Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

Foreign language success and social mobility in the Hungarian context
Adrienn Fekete
Institute of English and American Studies, University of Debrecen, Hungary

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to describe the relationship between (1) English language
success certified by the two most trusted proficiency tests in Hungary, the centrally
administered mandatory secondary school leaving test, and the externally managed
foreign language
proficiency test, and (2) upward social mobility available to graduates within theframework of the current Hungarian legislation. More specifically, we look at how
the exam takers' foreign language success on the B2 level correlates with age, genderand place of birth. Data provided by the Accreditation Centre for Foreign Language
Examinations (ACFLE) reveals a correspondence between the popularity of thelanguages and the exam takers' success. That success is measured in two contexts:
according to public education regulations and in a state-accredited but market-based
way, the English Level 2 (B1-B2) secondary school graduation exam results arecompared to the complex, B2-level language exam results for the years between 2005
and 2015. Our results reveal significant differences in the social mobility of thesubjects - indicated by higher-education attainment- of the subjects in terms of genderand place of origin.
Key words: foreign language success, social mobility, foreign language exam certificate,foreign language education policy

Introduction
Social mobility is still a crucial and relevant issue in the social sciences, especially in the areaof education. In that regard, inclusion of disadvantaged students is one of the main objectivesof public education in Hungary. In this study, we examine social mobility in relation toforeign language learning and proficiency in general, and English language learning andproficiency in particular. We focus our analysis on English because of its lingua franca statuson the one hand, and its popularity among language exam takers on the other. We havechosen to analyze the secondary school graduation exam and B-2 level language exam data
because these two exams certify foreign language proficiency in the Hungarian education
system. Furthermore, it is important to highlight that the value of these certificates isinterpreted in a legal framework, which determines that both documents constitute an1

『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

advantage in, or a prerequisite for, the fulfillment of the requirements on the various levels of
education.1
By obtaining these certifications, examinees mark the road to their future professional
lives, as success in the secondary school graduation exam (hereafter SSGE, for brevity)
functions as a passport to higher education, which is regulated by the Government Decree No.
237/2006 (XI.27); moreover, the state-accredited language exam certificate functions as a
passport to graduate study, as specified in the Higher Education Decree No. CCIV/2011. It isalso important to note that as a consequence of the latter regulation, a large number ofundergraduate students cannot finish their studies because they do not have the foreign
language proficiency certificate required. In other words, not having the certification required
can greatly influence the upward social mobility of undergraduates. Additionally, the value ofthese certifications is increased by the fact that the SSGE scoring system is closelyintertwined with the higher education entrance exam scoring system, rewarding both thesuccessful foreign language proficiency exam and the successful language exam with extra
points. Furthermore, the increased value of the language exam certificate is guaranteed by the
introduction of the new higher education strategy, according to which the B2-level complex
language exam certificate will be a higher education admission requirement from theacademic year 2020 (Government Decree No. 423/2012 (XII. 29). It is also important tohighlight that this regulation creates a gap between the minimum foreign language proficiency
level (B1, defined in the Hungarian National Core Curriculum), required from students at theend of their secondary education studies, and the level (B2) required for higher education
admission. Besides the relationships presented so far, the joint analysis of the two exams isjustified by Amendment No. 233/2004 (VIII./6) to the Government Decree No. 100/1997(VI.13), specifying that a 60% score on the Level 2 SSGE in foreign languages is equal to apass on the state-accredited B2 level proficiency exam. This equivalency highlights thegovernment policy aim to strengthen the link between public and higher education and thelabor market. Consequently, this also means that Amendment No. 233/2004 (VIII.6) equates
the central and mandatory SSGE certificate (being both a confirmation of secondary
education completion as well as a prerequisite for admission to higher education) with themarket-based, self-financed language exam certificate.
Based on what has been discussed so far, it can be stated that today's Hungarian
education policy gives a high value to the Level 2 foreign language SSGE as well as to the1

