a continuous one. Continuum fusion algorithms
produced in this way generate the entire class of unbeatable detectors.
We discuss further the concept of undesirable unbeatable detectors, andwe describe methods for avoiding them.

8743-3, Session 1

A hyperspectral anomaly detector based onpartitioning pixel into adjacent components
Edisanter Lo, Susquehanna Univ. (United States)
An algorithm for detecting anomaly in hyperspectral imaging ispresented. The algorithm is based on partitioning the pixel into groups348

of adjacent components of the pixel and partialling out the main
background structure from each group of adjacent components. Someadjacent components of the pixel are known to be significantly correlated
and this correlation can be exploited to improve anomaly detection. The
Mahalanobis distance of the resulting residual is defined as the anomaly
detector. Experimental results show that the anomaly detector has asubstantial improvement in detection than the conventional anomaly
detectors.

8743-4, Session 1

False alarm mitigation techniques for
hyperspectral target detection
Michael L. Pieper, Eric Truslow, Dimitris G. Manolakis, MIT
Lincoln Lab. (United States)
A challenging problem of major importance in hyperspectral imaging
applications is the detection of subpixel targets of military and civilianinterest. High false alarm thresholds are required to detect subpixel
targets due to the large amount of surrounding background clutter. Thesehigh false alarm rates are unacceptable for military purposes, requiring
the need for false alarm mitigation (FAM) techniques to weed out thetargets of interest. The objective of this paper is to provide a comparisonof the implementation of these FAM techniques and their inherent
benefits. One method of FAM works in the whitened detection space. The
widely utilized matched filter (MF) and adaptive cosine estimator (ACE)
are both based on a linear mixing model (LMM) between a backgroundand target class. The matched filter approximates the target abundance,
and the ACE measures the model error. Each of these measurements
provides inadequate target separation alone. By using both the target
abundance and model error, the targets can be separated from the false
alarms. A second method studies detection hits in the physical spectral
space using a LMM. The target background is estimated from the local
surroundings, and subtracted from the pixel of interest. The resulting
target component is then used to identify the pixel. Variations of theabove FAM techniques will also be discussed.

8743-5, Session 1

Image change detection via ensemble
learning
Benjamin W. Martin, The Univ. of Tennessee Knoxville (UnitedStates); Ranga R. Vatsavai, Oak Ridge National Lab. (UnitedStates)
The concept of geographic change detection is relevant in many
areas. Changes in geography can reveal much information about aparticular location. For example, analysis of changes in geography canidentify regions of population growth, change in land use, and potential
environmental disturbance. A common way to perform change detection
is to use a simple method such as differencing to detect regions ofchange. Though these techniques are simple, often the application ofthese techniques is very limited. Recently, machine learning methods
such as neural networks for change detection has been explored withgreat success.
In this work, we explore the use of ensemble learning methodologies for
detecting changes in bitemporal synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images.
Ensemble learning uses a collection of weak machine learning classifiers
to create a stronger classifier which has higher accuracy than theindividual classifiers in the ensemble. The strength of the ensemble liesin the fact that the individual classifiers in the ensemble create a “mixtureof experts” in which the final classification made by the ensemble
classifier is calculated from the outputs of the individual classifiers. Our

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-9, Session 2

methodology leverages this aspect of ensemble learning by training
collections of weak decision tree based classifiers to identify regions ofchange in SAR images collected of a region in the Staten Island, NewYork area during Hurricane Sandy. Preliminary studies show that theensemble method has approximately 11.5% higher change detection
accuracy than an individual classifier.

An advanced algorithm suite for wide-field ofview multispectral threat warning systems
Joel B. Montgomery, Marjorie Montgomery, M&M Aviation(United States)

8743-6, Session 2

In this paper, we present a real-time material classification system
for assessing terrain for an off-road autonomous vehicle. The systemutilizes data from a forward-facing camera array consisting of 8 submegapixel cameras. The camera array is composed of a stereo pair (onemonochrome camera on each end), an rgb camera, and 5 cameras withpurpose-selected color filters (a multispectral array). This work describes
both a specialized method for selecting spectral filters which are optimalfor classifying the selected set of materials and the implementation of areal-time pixel-by-pixel classification system which utilizes features fromstereo-based segmentation, image texture, and the multispectral camera
array. We demonstrate the fusion of these features in a single classifierand discuss a customized decision-tree classifier which provides areliable confidence estimate. We discuss algorithm performance on our
training and testing datasets, which cumulatively contain more than2000 frames and 25 million labeled samples. We also show the relative
importance of all of our features for material classification on an overallbasis as well as a class-by-class basis.

Threat warning, including Man Portable Air Defense (MANPADS) andmedium-large machine gun fire is a critical component for airborne
assets to survive in hostile airspace. To provide situational awareness forthe pilot, cued defense and countermeasures, and proactive engagement
requires extremely high probability of detection coupled very low false
alarm rates. Historically, false alarm rates have driven the threat warning
at a system level due to a multitude of factors including unintended
expenditure release resulting in requirement of the system to be disabled.
Better spectral discrimination in the mid-infrared helps, but the highcosts of these systems, including acquisition and maintenance, have
limited fielding to very few aircraft. M&M Aviation has been working
on perfecting Spectrally Independent Mappable Algorithms for Clutter(SIMAC) for over 7 years and has been used in several wide-field systems
that were flown and tested against multiple missile and gun based
threats. This algorithm suite allows for a wide range of applications
including use in the near-IR (NIR) and visible domains as well as the
mid-infrared. Additionally, SIMAC has been updated to include shorttimeline threat signatures to detect and declare Hostile Fire Intent (HFI)
and energetic events (grenades, exploding bombs, IEDs) on airborne
platforms. This output is coupled to a geo-fusion engine for location andidentification of less than 2m. This paper will give an overview of thecurrent SIMAC algorithm implementation including real-time operations,
results from various clutter flights and threat systems, system based
received operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and finally conclude with
future work and direction.

8743-8, Session 2

8743-85, Session 2

Spectral unmixing applied to desert soils forthe detection of sub-pixel disturbances

Hyperspectral imaging for detection andidentification of blood stains at the crime
scene

Material classification for unmanned groundvehicles using multispectral cameras
David Chambers, Marc Alban, William C. Flannigan, Southwest
Research Institute (United States)

Jessica L. Stuart, U. S. Dept. of Defense (United States); Fred A.
Kruse, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)

Gerda Edelman, Academic Medical Center (Netherlands); Ton G
van Leeuwen, Univ. van Amsterdam (Netherlands) and Academic
Medical Center (Netherlands); Maurice C.G. Aalders, Academic
Medical Center (Netherlands)

Desert areas cover approximately one-fifth of the Earth’s surface. These
areas are extremely sensitive and highly responsive to environmental
and man-made impacts, thus it is important to be able to detect andunderstand surface disturbances. Remote sensing technology canbe used to detect and characterize these both literally (visually) andnon-literally (analytically). Even when no disturbances are apparent inindividual images or color composites, non-literal approaches may allow
detection of anthropogenic-related surface disturbances that are notvisible through image interpretation. This is achievable through analyticaldetection and identification of spectral reflectance and absorption
feature changes caused by both chemical and biological differencesamong similar soil components. Previous research suggests that surface
disturbances cause alteration of soil properties, making it feasible
to detect variation in spectral signatures. This research utilizes field
spectroscopy and hyperspectral imagery analysis to provide additional
confirmation that disturbance-related changes do have unique spectral
characteristics and that these are detectable, even at the sub-pixel level.
Case histories utilizing Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer(AVIRIS) data demonstrate that detection, identification, and mappingof surface disturbance are possible using library spectra, extrapolationof site-specific field spectral measurements, and even using spectral
endmembers from geographically different yet geologically similar
regions. The results have implications for environmental monitoring andother civilian and military applications.

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Blood stains are an important source of information in forensic
investigations. Extraction of DNA may lead to the identification of victims
or suspects, while the blood stain pattern may reveal useful information
for the reconstruction of a crime. Consequently, techniques for thedetection and identification of blood stains are ideally non-destructivein order not to hamper both DNA and the blood stain pattern analysis.
Currently, forensic investigators mainly detect and identify blood stains
using chemical or optical methods, which are often either destructive or
subject to human interpretation.
We demonstrated the feasibility of hyperspectral imaging of the crime
scene to detect and identify blood stains remotely. Blood stains outside
the human body comprise the main chromophores oxy-hemoglobin,
methemoglobin and hemichrome. Consequently, the reflectance spectraof blood stains are influenced by the composite of the optical propertiesof the individual chromophores and the substrate. Using the coefficientof determination between a non-linear least squares multi-component fit
and the measured spectra blood stains were successfully distinguishedfrom other substances visually resembling blood (e.g. ketchup, red wine
and lip stick) with a sensitivity of 100 % and a specificity of 85 %.
The custom-made hyperspectral imaging system used in this study
is portable and wireless, and can be transported to the crime scene
to record large samples or even the entire crime scene. The practicalapplicability of this technique was demonstrated at a mock crime scene,
where blood stains were successfully identified automatically.

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-10, Session 3

Manian, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (United States)

Bayesian information criteria for material
identification in hyperspectral imagery

Applying technology in port security applications is crucial for thedetection of possible threats or illegal activities. One of the most common
problems that cargo suffers is tampering. This represents a danger tosociety because it creates a channel to smuggle illegal and hazardous
products. If a cargo is altered, security inspections of that cargo should
contain anomalies that reveal the nature of the tampering. Hyperspectral
images can detect anomalies by gathering information through multiple
electromagnetic bands. The spectrums extracted from these bands canbe used to detect surface anomalies from different materials. Based on
this technology, a scenario was built in which a hyperspectral camera
was used to inspect the cargo for any surface anomalies. The spectrumof items, altered by different materials that can be used to conceal illegal
products, is analyzed and classified in order to provide information about
the tampered cargo. The image is analyzed with a variety of techniquessuch as multiple features extracting algorithms, autonomous anomaly
detection, and target spectrum detection. The results will be exported via
Bluetooth to a mobile device to implement an easy-to-use interface. This
process could enhance the current capabilities of security systems thatare already implemented, providing a more complete approach to detectthreats and illegal cargo.

William Basener, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates) and Exelis Visual Information Solutions (United States);
Daniel W. Czirjak, U.S. Army (United States)
Over the recent decades, much attention has been placed on building
more effective target detection algorithms for hyperspectral imagery.
Much of this work is based on signal processing methods, locating aknown signal spectra out of a background image. While methods areavailable for detection of a known target, these methods output highscores for both target objects and correlated confusers.
In this paper we develop a method for target identification based on
Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) for the identification of the material
in a pixel. Bayesian information is particularly well suited for this task
because it enables averaging over multiple spectra and outputs resultsthat can more readily be interpreted in a Bayesian framework for decision
making. We compare results using BIC to identification metrics usedpreviously in the literature on HYDICE Forest Radiance data.

8743-13, Session 38743-11, Session 3

Undercomplete learned dictionaries for land
cover classification in multispectral imagery
of Arctic landscapes using CoSA: clusteringof sparse approximations
Daniela I. Moody, Steven P. Brumby, Joel C. Rowland, Chandana
Gangodagamage, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States)
Techniques for automated feature extraction, including neuroscienceinspired machine vision, are of great interest for landscapecharacterization and change detection in support of global climatechange science and modeling. We present results from an ongoing
effort to extend machine vision methodologies to the environmental
sciences, using state-of-the-art adaptive signal processing, combinedwith compressive sensing and machine learning techniques. We
use a Hebbian learning rule to build undercomplete spectral-texturaldictionaries that are adapted to the data. We learn our dictionaries
from millions of overlapping multispectral image patches and then use
a pursuit search to generate classification features. Land cover labels
are automatically generated using our CoSA algorithm: unsupervised
Clustering of Sparse Approximations. We demonstrate our method using
multispectral Worldview-2 data from three Arctic study areas: Barrow,
Alaska; the Selawik River, Alaska; and a watershed near the Mackenzie
River delta in northwest Canada. Our goal is to develop a robust
classification methodology that will allow for the automated discretizationof the landscape into distinct units based on attributes such as
vegetation, surface hydrological properties (e.g., soil moisture andinundation), and topographic/geomorphic characteristics. To interpretand assign land cover categories to the clusters we both evaluate thespectral properties of the clusters and compare the clusters to both fieldand remote sensing-derived classifications of landscape attributes. We
compare our technique to standard remote sensing algorithms as well asa supervised genetic algorithm. Our work suggests that neurosciencebased models are a promising approach to practical pattern recognition
problems in remote sensing.

8743-12, Session 3

Security inspection through anomaly
detection using hyperspectral imaging
technology
Javier Rivera, Fernando L. Valverde, Manuel Saldana, Vidya B.
350

A multistage framework for dismount spectral
verification in the VNIR
Dalton S. Rosario, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
A multistage algorithm suite is proposed for a specific target detection/verification scenario, where a visible/near infrared hyperspectral (HS)sample is assumed to be available as the only cue from a reference
image frame. The target is a suspicious dismount. The suite first applies
a biometric based human skin detector to focus the attention of thesearch. Using as reference all of the bands in the spectral cue, the suite
follows with a Bayesian Lasso inference stage designed to isolate pixels
representing the specific material type cued by the user and worn by thehuman target (e.g., hat, jacket). In essence, the search focuses on testingmaterial types near skin pixels. The third stage imposes an additional
constraint through RGB color quantization and distance metric checking,limiting even further the search for material types in the scene having
visible color similar to the target color. Using the proposed cumulative
evidence strategy produced some encouraging range-invariant results
on real HS imagery, dramatically reducing to zero the false alarm rateon the example dataset. These results were in contrast to the results
independently produced by each one of the suite’s stages, as the spatial
areas of each stage’s high false alarm outcome were mutually exclusive
in the imagery. These conclusions also apply to results produced by otherstandard methods, in particular the kernel SVDD (support vector data
description) and Matched Filter, as shown in the paper.

8743-14, Session 3

LWIR hyperspectral change detection fortarget acquisition and situation awareness inurban areas
Rob J. Dekker, Piet B. W. Schwering, Koen W. Benoist, TNO
Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands); Stefano Pignatti,
Federico Santini, CNR IMAA (Italy); Ola Friman, FOI (Sweden)
This paper studies change detection of LWIR (Long Wave Infrared)
hyperspectral imagery. Goal is to improve target acquisition and situation
awareness in urban areas. Hyperspectral data were collected during
the DUCAS (*) trials in Zeebrugge, Belgium, in June 2011. Additional
high-resolution airborne imagery and ground truth data were collected
simultaneously. LWIR data were acquired using the ITRES Thermal
Airborne Spectrographic Imager TASI-600 that operates in the spectral
range of 8-11.5 µm. Chosen was for the 32 band configuration with 109.5

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
nm spectral width (FHWM). Acquisition of the images was around noon.
To reduce the number of false alarms due to diurnal changes, the timeinterval between the images was less than 2 hours. Local co-registration
adjustment was applied to compensate for small misregistration errors.
The targets in the data that will be analysed in this paper are different
kinds of vehicles. To investigate the performance of LWIR hyperspectralchange detection, the following algorithms were applied and evaluated:
Euclidean distance, Mahalanobis distance (RX), Chronochrome (CC),
Covariance Equalisation (CE), Hyperbolic Anomalous Change Detection(HACD), and Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM). Evaluation is based on
Receiver Operator Characteristics (ROC). Conclusion is that HACD and
Euclidean distance show the best results. The contrast of gone vehicles
in this period is generally larger than of new vehicles due to its thermal
shadow on the ground. (*) Detection in Urban scenario using Combined
Airborne imaging Sensors, EDA project arrangement no. B 0294 IAP3 GC

edge separating any two materials can be determined separately fromthe imagery. An estimate for the abundance of two neighboring materials
along a common edge can be calculated geometrically by identifying
the edge which spans multiple pixels. These geometrically calculated
abundances can then be used as validation of spectral unmixing
algorithms. The size, shape, and spectral profiles of these targets also
make them useful for radiometric calibration, atmospheric adjacency
effects, and sensor MTF calculations. The imagery and ground-truth
information are presented here.

8743-17, Session 4

SHARE 2012: subpixel detection and unmixing
experiments
John P. Kerekes, Kyle Ludgate, AnneMarie Giannandrea, Nina
Raqueno, Daniel S. Goldberg, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States)

8743-15, Session 4

The SHARE 2012 data collection campaign

The quantitative evaluation of algorithms applied to remotely sensed
hyperspectral imagery require data sets with known ground truth. A
recent data collection known as SHARE 2012, conducted by scientists
at the Rochester Institute of Technology together with several outside
collaborators, acquired hyperspectral data with this goal in mind. Several
experiments were designed, deployed, and truthed to support algorithm
evaluation.

AnneMarie Giannandrea, Nina Raqueno, David W. Messinger,
Jason Faulring, John P. Kerekes, Jan van Aardt, Kelly Canham,
Shea Hagstrom, Erin Ontiveros, Aaron Gerace, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States); Jason Kaufman, Karmon
M. Vongsy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Heather
Griffith, UTC Aerospace Systems (United States); Brent D.
Bartlett, The MITRE Corp. (United States)

In this paper, we describe two experiments that addressed the particularneeds for the evaluation of subpixel detection and unmixing algorithms.
The subpixel detection experiment involved the deployment of dozens ofnearly identical subpixel targets in a random spatial array. The subpixel
targets were pieces of wood painted either green or yellow. They weresized to occupy about 25% of the 1 m pixels if they fell entirely within asingle pixel.

A multi-modal (hyperspectral, multispecral, and LIDAR) imaging datacollection campaign was conducted at the Avon Driving Park in Avon, NY
on September 20, 2012 by the Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) in
conjunction with SpecTIR, LLC, the Air Force Research Lab (AFRL), theNaval Research Lab (NRL), and MITRE. The campaign was a follow on
from the SpecTIR Hyperspecral Airborne Rochester Experiment (SHARE)
from 2010. Data was collected in support of thirteen simultaneous
experiments. The airborne imagery was collected over four different
sites with hyperspectral, multispectral, and LIDAR sensors. The sites fordata collection included Avon, NY, Conesus Lake, Hemlock Lake andforest, and a nearby quarry. Experiments included topics such as target
unmixing, subpixel detection, LIDAR fusion, material identification, forest
health, and in-water target detection. An extensive ground truthing effort
was conducted in addition to airborne imagery. The ultimate goal of thedata collection campaign is to provide the remote sensing community
with a shareable resource to support future experiments. This paper
details the experiments conducted and the data that was collectedduring this campaign.

The unmixing experiment used novel targets with prescribed fractionsof different materials based on a geometric arrangement of subpixel
patterns. These targets were made up of different fabrics with various
colors. Whole pixel swatches of the same materials were also deployedin the scene to provide in-scene endmembers. Alternatively, researchers
can use the unmixing targets alone to derive endmembers from themixed pixels.
Initial results have demonstrated successful detection of the subpixel
targets as well as close approximations to the geometric fractions in the
retrieved fractions for the unmixing targets. These data, together withthe ground truth, are planned to be made available to the community forevaluation and development of detection and unmixing algorithms.

8743-16, Session 48743-18, Session 4

SHARE 2012: large edge targets for
hyperspectral imaging applications

SHARE 2012: analysis of illuminationdifferences on targets in hyperspectral
imagery

Kelly Canham, Daniel S. Goldberg, John P. Kerekes, Nina
Raqueno, David W. Messinger, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States)

Emmett Ientilucci, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)This paper looks at a new data set that has been designed to analyze
the various impacts of illumination change on targets. In addition, similartargets were placed on different backgrounds where spectral signatures
were analyzed to determined impacts of background adjacency. Targets
were also placed next to tree lines where they were fully illuminated butwith the possible impact of tree shine. Hyperspectral, multispectral, and
LiDAR modalities were used to image the targets in the above mentioned
scenarios. Applications such as target detection are used to assess
difficulties with finding such targets. The incorporation of LiDAR andphysical models will aid in approximating the correct per-pixel signature
to be used in the above mentioned target detection scheme. This
technique can help mitigate issues related to varying illumination acrossa scene.

Spectral unmixing is a type of hyperspectral imagery (HSI) sub-pixel
analysis where the pure materials and abundances within the pixel
are identified. However, validating the results obtained from spectral
unmixing is very difficult due to a lack of real-world data and groundtruth information associated with these real-world images. Real HSI data
are preferred for validating spectral unmixing, but when there are no HSI
truth-data available then validation of spectral unmixing algorithms relies
on user-defined synthetic images which can be generated to exploit
the benefits (or hide the flaws) in the new unmixing approaches. Here
we introduce a new dataset (SHARE 2012: large edge targets) for thevalidation of spectral unmixing algorithms. The SHARE 2012 large edge
targets are uniform 9m by 9m square regions of a single material (grass,sand, black felt, or white TyVek®). The spectral profile and the GPS ofthe corners of the materials were recorded so that the heading of the

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-19, Session 5

Detection and tracking of gas plumes in LWIR
hyperspectral video sequence data
Torin Gerhart, Justin Sunu, California State Univ., Long Beach(United States); Lauren Lieu, Harvey Mudd College (UnitedStates); Ekaterina Merkurjev, Univ. of California, Los Angeles(United States); Jen-Mei Chang, California State Univ., Long
Beach (United States); Jerome Gilles, Andrea L. Bertozzi, Univ. of
California, Los Angeles (United States)
The detection and segmentation of chemical plumes is difficult due to thenatural diffusion process of a gas. As the gas disperses the boundary ishighly dynamic, the edges become less defined, and the concentration
becomes optically thin. We develop algorithms for automated detectionof a gas plume in Long Wave Infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral video
sequences collected at the Dugway Proving Ground using a standoff
detection technique. Our approach uses a combination of dimension
reduction and histogram equalization to prepare the hyperspectral videos
for segmentation. First, Principal Components Analysis (PCA) is used
to reduce the dimension of the entire video sequence. Next, a Midway
method for histogram equalization is used. These methods redistributethe intensity values in order to reduce flicker between frames. PCA andMidway are used as
pre-processing steps to prepare the data for more sophisticatedsegmentation algorithms. Spectral clustering of this dataset yields
important information in the spatial structure of the eigenfunctions. Thesecan be used for a new fast classification algorithm that incorporates
spatial patterning in the data, yields promising results. This algorithm
is based on a modified MBO scheme that minimizes the GinzbergLandau functional. The output of this algorithm achieves superior resultscompared to more conventional methods such as K-means clusteringand an adaptive matched subspace detector.

8743-20, Session 5

Geometrical interpretation of the adaptive
coherence estimator for hyperspectral target
detection
Shahar Bar, Ori Bass, Alon Volfman, Tomer Dallal, Stanley R.
Rotman, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel)A hyperspectral cube consists of a set of images taken at numerous
wavelengths. Hyperspectral image data analysis uses each material’s
distinctive patterns of reflection, absorption and emission ofelectromagnetic energy at specific wavelengths for classification or
detection tasks. Because of the size of the hyperspectral cube, data
reduction is definitely advantageous; when doing this, one wishes tomaintain high performances with the least number of bands. Obviously insuch a case, the choice of the bands will be critical.
In this paper, we will consider one particular algorithm, the adaptive
coherence estimator (ACE), for the detection of hyperspectral point
targets. We give a quantitative interpretation of the dependence of
the algorithm on the number and identity of the bands that have beenchosen. Results on simulated data will be presented.

8743-21, Session 5

A novel automated object identification
approach using key spectral components
Bart Kahler, Todd Noble, SAIC (United States)
Spectral remote sensing provides solutions to a wide range ofcommercial, civil, agricultural, atmospheric, security, and defense
problems. Technological advances have expanded multispectral

352(MSI) and hyperspectral (HSI) sensing capabilities from air and spaceborne sensors. The greater spectral and spatial sensitivity have vastly
increased the available content for analysis. The size of the data cubes
obtained from today’s sensors enable material identification via complex
processing techniques. With sufficient sensor resolution, multiple pixels
on target are obtained and by exploiting the key spectral features of amaterial signature among a group of target pixels and associating thefeatures with neighboring pixels, object identification is possible. The
authors propose a novel automated approach to object classification with
HSI data by focusing on the key components of an HSI signature and therelevant areas of the spectrum (bands) of surrounding pixels to identify
an object. The proposed technique may be applied to spectral data fromany region of the spectrum to provide object identification. The effort will
focus on HSI data from the visible, near-infrared and short-wave infrared
to prove the algorithm concept.

8743-22, Session 5

Target detection using the background modelfrom the topological anomaly detection
algorithm
Leidy P. Dorado Munoz, David W. Messinger, Amanda K.
Ziemann, Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
The Topological Anomaly Detection (TAD) algorithm has been used asanomaly detector in hyperspectral and multispectral images. TAD is analgorithm based on graph theory that constructs a topological model ofthe background in a scene, and computes an “anomalousness” ranking
for all of the pixels in the image with respect to the background, inorder to identify pixels with uncommon or strange spectral signatures.
The pixels that are modeled as background are clustered into groups
or connected components, which could be representative spectral
signatures of materials present in the background. Therefore, the ideaof using the background components given by TAD in target detection
is explored in this paper. In this way, these connected components areused as basis vectors of the background in a sub-pixel detector such as
Orthogonal Subspace Projection (OSP), which removes the backgroundeffects and enhances the target signature by projecting the pixels onto
a subspace orthogonal to the background. In addition, another metric
to improve the detection is included in our methodology. This metricis the Structured Infeasibility Projector (SIP), which attempts to rejectfalse alarms by projecting the pixels onto the subspace orthogonal to
the target pixel. Experiments using different target pixels with variedcomplexity of detection are performed, in order to have a wide frame of
study and assessment of the proposed methodology.

8743-23, Session 5

Low-rank decomposition-based anomaly
detection
Shih-Yu Chen, Shiming Yang, Konstantinos Kalpakis, Chein-I
Chang, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
With high spectral resolution hyperspectral imaging is capable ofuncovering many subtle signal sources which cannot be known a priori
or visually inspected. Such signal sources generally appear as anomalies
in the data. Due to high correlation among spectral bands and sparsityof anomalies, a hyperspectral image can be decomposed into two
subspaces: a background subspace specified by a matrix with low rank
dimensionality and an anomaly subspace specified by a sparse matrix
with high rank dimensionality. This paper develops an approach tofinding such low-high rank decomposition to identify anomaly subspace.
Its idea is to formulate a convex constrained optimization problem thatminimizes the nuclear norm of the background subspace and little l1
norm of the anomaly subspace subject to a decomposition of data
space into background and anomaly subspaces. By virtue of such abackground-anomaly decomposition the commonly used RX detector
can be implemented in the sense that anomalies can be separated in the

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-26, Session 6

anomaly subspace specified by a sparse matrix. Experimental results
demonstrate that the background-anomaly subspace decomposition canactually improve and enhance RXD performance.

8743-24, Session 5

A method to generate sub-pixel classification
maps for use in DIRSIG three-dimensionalmodels

Improved target recognition with live
atmospheric correction

Ryan Givens, Karl C. Walli, Air Force Institute of Technology(United States); Michael T. Eismann, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)

Cynthia I. Archer, Jim Morgenstern, Vision4ce LLC (UnitedStates)Developing a new remote sensing instrument is a costly and time
consuming process. The Digital Imaging and Remote Sensing Image
Generation (DIRSIG) model allows users to create synthetic images fora proposed sensor before building it. This enables algorithm testing anddevelopment, testing of image system designs, and the creation of data
for training of image analysts allowing these processes to be in placeprior to the sensor’s first flight. However, to produce realistic synthetic
images, DIRSIG requires facetized, three-dimensional models attributedwith spectral and texture information which can also be costly andtime consuming to produce. Recent work has shown that coincident
LIDAR data and high-resolution imagery can be registered and used toautomatically generate the geometry and texture information needed tobuild a DIRSIG scene, but user input is still required to attribute facets
with either library or field measured spectral information. The proposed
LIDAR/HSI Direct method fully automates the generation of a scene’s
geometry, texture, and spectral content when coincident LIDAR data,high-resolution imagery, and HyperSpectral Imagery (HSI) of a site areavailable. Furthermore, the fusion of these modalities potentially enables
sub-pixel spectral unmixing resulting in a high-resolution classification
map. When paired with the high-resolution imagery and spectra pulled
directly from the HSI, the classification map can be used to accurately
attribute spectral information to the three-dimensional model generated
from the LIDAR data. As more datasets become available, this method
provides a quick and accurate process for generating DIRSIG scenes
using terrain and materials that were previously unavailable.

Hyperspectral airborne sensing systems frequently employ spectral
signature databases to detect materials. To achieve high detection
and low false alarm rates, it is critical to retrieve accurate reflectancevalues from the camera’s digital number (dn) output. A one-time camera
calibration converts dn values to reflectance. However, changes in solar
angle and atmospheric conditions distort the reflected energy, reducing
detection performance of the system.
Changes in solar angle and atmospheric conditions introduce both
additive (offset) and multiplicative (gain) effects independently foreach waveband. A gain and offset correction can mitigate theseeffects. Correction methods based on radiative transfer models require
equipment to measure solar angle and atmospheric conditions. Other
methods use known reference materials in the scene to calculate thecorrection, but require an operator to identify the location of thesematerials. Our unmanned airborne vehicles application can use no
additional equipment or require operator intervention. Applicable
automated correction approaches typically analyze gross scene statistics
to find the gain and offset values. Airborne hyperspectral systems
have high ground resolution, so individual scenes do not include all thevariation necessary to accurately calculate global statistics.
In the present work we present our novel approach to the automatic
estimation of atmospheric and solar effects from the hyperspectral data.
On approach is based on Hough transform matching of background
spectral signatures with materials extracted from the scene. Scene
materials are identified with low complexity agglomerative clustering.
Detection results with data gathered from recent field tests are shown.

8743-27, Session 6

Snapshot spectral and polarimetriccollection: video tracking and target
identification

8743-25, Session 6

Multimodal detection of man-made objects

Brent D. Bartlett, Mikel D. Rodriguez, The MITRE Corp. (UnitedStates)Richard L. Tutwiler, Matthew S. Baran, Donald J. Natale, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

As the number of pixels continues to grow in consumer and scientificimaging devices, it has become feasible to collect the incident lightfield.
In this paper, an imaging device developed around lightfield imaging isused to collect multi-spectral and polarimetric imagery in a snapshot
fashion. The sensor is described and a video data set is shownhighlighting the advantage of snapshot spectral and polarimetric imaging.
Several computer vision approaches are applied to the video cubes toperform scene characterization and target identification. It is shown how
the addition of spectral and polarimetric data to the video stream allows
for multi-target identification and tracking not possible with traditional
RGB video collection.

This research presents an approach to multi-modal detection of manmade objects from aerial imagery. Detections are made in polarization
imagery, hyperspectral imagery, and LIDAR point clouds then fused into asingle confidence map. The detections are based on reflective, spectral,and geometric features of man-made objects in airborne images. The
polarization imagery detector uses the Stokes parameters and the degreeof linear polarization to find highly polarizing objects. The hyperspectral
detector matches scene spectra to a library of man-made materials
using a combination of the spectral gradient angle and the generalized
likelihood ratio test. The LIDAR detector clusters 3D points into objects
using principle component analysis and prunes the detections by sizeand shape. Once the three channels are mapped into detection images,
the information can be fused without some of the problems of multimodal fusion, such as edge reversal. The imagery used in this system
was simulated with a first-principles ray tracing image generator known
as DIRSIG.

8743-28, Session 6

Detecting occluded and obscured targets
in airborne hyperspectral imagery with coregistered lidar
Taylor Glenn, Paul D. Gader, Univ. of Florida (United States)
Hyperspectral image data provides a unique ability to detect targets
at sub-pixel resolutions. This subpixel detection ability may not be
sufficient however if the targets are obscured by shadow or occluded
by tree cover. Lidar, with first and last return elevation measurements,

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
allows for categorization of the scene into segments with knowledge ofocclusion and obscuration properties. This segmentation information canpotentially be beneficial to target detection. We analyze the performanceof detection algorithms for obscured and occluded emplaced targets,and analyze methods of improving detection performance through theuse of Lidar elevation information. We show results on a new dataset
featuring high resolution (1m x 1m pixel size) VisNIR hyperspectral
imagery with co-registered Lidar.

8743-29, Session 6

Blind analysis of multispectral andpolarimetric data via canonical correlation
analysisOzgur Polat, ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey); Yakup Özkazanç, Hacettepe
Univ. (Turkey)
In blind scene analysis, the aim is to obtain information aboutbackground and targets without any prior information. Blind methods
can be considered as pre-processing steps for scene understanding.
By means of blind signal separation methodologies, anomalies can bedetected and these anomalies can be exploited for target detection.
There are many imaging sensor systems which uses different propertiesof the emittance or the reflectance characteristics of the scene
components. Spectral reflectance properties are related to the material
composition and these multispectral characteristics can be used for
detection, identification and classification of the scene components.
As the light scattered from the scene elements shows polarization ,polarized measurements can be used as extra features. Multispectraland polarimetric images of a scene provide distinct information tosome level and this information can be used to get deeper informationon the scene and to make detection easier. In this study, spectral andpolarimetric images of a scene is analyzed via Canonical Correlation
Analysis (CCA) which is a powerful multivariate statistical methodology.
Multispectral and polarimetric data (spectro-polarimetric data) are treatedas two different sets. Canonical variants obtained by CCA give different
scene components such as background elements and some man-madeobjects. The linear relationship of the polarimetric and multispectral dataof the same scene is also obtained by CCA.

8743-30, Session 7

Lossless to lossy compression for
hyperspectral imagery based on wavelet andinteger KLT transforms with 3D binary EZW
Kai-jen Cheng, Jeffrey C. Dill, Ohio Univ. (United States)
It is paramount to have efficient compression algorithms to reduce thevolume of hyperspectral imagery data. This paper studies a transform
based lossless to lossy image compression for hyperspectral images,
which includes integer Karhunen-Loeve transform (IKLT), discrete wavelet
transform (IDWT) and binary embedded zerotree wavelet algorithm(EZW). The reversible IKLT is used for spectral decorrelation and energy
compaction. The IDWT transforms the top n bands of IKLT transformed
hyperspectral image to achieve multiresolution decomposition andenergy compaction in the spatial domains. The sign and magnitudeof wavelet coefficients are encoded separately. Lossy and losslesscompressions of signs are implemented by conventional EZW algorithm
and arithmetic coding respectively. The efficient binary EZW algorithm isapplied to code magnitudes. The innovative quad-trees, which define theconnections between coefficients in the top n principal bands, as wellas the lower energy bands, not only improve the efficiency of the binary
EZW but also optimize the performance of subsequent arithmetic coding.

8743-31, Session 7

Analytical and comparative analysis of lossy
ultraspectral image compression
Rolando Herrero, Vinay K. Ingle, Northeastern Univ. (UnitedStates)AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder) images are a type of ultraspectral
data cubes that are good candidates for compression as they include
several thousand bands that account for well over 40MB of information
per image. In this paper we describe and mathematically model an
improved architecture to accomplish lossy compression of AIRS imagesby presenting a sequence of techniques executed under the context of
preprocessing and compression stages. Specifically we describe botha preprocessing reversible stage that rearranges the AIRS data cube
and a linear prediction based compression stage that improves thecompression rate when compared to other state of the art ultraspectral
data compression techniques. After defining a distortion measure as wellas its effect on real applications (i.e. AIRS Level 2 products) we present amathematical model to approximate the rate-distortion of the architecture
and compare it against the experimental performance of the algorithm.
The analysis relies on the vector quantization of the prediction error andassumes that the individual samples follow a Laplacian distribution thatis the only source of distortion. In general under an open-loop encoding
scheme, the distortion caused by the quantization of linear-prediction
coefficients is masked by the distortion introduced by the prediction error
itself. The effect of the preprocessing stage on the analytical model isaccounted by different values of the Laplacian distribution such that the
curve obtained by parametrically plotting rate against distortion is a close
approximation of the experimental one.

8743-32, Session 7

Supervised method for optimum
hyperspectral band selection
Robert K. McConnell, Way 2C (United States)
Much effort has been devoted to development of methods to reduce
hyperspectral image dimensionality by locating and retaining data
relevant for image interpretation while discarding that which is irrelevant.
Irrelevance can result from an absence of information that could
contribute to the classification, or from the presence of informationthat could contribute to the classification but is redundant with otherinformation already selected for inclusion in the classification process.
Early dimension reduction efforts focused on geometrically inspired
models such as principal component analysis. More recently attention
has turned to information theoretic approaches. For supervisedclassification, techniques using mutual information between class anddata are showing promise in differentiating between data that is relevantto the classification of interest and data that is irrelevant.
We describe a new supervised method that uses mutual information
to incrementally determine the most relevant combination of available
bands and/or derived pseudo bands to differentiate a specified setof classes. We refer to this as relevance spectroscopy. The method
identifies a specific optimum band combination and provides estimatesof classification accuracy for data interpretation using a complementary,also information theoretic, classification procedure.
When modest numbers of classes are involved the number of relevantbands to achieve good classification accuracy is typically three or fewer.
Time required to determine the optimum band combination is of theorder of a minute on a personal computer. Automated interpretation ofintermediate images derived from the optimum band set can often keep
pace with data acquisition speeds.

The proposed compression was applied to 16 bit AVIRIS images.
Comparing to JPEC2000, SPIHT, DPCM and CALIC, the binary EZW
achieves lossless /lossy compression comparable to the best predictive
algorithms with the computational efficiency of transform basedalgorithm.
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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-33, Session 7

statistics on $bf{S}$, $bf{A}$, and $bf{W}$ assumed by BiG-AMP. We
establish numerically, though both synthetic and real-world examples,that BiG-AMP accomplishes nearly MMSE hyperspectral unmixing
with runtimes that are orders-of-magnitude below the state-of-the-art
Bayesian approaches.

Second order statistics target-specified
virtual dimensionality
Drew Paylor, Chein-I Chang, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)

8743-35, Session 7

Virtual dimensionality (VD) has received considerable interest with its use
in specifying the number of spectral distinct signatures, denoted by p.
So far all techniques are eigen-based approaches which use eigenvalues
or eigenvectors to estimate the value of p. However, when eigenvalues
are used to estimate VD such as Harsanyi-Farrand-Chang’s method or
hyperspectral signal subspace identification by minimum error (HySime),
there will be no way to find what the spectrally distinct signatures are. On
the other hand, if eigenvalues along with eigenvectors/singular vectors
are used to estimate VD such as maximal orthogonal complement
algorithm (MOCA), eigenvectors/singular vectors do not represent real
signal sources. Most importantly, current available methods used toestimate VD run into two major issues. One is the value of VD being fixed
at a constant. The other is failure in providing a means of finding signal
sources of interest. As a matter of fact, the spectrally distinct signatures
defined by VD should adapt its value to various target signal sources ofinterest. For example, the number of endmembers should be different
from the number of anomalies. In order to resolve this dilemma this paper
presents a new concept, referred to as target-specified VD (TSVD) whose
value is determined by target signal sources of interest. The underlying
idea of TSVD was derived from that used to develop high-order statistics(HOS) VD by Chang and Xiong who did not realize its applicability tosecond order statistics (2OS). In the past, two major types of 2OS-basedtarget finding algorithms have been widely studied, unsupervised target
detection algorithm, called automatic target generation process (ATGP)
and anomaly detection-based algorithms, called Reed-Xiaoli detector(RXD)-like detection algorithms. These two types of 2OS-specified
targets will be then used to determine the value of VD. Experiments are
conducted in comparison with well-known and widely used eigen-based
approaches.

Comparing quadtree region partitioning
metrics for hyperspectral unmixing
Miguel A. Goenaga-Jimenez, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez(United States); Miguel Velez-Reyes, The Univ. of Texas at El
Paso (United States)
This paper presents an approach for unmixing using quadtree region
partitioning. Images are partitioned in low spectral variability regions
using quadtree region partitioning. Unmixing is performed in eachindividual region using the positive matrix factorization. The extracted
endmembers are the clustered in endmembers classes which account for
the variability of spectral endmembers across the scene. The proposed
method lends itself to an unsupervised approach. In the paper, we will
examine the effect of different metrics for spectral variability and the typeof scene being analyzed. Hyperspectral imagery from different sources isused in the experiments.

8743-36, Session 8

Impact of specular reflection on bottom typeretrieved from WorldView-2 images
Karen W. Patterson, Gia M. Lamela, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States)
The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) has been developing theCoastal Water Signatures Toolkit (CWST) to estimate water depth,bottom type and water column constituents such as chlorophyll,suspended sediments and chromophoric dissolved organic matterfrom hyperspectral imagery. The CWST uses a look-up table approach,comparing remote sensing reflectance spectra observed in an image
to a database of modeled spectra for pre-determined water column
constituents, depth and bottom type. Recently the CWST was modified
to process multi-spectral WorldView-2 imagery. Generally imagery
processed through the CWST has been collected under optimal sun andviewing conditions so as to minimize surface effects such as specularreflection. As such, in our standard atmospheric correction process we
do not include a specular reflection correction. In June 2010 a series of
7 WorldView-2 images was collected within 2 minutes over Moreton Bay,
Australia. The images clearly contain varying amounts of surface specularreflection. Each of the 7 images was processed through the CWST using
identical processing to evaluate the impact of ignoring specular reflection
on coverage and consistency of bottom types retrieved.

8743-34, Session 7

Hyperspectral image unmixing via bi-linear
generalized approximate message passing
Jeremy Vila, Philip Schniter, The Ohio State Univ. (United States);
Joseph Meola, U.S. Air Force (United States)
In hyperspectral unmixing, the objective is to decompose anelectromagnetic reflectance dataset $bf{Y}inmathbb{R}^{Mtimes
T}$, measured over $M$ spectral bands and $T$ pixels, into a set of$N$ material spectra (or ``endmembers’’) ${bf{s}_n}_{n=1}^N$ withcorresponding spatial abundances ${bf{a}_n}_{n=1}^N$, so that$bf{Y}=sum_{n=1}^N bf{s}_n bf{a}_n^textsf{T} + bf{W}$ with $bf{W}$capturing noise effects. If the endmembers $bf{S}=[bf{s}_1,dots,bf{s}_N]$were known apriori and sufficiently diverse (so that $bf{S}$ is full columnrank), then the abundances $bf{A}=[bf{a}_1,dots,bf{a}_N]^textsf{T}$could be inferred using, e.g., simple least-squares inversion $bf{A}approx bf{S}^+bf{Y}$. In practice, however, $bf{S}$ is unknown because
it may not be known which materials are present in the scene, or--even
if the materials present are known--their spectra can vary from reference
values due to various factors such as sun angle, atmospheric absorption,etc. Moreover, classical approaches to endmember extraction such as
VCA or N-FINDER rely on the availability of pure (i.e., single-material)
pixels.

8743-37, Session 8

Using multi-angle WorldView-2 imagery to
determine bathymetry near Oahu, Hawaii
Krista R. Lee, Richard C. Olsen, Fred A. Kruse, Angela M. Kim,
Naval Postgraduate School (United States) and Remote Sensing
Ctr. (United States)

In this paper, we propose a novel approach to hyperspectral unmixing(i.e., joint estimation of endmembers and abundances) using the bilinear
generalized approximate message passing algorithm (BiG-AMP), a
recently proposed approach to matrix factorization based on loopy
belief propagation. The BiG-AMP framework enables the exploitationof spectral coherence and non-negativity in $bf{S}$, as well as spatial
coherence and simplex constraints in $bf{A}$. Moreover, an expectationmaximization technique can be used to automatically tune the prior

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Multispectral imaging (MSI) data collected at multiple angles over shallow
water provide analysts with a unique perspective of bathymetry incoastal areas. Observations taken by DigitalGlobe’s WorldView-2 (WV-2)
sensor acquired at 39 different view angles on 30 July 2011 were used
to determine the effect of acquisition angle on bathymetry derivation.
The site used for this study was Kailua Bay (on the windward side of theisland of Oahu). Satellite azimuth and elevation for these data ranged·

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
from 18.8 to 185.8 degrees and 24.9 (forward-looking) to 24.5 (backwardlooking) degrees (respectively) with 90 degrees representing a nadir view.
Bathymetry were derived directly from the WV-2 radiance data using aband ratio approach. Comparison of results to LiDAR-derived bathymetry
showed that varying view angle impact the quality of the inferredbathymetry. Derived and reference bathymetry have a higher correlation
as images are acquired closer to nadir. The band combination utilized
for depth derivation also has an effect on derived bathymetry. Fourband combinations were compared, and the Blue & Green combination
provided the best results.

8743-38, Session 8

Automatic ship detection from commercial
multispectral satellite imagery
Brian J. Daniel, Alan P. Schaum, Eric C. Allman, Robert A.
Leathers, Trijntje Downes, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Commercial multispectral satellite sensors, in particular 8-band
WorldView-2, spend much of their time over open-ocean. NRL has
demonstrated an automatic processing system that finds ships in open
water, and in the presence of clouds, in order to utilize the “ocean time”
of orbiting assets for maritime domain awareness (MDA). A water/cloud
clutter subspace is estimated, and a continuum fusion-derived anomaly
detection scheme is applied. This produces a low false alarm rate systemthat maintains an acceptable detection probability.

8743-39, Session 8

A decade of measured greenhouse forcingsfrom AIRS hyperspectral outgoing longwave
spectraDavid Chapman, Phuong Nguyen, Milton Halem, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States). Increased greenhouse gasses reduce the transmission of Outgoing
Longwave Radiation (OLR) to space along spectral absorption lines
causing the Earth’s temperature to rise in order to preserve energy
equilibrium. This greenhouse forcing effect can be directly observed in
the Outgoing Longwave Spectra (OLS) from hyperspectral space-borne
infrared instruments with sufficiently high resolving power [R. Goody
1995, Harries 2001]. In 2001, Harries et. al observed significant increases
in greenhouse forcings by direct inter-comparison of the IRIS spectra
1970 and the IMG spectra 1997 [Harries 2001]. We have extended thiseffort by measuring the annual rate of change of AIRS all-sky Outgoing
Longwave Spectra (OLS) with respect to greenhouse forcings. Our
calculations make use of a 20x20 degree monthly gridded brightness
temperature product. Decadal trends for AIRS spectra from 2002-2012
indicate continued decrease of -0.06K/yr in the trend of Brightness
Temperature of CO2 (14.15u and 4.3u), a decrease of -0.04K/yr BT in the
O3 BT (9.8u), a decrease of -0.03K/yr in the CH4 BT (7.7u) and slightly
positive increases of 0.03K/yr in the CFC11 and CFC12 BTs respectivelyof window channels at 8.7u and 11.1u, in accordance with results of theMontreal Protocol. Our 14.15u trends are consistent with the expectedradiative forcings from 10 years of increased CO2 even though surface
temperatures have not risen substantially over the last decade.

8743-40, Session 8

Initial validation of atmosphericcompensation for a Landsat land surface
temperature productMonica J. Cook, John R. Schott, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
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The Landsat series of satellites is the longest set of continuously
acquired moderate resolution multispectral satellite imagery collected
on a single maintained family of instruments. The data are very attractive
because the entire archive has been calibrated and characterized sothat sensor reaching radiance values are well known. Because of thespatial and temporal coverage provided by Landsat, it is an intriguing
candidate for a land surface temperature (LST) product, an importantearth system data record for a number of fields including numerical
weather prediction, climate research and a number of agricultural
applications. Using Landsat’s long-wave infrared thermal band, LST canbe derived with a well-characterized atmosphere and a known surface
emissivity. This work integrates the North America Regional Reanalysis
dataset (atmospheric profile data) with ASTER derived emissivity datato perform LST retrievals. This paper emphasizes progress toward
atmospheric compensation at each Landsat pixel. Due to differences in
temporal and spatial sampling, a number of interpolations are required
to compute the radiance due to temperature at each pixel, introducing
error into the process. Radiosonde data and water temperatures derived
from buoys are used as ground truth data to explore the error in the final
predicted temperature. Preliminary results show consistent errors of lessthan 1 K in clear atmospheres but higher errors in hotter and more humid
atmospheres. Future work will analyze results to predict error in the final
retrieved temperatures using atmospheric conditions. The final goal is toreport both a predicted LST and a confidence in this value.

8743-75, Session P-TUE

Progressive constrained energy minimization
for subpixel detection
Yulei Wang, Harbin Engineering Univ. (China); Robert C. Schultz,
U.S. Naval Academy (United States); Shih-Yu Chen, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States); Chunhong Liu,
South China Agricultural Univ. (China); Chein-I Chang, Univ. of
Maryland, Baltimore County (United States)
Constrained energy minimization (CEM) has been widely used for
subpixel detection. It makes use of the sample correlation matrix R
to suppress background so as to enhance detection of targets ofinterest. In many real world problems implementing target detection ona timely basis is crucial, specifically, moving targets. However, since
the calculation of the sample correlation matrix R needs the entire data
samples prior to its detection such requirement prevents CEM from being
implemented as a real time processing algorithm. In order to resolve thisdilemma, the sample correlation matrix R must be replaced with a causal
sample correlation matrix formed by only those data samples that havebeen visited and up to the currently being processed data sample. This
causality is a pre-requisite to real time processing. By virtue of such a
causality designing and developing a real time processing version of
CEM becomes feasible. This paper presents a progressive CEM (PCEM)
where the causal sample correlation matrix can be updated sample bysample. Accordingly, PCEM allows the CEM to be implemented as a
causal CEM (C-CEM) as well as real time (RT) CEM via a recursive update
equation in real time.

8743-76, Session P-TUE

GPUs for parallel on-board hyperspectral
image radiometric normalization
Yuanfeng Wu, Bing Zhang, Ctr. for Earth Observation and
Digital Earth (China); Haina Zhao, Jianwei Gao, Li Ni, Wei Yang,
Graduate Univ. of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (China) andCtr. for Earth Observation and Digital Earth (China)
The main challenge of the hyperspectral remote sensing is the enormous
computational requirements needed to effectively process a collectionof high dimensional data sets in large remote sensing data repositories.
Fortunately, hyperspectral image processing algorithms exhibit inherent
parallelism at multiple levels, and map nicely on high performance

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
Huang, The Academy of Opto-Electronics (China)systems such as graphics processing units (GPUs). Meanwhile, GPUs
are easy to adapt to on-board data processing scenarios, in which lowweight and low-power integrated components are desirable to reduce
mission payload. This paper proposed a GPU-based implementation ofradiometric normalization algorithms, which is used as a representative
case study of on-board data processing techniques for hyperspectral
image. Radiometric normalization of hyperspectral image aims at
reducing or eliminating the vertical strips and resuming the true
radioactive information. Three algorithms of radiometric normalization
based on the column average and standard deviation of raw image
statistical characteristics, i.e. the adjacent column balanced normalization(ACBN), moment matching normalization (MMN) and the mean
normalization (MN), were implemented and applied to real hyperspectral
images for evaluating their performance. These algorithms need no otherparameters and variables but image pixel digital values, so very easy
to apply, especially for on-board data processing with efficient parallel
methods. These algorithms have been implemented using the computedevice unified architecture (CUDA), and tested on the NVidia Tesla C2075
architecture. The airborne Pushbroom Hyperspectral Imager (PHI) was
flown to acquire the spectrally contiguous images in different regions
as experimental datasets. Further more, the proposed implementations
are quantitatively compared and assessed in terms of both radiometricnormalization accuracy and parallel efficiency. Radiometric normalization
accuracy has been assessed by the full field and adjacent field methods.
The results show that MN worked best among the three methods andthe speedups achieved by the GPU implementation over their CPU
counterparts are outstanding. Considering that a series of satellites withhyperspectral sensors will be launched in the near future, this study
provides a thoughtful perspective on the potentials of adapting thesetechniques to on-board as well as on-the-ground hyperspectral image
processing.

A coded aperture spectral snapshot imager (CASSI) system provides anprobable approach to capture both spectral information and 2D sparse
spatial information with a single shot image, according to the code
aperture and dispersion element. However, the reconstruction process
dealing highly compressive measurements with a single shot image
is seriously limited by the design of efficient coded aperture pattern.
Considering the improvement of SNR and the flexibility in different
observing object, An optimal design of coded aperture should help lower
the pressure in reconstructing 3D spectral date cube with no loss ofentrance pupil energy, meanwhile satisfy the demand in spatial/spectral
resolution simultaneously.
In this paper, we research to find a proper mathematical method helping
the design of code aperture. The new method, based on the theory ofcompressive sensing and the study of traditional spectral data, is strictly
constrained by spatial/spectral restricted isometric property (RIP) andthe irrelevant conditions in spectral dimension, and its realistic physicaland technical problems were also discussed. We sort the code aperture‘s
optimal forms of mathematics by testing the normal reconstruction
algorithms under the same signal sparse ratio and CS measurements.
We did many computational simulations and analysis to simulate thewhole process. Based on the simulations, we reconstructed a series of
1280*1036*22 spectral image data cube by the CASSI system to confirm
our theory.

8743-79, Session P-TUE

Concealed target detection using
hyperspectral imagers based on intersection
kernel of SVM

8743-77, Session P-TUE

Min-Sheob Shim, Sungho Kim, Yeungnam Univ. (Korea, Republicof)Impact of spatial complexity preprocessing
on hyperspectral data unmixing

This paper presents a concealed object detection based on theintersection kernel Support Vector Machine (SVM). Hyperspectral imagers
are widely used in the field of target detection and material analysis.
In military applications, it can be used to border protection, concealed
target detection, reconnaissance and surveillance. If you do not detectdisguised enemies in advance, the damage of allies will be catastrophic
by unexpected attack. For example, tanks disguise themselves using
similar bush pattern in terrain. Concealed object detection using
radar and terahertz method is widely used. However, these active
techniques are easily exposed to the enemy. Electronic Optical Counter
Counter Measures (EOCCM) using hyperspectral imagers can be afeasible solution. We use the feature of spectral profile directly and theintersection kernel based SVM. Since we use the same experiment
set up absolute spectral information can be useful. Different materials
show different spectrums although they look similar in CCD camera. In
this experiment, we chose objects with similar colors and similar forms
such as wig and hair, plant and military uniform, etc. According to theexperimental results, the proposed method can detect concealed targets
correctly.

Stefan A. Robila, Montclair State Univ. (United States)
For most of the success, HSI processing techniques have their origins
in multidimensional signal processing with a special emphasis on
optimization based on objective functions. Many of these techniques(ICA, PCA, NMF, OSP, etc.) have their basis on collections of single
dimensional data and do not take in consideration any spatial based
characteristics (such as the shape of objects in the scene). Recently,
in an effort to improve the processing results, several approaches thatcharacterize spatial complexity (based on the neighborhood information
were introduced).
Our goal is to investigate how spatial complexity based approaches
can be employed as preprocessing techniques for other previously
established methods. First, we designed for each spatial complexity
based technique a step that generates a hyperspectral cube scaled
based on spatial information. Next we feed the new cubes to a group ofprocessing techniques such as ICA and PCA. We compare the results
between processing the original and the scaled data.
We compared rhe results on the scaled data with the results on the full
data. We built upon these initial results by employing additional spatialcomplexity approaches. We also introduced new hybrid approaches thatwould embed the spatial complexity step into the main processing stage.
Compared to previous research, our work provides a comprehensive
analysis of spatial complexity approaches including identification ofcommon traits.

8743-80, Session P-TUE

Fusion and quality analysis for satellite
images using contourlet transformYoonsuk Choi, Ershad Sharifahmadian, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)

8743-78, Session P-TUE

Recent developments in satellite sensor technologies have provided
satellite images with high spatial and spectral resolutions. However,multispectral images have low spatial resolution and panchromatic
images have low spectral resolution. Therefore, image fusion techniques
are necessary to improve the spatial resolution of spectral images byinjecting spatial details of high-resolution panchromatic images. The
objective of image fusion is to provide useful information by improving

Code aperture design and performancecomparison based on coded aperture
spectral snapshot imager (CASSI) system
Qunbo Lv, Bin Xiangli, Xiaoru Zeng, Yangyang Liu, Mingxiang
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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
the spatial resolution and the spectral information of the original images.
The fusion results can be utilized in various applications, such as
military, medical imaging, and remote sensing. This paper addresses two
issues in image fusion: i) image fusion method and ii) quality analysis
of fusion results. First, a new contourlet-based image fusion method ispresented, which is an improvement over the wavelet-based fusion. Thisfusion method is then applied to a case study to demonstrate its fusion
performance. Fusion frameworks and algorithms for both contourletbased and wavelet-based methods are discussed in detail. Second,
quality analysis for the fusion results is discussed. The main purposeof the quality analysis is to quantitatively analyze the performance ofthe fusion methods. Therefore, we employed various quality metrics
including: i) average gradient and standard deviation for spatial quality
analysis, and ii) correlation coefficient and Qavg index for spectral quality
analysis. Our results indicate that the proposed contourlet-based fusion
method performs better than the conventional wavelet-based fusion
methods. Furthermore, the proposed contourlet-based fusion method
has advantage in improving the spatial resolution while preserving theoriginal spectral information.

component analysis (ICA), an evolving new technique that aims at findingout components which are statistically independent or as independent
as possible, can be extended for target detection as it does not have
any requirement of a priori availability of target spectra. A comparative
assessment of target detection for hyperspectral images using ICA
versus various other target detection algorithms therefore assumes
significant interest. The aim of this paper is to compare ICA basedalgorithm with four spectral matching algorithms namely, Orthogonal
Subspace Projection (OSP), Constrained Energy Minimisation (CEM),
Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) and Spectral Correlation Mapper (SCM),
and four anomaly detection algorithms namely, OSP anomaly detector(OSPAD), Reed-Xiaoli anomaly detector (RXD), Uniform Target Detector(UTD) and a combination of Reed-Xiaoli anomaly detector and Uniform
Target Detector (RXD-UTD) for target detection. A set of synthetic and
AVIRIS hyperspectral data containing aircrafts as targets were used forthe experiments. A comparison of true positive and false positive rates
of target detections obtained from ICA and other algorithms plotted on areceiver operating curves (ROC) space indicates superior performance of
ICA over other algorithms.

8743-81, Session P-TUE

8743-83, Session P-TUE

Improving performance of hyperspectral
image classification via adaptive principle
subspace detection

Interferometric imaging spectropolarimeterusing polazation modulation

Xiaoxia Sun, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States); Nasser M.
Nasrabadi, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); Trac D.
Tran, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States)
In this paper, we propose a novel algorithm called the Adaptive Principle
Subspace Detection (APSD) to preprocess hyperspectral images before
performing the classification. The principle subspace is defined as
the subspace that the center pixel of a neighborhood belongs to. For
a given neighborhood centered on a test pixel, the APSD generates
a set of weights using the nonnegative low rank approximation of
the neighborhood pixels. We will show that such weights can beextracted from the sparse coefficients matrix of the nonnegative low
rank approximation of the neighborhood pixels. APSD then computes
the weighted sum of all pixels in the neighborhood to produce asynthesized pixel for the center pixel. Classification is then performedon the synthesized center pixels instead of the original pixels. APSD
introduces two advantages for classification. First, if there exists morethan one class within the neighborhood, which is represented by different
subspaces, then all but the principle subspace is suppressed by theweights when generating the center pixel. Furthermore, comparing withthe original center pixel, the APSD enforces the synthesized pixel to lay
closer to the center of the principle subspace. Therefore, the synthesized
pixel lies away from the boundary of the principle subspace which will
benefit the performance of classification since the synthesized pixel ismore discriminative than the original one. The algorithm is tested on
several hyperspectral images and experiments show that our algorithm
outperforms the classification methods without APSD preprocessing.

8743-82, Session P-TUE

Target detection in hyperspectral images:
a comparative study of ICA and otheralgorithms
Kailash C. Tiwari, Delhi Technological Univ. (India); Manoj K.
Arora, Dharmendra Singh, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee(India)Hyperspectral data acquired over hundreds of narrow contiguous
wavelength bands is extremely suitable for target detection but requires
spectral modeling using a priori available target spectra, a conditiondifficult to meet in practice. It therefore necessitates algorithms which
do not depend upon target spectra for target detection. Independent

358

Xin Meng, Jianxin Li, Rihong Zhu, Nanjing Univ. of Science andTechnology (China)
We introduce a novel imaging spectropolarimeter. One image planeinterferometric Fourier transform imaging spectrometer without slit iscombination with a simple polarization modulation component consistingof four sets of polarization devices, each consist of one retarder and one
linear polarizer.The four retarders are made of the same material and havea union thickness, so as the four polarizers. The fast axis of the retarders
and the transmission axis of the polarizers are oriented at (0°, 0°), (0°,90°), (45°, 45°), (0°, 45°) relative to the x axis We can get four polarization
states of each inteferometric image by rotating the polarization
modulation component, form where all the stokes polarization
parameters can be got. The most significant advantage of the method isthat there is no aliasing among different fringes with different polarization
information.So it can be used to measure narrow-band sepctrum, so
as the broad-band sepctrum.Additionally, the advantages of the Fouriertransform spectrometer are reserved, such as high radiative throughput.

8743-84, Session P-TUE

High Etedue interferometric imaging
spectrometer
Jianxin Li, Xin Meng, Rihong Zhu, Nanjing Univ. of Science andTechnology (China)
The technology of image plane interferometric hyperspectral imaging
is mainly applied in remote sensing imaging field. In order to realize thespectral imaging of targets at different distances, a method of image
plane interferometric hyperspectral imaging is presented. A re-imaging
interferometic system is set up by inserting front-end imaging lens, relay
collimating lens and transverse shear beam splitter in infinite imaging
system. A separated front-end imaging lens method with choice of zoom
lens or fixed focus lens is adopted to achieve spectral imaging of targets
at long and short distances. The imaging system, resolution of spectrum
and push broom mode are analyzed. Experimental device is set up to
detect the targets of near field indoor and far field outdoor. A microscopic
spectral imaging test of biological tissue is also carried out with thedevice. The experimental results show that the proposed imaging method
is effectively applied in hyperspectral imaging of targets at different
distances.

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-86, Session P-TUE

an optimization algorithm for further performance improvement. The key
factor that determines the ultimate estimation performance is whether
there are enough signal-free spectral bands so the off-plume radiancecan be approximated accurately. Gases with narrow-band features, such
as SF6, are ideal for this mechanism. The problem is more challenging
for gases with broader features, such as TEP. However, our experiments
have shown that good results are possible for these cases as well.

Water mapping through universal patterndecomposition method in comparison tomodified normalized difference water index(MNDWI)
Muhammad Hasan Ali Baig, Lifu Zhang, Liu Kai, Tong Shuai,
Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (China); Ji Lei, U.S.
Geological Survey (United States)

8743-43, Session 9

Detection and tracking of gas clouds in an
urban area by imaging infrared spectroscopy

Water Mapping has been an important research issue both in optical andmicrowave remote sensing for proper assessment of agriculture, flood
losses, military targets and ecology. The existing indices are sensordependent like NDVI, NDWI, and MNDWI etc. In this study vegetationindex based on the Universal Pattern Decomposition Method has been
analyzed in detail and some modifications are suggested to use it for
proper water mapping. MODIS and Landsat data have been used whil
Otsu method is used for developing thresholds to delineate water fromnon-water features. This index gave very good results and accuracy
assessment led to the significance of this index for both multispectraland hyperspectral data.

Samer Sabbah, Peter Rusch, Joern-Hinnrich Gerhard, Roland
Harig, Bruker Optik GmbH (Germany)
The release of toxic industrial compounds in urban areas is a threat
for the population and the environment. In particular in cities withharbor areas, large amounts of toxic industrial chemicals are loaded,transported, and unloaded close to populated areas. In order to supply
emergency response forces with information about the released
compounds after accidents or terrorist attacks, monitoring systems
such as the scanning imaging spectrometer SIGIS 2 or the hyperspectral
imager HI 90 were developed and presented in previous works.
Both systems are based on the method of infrared Fourier-transform
spectroscopy. They provide real-time information about the presenceof hazardous gases in the atmosphere and images of the cloud. The
systems were deployed to monitor gas clouds released in the harbor areaof Hamburg. The gas clouds were identified, visualized and quantified
from a distance in real time. Both systems delivered images of the gas
clouds which made it possible to track the dispersion of the clouds.
Using data of two systems it was possible to identify contaminated areas
and to determine the source location.

8743-41, Session 9

Detection of unknown gas-phase chemical
plumes in hyperspectral imagery
James Theiler, Brendt E. Wohlberg, Los Alamos National Lab.
(United States)
Gas-phase chemical plumes exhibit, particularly in the infrared,
distinctive emission signatures as a function of wavelength.
Hyperspectral imagery can exploit this distinctiveness to detect specificchemicals, even at low concentrations, using matched filters that are
tailored both the the specific structure of the chemical signature and to
the statistics of the background clutter. But what if the chemical species
is unknown? One can apply matched filters to a long list of candidate
chemicals (or chemical mixtures), or one can treat the problem as oneof anomaly detection. In this case, however, the anomalous signals ofinterest are not completely unknown. Gas spectra are generically sparse(absorbing or emitting at only a few wavelengths), and this property canbe exploited to enhance the sensitivity of anomaly detection algorithms.
This paper will investigate the utility of sparse signal anomaly detection
for the problem of finding plumes of gas with unknown chemistry in
hyperspectral imagery.

8743-44, Session 9

Spectral target detection using a physicalmodel and a manifold learning techniqueJames A. Albano, David W. Messinger, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Identification of materials from calibrated radiance data collectedby an airborne imaging spectrometer depends strongly on theatmospheric and illumination conditions at the time of collection. This,
along with distributional and/or linear assumptions about the data in
the hyperspace, limits the performance of current target detection
methodologies in complex radiometric environments and highly clutteredscenes. This paper presents a methodology for identifying material
spectra with the assumption that each unique material class forms alower-dimensional manifold (surface) in the higher-dimensional spectral
radiance space and that all in-scene spectra reside on, or near, these
theoretic manifolds. Using a physical model, a manifold characteristicof the target material spectrum exposed to varying illumination andatmospheric conditions is formed. A graph-based model is then applied
to the radiance data to capture the intricate structure of each material
manifold followed by the application of the commute time distance (CTD)
transformation to separate the target manifold from the background. Thisnonlinear transformation is based on a Markov-chain model of a random
walk on a graph and is derived from an eigendecomposition of thegraph Laplacian matrix. This paper discusses the properties of the CTD
transformation, the atmospheric and illumination parameters varied in thephysical model and the target manifold’s influence on the direction of the
CTD axes. A comparison between target detection algorithms appliedin the spectral radiance, reflectance, and CTD spaces will be given andquantified using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and othervisual techniques.

8743-42, Session 9

Hyperspectral chemical plume quantification
via background radiance estimation
Sidi Niu, Northeastern Univ. (United States); Steven Golowich,
MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Vinay K. Ingle, Northeastern
University (United States); Dimitris G. Manolakis, MIT Lincoln
Lab. (United States)
The quantification of chemical plumes by remote hyperspectral sensing isa challenging problem due to the sensitive non-linear dependence of theat-sensor radiance on the details of the gas signature and environmental
variables. Existing algorithms assume that the off-plume radiance ofa pixel containing the plume signal is unobservable. However, when
the problem is limited to a single gas, the complete off-plume radiance
may be estimated from the bands in which the gas absorption is nearlyzero. It is then possible to compute the difference between the on- andoff-plume radiances and solve for the plume strength from Beer’s Law.
The major advantage of the proposed method is that the gas strength
can be resolved from the radiance difference so that the estimation error
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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-45, Session 9

Target detection performed on manifold
approximations recovered from hyperspectral
data
Amanda K. Ziemann, David W. Messinger, James A. Albano,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
In high dimensional data, manifold learning seeks to identify theembedded lower-dimensional, non-linear manifold upon which the datalie. This is particularly useful in hyperspectral imagery where inherently
m-dimensional data is often sparsely distributed throughout then-dimensional spectral space, with m<< n. By recovering the manifold,inherent structures and relationships within the data -- which are nottypically apparent otherwise -- may be identified and exploited. The
sparsity of data within the spectral space can prove challenging for many
types of analysis, and in particular with target detection. In this paper,
we propose that manifold recovery be used as a preprocessing step fortarget detection algorithms. A graph structure is first built upon the data
and the transformation into the manifold space is based upon that graphstructure. Then, standard target detection algorithms are applied. We
present an analysis of target detection performance in the manifold spacefor both in-scene targets and spectral library targets.

8743-46, Session 9

Hyperspectral target detection by Gaussian/non-Gaussian subspace division andnonparametric density estimation

thermal data provide an analytical framework for the development of
new algorithms for mapping plant species composition, plant functional
types, biodiversity, biomass and carbon stocks, and plant growth.
This will enhance our ability to design new missions and produce data
products related to biodiversity and climate change. G-LiHT is designed
to give scientists access to the data that is needed to understand therelationship between ecosystem form and function and stimulate theadvancement of synergistic algorithms. G-LiHT has been used to collect
more than 300 hours of data for NASA sponsored studies, including
NASA’s Carbon Monitoring System (CMS) and American ICESat/GLAS
Assessment of Carbon (AMIGA-Carb). These acquisitions target a broad
diversity of forest communities and ecoregions across the CONUS and
Mexico. Here we will discuss the components of G-LiHT, their calibrationand performance characteristics, operational implementation, dataprocessing workflows; we will also provide examples of higher level data
products that are currently under development.

8743-48, Session 10

On super-resolved coded aperture spectral
imaging
Hoover F. Rueda, Univ. of Delaware (United States); Henry
Arguello, Univ. of Delaware (United States) and Univ. Industrial
de Santander (Colombia); Gonzalo R. Arce, Univ. of Delaware(United States)

Hyperspectral imaging data may exhibit non Gaussian distributions thatsignificantly deteriorate the performance of target detection algorithms
based on multivariate Gaussian distributed data assumption. We present
a new solution to this existing problem by dividing the data into two
separate subspaces - one which is essentially multivariate Gaussian
distribution and the other which is essentially non-Gaussian. The non
Gaussian subspace whose dimension is much smaller than that of theGaussian subspace is modeled by a non-parametric joint probability
density estimator which is also used to develop an LRT test for target
detection. The Gaussian subspace data is modeled using establishedmodels for such data then used with established target detection
algorithms most suitable for Gaussian background data. The fusion of thetwo detection algorithms results in an improved target detection method.
We develop the new method for data analysis and target detection anddemonstrate its power against existing benchmark techniques.

Coded aperture-based optical imaging systems are at the forefront of
optical imaging modeling since they allow to capture three-dimensional
scenes of spectral information in a single two-dimensional focal planearray (FPA) snapshot. Coded Aperture Snapshot Spectral Imager (CASSI)
is a remarkable architecture in this field whose snapshot measurements
are random modulated and dispersed versions of the underlying hyperspectral scene, which are considered analogous to the so-called random
projections in compressive sensing (CS) theory. In CASSI, the spatialand spectral resolution of the reconstructed scene highly depends
on the ratio between the coded aperture and the FPA pixels pitches.
However, the increasing cost of small-pitch FPAs meanly in the infrared
wavelength domain limits the broad use of CASSI. This work focuses on
the sensing and reconstruction of high-resolution hyper-spectral scenes
from low-resolution FPA detectors. Precisely, we present a multiple-shot
extension of CASSI where spectral super-resolution can be attained byusing high-resolution coded apertures. In the proposed system, a second
high-resolution coded aperture is introduced into CASSI architecture
to encode both spatial and spectral dimensions of the data cube. Thisapproach allows the reconstruction of super-resolved hyper-spectral data
cubes, where the number of spectral bands is significantly increased.
Simulation results show an improvement of up to 6 dB in PSNR image
reconstruction, at the time that a four-fold increase in spectral resolutionis achieved.

8743-47, Session 108743-49, Session 10

NASA Goddard’s lidar, hyperspectral, andthermal airborne imager (G-LiHT)

A prototype panoramic compact shortwave
infrared hyperspectral sensor for maritime
sensing: performance and applications

Gil A. Tidhar, Stanley R. Rotman, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev(Israel)Lawrence A. Corp, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (UnitedStates) and Sigma Space Corp. (United States); Bruce D. Cook,
Elizabeth M. Middleton, NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr. (UnitedStates)Two years ago, scientists in the Biospheric Sciences Laboratory atNASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center began an effort to integratecommercial off the shelf LiDAR, hyperspectral, and thermal components
to produce a compact, lightweight and portable system that can be used
on a wide range of airborne platforms to support a number of NASA
Earth Science research projects and space-based missions. The resultof this instrument fusion effort was G-LiHT, a unique system that permits
simultaneous measurements of vegetation structure, foliar spectra andsurface temperatures. The complementary nature lidar, optical, and360

K. Peter Judd, Jonathan M. Nichols, James R. Waterman, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States); Colin C. Olson, Sotera
Defense Solutions, Inc. (United States); Dan Guerin, Brandywine
Photonics LLC (United States); Gordon Scriven, Opto Knowledge
Systems, Inc. (United States)
There is current interest in upgrading Navy capabilities for wide area
situational awareness, detection, and identification in “blue water” wide
areas, littoral and port environments, and from land-based surveillance
posts. This presentation reviews the design and operation of a panoramic
passive short-wave infrared hyperspectral imager to explore theseapplications. The system is designed around a commercial 640 x 512

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
InGaAs detector sensitive to radiation in the 0.9-1.7 micron waveband,with a compact optical design consisting of a Dyson spectrometer anda commercial color corrected 50 mm F/1.4 telescope. The spatial data
are aligned with the 640 pixel direction and the system has an IFOV of
0.5 mrad. The spectral resolution is ~8.7 nm with 111 bands illuminated.
The sensor package is mounted to a variable speed pan/tilt unit thatprovides the scanning to generate the hyperspectral cube. To examine
the imaging quality, characteristics, and capabilities of the system, data
were acquired of ship traffic into and out of the port of San Diego. For
baseline and comparison purposes, image data from a broadband shortwave infrared sensor and two narrow field of view hyperspectral sensors
systems are presented. In addition, spectral discrimination of maritime
features and traffic is discussed in light of a kernel principal component
analysis detection algorithm and receiver operating characteristic
curve performance is described. Finally, methods for introducing
locally measured meteorological parameters into the data conditioning
component of the analysis chain is demonstrated and potential
improvements to the detection capabilities are discussed.

system which duplicates the scene onto each filter tile. This optical subsystem and the tiled filter layout lead to a simple mapping of 3D spectral
cube data on the sensor, facilitating simple cube assembly. Therefore, therequired image processing consists of simple and highly parallelizable
algorithms for reflectance and cube assembly, enabling real-time
acquisition of dynamic 2D scenes at low latencies. Moreover, throughthe use of monolithically integrated optical filters the multispectral imager
achieves the qualities of compactness, low cost and high acquisition
speed, further differentiating it from other snapshot spectral cameras.
Our prototype camera can acquire multispectral image cubes of 256x256
pixels over 32 bands in the spectral range of 600-1000nm at 340 cubes
per second for normal illumination levels.

8743-52, Session 11

Interactive mapping and quantification tools
for remote sensing imagery
Reid B. Porter, Los Alamos National Lab. (United States)

8743-50, Session 10

The task of turning raw imagery into semantically meaningful maps
and overlays is a key area of remote sensing activity. Image analysts, incommunities ranging from environmental monitoring to intelligence, use
imagery to generate and update maps of terrain classifications, crop
types, road networks, buildings, and so on. Often this problem is castas a pixel labeling problem, and a large number of solution methods
have been developed. Although the performance of these automatedmethods is improving, they are still error prone and often not tailored tothe problem at hand, which means analysts spend large amounts of timein post-processing: editing results and fixing errors.

Modeling, development, and testing of ashortwave infrared supercontinuum laser
source for use in active hyperspectral
imaging
Joseph Meola, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) systems are currently used for numerous
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. Thesepassive imaging systems rely on naturally reflected/emitted radiation
as the source of the signal. Thermal infrared systems measure radiation
emitted from objects in the scene. As such, they can operate at bothday and night. However, visible (VIS) through shortwave infrared (SWIR)
systems measure solar illumination reflected from objects. As a result,
their use is limited to daytime applications. The University of Michigan/
Omni Sciences have produced high powered broadband SWIR supercontinuum laser (SSCL) illuminators. A 25-watt breadboard system wasrecently characterized in a laboratory setting at UM. Additionally, a 5-watt
unit was recently packaged and tested at Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base (WPAFB) to gauge beam quality and to serve as a proof-of-concept
for potential active HSI use at longer ranges. The SSCL was placed in a
tower and directed along a 1.6km slant path to various target materials
draped over a tilted plywood stand on the ground. The results of thistesting along with modeling of an operational system are discussed here.

In this paper we describe an approach to reduce analyst time in postprocessing by learning from user edits and corrections. The idea is
to identify repetitive, often tedious, corrections made by the analyst,
and then predict (automate) additional corrections in the larger image
or image archive. We first describe the space of post-processing
interactions, and then argue that we must move beyond standard“label learning” in order to automate this process. We then describe theadditional pixel grouping and ungrouping interactions that we believe are
key to accelerating post-processing, and present solution methods forlearning these interactions.
We demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach (in terms of analyst
productivity) for a number of mapping applications using commercial
satellite imagery, including road networks, canopy mapping and cropquantification.

