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AL-SHARK3

University ofTsukuba, Studies for West Asian Archaeology

TANG-E BOLAGHI
THE IRAN-JAPAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT FOR
THE SIVAND DAM SALVAGE AREA

Edited by
AkiraTSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

2008

Iranian Center for Archaeological ResearchandDepartment of Archaeology, University ofTsukuba

Copyright 2008 by
Iranian Center for Archaeological Research
Mas'oudi-yeh, Baharestan sq. Ekbatan ave. #15, Tehran 11416, Iranand

Department of Archaeology, History & Anthropology,
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences,

University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba, 305-8571, JapanNo production without permission. All rights reserved.
Tang-e Bolaghi: Iran-Japan Archaeological Project for
the Sivand Dam Salvage Area.

Akira Tsuneki and Mohsen Zeidi(eds.)

Department of Archaeology, History & Anthropology,
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences,

University of Tsukuba {Al-Shark: University of Tsukuba,
Studies for West Asian Archaeology, No.3)

ISSN 1343-182X

Printed in Japan

Outlook of the Bolaghi Valley from TB75

m

Digging trenches at TB75

Contributors
KazutadaKATAOKA

Professor, Graduate School ofHumanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba
Akira TSUNEKI

Professor, Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba
Ken-ichiro HISADA

Associate Professor, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University ofTsukubaHotaka ITO

Graduate Student, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University ofTsukuba

AyakoKUNII

Researcher, Geological System Integrator(GSI)Co., Ltd.
Yoshihito KAMATA

Associate Professor, Department of Geosphere Sciences, Yamaguchi University
Mohsen ZEIDI

Researcher, Iranian Center for Archaeological Research
Katsuhiko OHNUMAProfessor, The Institute for Cultural Studies of Ancient Iraq, Kokushikan University
Takuro ADACHI

Research fellow, The Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan
Hitomi HONGO

Associate Professor, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Japan
Marjan MASHKOUR

Researcher, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
Ken-ichi TANNO

Researcher, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature(RIHN), Japan
ToruNAKAMURA

Professor, Center for Chronological Research(CCR),Nagoya University
Masayo MINAMI

Associate Professor, Center for Chronological Research(CCR),Nagoya University
Minom YONEDA

Associate Professor, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, the University of Tokyo
Kazuya YAMAUCHI

Head, Regional Environment Section, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties,
Tokyo
Shin-ichi NISHIYAMA

Associate Professor, Faculty of Cultural Heritages, Cyber University

PREFACE

This report is the culmination of cooperation between Iranian and Japanese researchers
from 2005-2007.

In the autumn of 2004 we received a letter of appeal from the Iranian government toparticipate in work to be undertaken at Tang-e Bolaghi. Tang-e Bolaghi is an important area
because of its location between Pasargadae and Persepolis and because it contains a lot ofremains spanning from the Paleolithic to the modem times. Our research site on a hill
overlooked the whole region of Tang-e Bolaghi. After discussion, cooperation and work with
Iranian researchers we were able to discover many worthwhile archaeological finds.

I visited Iran after an interval of 30 years and saw that Iran is developing more day byday. I anticipate Iran's ongoing development and understand its aim of increasing
agricultural production. The entire area of Tang-e Bolaghi will be under water when the dam
is completed but the history of Tang-e Bolaghi will not be forgotten.
I thank the Govemment of the Islamic Republic of Iran for giving us the opportunity towork at Tang-e Bolaghi. I hope that this report represents a milestone on which to basefurther partnerships in archaeological research in the future.
Kazutada KATAOKA

Dean,

Institute of History & Anthropology,
University of Tsukuba

VIII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For the execution of our archaeological work in Tang-e Bolaghi, we are deeply gratefulto the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, especially Dr. Seyed Taha Hashemi,
Director of the Research Center of ICHTO and Dr. Hasan Fazeli, Director of the IranianCenter for Archaeological Research. They have extended the greatest consideration andcooperation to us during the course of our work. We also offer appreciation to Dr. Masoud
Azamoush, the former director of the ICAR, for his kind permission and considerations to

our project. We also express our special thanks to the staff of ICAR, especially Mr. Karim
Alizadeh and Ms Mojgan Seyedin.

We deeply appreciate the great deal of help given by the Fars local government,
especially Dr. Mohamad Hasan Talebian, Director of the Parsa-Pasargadae Research
Foundation and Mr. Maziar Kazemi, Supervisor of the Persepolis World Heritage Complex.

The Pasargadae World Heritage Complex afforded every facility for pursuing our fieldworkin Tang-e Bolaghi. We express our special thanks to Mr. Hosein Abhasi'mehr, Supervisor of
the Pasargadae World Heritage Complex, and other staff, especially Mrs. Farzaneh Gerami.
Financial assistance for our research project came from ICAR and a grant under theInternational Scientific Research Program (2005-2007) of the Japanese Ministry of
Education and Science(Grant no. 1740I0I8).

IX

CONTENTS

Preface and Acknowledgements

Yjj

List of Figures

List ofTables

XIII

List of Plates

XIII

Chapter!. Introduction

1

Akira TSUNEKI

Chapter 2. Geology ofthe Bolaghi Area

17

Ken-ichiro HISADA,Hotaka ITO and Ayako KUNII

Chapter 3. Geological Prospect for Source Rocks of Prehistoric Raw Materials in the
Bolaghi and Arsanjan Areas29

Ken-ichiro HISADA,Hotaka ITO and Yoshihito KAMATA

Chapter 4. Excavations at TB75(Haji Bahrami Cave)

41

Akira TSUNEKi and Mohsen ZEIDi

Chapters. Excavations at TB130

69

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

Chapter 6. Lithic Assemblages from TB75 and TB130

85

Katsuhiko OHNUMA

Chapter 7. Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Objects from TB75,TB130 and theGeneral Survey
Takuro ADACHI

121

Chapters. Faunal Remains from TB75
Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

Chapter 9. Plant Remains from TB75
Ken-ichi TANNO

Chapter 10-1. Radiocarbon Dating of Charcoal Remains excavated from TB75

155

Toshio NAKAMURA and Masayo MINAMI

Chapter 10-2. Radiocarbon Dating of Charcoal Samplesfrom TB75

163

Minoru YONEDA

Chapter 11. Archaeological Survey in the Bolaghi Valley and Its Vicinity

167

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin-ichiNISHIYAMA

Chapter 12. Summary and Conclusion

253

AkimTSUNEKI

Persian Summary
MohsenZEIDI

262

XI

List of Figures

Fig.1.1
Fig.1.2
Fig.1.3

Location of Tang-e Bolaghi.
Tang-e Bolaghi and its neighboring area.
Archaeological sites in Tang-e Bolaghi.

3
4
6

Fig.2.1
Fig.2.2
Fig.2.3
Fig.2.4

Geologic outline ofIran.
Geologic map ofthe Bolaghi area.
Block diagram ofthe Bolaghi area.
Geologic outline ofthe Pasargadae-Persepolis area.

20
22
24
25

Fig.2.5

Location map ofrock sampling points and photograph points.

25

Fig.3.1

Location map ofthe Bolaghi area and Arsanjan.

32

Fig.3.2
Fig.3.3

Geological map ofthe Shiraz district.
Location map of rock and river gravel sampling points.

33
33

Fig.3.4

Radiolarians from dark red siliceous shale.

36

Fig.4.1

Morphological map of TB75.

44

Fig.4.2
Fig.4.3
Fig.4.4
Fig.4.5
Fig.4.6
Fig.4.7
Fig.4.8
Fig.4.9
Fig.4.10
Fig.4.11
Fig.4.12

Elevation ofthe cave and the terrace of TB75.
CaveofTB75.
Elevations of the cave of TB75.
East wall section of Trench A.
East wall section of Trench B.
West wall section of Trench C.
West and north wall sections of Trench D.
Shallow pit in layer 2, Trench D.
1 Pierced disc, 2 Grinding slab, 3 Grinding disc from layer 4, Trench D.
Spread of limestone rocks in layer 5, Trench D.
Hammer stone from layer 5, Trench D.

45
46
47
48
49
50
52
53
54
55
56

Fig.5.1
Fig.5.2
Fig.5.3
Fig.5.4
Fig.5.5
Fig.5.6
Fig.5.7
Fig.5.8

Morphological map of TB130.
Elevation of the shelter and the terrace of TB130.
Shelter of TB130.
East wall section of Trench A.
East wall section of Trench B.
Mushki type potsherd discovered in Trench B.
East wall section of Trench C.
Stone floor discovered in Trench D -E and west wall section.

72
73
73
74
75
75
76
77

Fig.6.1
Fig.6.2
Fig.6.3
Fig.6.4
Fig.6.5

Lithic artifacts ofPhase 1.
Lithic artifacts ofPhase 2.
Lithic artifacts of Phase 3.
Lithic artifacts ofPhase 4.
Lithic artifacts of Phase 5.

90
91
92
93
94

Fig.7.1
Fig.7.2
Fig.7.3
Fig.7.4

Pottery from TB75.
Pottery from TB75.
Metal objects from TB75-2(1-4) and Pottery from TB130(5-7).
Pottery from the general survey.

124
125
127
128

Fig.8.1
Fig.8.2

TB75 Ovis Log Size Index.
TB75 Capra Log Size Index.

142
143

XII

Fig.9.1

Astragalus/ Trigonella-ty^Q,

Fig.9.2

Papaveraceae.

Fig.9.3

Triticum cf.aestivum.

Fig.9.4

Gramineae remain and modem Setaria italica,1
152

Fig.10.1 Comparison of ages with the IntCal04 calibration data sets, for charcoal
samples collected from TB75.
1^1
Fig.11.1 Vicinity ofthe Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain with the main
surveyed area.
Fig.11.2 Bolaghi Valley: Major topographic features and the surveyed area.
Fig.11.3 Pasargadae Plain: Major topographic features and the surveyed area.
Fig.11.4 Schematic depiction oftranshumance routes of nomadic pastoralists whotransit the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain.
Fig.11.5 Tang-e Bolaghi(1): Surveyed archaeological remains to the west of andaround the northem entrance.

Fig.11.6

Tang-e Bolaghi(2): Surveyed archaeological remains from the northem

Fig.11.7

Tang-e Bolaghi(3): Canal system around the Kuh-e Kuchakak mountainentrance to the Dokhtarbor area.

Fig.11.8
Fig.11.9

1^^
171
172
174
178
179

at the northem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
180
Tang-e Bolaghi(4): Surveyed archaeological remains on the eastem mountainof Tang-e Bolaghi between the Dokhtarbor and the Tirandaz areas.
181
Tang-e Bolaghi(5): Surveyed archaeological remains between
the Dokhtarbor and the Tirandaz areas.

182

Fig.11.10 Tang-e Bolaghi(6): Surveyed archaeological remains aroundthe Tirandaz area.

Fig.11.11 Tang-e Bolaghi(7): Surveyed archaeological remains between
the Tirandaz and the Puze-ye Sorkh areas.
Fig.11.12 Tang-e Bolaghi(8): Surveyed archaeological remains aroundthe Puze-ye Sorkh area.
Fig.11.13 Bolaghi Bozorg (1): Surveyed archaeological remains in the northeastof the Sivand dam.

Fig.11.14 Bolaghi Bozorg (2): Surveyed archaeological remains in the northcentral part around TB 75.
Fig.11.15 Bolaghi Bozorg (3): Surveyed archaeological remains in thenorthwestem part.
Fig.11.16 Bolaghi Bozorg (4): Surveyed archaeological remains in thenorthwestem comer.

Fig.11.17 Bolaghi Bozorg (5): Surveyed archaeological remains in thesouthwestem part.
Fig.11.18 Bolaghi Kuchak (1): Surveyed archaeological remains in the northem part.
Fig.11.19 Bolaghi Kuchak (2): Surveyed archaeological remains in thesouthwestem part(1).
Fig.11.20 Bolaghi Kuchak (3): Surveyed archaeological remains in thesouthwestem part(2).
Fig.l 1.21 Toll-e Gholam (1): North part ofthe area.
Fig.11.22 Toll-e Gholam (2): South part ofthe area.
Fig.11.23 Toll-e Gholam (3): Southem end of the area and the northwest part ofthe
Pasargadae site.
Fig.l 1.24 Pasargadae Plain (1): North part ofthe Pasargadae site.
Fig.11.25 Pasargadae Plain (2): Central part of the plain.

185

186
187
188

189
190
191

192
199
200
201
206
207

208
211
219
Fig.l 1.26 Pasargadae plain (3): Sadd-e Domdariya Causeway-Dam (Appendix 2), the roadfrom Kordshuli to Tang-e Sa'adatshahr(Appendix 4), and the Northeast defenceXIII

wall(Appendix 6).

Fig.11.27 Pasargadae Plain (4): The causeway-dam and camp sites along the foot ofmountains to the southwest ofPasargadae Plain.

220

221

Fig.11.28 Pasargadae Plain (5): The southern end of the causeway-dam.
222
Fig.11.29 Pasargadae Plain (6): The northeast defence wall of the Pasargadae Plain.
224
Fig.11.30 Surveyed archaeological remains in the southern end of the Pasargadae Plainand around Tang-e Sa'Matshahr.
225
Fig.11.31 Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar Dam in the southern end ofthe Pasargadae Plain.
226
Fig.11.32 Ju-ye Dokhtar Canal in the southern end ofthe Pasargadae Plain.
227
Fig.11.33 "Wall of Parsa" in the Dasht-e Nane'arabi plain, west of the Pasargadae Plain.
229

Fig.11.34 Defence wall near Cheshme-ye Khorkhore, northwest of the Bolaghi Valley. 230
Fig.11.35 Road, water management, and defence systems around the Bolaghi Valley
and the Pasargadae Plain.

231

List of Tables

Table 1.1

Annual and monthly mean temperature and precipitation at Shiraz 19512005.

5

Table 2.1

Chemical composition of limestone.

23

Table 3.1

Chemical analysis of chert and siliceous nodules.

34

Table 6.1

Hypothetical dating ofPhases 1 to 5 of TB75 and TB130 in the
Epi-Paleolithic to Proto-Neolithic chronological framework of theZagros Mountains.

97

Table 8.1
Table 8.2

Summary of identification offaunal remains from TB75.
Measurements of Capra from TB 75.

139

Table 8.3

Measurements of Ovis from TB 75.

140

Table 8.4

Measurements of equid from TB 75.

141

Table 8.5

Measurements of cervid from TB 75.

141

Measurements of Gazella from TB 75.

141

Table 9.1

Sampling location of botanical remains.

151

Table 9.2

Results of archaeobotanical remains.

152

Table 8.6

Table 10.1 Characteristics and some specific values during sample preparation
procedures for charcoal fragment remains excavated from TB75.
Table 10.2 8'^Cpdb, ^^C dates and calibrated ages of charcoal fragment remains
excavated from TB75.

137

158
160

Table 10.3 Samples analyzed for radiocarbon dating.

163

Table 10.4

164

The contents of NaOH for alkali treatment.

Table 10.5 Conventional radiocarbon and calibrated ages.

164

List of Plates

Plate 1.1
Plate 1.2
Plate 1.3

Satellite image of Tang-e Bolaghi.
The Sivand River flowing to the entrance of the Bolaghi Valley.
The northeastern narrow valley in Tang-e Bolaghi.

10
10
10

XIV

Plate 1.4

The central basin ofthe Bolaghi Valley.

11

Plate 1.5
Plate 1.6

Wild pistachio tree near TB75.
Sap receptacles attached around the trunk of a pistachio tree.

1111

Plate 1.7
Plate 1.8

Wild almond tree near TB75.
Wild almond nuts.

11
1^

Plate 1.9

IB107 (cairns).

Plate 1.10
Plate 1.11
Plate 1.12
Plate 1.13
Plate 1.14
Plate 1.15

TB107(cairns).
TB93/TB90 (cairns).
TB93/TB90(collected potsherds).
TB92(building foundations).
TB92(collected potsherds).
TB91 (scatter of Achaemenid bricks).

12
12
12
12
12
12

Plate 1.16
Plate 1.17
Plate 1.18

TB91 (Bakun A type potsherds).
TB84(low tappeh).
Iron slag scattered on TB84.

12
13
13

Plate 1.19 and Plate 1.20 Low tappeh near TB84.
Plate 1.21
General view of Tang-e Bolaghi.

13
13Plate 1.22

General view of a shelter TB 130.

14

Plate 1.23

TB130 (shelter).

14

Plate 1.24

Lithic artifacts collected on the terrace of TB130.

14Plate 1.25

TB75 (cave).

15

Plate 1.26

Terrace of TB75.

15

Plate 1.27

Collected potsherds on the terrace of TB75.

15

Plate 1.28

Distant view of TB75.

15

Plate 1.29
View of Dasht-e Bolaghi from TB75.
Plate 1.30 and Plate 1.31 The Dokhtar Bor in Tang-e Bolaghi.

15
16

Plate 1.32

Rock cut of the Dokhtar Bor.

16

Plate 1.33

Traces of cutting chisel.

16

Plate 2.1

1-3; Bedded limestone. 4; Massive limestone. 5 - 6; Photomicrographsof dark gray micrite. 7-8; Injection structure.

27

Plate 3.1

1; L type siliceous nodule. 2; IIS type siliceous nodule. 3; B type siliceous
nodule. 4; radiolarian chert gravel at RGOl. 5; radiolarian chert gravel at
RG02. 6; radiolarian chert gravel at RG03. 7-8;Photomicrographs of dark
red siliceous shale at locality A5-3(Qar-e Tang Sikan).
39

Plate 3.2

1-2; Photomicrographs ofIIS type siliceous nodule. 3-4; Photomicrographsof B type siliceous nodule. 5-6; Photomicrographs ofradiolarian chert rivergravel at RG02. 7-8; Photomicrographs ofjasper river gravel at RG02.
40

Plate 4.1
Plate 4.2

Satellite image of the area of TB75 and TB 130.
TB75 beyond the Sivand River.

57
57

Plate 4.3

Distant view of TB75.

58

Plate 4.4

Outlook from TB75.

58

Plate 4.5
Plate 4.6
Plate 4.7

Digging Trench A.
Drawing a section of Trench A.
Small pit in layer 1 of Trench A.

59
59
60

Plate 4.8

West wall of Trench A.

60

Plate 4.9

North wall of Trench A.

60

Plate 4.10

The cave and Trench B.

61

Plate 4.11
Plate 4.12
Plate 4.13

Blade and micro-blades from layers 2 and 3, Trench B.
Micro-blade cores from layers 2 and 3, Trench B.
Small scrapers from Trench B.

61
61
61

XV

Plate 4.14

Two pointed pieces(layer 2, Trench B), notch (layer 3, Trench B)and

Plate 4.15
Plate 4.16
Plate 4.17
Plate 4.18
Plate 4.19
Plate 4.20

burin (layer 4, Trench A).
Digging Trenches C and D.
Upper layers ofthe deposits at Trench C.
Hearth discovered in layer 1, Trench C.
Iron trilobate arrowhead from layer 2, Trench C.
Lower layers ofthe deposits at Trench C.
Hearth in layer 5, Trench C.

61
62
62
63
63
63
63

Plate 4.21

West wall section of Trench D.

64

Plate 4.22
Plate 4.23
Plate 4.24
Plate 4.25

Shallow pit in layer 2, Trench D.
Achaemenid large jar fragments found in layer 2, Trench D.
Micro-blades from layer 3, Trench D.
Micro-blade cores from layer 3, Trench D.
Borers from layer 4, Trench D.
Pierced disc from layer 4, Trench D.
Grinding slab from layer 4, Trench D.
Grinding stones from layer 5 (left) and layer 4(right), Trench D.
Spread of limestone rocks in layer 5, Trench D.
Gazelle horn discovered near the stone spread in layer 5, Trench D.

64
64
65
65
65
65
65
65
66
66

Plate 4.34
Plate 4.35

Single platformed blade core from layer 5, Trench D.
End-scrapers from layer 5, Trench D.
Small scrapers from layer 5, Trench D.
Backed blades and bladelets from layer 6, Trench D.

67
67
67
67

Plate 5.1

Distant view of TB130.

79

Plate 5.2

Shelter of TB130.

79

Plate 5.3

Wadi flows in front of TB130.

80

Plate 5.4

Wild pistachio tree on the terrace.

80

Plate 5.5

Wild almond tree on the terrace.

80

Plate 5.6
Plate 5.7

Small chert pebbles along the front wadi.
Digging inside the shelter, Trench A.

80

Plate 5.8

Trench A.

81

Plate 5.9

North wall section of Trench B.

82

Plate 5.10

Micro-blades from Trench B.

82

Plate 5.11
Plate 5.12
Plate 5.13

Small scrapers from various trenches.
Mushki type painted potsherd from Trench B.
Digging Trench D-E on the terrace.

82

Plate 5.14

Stone floor discovered in Trench D-E.

83

Plate 5.15

Geometric microliths from Trench D-E.

83

Plate 4.26
Plate 4.27
Plate 4.28
Plate 4.29
Plate 4.30
Plate 4.31
Plate 4.32
Plate 4.33

81

82
82

Plate 5.16

Notch, small scraper and burin from Trench D ■ E(from the left).

83

Plate 5.17

Micro-blade cores from Trench D-E.

83

Plate 7.1
Plate 7.2
Plate 7.3

Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid Pottery.
Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid Pottery.
Achaemenid or post Achaemenid Pottery.

131

Plate 7.4
Plate 7.5
Plate 7.6
Plate 7.7
Plate 7.8

Ribbed pithos.
Iron objects.
Pithos from the general survey.
Pithos from the general survey.
Pithos from the general survey.

131

Plate 8.1
Plate 8.2

Homcore of gazelle (Trench D Layer 5,#13).
Thrid phalanx of goat(Trench D Layer 4,#75).

131

131

131

131
131

131

147
147

XVI

Plate 8.3
Plate 8.4
Plate 8.5

Metacarpal of sheep (Trench D Layer 4,#55).
Maxillary teeth ofred deer(Trench D layer 6,#8).
Maxillary tooth of equid (Trench D Layer 6,#9).

147
147
147

Plate 8.6a

Mandibular tooth of equid (Trench D Layer 4,#31).

148

Plate 8.6b
Plate 8.7

Occlusal surface of#31.
Medium size birds(Trench D Layer 4,#76 & 77).

148
148

Plate 8.8

Shell(Trench D Layer 4).

148

Plate 11.1
Plate 11.2
Plate 11.3
Plate 11.4
Plate 11.5
Plate 11.6

The northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
234
The northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
234
Bolaghi Bozorg from the site of TB 75 looking at Bolaghi Kuchak.
234
Bolaghi Bozorg: mountains in the southwest and a discarded chicken farm. 234
General view of Bolaghi Kuchak: the RahmatabM Plain in the back.
234
General view of Tang-e Khorkhore.
234

Plate 11.7
Plate 11.8
Plate 11.9
Plate 11.10
Plate 11.11
Plate 11.12
Plate 11.13
Plate 11.14

The Sivand River in Tang-e Bolaghi, around Puze-ye Sorkh.
Tang-e Bolaghi: modem camp site on the foot of mountain.
Tang-e Bolaghi: modem camp site on the foot of mountain.
Tang-e Bolaghi: caim burial.
Toll-e Gholam, north ofPasargadae Plain : Caim burial.
Tang-e Bolaghi: an burial chamber ofthe caim burial.
Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with a quadrate stone lining.
Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with an ellipse, or circular stone lining.

235
235
235
235
235
235
236
236

Plate 11.15
Plate 11.16
Plate 11.17
Plate 11.18
Plate 11.19

Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with an ellipse, or circular stone lining.
Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with an irregular clustering of large stones (1).
Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with an irregular clustering of large stones (2).
Bolaghi Bozorg : grave formed beside a large standing stone.
Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with a circular stone lining with paved stones

236
236
236
236

inside the circular enclosure.

237

237

Plate 11.21

A large complex of camp site and cemetery located just to the west of
the northem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
Tang-e Bolaghi: caim burial on the mountain to the south of Kuh-e
Kuchakak.

237

Plate 11.22

Caim on the mountain which extends to the southeast of Kuh-e Kuchakak. 237

Plate 11.23

Tang-e Bolaghi: caims on the mountain to the west ofthe northem
entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
Tang-e Bolaghi: graves with stone clustering on the mountain to

Plate 11.20

Plate 11.24

237

the west ofthe northem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
Plate 11.25 Tang-e Khorkhore : caim on the eastem entrance of Tang-e Khorkhore.
Plate 11.26 Dokhtarbor: an unfinished engraving on the rock surface to the west of

237
238

the rock-cut passage.
Two paralleled rock-cut passages which are located between Dokhtarbor

238

and Tirandaz.

238

Dokhtarbor: a rock-cut passage on the west bank of the Sivand River.
Dokhtarbor: a rock-cut passage on the west bank of the Sivand River.
Dokhtarbor: a rock-cut passage on the west bank of the Sivand River.
Tang-e Bolaghi: a stone lining constructed as the sidewall of the road.
Tang-e Bolaghi: a stone lining constmcted as the sidewall of the road.
Tang-e Bolaghi: a stone lining ofthe sidewall of the road on the eastbank ofthe Sivand (1).
Tang-e Bolaghi: a stone lining of the sidewall of the road on the eastbank ofthe Sivand (2).
A possible crossing point ofthe Sivand near Puze-ye Sorkh and TB 64.
Bolaghi Bozorg: a possible "barrier station" on the south bank of

238
238
238
239
239

Plate 11.27
Plate 11.28
Plate 11.29
Plate 11.30
Plate 11.31
Plate 11.32
Plate 11.33
Plate 11.34
Plate 11.35
Plate 11.36

239
239
239

XVII

the Sivand.

239

Plate 11.37 Tang-e Bolaghi: a rock-cut passage as a canal on the east bank of
the Sivand at the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
240
Plate 11.38 Tang-e Bolaghi: a stone lining as the embankment of a canal on theeast bank of the Sivand at the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
240
Plate 11.39 The old spring of Cheshme-ye Darre-ye Sorkh, ca. 1 km southeast fromthe northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.
240
Plate 11.40 A defence wall on the ridge of the mountain to the east of Tang-e Bolaghi.
240

Plate 11.41

A defence wall on the ridge ofthe mountain to the east of Tang-e Bolaghi.
240

Plate 11.42

A defence wall (in the centre) on the slope ofthe mountain on the eastbank ofthe Sivand in Tang-e Bolaghi(1).
Plate 11.43 A defence wall on the slope ofthe mountain on the east bank ofthe
Sivand in Tang-e Bolaghi(2).
Plate 11.44 A stone lining ofthe "royal hunting ground" on the south bank of
the Sivand in Bolaghi Bozorg (1).
Plate 11.45 A stone lining ofthe "royal hunting ground" on the south bank of
the Sivand in Bolaghi Bozorg (2).
Plate 11.46

A "fire altar" at the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.

Plate 11.47
Plate 11.48

A camp site on the foot of west mountain of Bolaghi Kuchak.
Surface collection fi'om the camp site on the foot of west mountain of

Bolaghi Kuchak. The potsherds include Bakun and Lapui wares, andpossibly Achaemenid period storage jar.
Plate 11.49 Western part of the settlement site on the foot of west mountain of
Bolaghi Kuchak.
Plate 11.50 A stone lining of the road system on the foot of west mountain of
Bolaghi Kuchak.
Plate 11.51

241
241

241
241
241

241

242

242

Possible sidewalls of the road on the foot of the mountain to thesouthwest of Bolaghi Kuchak.
Plate 11.52 Bolaghi Kuchak: Sadd-e Bolaghi dam.
Plate 11.53 Jub-e Rahmatabad (Canal of Sadd-e Bolaghi Dam)to the east of
Bolaghi Kuchak.
Plate 11.54 Bolaghi Kuchak: a defence wall on the ridge of mountain to the west of
Bolaghi Kuchak.
Plate 11.55 Bolaghi Kuchak: a defence wall on the mountain slope overlooking
Bolaghi Bozorg.
Plate 11.56 Bolaghi Kuchak: a defence wall on the mountain slope overlooking
Bolaghi Bozorg.
Plate 11.57 Bolaghi Kuchak: a watchtower on the ridge of a cliff projecting justPlate 11.58

240

to the west of the Sivand dam.
General view of the Toll-e Gholam area.