The language requirement may vary in different higher education institutions.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

state-accredited B2 level language exam certificate. Equating the two exams is undoubtedly aresponse to the increasing value of the documents, especially the value of the language exam,and to the pressure that this situation puts on students, parents and language teachers.
Consequently, we assume that the objective of this action might be to alleviate the financial
burden on students and their families in the Hungarian public education system. If thisobjective is realized, after the introduction of the state-financed, two-level SSGE (from 2005
onwards), we should experience a decrease in the number of examinees taking a self-financed
language exam. For these reasons, it is important that the data available on the two exams be
subjected to multiple analysis. Hence, in the present study, in order to get a more detailed
picture of the examinees, we are investigating correlations between their English language
success—as measured by the Level 2 SSGE as well as the B2 level language exam—andboth their gender and place of birth.
Based on the data provided by the Accreditation Centre for Foreign Language
Examinations (ACFLE) on examinees between 2000 and 2015, the aim of our study is to: (1)describe the popularity of the target languages offered and the success of the examinees; and(2) analyze the examinees taking B2-level language exams in terms of the following four
variables: age, gender, place of birth and exam success. In addition, our goal is also (3) tocompare data on the Level 2 SSGE with the B2-level exam in English. First, however, we
look at different interpretations and findings on the topic of social mobility with a special
focus on gender and place of birth.

Approaches to social mobility

The theoretical framework of social mobility is based on Bourdieu's (1973, 1986), DiMaggio's(1982) and Robert's (1985) theories. Bourdieu explains the relationship between cultural
capital and achieved social status by applying the cultural reproduction theory: namely, that
cultural and material capital—which are closely related to parents' social background—have astrong effect on children's prevailing social position. This capital, moreover, is inherited fromgeneration to generation. Based on this, Bourdieu claims that social mobility is significantly
less available to students coming from lower-status families. In contrast, DiMaggio (1982)
argues that for those having a less favorable family background, the possibility of reaching ahigher class is provided by cultural resources. In this context, Róbert (1986) studied the
Hungarian data on social mobility, focusing on the variables of occupation, financial situation,
cultural resources and place of residence. Róbert's results show the impact of cultural capital3

『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

on education and occupation. Fényes (2012) took the approach of Róbert as the basis for her
study of the mobility of students in higher education. In her analysis, the emphasis is on thedimension of material and cultural capital, in the context of gender. Her results confirm
previous research results (see Buchmann and DiPerete 2006), according to which womenstudying in higher education have poorer material and cultural backgrounds but greater school
mobility, while the economic and cultural backgrounds of men are more favorable, but theirschool mobility is lower. Fényes' results also support the fact that for the majority of women,labor market success means having their qualifications certified, in other words, having a
degree. Miller and Roby (1974) describe this phenomenon as "credentialism," or “document
disease.” At the same time, the primary aim of men is "status pursuit" and "status access" (seeBuss 2008). They seek the labor market for success and money-making opportunities as soon
as possible, the key to which, from their perspective, is not in multiplying their formal
qualifications. From her results (2010, 2012), Fényes concludes that men with more favorable
family backgrounds are more likely to continue their studies, whereas men with lower status
typically do not pursue higher education. Women, on the other hand, choose further education
despite their unfavorable family backgrounds, as they see the possibility of achieving higher
social status in obtaining a degree. Fényes’ results show that women studying in higher
education are characterized by mobility, while men are culturally reproductive in a
Bourdieuan sense.
The relationship between place of birth and social mobility is discussed in thetheoretical context that takes the countryside as a geographical periphery (Süli-Zakar and
Lenkey 2014). In this context, three different types of origin can be distinguished in Hungary:centrally located areas, peripheral settlements and impoverished settlements (Figure 1).
Geographic differences clearly impact on social mobility: in most cases, the quality ofeducation in public institutions in rural, small-town and peripheral areas is lower than those in
major cities, county seats, regional centers, and capital cities. Location and the costs ofeducation also point to the tendency of children of poorer, low-educated parents to attend
mainly peripheral institutions, which greatly impedes their social mobility. It can be seen in
Figure 1 that these peripheral areas are predominantly located in the eastern part of Hungary.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

Centrum settlements
Peripheral settlements
Impoverished settlements

Figure 1.The social geographic types of Hungarian settlements. Source: Süli-Zakar és Lenkey (2014:378)

The hypothetical relationship between foreign language success and mobility

It can be stated that a B2-level language exam certificate can significantly influence social
mobility, given the exams’ high value and weight in current Hungarian education policy. As
indicated above, we posit that the education policy measure equating a 60% achievement on
the Level 2 SSGE in foreign languages and the B2-level foreign language exam certificate
was introduced with the aim of reducing the burdens on students as well as increasing theirchances to achieve upward mobility. Therefore, according to our first hypothesis:
H1

After the introduction of the 233/2004 (VIII.6) Amendment to the Government
Decree No. 100/1997 (VI.13), the popularity of the B2-level English examshould decrease among 14 to 19-year-olds.