8743-53, Session 118743-51, Session 10

Enhancement of hyperspectral imagery
using spectrally weighted tensor anisotropic
nonlinear diffusion for classification

Low-complexity image processing for ahigh-throughput, low-latency snapshot
multispectral imager with integrated tiled
filters

Maider J. Marin-Mcgee, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez (UnitedStates); Miguel Velez-Reyes, The Univ. of Texas at El Paso
(United States)

Bert Geelen, Carolina Blanch, Klaas Tack, Andy Lambrechts,
IMEC (Belgium)Tensor Anisotropic Nonlinear Diffusion (TAND) is a divergence PDEbased diffusion technique that “guided” by an edge descriptor, suchas the structure tensor, to stir the diffusion. The structure tensor forvector valued images such as HSI is most often defined as the averageof the scalar structure tensors for each band. The problem with thisdefinition is the assumption that all bands provide the same amount ofedge information giving them the same weights. As a result non-edge
pixels can be reinforced and edges can be weakened resulting in apoor performance by processes that depend on the structure tensor.
Iterative processes such as TAND, in particular, are vulnerable to thisphenomenon. Recently a weighted structure tensor based on theheat operator has been proposed. The weights are based on the heat
operator. This tensor takes advantage of the fact that, in HSI, neighboring
spectral bands are highly correlated, as are the bands of its gradient. By
taking advantage of local spectral information, the proposed scheme

Traditional spectral imaging cameras typically operate as pushbroom
cameras by scanning a scene. This approach makes such cameras
well-suited for high spatial and spectral resolution scanning applications,such as remote sensing and machine vision, but ill-suited for 2D scenes
with free movement. This limitation can be overcome by single frame,
multispectral (here called snapshot) acquisition, where an entire threedimensional multispectral data cube is sensed at one discrete point intime and multiplexed on a 2D sensor.
Our snapshot multispectral imager is based on optical filtersmonolithically integrated on CMOS image sensors with large layout
flexibility. Using this flexibility, the filters are positioned on the sensor in atiled layout, allowing trade-offs between spatial and spectral resolution.
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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
gives higher weighting to local spectral features that could be related
to edge information allowing the diffusion process to better enhanceedges while smoothing out uniform regions facilitating the process ofclassification. This article present how classification results are affectedby of using the TAND based on the heat weighted structure tensor as animage enhancement step in a classification system.

8743-54, Session 11

Pan-sharpening of spectral image withanisotropic diffusion for fine feature
extraction using GPU
Weihua Sun, Bin Chen, David W. Messinger, Rochester Instituteof Technology (United States)
Feature extraction from satellite image is a challenging topic. Commercial
satellite data sets, such as WorldView 2 images, are often delivered
with a high spatial resolution panchromatic image (PAN) as well as acorresponding multispectral spectral image(MSI). Certain fine features
are only visible on the PAN but hard to discern on the MSI. To fully utilize
the high spatial resolution of the PAN and the rich spectral informationfrom the MSI, a pan sharpening process can be carried out. In thispaper, we propose a novel and fast pan sharpening process with theaim to aid feature extraction that enhances salient spatial features. The
process starts with an initial estimation by either simply upscaling thespectrum image using nearest neighbor interpolation or pan-sharpening
using Price’s approach (1987); then the upscaled image is optimized
through anisotropic diffusion. Digital count difference from the PAN
and spectral angle difference in the MSI provide gradient priors for the
diffusion process. Our approach is capable of preserving salient edges
in both PAN and MSI as well as eliminating spatial noise. In addition,
the process is highly parallel with intensive neighbor operations andcan be accelerated on a general purpose GPU card with NVidia CUDA
architecture. We hope this algorithm can facilitate fine feature extraction
from satellite images.

8743-55, Session 11

An analysis of the probability distributionof spectral angle and Euclidean distancein hyperspectral remote sensing using
microspectroscopy
Ronald G. Resmini, Christopher J. Deloye, The MITRE Corp.
(United States); David W. Allen, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States)
Determining the probability distribution of hyperspectral imagery (HSI)
data and, more importantly, the distribution of the results of algorithms
applied to those data, is critical to understanding algorithm performanceand the closely related activity of establishing performance metrics suchas probability of detection, false alarm rate, and minimum detectable
and identifiable quantities. The results of analyses of visible/nearinfrared (VNIR; 0.4 micrometer to 0.9 micrometer) HSI microscopy dataof small fragments (~1.25 cm in size) of minerals are presented. HSI
microscopy, also known as microspectroscopy, is the acquisition of HSI
data cubes of fields of view ranging from centimeters to millimeters in
size. It is imaging spectrometry but at a small spatial scale. With HSI
microspectroscopy, several thousand spectral signatures may be easilyacquired of individual target materials—samples of which may be quite
small. With such data, probability distributions may be very precisely
determined. For faceted/irregularly shaped samples and mixtures(checkerboard, intimate, or microscopic), HSI microscopy data readily
facilitate a detailed assessment of the contribution of the materials, theirmorphology, spectral mixing interactions, radiative transfer processes,
view/illumination geometry contributions, etc., to the observed probability
distribution(s) of the HSI data and of algorithm output. Here, spectral
angle, the individual components of spectral angle (e.g., the inner362

product or numerator of the spectral angle equation), Euclidean distance,and L1 norm values are calculated. Regions of interest (ROI) on the
fragments are easily defined that contain thousands of spectra far fromthe fragments’ edges though translucency sometimes remains a factor
impacting spectral signatures. The aforementioned metrics are derived
for the spectra in an ROI of individual mineral fragments; across ROIs of
different minerals; and with an ROI of an inert background. The resulting
probability distributions of the various populations of the metrics are
decidedly non-Gaussian though the precise probability distribution isdifficult to determine. The HSI microscopy method is described as are
the results of the analyses applied to the data of the mineral fragments.
The interpretation of the microspectroscopy data is framed within theongoing investigation into determining how the spectral variability on the~10 micrometer spatial scale relates to the spectral variability on larger
scales such as those acquired by airborne remote sensing systems.

8743-56, Session 11

Advanced spectral signature discrimination
algorithm
Sumit Chakravarty, New York Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)This paper presents a novel approach to the task of hyperspectral
signature analysis. Hyperspectral signature analysis has been studied a
lot in literature and there has been a lot of different algorithms developed
which endeavors to discriminate between hyperspectral signatures.
There are many approaches for performing the task of hyperspectral
signature analysis. Binary coding approaches like SPAM and SFBC use
basic statistical thresholding operations to binarize a signature which
are then compared using Hamming distance. This framework has been
extended to techniques like SDFC wherein a set of primate structures
are used to characterize local variations in a signature together with theoverall statistical measures like mean. As we see such structures harness
only local variations and do not exploit any co-variation of spectrally
distinct parts of the signature. The approach of this research is to harvest
such information by the use of a technique similar to circular convolution.
In the approach we consider the signature as cyclic by appending thetwo ends of it. We then create a copy of the spectral signature. These
two signatures can be placed next to each other like the rotating discs
of a combination lock. We then find local structures at different circular
shifts between the two cyclic spectral signatures. Texture features like in
SDFC can be used to study the local structural variation for each circular
shift. We can then create different measure by: 1) calculating averageamount of variations at a shift and thereby generating a vector (where
each element is the average value for a shift); 2) by creating histogramfrom the shifts. Experiments are performed to compare the results of
the new algorithm with the current spectral signature discriminations
processes.

8743-57, Session 11

Blind source separation of the HyMap
hyperspectral data via canonical correlation
analysisOzgur Polat, ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey); Yakup Özkazanç, Hacettepe
Univ. (Turkey)
In hyperspectral data analysis, blind separation of the target andbackground can be considered as a pre-processing step in thetarget detection process. Blind Source Separation (BSS) techniques
can be used when there is no prior information on the scene forimage understanding. Previously, Principal Component Analysis andIndependent Component Analysis methods are used as blind techniques
for the analysis of hyperspectral data. In this study, we propose a blind
analysis methodology based on Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA)
for the analysis of hyperspectral data. CCA is a multivariate method ofanalysis for the exploration of the data structures which extremize the

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
correlations between two data sets. The hyperspectral data analyzed
in this study is the HyMap sensor data which is available in the Target
Detection Blind Test website. We produce two data sets out of theHyMap data cube which are later subjected to CCA. In the creationof these data sets, two different approaches are used. In first case,the HyMap data cube is simply divided into two sub-cubes by simple
spectral separation. As another approach, the second data cube isderived from the HyMap data by a spatial filtering. In both cases, twodata sets are analyzed via CCA and canonical variates of these data
sets are obtained. The scene components are obtained from images
expressed by the canonical variates obtained via CCA. The CCA
methodology and its use as a blind analysis tools is presented on the
HyMap data.

of the standards. In a simulation exercise, a petri dish of real world
materials, as might be encountered in an Earth remote sensing scene,
was imaged using the hyperspectral imager. The materials and theabundance of each were accounted for independently. This provided a
datacube with points distributed in n-dimensional space with comparable
complexity to realistic scenes. The classification of the components
in the scene was determined by selecting representative reference
spectra from regions-of-interest (ROI) within the scene and matching
the remaining pixels in the scene to the selected spectra. The reference
spectra were then adulterated to different degrees to represent different
degrees of measurement uncertainty. The scene was then reclassified
with the altered reference spectra. The differences in classification were
quantified as products of an error matrix.

8743-58, Session 128743-60, Session 12

Intensity offset and correction of solid
samples measured behind quartz cover glass

An automated method for locating spectralfeatures for signature analysis and library
optimization

Bruce E. Bernacki, Rebecca L. Redding, Yin-Fong Su, Timothy J.
Johnson, Pacific Northwest National Lab. (United States)

William Basener, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates) and Exelis Visual Information Solutions (United States);
Robert McEwen, National Ground Intelligence Ctr. (United States)

Accurate and calibrated hemispherical/diffuse reflectance spectra
libraries of solids are becoming more important for both hyperspectral
and multispectral remote sensing exploitation. Many solids are in theform of powders or granules and in order to measure their diffuse
reflectance spectra in the laboratory it is necessary to place the samples
behind a transparent medium such as glass or quartz for the UV, visibleor near-infrared spectral regions; the glass prevents the sample’s
unwanted dispersal into the instrument or laboratory environment. Using
both experimental and theoretical methods we have found that for thecase of an integrating sphere-coupled detector using fused quartz tocontain the samples leads to an offset or skewing in the reflectancevalues. Although expected dispersive effects were observed for the
fused quartz window in the UV, no wavelength effects were observed
due to the quartz, only intensity shifts. The measured reflectance values
are predominantly skewed by the reflectance from the air-quartz andsample-quartz interfaces with intensity-dependent distortions leading
to measured values up to nearly ca. 6% too high for a 2% reflectancesurface, ca. 3.8% too high for 10% reflecting materials, approximately
correct (to within experimental error) for 40% to 50% diffuse reflecting
surfaces, and nearly 2% too low for 99% reflecting Spectralon surfaces.
The deviations arise from the added reflections from the quartz surfaces
as verified by theory, modeling and experiment. Empirical correction
factors were implemented into post-processing software to redress theartifact for hemispherical and diffuse reflectance data across the 300 to2300 nm range.

Library analysis and optimization has become an important componentof robust hyperspectral target detection and identification algorithms.
A key component of detection and identification library development
is determining confusers, those materials whose signature is spectrally
similar to desired targets. An Automatic Feature Finder has beendeveloped to analyze VNIR/SWIR ground-truth signatures andautomatically determine the locations and various statistics of absorption
features subject to analyst review and adjustment. The locations andstatistics are then combined with signature metadata and used for library
analysis, including a feature-focused signature comparison algorithm, alibrary categorization algorithm, and a feature query algorithm8743-61, Session 12

Spectral variability constraints on
multispectral and hyperspectral mapping
performance
Fred A. Kruse, Kenneth G. Fairbarn Jr., Naval Postgraduate
School (United States)
Common approaches to multispectral imagery (MSI) and hyperspectral
imagery (HSI) data analysis often utilize key image endmember spectra
as proxies for ground measurements to classify imagery based on theirspectral signatures. Most of these, however, take an average spectral
signature approach and do not consider spectral variability. Multiple
spectral measurements, whether from imagery data or utilizing a field
spectrometer, demonstrate high variability linked not only to inherent
material variability, but to acquisition parameters such as spatial andspectral resolution (spectral mixing). This research explores causes
and characteristics of spectral variability in remotely sensed data andits effect on spectral classification and mapping. A ground-truth map
supplemented by field spectral measurements was prepared and used
for accuracy assessment. WorldView-2 and Airborne Visible/Infrared
Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data at similar spatial resolution werecorrected to reflectance using a model-based approach supplemented
by field spectral measurements. These data were then analyzed using
ground and image spectral endmember spectra. Endmember spectra
were assessed in terms of their spectral variability, and statistical andspectral-feature-based classification approaches were tested andcompared to the ground truth map. Results illustrate that improved
mapping can be achieved when spectral variability of individual
endmembers is taken into account in the classification.

8743-59, Session 12

Estimation of measurement uncertainties fora hyperspectral imager operating at the submillimeter spatial scale
David W. Allen, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States); Christopher J. Deloye, Ronald G. Resmini, The
MITRE Corp. (United States)
Assessing the ability of a hyperspectral imaging system to detect thepresence of a substance or to quantify the abundance requires an endto-end analysis of all of the measurement parameters. One part of theend-to-end analysis is the estimation of the uncertainties related to thereflectance spectra measured by the hyperspectral imager. Currently,
there is no one single approach to this issue. In this work, estimateduncertainties were derived from the characterization of the sensor
parameters including wavelength, straylight, and signal-to-noise for avisible/near-infrared (VNIR; 400 nm to 900 nm) hyperspectral imager. The
combined estimated uncertainty was then compared to known opticalreflectance standards, traceable to NIST, in order to gauge the level ofagreement between the estimated uncertainties and the known values

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363

Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-62, Session 12

Multispectral and hyperspectral advanced
characterization of soldier’s camouflage
equipment
Philippe Lagueux, Telops (Canada); Mariusz Kastek, Tadeusz
Piatkowski, Rafal Dulski, Military Univ. of Technology (Poland);Vincent Farley, Martin Chamberland, Telops (Canada)
The requirements for soldier camouflage in the context of modern warfare
are becoming more complex and challenging given the emergence ofnovel infrared sensors. There is a pressing need for the developmentof adapted fabrics and soldier camouflage devices to provide efficientcamouflage in both the visible and infrared spectral ranges.
The Military University of Technology has conducted an intensive project
to develop new materials and fabrics to further improve the camouflage
efficiency of soldiers. The developed materials shall feature visible andinfrared properties that make these unique and adapted to various
military context needs.
This paper presents the details of an advanced measurement campaignof those unique materials where the correlation between multispectraland hyperspectral infrared measurements is performed.

8743-63, Session 13

Spectral image destriping using a lowdimensional model
Steven M. Adler-Golden, Spectral Sciences, Inc. (United States);
Steven C. Richtsmeier, Spectral Sciences Inc (United States);
Patrick F. Conforti, Lawrence S. Bernstein, Spectral Sciences,Inc. (United States)
Striping effects, i.e., artifacts that vary with the image column or row,
may arise in hyperspectral or multispectral imagery from a variety ofsources. One potential source of striping is a physical effect inherent in
the measurement, such as a variation in viewing geometry or illumination
across the image. More common sources are instrumental artifacts, suchas a variation in spectral resolution, wavelength calibration or radiometriccalibration, which can result from imperfect corrections for spectral“smile” or detector array nonuniformity. This paper describes a general
method of suppressing striping effects in spectral imagery by referencing
the image to a spectrally low-dimensional model. The destriping
transform for a given column or row is taken to be linear, i.e., specified
by a gain and offset. The image cube model is derived from a subset ofspectral bands or principal components thereof. The general approachis effective for all types of striping, including broad or narrow, sharp or
graduated, and is applicable to radiance data at all optical wavelengths
and to reflectance data in the solar (visible through short-wave infrared)
wavelength region. Some specific implementations are described,
including a method for suppressing effects of viewing angle variation inlong slant path imagery.

8743-64, Session 13

New algorithms for destriping andregistration correction for Hyperion imagery
Shawn D. Hunt, John Lunzer, Univ. de Puerto Rico Mayagüez(United States)
This work presents new algorithms for correcting data from the Hyperion
Imager. Several issues with the data are well known, including data
striping, missing columns, the spectral smile, and registration differences
between the visible and SWIR bands. This work includes correction for all
the above issues and also includes filtering to improve the noisy bands
that are typically discarded. One of the major goals of the algorithms was364

to preserve information while at the same time improving the image forclassification and unmixing algorithms. As a result, the new destriping
algorithm does a very good job of protecting non-striped data, witha second layer of processing to fill in zero mean column stripes withadjacent column data, and fix columns affected by outlying offsets.
The algorithms include parameters that can be selected by the user,
with suggested values given. A comparison has been done between
unprocessed and processed data comparing classifying and unmixing
using hyperion images over south west Puerto Rico. These show thealgorithms not only improve the data for visual inspection, but alsoclassification and unmixing.

8743-65, Session 13

Accurate accommodation of scan-mirror
distortion in the registration of hyperspectral
data cubes
Damon M. Conover, The George Washington Univ. (UnitedStates); John K. Delaney, National Gallery of Art (United States)
and The George Washington Univ. (United States); Murray H.
Loew, The George Washington Univ. (United States)
To improve the spatial sampling of scanning hyperspectral cameras, it
is often necessary to capture numerous overlapping image cubes andlater mosaic them to form the overall image cube. For hyperspectral
camera systems having broad-area coverage, whisk-broom scanning
using an external mirror is often employed. Creating the final image cube
mosaic requires sub-pixel correction of the scan-mirror distortion, as
well as alignment of the individual image cubes. For systems lacking geopositional information, relating sensor to scene, alignment of the image
scans is non-trivial. Here we present a novel algorithm that removes scandistortion and aligns hyperspectral image cubes based on correlation of
the cubes’ image content with a reference image.
The algorithm is able to provide robust results by recognizing that the
cubes’ image content will not always match identically with that of thereference image. For example, in cultural heritage applications, thereference color image of the finished painting need not match the underpainting seen in the SWIR. Our approach is to identify a corresponding
set of points between the cubes and the reference image, using a subset
of wavelet scales, and then filtering out matches that are inconsistent
with a map of the distortion. The filtering is performed by removing
points iteratively according to their proximity to a function fit to theirdisparity (distance between the matched points). Our method will bedemonstrated and our results validated using hyperspectral image cubes(960-1670, 1000-2400 nm) and visible reference images from the fields ofremote sensing and cultural heritage preservation.

8743-66, Session 13

Automated geo/ortho registered aerial
imagery product generation using the
mapping system interface card (MSIC)Paul E. Lewis, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (UnitedStates)This paper describes the final assembly, testing, and commercial
availability of the Mapping System Interface Card (MSIC). The 2.3kg
MSIC is a self-contained, compact, variable configuration, low cost, realtime precision metadata annotator with embedded INS/GPS designed
specifically for use in small aircraft. The MSIC was specifically designed
to convert commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) digital cameras and imaging/
non-imaging spectrometers with Camera Link standard data streams into
mapping systems for airborne emergency response and scientific remotesensing applications. COTS digital cameras and imaging/non-imaging
spectrometers covering the ultraviolet through long-wave infrared
wavelengths are important tools now readily available and affordable foruse by emergency responders and scientists. The MSIC will significantly

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Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX
enhance the capability of emergency responders and scientists byproviding a direct transformation of these important COTS sensor tools
into low-cost real-time aerial mapping systems.

open ocean Case 1 waters where the optical properties are dominatedby a single constituent, phytoplankton, and its associated material.
However, few instruments have the appropriate spatial and radiometricresolution for monitoring optically complex Case 2 waters, as they
contain significant levels of suspended material and color-dissolved
organic material, in addition to chlorophyll. Landsat’s new Operational
Land Imager (OLI), which is scheduled for launch in February 2013,exhibits the radiometric resolution required to monitor Case 2 waters, andis particularly attractive for resolving the nearshore environment becauseof its spatial fidelity. The purpose of this study is to compare the retrieval
potential of OLI over Case 2 waters with existing sensors: ETM+, MERIS,
and AVIRIS.

8743-67, Session 13

An uncertainty estimate for the georeferenceof high resolution hyperspectral images of anurban scenario
Thomas O. Opsahl, Trym V. Haavardsholm, Norwegian Defence
Research Establishment (Norway)

To evaluate each sensor’s constituent retrieval potential, sensor models
were developed based on three key sensor characteristics that impact
the in-water constituent retrieval process: signal-to-noise ratios (SNR),
spectral coverage, and quantization. SNR was calculated from image
data for the operational satellites and from system specifications for
the OLI instrument. Spectral response functions and bit depths wereobtained from the literature for each of the satellites. The resulting sensor
models were then used to sample output radiance spectra from multiple
Hydrolight simulations, which were generated based on user-specified
levels of Case 2 constituents. A constituent retrieval algorithm wasapplied to the simulated image data and an error found with respect tothe known levels for each spectral curve. Results of this simulated casestudy indicate that OLI outperforms its predecessor ETM+ and may
potentially achieve retrieval errors that are in-line with AVIRIS and MERIS.

Images from an airborne hyperspectral pushbroom camera can begeoreferenced based on navigation data and a 3D-model of the scene.
This geospatial information makes it possible to rectify the image andto position any points of interest. For some applications, e.g. change
detection, it can be beneficial to know the uncertainty in the positioningof individual pixels. Although rough estimates easily can be made, it
is non-trivial to compute these uncertainties directly. In this paper weinvestigate how simple Monte Carlo simulations can be used in a direct
georeferencing scheme to estimate the uncertainty in the geospatial
positioning of individual pixels. Based on uncertainties in the navigation,
the line of sight for every pixel can be represented by a bundle of rays.
By intersecting these with the surface model we can estimate the pixel’s
position and the uncertainty of this estimate. When considering a highresolution image combined with a high resolution surface model thisapproach gets computationally very intensive, so a GPU is used tosolve the intersection problem. We present results from an urban scene
and discuss possible applications. The images are captured by the
HySpex VNIR-1600 camera in FFI’s demonstrator system for airborne
hyperspectral target detection.

8743-70, Session 14

Spectral dependence of texture features
integrated with hyperspectral data for areatarget classification improvement
Corey Bangs, Marine Corps Intelligence Activity (United States);
Fred A. Kruse, Richard C. Olsen, Naval Postgraduate School(United States)

8743-68, Session 13

Evaluation of the CASSI-DD hyperspectral
compressive sensing imaging system

Hyperspectral data were assessed to determine the effect of integrating
spectral data and extracted texture feature data on classification
accuracy. Four separate spectral ranges (hundreds of spectral bands
total) were used from the VNIR-SWIR portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Haralick texture features (contrast, entropy, and correlation)
were extracted from the average grey-level image for each of the four
spectral ranges studied. A maximum likelihood classifier was trainedusing a set of ground truth regions of interest (ROIs) and applied
separately to the spectral data, texture data, and a fused dataset
containing both. Classification accuracy was measured by comparisonof results to a separate verification set of test ROIs. Analysis indicatesthat the spectral range (source of the grey-level image) used to extract
the texture feature data has a significant effect on the classification
accuracy. This result applies to texture-only classifications as well as
the classification of integrated spectral data and texture feature data
sets. Overall classification improvement for the integrated data sets wasnear 1%. Individual improvement for an “Urban” class alone showedapproximately 9% accuracy increase from spectral-only classification to
integrated spectral and texture classification. Texture-only classification
accuracy was highest for a “Dirt Path” class at approximately 92% for
the spectral range from 947 to 1343nm. This research demonstrates
the effectiveness of texture feature data for more accurate analysis of
hyperspectral data and the importance of selecting the correct spectral
range to be used for the grey-level source to extract these features.

Maria Busuioceanu, David W. Messinger, Rochester Instituteof Technology (United States); John B. Greer, Justin C. Flake,
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)
Compressive Sensing (CS) systems aim to capture data with fewer
measurements than traditional sensors under the assumption that
hyperspectral imagery is redundant and thus compressible in the spatialand spectral dimensions. We utilize the Coded Aperture Snapshot
Spectral Imager-Dual Disperser (CASSI-DD) CS model to simulatecompressive sensing hyperspectral measurements and apply a novel
image reconstruction algorithm using Bregman iterations to createhigh resolution hyperspectral imagery. We examine the effect of two
parameters in the sensor model, the number of physical measurements
and the spectral smoothing parameter, on the spatial and spectral
fidelity of simulated data. The impacts of the CS sensor modeland reconstruction process on the data cloud are quantified using
various metrics. The utility of the CASSI-DD sensor model for various
hyperspectral applications are described. The results help identify thestrengths and limitations of CS and determine which applications underwhich circumstances are better suited for CS systems.

8743-69, Session 13

Modeling satellite imaging sensors overoptically complex bodies of water
Robert Nevins, St. Olaf College (United States); Aaron Gerace,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States)
Several operational remote sensing satellites are effective for monitoring

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365Conference 8743: Algorithms and Technologies forMultispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XIX

8743-72, Session 148743-74, Session 14

A semi-supervised classification algorithm
using the TAD-derived background as training
data

Multiscale vector tunnel classification
algorithm for hyperspectral images

Lei Fan, David W. Messinger, Brittany Ambeau, Rochester
Institute of Technology (United States)
In general, spectral image classification algorithms fall into one of two
categories: supervised and unsupervised. In unsupervised approaches,
the algorithm automatically identifies clusters in the data without a priori
information about those clusters (except perhaps the expected numberof them). Supervised approaches require an analyst to identify training
data to “learn” the characteristics of the clusters such that they canthen classify all other pixels into one of the pre-defined groups. The
classification algorithm presented here is a semi-supervised approachbased on the Topological Anomaly Detection (TAD) algorithm. The TAD
algorithm defines background components based on a mutual k-Nearest
Neighbor graph model of the data, along with a spectral connectedcomponents analysis. Here, the largest components produced by TAD
are used as regions of interest (ROI’s), or training data for a supervisedclassification scheme. By combining those ROI’s with a Gaussian
Maximum Likelihood (GML) or a Minimum Distance to the Mean (MDM)
algorithm, we are able to achieve a semi-supervised classification
method. We test this classification algorithm against data collectedby the HyMAP sensor over the Cooke City, MT area, as well as otherdatasets such as the Indian Pines scene and the University of Pavia
scene.

8743-73, Session 14

Scale profile as feature for quick satellite
image object-based classification
David Dubois, Richard Lepage, Ecole de Technologie Supérieure(Canada)With the increasing precision of recent spaceborne sensors, remotelysensed images have become exceedingly large and detailed. These
images are being used more and more often in the preparation of
emergency maps when a disaster occurs. Visual interpretation of very
high resolution satellite images is quite long and automatic pixel-based
methods require a lot of memory, processing power and time. Whena disaster occurs, every second counts for the emergency teams andpreparing relevant maps from remotely sensed images requires hours ofwork for multiple photo-interpreters teams. A fast and efficient mean ofdetecting relevant objects and evaluating damages is required. Buildings
are frequently extracted from pre- and post- event images to evaluate
damaged regions where rescue efforts should be concentrated. Existing
pixel-based approaches are not appropriate for this task. In this paper,
we propose to use a fast level-set image transformation in order to obtaina hierarchical representation of image objects. A scale mapping algorithm
is adapted to extract relevant shapes and discriminant features suchas the scale profile. The scale profile is the contrast difference between
interesting levels in the hierarchical representation of a shape. Ourstudies indicate that the scale profile can help discriminate between land
cover classes such as building, road, vegetation and shadow. Shape,
scale and intensity features are prepared to train a SVM (Support Vector
Machine) classifier with RBF (Radial Basis Function) kernel and theclassifier’s parameters are optimized by cross-validation. Relevant results
are obtained from multiple test sets on similar and dissimilar images. The
detected buildings can then be used for automated damage assessment.

Suleyman Demirci, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey); Isin Erer,
Istanbul Technical Univ. (Turkey); Numan Unaldi, Turkish Air Force
Academy (Turkey)
Hyperspectral image classification is one of the most popular information
extraction methods. These methods consist of a variety of algorithms
involving supervised or unsupervised. In supervised classification, somereference data are used. Training data are not used in unsupervisedclassification methods. The type of a classification algorithm depends on
the nature of the input and reference data.
Despite the fact that various supervised classification algorithms may
be used to decide the class of unknown pixels, spectral matching andstatistical based methods are the most widely known classification
algorithms for hyperspectral imaging. Spectral matching algorithms try
to identify the similarity of the unknown spectral signature of test pixels
with the expected signature. However, most spectra in real applications
are random and their variability can be described by using statisticalmodels. The amount of training data required for nonparametric classifier
increases with respect to the dimensionality. Since the size of training
samples is limited in most cases, it is necessary to develop new analytic
methods using spectral signatures to enhance the performance andavoid increasing the computational time.
In this study, an efficient spectral similarity method employing multiscale vector tunnel for supervised classification of the materials in
hyperspectral imagery is introduced. With the proposed algorithm, asimple spectral similarity based decision rule using reference data orspectral signature is formed and compared with the Euclidian Distance(ED) and the Spectral Angle Map (SAM) classifiers. The prediction ofmulti-level upper and lower spectral boundaries of spectral signatures for
all classes across spectral bands constitutes the basic principle of the
proposed algorithm. The proposed distance measure has the ability of
not only tracing the total changes of illumination level, but also detecting
the shape of the spectral signature.
The proposed method may be summarized as in the following:
Step 1: If a priori class information does not exist, the reference spectral
signatures from some hyperspectral data or spectral signature libraries
are acquired for the initialization step.
Step 2: Vector tunnel parameters are defined according to shape of thespectral signatures.
Step 3: By using tunnel parameters, n-dimensional vector tunnels aroundthe reference spectra are formed.
Step 4: The n-dimensional vector tunnels are separated into multiple
layers using scaling parameters.
Step 5: Whole pixels in the image are tested whether they lie in one of
the tunnel. If a pixel lies in a unique tunnel, it is labeled as belonging tocorresponding class.
Step 6: If the spectral signature of the test pixel belongs to none of thevector tunnel or multiple vector tunnels, the vector tunnel weighting
parameters are calculated for all classes.
Step 7: According to maximum value of the weighting parameters, test
pixel is labeled to corresponding class.
Step 8: If a priori class information exists, training data are used to
produce mean vectors and standard deviation vectors for all classes.
Step 9: By using the mean vectors as reference spectra and the standard
deviation vectors as tunnel parameters, the vector tunnels are formed
around the mean vectors.
Step 10: Steps 4-7 are repeated to complete the classification process.
The proposed method is tested on AVIRIS Indiana’s Pine and HYDICE
Urban data. Although multi-scale vector tunnel classifier does not need
intensive mathematical calculation, it provides improved classification
results compared to ED and SAM classifiers. Quantitative classification
results for AVIRIS data and visual classification results of HYDISE data
will be given in the full paper.

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8744 Automatic Target Recognition XXIII(HOG) features to distinguish between human and non-human samples.
In order to decrease the computation time required to process a test
image while still maintaining the performance at approximately the samelevel, most of the pedestrian detection algorithms are implemented asa cascade of classifiers. Certain cascaded versions of Dalal and Triggs
HOG-based pedestrian detector already exist in the literature. Each stepof the cascade consists of an ensemble of weak classifiers to obtain acertain detection and false alarm rate. Normally the meta-algorithm used
to combine the weak classifiers is the AdaBoost technique. However,a detailed explanation of this implementation is currently lacking in theliterature. The usual implementation of AdaBoost technique has led
to a slow convergence of the ensemble and hence, large number of
weak classifiers at each step of the cascade. In this paper, a detailed
step-by-step explanation of the previous implementation is provided
along with a detailed discussion of the convergence issues. A novel
implementation of a cascaded HOG-based pedestrian detector is alsopresented. This approach uses Asymmetric Boosting, a more generalversion of AdaBoost that can handle unequal penalties for Type 1 andType 2 classification errors. The new detector is tested on a widely used
database like the CalTech Pedestrian Dataset and its performance isanalyzed in terms of both computation time and accuracy.

8744-1, Session 1

Generalized linear correlation filters
Andres F. Rodriguez, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
and Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States); B. V. K. Vijaya Kumar,
Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)
We present two generalized linear correlation filters (CFs) that encompass
most of the state-of-the-art linear CFs. The common criteria that areused in linear CF design are the mean squared error (MSE), output noise
variance (ONV), and average similarity measure (ASM). We present a
simple formulation that uses an optimal tradeoff among these criteria
both constraining and not constraining the correlation peak value, andrefer to them as generalized Constrained Correlation Filter (CCF) andUnconstrained Correlation Filter (UCF). We show that most state-of-theart linear CFs are subsets of these filters. We also present the modified
CCF (mCCF) that chooses a unique correlation peak value for eachtraining image, and show that mCCF usually outperforms both UCF and
CCF.

8744-2, Session 1

8744-4, Session 1

An ATR architecture for algorithm
development and testing

No-reference image quality measurement for
low-resolution images

Gøril M. Breivik, Kristin H. Løkken, Alvin Brattli, Hans C.
Palm, Trym V. Haavardsholm, Norwegian Defence Research
Establishment (Norway)

Josh Sanderson, Wright State Univ. (United States); Yu Liang,
Shane Fernandes, Michael Henderson, Central State Univ.
(United States); Darrell Barker, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates)A test system with four cameras in the infrared and visible spectra will bemounted on a high speed jet aircraft. The system is under development
at FFI and will be used for image acquisition and for development andtest of automatic target recognition (ATR) algorithms. The sensors
on board produce large amounts of data, the algorithms can becomputationally heavy and the data processing is complex. This puts
great demands on the system architecture; it has to run in real-time andat the same time be suitable for algorithm development.

Quantitative measurement for image quality plays an important role inimage processing and analysis. This paper mainly investigates three
no-reference measurement schemes, which are based on the standard
deviation, the maximum, and the mean of the magnitude of the intensity
gradient of images respectively. Each measurement scheme is criticallyaccessed using low resolution gray-scale images acquired by unmanned
aerial vehicles cruising over the city. These images aim to disclose themovement of varies of vehicles such as a semi -truck, light colored cars,and dark colored cars, etc. The experimental results demonstrate that,compared to alternative schemes, the standard deviation based scheme
provides a more accurate measurement about the quality of images.
In addition, standard deviation based scheme demonstrates superior
correlation with alternative schemes to measure the quality of images.

In this paper we present an architecture for ATR systems that is designed
to be flexible, generic and efficient. The architecture is based on
modules, which enables simple exchange of specific algorithms without
affecting the rest of the system. The modules are generic and can beused in various configurations depending on the application, e.g. acomplete ATR application for the test system or a simpler application for
ATR algorithm development. A software framework in C++ that handles
large data flows in non-linear pipelines is used for implementation toensure efficient processing.

8744-5, Session 1

As an example, a system for segmentation algorithm development
has been implemented according to the proposed architecture. The
segmentation module is similar to one that can be used in the complete
ATR test system, although the module configuration is different. Two
additional modules are implemented to read data and to visualize
the result. The system is used to try out two different segmentation
algorithms on infrared images from sea trial recordings.

Unsupervised pedestrian detection using
support vector data description
Prudhvi Gurram, Shuowen Hu, Christopher Reale, Alex L. Chan,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Pedestrian detection is an important research area in machine vision due
to its impact on wide ranging applications like robotics, surveillance, andvehicular technology for the military, the law-enforcement community,
and the commercial sectors. However, all the existing state-of-theart techniques for pedestrian detection using ground based imagery
are supervised algorithms. The general framework of such algorithms
consists of extracting low level features like Histogram of Oriented
Gradient (HOG) features in the first step, collecting these features
according to a template (full human or parts of human) to form data
samples. The data samples are extracted from positive (human present)
and negative (human not present) images, which are then used to train
a binary classifier. There have been numerous efforts to improve theperformance of the pedestrian detectors in terms of speed by using
cascade of classifiers framework, and in terms of accuracy, by using

8744-3, Session 1

Implementation of a cascaded HOG-based
pedestrian detector
Christopher Reale, Prudhvi Gurram, Shuowen Hu, Alex L. Chan,
U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
Pedestrian detection in images and videos is a heavily researched topic
with several applications including surveillance, tracking, and robotics.
Many existing pedestrian detection algorithms in some way build on
the seminal work by Dalal and Triggs. Dalal and Triggs’s method trainsa Support Vector Machine (SVM) with Histogram of Oriented Gradient

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

additional features. The supervised pedestrian detectors suffer from thedisadvantage that the test data distributions should look very similar to
the training data distributions, and will fail if there is dramatic change inthe scene or scale of the pedestrians.
In this paper, in order to deal with the disadvantages of supervised
techniques, an unsupervised pedestrian detection algorithm is proposed.
An image is first divided into detection windows and HOG features arecollected over the window using overlapping blocks of different sizes.
Each window provides a data sample. The data samples extracted fromthe whole image are then modeled as a normalcy class using Support
Vector Data Description (SVDD). The benefit of using the state-of-the-art
SVDD technique to model the normalcy class is that it can be controlled
by setting an upper limit on the outliers allowed during the modelingprocess. Thus, the outliers that are detected during the modeling of thenormalcy class are hypothesized as detection windows that containpedestrians in them. The premise of this algorithm is that the HOG
features in a detection window will be similar over all the non-humanregions in the image and will differ from that of the human regions.
The system is tested on existing pedestrian detection datasets and its
performance analyzed for accuracy and detection rate.

8744-7, Session 2

Improved real-time photogrammetricstitching
Jason P. de Villiers, Jaco Cronje, Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (South Africa)
Photogrammetric stitching is a means to generate panoramas frommultiple images without requiring computationally expensive image
processing in the form of searching for and then matching image featuresand creating a homography between the images. Rather, both the systemand the cameras are pre-calibrated and use is made of these parameters
to efficiently perform the stitching. The authors previously presented an
overview of this procedure in 2009[1].
This paper provides several enhancements to that earlier work on realtime stitching. Specifically this paper provides three main additions to thestitching algorithm without compromising its real time performance.
Firstly, the blending is extended from one to two dimensions, so thatmultiple rows of cameras can be used. The implementation of thisblending has been optimised to improve the execution speed of thealgorithm.
Secondly, stabilisation inputs have been incorporated so that thestitching algorithm can output data already stabilised for platform motion
with out the need for further processing. The determination of thesestabilisation inputs is not part of the scope of this paper, and could befrom inertial systems or subsequent processing of prior stitched images.
The third contribution made by this paper is to decrease the sensitivity
to depth for extremely large baseline systems by considering multiple
stitch geometries simultaneously. This allows for modular and distributed
designs of implemented systems.
Timing tests - on high and low power Graphics Processor Units - areperformed on the various algorithms and their corresponding stitches arepresented and discussed.
[1] J de Villiers, “Real time photogrammetric stitching of high resolution
video on COTS hardware” in Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Optomechatronic technologies, Istanbul, Turkey, 2009.

We describe a Bayesian filtering process that estimates the pose (3-D
position and orientation) of a moving rigid body using multiple cameras.
The estimator also produces an arbitrary number of pose derivatives.
We first discuss various ways to represent 3-D orientation. Unfortunately
all 3 parameter representations have areas of instability. Higher
dimensional representations are stable but require unwieldy constraints.
Our combination of an axis-angle vector with a unit quaternion
represents orientation minimally while remaining stable under realistic
circumstances. Our dynamic model of rigid body motion can include anarbitrary number of derivatives, and we explicitly develop it up to thethird order. Our observation model takes a predicted pose and producesthe 2-D locations in each camera’s image plane of the visible featureson the body’s surface. We provide noise terms for both the dynamic andobservation models. We describe how our models are used in extended
and unscented Kalman filters, and also in a particle filter. As a baseline
we also describe a non-linear least squares method that uses just ourobservation model. We construct a synthetic testing scenario, and use
root-mean-square error analysis to grade the relative performance ofeach model/filter combination. We derive the Cramer-Rao lower boundthat gives the best achievable performance for our particular scenario.
Our results show that adding derivatives to the state vector significantly
improves the accuracy of pose estimates, and we also show which typeof Bayesian filter is best suited to the task.

8744-9, Session 2

Score-based gating control method in
the presence of stop-move maneuvering
motorboat’s wake
Fatih Pektas, ASELSAN Inc. (Turkey)
A motorboat’s wakes can cause difficulties as they appear in a track’sgate. While a motorboat is idle for long enough, the gate size reduces
to its minimum. Immediately after, if motorboat makes a stop-movemaneuver with maximum acceleration, true radar measurement canappear off the gate. In this case, the tracker can continue to update
the track with target’s wake measurements falling in gate and this canmislead the tracker.
In order not to miss the true measurement belonging to a track, asecondary gate should be created with larger size than that of the primarygate at the same gate center. However, this gate should only be created
when an anomaly is detected at the tracker. This paper investigates whensuch secondary gates should be created.
In this paper, a score-based method is presented to control gating in
the presence of wake left behind a suddenly accelerated boat. Thismethod is based on scoring the probability distributions characterising
the number radar measurements. The number of detections coming fromclutter is K-distributed and the number of detections belonging to true
target is Poisson distributed across the surveillance region. The method
treats the motorboat’s wake as target originated measurement rather
than clutter. Therefore, a probability distribution similar to true target’swith a different parameter is used to score the wake separately. Based on
the scores, security gating decision is made.
The real data experiments show that track continuity is maintained
successfully with the use of score-based gating control method.

8744-10, Session 38744-8, Session 2

An empirical evaluation of infrared clutter for
point target detection algorithms

Multi-camera rigid body pose estimation
using higher-order dynamic models

Mark McKenzie, Sebastien Wong, DSTO (Australia); Danny
Gibbins, The Univ. of Adelaide (Australia)

Alec E. Forsman, David A. Schug, Naval Air Warfare Ctr. Aircraft
Div. (United States); Anton Haug, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied
Physics Lab. (United States)

Developing a robust understanding of the statistics of clutter is an
important step in the development any automatic target detection,
tracking and recognition system. This paper describes an empirical
study into the impact of local environmental conditions for the detection

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

8744-13, Session 4of point targets using wide field of view infrared sensors on airborne
platforms. The main hypothesis posed is that there exist one or morequantitative statistical measures of an IR image, which can be correlated
to the ability of algorithms to detect point sources. A number of statistical
metrics for measuring scene complexity were investigated including:global variance, local variance, probability of edge metric, Der metric,root mean square (RMS) clutter metric, temporal RMS metric and relative
clutter metric. These were correlated with common point target detection
algorithms including: spatial Constant False Alarm Rate Detector (CFAR),
the Marr-Hildreth Detector, Spatial Matched Filter Detector, the Least
Squares Power Model Detector, Partial Differential Equation Detector,
Adaptive Spatial Hypothesis Detection, a Hidden Markov Spatiotemporal
Detector, Bayesian Spatiotemporal Detector and the Elementary Motion
Detector. The quantitative evaluation was performed using 20 hours of
infrared imagery collected over a three month period from helicopter
flights in a variety of clutter environments, which was painstakingly
tagged in five second increments with meta-data regarding the local
environmental conditions. The research method, samples of the IR data
sets, and results of the correlation between scene complexity metrics
and point target detection algorithms are presented.

Noise cancellation in IR video based on
empirical mode decomposition
José P. Ave, Manuel Blanco-Velasco, Fernando Cruz Roldán,
Univ. de Alcalá (Spain); Antonio Artés Rodríguez, Univ. Carlos III
de Madrid (Spain)
Currently there is a huge demand for simple low cost IR cameras for both
civil and military applications, among which one of the most common
is the surveillance of restricted access zones. In the design of low cost
IR cameras, it is necessary to avoid the use of several elements present
in more sophisticated cameras, such as the refrigeration systems andthe temperature control of the detectors, so as to prevent the use of amechanical modulator of the incident radiation (chopper). Consequently,
the detection algorithms must reliably separate the target signal from highnoise and drift caused by temporal variations of the background imageof the scene and the additional drift due to thermal instability detectors.
A very important step towards this goal is the design of a preprocessing
stage to eliminate noise. Thus, in this work we propose using the
Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method to attain this objective.
In order to evaluate the quality of the reconstructed clean signal, we
compute the mean square error between the original signal and thereconstructed signal using synthetic signals. Moreover, the Average toPeak Ratio is assessed to evaluate the effectiveness in reconstructing
the waveform of the signal from the target. We compare the EMD methodwith other classical method of noise cancellation based on the Discrete
Wavelet Transform (DWT). The results reported by simulations show thatthe proposed scheme based on EMD performs better than traditionalones.

8744-11, Session 3

Hyperspectral remote sensing and illegal oil
bunkering in the Niger Delta of Nigeria
Henry O. Odunsi, Earth Info Services (Nigeria)
Hyperspectral remote sensing is a modern technology for earth
observation monitoring. The technique requires high-resolution imaging
capacity for detecting and revealing significant information of theenvironment. This method of remote sensing is satellite based and isdesigned for natural resource monitoring and management. The Niger
Delta is the Oil and Gas capital of Nigeria. This region contains mostof the country’s oil reserves and oil production. The Niger Delta is asedimentary basin of global ecological significance. It is home to about
17 million people and rank as the third largest wetlands in the world.
Crude oil production in this region is about 2.7 million barrels per day
and generates over 90% of Nigeria’s total export earnings. Illegal oil
bunkering activities is one of the major challenges in the Niger Delta. Thisis mainly attributed to corruption and high level of youth unemployment.
Some other challenges in this region have been conflict for space due
to acute shortage of infrastructural development and marginalization.
There is a major threat to the environment due to the activities of oil andgas exploration and production. Illegal oil bunkering and oil production
activities have resulted in oil pollution, damage to marine flora and fauna,mangrove deforestation and loss of biodiversity. The role of government
in setting up and implementing regulations is the key to minimizing thepotential environmental impact. With over 500 oil drilling sites in the Niger
Delta, a valuable tool in monitoring these activities is therefore essential.
The importance of hyperspectral imaging is crucial as a result of theurgent need for sustainable development in Nigeria. Because of the hugeloss in revenue due to the illegal oil theft in the country, it is imperative
to explore the services of the National Space agency in providing amanagement option for these illegal activities.

8744-14, Session 4

Robust coastal region detection method
using image segmentation and sensor LOS
information for infrared search and track
Sungho Kim, Yeungnam Univ. (Korea, Republic of); Sun-Gu Sun,
Agency for Defense Development (Korea, Republic of); Soon
Kwon, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology(Korea, Republic of); Kyung-Tae Kim, POSTECH (Korea, Republicof)This paper presents a novel coastal region detection method for infrared
search and track. The coastal region detection is critical to home land
security and ship defense. We can detect coastal regions robustly by
combining the infrared image segmentation and sensor line-of-sight(LOS) information. The K-means-based image segmentation can provide
initial region information and the sensor LOS information can predict theapproximate horizon location in images. The evidence of coastal region
is confirmed by contour extraction results. The experimental results onremote coasts and near coasts validate the robustness of the proposed
coastal region detector.

8744-12, Session 38744-15, Session 4

Position-independent ATR using hierarchical
Hidden Markov Model as the identification
algorithm (Invited Paper)

Person detection in LWIR imagery using
image retrieval

Andre U. Sokolnikov, Visual Solutions and Applications (UnitedStates)Thomas Müller, Daniel Manger, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)

A recursive hierarchical algorithm based on hidden Markov models isused to build a model of the identification target. The end result of therecursive matching is an optimal scene-to-model transformation, alongwith a recognition degree of suitability value between the scene and themodel.

This paper addresses the detection and localization of persons in LWIR
imagery which is useful especially in visual surveillance tasks such as
intruder detection in military camps or for gaining situational awareness.
A robust and fast image retrieval function is adapted to detect andlocalize persons in LWIR using a suitable, extensive image data base thatcovers a variety of different shapes and appearances of persons in LWIR.

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

The basic idea behind this approach is, in contrast to the visual opticalband (VIS), that persons in thermal infrared exhibit somehow similar,
weakly individualized signatures which can be matched to a sufficientdegree to images in the data base and, thus, can be distinguishedfrom background structures and other objects. Dedicated pre and postprocessing routines optimize the results and compensate for a possibly
occuring lack of image features needed by the image retrieval function.
The achieved results document the practical benefit and the robustnessof the presented aproach. The computation times are low andindependent from the size of the data base that can be chosen large tocover a wide range of situations.

8744-16, Session 4

Hot spot detection and classification in LWIR
videos for person recognition
Michael Teutsch, Thomas Müller, Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik,
Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)
Person recognition is a key issue in visual surveillance. It is neededin many security applications such as intruder detection in military
camps but also for gaining situational awareness in a variety of different
applications. In this paper, a solution for LWIR imagery is presented
that is based on hot spot classification to distinguish persons frombackground clutter and other objects. We focus on objects in higher
distance with small appearance in the image, where popular approaches
such as SIFT with implicit shape models don’t work reliably. Different
algorithms are compared and temporal context is utilized to achieve
optimal results. Hot spots are detected, localized, and tracked along the
LWIR image sequence. Various kinds of image features are extracted
from the spots and evaluated for their separability potential. Different
methods for features space reduction are implemented and tested.
Finally, classifiers such as Support Vector Machine (SVM), Bayes, andk-Nearest-Neighbor (k-NN) classifier are compared to each other andextended to benefit from the temporal information of the tracked spots.
In some experiments, we demonstrate that slight changes of spot
appearance during tracking due to motion of camera platform or spot
will result in more robust classification performance. Furthermore, thealgorithms run in real-time.

Multilayer robust and adaptive dismounts
detection approach for WAPS
Riad I. Hammoud, BAE Systems (United States); Matthew
Antone, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States)
This paper describes a novel multi-layer robust and adaptive dismounts(humans) detection framework in a wide-area persistent aerial
surveillance system. The problem is very challenging due to clutterpresence, low pixel-density of dismounts (2-30 pixels in size), high SNR,
low contrast-difference between dismounts and background, weak
thermal signature, moving platform (UAV), parallax, occlusions andillumination changes.
In the proposed framework, the images are geo-registered first. Then,each image is automatically classified as bright sunny day, dim (orcast shadow) or night time imagery based on the analysis of the grayscale distribution of the entire image (or a sub-image). This allows
the framework to dynamically determine the optimal parameters of
the subsequent modules such as segmentation thresholds, contrast
enhancement and thermal range, and subsequently make our system
more tolerant to lighting changes. An initial set of potential dismounts
is generated from multiple segmentations of a smoothed and contrastenhanced version of the input image. Then an area filter is applied toeliminate candidates outside a desired size range ([6-30 pixels] in our
experiment). Further, seven complementary filters are applied to eachpotential dismount. These filters compute the contrast and thermal
signatures, clutter percentage, dynamic signature, global motion
signature, forward motion history, and shape characteristics. Motion
artifacts due to parallax and miss-registration are filtered out with various
motion filters. The shape-based filter reduces the confusion between
light-poles and true dismounts. These evidences produced by thesefilters are fused together and a probability is assigned to the potential
candidate that determines its likelihood of being a true dismount or not.
Our experiments on day and night time videos shown that the proposed
framework yielded higher true detection rate and much lower false alarms
than the standard GMM-based background modeling technique.
“The views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect theofficial policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S.
Government.”
Distribution Statement “A” (Approved for Public Release, Distribution
Unlimited)8744-17, Session 4

Image restoration and superresolution for ondemand satellite imagery
Riad I. Hammoud, Luis Galup, Diane G. Mills, BAE Systems(United States)
A confluence of advances in overhead systems and imaging sensors,communications, image processing science and mobile computing has
unleashed unprecedented capabilities for enabling on-demand overhead
imagery in a timely and persistent manner for pre-mission planning.
Using COTS low-cost overhead imaging sensors and limited bandwidth,the on-demand transmitted images to the handheld device are oftentimes
low-quality and low-resolution.
This paper will review first various classes of methods for image
restoration, multiple-frame super resolution, and deblurring techniques.
Then it will investigate and propose a variant of the centralized sparsecoding representation model for low-resolution blurred satellite image
restoration.

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8744-18, Session 48744-19, Session 5

Boosting target tracking using particle filter
with flow control
Nima Moshtagh, Moses W. Chan, Lockheed Martin Space
Systems Co. (United States)
Missile detection and tracking with passive infrared (IR) sensors canbe challenging due to significant degradation and corruption of target
signature by atmospheric transmission and clutter effects. This paper
summarizes our efforts in phenomenology modeling of boosting targets
with overhead IR sensors, and developing algorithms for tracking targets
in the presence of background clutter. On the phenomenology modelingside, the clutter images are generated using a high fidelity end-to-end
simulation testbed. It models atmospheric transmission, structured
clutter and solar reflections to create realistic background images. The
dynamics and intensity of a boosting target are modeled and injected
onto the background scene. Pixel level images are then generated withrespect to the sensor characteristics. On the tracking analysis side, aparticle filter for tracking dim targets in a sequence of clutter images isdeveloped. The particle filter is augmented with a mechanism to control
particle flow. Specifically, velocity feedback is used to constrain andcontrol the particles. The performance of the developed “adaptive”
particle filter is verified with tracking of a boosting target in the presenceof clutter and occlusion.

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

8744-20, Session 58744-22, Session 6

Dynamic data driven applications systems(DDDAS) modeling for ATR

Pre- and post-processing correlation filter
data

Erik P. Blasch, Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Jianbo Gao, Wright State Univ. (UnitedStates); Frederica Darema, Kitt C. Reinhardt, Air Force Office of
Scientific Research (United States)

Andres F. Rodriguez, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
and Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States); B. V. K. Vijaya Kumar,
Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)
Correlation filters have been shown to perform well for localization andclassification tasks. In this paper, we investigate different techniques
used to pre- and post-process the data to improve the correlation
filter performance. In addition, we present an efficient method to use
zero-mean, unit-norm test chips in a large test image. We compare thelocalization, classification, and recognition performance when we apply
one or more of these methods.

The DDDAS concept uses applications modeling, mathematicalalgorithms, and measurement systems to work with dynamic systems.
Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) can be a dynamic task as sensors,
targets, and the environment are constantly changing. We use the
DDDAS concept to develop an ATR methodology for multiscalemultimodal analysis that seeks to integrated sensing, processing, andexploitation. In the analysis, we use image fusion techniques to explore
the capabilities and analogies that DDDAS has with information fusion.
The key attribute of coordination is the use of sensor management asa data driven technique to improve performance. In addition, DDDAS
supports the need for modeling from which uncertainty and variations areused within the dynamic models for advanced performance.

8744-23, Session 6

Automatic target recognition solution spacefactorization
Charles F. Hester, Kelly K. D. Risko, U.S. Army Research,
Development and Engineering Command (United States)

8744-21, Session 5

The rigid non-cooperative target
recognition in practice based on the sparse
representation

Solution paces for Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) can be definedin a union of subspaces model of the problem space. The descriptivemodel solution set forms a space of solutions that affords an abundanceof solutions. Indeed the power set of the solution set are all the solutions
which contain many invariance descriptions which are generalization of
the solutions. To explore this space we will define invariance descriptions
and this will allow the factorization of the solution space. Using thesefactorizations specific generalizations of the data in the ATR problem
space will be created. We will provide examples and a demonstrated useof these generalizations.

Bo Sun, Xuewen Wu, Jun He, Xiaoming Zhu, Beijing Normal Univ.
(China)In recent years, more and more researchers’ attention has been drawn
to the sparse representation-based classification (SRC) method andits application in pattern recognition, due to its high recognition rate,robustness to corruption and occlusion, and little dependence on thefeature etc. However, sufficient training samples are always requiredby the sparse representation method for the effective recognition. In
practical applications, it is generally difficult to obtain the sufficienttraining samples of test targets, especially non-cooperative targets.
The experiential results show the performance of sparse representation
method will significantly degrade when the training samples are notenough. So the key issues in the target recognition based on the sparse
representation are to obtain sufficient training samples in different
scales, angles, and different illumination conditions, and to construct theover-complete dictionary with discriminative ability. In this paper, a newsparse representation-based framework is proposed for the rigid noncooperative target recognition in the practical applications and given as
follows:

8744-24, Session 6

Dealing with circular correlation effects
Andres F. Rodriguez, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
and Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States); B. V. K. Vijaya Kumar,
Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States)
Discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs) are typically used to computecorrelations and implementing correlation filters (CFs). Because of theproperties of DFT, resulting correlations are actually circular (also known
as periodic) correlations. The result is that it is generally not possible todesign a CF that produces the desired linear correlation output. While
there is no exact solution to this problem, there are several techniquesthat may be used to improve results. In this paper, we describe thesetechniques and provide some experimental results that compare thesetechniques.

(1) To make the uniformly scaled model of rigid target, e.g. vehicles, ships
etc.;(2) To design an four-axis linkage platform to collect the images indifferent scales, 3D angles and different illumination as the training
samples;(3) To train the large-scale samples and get an efficient sparse
representation-based recognition dictionary containing the scale, angle
and illumination information, with the proposed online dictionary learningalgorithm;

8744-25, Session 6

Multi-kernel aggregation of local and globalfeatures in long-wave infrared for detection of
SWAT teams in challenging environments(4) To recognize the rigid non-cooperative target with the smallest total
variation (TV) algorithm.
The experimental results show that the proposed solution is effective forthe rigid non-cooperative target recognition in the practical application,
especially, where the desired features of the sparse representation
method are kept.

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Ankit Arya, Derek T. Anderson, Cindy Bethel, Daniel Carruth,
Mississippi State Univ. (United States)
A vision system was designed for people detection to provide support
to SWAT team members operating in challenging environments such as
low-to-no light, smoke, etc. When the vision system is mounted on amobile robot platform: it will enable the robot to function as an effective
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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

first contact with suspects; and provide safe entry for team members.
The vision task is challenging because SWAT team members are typicallyconcealed, carry various equipment such as shields, and performtactical and stealthy maneuvers. Occlusion is a particular challenge
because team members operate in close proximity to one another. An
uncooled long wave infrared (LWIR) imager, 7.5 to 13.5 ?m, was used.
A unique thermal dataset was collected of SWAT team members frommultiple teams performing tactical maneuvers during monthly training
exercises. Our approach consisted of two stages, a weakly trained
object detector to find candidate windows (i.e., people), and a secondaryfeature extraction, multi-kernel (MK) aggregation and classification
step to distinguish between SWAT team members and civilians. Twotypes of thermal features, local and global, are presented based on
maximally stable extremal region (MSER) blob detection. Two support
vector machine (SVM) classifiers were trained using only LWIR data or a
combination of LWIR and RGB data, achieving ?84.5% cross validation
accuracy.

8744-26, Session 6

From Shape to Threat: Exploiting theConvergence Between Visual and Conceptual
Organization for Weapon Identification andThreat Assessment (Invited Paper)
Abdullah N. Arslan, Christian F. Hempelmann, Carlo Di Ferrante,
Salvatore Attardo, Nikolay M. Sirakov, Texas A&M Univ.Commerce (United States)
The present work is a part of a larger project whose goal is to develop asystem capable of threat assessment in public places using video. The
system consists of: data storage (weapon ontology), input, and search.
The ontology extension and search optimization are subjects of thepresent study. With respect to the input data a sequence of video frames
will be exploited, but a single image is in use right now..
To assess the threat the system recognizes the weapon, if any, carried
by a suspect. For this purpose image segmentation and matchingapproaches are developed. Every ontology node is labeled by shape orconvex hull (CH) sequences (visual information), and contains conceptual(high level) information about the corresponding weapon. We are building
the ontology on the base of the conceptual knowledge and hierarchicalrelations between the weapons. Geometric - visual information is utilized
to perform the ontology search, which imposes the need for visualorganization. The new paper will study the convergence, fusion andcorrelation between the conceptual and the visual organizations of the
ontology in order to optimize the search, nodes labeling approaches andalgorithms.
The CH sequences are located at conceptually higher nodes, andidentify a particular category such as “pistol”, “rifle”, “machine gun”. The
shape sequences label nodes containing single weapon and its meta
information. As such, the CH is a joint point between the conceptual andthe visual organizations of the ontology.
The paper will also present the automatic querying the Web for datacollection to fill up the ontology. Further the paper will exploit thecorrelations between visual and conceptual information like, long barrel
implies a long range, for the purpose of threat assessment.

8744-27, Session 6

Improved sample covariance matrix
estimation for real-time target detection in
hyperspectral imagery
Wei Yang, Ctr. for Earth Observation and Digital Earth (China) andChinese Academy of Sciences (China); Bing Zhang, Lianru Gao,
Yuanfeng Wu, Ctr. for Earth Observation and Digital Earth (China);
Li Ni, Ctr. for Earth Observation and Digital Earth (China) and372

Chinese Academy of Sciences (China)
Real-time target detection in hyperspectral imagery is more and more
applied in surveillance and reconnaissance. However, the executing timein target detection is always limited by the covariance matrix computing.
This paper investigates the methods of covariance matrix computation
for real-time processing. Meanwhile, an effective sample covariancematrix estimation method is provided in this paper. This method utilizes
the spatial correlation in hyperspectral imagery, and effectively reduces
the amount of computation. Spectral vector projection and spectral
vector rearrangement are applied to select the sample pixels. Comparedwith iterative computations of covariance matrix, sample covarianceestimation weakens the relationship of adjacent pixels in timing
sequence, so it is suitable for parallel computing. Based on the improved
covariance matrix computing, a new real-time target detection approachis provided.
The hyperspectral data in whiten space has little correlation and issuitable for analyzing the difference among spectral vectors. Whiten
vector projection utilizes the projection length to discriminate spectralfeature of target. This approach reduces the amount of computationby preserving the major component of conventional target detection
algorithm. The real-time and automated target detection method in
hyperspectral imagery has been evaluated by some experiments on adigital signal processor (DSP) platform. Target detection results on an
actual hyperspectral data set demonstrate that the speedup provided by
improved the sample covariance matrix estimation is significant.

8744-28, Session 7

Chipping and segmentation of target ofinterest from low-resolution electro-optical
data
Shane Fernandes, Yu Liang, Michael Henderson, Central State
Univ. (United States); Josh Sanderson, Wright State Univ. (UnitedStates); Darrell Barker, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
This paper mainly discusses the chipping and segmentation of targetof-interest (TOI) from low-resolution gray-scale electro-optical (EO) data,
which is acquired by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) hovering above thecity. As the pre-processing for automatic target recognition, chipping andsegmentation of TOI consist of the following two steps: regional chipping
and target segmentation. Regional chipping is dedicated to obtaining
the minimal region surrounding the TOI so that it can be accurately andefficiently recognized. Target segmentation is dedicated to isolating a TOIfrom the background and is implemented using the diffusion algorithm.
The whole work is accomplished in MATLAB and is critically assessedusing the given EO data.

8744-29, Session 7

Robust static and moving object detection via
multi-scale attentional mechanisms
Alexander L. Honda, Yang Chen, Deepak Khosla, HRL Labs.,
LLC (United States)
Real-time detection of objects in video sequences captured from moving
platforms is a key task for UAV surveillance applications. It is common
to require expensive frame to frame registration as preprocessing
to object detection in this type of video sequence. We explore thespectral residual algorithm, a fast linearithmic run time saliency model
which requires no training and has no temporal dependencies, whichis capable of detecting proto-objects in static scenes. In this article we
describe methods for enhancing the spectral residual saliency algorithm
to generate tight bounding boxes around object candidates from video
sequences captured from moving platforms. These object candidates
can then be passed to classification for identification at a later stage.
We describe methods which make the spectral residual algorithm morerobust to color images and objects of varying size via a pyramidal

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

8744-32, Session 7

approach. Furthermore we describe a technique for processing theresulting saliency map into a set of tight bounding boxes suitable forextracting images for classification. Finally we give a simple method for
reducing false positives using knowledge about scene pose and plausible
object dimensions. The overall system is a fast, robust, and efficient
detection system designed for reliable performance on UAV surveillance
platforms.

Target localization and function estimation insparse sensor networks (Invited Paper)
Natalia A. Schmid, West Virginia Univ. (United States)
The problem of distributed estimation of a parametric function in spaceis stated as a maximum likelihood estimation problem. The function
can represent a parametric physical field generated by an object or bea deterministic function that parameterizes an inhomogeneous spatial
random process.

8744-30, Session 7

AKITA: Application Knowledge Interface To
Algorithmsinterface to algorithmic selection

In our formulation, a sparse network of homogeneous sensors takes
noisy measurements of the function. Prior to data transmission, eachsensor quantizes its observation to M levels. The quantized data are thencommunicated over parallel noisy channels to a fusion center for a joint
estimation.

Paul Barros, Allison Mathis, Kevin Newman, Steve M. Wilder,
Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)
Abstract-We propose a methodology for utilizing sensor meta-data andlimited preprocessing in order to determine which of a large suite ofalgorithms is most appropriate to a given data set. Rather than applying
several general purpose algorithms or requiring a human operator to
oversee the analysis of the data set, our method allows the most effective
algorithm to be chosen conserving both computational and humanresources.

The numerical examples are provided for the cases of (1) a Gaussianshaped field that approximates the distribution of pollutions or fumes
produced by an object; (2) a magnetic field generated by a ferromagnetic
object, and (3) a radioactive field due to a spatial counting process with
the intensity function decaying according to the inverse square law.
The dependence of the integrated mean-square error on the number ofquantization levels, the number of sensors in the network and the SNR in
observation and transmission channels is analyzed. The performance ofthe developed estimators is compared to unbiased Cramer-Rao Lower
Bound.

For example, the amount of video data being produced daily is far
greater than can ever be analyzed. Computer vision algorithms canhelp to sift through for the relevant data, but not every algorithm issuited to every data type nor is it efficient to run them all. For example
a full body detector won’t work well when the camera is zoomed in orwhen it is raining and all the people are occluded by foul weather gear.
However, leveraging metadata knowledge of the camera settings and theconditions under which the data was collected (generated by automatic
preprocessing), face or umbrella detectors could be applied instead,increasing the likelihood of a correct reading.

8744-41, Session 7

A method for constructing orthonormal
basis finsctions with good time-frequecy
localization

Further refinements allow for operator input when desired. Data collectedin theatre often has a limited period of utility. If an operator was able
to specify that the dissemination time could not exceed ten minutes
the system would take that into account while making its decision.
Conversely, given all night, the system may choose other sets of relevant
algorithms to generate useful knowledge to the edge.

Izidor Gertner, The City College of New York (United States)
No Abstract Available.

To this end, we present the AKITA system, a modular knowledge layer
which takes utilities knowledge of the system and environment todetermine how to most efficiently and usefully process whatever data it
is given.

8744-33, Session 8

SAR imaging in the presence of spectrum
notches via fast missing data IAA (Invited
Paper)

8744-31, Session 7

William T. Rowe, Univ. of Florida (United States); Johan Karlsson,
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Mathematics(Sweden); Luzhou Xu, Integrated Adaptive Applications, Inc.
(United States) and Univ. of Florida (United States); GeorgeOthon Glentis, Univ. of Peloponnese (Greece); Jian Li, Univ. of
Florida (United States)

Automatic laser beam alignment using blob
detection for an environment monitoring
spectroscopy
Jarjees A. Khidir, Youhua Chen, Gary T. Anderson, Univ. of
Arkansas at Little Rock (United States)

A synthetic aperture radar (SAR) system operating in congested
frequency bands (such as UHF or VHF) suffers from radio frequency
interference (RFI) from narrowband sources. When RFI interference issuppressed by frequency notching, gaps are introduced into the fast timephase history. This results in a missing data spectral estimation problem,
where the missing data increase sidelobe energy and degrade image
quality.

This paper describes a fully automated system to align an infra-red laser
beam with a small retro-reflector over a wide range of distances. The
component development and test were especially used for an open-path
spectrometer gas detection system. Using blob detection under OpenCV
library, an automatic alignment algorithm was designed to achieve fast
and accurate target detection in a complex background environment.
Test results are presented to show that the proposed algorithm has
been successfully applied to various target distances and environment
conditions.

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The adaptive spectral estimation method Iterative Adaptive Approach(IAA) has been shown to provide higher resolution and lower sidelobes
than comparable methods, but at the cost of higher computationallycomplexity. Current fast IAA algorithms reduce the computational
complexity using Toeplitz/Vandermonde structures, but are not applicablefor missing data cases because these structures are lost. When thenumber of missing data samples is small, which often is the case in
SAR with RFI, we use a low rank completion to restore the Toeplitz/
Vandermonde structures. We show that the computational complexityof the proposed algorithm is considerable lower than the state-of-the·help@spie.org

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

art and demonstrate the utility on a simulated frequency notched SAR
imaging problem.

8744-34, Session 8

HALOS: compact, high-speed adaptive optics
Geoff P. Andersen, Fassil Ghebremichael, HUA Inc. (UnitedStates); Ravi Gaddipati, Phani Gaddipati, Centum Engineering(United States); Paul Gelsinger-Austin, Ken R MacDonald, HUA
Inc. (United States)
We have constructed a closed-loop adaptive optics system that
operates at 100kHz without the need for a computer. The system uses
a multiplexed hologram which is essentially pre-programmed with the
response functions of each actuator in a given deformable mirror. An
input beam incident on this hologram reconstructs a pair of focused
beams - one for each actuator. The power ratio of each pair is directly
related to the absolute phase of the wavefront for a particular actuator,
so a simple feedback circuit between a fast photodetector array andthe deformable mirror can provide fast, computer-free closed-loop
correction.
We present results from a working holographic adaptive laser optics
system (HALOS) incorporating a 32-actuator MEMS-based deformablemirror and an off-the-shelf, photon counting avalanche photodiode array.
A simple digital circuit has been constructed to provide autonomous
control and the entire system fits in the palm of your hand. Our results
demonstrate that this device is largely insensitive to obscuration and inprinciple can run as fast with one actuator as with one million. We willfurther show how HALOS can be used in image correction, laser beam
projection as well as phased-array beam combination.

Two of the challenging issues with object identification using HSI are (i)computational complexity of the analysis and (ii) signature mismatch.
Here, combination of an enhanced version of the robust matched filter
and the morphological endmember extraction algorithm is utilized. In
addition, the wideband technology is utilized to provide more information
about concealed target, and to support spectral processing for object
uncovering more effectively.
During simulation, electromagnetic waves and propagation area (freespace, different objects in scene) are modeled. In fact, an object ismodeled as different layers with different thicknesses.
At the beginning of simulation, target locations are estimated. To do this,the interactions of electromagnetic signals with target will be studied. The
existence of the target is estimated by the detection of spectral signature
relating to material used in the target. In other words, the simultaneouspresence of a spectral signature corresponding to the main materials of
the specific target in the hyperspectral data helps detect the target.
In fact, the reflected higher frequency signals provide information about
exterior layers of both the target object and the background; in addition,
the reflected lower frequency signals provide information about interior
layers of the target object. Matlab simulation is performed using HSI, and
WB technology at different frequencies (KHz-GHz) and powers to identify
different objects.

8744-37, Session 8

Sonar signal feature extraction for target
recognition in range-dependent environments
Patrick J. Loughlin, Vikram T. Gomatam, Univ. of Pittsburgh(United States)

8744-35, Session 8

Performance metric development for agroup state estimator in airborne UHF GMTI
applications
Ryan A. Elwell, U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Research
Development and Engineering Command (United States)
This paper describes the development and implementation of evaluation
metrics for group state estimator (i.e. group tracker) algorithms. Key
differences between group tracker metrics and single-target tracker
metrics are the method used for track-to-truth association and thecharacterization of group raid size. Another significant contribution of thiswork is the incorporation of measured radar performance in assessing
tracker performance. The result of this work is a set of measures of
performance derived from canonical individual target tracker metrics,
extended to characterize the additional information provided by a grouptracker. The paper discusses additional considerations in group tracker
evaluation, including the definition of a group and group-to-groupconfusion. Metrics are computed on real field data to provide examplesof real-world analysis, demonstrating an approach which provides
characterization of group tracker performance as it relates to sensor
performance.

8744-36, Session 8

A simulation study of target detection using
hyperspectral data analysis
Ershad Sharifahmadian, Yoonsuk Choi, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)
Target detection is difficult when the target is concealed or placed
under ground or water. To detect and identify concealed objects froma distance, simultaneous analysis of the HyperSpectral Imaging (HSI)374

and Wideband (WB) data is studied. While the HSI analysis may rendersurface information about objects, the WB data can reveal information
about inner layers of the object and its content.

Identifying underwater objects from their sonar backscatter is an
important task in active sonar operations, the success of which candepend on environmental factors as well as the object characteristics.
For example, in shallow water, sound can undergo significant dispersion,
such that the backscatter from an object can change with propagation,and hence the ``target signature’’ differs depending on the location of thetarget and receiver. We have previously derived features for automatictarget recognition that are invariant to dispersion in range-independent
as well as weakly range-dependent channels. These approaches werebased on the normal and adiabatic modal solutions, respectively, of theHelmholtz equation. In this paper we develop a feature extraction process
for more complicated range-dependent propagation as described by
the parabolic propagation model, which is better suited to handlingenvironmental variabilities and inconsistent boundary conditions. We
develop an invariant feature extraction algorithm that negates the effects
of dispersion and absorption introduced by the channel, and draw
parallels between these new features and our previous features.

8744-38, Session 8

New electro-optic laser scanner desing forcontinuous coverage over a 120 x 120 degree
field of regard
Scott R. Davis, Scott D. Rommel, Seth T. Johnson, Neil A.
Rebolledo, Stephanie M. McMahon, Michael H. Anderson,
Vescent Photonics Inc. (United States); Jason M. Auxier, U.S.
Naval Research Lab. (United States)
We will present a design and data for new EO scanners that will provide:
120o x 120o field of regard (FOR), point-to-point transit time < 1 ms,
full FOR raster (e.g., 1000x1000 points) < 1 sec, and complete FOR
coverage with no “blind spots”. These scanners are achievable via
the combination: electro-evanescent optical refractors for continuous

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Conference 8744: Automatic Target Recognition XXIII

scanning over 60o?20o and cycloidal diffractive waveplates (also calledpolarization gratings) for discrete scanning to boost the total scan angle
to 120o?120o. The polarization gratings provide significant size andcost advantages over prior birefringent prism approaches. The electroevanescent optical refractors used to fill in the gaps between the discrete
angles (>90% of FOR not addressed) provide speed and lack-of-blindspots advantages over past optical phased array approaches. For
example, a sweep over 1000 spots may be realized in <1 ms, rather than
the 1000 x 5 ms relaxation times with past approaches. In this paper
we will present progress on the manufacturing and performance of the
optical refractors including beam quality, throughput, and aperture size. A
full theoretical design and data supporting the viability of a full coverage
120 x 120 degree EO scanner will be presented.

8744-40, Session 8

Propagation effects in channels
Leon Cohen, Hunter College (United States)
No Abstract Available.

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375

Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
Monday - Thursday 29–2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8745 Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition XXII

8745-1, Session 1

8745-3, Session 1

Estimability of Thrusting Trajectories in 3Dfrom a Single Passive Sensor

Advances in displaying uncertain estimates ofmultiple targets

Ting Yuan, Yaakov Bar-Shalom, Peter Willett, Univ. ofConnecticut (United States); R. Ben-Dov, S. Pollak, Univ ofConnecticut (United States)

David F. Crouse, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

The problem of estimating the state of thrusting/ballistic
endoatmospheric projectiles moving in 3-dimensional (3-D) space using
2-dimensional (2-D) measurements from a single passive sensor isinvestigated. The estimability is analyzed based on the Fisher Information
Matrix (FIM) of the target parameter vector, comprising the initial launch(azimuth and elevation) angles, drag coefficient and thrust, which
determine its trajectory according to a nonlinear motion equation. The
initial position is assumed to be obtained from the first measurement
line of sight (LoS) intersected with the ground plane. The full rank of
the FIM ensures that this is an estimable system. The corresponding
Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB) quantifies the estimation performanceof the estimator that is statistically efficient and can be used for impact
point prediction (IPP). Due to the inherent nonlinearity of the problem,the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) of the target parameters is foundby using the iterated least squares (ILS) numerical approach. A dragcoefficient-thrust grid-based ILS search over the launch angles space
is proposed. The grid-ILS approach is shown to converge to the global
maximum and its reliable estimation performance further verifies theestimability.

8745-2, Session 1

Comparing truth-to-track assignment
methods for situation correctness
John R. Maskasky, Mark E. Silbert, Naval Air Warfare Ctr. Aircraft
Div. (United States)
Evaluating the performance of a target tracking system requires first
determining which tracks should be assigned to which targets. This is
the truth-to-track assignment (TTA) problem. Unfortunately, determining
the truth-to-track assignments can be problematic when the targets
are closely spaced since the measurements can be ambiguous as towhich target was observed. As a result, which target is being tracked
could be ambiguous as well. This ambiguity in the target tracks makes
the TTA problem more difficult. There are three common methods tofind the TTAs: nearest neighbors, global cost minimization, and Report
Identity Based (RIB). Nearest neighbors and global cost minimization
are similar since both use a distance or cost function to establish thecorresponding target. RIB, on the other hand, determines the identitiesof the measurements that the track used and selects the target basedon majority-rule. This study compares these three assignment methods,
taking differing amounts of track history into account when computing
the assignments. The methods are compared using various simulated
scenarios to determine how the three TTAs along with differing amountsof track history affect common performance metrics such as track
accuracy and track purity. The study shows that all methods perform
well when there is little ambiguity but RIB performs more agreeably as
the scenarios become more complex. In addition, RIB provides a richer
set of assignments that allows for more objective performance metrics.
The results of this study are applicable where it is critical to evaluate
tracking performance objectively such as quantifying the performance ofautomated detect-and-avoid systems.

376

In practical tracking systems, there is no inherent “order” to the states oftargets present. Moreover, the number of targets present is not knowna priori and is always an uncertain quantity. Because of the orderlessnature of the multitarget tracking problem, extensive work has been
performed in the past deriving finite set statistics (FISST) along with theset integral to form a rigorous mathematical basis for tracking. In thisframework, it has been shown that traditional estimators, such as the
expected value, produce undesirable or meaningless results for target
state estimation due both to the orderless nature of the target states aswell as the unknown number of targets present.
Minimum mean optimal subpattern assignment (MMOSPA) estimation
has been shown to provide meaningful estimates in instances of target
identity uncertainty when the number of targets present is known. This
paper demonstrates that accurate, approximate MMOSPA estimates
for tracking can be calculated in miliseconds to microseconds without
extensive optimization, using off-the-shelf hardware. This makes
MMOSPA estimation a practicable alternative to more traditional
estimators.
However, this does not address the question of how to summarize
information in a true random finite set probability density function
under FISST, where the number of targets present is unknown and the
traditional definition of the expected value is meaningless. To address
this, a minimum mean Wasserstein distance estimator is defined
analogously to how MMOSPA estimates were defined for known target
numbers. This estimator provides a collection of target state estimateswith probabilities of target existence.