242
242

242

242
243
243
243
243

Plate 11.59 Toll-e Gholam: a prehistoric camp site at the southern end of
Toll-e Gholam.

243

Plate 11.60 Toll-e Gholam: a camp site located in a small valley to the east side
Plate 11.61

of the eastern hill of Aushenasun.
Toll-e Gholam: a series of cairns located on the ridge ofthe mountain.

243
244

Plate 11.62
Plate 11.63
Plate 11.64
Plate 11.65

Toll-e Gholam: cairns located on the ridge of the mountain.
Toll-e Gholam: cairns located on a point slightly below the ridge.
Toll-e Gholam: cairn located on the lower slope of a hill.
Toll-e Gholam: well-preserved caims located on a cliff to the east of

244
244
244

Aushenasun basin.

244

Plate 11.66 Toll-e Gholam: a grave with placing the stones in a circular form.

244

XVIII

Plate 11.67 Toll-e Gholam: a grave with paving the stones in a circular form.
Plate 11.68 Toll-e Gholam: a grave with cluster of several stones.
Plate 11.69 Toll-e Gholam: a grave with circular or semi-circular stone linings
placed in front of a rock.
Plate 11.70 Toll-e Gholam: a grave with using space between the rocks.
Plate 11.71 Toll-e Gholam: a stone lining as the sidewalls of the road in the
Aushenasun basin.

Plate 11.72 Toll-e Gholam: a stone lining as the sidewalls of the road in the north of
Aushenasun basin(from the south).
Plate 11.73 Toll-e Gholam: a stone lining perpendicular to the road just to the northof Aushenasun.

Plate 11.74

Plate 11.76
Plate 11.77
Plate 11.78
Plate 11.79

Toll-e Gholam: watchtower(marked by arrow)to the southeast ofthe
Aushenasun basin (1).
Toll-e Gholam: watchtower(marked by arrow) to the southeast ofthe
Aushenasun basin (2).
Toll-e Gholam: caravanserai on the southern slope of a hill in thesouthern end of Toll-e Gholam (1).
Toll-e Gholam: caravanserai on the southern slope of a hill in thesouthern end of Toll-e Gholam (2).
Toll-e Gholam: water reservoir(marked by arrow) ofthe caravanseraiin the southern end of Toll-e Gholam.

Plate 11.80

245
245
245

246
246

Toll-e Gholam: an embankment of the canal consists oftwo steps ofstone linings.
Plate 11.75

245
245

Toll-e Gholam: a "fire altar" in the southern end of Toll-e Gholam.

Plate 11.81 Pasargadae: an old canal (layer of stones) near the Sacred Precinct(1).
Plate 11.82 Pasargadae: an old canal (layer of stones) near the Sacred Precinct(2).
Plate 11.83 Pasargadae: the south altar in the Sacred Precinct damaged by treasureseeking looters.

246
246
246
247
247
247

247

247
247
248

Plate 11.84 Pasargadae: one ofthe artificial mounds(tappe) near the Sacred Precinct. 248
Plate 11.85 Pasargadae: Do Tollun.
248
Plate 11.86

Pasargadae: the south mound near Do Tollun.

Plate 11.87 Pasargadae: a "fire bowl" on Mound B ofPasargadae.
Plate 11.88

Pasargadae: Pahlavi inscribed rock on the foot ofthe northeast hill of
Pasargadae.

248

248
248

Plate 11.89 Pasargadae: a "fire bowl" engraved on the rock near the Pahlavi
inscribed rock.

249

Plate 11.90 The Sadd-e Domdariya causeway-dam to the south ofthe Pasargadae
Plate 11.91

Pain.

249

Pasargadae: Bridge Pier 1 near Do Tollun A.

249

Plate 11.92 Pasargadae: Bridge Pier 2 near the bridge connecting the villages ofKordshuli and Pasargad.

Plate 11.93 Pasargadae: the road from Kordshuli to Tang-e Sa'Matshahr.
Plate 11.94 Pasargadae: defence wall on the Reshte-ye Kuh-e Kuchakak mountain
Plate 11.95

249

249

to the southwest of the Pasargadae Plain.
Pasargadae: defence wall on the mountains to the northeast of the249

Pasargadae Plain.

250

Plate 11.96 Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar dam: a destroyed earthen rampart.

250

Plate 11.97
Plate 11.98
Plate 11.99

250
250
250

Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar dam.
Ju-ye Dokhtar canal.
Ju-ye Dokhtar canal.

Plate 11.100 Ju-ye Tang-e Sa'adatshahr canal with modem canal wall constmcted bycement and stones.

Plate 11.101 A defence wall in the northem part of Tang-e Sa'Matshahr.

250

251

XIX

Plate 11.102 Enlarged view of Plate 101.
Plate 11.103 Qasr-e Dokhtar.
Plate 11.104 The spring of Cheshme-ye Khorkhore.
Plate 11.105 General view of Dasht-e Nane'arabi.
Plate 11.106 A defence wall in Dasht-e Nane'arabi:"Wall of Parsa".
Plate 11.107 A defence wall in Dasht-e Nane'arabi:"Wall ofParsa".

251
251
251
251
251
252

Plate 11.108 A small natural hill with a Islamic cemetery at Toll-e Qorbangoli.
Plate 11.109 Toll-e Qorbangoli: enclosure wall(left) and building structures (right).

252
252

Plate 11.110 A defence wall near Cheshme-ye Khorkhore.

252

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

AkiraTSUNEKI

This volume is a final report of our archaeological investigation in the Bolaghi area,
Pars province, southern Iran. A new Sivand Dam was planned at the southern exit of theSivand River in the Bolaghi Valley, which is one of the small basins in the Zagros
Mountains. The dam construction site is about 30 km northeast of Persepolis and about 12

km southwest of Pasargadae (Fig.1.1, 1.2, PI.1.1). The Bolaghi area consists of a narrow•
Tabr iz

GorganMashhad•TehranGhom•Kermanshah•Kashan

IRAN•
Esfahan
Yazd•AhwazTang-e Bolaghi•KermanahedanShirazBander-e Abbas

Fig.1.1 Location of Tang-e Bolaghi.

AkiraTSUNEKI

52°50'0"E

52°55'0"E

53°05'0"E

53°0'0"E

53°10'0"E

53°15'0"E

30°15'0"N
1

Kuh-e

Bqlaghi Bozorg

ANG-E BOLAGHISARGADAE^

30°10'0"N

ac at $

30°05'0"NKamin-e Ghenar

30°00'0"N -29°55'0"NNAGHS

PERSEFOnS

X'®lrarvbasht Plaiih
29°50'0'20km
Fig.l.2 Tang-e Bolaghi and its neighboring area.

valley (Tang-e Bolaghi) and a small basin (Dasht-e Bolaghi). The valley and most parts of thebasin will be flooded by the construction of the Sivand Dam (hereafter, we call both valley
and basin together, Tang-e Bolaghi or the Bolaghi Valley). The Iranian Center for
Archaeological Research (ICAR) appealed for an international salvage project for thearchaeological sites of the Bolaghi Valley in 2004, and we were pleased to accept their
proposal. Two of our members, Akira Tsuneki and Kazuya Yamauchi, went to the Sivand Damsalvage area to look around the archaeological sites and natural environment in January 2005.

Natural Environment of the Bolaghi Valley

The Bolaghi Valley is one of the small basins formed by the Zagros Suture, which has
been developed by movement of the Zagros thrust,(see chapter 2 of this book.) The Sivand
River flows into the valley from the northeastern Pasargadae Plain (Morghab Plain)(PI.1.2).
It meanders to the southwest in the narrow valley between Kuh-e Bolaghi Bozorg and Khu-e
Bolaghi Kuchak. After 4 km, the river flow turns in a western direction (PI.1.3). Then, thesmall basin opens out surrounding Kuh-e Bolaghi (PI.1.4). The river flow turns again in a

INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1 Annual and monthly mean temperature and precipitation at Shiraz 1951-2005.
Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual

5.7

8.0

11.8

16.6

22.7

27.9

30.0

29.0

25.0

18.9

12.1

7.4

17.9

Minimum Temperature(°C)

0.2

1.8

5.1

9.0

13.7

17.6

20.6

19.5

15.1

9.7

4.5

1.4

9.8

Maxmum Temperature (°C)

12.1

14.7

18.7

24.1

30.5

36.0

37.8

37.0

33.7

27.9

20.4

14.5

25.6

Precipitation(mm)

90.2

52.6

56.2

26.7

7.0

0.2

1.2

0.7

0.0

3.9

28.9

78.4

346.0

Air Temperature(°C)

Source: Islamic Republic ofIran Meteorological Organization Data Processin Center

southwestern direction in the middle of the basin, where it then outflows from the basin at its

southern edge. This is where the Iranian government is now constructing the Sivand Dam.
After leaving the basin, the river flows to the south through a narrow valley and into theKamin Plain. The area of the Bolaghi Valley covers about 25km^ Its central basin measures

9 km from east to west and 3 km from north to south. The altitude of the valley bottom isaround 1800m.

The modem temperature and precipitation of the Bolaghi Valley is estimated from themeteorological data of the Shiraz weather station (Table 1.1). The mean annual air
temperature of Shiraz between 1951 and 2005 was 17.9°C. The coldest month is January andthe mean air temperature is 5.7°C (The mean minimum air temperature is 0.2°C.). The hottest
month is July and the mean air temperature is 30.0°C.(The mean maximum air temperature
is 37.8°C). The difference in temperature between day and night is large, varying between
1I.9*'C (January) and 18.6°C (September). The rainy season in this region is during winterfrom December to March. The annual precipitation of Shiraz between 1951 and 2005 was
346mm, and most of the rainfall is concentrated in the winter months. Sometimes rainfallchanges into snowfall. The summer season is extremely dry. The altitude of the Shiraz
weather station is 1484m, and it is about 400m lower than the altitude of the Bolaghi Valley.
Therefore, the climate of the Bolaghi Valley can be considered severer than that of Shiraz.
We can conclude that the climate of Bolaghi Valley is an inland one, experiencing drastic
temperature changes during the day and between seasons. The precipitation reaches the very
limit for dry-farming. The people must irrigate paddy fields or vegetable gardens. The
surface of the soil is heavily covered with many limestone pebbles. Therefore, the valley
provides relatively poor conditions for agriculture.
Vegetation in the Bolaghi Valley comprises an oak steppe-forest type. The oak trees are
distributed very sparsely on the mountain slopes. On the other hand, wild pistachio and wild
almond trees are conspicuous on the mountain slopes and on the edge of flat land within thevalley. This kind of vegetation is suggested as Pistacia-Amygdalus Steppe-Scrub, andPistacia steppe bush is a derivative of a Zagros steppe-forest which has been deprived of its
oaks (Zohary 1973: 583-588). Local people sap wild pistachio trees for chewing andmedicinal usage (PI.1.5, 1.6), and small wild almond nuts are gathered and eaten by them
(PI.1.7, 1.8). If the prehistoric vegetation of the Bolaghi Valley was the same as the modem
one, it might be suitable for hunter-gathers or pastoralists rather than for farmers.

Archaeological Sites in the Bolaghi Valley
According to previous general surveys carried out by M. AtaT (2003), there are over
one hundred archaeological sites in the Bolaghi Valley. Within this number, modern
nomadic camp-sites and graveyards were included. Ata'i recorded the most important
twenty-four archaeological sites (Fig.1.3), and it is suggested that these sites must be
investigated before dam constmction commences. Because of our restricted visiting time andtopographical difficulties, we could only visit half of these important sites in January 2005.
The most dense site concentration is in the north-central part of the basin. A series ofAkira TSUNEKI

Kuh-e Bolaghi Bozorg

92»

9l»

Dasht-e Bolaghi

#8 /

75

\^ 130'85B«84

Talhg-yB^ol agh^lM^rx-r-y(
50* / /120

A

Dam Construction I

Z^AC

Caves and shelters• Open-air sites■

CravesX

Hetaliurgic spots

Fig.1.3 Archaeological sites in Tang-e Bolaghi (modified from the map of Ata'i 2003).
cairns (TB107, TB93, TB90, TB88), which probably date from the Sasanian to the early
Islamic period, are located along the foot of the northem mountains (PI.1.9 - PI.1.12). The
low tappehs and the building foundations (TB91, TB92), dating to the almost same age, arevisible in front of these caim graveyards (PI.1.13, 1.14). This kind of pair, i.e. caim andsmall settlement or camp-site, is recognizable not only in this area but also in other parts of
Dasht-e Bolaghi (e.g. TB66 and TB64, TB45 and TB47).

Besides Sasanian and early Islamic artifacts, some low tappehs (i.e. TB91) and campsites (i.e. TB92) also produced older materials, including Achaemenid bricks and typical
Bakun A type potsherds (PI.1.15, 1.16). Therefore, the settlements in the salvage area dateback to at least the Chalcolithic period. However, evidence of these earlier occupations isrelatively poor.

Some sites produced iron slags and they indicate the evidence of metallurgical work in
the area. The low tappeh of TB84 is one of these specimens, and we could collect much ironslag from its surface (PI.1.17, PI.1.18). Though we cannot determine the exact age of thesesites, some of them belong to the Islamic period. During our short visit we discovered a low
and small tappeh located south of TB84. It was not registered by Mr. Ata'i and it wasprobably a newly discovered site at this time (PI.1.19, 1.20).
Not a few caves and shelters were recognizable at the foot of the surrounding mountainaround the Bolaghi Valley. As most of them have been used as animal refuges, dung deposits
cover the caves' interior and terraces. Therefore, we could find prehistoric material in a few
caves and shelters. Among them the shelter above TB66 is the most notable, because EpiPaleolithic or early Neolithic lithic artifacts were collected on the terrace in front of it(PL 1.22 - 1.24). This evidence indicates that the human presence here dates back to at least
the early Neolithic period. As this shelter was not named by Ata'i, we named it TB130.
Although there are more caves and shelters at lower altitudes in the surrounding mountains,
it was not easy to find prehistoric objects from them because of thick later deposits.
However, some of them are favorably located within the basin. Among them TB75 is themost conspicuous cave, located at the center of the northem fringe of the basin (PI.1.25 1.29). Islamic potsherds are the most remarkable surface materials on the terrace. However,
we expected to encounter rich deposits with prehistoric human evidence, because wecollected a few lithic artifacts which seemed to belong to the Epi-Paleolithic/Neolithic
periods.
In the narrow valley of Tang-e Bolaghi, famous rock-cut passages were constmcted on

INTRODUCTION

both sides of the river. They have been studied by Iranian and foreign scholars repeatedly.
They are preserved relatively good condition (PI.1.30 - 1.32). We could not determine theexact date of this so called Dokhtar Bor, but the rock-cut surface still retains the traces of the
cutting chisels (PI.1.33).

Our short trip to the Bolaghi Valley revealed the following conclusions regarding thearchaeological characteristics of the valley. In general, the valley contains many temporalsettlements or graveyards, such as camp-sites and cairns. In contrast, there is a dearth ofpermanent and large tappehs in the valley. As the valley is located between Pasargadae andPersepolis, it must have been one of the extremely important traffic routes during the
Achaemenid period. The archaeological evidence within the area indicates that the area

played an important role not only in the Achaemenid period but also in other periods, at leastfrom the Epi-Paleolithic to the Early Islamic as a transfer route. Therefore, we concluded thatthe Bolaghi Valley has great potential archaeologically for the study of transhumance andtrade activities in both prehistoric and historic periods.
Thereafter, our conclusion would be encouraged by the results of many archaeologicalworks carried out by Iran-foreign archaeological missions in the Bolaghi Valley (ICAR
2006).

Operations

Based on the results of our short visit and advice by Dr. Azamoush, a former director of
ICAR, we proposed an enforcement plan of our contribution for the Sivand project.

Fortunately, this application was accepted by the ICAR,and the research was undertaken andexecuted as an Iran-Japan joint project from 2005 to 2007.
Our contribution to the Sivand Dam salvage project consisted of two main operations,i.e. 1) Excavations at two caves, TB75 and TB130, and 2) Investigation of travel routes andsite distribution pattern in the Bolaghi Valley.
1) Excavations of two caves,TB75 and TB130

The first operation was planned based on our original belief that the Ears province is
one of the important archaeological areas for the study of Paleolithic and Neolithic periods.
In the Pars province, especially the Marvdasht plain, many Paleolithic cave sites had beenreported. Some of them, such as Eshkaft-e Gavi, were excavated (Rosenberg 1985), andmany other Middle, Late and Epi-Paleolithic caves were surveyed intensively (e.g.
Rosenberg 2003). In the Arsanjan area, southeast of the Marvdasht plain, a Japanesearchaeological mission had previously carried out an intensive general survey and found 144
caves and shelters which date from the Middle Paleolithic to the modem^eriods (Ikoda^
1979, Nishida et al. 2007).
Many Pottery Neolithic tappehs have been excavated, especially in the Marvdasht plain.
Excavations and surveys at sites, such as Tal-i Mushki (Fukai et al. 1973, Alizadeh 2006),
Tal-i Jari B (Maeda 1986, Alizadeh 2006), Toll-e Bashi (Abdi et al. 2003), Kushk-e Hezar(Alden et al. 2004), revealed the earliest phases ofthe Pottery Neolithic period in this region.
All of these investigations indicate that the Pars province has good potential for further
Paleolithic and Neolithic studies. However, curiously enough, the sites between the EpiPaleolithic and Pottery Neolithic periods have not been reported in the Pars province until
now. This era is very important in human history, because the era spans food gathering tofood producing societies.
As mentioned above, not a few caves and shelters were recognizable at the foot of thesurrounding mountain around the Bolaghi Valley, and they are threatened by the construction

8

AkiraTSUNEKI

of the Sivand Dam. Some of them produced lithic objects dating to the Epi-Paleolithic and

Neolithic periods. Therefore, we planned to undertake the excavations at two of these sites,
i.e. TB75 and TB130. This operation shed new light on the transitional period from the EpiPaleolithic to the Early Neolithic in the Eastern Zagros region (Tsuneki et al. 2007).

2)Investigation of travel routes and site distribution pattern in the Bolaghi Valley
This operation was planned based on the results of our preliminary short visit. That is,
the Bolaghi Valley is one of the potential archaeological area for studying transhumance andtrade activities in both prehistoric and historic periods. To grasp the transhumance and traderoutes, we must investigate and register all types of archaeological sites in the valley. The

operation was executed by using high-resolution satellite imagery and an intensive fieldwalking survey. Our investigation revealed the relationships between the travel routes within
and to/from the Bolaghi Valley and the site distribution patterns of the valley. It offered us
hints of dynamic transhumance, traffic and trade movements in the Bolaghi Valley in various
periods. The detailed recording of the so-called Dokhtar Bor, probably dated to the
Achaemenid Period, provided another aspect of the historical importance of the BolaghiValley hitherto unknown.

Staff, Period of Work and Main Activities of Each Season
2005

Period of Work: July 13 - August 10, 2005 (period of fieldwork: July 17 - August 4)
Iranian Staff: Director: Mohsen Zeidi, Other Participants: Mozaffar Zarrinkouh, Keyvan
Isapour, Banafshe Mollazadeh
Japanese Staff: General Director: Kazutada Kataoka, Field Director: Akira Tsuneki, Other
Participants: Kazuya Yamauchi, Shin'ichi Nishiyama, Katsuhiko Ohnuma, Ken-ichiro
Hisada, Atsunori Hasegawa, Sanae Ito

Main Activities: Excavations at TB75 and TB130, Geological Surveys, Field Walking
Surveys
2006

Period of Work: July 13 - August 9,2006 (period offieldwork: July 16 - August 3)
Iranian Staff: Director: Mohsen Zeidi, Other Participants: Roshanak Jahromi, Banafshe
Mollazadeh, Majid Kouhi, Vahid Barani

Japanese Staff: General Director: Kazutada Kataoka, Field Director: Akira Tsuneki, Other
Participants: Setsuo Furusato, Katsuhiko Ohnuma, Ken-ichiro Hisada, Itsuro Tomita,
Mark Diab, Takuro Adachi, Hotaka Ito

Main Activities: Excavations at TB75, Geological Surveys
2007

Period of Work: February 7- March 5,2007(period offieldwork: February 12-27)
Iranian Staff: Mohsen Zeidi

Japanese Staff: Kazuya Yamauchi, Shin'ichi Nishiyama
Main Activities: Field Walking Surveys

References

Abdi, K., Pollock, S. and Bembeck, R.
2003 "Pars archaeology project 2003: excavations at Toll-e Bashi",Iran 41: 339-344.

INTRODUCTION

Alden, J.R., Abdi, K., Azadi, A., Biglari, F. and Heydari, S.
2004 "Kushk-e Hezar: A Mushki/Jari period site in the Kur River Basin" Iran 42: 25-45.
Alizadeh, A.

2006 The Origins ofState Organizations in Prehistoric Highland Pars, Southern Iran Excavationsat Tall-e Bakun Oriental Institute Publications vol. 128, University of Chicago, Chicago.
Ata'i, M.

2003 Preliminary Report ofthe Archaeological Survey in the Bolaghi Valley,(in Persian).
Fukai, S., Horiuchi, K. and Matsutani, T.

1973 Marv-Dasht III, The Excavations at Tall i-Mushki 1965, The Institute of Oriental Culture, The
University of Tokyo.

ICAR (Iranian Center for Archaeological Research)
2006 Abstract, Symposium on the Archaeological Rescue Excavations in the Bolaghi Valley, ICHOand ICAR, Shiraz.
Ikeda, J.

1979 Preliminary Report ofan Archaeological Survey in Arsanjan Area, Pars Province, Iran, 1977,
Kyoto University, Kyoto.
Maeda, A.

1986 "A study on the painted pottery from Tape Djari B", Bulletin ofthe Ancient Orient Museum 8:55-86.

Nishida, M.et al.

2007 Stone Tools from Arsanjan Area, Pars Province, Iran, Joint Archaeological Mission of IranNational Museum and Tsukuba University, Japan, Tsukuba.
Rosenberg, M.
1985 "Report on the 1978 sondage at Eshkaft-e Gavi",Iran 23: 51-61.
2003 "The Epipaleolithic in the Marvdasht", in Miller, N.F. and Abdi, K. (eds.) Yeki Bud, Yeki
Nabud - Essays on the Archaeology ofIran in Honor of William M. Sumner: 98-108, Cotsen
Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Tsuneki, A., Zeidi, M. and Ohnuma, K.

2007 "Proto-Neolithic caves in the Bolaghi Valley, south Iran", Iran 44: 1-22.
Zohaty, M.

1973 Geobotanical Poundations of the Middle East, Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, and Swets &Zeitlinger, Amsterdam.

Staff of the 2005 season

r

■■

t
Staff of the 2006 season

9

AkiraTSUNEKI■I^dlcfllll.tf irild^" Ul I ui 1^**" DUId^r

Plate 1.2 The Sivand River flowing to theentrance of the Bolaghi Valley.

INTRODUCTION

Plate 1.4 The central basin of the Bolaghi Valley.

I'J -'
'
^

V-

-

i. ?

I'-.i,.

,*■•'. ^- -• -■>.

'

' vj

V • •

4"

, 1
■if'

;J§t ■ >!

06
f

^t-TT

' 'i-^Vo:>v.:Vi

IvL.,[■%»:/Mi,, 'v-;

Plate 1.6 Sap receptacles attached around the
Plate 1.5 Wild pistachio tree near TB75.

r.v-"- *

trunk of a pistachio tree.

-r,^- -"-t."l&.flSSsl^iaSvriSfcCS^s- -■■y-^'-:OirS=S^ii=

Plate 1.7 Wild almond tree near TB75.

Plate 1.8 Wild almond nuts

12

AkiraTSUNEKI

Plate 1.10 TB107(cairns)

Plate 1.9 TB107 (cairns).

1:2^'

'*;,i

<

9- m'
A

ift»*
•-SvT .

Plate 1.12 TB93/TB90 (collected potsherds)

Plate 1.11 TB93/TB90 (cairns).
'."iyA

Si.': 'ifi

7.»,"-^-

r6:C?*€;1"■""S-.C ••? *,i x.&i
Plate 1.13 TB92 (building foundations).

Plate 1.14 TB92 (collected potsherds).
A-.,".

■;?f»r

Plate 1.15 TB91 (scatter of Achaemenid bricks).

Plate 1.16 TB91 (Bakun A type potsherds)

INTRODUCTION

*

tn-

-

Plate 1.17 TB84(low tapper))Plate 1.18 Iron slag scattered onTB84

Plate 1.19 and Plate 1.20 Low tappeh near i b«4.

H-

Plate 1.21 General view of Tang-e Bolaghi.

;Akira T5UNEKI%'|^.•KW tH.

«I

«

r-r'*

•

♦a-»ir7»."''..'f*a^.;i li'-iv;»

^<•4

♦

<

Plate 1.22 General view of a shelter TB130

hj
'.¥
v.Vi

\

^'i.
'f ' rPlate 1.23 TB130 (shelter).

Plate 1.24 Lithic artifacts collected on the terrace of
TB130.

INTRODUCTION

15\V■^M. •£?&L4A\ ■ y»W"®4smji,ir

Plate 1.26 Terrace of TB75.

Plate 1.27 Collected potsherds on the terrace oftSSC W

Plate 1.28 Distant view of TB75.

Plate 1.29 View of Dasht-e Bolaghi from TB75.

Akira TSUNEKI

Plate 1.30 and Plate 1.31 The Dokhtar Bor\nJar\g-e Bolaghi

Plate 1.32 Rock cut of the Dokhtar Bor.

Plate 1.33 Traces of cutting chisel

CHAPTER 2GEOLOGY OF THE
BOLAGHI AREA

2. GEOLOGY OF THE BOLAGHI AREA

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Ayako KUNII

Introduction

We examined the stratigraphy of limestone in the Bolaghi Valley and Basin(= Bolaghiarea) in 2006 and 2007. The Bolaghi area belongs geographically to the Zagros Mountains
which are located in the middle between the Alps and the Himalayas. This geologicalsituation indicates the possibility that this study can provide important data about Cenozoic
orogenic belts such as the Alps and the Himalayas. In this report, we present the summary of
tectonic significance and the stratigraphy ofthe Bolaghi area.

Tectonic Setting of the Zagros Mountains

The geology of the Bolaghi area can not be discussed without consideration of theZagros Suture. Sutures mark zones along which oceanic lithosphere has been totally
subducted (Dewey, 1987). He wrote about Suture in the following manner; the simplest kindof orogenic suture is a high-strain zone, containing mangled ophiolite remnants and,occasionally, blueschist melanges, that separates two continental terrains with dissimilar
precollisional strain histories (Indus Suture-Zagros Crush Zone). The irregularity ofcolliding continental margins is shown in the Alpine System by sutures passing laterally into
remnant oceanic tracts (Zagros Crush Zone-Eastern Mediterranean) and into subduction
zones consuming large oceanic tracts (Indus Suture-Andaman Subduction Zone).
The Bolaghi area is included in the Alpine System and is represented by the Zagros
Suture. The Zagros Suture can be regarded as one of the most significant sutures in theworld. The geological significance of the Zagros Suture has been intensively examined forlast forty years. Before considering the recent interpretation (Dewey, 1987) about the Zagros
Suture, there seem to be two representative works; Stocklin (1968), and Sengor(1984, 1985).
The Iranian-Japanese Research Group (1981) also studied the area adjacent to the Zagros

20

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Ayako KUNIIARMENIA45°/

AZERBAIJAN

48'/ 51°

54°

57°

60°

plan Sea

63°

uran PlatMuas

iH-aw

Tehran
AFGHAN STAN

Lut (Hoc
Ahvaz

A

XBolaghi area^»^
ZaheOan PAKISTAN

Shiraz.KUWAJIL

Arabian Platfo^^Bar Jar-e-Abbas-SAUD4. ARA3.I/U Persian Gulf

Arabian Platform E3
Lut Block
Turan Plateau

Fig.2.1 Geologic outline of Iran.