Furthermore, we have formed the following hypotheses, based on the relevant social mobility
literature and theories.
H2

B2 level English exams are taken by more women than men, but men are more
successful in language exams than women.

5

『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

H3Examinees coming from peripheral areas of the eastern part of Hungary areless successful in passing the B2-level English language exam than thosecoming from the western part of the country and from Budapest.

Data and Methods

Data on the examinees was provided by the Accreditation Centre for Foreign Language
Examinations and the Hungarian Equivalence and Information Center (HEIC). The data usedin our study applies to B2-level language exams taken between 2000 and 2015, selected tofactor in the following variables: age, social circumstances, gender, place of birth and success.
The data applying to the Level 2 SSGE taken between 2005 and 2015 were compared to theB2-level exam by the years the exams were taken and success therein. In terms of gender andplace of birth, data has not been compared yet because data is not available on gender in theschool-leaving exam database; moreover, the two databases use a different territorial division.
Since the purpose of our study is to present the trends related to the subject, we performed
descriptive-statistical calculations in our analysis.

Results

With the spread of globalization, multiculturalism and interculturalism, the importance ofEnglish language proficiency is no longer at issue. Furthermore, the close relationshipbetween English language proficiency and social mobility (Pusztai 2009, Pusztai and Nagy
2005, Hrubos 2012, Veroszta 2010) is evident. The popularity and the necessity of English
language proficiency is also reflected in the choice of languages on B2-level exams as well. In
Figures 2 and 3, we provide information about the language preference and success oflanguage examinees between 2000 and 2015. Although it is possible to take accredited
language exams in 37 languages in Hungary, we only deal with the 15 most popular
languages in our analysis.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

Popularity and Success of Languages (B2 level)
No. of exam takers

1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
EnglishGermanEsperanto

Languages
All

Successful

Figure 2. The no. of successful examinees compared to the total no. of examinees on B2-level in a descending order based on
popularity of the languages. The period studied is between 2000 and 2015. Source: ACFLE database.

No. of exam takers

Popularity and Success of Languages (B2 level)
40,00035,00030,00025,00020,00015,00010,0005,000
0Languages
All

Successful

Figure 3. The no. of successful examinees compared to the total no. of examinees on B2-level in a descending order based on
popularity of the languages. The period studied is between 2000 and 2015. Source: ACFLE database.

Data in Figures 2 and 3 confirm the results of studies on the popularity of English andGerman among Hungarian foreign language learners (Sebestyén 2014). The popularity ofEnglish is clearly evident; English is followed by German, then by Esperanto, French and
Italian. The two figures show the following pattern: foreign languages available in public
education, languages of neighboring countries, and Esperanto (an artificial language) ranked
third. It may seem contradictory that after English (with lingua franca status) and German,
Esperanto, an artificial language with no links to a group of people or culture emerged in third
place. Our conclusion is that the motivation of Esperanto learners is not successful interaction
with other cultures, which is expressed as a primary objective of foreign language learning in7

『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

the basic documents defining Hungarian (language) education - the National Core Curriculum
and the Common European Framework of References - but rather something else. To
understand the popularity and success rate of the B2-level Esperanto language exam, it isimportant to note that this exam is the most popular among 25 to 39 year-olds, the age groupmost typically attending higher education (Figure 5). When analyzing the relevant data, theyear 2006 was taken as a reference point, given that the two-cycle degree system (BA andMA) in higher education was introduced in September of that year; the relevant Decree
15/2006. (IV.3) stipulates that it is required to obtain either a B2-level, complex language
exam certificate in at least one living foreign language or an equivalent SSGE certificate.
Consequently, our understanding of the popularity and special status of Esperanto is thatexam takers are primarily motivated to acquire a "paper" certification, reflecting the increased
value and weight of the language exam certificate in higher education mobility. We explain
the popularity of the languages of the neighboring countries on the same lines: since someparts of Hungarian higher education have cross-border links (Pusztai 2009), it is obvious thatstudents coming from neighboring countries would take the language exams required for theirdegree in their national or mother tongue. We assume that this tendency can also beinterpreted as a reaction to the increased value of the language exam certificate, as these
examinees seek the fastest and most convenient way to fulfill their graduation requirements.
Figure 4 confirms these conclusions. This figure shows the relative popularity oflanguages taken and success in the exams. It can be seen that the national languages of theneighboring countries (Romanian, Slovak, Serbian, and Croatian) draw the most candidates,
followed by the moderately popular other foreign languages taught in public education. The
most popular languages, on the other hand—English, German and Esperanto—are at the endof the rank order in terms of the percentage of successful examinees.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