8745-4, Session 1

Tracklets classification for target signaturedetection
Sowmya Ramakrishnan, Riad I. Hammoud, Nathan Shnidman,
BAE Systems (United States)
This paper describes a robust classification approach of short-tracks(tracklets) of moving targets in wide aerial surveillance imagery into three
categories: vehicles, dismounts and clutter. Such a classification enables
stitching of short duration tracklets into longer high confidence target
tracks, enhances target purity through occlusions, and offers potential for
automatic events detection.
Using a robust statistical background model in conjunction with multiscale filtering, moving targets are automatically localized, nominatedand tracked auto-regressively through probabilistic fusion of kinematics
and appearance, to produce tracklets of short duration. We then utilize
the imagery and motion masks to compute a rich feature space over the
tracklets, which is derived from spatiotemporal, geometric, kinematicand spectral attributes of the extracted target image and mask. In
particular, higher order statistical moments used for shape description,
kinematic features and a set of regional statistics are computed over thetarget mask. Feature vectors ascribe the tracklets with a compact yet
rich representation in the signature feature space that allows applying
machine learning paradigms to classify the target signature labels. An
extensive training database of tracked targets was assembled to coverwide range of scenarios and operational conditions and high quality
ground truth annotations were created through rigorous manual labelingof signature types. Using this training data, we trained a number ofstandard statistical classifiers for supervised learning such as Naïve
Bayes and Support Vector Machines and used them to classify unseen
test sets. We were able to achieve 85% overall signature accuracy with a
90% true positive rate for clutter over a large test set.

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII

8745-5, Session 1priority weights to the targets. For instance, it could be the track
variances, or persumed threat level, such as from the output of asyntactic tracker. The micromanager is initiated based on the target
priority vector provided by the macromanager and allocates the radar
beams accordingly.

Overview of Dempster-Shafer methods intarget tracking

In this paper, the focus is on the micro-manager, i.e., we consider thefollowing problem: Given the target priority vector, how long should
the micro-manager track the targets before returning control to themacromanager (that in turn furnishes a new priority vector)?

Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Jean C.
Dezert, Benjamin Pannetier, ONERA (France)
Over the years, there have been many proposed methods in set-based
tracking. One example of set-based methods is the use of DempsterShafer techniques to support belief-based tracking. In this paper, weoverview the issues and concepts that motivated Dempster-Shafer (DS)methods for simultaneous tracking and classification/identification.
DS methods have some attributes, if applied correctly; but there aresome pitfalls that need to be carefully avoided. Such comparisons andapplications are found in DSmT methods from which the PCR5 rule
supports a more comprehensive approach if researchers are interested
in applying evidential techniques to target tracking. In the paper, weoverview the issues to report on two decades of research in the area.

The micromanager problem can be viewed as a sequential detection
problem that consists of the following two actions—stop andreturn control to the macromanager, or continue. Recent work (byKrishnamurthy et al) has shown that the optimal decision for certain costs
is characterized by a monotone policy on the a partial ordering definedon a set of positive-definite covariance matrices. As a result, it is possible
to design and estimate and implement monotone parametrized decision
policies in real time. This requires the specification of the costs for theseactions. There are several possibilities for the stopping costs (that lead tomonotone decision policies), and the choice of the cost depends on theapplication.
Several simulations are carries out using typical practical algorithms andsystem parameters. Specifically, the kinematic model for the (assumed
nonmaneuvering) target is taken to be the discrete-time constant velocity
model. The filtering algorithm is taken to be extended Kalman filter (EKF).
The performance of the optimal decision policy is compared to the simple
periodic policy. It is found that the optimal decision policy provides alower envelope of the deterministic periodic policies.

8745-6, Session 2

Decentralized closed-loop collaborative
surveillance and tracking performancesensitivity to communications connectivity
Jonathan T. DeSena, Sean R. Martin, Jesse C. Clarke, Daniel
A. Dutrow, Brian C. Kohan, Andrew J. Newman, Johns Hopkins
Univ. Applied Physics Lab. (United States)

8745-8, Session 2

Sensor selection for target localization in a
network of proximity sensors and bearing
sensors

As the number and diversity of sensing assets available for intelligence,
surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) operations continues to expand,the limited ability of human operators to effectively manage, control andexploit the ISR ensemble is exceeded, leading to reduced operational
effectiveness. Our approach is to apply the principles of feedback control
to ISR operations, “closing the loop” from the sensor collections throughautomated processing to ISR asset control. Previous work by the authors
demonstrating closed-loop control, involving both platform routing andsensor pointing, of a multi-sensor, multi-platform ISR ensemble tasked
with providing situational awareness and performing search, track andclassification of multiple targets. The multi-asset control used a joint
optimization of routes and schedules in a centralized architecture,requiring a fully-connected communications network. This paper presents
an extension of the previous work to a decentralized architecture that
relaxes the communications requirements. The decentralized approachachieves a solution equivalent to the centralized system when the
network allows full communications and gracefully degrades ISR
performance as communications links degrade. The decentralized
closed-loop ISR system has been exercised via a simulation test bed
against a scenario in the Afghanistan theater under a variety of network
conditions, from full to poor connectivity. Simulation experiment results
are presented.

Qiang Le, Hampton Univ. (United States); Lance Kaplan, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
This work considers the sensor selection and the fusion method using
a network of proximity sensors that provide binary measurements, andbearing sensors that provide bearing measurements.
In previous work, we have developed a novel form of a probability
hypothesis density (PHD) filter to track multiple targets in a network ofproximity sensors. The PHD filter originally proposed by Mahler assumes
that the measurements are independent and associated to one target.
To fuse the data from the hybrid network, in the paper we consider two
fusion strategies to update the weights of PHD particles: one is iterationbased fusion where the weights could be first updated by proximity
sensors, then are updated by bearing sensors, or vice versa. The otheris association-based fusion where the weights are products of individual
weights updated by bearing sensors and proximity sensors. Note the first
fusion methods is the traditional iterative method originally proposed byMahler. As a result, the order of fusing sensors makes differences in thelocalization performance. The second method treats the types of sensors
equally. But it requires the data association of the bearing measurements
and the targets.

8745-7, Session 2

GMTI radar resource management andpartially observed Markov decision processes

To select the type of sensors, we consider two selection methods based
upon Renyi divergence. One is based upon the single target particle level.
The other is based upon the multitarget particle level. While the single
target Renyi divergence does not require the association for the bearing
measurements and the targets, the multitarget Renyi divergence requires
the association. The paper will compare the localization performances fordifferent fusion strategies and selection methods.

Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Ottawa (Canada)
Consider an electronically scanning ground moving target indication(GMTI) radar that is tracking several several ground moving targets. The
problem is to schedule the beam in order to minimize some cost that is afunction of GMTI tracker outputs.
The radar resource management scheme used in this paper divides the
problem into two subproblems with different time scales. Specifically,
the proposed radar control architecture consists of two parts: amacromanager and a micromanager. The macromanager allocates

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII

8745-9, Session 2

Evaluating detection and estimation
capabilities of magnetometer based vehicle
sensors
David Slater, Garry M. Jacyna, The MITRE Corp. (United States)
The focus of this work is on two Measures of Performance (MOPs) for
Unattended Ground Sensors (UGS). UGS are placed near roads to detectpassing vehicles and estimate properties of the vehicle’s trajectory suchas bearing and speed. The first MOP considered is the probability ofdetection. We derive probabilities of detection for a network of sensors
over an arbitrary number of observation periods and explore how the
probability of detection changes when multiple sensors are employed.
The performance of UGS is also evaluated based on the level of variancein the estimation of trajectory parameters. We derive the Cramer-Rao
bounds for the variances of the estimated parameters for two cases:
when no a priori information is known and when the parameters are
assumed to be Gaussian with known variances. Sample results show that
UGS perform significantly better in the latter case.

8745-12, Session 3

Background agnostic CPHD tracking of dimtargets in heavy clutter
Adel I. El-Fallah, Aleksandar Zatezalo, Scientific Systems Co.,
Inc. (United States); Ronald P. S. Mahler, Lockheed Martin Corp.
(United States); Raman K. Mehra, Scientific Systems Co., Inc.
(United States); Wellesley E. Pereira, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
Detection and tracking of dim targets in heavy clutter environments is adaunting theoretical and practical problem.

8745-10, Session 2

Tracking and predicting of multiple
interacting deformable objects from flash
lidar range image data
Ryan J. Poore, Richard L. Tutwiler, Matthew S. Baran, Donald J.
Natale, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
This work focuses on three main components of the proposed object
tracking and predicting system: first, its ability to maintain an object’s
identification while all the objects interact: second, its ability to accurately
predict and adapt its motion filters for the tracked object: third, todetect correlation between the high level patterns of group activity to asimulated database of group activity.
The tracking algorithm models each object to be tracked with an implicit
contour. Each object’s contour is evolved according to the minimizationof a custom energy function that is comprised of a region-based term,
an edge-based term, and a motion-based term. The evolution of thecontour is guarded from merging objects with separate identification
numbers through topological constraints. The system maintains an
object’s identification by comparing the feature vectors calculated fromthe segmented object contours. The feature vectors utilized are thecentroid position, predicted centroid position, objects motion, along withthe shape and range statistics. The prediction of the object’s position andmotion are performed using an interacting multiple model (IMM) algorithm
that operates multiple Kalman filters in parallel, each of which is matched
to a unique motion model: random walk, constant velocity, and constantacceleration. A basic comparison method of relative position and motion
to a simulated database is implemented to indicate if a group pattern of
behavior is observed.

8745-11, Session 3

Urban multitarget tracking via gas-kinetic
dynamics models
Ronald P. S. Mahler, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)
Multitarget tracking in urban environments presents a major theoreticaland practical challenge. Challenges include: complex interactions
between vehicles and between vehicles and intersections; limited
sensor capabilities; and limited feature information. A recently
suggested approach: modeling traffic dynamics using the fluid-kinetic
methods of traffic-flow theory. I propose a more general, gas-kinetic(GK) approach. GK models have been described as “bridging the gap
between microscopic behavior of individual drivers and the macroscopic

378

dynamics of traffic flow.” They are theoretically consistent with familiar
macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic traffic-flow models. In GK,
one models traffic flow as a 1D or 2D constrained gas. The foundational
concept in GK is the “phase-space density”—a.k.a. the probability
hypothesis density (PHD)—and the best-possible solution to trafficflow tracking turns out to be an exact PHD filter. The GK model (and its
macro, meso, or micro approximations) is the time-update step of thisexact PHD filter. The CPHD filter is its measurement-update step.

Application of the recently developed Background Agnostic Cardinalized
Probability Hypothesis Density (BA-CPHD) filter provides a very
promising approach that adequately addresses all the complexities andthe nonlinear nature of this problem.
In this paper, we present analysis, derivation, development, andapplication of a BA-CPHD implementation for tracking dim ballistic
targets in environments with a range of unknown clutter rates, unknown
clutter distribution, and unknown target probability of detection.
The effectiveness and accuracy of the implemented algorithms areassessed and evaluated. Results that evaluate and also demonstrate thespecific merits of the proposed approach will be presented.

8745-13, Session 3

Tracking, identification and classification withrandom finite sets
Ba Tuong Vo, Ba-Ngu B. Vo, Curtin Univ. (Australia)
In multi-target tracking, identification and classification, the states,
identities and class of an unknown and time number of targets is to be
estimated, given a sequence of measurements in the presence of noise,missed detections, false alarms, and data association uncertainty. This
paper presents a novel approach to multi-target tracking, identificationand classification based on random finite sets or finite set statistics.
Our approach is encapsulates a dynamic Bayesian estimation paradigm
combined with random finite sets or finite set statistics modelling for themulti-target state and measurement. Based on the class of Generalized
Labeled Multi-Bernoulli densities, a closed form recursive filter is derived
which propagates the full multi-target posterior. The recursion is closed
under both the time prediction and data update steps, and hence isa conjugate result, which jointly propagates information on the target
states, cardinalities, identities, and class. Formal statistical estimatorsand their properties including optimality are further discussed whichenable final stage estimation or extraction of the state, identity and classestimates from the posterior. Implementation and tractability issues arealso briefly discussed.

8745-15, Session 3

PHD filtering with localised target number
variance
Emmanuel D. Delande, Jeremie Houssineau, Daniel E. Clark,
Heriot-Watt Univ. (United Kingdom)

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII

8745-18, Session 3

Mahler’s Probability Hypothesis Density (PHD filter), proposed in 2000,
addresses the challenges of the multiple-target detection and tracking
problem by propagating a mean density of the targets in any region of
the state space. However, when retrieving some local evidence on thetarget presence becomes a critical component of a larger process – i.e.
for sensor management purposes – the local target number is insufficientunless some confidence on the estimation of the number of targets canbe provided as well. In this paper, we propose a first implementationof a PHD filter that also includes an estimation of localised variance inthe target number following each update step; we then illustrate theadvantage of the PHD filter+variance on simulated data from multipletarget scenarios.

Fusion of imaging data and auxiliary signal fortarget classification
Aleksandar Zatezalo, Ssu-Hsin Yu, Scientific Systems Co., Inc.
(United States)
Fusion of imaging data with auxiliary signal such as EW data for
multitarget classification poses daunting theoretical and practicalchallenges. We use prior probabilities assigned to image and signal
feature elements to handle the problem of data synchronization, feature
quality and object occlusion in a unified manner. In our approach,current state and class probability distributions estimated from previous
instances are fused with new outputs from individual classifiers
immediate after the outputs become available to establish updated stateand class probability distributions in a Bayesian framework. Results
are presented that demonstrate joint segmentation and tracking, target
classification using imaging data, and fusion of imaging data with noisy
auxiliary EW information under realistic simulation scenarios.

8745-16, Session 3

Divergence detectors for multitarget tracking
algorithms
Ronald P. S. Mahler, Lockheed Martin Corp. (United States)
Single-target tracking filters will typically diverge when their internalmeasurement or motion models deviate too much from the actualmodels. In recent papers, Niu, Varshney et al. have introduced ametric that recursively measures the degree of nonlinearity in a singletarget tracking problem, by detecting filter divergence: the normalized
innovation squared (NIS). In this paper, we begin by showing that NIS
is actually a special case of a generalized NIS (GNIS) metric, defined interms of the data-updated Bayes normalization factor. Given this, weshow how to both heuristically and rigorously generalize the GNIS metricto a multisensor-multitarget GNIS (MGNIS) metric. We also show how
to derive closed-form formulas for the MGNIS metric when it is used
to measure the divergence/convergence of PHD and CPHD filters. To
illustrate the behavior of these MGNIS metrics, we derive formulas for anumber of special cases.

8745-19, Session 3

Missile tracking using a multiple model
particle filter
Aleksandar Zatezalo, Adel I. El-Fallah, Scientific Systems Co.,
Inc. (United States); Ronald P. S. Mahler, Lockheed Martin
Corp. (United States); Raman K. Mehra, Scientific Systems Co.,
Inc. (United States); Charles E. Lewis, Missile Defense Agency(United States)
Accurate tracking of a missile in its ascending phase is a challenging
problem due to variety of encountered uncertainties in the boost
phase accelerations, in the booster transition times, and in the booster
separation forces. In addition, different types of geographically dispersed
sensors need to be utilized in a seamlessly integrated fashion in orderto ensure adequate track maintenance for both the missile and its
generated debris.

8745-17, Session 3

A Gaussian mixture ensemble transform filter
for vector observations

A multiple model particle filter is developed, implemented, and tested
to address this challenging problem. The filtering algorithm is derived
using nonlinear filter methodology and the theory of finite-state timenonhomogeneous Markov processes. Preliminary results obtained using
a one-stage simulation testbed are presented and discussed.

Santosh Nannuru, Mark Coates, McGill Univ. (Canada); Arnaud
Doucet, Univ. of Oxford (United Kingdom)
The ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) provides an attractive compromise
between the Kalman filter and the particle filter, both of which canstruggle to perform adequately when they are applied in a highdimensional state space. Like the particle filter, the EnKF is a Monte
Carlo approximation to the Bayesian filtering problem, but during the
update stage it applies the Kalman update equations to migrate theparticles to new locations in the state space. The particle weights
remain constant over time. One of the limitations of the EnKF is thatit relies on the Gaussian approximation being a reasonably accurate
representation of the filtering distribution. Reich recently introduced aGaussian mixture ensemble transform filter [1]. This filter is capable ofaddressing scenarios where the prior cannot be adequately represented
using a single Gaussian, but can be reasonably accurately modeled using
a Gaussian mixture. Reich’s derivation is only suitable for a scalar-valued
measurement or when there is a vector of uncorrelated measurements.
In this work, we extend the derivation to the more general case of vector
observations with arbitrary correlations. However, we illustrate throughnumerical simulation experiments that the practical implementationof this filter is challenging. Even with scalar measurements, the filter
is prone to instability, but this is exacerbated by correlated vectors ofobservations. We briefly discuss implementation strategies that can
mitigate some of the stability difficulties.

8745-20, Session 3

Tracking multiple missiles using a network of
sensors
Adel I. El-Fallah, Aleksandar Zatezalo, Scientific Systems Co.,
Inc. (United States); Ronald P. S. Mahler, Lockheed Martin Corp.
(United States); Raman K. Mehra, Scientific Systems Co., Inc.
(United States); Rene Silva-Viego, Missile Defense Agency(United States)
Accurate and robust tracking of multiple missile trajectories using a
network of dispersed and disparate sensors that include radars and EO/
IR, is a challenging problem. Missile trajectory uncertainties, multisensor
detection constraints, and measurement stochasticity has to bemodeled and tested for robust performance. For centralized multisensor
multitarget tracking, we apply the multisensor multitarget Posterior
Expected Number of Targets of Interest (PENTI) sensor management
objective function to dynamically estimate the optimal dwelling of
sensors on targets. Each sensor can be tasked either individually or
jointly, that is we either perform an un-coordinated or a coordinatedsensor management. The un-coordinated sensor management allows
for the estimation and tasking of each sensor at its location, whereas
the coordinated sensor management estimates sensor parameters (e.g.

[1] S. Reich, “A Gaussian mixture ensemble transform filter,”arXiv:1102.3089, July 2011.

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
where to direct the field of view of each sensor) at a central location anddistributes or communicates the corresponding tasks to each sensor atits own location. Both sensor management approaches are implemented
and tested using the PENTI objective function and multitarget densities.
The performance of the two resulting algorithms are compared andtested against different multisensor multitarget scenarios.

models, and threat predictions to increase situational awareness of thebattlespace. FURNACE will not only revolutionize the military intelligence
realm, but also benefit the larger homeland defense, law enforcement,
and business intelligence markets. FURNACE, through its information
fusion capabilities, will provide deception detection and identification
services to a number of government and business entities.

8745-21, Session 48745-23, Session 5

Accelerating the OODA loop with multisensor
systems

A robust technique for semanic annotationof group activities based on recognition of
extracted features in video streams

Greg Gottschalk, Kevin Andryc, Timothy Eagleson, Pete
Kuzdeba, Michael Rose, Jesse D. Chamberlain, Daniel LaValley,
Brent Kowal, Nick Beluzo , Brian Rusiecki, L-3 KEO (UnitedStates)Ambush tactics rely on surprise as a force multiplier. Analyzed in termsof the Observe, Orient, Decide and Act (OODA) loop, the ambushingforces seek to start the OODA loop one cycle ahead of their opposition.
In this paper we propose an integrated systems approach to collapsing
this window of advantage, mitigating the effectiveness of enemy direct
fire weapon systems prior to and during ambushes. Response time
is compressed via a multisensor system including an Optical Shot
Detection System and a Remote Weapon Station equipped with 360°
imaging. The rapid application of precise and overwhelming return firealso has the effect of slowing the OODA loop of the ambushing forces,
further reducing advantage conferred by surprise.
Prior to and during an ambush the 360° imaging system keeps the
Soldier aware of surroundings. Once the first shot has been fired,signal processing algorithms in the Optical Shot Detection Systemprovide target identification and classification. In addition the Optical
Shot Detection System can provide precise bearing and elevation
coordinates, enabling the CROWS Remote Weapon Station to slew tothe source of hostile fire without human intervention. Simultaneously, thecoordinates can also be fed to the staring 360° imaging system, slewing
the electronic zoom faster than motors allow and helping to orient theoperator. Keeping the Soldier in the loop for all lethal weapons mitigates
the potential for collateral damage. Data from other sensors can befused into the 360° display, providing an easily understandable MachineHuman Interface to the Soldier.

8745-22, Session 4

High level information fusion (HLIF) with
nested fusion loops
Robert Woodley, Michael Gosnell, 21st Century Systems, Inc.
(United States); Amber D. Fischer, 21st Century Systems Inc.
(United States)
With the vast increases in accumulated data, information fusion has
become even more challenging. Through the years, some common
frameworks have emerged for dealing with information fusion—perhaps
the most ubiquitous being the JDL Data Fusion Group and their initial
4-level data fusion model. Since these initial developments, numerous
models of information fusion have emerged, hoping to better capture
the human-centric process of data analyses within a machinecentric framework. 21st Century Systems, Inc. introduces Fusion
with Uncertainty Reasoning using Nested Assessment Characterizer
Elements (FURNACE) to handle bias, ambiguity, and uncertainty (BAU) for
Situation Modeling, Threat Modeling, and Threat Prediction. It combines
JDL fusion levels with nested fusion loops and state-of-the-art datareasoning. Initial research has shown that FURNACE is able to reduce
BAU and improve the fusion process by allowing high level information
fusion (HLIF) to affect lower levels without the double counting of
information or other biasing issues. The initial FURNACE project was
focused on the underlying algorithms to produce a fusion system able
to handle BAU and repurposed data in a cohesive manner. FURNACE
supports the analyst’s efforts to develop situation models, threat
380

Amir Shirkhodaie, Vinayak Elangovan, Tennessee State Univ.
(United States)
Recognition and understanding of group activities can significantly
improve situational awareness in Surveillance Systems. To maximize
reliability and effectiveness of Persistent Surveillance Systems,
annotations of sequential images gathered from video streams (i.e.
imagery and acoustic features) must be fused together to generatesemantic messages describing the group activity. To facilitate efficientfusion of extracted features from any physical sensors a common
structure will suffice to ease integration of processed data into newcomprehension. In this paper, we detail a framework for extraction andmanagement of pertinent features/attributes vital for annotation of group
activities reliably. A robust technique is proposed for facilitation of fusionof generated features from video streams which pertains to a modified
Transducer Markup Language (TML) data format. By aggregation ofmulti-attribute TML messages, we have demonstrated that salientgroup activities can be discovered. This, in turn, facilitates generationof semantic messages describing the group activities. This paper
presents experimental results of different group activities taken under
different context and demonstrates the efficiency and effectiveness ofthe proposed modified TML data structure facilitating fusion of extracted
information from video streams.

8745-24, Session 5

Feynman path integral discretization and its
applications to nonlinear filtering
Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Ottawa (Canada)
The continuous-discrete and continuous-continuous nonlinear filtering
problems have been investigated for the past several decades using
various methods. The investigation of such problems leads one toconsider certain parabolic second-order partial differential equations(PDEs). Specifically, for the continuous-discrete filtering problem therelevant PDE is the Fokker-Planck-Kolmogorov forward equation.
Similarly, a relevant PDE for the continous-continuous nonlinear filtering
problem is the Yau-Yau equation proposed by Shing-Tung Yau andStephen Yau.
The PDEs of interest can be reformulated as integral equations. As aresult, in order to solve the filtering problem it is , in principle, sufficient
to obtain the fundamental solution of the PDEs. There are several formal
solutions, including one based on Feynman path integrals (FPIs). It isnoted that FPIs have been widely investigated for finite (quantum particle
mechanics) and finite-dimensional spaces (quantum field theory) for the
past several decades. There also exist several formulations of the FPIs
with varying levels of rigor. In this paper, the discretization approach isstudied where the FPI is defined as a limit of finite-dimensional integrals.
Unlike the formal functional methods (widely and successfully) usedin modern quantum field theory, the discretization approach has theadvantage of providing a rigorous mathematical foundation.
The discretization approach is then applied to a well-known filtering
problem specified by a Benes drift. The paper concludes withsome remarks on the advantages and disadvantages of the various
approaches.

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII

8745-25, Session 5

theoretical obstructions. This is analogous to our numerical experimentswith incomporessible flow, which does not generally exist in state spaces
with dimension lower than 2 or 3, but which works extremely well in our
numerical experiments anyway. In particular, the particles just flow aroundobstructions in spaces of dimension higher than one. Schnirelman has
proved several theorems on incompressible flow induced by homotopies
in dimensions higher than two that help to explain why our algorithms
work so well.

Particle flow inspired by Knothe-Rosenblatttransport for nonlinear filters
Frederick E. Daum, Jim Huang, Raytheon Co. (United States)
We compare the Monge-Kantorovich optimal transport (MKT) problem
with particle flow for nonlinear filters. These two problems are closely
related, and there are opportunities to exploit algorithms & theorems
developed in one field for the other application. However, there areseveral key differences between MKT and particle flow. In particular,
MKT requires the solution of a nonlinear PDE (the Monge-Ampere PDE),
whereas particle flow only requires the solution of a linear PDE withconstant coefficients, resulting in much less real time computational
complexity than MKT. Also, particle flow uses a log-homotopy, whereas
MKT uses a homotopy. MKT is a rich source of mathematical theorems
for existence & uniqueness of particle flow. Particle flow has derived
several algorithms that are extremely fast for certain special cases(e.g. Gaussian prior and Gaussian likelihood; incompressible flow;
irrotational flow; Fourier flow; small curvature flow; zero curvature flow,etc.), whereas MKT has not. Moreover, particle flow is fast & accurate forproblems with high dimensional state vectors, whereas MKT applications
have been limited to rather low dimensions (2 or 3).

8745-28, Session 5

Fourier transform particle flow for nonlinear
filters
Frederick E. Daum, Jim Huang, Raytheon Co. (United States)
We derive four new algorithms to design particle flow for nonlinear
filters using the Fourier transform of the PDE that determines the flowof particles corresponding to Bayes’ rule: div(pf)=. This exploits the factthat our PDE is linear with constant coefficients. We avoid computing
the inverse Fourier transform by using the generalized inverse of a large
linear operator in k-space along with Monte Carlo approximation of
the multidimensional Fourier integral. We also use a variance reduction
method as well as a stabilization method to enhance robustness. We
show numerical experiments comparing our performance with several
other filters (EKF, bootstrap PF, EKF PF, UKF PF, auxiliary PF, MALA
MCMC PF). Our filter beats the EKF by several orders of magnitude inaccuracy for difficult nonlinear problems, and it is roughly ten orders ofmagnitude faster than the bootstrap PF for the same accuracy for highdimensional problems.

8745-26, Session 5

Particle flow with non-zero diffusion
for nonlinear filters

This theory can be applied to essentially any estimation or decision
problem, including: tracking, guidance and navigation, control, robotics,
Bayesian decisions, predicting the weather and the stock market. We
show many numerical results for various nonlinearities, with both stableand unstable plants, varying process noise, measurement noise, initial
uncertainty of the state vector, and dimension of the state vector fromd = 1 to 30. Our theory uses particle flow (like physics) to compute
Bayes’ rule, rather than a pointwise multiply. We do not use resamplingof particles or proposal densities or importance sampling or any Markov
chain Monte Carlo method. But rather, we design the particle flow withthe solution of a linear first order highly underdetermined PDE, like theGauss divergence law in electromagnetics. The talk explains what a
particle filter is, and why engineers like particle filters, but we also explain
the curse of dimensionality. We explain particle degeneracy and how wesolve it with a simple cartoon. This talk is for normal engineers who do
not have nonlinear filters for breakfast.

Frederick E. Daum, Raytheon Co. (United States); Jim Huang,
Raytheon (United States) and Raytheon Co (United States)
We derive a new algorithm for particle flow corresponding to Bayes’rule by assuming that the flow has fixed finite dimension. This results
in a dramatic reduction in real time computational complexity, because
we only need to solve ODEs rather than PDEs. This idea is a naturalgeneralization of our zero curvature flow, which is a specialization of oursmall curvature flow algorithm. Moreover, this new theory is related toexact finite dimensional filters based on the assumption of conditional
probability densities from the exponential family (Daum 1986). One
can exploit this relationship to derive fast & accurate algorithms forparticle flow corresponding to Bayes’ rule. In this context, the issue ofzero process noise for the flow vs. non-zero process noise becomes
crucial, whereas it was not apparently important in our previous work. In
particular, for plants with zero process noise, one can prove that the only
non-trivial fixed finite dimensional filters are for estimation problems thatcan be embedded in the Kalman filter problem (i.e., linear & Gaussian
problems), whereas this no-go theorem does not hold with non-zeroprocess noise.

8745-30, Session 6

Sequential testing over multiple stages andperformance analysis of data fusion

8745-27, Session 5

Gaurav S. Thakur, The MITRE Corp. (United States)

Zero curvature particle flow for nonlinear
filters

We describe a methodology for studying the performance of decisionlevel data fusion between different sensor configurations. We first discussa static framework based on a Bayesian network formulation of classicalprobabilistic data fusion, which allows elementary fusion structures tobe stacked and analyzed efficiently. We then present an extension of theWald sequential test for combining the outputs of the static frameworkover time. This variant of the sequential test involves multiple, distinct
stages of operation, where the evidence accumulated from each stage iscarried over into the next one. We view such a test as a heterogeneous
random walk and discuss a simple deterministic algorithm to efficiently
compute the performance and decision time distributions of the testfor given, time-dependent input statistics. This approach is motivatedby modeling a bank of anomaly sensors that observe a target moving
closer over time, reach an initial static fused decision, and if justified,
activate additional, interrogator sensors that continue to collect static
fused evidence over time until a final decision is made about the target.
The multiple-stage configuration allows sensors that have a high cost ofFrederick E. Daum, Jim Huang, Raytheon Co. (United States)
We derive a new algorithm for particle flow by assuming zero curvature.
This results in a quadratic algebraic equation for the flow rather than a
PDE, and hence the computational complexity is reduced dramatically.
Obviously zero curvature flows exist for state spaces that are Euclidean,
but such flows might not exist for non-Euclidean state spaces withdisconnected components or holes or other obstructions to the flowof particles for Bayes’ rule. But, to quote Lingji Chen: “engineers do
not give up”, and hence we consider piecewise zero curvature flows
or enlarging the dimension of the state space to facilitate particle flow(somewhat analogous to travelling through higher dimensional tunnels
in space time in science fiction and modern physics). One can also
just code the algorithm in MATLAB and see what happens, ignoring

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
operation to remain inactive unless specifically called upon. We finallydiscuss some examples illustrating the different types of behavior thatappear in the distributions of the stage transition and decision times,
based on the target’s movements.

8745-32, Session 6

Multisource information fusion for enhanced
simultaneous tracking and recognition
Bart Kahler, SAIC (United States)
A layered sensing approach helps to mitigate sensor, target, andenvironmental operating conditions affecting target tracking andrecognition performance. Radar sensors provide standoff sensing
capabilities over a range of weather conditions; however, operating
conditions such as obscuration can hinder radar target tracking. By using
other sensing modalities such as electro-optical (EO) building cameras oreye witness reports, continuous target tracking and recognition may beachieved when radar data is unavailable. Information fusion is necessary
to associate independent multisource data to ensure accurate target
track and identification is maintained. Exploiting the unique information
obtained from multiple sensor modalities with non-sensor sources
will enhance vehicle track and recognition performance and increase
confidence in the reported results by providing confirmation of target
tracks when multiple sources have overlapping coverage of the vehicle
of interest. The author uses a fusion performance model in conjunction
with a tracking and recognition performance model to assess which
combination of information sources produce the greatest gains for bothurban and rural environments for a typical sized ground vehicle.

8745-33, Session 6

Dempster-Shafer theory and connections to
information theory (Invited Paper)
Joseph S. Peri, Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Lab.
(United States)
The Dempster-Shafer theory is founded on probability theory. The entire
machinery of probability theory, and that of measure theory, is at one’s
disposal for the understanding and the extension of the DempsterShafer theory. It is well known that information theory is also founded on
probability theory. Claude Shannon developed, in the 1940’s, the basic
concepts of the theory and demonstrated their utility in communications
and coding. Shannonian information theory is not, however, the only typeof information theory. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, further developmentsin this field were made by French and Italian mathematicians. Theydeveloped information theory axiomatically, and discovered not only the
Wiener-Shannon composition law, but also the hyperbolic law and theInf-law. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the mathematicalconnections between the Dempster Shafer theory and the various typesof information theory. A simple engineering example will be used todemonstrate the utility of the concepts.

8745-66, Session PSTue

Infrared small target detection technology
based on OpenCV
Lei Liu, Jilu Chen, Nanjing Univ. of Science and Technology(China)Small target tracking in infrared (IR) image sequences has been an
important part in many military or civil fields such as video supervision,
precision guidance and human-computer interfaces. Nowadays, different
algorithms have been proposed for infrared target tracking. However,under complex backgrounds, such as clutter, varying illumination, andocclusion, the traditional tracking method often loses the real infrared382

small target. To cope with these problems, in this paper we haveresearched on the traditional infrared small target tracking methods,
summarized the advantages and disadvantages of these algorithms.
On the basis of the analysis of these methods, according to thecharacteristics of the small target in infrared images, we propose an
improved tracking algorithm to enhance the tracking performance. The
experimental results show that, compared with the traditional algorithm,
the presented method greatly improves the accuracy and effectivenessof infrared target tracking under complex scenes, and the results are
satisfactory.

8745-67, Session PSTue

Simultaneous optimization by simulation of
iterative deconvolution and noise removal for
non-negative data
Abolfazl M. Amini, Southern Univ. and A&M College (UnitedStates); George E. Ioup, Juliette W. Ioup, Univ. of New Orleans(United States)
This paper introduces a method by which one can find the optimum
iteration numbers for noise removal and deconvolution of sampled data.
The method employs the mean squared error, which is the pointwisesquare of the difference between the deconvolution result and the input
for optimization. As an example of the iterative methods of noise removal
and deconvolution, the always convergent method of Ioup is used for thesimultaneous optimization by simulation research presented in this paper.
This method is used to achieve optimization for two Gaussian impulse
response functions, one narrow (rapidly converging) and the other wide(slowly converging). The input function used consists of three narrow
peaks selected to give some overlap after convolution with the Gaussian
impulse response function. Normally distributed noise is added to the
convolution of the input with the impulse response function. A range ofsignal-to-noise ratios is used in the optimization of the always convergent
iterations for both of these Gaussians. For the narrow Gaussian 15
signal-to-noise ratio cases are used while for the wide Gaussian 11
signal-to-noise ratios cases are used. To achieve statistically reliable
results 50 noisy data sets are generated for each signal-to-noise ratiocase. For a given signal-to-noise ratio case the average mean squared
error, the average optimum deconvolution, and the average noise
removal iteration numbers are found and tabulated. The tabulated results
are plotted versus the average SNR. Once these optimum numbers arefound they can be used in an equivalent window in the Fourier transformdomain.

8745-68, Session PSTue

Simultaneous optimization by simulation of
iterative deconvolution and noise removal to
improve the resolution of impulsive inputs
Abolfazl M. Amini, Southern Univ. and A&M College (UnitedStates); George E. Ioup, Juliette W. Ioup, Univ. of New Orleans(United States)
This paper introduces a method by which one can find the optimum
iteration numbers for noise removal and deconvolution of sampled data.
The method employs the mean squared error, which is the pointwisesquare of the difference between the deconvolution result and the input
for optimization. The always convergent iterative deconvolution and noise
removal methods of Ioup are used for the simultaneous optimization
by simulation research presented in this paper. This method is used
to achieve optimization for a wavelet impulse response functions. The
optimized always convergent results are compared to that of least square
inverse filtering and the reblurring procedure of Kawata and Ichioka. The
input data used is a spike train of various separations to give a calibrated
measure of resolution. A range of signal-to-noise ratios (SNR’s) is used in
the optimization procedure. No noise removal is used prior to unfolding

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
for the reblurring procedure and the least squares inverse filtering
methods. To achieve statistically reliable results 50 noisy data sets are
generated for each SNR case for the always convergent method and 10
noisy cases for the reblurring procedure and the least squares inverse
filtering techniques. For a given SNR case the average mean squared
error, the average optimum deconvolution, and the average noise
removal iteration numbers are found and tabulated. The tabulated results
are plotted versus the average SNR. Once these optimum numbers arefound they can be used in an equivalent window in the Fourier transformdomain.

which may cause cracks and oil leakages and so requires the need forautomatic threat detection. The proposed detection algorithm makes
use of the monogenic signal representation to extract the local phase
information. Computing the monogenic signal from a two dimensional
object region enables us to separate out the local phase information(structural details) from the local energy (contrast) thereby achieving
illumination invariance. In this paper, we use a pyramidal template basedmatching technique computed from the local phase information of asingle high resolution training image to classify a construction vehicle
with each level corresponding to a certain scale. In order to accountfor different orientations, a pyramidal template matching is applied forevery five degree rotation of the search region at a particular scan andthe corresponding detections are compared using mutual information
to obtain the final detection. A nearest neighbor classifier is used as thematching criterion along with a threshold for minimum distance to filter
out the false detections. The algorithm is successfully tested on the aerial
imagery containing seven different classes of construction equipment.

8745-69, Session PSTue

Self-adaptive characteristics segmentation
optimized algorithm of weld defects based onflooding
Changying Dang, Jianmin Gao, Wang Zhao, Fumin Chen, Xi’an
Jiaotong Univ. (China)

8745-72, Session PSTue

Optimising the use of hyperspectral
and multispectral data for regional cropclassification

In order to improve the accuracy and efficiency of weld defectsegmentation in automatic radiographic nondestructive testing andevaluation (NDT&E), an effective weld defect segmentation algorithm
based on flooding has been developed, which has self-adaptive
characteristics. Contraposing the sparse distribution characteristic ofthe defects in the radiographic testing films, an idea of point-feature
extraction has been proposed to detect the defect-seed points. Only theregions that have defect-seed points are implemented the segmentation
so as to reduce the calculation amount of segmentation algorithm. In
addition, aiming at the canyon characteristics of the 3D topographic
map of defect regions, we have used for reference the idea of the water
flooding in nature to submerge the defect-seed points. Because ofgravity, water flows to low-lying areas and overflows if it is full. Oncethe defect-seed points are submerged by water flooding, the thresholdvalues of defects segmentation are determined through the flooded
area and ascending velocity of water level. Then, the defect regions aresegmented from radiographic films.

Li Ni, Ctr. for Earth Observation and Digital Earth (China) andChinese Academy of Sciences (China); Bing Zhang, Lianru Gao,
Shanshan Li, Yuanfeng Wu, Ctr. for Earth Observation and Digital
Earth (China)
Field surveys of crop species are difficult, time consuming and expensive
to execute for large areas. Optical remote sensing has emerged as themost useful data source for quantitatively classifying the land-cover types
and even crop species at the landscape scale. Especially hyperspectral
imaging data contain a lot of information about the spectral propertiesof the earth surface, which definitely is useful for distinguishing subtle
material differences just as different species of crops. But hyperspectral
remotely sensed data usually have narrow spatial coverage becauseof their limited detector array size. Multispectral data may not realize
unique identification of crop endmembers because of coarse spectral
resolution, especially for the crop with the similar biochemical features.
To fully make use of the virtues from both hyperspectral and multispectral
data, this paper proposed a method of multisensor analysis to improve
multispectral classification with the modeled multispectral signaturesfrom hyperspectral signatures. Both the hyperspectral and multispectral
data were atmospherically corrected and spatially nested. The noise
removed hyperspectral data were used to extract the endmembers. The
crop types of endmembers were determined according to the in situ
survey on the ground. Consequently, the hyperspectral signatures ofendmembers were gotten. The multispectral signatures of endmembers
were determined through the convolution of the hyperspectral signatureswith the multispectral response function. The classification resultswith the modeled multispectral and real hyperspectral signatures fromselected endmembers showed the classification distributions are
similar for both multispectral and hyperspectral data in overlap regions.
Full-scene mapping using the modeled multispectral signatures allows
subsequent mapping of extended areas within the multispectral data.
The accuracies assessment from the independent field surveys showed
the proposed classification method is promising and classification results
have already achieved the desired accuracies.

The segmentation algorithm is made up of defects point-feature
extraction, defect-seed point detection and flooding segmentation. The
purpose of defect point-feature extraction is to provide the seed points or
domains for the detection of defect seeds. The detection of defect-seedpoints is to detect the presence of the defects in the radiographic image.
If the defects exist, the defect-seed points will be marked and positioned
to prepare for the flooding. And the purpose of flooding segmentation is
to implement the defect segmentation in the defect regions.
Based on the actual weld defects of the porosity, slag inclusion, lackof penetration, lack of fusion, crack and so on, which often appear in
the automatic radiographic NDT&E, the comparative experiments arecarried out to compare the proposed algorithm with the watershed andbackground subtraction segmentation algorithm. And the experimentresults confirm that the proposed algorithm obviously improves theaccuracy and efficiency of weld defect segmentation.

8745-71, Session PSTue

Intrusion detection on oil pipeline right of way(ROW) using monogenic signal representation
Binu M. Nair, Varun Santhaseelan, Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates); Chen Cui, University of Dayton Vision Lab (UnitedStates); Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton (United States)

8745-73, Session PSTue

Close-loop fusion system structure:
information fusion and resource management

We present an object detection algorithm to automatically detect andidentify possible intrusions such as construction vehicles and equipmenton the regions designated as the pipeline right-of-way (ROW) fromhigh resolution aerial imagery. The pipeline industry has buried millionsof miles of oil pipelines throughout the country and these regions areunder constant threat of unauthorized construction activities. The heavy
weight of these vehicles and equipment can cause a tremendous strain

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Dongliang Peng, Hangzhou Dianzi Univ. (China); Zonggui Zhao,
Institute of Electronic Engineering of Nanjing (China); Anke Xue,
Hangzhou Dianzi Univ. (China); Kuochu C. Chang, George Mason
Univ. (United States)·

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
Abstract: Information fusion systems developed from JDL model andits revisions have been applied in many areas, such as battlefieldawareness, natural and man-made disasters monitor, and robot
navigation. The different levels of information, which may be fromsensors, human reports, and data from the Internet, can be combinedto achieve a better inference about some entities or their relationshipsthat cannot be obtained from a single sensor or source. The structureof fusion system has an important effect on the fusion performance.
A close-loop fusion system structure, which includes both information
fusion (IF) and resource management (RM) modules, is proposed. The
relationship between IF and RM is explained in detail. An example oftracking a maneuvering target is given to validate the system structure
presented in this paper.

states. We utilized the PCA approach by taking the SVD, incorporating
equalization through the ICA, and then extending the association spaceout into the nullspace. As the nullspace becomes better understoodthere would be a good measure applied to the process to counter theunintended and spontaneous inversions of the associations. We havedemonstrated the success of PICANS BAM process in two ways.
First, we showed how a simple one layer association matrix can beconstructed and used to recover numerals from the MNIST dataset.
Second, we showed how a cascade of association matrices can be used
to model complex multilayer networks. The performance of CNN, BAM
and a hybrid of CNN and BAM was evaluated to show the improvementin object recognition performance when utilizing the hybrid CNN/BAM
approach.

8745-74, Session PSTue

8745-77, Session PSTue

Breast tumor classification via singlefrequency microwave imaging

Option pricing formulas and nonlinear
filtering: a Feynman oath integral perspective

Cuong M. Do, Rajeev Bansal, Univ. of Connecticut (UnitedStates)Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research and Development Canada,
Ottawa (Canada)

We propose a novel method for the classification of breast tumors(malignant versus benign) based on principal component analysis (PCA)
following single-frequency microwave imaging. For initial evaluation, a
simplified model of the biological tissue was developed in a frequencydomain finite-element framework. The model incorporated various
combinations of dielectric constant and conductivity. A double-levelclassification scheme allows classifying a tumor with high accuracy.

In quantitative finance, it is assumed that various quantities suchas the stock prices, the option prices, and the interest rates satisfy
the stochastic differential equations (SDEs). Corresponding to thesestochastic differential equations are partial differential equations (PDEs).
In filtering theory, the relevant PDEs are well-known; they are the FokkerPlanck-Kolmogorov forward equation, or simply the Kolmogorov forward
equation. In contrast, the relevant PDE, such as the Black-Scholes PDE,
is the Kolmogorov backward equation. This is because the value ofthe option is known at a future time, and the price of the option now isdesired. In contrast, in filtering theory, only the present estimate of theconditional probability density is known.

8745-75, Session PSTue

Safety threat object detection by fusion of
RGD-D data and hyperspectral imaging
Jangwoo Lee, Soon Kwon, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of
Science & Technology (Korea, Republic of); Sungho Kim,
Yeungnam Univ. (Korea, Republic of)This paper presents a method for detecting public satety threats byfusion of RGB-D data and hyperspectral image. Object detection
performed by the RGB-D data obtained from Kinect. Each spin
image contains 3D object center information. 3D hough voting andK-means clustering can produce initial matching pairs of 3D points.
Through RANSAC and absolute orientation quaternion, 3D objects
are detected with accurate 3D pose information. Hyperspectral
image is used for detected object’s properties and material analysis.
Hyperspectral analysis is used to identify safety threat materials suchas guns and knifes, and powder. In this paper, Hyperspectral image
acquisition method is introduced using SPECIM hyperspectral camera(VNIR). These techniques include Hyperspectral image acquisition
system, hyperspectral imaging calibration, PCA, linear combination of
hyperspectral features, etc. The fusion of RGB-D data and hyperspectral
image analysis provides more accurate and concrete safety threats
detection.

8745-76, Session PSTue

Stabilizing bidirectional associative memory
with principles in independent component
analysis and null space
Yuriy Luzanov, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); James P.
LaRue, Jadco Signals (United States)
Our results show that by managing the principal components, modeledin the way of ventral pathways of neurons, the outer product associations
stand a better chance of converging to stable and expected end

384

In some of the statistical physics and quantum field theory literature it is
known that there is a Feynman path integral formula corresponding to thestochastic differential equation. The FPI formula has several advantages
over other well-known approaches in the applied mathematical
literature such as the Feynman-Kac formula. In previous papers, the FPI
formulation has been used to arrive at novel nonlinear filtering algorithms.
In this paper, it is shown that the same formula can be used for solving
the Kolmogorov backward equation. In addition, it is noted that thegeneral FPI formula can be used to tackle more complicated models,
including multiple assets that are correlated as well as volatilites thatare state-dependent. Finally, the FPI perspective naturally enables one
to incoporate ideas from nonlinear filtering theory. Some numericalexamples illustrating the methods are also presented.

8745-78, Session PSTue

Bayesian approach to Cole-Cole model
parameter estimation
Sreeraman Rajan, Bhashyam Balaji, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada, Ottawa (Canada); Milodrag Bolic, Univ. of
Ottawa (Canada)
The Cole-Cole model has applications in many fields ranging fromgeoscience to biomedical engineering. In the areas of biomedical
engineering, the Cole-Cole model is used extensively for fitting electricalbioimpedance in humans. Electrical bioimpedance has applications
in areas such as cancer detection, non-invasive glycemia monitoring,haemocrit monitoring. Generally, the electrical equivalent of the biologicalcell is considered in such applications and a Nyquist-like plot is used
to study the frequency response of the electrical equivalent circuit.
The electrical equivalent circuit uses the Cole-Cole impedance modelwith a modification: the capacitor in the Cole-Cole impedance model isreplaced by a constant phase element. The various parameters of theCole-Cole model have physiological significance and the estimates canbe used as surrogates for analyzing the cell characteristics. Hence, theparameter estimation of Cole-Cole model is paramount. In the literature,

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII

8745-35, Session 7

estimation of parameters of the Cole-Cole model has been viewed
as non-linear problem and solutions using non-linear least squares,
Levenberg-Marquardt non-linear optimization technique have been
proposed. However, there is no research to the best of our knowledge toaddress the Cole-Cole parameter estimation as a Bayesian estimation
problem. In this paper, we will consider the Cole-Cole parameter
estimation in the Bayesian framework and provide a solution using the
Kalman filter approach and compare the performance of our method withsome of the solutions available in the literature. This approach provides
the estimates of the parameters, the confidence in the estimates and also
has the ability to track the parameters if they should change over time.

Multiparametric data fusion for enhanced
target identification and discrimination
Vladimir B. Markov, Stephen A. Kupiec, Advanced Systems &Technologies, Inc. (United States); Joseph R. Chavez, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
An effective fusion of multi-parametric heterogeneous data is essential
for better target identification, characterization and discrimination. In thisreport we discuss a practical example of fusing the data provided byimaging and non-imaging electro-optic sensors. The proposed approachallows to process, integrate and interpret such data streams from thesensors. Practical examples of improved accuracy in discriminating ofsimilar but non-identical objects are presented.

8745-79, Session PSTue

Consistent estimates for oscillometric bloodpressure signal model using Kalman filters
Bhashyam Balaji, Sreeraman Rajan, Defence Research andDevelopment Canada, Ottawa (Canada); Milodrag Bolic, Univ. of
Ottawa (Canada)8745-36, Session 7

A neuromorphic system for object detection
and classification

Elderly population and chronic patients have resorted to self-monitoring
using non-invasive medical devices. One of the most commonly usedhome-based health monitoring device is the oscillometric blood pressuredevice. Accurate estimation of blood pressure is necessary if suchmonitoring practices need to be supported to reduce health-care costs.
Modelling of blood pressure signal is important to derive good bloodpressure algorithms. Such models can be used to generate surrogate
blood pressure waveforms that can be used for testing the algorithms.
If such models become standardized, there is a possibility of having
golden standard for blood pressure measurements. Currently there are
no golden standards for oscillometric blood pressure other than throughauscultation. Modelling of blood pressure signals is arduous becauseof the nonlinear nature and the intrinsic physiological variability. Not
only should the model be able to capture non-linearities, it should also
be adaptable to capture the physiological variability. In this paper, we
present results of the estimation of the parameters using Kalman-based
estimation technique. It is found that the EKF and the UKF provide a very
good performance. In particular, the filters provide consistent estimates.
That is, it not only provides the estimates of the parameters, it also
provides reliable bounds for the estimates.

Deepak Khosla, Yang Chen, Kyungnam Kim, Shinko Y. Cheng,
Alexander L. Honda, Lei Zhang, HRL Labs., LLC (United States)
Unattended object detection, recognition and tracking on unmanned
reconnaissance platforms in battlefields and urban spaces are topics of
emerging importance. In this paper, we present an unattended object
recognition system that automatically detects objects of interest in videos
and classifies them into various categories (e.g., person, car, truck,etc.). Our system is inspired by recent findings in visual neuroscience on
feed-forward object detection and recognition pipeline and mirrors that
via two main neuromorphic modules (1) A front-end detection modulethat combines form and motion based visual attention to search forand detect “integrated” object percepts as is hypothesized to occur
in the human visual pathways; (2) A back-end recognition module thatprocesses only the detected object percepts through a neuromorphic
object classification algorithm based on multi-scale convolutional neuralnetworks, which is a simple yet efficient hierarchical model with learningat each layer. Our neuromorphic system was evaluated by DARPA ina systematic evaluation study under the NeoVision2 program using
a variety of urban area video data collected from both stationary andmoving platforms. The data are quite challenging as it includes targets
at long ranges, occurring under variable conditions of illuminations
and occlusion with high clutter. The experimental results show thatthe detection and classification performance of our system is not only
exceptional, but in many cases outperforms state of the art computer
vision. In addition, the proposed bio-inspired approach is good for
hardware implementation due to its low complexity and mapping to offthe-shelf conventional hardware.

8745-34, Session 7

Object classification using image moment
functions applied to video and imagery
analysis.
Olegs Mise, GE Intelligent Platforms (United States)
This paper describes classification algorithm and a framework basedon Hu’s moment invariants and geometric radial image moments. The
developed framework has been designed for classification of objects withoffline pre-loaded signatures. With some modification this algorithm canbe potentially extended to be used in conjunction with the tracker data.
This framework has been successfully applied to the target classificationand demonstrates its performance on real video and imagery scenes.

8745-37, Session 7

Machine vision tracking of carrier-deck
assets for improved launch safety
Brynmor J. Davis, Richard W. Kaszeta, Robert D. Chambers,
Bruce R. Pilvelait, Patrick J. Magari, Creare Inc. (United States);
Michael Withers, David Rossi, Naval Air Warfare Ctr. Aircraft Div.
(United States)

In order to overcome the implementation constraints of low powered
hardware, the developed framework uses a combination of different
image moment functions. This approach significantly simplifies theselimitations showing a potential to use object classification algorithms in
the low powered devices.

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Manual safety protocols are currently used to avoid carrier-deckcollisions between aircraft, or between an aircraft and a jet blast deflector(JBD). Implementation of these protocols necessarily places personnel
near the launch zone, exposing them to environmental dangers including
mechanical hazards and extreme sound fields. Demands on Navy deck
personnel can be reduced by augmenting manual safety procedures withinformation provided by computer-vision assessment of the carrier deck.
Specifically, automated aircraft tracking allows improved operational
locations for launch control personnel and/or provides a second-look·

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
safety check.
Here an automated, imagery-based aircraft tracking system is describedand proof-of-concept scale-model data presented. A single-camera
video stream is used to identify and locate aircraft on a three-dimensionalmodel of the carrier deck. Matching of image edge features to acalibrated-camera-frame projection of the three-dimensional deck/
aircraft model allows high accuracy tracking, with testing on a 1:72-scalemodel indicating full-scale accuracy on the order of 1 foot spatially and1 degree in aircraft orientation angle. Further, the proposed method isinsensitive to changes in illumination, robust to partial obscuration andhighly parallelizable (with preliminary benchmarking indicating real-time
feasibility).
The algorithm presented tracks aircraft with relation to the deck andcan therefore be used to automatically evaluate deck safety criteria.
For example, fouling of the JBD by aircraft, which has previously leadto costly aircraft-JBD impact, can be automatically detected. Throughcapabilities such as this, automated asset tracking represents asignificant new tool for the assurance of carrier deck safety.

8745-40, Session 8

Qualitative evaluations and comparisons of
six night-vision colorization methods
Yufeng Zheng, Alcorn State Univ. (United States); Kristopher
Reese, Univ. of Louisville (United States); Erik P. Blasch, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); Paul McManamon, Exciting
Technology, LLC (United States)
The current multispectral night vision (NV) colorization techniques
can manipulate images to produce the colorized images that closely
resemble natural scenes. The colorized NV images can enhance humanvision by improving observer object classification and reaction times
especially for low light conditions. This paper focuses on the qualitative(subjective) evaluations and comparisons of six NV colorization methods.
The multispectral images include visible (Red-Green-Blue), near infrared,
and long wave infrared images. The six colorization methods arechannel-based color fusion (CBCF), statistic matching (SM), histogram
matching (HM), joint-histogram matching (JHM), statistic matching thenjoint-histogram matching (SM-JHM), lookup table (LUT). Four categriesof quality measurements are used for the qualitative evaluations, which
are contrast, detail, colorfulness, and overall quality. The score of eachmeasurement is rated from 1 to 3 to represent low, average, and highquality, respectively. Specifically, the high contrast (of rated score 3)means an adequate level of brightness and contrast. The high details
represent high clarity of detailed contents while maintaining low artifacts.
The high colorfulness preserves more natural colors (i.e., closely
resembles the daylight image). Nine sets of multispectral NV images wereused in our experiments. For each set, the six colorized images using
NIR and LWIR are concurrently presented along with the reference color(RGB) image (taken at daytime). A total 67 subjects passed a screening
test (“Ishihara Color Blindness Test”) and were asked to evaluate the9-set colorized images. The primary analyses showed the quality orderof colorization methods from the best to the worst: CBCF, SM, SM-JHM,
LUT, JHM, HM. In the full paper we will present the details of experiment
design and the results of statistical analyses. Meanwhile we will also
compare the qualitative evaluations with the quantitative evaluations
using a recently proposed metric, objective evaluation index (OEI). It is
anticipated that this work will provide a benchmark for NV colorizationand for objective metric.

8745-41, Session 8

Real-time classification of ground from lidar
data for helicopter navigation
Ferdinand Eisenkeil, Univ. Konstanz (Germany); Tobias
Schafhitzel, Uwe Kühne, EADS Deutschland GmbH (Germany);
Oliver Deussen, Univ. Konstanz (Germany)
386

Helicopter pilots often have to deal with bad weather conditions or otherdegraded views. These situations may decrease the pilots’ situationalawareness significantly; the worst case scenario would be a complete
loss of visual reference during an off-field landing due to brownout or
snowout, which might lead to hazardous situations. In order to increase
the pilots’ situational awareness, helicopters nowadays are equippedwith different sensors which are used to gather information about theenvironment in front of the helicopter. By the use of synthetic visionsystems, the sensor data is classified and visualized on the multifunctional display or the pilot’s head up display. This makes a reliableclassification of the input data into obstacles and ground absolutely
mandatory. In this paper, we present a regularization based terrain
classifier. Regularization is a popular segmentation method in computer
vision and used, e.g., in active contours. For the application with LIDAR
data, it is optimized to be real-time capable by using different level ofdetails depending on the accuracy of the sensor. After a preprocessing
step, where those points are removed that impossibly can be ground,
this method fits a shape under the recorded point cloud. Once thisshape is calculated, the points below this shape can be distinguishedfrom elevated objects and are classified as ground. Finally, wedemonstrate the quality of our segmentation approach by its application
on operational flight recordings. This method builds a part of an entire
synthetic vision processing chain, where the classified points are used tosupport the generation of a real-time synthetic view of the terrain as an
assistance tool for the helicopter pilot.

8745-42, Session 8

High-resolution land cover classification
using low resolution global data
Mark J. Carlotto, General Dynamics Advanced Information
Systems (United States)
A fusion approach is described that combines texture features fromhigh-resolution panchromatic imagery with land cover statistics derived
from co-registered low-resolution global databases to obtain highresolution land cover maps. The method does not require training dataor any human intervention. We use an MxN Gabor filter bank consistingof M=16 oriented bandpass filters (0-180°) at N resolutions (3-24 meters/
pixel). The size range of these spatial filters is consistent with the typicalscale of manmade objects and patterns of cultural activity in imagery.
Clustering reduces the complexity of the data by combining pixels
that have similar texture into clusters (regions). Texture classification
assigns a vector of class likelihoods to each cluster based on its texturalproperties. Classification is unsupervised and accomplished using abank of texture anomaly detectors. Class likelihoods are modulated byland cover statistics derived from lower resolution global data over thescene. Preliminary results from a number of Quickbird scenes show ourapproach is able to classify general land cover features such as roads,
built up area, forests, open areas, and bodies of water over a wide rangeof scenes.

8745-43, Session 8

Fusion of multispectral and stereo
information for unsupervised target detection
in very high resolution airborne data
Dirk C. Borghys, Mahamadou Idrissa, Michal Shimoni, Royal
Belgian Military Academy (Belgium); Ola Friman, Maria Axelsson,
Mikael Lundberg, Swedish Defence Research Agency (Sweden);
Christiaan Perneel, Royal Belgian Military Academy (Belgium)
Very high resolution multispectral imaging reached a level of reliability
and accuracy for target detection and classification.However, in an
urban scene, the complexity is raised, making the detection and theidentification of small objects difficult.
A sub-pixel detection is required and better clutter separation. One way

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
to overcome this difficulty is to raise the dimensionality and to combine
spectral information with 3D data.

allows the artificial intelligence system to optimize the selection of signal
processing methods for the particular tasks. Objectives include, but are
not necessarily limited to, effectiveness, efficiency, computational costs,
and suitability for the system design.

A set of (very high resolution) airborne multispectral image sequences
was acquired over the urban area of Zeebrugge, Belgium. The dataconsist of three bands in the visible (VIS) region, one band in the nearinfrared (NIR) range and two bands in the mid-wave infrared (MWIR)
region. Images are obtained images at a frame rate of 1/2 frame persecond for the VIS and NIR image and 2 frames per second for the MWIR
bands. The sensors have a sub-decimetric spatial resolution.

Because of the large number of tools and combinations of tools available
for signal processing, finding the optimal signal processing chain to meetthe challenge of a particular feature extraction task is complex and has
more combinations than would reasonably be considered by a designteam if they were to approach the problem in a manual way. By setting up
the problem as a multi-objective optimization problem, one can meet thechallenge by using artificial intelligence approaches to test and evaluate
combinations of methods to that lead to viable solutions. This approachallows many methods to be tested with objective measures.

The combination of frame rate with flight altitude and speed results in alarge overlap between successive images. The current paper proposesa scheme to combine 3D information from along track stereo, exploiting
the overlap between images on one hand and spectral information on
the other hand for unsupervised detection of targets. For the extractionof 3D information, the disparity map between different image pairs
is determined automatically using a MRF-based method. For theunsupervised target detection, an anomaly detection algorithm is applied.
Different methods for inserting the obtained 3D information into the target
detection scheme are discussed and compared.

8745-46, Session 9

Human activity recognition based on humanshape dynamics
Zhiqing Cheng, Infoscitex Corp. (United States); Timothy Webb,
Huaining Cheng, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Stephen Mosher, Infoscitex Corp. (United States)

8745-44, Session 8

Combining Structured Light and Ladar for
Pose Tracking in THz Sensor Management

Human activity recognition based on human shape dynamics wasinvestigated in this paper. The shape dynamics describe the spatialtemporal shape deformation of a human body during its movement
and thus provide important information about the identity of a humansubject and the motions performed by the subject. The dynamic shapesof four subjects in five activities (digging, jogging, limping, throwing, andwalking) were created via 3-D motion replication. The Paquet Shape
Descriptor (PSD) was used to describe subject shapes in each frame.
The principal component analysis was performed on the calculated PSDs
and principal components (PCs) were used to characterize PSDs. The
PSD calculation was then reasonably approximated by its significant
projections in the eigen-space formed by PCs and represented by thecorresponding projection coefficients. As such, the dynamic humanshapes for each activity were described by these projection coefficients,
which in turn, along with their derivatives were used to form the feature
vectors (attribute sets) for activity classification. Data mining technology
was employed with six classification methods used. Seven attribute sets
were evaluated with high classification accuracy attained for most ofthem. The results from this investigation illustrate the great potential of
human shape dynamics for activity recognition.

Philip Engström, Maria Axelsson, Mikael Karlsson, Swedish
Defence Research Agency (Sweden)
Stand-off 3D THz imaging to detect concealed treats is currently underdevelopment. The technology can provide high resolution 3D range dataof a passing subject showing layers of clothes and if there are concealed
items. However, because it is a scanning sensor technology with anarrow field of view, the subjects pose and position need to be accurately
tracked in real time to focus the system and map the imaged THz data tobody parts.
Structured light is a technique to obtain 3D range information. It is, forexample, used in the Microsoft Kinect for pose tracking game players inreal time. Its main advantage is its simplicity. The disadvantages are its
sensitivity to lighting conditions and material properties and a relatively
low accuracy. Time of flight laser scanning is a technique that completes
structured light well, because the accuracy is usually much higher and
it is less sensitive to lighting conditions. We show that by combining thetechniques it is possible to create a robust real time pose tracking system
for THz sensor management. We present a proof of concept system
based on the Microsoft Kinect and a SICK LMS-511 laser scanner. The
laser scanner is used for 2D tracking of the subjects, this tracking is thenused to initialize and validate the Microsoft Kinect pose tracking. We haveevaluated the sensors individually in both static and dynamic scenes andpresent their advantages and drawbacks. We also present results on theperformance of the complete system.

8745-47, Session 9

Seismic signature analysis for discriminationof people from animals
Thyagaraju Damarla, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);
James M. Sabatier, Univ. of Mississippi (United States); Asif
Mehmood, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

8745-45, Session 8

Application of artificial intelligence methods
for feature extraction optimization

Cadence analysis has been the main focus for discriminating between
the seismic signatures of people and animals. However, the cadence
analysis fails when multiple targets are generating the signatures. We
analyze the mechanism of human walking and the signature generated
by a human walker, and compare it with the signature generated by aquadruped. We develop Fourier-based analysis to differentiate the humansignatures from animal signatures. We extract a set of overly determinedbasis vectors to represent the human and animal signatures using nonnegative matrix factorization, and use them to separate and classify boththe targets. Grazing animals such as deer, cows, etc., often produce
sporadic signals as they move around from patch to patch of grassand characterize them to differentiate their signatures from signaturesgenerated by a horse steadily walking along a path. These differences inthe signatures are used in developing a robust algorithm to distinguishthe signatures of animals from humans. The algorithm is tested on real
data collected in a remote area.

Jack E. Fulton Jr., Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Crane Div. (UnitedStates)The large number of mature signal processing techniques available forfeature extraction applications produces complex choices during thedesign of systems. Designers are sometime quick to try their favorite
approach that worked well for the previous design while ignoringother techniques. This work explores the use of artificial intelligence
methodologies for the selection and optimization of signal processing
tools for feature extraction applications. The multi-objective optimization
includes the use of multiple techniques to synthesize hybrid methods
to achieve performance that is objectively better than any individual
technique. The selection process uses sensor, environment, and target
models to dynamically create signals. The use of dynamical models

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII

8745-48, Session 98745-50, Session 9

Anomalous human behavior detection: an
adaptive approach

Invariant unsupervised segmentation of
dismounts in depth images

Coen van Leeuwen, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands); Arvid Halma, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands) and Research Kitchen (Netherlands); Klamer
Schutte, TNO Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands)

Richard L. Tutwiler, Nathan S. Butler, Ryan J. Poore, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

In order to analyze data from DARPA’s Mind’s Eye program we developeda system for detecting anomalous behavior in videos containing a varietyof human activities.
In this semi-unsupervised task a set of normal instances is provided fortraining, after which unknown abnormal behavior has to be detected
in a test set. The features extracted from the video data have highdimensionality, are sparse and inhomogeneously distributed in thefeature space making it a challenging task. Given these characteristics a
distance-based method is preferred, but choosing a threshold to classify
instances as (ab)normal is non-trivial.
In this paper we present a new method: the Adaptive Outlier Distance(AOD) to detect outliers in sparse high dimensional data based on local
distance ratios. The underlying assumption is that the local maximum
distance is a good indicator of the variation in the normal instances inthat neighborhood, and therefore a localized threshold will result in morerobust outlier detection. We compare our method to existing state-of-art
methods such as the Local Outlier Factor (LOF) and the Local Distancebased Outlier Factor (LDOF). The results of the experiments show thatthe novel approach improves the quality of the anomaly detection.

8745-49, Session 9

Behavioral profiling in CCTV camerasby combining multiple subtle suspicious
observations of different surveillance
operators
Henri Bouma, Jack Vogels, Olav Aarts, Chris Kruszynski, Remco
Wijn, Gertjan Burghouts, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands)
CCTV cameras are used for surveillance applications in areas, suchas train stations, airports and shopping centers. The complexity of thecamera surveillance task and the growing importance of the preventionof incidents may lead to unnecessary bothering of innocent pedestrians.
When a surveillance operator recognizes subtle deviant behavior for a
person it is insufficient for follow-up actions. However, multiple weakobservations (e.g. from different operators) are fused, it can become astrong indication for threatening behavior that does need intervention.
We have conducted an experiment in which we showed to participants
videos with and without incidents. The participants were asked to look
for suspicious behavior and tag suspicious behavior before an incident
occurred. Part of the users were instructed to respond to weak signals
and create many tags, and the others were instructed to respond only tothe strongest signals and create just few tags.
In this paper, we analyze the effects of the tagging instruction for these
operators (many tags for weak signals or few tags for strong signals), theinfluence of combining multiple tags of different operators, the numberof tags that gives a good indication of a person with malicious behavior,and the performance of using a semi-automatic system for combining thedifferent observations.

This paper will apply a scene invariant method for the unsupervised
segmentation of dismounts in depth images. This method can be broken
into two parts: scene identification and spatial segmentation. The former
is accomplished by using RANSAC (RANdom SAmple Consensus) to
identify a ground plane in the scene. Then by performing a prospective
transformation on the point cloud a new image can be created byprojecting the rotated scene onto a synthetic focal plane (using depth
values as intensity values). The spatial segmentation is accomplished by
performing various morphological operations to identify regions in theimage, followed by passing each region through a series of filters thatcollectively define the shape of a person.

8745-51, Session 10

Acoustic recognition of human-object
interactions in persistent surveillancesystems
Amir Shirkhodaie, Amjad H. Alkilani, Tennessee State Univ.
(United States)
Handling, manipulation, and placement of objects, (hereon called HumanObject Interaction (HOI)), in the environment generate sounds. Suchsounds are readily identifiable by the human hearing. However, in thepresence of background environment noises, recognition of minute HOI
sounds is challenging, yet vital for improvement of capability of Persistent
Surveillance Systems. Identification of HOI sound waves can help as
precursor to detection of pertinent threats that otherwise other sensor
modalities may miss to detect. In this paper, we present a robust methodfor detection and classification of HOI events via clustering of extracted
features from training of HOI acoustic sound waves. In this approach, therecorded sound wave is preliminary filtrated for improvement of its signalto-noise ratio. Then, the sound events are detected and segmented
via tracking of filtered signal energy. Upon segmentation of the event,an Independent Component Analysis (ICA) technique is applied forseparation and differentiation of two or more sound sources. Next,
frequency spectrum of each separated sound sources is determined
via a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique. To group closely related
frequencies and reduce order of dimensionality of spectral features, aGaussian Mixture Model (GMM) technique is employed for statisticalmodeling of frequency spectrum of training sound waves. To expedite
fast classification of sound wave features, a KD-tree classifier is also
designed for spectral clustering of associated frequencies per eachcategory of sound waves. Furthermore, to facilitate fusion of informationfrom multi-modality sensors, the classification results are semanticallyannotated and presented in a modified Transducer Mockup Language(TML) format. The presented result demonstrates the proposed solution
is both reliable and effective, and can be extended to future PSS
applications.

8745-52, Session 10

Time series prediction of nonlinear andnonstationary process modeling for ATR
Andre U. Sokolnikov, Visual Solutions and Applications (UnitedStates)An algorithm is proposed for nonlinear and non-stationary processes
concerning ATR. The general approach is to decompose a complex task
into multiple domains in space and time based on the predictability ofthe object modification dynamics. The model is composed of multiple

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII
modules, each of which consists of a state prediction model andcorrectional Hidden Markov system. Prediction error function is used toweight the outputs of multiple hierarchical levels.

8745-55, Session 108745-53, Session 10

Douglas J. Nelson, National Security Agency (United States)

A multiattribute based methodology forvehicle detection and identification

We present a new cross-spectral variation of the Cross-Ambiguity
Function (CAF) and demonstrate use of the CS-CAF in obtaining
improved Frequency Difference of Arrival (FDOA) estimates. Unlike
the conventional CAF process that estimates the FDOA of two signals
received by moving receivers, as approximately constant over a shortobservation time, the CS-CAF models FDOA as a slowly varying
continuous function. Under the CS-CAF model, we apply cross-spectral
estimation methods to estimate and track the instantaneous FDOA of
the received signals. This has two important advantages. The crossspectral frequency estimation methods are extremely accurate, and bymodeling the FDOA as a continuous function of time, we resolve theissue of assigning an event time to the estimated FDOA. In addition, byrecovering an FDOA component from the received signals, we may apply
LaGrange interpolation to track the instantaneous phase of the FDOA
component, enabling an even more accurate estimate of instantaneous
FDOA.

A cross-spectral variation of the crossambiguity function

Amir Shirkhodaie, Vinayak Elangovan, Bashir Alsaidi, Tennessee
State Univ. (United States)
Robust vehicle detection and identification is required for the intelligent
persistent surveillance systems. In this paper, we present a Multi-attribute
Vehicle Detection and Identification technique (MVDI) for detection
and classification of stationary vehicles. The proposed model uses a
supervised Hamming Neural Network (HNN) for taxonomy of shape ofthe vehicle. Vehicles silhouette features are employed for the trainingof the HNN from a large array of training vehicle samples in different
type, scale, and color variation. Invariant vehicle silhouette attributes
are used as features for training of the HNN which based on an internal
Hamming Distance determine degree of similarity of the a test vehicle
against those its selectively trained with. Upon detection of class of thevehicle, the other vehicle attributes such as: color, tires, and orientation
are determined. For vehicle color detection, provincial regions of thevehicle body are used for matching color of the vehicle under threepossible conditions, shaded, sunny, and normal condition. For vehicletires detection, geometrical and hub-patterns are detected and verified toconfirm the orientation of the vehicle from the perspective it is observed.
For the vehicle orientation detection, the key structural features of thevehicle are extracted and subjected to classification based on color
tune, surface texture, geometrical shape, and illumination intensity. The
experimental results show the technique is promising and has robustness
for detection and identification of vehicles based on their multi-attributefeatures.

8745-58, Session 12

Summary of applications of human, social,
cultural, and behavioral modeling to
information fusion (Invited Paper)
Erik P. Blasch, John J. Salerno Jr., Air Force Research Lab.
(United States); Ivan Kadar, Interlink Systems Sciences, Inc.
(United States); Shanchieh J. Yang, Rochester Institute ofTechnology (United States); Mica Endsley , SA Technologies(United States); Laurie H. Fenstermacher, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Lynne L. Grewe, California State Univ., East
Bay (United States)

8745-54, Session 10

Advancement and results in hostile fireindication using potassium-line spectral
discrimination

During the SPIE 2012 conference, the panelists convened to discuss“Real world issues and challenges in Social/Cultural modeling with
Applications to Information Fusion.” Each panelist presented their current
trends and issues. The panel had agreement on advanced situation
modeling, working with users for situation awareness and sense-making,and HCSB context in focusing research activities. Each panelist added
different perspectives based on the domain of interest such as physical,
cyber, and social attacks from which estimates and projections can beforecasted. Also, additional techniques were addressed such as interest
graphs, network modeling, and variable length Markov Models. This
paper summarizes the panelists discussions to highlight the common
themes and the related contrasting approaches to the domains in which
HCSB applies to information fusion applications.

Joel B. Montgomery, Marjorie Montgomery, M&M Aviation(United States)
M&M Aviation has been developing and conducting Hostile Fire
Indication (HFI) tests using potassium line emission sensors to advanceboth algorithm and sensor technologies for UAV and other airborne
systems for self protection and intelligence purposes. Work began in2008 as an outgrowth of detecting and classifying false alarm sources
for tactical missile warning system using the same K-line spectral
discrimination region but soon became a focus of research due tothe high interest in both machine-gun fire and sniper geo-location via
airborne systems. Several tests were accomplished in 2009 using small
and medium caliber weapons. Based on these results, the Air Force
Research Laboratory (AFRL) funded the Falcon Sentinel program in2010 to provide for additional development of both the sensor concept,
algorithm suite changes and verification of basic phenomenology
including variance based on ammunition type for given weapons
platform. Results showed that the system would be able to detect anddeclare a sniper rifle at upwards of 3km, medium machine gun at 5km,
and explosive events like hand-grenades at greater than 5km. This paper
will outline the development of the sensor system, algorithms used for
detection and classification, and test results from various narrow-band
potassium line sensors. It will also cover basic signal to noise ratios
and spatial-spectral-temporal features used for extraction purposeswith a comparison against larger artillery pieces done for space-based
detection and location. Finally, the paper will show the future work for
ATD and transition efforts after the Falcon Sentinel program ended.

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8745-59, Session 12

An approach to behavioral sensor fusion:
Past success and future requirements (Invited
Paper)
Laurie H. Fenstermacher, Air Force Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Alex J. Barelka, U.S. Air Force (United States)
No Abstract Available.

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Conference 8745: Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion,and Target Recognition XXII

8745-60, Session 128745-62, Session 13

Pattern of life from WAMI objects tracking
based on visual context-awareness tracking
and infusion network models (Invited Paper)

Consumer-oriented social data fusion:
controlled learning in social environments,social advertising and more (Invited Paper)

Jianjun Gao, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States);
Haibin Ling, Temple Univ. (United States); Erik P. Blasch, Khanh
Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Genshe Chen,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (United States)

Lynne L. Grewe, California State Univ., East Bay (United States)

With the advent of advanced optical sensors such as wide area
motion imagery (WAMI), computer vision techniques are needed toaugment users with salient information to make decisions (e.g., target
classifications), processing with large data (e.g. registrations), andperspectives of context (e.g. terrain). Extracting pattern of life (POL) from
WAMI data is a key element of high-level behavioral analysis of intelligent
video surveillance. Using object tracklets, object track states, and object
interactions; event recognition can be accomplished from cues over
object activities. This paper integrates the L1 particle filter tracker withscene context-awareness such as roads, buildings, vehicles through data
mining. In our context-aware particle filtering (CaP) tracker, we create
entity network models to extract activities, patterns of life, and events.
The network model structure is composed of nodes, links between
nodes, node attributes, link values, and sub-networks. The definition of
network structure is based on tracklets, object states, activity events,
and the transition probabilities between them. Beside the CaP tracking
algorithm, the network model exploitation is another key component of
the complete solution. Regarding trackers and the network model, thispaper presents a novel algorithmic framework for extracting patternsof life from wide area motion imagery data. The experimental results
show the significance of the framework and the efficiency of integrated
algorithms.

No Abstract Available.

8745-63, Session 13

Examining social dynamics and malware
secrets to mitigate net-centric attacks (Invited
Paper)
Ziming Zhao, Univ. of Information Engineering (China); Gail J.
Ahn, The Univ. of North Carolina at Charlotte (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8745-64, Session 13

Influence versus intent: a comparative study
for information fusion (Invited Paper)
Biru Cui, Rochester Institite of Technology (United States);
Shanchieh Jay Yang, Rochester Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Ivan Kadar, Interlink Systems Sciences, Inc. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available.

8745-61, Session 12

Learning and detecting coordinated multientity activities from persistent surveillance(Invited Paper)Georgiy M. Levchuk, Matthew Jacobsen, Caitlin Furjanic,
Aptima, Inc. (United States); Aaron F. Bobick, Georgia Institute ofTechnology (United States)
In persistent ground surveillance applications, detecting activities ofpeople and vehicles, such as coordinated reconnaissance, meetings,
ambush preparations, and material transportation and loading, is ofhighest importance. Yet, manual exploitation of wide area motion imagery(WAMI) is impossible due to sheer volume of the data. The automatedalgorithms are needed to analyze and summarize persistent surveillance
inputs, bringing only most critical data to the analysts’ attention.