Suture and envisaged the horsts and grabens structure has been developed since theInfracambrian time. The development of this structure is caused by the movement of theZagros thrust (Fig.2.1).
1)St6cklin(1968)

The main Zagros thrust has a remarkably straight alignment and is considered to be asurface expression of deep slip in the formerly coherent Arabian-Iranian platform.

(omission) Just northeast of the thrust line an extensive metamorphic complex is exposed,part of which is Precambrian. Similar Precambrian basement rocks reappear farther
northeast in Central and North Iran. The main Zagros thrust is thus a deep reverse fault,
splitting a once-coherentplatform into an Arabian and an Iranianfraction.
2)Sengor{1984,1985)

The Alpides are the products of the convergence and final collision with Eurasia of
independent pieces of the dispersed Gondwana-Land, such as Afro-Arabia and India.
Likewise, the Cimmerides seem to have been generated by the collision, with Eurasia also, of
two groups of continental objects, (omission) This Cimmerian Continent (Sengor, 1979)
further disintegrated as it moved across the Tethyan domain - but without disrupting its eastwest continuity.

In summary, the Zagros Suture is defined as a zone including ophiolite remnants (NeoTethys ocean crust) and is a product of the final collision between the Gondwana-Land
derived Cimmerian continent (i.e. Lut Block) and the Afro-Arabia (i.e. Arabian Platform)(Fig.2.1). The Zagros thrust can be regarded as the compressional expression ofthe northeastedge of the Zagros Suture on the ground (Fig.2.1).

GEOLOGY OF THE BOLAGHI AREA

Stratigraphy of the Bolaghi Area

According to the geological map of Iran shown by Stocklin (1968), the probable

Cretaceous is distributed in the Bolaghi area (Fig.2.2). The Bolaghi area is topographicallydivided into eastern and western parts; Tang-e Bolaghi(Bolaghi Valley) and Dasht-e Bolaghi(Bolaghi Basin). The Sivand River flows into the Dasht-e Morghab (Morghab Plain) andjoins some wadis before it enters into the Bolaghi Valley. The Bolaghi Valley directs
southwesterly and then turns westward. Finally the Sivand River turns southward. The

Bolaghi Basin spreads on the western side of the Sivand River. From a geological point ofview, it is appropriate to divide the Bolaghi area into the Bolaghi Basin and the BolaghiValley.

Limestone extensively underlies the Bolaghi area (Fig.2.2). The limestone generally
consists of dark gray micrite (06073103)(Pl.2.1-5, 6), and sometimes yields fossils such as
pelecypod, coral and so on. In this report, we adopted the following words, massive andbedded to discriminate limestone. Bedded limestone consists of limestone beds and thinintercalated muddy parts (Pl.2.1-1, 2, 3). Discrimination of bedded limestone is dependent on
the thickness ratio of an limestone bed and muddy limestone intercalation or calcareous
mudstone (= marl) bed. Massive limestone sometimes forms nearly vertical cliffs as is thecase in the Bolaghi Valley (Pl.2.1-4). Massive limestone often changes into bedded
limestone, which often presents a slumped folded appearance.
The following presents the stratigraphy in the Bolaghi area in descending order. Thissequence is typically seen along the Bolaghi Valley (Fig.2.2).
Bedded limestone 6>50 m

Massive limestone 3

20 m

Bedded limestone 5

100 m

Bedded limestone 4

30 m

Bedded limestone 3

20 m

Massive limestone 2

120 m

Bedded limestone 2

100 m

Massive limestone 1

80 m

Bedded limestone 1>100 mInjection Structure of Limestone

A large-scale injection structure was observed along the wadi where TB75 is located atits entrance. The injection structure is confirmed as a mound shape, 30 m high and 30 m long
(Pl.2.1-7, 8). The bedded limestone gently dips downstream with a nearly same angle as thewadi gradient. The injected part is in step-like contact with the surrounding bedded
limestone, and is characterized by a lens-shape fracture. The size of a lens ranges from 10 cm
to 50 cm, whose longest axis is oriented in the same direction. The arrangement of thelongest axis is nearly parallel to the contact surface of the wall rock ofthe bedded limestone.
According to the description of the Glossary of Geology (Bates and Jackson, 1980), theinjection is a phenomenon that the forcing, under abnormal pressure, of sedimentarymaterial (downward, upward, or laterally) into preexisting deposit or rock, either alongsome plane of weakness or into crack or fissure. The injection is closely related to thefluidization under which abnormal pressure is caused by earthquake and other trigger. As
mentioned before, the bedded limestone is dated as probable Cretaceous, and the injection
probably occurred in the Cretaceous and immediately later. It is inferred that the tectonic

21

B

Fig.2.2 Geologic map of the Bolaghi area.

Two topographic maps (1/25,000,joint line; A-A') are used; BALAQI KUCAK (west) and MADAR SOLEYMAN (east).

A-A' is 53°07'30" E and B-B' is 30°10'34" N. The distance of A'-C is 4.7km.

Jt (' -

Bedded l imestone 1

Massive l imestone 1

Bedded I imestone 2

Massive I imestone 2

Bedded I imestone 3

Bedded l imestone 4

Bedded l imestone 5

Massive l imestone 3

Bedded l imestone 6

Recent

>
a
>

NJ
NJ

GEOLOGY OF THE BOLAGHI AREA

movement is of the pre-stage Alpine orogen (Stocklin, 1968).

Comparison of Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of massive, injected and alternated parts collected in the
Bolaghi Basin were analyzed by fluorescent X-ray (Table 2.1). The massive part(06080110)
is accompanied by siliceous nodules. The bedded part consists of two kinds; argillaceous(06073103 and 06072901) and non-argillaceous beds (06072902 and 06072903). The
injected part (06073102) was collected from the lens-shape one. The injected part ischaracterized by relatively rich in SiOa, AhOa, FezOa and K2O, and poor in CaO, compared tothe massive and bedded parts. The injected is opposite to the massive in terms of thesechemical compositions. The original materials of Si02, AhOa, FeiOa and K2O remain an
unsolved problem, but it is likely that they were clay minerals. The injected part limestone isdistinctive from the others. Thus, the abundance order of inferred clay minerals is theinjected, bedded and massive.

Geological Structure and its Relationship to Topography
The geological structure in the Bolaghi area is represented by an elongated basinfeature. The long axis trends from WNW to ESE (Figs.2.2, 2.3). The eastern and westernedges of the basin are characterized by a gentle dip, 13°W and 18°E, respectively. The main
syncline axis is traceable in the median part of the Bolaghi area. Though the geologicalstructure on the southern side of the Tang-e Bolaghi and Dasht-e Bolaghi is relatively similar
to each other, the geological structure in the north is different between them. The beds to thenorth of the Bolaghi Valley dip moderately to the south but those of the Bolaghi Basin dip
more gently. This dip difference is supposed to be the result in the topographical difference

between the Bolaghi Basin and the Bolaghi Valley. That is, the wider open syncline may
have formed the Bolaghi Basin. In this report, we name folded structure in the Bolaghi area
Table 2.1 Chemical composition of limestone.
A

specimen

B

C

D

E

F

beddedmassiveinjected

0608011006073102

06073103

Si02

0.37

2.21

0.95

0.98

1.16

1.56

Ti02

0.01

0.04

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

argillaceous

non-argillaceous

06072901

06072902

06072903

AI2O3

0.10

0.86

0.42

0.41

0.54

0.59

Fe203

0.17

0.34

0.18

0.16

0.18

0.17

^0

MnO

0.03

0.01

0.08

0.01

0.01

0.01

"w

MgO

0.53

0.41

0.53

0.60

0.66

0.62

CaO
1 Na20

54.93

53.26

54.15

54.04

53.84

53.46

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.02

0.18

0.07

0.09

0.11

0.13

0.02

0.04

0.01

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.05

0.06

0.08

a

0

0

0

K2O

1 P2O5
0

SO3

§:

C1

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.006

0.005

ig. loss

43.65

42.40

43.31

43.39

43.20

43.06

Cr

5

15

5

11

8

9

Pb

7

11

8

11

5

8

23

24

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Ayako KUNII

Fig.2.3 Block diagram of the Bolaghi area.
Upper and lower are a view from east and west, respectively.
the Bolaghi syncline.

We can observe the folded structure parallel to the Zagros thrust running from NW to
SE in the Zagros thrust zone (Stocklin, 1968). On the basis of satellite photographs, we canread the outline of the geologic structures (Fig.2.4). The folded structures are developed in
the extensive area ranging from Pasargadae to Persepolis. The fold axis trends from NW to
SE, and its wavelength ranges from a few kilometers to several kilometers. The anticline andsyncline seem to correspond to the mountains/hills and the basin, respectively. Roughly
speaking, the gentle dipping beds and the steep or overturned beds characterize folded
structures on the southern and the northern sides, respectively. In the satellite photographs,

we can distinguish "white strata" from the Mesozoic limestone. These strata were partly
overtumed in the southem wing of the syncline west of the Bolaghi Basin, though its detailed
lithology is unidentified. The folded structure around Persepolis can be called the undulatory
one rather than anticline, because the dipping direction is not constant in some places.

GEOLOGY OF THE BOLAGHI AREA

53" 00asargagiae

Saadat AbJad30" 00X

dip & strike
fault

Persepo+4

bedding
fold axis"white strata"

Fig.2.4 Geologic outline of the Pasargadae-Persepolis area.

eosaiTo

6073 03

Fig.2.5 Location map of rock sampling points and photograph points.

25

26

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Ayako KUNII

Concluding Remarks

Limestone from the probable Cretaceous is distributed in the Bolaghi area. The folded
structure can be regarded as a product caused by tectonic movement of the pre-stage Alpine
orogen. These tectonics may be due to collisional tectonics between the Gondwana-Land
derived Cimmerian continent (i.e. Lut Block) and the Afro-Arabia (i.e. Arabian Platform).

References

Dewey, J.F.

1987 Sutures. In Seyfert, C.K. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Structural Geology and Plate Tectonics,
775-784, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,New York.

Iranian-Japanese Research Group
1981 The Permian and the Lower Triassic Systems in Abadeh Region, Central Iran. Memoirs of theFaculty of Science, Kyoto University, Series of Geol. & Mineral., vol. 47, no. 2: 61-133.
Sengor, A.M.C.
1984 The Cimmeride Orogenic System and the Tectonics of Eurasia. Special Paper 195, The
Geological Society of America, pp 82.
Sengor, A.M.C.

1985 The story of Tethys: how many wives did Okeanos have? Episodes, vol. 8, no. I: 3-12.
Stocklin, J.

1968 Structural history and tectonics of Iran: a review. The American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, Vol. 52, no. 7: 1229-1258.

GEOLOGY OF THE BOLAGHI AREA

" 't <- - j',"

V

,

'
L

-V,

V,

4.-

T;
^

^

L—J

J-

Plate.2.1

1,2 & 3; Bedded limestone (photograph points are shown in Fig.2.5)
4; Massive limestone. Note limestone caves at upper left and right center. 5 & 6; Photomicrographs ofdark gray micrite (06073103) 7 & 8; Injection structure. The scales are standing people at center rightfor 7 and hammer head for 8. Note that the white dotted line is a contact between injected andbedded limestones and that the lens shape fracture system is developed in the injected limestone.

27

CHAPTERSGEOLOGICAL PROSPECT FOR
SOURCE ROCKS OF PREHISTORICRAW MATERIALS IN THE BOLAGHI
ANDARSANJAN AREAS

3. GEOLOGICAL PROSPECT FOR SOURCE ROCKS OF PREHISTORIC RAW
MATERIALS IN THE BOLAGHI AND ARSANJAN AREAS
Ken-ichiro HISADA, Flotaka ITO and Yoshihito KAMATA

Introduction

Flint, shale, chert, agate, obsidian and others had been used as raw material for artifacts(Ohnuma,2002). Among these rocks and minerals, flint can be a problematic term. The wellknown textbook, "Sedimentary Rocks" (Pettijohn, 1975) pointed out as cited below; Chert
and flint are the most common chemical siliceous sediments. Much current confusion
concerns the origin ofthese terms, their exact meaning, and the differences, ifany, between
them, (omission)Flint(Feuerstein) is a term widely used both as a synonymfor chert and as
a variety ofchert. Tarr (1938) states that it is identical with chert, and the term, therefore,should be dropped or reservedfor artifacts to which it is most often applied. Although theterm antedates the term chert, usage favors the latter as the proper designation of thematerials to which both the terms have been applied.

In this report, we follow Tarr's suggestion, and we don't apply flint as rocknomenclature. Thus, the usage of flint is reserved for artifacts. This confusion derived fromthe usage of chert and flint seems to be caused by its monotonous composition and texture.
Flint is defined as the rock material used for artifacts herein, and flint corresponds to thesiliceous rocks which has enough silica content to be used for artifacts, though it has avariety of origins. Pettijohn (1975) described three main categories as the origin of
nonclastic sediments; primary precipitates, secondary or diagenetic segregations andmetasomatites, and certain organic accumulation for chert. These categories are succeeded to
the recent classification of chert. The origin of chert is classified into three major categories
based on field observation (Blatt, 1992); 1. as nodules and silt-size grains in cratonic
carbonate rocks, 2. as pure, bedded chert adjacent to tectonically active plate margins, and 3.

in association with hypersaline lacustrine deposits. In summary, bedded radiolarian chert andsiliceous nodule, instead of chert, are appropriate descriptive terms.
We tried to examine source rocks of Proto-Neolithic raw materials which can probably

utilized for artifacts from exposed rocks on the ground and from river floor pebbles in the

32

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Yoshihito KAMATATURK MEJISTAN

Pasargada

Bolagni area

AFGHANISTANPAKISTAN

17!
Saadat Abad

Persepol i

SAUDI ARABIA

rsanjanFig.3.1 Location map of the Bolaghi area and Arsanjan. Star marks A5-3 (Qar-e Tang
Sikan)(Ikeda et al. 1979)

Bolaghi Valley and Basin(= Bolaghi area)(Figs.3.1, 3.2). The former is siliceous nodule inbedded limestone, and the latter is radiolarian chert and jasper. Furthermore, we dealt with adark red siliceous shale float collected from Locality A5-3 (Qar-e Tang Sikan)(Ikeda et al.
1979) which indicated constraints on the source rock available to be used for artifacts(Figs.3.1, 3.2).

Candidate Rocks for Artifacts

1) Siliceous nodule in limestone

We found a stratigraphic sequence yielding abundant siliceous nodules. This horizon is

included in bedded limestone 5, and ranges about 100 m thick (Fig.2.2 of Hisada et al. in thisvolume). The occurrence of siliceous nodules is well observed around the Bolaghi Basin .
Three types of siliceous nodule occur there; layer type(=L type)(Pl.3.1-1), isolated irregularshape type (=IIS type)(Pl.3.1-2), and bed type(=B type)(Pl.3.1-3).
The L type is slightly oblique to the bedding plane of limestone in general. The L typeends abruptly and continues laterally for a few meters. Its thickness is usually less than 10
cm. The size of the IIS type is less than 30 cm. In rare cases, an almost spheroid shape isobserved. The B type can be recognized as a rare case of L type. The B type occurs parallelto the bedding plane of limestone and its thickness is about 6 cm. According to ourobservation along the wadi eastward next to Darreh Rizeh (shown in the 1/25,000
topographic map BALAQIKUCAK), there is a certain tendency that the L type appears in
the lower horizon of the siliceous nodule sequence, whereas the B type occurs in the upperhorizon. IIS type is dominant in the lower to middle horizon. The B type siliceous nodule
presents black color, "laminated", while the L type and the IIS type are gray. As a whole, amore silicified predominates the upsection. Thus, the B type siliceous nodule (Pl.3.1-3;

GEOLOGICAL PROSPECT FOR SOURCE ROCKS OF PREHISTORIC RAW MATERIALS IN THE BOLAGHI AND ARSANJAN AREAS

Jurassic-Cretaceous

PI iocene-Peistocene

Devonian-PermianUpper Jurassic

M i ocene-P I i ocene

l iddie-Upper Jurassic[

foot""®""! Miocene
Lower-Middle Miocene////A

Upper Triassic—-Middle Jurassic

A

Ordovician-Si lurian■ ■ ] Cambrian-Si lurian

Eocene Acid Extrusive

01 igocene-Miocene

WJ] \ Eocene

Upper Triassic
Middle Triassic

Gebbro and diorite

Upper Cretaceous
Lower Cretaceous

Fig.3.2 Geological map of the Shiraz district,(modified from the Geological Survey of Iran,1986) Main Zagros Thust, Bolaghi area and Loc. A5-3 are indicated.

P11-3(06080113.PI2-3, 2-4)

• P11-1, 1-2(M()80109^^I2-U^^Im^L/|;i- • .■

p'.. ■ V"v>c^»rgoi ;Fig.3.3 Location map of rock and river gravel sampling points. RG01, RG02; River gravel
sampling points, GR03; outside this map.

33

34

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Yoshihito KAMATA

Table 3.1 Chemical analysis of chert and siliceous nodules.
A

C

B

Constituent
SiOz

93.54

TiOz

-

2.26

AI2O3

0.48

FczOb
Feo

D

E

RG02Yellow

RG02Red0608011306080109

92.79

90.34

92.43

95.03

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.06

0.29

0.28

0.19

1.39

0,11

0.14

5.14

0.92

-

-

-

-

MnO

0.79

0.00

0.01

0.11

0.00

-

MgO

0.23

0.00

0.01

0.14

0.09

CaO

0.66

3.30

4.83

0.14

0.20

NazO

0.37

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.14

KzO

0.51

0.04

0.01

0.00

0.29

H2O+

0.72

-

HzO-

0.21

P2O5

-

CO2
SO3
C1

-

c

Total

99.86

-

-

-

-

0.01
-

0.01
-

-

0.02
-

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.012

0.013

0.000

0.000

-

-

-

-

3.36

4.35

1.62

1.84

99.992100.003

99.78

99.98

-

ig. loss

-

0.03

-

-

-

-

A; Franciscan chert(from Pettijohn, 1975)
B & C; siliceous nodules

D & E; river gravels at RG02(analyzed by Taiheiyo Consultant)

0608113 in Table 3.1) may be misunderstood as a chert bed. On the other hand, the siliceous

nodule of the L type (Pl.3.1-1) and the IIS type (PI.3.I-2; 06080109 in Table 3.1) in thelower horizon is less silicified.

The IIS type is characterized by microcrystalline quartz with scattered authigenic
dolomite crystals (= rhomb shape) (Pl.3.2-1, 3.2-2). The length of the longest axis ranges
from 100 to 300 pm. The B type is composed mainly of microcrystalline quartz and is"superimposed" by a repetition of impurities and calcite layers (Pl.3.2-3, 3.2-4). Each layer isa few millimeters thick. According to the fluorescent X-ray analysis, the former is less thanthe latter in terms of SiOz(2.45%)though the other composition is relatively similar in each.
In comparison with Franciscan chert (A in Table 3.1) which represents the Cordillera in
USA,both siliceous nodules are somewhat lesser in SiOz.

For the IIS type, a complex replacement process happened in the limestone beds. The
strongly silicified limestone was subjected to dolomitization to form the scattered dolomiticrhomb. As shown by the X-ray analysis (C in Table 3.1), Mg content is almost neglected.
Therefore, these dolomitic rhomb had probably been replaced by a CaCOs solution, andseems to be a calcite pseudomorph. This process can be categorized into dedolomitization
which means that dolomite may be replaced by calcite, usually by action of oxidizing
meteoric waters(Adams et al., 1984).

For the B type, segregation seems to have happened to the limestone beds during thediagenetic stage. We need to study this further.

We found these siliceous nodules, but according to Ohnuma (2006, pers. comm.), thequality of these siliceous nodules is inadequate for making artifacts because of a lack ofphysical properties.
2) River gravel

We collected river gravel to obtain the prehistoric raw material. We preliminarily

GEOLOGICAL PROSPECT FOR SOURCE ROCKS OF PREHISTORIC RAW MATERIALS IN THE BOLAGHI AND ARSANJAN AREAS

counted the number mainly of yellowish, reddish, and brick color gravels at the three
localities on the river bed of the Sivand River(RGOl,02 and 03 in Fig.3.3). RGOl and RG02
are located within the Bolaghi Valley (Tang-e Bolaghi) and RG03 is situated about 3 km
upstream from the mouth of the Bolaghi Valley near Kordshoul village. The gravels at theformer two sites were derived not only from upstream provenance but also the BolaghiValley, whereas the latter site gravel was provided only from the upstream provenance(Fig.3.2). This sampling was randomly and roughly carried out. After washing the gravel inwater, we counted the gravel numbers of radiolarian chert, jasper and others (including
volcanic rocks). Radiolarian chert includes numerous radiolarian ghosts and usually presents
a brick color. In this study, the usage of jasper is limited to such cases where gravels
presented milk-white yellowish and reddish colors. The others are composed of siliceous
nodule, quartz vein rock and pore-filling quartz.
The lithological composition ratio among the radiolarian chert: yellowish jasper: others
and the range of gravel diameter at three localities are as follows;
RGOl

1:2:2

2 to 6 cm

RG02

1:1:1

2 to 6 cm

RG03

1:2:2

3 to 5 cm

The abundance of other material including siliceous nodules is conspicuous, because
beds which yield siliceous nodules are extensively distributed in the Bolaghi area as
described before. On the other hand, the occurrence of radiolarian chert has not beenrecognized there so far. In general, it is well known that radiolarian chert is categorized as
deep-sea sediment. Thus we exclude that the limestone of the Bolaghi Basin is accompanied
by radiolarian chert. This means that radiolarian chert gravels were transported from an
upstream provenance. The shape of the radiolarian chert at three localities is characterized byhigh angularity and ill sorting (Pl.3.1-4, 1-5, 1-6). This line of evidence may suggest that thetransportation distance was not very far.
We examined the petrographical character of gravels of radiolarian chert and jasper
under the microscope. The radiolarian chert (PI.3.2-5, 3.2-6; RG02Red) consists of
microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz with numerous radiolarian tests, 80 to 200 pm indiameter. It is noteworthy that quartz veinlets are not necessarily as developed in the chert. It
is suggested that radiolarian chert can be adequate for use as raw material for artifacts,
because of less mechanical deformation. Jasper (PI.3.2-7, 3.2-8; RG02Yellow) is also

composed of microcrystalline quartz. Furthermore, chromian spinel crystal is observable.
This may suggest that the original rocks was ultramafic to mafic rocks and then subjected tosilicification. In this sense, jasper can be categorised into secondary or diagenetic
segregations and metasomatites (Pettijohn, 1975).
The chemical composition is shown in Table 3.1. SiOi content of radiolarian chert ismore than 95%, and may be called pure chert rather than Francisican chert. Jasper contains
somewhat less SiOz than radiolarian chert, and is characteristically rich in Fe203 (5.14 %).
Thus,jasper can be regarded as a ferruginous chert(Pettijohn, 1975).

Depositional Ages of Dark Red Siliceous Shale
It is preliminarily concluded that there is no exposure of raw material suitable forprehistoric artifacts. Transportation of raw material by river flow and/or by ancient people
can be suppposed. To confirm this idea, we studied the geological characters of more
appropriate raw materials for artifacts. Thus we obtained a chipped stone assemblage
abandoned by the ancient people at locality A5-3 (Qar-e Tang Sikan)(Ikeda et al. 1979)(starin Figs.3.1, 3.2). Included in this is some dark red siliceous shale, which was undoubtedly

35

36

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Yoshihito KAMATA' I^ t t ^u

IW
■A'-.

•'■

^

m

Pi- ■m

mr<

'mm

[i-s;

Fig.3.4 Radiolarians from dark red siliceous shale.
1 -5: Praecaneta minetica DUMITRICA, 6-11: Dictyomitra formosa SQUINQBOL, 12,19:
Stichomitra sp. , 13: Spumellaria gen. et sp. indet. , 14: Nassellaria gen. et sp. indet,
15: Stichomitra cf. tosaensis NAKASEKO & NISHIMURA, 16-18: Archeodictyomitra sp.
Scale bar=50pm.
exotic, transported material.

Several pieces of dark red siliceous shale yielded an index fossil of radiolarians, amarine planktonic protozoan consisting of a tiny silica-test, by using the etching technique of
dipping rock pieces into diluted hydrofluoric acid (HF) for 24 hours. Then following species
were identified, although these radiolarian specimens are poorly preserved (Fig.3.4).
Praecaneta minetica DUMITRICA,

Dictyomitra formosa SQUINQBOL,
Stichomitra cf. tosaensis NAKASEKQ & NISHIMURA,

Archeodictyomitra sp.
Stichomitra sp.
Spumellaria gen. et sp. indet.
Nassellaria gen. et sp. indet.
The occurrence of P. minetica was reported from the Early Cretaceous of the Mailolica
Formation distributed in the Southem Alps and Umbria-Marche Apennines by Jud (1994)
and Dumitrica et al. (1997). This species has a range from Berriasian to Barremian and iscommonly found in the Hauterivian and Barremian. D. formosa is diagnostic species of theearly Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian to Turonian) and occurs from all over the world (e.g.,
O'Dogherty, 1994). The range of Stichomitra tosaensis was the late Early to early Late
Cretaceous of the Albian to Cenomanian.

Radiolarian fauna is monotonous and poorly preserved, however, occurrence of theseradiolarians indicates that the siliceous red mudstone was deposited in the Early to early Late
Cretaceous.

GEOLOGICAL PROSPECT FOR SOURCE ROCKS OF PREHISTORIC RAW MATERIALS IN THE BOLAGHI AND ARSANJAN AREAS

Source Area for Siliceous Pebbles

In the Bolaghi area, raw material suitable for artifacts has not been found. Thus, it ismore appropriate that raw materials must be transported from the surrounding areas by river
flow and/or by ancient people. It is very characteristic that raw materials suitable to artifacts
seem to be radiolarian chert and jasper.
The combination of radiolarian chert,jasper(= silicified ultramafic to mafic rocks) andred siliceous shale is expected in the ophiolite rock assemblage. The ophiolite is a fragmentof fossil oceanic lithosphere which has been thrust over or obducted into continental margins
at consuming plate boundaries and it is composed of oceanic crust and uppermost mantle;
ultramafic, gabbroic, mafic sheeted dike, and mafic volcanic complexes associated with (1)an overlying section typically including ribbon chert, thin shale interbeds, and minor
limestone,(2) podiform bodies of chromitite generally associated with dunite, and (3) sodic
felsic intrusive and extrusive rocks(Dilek, 2003).
In the Zagros thrust zone (Stocklin, 1968), two major occurrences of ophioliteradiolarite are known; Kermanshah and Abadeh Tashk (to the east of Shiraz)(Fig.3.2). The
details of both ophiolite-radiolarite are unsolved, but these seem to have been obducted to theJurassic to Creatceous carbonate rocks. Because the oceanic sediments (dark red siliceous
shale) is dated to the middle Cretaceous, the obduction of the oceanic crust must haveoccured after then.

Probable Raw Material Procurement Zones

Earlier, we pointed out that the ophiolite rock assemblage could provide adequate raw
material. Fortunately, the Bolaghi area is located not so far from the Abadeh Tashk ophiolite,
approximately 60 km away. Also the Sivand River includes a part of this ophiolite rockassemblage as a drainage basin (Fig.3.2). Accordingly, the ancient people could get raw
material easily.

Another ophiolite can also be a raw material procurement zone. The chert had beenfrequently used for lithic raw material and trade in the Zagros region (Biglai, 2004). Threetypes of radiolarian chert are known in the Kermanshah area (Biglai, 2004). First, the Harsin
type is a typically homogenous reddish brown opaque material. Second,"Fine Opaque WhiteRed or Brown Chert" has superior flaking qualities. Third, the grayish chert was exploited
more during Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods for blade production. He also mentioned that
Do-Ashkaft occupants obtained better quality raw material from sources in the Radiolarit
Belt Zone or other unknown sources in the Kermanshah region prior to the occupation at DoAshkaft, and subsequently local sources of the Maiwaleh Zone were used. As indicated inthis report, if the source rocks for raw material are more precisely determined, thesignificance of core size and shape will be understood.