Percentage

The popularity of languages taken on B2 level
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Language
Figure 4. The proportion of successful language exam takers on B2-level in a descending order by languages. The period
studied is between 2000 and 2015. Source: ACFLE database.

It is quite clear that the B2 level Esperanto language exam is most popular among the 30 to
34-year-olds, followed by the 25-29 and 35-39 cohorts, as presented in Figure 5. In addition,
it can be seen that, unlike in 2005, in 2006 and 2007 the number of exam takers in the socalled 'artificial language' shows an increase in the 25-39-year-old group. It can thus beassumed that most of the examinees were motivated to take the exam in that particularlanguage primarily to obtain their degree.

POPULARITY OF ESPERANTO ON B2-LEVELNO. OF EXAM TAKER

2005
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

2006

2007

14-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40+

2005

37

403

789

651

365

34

2006

211

607

846

896

629

62

2007

450

859

1,248

1,387

909

213

AGE

Figure 5. The popularity of B2-level language exam in Esperanto between the age of 14 and 40+. The period studied is
between 2005 and 2007. Source: ACFLE database.

9

『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

In light of the equal status (from an education policy point of view) of the B2 level language
exam and the Level 2 SSGE in English, we compare the success of examinees taking the B2level English exam and examinees achieving at least 60% on Level 2 SSGE.
Figure 6 shows that the number of examinees sitting for the B2 level exams decreased from2005 to 2007 and rose again in the subsequent years. We assume that after the introduction of
the government decree equating the two exams (2004), the popularity of the English language
B2-level exam decreased. The more interesting question is why, after 2007, the popularity oflanguage exams returned to its 2005 level. This trend may be explained by the fact that alanguage exam certificate is also valuable when it comes to calculating the priority ofcandidates for admission to higher education, which can also encourage students to take anexternal language exam instead of a Level 2 SSGE (Nikolov 2011). Nikolov, Ottó and Öveges(2009) find, based on verbal accounts of language teachers, that students make a strategic
decision when choosing an exam: students prefer taking a Level 1 SSGE in a foreign language
and then try to obtain extra points by taking an external language proficiency exam instead of
the Level 2 SSGE.

No. of exam takers

B2-level language exam and Level 2 secondary school leaving
exam
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Year
B2-level language exam, all

B2-level language exam, successful

Level 2 school leaving exam, all

Level 2 school leaving exam, above 60%

Figure 6. The comparison of the number of B2 level language exam takers with Level 2 school leaving exam takers along
language success. The period studied is between 2005 and 2007. Source: ACFLE database and HEIC.

It can also be noted that, although the number of Level 2 SSGE exam-takers increased
steadily between 2006 and 2015, the proportion of examinees taking an external language
exam remained nearly three times as high.
These trends suggest that the majority of the relevant age group does not take advantage ofthe equality of the two certificates, namely that students can obtain a state-financed B2-level

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)

proficiency certification merely by taking and passing the central Level 2 SSGE. The
explanation of this can be related to the number of exam possibilities, as the number oflanguage exams is limited only by the financial resources of the examinees, whereas the
SSGE is only available twice a year, and only one attempt is free of charge. It follows that theeducational policy aiming to reduce the financial burden on students was only partly realized.
In the following, we analyze the B2-level English exam data in terms of age, gender,
place of origin, and success in the exam (Figure 7). It can be seen that the B2-level exam in
English is the most popular among women between the ages of 14 and 24.

GENDER, AGE AND SUCCESSEXAM TAKERS IN ENGLISH

men, allwomen, allmen, successful

women, successful

25 -2 93 5-3 9300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,0000
14 -1920-2 4

3 0-3 4AGE

40 +Figure 7. The comparison of exam takers in English on B2 level along their gender, age and language success.