8745-65, Session 13

Cyber insider mission detection for situation
awareness (Invited Paper)
Haitao Du, Neil Wong, Hon Chan, Shanchieh Jay Yang,
Rochester Institute of Technology (United States); Changzhou
Wang, Jai Choi, The Boeing Co. (United States); Tao Zhang,
Peng Liu, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

Most existing methods for image- and video-based activity recognition
rely on rich visual features and spatiotemporal shape motions toclassify entities and their actions. Well-researched examples include
distinguishing car types, people hand gestures and poses, and identifying
interactive behavior such as present during multi-player games. However,
WAMI sensors are lacking these data, providing only the ability to trackvehicles and people, obtain general motion and temporal activity events,
but challenging traditional methods with large amounts of irrelevant andambiguous data.
In this paper, we present our enhanced model of multi-entity activity
recognition, which operates on person and vehicle tracks, converts theminto motion and interaction events, and represents activities in the formof role networks encoding spatial, temporal, contextual, and semantic
characteristics of coordinated activities. Our model is flexible enough tocapture variations of behaviors, and is used for both learning of repetitive
activity patterns in semi-supervised manner, and detection of activities
in data with large ambiguity and high ratio of irrelevant to relevant tracks
and events. We demonstrate our models using activities captured in CLIF
persistent wide area motion data collections.
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Conference 8746:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XX
Wednesday - Thursday 1 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8746 Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XX
flexibility by trading off PAR performance for reduced ripples in the pass
bands. Similarly, receive filters with minimum phase and strict notching
performance are also considered. Both the probing waveform design
algorithm, and receive filter design algorithm leverage repeated use
of fast Fourier transform routines, making them very computationallyefficient.

8746-1, Session 1

Frequency-dependent reflectivity image
reconstruction
Paul Sotirelis, U.S. Air Force Research Lab. (United States);Margaret Cheney, Colorado State Univ. (United States); Jason
Parker, Xueyu Hu, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Matthew A. Ferrara, Matrix Research Inc. (United States)

8746-4, Session 1

Point source localization from de-ramped
phase history bound on interferometricsynthetic aperture radar (IFSAR) accuracy

We evaluate a recently reported algorithm for computing frequencydependent radar imagery in scenarios relevant for performing spectralfeature identification. For each image pixel in the spatial domain acomputed frequency-dependent reflectivity is used to produce a
corresponding spectral feature identification. We show that this novel
image reconstruction technique is capable of considerable flexibility forachieving fine spectral resolution in comparison with previous techniques
based on conventional synthetic aperture radar (SAR), yet new
challenges are introduced with regard to achieving fine range resolution.

Matthew P. Pepin, Majeed Hayat, The Univ. of New Mexico(United States)
The almost unique ability of azimuth deramping to preserve a smoothphase function in azimuth is exploited here to link two disparate
spatial processing methods, Direction of Arrival (DOA) localization
and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR) and explore theachievable accuracy inherent in their common measurement scenario.

8746-2, Session 1

Deramping in range quickly provides a first component for point source
localization. Deramping in azimuth is phase preserving and provides anapproximate localization in azimuth that is more accurate over narrower
apertures and can be corrected in scenarios involving range migrationand for its point source, azimuth location dependence. In cross-track
IFSAR two antenna measurements azimuth/elevation DOAs can becalculated from their smooth azimuth functions at each range with a 1 D
parametric estimate (exponential model) of point sources. Joint frequency
estimates (both antennas) provide the azimuth DOA while the phasedifference between antenna amplitude estimates provides the elevation
DOA.

Iteratively compensating for multiple
scattering in SAR imaging
Alejandro F. Martinez, Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan
American (United States)
The Born approximation is a common approximation taken in modelingthe physics of SAR imaging. In essence it says that radiation only
scatters once when in space. This is a reasonable assumption for targets
that lie far apart or that are far from the transmit and receive antennas,
but it introduces error into the imaging process. The goal of this paper isto iteratively compensate for this error in the model by using estimatesof the target distribution to estimate multiple scattering phenomena. We
will use a wavelet based noise reduction technique at each iteration on
the corrected data as well as the estimated image to control any excess
error introduced by the estimated multiple scattering phenomena. The
physical model for our work will be based on the wave equation. We will
briefly derive the important features of the model as well as account for
the error introduced by common approximations that are made. Typicallyone does not get an image that is approximately the target distribution,
but rather an image that is approximately proportional to the target
distribution. This means that there is a scaling parameter that must be
chosen when using target distribution estimates to correct data. We will
discuss methods for choosing this parameter. We will provide a few basic
SAR imaging methods and perform simulation using the Gotcha Data set
in combination with the iterative technique. At the end of the paper wewill discuss future work involving this method.

The cross-track antenna measurements can also be processed via
the IFSAR methodology producing two SAR images and the phasedifference between the two (an interferogram). This provides two images
coordinates and a height for each pixel. The connection between DOA
phase history localization and IFSAR is used to attain accuracy bounds
for IFSAR.
Extrapolation of the bounds is provided from two spatially un-aliased
antennas to IFSAR scenarios with large baseline separations of theantennas. In addition imaging from the azimuth-elevation-range
localization data and its ability to minimize layover (building tops imaged
closer than their bases) is explored.

8746-5, Session 1

SAR focusing using multiple trihedrals
Kerry E. Dungan, John W. Nehrbass, Dynamics Research Corp.
(United States)

8746-3, Session 1

A circular synthetic aperture radar data collection contains various
vehicles and calibration targets placed throughout a 5 km scene. The
large scene contains 14 quad-trihedral (QT) calibration targets thatlook similar to a point target when measured from an airborne sensor.
Observations show the peak scattering, from the QTs, drifts on the orderof 2 m over wide apertures and multiple orbits. This paper presents analgorithm that uses QTs to adaptively calibrate the sensor GPS locationand correct phase errors in the range profile. Qualitative and quantitative
results show the focusing provides a significant improvement to vehicle
target discrimination.

Notched spectrum: from probing waveforms
to receive filters
Yi Jiang, Christopher D. Gianelli, Integrated Adaptive
Applications, Inc. (United States)
Increasing demand for spectrum motivates the development of botha probing waveform and receive filter design algorithm capable ofefficiently producing sequences with desirable properties and prescribed
spectral notch depth and width. Specifically, waveforms with peak-toaverage ratio (PAR) near unity, strong autocorrelation performance, andstrict adherence to spectral restrictions are designed. This waveform
design algorithm can easily handle sequence lengths on the orderof 100,000. Moreover, the proposed approach can achieve design

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The algorithm uses a three step process. First, the location of thecalibration targets is refined based on multiple orbits of the sensor.
Next, the sensor location is determined by the position that minimizes
the error to the measured range to each calibration target. Finally, thecross-range error is reduces by making small phase corrections to the·help@spie.org

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Conference 8746:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XX
range profile. Both the sensor locations and phase error corrections areapplied globally to any new images that are generated throughout thelarge scene.

8746-8, Session 1

8746-6, Session 1

An application of backprojection forvideo SAR image formation exploiting asubaperature circular shift register

An algorithm for upsampling spotlight SAR
imagery: a Radarsat-2 SLC perspective

John Miller, Edward Bishop, General Atomics Aeronautical
Systems, Inc. (United States); Armin W. Doerry, Sandia National
Labs. (United States)

Khalid El-Darymli, C-CORE (Canada) and Memorial Univ. ofNewfoundland (Canada); Peter McGuire, Desmond Power,
C-CORE (Canada); Cecilia R. Moloney, Memorial Univ. ofNewfoundland (Canada)This paper presents a novel algorithm for upsmapling level-1 processed
Spotlight SAR imagery. A Spotlight Radarsat-2 single look complex(SLC) image is used to demonstrate our discussion. To achieve a finer
resolution in the azimuth direction, the Spotlight imaging mode enables
for a controllable steering of the radar antenna towards the same groundposition. In effect, this creates a time-varying Doppler centroid system,
wherein the Doppler centroid varies almost linearly with the platform
velocity. Although the processed Spotlight Radarsat-2 SLC image isdelivered referenced to zero-Doppler, linear variations in the Doppler
frequency are still present along the range direction around the zeroDoppler line. The contribution of this paper is that it pinpoints this effecton SAR image upsampling, and proposes a simple algorithm to counterit.

8746-7, Session 1

An autofocus technique for video SAR
Robert Linnehan, John Miller, Edward Bishop, Volker Horndt,
Thomas E. Medl, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc.
(United States)
Abstract Title: An Autofocus Technique for Video SAR
Real-time, onboard processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images
using the backprojection algorithm is becoming feasible with adventof graphics processing units. Operating in video SAR mode means asequence of spotlight image frames is created from arbitrary synthetic
aperture positions. The aircraft flight path is typically circular with theradar pointing inward and broadside to offer constant staring over a
region of interest. The individual image frames can be drawn from afixed orthogonal (x and y) grid at a desired ground reference level given
the flexibility of backprojection. Since the x and y image dimensions do
not necessarily correspond to cross-range and range dimensions fromthe radar’s point of view, standard autofocus techniques that correct for
azimuth blurring are not effective.
We are developing a real-time, constant-stare, Cardinal Direction Up(CDU) video SAR mode for the Lynx® Multi-mode Radar System built byGeneral Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. The CDU feature means thatthe tops of all frames are oriented along a chosen direction. This provides
human observers with a natural geometric reference when monitoring
and analyzing moving target signatures and also lends itself to coherentchange detection over multiple passes. In addition, we are developing
an autofocus technique that measures the phase gradient from pseudo
point-scatterers within each frame, regardless of the image orientation.
Therfore, blurring in the true azimuth dimension of each image, due toslowly varying phase errors during the data collection, will be mitigatedbefore being compiled into the CDU SAR video. Ultimately, this produces
SAR videos that retain their sharpness despite severe atmosphericeffects during propagation and errors in the antenna’s motion estimates.

392

This paper details a Video SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) modethat provides a persistent view of a scene centered at the Motion
Compensation Point (MCP). The radar platform follows a circular flightpath. An objective is to form a sequence of SAR images while observing
dynamic scene changes at a selectable video frame rate. A formulation of
backprojection meets this objective. Modified backprojection equations
take into account changes in the grazing angle or squint angle that result
from non-ideal flight paths.
The algorithm forms a new video frame relying upon much of the signal
processing performed in prior frames. The method described applies anappropriate azimuth window to each video frame for window side lobe
rejection.
A Cardinal Direction Up (CDU) coordinate frame forms images with the
top of the image oriented along a given cardinal direction for all video
frames. Using this coordinate frame helps characterize a moving target’s
target response.
Generation of synthetic targets with linear motion including both constantvelocity and constant acceleration is described. The synthetic target
video imagery demonstrates dynamic SAR imagery with expectedmoving target responses. The paper presents 2011 flight data collectedby General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc. implementing the video
SAR mode. The flight data demonstrates good video quality showing
moving vehicles.
The flight imagery demonstrates the real-time capability of the video SAR
mode. The video SAR mode uses a circular shift register of subapertures.
The radar employs a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) in order toimplement this algorithm.
			.

8746-9, Session 1

SAR digital spotlight implementation in
MATLAB
Kerry E. Dungan, High Performance Technologies, Inc. (UnitedStates); Linda J. Moore, LeRoy Gorham, Air Force Research Lab.
(United States)
No Abstract Available.

8746-10, Session 2

Imaging of moving targets using bi-static
synthetic aperture radar
Kaan Duman, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States)
and Bilkent Univ. (Turkey); Birsen Yazici, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute (United States)
A bi-static synthetic aperture radar (Bi-SAR) system consists of a moving
transmitter and a receiver that are sufficiently far apart. Such a system
has a number of advantages over a mono-static synthetic aperture radar(Mono-SAR) system where the transmitter and receiver are collocated.
In a bistatic configuration, the transmitter with its heavy power supply
can be deployed on a separate platform than the inexpensive andexpendable receivers providing robustness and scalability [1]. Electronic

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Conference 8746:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XX
countermeasures that are designed to thwart mono-static configurations
are less effective against bi-static configurations [2,3].

geo-location.
There are several open problems that need to be addressed. First, ATI
phase can be sensitive to noise and residual clutter, resulting in random
geo-location errors. Second, since ATI phase values are wrapped, i.e.,they repeat in the interval [-pi, pi], the mapping from ATI phase to target
azimuth is non-unique, and each detected target will map to several,
equally likely, azimuth values, depending on radar system parameters.
Finally, the target will drop off the GMTI map when its radial velocity dips
below the minimum detectable velocity (MDV).

In this paper, we present a method to reconstruct the 2-D reflectivity andvelocity of multiple moving targets using a Bi-SAR system. Under thestart-stop approximation for targets and antennas, we develop a novelforward model in the form of a Fourier Integral Operator that maps thevelocity and reflectivity of the targets to scattered field data. We develop
a filtered-backprojection type method combined with entropy measure toreconstruct the reflectivity of the scene and to determine the 2-D velocityof targets. Microlocal analysis of the image fidelity operator shows thatthe reflectivity images reconstruct the visible edges of the scene at thecorrect location and orientation whenever the velocity of the scene isdetermined correctly. We determine the filter such that the visible edgesof the scene reflectivity are reconstructed not only at the correct locationand orientation, but also at the correct strength. We verify our results withnumerical simulations on moving targets.

In this paper we discuss how a tracker can be applied during azimuth
geo-location to smooth out random ATI errors due to noise and residual
clutter. Furthermore, we discuss how the phase wrapping ambiguity canbe resolved by combining ATI phase maps from three channels, splitting
the radar bandwidth into high and low sub-bands, and appropriately
combining the ATI phase values from each band. Finally, we demonstrate
how SAR and GMTI maps can be combined to provide continuous
tracking of move-stop-move targets as they alternate above andbelow the MDV. Sample results will be presented from X-band Gotcha
Challenge data.

[1] C. E. Yarman, B. Yazıcı, and M. Cheney. Bistatic synthetic apertureradar imaging for arbitrary flight trajectories. Image Processing, IEEE
Transactions on, 17(1):84–93, Jan. 2008.
[2] W.W. Goj. Synthetic-aperture radar and electronic warfare. Artech
House, 1993.

8746-13, Session 2[3] N.J. Willis. Bistatic radar. SciTech Publishing, 2005.

Using posterior distributions on target
states and clutter statistics for performance
prediction and efficient resource
management8746-11, Session 2

Augmenting synthetic aperture radar withspace time adaptive processing

Gregory E. Newstadt, Univ. of Michigan (United States); Edmund
Zelnio, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Alfred O. Hero III,
Univ. of Michigan (United States)

Michael R. Riedl, Lee C. Potter, Emre Ertin, The Ohio State Univ.
(United States)
Wide-area persistent radar video offers the ability to track moving targets.
A shortcoming of the current technology is an inability to maintaintrack when Doppler shift places moving target returns co-located withstrong clutter. Further, the high down-link data rate required for widearea imaging presents a stringent system bottleneck. We present a
multi-channel approach to augment the synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
modality with space time adaptive processing (STAP) while constraining
the down-link data rate to that of a single antenna SAR system. To thisend, we adopt a multiple transmit, single receive (MISO) architecture.
A frequency division design for orthogonal transmit waveforms ispresented; the approach maintains coherence on clutter, achieves the
maximal unaliased band of radial velocities, retains full resolution SAR
images, and requires no increase in receiver data rate vis-a-vis thewide-area SAR modality. For $N_T$ transmit antennas and $N$ samples
per pulse, the enhanced sensing provides a STAP capability with $N_T$
times larger range bins than the SAR mode, but requires $O(log N)$ morecomputation per pulse.

No Abstract Available.

8746-14, Session 2

Multiple-object shape and motion
reconstruction with missing radar data
Gregory Arnold, Matthew A. Ferrara, Matrix Research Inc. (UnitedStates); Jason Parker, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Shape- and motion-reconstruction is inherently ill-conditioned such that
estimates rapidly degrade in the presence of noise, outliers, and missingdata.
For moving-target radar imaging applications, methods which infer theunderlying geometric invariance within back-scattered data are the only
known way to recover completely arbitrary target motion.

The proposed MISO system and the associated signal processing
are detailed, and the approach is experimentally demonstrated for anairborne X-band system via retrospective processing of the Air Force
Research Laboratory’s 2006 GOTCHA GMTI Dataset.

We previously demonstrated algorithms that recover the target motion
and shape, even with very high data drop-out (e.g., greater than 75%),
which can happen due to self-shadowing, scintillation, and destructiveinterference effects.
We did this by combining our previous results, that a set of rigid
scattering centers forms an elliptical manifold, with new methods toestimate a low rank subspace via convex optimization routines.

8746-12, Session 2

Phase wrapping ambiguity in along-track
interferometry

This result is especially significant because it will enable us to utilize
more data, ultimately improving the stability of the motion-reconstruction
process.

Ross W. Deming, U.S. Air Force (United States); Roman Ilin, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); Matthew Best, US Air Force(United States)

Since then, we developed a feature-based shape- and motion-estimation
scheme based on newly developed object-image relations (OIRs) formoving targets collected in bistatic measurement geometries.
In addition to generalizing the previous OIR-based radar imaging
techniques from monostatic to bistatic geometries, our formulation
allows us to image multiple closely-spaced moving targets, each ofwhich is allowed to exhibit missing data due to target self-shadowing aswell as extreme outliers (scattering centers that are inconsistent with theassumed physical or geometric models).

This paper discusses GMTI target detection and geo-location from athree-channel airborne radar system. We have previously shown that asignal processing technique known as along-track interferometry (ATI)
can be used to combine multi-channel data in order to suppress theclutter response, thereby allowing reliable detection of moving target
signatures. Furthermore the ATI phase values can, in principle, be used toestimate both target azimuth and radial velocity, which serve as inputs toReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290

The new method is based on exploiting the underlying structure of·

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Conference 8746:
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the model equations, that is, far-field radar data matrices can be
decomposed into multiple low-rank subspaces while simultaneously
locating sparse outliers.

8746-16, Session 38746-15, Session 2

Ivana Stojanovic, Les Novak, Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (UnitedStates)SAR based classification of ground moving
targets to assist tracker performance
George S. Goley, Etegent Technologies, Ltd. (United States);
Brian D. Rigling, Wright State Univ. (United States); Adam R.
Nolan, Etegent Technologies, Ltd. (United States)
Tracking and SAR based identification of targets have been topics
of interest but the combined process of feature aided tracking is amore recent area of research. The combination of these two types of
exploitation can provide separability where either method alone would
fail. The aperture synthesized through the combination of target andplatform motion facilitates the application of two-dimensional target
recognition algorithms. Many non-parametric inverse synthetic apertureradar imaging techniques maximize image sharpness by estimating
the phase error imposed by the unknown target motion. The resultant
images can suffer from small unresolved phase errors and ambiguous
cross range resolution. Downstream image exploitation algorithms
must be robust to these effects and their impact on the realized target
separability to enable fusion with other algorithms or modalities. A set ofcivilian vehicles is investigated, which exacerbates image quality based
ISAR algorithms due to their comparatively small radar cross section.
This paper addresses the feasibility of a peak based classifier to provide
separability of civilian targets moving through challenging tracking
scenarios using ISAR images. Classifier performance is evaluated over a
set of sensor, target, and environmental operating conditions through useof synthetically generated and measured radar data.

8746-33, Session 2

Target Migration Path Morphology of Moving
Targets in Spotlight SAR
David A Garren, James W. Scrofani, Murali Tummala, John C.
McEachen II, Naval Postgraduate School (United States)
It is well known that moving targets cause smeared signatures when
imaged using SAR. The majority of the smearing lies in the radar crossrange direction of the SAR imagery, regardless of the particular SAR
imaging mode used. However, Jao [1] has revealed that the moving
target signature can have a curved “bowing” signature in the alongor down range direction, as was shown specifically with examples ofstripmap-mode SAR imagery. Such curvature effects within the moving
target signatures are termed “range migration” effects. These range
migration effects are presumed to be important when characterizing
the moving targets based upon the measured curved smear signatures.
The current paper provides an extension of this prior work by examining
range migration effects for spotlight-mode SAR. In addition, the current
paper examines issues related to non-uniform target motion on themorphology of the resulting SAR image smear induced by the target
motion. In particular, the current paper analyzes the SAR smear signature
for a constant-heading target that moves with an approximately uniform
value, then increases to a higher speed before decreasing back to
the original speed. The resulting signature smear seems to have three
separate spatial regions of enhanced intensity. Furthermore, the overallmorphology of the SAR smear seems to have a more complicated, nonparabolic shape than the approximately parabolic signatures resulting
from the examples of uniform velocity targets. The results of this paper
provide a strong impetus for future detailed studies of SAR smear
phenomenology resulting from non-uniform target motion.

394

Change detection experiments using Gotcha
public release SAR data (Invited Paper)

No Abstract Available.

8746-17, Session 3

Joint imaging and change detection forrobust exploitation in interrupted SAR
environments
Joshua N. Ash, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)
Modern radar systems equipped with agile-beam technology support
multiple modes of operation, including, for example, tracking, automatedtarget recognition (ATR), and synthetic aperture (SAR) imaging. In a multimode operating environment, the services compete for radar resources
and leave gaps in the coherent collection aperture used for SAR imaging.
Such gapped collections, referred to as interrupted SAR, typically suffer
significant image distortion and can substantially degrade subsequent
exploitation tasks, such as change detection. In this work we develop anovel form of surveillance that jointly performs imaging and noncoherentchange detection in interrupted environments. We adopt a Bayesian
approach that compensates for missing data via exploitation of 1) an
incoherent scene prior based on a reference image and 2) the a priori
notion that changes between reference and mission passes are sparseand spatially clustered. We employ generalized approximate message
passing (GAMP) for computationally efficient inference on large-scale
problems and demonstrate performance on measured and synthetic SAR
data. The results demonstrate near optimal (ungapped) performancewith pulse loss rates up to 70% and highlight orders of magnitudeimprovement in change-classification rates compared to traditional
methods.

8746-18, Session 3

Spatially variant incoherence trimming for
improved SAR CCD
Daniel B. Andre, David Blacknell, Defence Science andTechnology Lab. (United Kingdom); Keith Morrison, Cranfield
Univ. (United Kingdom)
Conventional Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Coherent Change
Detection (CCD) has been found to be of great utility in detectingchanges that occur on the ground. Detectable changes of interest
include vehicle tracks and water flow. The CCD procedure involves
performing repeat pass radar collections to form a coherence product,
where ground disturbances can induce detectable incoherence. However
there is usually a difference in the radar collection geometry which canlead to incoherent energy noise entering the CCD, which reduces thedetectability of tracks. When sensing flat terrain in a far-field regime,
the incoherence due to collection geometry difference can be removed
through a conventional global Fourier image support trimming process.
However, it has been found that when the terrain is either in a near-fieldregime or contains non-flat topography, the optimal trimming process
is substantially more involved, so much so that a new per-pixel SAR
back-projection imaging algorithm has been developed. Here, the term
“near-field” is taken to mean the radar imaging scenario where the radargeometry changes substantially across the scene. The new algorithm
trims off incoherent energy from the SAR CCD collection pair on a perpixel basis according to the local radar geometry and topography leaving
a higher coherence CCD product. In order to validate the approach,change detection measurements were conducted with GB-SAR, aground-based indoor radar measurement facility.

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Conference 8746:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XX

8746-19, Session 38746-23, Session 4

Reconstruction of interrupted SAR imagery
for persistent surveillance change detection

Value-of-information aware active task
assignment

Ivana Stojanovic, Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (United States);
William C. Karl, Boston Univ. (United States); Les Novak,
Scientific Systems Co., Inc. (United States)

Beipeng Mu, Girish Chowdhary, Jonathan P. How, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (United States)
No Abstract Available.

No Abstract Available.

8746-24, Session 48746-20, Session 3

Change-point detection for high-dimensionaltime series with missing date

SAR ATR challenge problem
Adam R. Nolan, Etegent Technologies, Ltd. (United States); Lee
C. Potter, The Ohio State Univ. (United States); Dan Kubacki,
Michael Bakich, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Rebecca M. Willett, Yao Xie, Jiaji Huang, Duke Univ. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available.

No Abstract Available.

8746-25, Session 48746-21, Session 3

Low-rank covariance estimation with missing
data

Focusing and ATR for the Gotcha 2008 wide
angle SAR collection

Laura Bolzano, Univ. of Michigan (United States)

Luzhou Xu, Christopher D. Gianelli, Integrated Adaptive
Applications, Inc. (United States)

No Abstract Available.

The wide angle circular spotlight synthetic aperture radar (SAR) problem
is considered, and a simple approach to focusing collected phasehistory data is devised. The focusing technique relies on a single point
scatterer in the scene of interest, and calculates the change in range tothe scatterer for each coherent subaperture. A polynomial regression isthen performed on the range variations, and a suitable phase correction
is applied to the phase history data, which allows for the generation ofwell-registered 360° SAR images. Two SAR imaging algorithms which
utilize the newly-focused phase history data are then compared, namely,
the data-independent backprojection algorithm, and the data-adaptive
sparse learning via iterative minimization (SLIM) algorithm. Additionally,both supervised and unsupervised automatic target recognition(ATR) approaches are implemented to facilitate the imaging algorithm
comparison. Empirical results obtained by applying the novel focusing
approach and imaging algorithms to the 2008 Gotcha wide angle SAR
data set are presented and described. The experiments with this fieldcollected data validate the utility of the proposed focusing algorithm,
as well as highlight the benefits of applying data-adaptive imaging
techniques in favor of their data-independent counterparts via the ATR
investigation.

8746-26, Session 4

Information theoretic bounds on localizationand telemetry via differential radar crosssection signaling
Itay Cnaan-On, Jeffrey Krolik, Matthew Reynolds, Duke Univ.
(United States)
No Abstract Available.

8746-27, Session 4

Geometic image formation for target
identification in multi-energy computed
tomography
Brian H. Tracey, Eric L. Miller, Tufts Univ. (United States)

8746-22, Session 4

No Abstract Available.

Adaptive sensing and estimation of sparse
signals

8746-28, Session 4

Dennis Wei, Alfred O. Hero III, Univ. of Michigan (United States)

Spatiotemporal Gaussian feature detectionin sparsely sample data with application to
InSAR

No Abstract Available.

Scott T. Acton, Univ. of Virginia (United States)
No Abstract Available.

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Conference 8746:
Algorithms for Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery XX

8746-29, Session 4

Detection in networked radar
Kaitlyn Beaudet, Lauren Crider, Douglas Cochran, Arizona State
Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8746-30, Session 4

The importance of informative subspaces inmatched subspace detectors
Nick Asendorf, Raj Nadakuditi, Univ. of Michigan (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8746-31, Session 4

The geometry of radar targets
Emre Ertin, The Ohio State Univ. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8746-32, Session 4

Information-theoretic assessment ofsystem parameter uncertainty on inverse
reconstruction problems
Joel W. LeBlanc, Michigan Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates); Brian J. Thelen, Michican Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available.

396

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Conference 8747: Geospatial InfoFusion III
Thursday - Friday 2 –3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8747 Geospatial InfoFusion III

8747-1, Session 1

8747-3, Session 1

The full multi-state vector error covariancematrix: why needed and its practicalrepresentation

A standards framework for geo-registration
methods
Peter Doucette, Jim Antonisse, Aaron Braun, Michael J. Lenihan,
Michelle Brennan, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency(United States)

John Dolloff, Integrity Applications, Inc. (United States)
Whether statistically representing the errors in the estimates of sensor
metadata associated with a set of images, or statistically representing
the errors in the estimates of 3D location associated with a set of groundpoints, the corresponding “full” multi-state vector error covariance matrix
is critical to exploitation of the data. For sensor metadata, the individualstate vectors typically correspond to sensor position and attitude of
an image. These state vectors, along with their corresponding full error
covariance matrix, are required for optimal down-stream exploitation of
the image(s), such as for the stereo extraction of a 3D target locationand its corresponding predicted accuracy . In this example, the full error
covariance matrix statistically represents the sensor errors for each of
the two images as well as the correlation (similarity) of errors between thetwo images.

Automating the registration of motion imagery has been the subjectof considerable literature and application in fields of photogrammetry,
remote sensing, and computer vision. The term ‘registration’ has
become widespread in remote sensing and computer vision literature,
where much of the focus has been with respect to the matchingcomponent. On the other hand, traditional photogrammetry uses
terms such as orientation, resection, and rectification, which represent
different components of registration. Geo-registration of image data isfoundational to geopositioning, and fusion-based detection applications.
The proliferation of micro-UAVs and video sensors of all types, hassignificantly raised the challenge bar for rigorous geo-registration.
Registration includes temporal as well as spatial positioning, andincludes positioning in 3D as well as the 2D problem. Among the many
registration methods applied in practice, there are different levels ofcapability in terms of positional accuracy, error prediction, and latency.
In this paper, we propose the derivation of taxonomies for registration
concepts, methods, and application to facilitate the development ofbasic standards for their efficient use, as well as management of user
expectations in different mission contexts. For example, targeting
applications represent one end of the application spectrum, for which
reliable sensor metadata is typically required in order to propagate error
for positional accuracy estimation. At the other end of the spectrum is the‘situational awareness’ application, in which reliable sensor metadata isunavailable. In this scenario, accuracy estimation may be sacrificed fortime-critical situations. The paper concludes with some implications of
the taxonomy for future work.

For ground locations, the individual state vectors typically correspond to
3D location. The corresponding full error covariance matrix statistically
represents the location errors in each of the ground points as well as thecorrelation (similarity) of errors between any pair of the ground points.
It is required in order to compute reliable estimates of relative accuracy
between arbitrary ground point pairs, and for the proper weighting of theground points when used as control, in for example, a fusion process.
This paper details the above, and presents practical methods for the
representation of the full error covariance matrix, ranging from direct
representation with large bandwidth requirements, to high-fidelity
approximation methods with small bandwidth requirements.

8747-2, Session 1

Evaluating conflation methods using
uncertainty modeling8747-4, Session 1

Uncertainty quantification techniques for
population density estimates derived fromsparse open source data

Peter Doucette, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (UnitedStates) and Integrity Applications, Inc. (United States); John
Dolloff, Robert Canavosio-Zuzelski, Michael J. Lenihan, Dennis J.
Motsko, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (United States)

Robert N. Stewart, Devin A. White, Marie L. Urban, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States); April M. Morton, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States) and California State Polytechnic
Univ. (United States); Eddie A. Bright, Budhendra L. Bhaduri, Oak
Ridge National Lab. (United States)

The problem of geospatial data conflation dates back to the early 1980s.
The basic goal of conflation, which is a form of fusion, is to integrate data
sets such that the outcome is an improved version of the inputs. The
classic problem of geospatial feature conflation involved the matchingof individual GIS features (e.g., point, line, or polygon vectors) of two or
more data layers, such that attribute information from one layer could
be transferred to the other. By the 2000s, the domain of geospatial data
conflation had broadened considerably to include cross-vector matching,as well as feature-to-image alignment. There are several geospatial data
conflation tools in the marketplace with varying automation capabilities.
In order to evaluate feature matching performance quantitatively, truth
needs to be established between layers. Feature match truthing istypically a manual, and thus expensive task. In this paper, we propose
a novel method by which uncertainty models are used to simulate
new feature data from existing feature data. To simulate new featuregeometry, vector coordinates are perturbed with a strictly positive definite
correlation function based upon distances between points in order toaccount for spatial autocorrelation. Additionally, new feature topology
is simulated to allow for one-to-one, none-to-one, and many-to-one
matching scenarios. Because simulated features are derived from areference set, manual truthing is not required. This approach allows forthe generation of virtually unlimited simulated data that enables better
statistical significance of performance, as well as sensitivity analyses ofoperating parameters.

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The Population Density Tables (PDT) project at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory is developing population density estimates for specific humanactivities under normal patterns of life based largely on information
available in the open source domain. Currently, activity-based density
estimates are derived from simple summary data statistics such asrange and mean. Researchers have improved activity estimation anduncertainty quantification by adopting a Bayesian framework thatconsiders both data and sociocultural knowledge. Under a Bayesian
approach, knowledge about population density may be encoded throughthe process of expert elicitation. Due to the scale of the PDT effort, which
considers over 250 countries, spans 40 human activity categories, andincludes numerous contributors, an elicitation tool is required that canbe operationalized within an enterprise data collection and reporting
system. This tool anticipates that the contributor has minimal statisticalknowledge, involves minimal input by a statistician or facilitator,
considers human difficulties in expressing qualitative knowledge in aquantitative setting, and provides methods by which the contributor canappraise whether their understanding and associated uncertainty is well
captured. This paper discusses an algorithm that transforms answers tosimple, non-statistical questions into a bivariate Gaussian distribution·

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Conference 8747: Geospatial InfoFusion III

as the prior for a Beta distribution with fitted parameters and associatedcovariance metrics that can be propagated into a broader uncertaintyaware fusion or conflation activity. This approach may be applicable to awide array of geospatial problem domains.

trails as the additional guiding information. The algorithm exploits ideasof the algebraic structural approach combined with a dynamic logic ofphenomena that process multilayered uncertain information.

8747-7, Session 1

8747-5, Session 1

Geo-accurate 3-dimensional reconstruction
via image-based geometry
Derek J. Walvoord, Adam Rossi, Bradley D. Paul, Bernard V.
Brower, Matthew F. Pellechia, ITT Exelis (United States)
Recent technological advances in persistent surveillance systems andboth on-board and off-line computing capabilities have shaped anincreased focus in new methods of exploiting geospatial data, bridging
traditional photogrammetric techniques and state-of-the-art multiple
view geometry methodology. The structure-from-motion (SfM) problem
in computer vision addresses scene reconstruction from uncalibrated
cameras, and several methods exist to remove the inherent projective
ambiguity. However, the reconstruction remains in an arbitrary world
coordinate frame without any knowledge of its relationship to a fixedearth-based coordinate system. We present a novel approach for
obtaining geoaccurate image-based 3-dimensional reconstructions in theabsence of ground control points (GCPs) by using a SfM framework andthe physical sensor model of the collection system.
Absolute position and orientation information provided by the global
positioning system (GPS) and inertial measurement unit (IMU) of theimaging platform may be used to reconstruct the scene in the desired
coordinate system. Rather than performing triangulation from pixels ofmultiple image-to-ground functions (each with their own random error)a relative 3-dimensional point cloud is computed via image-based
geometry, i.e., geometry derived from image feature correspondences.
Triangulation of the selected image features through the image-to-ground
function of the physical sensor model is then performed as a postprocessing procedure to derive a second point cloud in fixed earth-based
coordinates. The transformation between the point clouds is then derived
to correct the relative point cloud; it effectively scales, translates, androtates the relative model. Imagery from the Exelis Wide-Area Airborne
Sensing (WAAS) system and the Wildfire Airborne Sensing Program(WASP) of the Rochester Institute of Technology is used to demonstratereconstruction results and provide discussion for areas of future work.

A fast, accurate, cross-modality image georegistration and target/object detection
algorithm
Troy R. Mckay, CACI International Inc. (United States); Herb
Hirsch, HEC, Inc., CACI Consultant (United States)
CACI’s registration and target/object detection algorithm uniquely
departs from traditional methods. It does not extract and analyze phaserelationships or spatial features such as polygons, vertices, or edges
within an image. Rather, it operates upon a unique interpretation of image
complexity which permits cross-modality (SAR to Visual, for example)
operation.
The algorithm uses signal processing (instead of image processing),
and complexity. It scans pixel rows and columns in an image, treatingeach row and column scan as a signal (pixel value versus pixel location,
like signal amplitude versus time). Then, it calculates complexity metrics
for each “signal.” Using these metrics, it works in both amplitude andfrequency domains but avoids the high computing cost and processing
time of conventional time-domain or frequency-domain processing (likespatial comparison methods or Fourier transforms). Finally it builds
registration or target/object detection features by organizing eachcomplexity value in a series, according to the row or column “signal”
from which it was calculated. Comparison of these feature data throughmathematical correlation reveals the registration location or the soughttarget or object. Registration of sensor images to geo-referenced
images achieves geo-location. It out-performs the speed of conventional
registration and target recognition methods, achieving video-rate
registration and target/object recognition with no special processing
hardware.
We first define the algorithm mathematically, compare it to otherregistration or target/object recognition methods, and finally apply it
to some images to demonstrate its accuracy and processing speed
behavior and performance. We also discuss anticipated enhancements
we plan for future optimization.

8747-6, Session 1

8747-8, Session 1

Guidance in feature extraction to resolve
uncertainty

Improved evaluation of geo-registration
algorithms for airborne EO/IR imagery

Boris Kovalerchuk, Central Washington Univ. (United States)
and BKF Systems (United States); Michael Kovalerchuk, BKF
Systems (United States)

Clark N. Taylor, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Automated Feature Extraction (AFE) plays a critical role in image
understanding. AFE has a long-term history in roads and building
extraction from overhead imagery. This history had shown that often an
image itself is not sufficient for unambiguous AFE. Often the imagery
analysts (IA) extract features much better than AFE algorithms do. The
fundamental difference is that IAs use additional information that is either
absent in the image or requires abilities to extract it from the image. Whileit was recognized that such information is needed, the actual use of it in
AFE algorithms is still very limited. Often the direct use of the informationthat IAs easily use is not feasible in AFE algorithms. The formalization,
extraction, and processing of this information can be more complex
than the original AFE task, and that leads to the “complexity trap”. Thiscan happen when the shadow from the buildings is used as guidancefor extraction of buildings and roads. The idea of this work is first to
analyze what additional information is available and can be processedby the AFE algorithm without going to the complexity trap. This work
proposes an AFE algorithm to extract roads and trails by using the GMTI
tracking information as well as older and inaccurate maps of roads and398

Geo-registration, or the ability to estimate the geo-coordinates (e.g.,
Latitude, Longitude, and Altitude in WGS-84) of every pixel within a video
frame or image is a critical technology to systems collecting imagery froman airborne platform. While significant work has been performed on georegistration for several years now, it is important to perform systematic
evaluation of differing geo-registration algorithms to (1) quantify theperformance of current state-of-the-art algorithms and (2) help vector thedevelopment of new technologies to the technical areas that can mosteffectively improve geo-registration approaches.
Unfortunately, performing a high-quality comparison between two georegistration approaches has at least two significant difficulties. First, theresults of any algorithm are highly dependent on not only the algorithm
but the input data used to test the algorithm. Differences in image quality,
the platform used to collect the imagery (and its associated metadata),
the type of terrain being imaged, the flight pattern used during collection,and how well synchronized the metadata is with the video are all
characteristics of the data that can significantly affect the quality of thegeo-registration results. Therefore, a comparative evaluation cannot, forexample, be performed by simply comparing published results on twoalgorithms because the difference in results may be due to differing test

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Conference 8747: Geospatial InfoFusion III

data rather than algorithm performance.

of the large data content available for a priori knowledge algorithm
initiation.

Second, most evaluations performed to date have consisted of manually
identifying a small set of objects for which “true” geo-location information
is known and can be easily identified in aerial imagery (step 1). A few
instances of the object appearing within geo-referenced imagery is thenfound (step 2), and the estimated geo-location is computed (step 3). The
difference between this estimated location and the true location is thencomputed and used as the evaluation output (step 4). Unfortunately,
these steps are all performaed manually, making the evaluation timeconsuming and therefore expensive to perform. In addition, even when
they are performed, the amount of data resulting from these evaluations
is typically very small (on the order of 10s of points), leading to questions
about whether the results are even statistically significant.

8747-11, Session 2

Geometric exploration of virtual planes in afusion-based 3D data registration framework
Hadi AliAkbarpour, Univ. de Coimbra (Portugal); Kannappan
Palaniappan, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Jorge
M. Dias, Univ. de Coimbra (Portugal)

To overcome this problem, we have developed a Geo-Registration
Evaluation Toolbox (GRET) that enables an evaluation of geo-location
accuracy on 1000s of points at low cost. Steps 1 and 2 (identifying an
object whose geo-location is known and finding this object within theimagery) are still performed manually. However, this user-created data isstored in an XML file and is used by automated software tools to execute
steps 3 and 4. This simplifies evaluation by requiring manual intervention
only once for each data set rather than once for each algorithm being
evaluated. This change in methodology significantly reduces the cost ofevaluating a geo-registration algorithm and enabled multiple algorithms
to be evaluated on the same dataset, enabling fair and statisticallysignificant comparisons between algorithms.

Performing three-dimensional reconstruction of the objects within anaerial scene is still one of the key challenges of computer vision andof importance for Geospatial Information Systems. In this paper we
present a homography-based approach for 3D urban reconstruction.
A hybrid sensor, mountable on an airborne platform, is described andconsists of three sensors: camera, inertial sensor (IS) and GPS. The
heterogeneous data coming from each of these three sensors are
fused using the concept of projective homography. In each position
it provides a constraint set of Euclidean planes over which the image
data are mapped. 3D reconstruction is then accomplished by fusion
the corresponding data across the multiple Euclidean planes. Unlike
existing approaches, our method constructs the homography transform
matrices directly using the principal sensor measurements andgeometric constraints without requiring any correspondence-based
estimation method (i.e. no need for feature matching and explicit point
correspondences between frames).

This paper will describe in more detail both the methodology and thesoftware developed as part of the GRET toolkit. Preliminary results
showing an evaluation of 6 different geo-registration algoriths across
1000s of geo-located points will be presented, demonstrating the type of
information that can be derived from a large-scale evaluation.

Due to inaccuracies in the sensor observations, the estimatedhomography transforms have measurement uncertainties. As aconsequence, the planes registered using these transforms will be
subject to reconstruction errors. Modeling such uncertainties and theirpropagation through the measurement and reconstruction process is ofimportance in the fusion stage of combining data collected from different
locations around the scene. For the fusion process we use statisticalgeometry and probabilistic approaches to model the uncertainties in thevarious homography transformations within the framework and their error
propagations in the registered data. As a result the registered data will
be extended with some probabilistic values showing the degree of theirreliability.

8747-9, Session 2

Geodata fusion study by the Open Geospatial
Consortium
George Percivall III, Open Geospatial Consortium, Inc. (UnitedStates)No Abstract Available.

8747-10, Session 28747-12, Session 3

Overview of contextual tracking approaches
in information fusion

Impact of feature descriptors on low pixelcount persistent surveillance tracking system
performance

Erik P. Blasch, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Jesus
Garcia Herrero, Univ. Carlos III de Madrid (Spain); Lauro Snidaro,
Univ. degli Studi di Udine (Italy); James Llinas, Univ. at Buffalo(United States); Gunasekaran Seetharaman, Air Force ResearchLab. (United States); Kannappan Palaniappan, Univ. of MissouriColumbia (United States)

Jason A. Edelberg, Christopher Miller, U.S. Naval Research Lab.
(United States); Kyle Novak, Tekla Research Inc. (United States);
Michael Wilson, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)
Persistent surveillance systems frequently trade resolution for larger
area coverage. This trade often yields a situation where the objects tobe tracked have a low pixel count, often fewer than ten per side (<100pixels total) and commonly much fewer than that. With such low pixel
counts, true target recognition becomes difficult which is why the
tracking systems employed on persistent surveillance imagery are oftenchange-detection based. These change-detection tracking systems often
struggle to maintain track during quick maneuver situations, extended
stopping situations, periods of obscuration and dense traffic. Various
feature descriptors, including template matching, HoG, LBP, and others,
are studied that have been tuned to the special case of very low pixel
count target detection. This dynamic feature-based detection algorithm
is incorporated into an existing change-detection based tracking system.
This augmented tracking system has been applied to VNIR and MWIR
wide area data under a variety of conditions. Analysis of the improvement
these feature descriptors have on both the augmented detector
performance and tracker performance is presented.

Many information fusion solutions work well in the intended scenarios;
but the applications, supporting data, and capabilities change. One
example is weather data for electro-optical trackers of which standards
have evolved over decades. The operating conditions of: technology
changes, sensor/target variations, and the contextual environment caninhibit performance if not included in the design, or enhanced to increase
performance. In this paper, we seek to define and categorize different
types of contextual information. We describe five contextual information
categories that support information fusion: (1) domain knowledge froma user to aid the information fusion process through selection, cueing,
and analysis, (2) environment-to-hardware processing for sensor
management, (3) known distribution of entities for threat assessment, (4)historical traffic behavior for situation awareness patterns of life (POL),
and (5) road information for target tracking and identification. Appropriate
characterization and representation of contextual information is needed
for future high-level information fusion systems design to take advantage

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Conference 8747: Geospatial InfoFusion III

8747-13, Session 3

accurate location and time information.

Processing of aerial H.264 data for groundobject tracking
Paul B. Deignan Jr., L-3 Communications Integrated Systems(United States); R. Daniel Creider, Texas A&M Univ.-Commerce(United States)
The H.264 compression algorithm produces motion vectors between
frames that carry information both for the reconstruction of subsequent
images and also for the relative spatial movement of objects within ascene. The group and entity movement of objects can be tracked in theparticular or through statistical inference. We adopt the later technique
due to the practical availability of artifacts of the compression problem.
However, the extraction of motion vectors is not without complication.
We present methodologies as well as an empirical illustration of thedevelopment of an algorithm for detecting and tracking ground motionof objects from an aerial platform using only information produced in
the process of H.264 compression and discuss some limitations of thetechnique.

In this paper, we present activity-from-motion (AfM) model that canreconstruct dynamic situation evolution in the area given local video
clips and imagery inputs from open sources, such as Flickr, YouTube,etc. Our model stitches the multimedia sources in space and time, learns
repetitive activity patterns from stitched data, and allows finding theareas with activities that match the analysts’ queries.

8747-16, Session 38747-14, Session 3

A position-independent image complexity
seLector (PICSEL) for enhanced visualizationand intuitive object detection in images
Troy R. McKay, CACI International Inc. (United States); Herb
Hirsch, HEC, Inc., CACI Consultant (United States)
The PICSEL algorithm applies compact and fast-executing algorithms
to create a “virtual terrain” in an image. It visually alters image areas so
image analysts may intuitively locate, sort, classify, and identify objects,
targets, or areas of interest. It also discriminates between areas which
may be lossy-compressed or losslessly-compressed, thus improving
image compression effectiveness.
Consider a spatially or geographically-distinctive area, like Tampa Bay.
The Florida peninsula and Tampa Bay are easy to recognize, so visually
locating the city of Tampa on the bay is easy. But if the city of Tampa wasnestled among similar urban areas, it would be difficult to find. PICSEL
creates virtual islands, peninsulas, bays, and lakes in images. Areas ofinterest appear as bright, high-contrast “land,” and non-interest areas
appear as dark, low-contrast, “submerged” regions.
Our work to date has developed, tested, and evaluated PICSEL’s
effectiveness in an early prototype configuration. PICSEL has
demonstrated the ability to (1) help image analysts intuitively locate
objects or areas of interest, for improved analyst efficiency, and (2)greatly-reduce image file size, for improved image compression andsubstantially-faster image dissemination.
We first describe the goals, benefits, and challenges of PICSEL’s virtual
terrain rendering. Then we apply it to some images to demonstrateand explain its behavior. We also discuss anticipated optimization andnormalization techniques - the enhancements that will improve the
PICSEL technique in the future.

8747-15, Session 3

Activity from motion: reconstructing dynamic
situation from distributed video sources
Georgiy M. Levchuk, Matthew Jacobsen, Aptima, Inc. (UnitedStates)Social media sources, such as online postings of imagery, audio, andvideo, provide the alternative to proactive persistent surveillance thatis currently capable of monitoring wide areas for long periods of time.
However, reconstruction of dynamic scenes from such data is a very
challenging task, particularly because online sources rarely contain400

Imagery reconstruction has made significant progress in the last decade:researchers advanced original algorithms that can reconstruct single
3D objects (Snavely, Seitz, and Szeliski, 2006) to reconstructing entire
cities from large photo collections in less than a day (Agarwal et al.,2009, 2011). However, these models have largely ignored that the scenes
like cities can change drastically over time. Most recently, researchersdeveloped approaches to reconstruction of 4D cities from 2D photocollections, where the 4th dimension encodes the evolution of the cities
in history, as the buildings get constructed and demolished (Schindler,and Dellaert, 2010). These models can currently capture only slowly
evolving changes in the city’s architectural landscape, and are unable toreason about dynamic activities of moving targets nor incorporate video
data as input.

Feature selection for appearance-based
vehicle tracking in geospatial video
Mahdieh Poostchi, Kannappan Palaniappan, Filiz Bunyak,
Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Gunasekaran
Seetharaman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Current video tracking systems often employ a rich set of intensity, edge,
texture, shape and object level features combined with descriptors forappearance modeling. This approach increases tracker robustness but
is computationally expensive for real-time applications and localization
accuracy can be affected by including distracting features in the featurefusion or object classification processes. This paper explores offlinefeature subset selection for video tracking to reduce the dimensionalityof the feature space and to discover a relevant representative lower
dimensional subspace for online tracking. We compare the complete
FOCUS to the sequential heuristic SFFS, SFS and RELIEF feature
selection methods. The experiments prove that the use of offline feature
selection not only reduces the computational complexities, but also
results in improved online tracking performance.

8747-17, Session 3

Particle filter-based vehicle tracking by fusing
spatial features with a nonlinear motion
model
Raphael Viguier, Kannappan Palaniappan, Univ. of MissouriColumbia (United States); Emmanuel Duflos, Philippe M.
Vanheeghe, École Centrale de Lille (France)
Tracking in wide area motion imagery faces many challenges including
low resolution, multiple small-sized targets, low frame rate and complex
backgrounds. Feature-based tracking techniques generate multiple
peaks and have difficulty in distinguishing the target from distractors.
Consequently, the wider the search area, the higher will be the numberof false detections. It is therefore critical to use a refined motion modelin order to eliminate spurious matches, reduce the size of the searchregion and at the same time estimate an accurate probability densityof the predicted position to improve the target to track association. We
introduce an orientation and magnitude based representation of thevehicle dynamics which leads to a non-linear motion model. We use
a particle filter to handle both non linearity of the motion model andfusion with object feature likelihood maps within the search window thatare often multi-modal. In the first step of particle filter prediction, we
randomly sample small changes in velocity orientation and magnitude.

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Conference 8747: Geospatial InfoFusion III

Then the probability map built from the appearance-based features
is directly used as a likelihood estimatate to update particle weights.
After resampling, the probability for a point to be chosen as the target
location becomes proportional to the initial number of particles on it
as much as the feature-based similarity with the target template. Thisapproach shows promising results by reducing the false alarm rate andsimultaneously reducing the size of the search window. The improved
prediction provided by the particle filter-based probability density
estimation compensates for the reduced reliability of feature-based
histogram matching due to appearance changes, especially during turns.
Preliminary experiments using wide area motion imagery demonstratethat the particle filter combined with a non-linear motion model outperforms a Kalman filter-based prediction using a linear motion model.

error as feedback for the fusion learning algorithm. The complete fusion
system is divided into two stages: a stage in which the classifier is
updated such that it minimizes classification error given a fixed fusion
learning system, and a stage where the fusion learner is updated in orderto minimize the classification error given a fixed classifier configuration.
This alternating update of the classifier and the fusion learner optimizes
the fusion methodology based on classifier performance and therefore
maximizes the quality of the fusion for both the input data and theclassifier.

8747-20, Session 4

Usage of data-encoded web maps withclient side color rendering for combined data
access, visualization, and modeling purposes

8747-18, Session 3

Vehicle detection and orientation estimation
using the radon transform

Denis V. Pliutau, Narasimha S. Prasad, NASA Langley Research
Ctr. (United States)

Rengarajan V. Pelapur, Kannappan Palaniappan, Filiz Bunyak,
Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Gunasekaran
Seetharaman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)

Current approaches to satellite observation data storage and distribution
implement separate visualization and data access methodologies which
often leads to the need in time consuming data ordering and coding for
applications requiring both visual representation as well as data handlingand modeling capabilities. We describe an approach we implemented
for a data-encoded web map service based on storing numerical data
within server map tiles and subsequent client side data manipulationand map color rendering. The approach relies on storing data using thelossless compression Portable Network Graphics (PNG) image data
format which is natively supported by web-browsers allowing on-the-flybrowser rendering and modification of the map tiles. . The method is easy
to implement using existing software libraries and has the advantage ofeasy client side map color modifications, as well as spacial sub-settingwith physical parameter range filtering. This method is demonstrated for
the ASTER-GDEM elevation model and selected MODIS data products
and represents an alternative to the currently used storage and data
access methods. One additional benefit includes providing multiple
levels of averaging due to the need in generating map tiles at varying
resolutions for various map magnification levels. We suggest that suchmerged data and mapping approach may be a viable alternative toexisting static storage and data access methods for a wide array of
combined simulation, data access and visualization purposes.

Vehicle detection is important from the point of view of traffic analysis
and event detection. Our detector uses a host of image based features
which have proven effective in target tracking in wide-area imagery suchas block-based intensity, gradient magnitude for edge-based features,
gradient orientation information using Histogram of Oriented Gradients,
eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix for shape information, and local binary
patterns for texture. These features are used to train a classifier and is inturn used for detection.
The training method is novel due to the explicit orientation estimationthat is done on objects to maintain an overall wide range of vehicle
orientations. Explicit orientation estimation is beneficial to explore
since the majority of feature descriptors are designed to be rotationallyinvariant. Additionally, automatic orientation estimation can speed up
manual ground-truth collection that is often necessary for validation andperformance analysis as well as improve the quality of the manual tracks.
The typical method of manual tracking involves marking only centroids
since this is the simplest, or drawing and moving an axis-aligned
bounding box drawn around the object of interest, general polygons
are too time consuming to draw or correct on each frame. A goodcompromise is to use an oriented bounding box which takes vehicle
geometry and pose into account. The results show that the estimation isaccurate within an overall average of +/- 4.5 degrees for various types ofimagery and about 89% of the objects have an estimation error under +/1 degree for satellite imagery.

8747-21, Session 4

Correlation of partial frames for fusion,change detection, and video compression
Boris Kovalerchuk, Central Washington Univ. (United States) and
BKF Systems (United States); Sergei Kovalerchuk, BKF Systems(United States)

8747-19, Session 4

Evaluation fusion techniques for multisensor
satellite image data

Correlating video frames from sensors located on different moving
platforms is important for improving algorithms for change detection,
tracking, and discrimination of objects as well as for evaluating existingalgorithm for these tasks and data compression with limited downlink
bandwidth. Downloading partial frames requires less bandwidth, but it
requires pre and post processing and the correlation of partial frames
is more challenging than the correlation of full frames. It is even a morechallenging for partial frames with objects that are far from the sensor (atthe sensor resolution limits where objects are visible as single pixels). In
such cases the algorithms cannot exploit the internal characteristics andstructure of the objects. This work proposes an algorithm to correlatepartial frames with such small objects using the algebraic structural
approach developed by our team that is exploiting structural relations
between objects. The proposed algorithm is fully affine invariant, which
includes any rotation, shift, and scaling.

Benjamin W. Martin, The Univ. of Tennessee Knoxville (UnitedStates); Ranga R. Vatsavai, Christopher T. Symons, Oak Ridge
National Lab. (United States); Itamar Arel, The Univ. of Tennessee
Knoxville (United States)
Image data fusion is a topic of interest in many areas including
environmental monitoring, emergency response, and defense. In addition,
there are many types of satellite sensors each of which can offer uniquebenefits that other types of image data cannot offer. Given the respective
strengths and weaknesses of the different types of image data, it isbeneficial to fuse many types of data to extract as much information as
possible from the data.
Our work focuses on the fusion of multi-modal image data into a unified
representation that incorporates the potential strengths of a particularseries of data sets in order to minimize classification error. We train amachine learning algorithm to optimally fuse data while using classifier

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401Conference 8747: Geospatial InfoFusion III

8747-22, Session 48747-24, Session 4

Subdimensional geo-localization from finite
set statistics

A semi-automated building outline tool
(SABOT)

Frank A. Boyle, Paul B. Deignan Jr., L-3 Communications
Integrated Systems (United States)

Scott Simmons, Mike Thompson, Deborah Lamb, Troy R. McKay,
CACI International Inc. (United States); Herb Hirsch, HEC, Inc.,CACI Consultant (United States)

In practical circumstances, a problem that often occurs is to geolocalize an entity from surface-level imagery given wide area overhead
information and other a priori information that might be used to relate thetwo views. Given a finite set of GMTI returns and surface-level imageryof a common region of space, we propose a statistical algorithm for the
association of surface-level one-dimensional measurements of the finite
set to entities of the shared-dimensional wide area overview. Specifically,
the problem of fused tracking without reliable range information froma surface-level view of a subset of entities is solved by the associationof projections of 3-dimensional movement and position measurementsof the GMTI and surface-level imagery. In this process the position of
the surface level observer is refined. We expand this algorithm to a setof surface level observers distributed over the region of interest andpropose a system of continuous tracking of entities over congested
areas. The fusion search algorithm exploits the invariant metric propertiesof projection in a matched-filter procedure as well as the partial-orderingof local apparent depth of objects. We achieve O(N) convergence thereby
making this algorithm practical for large-N searches. The algorithm isdemonstrated analytically and by simulation.

8747-23, Session 4

KOLAM: a cross-platform architecture forscalable visualization and tracking in widearea imagery
Kannappan Palaniappan, Fraser Joshua, Anoop Haridas, Univ. of
Missouri-Columbia (United States); Gunasekaran Seetharaman,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Raghuveer M. Rao, U.S.
Army Research Lab. (United States)
KOLAM is an open, interoperable, scalable and extensible frameworkfor visualization and target tracking in high-resolution, large volume wide
format video also known as wide-area motion imagery (WAMI). KOLAM
was originally developed for the interactive visualization of extremely
large geospatial imagery of varying spatial and spectral resolution.
KOLAM is cross-platform, supporting multiple operating systems andGPU hardware independent. The visualization tool supports embedded
datasets scalable from hundreds of gigabytes to petabytes in size onclusters, workstations, desktops and mobile computers. In addition to
rapid roam, zoom, animate and hyper-jump spatial operations, KOLAM
supports an arbitrary number of simultaneously viewable embedded
layers or channels, interactive color map and histogram enhancement,
spherical projections and view-dependent rendering of terrain maps.
The KOLAM software architecture was extended to support airborne
wide-area motion imagery by organizing very large format video frames
as a temporal sequencing of pyramid data structures. The current
version of KOLAM supports animation, target tracking and trajectory
visualization; the latter comprising the outputs of both tracker algorithm
execution and ground-truth generation. Among the current critical needs
for working with WAMI is an assisted tracking and visualization tool thatallows analysts to rapidly track multiple targets, review tracking results
and apply visual analytic tools to the generated track data. KOLAM
provides one-click manual tracking, which is combined with multiple
automated tracking algorithms to assist the analyst and increase humaneffectiveness.

402

Image Analysts (IAs) in many operations need to create geometricrepresentations of buildings of interest from reconnaissance orsurveillance imagery. This is called “collecting” the buildings, andtypically, is done by manually digitizing multiple points around theborders of buildings via mouse “clicks.” The click points form vertices ofpolygons which outline building shapes. This is a time-consuming andsometimes fatiguing process. An automated means to “click” only once,
somewhere within a building’s visual image footprint, and automaticallyobtain the outline was sought.
Many technical challenges had to be overcome to realize this automatedcapability. These included factors such as different building sizes,
shapes, and orientations; often unclear or distorted building borders;similar textures on the inside and outside of building perimeters; shadow
effects across different portions of buildings; obscurations such as
nearby natural or man-made structures like ridges, trees, and otherbuildings; and general image quality factors such as contrast, brightness,
intensity range and degrees of crispness. Through a series of incremental
developments and testing we addressed these challenges to realize asubstantially capable solution.
We first describe the amount of imagery wherein buildings need to becollected, why they need to be collected, and how to improve collection
efficiency. Then we review the technical challenges and how ourdevelopment and testing led us through them to a solution. Next we
present results using screen captures from the current version of the tool
operating on actual imagery. Finally we summarize improvements weanticipate, to enhance and optimize SABOT’s performance.

8747-26, Session 4

Mining pattern in a persistent surveillancesystem with smart query and visual analytics
Mohammad S. Habibi, Tennessee State Univ. (United States)
In Persistent Surveillance System (PSS) the ability to detect andcharacterize events geospatially help take pre-emptive steps to counter
adversary’s actions. Interactive Visual Analytic (VA) model offers
this platform for pattern investigation and reasoning to predict suchoccurrences. The need for identifying and offsetting these threats require
collecting information from diverse sources in real or near time, whichbrings with it increasingly abstract data. These abstract semantic data
have a degree of inherent uncertainty and imprecision, and require
methods of elimination before arriving to detect an event or activity.
The technique used here uses Euclidean and Vector Space Modelingfor classification of features in semantic messages, and is the basis
for developing semi-structured data for further analysis using semisupervised learning. Depending upon the analysts’ classification of
events or alarms relative spatial-temporal collaboration is establishedto detect sequential patterns. In this paper a-priori Temporal-Dynamic
Time Warping (DTW) method is used for mining sequential patterns andGaussian Mixture Model (GMM) for expectation maximization of eventsfrom neighborhood-proximity semantic frames. The generated patterns
are represented using interactive graphing visual tools and are evaluatedby means of a case study concerning activity detection. Experimental
results show the effectiveness of proposed approach and the discovery
of matching subsequences within a sequentially generated pattern.

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Conference 8748: Optical Pattern Recognition XXIV
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8748 Optical Pattern Recognition XXIV

8748-1, Session 1

8748-4, Session 1

Tree-based adaptive measurement designfor compressive imaging under device
constraints (Invited Paper)

Big data research and use: cases (Invited
Paper)
Ashit Talukder, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)

David Bottisti, Robert R. Muise, Lockheed Martin Missiles andFire Control (United States)

No Abstract Available.

We look at the design of projective measurements for compressive
imaging based upon image priors and device constraints. If one assumes
that image patches from natural imagery can be modeled as a low rank
manifold, we develop an optimality criterion for a measurement matrix
based upon separating the canonical elements of the manifold prior.
We then characterize this manifold based upon prior training imagery
under a tree-based framework which can be implemented adaptively.
We also illustrate how these adaptive measurements can incorporate
prior knowledge regarding the constraints of the device being used tocollect the measurements. Simulated performance results are presented
and compared against a standard imaging paradigm as well as moreconvention compressive imaging techniques.

8748-5, Session 2

Coherent optical implementations of the fast
Fourier transform and their comparison tothe optical implementation of the quantum
Fourier transform
Rupert C. Young, Philip M. Birch, Christopher R. Chatwin, Univ.
of Sussex (United Kingdom)

No Abstract Available.

Optical structures to implement the discrete Fourier transform andfast Fourier transform algorithm for discretely sampled data sets are
considered. It is shown that the decomposition of the FFT algorithm
into the basic butterfly operations allows the algorithm to be fully
implemented by the successive coherent addition of two wavefronts, aswell as their subtraction after one has been appropriately phase shifted,
so facilitating a robust and simple optical hardware implementation
based on wave guided hybrid structures as used in coherent opticaldetection modules. Further, a comparison is made to the opticalstructures proposed for the optical implementation of the quantum
Fourier transform and they are shown to be the same.

8748-3, Session 1

8748-6, Session 2

Light-driven robotics for nanoscopy (Invited
Paper)

Adapted all-numerical correlator for facerecognition applications

8748-2, Session 1

High-speed optical correlator with custom
electronics interface design (Invited Paper)
Tien-Hsin Chao, Thomas T. Lu, Jet Propulsion Lab. (UnitedStates)Jesper Glückstad, Darwin Palima, Technical Univ. of Denmark(Denmark)

Marwa Elbouz, ISEN Brest (France); Fatma Bouzidi, ISEN Brest(France) and Univ. de Sfax (Tunisia); Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest(France); Christian Brosseau, Univ. de Bretagne Occidentale(France); Isabelle Leonatd, ISEN Brest (France); Badr-Eddine
Benkelfat, TELECOM & Management SudParis (France)

Realising the vision of light-driven micro-robotics for nanoscopy
requires the optimization of optical forces and optical torques that, inturn, requires optimization of the underlying light-matter interaction.
The requirement of having strongly focused laser beams in high NA
optical trapping systems exemplifies the need for optimal light-shaping.
Contrary, the recent report on stable optical lift shows that opticalmanipulation can also be achieved using unshaped light but by using
an appropriately shape-optimized structure instead. Hence, a genericapproach for optimizing light-matter interaction should involve the
combination of optimal light-shaping with the use of optimized shapes
for optimally versatile micro-robotic structures. We have designed
different three-dimensional micro-structures and fabricated them by
two-photon polymerization. These photo-polymerized structures canbe conveniently handled using our BioPhotonics Workstation to show
proof-of-principle demonstrations illustrating the 6DOF optical actuationof these light-fabricated three-dimensional structures. We have exploitedthe light shaping capabilities available on the BioPhotonics Workstation
to demonstrate a new strategy for controlling microstructures that
goes beyond the typical refractive light deflections that are utilized inconventional optical trapping and manipulation. We propose and outline
the design of intricate micro-structures with nanoscopic features for socalled structure-mediated access to the nanoscale.

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In this study, we suggest and validate an all-numerical implementationof a VanderLugt correlator which is optimized for face recognition
applications. The main goal of this implementation is to take advantageof the benefits (detection, localization, and identification of a target object
within a scene) of correlation methods and exploit the reconfigurabilityof numerical approaches. This technique requires a numerical
implementation of the optical Fourier transform. We pay special attention
to adapt the correlation filter to this numerical implementation. One main
goal of this work is to reduce the size of the filter in order to decrease
the memory space required for real time applications. To fulfil thisrequirement, we code the reference images with 8 bits and study theeffect of this coding on the performances of several composite filters(phase-only filter, binary phase-only filter). The saturation effect hasfor effect to decrease the performances of the correlator for making
a decision when filters contain up to nine references. Further, an
optimization is proposed based for an optimized segmented composite
filter. Based on this approach, we present tests with different faces
demonstrating that the above mentioned saturation effect is significantly
reduced while minimizing the size of the learning data base·

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403

Conference 8748: Optical Pattern Recognition XXIV

8748-22, Session 2

Robust 3D reconstruction using LiDAR and N- visual image
Prakash Duraisamy, Stephen Jackson, Kamesh Namuduri, Univ.
of North Texas (United States); Mohammed S. Alam, Univ. ofSouth Alabama (United States); Bill Buckles, Univ. of North Texas(United States)
OCT is a non invasive technique in which contrast measurement
is a challenging problem due to noisy environments. The contrast
measurement basically validates the how far noise is removed and in
addition it helps to understand true body condition. The conventional
contrast measurement which works for ordinary visual images is basicallyfailed for OCT images. In our work, we introduced SVD approach tomeasure the contrast. The algorithm works well and remove the offset
faced by conventional method.

8748-9, Session 3

Smart pattern recognition (Invited Paper)
Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest (France); Christian Brosseau, Univ.
de Bretagne Occidentale (France); Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. ofSouth Alabama (United States)
In this paper, we propose to validate the concept of a novel optimized
composite correlation filter, called asymmetric segmented phase-only
filter (ASPOF), for various applications such as face recognition andunderwater mine detection. To achieve this, we propose numerical
implementation of optical Fourier transform based on the Fraunhofer
diffraction. Numerical implementation of the optical Fourier transform
operation has been found to significantly improve the detection
performance and make it less sensitive to the saturation phenomenon
caused by the increased number of references used to formulate thecomposite filter. In addition, the proposed implementation allows us tomake the correlator easily reconfigurable for various scenarios. Various
tests performed using the area-peak-to-correlation energy criterion and
ROC curves for different datasets confirm the validity of the proposed
technique.

8748-11, Session 3

Optimized fusion method based on
adaptation of the RMS time-frequency
criterion for simultaneous compression andencryption of multiple images
Mohammed Aldossari, Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest (France);
Christian Brosseau, Univ. de Bretagne Occidentale (France)
An extension of the recently proposed method of simultaneouscompression and encryption of multiple images [Opt. Express 19, 24023(2011)] is developed. This analysis allows us to find a compromise
between compression rate and quality of the reconstructed images fortarget detection applications. This spectral compression method cansignificantly reduce memory size and can be easily implemented witha VanderLugt correlator (VLC). For that purpose, we determine the sizeof the useful spectra for each target image by exploiting the root-meansquare time-frequency criterion. This parameter is used to determine
the allowed area of each target image within the compressed spectrum.
Moreover, this parameter is adapted in order to minimize overlapping
between the different spectra. Finally, the spectra are merged together
by making use of a segmentation criterion. The latter compares the local
energy relative to each pixel for each spectrum. Furthermore, it optimizes
assignment of the considered pixel by taking into account the adjacentareas to the considered pixel. This permits to avoid the presence ofisolated areas and small sized areas (less than 10 pixels). We report404

on a set of tests with several video sequences. We use peak signalto-noise ratio for comparing compression rates. Finally the encryption
part is optimized by using and merging several encryption keys
(according to the number of multiple images considered). The validationof this approach was realized by using a VLC architecture, phase-only
correlation filter, and peak-to-correlation energy as decision criterion.

8748-13, Session 4

A new morphology algorithm for shoreline
extraction from DEM data
Amr H. Yousef, Khan M. Iftekharuddin, Mohammad A. Karim, Old
Dominion Univ. (United States)
Digital elevation models (DEMs) are a digital representation of elevationsat regularly spaced points. They provide an accurate tool to extract theshoreline profiles. One of the emerging sources of creating them is lightdetection and ranging (LiDAR) that can capture a highly dense cloud
points with high resolution that can reach 15 cm and 100 cm in thevertical and horizontal directions respectively in short periods of time. In
this paper we present a new morphology algorithm to segment the DEM
shapes and to convert them into binary images based on a tidal datumat the study area. Unlike similar approaches, it will detect and eliminate
the outliers that result from waves, ships, etc. In addition, it eliminates
docks, bridges and fishing piers along the extracted shorelines by meansof Hough transform. Based on a specific tidal datum, the algorithm willsegment the DEM data into water and land objects. Without sacrificing
the accuracy and the spatial details of the extracted boundaries, thealgorithm should do a set of morphology closings operations to isolate
the water and land objects with different neighborhood connections
depending on the slope of disconnected segment of the shoreline. Then,it removes the small children water objects from the parent land object
as well as small children land objects from the water parent based on
the histogram of the identified objects areas with a predefined threshold.
Finally, the shoreline profile is extracted by tracing the boundary pixels
between the land and the water segments. For different range of years,
we qualitatively and quantitatively assess the extracted shorelines bysuperimposing them on the available aerial photographs.

8748-14, Session 4

Superresolution technique usingneighborhood estimation and filtering
Mohammed N. Islam, Farmingdale State College (United States)
The goal of a superresolution technique is to enhance the resolution ofa given image or video recorded by either a low quality camera systemor from a long distance. The high-resolution image/video is generated
by estimating additional pixels based on the available pixels of the
low-resolution image utilizing some image processing algorithms.
The objective of the paper is to develop an efficient and simple
superresolution technique for computer vision applications, like target
detection and tracking. Pixels of the high-resolution image are createdbased on the neighborhood estimation of the low-resolution image pixels.
Spatial as well as frequency-domain techniques are utilized to generate
the pixels. Quality of the enhanced image is further improved by applying
different filters, including Gaussian, Sobel, Prewitt and log. Performanceof the proposed superresolution technique is investigated throughcomputer simulation and quantified using parameters, like signal-to-noise
ratio. The simple architecture of the proposed technique will offer an
efficient and inexpensive software tool for practical applications.

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Conference 8748: Optical Pattern Recognition XXIV

8748-15, Session 4

simulations show that this method has good robustness against image
processing.

Image registration under poor illumination
using calibrated cameras

8748-18, Session 5

Prakash Duraisamy, Stephen Craig Jackson, Univ. of North Texas(United States); Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South Alabama(United States); Bill Buckles, Univ. of North Texas (United States)

Joint Transform Correlation for face tracking:elderly fall detection application

Image registration is basic step in image fusion and many 2D
applications. Registering the image is a challenging problem, however
registering the 2D image with recent robust algorithms like SIFT (Scaleinvariant Feature Transform) works well in most situations. In our work,
we made an comparison study between calibrated and uncalibrated(SIFT) approach and we defined which approach will work better undervarious scene environment. IN our approach we used K-matrix toimprove the registration and remove the offset faced by uncalibrated
approach. Experiments are tested on both synthetic and real world
environments.

P. Katz, M. Aron, Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest (France)

8748-16, Session 5(i) a large study, using different sequences with several situations, on
the JTC parameters is achieved in order to quantify their effects on the
tracking performances (decimation, non-linearity coefficient, size of thecorrelation plane, size of the region of interest...).

In this paper, an iterative tracking algorithm based on a non-linear JTC(Joint Transform Correlator) architecture is proposed and validated. Thisalgorithm is based on the computation of a correlation plane where
the reference image is updated at each frame. For that, we propose to
use the JTC technique in real time to track a patient (target image) in a
special room, i.e. fitted with several video cameras. The correlation plane
is used to localize the target image in the current video frame (Frame i).
Then, the reference image to be exploited in the next frame (Frame i+1) is
updated according to the previous one (Frame i). In an effort to validate
our algorithm, we divided our work into two parts:

Defining properties of speech spectrogram
images to allow effective pre-processing prior
to pattern recognition(ii) the tracking algorithm is integrated into an application of elderly
fall detection: the first reference image is a face detected by means ofHaar descriptors, and then localized into the new video image thanks
to our tracking method. In order to avoid a bad update of the reference
frame, a method based on a comparison of image intensity histograms
is proposed and integrated in our algorithm. This step ensures a robust
tracking of the reference frame.

Mohammed H. Al-Darkazali, Rupert C. Young, Christopher R.
Chatwin, Philip M. Birch, Univ. of Sussex (United Kingdom)
The speech signal of a word is a combination of frequencies which can
produce specific transition shapes. These can be regarded as a written
text in some unknown ‘script’. Before attempting methods to read the
speech spectrogram image using image processing techniques we needfirst to define the properties of the speech spectrogram image as well as
the reduction of the clutter of the spectrogram image and the selection of
the methods to be employed for image matching.

8748-20, Session 5

Enhanced information security employing
orthogonal code, steganography, and joint
transform correlation

Thus methods to convert the speech signal to a spectrogram image are
initially employed, followed by reduction of the noise in the signal bycapturing the energy associated with formants of the speech signal. Thisis followed by normalisation of the size of the image and its resolution of
in both the frequency and time axes. Finally, template matching methods
are employed to recognise portions of text and isolated words. The paper
describes the pre-processing methods employed and outlines the use of
normalised grey-level correlation for the recognition of isolated words.

Mohammed N. Islam, Farmingdale State College (United States);
Mohammad F. Islam, George Washington Univ. (United States);
Kamal Shahrabi, Farmingdale State College (United States)
A novel and robust technique is proposed in this paper for securingconfidential information by utilizing orthogonal coding scheme, encodedsteganography and nonlinear encryption through joint transform
correlation. Different biometric signatures are encoded using individual
orthogonal codes and then multiplexed together. The encrypted
and multiplexed image is hidden inside a cover image employing asteganography technique, where one from the three least significant bits
is chosen using another secret key. A color cover image is utilized which
is decomposed into three color components, red, green and blue, sothat three different sets of biometric signatures can be embedded into
each of the color components. The color stego image is finally encryptedusing multiple phase-shifted reference joint transform correlation(MRJTC) technique. The proposed encryption technique is a nonlinear
process which increases the security strength significantly against any
unauthorized access. The encoded steganography technique reduces
the vulnerability that an intruder can retrieve any information from a given
image through any steganalysis attack. Finally, the orthogonal coding
scheme enhances the robustness by making the biometric information
almost inaccessible without authorization.

8748-17, Session 5

An image hiding method based on cascaded
iterative Fourier transform and public-key
encryption algorithm
Bing Zhang, Jun Sang, Chongqing Univ. (China); Mohammad S.
Alam, Univ. of South Alabama (United States)
An image hiding method based on cascaded iterative Fourier transformand public-key encryption algorithm was proposed. Firstly, the original
secret image was encrypted into two phase-only masks and via
cascaded iterative Fourier transform (CIFT) algorithm. Then, the publickey encryption algorithm RSA was adopted to encrypt into. Finally, a hostimage was enlarged by extending one pixel into pixels and each element
in and was multiplied with a superimposition coefficient and added toand subtracted from two different elements in the pixels of the enlarged
host image. To recover the secret image from the stego-image, the twomasks were extracted from the stego-image without the original hostimage and recovered to obtain the secret image. By applying publickey encryption algorithm, the security of the CIFT-based image hiding
was enhanced. Also, compared with the image hiding method based on
optical interference, the proposed method may reach higher robustness
by employing the characteristics of the CIFT algorithm. Computer

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Conference 8748: Optical Pattern Recognition XXIV

8748-19, Session 68748-25, Session P-TUE

Human gait recognition by pyramid of HOG
feature on silhouette images

Comparison of correlation peaks
characteristics for scaled images recognition
using MACE, GMACE and MINACE filters

Guang Yang, Yafeng Yin, Jeanrok Park, Hong Man, Stevens
Institute of Technology (United States)
As a biological feature, gait recognition has a great advantage of identify
people at a distance without high resolution images. Therefore, humangait recognition has attracted much attention in recent years, especiallyin the field of human recognition in the remote sensing scenarios. In
this paper, we propose a human gait recognition framework with hidden
Markov models (HMM) trained the pyramid of Histogram of Gradient(pHOG) feature on the silhouettes images. By background subtraction,
the silhouette of human gaits which is considered as region of interest(ROI) in each frame is extracted and normalized from the raw video
sequence. After removing the shadow and noise in each ROI, pHOG
feature is computed based on the silhouettes images. Then the pHOG
features of each sequence will be used to train a corresponding HMM. In
the test stage, pHOG feature will be extracted from each test data andused to calculate the posterior probability toward to each trained HMM
model. Experimental results on the CASIA dataset demonstrate that with
our proposed framework the recognition rate can achieve a very highaccuracy and has outperformed other gait recognition methods.