Concluding Remarks

The procurement zones for the prehistoric artifacts might be located not in the Bolaghiarea, but in the Abadeh Tashk ophiolite, which is tens kilometers from there. They seem tohave been transported as river pebbles and/or as trading material. In either case, the ophiolite
could have provided the raw material for prehistoric artifacts.

37

38

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Yoshihito KAMATA

References

Adams, A.E., MacKenzie, W.S. and Guilford, C.

1984 Atlas ofSedimentary Rocks under the Microscope. Longman Scientific & Technical.
Biglari, F.

2004 The preliminary observations on Middle palaeolithic raw material procurement and usage inthe Kermanshah plain, the case of Do-Ashkaft cave. In T. Stollner, R. Slotta, and A.
Vatandoust (eds), Persian Antiques Aplendor, Mining Crafts and Archeology in Ancient Iran.
vol.1: 130-138, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum, Bochum.
Blatt, H.

1992 Sedimentary Petrology. W.H.Freeman and Company.
Dumitrica, P., Immenhauser, A. and Jud, R.

1997 Mesozoic radiolarian biostratigraphy from Masirah ophiolite. Sultanate of Oman, Bulletin of
the National Museum ofNatural Science, no. 9: 1-106.
Geological Survey ofIran
1986 Geological Map ofthe Middle East, 1:5,000,000.
Ikeda, J. et al.

1979 Preliminary Report ofan Archaeological Survey in Arsanjan Area, Pars Province, Iran, 1977.
Archaeological Mission of Kyoto University to Iran.
Jud, Ruth

1994 Biochronology and Systematics of Early Cretaceous radiolaria of the Western Tethys,
Memoires de Geologie, No. 19.
O'Dogherty, L.

1994 Biochronology and Paleontology of Mid-Dretaceous Radiolarians from Northern Apennines(Italy) and Betic Cordillera (Spain), Memoires de Geologie, No. 21.
Ohnuma, K.

2002 Making Artifacts as Culture (Bunka to Shiteno Sekki-dukuri). Gakuseisha, Tokyo.
Pettijohn, E.J.

1975 Sedimentary Rocks. Harper & Row,Publishers.

GEOLOGICAL PROSPEa FOR SOURCE ROCKS OE PREHISTORIC RAW MATERIALS IN THE BOLAGHI AND ARSANJAN AREAS.T-l\"-~

-'e

,£i

"'sk

■ ■•. .-'•'-tij' -••-/■

^

4»-

f

^ < '

' "

''' '^

*'

''

" *

' >

"

■i*'

''

^ t#* ^'•'::\^ ."'^'"-• •'"i>.

^/•• ' ,'

' '', '•>" - .-'
*"

7

'-»»•

^

»s»
vfe*
'v *■
V* "'■'■»? "'.."u' ' VV. •X ■>./- ' - 'r.

> 'Z'

7;v^
r ..

■

' ■ ■ ..;■■*•'■'•• v"''*' ^ ■ ••■'-

f?." "'•. E - -^

p.

- ■

•'.5'OTss*^.

-' ' V. ,-'L^-'V-'»';• .•■ •"■"•.■*: i»":'ij?,' vC /,•: ,v • •■>.'••' , •■ .■•«•■ • "**,••»•:.s,•c ^Ognj"•■*^ " *' - ' Xi

• V •

' »

o-t-'-.L"'V.r,> .-- • -

.

'

. *

f

V' '^'••'„''
L''■ "'"'lil-j-v*- .ia

Plate 3.1

1; L type siliceous nodule 2; IIS type siliceous nodule 3; B type siliceous nodule 4; radiolarian chert
gravel at RG01 5; radiolarian chert gravel at RG02 6; radiolarian chert gravel at RG03 7 & 8;

Photomicrographs of dark red siliceous shale at locality A5-3 (Qar-e Tang Sikan) (7, open, 8, crossnicols)39

40

Ken-ichiro HISADA, Hotaka ITO and Yoshihito KAMATA

'•■YJ

Mi

%" A ■» kj®

P—•-- -' " •i::hL^-

^4^ \

yL.

g.. f
. 5S

^tsSi- .

,,

•

M.'

■

V4

- C "'liS^;^-^ 'V'-t'.
'*;" "5- i'* ^sZ'' -Ti%?

iji-.«rf«

1,-sPlate 3.2

1 & 2; Photomicrographs of I IS type siliceous nodule (06080109) (1, open, 2, cross nicols) 3 & 4;
Photomicrographs of B type si l iceous nodule (060801 13) (3, open, 4 cross nicols) 5 & 6;
Photomicrographs of radlolarlan chert river gravel at RG02 (5, open, 6, cross nicols) 7 & 8;
Photomicrographs of jasper river gravel at RG02 (7, open, 8 cross nicols) Nore that large crystal Is
chromlan spinel.

CHAPTER 4

EXCAVATIONS AT TB75

(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)4. EXCAVATIONS AT TB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)
Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDITB75 is a relatively large cave named Eshkaft-e Haji Bahrami (Haji Bahrami Cave)located on the southern slope of Kuh-e Bolaghi Bozorg and opens in a southwestern
direction, facing the dam-site (Pl.4.1). It is the most conspicuous cave in the Bolaghi Valley,
and comes into view immediately as one enters the valley from the south (PL4.2 and 4.3).
From the cave location, the central part of the Bolaghi Valley is visible with a partial view tothe south, through to the Kamin Plain (Pl.4.4). This strategic location commanding a fineview may have been one of the reasons why this cave was occupied, especially during the
Achaemenid period, as we explain later.

The southern slope of Kuh-e Bolaghi produced many limestone caves, because thegeological formations of the area consist of massive limestone and type 1 bedded limestone(see chapter 2 of this volume). Haji Bahrami Cave seems to result from dissolution of thehuge limestone block surrounded by open cracks. A small wadi, named Tang-e Jili, flows
from behind the limestone mountain, then around from the west to the front terrace. Anotherfaint wadi also flows from behind the mountain and around to the east of the cave. The

opening of the cave is at 1875 m and the height from the front wadi is over 30m (Fig.4.1).
The terrace slope is steep. The inclination of the slope is about 20 degrees (Fig.4.2). The
terrace slope is covered with many large-sized (over Im in diameter) and middle-sized(around 50cm in diameter) limestone rocks, which have fallen down from the limestone
mountain at the rear. These limestone rocks, especially huge-sized ones, were heavily
weathered. There is no fertile land for agriculture near the cave. Only wild pistachio andalmond trees are scattered on the sterile slopes near the cave.

The opening of the cave measures c. 9 m wide and 2.8 m high, and the depth to the backwall is 19 m (Fig.4.3). The cave opens to the southwest and the axis follows southwest northeast. The height of the interior cave varies between 2.5m - 3m. At the back wall, thecave turns at a right angle to the northwest and continues, climbing upwards more than 10 m
(Fig.4.4). This deep interior of the cave follows a southeast - northwest axis. Sunlight does
not reach the deep interior and the area is pitch dark. There are large fallen limestone rocks
scattered and piled up in the deep interior. The height of the deep interior cave is less than

44

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

L870ra25m

Fig.4.1 Morphological map of TB75.
2m,and human adults cannot move easily within it. It does not seem that this part of the cave
was occupied or used by people.
The cave has been used as an animal refuge with dung deposits covering the front
interior of the cave. We did not discover a large amount of archaeological artifacts in the
cave. However, a few historic potsherds and lithic artifacts are scattered in front part of theEXCAVATIONS ATTB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)

A'

1880m

1870m

1860m

1850m

Tang-e Jili

1
1840m

Fig.4.2 Elevation of the cave and the terrace of TB75.
cave and on the terrace slope. These objects encouraged us to carry out archaeologicalexcavations in this part of the cave. We decided to dig inside the cave and on the terrace
slope.

In the first field season (2005), two small trenches, measuring 2 x Im each were dug
inside the cave (Trench A) and in the middle of the terrace slope (Trench B) respectively.
The location of Trench A is ca.2m inside from the line of the opening eaves (the rain-dripline) and ca.1.5m from the western wall of the cave. The trench was excavated to a
maximum depth of 1.5m, but we did not reach bedrock at this depth. As we will see in detaillater, the cultural deposits here can be divided into three cultural phases: Islamic,
Achaemenid, and Proto-Neolithic. Trench B was sunk into the middle of the terrace slope,
between the 1863m - 1862.5m counter line, and 36m southwest from Trench A. The culturaldeposits from the surface to the mountain bedrock are about Im thick in this part of theterrace slope. Though the cultural deposits of Trench B could be divided into three layers, alllayers have similar characteristics and belong to the Proto-Neolithic phase.
In order to recover more archaeological material, especially organic remains such as
charcoal, animal bones and plant remains, we excavated another two trenches in the frontal
part of the cave during the second field season (the summer of 2006). Trench C, measuring 2
X 2 m, was sunk just east of Trench A. Trench D, measuring 2 x 3m, was sunk at the openingof the cave, 1.5m south of Trench C (Fig. 4.3). We reached virgin soil at around 2m deep inboth trenches. Both trenches produced almost the same cultural phases, i.e. Islamic,
Achaemenid, Proto-Neolithic and Epi-Paleolithic. In total, 12m^ of cultural deposits wereexcavated inside the cave, and 2m^ were excavated on the terrace slope.

Trench A

Trench A was the first trial trench dug near the western wall of the cave (Pl.4.5, 4.6)).
The trench was taken to a maximum depth of 1.5 m. We did not reach virgin soil at that

depth, but had to halt the digging because of the danger of trench collapse. The culturaldeposits in this trench were divided into many layers. However, compared to neighboring
Trenches C and D,they could be summarized into four main cultural layers (Fig. 4.5).
Surface soil: This deposit contained much animal dung and ash that had been
accumulated due to recent nomad activity. The average thickness of this layer is about 10cm.
We found a few flint flakes and micro-blades in this layer.

Layer 1: This layer consisted of alternatively ash and soft soil. As the ash is the main
structural material, the layer was generally very soft and dusty. The ash parts were a light

45

46

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

Fig.4.3 CaveofTB75.

grayish color. The soft soil parts were dark-brown in color and contained some pebbles,
cobbles, charcoal and burnt soil. A small pit was discovered at the western part of the trench(Pl.4.7). The depth of this pit was about 30cm and filled with very soft light brown coloredsoil. It contained many pebbles and cobbles, some bones, potsherds and flint flakes. The
average thickness of this layer is about 30cm. As we found a few pieces of Islamic glazed
ware, this layer belongs to the early Islamic period.
Layer 2: This layer consisted of soft soil containing many pebbles, burnt clay and rubble(Pl.4.8). The soil was brown to dark brown in color. Lenticular ash deposits were also
visible. A hearth was discovered in this layer. It was surrounded by cobbles and some
pebbles and contained much charcoal and dark brown ashy soil. Some cobbles were burnt
and had turned black. A deep pit had been dug down from this layer. This pit was located in
the southern part of the trench and was not drawn in the section figure. The pit contained
dark brown soft soil and a lot of fragments of typical Achaemenid large jars. The lower partof this layer revealed brownish orange soft soil mixed with much ash, charcoal, burnt soil

EXCAVATIONS AT TB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)

A'

A

1890.00m

1885.00m

1880.00m

I

I

r~ri

i

I

r I

1885.00m

1880.00m

1875.00m

I . I

I . I

T

I ~

5m

=1

Fig.4.4 Elevations of the cave of TB75.
and some pebbles. We found many animal bones in this layer. Many chipped stones werealso recovered after sieving. All of these elements indicate that this part belongs to the lower
prehistoric deposits. However, four pieces of metal were discovered in this part. As was a
potsherd containing plastic decoration which is also an element belonging to the Achaemenidera. Layer 2 shows various lithofacies and is about 20- 30cm in thickness. Layer 2 probably
belongs to the Achaemenid period.
Layer 3: Brownish orange soil layer mixed with many pebbles and some cobbles(Pl.4.9). We did not find any feature remains in this layer, except a pit dug down from theupper layer. This Achaemenid pit intruded into the southem part of layer, but other parts of

47

48

AkiraTSUNEKIandMohsenZEIDI1875.50m

surface soil

1875.00m

^
/J

°

C3 '

0° °
1874.50m

OcP

1874.00m

Fig.4.5 East wall section of Trench A.
Trench A

Surface soil: Much animal dung and ash.
1. Alternatively accumurated light gray ash and dark-brown soil.
2. Dark-brown soft soil containing many pebbles, burnt clay and rubble.
3. Brownish orange soft soil mixed with many pebbles and some cobbles.
4. Orange soil mixed with many pebbles and cobbles.

the layer remained undisturbed and produced many animal bones and chipped stones. The
characteristics of the lithic artifacts tell us that this layer belongs to the Proto-Neolithic
period.
Layer 4: Orange soil mixed with many pebbles and cobbles. We found many chippedstones and animal bones in this layer. All of the objects from this layer are prehistoric ones
and no potsherds were recovered. Based on the characteristics of the lithic industry, this layer
dates to the Proto-Neolithic period.

Trench B

A 2 X 1 m trench, sunk on the middle of terrace slope, was dug 36m from and along thenorth-south axis of Trench A, between the 1863 m - 1862.5 m contour line (Fig.4.1, Pl.4.10).
This trench was taken to a maximum depth of 1.35 m at the northem side and 0.95 m at thesouthem one until it reached the natural mountain soil. Therefore, the cultural deposits areabout 1 m thick in this part of the terrace slope. The deposits could be divided into various
layers (Fig.4.6). Flowever, except recently accumulated surface soil, all of the layers show
similar lithofacies, i.e. brown to red-brown colored soil with ash and limestone pebbles. The
uppermost layer is 30 - 35cm thick, the second is 20 - 30 cm thick, and the lowest is c.50cm
thick but is divided into two sub-layers, bordered by limestone pebbles. A stone spread,consisting of some limestone pebbles, was found in the second layer, but the trench is too
small to identify the characteristics of this feamre. No other structural remains were found.
A few potsherds (14 pieces), were discovered with a large number of chipped stones in
the uppermost brown soil layer. These potsherds are historic and prehistoric varieties, butthere are no diagnostic pieces for determining detailed chronology. It would be safer to saythat this uppermost layer was a disturbed layer fallen from the cave and upper slope andEXCAVATIONS ATTB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)

1863.00m

surface soil

1862.50m

1862.00m

yifgin soil

0

50cm

Fig.4.6 East wall section of Trench B.
Trench B

Surface soil: Modern debris consisting of grass.
1. Soft brown soil containing much whitish-gray colored ash.
2. Reddish-brown soil containing much ash. Probably and partly leveled for stone floor.
3a. Red-brown soil with many limestone pebbles.
3b. Red-brown soil with quite a few limestone pebbles.
Virgin soil: Yellow sandy soil.

accumulated on the middle terrace. The lower two layers did not produce potsherds. Instead,a great number of flint chipped stones (over 1500 pieces) were discovered. The lithic
artifacts of these layers seem to belong to the same industry.
It is certain that the lithic artifacts recovered from each level of Trench B apparently
have the same micro-blade industry affinities with those found from the layers 3 and 4 ofTrench A. The most numerous tools are micro-blades, measuring 3-8 mm wide and lessthan 30 mm long (P1.4.11). They are quite tiny blades, but most of them have faint retouch or
nibbling on one side or both sides. This evidence indicates that these tiny micro-blades weremade and used as the elements of some composite tools. Trenches A and B produced dozens
of micro-blade cores in various stages, from pebbles through the initial stages to the final
discarded ones. Single-platform conical shaped cores (Pl.4.12), regularly detached bypressure-flaking technique, were the most prevalent. Though various kinds of flint were usedas micro-blade cores, green-colored flint had been chosen as the primary material. In
addition to cores, micro-blade core rejuvenation flakes, such as core tablets and bottom
flakes, were frequently recovered, and it is quite certain that the micro-blades were producedin large scale numbers at the site. Though small in number, some geometric microliths suchas lunates, were among the chipped stone tools. For the production of larger and heavier
tools, such as end-scrapers, retouched flakes and thumbnail scrapers (Pl.4.13), flakes andblades were used instead of micro-blades. Pointed pieces, burins and notches (Pl.4.14) werealso discovered, though the number of these tools is limited. Although minor typological andtechnological difference can be observed between each layer, the chipped stone industry at
Trench B is fundamentally the same tradition. All of them seem to belong to the ProtoNeolithic period, and the details and chronological position of these lithic artifacts will be
discussed in Chapter 6.

49

50

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDITrench C

Trench C was a 2 x 2m square and approximately 2m inside from the line of the
opening eaves, and about l-2m from the eastern wall of the cave, and 50cm from the easternwall of Trench A (Fig.4.3). The trench was dug down to a maximum 3.30m, and we reachedundisturbed soil at c.2.3m from the surface. Though the cultural deposits were divided into
many sub-layers, they can be categorized into the following six layers (Fig.4.7).
Surface soil: Ashy deposits with much animal dung, measuring less than 10cm.
Layer 1: The uppermost deposits, just below the surface soil, and consisting of a seriesof ash and brown soil layers (Pl.4.16). They are 40 - 50cm thick and produced some glazed

surface soil

1875.50m

1875.00m

1874.50m

1874.00m

1873.50m

1873.00m.<zzdQ ■ • virein soil

1872.50m
50cm

Fig.4.7 West wall section of Trench C.
Trench C

Surface soil: Ashy deposits with much animal dung.
1. Ash and brown soil layers.
2. Grayish brown soil with many angular limestone pebbles.
3. Yellowish orange soft soil mixed with many small pieces of charcoal, and various sizes of angularlimestone pebbles.
4. Orange soil, mixed with a small amount of charcoal and many angular limestone pebbles.
5. Yellowish orange soil and some patches of compact soil with many angular limestone pebbles.
6. Brownish orange compact soil mixed with various sized angular limestone pebbles.

EXCAVATIONS AT TB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)

ware sherds, most likely belonging to the Islamic period. One hearth-like structure wasdiscovered in this layer (PL4.17). We recovered 30 potsherds, 6 lithic artifacts, 6 metal
objects and many animal bones in this layer.
Layer 2: This layer consisted of many angular limestone pebbles and grayish brown
soil, about 30-35cm in thickness. It produced some material dated to the Achaemenid period.
47 potsherds, three lithic artifacts, five metal objects and many animal bones were recoveredfrom this layer. An iron trilobate arrowhead was among the special finds, indicating thepresence of an Achaemenid army (Pl.4.18).
Layer 3: This was a layer of yellowish orange soft soil mixed with many small pieces ofcharcoal, and various sizes of angular limestone pebbles. The thickness was 60-80cm. Layer
3 produced many prehistoric materials and a few later potsherds. We recovered five pieces of
Achaemenid potsherds from the upper part of this layer, and some hundreds of lithic
artifacts, and many animal bones.
Layer 4: The layer consisted of a soft orange soil, mixed with a small amount ofcharcoal and many angular limestone pebbles, being 40-75cm thick (Pl.4.19). From thislayer, over one hundred lithic artifacts and many animal bones were recovered. No potsherds
were found. Characteristics of the lithic artifacts indicate that the layer must date to theProto-Neolithic period.

Layer 5: The fifth layer consisted of a yellowish orange soil and some patches ofcompact soil with many angular limestone pebbles. The thickness ranged from 10 - 40cm.
The digging was obstructed by many large limestone rocks, which were collapsed from thecave roof. Therefore, the excavation square was quite limited in layers 5 and 6. We
discovered a hearth at the southeastern comer of the trench. The hearth was fringed by somelimestone pebbles, and was 95cm long, 75cm wide, and 20cm deep (Pl.4.20). We recovered
only one lithic artifact and a few animal bones within the hearth. The inside hearth was filledwith some very thin ash lenses about 10cm thick. The number of lithic artifacts in layer 5 issmall, and animal bones are very few and small in size.
Layer 6: The lithofacies of this layer are very similar to those of layer 5. The layer
consisted of brownish orange compact soil mixed with various sized angular limestone
pebbles. We recovered only few lithic artifacts and very few and small animal bones,
because of the limitation of the digging square. This layer gradually changed into virgin soil
around 1873.2m above sea level.

Based on the characteristics of potsherds (upper two layers) and lithic artifacts, we canpropose the period of each layer as the follows; Layer 1 is Islamic, layer 2 is Achaemenid,
layers 3 and 4 are Proto-Neolithic. The number of lithic artifacts in layers 5 and 6 is quite
limited, but they probably belong to the Epi-Paleolithic.

Trench D

Trench D was set at the mouth of cave across the line ofthe opening eaves (the rain-dripline), because the mouth of the cave was intensively used by prehistoric people in general(Fig.4.3, Pl.4.15). This Trench D, measuring 2 by 3m, was parallel to and 1.5m apart from
Trench C. The cultural deposits of Trench D are essentially same as those of Trench C,
except the relative thinness of the Islamic layer. The altitude of the trench surface is about

1874.85 - 1875.10m and we reached sterile soil, probably virgin soil, at a level of 1873.20m.
Therefore, the thickness ofthe cultural deposits is 1.9 - 1.7m and they can be divided into six
layers based on soil characteristics and included artifacts (Fig. 4.8). On the west wall sectionof Trench D, we could observe the rain-drip line (Pl.4.21). The lithofacy of each layer ofboth sides is almost homogenous. However, the soil in the exterior part of the cave (left side

51

52

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

surface soil
1875.00m

^

cz>.

3

1874.50m

4/^ rain-drip line

1874.00m

1873.50m

virgin soil -V.* - .■ •

"
.

V

50cm
zd

1875.00ml

surface soil

1874.50m

1874.00m

1873.50m'*. / ; .*; •. .• .; .*; * •. /virgin soil .* •. / * ; .' •.
is^zzi:50cm

Fig.4.8 West and north wall sections of Trench D.
Trench D

Surface soil: Ashy deposits with much modern animal dung.
1. Brown ash soft layer containing much animal dung and small pebbles.
2. Gray and fine ash layer, containing many small pebbles, charcoal and Achaemenid potsherds.
3. Soft layer of yellowish-brown color and containing many limestone pebbles and some charcoal.
4. Yellowish orange soil with many angular limestone pebbles and some charcoal.
5. Orange soft soil, quite similar to but slightly darker than layer 4.
6. Orange-brown color soil with many angular limestone pebbles.

EXCAVATIONS AT TB7S(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)

in this section) has a coarser and reddish colored lithofacy than that of the interior part(rightside of this section).

Surface soil: Ashy deposits with much modem animal dung, measuring 5- 15cm.
Layer 1: A 5 - 15cm thick brown ash layer existed below the modem surface layer. The
ash layer is soft and contained much animal dimg and small pebbles. Though there are very
few diagnostic potsherds, this layer seems to have accumulated during the Islamic period.
Layer 2: This layer is gray and fine ash layer, containing many small pebbles, charcoal
and Achaemenid potsherds. The thickness of this layer in the north section is about 15 30cm, but it is only 10cm in the southem part of the trench. This means that the habitation

deposits of the layer became thicker toward the back of the cave. A small shallow pit was
discovered at the northeastern comer of this trench (Fig.4.9, Pl.4.22). It is c. 80cm indiameter and 45cm deep at most. This pit was filled with the gray and fine ash of layer 2. A
fragment of large ribbed pithos was found at the bottom of this pit, and dates to the
Achaemenid period (Pl.4.23).

Layer 3: This layer consisted of yellowish-brown colored soil and many limestone
pebbles. This is a relatively soft layer, and patches of some biunt soil and some charcoal

O

1.0m
I

Fig.4.9 Shallow pit in layer 2,Trench D.

53

54

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

pieces were contained in it. It is 20 - 30cm thick. Though a few number of Achaemenid
potsherds were obtained, this layer is mostly aceramic character. A large amount of lithic
objects (1,006 pieces) began to appear from this layer. They consisted of many micro-blades(Pl.4.24), micro-blade cores (Pl.4.25), small scrapers, some burins, other retouched tools andmuch debitage from the micro-blade industry. Micro-blades were detached by pressureflaking. The characteristics of the lithic industry indicate that they are very similar to thosefrom Trench B,i.e. having a Proto-Neolithic affinity.

Layer 4: Orange colored soft soil continued from this layer to the virgin soil. Layer 4 isslightly yellowish orange soil with many angular limestone pebbles. Some charcoal
fragments were observed in this layer. This is the thickest cultural deposit in Trench D,
measuring about 50 - 80cm in thickness. Many stone artifacts (2,601 pieces) and animalbones came from this layer. No potsherds appeared at all. The characteristics of the lithic
assemblage are similar to those of layer 3. However,the blades seemed to be detached not bypressure-flaking but by percussion, though the micro-blades were detached by pressureflaking. Small scrapers, including side-scrapers, thumbnail-scrapers and round scrapers, are
one of the main lithic categories. Small borers on blades (Pl.4.26 left) are among the lithic
inventories. Besides the chipped stones, some ground stones, such as pierced disc
(Fig.4.10.1, Pl.4.27), grinding slab (Fig.4.10.2, Pl.4.28) and grinding disc (Fig.4.10.3, Pl.4.29
right) were discovered in this layer.

Layer 5: It is an orange soft soil, quite similar to but slightly darker than layer 4.
Charcoal, many lithic artifacts (530 pieces) and animal bones were included in this layer.
Large limestone rocks were spread in the northern half of the trench, at the same level withthe hearth discovered in Trench C (Fig.4.11, Pl.4.30). It is possible that this spread was a partof the working floor. A gazelle horn was discovered at the same level of this stone spread(Pl.4.31). The most remarkable features among the lithic assemblage are an increasing
number of blades. On the other hand, the number of micro-blades decreased. A large single

plat-formed blade core was discovered in this layer (Pl.4.32). Backed blades and microblades were the main types of lithic tools, with end-scrapers on blade (Pl.4.33) and small
scrapers (Pl.4.34), including thumbnail and side-scrapers on flakes. Borers and burins werealso among them. Besides the chipped stones, a few grinding stones were discovered. One
was probably used as a hammer stone (Fig.4.12, Pl.4.29 left). Based on the characteristics ofthis lithic assemblage, we can assume that layer 5 belongs to the Epi-Paleolithic period,
probably the late Zarzian tradition.

C

3

lOcm

Fig.4.10; 1 Pierced disc;2 Grinding slab;3 Grinding disc from layer 4,Trench D.

EXCAVATIONS ATTB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)^0

Fig.4.11 Spread of limestone rocks in layer 5,Trench D.

Layer 6: The soil of this layer was an orange-brown color, and many angular limestone
pebbles were included. Pebbles are relatively larger than those in layer 5. The thickness oflayer 6 is 15 - 35cm. Epi-Paleolithic type lithic artifacts, mostly similar to those in layer 5,came from this layer with a medium amount of animal bones. Among them, backed blades
and bladelets (Pl.4.35) existed in large numbers.
Below layer 6, the similar orange-brown colored soil continued with more angularlimestone pebbles. However, we did not encounter any lithic artifacts below 1873.20m.
Though there is a possibility that earlier cultural deposits will be encountered after the hiatusof thick sterile layers, we judged that this orange-brown soil was naturally accumulated
virgin soil.

55

56

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDIThe chronological and technicalproblems of the lithic artifacts will be
discussed in Chapter 6. At the moment, wesummarize the dates of each layer as follows;
Layer 1 is Islamic, layer 2 is Achaemenid,
layers 3 and 4 are Proto-Neolithic, and layers
5 and 6 are Epi-Paleolithic.

10cm

Fig.4.12 Hammer stone from layer 5,
Trench D.

EXCAVATIONS ATTB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)

TB-75

TB-130m//

Plate 4.1 Satellite image of the area of TB75 and TB130

•»

■

•;■'

.•

.■ "-I

» '

-if

f-W
I

_

CSi "t ,'-1®="^" "'•tt "-ft:l,i\,,i'-g«• lasBitiaitaW'^..

r"i^VnSnmrMB

MHIP n n*!P1^%E9S>sisMS&-. ...ir'

tmr^r^iir^'f^'W'-'

Plate 4.2 TB75 beyond the Sivand River

"N-.'