In addition, we can observe that more women take the exams, but they prove to be lesssuccessful than men, which supports our second hypothesis and the results of Fényes (2010).
Based on our results and the relevant literature, we can assume that women taking a language
exam in English are more likely to be motivated by “credentialism” than men: that is, unlike
men, they put the emphasis on certificates as evidence of their qualifications, to attain social
status. Men, in contrast, do not see their success in terms of having certificates ofqualification; they seem to assess their skills more rationally. However, further studies areneeded to verify these assumptions.
For the geographic variable, data is differentiated by three regions in the database of the
ACFLE; we analyzed the data accordingly. The three regions are East Hungary, West
Hungary and Budapest. The basis of the analysis was the place of birth of the examinees.

11

『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

TERRITORY, AGE, SUCCESS
Budapest, allWest Hungary, all

East Hungary, all

Budapest, successful

West Hungary, succesful

East Hungary, successful

250,000

EXAM TAKERS

200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
14-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-

AGE

Figure 8. The comparison of exam takers in English on B2 level along their birthplace, age and language success.

Figure 8 shows that the B2-level language is exam is the most popular among examinees
coming from the eastern part of the country; however, they have the lowest levels of success.
This result supports Süli-Zakar and Lenkey (2014), who claim that examinees born in the
peripheral regions of Hungary find it very difficult to overcome their socio-culturaldisadvantage compared to those from the western part of the country, or from Budapest. It is
worth pointing out that the language success of examinees between the ages of 20 and 24,
representing the average age of undergraduate students, does not correlate with place of birth;
this suggests that the added value of higher education can be interpreted in relation to
overcoming socio-cultural disadvantages. To justify this, further and more comprehensive
research is needed.
In addition, the comparison of the B2-level English language exam and the Level 2
SSGE in English shows that the effect of equating the two exams can only be observed in the
two years after the introduction of the relevant Government Decree, as in these years thenumber of exam takers on the B2-level was noticeably lower; since then, the number has
returned to the pre-2005 level. Thus, the educational policy aimed at reducing the burden on
students and parents (the graduation exam is free of charge for public education participants)
has only partially lived up to expectations.

Electronic Journal of Central European Studies in Japan, No.3 (October 2017)Conclusion
Under current Hungarian education policy, the B2-level state-accredited language examcertificate is a basic requirement for admission to higher education; thus it is closely related tosocial mobility. Furthermore, the increased value of this certification has triggered processes
in foreign language education that contradict the main objectives of foreign language learning
as defined in the core education policy documents. Our study indicates that the majority of
examinees are motivated to take the B2-level exam by the higher education admission andgraduation requirements; we can draw this conclusion from the data on the examinee's age,
language preference and success in the exam. In addition, a comparison of the B2 level exam
results with the Level 2 SSGE results revealed that the government decree equating the two
had a major impact mostly in the two years after its introduction. In these years, the number of
exam takers markedly decreased; thereafter, the numbers returned to roughly what they had
been before the introduction of the relevant decree. Consequently, we find that the aims of
the educational policy designed to reduce the financial burden on students and parents (thesecondary school exam is free of charge for public education participants) have only partiallybeen realized. Furthermore, with the introduction of the new higher education strategy,
according to which the B2-level exam certificate will be a requirement for admission tohigher education, upward social mobility for disadvantaged students may become lessavailable—predominantly due to the fact that within the framework of public education, theminimum proficiency level required is only B1.
In terms of the impact of gender and place of origin on social mobility, our results arein line with previous research results: more women take the B2 level exam than men, but men
have proven to be more successful than women. Moreover, candidates born in the eastern orperipheral part of the country, presumably having lower socio-cultural resources, are lesssuccessful in the exam than those from Budapest or the western part of the country. To
investigate this issue further, it would be helpful to perform a multidimensional analysis
focusing on the relationship between the exam takers’ gender and place of birth in light of
their language success—more specifically, in which part of the country women are more
successful than men and what factors (such as family background, cultural capital, material
capital, school type) influence their success—in order to draw a more complex picture offactors influencing language success in relation to social mobility.

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『中欧研究』第 3 号（2017 年 10 月）

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