8748-21, Session 6

Optical image processing and patternrecognition algorithms for optimal optical
data retrieval
Brian P. Walker, Thomas T. Lu, Sean Stuart, George F. Reyes,
Tien-Hsin Chao, Jet Propulsion Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8748-23, Session 6

Small feature recognition of moving targets
Andre U. Sokolnikov, Visual Solutions and Applications (UnitedStates)“Small Feature Recognition Technique Based on Hidden Markov Chainsof Movable Targets”
This paper presents an approach related to automated recognition ofsmall features of movable targets including fast moving objects such as
airplanes, etc. Small features recognition is a challenging problem in bothfields: pattern recognition of particular configurations and of complexes
comprising a number of configurations. Specific target details, althoughwell characterized by their features, are often arranged in an elaborated
way which makes the recognition task very difficult and welcomes new
ideas (approaches). On the other hand, the variety of small characters(features) intrinsically linked to the technology development of theidentified targets and is unavoidable. Due to the complexity of possible
technological designs, the feature representation is one of the key issues
in pattern recognition. Hidden Markov model approach formed thefoundation of the proposed method.

Petr A. Ivanov, Yaroslavl State Technical Univ. (RussianFederation)
The problem of pattern recognition using optoelectronic correlatorsof images with the help of invariant correlation filters is one of themost popular approaches for recognition of geometrically distorted
images during last year’s. In this approach the optoelectronic correlator
provides calculation of the correlation function of input image with someeffective image that called correlation filter. In presented paper there areused MACE, GMACE and MINACE types of invariant correlation filter
for recognition of scaled images. There was created a database that
contains grayscale images with different resolution with change of scalewith step of 1% in range of 50% to 150% of original image size both fortrue class and false class objects. There was hold a computer modelingof images recognition, calculation of correlation functions for mentioned
filter types and calculated peak values, some characteristics of peakquality and number of cases if image is recognized or not. There ispresented a comparison of results for different filter types and according
to given data is shown that MINACE approach is better. Also there arepresented results of testing of mentioned filters on another database that
contains rotated grayscale images. The images in this database weredistorted with in plane rotation with different steps in degrees in rangeof 0 to 360 degrees both for true class and false class objects. There isalso presented analysis about how to use the received results in future
investigations.

8748-26, Session P-TUE

MINACE filter realization as computer
generated hologram for 4-f correlator
Nikolay N. Evtikhiev, Dmitriy V. Shaulskiy, Evgeny Y. Zlokazov,
Rostislav S. Starikov, National Research Nuclear Univ. MEPhI(Russian Federation)
Optical correlators are well known to be perspective for real time image
recognition. Application of distortion invariant filters (DIF) provides
image recognition with increased speed of correlation image matching.
Minimum noise and correlation energy filters (MINACE filters) provide
good recognition in the case of grayscale input images. This paper issubjected to synthesis and realization of MINACE filters in 4-f correlator
as computer generated holograms (holographic filters).

8748-27, Session P-TUE

Distortion invariant correlation filters
application for quality inspection of mastermatrix for security holograms
Evgeny Y. Zlokazov, Dmitriy V. Shaulskiy, Rostislav S. Starikov,
National Research Nuclear Univ. MEPhI (Russian Federation);
Sergey B. Odinokov, Alexander Y. Zherdev, Vasiliy V. Koluchkin,
Ivan A. Shvetsov, Bauman Moscow State Technical Univ.
(Russian Federation); Andrey V. Smirnov, Krypten (RussianFederation)
Application of security holograms for document and product authenticity
protection is perspective due to difficulties of such a holograms
falsification. Mass production of security holograms uses widespread
technology of hot foil stamping. The quality of such holograms
significantly depends on perfection of nickel master-matrix to be used.
We represent the method of automatic quality inspection of nickel

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Conference 8748: Optical Pattern Recognition XXIV

8748-30, Session P-TUE

master-matrix which is based on photomicrographs of surface ripples.
The method is based on combination of spatial frequency analysis andapplication of distortion invariant filters. The results of method application
are shown.

Dim small target detection based onstochastic resonanceNong Sang, Huazhong Univ. of Science and Technology (China);
Ruoling Wang, Wuhan Univ. (China); Haitao Gan, Jian Du,
Huazhong Univ. of Science and Technology (China); Qiling Tang,
South-Central Univ. for Nationalities (China)

8748-28, Session P-TUE

Efficient mine detection using wavelet PCA
and morphological top hat filtering

An efficient unsupervised technique is proposed for land mine detection
from highly cluttered inhomogeneous environment. The proposed
technique uses multispectral data for which feature extraction isnecessary to classify large volume of data. We applied wavelet based
principal component analysis to reduce the dimension of the data as wellas to reveal information about target from background clutter. To increase
the discrimination between target and clutter a linear transformation offeature extracted bands is performed. Therefore, morphological algorithm
is used to extract the maximum information of target. The proposed
technique shows better detection performance while enhancing theprocessing speed. Test result using various multispectral data sets show
excellent performance and verify the effectiveness of the proposed
technique.

Dim small target detection, which is characterized by complex
background and low Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), is critical for many
applications. Traditional detection algorithms assume that noise is notuseful for detecting targets and try to remove the noise to improve SNRof images using various filtering techniques. In this paper, we introduce
a detection algorithm based on Stochastic Resonance (SR) where
stochastic resonance is used to enhance the dim small targets. Our
intuition is that SR can achieve the target enhancement in the presenceof noise. Adaptive Least Mean Square (ALMS) filtering is first adopted toestimate the background, and the clutter is suppressed by subtracting
the estimated background image from the source image. Adaptive SR(ASR) method is then employed to enhance the target and improve
the SNR of the image containing the target and noise. ASR tunes andadds the optimal noise intensity to increase the power of the targets
and therefore improve the SNR of the image. Several experiments on
synthetic and natural images are conducted to evaluate our proposed
algorithm. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of our algorithm.

8748-29, Session P-TUE

8748-31, Session P-TUE

JTC based concealed object detection interahertz imaging

Spectral fringe-adjusted joint transform
correlation based efficient object
classification in hyperspectral imagery

Nizam U. Chowdhury, Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South
Alabama (United States)

Md. Habib U. Habib, Mohammad S. Alam, Waleed K. Al-Assadi,
Univ. of South Alabama (United States)

Paheding Sidike, Mohammad S. Alam, Univ. of South Alabama(United States)

Detection of concealed objects under cloth or inside paper/lather/plastic
box is a challenge for security applications. With terahertz (THz) imaging
technology, it is possible to spot concealed objects inside plastic box,
underneath cloths paper or similar scenarios. THz frequency domain(~100 GHz - 10 THz) shows a unique feature in the under-used domainof the electromagnetic spectrum which helps to acquire image ofconcealed objects. This property of THz wave makes it useful in variety of
applications. Previously millimeter wave imaging and infrared (IR) imaging
were used for detection of concealed features in an image with limited
success rate. THz imaging helps solving the problem to a great extent
because it can transmit through substances like cloths, paper, plastic,
dried food etc. THz images have poor quality and low signal-to-noiseratio. Noises and related artifacts must be reduced for proper detectionof concealed objects. In this paper, a new technique for artifact reduction
and detection of concealed object is proposed by utilizing nonzero-orderfringe adjusted joint transform correlation (NFJTC) technique. In the
proposed NFJTC technique, the joint power spectrum (JPS) is modified
to obtain the nonzero-order fringe-adjusted joint power spectrum. NFJTC
is already been used for object detection but never been used to detect
concealed object. Test results using real life THz imaging confirm theeffectiveness of the proposed technique.

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The spectral fringe-adjusted joint transform correlation (SFJTC) has
been used effectively for performing deterministic target detection
in hyperspectral imagery. However, experiments show decreased
performance when noise-corrupted spectral variability is present in thetarget signatures. In this paper, we propose to use a modified spectral
fringe-adjusted joint transform correlation based target detection
algorithm, which employs a new real-valued filter called the logarithmic
fringe-adjusted filter (LFAF). Furthermore, the maximum noise fraction(MNF) technique is used for preprocessing the hyperspectral imagery,which makes the SFJTC technique more insensitive to spectral
variability in noisy environment. Test results using real life oil spill based
hyperspectral image datasets show that the proposed scheme yields
better performance compared to alternate techniques.

·

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Conference 8749: Quantum Information and Computation XI
Thursday - Friday 2 –3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8749 Quantum Information and Computation XI

8749-1, Session 1

Quantum energy teleportation enabled bythermal discord
Michael R. Frey, Bucknell Univ. (United States); Masahiro Hotta,
Tohoku University (Japan)
A Heisenberg-coupled qubit pair is a standard model used, for example,
to treat quantum dots and optical lattices. M. Hotta [Physics Letters A,
372, 2008] showed mathematically that quantum energy teleportation(QET) is possible between the two particles in this model—with no energy
carrier and however widely spaced the particles. Hotta’s demonstration of
QET relies on the system’s ground state (zero temperature) entanglement.
We consider more generally a Heisenberg-coupled qubit pair in thermal
equilibrium with a heat bath at any given temperature T. We show that
QET is generally possible with the Hotta protocol at any finite T, whichsuggests that QET has a degree of physical robustness. QET is possible
even at temperatures above the entanglement threshold. This establishes
that entanglement is not essential to QET. The system state of the qubit
pair has positive thermal discord at all finite temperatures, leading to theconclusion that the essential enabler of QET is discord in general and, attemperatures above the entanglement threshold, dissonance in particular.

8749-3, Session 1

Theory for entanglement of electron dressedwith circularly polarized light on grapheneand three-dimensional topological insulators
Andrii Iurov, Godfrey A. Gumbs, Hunter College (United States)
We have formulated a theory for investigating the conditions which
are required to achieve entangled states of electrons on graphene andthree-dimensional (3D) topological insulators. We consider the quantum
entanglement of spins by calculating the exchange energy. A gap is
opened up at the Fermi level between the valence and conduction bands
at zero doping when graphene as well as 3D topological insulators
are irradiated with circularly-polarized light. This energy band gap isdependent on the intensity and frequency of the applied electromagnetic
field. The electron-photon coupling also gives rise to a uniqueenergy dispersion of the dressed states which is different from either
graphene or the conventional two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG).
In our calculations, we obtain the dynamical polarization function for
imaginary frequencies. The polarization function is determined by boththe energy dispersion and the overlap of pseudo-spin wave functions.
The correlation energy is calculated in the random phase approximation(RPA). The application of the derived results to quantum computation will
be discussed.

8749-4, Session 1

The correlation conversion property ofquantum channels: distillable entanglementfrom classical correlation
Laszlo Gyongyosi, Budapest Univ. of Technology and Economics(Hungary) and Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Hungary);
Sandor Imre, Budapest Univ. of Technology and Economics(Hungary)
Transmission of quantum entanglement will play crucial role in future
networks and long-distance quantum communications. Quantum
key distribution, the working mechanism of quantum repeaters or thevarious quantum communication protocols are all based on quantum
entanglement. On the other hand, quantum entanglement is extremely
sensitive to the noise of the communication channel over which it408

is transmitted. To share entanglement between distant points, highfidelity quantum channels are needed. In practice these communication
channels are noisy, which makes no possible – or to extremely hard andexpensive to distribute entanglement. In this work we show that quantum
entanglement can be generated by a fundamentally new idea, exploiting
the most natural effect of the communication channels: the noise. The
noise transformation of communication links that are not able to transmit
quantum entanglement can be used to generate entanglement frompurely classically correlated, unentangled input states. We called thisnew phenomenon to correlation conversion property (CC-property)of communication channels. Our results have serious impacts andfundamental consequences on future’s quantum communications, andon the development of global-scale quantum communication networks.

8749-5, Session 1

Handy elementary algebraic properties of thegeometry of entanglement
Howard A. Blair, Syracuse Univ. (United States); Paul M. Alsing,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
We explore metric-based entanglement measures of pure states interms of our characterization of the separable states as well as therelationship between our characterization and SVD- and Schmidtdecompositions. We also explore the implication of our characterization
for the computational complexity of testing separability and factoringstates. We call the collection of separable vectors of a multipartite
quantum system, which is a hyperbolic surface in an exponentially highdimensional linear space, the separation surface. A vector in the linear
space is representable as an n-dimensional hypermatrix with respect tobases of the component linear spaces. A vector will be on the separation
surface iff every determinant of every 2-by-2 2-dimensional submatrixof the hypermatrix vanishes. This highly rigid constraint can be tested
in time asymptotically proportional to d^2, where d is the number ofcomponents of the system. The constraint on 2-by-2 determinants entails
an elementary closed form formula for a parametric characterization of
the entire separation surface with d-1 parameters in the characterization.
For separable states, the state of a component of the system can becalculated in time O(cd), where c is the dimension of the component, andd is the number of components. If all components of the system haveapproximately the same dimension, the time complexity of calculating
a component state as a function of the parameters is asymptotically
proportional to the time required to sort the basis.

8749-6, Session 1

Entangled photons in remote informationexchange
Reinhard K. Erdmann, Advanced Automation Corp. (UnitedStates); Richard J. Michalak, David H. Hughes, Air Force
Research Lab. (United States)
Implications of entanglement for information exchange are key to both
applications and the foundations of QM. A realizable experiment where
Alice sends a polarization entangled photon to Bob and retains theother, illustrates non-local correlations more clearly with the separation
exaggerated (~1 light year). Alice’s measurement determines Bob’s
outcome (instantly), when the same bases are used. Thus Alice canacquire remote information, not only of Bob’s photon state, but any
macroscopic event predicated on it (“Schrödinger Cat”). Alice cantherefore trigger and then know what transpired a year before anyclassical light signal from the (life-death) event could reach her. Such‘steering’ effects can be generalized to other photon based formats; Alicecan use two sources of photon pairs for entanglement swapping, sowhen a pair of photons is sent to Bob, it becomes (remotely) entangled
at the instant she makes a projection measurement on the retained

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Conference 8749: Quantum Information and Computation XI

pair. Bob can implement similar devices for bilateral effects. Although
this information relay is non-signaling, and does not violate Relativity,
it demonstrates information exchange with no counterpart in classicalphenomena. Entanglement apparently enables forms of information
connectivity that although quite general are not typically observable;
photons are convenient illustrators with minimal interaction-decoherence
effects. It is emphasized that QM can also describe classical phenomena
as a special case, and definite ‘real’ photon states as well as entangled.
Accordingly it is shown that the described results could be achieved inprinciple with photons that were not initially entangled with each other, orwith any other photons.

of different parameters such as efficiency, speed, memory requirements
and computational platforms. We also provide LDPC algorithm
implementations for the following platforms: CPUs, FPGAs and GPUs.

8749-9, Session 2

Verification of light shift imbalance induced
blockade in an atomic ensemble via collective
state Rabi oscillations
May E. Kim, Yanfei Tu, Shih Tseng, Resham Sarkar, Mohamed
Fouda, Selim M. Shahriar, Northwestern Univ. (United States)

8749-7, Session 2

Dynamic high-dimensional quantum key
distribution

Collective excitation of an ensemble of atoms has potential advantages
over excitation of single atoms because of the fact that the vacuum Rabi
frequency scales with the square-root of the number of atoms in theensemble. However, it suffers from the constraint that when the excitation
field contains many photons, there is a cascade of many transitions.
Earlier, we had shown how to circumvent this constraint via a process
called light-shift imbalanced induced blockade (LIB), which restricts
higher order transitions in the collective excitation so that the ensemble
behaves effectively as a single atom. This process does not dependon dipole-interaction among atoms, and can work with any density ofatoms, and is not degraded by a distribution of mean separation between
atoms. Under LIB, the collective excitation can be used for realizing aquantum computer with a relatively large cavity [1]. It can also be used forrealizing an ultrasensitive atom interferometer with a Compton frequency
that scales with the number of atoms [2]. Here, we present a techniquefor demonstrating LIB using Raman-Rabi oscillations in a lambda
system, via coincidence detection in a Hanbury-Brown-Twiss setup. The
approach we present is similar to the technique recently employed fordemonstrating collective excitation in Rydberg-blockaded atoms [3]. We
will describe results of numerical simulations, and present details of ourexperimental efforts towards this demonstration. In particular, we will
illustrate how the fidelity of the LIB process depends on the number ofatoms in the ensemble [1, 4].

Jacob Mower, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (UnitedStates) and Columbia Univ. (United States); Zheshen Zhang,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States);
Pierre Desjardins, Columbia Univ. (United States); Catherine
Lee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States)
and Columbia Univ. (United States); Jeffrey H. Shapiro,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States); Dirk R.
Englund, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States)
and Columbia Univ. (United States)
Quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols employ quantum statesto establish a secret key shared by two parties. High-dimensionalcorrelations further enable (1) the generation of multiple bits per photon(bpp) and (2) potentially higher secret-key transmission rates. Temporaland spectral correlations are particularly appealing because they arerobust during propagation through single-mode fibers and potentiallyturbulent free space. We present QKD protocols that use the temporaland spectral degree of freedom of single- and entangled-photons.

References:

Because the temporal and spectral domains are continuous, the senderand receiver must discretize their measurements to minimize errors due
to both imperfect correlations in the resource state and noisy detectors.
However, with our dispersive optics protocol, they can also dynamicallytune this discretization to account for the properties of the transmission
channel. For example, they can maximize the secret key capacity bychanging the dimensionality of their system exclusively during postprocessing. This protocol allows sender and receiver to share > 100
Mb/s, with > 2 bpp (secure) even considering strong attacks on thetransmission. We describe practical implementation of the protocols
using existing technology.

1. M.S. Shahriar, G.S. Pati, and K. Salit, “Quantum Communication andComputing With Atomic Ensembles Using Light-Shift Imbalance Induced
Blockade,” Physical Review A 75 (2): Art. No. 022323 FEB 2007
2. R. Sarkar, M. Kim, Y. Tu and M.S. Shahriar, “Ultra-High Compton
Frequency Atomic Interferometric Gyroscope Using Collective States,”
Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, Anaheim, CA, May 2012
3. Dudin, Y. O. et al., Observation of coherent many-body Rabi
oscillations. Nature Phys. advance online publication (2012)
4. Y. Tu, M. Kim, R. Sarkar, and M.S. Shahriar “Constraint on Number ofAtoms for Realizing Light-Shift Imbalance Induced Blockade in Collective
Excitation.” Preprint.

8749-8, Session 2

Practical error correction strategies for QKD
key production

8749-10, Session 2

Gaming quantum neural networks

Alan Mink, Anastase Nakassis, National Institute of Standards
and Technology (United States)

Faisal S. Khan, Khalifa Univ. of Science, Technology andResearch (United Arab Emirates); Ahmed El Hady, Max-PlanckInstitut für Dynamik und Selbstorganisation (Germany)

We develop strategies to maximize overall secure key production
within the time constraints available in the error correction stage of
the Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) protocol. In QKD applications
that allow limited quantum channel communications time, such as
between a satellite and ground station or a cell phone and a bank ATM,maximizing the amount of extracted secure key is a prime concern. For
these cases, one can allocate a significant amount of time to the error
correction phase to tenaciously reconcile the data using one-way error
correction codes such as Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) . In terrestrial
applications that have continuous quantum channel connections, where
stations are permanently linked via fiber or free-space, one has a limited
amount of time to accomplish error correction before the next set ofdata arrives to be reconciled. We analyze a number of sets of LDPC
matrices and evaluate their performance characteristic using a number

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Gaming the quantum is a new, game theory inspired approach tothe study of potential equilibrium behavior of quantum informational
processes. Non-cooperative game theory in particular, with its focus
on the identification of equilibrium plays in a game as those plays inwhich every player gives a best response to all other players’ strategic
choices, offers a natural setting for studying optimal outcomes under
given constraints. On the other hand, quantum neural networks suchas quantum perceptron have been recently reported. Quantum neuralnetworks are neural networks built on the principles of quantum
information processing. They have been shown to improve thecomputational efficiency of neural networks and also to be a source ofa novel class of quantum algorithms. In this paper, we bring together·

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Conference 8749: Quantum Information and Computation XI

elements of gaming the quantum from a non-cooperative game theoretic
perspective and quantum perceptron. We show that the learning processof quantum perceptron can be treated as a game where a best responseplay corresponds to the desired state the quantum perceptron learns.
Converging to a desired state can thus be regarded as a zero sum
quantum game. Further, the best response (or desired state) is achievedby updating the weights of the perceptron, a process that can be
regarded as a process of a distance minimization. The aforementioned
efforts to develop a conjecture between gaming the quantum andquantum perceptron open up novel venues of interaction between gametheory, statistical learning theory and quantum mechanics. In our opinion,such an interaction will contribute to the development of a theory oflearning of interacting quantum agents

8749-11, Session 3

A quantum algorithm for Floer homology
based on quantum knots
Samuel J. Lomonaco Jr., Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States) and Princeton Univ. (United States); Louis H.
Kauffman, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago (United States)
We use the mosaic construction for quantum knots to create a quantum
algorithm for computing the Floer Homology of knots.

8749-12, Session 3

Topological quantum computation and thefractional quantum hall effectLouis H. Kauffman, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago (United States);Samuel J. Lomonaco Jr., Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore County(United States)
This talk will review the mathematical structure of models for thefractional quantum Hall effect, using Chern Simons theory, and will relate
the topological structure of the Jones polynomial and the Temperley
Lieb recoupling theory to the structure of anyons (as quasi-particles) inthese models. The purpose of this talk is to clarify these connections
and to relate this information with our work on the Fibonacci model andwith our work on quantum knots. In the case of the Fibonacci model, we
have explored in a purely knot theoretic manner in our previous papers,
founding it on the bracket state sum model of the Jones polynomial andits extension to the Temperley Lieb recoupling theory. This combinatorial
structure is related to the background conformal field theory that relates
this braiding to the behaviour of the Laughlin wave functions and tocollective excitations of electrons in the Hall effect. The intent of thispaper is to draw a clear and concise picture of these relationships.

8749-14, Session 3

Effects of gauge theory based number scalingon geometry
Paul Benioff, Argonne National Lab. (United States)
Earlier work on the effects of number scaling in physics is extended
to include geometry. The basic model used consists of separate
mathematical systems of different types assigned to each point ofa space time manifold, M. Each system type consists of a base set,
operations, relations and constants that satisfy relevant axioms. Separate
systems, Sx, of each type, S, are assigned to each x in M. The model
limits the mathematics available to observers at point z to systems
associated with z. The idea of separate Sx comes from extending gauge
theory, with separate vector spaces, Vx, at each point, x, to include
separate complex number systems, Cx, to each point, x. The freedomof basis choice in Vx is extended to choice freedom of scaling factors
between the different Cx. This is expressed by a real scaling factor,
410

exp(T(y)-T(x)), that relates Cx to Cy. Gauge theory describes T as a scalarboson field. Scaling occurs in the transfer of quantity descriptions at
y to z, or in quantities described by integrals or derivatives over spacetime. Here, scaling effects on physics and geometry are describedwith emphasis on geometry. Included are line elements, curve lengths,
and distances. Specific examples described are T induced expansionof space and T induced black and white scaling holes in space. The
possible mimicking of the effect of dark energy on space by T scaling isnoted.

8749-15, Session 3

A phase-unlocked Hong-Ou-Mandelinterferometer
Timothy M. Yarnall, MIT Lincoln Lab. (United States); Ayman F.
Abouraddy, CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, Univ.
of Central Florida (United States); Giovanni Di Guiseppe, Univ.
degli Studi di Camerino (Italy)
There exists a fundamental dimensional mismatch between the HongOu-Mandel (HOM) interferometer and two-photon states: while the latterare represented using two temporal (or spectral) dimensions, the HOM
interferometer allows access to only one temporal dimension owing to
its single delay element. We introduce a linear two-photon interferometercontaining two independent delays spanning the two-photon state. By‘unlocking’ the fixed phase relationship between the interfering twophoton probability amplitudes in a HOM interferometer, one of theseprobability amplitudes now serves as a delay-free two-photon reference
against which the other beats, thereby resolving ambiguities in twophoton state identification typical of HOM interferometry. We discuss
the operation of this ‘phase-unlocked’ HOM on a variety of input states
focusing on instances where this new interferometer outperforms a
traditional HOM interferometer: frequency-correlated states and states
produced by a pulse doublet pump. Additionally, this interferometer
affords the opportunity to synchronize two-photon states in a manner
analogous to an HOM interferometer; moreover, it extends that capability
to the aforementioned class of states.

8749-35, Session 3

The quantum-classical boundary
Howard E Brandt, Independent (United States)
There is no generally accepted theory of why the world of macroscopic
objects is not usefully described in terms of quantum states. It has
however been speculated that for the description of many-body systemsof sufficient complexity, quantified by the number of atoms of which it iscomposed, quantum mechanics can be replaced by classical mechanics.
Of course for highly correlated mesoscopic systems such as Bose
condensates, a quantum description is needed.
I claim that for objects consisting of Avogadro’s number of atoms, thequantum state represented by the density matrix has vanishing quantum
coherence, so that for all practical purposes the system is best describedby classical mechanics. I argue that this follows from a reasonable upperbound on physically possible proper acceleration [1].
[1] H. E. Brandt, “Microcausality in Quantum Field Theory,” Physica
Scripta, Vol. T151, 014011 (5 pp), (2012), and references therein.

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Conference 8749: Quantum Information and Computation XI

8749-16, Session 4

Homology provides a generalization of the Jones polynomal and thenit is possible to think about of a generalization of the Aharonov.-JonesLandau algorithm. Recently, Lipshitz and Sarkar recently introduced aspace-level refinement of Khovanov homology. which is called Khovanov
Homotopy. This refinement induces a Steenrod square operation Sq^2
on Khovanov homology which they describe explicitly and the somecomputations of Sq^2 were presented. Particularly, examples of links
with identical integral Khovanov homology but with distinct Khovanov
homotopy types were showed. In the presente work we will present
possible quantum algorimhs for the LIpshitz-Sarkar-Steenrod squarefor Khovanov Homolog and their possible simulations using computer
algrebra.

Progress in analytical investigations of theachievement of fault tolerance in quantum
computing
Gerald N. Gilbert, Yaakov S. Weinstein, The MITRE Corp. (UnitedStates)We describe progress made in understanding and assuring fault
tolerance in quantum computation. We introduce and explore analyticaltechniques for explicitly determining the logical state of a quantum
computer undergoing dynamical evolution according to an arbitrary
quantum algorithm. We carry out detailed analyses of the effects oferrors, paying special attention to the general case of non-equiprobableerrors, i.e., the important and realistic situation in which the probabilities
for sigma_x, sigma_y and sigma_z errors are not necessarily the same
(sigma_x, sigma_y and sigma_z are the Pauli operators).

8749-20, Session 4

Dependence of quantum error correction
criteria on concentration of qubits in an iontrap quantum computer
Naoki Fukuda, Shota Sakaguchi, Koji Nakamae, Osaka Univ.
(Japan)8749-17, Session 4

Implementation of quantum game theory
simulations using python

8749-18, Session 4

In an ion-trap quantum computer, quantum bits (qubits) are arranged
on a two-dimensional lattice to perform gate operations. Several qubit
gates form the quantum circuit corresponding to a quantum algorithm.
Movement and standby of ion arise by the operation which participates in
two or more qubits on a two-dimensional lattice. Therefore, when doing
the error rate analysis of a quantum circuit, it is necessary to take thosefactors into consideration. Many researches are made on the optimizationof ion movement and standby scheduling and the error rate analysis
under an optimal initial arrangement of qubits for a specific algorithm.
When doing two or more quantum algorithms continuously on the sametwo-dimensional lattice, the arrangement of trapped ions after somespecific algorithm execution is generally not optimal for the following
algorithm. In this paper, we investigate the relation between the criteria
for quantum error correction and the degree of qubit concentration undera random initial arrangement of qubits. The quantum circuits with andwithout quantum error correction (QEC) for the Grover search algorithm
were used. Simulated results show that the average error rate for thecircuit with QEC is minimized at some value of concentration, while thatwithout QEC decreases as the degree of concentration increases.

Quantum Fourier transform (QFT) over Galois
fields8749-21, Session 4

Alejandro Madrid Sánchez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
This paper provides some examples about quantum games simulatedin Python’s programming language. The quantum games have beendeveloped with the Sympy Python library, which permits solving quantum
problems in a symbolic form. The application of these methods ofquantum mechanics to game theory gives more possibility to achieve
results not possible before. To illustrate the results of these methods, inparticular, there have been simulated the quantum battle of the sexes,
the prisoner’s dilemma and card games. These solutions are able toexceed the classic bottle-neck and obtain optimal quantum strategies.
This way, python demonstrated that is possible to do more advanced andcomplicated quantum games algorithms.

Sergio Rodriguez, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

A quantum way to searching software
engineering

Galois fields are constantly gaining importance in quantum computing
due to their wide usage in quantum error correction algorithms, and so
it becomes relevant to define the QFT over Galois fields because of its
main role in many of the most important quantum algorithms, like Shor’salgorithms. The present article illustrates how to generalize the QFT so
it can be applied over Galois fields and explains several examples of theapplication of the QFT over the simplest Galois fields; it also shows how
to implement Shor’s algorithms over in Galois fields. In particular the QTF
will be defined for the Galois fields F2 and F4, and the quantum factoringalgorithm will be applied to the same fields. As a sub product the newform for the Hadamard matrix for the F2 and F4 fields will be derived
accordingly.

Nan Wu, Haixing Hu, FangMin Song, Nanjing Univ. (China);
Xiangdong Li, New York City College of Technology (UnitedStates)The Search Based Software Engineering (SBSE) is used in the software
engineering to identify optimal solutions. The SBSE uses search based
optimization algorithms, such as Tabu Search, Genetic Algorithms andParticle Swarm Optimisation, etc. In this paper, we propose a rapid
modified Grover quantum searching method as an application in the
SBSE. Theoretically, this method can be applied to any search-spacestructure and any type of searching problems. It is also valuable whenused in the fields of engineering’s request, estimation, software testingand system maintenance.

8749-19, Session 4

Possible quantum algorithm for the LIpshitzSarkar-Steenrod square for Khovanov
homology8749-22, Session 5

Juan F. Ospina, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)

Effective Jaynes-Cummings model from onchip filter in a dc SQUID phase qubit

Recently the celebrated Khovanov Homology was introduced as atarget for Topological Quantum Computation given that the Khovanov

Benjamin K. Cooper, Rangga P. Budoyo, Univ. of Maryland,College Park (United States); Vitaley Zaretskey, Univ. of

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Conference 8749: Quantum Information and Computation XI

Maryland, College Park (United States) and Lab. for PhysicalSciences (United States); Cody J. Ballard, J. R. Anderson, Chris
J. Lobb, Fred C. Wellstood, Univ. of Maryland, College Park
(United States)

8749-25, Session 5

We discuss experiments performed on a dc SQUID phase qubit withlumped element LC filtering on its current bias leads.

John M. Myers, Harvard Univ. (United States); F. Hadi Madjid,Consultant (United States)

Spectroscopic studies of the qubit reveal several extraneous features.
We examine these features in the context of an enlarged circuit modelthat includes the on-chip filter as part of the quantum system. From thismodel we extract an effective Jaynes-Cummings Hamiltonian for thesystem and discuss the spectroscopic results in light of this model.

8749-23, Session 5

Optimal scheme for generating photonic
cluster states
Dmitry Uskov, Brescia Univ. (United States); Michael L. Fanto, Air
Force Research Lab. (United States); A. Matthew Smith, Paul M.
Alsing, U.S. Air Force (United States)
We report on theoretical research in photonic cluster-state computation.
Finding optimal schemes of generating non-classical photonic states is of
crucial importance for this field since physically implementable photonphoton entangling operations are currently limited to measurementassisted stochastic transformations. A critical parameter for assessing
the efficiency and feasibility of such transformations is successprobability of desired measurement outcome. Due to fast progressin quantum optical technology there are several experimental groups
which are capable of generating multi-qubit cluster states (up to six
qubits). Separate photonic qubits are being fused into a single cluster
by destructive C-phase gate(s) with success probability of each gateequal to 1/9. This design mechanically follows the original theoreticalscheme of cluster state generation proposed more than a decade ago by
Raussendorf, Browne and Briegel. The efficiency of destructive C-Phase
gate in application to photonic transformations was never analyzed until
now. Our results demonstrate that this method is by far not the optimal
one. Employing numerical optimization we identified the most efficientmethod of cluster state generation. Success probability of a single
optimal fusion gate in our method is equal to 1/2 for fusing uncoupled
dual-rail qubits and 1/4 for coupling photonic Bell pair states generated
via type-II down-conversion.

8749-24, Session 5

Beyond qubits with spatial modes of light
Enrique J. Galvez, Michael A. Senatore, Xinru Cheng, Brett Rojec,
Colgate Univ. (United States)
We present our investigations on exploring higher-dimensional Hilbert
spaces of two photons. We do this with spatial modes of light. Photon
pairs are prepared in hyperentangled states of polarization and spatial
mode to produce states or polarization qubits and spatial mode qutrits,
ququarts, or in general, qunits. This is because spatial modes reside witha space that is, in principle, of infinite dimension. The main experimental
challenge is to encode desired spatial modes onto two photons. These
are inherently entangled by the process of parametric down-conversion,so we project their spatial mode onto the fundamental mode. Beyond thispoint, the apparatus takes advantage of the polarization entanglementof the photons to encode spatial modes via polarization optics. Spatial
modes are encoded via phase sculpturing of the photon field with spatial
light modulators.

412

Wave functions as theoretical entities taking
part in classical computations

Quantum mechanical wave functions enter into computer calculations:a wave function expressed in a program can take part in the computermediated operation of a feedback loop. The realization of the SI second
depends on such a feedback loop. The feedback takes a momentary
detection rate as an outcome that indicates the state of a quantum
system composed of the outer electron of cesium 133 in the presence of
microwave radiation emitted by a variable oscillator. From the detection
rate, a wave function is chosen, in which the difference between theoscillator frequency and a cesium resonance appears as a parameter.
We describe the impact of unpredictable outcomes of occurrences ofmeasurements on the wave function used in the operation of the cesium
atomic clock that realizes the SI second. Implications for axioms ofquantum theory are delineated.

8749-26, Session 5

Multi-photon interactions in travelling wave
resonators
Stefan F. Preble, Edwin Hach, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States); Ali Elshaari, Benghazi Univ. (Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya)
Here we present a fully quantum mechanical transfer function model for
travelling wave whispering gallery mode resonators. Micro-resonators,
such as ring and disk resonators, have been key to the development ofhigh performance chip-scale photonic systems due to their compact
footprint, sensitivity and low power operation. In this work we present
the first understanding of these resonators to any arbitrary multi-photon
state. This was achieved by developing a model that utilizes an efficient
scheme for determining the quantum electrodynamic transfer functions
relating the Bosonic input/output mode operators in the resonator.
This approach has been applied to the understanding of both single
photon and two-photon states. In this work we will present a key result
on a resonant Hong-Ou-Mandel effect that is inherently realized forany resonator-waveguide coupling constants and can operate over awide range of resonance conditions. Furthermore, the transfer function
approach allows for the straightforward understanding of any resonatorwaveguide network with arbitrary modes. This will directly enable theapplication of quantum resonators to the realization of robust, scalable
and efficient Linear Optical Quantum Computing (LOQC) gates.
Consequently, it is expected that resonators can be used for both
Nonlinear Sign Shift and CNOT gates. And these gates can robustly
controlled and efficiently tuned using standard electro-optic effects
available in a variety of material systems, such as, Silicon.

8749-27, Session 5

Quantum frequency conversion of photons
entangled with atomic memory ensembles
Qudsia Quraishi, Dan Stack, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates); Ian Grissom, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (UnitedStates); Patricia J. Lee, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
One prominent method for storage of quantum information has
been entanglement established between a single photon and aquantum memory given by an ensemble of laser cooled atoms [1].
Telecom photons are certainly advantageous to entangle two remotequantum memories, however atomic memories often emit wavelengths
unfavorable for long haul transmission. Four wave mixing acts as atelecom quantum frequency converter while preserving the encoded

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Conference 8749: Quantum Information and Computation XI

qubit [4]. Experimental verification of storage and retrieval of single
photons entangled with the atoms was aggressively pursued [3,4] after
being first theoretically proposed [1]. We review the status of our setup
which uses laser cooled Rb87 as the quantum memory and four-wave
mixing to perform quantum frequency conversion. A single photon isemitted by, and entangled with, a spin-wave in the atomic ensemble.
Using quantum frequency conversion, the photon is converted into thetelecom band. The long-lived (>microsecond) spin-wave can be readout later by a second read-laser which drives the emission of a second
photon and simultaneously reinitializes the ensemble into the initial state.
Using a PPLN, the telecom photon is converted back into an IR photon.
Such a scheme offers the advantage of a relatively long lived memory
coupled with a telecom single photon for use in quantum repeaters [4].

nonorthogonal states, the minimum probability of error corresponds
to the standard quantum limit (SQL). In the case of coherent states,
measurement of the phase or intensity using coherent or direct detection
can ideally reach the SQL. However, quantum mechanics allows, inprinciple, to discriminate nonorthogonal states with error probabilities
below the SQL.

[4] M. D. Eisaman et al., Nature 438, 837 (2005).

Here we describe the first realization of a quantum receiver that
unconditionally discriminates multiple nonorthogonal states with error
probabilities below the SQL. The receiver uses adaptive measurements
to discriminate four nonorthogonal coherent states different phases.
This scheme performs adaptive measurements using a local oscillator
phase-reference field, where information gained in each measurement isused to modify subsequent measurements, and can discriminate multiple
nonorthogonal states surpassing the SQL. We implement this strategy
using fast feedback and photon-counting to demonstrate the firstquantum receiver that unconditionally discriminates four nonorthogonalcoherent states below the SQL for a wide range of input powers
surpassing this limit by as much as 6 db.

8749-28, Session 68749-30, Session 6

Three dimensional computational ghost
imaging with a signal-pixel detector

Hyper-entanglement based system withenhanced resolution, signal to noise ratio,
and measurement time[1] L.-M. Duan, et. al., Nature 414, 413 (2001).
[2] Sangaurd, et. al. Rev. Mod. Phys. (2011).
[3] T. Chanelière et al., Nature 438, 833 (2005).

Zhipeng Chen, Hu Li, Jianhong Shi, Guihua Zeng, Shanghai Jiao
Tong Univ. (China)

James F. Smith III, U.S. Naval Research Lab. (United States)

Conventional ghost imaging can only obtain two dimensional image
because it only use spatial correlation characteristics of light source. We
describe a three dimensional computational ghost imaging arrangement,
which can obtain three dimensional image of target using only a singlepixel detector. In this configuration, the reflectivity information of target
can be obtained relying spatial correlation, and the elevation informationof one can be obtained relying temporal correlation. We use a spatial
coherent, temporal coherent, monochrome continuous wave laser aslight source, and the light is split into N beams, then sends into fiber
phase modulator to form spatial random, phase random fiber array.
The light generated from this array is collimated after a certain distanceof free propagation, and then the collimated light is sends to target infar field. The echo light reflected from the target is collected by bucket
detector (a single-pixel photodetector). At the same time, the light field
intensity in reference path can be computed using the information offiber phase modulator. Finally, the three dimensional target image canbe reconstructed through correlation computation between single-pixel
data in target path and array data in reference path. Hence, based oncomputational ghost imaging, we can only use a single-pixel detector
to obtain the three dimensional image of target. In the further, thistechnology maybe finds application in remote sense domain.

A hyper-entanglement based atmospheric imaging/detection system
involving only a signal and an ancilla photon will be considered for
optical and infrared frequencies. Only the signal photon will propagate
in the atmosphere and its loss will be classical. The ancilla photon
will remain within the sensor experiencing low loss. Closed form
expressions for the wave function, normalization, density operator,
reduced density operator, symmetrized logarithmic derivative, quantum
Fisher information, quantum Cramer-Rao lower bound, coincidence
probabilities, probability of detection, probability of false alarm,probability of miss, probability of error after M measurements, signal
to noise ratio, quantum Chernoff bound, time-on-target expressions
related to probability of error and resolution will be provided. The effectof noise in every mode will be included as well as loss. The system will
provide the basic design for an imaging/detection systems functioningat optical or infrared frequencies that offers better than classical range
and bearing resolution. Optimization of the enhanced resolution will be
included. The signal to noise ratio will be increased by a factor equal to
the number of modes employed during the hyper-entanglement process.
Likewise, the measurement time will be reduced by the same factor. The
hyper-entanglement generator will typically make use of entanglement inpolarization, energy-time, orbital angular momentum, etc. Mathematicaland numerical results will be provided describing the system’s
performance as a function of propagation loss, system loss, noise, andtarget reflectivity.

8749-29, Session 6

Demonstration of multiple nonorthogonalstate discrimination below the standard
quantum limit

8749-31, Session 6

Francisco E. Becerra, Jingyun Fan, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States); Julius Goldhar,
Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States); Gerald B.
Baumgartner, Jon Kosloski, Lab. for Telecommunications
Sciences (United States); Alan L. Migdall, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States)

Sergey Ermishin, Alexandra Korol, Althaven Technology (Belarus)

Increasing the accuracy of measurements,
based on the solution of Pauli’s quantum
equation
There is measurements principle, that ensure increasing accuracy ofmeasurements based on redundant measurements. Increasing accuracyof measurements by methods of mathematical data processing insures
minimum expenses on the effect of accuracy of measurements. The
effect of increasing the accuracy does not correspond with the costs ofadditional measurements. Quantization of the parent entity on structuralintervals is needed for solve the task of increasing the accuracy of two
measuring instruments. Main properties of the solution is discrete methodwith a surge of probability within the parent entity and comparison agraph of the probability distribution for the diffraction grids with the

Quantum mechanics sets limits on how well we can determine thestate of a quantum system. In particular, nonorthogonal states, such as
coherent states, cannot be discriminated with total certainty because of
their intrinsic overlap. Thus, any kind of deterministic measurement thataims to determine the state of the system will have some probability oferroneously identifying this state. When the discrimination is performedby directly measuring the physical property differentiating these

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413

Conference 8749: Quantum Information and Computation XIgraph of probability density function. Method base on the analog of Pauliequation solution.The method of electronic reference measurements withquantum computing applied to mathematical data processing allows
to greatly increase the credibility and accuracy of measurements at low
cost. The simulation and experimental results are discussed.

8749-32, Session 6

Quantum image processing using GaussianHermite filters
Esteban Soto Tirado, Univ. EAFIT (Colombia)
Some new filters for image processing are obtained from the wave
functions of the two-dimensional quantum oscillator. Such filters are
gaussians multiplied by Hermite polynomials and for this reason they
will called Gaussian-Hermite filters. These new quantum filters canbe used as smoothing filters and they show good performance whenelimination of noise is concerned. Besides of this the new quantum
filters can be used to define blurred derivatives and blurred Laplacians
for images and in this case the quantum filters are excellent edge
detectors. Finally the quantum filters and their derivatives are used todefine quantum curvature filters as the Ricci-scalar-curvature filter and
the Gaussian-curvature filter. In this last case the quantum filters perform
well as curvature detectors and contrast enhancement operators. Our
experimental results show that the quantum filters are more efficient thanthe classical filters and we claim that the quantum image processing will
be a very important trend in the near future sensing technology.

8749-34, Session 6

The photonic nanowire: an emerging platform
for highly efficient single-photon sources forquantum information applications
Niels Gregersen, Jesper Mørk, Technical Univ. of Denmark(Denmark); Julien Claudon, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique(France); Mathieu Munsch, Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique(Switzerland); Nitin Singh Malik, Joël Bleuse, Emmanuel Dupuy,
Adrien Delga, Jean-Michel Gerard, Commissariat à l’Énergie
Atomique (France)
The development of highly efficient solid-state sources of single
photons is a major challenge within the fields of quantum information
processing and communication. Optimizing the coupling between alocalized quantum emitter and a well defined optical channel represents a
powerful route to realise such bright sources of non-classical light states.
Reversibly, the efficient absorption of a photon impinging on the emitteris key to realise a spin-photon interface, the node of future quantum
networks.
In this context, the tailored fiber-like photonic nanowire embedding asingle quantum dot has recently demonstrated an appealing potential.
This structure features no cavity and relies on a geometrical screening ofradiation modes rather than resonant effects to ensure a strong coupling
between the quantum dot and the optical waveguide mode. Thisapproach renders the system broadband, a huge practical advantage.
Additionally, the implementation of a sharp needle-like taper allows forstrongly directed light emission, however, the performance of this taper issensitive to minute geometrical details on the order of 1 degree.
We now introduce the photonic trumpet, the result of the opposite
tapering strategy, and show that this structure offers a unique
combination of broad operation bandwidth, relaxed fabrication
tolerances, high extraction efficiency and clean Gaussian far-fieldemission. We demonstrate a first implementation of this approachthrough the demonstration of a very bright single-photon source. Itfeatures a first-lens external efficiency of 0.75 ± 0.1 and a record-highexternal coupling efficiency to a Gaussian beam of 0.61 ± 0.08.

414

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XI
Wednesday - Friday 1 –3 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8750 Independent Component Analyses, Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net,
Biosystems, and Nanoengineering XI
directions. We consider a comprehensive approach to the directionalsignal analysis and redundant representation, giving preference to thedesigns that allow for associated fast discrete transforms. This model
combines the advantages of multiscale directionality and non-locality
with the convenience of sparse representations.

8750-1, Session 1

Group theoretical methods and wavelet
theory (coorbit theory and applications)(Invited Paper)

The new methods described in our work are based on the previous
research by the first author, which demonstrated that by employing
the proper choice of functional components in directional signal
representations, we can isolate directional information, while at the sametime, effectively characterizing the underlying variation. This makes it
applicable to many geostatistical problems.

Hans G. Feichtinger, Univ. Wien (Austria)
It is a long way since wavelet theory and time-frequency analysis havefound a great deal of attention, as two different ways of decomposing
signals in orthogonal or also non-orthogonal ways. The unifying theory,
covering both cases, destilling from these two situations the common
group theoretical background lead to the theory of coorbit spaces.
Starting from an integrable and irreducible representation of somelocally compact group (such as the “ax+b”-group or the Heisenberg
group) one can derive families of Banach spaces having natural atomic
characterizations, or alternatively a continuous transform associated to it.

The innovation resides in our ability to analyze multiscale, multidirectional
information in data, and to perform lossless and lossy reconstruction ina simple and computationally efficient manner. The specific construction
involves: design of direct and inverse fast transforms implemented bysparse matrices, study of built-in angular representation content, andlocal rescaling for enhanced directional resolution. The proposed modelyields computationally efficient multirectional data representations thatare well suited for the solution of diverse inverse problems, in particular,
for image enhancement or restoration.

While unification of these two groups, also making the analogy to Banach
spaces of analytic functions invariant under the Moebius group havebeen at the heart of the orginal theory recent years have seen further new
instances and generalizations. Among them shearlets or the Blaschke
product should be mentioned here.

8750-4, Session 3

The talk will try to summarize a few of the general principles which canbe derived from the general theory, but also highlight the difference
between the different groups and signal expansions arising fromcorresponding group representations. There is still a lot to be done, also
from the point of view of applications and the numerical realization ofsuch non-orthogonal expansions.

Multi-frequency resolution method for
distortion-free signal extraction fromconvolutive mixtures (Invited Paper)
Soo-Young Lee, KAIST (Korea, Republic of)
Although the frequency-domain blind signal extraction (fdBSE) algorithm
has been quite successful to extract a speech signal from convolutive
mixtures, the inherent scaling problem results in severe distortion in theextracted speech signals. In this paper a new algorithm for distortion-free
fdBSE is reported based on multivariate frequency-domain independent
component analysis (ICA). The scaling indeterminacy of frequencydomain ICA has been resolved by conducting ICAs in multiple frequency
resolutions and imposing specific relationship among the multi-resolution
frequency components. The resulting fdBSE algorithm demonstrated
much less signal distortion and much better speech quality.

8750-2, Session 2

Composite wavelet representations forreconstruction of missing data (Invited Paper)
Wojtek Czaja, Julia Dobrosotskaya, Benjamin Manning, Univ. of
Maryland, College Park (United States)
We shall introduce a novel methodology for data reconstruction
and recovery, based on composite wavelet representations. These
representations include shearlets and crystallographic wavelets,
among others, and they allow for an increased directional sensitivity incomparison with the standard multiscale techniques. Our new approachallows us to recover missing data, due to sparsity of composite wavelet
representations, especially when compared to inpainting algorithms
induced by traditional wavelet representations, and also due to theflexibility of our variational approach. Applications of this new recovery
method include image inpainting for high-dimensional data, such as, e.g.,
hyperspectral satellite imagery.

8750-5, Session 3

Emotional state and its impact on voiceauthentication accuracy (Invited Paper)
Miroslav Voznak, Pavol Partila, Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech
Republic); Marek Penhaker, VSB-Technical Unversity of Ostrava(Czech Republic); Tomas Peterek, VSB-Technical Universityof Ostrava (Czech Republic); Karel Tomala, Filip Rezac, Jakub
Safarik, Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)

8750-3, Session 2

Multiscale and multidirectional tight frames
for image analysis (Invited Paper)

The paper discusses a system enabling to determine the emotional statefrom voice, and its application in improving biometric authentication
accuracy. Today, because of concerns about security risks in bothprivate companies and government institutions, security systems of thehighest quality are implemented with the aim to authorize individuals andpermit them access to the premises of institution or to the informationand communication network. The most hi-tech way to authenticate andidentify authenticated users (workers, employees, contractors, etc.)
is biometrics. Biometric systems contain very accurate identification
features such as fingerprint or retinal scans but are also above standard
and require expensive equipment. On the other hand, the integration

Edward H. Bosch, Alexey Castrodad, National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (United States); Wojtek Czaja, Julia
Dobrosotskaya, Univ. of Maryland, College Park (United States);
John S. Cooper, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (UnitedStates)We propose an original idea for constructing 2D tight frames that provide
a new way to analyze, visualize and process data at multiple scales andReturn to Contents+1 360 676 3290·

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XIof biometric systems based on voice identification does not currently
require much effort as the basic service in communication infrastructure
is voice service. However, voice authentication is considered to be lessprecise because it can be affected by noise and the speaker’s emotional
state. During the first registration, voice parameters are recorded in aneutral emotional state. Speech processing algorithm, further describedin this article, extracts segmental parameters from speaker sound signal.
These parameters, such as Mel Frequency Cepstrum Coeficients, Zero
Crossing Rate, and Fundamental Frequency train and shape Kohonen’s
self-organizing map. The neural network classifier detects whether the
speaker who wishes to authenticate is in a stressful emotional state.
The functionality between parameters in different emotional states isexpressed by regression analysis. This relationship prevents unjust
rejection and our approach could improve the successfulness of
biometric systems based on voice identification.

8750-6, Session 4

Audio source separation with multiple
microphones on time-frequency
representations (Invited Paper)
Hiroshi Sawada, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corp. (Japan)
This paper presents various source separation methods that utilize
multiple microphones. We classify them into two classes. Methods inthe first one apply independent component analysis (ICA) or Gaussian
mixture model (GMM) to frequency bin-wise observations, and then solve
the permutation problem to reconstruct separated signals. The second
method extends non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) to a multimicrophone situation, in which NMF bases are clustered according totheir spatial properties. We have a unified understanding that all methods
analyze a time-frequency representation with an additional microphoneaxis.

8750-7, Session 5

Optimization of object region and boundary
extraction by energy minimization for activity
recognition
Fatema A. Albalooshi, Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton (UnitedStates)Automatic video segmentation for human activity recognition has played
an important role in several computer vision applications. Active contour
model (ACM) has been used extensively for unsupervised adaptive
segmentation and automatic object region and boundary extraction
in video sequences. This paper presents optimizing Active Contour
Model using Hopfield Neural Network (HNN) for automatic object region
and boundary extraction in human activity video sequences. Taking
advantage of the collective computational ability and energy convergencecapability of the Hopfield Neural Network, energy function of Active
Contour Model is optimized with lower computational time. The systemstarts with initializing HNN state based on the initial boundary points andends up with final states of neurons which represent actual boundary
points of human body region. The initial contour of the Active Contour
Model is computed using background subtraction based on Gaussian
Mixture Model (GMM) such that background model is built dynamicallyand regularly updated to overcome different problems including
illumination changes, camera oscillations, and changes in backgroundgeometry. The recurrent nature of the Hopfield neural network is usefulfor dealing with optimization problems due to its dynamic nature, thus,
ensuring convergence of the system. With the parallel processing
potential of Hopfield neural networks, the proposed boundary detection
and region extraction can be used for real time processing. This method
results in an effective segmentation that is less sensitive to noise andcomplex environments. Experiments on different databases of humanactivity show that our method is effective and can be used for real-timevideo segmentation.
416

8750-8, Session 5

Automated analysis of texture features fornon-masses
Anke Meyer-Baese, The Florida State Univ. (United States)
The evaluation of texture features of non-masses represents achallenging task for an automated analysis and is of crucial importancefor advancing current computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) systems.
Compared to the well-characterized mass-enhancing lesions, nonmasses have not well-defined and blurred tumor borders and a kinetic
behavior that is not easily generalizable and thus discriminative formalignant and benign non-masses. A solution to this problem is provided
by texture signatures sensitive to direction changes applied directly tothe tumor such that they to capture the joint spatio-temporal behavior ofthese lesions. We additionally consider the impact of non-rigid motion
compensation on a correct diagnosis and provide an automated CAD
system of high specificity and sensitivity.

8750-9, Session 6

Wavelet neural networks for stock tradingand prediction (Invited Paper)
Lipo Wang, Nanyang Technological Univ. (Singapore)
This paper explores the application of a wavelet neural network (WNN),
whose hidden layer is comprised of “adaptive wavelons” – neurons using
adjustable wavelets as activation functions, to stock prediction. We
discuss some basic rationales behind technical analysis, and based on
which, inputs of the prediction system are carefully selected. This systemis tested on Istanbul Stock Exchange National 100 Index and comparedwith traditional neural networks. The results show that the WNN canachieve very good prediction accuracy.

8750-10, Session 6

Comparative analysis of filtered backprojection algorithms in optoacoustic
endoscopy using ultrasonic optic sensors for
Intravascular Imaging (Invited Paper)
Horacio Lamela Rivera, Pablo González, Pedro F. Escudero,
Antonio Rincon, Omar de Varona, Daniel C. Gallego, Univ. Carlos
III de Madrid (Spain)
OptoAcoustic Imaging (OAI) is a new biomedical imaging technology
based on the use of laser-generated ultrasound. It is a hybrid modality,
combining the high-contrast and spectroscopic-based specificity of
optical imaging with the high spatial resolution of ultrasound imaging.
It offers visualization of optical contrast in tissues, as a consequence,
it has greater specificity than conventional ultrasound imaging with theability to detect haemoglobin, lipids, water and other light-absorbing
chromophores (Dima & Ntziachristos, Expert Opinion on Medical
Diagnostics, May 2011).
In the context of intravascular imaging, OAI provides interesting
advantages compared to ultrasound imaging and other classicaltechniques in fields such as atherosclerosis diagnosis and treatment(van Soest et al., SPIE Photons Plus Ultrasound: Imaging and Sensing
2011 Vol. 7899) or coronary stents assessment and check, which luck
endogenous ultrasound contrast (Karpiouk AB, Wang B, Emelianov SY.,
Rev Sci Instruments 2010).
In this work, we present the results of an optoacoustic intravascularendoscope based on a laser beam rotated within the vessel and moved
lengthwise through it, and an interferometric ultrasonic sensor (H.
Lamela, D. Gallego, A. Oraevsky, Optics Letters 2009; D. Gallego, H.
Lamela, M. Wang, J. Hiltunen, M. Kinnunen, R. Myllylä, SPIE PW 2012
Vol. 8370), modeling an integrating line sensor. The system is tested over

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XI
different absorbent geometries, showing the capabilities and limitationsof the algorithms.

evaluation of efficiency of wavelet transformation to suppress noise invoice samples.

To obtain optoacoustic intravascular images in this scheme, someapproximate time-domain filtered back-projection (FBP) reconstruction
algorithms will be used. In order to sharpen object boundaries while
simultaneously preserving high contrast of the reconstructed objects, awavelet transform implementation using a wavelet family resembling thetheoretical N-shaped OA signal can be used. Wavelet transform has been
established in the signal processing community as a superior tool for
localization of specified signal profiles. Comparison of results provided
by the universal back-projection formula and a wavelet-based radial BP
algorithm will be presented.

8750-13, Session 7

Blind deconvolution using convex
programming (Invited Paper)
Justin K. Romberg, Georgia Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)
We consider the problem of recovering two unknown vectors, $w$ and$x$, of length $L$ from their circular convolution. We make the structural
assumption that the two vectors are members known subspaces, onewith dimension $N$ and the other with dimension $K$. Although theobserved convolution is nonlinear in both $w$ and $x$, it is linear in therank-1 matrix formed by their outer product $wx^*$. This observation
allows us to recast the deconvolution problem as low-rank matrix
recovery problem from linear measurements, whose natural convex
relaxation is a nuclear norm minimization program.

8750-11, Session 6

Artificial neural networks (AANs) as
compared to partial least squares (PLS) for
spectral interference correction (Invited Paper)
Z. Li, Vassili Karanassios, Univ. of Waterloo (Canada)

We prove the effectiveness of this relaxation by showing that for``generic’’ signals, the program can deconvolve $w$ and $x$ exactly
when the maximum of $N$ and $K$ is almost on the order of $L$. Thatis, we show that if $x$ is drawn from a random subspace of dimension$N$, and $w$ is a vector in a subspace of dimension $K$ whose basis
vectors are ``spread out’’ in the frequency domain, then nuclear norm
minimization recovers $wx^*$ without error.

Spectral interferences arising from direct or wing-type spectral overlaps
are a key concern in elemental analysis by inductively coupled plasma(ICP) and microplasma optical emission spectrometry. Spectralinterferences are addressed using a variety of methods, including artificial
neural networks (ANNs) [1] and partial least squares (PLS). In this paper,
the application of ANNs and PLS for spectral interference correction is
described in some detail and the two methods will be compared andcontrasted.

8750-14, Session 8

1. Z. Li, S. Huang and V. Karanassios, Further development of artificial
neural networks for spectral interference correction in optical emission
spectrometry, Proc. of SPIE, 8401, 84010Y1-84010Y7 (2012) (doi:
10.1117/12.919570)

Compressive sensing effects on human visualsystem-based passive ranging
Jae H. Cha, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)

8750-12, Session 6

Analysis and removing noise from the speech
signal using wavelet transforms

Passive ranging in the computer vision is known to have the Marr’s
paradox, when two or more distant light sources exist in the field ofview. As a matter of fact, human visual system (HVS) can easily resolve
the paradox by varying the head position from the left to the rightthat removes the ambiguity due to true point targets mixed with false
triangulation ghost targets. HVS compares the relative point target
displacements due to the left and right head movements, which isequivalent to using 3 pairs of eyes. On the other hand, an optics bench
experience tells us that one can also perform this HVS feat with one eyeclosed. This fact suggests that HVS pair of eyes might be oversamplingof two-eye video image data. Therefore, we explore whether thecompressive sensing (CS) mathematics, introduced recently in 2007 by
Candes, Romberg, Tao & Donohoe, can reduce the amount of simulated
HVS video image data, their storage requirement, and computationalburden. Here, from the perspective of a novel HVS approach to thepersistent surveillance for affordable passive ranging, we analyze
the information-specific minimum sensing methodology via CS anddemonstrate its effectiveness in terms of storage size, processing speed
and measurement accuracy.

Karel Tomala, Miroslav Voznak, Pavol Partila, Filip Rezac, Jakub
Safarik, Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
The paper discusses the use of DWT (Discrete Wavelet Transform) andSWT (Stationary Wavelet Transform) wavelet transforms in removing noisefrom voice samples and evaluation of its impact on speech quality. One
significant part of QoS (Quality of Service) in communication technology
is the speech quality assessment. However, this part is seriously
overlooked as telecommunication providers often focus on increasing
network capacity, expansion of services offered and their enforcementin the market. Among the fundamental factors affecting the transmission
properties of the communication chain is noise, either at the transmitteror the receiver side. A wavelet transform (WT) is a modern tool for signal
processing. WT was originally used mainly in image compression but
gradually its activity and usage expanded to include audio signals. Oneof the most significant areas in which wavelet transforms are used isapplications designed to suppress noise in signals. To remove noise fromthe voice sample in our experiment, we used the reference segment of
the voice which was distorted by Gaussian white noise. An evaluation of
the impact on speech quality was carried out by an intrusive objective
algorithm PESQ (Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality). PESQ
algorithm is specified in recommendation ITU-T P.862 and provides
speech quality scores by comparing reference (sent) and degraded(received) speech samples. The input or test speech signals have to behigh-quality, well-calibrated and well-defined speech signals conforming
to those specified in P.862. DWT and SWT transformation was applied tovoice samples that were devalued by Gaussian white noise. Afterwards
we determined the effectiveness of DWT and SWT by means of objective
algorithm PESQ. The decisive criterion for determining the quality of avoice sample once the noise had been removed was MOS (Mean Opinion
Score) which we obtained in PESQ. The contribution of this work lies in

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8750-15, Session 8

Feature-organized sparseness for efficient
face recognition from multiple poses
Tomo Iwamura, Japan Ministry of Defense (Japan)
Current compressive sensing (CS) is not post-processing compression
by the standard JPEG 2000, rather at image acquisition level as a preprocessing to minimize the redundancy as in CRT&D algorithms (IEEE/IT,
2007). We found a sparse representation of facial database as advocatedby Ma et al (IEEE/PAMI, 2009) to be useful representation for a secured
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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XI
sun-glass covered eyes pixels.
In this research paper, we discovered, based on the experience of
Human Visual System (HVS), that a robust class separation of faces
may be based on the mutual distances among parts of the faces, rather
than detail pixels. For example, the mutual distances among eyes,nose and mouth on a individual that will be insensitive to the skewed
projections taken by different camera angles, may therefore help us
separate young children from matured adults. We assert that such asparse representation that can preserve the parts’ mutual distance isthe main topological reason for the rapid facial recognition in a large
database. Recently, a massive parallel camera’s System of Chip (SOC)that can cut faces by color tone of all faces into identical sizes boxes in
0.04 sec. Then, if we follow our thesis of robust representation in termsof parts’ size and topological distances, then we have a rapid and natural
sparse representation to accomplish an instantaneous recognition,
as demonstrated early in an underground parking lot by Mitsubishi
surveillance camera.
This realization will be useful for a Smartphone camera spotting a friendly
face among a crowd in stadium.

8750-16, Session 8

Adaptive sparse signal processing of on-orbit
lightning data using learned dictionaries
Daniela I. Moody, David A. Smith, Los Alamos National Lab.
(United States)
For the past two decades, there has been an ongoing research effort
at Los Alamos National Laboratory to learn more about the Earth’s
radiofrequency (RF) background utilizing satellite-based RF observationsof terrestrial lightning. The Fast On-orbit Recording of Transient Events(FORTE) satellite provided a rich RF lighting database, comprisingof five years of data recorded from its two RF payloads. While someclassification work has been done previously on the FORTE RF database,application of modern pattern recognition techniques may further
lightning research in the scientific community and potentially improve onorbit processing and event discrimination capabilities for future satellite
payloads. We now develop and implement new event classification
capability on the FORTE database using state-of-the-art adaptive signal
processing combined with compressive sensing and machine learningtechniques. The focus of our work is improved feature extraction using
sparse representations in learned dictionaries. Conventional localized
data representations for RF transients using analytical dictionaries,
such as a short-time Fourier basis or wavelets, can be suitable foranalyzing some types of signals, but not others. Instead, we learn RF
dictionaries directly from data, without relying on analytical constraints
or additional knowledge about the signal characteristics, using several
established machine learning algorithms. Sparse classification features
are extracted via matching pursuit search over the learned dictionaries,
and used in conjunction with a statistical classifier to distinguish between
lightning types. We present preliminary results of our work and discussclassification performance and future development.

8750-18, Session 9

Hyperspectral waveband group optimization
for time-resolved human sensing
Balvinder Kaur, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States); Jill K. Nelson, George Mason Univ.
(United States); Andrew J. Hutchinson, Van A. Hodgkin, U.S.
Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate (UnitedStates); Vasiliki N. Ikonomidou, George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates)Pulse and respiration rates provide vital information for evaluating thephysiological state of an individual during triage. Traditionally, pulse andrespiration have been tracked by means of contact sensors. Recent work418

has shown that visible cameras can passively and remotely obtain pulse
signals under controlled environmental conditions [1, 3, 5, and 9]. This
paper introduces a methodology for determining pulse and respiration
signals from skin reflectivity data captured in the silicon range (400nm1100nm). Based on the physiological understanding [3, 5, 6, and 7] ofhuman skin and reflectivity at various skin depths, we optimize a group of
bands to determine pulse and respiration with high Peak Signal-to-Noise
Ratio (PSNR) and correlation values [2 and 4]. This work, collected under
an approved IRB protocol, provides not only a new image processing
tool for determining pulse and respiration signals from skin reflectivity inthe hyperspectral visible range, but also enhances non-contact, remote,passive, and real-time measurement of pulse and respiration for security
and medical applications.
References:
1. Bersha, K. “Spectral Imaging and analysis of Human Skin.” Masterthesis report. University of Eastern Finland, Jun 2010.
2. Comon, P. “Independent Component Analysis, A new concept?”
Elsevier, Signal Processing, 1994.
3. Doohan, J. “BioMed 108-Human Physiology: Circulatory System,”
http://www.biosbcc.net/doohan/sample/htm/vessels.htm
4. Hsu, M.K, Lee, T., Szu, H. “Asymmetric Graph Theory for persistence
surveillance,” In: “ICA, Wavelet Conference,” SPIE 2010 Orlando.
5. “Human Skin.” Natural Phenomena Simulation Group. University ofWaterloo. http://www.npsg.uwaterloo.ca/data/skin.php
6. Israel, S. A., Irvine, J., Wiederhold, M. B. K. and Wiederhold, M. D.
“The heartbeat: the living biometric,” in Biometrics: Theory, Methods, andApplications, N. V. Boulgouris, E. Micheli-Tzanakou, and K. N. Plataniotis,
Eds., Wiley-IEEE Press, New York, NY, USA, 2009.
7. Kamal, A.A.R., Harness, J.B., Irving, G., and Mearns, A.J., “Skinphotoplethysmography – a review.” Computer Methods and Programs in
Biomedicine, Elsevier, 1989.
8. NASA Office of Mission to Planet Earth, “A Guide to Teaching Earth
System Science” Mar. 1994
9. Poh, Ming-Zher, Daniel J. McDuff, and Rosalind W. Picard.
“Noncontact, automated cardiac pulse measurements using video
imaging and blind source separation.” Optical Society of America. Optics
Express, 2011.
10. Roy, C.S. and Brown, G. “The Blood - Pressure and Its Variations in
the Arterioles, Capillaries and Smaller Veins.” jp.physoc.org.

8750-19, Session 9

Decoupling sparse coding of SIFT descriptors
for large-scale visual recognition
Zhengping Ji, James Theiler, Rick Chartrand, Los Alamos
National Lab. (United States); Garrett Kenyon, Los Alamos
National Laboratory (United States); Steven P. Brumby, Los
Alamos National Lab. (United States)
Sparse coding draws amount of research attention in recent years, andhas been widely applied to generate better representation for visual
recognition problems. The conventional sparse coding is to reconstruct
image patches (in format of raw pixels) using a linear combination of a setof basis functions and a sparse coefficient vector. In this paper, we devise
sparse coding algorithms to learn a new dictionary of basis functions
given the SIFT descriptors extracted from images. The learned dictionary
is used to code SIFT-based inputs for the feature representation that isfurther pooled via spatial pyramid matching kernels and fed into SVM
for the object classification on large-scale ImageNet database. We
investigate the advantage of SIFT-based sparse coding approach bycombining different dictionary learning methods and SIFT feature coding
algorithms. With respect to the classification performance, it shows thatthe choice of feature coding algorithms is more important than that of
dictionary learning. Based on this observation, we further evaluate theclassification performance using a dictionary imprinted with random SIFT
samples, which means no learning involves in the dictionary generation.
Surprisingly, compared to several learned dictionaries, we reach a

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XI

8750-22, Session 9comparable performance using this computationally “cheap” random
dictionary coupled with aforementioned SIFT feature coding algorithms.
Our results also include state-of-the-art performance on different subsets
of ImageNet database.

Noise SAR imagery compressing andreconstruction based on compressed sensing
Huihuang Zhao, Hengyang Normal Univ. (China); Juan Lopez,
Yufeng Cao, Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan American(United States)

8750-20, Session 9

A study of the coherence parameter of the
progressive compressive imager based on
Radon transform

Compressed sensing (CS) is a sampling paradigm that provides thesignal compression at a rate significantly below the Nyquist rate. It isbased on that a sparse or compressible signal can be represented by
the fewer number of bases than the one required by Nyquist theorem,
when it is mapped to the space with bases incoherent to the bases of thesparse space. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems are all-weather,night and day, imaging systems. Due to the low computational resourcesof the acquisition platforms and the steadily increasing resolution of SAR
systems, the data cannot generally be processed on board and must be
stored or transmitted to the ground where the image formation process
is performed. The amount of image data produced is now constrainedby on board storage capabilities and transmission links. However, inpractical applications, the transform coefficients of SAR images usually
have weak sparsity, especially when it includes speckle noise thatarises from an imaging device and strongly hinders data interpretation.
Exactly reconstructing these noise images is very challenging. In thispaper, we introduce an improved approach to radar noise imaging
based on the concept of CS. Orthogonal matching pursuit is applied toeach signal in the ensemble to reconstruct noisy outputs. And in CS, an
incoherent linear projection is used to acquire an efficient representationof a compressible signal directly using just a few measurements.
Interestingly, random projections play a major role. The noise image isthen reconstructed by solving an inverse problem. The experiments will
be conducted to compare with the conventional methods in Noise SAR
image compressing and reconstruction.

Vladimir Farber, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel); Elman
Eduard, Ben Gurion Univ of the Negev (Israel); Yair Rivenson,
Adrian Stern, Ben-Gurion Univ. of the Negev (Israel)
We have recently introduced a progressive compressing sensing method
based on an appropriate sampling scheme of optical Radon projections.
The progressive compressive sampling technique has permitted what is
to bets of our knowledge the first demonstration of optically Megapixel
size compressive sensing imaging. The progressive compressing sensing
technique is based on an earlier technique that basically captures
optically Radon projections at equiangular steps. A line array sensor isused to collect the optical Radon projections Progressive informationacquisition is obtained by choosing the angular sampling to be of thesize of the golden angle. This way new information is acquired witheach angular sampling step thus permitting gradual improvement of
the reconstructed image. In this paper we investigate the coherence
parameter of the progressive sampling scheme based on golden angles
sampling steps. A comparison between the progressive sampling
schemes with the conventional one based on uniform sampling is given
in terms of their coherence parameter

8750-21, Session 98750-43, Session 9

Mammogram superresolution reconstruction
based on compressive sampling

Compressive feedback for real-time control:
compressive sensing beyond sensing

Yan Shen, Houjin Chen, Chang Yao, Jupeng Li, Beijing Jiaotong
Univ. (China); Zhijun G. Qiao, The Univ. of Texas-Pan American(United States)

Ning Xi, Michigan State Univ. (United States)
The ultimate goal of sensing is to use sensory information to makedecision either by human or computer. The compressive feedback means
the feedback information in a control system is compressed or obtained
from compressive sensing. This new feedback method can significantly
reduce sensing time. Therefore, high performance real time control canbe achieved even for systems with slow sensory feedbacks. The questionis how to use such compressive information to control a real-timesystem. In this talk, the theoretical foundation as well as implementation
methods for modeling, analysis and design of compressive feedback
will be presented. Two application examples, automatic target tracking
control and high precision nano motion control, will be discussed. The
experimental testing results will also be presented.

Detection of calcification in mammogram is important in breast cancer
determination. An improved super-resolution reconstruction method of
mammogram based on compressive sampling is proposed to accurately
extract calcification in mammogram. Mammogram patches can be
represented as a sparse linear combination of elements chosen fromover-complete dictionary. The sparse representation for each patch of the
low-resolution can be used to generate the high-resolution image patch.
The dictionaries for low and high resolution image patches are trained
jointly. The sparse representation of a low resolution image patch canbe applied with the high resolution image patch. The learned dictionary
pair is a more compact representation of the patch pairs. First of all, thesuper-resolution model is established according to the characteristic of
mammogram and compressive sampling. Secondly, the low and highresolution dictionary are trained together, the high dictionary is obtained
to reconstruct the mammogram. Thirdly, solve the optimization problem
to get the high-resolution reconstructed patch, the detail algorithm isgiven for mammogram super-reconstruction. Finally, put the patches
together to obtain the final high-resolution mammogram. Compared withother super-resolution methods, the proposed method can reduce thecomputational cost efficiently and reserve the edges of calcification. The
calcification in mammogram can be extracted and judged accurately.

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8750-23, Session 10

Three dimensional self-assembly at thenanoscale (Invited Paper)David H Gracias, Johns Hopkins University (United States)
No Abstract Available.

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XI

8750-24, Session 11

8750-26, Session 11

Gadolinium nanoparticles studies by using
coded optoacoustic signals with two lasers
for dual-mode biomedical imaging

Segmentation and kinetic analysis of nonmass-enhancing lesions in dynamic contrast
enhanced magnetic resonance Imaging

Pedro F. Escudero Sr., Daniel C. Gallego, Horacio Lamela
Rivera, Fernando Herranz, Univ. Carlos III de Madrid (Spain);
Hugo Amary Groult, Jesús Maria Ruiz-Cabello, Nacional deInvestigaciones Cardiovasculares (Spain)

Anke Meyer-Baese, The Florida State Univ. (United States);
Sebastian M. Goebl, Ludwig-Maximilians-Univ. München(Germany)

Since the medical use approval of Gadolinium (Gd) in 2004 by the Foodand Drug Administration (FDA), there has been remarkable growth in theutilization and development of agents to be used as contrast elements in
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Nanoparticles of Gadolinium (GdNP) with varying chemical compositions (Gd3+, ZnGdFe, Gd2O3), size,and shape structures, (Reynolds et al, 2000, Hemmer et al., 2010, Hejase
et al., 2012) have been used as contrast media. Labeling and tracking oftumor cells by MRI are some examples of current biomedical applications(Vuu et al., 2005, Ghaghada et al. , 2009). Dual modalities and triplemodalities of images had been proposed to characterize Gd-NP coatedwith a shield of golden, golden cores coated with silica and Gd shields(Kircher et al, 2012).
With aim to use Gd-NP in optoacoustic application, previous studies
had been performed by our group GOTL about quantify and characterize
absorbents, by using of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser to generate a
optoacoustic signal, because it can provide an energy of millijoules withina pulse duration of tens of nanoseconds (Lamela et al, 2011). However,such lasers are bulky and expensive. As an alternative, diode lasers withpulsed excitation are available for optoacoustic applications.
In this work, we will present results on Gd nanoparticles studies on
absorption measurements by using two laser diodes of two different
wavelengths stimulated by half of coded excitation, which has been
widely applied in conventional ultrasound imaging (Chiao et al., 2005).
Moreover we will study as well orthogonal Golay codes to excite a GdNP solution at two wavelengths simultaneously in order to speed up
optoacoustic imaging (Mienkina et al, 2010). The high pulse repetition
frequency (PRF) of a diode laser makes it able to produce coded laser
pulses, to generate the optoacoustic effect in Gd-NP solution, in order tofind the absorption properties of Gd-NP.

8750-25, Session 11

Optimization of block-matching algorithms
using custom instruction-based paradigm on
NIOS II microprocessors
Diego González, Univ. Complutense de Madrid (Spain); Guillermo
Botella, Uwe Meyer-Baese, Anke Meyer-Baese, The Florida State
Univ. (United States)
This paper focuses on the optimization of matching-based motion
estimation algorithms through Altera Custom Instructions basedparadigm.
A complete profilling is achieved before the optimization in order tofind the code time leaks, afterward is developping a custom instruction
set which will be added to the specific design enhancing the original
system. The final system obtained is compared with C2H (C to Hardware
acceleration paradigm) presented in previous works. Hardware resources
and final perfromance of the final design are shown. This contribution,
thus, outlines a low cost system, mapped on a Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology which accelerates software algorithms by
converting them to custom hardware logic block.

Non-mass-enhancing lesions are diagnostically challenging lesions since
they exhibit a non-typic behavior in terms of kinetics and have a blurredmorphologic appearance. Independent component analysis represents
an excellent tool for non-mass-enhancing lesion segmentation in breast
DCE-MRI. The extracted independent components can be employedeither for lesion segmentation representing cluster-enhancement maps oras concentration time courses describing lesion enhancing curves.
In terms of segmentation, we show that the achieved results outperformthe Chan-Vese model, the most flexible segmentation algorithm so far.
ICA is able to remarkably capture the spiculated nature of the lesions
and not smooth out relevant egdes as Chan-Vese. The determinedarea-under-the-curve values demonstrate this fact: 0.72 with Chan-Vese
versus 0.8 with ICA. Further we apply the theory of phenomenologicaluniversalities for feature extraction from the kinetic curves and evaluate
these based on ICA-segmentation and Chan-Vese-segmentation.
The final evaluation based on a computer-aided-diagnosis systemdemonstrated that ICA segmentation in combination with kinetic feature
extraction represent a powerful aid for clinical research.

8750-27, Session 11

A Modified PSO based Particle Filter
Algorithm for Object Tracking
Yufei Tang, The Univ. of Rhode Island (United States); Siyao Fu,
Central Univ. of Nationalities (China); Bo Tang, Haibo He, The
Univ. of Rhode Island (United States)
In this paper, a modified particle swarm optimization (PSO) approach,particle swarm optimization with e-greedy exploration (ePSO), wasused to tackle the object tracking. In the modified ePSO algorithm,
the cooperative learning mechanism among individuals has been
introduced, namely, particles not only adjust its own flying speed
according to itself and the best individual of the swarm but also learn
from other best individuals according to certain probability. This kind of
biologically-inspired mutual-learning behavior can help to find the global
optimum solution with better convergence speed and accuracy. The
ePSO algorithm has been tested on benchmark functions with various
dimensions and demonstrated its effectiveness in high-dimension multimodal optimization. In addition to the standard benchmark study, we also
combined our new ePSO approach with the traditional particle filter (PF)algorithm on the object tracking task, such as car tracking in complex
environment. Comparative studies between our ePSO combined PF
algorithm with those of existing techniques, such as the particle filter(PF) and classic PSO combined PF will be used to verify and validate theperformance of our approach.