5'

58

AkiraTSUNEKIandMohsenZEIDI

J.
.yt\

Plate 4.3 Distant view of TB75.

riaie4.4

UULlOOKTrOm Ib/D.

■EXCAVATIONS ATTB75 HAJl BAHRAMI CAVE

Plate 4.6 Drawing a section of Trench A

60

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDIs\

Plate 4.7 Small pit

1

Plate 4.8 West wall of Trench A.

Plate 4.9 North wall of Trench A.

EXCAVATIONS ATTB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)k^ - -^7-,4* ""^ £ *^c:i' ■-^"xt- -Vf%.

-

« ..

"■

*

..^

'• t-!*■'-' T
-

>

^

■

i

,.

:-^

*'■ ■'
Plate 4.10 The cave and Trench B.

IHBI

Plate 4.11 Blade and micro-blades from layers
2 and 3, Trench B.

I 1. ., .,1.2 ... 1.3 ...,l4 ... 1.5 . ..1.61.,,., 71,,, ,81,, ,91 ,, ,Zll

Plate 4.13 Small scrapers from Trench B.

Plate 4.12 Micro-blade cores from layers 2 and3, Trench B.

BluuliyiJjiyiiJiiii^ Imil mJ i i.uimil ij.[ iitml i u-ik?) L i i ! im I lu i[j^j|Plate 4.14 Two pointed pieces (layer 2, TrenchB), notch (layer 3, Trench B) andburin (layer 4, Trench A) (from theAkira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDIPlate 4.15 Digging Trenches C and D

Plate 4.16 Upper layers of the deposits atTrench C

EXCAVATIONS AT TB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)

64

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDIi

Plate 4.21

West wall section of Trench D.

'■Vim

Plate 4.22

Shallow pit in layer 2, Trench D.

m

Plate 4.23

Achaemenid large jar fragments found in layer 2,
Trench D.

EXCAVATIONS ATTB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)PIIIMHIISHHK Plate 4.24 iVIicro-blades from layer 3,

Plate 4.25 Micro-blade cores from layer 3,Trench D.

Trench D.

m

-■

■■

m

Plate 4.26 Borers from layer 4, Trench D.

Plate 4.27 Pierced disc from layer 4
Trench D.

'^34-,-

Plate 4.28 Grinding slab from layer 4,
Trench D.

Plate 4.29 Grinding stones from layer 5 (left) andlayer 4 (right), Trench D.

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

f

A

—

v

■

ri
^•r

sa-

-t.1

Plate 4.30 Spread of limestone rocks in layer 5,Trench D

Plate 4.31 Gazelle horn discovered near the stone spread in layer 5,Trench D

EXCAVATIONS AT TB75(HAJI BAHRAMI CAVE)I SiiilJjjubluLuk3]jiu!imLjiiiiJ

Plate4.32 Single platformed blade corefrom layer 5,Trench D.

Plate4.33 End-scrapers from layer 5,Trench D.

»«
Plate 4.34

, Small scrapers from layer 5,Trench D.

MMM
Plate 4.35

Backed blades and bladelets from layer 6,
Trench D.

'iSiiili iidlmi imlim jiiilmi iiiiljiul

67

CHAPTERSEXCAVATIONS AT TBl 30

5. EXCAVATIONS AT TB130

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDIAs mentioned above, the southern slope of Kuh-e Bolaghi Bozorg provided goodgeological conditions for forming limestone caves. TB130 is one such cave, located about
1.2 km east of TB75. However, TB130 is not so deep so we could call it a shelter rather thana cave (Pl.5.1, 5.2). The shelter is located in the middle of the slope at the western side of asmall valley, and a small wadi flows from north to south (PI.5.3). The shelter was formed in
the massive limestone protruding to the east. The shelter opens to the southeast and a limitedpart ofthe Bolaghi Valley can be viewed from it. The outlook from TB130 is much less open
than that of TB75. This is one of the reasons why there were no Achaemenid culturaldeposits at TB130. However, the natural environment around TB130, with the exception ofperspective, is quite similar to that of TB75. There are large limestone rocks lying about on
the slopes in the small valley where TB130 is situated. There is no fertile land for agriculturenear the cave other than the alluvium of the Sivand River in the Bolaghi Valley. Wild
pistachio and almond trees are scattered on the sterile slopes (Pl.5.4, 5.5). Small sized chert
pebbles could be collected both in the front wadi and the Sivand River (Pl.5.6).
The opening of TB130 is at 1848 m above sea level, and the height from the front wadi isabout 30m (Fig.5.1, 5.2). The shelter is 9m wide by 6m long, and the height of the opening isabout 9m (Fig.5.3). The interior of the shelter is c.50m^ and the space was filled with recent
ash and animal dxmg. The front terrace slope is steep, and the limestone bedrock is exposed
here and there, especially near the shelter. So, the cultural deposits ofthe upper terrace are verythin and quite limited. On the other hand, relatively thick cultural deposits were observed in the
middle and lower terraces, where we collected many chipped stones during our preliminary
survey. The existence of these artifacts encouraged us to carry out further excavation because
they pointed to the existence of Epi-Paleolithic / Neolithic cultural deposits.
Initially one 2 x 2m trench (Trench A) was sunk inside the shelter, and two 2 x Im
trenches (Trenches B and C)were sunk into the middle of the terrace slope along the northsouth axis. Then, another 2 x Im trench (Trench D)was sunk four meters east of Trench B.
As this trench produced part of a prehistoric stone floor, we excavated another 2 x Im trench(Trench E)adjoining it. Therefore, the excavated area covered 12 m^ in all.

72

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

I45ni

1840m

1835m

25 m

Fig.5.1 Morphological mapofTB130.

EXCAVATIONS ATTB130

1850m

1840m

1830m

1820m

1810m
0

Fig.5.2 Elevation of the shelter and the terrace of TB130.
A'

A

1860.00m

1855.00m

1850.00m

I I , II

I

I' , I ■, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ,T~ I , ,Fig.5.3 Shelter of TB130.

10m

73

74

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

surface soil
1848.00m

1847.50m
0

1

50cm

I

I

I

I

I

Fig.5.4 East wall section of Trench A.
Trench A

Surface soil. Black color soft soil, containing much animal dung.
1. Very soft white-gray ash.
2. Whitish ash.

3. Soft gray ash with small-sized limestone rocks.
Virgin soil. Orange terra-rossa clay soil with numerous rocks.

All of these trenches, except Trench A, have Proto-Neolithic cultural layers, which
produced a considerable number of lithic artifacts and debitage. A rough stone floor was also
discovered in Trench D-E. Therefore, it is quite probable that the Proto-Neolithic people
used the terrace of TB130 as an workshop area for flint knapping.

Trench A

A 2 X 2m trench was sunk deep inside the shelter (Pl.5.7). The location of the trench
was less than Im from the back wall of the shelter. Unfortunately, we reached virgin soil andbedrock at a depth of only 0.3m from the surface (Pl.5.8). The trench was filled with blacksoft soil, white-gray ash, animal dung and limestone pebbles (Fig.5.4). A few modem
potsherds were the only artificial objects recovered from digging, and they seem to be very
modem. We concluded that the shelter was used only by modem sheepherders, or that theprehistoric cultural deposits had completely eroded away from the shelter. We could not findany evidence that prehistoric people used this shelter.

Trench B

A 2 X 1 m trench was sunk into the middle of the terrace slope at 1832.7- 1832.1m. We
reached sterile orange brown soil with large limestone rocks, which was finally identified as
virgin soil, at a depth of60 - 70cm from the surface (Fig.5.5, Pl.5.9). Therefore, the thickness
ofthe cultural deposits of this trench was about 60-70cm. The deposits between the surface
and the virgin soil could be divided into four layers. All of the layers were accumulated
slantingly along the surface slope, and we could not identify any stmctures or levelingactivities by the ancient people. The lithofacies of each layer is as follows;
Surface soil: Brown color grassy soil with a few pebbles and roots. It is c.5cm thick.
Layer 1: Gray-brown soil with small limestone pebbles. It is 10- 15cm thick.
Layer 2: Whitish limestone pebble layer, partly visible in the westem part of the trench.
It is less than 10cm.

Layer 3: Soft gray soil with many limestone pebbles. It is 20-30cm thick.
Layer 4: Light brown soil with many limestone pebbles. It is 15 -20cm thick.
Virgin soil: Orange brown soil with large limestone rocks

EXCAVATIONS ATTB130

surface1832.00m

virginI soil

50cm
I

I

I

~r

Fig.5.5 East wall section of Trench B.
Trench B

Surface soil. Brown color grassy soil with a few pebbles and roots.
1. Gray-brown soil with small limestone pebbles.
2. Whitish limestone pebble layer.
3. Soft gray soil with many limestone pebbles.
4. Light brown soil with many limestone pebbles.
Virgin soil. Orange brown soil with large limestone rocks.

571 chipped stones and 14 potsherds wererecovered from the three cultural layers of thistrench. Five animal bone fragments comprised theother categorical finds. As for lithic artifacts, microblades (Pl.5.10) were the most numerous, and somesmall scrapers (PI.5.11 two pieces right in theFig.5.6 Mushki type potsherd
second row) and retouched or backed blades are
discovered in Trench B.
considered to be rather popular tools. A few lunates
were also found among the tools. Single platform
conical micro-blade cores were found in considerable numbers, and core trimming pieces
were also numerous. However, the differences between layers are small, and all layers
produced similar categories of lithic artifacts.
Compared to the number of chipped stones, the number of potsherds, i.e. fourteen, isquite small and limited. Most of the potsherds came from the surface soil and layer 1. In thissense, we must say that layer 1 was a mixed layer. Although most of potsherds are notdiagnostic for their chronological position, at least four of the fourteen potsherds seem tohave Neolithic affinities. Others are more recent. It is mysterious that one typical Mushki

painted potsherd was discovered among the limestone rocks in layer 4 (Fig.5.6, Pl.5.12).
However, it cannot be cotemporaneous with the lithic artifacts, because the latter dates muchearlier than the former. Almost all of the lithic artifacts from Trench B seem to date to theProto-Neolithic period, and they do not belong to the Pottery Neolithic period. Therefore, it
must be said that this Mushki potsherd is not in situ, but intrusive from the surface or layer 1.
In other cases, most ofthe terrace deposits were re-accumulated.

75

76

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI1831.50m

surface soil
1831.00m

1830.50m

virgin soil

Fig.5.7 East wall section of Trench C.
Trench C

Surface soil. Brown color grassy soil with a few pebbles and roots.
1. Gray-brown soil with many pebbles and a few cobbles.
2. Soft gray soil with very many limestone pebbles.
3. Light brown soil with many limestone pebbles.
Virgin soil. Orange brown soil with large limestone rocks.

Trench C

A 2 X 1 m trench sunk into the terrace two meters south of Trench B, at 1831 -1831.5m. The characteristics and the inclination of the cultural deposits are quite similar to
those of Trench B. The total thickness between the surface and virgin soil measures 60 70cm. Each cultural layer of Trench C is summarized as follows (Fig.5.7);
Surface soil: Brown color grassy soil with a few pebbles and roots. It is c. 10cm thick.
Layer 1: Gray-brown soil with many pebbles and a few cobbles. It is 15-20cm thick.
Layer 2: Soft gray soil with many limestone pebbles. It is 15 -25cm thick.
Layer 3: Light brown soil with many limestone pebbles. It is 20-30cm thick.
Virgin soil: Orange brown soil with large limestone rocks.
578 chipped stones and 22 small potsherds were obtained from the excavation.
Characteristics and composition of the lithic artifacts were very similar to those of Trench B.
As for pottery, the existence ofthe historic potsherds indicates that they were intrusive.

Trench D-E

Trench D was also dug in the middle of the terrace slope. It is a 2 x 1 m trench located
4m east of Trench B (Pl.5.13). Therefore, the altitude ofthis trench is almost the same as thatof Trench B. The uppermost surface level of this trench is at 1832.6m. As mentioned above,
this trench produced part of a stone floor. We laid out another 2 x 1 m trench (Trench E),
next to it and these two trenches formed one 2 x 2 m trench as a result.

We dug down about 50cm from the surface and encountered a stone floor, paved withmany angular limestone pebbles (Fig.5.8, Pl.5.14). The slope was artificially leveled at first,
and then angular limestone pebbles were spread very roughly. The floor level is at 1831.6 -EXCAVATIONS AT TB130

A'

A

1832.00m

Elevation of stone floor

1832.50m

1832.00]

050cm

Fig.5.8 Stone floor discovered in Trench D - E and west wall section.
Trench D-E

Surface soil: Brown color grassy soil.

1. Gray-brown soft soil with limestone pebbles.
2. Soft gray ashy soil with limestone pebbles.
3. Reddish gray soil with many limestone pebbles.

77

78

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI1831.9m. The northern edge of the floor seemed to be fringed with a row of large limestone,
along the line of the same contour. The extent of the floor is not fixed, because the floor
extended out of the trench in two directions. Based on its present condition, the floor seems
to have a long and narrow shape, being 1.2 - 1.5m wide. The floor surface is rough andhardened, and it was probably used for working purposes, such as butchering or cooking,rather than for habitation.

As we stopped digging at the level of the stone floor, the exposed cultural deposits are
relatively thin, measuring 50 - 60cm. However, we distinguished three cultural layers fromthe surface soil and the stone floor. The lithofacies of each layer are as follows (Fig.5.8);
Surface soil: Brown color grassy soil. It is 5 - 10cm thick.
Layer 1: Gray-brown soft soil with limestone pebbles. It is c.l5cm thick.
Layer 2: Soft gray ashy soil with limestone pebbles. It is 15 -20cm thick.
Layer 3: Reddish gray soil with many limestone pebbles. It is c.l5cm thick.
The characteristics of layers 1 and 2 are similar to those of Trenches B and C. The colorof layer 3, the soil accumulated on the stone floor, was slightly different from that ofTrenches B and C, but the lithofacies are not so different. We can say safely that the abovementioned stone floor was formed before the accumulation of layer 3.
All three layers produced a large number of and quite similar chipped stones, consisting
mainly of micro-blades, small scrapers (Pl.5.11), retouched / backed blades, and a few
geometric microliths (Pl.5.15), notches and burins (Pl.5.16 left and right). A considerable
number of micro-blade cores (Pl.5.17) were also discovered. Trench D-E did not produce
potsherds. Therefore, all cultural deposits of Trench D-E seem to belong to the aceramic,
Proto-Neolithic period.
The chipped stone assemblages discovered from these three trenches on the terrace of

TB130 essentially belong to the same lithic industry, or so-called micro-blade industry.
Compared with the number of lithic artifacts, the number of potsherds recovered is extremely
small. Almost all ofthe potsherds discovered in Trenches B and C came from the surface andupper layers. On the basis of the relative dating of lithic material, this pottery, even theMushki specimen from Trench B, must date to a period later than all of the lithic artifacts. As
with the material from Trench B of TB75, it seems likely that the upper layers at Trenches B
and C of TB130 that contain a mixture of pottery and lithic material have been re-depositedfrom higher up the slope. It is possible that the lithic artifacts from the layers without pottery
could also have been re-deposited. However, there is consistency in the lithic assemblages
from the aceramic levels in each trench. This suggests that the lithic material from theselower layers may represent a coherent chipped stone assemblage. Of course. Trenches A, C
and D inside the cave at TB75 produced the pure aceramic layers, and there is no doubt
about their purity.

The details of each lithic assemblage will be discussed in Chapter 6.

EXCAVATIONS AT TB130

"vji'
5Hi
Ps:-

k?

fj. ,

,'3|.

^2

V^'S
!

f►>«•■?<■ ~ y I <? ' '■' 'JI■"f;■/' , «»;.rt' '.-^'i''«•J/ C,V.vi
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Plate 5.1

Distant view of TB130

riWrt%k.fs

<'V

I-

Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDI

m.ZM .

'r - *■■■-■

pk IT'*^11^

V'

mm-r

111

f■
7^a

,.v

Plate 5.3

Wadiflows in front of TB130

-•s

ft v

\

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mS

'
I )' -m^sUllf^kiQHK%VfiR

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Akira TSUNEKI and Mohsen ZEIDII•
ffil11111hijiJ tiulI((tPlate 5.10 Micro-blades from Trench B.

UuJlul iiiiJmli111 li miIII11imlwaiS
Plate 5.9 North wall section of Trench B.

Plate 5.11 Small scrapers from various trenches

Plate 5.12

Mushki type painted potsherd from Trench B.

.

■

.--V-

:

'

,-V,

Plate5.13 'Digging Trench D-E on the terrace.

v -

* i

EXCAVATIONS AT TB130

CHAPTER 6

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGESFROMTB75 ANDTB130

6. LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

KatsuhikoOHNUMAIntroduction

This is the report of techno-typology of the lithic assemblages from TB75 and TB130
unearthed in the 2005 and 2006 field seasons. Also to be presented in this report is ahypothetical dating of these lithic assemblages in the Epi-Paleolithic to Proto-Neolithic
chronological framework ofthe Zagros Mountains.

Overall Description of the Lithic Artifacts (See Appendix for inventories of the lithic
artifacts from all of the layers)
The lithic artifacts unearthed from TB75 (Haji Bahrami Cave) and TB130 in the 2005
and 2006 field seasons total 10,703. Ofthese, unbroken, complete pieces total 3,922 from the2005 season, consisting of 1,250 pieces from TB75 and TB130, and 2,672 pieces from the2006 season at TB75.

Manufactured on chert-like flint, the lithic artifacts of TB75 and TB130 vary in colour
from dark-brown to green, and the sizes of raw materials are small, especially towards theupper layers. In accordance with the size of raw materials, the largest lithic artifact for the
lower Layers 6 and 5 of TB75 is a blade core from Layer 5 measuring 82 mm long, 53 mm
wide and 48 mm thick. The lithic artifacts of the upper Layers 4 to 1 are very small, and thelargest one except for an end-scraper on blade (53 mm long, 22 mm wide and 6 mm thick)from Layer 4 is the initial core with a single flake scar from Layer 1, measuring 47 mm long,
24 mm wide and 24 mm thick, demonstrating that in Layers 4 to 1 the reduction of cores
started using small raw materials in most cases.

Classified into debitage pieces, core rejuvenation flakes, chips or retouch-flakes,
retouched pieces and cores, the lithic artifacts bear consistent features throughout the layers

in tool typology. The technological features of their manufacture, however, change from

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Katsuhiko OHNUMA

layer to layer gradually and continuously.
The debitage pieces, defined to be intentional flake products derived from core
reduction, are classified into cortical flakes, partially-cortical flakes and non-cortical flakes,
the last of which are further classified into flakes, blades and micro-blades. Blades aredefined here to be flakes with the length equal to or more than twice the width, and microblades are defined to be blades of which the width is less than 1.2 cm.

Few traces of cresting operation for the production of blades and micro-blades arerecognized, indicating that in most cases the detachment of blades and micro-blades started
following ridges left by the removal of one or two flakes at the beginning of core reduction,and not following crested ridges prepared on core surface prior to the start of blade and/or
micro-blade core reduction.

The shapes of the blade cores are mainly prismatic, and those of the micro-blade cores
are conical, pyramidal and prismatic, but only a few examples of the typical "bullet" core formicro-blades were unearthed.

The core rejuvenation flakes consist of core tablets, core bottom flakes, core-surface
removing flakes and change of orientation flakes.

The chips are defined here to be bi-product flakes from core reduction, and the retouchflakes are defined to be flakes from retouch modification. It is difficult, however, todifferentiate these two unless they are refitted. Included in the retouch-flake categories areburin spalls and edge-rejuvenation flakes of end-scrapers.
The retouched pieces consist of tools and/or weapons such as backed pieces, notchedpieces, side-scrapers, end-scrapers, thumb-nail scrapers and burins. They are very small inmost cases, and many of them can be defined to be non-geometric microliths, such as
backed, retouched and notched micro-blades. Added to the non-geometric microliths aregeometric microliths of the lunate and trapezoid categories, though small in number.
It is noteworthy that pressure-flaked blades, characteristic of the later Neolithic
industries in the region, were not unearthed at all. Also noteworthy is the absence of heat
treatment, a technological operation said to have been invented in Neolithic period toimprove the quality of raw materials to make easier the manufacture of lithic artifacts bypressure. In addition, no pieces with sickle gloss to testify harvesting of planted cereals were
unearthed.

No micro-burins were unearthed, and their absence at TB75 and TB130 strongly

suggests that the geometric microliths from the sites were manufactured by means ofretouching on micro-blades, and not by the micro-burin technique. This suggestion is
supported by the widths of the micro-blades themselves, 2 to 5 mm and those of thegeometric microliths which are smaller.
The absence of the micro-burin technique at TB75 and TB130 leads us to suppose that
this technique had been already ceased to use by the inhabitants of Tang-e Bolaghi or had notever been known in the area.

Layer by Layer Description of Lithic Artifacts of TB75 and TB130
This section describes the lithic artifacts from the layers of TB75 and TB130 withspecimens numerous enough for discussion as assemblages.
TB75

Layer 6 of Trench D (2006: 580 pieces): Round scrapers (Fig.6-1-1) represent theretouched pieces (Fig.6-1-4, 5, 6). Non-geometric microliths such as backed micro-blades(Fig.6-1-7, 8) exist in a considerably large number. The shapes of flake/blade/micro-blade

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TBl30

cores are prismatic (Fig.6-1-9, 10). Both the blades and micro-blades or small blades (Fig.61-2, 3) are detached by percussion from the same cores, and the core reduction ended withthe final detachment of a micro-blade or small blade.

Layer 5 of Trench D (2006: 530 pieces): Retouched pieces (Fig.6-2-1, 2, 3, 6) include
end-scrapers (Fig.6-2-4) and thumb-nail scrapers (Fig.6-2-5). Non-geometric microliths,
backed micro-blades in particular, exist in a considerably large number. The shapes of thecores of the blades (Fig.6-2-7) and/or micro-blades are mainly prismatic. Like in Layer 6,both the blades and micro-blades were detached by percussion from the same cores until core
reduction ended with the final detachment of a micro-blade or small blade. The cores of thiskind do not exhibit such regularity as is seen on the micro-blade cores from the upper layers.
Layer 4 of Trench C (2006: 141 pieces): Retouched pieces include end-scrapers (Fig.63-1), burins and thumb-nail scrapers. Non-geometric microliths such as backed micro-blades(Fig.6-3-2) exist. One geometric microlith of the trapezoid category (Fig.6-3-4) was
unearthed, which measures 22 mm long, 10 mm wide and 4 mm thick. This size is bigger
than those of the geometric microliths from the upper Layer 2 of Trench B and Layer 2 ofTrench E of TBl30. The cores for flakes and blades are reduced by percussion, and themicro-blade cores are reduced by pressure.
Layer 4 of Trench D (2006: 2,601 pieces): Retouched pieces include side-scrapers, endscrapers, thumb-nail scrapers, round scrapers, denticulated pieces and notched pieces. Nongeometric microliths such as backed micro-blades exist. The cores (Fig.6-3-9) for flakes andblades are irregular or prismatic in shape and reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade
cores are prismatic or conical in shape and reduced by pressure (Fig.6-3-7). It is noteworthy
that the inhabitants at TB75 of this layer period tried to pressure-flake micro-blades from theraw materials used for blade production by percussion, splitting them into the size
appropriate to start micro-blade production by pressure. The cores of this kind show that withthese raw materials the inhabitants did not succeed in detaching micro-blades as they wanted,
resulting in quick abandonment of cores at the very beginning of the core reduction. In thisregard, it is highly probable that the inhabitants started to collect at some distant place raw
materials of quality good enough for micro-blade production by pressure. This kind of raw
materials is very glassy and offine texture.
Layer 3 of Trench B (2005: 1,145 pieces): Retouched pieces (Fig.6-3-3) include
notched pieces (Fig.6-3-5), side-scrapers, end-scrapers, thumb-nail scrapers (Fig.6-3-6) andretouched blades. Non-geometric microliths such as retouched micro-blades exist. The coresfor flakes and blades are of irregular shape and reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade
cores are conical in shape and reduced by pressure.
Layer 3 of Trench C (2006: 347 pieces): Retouched pieces (Fig.6-4-7) include sidescrapers and thumb-nail scrapers. Non-geometric microliths such as side-scrapers andtransversal scrapers exist. The cores for flakes and blades are reduced by percussion, and themicro-blade cores, conical or prismatic in shape, are reduced by pressure quite elaborately, 2ofthem being qualified to be called "bullet" type (Fig.6-4-8).
Layer 3 of Trench D (2006: 1,006 pieces): Retouched pieces include side-scrapers,
notched pieces (Fig.6-4-6) and thumb-nail scrapers (Fig.6-4-5). Non-geometric microliths
such as backed micro-blades and side-scrapers exist (Fig.6-4-1). The cores for flakes andblades are prismatic in shape and reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade cores areprismatic and conical in shape (Fig.6-4-11), exhibiting a great deal of regularity on theflaking surface. The reduction of micro-blade cores by pressure used raw materials different
from those used for the blade core reduction.

Layer 2 of Trench B (2005: 404 pieces): Retouched pieces (Fig.6-5-1) include sidescrapers and end-scrapers. Non-geometric microliths such as backed micro-blades exist.
Geometric microliths of the lunate category also exist. The cores for flakes and blades are of

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0

3cm

L-

Fig.6.1 Lithic artifacts of Phase 1 (All of the artifacts are from Layer 6 of Trench D,Tang-e
Bolaghi 75).
1. Round scraper; 2. Blade or micro-blade; 3. Blade or micro-blade; 4. End-scraper; 5. Thumb-nail scraper;
6. Notched piece; 7. Backed micro-blade;8. Backed micro-blade;9. Prismatic core; 10. Prismatic core

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

u

I

3cm
-I

Fig.6.2 Lithic artifacts of Phase 2(All of the artifacts are from Layer 5 of Trench D,Tang-e
Bolaghi 75).
1. Burin on a retouched truncation; 2. Scraper; 3. Denticulated piece; 4. End-scraper; 5. Thumb-nailscraper;6. Backed blade; 7. Prismatic core for blades

1

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2 £2^

3cm

Fig.6.3 Lithic artifacts of Phase 3(TB:Tang-e Bolaghi/Tr:Trench/L: Layer).
1. End-scraper (TB75/TrC/L4); 2. Backed micro-blade (TB75/TrC/L4); 3. Burin on a break probably of Phase
3(TB75/TrB/L3);4. Geometric microlith of the trapezoid category (TB75/TrC/L4); 5. Notched/Denticulated
blade probably of Phase 3 (TB75/TrB/L3); 6. Thumb-nail scraper probably of Phase 3 (TB75/TrB/L3); 7.
Conical core for micro-blades (TB75/TrD/L4); 8. Prismatic core for micro-blades (TB130/TrB/L4); 9.

Prismatic core for micro-blades at the initial stage of reduction (TB75/TrD/L4); 10. Prismatic core formicro-blades(TB130/TrB/L4)

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

m'A

3cm

Fig.6.4 Lithic artifacts of Phase 4(TB:Tang-e Bolaghi /Tr:Trench / L: Layer).
1. Retouched micro-blade (TB75/TrD/L3); 2. Micro-blade (TB75/TrD/L3); 3. Micro-blade (TB75/TrD/L3); 4.

Micro-blade (TB75/TrD/L3); 5. Thumb-nail scraper {TB75/TrD/L3); 6. Notched scraper (TB75/TrD/L3); 7.