8750-28, Session 11

Visual saliency approach to anomaly
detection in an image ensemble
Anurag Singh, Univ of Louisiana at Lafayette (United States);
Michael Pratt, Henry Chu, Univ. of Louisiana at Lafayette (UnitedStates)Visual saliency is a bottom-up process that identifies those regions in animage that stand out from their surroundings. We adapt a computational
visual saliency algorithm to anomaly detection in an image ensemble,

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XIsuch as an image sequence. In our work, we over segment an image torepresent it as a collection of “super pixels” (SPs). Each SP is classified
as salient if it is sufficiently different in color from all other SPs and if its
most similar SPs are all nearby. We test our method on a collection ofimage sequences collected by a vehicle. Instead of finding salient SPs
in a single frame, we consider an SP in a frame as salient if it stands
out from all frames in the collection. We further restrict the method to aregion of interest, such as the road ahead of the vehicle. Our collection
consists of an ensemble of images from different road segments (referred
to as “long term memory”) and a sequence of immediate past frames(referred to as “short term memory”). We demonstrate the efficacy of
our method on detecting anomalies on the road lane ahead that might
correspond to shadows, other vehicles, etc.

programs in CS, SA, and LRMR (Caltech 2011 Thesis). In this paper,
we’d like to explore the numerical simulations on the validity of thePlan-generalized RIP model with a white additive and non-white noise.
The main objective of this study and research is to investigate Plan’s
generalized RIP theorem in support of environmental sensors for security
and surveillance with a minimum number of non-redundant and yet
informative perimeter surveillance sparse sequence.

8750-32, Session 13

Visual analysis of large graphs in
phosphoproteomic data analysis
Anke Meyer-Baese, The Florida State Univ. (United States)

8750-29, Session 11

The analysis of large graphs plays an important role in bioinformatics
of cancer research. Effective visual analysis of such graphs requires
appropriate visual presentations in combination with algorithmic graphanalysis methods.

Fast algorithm for entropy estimation
Evgeniy Timofeev, Yaroslavl State Univ. (Russian Federation);
Alexei Kaltchenko, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. (Canada)

Cancer stem cells (CSC) represent a very small percentage of the total
tumor population however they pose a big challenge in treating cancer.
The analysis and the understanding of the global interactional behavior ofthese networks remains a challenging task and has to be accomplishedbased on sophisticated graph techniques.

Proposed is a new fast algorithm for entropy estimation of a given
input word. The algorithm utilizes k-nearest neighbor search of a given
dictionary. The time complexity of the search is independent of thedictionary size.

The present contribution presents graph visualization techniques
according to the type of data supported. The visualization techniques
represent a useful platform showing interaction approaches suitable forvisual graph exploration. This research enhances our understanding of
the differences in phenotype changes and determining the responses ofmetabolites to certain treatments for the aggressive glioblastoma CSCs.
Thus, these new paradigms are providing unique understanding of themechanisms involved in CSC maintenance and tumorigenicity and arethus opening a new window to biomedical frontiers.

8750-30, Session 12

Low-rank modeling and its applications inmedical image analysis (Invited Paper)
Xiaowei Zhou, Weichuan Yu, Hong Kong Univ. of Science andTechnology (Hong Kong, China)
Computer-aided medical image analysis has been widely used in clinics
to facilitate objective disease diagnosis. This facilitation, however, isoften qualitative instead of quantitative due to the analysis challenges
associated with medical images such as low signal-to-noise ratio, signal
dropout, and large variations. Consequently, physicians have to rely on
their personal experiences to make diagnostic decisions, which in turn isexpertise-dependent and cannot be reproduced.

8750-34, Session 14

Recently, low-rank modeling based approaches have achieved great
success in natural image analysis. There is a trend that low-rank
modeling will find its applications in medical image analysis. In thisreview paper, we like to review the recent progresses along this direction.
Concretely, we will first explain the mathematical background of lowrank modeling, categorize existing low-rank modeling approaches andtheir applications in natural image analysis. Then, we will describe thechallenges in medical image analysis. After that, we will illustrate some
application examples of using low-rank modeling in medical image
analysis. Finally, we will discuss some possibilities of developing morerobust analysis methods to better analyze cardiac images.

Jerry Wu, The George Washington Univ. (United States); Harold
Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States)

Health sensor for human body by using
infrared, acoustic energy and magnetic
signature

There is a general chain of events that applies to infections. Humanbody infection could causes by many different types of bacteria andvirus in different areas or organ systems. In general, doctor can’t find out
the right solution/treatment for infections unless some certain types ofbacteria or virus are detected. These detecting processes, usually, takefew days to one week to accomplish. However, some infections of the
body may not be able to detect at first round and the patient may lose
the timing to receive the proper treatment. In this works, we propose anovel health sensor which summarizes human’s infrared, acoustic energy
and magnetic signature and find out, in minutes, the most possiblearea or organ system that cause the infection. Therefore, the detection
process by doctor will be shortened and it raises the possibility to givethe proper treatment to the patient in the earliest timing.

8750-17, Session 13

Robust compressive sensing of noisy images
Charles C. Hsu, Harold Szu, Charles C. Nguyen, The Catholic
Univ. of America (United States)

8750-35, Session 14

Monitoring and diagnosis of Alzheimer
disease using noninvasive compressive
sensing EEG (Invited Paper)

We wish to explore the research of the robustness property of the image
compressive sensing (CS) on the applications of real world perimeter
surveillance. We ask two typical questions on the CS area: How manymeasurements are necessary? How large is the recovery error? Since
the Restricted Isometry Property (RIP) introduced by Candès and Tao
for random matrices can be used to solve the sparse approximation(SA) problem by l1-regularized least-squares, an unconstrained lasso.
Recently Yaniv Plan has examined CS, SA, and Low-rank matrix recovery(LRMR) from a theoretical perspective to demonstrate the efficacy of
convex optimization in particular l1 and nuclear-norm minimization based

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Francesco Carlo Morabito, Univ. Mediterranea di Reggio
Calabria (Italy); Giuseppe Morabito, Univ. degli Studi di Pavia(Italy); Harold Szu, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States)·

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XIRecent advances in Compressive Sensing (CS), a lossy sub-Nyquist
signal compression scheme, appear to improve its usefulness for both
early diagnosis and continuous wireless telemonitoring of neurologicalpatients, in particular for wearable EEG in personalized medicine [2].
Some authors noted that physiological signals, like EEG, are not sparseneither in time nor in transform domains. This would imply an insufficientquality of the recovered EEG with respect to clinical requirements [5].
However, some other authors find EEG signals sparse in a Gabor frame.
A summary of performance of different version of CS are reported in[1], by taking into account a total of 57 hours of EEG: in summary, they
concluded that a qualitatively acceptable reconstruction is achieved witha reduction of about one third of the time samples for a single channel
recording. If the original signal has N components, with sparsity k, andk < N, CS allows a compression (sparsity) ratio ?=k/N. This could in
principle be useful to reduce the transmission rate during a daily remotemonitoring, by using a l1-norm convex programming recovery at themonitoring centre.
In this work, we analyse the compressibility of EEG signals from two
different perspectives, that, in our opinion, may improve the applicabilityof CS-EEG:
1) EEG are multivariate non-stationary signals with high inter-channel
correlations; they show joint sparseness that is a property potentially
useful as a regularization constraint to improve reconstruction
performance; furthermore, the map of correlations is quite associatedto the electrodes distribution in different brain areas. The measure ofsparseness may monitor the variations of correlations among electrodes
being the hallmark of specific diseases;
2) Like for the tracking of motion in images where reconstruction exploits
redundancy in successive samples of the image, the use of Motion
Organized Sparseness (MOS), [3], with its relationships to Independent
Component Analysis (ICA), may allow a “guided” reconstruction aiming at
real-time applications of wearable EEG.
In particular, we shall propose the use of both purely random sampling
and organized sparseness for CS-EEG of three categories of subjects(AD, Mild Cognitive Impaired, and Normal Controls, Nolds) to characterize
the different patterns of sparseness. Indeed, EEG from AD patients show
higher correlations (synchronization) among electrodes as well as flow
directionality modifications. That means, in principle, a reduced ?=k/N
with respect to MCI and Nolds. The follow up of patients MCI may also
show modification of the sparseness pattern thus indicating a moreprobable conversion MCI-to-AD. In previous works [4], we measured
a reduced complexity of AD EEG through the concept of Permutation
Entropy (PE). PE is reduced in AD patients with respect to both MCI and
Nold. A correlation between PE and ?=k/N can be found.

8750-36, Session 14

Principles of biomedical wellness homecare
systemHarold Szu, The Catholic Univ. of America (United States)
The 4 P’s principles of Medicine”: medicine that will be more Predictive,
Personalized, Preemptive, and Participatory

8750-37, Session 15

Embryonic stem cells self-assembly model(Invited Paper)
Yoshiki Sasai, RIKEN (Japan)
No Abstract Available.

8750-38, Session 16

Understanding 3D Human Torso Shape via
Manifold Clustering
Sheng Li, Northeastern Univ. (United States); Peng Li, U.S. Army
Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Ctr.
(United States); Yun Fu, Northeastern Univ. (United States)
Discovering the variations in human torso shape plays a key role inmany design-oriented applications, such as suit designing. With recent
advances in 3D surface imaging technologies, people can obtain3D human torso data that provide more information than traditional
measurements. However, how to find different human shapes from 3D
torso data is still an open problem. In this paper, we propose to use
spectral clustering approach on torso manifold to address this problem.
We first represent high-dimensional torso data in a low-dimensional
space using manifold learning algorithm. Then the spectral clustering
method is performed to get several disjoint clusters. Experimental results
show that the clusters discovered by our approach can describe thediscrepancies in both genders and human shapes, and our approachachieves better performance than the compared clustering method.

The results of our study on a database of about 50 AD patients, 40
MCI and 40 Nolds, obtained through a cooperation agreement with the
IRCCS Neurolesi “Bonino-Pulejo” of Messina, Italy, will be reported in
the final paper. The impact of CS EEG is clearly more relevant for highresolution EEG, where a judicious choice of the involved matrices may
highly improve the telemonitoring performance. This point will also be
discussed in the final presentation.

8750-39, Session 16[1] Abdulghani AM, Casson AJ, Rodriguez-Villegas E, ”Quantifying
the feasibility of compressive sensing in portable EEG systems”. In:
Schmorrow DD, Estabrooke IV, Grootjen M (Eds) 5th Int. Conf. on
foundations for augmented cognition, LNCS 5638. Springer, Berlin/
Heidelberg, pp 319–328, 2009.

In this paper, we propose a general approach for statistical inference
and machine learning based on accumulated observational data. We
demonstrate that a large class of machine learning problems can beformulated as the general problem of constructing random intervals withprespecified coverage probabilities for the parameters of the model forthe observational data. We show that the construction of such random
intervals can be accomplished by comparing the endpoints of random
intervals with confidence sequences for the parameters obtained fromthe observational data. The application of such approach in machinelearning is illustrated by examples.

[2] Casson A.J., Yates D.C., et al., “Wearable Electroencephalography”,
IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag., vol.29, no.3, pp.44-56, 2010.
[3] Szu H., Hsu C. et al, “capturing significant events with neuralnetworks”, Neural Networks, Vol.29-30, pp.1-7, 2012[4] Morabito F.C., Labate, D., La Foresta F. Bramanti A., Morabito G.,
Palamara I. “Multivariate Multi-Scale Permutation Entropy for Complexity
Analysis of Alzheimer’s Disease EEG”, Entropy , 14, pp.1186-1202, 2012

Inclusion Principle for Statistical Inferenceand Learning
Xinjia Chen, Southern Univ. and A&M College (United States)[5] IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, Sensing, Sampling, andCompression, Vol.25, No.2, March 2008

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Conference 8750: Independent Component Analyses,
Compressive Sampling, Wavelets, Neural Net, Biosystems,
and Nanoengineering XI

8750-40, Session 16

Simultaneous inference of population
proportions and its applications in machinelearning
Xinjia Chen, Southern Univ. and A&M College (United States)
In this paper, we develop an exact computational approach forsimultaneous inference of population proportions. The main idea of
this computational approach is to use branch and bound techniquefor rigorous checking of coverage probabilities and the probabilities ofmaking wrong decisions. The applications of the method in machinelearning is illustrated by examples.

8750-41, Session 16

Entropy estimation and Fibonacci numbers
Evgeniy Timofeev, Yaroslavl State Univ. (Russian Federation);
Alexei Kaltchenko, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. (Canada)
A new metric is introduced on a space of right-sided infinite sequences
drawn from a finite alphabet. Emerging from a problem of entropy
estimation of a discrete stationary ergodic process, the metric is
important on its own part and exhibits some interesting properties.
Notably, the number of distinct metric values for a set of sequences oflength n is equal to F_{n+3} - 1, where F_n is a Fibonacci number.
This study arises from a problem of nonpametric entropy estimation[1] of a discrete stationary process, which generates sequences drawn
from a finite alphabet. The estimation accuracy depends on a choice ofan underlying metric on a space of right-sided infinite sequences drawn
from the alphabet. In this paper, we introduce a new metric, which will
have the following properties:
1) The metric is equivalent to a usual metric based on the fist mismatch.
2) For any nonnegative integer m = 0, 1, 2, …, the number of distinct
values of the truncated metric is equal to a Fibonacci number F_{n+3} - 1(with F_0 = 0; F_1 = 1).
We point out that the search for new metrics with special properties isadditionally motivated by the following finding in [1]: accurate entropy
estimation is obtainable if the averaged inverse function of the measureof a ball is smooth (continuously differentiable).
[1] E. A. Timofeev, Statistical Estimation of measure invariants, St.
Petersburg Math. J., 17, no 3 (2006), 527-551.

8750-42, Session 16

User friendly practices of biomedical wellness
homecares
Jeffrey C. Jenkins, U.S. Army Night Vision & Electronic Sensors
Directorate (United States); Harold Szu, The Catholic Univ. of
America (United States)
We review BMW user friendly 4 None practices

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Conference 8751: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VII
Thursday 2 –2 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8751 Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired Computation: Theory and Applications VII

8751-1, Session 1

Optimization of background subtraction forimage enhancement
Larry Venetsky, Ross Boczar, Robert Lee-Own, Naval Air Warfare
Ctr. Aircraft Div. (United States)
Analysis of foreground objects in scenery via image processing often
involves a background subtraction process. This process aims tomaximize blob (connected component) content of the foreground objects
in the post-subtraction image. Quality blob content is often needed
to define regions of interest for object recognition and tracking. In ourapplication, we are attempting to extract aircraft and other objects fromaircraft carrier deck images. This paper examines three techniques
which optimize the subtracted background – a) genetic algorithm (biased
stochastic search), b) a mathematical analytic solution based on convex
optimization, and c) a related application of the CVX solver toolbox.
Given an initial background image, each algorithm adjusts the image inorder to find an optimal background solution. Metrics are defined whichgive a measure of fitness for possible solutions. These metrics reflect
both local and global properties of the candidate background images,
and are used in each optimization algorithm to evaluate the goodnessof potential solutions. The genetic algorithm and CVX solver use these
metrics directly, while slight modification of the metrics allows for thederivation of an alternative analytic solution. A set of images, with varying
lighting conditions and foreground object density levels, are used toevaluate each optimization algorithm. Over this set of images, the CVX
solver and analytic solutions outperform the genetic algorithm for most of
the image space. This suggests a possible implementation architecturethat uses multiple optimization techniques with subsequent arbitration to
produce the best background subtraction.

8751-2, Session 1

Statistical recognition of 3D objects using
integral imaging
Cuong M. Do, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
A model of three-dimensional (3D) object recognition using integral
imaging is presented. Multiple elemental images are captured at different
perspectives for reconstruction and recognition. Computational results
are presented and discussed for performance evaluation.

8751-4, Session 1

Spatial Context for Moving Vehicle Detection
in Wide Area Motion Imagery with Multiple
Kernel Learning
Pengpeng Liang, Temple Univ. (United States); Dan Shen,Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc (United States); Erik P. Blasch,
Khanh Pham, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); ZhonghaiWang, Genshe Chen, Intelligent Fusion Technology, Inc. (UnitedStates); Haibin Ling, Temple Univ. (United States)
Moving vehicle detection from wide area motion imagery (WAMI) is an
important and challenging task in persistent surveillance. Previously, we
verified that context information is useful to improve the performanceof the WAMI object detection task. In this paper, we present a novel
Temporal Context (TC) method which captures the road information. In
contrast with previous methods to exploit road information, TC does notneed a road map or to use the Geospatial Information Systems (GIS)
information. We first use background subtraction to generate the target
candidates, then build TC based on positive-classified candidates by424

using Histograms of Oriented Gradient (HOG) with a Support Vector
Machine (SVM). For each positive candidate, a region around thecandidate is divided into several subregions based on the direction of
the candidate. Then each subregion is divided into 12 bins with a fixed
length. Finally, the TC histogram is built according to the positions of thecandidates in 8 consecutive frames. In order to benefit from both theappearance and context information, we use multiple-kernel learning to
combine the TC and HOG for improved object detection. To evaluate theeffect of TC, we use the publicly available CLIF 2006 dataset, and label
the vehicles in 204 frames which are 1200 2672 subregions that containan expressway in the original 4008 2672 pixel image. The experiments
demonstrate that the proposed TC method is useful to remove the false
positives that are away from the road; and the combination of TC and
HOG with multiple kernel learning outperforms the use of TC or HOG
only.

8751-5, Session 2

Hybrid optimized genetic algorithm forbayesian network structure learning
Feng Lin, Zhejiang Univ. (China); Chunyan Zhou, Shaoxing
Vocational & Technical College (China); Wei Sun, K. C. Chang,
George Mason Univ. (United States)
Bayesian network is one of the most important theoretical models
on figuring out the uncertain problems, and the Bayesian network
structure learning is the core of Bayesian network theory. At present,
the search&score algorithm for structure learning proved to be oneof the most effective methods. It was proposed in this framework themethod of learning Bayesian network structure based on hybrid genetic
and fish swarm algorithm. This method firstly use the maximum weightspanning tree to generate the candidate networks, and then use theartificial fish swarm algorithm referring to the ideas of crossover andmutation methods of genetic algorithm to optimize the initial populations.
Because of the randomness of the stage of the searching food in theartificial fish swarm algorithm, we bring the cloud-based adaptive theory
into this stage to improve it. Simulation experiments demonstrate that
this approach has quite a good optimization ability in Bayesian network
structure learning

8751-6, Session 2

Fusing video and text data by integrating
appearance and relational similarity
Georgiy M. Levchuk, Aptima, Inc. (United States); Aaron F.
Bobick, Georgia Institute of Technology (United States); Mathew
Jacobsen, Aptima, Inc. (United States)
The automated event and activity recognition from video and text data
sources are key enablers of situation understanding in complex dynamic
environments. To enable close-loop solution in which patterns ofemerging activities are learned without need for manual data preparation,and text data is converted into context and enriching features, newtechnologies are needed that can fuse video and text sources. Thisfusion is achieved by associating the entities and events mentioned/
detected in text and video data. However, this association is challenging
due to frequent absence of any meaningful correspondence features
between video and text entities in a single instance of the video-text datapair.
In this paper, we present a model that performs joint probabilistic
association between entities mentioned in text (e.g., “three ambulances
arrived at the scene”) and entities detected in video data (e.g., “3vehicles arriving detected”). This model minimizes the appearance andrelationship similarity errors, where appearance similarity is calculated

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Conference 8751: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VII
between entities from different video-text pairs using pixel information invideo and semantic similarity in text data, while the relationships similarity
includes correspondences between the interactions and relative spatial
positioning of the objects detected in video and mentioned in text forthe same video-text pair. The joint association is obtained by finding thematching between video and text entity-relationship networks. The use ofsimilarity, interaction, and relative positioning relations uniquely resolves
the ambiguity present in text data and variability of visual appearance ofobjects, events, and activities.

to function properly it must first detect the presence of a wide variety ofagents. Conversely to compromise the system, pathogens must rapidly
evolve and adapt to avoid detection and neutralization by the immune
system. To rapidly evolve, pathogens must gather increasingly more
information about the systems which they are trying to compromise. The
more genetic information required for compromise; the increased risk of
exposure(Critical Assets) Currently most security solutions attempt to find the mythical silver bullet
and achieve the ever elusive “perfectly secure” system. In the end, there
is no such thing. Next generation security systems must be mindfulof what are the critical assets regardless of whether they are data orsystems or the like. With knowledge of the critical assets, the security
system should then spend the vast majority of its effort detecting andprotecting against attacks which attempt to compromise the criticalassets. We assert that only then a “cost of compromise” vs “cost of
prevention” analysis may be profitable.

8751-9, Session 2

Applications of the Self Organizing Map(SOM) in Unattended Ground Sensor (UGS)systems
Brent W. Roeder, McQ, Inc. (United States)

In our scenario, the critical assets are (1) the IP of the algorithm and(2) the unimpaired execution of that algorithm. As a result, we spend
minimal effort trying to prevent the compromise of nodes in our network;
rather, we assume that a subset of the system is currently owned by
the adversary. Consequently, our approach, like the immune system, is
to make it mathematically infeasible for an adversary to simultaneously
remain covert and exploit our critical assets.

Many Unattended Ground Sensors (UGS) leverage multiple sensing
modalities (e.g. seismic, magnetic, imagery, radar, etc.) to detect andclassify targets of interest. One of the most effective means of reducing
a sensor’s probability of false alarm while increasing its probability ofdetection is through multisensor fusion. The types of sensor information
available for this kind of processing by UGS systems are continuallychanging. Typically, as new sensing modalities become available, a newcustom fusion algorithm must be developed that is compatible with the
new sensor types. What is needed is an algorithm that can fuse current
and future sensory data without the need for modification for each newsensing type. An Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithm that we have shown
to be particularly well suited for this purpose is the Self Organizing
Map (SOM). The SOM (also known as the Kohonen Network) is anunsupervised learning algorithm developed by Teuvo Kohonen and othersin the early 1980’s. In this paper, we describe the results of our research
efforts that demonstrate the effectiveness of the SOM at processing
disparate kinds of data. As part of our research, both hardware andsoftware implementations were performed and their performance
characterized against various data types. We will present these results
and then show a path to using the SOM for multisensor fusion in UGS
systems.

8751-11, Session 3

A developmental approach to learning causal
models for cyber security
Jonathan Mugan, 21CT (United States)
To keep pace with our adversaries, we must expand the scope ofmachine learning and reasoning to address the breadth of possible
attacks. One approach is to employ an algorithm to learn a set of causal
models that describes the entire cyber network and each host end node.
Such a learning algorithm would run continuously on the system andmonitor activity in real time. With a set of causal models, the algorithm
could anticipate novel attacks, take actions to thwart them, and predict
the second-order effects of those actions. Designing such an algorithm
is a complex task because computer systems generate a flood of
information, and the algorithm would have to determine which streams ofthat flood were relevant in which situations.

8751-10, Session 3

Trusted computation through biologicallyinspired processes

This paper will present the results of efforts toward the application of adevelopmental learning algorithm to the problem of cyber security. The
algorithm is designed to allow an agent to learn about the computer
system in which it resides through active exploration. The algorithm isdevelopmentally restricted to learn new information only at the edge of its
current knowledge. This developmental learning restriction is inspired by
the work of the psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget described how children
construct knowledge in stages and learn new concepts on top of thosethey already know. Developmental learning allows our algorithm to focus
on subsets of the environment that are most helpful for learning given its
current knowledge. In experiments, the algorithm was able to learn theconditions for file exfiltration.

Gustave Anderson, Luna Innovations Inc. (United States)(Introduction) Supply chain threats and statically configured systems have invalidated
the assumption that a well-funded adversary has no reasonable avenueof attack even if the software protections are structured properly andaugmented with secure hardware. In today’s cyber-attack environment,
one must assume that a subset of the system is currently, or will
eventually be compromised. Luna is developing a of a fault tolerant,
federated cloud computing architecture, which supports design
separation for high reliability and information assurance. By leveraging
a hybrid fault model with multiple, parallel execution paths and resultant
execution trace comparison, Luna has created a cognitive trustarchitecture that identifies suspect nodes and assures trusted execution.
Furthermore, the modeled architecture may be scaled through proactive
thread diversity for additional assurance during threat escalation.
The solution provides dynamic protection through distributing criticalinformation across federated cloud resources that adopt a metamorphic
topology, redundant execution, and the ability to break command andcontrol of malicious agents.

8751-12, Session 3

Computational intelligence and neuromorphic
computing potential for cybersecurity
applications
Robinson Pino, Michael Shevenell, ICF International (UnitedStates); Hasan Cam, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States);Mark R. McLean, Ctr. for Exceptional Computing (United States)(Biologically Inspired Approach) Our cognitive trust approach to ensure continued operation under
the assumption of imminent compromise is modeled after the humanimmune system. The immune system is a system of biological structuresand processes that protects against disease. For the immune system

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In today’s highly mobile, networked, and interconnected internet world,
the flow and volume of information is overwhelming and continuously
increasing. Therefore, it is believed that the next frontier in technological·

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Conference 8751: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VII
evolution and development will rely in our ability to develop intelligent
systems that can help us process, analyze, and make-sense of
information autonomously just as a well-trained and educated humanexpert. In computational intelligence, neuromorphic computing promises
to allow for the development of computing systems able to imitate
natural neuro-biological processes that will form the foundation for
intelligent system architectures. This is achieved by artificially re-creating
the highly parallelized computing architecture of the mammalian brain.
As an interdisciplinary technology inspired from biology, artificial neuralsystems have been successfully utilized in many applications, such as
control systems, signal processing, pattern recognition, vision systems,
and robotics etc. In addition, the emerging neuromorphic computing field
can also exploit the characteristic behavior of novel material systems withadvanced processing techniques to achieve very large scale integration
with highly parallel neural architectures for the fabrication physicalarchitectures. This talk will focus on the technological challenges that
we are seeking to overcome to enable intelligent parallel neuromorphic
computing systems.

8751-13, Session 3

Human guided machine learning for RealTime identification and characterization of
cyber attacks
Misty Blowers, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8751-14, Session 4

A pipelined FPGA implementation of an
encryption algorithm based on genetic
algorithm.

8751-16, Session 4

A spider-web approach to the recoveryof ad hoc cognitive radio networks ofheterogeneous sensor nodes in energylimited environments
William S. Hortos Jr., Associates in Communication Engineering
Research and Technology (United States)
In ad hoc deployments of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), consistingof cognitive radios and heterogeneous sensor nodes in battlefield andsimilar environments characterized by autonomous, energy-limited
operation, the network may incur the operational loss of a sufficientnumber of nodes to cause partitioning of the topology. The objectiveof this work is to develop a strategy for restoring network connectivity
in response to widespread heterogeneous node outages due to sensor
failures and energy depletion, through placement of additional relay
nodes. The bio-inspired approach to WSN recovery is based on the
behavior of spiders in repairing webs. The approach reestablishes linkconnectivity required by the mission using the least number of relays andcognitive awareness of available resources, while guaranteeing a certain
degree of connectivity in the repaired topology. In contrast to methods
that seek to form a minimum spanning tree among the partitioned
sections of the damaged network, the proposed approach establishes
a topology that resembles a spider web, in which the disjoint segments
are positioned at the network periphery. The resulting topology displays
greater connectivity than a minimum spanning tree and also achieves
superior area coverage. Furthermore, the approach achieves balanced
distribution of traffic among the deployed relay nodes. The recovery
approach based on spider webs is extended, so that the degree ofconnectivity in the repaired topology is ensured to the next higher level.
Both centralized and distributed versions of the bio-inspired spider-web
approach are developed. Simulation results for a WSN, deployed in
an energy-limited scenario, demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed
resource-aware, spider-web recovery algorithm compared to that of an
approach based on minimum spanning trees.

Nonel S. Thirer, Holon Institute of Technology (Israel)With the evolution of digital data storage and exchange, it is essential toprotect the confidential information from every unauthorized access. Highperformance encryption algorithms were developed and implemented
by software and hardware. Also many methods to attack the cipher text
were developed. In the last years, the genetic algorithm has gained muchinterest in cryptanalysis of cipher texts and also in encryption ciphers.
This paper analyses the possibility to use the genetic algorithm as amultiple key sequence generator for an AES (Advanced Encryption
Standard) cryptographic system, and also to use a three stages pipeline(with four main blocks: Input data, AES Core, Key generator, Output data)
to provide a fast encryption and storage/transmission of a large amountof data.
Thus, the input data unit receives the initial data stream and provides
fixed size data blocks (plaintexts) to the AES core. Every plaintext isencrypted by the AES core using a new key-sequence, provided by the
GA based key generator. This key-generator is based on crossover andmutation only. The new chromosomes provide the new key-sequence
and are also the parents for the next generation. The cipher text isprovided to Output data block to storage or transmission. The FPGA
implementation of this pipeline is analyzed, concerning advantages,
extensions and limits. For a faster processing of a large amount of data
(as images), a parallel processing is analyzed.
For decryption, the same GA based key generator must be used (with thesame initial key). Brute force or GA based attacks are more difficult forlarge blocks of data, due to various keys for every cipher text.

8751-17, Session 5

Vehicle tracking and analysis within a city
Yu Liang, Michael Henderson, Shane Fernandes, Central State
Univ. (United States); Josh Sanderson, Wright State Univ. (UnitedStates); Darrell Barker, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Sensor-oriented vehicle tracking and analysis of a city (VTAC) plays
an important role in transportation control, public facility management
and national security. This project is dedicated to the development of ageneric VTAC framework, which employs temporal and spatial dependent
partial differential equations (PDE) to formulate the expected traffic flow,
through which movement of the observed vehicles may be measured andanalysis. The boundary conditions and parameters for the traffic flow arederived from the statistical analysis about historical transportation data;
the physics domain is derived from the geographic information system.
Using the artificial video data generated by Blender as benchmark data,
the VTAC framework is validated by measuring and identifying thoseanomalous vehicles appeared in the video.

8751-18, Session 5

Exploring manifold learning using laser
vibrometry data
Andrew M. Freeman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
Scott J. Kangas, Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. (United States);
Olga Mendoza-Schrock, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
Understanding and organizing data is the first step toward exploiting

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Conference 8751: Machine Intelligence and Bio-inspired
Computation: Theory and Applications VII
vibrometry sensor phenomenology for target classification. What signal
features are good for distinguishing vehicles and other such targets andwhat measurements, or combination of measurements, can be used
to classify the dataset by type? A particular technique, Diffusion Maps,
has demonstrated the potential to extract features that intuitively makesense [1]. We want to develop an understanding of this tool by validating
existing results using vibrometry data. If we could specifically measure
the defining features for classification then the future question willthen be to determine a subset of these features that can be measured
remotely. This paper briefly describes the Diffusion Map technique,shows potential for dimension reduction for vibrometry data, anddescribes interesting problems to be further explored.

8751-19, Session 5

The effects of clothing on genderclassification using LIDAR Data
Ryan R. McCoppin, Nathan Koester, Howard N. Rude, Louis
A. Tamburino, Wright State Univ. (United States); Andrew M.
Freeman, Air Force Research Lab. (United States); Mateen M.
Rizki, Wright State Univ. (United States); Olga Mendoza-Schrock,
Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
In this paper we describe preliminary efforts to extend previous genderclassification experiments using feature histograms extracted from
3D point clouds of human subjects. The previous experiments used
point clouds drawn from the Civilian American and European Surface
Anthropometry Project (CAESAR anthropometric database provided
by the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) Human EffectivenessDirectorate and SAE International). This database contains approximately
4,400 high-resolution LIDAR whole body scans of carefully posed humansubjects. Features are extracted from each point cloud by embedding
the cloud in series of cylindrical shapes and computing a point countfor each cylinder that characterizes a region of the subject. These
measurements define rotationally invariant histogram features thatare processed by a classifier to label the gender of each subject. The
recognition results with the tightly control CAESAR database reachedlevels of over 90% accuracy. A smaller secondary point cloud data
set was generated at Wright State University to allow experimentation
on clothed subjects that was not possible with the CAESAR data. We
present the preliminary results for the transition of classification software
using different combinations of training and tests sets taken from both
the CAESAR and clothed subject data sets. As expected, the accuracy
achieved with clothed subjects fell short of the earlier experiments
using only the CAESAR data. Nevertheless, the new results provide new
insights for more robust classification algorithms.

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Conference 8752: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications VIII
Tuesday 30–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8752 Modeling and Simulation for Defense Systems and Applications VIII

8752-1, Session 1

High-fidelity modeling and simulation for
wideband receiver development
Chen Wu, Anne Young, Defence Research and Development
Canada, Ottawa (Canada)
Research experience has shown that it is expensive to design, build andtest a RF/microwave system that is comprised of various RF/microwave
components. In order to mitigate the problem, High-Fidelity Modelingand Simulation (HFM&S) is a practical approach that includes highfidelity behavioural model (HFBM) of the receiving system and scenarios
embedded with different Concept of Operations (CONOPS). HFM&S isalso an essential way to develop receiving system specifications that canbe used for system validation and verification.
This paper presents the HFBM of a wideband digital receiver using
Matlab/Simulink® and the RF Toolbox/RF Blockset®, and the use of themodel to build a multi-channel receiving system that has a linear antenna
array. The receiving system is installed on an UAV to intercept a groundbased emitter signal in a scenario that is built in Satellite Tool Kit®.
Through the design and build of the UAV payload and its deployment in a
scenario, this paper demonstrates the following:• what is meant by HFBM of a system and how it can simulate real
hardware;• how signal integrity in the HFM&S can be and should be retained;• why amplitude and phase are important for signal waveform level M&S;
• why the modern high performance computing technology should be
used for signal waveform M&S; and• why the development of a realistic scenario is an important part of
HFM&S for application CONOPS development?

for uncertainties from random signal-generation and propagation
mechanisms. A flexible object-oriented design approach allows for
efficient integration and simulation of diverse signal modalities within
EASEE.

8752-3, Session 1

Model-driven requirements engineering(MDRE) for real-time ultra-wide instantaneous
bandwidth signal simulation
Daniel Y. Chang, Naval Air Warfare Ctr. Weapons Div. (UnitedStates)
While conducting a cutting-edge research in a specific domain, we realizethat (1) requirements clarity and correctness are crucial to our success,(2) hardware is hard to change, most work is in software requirements
development, coding and testing [ ], (3) requirements are constantly
changing, so that configurability, reusability, scalability, adaptability,
modularity and testability are important non-functional attributes, (4) if
our research is successful, the results could be applied to other domains
with similar problems. In this paper, we propose to use model-driven
requirements engineering (MDRE) to model and guide our requirements/
development, since models are easy to understand, execute, and modify.
The domain for our research is Electronic Warfare (EW) real-time ultrawide instantaneous bandwidth (IBW ) signals simulation. The proposedfour MDRE models are (1) ADC/FPGA/DAC architecture, (2) parallel datachannels synchronization, (3) post-DEMUX (post-ADC) and pre-MUX(pre-DAC) bits re-mapping, and (4) Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) filterbank. This research is unique since the instantaneous bandwidth we are
dealing with is in gigahertz range instead of conventional megahertz.

8752-2, Session 1

8752-4, Session 2

Integration of radio-frequency transmission
and radar in general software for multimodal
battlefield signal modelingNASA Operational Simulator (NOS) for V&V ofcomplex systems

Kenneth K. Yamamoto, Nathan J. Reznicek, D. Keith Wilson, U.S.
Army Engineer Research and Development Ctr. (United States)
Radio-frequency (RF) transmission and radar systems were integrated
into a general framework for modeling and simulating battlefield signal
propagation. Specifically, the U. S. Navy Electromagnetic Propagation
Integrated Resource Environment (EMPIRE), which contains nearlytwenty different realistic RF propagation models, was integrated into
the Environmental Awareness for Sensor and Emitter Employment(EASEE) software, being developed by the U. S. Army ERDC. The
integration utilizes an XML-based interface between EASEE and
EMPIRE to set inputs for and run propagation models. To accommodate
radars, fundamental improvements to the EASEE software architecture
were made to support active-sensing scenarios by including forward
and backward propagation of RF signals between radar and target.
Models for reflecting targets were defined to apply a target-specificreflection coefficient (i.e., scattering cross section) to incident wavefields
and to produce a radiation pattern depicting the directionality ofsignal reflections. The newly added RF modality increases EASEE’s
capabilities for simulating a wide variety of sensor modalities, which
also include acoustic, seismic, electro-optical/infrared, and chemical/
biological. EASEE is a transitioning software capability that performs
operationally focused simulations for defense force protection andsurveillance planning applications. EASEE predicts sensor performanceand optimizes sensor selection and placement for target detection bycharacterizing complex terrain and weather effects on target signatures,
signal propagation, and sensor systems. It has an expansive libraryof realistic physics models and statistical methodologies that account428

Scott Zemerick, TMC Technologies (United States); Justin Morris,NASA IV&V (United States)
The NASA Operational Simulator (NOS) is introduced as a genericsoftware-only simulation architecture for NASA missions. NOS wasdeveloped by the NASA Independent Verification & Validation (IV&V)
Independent Test Capability (ITC) Team to provide a complete software
V&V environment. NOS is utilized by developers and (independent)
testers to verify the functionality of a spacecraft’s flight software froma system-wide perspective. Use of NOS on two NASA spacecraft aredescribed: the Global Precipitation Measurement spacecraft and theJames Webb Space Telescope. While NOS has primarily been utilized
on NASA missions, its generic architecture can be easily applied acrossdomains to support V&V of complex systems.
NOS is capable of executing the spacecraft’s unmodified flight software
executable on readily deployed environments such as laptops andthumbdrives. NOS consists of reusable hardware models, simulators,
and custom-developed middleware that provides simulated MILSTD-1553 and SpaceWire busses. A key feature is its dynamic error
injection capabilities via intuitive GUIs and open APIs. The error
injection is critical for performing V&V of the flight software; hardware
faults can be simulated and off-nominal tests can be executed without
additional effort. NOS is easily integrated with ground systems and othercomponents to support complete mission analysis.
Typically, engineers are limited to a minimal number of hardware teststrings with little availability. NOS reduces this risk because it supports
unlimited deployment. Engineers can quickly test concepts before
hardware tests are executed. In addition to creating complete systemsimulators, NOS can also serve as a stop-gap solution for when hardware
is unavailable.

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Conference 8752: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications VIII

8752-5, Session 2

Hoang Q Tran, Courtney L Boykin, Gail M Nicholson, Joshua D
Borneman, Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Electro Optic
Technology Division (United States)

Validating an artificial intelligence humanproximity operations system with test cases

Free Space Optical (FSO) wireless data links are a proven and readytechnology for non-RF communications. This technology could be used
to feed high definition video data from a scope to soldier or a platoon
for advanced situational awareness. A major design challenge for FSO
links in personnel applications is ensuring line of sight (LoS) between
transmitter and receiver during crucial moments in a mission. Laser
based communications have very high bandwidth but very narrow
Field-of-View (FOV). LED based systems could provide wider FOV, yetneed specifications on the FOV and proper placement of transmitter andreceiver. Currently, no study exists on the FOV requirements or placementof these systems for personnel applications . In this work, we capture themovements of a warfighter in a typical application where an FSO datalink would be used. We track head and gun movements using image
processing techniques. We present a method to simulate transmitter andreceiver on the warfighter helmet and gun scope and analyze LoS and
FOV. Using this method allows optimization of FSO data link placement
and provides requirements for future FSO technology.

Justin R. Huber, Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota(United States)
An artificial intelligence-controlled robot (AICR) operating in close
proximity to humans poses numerous risks to these humans. These risks
range from keeping people and processes safe in the context of the
AICR’s situation-specific decision making to ensuring a safe response
to unplanned situations or environments. Validating the performance ofan AICR, which must operate in a real-world environment, is an ill posed
problem due to the complexity that is introduced by the erratic (noncomputer) actors. In order to prove the AICR’s usefulness, test cases
must be generated to simulate the actions of these actors, so the AICR
can be shown to perform properly in the environments where it will be
operated. This paper looks at validating an AICR’s safe performance inthe context of a common human activity, moving through a crowded
corridor, using test cases. This test is a two-dimensional simplification
relevant to autonomous UAV navigation in the national airspace.
An AI use case producer (UCP) is be used to generate test cases
for AICR validation. It employs a pseudo-random operation script
generation technique for the simulated actors. The question of how
many use cases are necessary to show that the AICR is able to operate
successfully is discussed. The benefits and drawbacks of using the AI
UCP are considered and the difference in testing throughput from using
the AI UCP versus human test case generation is characterized. The
challenge of validating AICR safety, given a nearly infinite set of possible
circumstances that it may encounter, is also explored.

8752-9, Session 4

Super-resolution mosaics from airborne videousing robust gradient regularization andoptimization algorithm
Aldo Camargo, Ingenia Technology Ltd. (Peru); Kannappan
Palaniappan, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (United States); Qiang
He, Mississippi Valley State Univ. (United States); Fidel Jara,
National University of Engineering (Peru)

8752-6, Session 2

Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) have been used in many military andcivil applications, particularly surveillance. Lastly, there are industries:
farms, oil, mines, etc., that are interested on this technology. Oneof the best ways to use the capacity of a UAS imaging system is byconstructing a mosaic or panorama of the recorded video. However,the data analysis of UAS videos is frequently limited by motion blur; theframe-to-frame movement induced by aircraft roll, wind gusts, and lessthan ideal atmospheric conditions; and the noise inherent within theimage sensors. Therefore, using super-resolution mosaicking of lowresolution UAS surveillance video frames, becomes a critical requirementfor UAS video processing and important for further effective image
understanding. This paper presents a novel algorithm for the constructionof super-resolution mosaicking. The algorithm is based on the Conjugate
Gradient (CG) method and Geman -McClure prior function for the
regularization of the ill-conditioned problem.

A five states survivability model for missions
with ground-to-air threats
Tina Erlandsson, Saab AB (Sweden); Lars Niklasson, Univ. of
Skövde (Sweden)
Fighter aircraft flying in hostile territory are exposed to the risk of getting
hit by enemy fire from ground-based air defense systems. A model
describing the survivability for a route, i.e., the probability that aircraft
can fly the route unharmed, would be a useful component in support
systems for planning suitable routes to fly as well as evaluating flownroutes. The survivability model presented here is based on a continuous
Markov model with five states; Undetected, Detected, Tracked, Engaged
and Hit. The enemy is described with sensor areas and weapon areas
and the transition intensities in the Markov model depend on whether or
not the aircraft is inside any of these areas. For example, the aircraft can
only get tracked when inside a sensor area and can only get hit wheninside a weapon area. The five states model enables the separation of therisk of getting detected and the risk of getting hit and the user can chose
to focus on one or both or these risks depending on the importanceof the mission. Furthermore, the fact that the enemy’s sensor systems
can exchange information is taken into account, implying that the riskof getting tracked is increased if another sensor system has previously
detected the aircraft. The paper also includes a discussion regarding
which factors that impact the transition intensities. Simulations ofillustrative scenarios are presented for highlighting the properties of themodel and areas for further development of the model are suggested.

8752-10, Session 4

Review scalable high performing solutions
using GPUs
Thomas Reed, NVIDIA Corp. (United States)
We will review the following three case studies
1. DigitalGlobes use of GPUs to improve the latency of Orthorectification
and Pan-Sharpening
2. Image processing algorithm chain - imrovement to SWAP
3. MotionDSP - GPUs impact the reattime aspect of viedoe processing

8752-8, Session 3

Method for simulating free space optical data
links for personnel applications
Kiron Mateti, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Crane Div. (UnitedStates); Brandon R Clarke, Ean J Seals, Gregory J Petty,

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Conference 8752: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications VIII

8752-11, Session 4

Advances in computational fluid dynamics
solvers for modern computing environments
Daniel L. Hertenstein, John R. Humphrey Jr., Eric J. Kelmelis, EM
Photonics, Inc. (United States)
EM Photonics has been investigating the application of massively
multicore processors to a key problem area: Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD). While the capabilities of CFD solvers have continually
increased and improved to support features such as moving bodies andadjoint-based mesh adaptation, the software architecture has not. This
has led to poor scaling as core counts reach the tens of thousands. In
the modern High Performance Computing (HPC) world, clusters withhundreds of thousands of cores are becoming the standard. In addition,
accelerator devices such as NVIDIA GPUs and Intel Xeon Phi are being
installed in the majority of new systems. It is important for CFD solvers
to take advantage of the new hardware as the computations involved
are well suited for the massively multicore architecture. In our work,
we demonstrate the need and benefits of rearchitecting current CFD
solvers and incorporating accelerators by example using AVUS, a CFD
solver developed by the Air Force Research Labratory (AFRL) and theVolcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC). The effort has resulted in increased
performance and scalability with openness to facilitate the use ofalternative accelerators and without sacrificing accuracy. There are manywell-known codes in the CFD space that can benefit from this work, suchas FUN3D, OVERFLOW, and TetrUSS. Such codes are widely used in thecommercial, government, and defense sectors.

8752-12, Session 5

Productive high-performance software for
OpenCL devices
John M. Melonakos, AccelerEyes LLC (United States); Pavan
Yalamanchili, Chris McClanahan, Umar Arshad, Michael Landes,
Shivapriya Jamboti, Abhijit Joshi, Shehzan Mohammed, Kyle
Spafford, Vishwanath Venugopalakrishnan, AccelerEyes (UnitedStates); James Malcolm, AccelerEyes LLC (United States)
Over the past 5 years, heterogeneous computing has gone from nice tomust-have in technical computing. OpenCL represents the standard bywhich CPUs, GPUs, APUs, FPGAs, DSPs, and mobile devices are being
programmed for speed. However, OpenCL is difficult to program andadoption is limited. Further, those that do adopt OpenCL find it difficult toeasily achieve good performance and even more difficult to achieve good
performance across chips from different vendors. Compilers are unable
to automatically exploit the parallelism benefits in any meaningful way.
These problems are solved by the high-performance ArrayFire software
library that represent the best of both worlds, providing an easy-to-use
interface of functions while simultaneously delivering top-notch speeds.

8752-13, Session 5

Scalable models for programming modern
HPC systems
Kyle E Spagnoli, John R. Humphrey Jr., Paul A. Fox, Eric J.
Kelmelis, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States)
Modern high performance computing (HPC) systems consisting oftraditional multi-core processors augmented with massively parallel
co-processors are rapidly becoming commonplace in today’s
computing landscape. Presently three of the top ten supercomputersin the world are implemented with this hybrid architecture. Effectively
utilizing these systems has been an area of research and most of thesolutions proposed are only relevant to a single codebase, computing
technique, or hardware platform. As such, the rate of adoption of thesehybrid architectures into real world HPC applications has been slow.
430

The principal challenge lies in the fact that co-processor architectures
imposes an additional level of programmer concern. Issues suchas managing distributed memory, platform specific kernel tunings,
hardware initialization, and load balancing must be re-evaluated upon
the arrival of each new generation of hardware. In our work, we present
modern programming methods in which a program is represented as
an interconnected graph of hardware independent tasks. From thisgraph, we create an efficient execution plan that dispatches the work
appropriately to an available computing element capable of running
the task. This model offers the benefits of high utilization, seamless
scalability to larger systems, and a simple solution to utilize new (orfuture) hardware devices. This approach is applicable to a number ofcommon HPC problems such as linear algebra, image processing,climate simulation, and computational fluid dynamics.

8752-14, Session 5

Performance impact of dynamic parallelism
on different clustering algorithms
Jeffrey T. DiMarco, EM Photonics, Inc. (United States); Michela
Taufer, Univ. of Delaware (United States)
CUDA is NVIDIA’s parallel computing platform and programming modelthat is constantly pushing the boundaries of computational parallelism.
The newest version, CUDA 5, introduces dynamic parallelism, whichallows GPU threads to create new threads and adapt to its data. Thiseffectively eliminates the superfluous back and forth communication
between the GPU and CPU through nested kernel computations. An
Eclipse edition of Nsight has also been released alongside CUDA 5 formore efficient development, debugging, and profiling on Linux. In thispaper, we aim to quantify the performance gains of dynamic parallelism
versus the previous implementations of CUDA and the CPU. We willtake advantage of the features that Nsight Eclipse Edition provides toprofile and compare the performance of CUDA 4.0 to CUDA 5.0 withand without dynamical parallelism. The change in performance will bemeasured using two well-known clustering algorithms that are data
dependent: k-means clustering and hierarchical clustering. K-means
has a sequential data dependency wherein iterations occur in a linear
fashion, while hierarchical clustering has a tree-like dependency that
produces split tasks. Analyzing the performance of these data dependentalgorithms across multiple platforms will give us a better understandingof the benefits or drawbacks to CUDA 5’s new dynamic parallelism
feature.

8752-15, Session 5

Applying big data techniques toheterogeneous military data
John R. Humphrey Jr., Kyle E. Spagnoli, Eric J. Kelmelis, EM
Photonics, Inc. (United States)
In the last decade, the computing industry has made major advances in
the ability to store and, more importantly, to search massive data sets.
A huge emphasis has been placed on consumer applications, suchas web search, image tagging, and song recognition, but there is an
opportunity now to apply these tools to military applications. The military
has deployed countless sensor types that collect data of many types,
and there is a desire to be able to search and analyze this data acrosssensor types. For instance, a soldier in the field equipped with a smart
phone can take a picture of a vehicle, and within moments receive an
identification and operational readout of that vehicle. Meanwhile, that
picture is entered into a database and geo-tagged for later data-mining
efforts to analyze things such as enemy troop movements. To effectively
build such a system relies on powerful new platforms such as Hadoop
and Cassandra, with data- and use-case-centric indexing schemes thatallow for rapidly accessing appropriate data from what is potentially apetabyte or more. In this talk, we discuss our approach to bridging the
gap between freely available commercial tools targeted at consumer
applications and the needs of the military.

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Conference 8752: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications VIII

8752-16, Session 68752-19, Session 6

Digital command and control (C2) inelectromagnetic battlespaceGPU-enabled projectile guidance for impact
area constraints

Ekrem Kurt, Turkish Air Force Academy (Turkey)

Jonathan Rogers, Texas A&M Univ. (United States)

Military operations are executed in an increasingly complex
electromagnetic environment. Over the last decade, All nations focusedon improving their signals intelligence capabilities which has significantly
improved intelligence support to EW. Today, there are many evolving
facets of electromagnetic battlespace that include not only Electronic
Attack (EA) but also improved situational awareness via information
sharing and optimal positioning of Electronic Support (ES) systems,
whether it is on a ship, a ground vehicle or an aircraft, for example. The
aim is to use EW resources more intelligently in the battlespace and,by extension, improve their effectiveness. Another benefit is to provide
tactical commanders with a timelier and less ambiguous picture of theelectromagnetic battlespace.

Guided projectile engagement scenarios often involve impact area
constraints, in which it may be less desirable to incur miss distance on
one side of a target or within a specified boundary near the target area.
Current projectile guidance schemes such as impact point predictors
cannot handle these constraints within the guidance loop, and as a result
will produce dispersion patterns that are insensitive to these constraints.
In this paper, a new projectile guidance law is proposed that leverages
real-time Monte Carlo impact point prediction to continually evaluate theprobability of violating impact area constraints. The desired impact pointis then adjusted accordingly. Real-time Monte Carlo simulation is enabledwithin the feedback loop through use of graphics processing units(GPU’s), which provide a large number of parallel pipelines through whicha dispersion pattern can routinely be predicted. The result is a guidance
law that can achieve minimum miss distance while avoiding impact area
constraints. First, the new guidance law is described and formulated asa nonlinear optimization problem which is solved in real-time throughmassively-parallel Monte Carlo simulation. Then, an example simulationis shown in which impact area constraints are enforced, and results
are compared with a standard impact point predictor scheme. Finally,
dispersion simulations are described which demonstrate the ability of
the GPU-enabled guidance scheme to avoid an arbitrary set of impact
area constraints, generating an impact probability density function that
optimally trades miss distance within the restricted impact area. The
proposed guidance scheme has applications beyond smart weapons toinclude missiles, UAV’s, and other autonomous systems.

In this study, it will be explained that if the targets using electromagnetic
spectrum, can be dynamically detected and a linkage between 5th
generation missile systems and platforms are obtained, command andcontrol in EM Battlespace can be done more efficiently. It is planned toestablish a joint management system which is able to obtain real-timedata of the electromagnetic spectrum and be able to evaluate planned
and achieved electronic atttacks. As we live in a network related life, itis needed to put out electronic capabilities at strategic and operative
levels in order to seek for requirements at the same time. For this reason,
EW capabilities must be fully integrated with joint command and control
systems to enable information sharing, and to provide an accuratecommon operational picture (COP) of EW operations.

8752-17, Session 68752-20, Session 6

Determining the flare dispensing program
effectiveness against conical-scan and spinscan reticle systems via Gaussian mixture
modelsCharacterization of infrared imaging
performance within a general statisticalframework for environmental impacts on
battlefield signals and sensing

Mehmet C. Sahingil, Murat S. Aslan, TÜBITAK UEKAE (Turkey)

D. Keith Wilson, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development
Ctr. (United States); Christopher T. Borden, Elizabeth S.
Bettencourt, Atmospheric and Environmental Research, Inc.
(United States); Kenneth K. Yamamoto, U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Ctr. (United States)

The reticle systems which are considered as the classical approach for
determining the angular position of radiating targets in infrared band
are widely used in early generation surface-to-air and air-to-air infrared
guided missile seekers. One of the cost-effective ways of protecting
aircrafts against these missiles is to dispense flare decoys from thecounter-measure dispensing system (CMDS) integrated into the aircraft
platform. Although this counter-measuring technique seems very
simple, if not optimized carefully, it may not be effective for protecting
the aircraft. Flares should be dispensed in accordance with a specificdispensing program which determines the number of flares to bedispensed from each dispenser of the CMDS and timing sequence ofdispensing. Optimizing the parameters of the dispensing program is nottrivial. It requires a good understanding of the operating principle of thethreat seeker, operational capabilities of own platform and engagement
scenario between them.

Environmental Awareness for Sensor and Emitter Employment (EASEE)
is a software framework for modeling the impacts of terrain and weather
on a diverse range of battlefield sensing systems. The goal is to provide
software tools that realistically capture complex environmental effects
impacting sensor performance, yet are simple enough for use by soldierswith little specialized training. This paper describes incorporation of
infrared (IR) modeling into EASEE, and the subsequent challenges of
supporting imaging sensors within a framework that had previously
evolved primarily for non-imaging signal types, such as acoustic, seismic,
and RF. The framework requires modules for signature generation,
propagation, and signal processing to be uncoupled and interchangeable.
The approach involves characterizing statistical sensor performance
metrics, such as probability of detection, rather than simulating actual
images. Some key enhancements needed to support imaging sensors
were: (1) geometric models for targets, (2) packaging of multiple
attributes representing target image properties (radiance, projected area,and spatial spectrum), (3) explicitly distinguishing between signals for the
background, target of interest, and nuisance targets , and (4) calculationof apparent temperature differences (as opposed to incoherent energy
summation). Target signatures are generated using MuSES (MultiService Electro-optic Signature), whereas the IR background properties
are generated using FASST (Fast All-Season Soil STrength) andnumerical weather prediction models. Propagation is handled primarily
with MODTRAN (MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission),In the present paper, we propose a complete simulation-based procedure
to form an effectiveness boundary of flare dispensing programs
against the spin-scan and conical-scan reticle seekers. The region ofeffectiveness is determined via Gaussian mixture models. The raw datais collected via extensive number of simulations using a MATLAB-coded
simulator which models reticle-based seeker, aircraft radiation, aircraft
motion, aircraft CMDS system, flare motion and flare radiation.

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Conference 8752: Modeling and Simulation for
Defense Systems and Applications VIII
although simpler models such as a line-of-sight calculation can also be
employed. Both the Target Task Performance (TTP) metric and Johnson
Criteria sensor performance algorithms are implemented for computing
detection.

8752-21, Session PTues

Design and Implementation of Dynamic
Hybrid Honeypot Network
Peili Qiao, Harbin Univ. of Science and Technology (China)
The method of constructing a dynamic and self-adaptive virtual network
is suggested to puzzle adversaries, delay and divert attacks, exhaust
attacker resources, and collect the attacking information. The conceptsof Honeypot and the Honeyd, which is the frame of virtual Honeypot
are introduced. The techniques of network scanning including active
fingerprint recognition are analyzed. Dynamic virtual network system
is designed and implemented. A virtual network similar to real network
topology is built according to the collected messages from realenvironments in this system. By doing this, the system can perplex theattackers and can further analyze and research the attacks. Test to thissystem proves that this design can successfully simulate the real network
environment and can be used in network security analysis.

432

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Conference 8753:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing VIII
Wednesday - Thursday 1 –2 May 2013

Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8753 Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing VIII
8753-1, Session 1

hoc network (MANET) labeled “multimedia.” The QoS metrics for the
fused results in the WSN can be associated with the QoS metrics for
multimedia in a MANET, e.g., throughput, delay, jitter, packet error rate,
etc. These metrics are typically specified at the highest, or application,
layer of the network protocol stack to ensure that QoS requirements forthe combined sensor data are satisfied. Application-layer metrics, in turn,depend on the performance of the lower protocol layers: presentation,
session, transport, network, medium access control (MAC), and physical.
The dependence of the QoS metrics on the lowest five protocol layers
are the basis for a comprehensive approach to QoS optimization in a
general WSN with multiple sensor types at each node. The lower protocol
layers can be associated with the RFID subnet, while higher layers areassociated with functions of the multiple sensors, multiprocessors,storage, and energy sources at nodes. Motivations for the study area consideration of interference at RFID readers, system portability tolocations with different wireless standards, and the periodic retrofit of RF
modules.

Multi-platform RF emitter localization using
extremum seeking control
Huthaifa A. Al Issa, Raul Ordonez, Univ. of Dayton (United States)
In recent years there has been growing interest in Ad-hoc and WirelessSensor Networks (WSNs) for a variety of indoor applications. Thus, recent
developments in communications and RF technology have enabled
system concept formulations and designs for low-cost radar systems
using state-of-the-art software radio modules.
Position-Adaptive radar concepts have been formulated and investigatedat the AFRL within the past few years. Adopting a position-adaptive
approach to the design of distributed radar systems shows potential
for the development of future radar systems. These radar systems willfunction under new and challenging environments that contain large
clutter discretes and require co-functionality within multi-signal RF
environments.

8753-3, Session 1

Position-Adaptive Direction Finding (PADF) technique is based on theformulation and investigation of Path Loss Exponent (PLE) based metrics
that are measured and estimated across multiple platforms in orderto robotically/intelligently adapt the location of each platform. In otherwords, each individual node adapts its position based on sensing values,
dependent upon the medium, and converges towards the target. By
using the relationship between RSS values and the associated distance
between sender and receiver, the target’s position can be approximated.
RSS data is approximated into distance values based on PLE values, andestimates the position of the target using a Least Square Estimation (LSE)
method.

Optical communication line-of-sight analysis
for dismounted warfighters
Jiayi Geng, Gail Nicholson, Naval Surface Warfare Ctr. Crane Div.
(United States)
Optical communication between a dismounted Warfighter and his
weapon-mounted scope would provide increased capability. Since
optical communication requires line-of-sight, typical movements of a
Warfighter during different military missions and their effect on line-ofsight were researched. Video analysis shows technological feasibility forthis application and provides the basis for a future testing standard.

PADF has been tested on a number of different configurations in thelaboratory via the design and implementation of four IRIS wireless sensor
nodes as receivers and one hidden sensor as a transmitter during the
localization phase.
In this this paper, we present the experimental performance analysis on
the application aspect.

8753-4, Session 1

Performance evaluation of CCI on the forward
CDMA channel

We apply Extremum Seeking Control (ESC) schemes by using theswarm seeking problem, where the goal is to design a control law foreach individual sensor that can minimize the error metric by adapting
the sensor positions in real-time based on cross-path loss exponents
estimates between sensors, thereby minimizing the unknown estimation
error. As a result we achieved source seeking and collision avoidance ofthe entire group of the sensor positions.

Salim Alsharif, Mohammad Alam, Univ. of South Alabama (UnitedStates)This paper focuses on the performance of cochannel interference(CCI) which is the primary factor to limit the capacity of wirelesscommunication systems. Several cellular network architectures havebeen proposed in the literature to reduce the cochannel interference,but none of them appears to effectively tackle this problem. Microzoningis the technique, where the cells are further divided into smaller zones.
The advantage of this technique is that the cochannel interferencein the cellular system is reduced because the cell maintains aparticular coverage radius. The objective of this paper is to analyze
the performance of cochannel interference on the forward channels of
the proposed microzone based CDMA cellular systems operating withperfect power control in an effort to reduce the cochannel interference.
Simulation results showed that the proposed technique can effectively
minimize cochannel interference and the proposed architecture can beused for practical applications.

8753-2, Session 1

Quality-of-service comparison of a protocol
for an active RFID network with sensing anda cross-layer protocol for a wireless sensor
network
William S. Hortos Jr., Associates in Communication Engineering
Research and Technology (United States)
The quality-of-service (QoS) performance of a protocol for the partitionof a fully integrated wireless sensor network(WSN) into an RFID subnet
of active tags and readers and a subnet of multi-sensor nodes, viewed
together as a hybrid RFID/sensor network, is compared to the QoS
performance of the optimized cross-layer protocol through modeling andsimulation. Interactions among autonomously nodes of a WSN focus
on cooperative processing of data from multiple types of sensors tosatisfy common mission objectives. The subsystem of radio transceivers
in a WSN can be viewed as a subnet of active RFID tags and readers
integrated with sensors, multiprocessors, storage, and limited energy
devices at nodes. Fused results from multiple types of raw sensor
inputs to the WSN are analogous to information flows in a mobile ad

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8753-5, Session 1

Pulse based sensor networking using
mechanical waves through metal substrates
Stephan Lorenz, Michigan State Univ. (United States) andCollege of Electrical and Computer Engineering (United States);
Bo Dong, Qiong Huo, William J. Tomlinson Jr., Subir Biswas,·

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Conference 8753:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing VIII
Michigan State Univ. (United States)

8753-8, Session 2

This paper presents a novel wireless sensor networking technique using
ultrasonic signal as the carrier wave for binary data exchange. Using
the properties of lamb wave propagation through metal substrates,
the proposed network structure can be used for runtime transportof structural fault information to ultrasound access points. Primary
applications of the proposed sensor networking technique will include
conveying fault information on an aircraft wing or on a bridge to an
ultrasonic access point using ultrasonic wave through the structure itself(i.e. wing or bridge). Once a fault event has been detected, a mechanicalpulse is forwarded to the access node using shortest path multi-hop
ultrasonic pulse routing. In order to maintain a routing table, nodes use
a novel one hop distance estimation, which is based on the propertiesof lamb wave propagation. The advantages of mechanical waves overtraditional radio transmission using pulses are the following: First, unlike
radio frequency, surface acoustic waves are not detectable outside themedium, which increases the inherent security for sensitive environments
in respect to tapping. Second, event detection can be represented by
the injection of a single mechanical pulse, whereas radio messages
usually take several bits. Therefore, sending a pulse reduces the energy
consumption. The contributions of this paper are: 1) Development of atransceiver for transmitting/receiving ultrasound pulses with a pulse loss
rate below 2?10-5 and false positive rate with an upper bound of 2?10-4.
2) A novel one hop distance estimation based on the properties of lambwave propagation with an accuracy of above 90%. 3) Implementation ofa wireless sensor network using mechanical wave propagation for event
detection on a 2024 aluminum alloy plate, commonly used for aircraft
skin construction

Turbo MMSE equalizer for spread OFDM
signal detection
Ali A. Elghariani, Michael D. Zoltowski, Purdue Univ. (UnitedStates)Spread Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has been
introduced to improve the diversity performance of the original OFDM in
the frequency selective fading channel. In spread OFDM system, every
data symbol is modulated by all OFDM subcarriers. Linear equalizer
such as MMSE is used in spread OFDM signal detection, which has
low complexity compared to the optimal equalizers such as Maximum
Likelihood (ML) [1].
In this paper, soft-in soft-out MMSE equalizer is used in the turbo
equalization setup to improve the BER performance of spread OFDM
system. In this setup the MMSE equalizer and the channel decoder will
exchange soft information in an iterative fashion until the convergenceis achieved. Though the MMSE turbo equalization has been introduced
before for several Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) systems [2], it has
different setup with spread OFDM system and its performance may varywith different spreading matrices. The performance will be investigatedwith both full spread and partial spread OFDM scenarios. The decoding
algorithms that are used in this turbo implementation are convolutionaland LDPC decoding. MATLAB simulation results will be presented toshow the performance improvements and comparisons.

8753-9, Session 28753-6, Session 2

An investigation of Crest factor and power
amplifier back-off requirements For nonOFDM multicarrier modulations
John W. Nieto, Harris Corp. (United States)
This paper will investigate a proposed high data rate High Frequency(HF) system which employs non-OFDM multi-carrier modulation. Up
to 16 carriers are selected based on spectrum utilization in a 200
kHz bandwidth. Of interest in are the crest factor of this approach (ascompared to a single-carrier modulation) and power amplifier effects on
the transmitted bandwidth.

8753-7, Session 2

Differential OFDM peak-to-average reduction
techniques

Noncoherent unitary space-time codes for
wireless MIMO communications
Xinjia Chen, Ernest L. Walker, Southern Univ. and A&M College(United States)
In some scenarios of wireless communications, due to the fast changeof channel information, it is very difficult to estimate the channel
parameters in real time. This difficulty can be overcame by noncoherent communication techniques. In this paper, we propose a newclass of unitary space-time codes for non-coherent wireless MIMO
communications, aimed at improving the bit error rate performanceand data speed of communication systems. We demonstrate that thisclass of unitary space-time codes can be efficiently decoded using
sphere decoder algorithms. A numerical approach is proposed for the
optimization of signal constellation.
Such coding techniques can be applied to the data transmission of
wireless sensor systems.

Fred C. Kellerman, Harris Corp. (United States)

8753-11, Session 3

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a novel techniqueoften chosen because it allows for a less complex receiver design.
Simple techniques allow OFDM to mitigate multipath without a complex
equalizer. For practical systems however its resultant high peak to
average power ratio (PAPR) characteristic places a great burden on the
dynamic range of radio power amplifiers and receive circuitry. Therealready exists a large body of work describing various techniques for
PAPR reduction. However techniques applied in the frequency domainthat implement some form of data re-ordering are usually proprietarymeaning that both the receiver and transmitter must follow the sameunique protocol. Alternatively time domain techniques often employ
clipping to reduce PAPR at the expense of signal integrity. The focus of
this research is centered on techniques that will attempt to reduce PAPR
while retaining backwards compatibility for Differential OFDM systems.

Quasi-coherent performance ofconvolutional-coded continuous phasemodulation

434

James A. Norris, John W. Nieto, Harris Corp. (United States)
Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM) schemes are advantageous for lowpower radios. The constant envelope transmit signal is more efficient for
both linear and non-linear amplifier architectures. A standard, coherent
CPM receiver can take advantage of modulation memory and is more
complex than a coherent Phase Shift Keyed receiver. But the CPM signal
can be demodulated non-coherently and still take advantage of the trellis
structure inherent in the modulation. With this complexity reduction,
the CPM receiver is comparable in performance to a Phase Shift Keyedradio with the power utilization of a Frequency Shift-Keyed design. In
this paper, we discuss the addition of the convolutional coded CPM
performance enhancements as applied to quasi-coherent demodulation.
The differences in complexity will be analyzed and the overall

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Conference 8753:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing VIII
performance enhancements of several different modulation schemes will
be illustrated.

is varied and its effect on the channel characteristics and capacity isshown. Results show that a channel formed by two 1/2 inch thick steel
walls and a 5 cm water column is capable of supporting data rates
of tens of megabits/sec and of transferring power with more than 30
percent efficiency. A prototype system is currently being implemented toverify the simulation results. This technology could be helpful for sensing
and monitoring purposes in defense, industrial and commercial systems.

8753-12, Session 3

PSK31 implementation in an FPGA
William M. Batts Jr., Carlos O. Alva, Harris Corp. (United States)

8753-15, Session 4

Most digital systems today include an FPGA device for computational
support and to provide interfaces to peripheral devices. Typically, digital
designs include a control processor, a DSP or both. Communications
functions such as modems that operate over the air often requireresources expanding all three devices (FPGA for data processing, DSP
for signal processing and microprocessor for control). It is often desirable
to integrate such communications function reusing the existing HWwhile obtaining performance, at a low power cost. In this paper, thefeasibility of implementing the PSK31 modem SW modules in RTL andas a SOC (system on chip) component is studied. The performanceof the open-standard SW based PSK31 digital modem is compared
to an FPGA implementation under Gaussian and ITU-MLD channels.
Statistical analysis is applied to both results to find their confidence
intervals and establish a baseline. Performance is measured in terms of
power per word transmitted and encoding/decoding times at matched
Eb/N0 conditions. Furthermore, addition of more robust communication
techniques will be studied and the cost of such improvements will bemeasured in terms of power and processing times.

Low-complexity algorithms for spatiotemporal directional spectrum sensing withapplications in cognitive radio
Arjuna Madanayake, Chamith Wijenayake, Uma Potluri, Judith
Abeysekara, Dale Mugler, The Univ. of Akron (United States)
Cognitive radio (CR) provides enhanced access to the radio spectrumby identifying primary and secondary users (PUs and SUs) and thenengineering opportunistic communication links for SUs for better
utilization of bandwidth. Spectrum sensing is a signal-processing step in
CR networks, where available RF channels (white spaces) are identified
for SU exploitation.
Typically, the spectrum sensing is done in the time-frequency domain, byidentifying spectral signatures using techniques such as energy detection
and cyclo-stationary feature detection. This research takes into accountboth spatial and temporal spectra leading to multi-dimensional (MD)spectral white spaces. We exploit spectral properties of the received
signals from an array of antennas using MD signal processing forachieving spectral sensing in the spatio-temporal frequency domain.
MD white-space detection takes in to account the direction and location
information of the PUs and SUs in the CR environment and creates
opportunistic links to SUs.

8753-13, Session 3

Power and spectrally efficient
communications: a comparison of linear andnonlinear modulation schemes

MD digital filtering techniques having low complexity compared toconventional delay-sum and phased-array beamforming algorithms isinvestigated, leading to low-complexity energy detection algorithms withapplications in both spatial and temporal white space detection. The MD
algorithms employ digital beam filters having infinite impulse response(IIR) for detection of PU/SU location and directions of RF transmission.
Low complexity digital filters are proposed for highly tunable energy
detectors for spatio-temporal sensing. Also described is an algorithm
that delivers the magnitude-FFT at greatly lower multiplier complexity
compared to conventional-FFTs, with RF spectral sensing applications
in low-power hand-held SU devices. Block diagrams, simulations, andresults will be discussed.

Colin Brown, Phil Vigneron, Communications Research Ctr.
Canada (Canada)This paper compares linear and non-linear modulation schemes forboth bandlimited and power limited scenarios. In particular, we discuss
the various trade-offs in terms of spectral efficiency, signal to noise
ratio requirements and transmission range when selecting a candidate
modulation scheme. Examples of the trade-offs are shown for maximisingtransmission range in frequency flat fading channels.

8753-14, Session 3

Estimating channel capacity and powertransfer efficiency of a multilayer acousticelectric channel

8753-16, Session 4

Soumya Chakraborty, Kyle R. Wilt, Gary J. Saulnier, Henry A.
Scarton, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (United States); Pankaj
K. Das, Univ. of California, San Diego (United States)

Yimin D. Zhang, Saurav Subedi, Moeness G. Amin, Villanova
Univ. (United States)

Precise RFID localization in impaired
environment through sparse signal recovery

Radio frequency identiﬁcation (RFID) is a rapidly developing wirelesscommunication technology for electronically identifying, locating, andtracking products, assets, and personnel. RFID has become one of
the important means to construct real-time locating systems (RTLS)
that track and identify the location of objects in real time using simple,
inexpensive tags and readers. The applicability and usefulness of RTLS
techniques depend on their achievable accuracy. In multilateration-based
localization techniques, the achievable accuracy heavily relies on the
precision of the range estimates between a reader and the tags. Suchrange information can be obtained by using the received signal strength
indication (RSSI) and/or the phase difference of arrival (PDOA). In bothcases, however, the accuracy is significantly compromised when theoperation environment is impaired. In particular, multipath propagation
affects the measurement accuracy of both RSSI and phase information.
In addition, because RFID systems typically operate in short distances,
RSSI and phase measurements are also coupled with the reader and tag

Recent research has shown that acoustic waves can be used to transmit
data and power through metallic barriers. In this paper, we extend thiswork to consider the case where the channel consists of multiple layersof different materials. In particular, we are considering a steel-water-steel
type of interface, i.e. a thin layer of water column sandwiched between
two steel walls. A piezoelectric transducer is mounted on the dry sideof a steel wall and is used to generate acoustic waves that propagate
through the steel wall, water column, and second steel wall. A transducer
attached on the dry side of the receiving end steel wall converts theacoustic waves back to an electrical signal. Our channel is acousticelectric in nature and is modeled as cascade of layers and interfaces
in MATLAB. Each layer (single material) and interface is interpreted astransmission line in the acoustic domain. To maximize the capacity andreduce interference, data transmission is performed using orthogonalfrequency division multiplexing (OFDM). The width of water column

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435

Conference 8753:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing VIII
antenna patterns, making accurate RFID localization very complicatedand challenging. In this paper, we develop a new method to localize
RFID tags or readers by exploiting sparse signal recovery techniques.
The proposed method allows the channel environment and antenna
patterns to be taken into account and be properly compensated ata low computational cost. As such, the proposed technique yields
superior performance in challenging operation environments with theabovementioned impairments.

8753-17, Session 4

Target Position Localization in a Passive
Radar System Through Convex Optimization
Batu Chalise, Yimin D. Zhang, Moeness G. Amin, Villanova Univ.
(United States); Braham Himed, Air Force Research Laboratory(United States)
In contrast to conventional active radar systems which typically operate
in a monostatic mode with a wide signal bandwidth, passive radarsystems (PRS) use an extremely narrow signal bandwidth, and the signal
levels are usually very weak. These features make the task of accurate
estimation of the target positions difficult in PRS. In this paper, weconsider target localization in PRS using the bistatic time-of-arrival (TOA)
information measured at multiple synthetic array locations, where thepositions of these synthetic array locations are subject to random errors.
The maximum likelihood formulation of the target localization problem
is considered for cases where receive array locations are perfectly andimperfectly known. The formulated optimization problems are nonconvex.
An efficient convex approximation based on semidefinite relaxation anditerative refinement is proposed for solving the nonconvex problems.
Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method is robust
against imperfections in the receiver array positions. It is also shown thatthe mean square position error performance of the proposed method is
close to the Cramer-Rao lower bound.

8753-18, Session 4

Collaborative beamfocusing radio (COBRA)
Jeremy P. Rode, Mark Hsu, David Smith, Anis Husain, Ziva Corp.
(United States)
This paper presents simulations and experimental results obtained ona novel technique called Collaborative Beamfocusing Radio (COBRA)
which exploits RF channel reciprocity using time-reversal (TR) to
coherently align an ad-hoc distributed array of N radios to automaticallyachieve diffraction-limited beamfocusing to an intended receiver (IR)with signal gains of N2 without complex algorithms or necessity toalign or sweep the antennas. COBRA simultaneously beamfocusesand compensates for multipath, even in non-line-of-sight environments
producing peak signal gains (> 10 dB).
TR operates by sending a channel sounding from the IR to thetransmitter. The sounding is recorded by the transmitter, reversed in time,
and then used as the transmit pulse shaping filter. RF channel reciprocity
ensures this TR filter is the optimal spatio-temporal matched filter tothe channel. After transmitting the data shaped with the TR filter, the IR
receives pulses consisting of the CIR’s autocorrelation; having a central
peak consisting of the coherent sum of the total energy in the LOS plus
all of the multipath echoes.
To enable TR to align transmitters into an ad-hoc distributed array, atime alignment algorithm is used that avoids causality violations andin-band-full-duplex operation exploiting reciprocal buffering techniques.
By synchronizing CIR capture and TR retransmission across multiple
radios, the reciprocity necessary to achieve coherent alignment at ~GHz
carriers is achieved using only standard quartz-oscillators. TR aligns thedelays associated with the channel and multipath, and the COBRA timealignment need only to maintain relative coherency between the CIR
capture and TR retransmission.

436

8753-19, Session 4

Estimation of the seismic disaster-strickenarea based on wireless communication data
Xiaoyong Zhang, Xiaofeng Xie, Baokun Ning, Gang Sun, National
Earthquake Response Support Service (China)
The use of mobile telecommunication systems in worldwide society has
now reached almost epidemic proportions. The communication basestations are the fundamental components of the mobile communication
systems and are distributed everywhere. After the earthquake, some of
the communication base stations may be damaged or destroyed. Thiskind of damage badly impacts the mobile communications in a great
extent, but it provides an opportunity to locate the seismic disasterstricken area and to estimate the extent of the damage. In this study,
the wireless communication data obtained after the earthquake are
introduced to assess the earthquake disaster rappidly. Firstly, the wirelesscommunication data including the real-time signaling data and the basestation data are used to analyze the behavior and the relationship of themobile phones and the base stations. Based the analysis results, fivesignaling parameters are selected and the Apriori algorithm is used tojudge the damaged status of the stations. All the base stations within theaffected area of the earthquake are cluster analyzed using the K-means
method by the damaged status and are divided into several categories
according the damage level. Each category of stations will produce
a range of earthquake damage grade in the spatial domain within theaffected area. Finally, the seismic disaster-stricken areas are located, andthe extent of the damage is estimated. Tested in the case of Wenchuan
earthquake, happened on May 12, 2008 in Sichuan Province of China,
the paper’s method produced reliable results. The case also showedthat the wireless communication data is very fast and useful source of
information from the disaster attached areas, especially when there is no
way to get the field investigation information.