End-scraper (TB75/TrC/L3); 8."Bullet" type core for micro-blades (TB75/TrC/L3); 9. Conical core for microblades (TB130/TrD/L3); 10. Conical core for micro-blades (TB130/TrD/L3); 11. Prismatic core for microblades(TB75/TrD/L3)

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3cm_j

Fig.6.5 Lithic artifacts of Phase 5 (TB:Tang-e Bolaghi /Tr:Trench / L: Layer).
1. Pointed flake (TB75/TrB/L2); 2. Geometric microlith of the lunate category (TB130/TrE/L2);3. Geometricmicrolith of the trapezoid category (TB130/TrE/L2); 4. Micro-blade probably of Phase 5 (TB75/TrD/L2); 5.
End-scraper probably of Phase 5(TB75/TrD/L2)

irregular shape and reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade cores are conical in shapeand reduced by pressure.
TB130

Layer 4 of Trench B (2005: 403 pieces): Retouched pieces include notched pieces, sidescrapers and thumb-nail scrapers. The cores for flakes and blades are prismatic in shape andreduced by percussion, and the micro-blade cores are conical in shape and reduced bypressure (Fig.6-3-8, 10).

Layer 3 of Trench D (2005: 492 pieces): Side-scrapers represent the retouched pieces.
The cores for flakes are irregular in shape and reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade
cores are conical in shape and reduced by pressure quite elaborately (Fig.6-4-9, 10).
Layer 2 of Trench E (2005: 410 pieces): Retouched pieces include scrapers and thumbnail scrapers. Geometric microliths of the lunate and trapezoid categories exist (Fig.6-5-2, 3).
The cores for flakes are reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade cores are reduced bypressure.

Layer 1 of Trench E (2005: 473 pieces): Retouched pieces include fan-shaped
transversal scrapers. The cores for flakes and blades are irregular in shape and reduced by
percussion, and the micro-blade cores are conical in shape and reduced by pressure.

Correlation of Layers of TB75 and TB130 and Establishment of Phases
Five phases can be established for the lithic assemblages at TB75 and TB130 in thechronological order from Phase 1 to Phase 5. This phase establishment is based on thetechno-typological features of the lithic artifacts.
Phase 1: Layer 6 (Trench D) of TB75 with round scrapers and non-geometricmicroliths. Both the blades and micro-blades or small blades were detached by percussion,and the core reduction ended with the final detachment of a micro-blade or small blade.

Phase 2: Layer 5 (Trench D)of TB75 with end-scrapers, thumb-nail scrapers and nongeometric microliths. Both the blades and micro-blades or small blades were detached by

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

percussion, and the core reduction ended with the final detachment of a micro-blade or small
blade. These features are seen in the lithic artifacts from KMC Cave near Marvdasht in thesouth-eastern Zagros, dated to the late Zarzian (Rosenberg 2003). The techno-typologicalfeatures of this phase are quite similar to those of Phase 1, and this phase can be unified toPhase 1. However, radiocarbon dates obtained for the Layers 6 and 5(14,700±70BC/14,380±60BC for Layer 6 (both uncalibrated) and 10,275±50 BC/10,305±50
BC/10,690±50 BC for Layer 5 (all uncalibrated))(Chapter 10 of this volume) have led thepresent author to separate these two layers into two phases.
Phase 3: Layer 4(Trench C)of TB75, Layer 4(Trench D)of TB75, Layer 3(Trench B)
of TB75 and Layer 4 (Trench B) of TB130 with side-scrapers, end-scrapers, thumb-nailscrapers, round scrapers, denticulated/notched pieces, burins, non-geometric microliths suchas backed micro-blades and geometric microliths of the trapezoid category. The cores forflakes and blades were reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade cores were reduced bypressure of mediocre skill. It is worthy to note that the inhabitants at TB75 and TB130 of thisphase period started pressure-flaking of micro-blades, using good quality raw materials
obtained at some distant places.
Phase 4: Layer 3(Trench C)of TB75, Layer 3(Trench D)of TB75 and Layer 3(TrenchD) of TB130 with side-scrapers, notched pieces, thumb-nail scrapers, and non-geometricmicroliths such as backed micro-blades, side-scrapers and transversal scrapers. The cores forflakes and blades were reduced by percussion, and the micro-blade cores were reduced bypressure quite elaborately. The micro-blade production by pressure used raw materials finerin quality than those for the blade production by percussion.
Phase 5: Layer 2(Trench B)of TB75, Layer 2(Trench E) of TB130, Layer 1 (TrenchB) of TB130 with side-scrapers, end-scrapers, thumb-nail scrapers, fan-shaped transversal

scrapers and non-geometric microliths such as backed micro-blades. Geometric microliths ofthe lunate and trapezoid categories exist. The cores for flakes and blades were reduced by
percussion, and the micro-blade cores were reduced by pressure. This phase is not to beconclusively established, and can be unified to Phase 4. Phase 5 is established, however, on
the basis of the presence of geometric microliths of the lunate and trapezoid categories, thatare not clearly seen in the layers ofPhase 4.

Lithic Assemblages of the Surrounding Regions

Lithic assemblages to be reviewed first for comparison in the regions surrounding TB75
and TB130 are the Zarzian materials from the rockshelter site of Warwasi in the Zagros

Mountains in the province of Luristan, West Iran (Olszewski 1993). Olszewski grouped thematerials into four stratigraphical units, and the artifacts commonly seen in these units are
non-geometric microliths, notch/denticulates and thumb-nail scrapers. Micro-burins appear
in the second earliest unit (Unit 2) in association with geometric microliths {ibid).
Illustrations of blades and micro-blades demonstrate that pressure flaking was not employedin their detachment from single-platform or opposed-platform cores {ibid: 208, Fig.8-1).
In 2004, lithic artifacts comparable to those from TB75 and TB130 were reported fromthe Zagros Mountains in the province of Luristan, West Iran. Roustaei and others carried out
Paleolithic surveys in the province, and reported on the Vare Zard site complex, a series ofrockshelters with a scatter of Epi-Paleolithic and "Proto-Neolithic (Mellaart 1965: 18)"
artifacts. The scatter of the artifacts extended more than 200 m along the site complex on acliff slope (Roustaei, et al. 2004). Illustrations of the selected artifacts from this site complex
demonstrate their high similarity to the lithic artifacts from TB75 and TB130, both being
characterized by notched blades/micro-blades, end-scrapers, borers, side-scrapers, and

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blades/micro-blades with parallel ridges and edges. The illustrations also demonstrate thatthe micro-blades at least were detached by pressure, and some of the conical micro-blade
cores bearing regular flake scars can be called "bullet" cores {ibid. 2004: 705, Fig.l 1).
In addition to the materials from the Warwasi rockshelter and the Vare Zard site

complex, a material of the late phase of the Zagros Zarzian was reported in 2003 from KMC
Cave in the south-eastem Zagros(Rosenberg 2003).
Along the foothills of the north-west Zagros Mountains in north Iraq, Proto-Neolithic
assemblages comparable to those from TB75 and TB130 were reported in detail. These
Proto-Neolithic assemblages were unearthed from the open-air sites of Zawi Chemi
Shanidar, MTefaat and Karim Shahir. Outlined below are the inventories of the lithic

assemblages from these sites.
Zawi Chemi Shanidar is located north-east of Mosul (Solecki 1981). Layer B of thissite, dated to 8,920±300 B.C. by 14C determination, was associated with circular stonearchitecture, 2 m in diameter. The lithic artifacts consist of backed blades, denticulated

pieces, notched pieces, truncated pieces, borers, side-scrapers, pieces esquillees andgeometric microliths of the lunate category. Neither sheen-bearing pieces nor micro-burins
are reported. The photographs of the cores demonstrate that the blades and micro-blades
were not detached by pressure. Interestingly, possibility of domestication of sheep was
proposed at this site on the basis that animal bones of infants under one year old radicallyincreased to 60 % at this site from the percentage under 25 in the Paleolithic layers at the
nearby site of Shanidar Cave {ibid.\ Cole 1970).
At M'lefaat, located east ofthe plain of Mosul, three stone-made floors(4 m x 3 m each)were unearthed, and lithic artifacts such as notched pieces, micro-blades with use-nibbled
edges, scrapers and perforators were unearthed from these floors (Dittemore 1983). Thesefloors were dated to between 8,900 and 8,600 B.C. Neither geometric microliths nor microburins were reported. Parallel ridges and edges as well as consistent width of the microblades demonstrate that the pressure flaking was used to detach them (Howe 1983: 130-131;
Dittemore 1983: 673-674).
Karim Shahir is located east of Chemchemal in the province of Kirkuk. Large numbersof lithic artifacts were unearthed from a single occupation floor, composed of a stone
pavement and pits in an area of 500-600 ml This floor was dated to between 8,900 and 8,600
B.C.(Howe 1983: 130-131). The lithic artifacts consist of backed micro-blades, drills, endscrapers, side-scrapers, obliquely truncated pieces and many notched pieces. Because
geometric microliths as a true category were not found, the micro-burins from this site arethought to have been the by-product pieces from the manufacture of obliquely truncatedpieces, unrelated to the micro-burin technique. Most of the blade or micro-blade cores areconical in shape, and the illustrations {ibid: Figs. 20, 21) demonstrate that elaborate pressure
flaking was used to detach micro-blades.

Hypothetical Dating of the Lithic Assemblages of TB75 and TB130 in the Epi-Paleolithic toProto-Neolithic Framework of the Zagros Mountains(Table 6.1)
The term "assemblage" is used here for Layers 6 to 1 of TB75 and TB130 in the sensethat they had not been disturbed stratigraphically by any agency and that more than 100 lithic
artifacts were unearthed from them.

At first glance, the lithic assemblages from TB75 and TB130 on the whole, which arecomposed of tool types such as end-scrapers, thumb-nail scrapers, denticulated pieces,notched pieces, non-geometric microliths like retouched, backed and notched micro-blades,and geometric microliths of the lunate and trapezoid categories, might be easily dated to the

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Table 6.1 Hypothetical dating of Phases 1 to 5 of TB75 and TB130 in the Epi-Paleolithic toProto-Neolithic chronological framework of the Zagros Mountains.
South-£ast Zagros

North-West Zagros

Micro-burin technique Zam Chemi Shanidar<Epi-Paleolithic>

TBPhl

ZarzianLate Zarzian

TBPh2

KMC Cave<Proto-Neolithic>

M'lefaat Karim Shahir Pressureflaking of micro-blade

TBPh3

t
Aceramic Jarmo

Geometric microliths

TBPh4

TBPhS(?)

Pottery
Jarmoi

Mushki<Pottery NeoUthio

Jari<Legend>

TBPhl:Phase 1 ofTang-e Bolaghi(TB75)
TBPh2:Phase 2 of Tang-e Bolaghi(TB75)
TBPhS:Phase 3 ofTang-e Bolaghi(TB75 and TB130)
TBPh4:Phase 4 ofTang-e Bolaghi(TB75 and TB130)
TBPhS:Phase 5 ofTang-e Bolaghi(TB75 and TB130)

Epi-Paleolithic of the Zagros Mountains, best represented by the Rockshelter site of
Warwasi, West Iran (Olszewski 1993).

Taking their overall techno-typology into consideration, however, the TB75 and TB130
assemblages can be more reasonably placed within the chronological framework from theZarzian to the Proto-Neolithic ofthe Zagros Mountains.
This hypothetical dating is based on the discussions below.

1) Different from the Zarzian assemblages lacking in pressure flaking of micro-blades.
Phases 3 to 5 of TB75 and TB130 used this flaking technique. This is a major difference
between the assemblages of TB75 and TB130 and those of the Zarzian.
2) At TB75 and TB130, continuous and gradual change in the manner of micro-blade
detachment is observed in Phases 3 through 5. In Phases 1 and 2, no distinction existed

between the productions of blades and micro-blades, both having been detached from same
cores by percussion until the core reduction ended with the final detachment of a micro-bladeor small blade. In Phase 3, distinction in the production of blade and micro-blades appeared.
At some point in this phase period, the inhabitants of TB75 and TB130 started to pressureflake micro-blades using the raw materials that were being used for blade production by
percussion, splitting them into an appropriate size to initiate the micro-blade production bypressure. At the same time, they started to collect raw materials, from outcrops of somedistance, that were acceptable for micro-blade production by pressure. In Phases 4 and 5,
production of blades and micro-blades became completely different in terms ofraw materials
and manner of their core reduction. Blades were still percussion-flaked using raw materialsof all kinds of flakeable quality. Micro-blades, on the other hand, were elaborately pressureflaked using raw materials of quality suited for the pressure flaking. From this, we may
suggest that the inhabitants of TB75 and TB130 in the period of Phase 3 started to trade raw
materials for pressure flaking, or that they at least started bringing these raw materials
themselves into TB75 and TB130.

From the discussions above. Phases 1 to 5 of TB75 and TB130 are dated within the EpiPaleolithic to Proto-Neolithic framework ofthe Zagros Mountains as follows.
Phase 1 is dated to the Zarzian of the Zagros Mountains, and Phase 2 is dated to theLate Zarzian such as the material from KMC Cave in the south-east Zagros Mountains.

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Phase 3 with new features to be established in Phase 4 is dated to the Proto-Neolithic in the

Zagros Mountains, particularly to a period posterior to the assemblages of M'lefaat and
Karim Shahir. It seems that the micro-blade production by pressure which appeared in thisphase was derived from the regions north of TB75 and TB130, including the Zagros foothills
in north Iraq where the sites of Karim Shahir and M'lefaat are located. In Phase 4,the microblades were flaked off by pressure quite elaborately. Though still bearing geometricmicroliths, Phase 5 can be dated to the Aceramic Neolithic such as Aceramic Jarmo.

Summary and Conclusion
As discussed in the preceding sections, the lithic assemblages from TB75 and TB130
undoubtedly present new data for the prehistoric research of the Epi-Paleolithic throughProto-Neolithic periods of the Zagros Mountains.
They are important not only for the reason that they present new data but for the reason
that they present interesting data that can contribute to an essential research subject inarchaeology, namely, the inter-relationship between "culture change" and "change in humanbehaviour".

It is hoped in the future that lithic assemblages comparable to those from TB75 andTB130 will be found at stratified sites in its proximity, providing support to the hypotheticalchronology of the Epi-Paleolithic to Proto-Neolithic of the Zagros Mountains proposed inthis report.
Acknowledgements
I express my sincerest gratitude to Mr. Mohsen Zeidi of the Iranian Center for
Archaeological Research and Dr. Fereidoun Biglari of the Center for Paleolithic Research of
the National Museum of Iran, who kindly gave us useful information on the prehistory of
Iran and its surrounding regions. My sincerest gratitude is due to Dr. Deborah I. Olszewskiof the University Museum, the University of Pennsylvania, who kindly gave me wideranging information on the Epi-Paleolithic of the Zagros Mountains. I also thank Ms. Mai
Tsuneki, post-graduate student of Kokushikan University, who completed the illustrations of
the lithic artifacts in this report.

References
Cole, S.

1970 The Neolithic Revolution (5th edition), Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History),
London.

Dittemore, M.
1983 "The soundings at M'lefaat", in L.S. Braidwood, R.J. Braidwood, B. Howe, C.A. Reed and P.J.

Watson (eds.). Prehistoric Archeology along the Zagros Flanks, University of Chicago
Oriental Institute Publications vol. 105 : 671-692, Chicago.
Howe,B.
1983 "Karim Shahir", in L.S. Braidwood, R.J. Braidwood, B. Howe, C.A. Reed and P.J. Watson(eds.). Prehistoric Archeology along the Zagros Flanks, University of Chicago Oriental
Institute Publications vol. 105 : 23-154, Chicago.
Mellaart, J.

1965 Earliest Civilizations ofthe Near East, Thames and Hudson, London.
Ohnuma, K.

1997 "Chronology of the 'Proto-Neolithic' of Iraq and Syria: Hypothetical view", Al-Rafidan Vol.
XVIII: 45-58.

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Olszewski, D. 1.

1993 "The Zarzian Occupation at Warwasi Rockshelter, Iran", in D.I. Olszewski and H.L. Dibble(eds.) The Paleolithic Prehistory of the Zagros-Taurus, Monograph 83 of the University
Museum,University ofPennsylvania : 207-236, Philadelphia.
Rosenberg, M.
2003 "The Epi-Paleolithic in The Marv Dasht", in N. F. Miller and K. Abdi (eds.) Yeki Bud, Yeki
Nabud, Essays on the Archaeology ofIran, The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University ofCalifornia, Los Angeles.
Roustaei, K., H. Vahdati Nasab, F. Biglari, S. Heydari, G.A. Clark and J.M. Lindly2004 "Recent Paleolithic Surveys in Luristan", Current Anthropology vol.45, no.5: 692-707.
Solecki, R.L.

1981

Early Village Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar, Bibliotheca Mesopotamica vol.13, Undena
Publications, Malib.

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100

KatsuhikoOHNUMAAppendix Layer by Layer Inventories of the Lithic Artifacts unearthed in the 2005 and2006 Field Seasons from Tang-e Bolaghi 75 (TB 75) and Tang-e Bolaghi 130(TB 130)
P* : First Classification
2^: Second Classification

3"*: Third Classification

TB 75(2005 Field Season)
Trench A
Surface
1st

2"^

3rd

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

FlakesBroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
BladesMicro-blade

Chips or Retouch-flakes
Fragments
Total

11

Layer 1
1st

2nd

3"'

Cores

Non-pressure
Initial cores
Prismatic for flakes

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

Fragments
Total

Layer 2
1st

2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
BladesMicro-bladesCore rejuvenation flakes
Modification flakes offlaking surfaceof micro-blade cores

1

Chips or Retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces41

Non-geometric microliths
Retouched micro-blades

1

Fragments
Core fragments

6
67

Total

"\2A"

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TBl 30

Layer 2(Sieving)
2nd

1"

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

Chips or Retouch-flakes5
Retouched pieces
End-scrapers
Cores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades

Non-pressure
Initial cores

Fragments
Total

22

Total

16

Layer 32nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
BladesMicro-bladesCore rejuvenation flakes
Core tablets

Retouched pieces
Denticulated blades
Cores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades
Prismatic for micro-blades

Fragments

Layer 3(Sieving)
pt

2"<'

3^

Debitage pieces
Partially-cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
BladesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Blades2

Micro-blades

6

Chips or Retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces

13

Steep scrapers

1

Non-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades

1

Broken retouched pieces
Retouched pieces

1

Core fragments1......

Total

101

102

Katsuhiko OHNUMA

Layer 4
pt

2"^

3"^

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

Flakes3

Micro-blades

7

Chips or Retouch-flakes

5

Retouched pieces

Steep scrapers

1

Cores

Non-pressure
Prismatic for flakes

1Core fragments

1
.....

Layer 4(Sieving)
p.

2"^

3"*

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Blades4

Micro-blades

12

Chips or Retouch-flakes
Fragments

16
6
Total

39

Trench B

Surface
pt

2""

3^^^

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

1

Broken retouched pieces

Non-geometric microliths
Retouched micro-blades

Small fragments

1

1

Layer 1
p,

2"''

S"*

Debitage pieces
Partially-cortical flakes

2

Non-cortical flakes
Flakes2

Blades2

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

Micro-blades

Chips or Retouch-flakes

913LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Retouched pieces
Non-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades
Total

31

Layer 2
2nd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

5

Partially-cortical flakes

4

Non-cortical flakes
Flakes12

Crested flakes

1

Micro-blades

4Core rejuvenation flakes(
Core tablets

2

Chips or Retouch-flakes

36

Retouched pieces
Side-scrapers
End-scrapers
Steep scrapers
Thumb-nail scrapers

2

9
3
1

Pointed blades2Retouched blades1Retouched pieces
Non-geometric microliths

5

Retouched micro-blades
Geometric microliths
Lunates

Atypical limates
Broken retouched pieces

Used obsidian pressure micro-blades
Retouched bladesNon-geometric microliths
Retouched micro-blades
Cores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades

Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

3

Fragments

238

Core fragments

61

Total

"ToT"

Layer 32nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

2

Partially-cortical flakes

18

Non-cortical flakes
Flakes13

Micro-blades

13

Micro-blades

234

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

Core rejuvenation flakes
Core tablets

12

103

104

KatsuhikoOHNUMA

1Core tablets for micro-blade cores

Change of orientation flakes

1

Broken core bottom flakes

2

Modification flakes offlaking surface
5

from micro-blade cores

Chips or retouch-flakes

406

Edge-rejuvenation flakes of end-scrapers

1

Notched pieces1

Notched blades1Retouched pieces

Notched pointed blades

1

Backed blades

1Side-scrapers
End-scrapers
Multiple burins
Thumb-nail scrapers

2
4
1
5

2

Retouched blades
Retouched flakes

2

Pointed small flakes

4

Retouched small flakes

2

Retouched core-tablets

1

Non-geometric microliths
1

BurinsEnd-scrapers

1Retouched micro-blades

4

Notched micro-blades

2

Broken retouched pieces
Retouched small flakes

4

Notched small flakes

1

End-scrapers

3

Retouched blades2

Non-geometric microliths
Notched micro-blades3

Retouched micro-blades

4

Inversely-retouched micro-blades

1

Conical for micro-blades2

Semi-conical for micro-blades

3

Cylindrical for micro-blades1

Prismatic for micro-blades

1

Irregular for flakes

3

Conical for flakes

1

Cores
Pressure

Non-pressure

Prismatic for blades

1

Fragments
Core fragments

244

128

Total

TB 130(2005 Field Season)
Fragments

Trench A

Trench B
Surface2nd

3"'

Debitage pieces
Partially-cortical flakes

64

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Blades1

Micro-blades

1

Chips or Retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces

14

Thumb-nail scrapers

1

Fragments

2

Total

"83"'

Layer 1
is.

2nd

3«i

Debitage pieces

Partially-cortical flakes
Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

2

Chips or Retouch-flakes
Fragments
Core fragments

4
6
1

Total

"l4"'

Layer 2
2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Crested flakes

1

Blades2

Micro-blades

16Core rejuvenation flakes
1(Core bottom flakes

Chips or Retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces

2

Pieces esquillees

1

Geometric microliths
1

Lunates

Cores
Pressure

Pyramidal for micro-blades2

Fragments

12Core fragments

1
Total

41

Layer 3
1^

2nd

3rd

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
BladesMicro-bladesCore rejuvenation flakes

Change of orientation flakes
Chips or Retouch-flakes

1
21

105

106

KatsuhikoOHNUMARetouched pieces
End-scrapers

Broken retouched piecess
Retouched pieces
Non-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades
Cores

Pressure (seemingly crude)
Semi-conical for micro-blades

Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

1

Conical for flakes

1

Unifacial discoidal for flakes

1

Fragments
Core fragments

20

12

Total

73

Layer 4
p.

2nd

3„i

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBladesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Blades5

Micro-blades

90

Chips or retouch-flakes

112

Edge-rejuvenation flakes of end-scrapers

1Core rejuvenation flakess
Core tablets
Core bottom flakes

Retouched pieces
Notched pieces
Side-scrapers
Steep scrapers
Thumb-nail scrapers
Retouched small flakes

Transversal scrapers
Broken retouched piecess
Retouched blades

Notched chips
Retouched pieces
Cores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades4

Prismatic for micro-blades1

Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

1

Semi-conical for flakes

1

Prismatic for blades2

Fragments

148

Core fragments

17
Total

"403""

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Trench C (Stratigraphically disturbed to a certain extent)
Surface
2nd

P'

3rd

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades
Total

Layer 1
2nd

1«

3rd

Debitage pieces1

Cortical flakes

Chips or retouch-flakes

2

Retouched pieces
Retouched chips

1

Retouched chips

1

Broken retouched pieces
Fragments

1

Total

Layer 2
2nd

L'

3rd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

Partially-cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBladesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Blades3

Micro-blades

14

Chips or retouch-flakes
Core rejuvenation flakes

47

Core tablets

Retouched pieces

Retouched chips
Alternate side-scrapers
Steep scrapers
End-scrapers
Broken retouched pieces

Side-scrapers
Cores

Non-pressure
Irregular for flakes

1

Fragments

34

Total

Layer 3
p.

2nd

3"^

Debitage pieces

Partially-cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes

Flakes

116

107

108

KatsuhikoOHNUMABroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
2

FlakesBlades7

Micro-blades

32

Chips or retouch-flakes
Core rejuvenation flakes

93

Core tablets

Retouched pieces
Retouched flakes
Notched blades
Pointed flakes

Thumb-nail scrapers

Side-scrapers
End-scrapers
Small end-scrapers
Non-geometric microliths
Thumb-nail scrapers

Broken retouched pieces
Retouched blades

1

Inversely-retouched scrapers

1

Fragments
Core fragments

48

18
Total

215

Layer 4
1st

2nd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

Non-cortical flakes
BladesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBladesMicro-blades

Chips or retouch-flakes

4
2

45
117

Burin spalls

1

Core rejuvenation flakes3
Core bottom flakes

Retouched pieces

Thumb-nail scrapers
Convergent scrapers
Steep scrapers
Non-geometric microliths
Retouched micro-blades
Geometric microliths
Lunates

Broken retouched pieces
Backed flakes

Retouched pieces
Cores
Pressure

Semi-conical for micro-blades

Cylindrical for micro-blades
Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Fragments
Core fragments

32

18

Total

238

Trench D
Surface
2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
3

Micro-blades

14

Chips or retouch-flakes
Fragments

5

Core fragments

2

Total

25

Layer 1
2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

Partially-cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Blades6

Micro-blades

2485

Chips or retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces
Backed flakes

1Side-scrapers

2

Cores

Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

1
12

Fragments

3

Core fragments
Total

145

Layer 2P'

2nd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBladesMicro-blades

1
1

126
303

Chips or retouch-flakes
Burin spalls

2

Edge-rejuvenation flakes of end-scrapers

1

109

110

KatsuhikoOHNUMACore rejuvenation flakes
Core tablets

Retouched pieces

Side-scrapers
Transversal scrapers
Steep scrapers on core tablet
Burins on retouched truncation

End-scrapers
Thumb-nail scrapers
Broken retouched piecess
Retouched pieces
Thumb-nail scrapers
Cores

Non-pressure
Prismatic for blades

2

Irregular for flakes

5

Conical for micro-blades

2

Pressure

Cylindrical for micro-blades

1

Fragments
Core fragments

27
21

Total

524

Layer 32nd

3rd

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Crested flakes

1

Micro-blades

104

Chips or retouch-flakes
Core rejuvenation flakes

290

Flakes removing flaking surface

1

Retouched flakes

1

Retouched pieces

Pointed chips
Atypical thumb-nail scrapers
Side-scrapers
Steep scrapers on core
Transversal scrapers

1

2
1
1
1

Broken retouched pieces
Side-scrapers
Cores

Non-pressure
Irregular for flakes
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades

1

Pyramidal for micro-blades1

Prismatic for miro-blades

1

Fragments

68Core fragments

15

Total

492

Trench E

Surfacep.

Chips or retouch-flakes

2nd

3rd

49

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Burin spalls
Broken retouched piecess
Non-geometric microliths
Retouched micro-blades

1

Fragments
Core fragments

27
12

Total

"90"

Layer 1
is.

2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

Partially-cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Blades4

Micro-blades

42

Chips or retouch-flakes

270

Burin spalls

1

Steep scrapers
Transversal scrapers (fan-shaped)
End-scrapers

2

Retouched pieces
11Broken retouched piecess

Non-geometric microliths
Retouched micro-blades
Cores
Pressure1

Semi-conical for micro-blades

Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

2

109

Fragments

29

Core fragments
Total

473

Layer 22nd

3ni

Debitage pieces

Partially-cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBladesMicro-blades

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
BladesMicro-blades

5
1

154

Chips or retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces
Retouched flakes

1

Retouched chips
End-notched pieces
Side-scrapers

3

Steep scrapers on core tablet

1

1
1

111

112

KatsuhikoOHNUMA

Thumb-nail scrapers
Geometriuc microliths
Lunates

Trapezoids
Broken retouched pieces
Retouched flakes

Non-geometric microliths
Retouched micro-blades
Notched micro-blades
Cores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades

2

Pyramidal for micro-blades
Semi-cylindrical for micro-blades

1

Irregular for flakes

21

Non-pressureSemi-conical for flakes

1

Fragments
Core fragments

189
34

Total

410

Layer 3
2nd

P'

3rd

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

15

Chips or retouch-flakes
Fragments
Core fragments

34
17
1

Total

67

TB 75(Haji Bahrami Cave: 2006 Field Season)
Trench C

Layers l'-2(Unclear stratification)p.