8753-20, Session 5

Self-Organized Pulse Switching for Binary
Sensing and Actuation
Qiong Huo, Bo Dong, Subir Biswas, Michigan State Univ. (UnitedStates)This paper presents a novel energy-efficient and robust distributed
self-organized pulse switching architecture with a sensor-cell based
event localization for wireless sensor and actuator network applications.
The key idea of this pulse switching architecture is to abstract a single
pulse, as opposed to multi-bit packets, as the information exchangemechanism. Unlike multi-bit packet communication, the proposed pulse
switching architecture is based on pulse communications where a node
either transmits a pulse or keeps silent at every time unit. Specifically,an event can be coded as a single pulse in a specific time unit withrespect to the global clock. Then the pulse is transported multi-hop while
preserving the event’s localization information in the form of temporalpulse position representing its originating cell, destination cell andnext-hop cell. The proposed distributed pulse switching is shown to beenergy-efficient compared to traditional packet switching especially forbinary event sensing and actuation applications. Binary event sensing
and actuation with conventional packet transport can be prohibitively
energy-inefficient due to the communication, processing, and buffering
overheads of the large number of bits within a packet’s data, header, andpreambles. This paper presents a joint MAC and Routing architecture forself-organized distributed pulse switching with the presence of errors andfaults. Through simulation experiments, it is shown that pulse switching
can be an effective distributed means for event based networking inwireless sensor and actuator networks, which can potentially replace
the packet transport when the information to be transported is binary innature.

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Conference 8753:
Wireless Sensing, Localization, and Processing VIII

8753-21, Session 5real recorded data demonstrate ability to improve the performance of theacoustic channel in challenging environments. Using received messages
with non-zero BER, adaptive spatial diversity can achieve BER of 0%
and increased SNIR of 3 dB with number of iterations depending on thenumber of receivers used.

Fast Fourier sampling for ultra-wide band
digital receiver applications
Chen Wu, Sreeraman Rajan, Defence Research and Development
Canada, Ottawa (Canada)8753-24, Session 5

Application of compressive sensing to receiver design is still in its
infancy. There are advantages to using compressive sensing approach fordesigning a receiver: the analog to digital conversion process is simpler;
the power requirement for the receiver is reduced as the analog todigital conversion process is happening at a slower rate; the cost of thereceiver is reduced as the components do not have tighter specification.
However, we believe that such advantages do not come for free. It is
not clear at this stage the disadvantages associated with compressive
sensing. This paper will investigate the advantage and disadvantage ofusing compressive sensing while designing a receiver; specifically it will
focus on the extraction of spectral information from the compressively
sensed data.

Regularization in radio tomographic imaging
Ramakrishnan Sundaram, Gannon Univ. (United States);
Richard Martin, Air Force Institute of Technology (United States);
Christopher Anderson, U.S. Naval Academy (United States)
This paper demonstrates methods to select and apply regularization
to the linear least-squares model formulation of the radio tomographic
imaging (RTI) problem. Typically, the RTI inverse problem of image
reconstruction is ill-conditioned due to the extremely small singularvalues of the weight matrix which relates the link signal strengths to thevoxel locations of the obstruction. Regularization is included to offset
the non-invertible nature of the weight matrix by adding a regularization
term such as the matrix approximation of derivatives in each dimension
based on the difference operator. This operation yields a smooth leastsquares solution for the measured data by suppressing the high energy
or noise terms in the derivative of the image. Traditionally, a scalar
weighting factor of the regularization matrix is identified by trial and error(adhoc) to yield the best fit of the solution to the data without either
excessive smoothing or ringing oscillations at the boundaries of the
obstruction. This paper proposes new scalar and vector regularization
methods that are automatically computed based on the weight matrix.
Evidence of the effectiveness of these methods compared to the preset
scalar regularization method is presented for stationary and moving
obstructions in an RTI wireless sensor network. The variation of the meansquare reconstruction error as a function of the scalar regularization
is calculated for known obstructions in the network. The vector
regularization procedure based on selective updates to the singularvalues of the weight matrix attains the lowest mean square error.

Fast Fourier transform (FFT) is the most widely used signal processing
method in modern digital RF/microwave receiver design, since it can beeffectively implemented in digital signal processing (DSP) devices, suchas the field programmable gate arrays. Based on current DSP technology
only a small number of sampled data points, for example, less than1024 points, can be easily processed by DSP devices; thus limiting thefrequency resolution for analysis purposes. The frequency resolution will
be degraded, when the digital receiver is designed to have ultra-wide
instantaneous frequency band. In order to cover a wider instantaneous
frequency bandwidth with fixed frequency resolution, one may have toincrease number of FFT points and may not be implementable in DSP
devices. In the middle of last decade, the Fast Fourier Sampling (FFS),
also called the Sparse Fast Fourier Transform (SFFT), was developed toefficiently acquire spectral information from small number of sampled
data. This paper explores the application of FFS/SFFT method to ultra
wideband RF/microwave digital receiver design. The paper focuses onfast identification of the sparsely distributed carrier frequencies within an
ultra-wide frequency band using fewer data samples than that for normal
FFT.

8753-25, Session 58753-22, Session 5

Ubiquitous data modeling and analysis forambulance services enhancement

Combination of spatial diversity and paralleldecision feedback equalizer in a singleinput multiple-output underwater acoustic
communication system operating at very highfrequencies

Jalel Akaichi, ISG (Tunisia)
Ubiquitous data, captured by mobile devices and positioning
technologies as sets of time-stamped positions, doesn’t usually carrysemantics. This, obviously, harden its storage as well as its analysis. In
this paper, we raise, in a general context, the challenges of modeling,storing and analyzing ubiquitous or trajectory data, and, in particular,a case study related to ambulance services. We propose a conceptualmodel based on UML notation extended with stereotypes expressing
explicitly the semantic of trajectory-oriented concepts. To valid ourconceptual approach, we implement the ambulance trajectory data
warehouse and we perform OLAP operations for analysis purposes.

Violeta Skoro Kaskarovska, Pierre-Philippe Beaujean, Florida
Atlantic Univ. (United States)
Single Input Multiple Output (SIMO) acoustic communication systemusing an adaptive spatial diversity combined with parallel Decision
Feedback Equalizer (DFE) is presented in this work. The SIMO system
operates at high frequencies with high data rate over a limited range(less than 200 m) in very shallow waters. The SIMO system consists of asingle source transmitting Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) messages
modulated at 25 kHz with carrier frequency 300 kHz received bymultiple receivers. In each receiver, the received symbols are equalized
and used to perform diversity combining. This is considered diversity
combining at lower level and results are used as feedback parameters
for diversity combining performed at higher, DFE level. Maximal Ratio
Combining (MRC) is performed at each level. Diversity combining at DFE
level generates new improved messages at each receiver that can be
combined further to achieve better results in the next iteration of diversity
combining. The adaptive process of diversity is repeated until the best
possible result is achieved or a predefined error criterion is met. Bit Error
Rate (BER) and Signal-to-Noise and Interference Ratio (SNIR) are usedas performance metrics of the acoustic channel. Experimental results
using SIMO system with three, four or five receivers and pre-processed

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437

Conference 8754: Open Architecture/Open Business Model
Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 2013
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8754 Open Architecture/Open Business Model Net-Centric Systems and Defense
Transformation 20138754-1, Session 1

8754-9, Session 2

Naval open systems architecture (Invited
Paper)
Nick Guertin, U.S. Navy (United States)

Architecting a dynamic cyber defense
through hardening privilege, identity, andaccess management

No Abstract Available.

Bassam S. Farroha, U.S. Dept. of Defense (United States)

8754-3, Session 1

Networked sensors: insights into ISR andforce protection (Invited Paper)
Thomas Conway, PM/NV-RSTA (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8754-4, Session 1

The UAS control segment architecture: an
overview (Invited Paper)
Richard Ernst, Office of the Secretary of Defense (United States);
Parag Batavia, Neya Systems LLC (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8754-10, Session 2

Evaluating encrypted Boolean functions on
encrypted bits: Secure decision-making on
the black side
Rajesh Krishnan, Cosocket LLC (United States); Ravi Sundaram,
Northeastern Univ. (United States)

8754-5, Session 1

RF-FPGA and its impact on open architecturearrays (Invited Paper)
William Chappell, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(United States)
No Abstract Available.

8754-6, Session 1

A model for open architecture mission control
systems (Invited Paper)
Tim Pavlick, IBM Corp. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8754-7, Session 1

Program executive office littoral combat
ships (PEO LCS) science and technology
overview (Invited Paper)
Megan Cramer, U.S. Navy (United States)
No Abstract Available.

The new paradigm of secure Information sharing is a fundamental
enabler in facilitating better business and security practices, where
exchange of information has moved to a more automated approach. All
new capability developments should aim to architect dynamic systems
with smart decision models that monitor and control authorized data
while propagating between security domains to reach the authenticatedand authorized users, while prohibiting unauthorized access according toprevailing policy. The Department of Defense (DoD) and Federal Agencies
have established an information strategy for their respective communities
that implement the national level information sharing strategy which
utilizes a comprehensive Identity and Access Management (IDAM)
capability. The new business and mission environments capitalize on theutilization of virtual environments to achieve IT efficiencies and relay on asolid security capability to protect sensitive information.

We present a novel approach for secure evaluation of encrypted Booleanfunctions on encrypted bits. Building upon Barrington’s work to transform
circuits to group programs and the Feige-Killian-Naor cryptographic
protocol, our novel Fixed Structure Group Program construction for
secure evaluation eliminates the need for an expensive Universal Circuit
to hide the function. Elements on the Black side weave together andmultiply two coordinated streams of random sequences of elements froman unsolvable group; the Boolean decision is recovered while preserving
the confidentiality of the decision function and the input bits. The
operation is fast and can be further sped up using parallel computation.
Our approach can handle expressions with NC1 complexity, which is theclass of Acyclic Boolean Circuits with polynomial width and logarithmic
depth in the size of the input. This efficiently parallelizable class includes
non-monotone Boolean expressions of equality, inequality/range,
Hamming distance, Boolean matrix multiplication, and k-of-m thresholdmatching operations. The combined benefits of scaling and expressivityof our approach enables secure decision-making on the Black side.
Envisioned applications include confidential publish/subscribe systems(with empirically validated performance), secure content-oriented
internetworks, confidential forwarding and firewalling rules, and crossdomain guards.

8754-11, Session 3

Modular, open, scalable architectures withapplications to C4ISR systems (Keynote
Presentation)
Bobby R. Junker, Office of Naval Research (United States)
No Abstract Available.

438

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Conference 8754: Open Architecture/Open Business Model
Net-Centric Systems and Defense Transformation 20138754-12, Session 3

The GDAIS journey in OA/OBM (Keynote
Presentation)
Carlo Zaffanella, General Dynamics Advanced Information
Systems (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8754-13, Session 3

Small business perspectives on the open
business model (Keynote Presentation)
Howard Reichel, In-Depth Engineering Corp. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

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439

Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2013
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8755 Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing, Security, and Applications 20138755-1, Session 1

Image encryption in the wavelet domainLong Bao, Yicong Zhou, C. L. Philip Chen, Univ. of Macau(Macao, China )With the wide use of information technologies, individuals andorganizations frequently utilize the Internet and wireless networks forcommunications. However, the Internet and networks have an intrinsic
and essential problem with respect to communication security due to
networks being open to publics including attackers. Thus, classified andvital information in a form of images, videos or documents should beencrypted to against attacks before being transmitted.
Traditional encryption methods such as the Data Encryption Standard(DES) [1] and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) [2] do not have good
performance for the image information with redundancy [3]. Hence, anumber of algorithms specially for encrypting image information havebeen developed. Examples include chaos-based image encryption
algorithms [4–7] and many others [8–10]. They usually encrypt images
by transferring them into the noise-like images. However, this noise-likecharacteristic is an apparent visual sign indicating the presence of an
encrypted image, which may catch more attention to attackers [11].
Motivated by the data hiding technologies, this paper proposes a novel
concept of image encryption by ”hiding” an encrypted image into a
cover image. The resulting encrypted image is visually the same as thecover image, overcoming the above-mentioned problem. To demonstratefeasibility of this concept, this paper introduces a new image encryption
algorithm based on the wavelet decomposition.
The proposed algorithm first uses a chaos-based image encryption
algorithm to encrypt the original image. A cover image is decomposed
into four wavelet sub-bands. The algorithm then replaces the highfrequency sub-band at the diagonal direction with the encrypted image.
The final encrypted image is obtained by combining the processed
sub-bands using the inverse wavelet transform. The image visually
looks the same as the cover image. For the image decryption, we
simple decompose the encrypted image into wavelet sub-bands andextract the protected image from the diagonal sub-band. By using
corresponding chaos-based decryption process, the original image isthen reconstructed. Computer simulations are provided to demonstrate
the excellent encryption performance of the proposed concept andalgorithm.
References[1] National Institute of Standards and Technology, Data encryption
standard (DES) (1999).
[2] National Institute of Standards and Technology, Advanced encryption
standard (AES) (2001).
[3] B. Furht, D. Kirovski, Multimedia Security Handbook, CRC Press, Inc.,
2004.
[4] C. K. Huang, H. H. Nien, Multi chaotic systems based pixel shuffle forimage encryption, Optics Communications 282 (11) (2009) 2123–2127.
[5] S. Liu, J. Sun, Z. Xu, An improved image encryption algorithm basedon chaotic system, Journal of Computers, 4 (11) (2009) 1091–1100.
[6] H. Liu, X. Wang, Color image encryption using spatial bitlevel permutation and high-dimension chaotic system, Optics
Communications, 284 (16-17) (2011) 3895–3903.
[7] Y. Wu, J. P. Noonan, S. Agaian, A wheel-switch chaotic system forimage encryption, in: 2011 International Conference on System Scienceand Engineering (ICSSE), 2011, pp. 23–27.
[8] R.-J. Chen, J.-L. Lai, Image security system using recursive cellular
automata substitution, Pattern Recognition, 40 (5) (2007) 1621–1631.
[9] H. Cheng, X. Li, Partial encryption of compressed images and videos,IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, 48 (8) (2000) 2439–2451.
[10] K. Martin, R. Lukac, K. N. Plataniotis, Efficient encryption of waveletbased coded color images, Pattern Recognition 38 (7) (2005) 1111–1115.

440[11] Y. Zhou, S. Agaian, Image encryption using the image steganography
concept and PLIP model, in: 2011 IEEE International Conference on
System Science and Engineering (ICSSE), 2011, pp. 699–703.

8755-2, Session 1

Biometric feature embedding using robust
steganography technique
Rasber D. Rashid, Sabah A. Jassim, Harin Sellahewa, The Univ.
of Buckingham (United Kingdom)This paper is concerned with robust steganographic techniques to hideand communicate biometric data in mobile media objects like images,
over open networks. More specifically, the aim is to embed binarised
features extracted using discrete wavelet transforms and local binary
patterns of face images as a secret message in an image. The needfor such techniques can arise in law enforcement, forensics, counter
terrorism, internet/mobile banking and border control. What differentiates
this problem from normal information hiding techniques is the added
requirement that there should be minimal effect on face recognition
accuracy.
We propose an LSB-Witness embedding technique in which the secretmessage is already present in the LSB plane but instead of changing thecover image LSB values, the second LSB plane will be changed to standas a witness/informer to the receiver during message recovery. Although
this approach may affect the stego quality, it is eliminating the weaknessof traditional LSB schemes that is exploited by steganalysis techniquesfor LSB, such as PoV and RS steganalysis, to detect the existence ofsecrete message.
Preliminary experimental results show that the proposed method isrobust against PoV and RS attacks compared to other variants of LSB.
We shall also discuss variants of this approach and determine capacity
requirements for embedding face biometric feature vectors while
maintain accuracy of face recognition.

8755-3, Session 1

Performance assessments of Androidpowered military applications operating on
tactical handheld devices
Brian A. Weiss, Lisa Fronczek, Emile Morse, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (United States); Zeid Kootbally, Univ.
of Maryland, College Park (United States); Brian Antonishek,
Craig I. Schlenoff, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
Transformative Apps (TRANSAPPS) is a DARPA-funded program whose
goal is to develop a range of militarily-relevant software applications(“apps”) to enhance the operational-effectiveness of military personnel
on (and off) the battlefield. TRANSAPPS is developing a military
apps marketplace to facilitate rapid development of applications toaddress user needs by connecting engaged communities of end-users
with development groups. The National Institute of Standards andTechnology’s (NIST) role in the TRANSAPPS program is to design andimplement evaluation procedures to assess the performance of: 1) thevarious software applications, 2) software-hardware interactions, and3) the supporting online application marketplace. Specifically, NIST
is responsible for evaluating 50+ tactically-relevant applications on
numerous Android-powered platforms that includes functional regression
testing and quantitative performance testing. This paper discusses
the evaluation methodologies employed to assess the performance offour key program elements: 1) handheld-based applications and theirintegration with various hardware platforms, 2) handheld device security,

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Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 20133) client-based applications and 4) network technologies operating
on both the handheld and client systems along with their integration
into the application marketplace. Handheld-based applications areassessed using a combination of utility and usability-based checklists
and quantitative performance tests. Handheld device security is
explored from the perspectives of the authorized curious user and theunauthorized malicious user. Client-based applications are assessed
to replicate current overseas operations and to assess connected
operations envisioned for later use. Finally, networked applications areassessed on handhelds to establish baselines of performance for whenconnectivity will be common usage.

the statistical stability required for effective data encoding techniquesand demonstrate the improvements in the embedding capacity inmultimedia carriers.

8755-6, Session 1

Mean field game theoretic approach forsecurity in mobile ad-hoc networks
Yanwei Wang, Carleton Univ. (Canada); Helen Y. Tang, Defence
Research and Development Canada, Ottawa (Canada); Fei R. Yu,
Minyi Huang, Carleton Univ. (Canada)8755-4, Session 1

Game theory can provide a useful tool to study the security problem in
mobile ah hoc networks (MANETs). Most of existing works on applying
game theories to security only consider two players in the security gamemodel: an attacker and a defender. While this assumption may be valid
for a network with centralized administration, it is not realistic in MANETs,
where centralized administration is not available. Consequently, eachindividual node in a MANET should be treated separately in the security
game model.

No-reference quality assessment of H.264/
AVC encoded video based on natural scenefeatures
Kongfeng Zhu, Univ. Konstanz (Germany) and Univ. of Dayton(United States); Vijayan K. Asari, Univ. of Dayton (United States);
Dietmar Saupe, Univ. Konstanz (Germany)In this paper, using recent advances in mean field game theory, we
propose a novel game theoretic approach for security in MANETs.
The mean field game theory provides a powerful mathematical tool for
problems with a large number of players. To the best of our knowledge,
using mean field game theoretic approach for security in MANETs has notbeen considered in existing works. The contributions of this work are as
follows. (1) We propose a dynamic mean field game theoretic approach toenable an individual node in MANETs to make strategic security defence
decisions without centralized administration. (2) Since security defence
mechanisms consume precious system resources (e.g., energy), theproposed scheme considers not only the security requirement of MANETs
but also the system resources. (3) Each node only needs to know its
own state information and the aggregate effect of the other nodes in the
MANET. Therefore, the proposed scheme is a fully distributed scheme.
Simulation results will be presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the
proposed scheme.

H.264/AVC coded video quality is crucial for evaluating the performanceof consumer-level video camcorders and mobile phones. In this paper,
a no-reference video quality metric is proposed to blindly predict thequality of videos compressed by H.264/AVC.
We assume that natural scenes possess certain features which are
distorted by video compression. The distortion is estimated by extracting
the distorted features of natural scenes in compressed video, such thatthe quality is predicted without a reference.
The algorithm uses a frame-based approach in which the distortion ofeach frame is measured first, and then their mean is considered as the
distortion of the video. For each frame, the Discrete Cosine Transform(DCT) map is generated by applying 4X4 DCT on all the 4X4 image
subblocks. For each DCT map, five features are extracted from the 15
AC coefficients (kurtosis, homogeneous area, edge energy, blockiness,and histogram distance between high and low frequency components).
A multilayer neural network with 10 hidden layer nodes is used to pool all
the features into one single value as the overall distortion.

8755-7, Session 1

We trained our algorithm and did leave-one-out tests on the LIVE Video
Database with 40 H.264/AVC coded videos of 10-second length each.
The correlation coefficient (CC) between the predicted video quality
computed by the proposed algorithm and the mean opinion score ofhuman subjects was above 0.9. The proposed method outperformed
the full-reference SSIM (structure similarity) index since its declared
performance is CC=0.864. We got a better result even though it is noreference.

Efficient high-capacity steganography
techniques
Alan A. Abdulla, Harin Sellahewa, Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of
Buckingham (United Kingdom)
Performance indicators characterizing modern steganographic
techniques include capacity (i.e. the quantity of data that can be hiddenin the cover medium), stego quality (i.e. artifacts visibility), and strengthor robustness (intended as the resistance against active attacks aimed
to destroy the secret message). Fibonacci based embedding techniques
have been researched and proposed in the literature to achieve efficientsteganography technique in terms of capacity with respect to stego
quality. In this paper, we investigate innovative ideas that extend
Fibonacci-like steganography by bit-plane(s) mapping instead of bitplane(s) replacement. Our proposed algorithms increase embedding
capacity using bit-plane mapping that embeds two bits of the secretmessage in three bits of a pixel of the cover, at the expense of a slight
loss in stego quality. While existing Fibonacci embedding algorithms
do not use certain intensities of the cover for embedding due to thelimitation imposed by the Zekondorf theorem, our proposal solve thisproblem and make all intensity values candidates for embedding. Both
Fibonacci and binary based representations of the secret message aswell as the cover image have been tested and the results demonstratethat the proposed techniques double the embedding capacity whencompared to existing Fibonacci methods.

8755-5, Session 1

Adjunctive numerical relations in multimedia
signal covers
James C. Collins, Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San
Antonio (United States)
This paper introduces a new redundant number system, the adjunctive
numerical representation (ANR), which offers improvements over otherwell known redundant number systems such as the Fibonacci, Lucas,
and the Prime number systems when used in multimedia data hiding
applications. It will be shown that this new redundant number system
has potential applications in digital communications, signal, and image
processing. After describing the derivation of the ANR system, the paper
will offer two illustrative applications for this new redundant coding
system. First an enhanced bit-plane decomposition of image formatted
files with data embedding (steganography and watermarking). Secondly,
an example of an expanded bit-line decomposition of audio formatted
files with data embedding and index-based retrieval capability will be
described. The computer simulations of this new ANR system will detail

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441

Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 20138755-8, Session 1

A novel method of testing image randomness
with applications to image shuffling andencryption
Yue Wu, Tufts Univ. (United States); Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of
Texas at San Antonio (United States); Joseph P. Noonan, Tufts
Univ. (United States)
This paper addresses the question of testing the degree of randomness
within an image, which is essential to evaluate the security performanceof image processing tasks like shuffling and encryption. Althoughsome existing algorithms are developed for testing the degree of image
randomness, most of them are subjective or heuristic. In this paper,
we will present an objective method to evaluate the degree of image
randomness by using the norm-2 distance between two pixels.
In the first place, we mathematically model a so-called “perfectly shuffled
image” with ideal statistical properties of independently identically
distributed pixels.
We select the norm-2 distance between two distinctive pixels withina perfectly shuffled image as our test statistic, because the norm-2
distance is known to be the most appropriate for image data. Based on
the theoretical model perfectly shuffled image, we successfully derive thetheoretical distribution of the test statistic and also its theoretical mean mand variance s^2.
To test the image randomness, we then compare two non-overlapped
n-pixel (n>30) sequences in a perfectly shuffled image and characterize
the difference between these two sequences as the average of thenorm-2 distance of corresponding pixels in two sequences. As a result,
this average norm-2 distance follows the Gaussian distribution ofmean m and variance s^2/n, because of the central limit theorem. Thisknowledge allows us to construct a Z-test to test whether a given image
is indistinguishable from a perfectly shuffled image.
To better evaluate the image randomness, we discuss many aspects of
the implementation, including parameter selections, stabilization of the
our evaluation and minimize the Type-I error of the proposed method byusing robust statistics, and a fast implementation.
Our simulation results show that the proposed method is robust, effective
and efficient for testing the randomness of a image. The proposed
method can be also used as the first step in determine whether or not
an image shuffling or encryption algorithm is suitable for cryptographicalapplications.

8755-9, Session 2

Smartphone identification using digital
images (Invited Paper)
Harin Sellahewa, The Univ. of Buckingham (United Kingdom)
No Abstract Available.

8755-11, Session 2

Security enhancement for mobile ad hoc
networks routing with OLSRv2
Zhexiong Wei, Carleton Univ. (Canada); Helen Y. Tang, Defence
Research and Development Canada, Ottawa (Canada); Fei R.
Yu, Carleton Univ. (Canada); Maoyu Wang, Communications
Research Ctr. Canada (Canada)
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) have been identified as a key
communication technology in tactical environments and emergency
response operations because of its flexibility and many otheradvantageous features. However, the features of MANETs, including
dynamic membership, topology, and open wireless medium, may lead
MANETs suffering from many security vulnerabilities. Secure routing in
MANETs has emerged as an important MANET research area.
In tactical environments, malicious nodes can drop or modify packets
that are received from other nodes. These misbehaviours may seriously
affect the availability of services in the network. In this paper, we propose
a scheme that enhances the security of Optimal Link State Routing
version 2 (OLSRv2) in MANETs based on trust.
Misbehaviors such as dropping or modifying packets can be detectedin our scheme through trust calculation. In the proposed scheme, moreaccurate trust can be obtained by considering different types of packets
and other important factors such as buffers of queues and states ofwireless connections, which may cause dropping packets in friendly
nodes. Additionally, a punishment factor is introduced in order to makethe trust evaluation more realistic.
Simulation results have been presented to demonstrate the effectivenessof our scheme, which improves secure throughput and packet delivery
ratio considerably, with slightly increased average end-to-end delay. We
will extend the scheme to a general framework which can be deployed toother routing protocols in the future work.

8755-13, Session 28755-10, Session 2

Location-assured, multifactor authentication
on smartphones via LTE communication
Torben Kuseler, Ihsan A. Lami, The Univ. of Buckingham (United
Kingdom)
With the added security provided by LTE and IPv6, geographical location
has become an important factor for authentication to enhance thesecurity of remote client authentication during mCommerce applications
using Smartphones. Tight combination of geographical location withclassic authentication factors like PINs/Biometrics in a real-time,
remote verification scheme over the LTE layer connection assures theauthenticator about the client itself (via PIN/biometric) as well as the442client’s current location, thus defines the important aspects of “who”,“when”, and “where” of the authentication attempt without eaves
dropping or man on the middle attacks. To securely integrate location as
an authentication factor into the remote authentication scheme, client’s
location must be verified independently, i.e. the authenticator should notsolely rely on the location determined on and reported by the client’s
Smartphone. The latest wireless data communication technology formobile phones (4G LTE, Long-Term Evolution), recently being rolled out
in various networks, can be employed to enhance this location-factor
requirement of independent location verification. The integrated LTE
Control Plane LBS allows efficient, continuous location tracking of themobile phone that is performed during normal operation of the LTEbased communication between client and network operator resulting in
the authenticator being able to verify the client’s claimed location moresecurely than it was possible with GSM or UMTS. Trials and experiments
show the security improvements of the LTE based location verification.

Multiple-image encryption based on opticalcoherence multiplexing techniqueBadr-Eddine Benkelfat, TELECOM & Management SudParis(France); Sonia Elwardi, Mourad Zghal, Univ. of Carthage(Tunisia); Ayman Alfalou, ISEN Brest (France)
We present a novel application of the optical coherence multiplex
technique for multiple image encryptions. The proposed opticalencryption technique uses a 2D adapted light coherence modulation
scheme and two encryption keys. The first one is a biometric real
image and the second one is a random coherence length coding i.e a
special birefringent plate. Our technique allows an original multiplexing
technique of multiple images through a light beam. For that, our novel
encryption method is based on an all optical real time multichannel signal

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Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2013
addition and subtraction operations. This technique, which uses the path
difference multiplexing technique (also called coherence multiplexing
technique), permits a parallel and a simultaneously single and multiple
image arithmetic operations. It’s based on coherence modulation oflight which utilizes the coherence properties of broadband sources forencoding a target image with an optical path-difference larger than thecoherence length of the source.

8755-17, Session 3

The robustness of the new encryption method was tested against brute
force, Known-plaintext attacks. To measure the performance of oursystem, we used two criteria: MSE (Mean Square Error) criterion, and thecorrelation. This latter consists in correlating the fake image (decryptedwith false keys). This is to show that falsely decrypted image has noresemblance to the target image. To perform this correlation criterion, we
chose to use the POF correlation filter for its resistance against random
noise.

Face detection at a distance is very challenging since images areoften degraded by blur and noise as well as low resolution. This paper
discusses a face detection method with the AdaBoost detector and afalse alarm reduction scheme based on color and shape information.
False alarms generated by the Adaboost algorithm are eliminatedthrough skin-color testing and variable edge mask filtering. The skincolor test involves the validity of the average RGB components in thecandidate windows. After the skin color test, the size of the edge mask
is determined by the ellipse which is estimated from the binary cluster
region. The binary cluster region is generated by the color test of theindividual pixel. The shape of the candidate face regions is investigatedby the variable edge mask filtering. In the experiments, this false alarm
reduction scheme is shown to be very effective for the low resolution
images captured in the long distance.

Face detection at a distance with AdaBoost
filtering and color-shape information
Seokwon Yeom, Dongsu Lee, Daegu Univ. (Korea, Republic of)8755-45, Session 2

Robust image coding (Invited Paper)
Erlan H. Feria, College of Staten Island (United States)
A fundamental issue in image coding is how robust the coder
performance can be while in the presence of images whose pixel
correlation properties change greatly. A review is presented of thelarge vertical/horizontal pixel correlation differences that are foundbetween standard images of the JPEG suit case and synthetic apertureradar (SAR) images, as well as to how standard image coders often
fail to provide a robust high performance solution to these significant
pixel correlation differences. The discussion then turns to the review
of a nascent subbands-based minimum mean square error (MMSE)
predictive-transform (PT) source coding formulation that in an
inherent manner successfully addresses this robustness issue while
simultaneously achieving excellence in both image-compression as wellas computational-burden performance. Finally a straight forward change
of a stability parameter in the source-model that is inside the MMSE
PT source-coder is shown to naturally lead to outstanding joint source/channel coding solutions while subjected to taxing channel disturbances.

8755-18, Session 3

Feature quality-based multimodal
unconstrained eye recognition
Zhi Zhou, Eliza Y. Du, Indiana Univ.-Purdue Univ. Indianapolis(United States); Edward J. Delp III, Purdue Univ. (United States)
Iris recognition has been tested to a most accurate biometrics using
high resolution near infrared images. However, it does not work wellunder visible wavelengths. Sclera recognition has shown to achievereasonable recognition accuracy under visible wavelengths. Combining
iris and sclera recognition together can achieve better recognition
accuracy. However, image quality can significantly affect the recognition
accuracy. Moreover, under unconstrained situation, the acquire eye
images may not be front. In this research, we proposed a feature qualitybased multimodal unconstrained eye recognition method that combine
the strengths of iris recognition and sclera recognition for humanidentification and can work with frontal and off-angle eye images. The
research results show that the proposed method is very promising.

8755-16, Session 3

Progress in multi-channel image fusion forface image matching8755-26, Session 3

Stephen P. DelMarco, BAE Systems (United States)

A new feature selection method for OCT
retinal data analysis

Fusion techniques have proven to be very useful for many signal andimage processing applications including image recognition, image
registration, and biometric matching. Along with standard fusion
techniques, hypercomplex image processing techniques have beendeveloped recently. These techniques represent a form of image
fusion in which several image components are combined to form a
multi-channel image. The multi-channel imagery may be processedusing hypercomplex transforms, such as the hypercomplex Fouriertransform, for image matching and registration. In this paper weinvestigate performance of multi-channel image fusion for face image
matching. We use 3-D color face imagery and investigate fusion ofvarious combinations of grayscale intensity, color, and range information.
We conduct a theoretical investigation to identify conditions underwhich matchers using image channel fusion provide superior matching
performance relative to matchers fusing single channel image matching
results. We present numerical performance results in the form of Receiver
Operating Characteristics curves quantifying matching performance forverification hypothesis testing problems.

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Sumit Chakravarty, New York Institute of Technology (UnitedStates)A new feature selection method for OCT retinal data analysis Curseof dimensionality often hinders the process of data mining. The datacollected and analyzed generally contains huge number of dimensions
or attributes and it may be the case that not all of the attributes arenecessary for the data mining task to be performed on the data.
Traditionally data dimensionality reduction techniques like Principal
Component Analysis or Linear Discriminant analysis have been used
to address this problem. But, these methods move the original data
to a transformed space. However, the need might be to remain in theoriginal attribute space and identify the key attributes for data analysis.
This need has given rise to the research area of feature subset selection.
In this paper we have used solid angle measure to tackle the problem
of dimension reduction. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is afrequently used and established medical imaging technique. It is widelyused, among other application, to obtain high-resolution images of theretina and the anterior segment of the eye. Solid angle measure is used
to characterize and select features obtained from OCT retinal images.
The application of solid angle in feature selection, as proposed in thispaper, is a unique approach to OCT image data mining. The experimental·

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Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2013
results with real life datasets presented in this paper will demonstrate theeffectiveness of the proposed method8755-19, Session 4

Edge-preserving image restoration
Bo Jiang, National Institute of Aerospace (United States)
Linear filtering methods often lead to the suppression of significant
edge features during noise reduction. Since the presence of edges isperceptually related to sharpness and, hence, contrast, these approaches
impact image quality significantly.
In this paper, we develop an edge-preserving noise reduction algorithm
based on edge analysis and connectivity analysis to protect boundaries
sharp and keep piecewise smoothing during filtering. The most common
way of dealing with additive white Gaussian noise is to apply a Gaussian
filter to attenuate noise. But an important consideration is the scale of
the Gaussian filter: small scales let more noise and edges through, whilelarger scales suppress both noise and edges. To address this problem,
multi-resolution edge analysis using a combination of Gaussian filterswith different scales is applied to the edge analysis process.
Then, the connectivity analysis is applied to classify edges or noise
pixels. The idea of connectivity analysis relies on the characteristics ofnoise and features. Specifically, noise does not have regional connectivity
and also has random orientation. Using the idea of regional connectivity,
pixels on edges are classified as “noise’’ are replaced by an averageof their neighbors, hence reducing the impact of noise at that locationand preserving the overall edge structure of the original image. Duringsmoothing, the intra-region smoothing should occur preferentially overinter-region smoothing. Therefore, only those pixels lying at the same
region as the center pixel are used to compute the average value ofthe neighborhood. Otherwise, after smoothing, the pixels closing theboundaries would have mixed information from both intra-region andinter-region pixels.
Experimental results generated from a series of images with different
SNR support that this method is effective in noise reduction and edge
preservation, even for very noisy condition.

8755-20, Session 4

Image enhancement technology for stereo
videosYimin Qiu, School of Computer Science and Technology (China);
Jinshan Tang, Michigan Technological Univ. (United States)
In the past, stereo vision technology has obtained great development andstereo videos also came to the market. As normal videos, the quality of
the images needs to be enhanced for different applications and different
viewers. In this paper, we propose a wavelet-based approach to enhance
the quality of the original images for stereoscopic system. The proposed
approach exploits wavelet transform to decompose the original image
into wavelet domain and image enhancement is performed in wavelet
domain. The image is enhanced by modification of the high-frequency
coefficients. Experimental results show that the proposed approach
outperforms conventional approaches.

8755-21, Session 4

High-capacity embedding with indexed data
recovery using adjunctive numerical relations
in multimedia signal covers
Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San Antonio (United States);
James C. Collins, Air Force Information Operations Ctr. (UnitedStates)444

We introduce a technique for covertly embedding data throughout
an audio file using redundant number system decomposition acrossnon-standard digital bit-lines. This bit-line implementation integrates
an index recoverable embedded algorithm with an extended bit level
representation that achieves a high capacity data channel within a
audio multimedia file. It will be shown this new steganography method
has minimal aural distortive affects while preserving both first andsecond order cover statistics, making it less susceptible to moststeganalysis attacks. Our research approach involves reviewing thecommon numerical methods used in common binary-based algorithms.
We then describe basic concepts and challenges when attempting to
implement complex embedding algorithms that are based on redundant
number systems. Finally, we introduce a novel class of numerical based
multiple bit-line decomposition systems, which we define as Adjunctive
Numerical Representations. The system is primarily described using
basic PCM techniques in uncompressed audio files however extended
applications for alternate multimedia is addressed. This new embedding
system will not only provide the statistical stability required for effective
steganography but will also give us an improvement in the embedding
capacity in this class of multimedia carrier files. This novelty of ourapproach is demonstrated by an ability to embed high capacity covert
data while simultaneously providing a means for rapid, indexed data
recovery.

8755-22, Session 4

Sub-word Based Arabic Handwriting Analysis
for Writer Identification
Makki Maliki, Naseer Al-Jawad, Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of
Buckingham (United Kingdom)
Analysing a text or part of it is the key to the handwriting identification.
The paper hypothesis is based on extracting and identifying the writer’s
habits. These habits are embedded in special parts of handwriting text. In
Arabic each word consists of one or more sub-word(s). The end of each
sub-word is considered to be a connect stroke. As a result the sub-words
are considered to be very important parts which reflect the writer habits
and it can lead for writer identifications.
The experimental results show that using a group of sub-words could
be used to identify the writer with a successful rate between 70.6% and94.1%, when top1 is used, and it can go up to 100% when top5 is usedbased on K nearest neighbour. However previous work, using a complete
word, shows successful rate of at most 90% in top 10

8755-23, Session 4

ZEA-TDMA: design and system level
implementation of a TDMA protocol foranonymous wireless networks
Debasmit Banerjee, Bo Dong, Subir Biswas, Michigan State Univ.
(United States)
Wireless sensor network used in military applications may be deployed in
hostile environments, where privacy and security is of primary concern.
This can lead to the formation of a trust-based sub-network among
mutually-trusting nodes. However, designing a TDMA MAC protocol
is very challenging in situations where such multiple sub-networks
coexist, since TDMA protocols require node identity information for slot
assignments. This paper introduces a novel distributed TDMA MAC
protocol, ZEA-TDMA (Zero Exposure Anonymous TDMA), for anonymous
wireless networks. ZEA-TDMA achieves slot allocation with strict
anonymity constraints, i.e. without nodes having to exchange any identity
revealing information. By using just the relative time of arrival of packets
and a novel technique of wireless collision-detection and resolution for
fixed packet-sizes, ZEA-TDMA is able to achieve MAC slot-allocation
which is described as follows. Initially, a newly joined node listens to
its one-hop neighborhood channel usage and creates a slot allocationtable based on its own relative time, and finally, selects a slot that is

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Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 20138755-27, Session 5collision free within its one-hop neighborhood. The selected slot canhowever cause hidden collisions with a two-hop neighbor of the node.
These collisions are resolved by a common neighbor of the colliding
nodes, which first detects the collision, and then resolve them using
an interrupt packet. ZEA-TDMA provides the following features: a) it isa TDMA protocol ideally suited for highly secure or strictly anonymous
environments b) it can be used in heterogeneous environments wheredevices use different packet structures c) it does not require network
time-synchronization, and d) it is insensitive to channel errors. We have
implemented ZEA-TDMA on the MICA2 hardware platform running
TinyOS and evaluated the protocol functionality and performance on a
MICA2 testbed.

Adaptive error-correction codes for distortion
face identification
Wafaa R. Hussein, Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of Buckingham(United Kingdom)
The face is one of the most desired physiological biometrics traits forautomatic person identification. Application of face recognition includes
access control to sensitive information/locations law-enforcement andforensics and as a proof of identity to claim entitlement to services.
This paper aims to investigate the use of error correction techniques
for face recognition in uncontrolled environments (face distortion). We
investigated error patterns in binary face feature vectors extracted fromdifferent image windows for different blurring conditions.Two kindsof blurring( Gaussian and Degradation) were applied. By estimating
statistical parameters for the intra- and inter-class distributions ofHamming distances in each window, we encode with appropriate
ECC’s and each subband depending on these distributions in distortion
condition. The proposed approach is tested for binarised wavelet
templates using : Extended Yale-B face database. We shall demonstratethat using different combinations of BCH-based ECC’s for different
blocks/windows and different recording conditions leads to different
accuracy rates, and that using ECC’s results in significantly improved
recognition results.

8755-24, Session 5

Social network forensics: using commercial
software in a university forensics lab
environment
Pavel Halkin, Knut Kroeger, Reiner Creutzburg, Fachhochschule
Brandenburg (Germany)
The aim of this article is to give a practical overview of forensic
investigation of social network cases using certain commercial software
packages in a university forensics lab environment.
Students have to learn the usefulness of forensic procedures to ensure
evidence collection, evidence preservation, forensic analysis, andreporting.

8755-46, Session 5

It is demonstrated how to investigate important data from social network
users.

Superresolution-based face recognition: Do
we need training image set? (Invited Paper)

Different scenarios of investigations are presented that are well-suited forforensics lab work in university.

Nadia Al-Hassan, Harin Sellahewa, Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of
Buckingham (United Kingdom)

In particular, we focus on the new version of Belkasoft Evidence Centerand compare it with other well-known tools regarding functionality,
usability and capabilities.

This paper is concerned with face recognition under uncontrolled
condition, e.g. at a distance surveillance scenarios, and post-rioting
forensic, whereby captured face images are severely degraded/blurredand of low resolution. This is a tough challenge due to many factors
including difficulties in determining a model for image degradation thatencompasses a range of realistic capturing conditions. We present
the results of our investigations into recently developed Compressive
Sensing (CS) theory to develop scalable face recognition schemes using
a variety of over-complete dictionaries that construct super-resolved face
images from any input low-resolution degraded face image. We shalldemonstrate that deterministic as well as non-deterministic dictionaries
that do not involve the use of face image information but satisfy someform of the Restricted Isometry Property (RIP) used for CS can achieve
face recognition accuracy levels as good a, if not better than, thoseachieved by dictionaries, proposed in the literature, that are learnt fromface image databases using elaborate procedures. We shall elaborate on
how this approach helps in crime fighting and terrorism.

8755-25, Session 5

Gait recognition using spatio-temporalsilhouette-based features
Azhin Sabir, Naseer Al-Jawad, Sabah A. Jassim, The Univ. of
Buckingham (United Kingdom)
Now a day Biometric systems are becoming progressively important in
human recognition/identification. Human Gait Recognition becoming
increasingly interesting in several applications; like security, medical,
and robotics. Gait can be different from other biometrics because it canbe unobtrusive and obtained from distance. This paper presents a newalgorithm for human gait recognition based on Spatio-temporal body
biometric features. The proposed algorithm extracts the Gait cycle byfinding the local maxima of a width signal from a sequence of Silhouette
images.

8755-14, Session PTues

Gait Spatio-temporal signature is attained based on the distances
between (feet, knees, hands, shoulders, height, and intersection point
between legs). Moreover, the changes between any two consecutive
frames of the silhouette for each leg has been detected separately, andrepresented by the least square function. These two features are thenadded to the feature vector.

Linger thermo theory, Part I: on the novel
dynamics dual of the stationary ectropy/
entropy latency information theory

Principal Component Analysis is applied followed by K-Nearest Neighborwith a certain threshold used for classification. The threshold is obtainedby experiment from a set of data captured from the CASIA database.
The preliminary experimental results show that our approach is providing
more accurate and confident recognition rate compared to the existence
approaches.

Latency Information Theory (LIT) is the nascent universal guidance theory
for efficient system analysis and designs. LIT has roots in a structuraland physical latency-certainty/information-uncertainty (SPLI) duality.
The SPLI duality was first identified in 1978 in linear quadratic gaussian(LQG) ‘continuous’ control and then applied to ‘quantized’ control(Feria, Graduate-Center/CUNY Ph.D., 1981). Since 2004 it is being
successfully applied to radar, statistical-physics, cosmology, biologicallifespan problems, etc. In the LIT system analysis, the following four
information-system types are identified and their stationary entropy/

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Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
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ectropy determined: 1) sources, whose bit-rate has as lower bound thesource-entropy H; 2) retainers, whose surface-area per volume rate has
as lower bound the retainer-entropy N; 3) processors, whose binaryoperator-rate has as lower bound the processor-ectropy K; and 4)
movers, whose delay-rate has as lower bound the mover-ectropy A. Afterthe LIT analysis is completed either lossless or lossy low-rate-coders aredesigned to replace undesirable high-rate-systems. In this paper a Linger
Thermo Theory (LTT) is revealed as the dynamics dual of stationary
entropy/ectropy LIT. LTT is different from LIT in two basic respects, firstly,
the four information-system types are assumed to occupy the same
physical space and, secondly, physical microstates become the source
outcomes in H’s definition. For close systems it is found that K, N andA monotonically increase as H increases following thermodynamics’
second law. Thus LTT inherently surfaces as the dynamics dual of
stationary entropy/ectropy LIT. In a companion paper a LTT derived
lifespan equation is used to determine a life insurance premium.

servers protection are also mentioned. Based on practical testing, thepaper summarizes the knowledge and describes the most effective
methods that are successful against DoS attacks not only in IP telephony,
but a wide range of network services. These methods were used toprovide a good basis for our defense algorithm that in its implementation
combines ideas and practices for providing adequate protection against
the threats mentioned herein.

8755-28, Session PTues

In this paper a computer implemented algorithm is given for determining
a life insurance premium. The premium is based on a theoretical adult
lifespan (T) calculated from: T = dT(M/dM)^2 where M is the adult’s mass,dM is the mass of the consumed food per day (e.g., 0.4 kg for a 2000
kcal diet) and dT is the duration of one day. This equation inherently
surfaced from a nascent Linger Thermo Theory (LTT) that unifies
Thermodynamics and Lingerdynamics, its recently revealed time-dual(Feria, “Latency information theory: Novel lingerdynamics ectropies are
revealed as time duals of thermodynamics entropies.”, IEEE Int. Conf.
on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, October 12, 2011, Anchorage,
Alaska). Since T is proportional to the ratio of the individual’s mass tothe consumed food per day squared, i.e., (M/dM)^2, it predicts thathigher weight (obese) individuals can have the same lifespan as lower
weight ones when both have the same M/dM ratio. Most importantly, thisproperty has the virtue of being in full agreement with a recent National
Institute of Aging (NIA) study published online August 29, 2012 in thejournal Nature, which surprised and shocked the researchers when
they found that higher weight (obese) rhesus monkeys had a similarlife expectancy as lower weight ones (Kolata, “Severe Diet doesn’t
Prolong Life, as Least in Monkeys”, The N. Y. Times, August 29, 2012).
It is thus expected that the proposed LTT method should improve on
traditional calculations and actuarial tables that often presume that obese
individuals have lower life-expectancies.

Comparison of LSB steganography in
Encrypted YCbCr and RGB image planes
Muhammad U. Ghani, The Univ. of Oklahoma (United States)
LSB steganography is implemented with Cryptography using YCbCr
and RGB image planes. In this study Steganography method is used
to cover secret image using RGB image pixels as its cover media.
The secret information is hidden into one of the RGB pixel plane. The
Steganographic image is encrypted into three image planes of RGB andis sent over to the receiving channel. For comparison purposes, the same
cover image is converted to the YCbCr and the secret image is hiddenin the Y plane of the YCbCr pixel plane. The stego image is combinedwith the CbCr planes and then converted to the RGB pixel plane. For
both the RGB images the image quality is measured by some image
quality parameters. The image quality parameters used in this study
were mean square error, peak signal to noise ratio, normalized cross corelation, structural content, average difference and maximum difference.
The image quality and security is better for the YCbCr image plane ascompared to the RGB image plane. The level of security is enhanced by
performing cryptography first on the secret image and then using LSB
steganography. Stealing of the secret image from the Stego image ismade very hard for an unauthorized person.

8755-29, Session PTues

Security solution against denial of service
attacks in BESIP system
Filip Rezac, Miroslav Voznak, Jakub Safarik, Pavol Partila, Karel
Tomala, Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
Many large institutions operate small offices with tens or hundredsof employees. A common requirement is the full integration of thesedepartments in the organization’s environment (examples are libraries andbranch offices). With our proposed solution BESIP, the integration canbe achieved easily with the use of IP telephony and supporting network
infrastructure. The device is designed as a price acceptable solution that
supports SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) IP telephony and also services
such as secure communication using SRTP and TLS, monitoring ofcall quality, tools for detection and elimination attacks, billing and clear
configuration via a web interface.
The system consists IP telephony software and a part of BESIP is also
module responsible for the safety. Today one of the most common attack
against these types of network elements is Denial of Service - DoS.
It is because of high efficiency and relatively simple feasibility. It was,therefore, necessary to develop methods for security, which can beused not only as part of our system, but also as a general solution for IP
Telephony.
The article refers about the scheme of the BESIP system in more details,
the vulnerability of VoIP softswitches to DoS attacks and methods for4468755-30, Session PTues

Linger thermo theory, Part II: on theapplication of linger thermo theory to
determining life insurance premiums
Erlan H. Feria, College of Staten Island (United States)

8755-31, Session PTues

IP telephony-based danger alert
communication system and its
implementation
Filip Rezac, Jakub Safarik, Miroslav Voznak, Karel Tomala, Pavol
Partila, Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)
The paper deals with development of a web application allowing todeliver pre-recorded voice messages by using SIP generator. The
developed application is a part of complex system, which has been
evolved in Dpt. of Telecommunications, Technical University of Ostrava
for last three years.
Our intent is focused on disaster management, the message, whichshould be delivered within specified time span, is typed in the applicationand text-to-speech module ensures its transformation to a speechformat, after that a particular scenario or warned area is selected anda target group is automatically unloaded. For this purpose, we havedefined XML format for delivery of phone numbers which are located in
the target area and these numbers are obtained from mobile BTS’s (Basetransmission stations). The benefit of such communication compared toothers is the fact that it uses a phone call and, therefore, it is possible toget feedback who accepted the message and to improve efficiency ofalert system. Finally, the list of unanswered calls is exported and theseusers can be informed via SMS.
The whole system will be based in the data centre of atelecommunications operator and will be accessible to the crisis centre’s
staff. A staff member logs into the system created by us, loads the pre-SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing 2013·

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Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 2013
recorded alert and other parameters and sends the request. In the paper,
the core of the danger alert system is described including algorithms ofthe voice message delivery. We also presents preliminary model of thecrisis situations and calculate the approximate time to inform all people
who are in the field.

based on detailed modeling of the network/radio characteristics,
CONOPS, and secure distributed file system functionality. The simulator
is highly customizable for the purpose of determining expected system
performance for other network topologies and CONOPS.

8755-34, Session PTues

8755-32, Session PTues

Automatic analysis of attack data from
distributed honeypot network

Breaking down the barriers of using strong
authentication and encryption in resource
constrained embedded systems

Jakub Safarik, Filip Rezac, Miroslav Voznak, Karel Tomala, Pavol
Partila, Technical Univ. of Ostrava (Czech Republic)

Ron Knobler, Peter Scheffel, Scott Jackson, McQ, Inc. (UnitedStates); Kris Gaj, Jens-Peter Kaps, George Mason Univ. (UnitedStates)There are many ways of getting real data about malicious activity in a
network. One of them relies on masquerading monitoring servers as
a production one. These servers are called honeypots and data about
attacks on them brings us valuable information about actual attacks
and techniques used by hackers. The article describes distributed
topology of honeypots, which was developed with a strong orientation
on monitoring of IP telephony traffic. IP telephony servers can be easily
exposed to various types of attacks, and without protection, this situation
can lead to loss of money and other unpleasant consequences. Usinga distributed topology with honeypots placed in different geologicallocations and networks provides more valuable and independent results.
With automatic system of gathering information from all honeypots,
it is possible to work with all information on one centralized point.
Communication between honeypots and centralized data store use
secure SSH tunnels and server communicates only with authorized
honeypots. The centralized server also automatically analyses data fromeach honeypot. Results of this analysis and also other statistical data
about malicious activity are simply accessible through a built-in web
server. All statistical and analysis reports serve as information basis foran algorithm which classifies different types of used VoIP attacks. The
web interface then brings a tool for quick comparison and evaluation of
actual attacks in all monitored networks. The article describes both, thehoneypots nodes in distributed architecture, which monitor suspicious
activity, and also methods and algorithms used on the server side foranalysis of gathered data.

Various embedded systems, such as unattended ground sensors (UGS),
are deployed in dangerous areas, where they are subject to compromise.
Since numerous systems contain a network of devices that communicate
with each other (often times with COTS radios), an adversary is able tointercept messages between system devices, which jeopardizes sensitive
information transmitted by the system (e.g. location of system devices).
Secret key algorithms such as AES are a very common means to encrypt
all system messages to a sufficient security level, for which lightweight
implementations exist for even very resource constrained devices.
However, all system devices must use the appropriate key to encryptand decrypt messages from each other. Traditional public key algorithms(PKAs), such as RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), provide
a sufficiently secure means to provide authentication and a means to
exchange keys. However, these traditional PKAs are not suitable for very
resource constrained embedded systems or systems which contain low
reliability communication links (e.g. mesh networks), especially as thesize of the network increases. Therefore, most UGS and other embedded
systems resort to pre-placed keys (PPKs) or other naïve schemes which
greatly reduce the security and effectiveness of the overall cryptographic
approach. McQ has teamed with CERG at GMU to develop an approach
using revolutionary cryptographic techniques that provides bothauthentication and encryption, but on resource constrained embedded
devices, without the burden of large amounts of key distribution orstorage.

8755-35, Session PTues

Passive radiation detection using optically
active CMOS sensors

8755-33, Session PTues

Solving data-at-rest for the storage andretrieval of files in ad hoc networks

Luke Dosiek, Patrick Schalk, Assured Information Security(United States)

Ron Knobler, Peter Scheffel, Jonathan Williams, McQ, Inc.
(United States); Kris Gaj, Jens-Peter Kaps, George Mason Univ.
(United States)

Recently, there have been a number of small-scale and hobbyist
successes in employing commodity CMOS-based camera sensors
for radiation detection. For example, several smartphone applications
initially developed for use in areas near the Fukushima nuclear
disaster are capable of detecting radiation using a cell phone camera,provided opaque tape is placed over the lens. In all current usefulimplementations, it is required that the sensor not be exposed to visible
light. We seek to build a system that does not have this restriction. Whilebuilding such a system would require sophisticated signal processing,
it would nevertheless provide great benefits. In addition to fulfilling theirprimary function of image capture, cameras would also be able to detect
unknown radiation sources even when the danger is considered to be
low or non-existent. By experimentally profiling the image artefacts
generated by alpha and beta particle impacts, algorithms are developed
to identify the unique features of radiation exposure, while discarding
optical interaction and thermal noise effects. Preliminary results focus onachieving this goal in a laboratory setting, without regard to integration
time or computational complexity. However, future work will seek toaddress these additional issues.

Based on current trends for both military and commercial applications,the use of mobile devices (e.g. smart phones and tablets) is greatly
increasing. Several military applications consist of secure peer-to-peer
file sharing without a centralized authority. For these military applications,
if one or more of these mobile devices are lost or compromised, sensitive
files can be compromised by adversaries, since COTS devices andoperating systems are used. Complete system files cannot be stored ona device, since after compromising a device, an adversary can attack thedata-at-rest, and eventually obtain the original file. Also after a device iscompromised, the existing peer-to-peer system devices must still be able
to access all system files.
McQ has teamed with the Cryptographic Engineering Research Group
at George Mason University to develop a custom distributed file sharing
system to provide a complete solution to the data-at-rest problem forresource constrained embedded systems and mobile devices. This
innovative approach scales very well to a large number of network
devices, without a single point of failure. We have implemented theapproach on representative mobile devices as well as developed an
extensive system simulator to benchmark expected system performance

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447

Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 20138755-36, Session PTues

Three Dimensional Alpha Weighted
Quadratic Filter Based Image Color Contrast
Enhancement
Chen Gao, Karen Panetta, Tufts Univ. (United States); Sos S.
Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San Antonio (United States)
In this paper, we introduce a new spatial domain color contrast
enhancement algorithm based on the three dimensional alphaweighted quadratic filter (AWQF). The goal of this work is to utilize thecharacteristics of the nonlinear filter to enhance image contrast while
recovering the color information. For images with less than desirable
illumination, a modified Naka-Rushton function is proposed to adjust theunderexposed or overexposed intensities in the image. We also present
a new image contrast measure called the Root Mean Enhancement(RME) to model Root Mean Square (RMS) contrast in image sub-blocks.
A color RME contrast measure CRME is also proposed based on the
PCA decomposition and the grayscale RME. The new measures helpchoose the optimal operating parameters for enhancement algorithms.
We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods on varietiesof images. Experimental results show that the proposed algorithms canenhance the image contrast and color quite efficiently and effectively.
Comparisons with existing state of the art algorithms will be alsopresented.

8755-37, Session PTues

Mobile object retrieval in server-based image
databases
Daniel Manger, Frank Pagel, Heiko Widak, Fraunhofer-Institut für
Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung (Germany)
The increasing number of mobile phones equipped with powerfulcameras leads to huge collections of user-generated images. To utilize
the information of the images on site, image retrieval systems are
becoming more and more popular to search for similar objects in an own
image database. As the computational performance and the memory
capacity of mobile devices are constantly increasing, this search canoften be performed on the device itself. This is feasible, for example, if
the images are represented with global image features or if the searchis done using EXIF or textual metadata. However, for larger image
databases, if multiple users are meant to contribute to a growing image
database or if powerful content-based image retrieval methods with local
features are required, a server-based image retrieval back-end is needed.
In this work, we present a content-based image retrieval system with aclient server architecture working with local features. On the server side,
the scalability to large image databases is addressed with the popularbag-of-word model with state-of-the-art extensions to circumvent theloss of accuracy caused by the quantization step. The client end of thesystem focuses on a lightweight user interface presenting the mostsimilar images of the database highlighting the visual information which iscommon with the query image. Additionally, new images can be added tothe database making it a powerful and interactive tool for mobile contentbased image retrieval.

of this growth also confirmed recently. Many theoretical models havebeen advanced for the universe’s spatial evolution, inclusive of somethat are adverse to a continuous expansion. Yet, theoretical models
aren’t available where an expanding universe inherently surfaces
from thermodynamics’ laws which are believed to drive the universe’s
evolution (Atkins, Four Laws that Drive the Universe, Oxford, 2007). In
this paper, a novel Linger Thermo Theory (Feria, “Latency Information
Theory: Novel Lingerdynamics Ectropies are Revealed as Time Dualsof Thermodynamics Entropies.”, IEEE Int. Conf. on Systems, Man andCybernetics, October 12, 2011, Anchorage, Alaska) leads us to a novel
retainer-entropy enhanced thermodynamics achieving this goal. Linger
Thermo Theory is the dynamics dual of the also novel stationary ectropy/
entropy Latency Information Theory.

8755-39, Session PTues

Automated license plate with barcode
recognition system
Ayman Dodin, The Univ. of Texas at San Antonio (United States)
License Plate Recognition (LPR) is an image-processing tools used to
identify vehicles by their license plates. LPR system is a key to many
traffic related applications such as road traffic monitoring, borders
control, parking lots access control, unauthorized vehicles entering
private areas monitoring, electronic payment systems (toll payment,
parking fee payment), freeway arterial management systems and traffic
surveillance. These tasks become more complicated when dealing withlicense plate images taken in various inclined angles, environment, color,climate (heavy rain…) or plate images with noise. Because this problem
is usually used in real-time systems, it requires not only accuracy but
also fast processing. The problem of automatic LPR recognition has
been studied since 1980s. There are several of systems used so far forrecognition of number plates such as BAM (Bi-directional Associative
Memories) neural network character recognition, pattern matching etc.
However, most of them worked under restricted conditions, such as fixedillumination, limited vehicle speed, designated routes, and stationary
backgrounds. In this study, as few constraints as possible on the working
environment are considered.
Recently one-dimensional barcodes have been promoted as a machinereadable license plate. Each label contains a unique serial number
coded in black and white bars that was a key into a database containing
detailed information. Practically, the author is not familiar with license
plate with barcode character recognition systems. In this paper, newalgorithms for color vehicle license plate with barcode and withoutbarcode identification are proposed. The presented method can bedivided in three image processing phases: the phase of license plateand barcode segmentation, the phase of license plate processing andcharacter recognition, and barcode recognition. The algorithm was tested
with natural-scene gray-level vehicle images of different backgrounds
and ambient illumination. The experiment performed by program basedon aforementioned algorithms indicates that our LPR system based oncolor image processing is quite quick and accurate. Promising results
have been obtained in the experiments with Israeli and Bulgarian license
plates including images of poor quality. These results are also comparedwith other published LPR-systems

8755-40, Session PTues
8755-38, Session PTues

Linger thermo theory, Part III: on theapplication of the nascent linger thermo
theory to cosmology
Erlan H. Feria, College of Staten Island (United States)
Cosmological studies and observations starting in the late 1920’s
strongly indicate that our universe was created in an explosion of
maximally dense mass-energy more than 13.7 billion years ago. Since
then its volume has been continuously expanding, with an acceleration
448

Both thermal and visual image enhancements
using fuzzy inference system
Mehdi Roopaei, Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at San Antonio(United States)
In this paper, we propose a novel fuzzy contrast enhancement method
based on the fuzzy set theory. Contrast enhancement techniques
improve a characteristic or quality of an image, such that the resulting
image is better than the original for a specific application or set ofobjectives. Fuzzy logic is a useful tool for handling the uncertainty in theimages associated with vagueness and/or imprecision. The basic idea

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Conference 8755: Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing,
Security, and Applications 20138755-42, Session PTuesof the proposed contrast enhancement method is to establish a simple
fuzzy system based on the local information available to be used by afuzzy inference system as a contrast intensifier. The experimental results
demonstrate that the proposed algorithm is very effective in contrast
enhancement both thermal and visual images as well as in preventing
over- enhancement.

Email forensics: a practical overview using
certain commercial software tools
Knut Kröger, Reiner Creutzburg, Fachhochschule Brandenburg(Germany)

8755-41, Session PTues

The aim of the paper is to show the usefulness of modern forensic
software tools for email investigation. In particular, we focus on the newversion of Nuix and compare it with other well-known tools regarding
functionality, usability and capabilities. It is shown how these softwaretools work and how capable they are in examining complex email
scenarios.

Iterative color image enhancement andstandardization
Clara M. Mosquera Lopez, Sos S. Agaian, The Univ. of Texas at
San Antonio (United States)

8755-44, Session PTues

In human vision, color images are perceptually richer than achromatic
images. For instance, color and shape often convey important
information for diagnosis in dermatology, evaluation of surface conditions
in radar imaging, face detection and recognition, etc. Color is one of
the most informative features of an image, and plays a central role inthe development of image processing algorithms and computer visionsystems. However, color may be randomly affected by several factors.
Such factors include viewing geometry, differences among image
acquisition protocols, capturing devices, lighting or other conditions.
Consequently, performance of color-based classification systems isdegraded when the color of the images is not standardized. Thus, color
standardization is practically a necessary condition for developing
accurate color-based automatic recognition systems. Standardization
mainly consists of controlling the settings of a set of images such that
their original device-dependent color space is transformed into somedevice-independent color space. Although various types of image
standardization algorithms have been developed, there is a need for more
precise methods that can provide sensitive and reproducible automatic
image processing systems.

Using Java technology to connect to remotetactical radios
Lisa M. Scott, Michael Younger, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)With the technical advancements and commonality of the World Wide
Web, there are possibilities to build web-based user interfaces (WUI)
that have the capability to monitor military assets from anywhere in theworld. This paper presents a design for using Java as a programming
language to build a web-based interface to connect, monitor and display
the state of tactical radios remotely. This software system would consistof a module to send commands and collect data from one to all tacticalradio(s) and a module for receiving, storing and displaying the results
in a web browser. Technologies to be used include but limited to a web
server, JavaScript, a lightweight database, Google Gson (GSON) andJava Script Object Notation (JSON). With the mobile device popularityand growing with high-speeds, the Android platform being open-sourced,
the expansion of the interface to manipulate the radios using an Android
platform will be considered. This paper will provide an overview for
designing the graphical interface and software architecture to request,
collect, store and display the radio data.

The goal of this paper is to present tools for simultaneous color image
enhancement and standardization. In this paper, we introduce a newiterative algorithm that match the color statistics of an original image tothe distribution of reference images. Reference images are considered
to have a desirable color distribution for a specific application. The
proposed method proceeds in two stages at each iteration: source image
retrieval and color adjustment. First, a color similarity measurement
is used to select an appropriated target from an image dataset bycomparing the color dynamic range of the images. Second, we convert
the images from the RGB model to a decorrelated color space before
performing color transference operations. Next, the color statistics of thetarget image are transferred to the original image by using a pixel-based
color mapping. Finally, a wavelet-based algorithm is applied to the recolored image to preserve the original edge information and to lower thenoise. The new image enhancement and standardization tool has several
advantages: it is computationally efficient and it has the potential ofincreasing substantially the accuracy of segmentation and classification
systems based on color features. Computer simulations indicate that theiterative and gradual color matching procedure is able to standardize theappearance of color images according to a desirable color distribution
and reduce the amount of artifacts appearing in the resulting image.
Applications of the developed tools include military applications,surveillance systems, tracking, and other fields where color constancy
is a crucial issue. The developed method can also be adapted to any
optical imaging device such as microscopes, endoscopes to improve themonitoring and diagnosis accuracy in several biomedical fields.

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Conference 8756: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2013
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8756 Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion: Architectures, Algorithms, andApplications 20138756-2, Session 1

Scalable sensor management for automatedfusion and tactical reconnaissanceThomas J. Walls, Michael L. Wilson, U.S. Naval ResearchLab. (United States); Darin Partridge, Jonathan R. Haws, Mark
Jensen, Troy Johnson, Brad Petersen, Scott A. Anderson, Space
Dynamics Lab. (United States)
The capabilities of tactical intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance(ISR) payloads are expanding from single sensor imagers to integrated
systems of systems architectures. Increasingly, these systems of systems
include multiple sensing modalities that can act as force multipliers forthe intelligence analyst. We describe here a Sensor Management System(SMS) designed to provide a flexible central coordination component
capable of managing multiple collaborative sensor systems onboard
an aircraft or unmanned autonomous vehicle (UAV). Its purpose is toincrease sensor-to-sensor cooperation and collaboration and to aid in themanned-unmanned teaming of autonomous and user-controlled sensors.
The SMS architecture is designed to be sensor and data agnostic andprovide flexible networked access for both data providers and data
consumers. It supports pre-planned and ad-hoc missions, with provisions
for on-demand tasking and updates from users connected via data links.
Management of sensors and user agents takes place over standard
network protocols such that any number and combination of sensors anduser agents, either on the local network or connected via data link, canregister with the SMS at any time during the mission. The SMS provides
control over sensor data collection to handle logging and routing ofdata products to subscribing user agents. It also supports the additionof algorithmic data processing agents for feature/target extraction andprovides for subsequent cueing from one sensor to another. The SMS
architecture was designed to scale from a small UAV carrying a limited
number of payloads to an aircraft carrying a large number of payloads.
The SMS system is STANAG 4575 compliant as a removable memory
module (RMM) and can act as a vehicle specific module (VSM) to provide
STANAG 4586 compliance (level-3 interoperability) to a non-compliant
sensor system. The SMS architecture will be described and results fromseveral flight tests will be shown.

8756-3, Session 1

Affordable non-traditional sources context
exploitation to improve distributed fusion
system robustness
Christopher L. Bowman, Data Fusion & Neural Networks, LLC(United States); Alan N. Steinberg, Georgia Tech ResearchInstitute (United States); Charles Morefield, Michael Morefield,
Arctan Group LLC (United States); Gary Haith, DF&NN (UnitedStates)There is a need to affordably improve the robustness of distributed fusion
systems by dynamic intelligent use of unforeseen non-traditional sources.
Automated adaptive methods are needed to find relevant data, createmodels, characterize the quality, and apply such information to measure
their conformity to fusion system products at all levels to include situation
modeling and mission impact prediction. Based upon these measures theautomated context exploitation management of new sources is needed
to substantiate these results. Such “repurposed” data has the potential toexpand upon the quantity, quality, availability, timeliness, and diversity ofthe baseline fusion system sources and therefore to improve endogenous
entity state estimation accuracy and robustness at all levels of fusion.
Techniques are described that automatically learn to characterize andsearch such repurposed data to enable operators to construct data
450

model transformations into baseline High-Level Information Fusion(HLF) ontologies. To achieve this substantial new work is required toextend Joint Directors Lab (JDL) Level 4 Data Fusion model into a Data
Fusion & Resource Management (DF&RM) technical architecture that
effectively assesses and manages this expanded portfolio of external
repurposed sources, objects, models, and algorithms to include data
pattern discovery and context conformity assessment and management.
The paper describes our context exploitation technical architecture,
software development, and the demonstration of repurposed data
context assessment using an IED insurgent workflow and an Intelligence
Surveillance & Reconnaissance (ISR) fusion product.

8756-4, Session 1

Considerations for multiple hypothesis
correlation on tactical platforms
Alan M. Thomas, Georgia Tech Research Institute (United States)
Tactical platforms benefit greatly from the fusion of tracks from multiple
sources in terms of increased situation awareness. As a necessary
precursor to this track fusion, track-to-track association, or correlation,must first be performed. The related measurement-to-track fusion
problem has been well studied with multiple hypothesis tracking andmultiple frame assignment methods showing the most success. The
track-to-track problem differs from this one in that measurements
themselves are not available but rather track state update reports fromthe measuring sensors. Multiple hypothesis, multiple frame correlation
systems have previously been considered; however, their practicalimplementation under the constraints imposed by tactical platforms
is daunting. The situation is further exacerbated by the inconvenient
nature of reports from legacy sensor systems on bandwidth -limited
communications networks. In this paper, consideration is given to thespecial difficulties encountered when attempting the correlation of tracks
from legacy sensors on tactical aircraft. Those difficulties include thefollowing: covariance information from reporting sensors is frequently
absent or incomplete; system latencies can create temporal uncertainty
in data; and computational processing is severely limited by hardware
and architecture. Moreover, consideration is given to practical solutions
for dealing with these problems in a multiple hypothesis correlator.

8756-5, Session 2

Efficiently applying uncertain implication
rules to the transferable belief model
William J. Farrell III, Andrew M. Knapp, Lakota Technical
Solutions, Inc. (United States)
Within the domain of multi-source classification fusion, automatedalgorithms typically rely on real-time parametric sensor data. That is, theygenerally do not incorporate subject matter expertise to fuse informationfrom other knowledge (non-parametric) sources. This parametricapproach often leads to ambiguous results that could be refinedusing subject matter expertise regarding relationships between theclassification hypothesis space and hypothesis space of other knowledge
sources. However, encoding relationships between these different
domains is rarely considered due to lack of a computationally efficient
way of propagating beliefs between different frames of discernment. We
consider the case where subject matter expertise is encoded in the formof uncertain implication rules. This approach is met with several technicalchallenges: (1) computational scalability of fusing data with implication
rules that relate different frames of discernment, (2) developing
constraints on the implication rules to ensure logical results, and (3)accounting for uncertainty in the implication rules themselves. Basedupon the approach introduced by Ristic and Smets, which addresses

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Conference 8756: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2013
the third challenge, we derive a computationally efficient simplificationthat allows implication rules to be used within the Transferable Belief
Model (TBM) with polynomial computational complexity instead ofpower set complexity. This simplification is achieved by: (1) imposing
two constraints on the implication rules and (2) restricting inference tosingletons of the frames of discernment. The result enables subject
matter expertise, defined by a set of uncertain implication rules, tobe incorporated into multi-source classification algorithms using acomputationally efficient TBM implementation.

on the discrete classifier outputs to formulate the correct classification
decision of unknown data points. In this way, the BDRA fuses the binaryclassifier fusion outputs, while selecting the most relevant classifier pairs
to improve the overall classifier decision space. Experimental results areshown with real data sets taken from the Keel Repository of classifier
DataBases. In general, and for the data sets considered, it is shown thatthe new method’s performance is superior to that of existing methods.

8756-6, Session 2[2] Trevor Hastie and Robert Tibshirani. Classification by pair wise
coupling. In Michael I. Jordan, Michael J. Kearns, and Sara A. Solla,
editors, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, volume 10.
The MIT Press, 1998.

[1] R. Rifkin and A. Klautau. Parallel networks that learn to pronounce
English text. Journal of Machine Learning Research, pages 101–141,
2004.

A methodology for hard/soft information
fusion in the condition monitoring of aircraft[3] T. G. Dietterich and G. Bakiri. Solving multiclass learning problems via
error correcting output codes. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research,
39:1–38, 1995.

Joseph T. Bernardo, Penn State (United States)
Condition-based maintenance (CBM) refers to the philosophy of
performing maintenance when the need arises, based upon indicatorsof deterioration in the condition of the machinery. Traditionally, CBM
involves equipping machinery with electronic sensors that continuously
monitor components and collect data for analysis. The addition of themultisensory capability of human cognitive functions (i.e., sensemaking,problem detection, planning, adaptation, coordination, naturalistic
decision making) to traditional CBM may create a fuller picture ofmachinery condition.

[4] R. S. Lynch, Jr. and P. K. Willett, “Bayesian Classification and Feature
Reduction Using Uniform Dirichlet Priors,” IEEE Transactions on Systems,
Man, and Cybernetics, June 2004.

8756-11, Session 3

Real-time tracking and fast retrieval of
persons in multiple surveillance cameras of a
shopping mallCognitive systems engineering techniques provide an opportunity toutilize a dynamic resource—people acting as soft sensors. The literature
is extensive on techniques to fuse data from electronic sensors, butlittle work exists on fusing data from humans with that from electronic
sensors (i.e., hard/soft fusion). The purpose of my research is to explore,
observe, investigate, analyze, and evaluate the fusion of pilot andmaintainer knowledge, experiences, and sensory perceptions with digital
maintenance resources. Hard/soft information fusion has the potential toincrease problem detection capability, improve flight safety, and increase
mission readiness.

Henri Bouma, TNO Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands);
Jan Baan, Technisch Physische Dienst-TNO (Netherlands);
Sander Landsmeer, Chris Kruszynski, TNO Defence, Security and
Safety (Netherlands); Gert Van Antwerpen, Technisch Physische
Dienst-TNO (Netherlands); Judith Dijk, TNO Defence, Security
and Safety (Netherlands)

This proposed project consists the creation of a methodology that isbased upon the Living Laboratories framework, a research methodologythat is built upon cognitive engineering principles. This study performs
a critical assessment of concept, which will support development ofactivities to demonstrate hard/soft information fusion in operationally
relevant scenarios of aircraft maintenance. It consists of fieldwork,
knowledge elicitation to inform a simulation and a prototype.

The capability to track individuals in CCTV cameras is important forsurveillance applications at e.g. train stations, airports and shopping
centers. For the camera operators, however, it is laborious to track andtrace people over multiple cameras. In this paper, we present a semiautonomous system for real-time tracking and fast interactive retrievalof persons in video streams from multiple surveillance cameras in a
shopping mall. We describe our system, which consists of pedestrian
detection, track generation, space-time localization, appearance based
re-identification and a graphical man-machine interface to fuse theinformation from multiple cameras. The system was tested in a shopping
mall with eight cameras. These cameras have non-overlapping field-ofviews and different lighting conditions. All video streams are processedin parallel on a distributed system and tracks and detections arecontinuously stored in a database. The operator can use these tracks anddetections to quickly answer questions such as “where did a particularperson come from?” or “where did he go to?”. The interface enables
live tracking in current streams and interactive searches in historic data.
The results show that the system allows an operator to find the origin or
destination of a person more efficiently.

8756-7, Session 2

Using classifier fusion to improve theperformance of multiclass classification
problems
Robert S. Lynch, Naval Undersea Warfare Ctr. (United States);Peter Willett, Univ. of Connecticut (United States)
In multiclass classification problems, often the classifier is decomposed
into a collection of binary classification problems, as opposed to jointly
modeling all classes with a single classifier [1]. Various methods canbe found in the literature for decomposing the multiclass problem intoa collection of binary classifiers. Typical algorithms, and that are alsostudied here, include Each versus all remaining (EVAR) [1], Each versus
all individually (EVAI) [2], and Output Correction Coding (OCC) [3]. With
each of these methods a decision rule is formulated utilizing the various
binary classifiers to determine the correct classification of an unknown
data point. For example, with EVAR the binary classifier with maximum
output is chosen. For EVAI, the correct class is chosen using a majority
voting rule, and with OCC a comparison algorithm based minimum
Hamming distance metric is used. In this paper, it is demonstrated thatclassification performance can be improved in each of these methods if
the binary classifier outputs are trained using a discrete classifier basedon uniform Dirichlet priors. Specifically, the BDRA [4] is used to not only
train the appropriate binary classifier pairs, but it is also used to train

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8756-29, Session 3

Adaptive fusion algorithm for VIS and IR
images driven by neural network
Bohumil Stoklasa, Jaroslav Rehacek, Zdenek Hradil, Palack?
Univ. Olomouc (Czech Republic)
Because of today infrared technology, it is possible to acquire images ofthe scene in the visible band (VIS) and in the infrared band (IR). Than acomposite image with higher information content for an observer should
be computed. An ideal system should react to the input and change
its internal fusion procedures to produce the best possible output. A
number of studies in the field of fusion VIS and IR signals prove ability·

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451

Conference 8756: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2013of adaptive systems outperform stationary fusion algorithms. Objective
metrics for fusion process quality evaluation are mostly used in thesecomparisons. A description of adaptive system using change of internalfusion algorithm driven by input images statistics was published recently[1]. In this system, the connection between different inputs and preferredfusion algorithm is realized by a neural network. The aim of this study
is use the same concept of an adaptive fusion system construction but
including one algorithm with changeable parameters. A multiresolution
algorithm was studied where number of decomposition levels andfusion rule for each level treat as parameters. Coarse-grained histogram
versions of input images serve as metrics estimating the quality of the
input images and driving the system parameters through the neuralnetwork. Supervised learning on a large dataset containing different typesof inputs was used to set the neural network. In this study we compare a
multiresolution algorithm with fix parameters and the adaptive approach.
The adaptive system achieved better results according to objective
measurement of the fusion process quality.

8756-13, Session 4

Multi-classifier decision level fusion for faceclassification in the harsh environments
Seokwon Yeom, Daegu Univ. (Korea, Republic of)Face classification has wide applications in intelligent video surveillance,
content retrieval, robot vision, and human-machine interface. Pose andexpression changes and arbitrary illumination are typical problems forface recognition. When the face is captured at a distance, the image
quality is often degraded by blurring and noise corruption. This paper
investigates the efficacy of multi-classifier decision level fusion for faceclassification based on the photon-counting linear discriminant analysis
with two different cost functions: Euclidean distance and negative
normalized correlation. Decision level fusion comprises three stages:
cost normalization, cost validation, and fusion rules. First, the costs arenormalized into the same range with each other and then, the candidiate
costs are selected during validation. Three fusion rules are employed:minimum, average, and majority-voting rules. In the experiments, outof-focusing and motion blurs are rendered to simulate the effects of thelong distance environments. It will be shown that the decision-level fusion
scheme provides better results than the single classifier.

8756-15, Session 4

Fusion of data from multiple sensors withmodel-based data analysis
Jeremy Straub, The Univ. of North Dakota (United States)
For many applications, the combination of data from multiple sources
is required to reach a valid conclusion. Limited communications andprocessing capabilities (both computer and human) dictate that it ishighly desirable to transmit, process and review information that has
a greater likelihood of affecting the decision under consideration (orthesis, for a scientific experiment) before data that is less relevant. For
unmanned craft (e.g., ground robots, UAVs, satellites and spacecraft), it
is, thus, valuable to enable onboard autonomous analysis to determine
what data is most relevant to a given scientific, surveillance or othergoal. Previous work has demonstrated the ability to identify and prioritize
discrepancies between collected and pre-existing (e.g., lower-resolution
or predicted) data. This has been demonstrated with image, topographic
and gravity model data. This paper focuses on combining the singledata-source analysis from these three datasets to produce a fusionanalysis that allows the value of the component data to be predicted,
based on its value to supporting the thesis. This value is utilized as a
metric to prioritize the data for transmission over a limited bandwidthconnection (or to ensure that critical data, in a time-sensitive situation,is transmitted before less important data). An algorithm for combining
this multi-source data is presented. The algorithm specifically focuses on
combining the gravity, topographic and image data; however, its utility
for other data types is extrapolated and discussed. The viability of thisapproach is evaluated in the context of persistent surveillance for Earthapplications and near-Earth asteroid assessment applications.

8756-16, Session 4

Performance analysis of image fusion
methods in transform domain
Yoonsuk Choi, Ershad Sharifahmadian, Shahram Latifi, Univ. of
Nevada, Las Vegas (United States)

8756-14, Session 4Intelligent decision making system using
cloud models for monitoring farming
operations
Abdulqadir I. Khoshnaw, Univ. of Kurdistan (Iraq)
Monitoring farming operations is an important task for an individual
farmer and also for farming corporations on large scale. Monitoring crops,
water resources, machines, and traffic of humans as well as animals on
the farm is very important for making decisions by the farmer to manage
farming operations especially if the terrain of the farm is rough. Somesystems have been developed for monitoring farm operations using
sensor networks, but most of these systems require human involvementin the monitoring. This research proposes an intelligent decision making
system for monitoring farm operations. This system will make it easier
to monitor different situations on the farm and make a decision about
it with minimum human involvement especially if the farmer is notavailable. The decision making process adapted in this research is basedon using cloud model theory for processing uncertainty in decision
making. Cloud Model is a methodology to make decisions by modeling
qualitative concepts and transform it into quantitative representation. Thismethodology adds a human like intelligence to the system where humanbrain makes decisions by processing quantitative concepts and not just
numbers. The monitoring system is developed by employing a networkof cameras on the farm to take images from different situations on thefarm. These images will be processed by the system and decisions canbe made based on processing these images using the cloud models.
452

Currently the cloud models have been developed for some situations on
a farm and the system is been integrated and tested.

Image fusion involves merging two or more images in such a way as toretain the most desirable characteristics of each. There are various image
fusion methods and they can be classified into three main categories: i)
Spatial domain, ii) Transform domain, and iii) Statistical domain. We focus
on the transform domain in this paper as spatial domain methods are
primitive and statistical domain methods suffer from a significant increaseof computational complexity. In the field of image fusion, performancecomparison is a hot topic since the evaluation result gives valuable
information which can be utilized in various applications, such as military,
medical imaging, remote sensing, and so on. In this paper, we analyze
and compare the performance of fusion methods based on four different
transforms: i) wavelet transform, ii) curvelet transform, iii) contourlet
transform, and iv) nonsubsampled contourlet transform. Fusion
frameworks and algorithms for each of the four transforms are explained
in detail, and two different sets of images are used in our experiments.
Furthermore, performance evaluation criteria like entropy, similarity
measure, piella metric and mutual information are used to quantitatively
analyze the fusion results. The comparison results show that thenonsubsampled contourlet transform method performs better than theother three methods. We also inspect the effect of decomposition level
during the fusion process by using different levels of decomposition.
Results indicate that the decomposition level of 3 showed the best fusion
performance, and decomposition levels beyond level-3 did not affect thefusion results.

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Conference 8756: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 20138756-17, Session 48756-19, Session 5

An approach to DSM refinement with fusionof airborne lidar point cloud data and opticalimagery

Persistent unmanned airborne network
support for cooperative sensors
Ajay Verma, Ronald Fernandes, Knowledge Based Systems, Inc.
(United States)

Xiangyang Hao, Lixing Jiang, Songlin Liu, Zhengzhou Institute ofSurveying and Mapping (China)

Highly-dynamic mobile-wireless sensor networks operating in a large
region present unique challenges in end-to-end communication
for sensor data sharing and data fusion, particularly caused by thetime varying connectivity of high-velocity nodes combined with theunreliability of the wireless communication channel. Not much work is
found in literature that can utilize the agent mobility in order to achieve
the network connectivity requiring minimal use of transmission power.
This paper uses the concepts of dynamic control theory that governs the
movement of the sensor nodes in order to establish a well connected
and distributed network while satisfying the mission dictated mission
requirements and deployment constraints.

The airborne Lidar system, which usually integrated with optical camera,is an efficient way of acquiring 3D geographic information and enjoys
widely application in building DSM. However, when the airborne Lidar
is used in urban area, where there are a large amount of tall buildings,
the characteristic points of buildings are seldom measured and themeasured points are frequently too sparse to create precise building
models. In this paper, an approach to DSM refining DSM in urban areawith fusion of airborne Lidar point cloud data and optical imagery is put
forward. Firstly, the geometric relationship between the airborne Lidar
point and the correspondent pixel on the image synchronously taken by
optical camera is analyzed. The relative position and attitude parameters
between the laser rangefinder and the camera are determined in theprocess of alignment and calibration. Secondly, the building roof edges
on the optical image are extracted with Robert edge detection algorithm.
By tracing the building roof edges, the contours of building roofs invector format are acquired and the characteristic points of buildings
are further extracted. Thirdly, all the Lidar measured points on the roofof specific building are separated from the point cloud data by judging
the geometric relation between Lidar measured points and the building
roof contour, which is represented by a polygon, according to theirplane coordinates. Finally, the DSM refinement for buildings can be
implemented. All pixels representing the building roof are given heights
as same as that of nearer Lidar point inside the polygon. Ortho-photo
map and virtual building models of urban area with higher quality can bereached with the refined DSM and optical images. Experiments show thatthe proposed calibration method is correct and effective.

To establish an airborne communication network, a UAV or sensor agent
must maintain a link(s) with other agents(s) and/or fixed base stations. A
link between two UAVs sensors is deemed to be established when thelinked UAVs are in line of sight as well as within the transmission rangeof each other. Ideally, all the UAVs as well as ground stations involved inoperations must be fully connected. However, the continuous motion of
UAVs poses a challenge to ensure full connectivity of the network. In thispaper we explore the dynamic topological network configuration control
enabling data sharing among various sensor agents under the mission
related constraints in order to i) establish and maintain connectivity
among sensors, and ii) to quickly recover from network connectivity
disruptions.

8756-20, Session 5

Fusion of ranging data from robot teams
operating in confined areas

8756-18, Session 5

Damian M. Lyons, Tsung-Ming Liu, Karma Shrestha, Fordham
Univ. (United States)

A cognitive approach to vision for a mobilerobot

We address the problem of fusing laser ranging data from multiple mobile
robots that are surveying an area as part of a robot search and rescue
or area surveillance mission. Reid and Braunl (2011) consider this kindof scenario where the robots are spread apart and are surveying a large
area. However, we are specifically interested in the case where membersof the robot team are working in close proximity to each other. The
advantage of this teamwork is that it greatly speeds up the surveying
process; the area can be quickly covered even when the robots use arandom motion exploration approach. However, the disadvantage of theclose proximity is that it is possible, and even likely, that the laser ranging
data from one robot include many depth readings caused by anotherrobot. We refer to this as mutual interference.

David P. Benjamin, Pace Univ. (United States); Damian M. Lyons,
Fordham Univ. (United States); Christopher Funk, Pace Univ.
(United States)
We describe a cognitive vision system for a mobile robot, which works ina manner similar to the human vision system, using saccadic, vergenceand pursuit movements to extract information from visual input.
At each step, the vision system selects a point in the visual input to fixate
on. Distance, shape, texture and motion information are computed ina small region and used to build a mesh which is embedded within an
overall 3D model of the robot’s environment. Background knowledge
is used to extend this structure as appropriate, e.g. if a patch of wallis seen, it is hypothesized to be part of a large wall and the entire wallis created in the virtual world. The difference between the input fromthe real camera and from the virtual camera is compared using local
Gaussians, creating an error mask that indicates the main differences
between them. This is then used to select the next fixation.

Using a team of Pioneer 3-AT robots with tilted laser sensors, weevaluate several techniques for fusing the laser ranging information so as
to eliminate the mutual interference. There is an extensive literature on
the mapping and localization aspect of this problem (e.g., Liu and Thrun(2003)), and recent work on mapping has included handling dynamicor transient map features (e.g., Wansiripitak and Murray (2009)). Our
problem differs from the dynamic map problem in that we look at one
kind of transient map feature, other robots, and we know that we wish tocompletely eliminate the feature.

This approach permits us to use very expensive algorithms on small
localities, generating very accurate models. It also is task-oriented, so therobot can use its goals to decide which parts of the environment need to
be examined.

We present and evaluate three different approaches to the map fusion
problem: a robot-centric approach, based on estimating team member
locations; a map-centric approach, based on inspecting local regions of
the map, and a combination of both approaches. We show results forthese approaches for several experiments for a two robot team operating
in a confined indoor environment (4m x 4m).

The software components of this architecture include PhysX for the 3D
virtual world, OpenCV and the Point Cloud Library for visual processing,and the Soar cognitive architecture which controls the perceptual
processing and robot planning. The hardware is a custom-built pan-tilt
stereo color camera.

1. Liu, Y., Thrun, S., Gaussian Multirobot SLAM, Advances in Neural
INformation Processing Systems, NIPS 2003, Vancover Canada, 2003.

We describe experiments using both static and moving objects.

2. Robert Reid, Thomas Bräunl, Large-scale Multi-robot Mapping in

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Conference 8756: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2013
MAGIC 2010, IEEE Robotics, Automation and Mechatronics, Qingdao
China. 2011.
3. S Wangsiripitak and D W Murray, Avoiding moving outliers in visual
SLAM by tracking moving objects, Proc IEEE Int Conf on Robotics andAutomation, Kobe, May 2009.

8756-21, Session 5

Combining metric episodes with semantic
event concepts within the symbolic and subsymbolic robotics intelligence control system(SS-RICS)
Troy D. Kelley, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)
This presentation will describe the ongoing development of a robotic
control architecture that was inspired by computational cognitive
architectures from the discipline of cognitive psychology. The Symbolicand Sub-Symbolic Robotics Intelligence Control System (SS-RICS)
combines symbolic and sub-symbolic representations of knowledge
into a unified control architecture. The new architecture leverages
previous work in cognitive architectures, specifically the developmentof the Adaptive Character of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) and Soar. This
presentation will detail current work on learning from episodes or events.
The use of episodic memory as a learning mechanism has, until recently,
been largely ignored by computational cognitive architectures. This
presentation will detail work on metric level episodic memory streams
and methods for translating episodes into abstract schemas. The
presentation will also include research on learning through novelty andself generated feedback mechanisms for autonomous systems.

8756-22, Session 6

Primate-inspired vehicle navigation using
optic flow and mental rotations
Ronald C. Arkin, Frank Dellaert, Natesh Suresh, Ryan Kerwin,
Georgia Institute of Technology (United States)
Robot navigation already has many relatively efficient solutions: reactive
control, simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM), RapidlyExploring Random Trees (RRTs), etc. But many primates possess anadditional inherent spatial reasoning capability: that of mental rotation.
Our research addresses the question of what, if any, role mental
rotations can play in enhancing existing robot navigational capabilities.
To answer this question we explore the use of optical flow as a basis
for extracting abstract representations of the world, comparing these
representations with a goal state of similar format and then iteratively
providing a control signal to a robot to allow it to move in a direction
consistent with achieving that goal state. Specialized GPU architectures
are used to provide fast and effective optical flow. We study a range oftransformation methods to implement the mental rotation component of
the architecture, including correlation and matching based on cognitive
studies. The results to date are presented on our robotics platforms. We
also include a discussion of how mental rotations may play a key role inunderstanding spatial advice giving, particularly from other members of
the species, whether in map-based format, gestures, or other means ofcommunication.

8756-23, Session 6

Multi-brain fusion and applications tointelligence analysis
Adrian Stoica, Yumi Iwashita, Curtis W. Padgett, Jet Propulsion
Lab. (United States); Kyrre Glette, Univ. of Oslo (Norway);
Riccardo Poli, Univ. of Essex (United Kingdom)454

In rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) images shown extremely rapidly
can still be parsed by the visual system, and the detection of specifictargets triggers specific EEG response. Research funded by DARPA’s
Neurotechnology for Intelligence Analysts program has proven speedups in sifting through satellite images when EEG signals of an intelligence
analyst act as triggers. This paper extends the use of neurotechnology
from individual analysts to collaborative teams; it presents concepts ofcollaborative brain computer interfaces and experiments indicating thatthe aggregation of information in EEGs collected from multiple users
results in performance improvements compared to that of individual
users.

8756-24, Session 6

Spatial cognition: robot target localization inopen arenas based on rat studies
Alfredo Weitzenfeld, Univ. of South Florida Polytechnic (UnitedStates); Gonzalo Tejera, UDELAR (Uruguay); Alejandra Barrera,
ITAM (Mexico); JeanMarc Fellous, University of Arizona (UnitedStates); Martin Llofriu, Univ. of South Florida (United States)
We describe our latest work in understanding spatial localization in open
arenas based on rat studies and corresponding modeling with simulated
and physical robots. The studies and experiments focus on goal-oriented
navigation where both rats and robots exploit distal cues to localize andfind a goal in an open environment. The task involves training of bothrats and robots to find the shortest path to the goal from multiple starting
points in the environment. The spatial cognition model is based on the
rat’s brain neurophysiology of the hippocampus extending previous workby analyzing granularity of localization in relation to a varying number
and position of landmarks. The robot integrates internal and external
information to create a topological map of the environment and to
generate shortest routes to the goal through path integration. One of thecritical challenges for the robot is to analyze the similarity of positions
and distinguish among different locations using visual cues and previous
paths followed to reach the current position. We describe the robotics
architecture used to develop, simulate and experiment with physicalrobots.

8756-25, Session 6

Development of standard test methods forunmanned and manned industrial vehicles
used near humans
Roger V. Bostelman, Richard J. Norcross, Joseph A. Falco,
Jeremy A. Marvel, National Institute of Standards and Technology(United States)
The National Institute of Standards and Technology has been researching
human-robot collaborative environments for automated guided vehicles.
Safety of AGV’s and manned vehicles with automated functions (e.g.,
forklifts that slow/stop automatically in hazardous situations) are thefocus of the ANSI/ITSDF B56.5 safety standard. Recently, the NIST
Mobile Autonomous Vehicle Obstacle Detection/Avoidance (MOVADA)
Project began researching test methods for when humans enter or may
enter the manned or unmanned vehicle path. The efforts supported theB56.5: 2012 version including changes that allow non-contact sensors
to detect standard test pieces so long as they are within the path of thevehicle and beyond the stop zone of the vehicle. However, there remains
an exception in the standard for when an obstacle suddenly appears
within the vehicle stopping distance. Similarly, manned vehicles, suchas forklifts, are allowed up to 20% non-visible regions where drivers
may not see pedestrians enter the vehicle path. As such, liabilities could
be at stake should these situations occur. These are real situations that
occur frequently where for example, OSHA states that a person is killed
every 3 days in a forklift accident and 80% of all accidents include
pedestrians. Research, using unmanned and manned vehicles withintegrated sensors, to be detailed in this paper includes development of

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Conference 8756: Multisensor, Multisource Information Fusion:Architectures, Algorithms, and Applications 2013
test methods for when:

improvement, which will lead to improved PED system designs,
increased analyst productivity, and cost savings through maximization of
the information value.

• standard test pieces and mannequins enter vehicle stop zones,• non-line-of-site sensing is used to inform the vehicle of a pedestrianthat may enter the vehicle path.
• forces on humans through development of a force measurement
apparatus.

8756-28, Session 7

Enhancing situational awareness by meansof visualization and information integration of
sensor networks

8756-26, Session 7

Information measures for multisensor
systems

Jussi Timonen, Jouko Vankka, Finnish Defence Forces (Finland)This paper presents a solution for information integration and sharingarchitecture, which is able to receive data simultaneously from multiple
different sensor networks. Creating a Common Operational Picture (COP)
object along with the base map of the building plays a key role in the
research. The object is combined with desired map sources and thenshared to the mobile devices worn by soldiers in the field. The sensor
networks we used focus on location techniques indoors, and a simple setof symbols is created to present the information, as an addition to NATO
APP6B symbols.

Christian P. Minor, Nova Research, Inc. (United States); Brian
Stout, U.S. Navy (United States); Kevin R. Johnson, U.S. Naval
Research Lab. (United States)
Spectral data capture a wealth of information in a wide variety of sensing
modalities. While sharing a common multivariate structure, spectral
data often exhibit characteristics that can be challenging to model using
traditional statistical approaches. Recent research at the Naval ResearchLaboratory (NRL) has yielded probabilistic models for spectral data thatenable the computation of information measures such as entropy andKullback-Leibler divergence, with the goal of developing feature sets toincrease the sensitivity and selectivity of multivariate chemical sensors.
Results are presented for several types of spectral data in multisensor
systems, as well as strategies for using information measures with otherdata sources.

A core element in this research is the MUSAS (Mobile Urban Situational
Awareness System), a demonstration environment that implements
central functionalities. Information integration of the system is handled
by the Internet Connection Engine (Ice) middleware, as well as the server,which hosts COP information and maps. The entire system is closed,such that it does not need any external service, and the informationtransfer with the mobile devices is organized by a tactical 5 GHz WLAN
solution. The demonstration environment is implemented using only
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products.

8756-27, Session 7

We have presented a field experiment event in which the system wasable to integrate and share real time information of a blue force tracking
system, received signal strength indicator (RSSI) based intrusion
detection system, and a robot using simultaneous location and mapping
technology (SLAM), where all the inputs were based on real activities. The
event was held in a training area on urban area warfare.

Measuring knowledge: investigative research
into the quantification of performance withina contextual multi-source PED fusion process
Larry A. Scarff, UTC Aerospace Systems (United States); Dustin
Burke, Eric Jones, Aptima, Inc. (United States); Lynne G. Gilfillan,
Rhumbline Consultants (United States); Stephanie Pratt, Aptima
Inc. (United States); Cullen Jackson, Shawn Weil, Aptima, Inc.
(United States); Stephen Fiore, Univ. of Central Florida (UnitedStates)Historically, imaging system quality has been characterized using the
National Image Interpretability Rating Scale (NIIRS); a subjective, taskbased scale used to describe the overall utility of imagery. However,image quality metrics are no longer sufficient to quantify the information
gain and subsequent knowledge formation provided by Processing,
Exploitation, and Dissemination (PED) systems, which integrate dataand information into a composite whole, providing enhanced confidence
about larger questions of intelligence importance. While advanced
PED systems will provide analysts with significantly greater contextual
information, the quantification of the knowledge gain for these systems is
not easily characterized.
We use the term “Knowledge-NIIRS” to represent the analogous
approach toward characterizing PED fusion systems as was used in
the past for imaging systems – even while recognizing that the process
of measurement will be far more complex and challenging to develop.
This paper describes our initial exploration toward an evaluation system
for accurate interpretation and fusion of information into knowledge.
Knowledge-NIIRS will ultimately serve to explicitly measure the value ofcontextual information gained through multi-source fusion, and its impact
on the analyst’s ability to interpret and extract knowledge. Drawing
upon naturalistic decision-making, cognitive engineering principles
and information theoretic axioms, Knowledge-NIIRS embraces a more
holistic approach to objectively measuring and quantifying the complex
interpretation process.
The operational benefits of a Knowledge-NIIRS rating system include
an enhanced understanding of the key contributors to knowledge

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Conference 8757: Cyber Sensing 2013
Tuesday - Wednesday 30–1 May 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8757 Cyber Sensing 20138757-2, Session 1

On localization attacks against cloudinfrastructure
Wei Yu, Linqiang Ge, Mohammad Ali Sistani, Towson Univ.
(United States); Rommie Hardy, Robert Reschly, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
With cloud computing, users will not be aware of the location ofcomputing server because service requests are conducted through theservers in remote data center. In this paper, we investigate a localization
attack that allows the adversary to leverage CPU resources to localize
the physical location of server used by victims. By embedding a covert
signal into the CPU usage and correlating it with the response time fromthe targeted virtual machine, the adversary can find the location of target
virtual machine. Through the combination of theoretical analysis andexperiments, our data show that the investigated attack techniques canidentify cloud infrastructure effectively.

of private companies provided substantial grant funding to a newly
created organization known as the Open Information Security Foundation(OISF), to build a multi-threaded alternative to Snort, called Suricata.
Despite many similarities between Snort and Suricata, the OISF statedit was essential to replace the older single-threaded Snort engine witha multi-threaded system that could deliver higher performance andbetter scalability. Key Snort developers argued that Suricata’s multithreaded architecture would actually slow the detection process. Given
these competing claims, an objective head-to-head comparison of
the performance of Snort and Suricata is needed. In this paper, we
present a comprehensive quantitative comparison of the two systems.
We have developed a rigorous testing framework that examines theperformance of both systems as we scale system resources. Our results
show that a single instance of Suricata is able to deliver substantiallyhigher performance than a corresponding single instance of Snort, but
has problems scaling with a higher number of cores. We find that while
Suricata needs tuning for a higher number of cores, it is still able tosurpass Snort even at 1 core where we would have expected Snort toshine.

8757-7, Session 28757-3, Session 1

ICS logging solution for network-based
attacks using Gumistix technology
Jeremy Otis, Air Force Institute of Technology (United States)
Industrial control systems (ICS) monitor and control operations
associated with the nation’s critical infrastructure (e.g., electric power
grid, oil and gas pipelines and water treatment facilities). These systems
rely on technologies and architectures that were designed for system
reliability and availability. Security associated with ICS was never aninherent concern, primarily due to the protections afforded by network
isolation. However, a trend in ICS operations is to migrate to commercial
networks via TCP/IP in order to leverage commodity benefits andcost savings. As a result, system vulnerabilities are now exposed tothe online community. Indeed, recent research has demonstrated thatmany exposed ICS devices are being discovered using readily available
applications (e.g., ShodanHQ search engine and Google-esque queries).
Due to the lack of security and logging capabilities for ICS, mostknowledge about attacks are derived from real world incidents – after
an attack has already been carried out and the damage has been done.
This research provides a method for introducing sensors into the ICS
environment that collect information about network-based attacks.
The sensors are developed using an inexpensive, Gumstix platformthat can be deployed and incorporated with production systems. Dataobtained from the sensors provide insight into attack tactics (e.g., portscans, Nessus scans, Metasploit modules, and zero-day exploits) andcharacteristics (e.g., attack origin, frequency, and level of persistence).
Findings enable security professionals to draw an accurate, real-timeawareness of the threats against ICS devices and helps shift the security
posture from reactionary to preventative.

Industrial controls intrusion detection sensor
Robert M. Jaromin, Air Force Institute of Technology (UnitedStates); Barry E. Mullins, Jonathan W. Butts, Air Force Institute ofTechnology (United States)
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are large,
highly-distributed networks that monitor and control industrial processes
that often leverage Internet protocols and infrastructure to provide
cost savings. Recently, it has been demonstrated that thousands ofProgrammable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and similar devices are exposedto the Internet and are unprotected [LEV11], regardless of risk. Despite
the number of devices exposed, little is known about the PLC attack
landscape due to a lack of sensing at the field device level. In traditional
IT networks, cyber sensors, or honeypots are used to detect and study
attack techniques in order to develop new preventative measures.
Obtaining these benefits on SCADA systems has historically required
dedicated, non-productive PLCs to be intentionally connected to theInternet as a sensor while a separate logging device records network
activity targeting the PLC. This research focuses on developing SCADA
sensors to emulate PLCs and record malicious activity using thepowerful, yet inexpensive Gumstix platform to conduct exploratory
research into the SCADA attack landscape. These dedicated devices
provide an inexpensive, reconfigurable, and rapidly-deployable
PLC emulation giving situational awareness into the SCADA attack
environment, while eliminating the potential of damage to an expensive
PLC. They can be embedded within industrial networks alongsideproduction PLCs to detect device level attacks or deployed as part ofa larger honeynet to attract attackers and study their techniques. This
research objectively demonstrates the accuracy of the PLC emulator for
critical functionality as well as measures its ability to accurately log attack
activity.

8757-20, Session 1[LEV11] E. P. Leverett. Quantitatively Assessing and Visualizing Industrial
System Attack Surfaces. 2011.

Quantitative analysis of intrusion detection
systems: snort and suricata

8757-30, Session 2

Joshua S. White, Jeanna Matthews, Thomas Fitzsimmons,
Clarkson Univ. (United States)
Any modern organization that is serious about security deploys a
network intrusion detection system (NIDS) to monitor network traffic
for signs of malicious activity. The most widely deployed NIDS system
is Snort, an open source system originally released in 1998. Snort is asingle threaded system that uses a set of clear text rules to instruct abase engine how to react when particular traffic patterns are detected.
In 2009, the US Department of Homeland Security and a consortium
456

Tools, tactics, and techniques advanced
threat actors use to steal your technology,
and new innovative sensing techniques you
can use to identify themStephen Windsor, Ronald Shaffer, Maddrix, LLC (United States)
This presentation will show how advanced threat actors bypass
today’s cyber security “best practices” to identify, collect, and exfiltrate

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Conference 8757: Cyber Sensing 2013

advanced technology from victim networks. We will show examples
from real attacks that resulted in significant data loss, and discusscountermeasures and risk mitigation techniques advanced threat
actors use to avoid detection. We will follow-up by introducing a new
and innovative technique called vector analysis that can rapidly detectadvanced threat actors by identifying tradecraft and malware with
non-traditional memory and disk-based artifacts. We will wrap up by
presenting several vector analysis case studies from 2012-2013.

maintain the integrity of classic IADM while taking advantage of theefficiencies of cloud technology

8757-10, Session 3

Software analysis in the semantic web
Joshua Taylor, Robert Hall, Assured Information Security (UnitedStates)8757-8, Session 3

Under DARPA’s Cyber-Genome program we have developed a suite oftools for Malware Analysis and Attribution through Genetic Information(MAAGI). The MAAGI tools facilitate automated large-scale analysis
of malware. MAAGI contains several novel components designed
specifically for this task. In this paper, we present one component inparticular, Semantic Extractor.

Framework for network-wide semantic event
correlation
Robert Hall, Joshua Taylor, Assured Information Security (UnitedStates)Semantic Extractor (SemEx) consumes API call traces
generated by the Cuckoo Sandbox to produce an encoding of that
trace within a semantic graph. SemEx then applies function signaturepattern matching rules to this trace in order to infer the existence of
low level application behaviors. These low level behaviors provide
semantic meaning and context for the corresponding system call, and an
abstraction that additional rules and entailments can utilize.

An increasing need for situational awareness within network-deployed
Systems Under Test (SUT) has driven the desire for frameworks thatfacilitate system-wide data correlation and analysis. Massive event
streams are generated from heterogeneous sensors which require
tedious manual analysis.
We present a framework for sensor data integration and event
correlation based on Linked Data/Semantic Web reasoning, complex
event processing (CEP), and blackboard architectures. Sensor data are
encoded as linked data models which are processed by CEP agents(which can incorporate both specialized reasoning processes, as wellas general purpose Semantic Web reasoning techniques). Agents canpublish inferences on shared blackboards and generate new semantic
events that are fed back into the system.

Subject matter expert domain knowledge of high level application
behavior is encoded as additional rules over the produced graph. Thesehigh level behaviors capture higher level program goals such as walking
a directory or opening an outbound network connection. Downstream
components use these higher level behaviors to infer the intentions andcapabilities of the malware samples.
This paper covers the algorithms used in SemEx, as well as our approachfor deriving behavioral rules and signatures. Additionally, we describe thenext incremental steps toward the future development of related MAAGI
components.

We examine AIS Inc.’s Cyber Battlefield Training and Effectiveness
Environment (CBTEE) project as a case study for use of the framework.
CBTEE is a virtualized training platform that interprets the cyber-effects
of operator actions within a cyber-environment. CBTEE also currently
makes use of AIS Inc.’s Introvirt™, an introspective hypervisor, as its
primary source of semantic events. Apache Camel™ is used for sensor
integration within a Spring™ application context, which results in a
dynamic topology for sensor data processing at runtime. Elements ofthis topology include integration of Apache ActiveMQ™ event broker andEsper™ complex event processing.

8757-12, Session 4

Remote Suspect Identification and theimpact of demographic features on keystroke
dynamics
Robert Dora, Patrick Schalk, John McCarthy, Scott Young,
Assured Information Security (United States)

8757-9, Session 3

Efficient identity management and access
control in cloud environment

Assured Information Security (AIS), Inc. conducted a three-year
keystroke dynamics research effort. The study optimized and applied
four algorithms developed at Louisiana Tech University (LTU) towards
a discreet keystroke dynamics sensor capable of authenticating users
at login, continuously verifying their typing patterns, and identifying
masquerading users with an overall equal error rate of 0.054. The
keystroke sensor initially uses a Hidden Markov Model (HMM) algorithm
for fixed-text authentication of the username and password. Afterlogon, the sensor continuously and discreetly records and analyzes
keystroke timings throughout the user’s session by comparing key-pairtimings against the signatures created during initial log-ons to verify theuser’s identity. Verification uses five signatures created for the Similarity
algorithm, one for each timing feature – key press latency, key releaselatency, key interval time, and two key hold times (one for each key inthe pair) – which are then fused together through a weighted majority
voting algorithm. The average verification time for users is under twenty
seconds of continuous typing. Users that fail verification are subject toidentification, a process by which additional keystrokes are collected
and then compared against the Similarity and naïve-Bayes signatures forevery user in the database to determine the true identity of the current
user. The study produced a massive keystroke dataset generated at LTU,
in conjunction with AIS, Inc., that contains keystroke data for over 2,700
students, many of which participated in multiple data collections over a
two-year period.

Jonathan A. Gloster, The Van Dyke Technology Group, Inc.
(United States)
As more enterprises are enticed to move data to a cloud environment toenhance data sharing and reduce operating costs by exploiting sharedresources, concerns have risen over the ability to secure information
within the cloud. Some believe this increased risk is based on the lackof trust associated with cloud implementations. Data or information isplaced in the cloud and the information owner has little control on whogets access to the data because they do not control the environment.
Over the past several years the Van Dyke Technology Group has
analyzed several Identity and Access Management (IDAM) solutions toprotect information in a distributed environment across multiple domains.
Our research on this technology shows that classic access control
mechanisms work best when there is a high degree of trust among
the information domains sharing information and they have a common
mission or business area (e.g. DoD Organizations, financial services
firms). However in a cloud environment where data and information
are distributed across diverse domains with no common mission or
inherent trust, the IDAM model needs to be adjusted to allow decisions
on access to be made not solely on trust among domains and users, but
based more on risks of exposing the information content to unauthorizedusers. The results of this paper show that an incremental approachof transitioning data from legacy systems to cloud environments can

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457

Conference 8757: Cyber Sensing 20138757-14, Session 4

Dynamic malware analysis using IntroVirt: amodified hypervisor-based system
Joshua S. White, Richard Gloo, Stephen Pape, Adam Meily,
Assured Information Security (United States)
By best estimates over 1000 new malware samples are released into thewild each day. To deal with this onslaught of automation is employed inby malware researchers. Dynamic analysis systems typically take theform of some sort of virtual machine monitoring capability. In responseto this, malware authors have developed new techniques for detecting
these environments and either change the malware accordingly or simply
have it shutdown all-together. In this paper we present a new systemfor dynamic malware analysis which incorporates the use of IntoVirt an
introspective hypervisor architecture and infrastructure that supports
advanced techniques for stealth-malware-analysis [1]. This system allows
for complete guest monitoring and interaction including manipulation
and blocking of system calls. IntroVirt is capable of bypassing the virtual
machine detection capabilities of even the most sophisticated malware
by spoofing responses to system call responses. Additional fuzzing
capabilities can also be employed to detect both malware vulnerabilities
and polymorphism. With complete control of the system we show
IntroVirt is a superior lightweight and extensible platform for malware
analysis that surpasses the capabilities of the now ancient Anubis [2]platform.

8757-15, Session 5

The two stages hierarchical unsupervised
learning system for complex dynamic ISR
Igor V. Ternovskiy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
James Graham, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States); AlanO’Connor, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
The two stages hierarchical unsupervised learning system has been
proposed for modeling complex dynamic surveillance and cyberspacesystems. Using modification of the Dynamic Logic (DL) learning
approach, we introduced three layers of learning concepts and input
data: features, objects, and situations. Using the Bernoulli model, thisapproach models each situation as a collection of objects, and eachobject as a collection of features. Further complexity is added with theaddition of clutter features and objects. During the learning process, atthe lowest level, the binary features information (presence or absence)is provided only. The system attempts to determine in the same time
probabilities of the situation and presence of corresponding objects fromthe detected features. The proposed approach demonstrated robust
performance after seemingly short training. This paper discusses thishierarchical learning system in a broader context of different feedback
mechanisms between layers and highlights challenges on the road topractical applications.

8757-17, Session 5

A multiresolution fractal additive scheme forblind watermarking of 3D point data
Mark D. Rahmes, Kathy Wilder, Kevin L. Fox, Harris Corp. (UnitedStates)Three dimensional point data is expensive to collect and is therefore
worth protecting with additional security technologies. Security can beboosted by applying steganographic techniques to protect data fromvarious threats while enhancing tamper proofing measures. Adding
cryptography greatly reduces the risks to geospatial systems ashackers must have a key. Attacks may be intended to disrupt normal
functioning of the system. We present a fractal feature space for 3D pointwatermarking to make geospatial systems more secure. By exploiting458

the self similar nature of fractals, hidden information can be spatiallyembedded in point cloud data in an acceptable manner. Our method isa blind scheme in that it provides automatic retrieving of the watermark
payload without needing the original cover data. Our method for finding
similar patterns and encoding information in LiDAR point cloud data is
accomplished through a look-up table as a code book. A watermark
is merged into the point cloud data itself with low distortion. Fractals
have long been used in imagery applications. Now with advances incomputing technologies such as GPGPUs, fractal processing is now
applicable for processing of big data. Our approach also applies toapplications involving 3D meshes of objects such as in video games. Thismethod is useful for collections from robotic, aerial, and ground-based
vehicles. A watermarking technique such as described can be importantfor systems where point data is handled by numerous aerial collectors aswell as by many analysts such as a National LiDAR Data Layer.

8757-18, Session 5

Simultaneous feature selection and clustering
for intrusion alert correlation
Siyue Chen, Maxwell G. Dondo, Henry Leung, Univ. of Calgary(Canada)As computer network security threats increase, most organizations
implement multiple Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS) to
maximize detection and provide a comprehensive understanding of
intrusion activities. However NIDS trigger a massive number of alerts ona daily basis. This can be overwhelming for computer network security
analysts since it is a slow and tedious process to manually analyse eachalert produced. Thus, automated and intelligent clustering is important toreveal the structural correlation of events by grouping alerts with common
features. As the nature of computer network attacks, and therefore alerts,
are not known in advance, unsupervised clustering is the best approachto achieve this goal. We propose a joint optimization framework forfeature selection and clustering to aggregate similar alerts and to reduce
the number of alerts that analysts have to handle individually.
More precisely, each identified feature is assigned with a binary value,
which reflects the feature’s saliency. This value is treated as a hidden
variable and incorporated into a likelihood function for clustering.
Since computing the optimal solution of the likelihood function directly
is analytically intractable, we use the Expectation Maximisation (EM)algorithm to iteratively update the hidden variable and use it to maximize
the expected likelihood. Our empirical results, using Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 2000 dataset, show that the
proposed method gives better results than the EM clustering without
feature selection in terms of the clustering accuracy.

8757-21, Session 6

On detection of android malware
Wei Yu, Hanlin Zhang, Towson Univ. (United States); Rommie
Hardy, Robert Reschly, Carol Ellis, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
The popularity of mobile devices has greatly stimulated the spread ofmobile malware and the detection of malware becomes a critical issue.
To address this issue, we first conduct the survey threats of existing
malware and the existing detection techniques (e.g., static analysis anddynamic analysis). We then evaluate the effectiveness of the existing
commercial anti-virus tools using real-world malware samples. Our
experimental data show that all these tools approach near 100 percent
detection accuracy because the signatures of our malware samples
are in the detection databases of antivirus software. After that, we also
study the anomaly-based detection to capture the run-time behavior of
malware and evaluate its effectiveness.
To address theses issues, we collect 200 malware samples and 200
benign samples and classify the samples into several categories.
We install and run samples on Android devices. We develop a data

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Conference 8757: Cyber Sensing 2013

collection system that generates a system call log using Strace andthen map useful system call information to numerical data for detection
automatically. We use the system call sequence (n-grams of contiguous
system call sequences of length n) as the detection feature and develop
three techniques: (i) Statistical feature-based technique. We use
statistical characteristics (e.g., mean and standard derivation) to capture
the behavior of benign programs and malware; (ii) Machine learningbased technique. We use machine learning techniques (e.g., support
vector machines) to teach classifiers to distinguish between malicious
and benign actions; (iii) Information-theoretic based technique: We
use the information theoretic measures (e.g., entropy) to capture thedensity of system call sequences. We implement all these techniques
to investigate their effectiveness in terms of detection accuracy andoverhead.

more useful, productive, or innovative. Worse, expenditures on expensive
security measures mean less money for innovative concepts. Indeed,cyber-warfare as a weapon has been depicted as a race between finding
faults in software and fixing those faults. If corrections are made at endof life, the attack always wins. Thus, early corrections change the gamesignificantly.

8757-23, Session 68757-27, Session 7

Complex scenes and situations visualization
using hierarchical learning and recognition
algorithm with dynamic 3D NeoAxis engine

Why cyber-forensic tools failIn this paper, we illustrate using several studies conducted on realprojects that proper budget allocation, i.e. assigning appropriate budget
at early stages to prevent, detect and fix security problems at initialstages, should improve software security and quality, and therefore,
reduce the total software lifecycle costs. The research topics addressedin this paper, however, are relevant not only to the federal government
but also to the private sector and others who are interested in long range
costs of cyber-security research.

Gary Hamilton, Assured Information Security (United States)
Incident responders rely on cyber forensic tools to detect and attributeintrusions, while adversaries employ anti-forensic techniques to thwart
these efforts.

Igor V. Ternovskiy, Air Force Research Lab. (United States);
James Graham, U.S. Army Research Lab. (United States)

In general, cyber forensic tool developers take a reactive approachto anti-forensics, implementing countermeasures after a techniquegains widespread popularity. This leads to forensic tools with inherent
weaknesses that adversaries exploit to evade detection. This research
exposed five key flaws in cyber forensic tools that anti-forensic
practitioners exploit. Understanding these flaws will allow forensic tools
developers to produce more comprehensive and secure technologies
that minimize the anti-forensic threat.

We applied the two stages hierarchical unsupervised learning systemdescribed earlier to model complex dynamic surveillance and cyber
space monitoring systems using non-commercial version of NeoAxis
visualization software. The hierarchical scene learning and recognition
approach based on hierarchical Dynamic Logic was linked to 3Dgraphics engine for validation of learning and classification results
and understanding human – autonomous system relationship. Scene
recognition is performed by taking synthetically generated data
and feeding it to a dynamic logic algorithm. The algorithm performs
hierarchical recognition of the scene by first examining the featuresof the objects to determine which objects are present, and then
then determines the scene based on the objects present. The paper
presents a framework within which low level data linked to higher-levelvisualization can provide support to human operator and be evaluated ina detailed and systematic way.

The approach began with the identification of a significant cross-sectionof available cyber forensic and anti-forensic capabilities. Analysis of eachcapability exposed trends in each tool’s functionality, which became thebasis for cyber forensic and anti-forensic taxonomies. These taxonomies
were used to categorize each capability based on these functional
differentiators. Assessments then isolated successful anti-forensic
techniques by comparing capabilities from each category of the antiforensics taxonomy to tools from each category of the cyber forensic
taxonomy. Further analysis of successful anti-forensic techniques
exposed the underlying relationships that allowed it to succeed against
a particular cyber forensic tool. As a result, the research identified fivebasic flaws found in cyber forensic tools. Future cyber forensic tool
development that addresses these flaws will result in more robust
capabilities that minimize the anti-forensic threat.

8757-24, Session 6

Cognitive algorithms for cyber sensing andsecurity
Leonid Perlovsky, Air Force Research Lab. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8757-25, Session 7

Long-range costs of cyber-security research
Mohammed M. Olama, James Nutaro, Oak Ridge National Lab.
(United States)
Government-funded research and development (R&D) plays an importantrole in accomplishing national and economic security. The majority of
R&D funding for research in cyber-security is focused on latter stagesof the software lifecycle such as maintenance and enhancements
processes, rather than early stages such as design and development
processes. Even recruiting for cyber-security focuses on end-of-life
expertise. This trend increases the total software lifecycle costs in which
over 75% is for maintenance and enhancements costs. However, themajority of faults are introduced early in the requirements, initial designand development processes. Detecting and fixing faults at initial stages
improve the quality of software and, therefore, should result in reductionof the total lifecycle cost. Moreover, by fixing security problems at thelast possible moment, fewer resources are available to make the product

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Conference 8758: Next-Generation Analyst
Monday - Tuesday 29–30 April 2013
Part of Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 8758 Next-Generation Analyst

8758-7, Session 1

8758-10, Session 2

Data-to-decisions (Keynote Presentation)

Concept of operations for collaboration anddiscovery from big data across enterprisedata warehouses

John S. Eicke, Michael A. Kolodny, U.S. Army Research Lab.
(United States)
No Abstract Available.

Sreenivas R. Sukumar, Mohammed M. Olama, James Nutaro,
Oak Ridge National Lab. (United States)

8758-9, Session 2

The next-generation analyst is facing the challenge of discovering
actionable nuggets from terabytes/petabytes of data stored acrossenterprise data-warehouses. The solutions that enable such analysts
have to resolve the dilemma on the concept of operations for how data
sources have to be staged for analysis (i.e. how should one data sourcefrom an agency be conveniently posed in context to another data sourcefrom another agency?). In this paper, we study popular data staging
practices such as the data-mart, federated-middleware, hub-and-spoke
and all-in-one warehouse models. The study is along dimensions suchas scalability, feasibility, convenience and cost with respect to theemerging “Big data” concerns of volume, velocity, variety and veracity.
The results we present are from simulating analyst work-flows in each of
the aforementioned models. The workflows in our experiments consider
data extract, load and transform processes, application development
timelines, operational factors such as availability/durability, complexityof the data schemas and meta-data issues thereof, network bandwidth
constraints, data access latencies, query resource demands, etc. Basedon the observations from simulation experiments, we are able to makerecommendations for a business process flexible enterprise analytics
roadmap. Our simulations highlight opportunities and risks in terms ofinfrastructure (data systems, connectivity, etc.) and policy (security, rules,etc.) as applied to real-world cross-agency data-sharing efforts.

Adaptive context exploitation
Alan N Steinberg, Georgia Tech Research Institute (UnitedStates); Christopher L. Bowman, Data Fusion Corp. (UnitedStates)A Phase 1 SBIR effort has been conducted to develop and demonstratetechniques for “repurposing” data. This effort was conducted under
USAF contract FA8750-12-C-0163, Innovative Approaches to Situation
Modeling, Threat Modeling and Threat Prediction.
Repurposing data, as we are using the term, involves the adaptive
exploitation of data from sources beyond those determined at the timeof system design. Such additional data may be contained in data storesthat have become available to the system on-line, but which the baseline
fusion system was not explicitly programmed to exploit. There is aninterest in using such external information to enhance the performanceof higher-level fusion in ISR systems that often must work with highlyambiguous and noisy data in domains that are poorly modeled. The hopeis to improve the accuracy and completeness of the ISR fusion productby appropriate exploitation of information that is normally external to the
ISR system.
An ISR system is tasked to meet information needs, often specified interms of user-specified Essential Elements of Information (EEIs). TheseEEI can be data elements concerning entities of interest at all fusionlevels 0-4: their current, historical and predicted location, track, identity,classification, attributes, activities, and courses of actions; interactions
and other relationships.
EEIs are formalized as sets of problem variables and a utility function on
the accuracy of evaluating these variables. The input data used in solving
an ISR problem may themselves be measurements of one or another EEI
or information that may provide context for evaluating EEIs, in the formof estimates of variables that may be correlated in some way with one ormore problem variables. We examine ways for an ISR system to exploit
such direct and contextual information both from sources organic to andexternal to the ISR system.
We decompose this problem by means of the Data Fusion & Resource
Management (DF&RM) Dual Node Network (DNN) technical architecture.
Newly defined level 4 Resource Management processes plan andexecute the search, evaluation and fusion of external data with organic
ISR data. Newly-defined level 4 fusion processes determine the relevanceand consistency of acquired external data with organic ISR information.
Additional L.0-4 DF and RM functions are tasked to refine states
estimates of L.0-3 entities (i.e. of entities existing independent of thesystem) and of L.4 entities (i.e. of system resources). The latter includes
evaluating and refining the system’s predictive models that characterize
the attributes and behaviors of L.0-3 entities and that characterizeorganic and external sensor/sources (accuracies, biases, etc.) andprocesses. In this way we – for the first time – integrate Data Mining into
the DF&RM architecture, permitting a unified error model across sources,
measurements and models, as well as fusion and management functionsin information exploitation systems.
Design and prototype results will be presented, with plans for expanded
development of adaptive context exploitation capability.

8758-11, Session 2

GOOSE: Semantic search on internet
connected sensors
Klamer Schutte, TNO Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands);
Freek Bomhof, TNO (Netherlands); Gertjan Burghouts, TNO
Defence, Security and Safety (Netherlands); Jurriaan van
Diggelen, TNO (Netherlands); Peter Hiemstra, TNO Defence,
Security and Safety (Netherlands); Jaap van ‘t Hof, TNO Scienceand Industry (Netherlands); Wessel Kraaij, TNO (Netherlands);
Huib Pasman, Arthur Smith, TNO Defence, Security and Safety(Netherlands); Corne Versloot, Joost de Wit, TNO (Netherlands)
More and more sensors are getting Internet connected. This includes
cameras on cell phones, CCTV cameras for traffic control as well as
dedicated security and defense sensor systems. Human exploitation of
all this sensor data for effective mission execution is due to the steadily
increasing data volume impossible. Smart access to all sensor data acts
as enabler for questions such as “Is there a person behind this building”
or “Alert me when a vehicle approaches”.
The GOOSE concept has the ambition to provide the capability to searchsemantically for any relevant information within “all” (including imaging)
sensor streams in the entire Internet of sensors. Similar to the capability
provided by presently available Internet search engines which enable
the retrieval of information on “all” pages on the internet. Similar tocurrent Internet search engines any indexing services shall be utilized
cross-domain. Main challenges for GOOSE are the Semantic Gap andScalability.
The GOOSE architecture consists of five elements: (1) an online primitive
extraction on each sensor stream; (2) an indexing and search mechanism
for these primitives; (3) a ontology based semantic matching module; (4)a top-down hypothesis verification mechanism and (5) a controlling manmachine interface.
The paper will report on the initial GOOSE demonstrator, which

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Conference 8758: Next-Generation Analyst

consists of the MES multimedia analysis platform and the CORTEX
action recognition software, and provide an outlook into future GOOSE
development.

human users and machine processes aimed at assisting the humanusers. CE itself is built upon a formal logic basis, but allows users
to easily specify models for a domain of interest in a human-friendly
language. In our research we have been developing an experimental
component known as the “CE Store” in which CE information can bequickly and flexibly processed and shared between human and machine
agents. The CE Store environment contains a number of specializedmachine agents for common processing tasks and also supports
execution of logical inference rules that can be defined in the same CE
language. This paper outlines the basic architecture of this approach,discusses some of the example machine agents that have beendeveloped, and provides some typical examples of the CE language andthe way in which it has been used to support complex analytical tasks onsynthetic data sources. We highlight the fusion of human and machineprocessing supported through the use of the CE language and CEStore environment, and show this environment with examples of highly
dynamic extensions to the model(s) and integration between different
user-defined models in a collaborative setting.

8758-12, Session 2

A big data use perspective: CiteSeerX andfriends
C. Lee Giles, The Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
Cyberinfrastructure or e-science has become crucial in many areasof science as managing and have access to big data often defines
scientific progress. Open source systems have greatly facilitated design
and implementation for supporting cyberinfrastructure and big data.
We propose an open source integrated system, SeerSuite, for building
an integrated search engine and digital library that focuses on allphases of scientific document information and knowledge extraction,such as citation extraction, automated indexing and ranking, chemical
formulae search, table indexing, etc. The proposed open sourcearchitecture is a modular, extensible system built on successful OS
projects such as Lucene/Solr and can be used in building enterprisesearch and cyberinfrastructure for the sciences and academia andmanaging big data. We highlight big data application domains
with examples of specialized search engines they we have built forcomputer science, CiteSeerX, chemistry, ChemXSeer, archaeology,
ArchSeer. acknowledgements, AckSeer, reference recommendation,
RefSeer, collaboration recommendation, CollabSeer, and others, allusing Solr/Lucene. Because such enterprise systems require uniqueinformation extraction approaches, several different machine learning
methods, such as conditional random fields, support vector machines,
mutual information based feature selection, sequence mining, etc.
are critical for performance. We draw lessons for other e-science andcyberinfrastructure systems in terms of big data creation and use andsystem design and research issues.

8758-14, Session 3

MIPS: A service-based aid for intelligence
analysisDavid Braines, John B. Ibbotson, Graham White, IBM United
Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom)
The Management of Information Processing Services (MIPS) project set
out with two main objectives; the notification to analysts of the arrivalof relevant new information and the automatic processing of the new
information. Within these objectives a number of significant challenges
were addressed. To achieve the first objective, the development team
had to demonstrate the capability for specific analysts to be “tippedoff” in real-time that textual reports and sensor-data have been received
that are relevant to their analytical tasks, including the possibility thatsuch reports have been made available by other nations. In the caseof the second objective, the team had to demonstrate the capability
for the infrastructure to automatically initiate processing of input data
as it arrives, consistent with satisfying the analytical goals of teams ofanalysts, in as an efficient a manner as possible (including the casewhere data is made available by more than one nation).

References:[ChemXSeer] http://chemxseer.ist.psu.edu[CiteSeerX] http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu[Solr] http://lucene.apache.org/solr/

Using the Information Fabric middleware developed as part of theInternational Technology Alliance (ITA) research program, the teamcreated a service based information processing infrastructure to achieve
the objectives and challenges set by the customer. The infrastructure
allows either existing or specially written services to be integrated witheach other as well as with other ITA technologies such as the Controlled
English (CE) Store or the Gaian Database. This paper will identify thedifficulties in designing and implementing the MIPS infrastructure
together with describing its architecture and illustrating its use with aworked example use case.

8758-26, Session 2

Some alternative strategies for dealing with
big data (Keynote Presentation)
Moises Sudit, CUBRC Corp. (United States)
No Abstract Available.

8758-13, Session 38758-16, Session 3

Controlled English to facilitate human/machine analytical processing

Reusing information for high-level fusion:
characterizing bias and uncertainty in humangenerated intelligence

David Braines, David Mott, Simon Laws, IBM United Kingdom
Ltd. (United Kingdom); Geeth de Mel, IBM Thomas J. Watson
Research Ctr. (United States) and U. S. Army Research Lab.
(United States); Tien Pham, U.S. Army Research Lab. (UnitedStates)Dustin Burke, Alan Carlin, Paul Picciano, Georgiy Levchuk, Brian
Riordan, Aptima, Inc. (United States)
To expedite the intelligence collection process, analysts reuse previously
collected data. This poses the risk of analysis failure, because thesedata are biased in ways that the analyst may not know. Thus, thesedata may be incomplete, inconsistent or incorrect, have structural gaps
and limitations, or simply be too old to accurately represent the current
state of the world. Incorporating human-generated intelligence within
the high-level fusion process enables the integration of hard (physicalsensors) and soft information (human observations) to extend the abilityof algorithms to associate and merge disparate pieces of information

Controlled English is a human-readable information representation
format that is implemented using a restricted subset of the English
language, but which is unambiguous and directly accessible by simple
machine processes. We have been researching the capabilities of CE
in a number of contexts, and exploring the degree to which a flexible
and more human-friendly information representation format could
aid the intelligence analyst in a multi-agent collaborative operational
environment; especially in cases where the agents are a mixture of other

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Conference 8758: Next-Generation Analyst

for a more holistic situational awareness picture. However, in order for
high-level fusion systems to manage the uncertainty in soft information,a process needs to be developed for characterizing the sources of error
and bias specific to human-generated intelligence and assessing thequality of this data.
This paper outlines an approach Towards Integration of Data for unBiased
Intelligence and Trust (TID-BIT) that implements a novel Hierarchical
Bayesian Model for high-level situation modeling that allows the analyst
to accurately reuse existing data collected for different intelligencerequirements. TID-BIT constructs situational, semantic knowledge
graphs that links the information extracted from unstructured sources
to intelligence requirements and performs pattern matching over these
attributed-network graphs for integrating information. By quantifying thereliability and credibility of human sources, TID-BIT enables the ability toestimate and account for uncertainty and bias that impact the high-level
fusion process, resulting in improved situational awareness.

8758-17, Session 3

Reasoning with uncertain information andtrust
Murat Sensoy, Univ. of Aberdeen (United Kingdom); Achille
Fokoue, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States);
Timothy J. Norman, Jeff Z. Pan, Univ. of Aberdeen (United
Kingdom); Yuqing Tang, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States);
Nir Oren, Univ. of Aberdeen (United Kingdom); Geeth de Mel, IBM
Thomas J. Watson Research Ctr. (United States); Katia Sycara,
Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States); Lance Kaplan, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)
An important limitation of standard Description Logics is their inability toreason with uncertain and vague knowledge. Although probabilistic andfuzzy extensions of DLs exist, which provide an explicit representationof uncertainty, they do not provide an explicit means for reasoning about
second order uncertainty. Dempster-Shafer theory of evidence (DST)
overcomes this weakness and provides the means to explicitly represent
fuse and reason about uncertain information. In this paper, we combine
DL-Lite with DST to allow scalable reasoning over uncertain semantic
knowledge bases. Furthermore, our formalism allows for the detection of
conflicts between the fused information and domain constraints. Finally,
we propose methods to resolve such conflicts through trust revision by
exploiting evidence regarding the information sources. The effectivenessof the proposed approaches is shown through simulations under various
settings.

8758-24, Session 3

A decision support system for fusion of softand hard-sensor information based on latentsemantic analysis techniqueAmir Shirkhodaie, Vinayak Elangovan, Mohammad S. Habibi,
Amjad H. Alkilani, Tennessee State Univ. (United States)
Fusion of information from textual reports with data from energy-based
sensors, collected from surveillance systems, is a real challenge andrequires an appropriate technique facilitating their seamless integrationand comprehension. When dealing with multi-facets information, adecision support system can be very instrumental in facilitating expert
analysts explore and exploit available information in a timely fashion
and achieve a better situational awareness. Evidently, efficiency andeffectiveness of such approaches is vital for situations requiring rapid
response for decisive emerging situations. In this paper, we havepresented a decision support system based on Latent Semantic Analysis(LSA) technique for fusion of pertinent and cohesive soft/hard sensor
information. The proposed decision support system operates over two
information spaces: free-style textual information (e.g., military reports,
emails, web pages, scientific/news reports, written documents) and462

structured semantically-annotated information generated by processingof hard sensor data presented in the format of a Transducer Markup
Language (TML). The decision support system uses a latent semantic
indexing approach to data mine relevant information supporting aquery concept. The decision support system computes entropy of key
words/phrases associated with searched textual information and uses
this information as a basis for suggesting key future queries that could
potentially assist in discovery of new knowledge about the searched
concept. To test efficiency and effectiveness of the decision support
system, we utilized corpus of textual documents containing both humanannotated observations and semantically annotated hard sensor data.
The latter information contains semantically annotated information
representing attributes of physical targets and events as observed by
the physical sensors (i.e., imaging cameras). The experimental results
were tested against ground truths for verification and validation of
performance of the decision support system. Our initial experimental
results indicates that the decision support system can provide significant
assistance in retrieving latent complex concepts that otherwise is difficult
to comprehend from large corpus of textual information proficiently.

8758-1, Session 4

Crowded: a crowd-sourced perspective of
events as they happen
Richard Brantingham, Aleem Hossain, Defence Science andTechnology Lab. (United Kingdom)‘Crowded’ is a web-based application that collates imagery of aparticular location from a variety of media sources to provide an operator
with real-time situational awareness.
Emergency services and other relevant agencies have detected or
become aware of an event - a riot or an explosion, for instance - andits location. The ubiquity of mobile devices allows people to collect andupload media of the incident to the Internet, in real time. ‘Crowded’
manages the interactions with: Flickr; Instagram; YouTube; Twitter;
and Transport for London traffic cameras, to retrieve imagery that isbeing uploaded at that point in time from that location. In doing so, itaims to provide human operators with near-instantaneous ‘eyes-on’
from a variety of different perspectives. Furthermore, where the original
event detection is automated, ‘Crowded’ could be used to provide
human feedback to improve detection algorithms and validate sources.
‘Crowded’ has been implemented as a series of alpha/beta-level
integrated web-services. It aims to demonstrate how non-traditional,
open sources can be used to provide a richer current intelligence picture
than can be obtained from closed sources alone. It also demonstrates
how open source technology and cloud-based services can be used in
the modern intelligence and security environment to provide a multiagency Common Operating Picture to help achieve a co-ordinatedresponse.

8758-2, Session 4

Supporting tactical intelligence using
collaborative environments and social
networking
Arthur Wollocko, Michael Farry, Robert Stark, Charles River
Analytics, Inc. (United States)
Modern military environments place an increased emphasis on
the collection and analysis of intelligence at the tactical level. The
deployment of analytical tools at the tactical level helps support thewarfighter’s need for rapid collection, analysis, and dissemination of
intelligence. However, given the lack of experience and staffing at thetactical level, most of the available intelligence is not exploited.
Tactical environments are staffed by a new generation of intelligence
analysts who are well-versed in modern collaboration environments andsocial networking. An opportunity exists to enhance tactical intelligence
analysis by exploiting these personnel strengths, but is dependent on

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Conference 8758: Next-Generation Analyst

appropriately designed information sharing technologies.

of the interfaces used for interaction (in order to adapt or enhance its
usefulness) and analysis of intention and behavior of the users wheninteracting with these systems.

Existing social information sharing technologies enable users to publish
information quickly, but do not unite or organize information in a mannerthat effectively supports intelligence analysis.

For web applications, often the analysis of user interaction is done using
the web server logs collected for every document sent to the user in
response to his/her request. In order to capture more detailed data on theusers’ interaction with sites, one could collect actions the user performs
in the clients’ side. An effective approach to this is the USABILICS
system, which also allows the definition and analysis of tasks in web
applications.

In this paper, we present an alternative approach to structuring andsupporting tactical intelligence analysis that combines the benefits ofexisting concepts, and provide detail on a prototype system embodyingthat approach. Since this approach employs familiar collaboration
support concepts from social media, it enables new-generation analysts
to identify the decision-relevant data scattered among databases andthe mental models of other personnel, increasing the timeliness ofcollaborative analysis. Also, the approach enables analysts to collaborate
visually to associate heterogeneous and uncertain data within theintelligence analysis process, increasing the robustness of collaborative
analyses.

The fine granularity of logs collected by USABILICS allows a much moredetailed log of users’ interaction with a web application. These logs canbe converted into graphs where vertices are users’ actions and edges arepaths made by the user to accomplish a task.
Graph analysis and visualization tools and techniques allow the analysisof actions taken in relation to an expected action path, or characterizationof common (and uncommon) paths on the interaction with theapplication. This paper describes how to estimate users’ behavior andcharacterize their intentions during interaction with a web application,
presents the analysis and visualization tools on those graphs and showssome practical results with an educational site, commenting on the
results and implications of the possibilities of using these techniques.

Utilizing this familiar dynamic collaboration environment, we hopeto achieve a significant reduction of time and skill required to glean
actionable intelligence in these challenging operational environments.

8758-3, Session 4

Using the living laboratory framework as
a basis for understanding next-generation
analyst work

8758-5, Session 4

Exploring the dynamics of collective
cognition using a computational model ofcognitive dissonanceMichael D. McNeese, Vincent F Mancuso, Nathaniel J McNeese,
Tristan C Endsley, Peter K Forster, The Pennsylvania State Univ.
(United States)

Paul R. Smart, Univ. of Southampton (United Kingdom);
Katia Sycara, Carnegie Mellon Univ. (United States); Darren
Richardson, Univ. of Southampton (United Kingdom)

The preparation of next generation analyst work will require alternative
levels of understanding and new methodological departures from the way
current work transpires. Current work practices typically do not provide
a comprehensive approach that emphasize the roles of a) cognition, b)
the emergent activity in a shared situated context, and c) collaborative
teamwork. In turn, effective and efficient problem solving fails to takeplace and practice is often composed of piecemeal, techno-centric toolsthat isolate and stove pipe analysts while only providing rigid, limited
levels of understanding of situation awareness. This coupled with thefact that many analyst activities are classified produces a challenging
situation for the design of systems that support analyst cognition andteamwork. Through our work with cyber analysts, image analysts, andintelligence analysts we have realized that there is more required ofresearchers to study human-centered designs to provide for analyst’s
needs in a timely fashion.

The socially-distributed nature of cognitive processing in a variety oforganizational settings means that there is increasing scientific interest in
how the features of collaborative work environments affects the nature ofcollective cognition and the quality of collective cognitive outcomes. In
military coalitions, for example, there is a need to understand how factors
such as communication network topology, trust, cultural differences
and the potential for miscommunication affects the ability of distributed
teams to generate high quality plans, to formulate effective decisions andto develop shared situation awareness. In addition to understanding therelationship between collective cognitive performance and the featuresof collaborative work environments, there is also a need to understandhow the technological and social organization of collaborative work
environments interacts with psycho-cognitive processes operating at
the level of individual human agents. For example, we need to develop
a better understanding of how individual processing biases interact
with the features of the larger socio-technical system in order toeither help or hinder collective cognitive processing. In this paper, we
present a computational model that is specifically designed to support
experimental simulations into collective cognitive phenomena. We show
how the model can be used to run simulations that explore the effects
of a variety of factors on collective cognition. We also show how themodel can be used to replicate the pattern of results seen in a number ofexperimental studies using human subjects. We suggest that the model
can be used to support the development of sociotechnical systems thatmaximize the collective cognitive potential of distributed teams.

This paper identifies and describes how The Living Laboratory
Framework, as a means to develop a comprehensive and human-centricand problem-focused approach to next generation analyst work, design,and training. We explain how the framework is utilized for specific cases
in various applied settings (e.g., crisis management analysis, image
analysis, and cyber analysis) to demonstrate it’s value and power inaddressing an area of utmost importance to our country. Attributesof analyst work settings are delineated to suggest potential design
affordances that could help specific and improve cognitive activities andawareness. Finally, the paper puts forth a research agenda for the use of
the framework for future work that will move the analyst profession in a
viable manner to address the concerns identified.

8758-4, Session 48758-6, Session 4

Exploiting client logs towards characterizing
the user behavior on Web applications

CE-SAM: a conversational interface for ISR
mission support

Leandro G. Vasconcelos, National Institute for Space Research(Brazil); Rafael D. Coelho dos Santos, Instituto Nacional dePesquisas Espaciais (Brazil); Laercio A. Baldochi Jr., Federal
Univ. of Itajuba (Brazil)

Diego Pizzocaro, Christos Parizas, Alun Preece, Cardiff Univ.
(United Kingdom); Dave Braines, David Mott, IBM United
Kingdom Ltd. (United Kingdom); Jonathan Bakdash, U.S. Army
Research Lab. (United States)

Analysis of user interaction with computer systems can be used forseveral purposes, the most common being analysis of the effectiveness

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Conference 8758: Next-Generation Analyst

There is considerable interest in natural language conversational
interfaces. These allow for complex user interactions with systems,
such as fulfilling information requirements in dynamic environments,
without requiring extensive training or a technical background (e.g. informal query languages or schemas). To leverage the advantages of
conversational interactions we propose CE-SAM (Controlled English
Sensor Assignment to Missions), a system that guides users throughrefining and satisfying their information needs in the context ofIntelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) operations. The
rapidly-increasing availability of sensing assets and other information
sources poses substantial challenges to effective ISR resource
management. In a coalition context, the problem is even more complex,
because assets may be ‘owned’ by different partners. We show how
CE-SAM allows a user to refine and relate their ISR information needs
to pre-existing concepts in an ISR knowledge base, via conversational
interaction implemented on a tablet device. The knowledge base isrepresented using Controlled English (CE) - a form of controlled natural
language that is both human-readable and machine processable (i.e.
can be used to implement automated reasoning). Users interact with
the CE-SAM conversational interface using natural language, which thesystem converts to CE for feeding-back to the user for confirmation (e.g.
to reduce misunderstanding). We show that this process not only allows
users to access the assets that can support their mission needs, but also
assists them in extending the CE knowledge base with new concepts.

of-the-art still falls short of creating computer systems capable ofautonomously making complex decisions and judgments in many
domains where data is nuanced and accountability is high. However,there is a great deal of potential for hybrid systems in which software
applications augment human capabilities by focusing the analyst’s
attention to relevant information elements based on both a priori
knowledge of the analyst’s goals and the processing/correlation of aseries of data streams too numerous and heterogeneous for the analyst
to digest without assistance.

8758-18, Session PTues

8758-20, Session PTues

Participatory telerobotics

Representation of potential information
gain to measure the price of anarchy on ISR
activities

Alexander D. Wissner-Gross, Harvard Univ. (United States)and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States) and
Gemedy, Inc. (United States); Timothy M. Sullivan, Gemedy, Inc.
(United States)
We present a novel “participatory telerobotics” system that generalizes
the existing concept of participatory sensing to include real-timeteleoperation and telepresence by treating humans with mobile devices
as ad-hoc telerobots. In our approach, operators or analysts firstchoose a desired location for remote surveillance or activity from a live
geographic map and are then automatically connected via a coordination
server to the nearest available trusted human. That human’s device isthen activated and begins recording and streaming back to the operator
a live audiovisual feed for telepresence, while allowing the operator
in turn to request complex teleoperative motions or actions from thehuman. Supported action requests currently include walking, running,
leaning, and turning, all with controllable magnitudes and directions.
Compliance with requests is automatically measured and scored in realtime by fusing information received from the device’s onboard sensors,
including its accelerometers, gyroscope, magnetometer, GPS receiver,and cameras. Streams of action requests are visually presented byeach device to its human in the form of an augmented reality game thatrewards prompt physical compliance while remaining tolerant of network
latency. In experimental trials of our smartphone-based implementation,
we found that high human compliance was achieved with minimal
training. Because of its ability to interactively elicit physical knowledge
and operations through ad-hoc collaboration, we anticipate that ourparticipatory telerobotics system will have immediate applications forintelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance.

8758-19, Session PTues

Conserving analyst attention units: use ofmulti-agent software and CEP methods toassist information analysis
Jeffrey C. Rimland, Michael McNeese, David Hall, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)
Although the capability of computer-based artificial intelligence
techniques for decision-making and situational awareness has seen
notable improvement over the last several decades, the current state464

Researchers at Penn State University are exploring ways in which an
information framework influenced by Klein’s RPD model, Endsley’s modelof situational awareness, Boyd’s OODA loop, and the Joint Directorsof Laboratories (JDL) data fusion process model can be implemented
through a novel combination of Complex Event Processing (CEP) andMulti-Agent Software (MAS). Though designed primarily for stock
market and financial applications, the high performance data-driven
nature of CEP techniques provide a natural compliment to the provencapabilities of MAS systems for modeling naturalistic decision-making,performing process adjudication, and optimizing networked processing
and cognition via the use of “mobile agents.” This paper addresses
the challenges and opportunities of such a framework for augmenting
human observational capability as well as enabling the ability to perform
collaborative context-aware reasoning in both human teams and hybrid
human/ software agent teams.

Hector J. Ortiz-Pena, CUBRC (United States); Michael J. Hirsch,
Raytheon Co. (United States); Mark Karwan, Rakesh Nagi, Univ.
at Buffalo (United States); Moises Sudit, CUBRC (United States)
and Univ. at Buffalo (United States)
One of the main technical challenges facing intelligence analysts today isdetermining, effectively, information gaps from huge amounts of collected
data. Moreover, getting the right information to/from the right person(e.g., analyst, “warfighter on the edge”) at the right time in a distributed
environment has been elusive to our military forces. Synchronizationof Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) activities tomaximize the efficient utilization of limited resources (both in quantity andcapabilities) has become critically important to increase the accuracy andtimeliness of overall information gain. Given this reality, we are interested
in quantifying the degradation of solution quality (i.e., information gain)
as a centralized system synchronizing ISR activities (from information
gap identification to information collection and dissemination) moves toa more decentralized framework. This evaluation extends the conceptof price of anarchy, a measure of the inefficiency of a system when
agents maximize decisions without coordination, by considering different
levels of decentralization. Our initial research representing the potential
information gain in geospatial and time discretized spaces is presented.
This potential information gain map can represent a consolidation ofIntelligence Preparation of the Battlefield products as input to automated
ISR synchronization tools. Using the coordination of unmanned vehicles(UxVs) as an example, we developed a mathematical programming model
for multi-perspective optimization in which each UxV develops its own
flight plan to support mission objectives based only on its perspective of
the environment (i.e., potential information gain map). Information is only
exchanged when UxVs are part of the same communication network.

8758-21, Session PTues

Visualization and characterization of users ina citizen science project
Alessandra M. Marli, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais(Brazil); Jordan Raddick, Johns Hopkins Univ. (United States);

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Conference 8758: Next-Generation Analyst

8758-23, Session PTues

Rafael D. Coelho dos Santos, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas
Espaciais (Brazil)

Characterization of Gain-aware Routing in
Delay Tolerant Networks

Recent technological advances allowed the creation and use of internetbased systems where many users can collaborate gathering andsharing information for specific or general purposes: social networks,
e-commerce review systems, collaborative knowledge systems, etc.
Since most of the data collected in these systems is user-generated,
understanding of the motivations and general behavior of users is a very
important issue.

Faezeh Hajiaghajani Memar, Michigan State Univ. (United States);
Yogesh Piolet Thulasidharan, Mahmoud Taghizadeh, Michigan
State University (United States); Subir Biswas, Michigan State
Univ. (United States)

Of particular interest are citizen science projects, where users without
scientific training are asked for collaboration labeling and classifying
information (either automatically by giving away idle computer timeor manually by actually seeing data and providing information aboutit). Understanding behavior of users of those types of data collection
systems may help increase the involvement of the users, categorize users
accordingly to different parameters, facilitate their collaboration with thesystems, design better user interfaces, and allow better planning anddeployment of similar projects and systems.

A large number of emerging applications such as participatory sensing
and content dissemination in social networks rely on efficient routing
in Delay Tolerant Networks (DTNs). Majority of the existing DTN routing
protocols attempt to minimize a single routing index such as message
delay or forwarding count. However, for many DTN applications, such as
distributing commercial content, targeting the best performance for one
index and compromising the others is often insufficient. A more practicalsolution would be to strike a balance among multiple of these indices.
Additionally, although multicast is a natural way of content dissemination
for many applications, it is relatively less discussed in the mainstream
DTN literature. In this paper, we focus on the problem of multicastingin DTN with an effort to balance the dissemination delay and message
forwarding cost. We formulate the concept of an economic gain, which is
the generated value due to content dissemination minus the forwarding
cost, and present a benchmark mechanism for multicast routing whichyields the best possible gain for any given network and mobility scenario.
Using the ONE DTN network simulator , the behavior of the benchmark
in achieving the maximum gain is evaluated considering different interest
factors (i.e. the percentage of users interested in receiving a content),
forwarding probability (the factor which aims to prevent blind forwarding)and mobility models. We also show the gap between the achieved gain
in benchmark and a number of existing DTN routing protocols which also
reveals the maximum possible gain that a gain-aware multicast routing
protocol can achieve. Finally, we discuss the features of a potential
gain-aware multicast routing protocol and the obstacles which preventthe existing protocols from achieving a higher gain, relative to thebenchmark.

Behavior of those users could be estimated through analysis of theircollaboration track: registers of which user did what and when can beeasily and unobtrusively collected in several different ways, the simplest
being a log of activities.
In this paper we present some results on the visualization andcharacterization of almost 150.000 users with more than 80.000.000
collaborations with a citizen science project – Galaxy Zoo I, which asked
users to classify galaxies’ images. Basic visualization techniques are notapplicable due to the number of users, so techniques to characterizeusers’ behavior based on feature extraction and clustering are used.

8758-22, Session PTues

Beyond visualization of big data: a multistage
data exploration approach using visualization,
sonification, and storification
Jeffrey C. Rimland, Mark Ballora, Wade Shumaker, The
Pennsylvania State Univ. (United States)

8758-25, Session PTues

Multimodal scenario analysis andvisualization tool

As the sheer volume of data grows exponentially, it becomes increasingly
difficult for existing visualization techniques to keep pace. The
sonification field attempts to address this issue by enlisting our auditory
senses to detect anomalies or complex events that are difficult to
detect via visualization alone. Storification attempts to improve analyst
understanding by converting data streams into organized narratives
describing the data at a higher level of abstraction than the input streamthat they area derived from.

Erin Ontiveros, Dave Messinger, Rolando Raqueno, Chris
DeAngelis, Andrew Scott, Rochester Institute of Technology(United States)
An analyst monitoring a specific situation today has a lot of information
available to them. They would have several forms of imagery: airborne,
satellite, video survellience, etc., covering differing spatial and spectral
ranges spanning over varying time periods. This is all before any analysis
is done on the data. While this should ultimately aid in the analysts
task it can make it more complicated because of the sheer volume andthe analysis involved. We at Rochester Institute of Technology havedeveloped a prototype environment around a fictional scenario describinga specific intelligence question. This environment ingests data across awide range of modalities, allows the analyst to interact with the data andperform analysis within the environment. This is all done with the ability
to visualize the scenario according to date and time of the data capture
in order to make predictions and understand observations as a functionof time. The data used in this analysis was both real and simulated
based on Midland Cogeneration Venture Power Plant. This plant supplies
energy and steam (almost) exclusively to the Dow Chemical plant next
door. We were able to characterize, on as dense a temporal samplingscale as available, the power output capacity of the power plant, which
we assumed to be correlated to activity at the chemical plant. The
simulations were produced by DIRSIG, the Digital Imaging and Remote
Sensing laboratory’s Synthetic Image Generator, a first principals physics
based model.

While these techniques hold a great deal of promise, they also eachhave a unique set of challenges that must be overcome. Sonification
techniques must represent a broad variety of distributed heterogeneous
data and present it to the analyst/listener in a manner that doesn’t require
extended listening – as visual “snapshots” are useful but auditory sounds
only exist over time. Storification still faces many human-computerinterface (HCI) challenges as well as technical hurdles related toautomatically generating a logical narrative from lower-level data streams.
This paper proposes a novel approach that utilizes a service oriented
architecture (SOA)-based hybrid visualization/ sonification / storification
framework to enable distributed human-in-the-loop processing of data
in a manner that makes optimized usage of both visual and auditory
processing pathways while also leveraging the value of narrative
explication of data streams. It addresses the benefits and shortcomingsof each processing modality and discusses information infrastructure anddata representation concerns required with their utilization in a distributed
environment. We present a generalizable approach with a broad range ofapplications including cyber security, medical informatics, facilitation ofenergy savings in “smart” buildings, and detection of natural and manmade disasters.

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