3"^

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBlades

Chips or retouch-flakes
Broken retouched pieces
Retouched blades
Total

Layer 3
P'

2nd

3"'

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

3

Partially-cortical flakes

2

Non-cortical flakes
Flakes7

Blades6

Micro-blades

11

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TBl30

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical Flakes
FlakesCrested flakes

1

Blades20

Micro-blades

178

Modification flakes offlaking surface
Modification flakes offlaking surface

1

Core rejuvenation flakes

1from micro-blade cores

Chips or retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces

66

Side-scrapers
End-scrapers
Thumb-nail scrapers

2

3
1

Drills1

Pieces esquillees

1

Backed small flakes

1

Notched small flakes

1

Retouched blades

1

Broken retouched piecess

Non-geometric microliths
Side scrapers

1

Transversal scrapers

1

Cores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades
Semi-conical for micro-blades
Prismatic for micro-blades"Bullet" type for micro-blades
Non-pressure
Conical for flakes
Prismatic for flakes

Fragments
Core fragments
Hammer stones

Pebbles

Broken flat circular pebbles
Total

347

Layer 4
1=^

2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

3

Partially-cortical flakes

7

Non-cortical flakes
Flakes6

Blades6

Micro-blades

11

Flakes6

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

Crested flakes

2

Blades12

Micro-blades

19Core rejuvenation flakes
Core bottom flakes

Chips or retouch-flakes

2

44

113

114

KatsuhikoOHNUMARetouched pieces
End-scrapers
Burins on retouched truncation
Burins on notch

Thumb-nail scrapers
Convergent scrapers
Inversely-retouched scrapers"Tayac" points
Non-geometric microliths
Pointed micro-blades
Geometric microliths

Trapezoids
Broken retouched pieces
End-scrapers
Backed flakes
Backed blades

Pointed bladesNon-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades
Cores
Pressure

Semi-conical for micro-blades
Prismatic for micro-blades

Cylindrical for micro-blades
Non-pressure
Initial for micro-blades

Fragments
Total

Layer 5
2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesRetouched pieces
End-scrapers
Total

Layer 62nd

3nl

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades
Total

Trench D

Wall Cleaning
P'

2nd

3rd

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Flakes141

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Chips or retouch-flakes
Burin spalls
Total

Layer 2
2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

FlakesBroken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes
Micro-blades

Chips or retouch-flakes

Retouched pieces
Steep scrapers
Round scrapers
Cores
Pressure

Cylindrical for micro-blades
Prismatic for micro-blades
Total

12

Layer 31"

2nd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

Partially-cortical flakes
Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBlades71

Micro-blades

20

Flakes

67

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

Crested flakes

1

Blades7

Micro-blades532Core rejuvenation flakes
Modification flakes offlaking surface
40

from micro-blade cores

209

Chips or retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces
Notched pieces
Side-scrapers
Thumb-nail scrapers

4

Steep scrapers

1

2

2

Non-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades

1Side-scrapers

4

Broken retouched pieces
Notched pieces
End-scrapers
Side-scrapers

2

Scrapers

5

1

1

Cores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades

115

116

KatsuhikoOHNUMA

Semi-conical for micro-blades2

Prismatic for micro-blades

6

Cylindrical for micro-blades

1

Irregular for flakes

1

Non-pressure
Prismatic for flakes

1

Prismatic for blades23

Initial for micro-blades

Fragments
Core fragments

21
45

Total

1,006

Layer 4
2nd

1"

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

20

Partially-cortical flakes

37

Non-cortical flakes
FlakesBlades52
18

Micro-blades

117

Flakes155

Broken debitage pieces
Non cortical flakes

Crested flakes

3

Blades104

Micro-blades

539Core rejuvenation flakes

Modification flakes offlaking surface
from blade cores

Modification flakes of flaking surface
from micro-blade cores

17

Chips or retouch-flakes
Retouched pieces

1,013

Side-scrapers
Steep scrapers

5

End-scrapers
Thumb-nail scrapers

7

8

10

Denticulated pieces
Transversal scrapers
Round scrapers
Convergent scrapers
Double side-scrapers
Fan-shaped scrapers

4
2

7
2
1
3

Backed blades1Retouched flakes

1

Retouched blades1

Nibbled blades1

Pointed flakes

1

Notched scrapers
Notched pieces

3End-notched pieces
Pieces esquillees

3

Cleavers111

Non-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades3

Retouched micro-blades

1

Denticulated micro-blades

1

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Broken retouched pieces
End-scrapers
Side-scrapers
Scrapers
Round scrapers
Burins on retouched truncation

Denticulated pieces
Backed blades

Notched pieces
Notched blades
DrillsCores
Pressure

Conical for micro-blades

6

Semi-conical for micro-blades

10

Cylindrical for micro-blades4

Prismatic for micro-blades

14

Initial for micro-blades

1

Irregular for flakes

7

Prismatic for flakes

3

Non-pressure

Prismatic for blades1

Prismatic for blades and micro-blades5

Prismatic for micro-blades

9

Initial for flakes

8

Initial for micro-blades

1

Fragments

267

Core fragments
Split pebbles
Pebble fragments

84

Hammer stones

1

92

Broken mace-heads

1

Broken grinding stones

1

Quems

1

Total

2,601

Layer 5p.

2nd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

4

Partially-cortical flakes

9

Non-cortical flakes
Flakes22

Blades9

Micro-blades

42

Flakes15

Broken debitage pieces
Non-cortical flakes

Blades9

Micro-blades

80Core rejuvenation flakes
Modification flakes from flaking surface
Chips or retouch-flakes

3
173

Burin spalls

2

Backed blades2Side-scrapers
End-scrapers

2

Retouched pieces

1

117

118

KatsuhikoOHNUMASteep end-scrapers
Burins on retouched truncation

Thumb-nail scrapers
Pointed flakes

Denticulated blades

Notched/Denticulated pieces

End-notched pieces
DrillsNon-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades

Broken retouched pieces
End-scrapers

Truncated pieces
Non-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades
Cores
Pressure

Prismatic for micro-blades

Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

4

Conical for micro-blades2

Prismatic for flakes

2

Prismatic for blades2

Prismatic for blades/micro-blades4

Prismatic for micro-blades

1

Fragments

89

Core fragments

20
1

Hammer stones

Total

530

Layer 6
1«

2nd

3rd

Debitage pieces
Cortical flakes

1

Partially-cortical flakes

10

Non-cortical flakes
Flakes22

Crested flakes

1

Blades4

Micro-blades

31

Broken debitage pieces
Non cortical flakes
Flakes10

Blades21

Micro-blades

62Core rejuvenation flakes

Modification flakes offlaking surface
from blade cores

Chips or retouch-flakes

4266

Edge-rejuvenation flakes of end-scrapers

1Side-scrapers

2

End-scrapers
Fan-shaped scrapers
Thumb-nail scrapers

1Retouched pieces

Round scrapers
Transversal scrapers
Non-geometric microliths

1

1
7
1

LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM TB75 AND TB130

Backed micro-blades
Backed small flakes
Burins on break

Broken retouched pieces
End-scrapers
Non-geometric microliths
Backed micro-blades
Backed small flakes
Cores
Pressure

Prismatic for micro-blades

Non-pressure

Irregular for flakes

1

Prismatic for blades4

Prismatic for micro-blades5

Fragments

93Core fragments

12

Pebbles1

Total'"^80"

119

CHAPTER?

ACHAEMENID AND POST-ACHAEMENIDOBJECTS FROM TB75,TB130 AND THE
GENERAL SURVEY

7. ACHAEMENID AND POST-ACHAEMENID OBJECTS FROM

TB75,TBl 30 AND THE GENERAL SURVEY
Takuro ADACHIMost pottery found in Layer 2, TB75, is datable to the late Achaemenid or the postAchaemenid period. Some iron and a bronze artifact unearthed in layer 2 were certainly alsolate Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid objects. Since some potsherds of ribbed pithos were
found in layer 2 in the first season, we had already confirmed that the date of layer 2
belonged to the late Achaemenid period. Furthermore, the typical objects of the late
Achaemenid period, a canteen jar (or a pilgrim flask) and a trilobate arrowhead, were foundin the second season. Some potsherds, however, which belong to the post-Achaemenid

period, were also unearthed from layer 2 of TB75. At this moment, we consider that layer 2of TB 75 belongs to the late Achaemenid and the post-Achaemenid period, although somenon-diagnostic potsherds were found there.

Pottery from TB75

Most of pottery from layer 2, TB75 is wheel made and well fired. The surface colors
vary from yellowish gray to orange, and a few are light gray in color. Most of our specimens
have grit-tempered paste and horizontal wet-smoothed treatments, but a few are scraped orburnished.

The most diagnostic pottery of the late Achaemenid period from this site are the ribbed
pithos sherds (Fig.7.1.1, 3, 5-8; Pl.7.4). The ribbed decorations are various in shape andinterval. Although the specimens from Persepolis (Schmidt 1957: PI.73:7), Tall-i Takht,
Pasargadae (Stronach 1978: Fig.121:10) and Tape Suruvan (Aratashi 1963: PI. 17) havebroad ribbed decorations, the interval of the ribbed decoration of the materials from TB75
seems to be relatively narrower. Two of them are slipped in a light gray or light yellow
orange color (Fig.7.1.5, 8: Pl.7.4.1, 2), found in Pit 1 of Trench D. The paste is coarse, grittempered and well fired. The core and inner surface is orange in color. Both surface
treatments are horizontally wet-smoothed.

A jar rim fragment was also unearthed from the same pit (Fig.7.2.4; Pl.7.15). It has a124

TakuroADACHI

20cm

Fig.7.1 Pottery from TB75.
No.

Form

Layer

Loc.

1

RibbedLayer 2

TB75. Tr.A.

pithos,Paste

BufT slip

Orange slip

Grey, fine, white sand2005. No.14

structure in "Harem Street",rim

Pithos,Persepolis(Schmidt 1957: P1.73:7).
Layer 2 TB75. Tr.A.

rim

Pithos,body

Grey slip

Grey slip

Grey, fine, white sandGrey slip

Grey slip

Grey, fine, white sandTB75. Tr.D.

Orange(2.5YR7/6),

Orange (2.5YR7/6),

Orange (2.5YR7/6),

2006. No.2

horizontal wet smoothhorizontal wet smoothcoarse, hard, less than2005. No.11

Layer 2

body
Pithos,Remarks

the nothem room ofthe secondary

TB75. Tr.A.

Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae(Stronach
1978: Fig. 121:4)

2005. No.11

Layer 22 mm white & brownsand(3%)5 Ribbed

Layer 2 TB75.Tr.D.

pithos,Slip (light gray:

Orange(2.5YR7/8),

Orange(2.5YR7/8),

2006. No.5,

2.5Y8/1), horizontal

horizontal wet smoothcoarse, hard, less than

body

Pit 1

wet smooth

6 Pithos,

Layer 2 TB75.Tr.B.

Grey slip

Grey slip

Grey, fine, white sandDull orange

Orange (7.5YR6/6),

Dull orange

2mm white(10%)&
brown(3%)sandbody

2006. No.13

7 Ribbed

Layer 2 TB75.Tr.C.

pithos,2006. No.13

body

Pl.7.4.3(7.5YR7/4), horizontal horizontal wet smooth (7.5YR6/4), coarse,
wet smoothless than 1mm white &brown sand(1%)
8 Ribbed

Layer 2 TB75.Tr.C.

pithos,2006. No.11

body

Slip (light yellow

Orange(2.5YR7/6),

orange: 10YR8/2),

horizontal wet smoothhorizontal wet smoothDull orange(5YR6/4), Pl.7.4.1

coarse, hard, less than
3mm white & brownsand(5%)very fine paste with very small white and black sand inclusions. Both surface treatments arehorizontally wet-smoothed. Parallels of this piece were reported from Tall-i Takht,
Pasargadae (Stronach 1978: Fig.l 18:1,2,4-6,8,9) and Tape Suruvan (Atarashi and Horiuchi
1963: PL 15: 9). The date of the vessel shape is identified to the late Achaenenid or postAchaemenid period.

Only one fragment of a canteen jar (or a pilgrim flask) was found in layer 2(Fig.7.2.10;

ACHAEMENID AND POST-ACHAEMENID OBJEaS FROM TB75,TB130 AND THE GENERAL SURVEY

£
■V

rA.

lOcm

Fig.7.2 Pottery from TB75.
No.

Form

Layer

1

Bowl?

Surface

TB75.

Loc.

rim

layer

2005.7.17

2

Jar, rim

Layer 1

TB75. Tr.C.

Size

Outer surface

Paste

Inner surface

D. 47.0cm Red brown, horizontal

Red or dark red slip,

Red brown, 1mm graywet smoothhorizontal wet smooth& black sand (5%)

Orange (5YR7/6),

Dull reddish brown

Dull reddish brownhorizontal wet smooth(5YR5/4), horizontal(5YR5/4), coarse, soft, (Stronach 1978: Fig. 119: 26)

D. 8.0cm

2006. No.7

wet smooth

P1.7.1.4;Tall-iTakht,

less than 2mm white &black sand (10%)
3

Bowl,

Layer 2rim

Yellowish white,

Yellowish white, less2005. No.9

horizontal wet smoothhorizontal wet smooththan 1mm brown sandTB75. Tr.D.

Dull orange

Dull orange

2006. No.5.

(7.5YR7/4), horizontal (7.5YR7/4), horizontal (7.5YR7/4), fine, less

(Stronach 1978: Fig. 118:1,2,4-6,8,9);

Pitl

wet smooth

wet smooththan 0.5mm white &Tape Suruvan (Aratashi 1963: PI. 15:

black sand (1%)9)

Orange (2.5YR7/6),

Orange (2.5YR7/6),

Orange (2.5YR7/6),

P1.7.1.1; Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae

wet smooth by spatula

wet smoothcoarse, soft, less than

(Stronach 1978: Fig. 116: 7-10,12,(lip), horizontal wet

2mm white & black13)

smooth (body)sand (10%)

TB75. Tr.A.

D. 10.5cm Yellowish white,

(5%)

4

5

Jar, rim

Bottle,
rim &

body

Layer 2

Layer 1

TB75. Tr.D.
2006. No.l

D. 2.2cm

Dull orange

Pl.7.1.5; Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae

125

126

Takuro ADACHI

6

Jar, rim

Layer 1

TB75. Tr.A.

D.18.4cm Brown slip

Brown slip

Grey, fine, white sandD.17.8cm Brown slip

Brown slip

Grey, fine, white sandD.8.2cm Brownish gray

Dull yellow orange

Brownish gray2005. No.12
7

Jar, rim

Layer 1

TB75. Tr.A.
2005. No.12

8Jar, rim

Layer 1

TB75.Tr.C.

(7.5YR6/1), horizontal (10YR6/3), horizontal (7.5YR6/1), fine, hard.

2006. No.9

wet smooth

wet smoothless than 1mm black(7%)& white(1%)
sand
9Jar, rim

Layer 1

TB75. Tr.D.

D. 18.8cm Dull orange

Dull orange

Brownish gray

(2.5YR6/4), horizontal (2.5YR6/4), horizontal (10YR6/1), coarse.

2006. No.l

wet smooth& oblique scraped

hard, less than 1mm

white sand(3%)
10Pilgrim

Layer 2

flask,

TB75. Tr.D.

Orange(5YR7/6), light Orange(2.5YR7/8),

2006. No.3

burnishbody

Orange(2.5YR7/8),

wet smooth, twisted

core (olive gray:trace

5GY5/1), fine, hard.
less than 1mm whitesand(2%)
11

Jar?

Surface

TB75. Tr.B.

D. 13.0cm Red brown, wet

base

layer

2005. No.lsmoothRed brown, horizontal
wet smooth

Red brown,0.5mm

white 8l gray sand(5%)

12 Jar?

layer 2base

TB75. Tr.D.

D. 16.8cm Dull yellowish orange

2006. No.2

Yellowish gray

(10YR7/2), horizontal (2.5Y5/1), horizontal
wet smooth (coarse)

wet smooth

Yellowish gray
(2.5Y5/1), coarse, hard.
less than 2mm black

and white sand(7%)
13 Jar?

body &

Layer 3

TB75. Tr.D.

Light gray (2.5Y8/1),

Light gray (2.5Y8/1),

Light gray (2.5Y8/1),

2006. No.3

horizontal wet smoothhorizontal wet smoothcoarse, sofi, less thanbase

3mm black sand(3%)

Pl.7.2.2). It has a very fine paste with small white sand inclusions. Canteen jars are one of
the typical vessel forms of late Achamenid and post-Acaemenid pottery. Though this piece isa body fragment, it can be designated as a canteen jar judging from the inner treatment,
circular wet-smooth and a twisted trace for detaching unnecessary clay. The outer surface islightly burnished and orange in color. The dark core in the section is olive gray in color.
Yellowish gray potsherds were most frequently found in layer 2 of TB75. Since most of
the potsherds are small and fragmentary, it is very difficult to reconstruct their vessel shape.
One of them is a flat jar base fragment (Fig.7.2.12; PI.7.2.1). The inner surface is wetsmoothed, both horizontally and finely. The paste is coarse and hard. The inner and paste are
yellowish gray and the outer surface is dull yellowish orange.

There are a few light gray potsherds. One of them is ajar fragment (Fig.7.2.13). The jar
is wheel made and horizontally wet-smoothed. The paste is coarse, soft and grit tempered.
Although layer 1 belongs to the Islamic period, the late Achaemenid and postAchaemenid potsherds were also found. A rim fragment, unearthed from layer 1, seems to be
the late Achaemenid or post-Acahaemenid variety (Fig.7.2.2; Pl.7.1.4). The same vessel
shapes were unearthed from Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae (Stronach 1978: Pl.l 19:26). The paste
is coarse and grit tempered. The outer surface is orange and the inner surface and paste aredull reddish brown. A bottle rim fragment, found from layer 1, also would be datable toabout the late Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid period (Fig.7.2.5; Pl.7.1.1). Parallels arereported from Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae (Stronach 1978: Fig.116: 7-10, 12, 13).

Other Objects from TB75

A few iron artifacts were found from TB75. A remarkable piece is a tanged trilobate
arrowhead (Fig.7.3.1). Although socketed bronze trilobate arrowheads are common items in

Achaemenid inventories, the iron specimens are exceptional. One tanged iron trilobate
arrowhead, however, was reported from Treasury of Persepolis (Schmidt 1957: P1.76: 15).
Furthermore, an iron four flanged arrowhead was unearthed from Village Perse-Achemenide,
Susa (Ghirshman 1954: PI. 43: G.S. 1030c). It should be pointed out that the specimen
resembles the tanged iron trilobate arrowhead from TB75 in shape. Additionally, fragments

ACHAEMENID AND POST-ACHAEMENID OBJECTS FROM TB75,IB!30 AND THE GENERAL SURVEY

-0-

A

10cm

t

±

Fig.7.3 Metal objects from TB75-2(1 -4) and Pottery from TB130(5-7).
No.
Form
Layer
Loc.
1 Tanged trilobate Layer 2 TB75. Tr.C. 2006. No.ll

Size
L. 7.2cm W. 1.2cin

laterial

Remarks

Treasury, Room 8, Persepolis(Schmidt 1957: P1.76:15).

arrowhead

2 Nail?

Layer 2 TB75.Tr.A. 2005.No.ll L.4.1cm

Iron

Pl.7.5.2

3 Nail?

Layer 2 TB75. Tr.A. 2005. No.ll L. 4.6cm

Iron

Pl.7.5.1

4 SpatulaLayer 1 TB75. Tr.C.2006. No.l.

Bronzeniveau 1, Chaour, Susa(Labrousse and Boucharlat 1974: Fig.
28: 2, 3); Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae(Stronach 1978: Fig. 91: 12)

Sieving

No. Form

Layer

Loc.

5 Jar, rim Layer 1 TB130.
Tr.C.2005.

L. 9.0cm W. 1.5cm
T. 0.4cm

Size

Outer surface

Inner surface

smoothsmooth

body
Jar,

body

Layer 1 TB130. Tr.C.
2005. No.l

Remarks

than 2mm white sand
(8%)

No.l

Jar,

Paste

Dark gray brown, Wet Dark gray brown, wet Dark gray brown, lessGrey brown, wet

Grey brown, unknwon Grey brown, less thansmoothLayer 2 TB130. Tr.C. L. 17.0cm Brown, wet smooth2005. No.3

Inim white & darkbrown sand(5%)

Brown,unknwon

Brown,1mm whited(5%)

of an iron pin or nail were unearthed from layer 2(Fig.7.3.2, 3; Pl.7.5.1, 2). Both ends werebroken and the section is irregular-shaped.

Only one bronze spatula was found from layer 1 and its lower part was broken(Fig.7.3.4). Comparisons of this piece were unearthed from Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae(Stronach 1978: Fig. 91: 12) and niveau 1, Chaour, Susa (Labrousse 1974: Fig.28:2,3). The
specimen from Pasargadae is dated to the post-Achaemenid period, and those from Susa
from the Sassanid or early Islamic period.

Pottery from TB130

We found a small quantity of potsherds from TB130 (Fig.7.3.5-7). The materials,
naturally adhered calcic soil, could not be observed in the surface treatment, color and paste.

127

128

TakuroADACHI

20cm

Fig.7.4 Pottery from the general survey.
No.

Form

1

Pithos,
rim

Layer

Loc.

Size

Outer surface

Inner surface

N:30°08'844" D.45.8cm Red brown, fine
Red brown, finecollection E:53*05'665"
horizontal wet smooth horizontal wet smoothSurface

Paste

Remarks

Red brown (gray core), Pl.7.6; North of"Royal Hunting
I-3mm white & gray Ground". See chapter 11, Fig.l 1.
sand(8%)2 Pithos,3

Surface

N:30°08'844" D.44.8cm Red orange, fine
E: 53'05'665"
horizontal wet smooth

Red orange, finehorizontal wet smooth

Red orange, 1mm
white, gray and red

N:30°08'844"

Red brown, fine wet

Red brown, wetbrown sand(8%)
Red brown, l-2mm

PI.7.7; North of"Royal Hunting

smooth, incisedsmoothwhite & black sand

Ground". See chapter 11, Fig.11.

Gray, fine horizontal(8%)
Gray, less than 1mm

Pl.7.8; North of"Royal Hunting

wet smooth

black & whiote sand

Ground". See chapter 11, Fig.11.

Pithos,Surfacerimcollection E: 53'05'665"

4 Pithos,rimSurfacedecorations
N:30°08'844" D.36.2cm Gray, fine horizontal

collection E: 53°05'665"

wet smooth, incised

decorations
5

Jar, rim

Surface

N;30°10'094"

collection E: 53''04'547"(8%)

Red brown, horizontal Red brown, horizontal Red brown, less than

In a small valley of northern part ofwet smooth, incised

Tang-e Bolaghi.

wet smooth

decorations
6

Jar, rim

Surface

N;30°09'810"

collection E: 53°09'235"

North of"Royal Hunting Ground".
See chapter 11, Fig.11.

2mm white & brownsand(l%)Orange, horizontal wet Orange, horizontal wet Orange, fineTang-e Bolaghi near Dokhtarbor, seesmoothchapter 11, Fig.11.6.

smoothACHAEMENID AND POST-ACHAEMENID OBJECTS FROM TB75,TB130 AND THE GENERAL SURVEY

Jar, rim Surface

Red brown, horizontal

Red brown, horizontal Red brown(GrayTang-e Bolaghi near Tirandaz, seecollection E: 53'04'420"

N:30'10'132"

wet smooth

wet smooth, wavy lines core), 0.5mm white &chapter 11, Fig.11.10.

Bow,

Surfacehorizontal wet smooth, horaizontal wet

basecollection E: 53°08'079"

white wash

Large

SurfaceGray brown,fine wet

Gray brown, wet

Gray brown, 1mm

Northeast of"Royal Hunting

jar,

collection E: 53°06'447"

smooth, incisedsmoothwhite, gray and black

Ground". See chapter 11, Fig.11.12.

by a wooden piece
N: 30'08'759"

black sand(5%)
Red brown,finesmooth, white wash,

In a small valley of northern part ofTang-e Bolaghi.

green glazed

N:30*08'962"

bodydecorations

sand(5%)As the situation stands, the date ofthe potsherds from TB130 cannot be identified.

Pottery from the General Survey

The general survey results are reported in chapter 11. Some characteristic potsherds areshown here. Pithos rims have a flat end and horizontal grooves (Fig.7.4.1-4; Pl.7.6-8). Someof them have incised decorations. The same shaped specimen, reported in Tape Suruvan(Atarashi and Horiuchi 1963: P1.16:13) and Susa (Niveau 3, Chaour: Larbrousse andBoucharlat 1974: Fig.48:2), has a similar paste as the materials from the general survey. The
pithoi, therefore, could be datable to the late Achaemenid period. Islamic glazed pottery is
shown here (Fig.7.4.8). The base is covered with white wash on the both surfaces and glazed
a green color on the inner surface.

Conclusion

Although we have no clear diagnostic objects of the post-Achaemenid period in TB75,
TB130 and the general survey, for examples, "fish plate", "ringed base bowl with intumedrim" and others, as we can see at Tall-i Takht, Pasargadae, some pottery fragments fromlayer 2, TB75 can be datable to the post-Achaemenid period. However, we cannot for certain
divide our specimens into the two periods, the Achaemenid and post-Acaemenid period. In
the future it is important to compare objects from layer 2, TB75, with those from Pasargadae,
TB76, 77, 85 and 88 (Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research 2006, 2007), in order toconsider the chronological sequence of the Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid material
culture at Tang-e Bolaghi.
Notes(1) Courtesy of Dr. Yoshihiro Nishiaki, the author observed the specimen from Tape
Suruvan (Atarashi and Horiuchi 1963: Fig.16:13)in the Museum of University of Tokyo.

References

Atarashi, K. and K. Horiuchi

1963 Fahlian L The Excavation at Tape Suruvan. The Tokyo University Iraq-Iran Archaeological
Expedition Report 4. Tokyo, The Institute for Oriental Culture. The University of Tokyo.
Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research

2006 Abstracts: Symposium on the Archaeological Rescue Excavations in the Bolaghi Valley.
Tehran, Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research, and Iranian Cultural Heritage andTourism Organization.
Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research2007 Symposium on the Latest Results of Archaeological Excavations at Tang-e Bolaghi. Tarbiat
Modares University, 20 January 2007, Tehran, Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research,and Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization.

129

130

Takuro ADACHI

Ghirshman, R.

1954 Village perse-achemenide. Memoires de la mission archeologique en Iran. Tome 36. Paris,
Universitaires de France.

Labrousse, A. and R. Boucharlat

1974 La fouille du palais du chaour a Suse en 1970 et 1971. Chiers de la deleation archelogiquefrangaise en Iran 2: 61-165.
Schmidt, E. F.

1957 Persepolis 11. Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries. Chicago, the University of
Chicago Press.
Stronach, D.

1978 Pasargadae. A Report ofthe Excavations conducted by the British Institute ofPersian Studies
from 1961 to 1963. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

ACHAEMENID AND POST-ACHAEMENID OBJECTS FROM TB75,TB130 AND THE GENERAL SURVEY

- 4

5^-

Plate 7.1 Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid

Plate 7.2 Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid"

Plate 7.3 Achaemenid or post Achaemenid

Plate 7.4 Ribbed pithos

Plate 7.5 Iron objects.

Plate 7.6 Pithos from the general survey

Plate 7.7 Pithos from the general survey.

Plate 7.8 Pithos from the general survey

CHAPTERSFAUNAL REMAINS FROM TB75

8. FAUNAL REMAINS FROM TB75

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

Introduction

Recent progress in the research of Neolithisation, which has demonstrated the Middle
East and Indus Valley as the two world oldest birthplaces of food production technology,
leads our attention to its diffusion processes to the neighboring regions. In this context theimportance of the large region that extends in the south of Zagros, or the plateau ofsouthwest Iran is much emphasized, because it is situated in the middle of the two major

provinces, and could represent the possible links in-between. The study of the Faunal
remains of TB75 (Eshkaft-e Haji Bahrami) is in this respect extremely meaningful.
This report presents preliminary results of the analysis of faunal remains from TB75, acave site situated on the southern slope of the Bolaghi Mountains in the province of Ears inthe southwest of Iran and the southern parts of Zagros Range. The material analyzed wasrecovered during two seasons of excavation conducted by a joint Iranian-Japanese team as apart of the salvage project for the Sivand Dam area. Faunal remains were collected from
Trenches A and B in the 2005 season and Trenches C and D in the 2006 season.

Material Analyzed

Faunal remains from Trench A (2005 season) were analyzed by M. Mashkour.
Preliminary analysis of the material from Trenches B (2005 season), C and D (2006 season)

was carried out by M. Diab in the field in 2006, with the material being restudied by H.
Kongo in 2007. Three periods were recognized at the site: Layers 1 and 2 belong to thehistoric periods (Islamic and Achaemenid Period respectively). Layers 3 and 4 are from theProto-Neolithic Period (c. 10000-8500 uncal. bp). Layers 5 and 6 belong to the EpiPaleolithic Period (c. 16000-12000 uncal. bp).
Since the material recovered from Trench B consists of only a small amount (total of c.

136

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

2.5 grams) of small shaft fragments and shells, they are not included in this report. The
faunal remains from Trench C consist of those coming from Layers 1 and 2 as well as

material from Proto-Neolithic Layers. The stratigraphic affiliation of the material, however,still needs to be assessed carefully. Therefore, the present report will focus on the faunal
remains from Trenches A and D.

All excavated deposits were screened using 5 mm and 2 mm mesh, resulting in an
excellent recovery of small mammal(mainly rodent) bones. Many of the bones from Trench
D were burnt, most ofthem were charred and exhibit black color, and a few were completely
calcined. About 63% of the bones from Layers 3-4 and about 47% of the bones from Layers
5-6 in Trench D show traces of fire. Much of the material from Trench A is also burnt.

Chewing marks, either by camivores or rodents, are rarely found, even though rodent bones
were commonly encountered in the assemblage.
About 1300 animal bone fragments (c. 1150 grams) were recovered from Trench A.
About two thirds of the material belongs to Layers 3-4, which are Proto-Neolithic Layers,
and the rest to Layer 2(Achaemenid Period). Faunal remains from Trench D consist of about3000 fragments (c. 4500 grams), including material from Layer 2 (Achaemenid Period, but
including a few fragments from the Islamic Period Layer 1 on the surface). Layers 3-4(Proto-Neolithic), and Layers 5-6 (Epi-Paleolithic). Due to fragmentation, only about 8 % ofrecovered bone fragments could be identified. Consequently, the number of identified
specimens both in the Epi-Paleolithic and Achaemenid Periods are very small, 47 and 27
respectively, which makes it very difficult to see reliable statistical changes through time inanimal exploitation at the site.

Results of Identification

The results of identification from each layer of Trench A and D are summarized inTable 8.1.

Gazelle (Gazella sp.)

Gazelle is the most commonly encountered taxon both in the Epi-Paleolithic and ProtoNeolithic Layers and occupies about 28%(in number)ofthe identified specimens (Plate 8.1).
The proportion of gazelle in the assemblage is much smaller in the Achaemenid Period
Layer, occupying only about 10% in number of identified specimens. Although it is likelythat the species which existed at the site was Gazella subgutturosa, identification of thespecies of gazelles at the site is tentative. Gazella bennetti has also been reported from sites
in southeastern Iran, but the northern boundaries of its distribution in the past is not clear(Uerpmann 1987).
Sheep {Ovis sp.) and goats(Capra sp.)

The proportion of sheep and goats in the assemblage increases dramatically in the
Proto-Neolithic Layers (Plate 8.2 & 3). The total of sheep and goats (including specimensthat could be identified as sheep or goat) comprises about 17% of the number of identified
specimens in the Epi-Paleolithic Layers, then increases to about 46% in the Proto-Neolithic

Layers. There are less sheep and goats in the Achaemenid Period, and the proportion is about
33%. Sheep seems to be more common in the Epi-Paleolithic Layers, but this observation isa preliminary one due to a very small number of specimens in the sample(3 sheep bones and1 goat). The proportion of goats increases in the Proto-Neolithic layers, where the sheep:goat ratio is 1: 1.2. Goats became much more important than sheep in the Achaemenid
Period, where the sheep: goat ratio is 1: 6.
Large Bovid and Cervid

Cattle (Bos sp.) was not encountered in the Epi-Paleolithic Layers, but a single molar

FAUNAL REMAINS FROMTB75

Table 8.1 Summaty of identification offauna! remains fromTB75.
Layer 2(Achaemenid) (note: Trench D material includes some specimens from Layer 1- Islamic Period)
Trench A
NISP

Trench D

Weight(g)

%

%

NISP

Total

Weight(g)

%

%

NISP

Weight(g)%%Gazella

3

13.6

6.7

10.7

0

0.0

0

0.0

3

11.1

6.7

Ovis

1

4.5

10.5

16.8

0

0.0

0

0.0

1

3.7

10.5

6.4

Capra
Ovis/ Capra

6

27.3

16.4

26.3

0

0.0

0

0.0

6

22.2

16.4

10.1

0

0.0

0

0.0

2

40.0

12

12.0

2

7.4

12

7.4

Bos

0

0.0

0

0.0

2

40.0

88

87.6

2

7.4

88

54.1

4.1

Cervus

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

Sus

2

9.1

11.7

18.8

0

0.0

0

0.0

2

7.4

11.7

7.2

Vulpes

1

4.5

1.7

2.7

0

0.0

0

0.0

1

3.7

1.7

1.0

Canid

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

small carnivore

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

Lepus
Equid

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

8

36.4

13.6

21.8

0

0.0

0

0.0

8

29.6

13.6

8.4

small rodent

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0
0.2

Aves

0

0.0

0

0.0

1

20.0

0.4

0.4

1

3.7

0.4

Testudo

1

4.5

1.8

2.9

0

0.0

0

0.0

1

3.7

1.8

1.1

reptilefrog
reptile/amphibian

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

fish

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

shell

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

Total

22

100

62.4

100

5

100

100.4

100

27

100.0

162.8

100

large mammal
large bovid/cervid

4

12.7

0

0

4

12.7

1

24.9

0

0

1

24.9

medium mammal

23

85.5

6

23

29

108.5

3

13.8

0

0

3

13.8

29

35.8

1

1

30

36.8

medium bovid/cervid
small mammal
micro mammal

fragments
Fragments TOTAL
Total recovered

i

1

0.1

0

0

1

0.1

247

100.9

0

0

247

100.9

308

273.7

7

24

315

297.7

330

1

1

336.1

1

12

1

124.4

1

342

460.5

Layer 3-4(Proto-Neolithic)

9

GazellaWeight(g)

%

10.4

22.5

Total

Trench D

Trench A
NISP

10.3

Weight(g)

%

NISP

%

69

NISP

%

28.8

249.1

29.8

Weight(g)

%

%

78

27.9

259.5

27.7

Ovis

8

20

31.3

31.1

31

12.9

182.2

21.8

39

13.9

213.5

22.8

Capra
Ovis/ Capra

19

47.5

46.3

45.9

28

11.7

160.8

19.2

47

16.8

207.1

22.1

0

0

0

0.0

43

17.9

133.2

15.9

43

15.4

133.2

14.2

Bos

1

2.5

10.1

10.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

I

0.4

10.1

1.1

Cervus

0

0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

Sus

3

7.5

2.7

2.7

0

0.0

0

0.0

3

1.1

2.7

0.3

Vulpes

0

0

0

0.0

2

0.8

0.7

0.1

2

0.7

0.7

0.1

Canid

0

0

0

0.0

1

0.4

1

0.1

1

0.4

1

0.1

small carnivore

0

0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

Lepus
Equid

0

0

0

0.0

8

3.3

10.2

1.2

8

2.9

10.2

1.1

0

0

0

0.0

2

0.8

60.4

7.2

2

0.7

60.4

6.5

small rodent

0

0

0

0.0

3

1.3

0.5

0.1

3

1.1

0.5

0.1

Aves

0

0

0

0.0

4

1.7

2

0.2

4

1.4

2

0.2

Testudo

0

0

0

0.0

18

7.5

25.4

3.0

18

6.4

25.4

2.7

reptilefrog
reptile/amphibian

0

0

0

0.0

6

2.5

1.4

0.2

6

2.1

1.4

0.1

0

0

0

0.0

8

3.3

0.8

0.1

8

2.9

0.8

0.1

0

0

0

0.0

11

4.6

1.2

0.1

11

3.9

1.2

0.1

fish

0

0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

shell

0

0

0

0.0

6

2.5

6.6

0.8

6

2.1

6.6

0.7

Total

40

100

100.8

100

240

100

835.5

100

280

100

936.3

100

large mammal
large bovid/cervid

10

49.6

1

53

11

0

0

0

0

0

0

medium mammal

82

170.9

1419

2046

1501

2216.9102.6

medium bovid/cervid

53

73.8

124

234.7

177

308.5

small mammal

59

110.7

459

131.8

518

242.5

micro mammal

1

0.3

51

5.8

52

6.1

722

305.4

147

102

869

407.4

927

710.7

2201

2573.33128

3284

fragments
Fragments TOTAL
Total recovered

1

967

1

811.5

1

2441

1

3408.813408

14220.3137

138

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

Layer 5-6 (Epi-Paleolithic)
Trench D
NISP%

Weight(g)%Gazella

13

27.7

25.4

Ovis

3

6.4

24.8

7.6
7.4

Capra
Ovis/ Capra

1

2.1

62

18.5

4

8.5

30.8

9.2

Bos

0

0.0

0

0.0
15.7

Cervus

1

2.1

52.6

Sus

0

0.0

0

0.0

Vulpes

0

0.0

0

0.0

Canid

0

0.0

0

0.0

small carnivore

1

2.1

0.2

0.1

Lepus
Equid

0

0.0

0

0.0

3

6.4

135.2

40.3

small rodent

17

36.2

3.5

1.0

1

2.1

0.2

0.1

Testudo

1

2.1

0.4

0.1

reptilefrog
reptile/amphibian

0

0.0

0

0.0

1

2.1

0.2

0.1

0

0.0

0

0.0

Aves

fish

1

2.1

0.2

0.1

shell

0

0.0

0

0.0

Total

47

100

335.5

100

large mammal
large bovid/cervid

9
4

84.2

medium mammal

216

294.8

60.4

medium bovid/cervid

23

42.3

small mammal

109

40.4

micro mammal

88

20.5

fragments
Fragments TOTAL

39

29.4

488

572.0

Total recovered

1

535

1

907.5

and two cranium fragments were identified in the Proto-Neolithic and Achaemenid Layers
respectively. The mandibular molar (Ml or M2) from the Proto-Neolithic Layer is rather
small (occlusal length 27.5mm)for Aurochs. However, the date of the Proto-Neolithic Layerat the site at around 8500 uncalibrated bp seems to be too early for the existence of domestic
cattle in this region. With only one isolated tooth from this layer, it is impossible to assess
the status of cattle in the Proto-Neolithic Layer at TB 75. Also, we cannot entirely exclude
the possibility ofintrusion from upper layers.

Red Deer {Cervus elaphus) is represented by a maxillary fragment with molar teeth(Mland M2)found in the Epi-Paleolithic Layer(Plate 8.4).
Pigs {Sus scrofa)

Pigs were not found in the Epi-Paleolithic Layers, but a few specimens were found bothin the Proto-Neolithic and Achaemenid Layers. Of the three pig bones from the ProtoNeolithic Layers of Trench A,two are unfused phalanges and another is a rib fragment. A rib
and a tooth fragment were found from the Achaemenid Layers. Without measurable
specimens, wild or domestic status of these pigs could not be determined.
EquidsTwo equid maxillary teeth and a mandibular cheek tooth were found in the

Epipalaeolithic Layers of Trench D. One of the upper cheek teeth (a premolar 3 or 4), withestimated length 29 mm, breadth 26.7 mm, belongs to a horse (Equus. caballus)(Photo 8.5)
The measurements fall within the range of Przewalski horses (measurements courtesy of Dr.
Vera Eisenmann). The distribution range of horse extended during the Paleolithic, which has
been attested at other sites in the central Iranian Plateau (Mashkour et al. in prep). Also amandibular cheek tooth with the morphological features of hemion {E. hemionus, cf. onager)(Photo 6-a, b) and an equid metapodial shaft were recovered from the Proto-Neolithic layersof Trench D. Unidentified teeth fragments were found from an Achaemenid Period pit inFAUNAL REMAINS FROM TB75

Trench A. The Equid remains are undergoing more detailed investigation.
Carnivores

A few fox {Vulpes vulpes) bones were found both in the Proto-Neolithic andAchaemenid Layers, but not in the Epi-Paleolithic Layers. An unidentified canid third
metatarsal was found in the Proto-Neolithic Layer of Trench D. With a measurement ofproximal breadth 5.3 mm and depth 8.4 mm, it is larger than fox, but smaller than modem
jackal bone in M. Mashkour's comparative collection in Tehran. An ulna of a small
camivore was found in the Epi-Paleolithic Layer, but it could not be identified to species.
Miscellaneous small mammals and other animals

Hare (Lepus capensis) bones were found only in the Proto-Neolithic Layers of Trench
D. There are at least two species of small rodents in the assemblage, and detailed
identification is being carried out by N. Hashemi(UMR 5197-CNRS/MNHN and Ferdwosi
University of Mashad). Bird (Plate 8.7), reptile, and amphibian bones were occasionallyfound. Among reptile bones, land turtle is relatively common. Fish bone is rare in theassemblage, and only one pectoral spine was found from the Epipalaeolithic Layer.
Molluscs, including both bivalves and freshwater snails, were recovered only from the ProtoNeolithic Layers (Plate 8.8).

Size of sheep and goats

Measurements of goats, sheep, gazelles, equids and cervids from TB75 are listed inTables 8.2-8.6. Measurements of post-cranial elements of sheep and goats were comparedusing the "difference of logs" or "log size index" (LSI) technique (Meadow 1981, 1983,
Table 8.2 Measurements of Capra from IB 75.
ScapulaTrench 1 Layer Specimen no.

D

1 3

1

note 1

116 1

SLC

GLP

LG

BG

HN

24.4

38.2

30.8

25.1

30.9

Bd

Dd

HumerusTrenchLayer Specimen no.

BT

HT

AD

BT/HT

A

3-4

28.9

17.4

14.0

0.6

A

3-4

26.8

15.8

13.5

0.6

D

4

33.5

21.2

note

34.7

96

31.1

RadiusTrench 1 Layer 1 Specimen no.

D

11 ^

1

note 1 Bp(estimated)(35.2)*

82 1*: measurements in parenthesis are estimatedAstragalixs
TrenchD

Layer 1 Specimen no. 1 note1
51 1 burnt

4

GLl

GLm

LA

D1

Dm

Bd

BFp

27.8

26.8

22.7

15.3

16.5

18.6

17.1

3*

4*

BT

12.7

11.6

GL

Metapodial
TrenchLayer Specimen no.

A

3-4

note

Bp

metapodial

D

4

112

metapodial

D

4

109

metatarsal

16.4(24.1)

3: breadth of medial trochlea 4: depth of medial condyle (following Payne 1969)
Phi
TrenchLayer Specimen no.

D

4

D

4

71

15.1

16.3

D

3

111

14.2

16.7

Bp

Dp

note

Bp

Dp

41

Bd

Dd

12.3

11.1

SD

Depth ofdiaphysis

Ph2
TrenchLayer Specimen no.

A

3-4

A

3-4

D

4

note

12.5

39

D

3

113

D

3

129

prox.imiused

16.4

15.6

12.5

16.1

14.9

11.9

12.0

Bd

Dd

13.0

13.2

12.9

14.5

30.5

13.1

14.3

31.6

10.4

12.6

10.2

11.3

139

140

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

Ph3
TrenchLayer Specimen no.

note

MBS

DLS

Ld

6.0

28.5

19.1

A

A

concretion

H

Bf

Lf

6.0

34.6

22.3

8.8

33.4

(26.7)

18.5

9.3

5.5

27.8

22.6

15.0

8.9

12.8

4.7

30.0

26.1

16.0

8.0

11.7

10.6

13.8

D

4

47

D

4

75

D

4

90

burnt

D

4

91

burnt

5.0

D

4

117

burnt

6.7

17.6

9.3

D

4

118

burnt

6.4

15.2

9.0

Table 8.3 Measurements of Ovis from IB 75.
ScapulaTrench

Layer

A

2

D

6

Specimen no.

note

1

SLC

29.2

GLP

LG

BG

36.9

29.3

24.2

43.2

31.8

28.8

GLT

HN

30.8

HumerusTrenchLayer|Specimen no.

Bd

Dd

BT

97

37.1

(30.0)

33.6

Dp(17.2)

Bdf

RadiusSpecimen no.

Trench

Layer

D

4

93

D

4

102

note

unfused

31.5

Ulna
TrenchLayer |Specimen no.

BPC

42

20.6

smallest length of articular facet
17.5

Metapodial
Trench

Layer

A

3-4

A

3-4

A

3-4

Specimen no.

D

4

55

D

4

83

note

Bd

Dd

3

4

metacarpal
metacarpal
metapodial
metacarpal
metacarpal, burnt

26.3

17.8

11.5

12.0

24.5

15.8

11.3

11.5

9.4

11.8

12.3

12.5

16.9

11.14

11.0

16.3

26.0

Dt

3: breadth of medial trochlea 4: depth of medial condyle (following Payne 1969)
Femur
TrenchLayer

Specimen no.
123

Bd

Dd

38.46

(47.0)GLl

GLm

Astragalus
Trench

Layer

D

3

247

burnt

D

4

53

burnt

30.5

28.2

24.3

17.1

17.4

18.6

17.9

D

4

81

burnt

28.6

(26.7)

23.7

15.4

15.0

16.9

(17.5)

D

4

94

28.4

26.5

22.7

16.0

16.6

19.2

16.7

D

4

98

31.7

29.2

25.4

18.0

19.3

20.9

20.9

GB

GD

Specimen no.

note

27.4

LA

D1

23.9

16.4

Dm

Bd

BFp

17.9

Calcaneum

TrenchLayer

Specimen no.

note

23.5

Ltub

GL

1*

2*

45.9

67.9

23.8

12.9

burnt
19.9
25.4
50.0
70.6
23.4
unfused
18.4
23.5
22.2
1: Length from distal end to the proximal margin ofarticular surface for Os malleolus

11.9
10.7

2: Length ofthe articular surface for Os malleolus
Phi
Trench

Layer

A

3-4

D

3

D

Specimen no.

Bp

Dp

13.4

15.8

110

14.4

17.0

3

119

12.9

14.8

D

3

120

bumt

D

3

121

bumt

D

3

136

D

5

34

note

bumt

12.3

SD

Depth of diaphysis

10.4

10.2

Bd

Dd

GL

(37.8)

11.3(10.5)

15.0

12.4

12.0

10.6

13.9

12.4

15.1

Ph2
Trench

Layer

A

3-4

D

3

114

D

3

115

D

5

21

Specimen no.

Bp

Dp

SD

12.0

11.7

9.0

bumt

12.4

13.6

8.0

9.0

bumt

12.6

13.6

7.9

9.1

bumt

12.1

12.3

8.9

8.5

note

Depth of diaphysis

Bd

Dd

GL

9.8

10.5

26.5

9.4

11.1

25.6

9.9

10.7

26.1

9.3

10.5

23.9

FAUNAL REMAINS FROMTB75

Ph3

Specimen no.

Trench

Layer

MBS

DLS

Ld

H

Bf

D

4

104

7.1

31.3

23.4

16.8

9.8

27.2

18.0

10.2

note

D

3

122

7.6

32.2

D

4

62

7.1

33.9

D

4

89

7.2

16.7

Lf

10.1

12.5

10.0

12.5

Axis

Layer |Specimen no.

Trench

19

burnt

BFcr

B den

(39.9)

21.6

Table 8.4 Measurements of equid from IB 75.
TrenchLayer Specimen no.

D

5

31

Lower cheek toothElement

note

2

3

4

5

6

26.7

9.0

15.1

12.3

14.5

(53.6)

D

5

50

D

6

9

Upper P2
Upper molar

D

6

12

Lower cheek tooth

protocone L

B

1

70.4

25.7

21.4

10.7

(29.0)(26.7)

12.6

B

21.3

14.4

26.0

9.4

15.6

Measurement criteria following Eisenmann et al. 1988
B: bucco-lingual breadth

Table 8.5 Measurements of cervid from TB 75.
TrenchLayer Specimen no.

Element

note

D

6

8

Upper Molars

red deer

D

4

40

Phi

M2L

31.3

B

23.8

Bd

14.6

Dd

12.5

MIL

26.6

Table 8.6 Measurements of Gazella from TB 75.
ScapulaSpecimen no.

Trench

Layer

D

4

44

D

4

101

GLP

note

LG

BG

HN

(21.8)
32.7

23.3

22.4

17.2

HumerusTrench1 LayerD

1 4

1Specimen no. 1

note

27

1

Bd

Dd

BT

GLT

1

32.1

28.3

31.3

20.3

RadiusTrench1 Layer 1 Specimen no. 1

noteSpecimen no.

Trench

Layer

D

3

133

1

note

D

3

134

D

4

29

D

4

80

metacarpal, burnt
metacarpal, bumt
metacaipal, burnt, unfiised
metacarpal, bumt

D

4

92

metatarsal

D

5

26

metacarpal, unftised

Bp(27.5)

Dp(14.8)

Bp

Bd

21.9

21.9

3

4

Dt

9.7

12.0

(15.2)

10.4

13.2

17.5

9.2

11.9

16.2

10.6

14.0

18.2

9.1

12.2

16.2

20.1

Trench

Layer

GLl

GLm

LA

D1

Dm

Bd

BFp

D

4

52

30.4

28.3

24.6

16.9

17.3

18.4

17.0

D

4

54

30.0

27.5

23.8

17.2

17.1

17.9

15.2

Specimen no.

note

Calcaneum
TrenchLayer |Specimen no.

73 I concretion

GB

CD

Ltub

GL

1

| 20.1

^.1

47.6

68.6

22.6

12.1

GL

1: Length from distal end to the proximal margin of articular surface for Os malleolus
2: Length of the articular surface for Os malleolus
Phi

SD

Bd

Dd

6.8

8.0

8.7

bumt

9.9

10.5

bumt

10.7

9.7

10.7

9.2

10.1

10.7

9.9

10.7

9.6

10.7

bumt

9.9

9.8

bumt

9.7

9.9

11.5

10.2

9.3

9.4

Specimen no.

Trench

Layer

A

3-4

D

3

124

D

3

125

D

3

126

bimit

D

3

127

bumt

D

3

128

D

4

28

bumt, unfiised
bumt, unfiised

D

4

43

D

4

56

D

4

57

D

4

64

D

4

70

bumt

D

4

87

D

4

88

D

4

103

D

5

35

bumt

D

6

2

bumt

note

Bp

11.9

Dp

14.6

12.3

14.7

12.1

14.7

13.2

16.5

10.0

14.6
11.1

10.2

16.0

14.1

14.6

141

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

Ph2

1 of diaphysis

Trench

Layer

Bp

Dp

Bd

Dd

GL

A

lA

lO.O

12.9

7.6

9.5

12.1

25.3

A

3-4

9.2

12.0

6.7

7.7

10.5

22.4

A

3-4

8.9

12.7

6.5

8.0

11.0

23.3

A

3-4

9.0

12.1

7.0

8.1

10.1

24.1

D

4

anterior

11.5

13.9

7.9

8.1

9.8

11.9

23.3

D

4

58

posterior

10.9

11.7

8.4

7.3

9.1

9.8

24.0

D

3

130

burnt

9.4

12.6

6.4

6.9

7.9

10.3

23.2
25.9

Specimen no.

59

note

D

3

131

burnt

10.0

14.0

7.6

7.9

9.1

11.3

D

4

86

burnt

11.7

12.0

8.3

8.0

9.2

10.1

24.1

D

4

99

9.4

12.8

6.9

7.8

8.3

8.2

23.3

D

4

106

burnt

D

5

22

burnt

9.0

11.7

6.1

7.8

9.6

22.1

D

5

33

9.2

13.1

6.7

7.7

10.2

23.5

D

6

10

9.1

11.8

7.1

7.9

10.9

22.6

MBS

DLS

H

Bf

5.3

25.5

11.3

Ph3
Trench

Layer

A

3-4

Specimen no.

note

D

3

132

5.5

26.6

D

4

30

burnt

6.1

29.0

D

4

46

concretion

6.2

24.7

D

4

61

burnt
unfused

-0.04

-0.02

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

Fig.8.1 TB75 Ovis Log Size Index (n=23).

1999; Uerpmann 1979). The standard measurement for the calculation of the LSI for sheep
was taken from a female wild sheep from Iran (Chicago Field Museum, specimen #FMC57951). The standard measurements for goats are based on the average element
dimensions of one female and one male wild goat from southern Turkey (Natural History
Museum, London, specimen # BMNH653M and 653L2)(Uerpmann and Uerpmann 1994:
Tables 12&14).

Fig. 8.1 shows the LSI distribution of sheep from TB75. The three specimens at thelarger end of the range clearly come from large male wild sheep. One of them is a scapulafrom the Epipalaeolithic Layer, another is an unfused epiphysis of distal radius from theProto-Neolithic Layer, and the third one is a first phalanx from the Epipalaeolithic Layer.
There are four specimens from the Epipalaeolithic Layer, and their LSI values are all larger
than 0. Many of the specimens (but not all) toward the smaller end of the distribution range
are burnt, which is indicated by solid colour in the figure. It is possible that themeasurements of these burnt bones tend to be smaller due to shrinkage from burning.
Excluding these burnt bones and unfused specimens, the distribution of LSI indicates thatsheep from the Epipalaeolithic and Proto-Neolithic layers at the site are probably all wild
sheep (Ovis orientalis). There is one specimen from the Achaemenid Period, which is a large
animal with a LSI value of 0.05. This specimen, however, cannot be readily identified as a

FAUNAL REMAINS FROM TB75

burnt

-0.10

-0.08

-0.06

-0.04

-0.02

0.00

0.02

0.04

Fig.8.2 TB75 Capra Log Size Index (n=10).

wild specimen because improved breeds that might be similar in size to the wild animals
exist in the historical periods. Especially, it is extremely difficult to distinguish domestic
males from wild specimens. There are, however, a few specimens from Proto-Neolithic
layers whose LSI values are on the smaller side, ranging between -0.04 to -0.01. Although
we do not know the size range of wild sheep in the Ears province nor the degree of sexual

dimorphism, and we cannot entirely determine the domestic or wild status of these relatively
small specimens, they are probably small female wild sheep. The date of the Proto-Neolithic
Layer seems to be too early for the existence of domestic sheep in the region. A sheep
humerus (specimen no. 97 from Trench D, with LSI value 0.05) from Layer 4 (ProtoNeolithic) was directly dated to 8598±49 bp (7650-7575cal. BC, 1 sigma, intcal 04.14C,
sample number AA74918. note: personal communication. Dr. P.J. Reimer, Queen's
University, Belfast and J.F. Saliege, Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris) using apatite.
The date corresponds well to results of 14C dating from the site using charcoal fragments(see Capter 10 in this volume).

All the goat specimens used for LSI analysis came from Proto-Neolithic Layers (Fig. 2),
but due to small sample size, it is difficult to evaluate the size of goats at the site.
Comparison of individual measurements of second phalanges(specimen no. 39 from Trench
D and the specimen from Trench A, see Table 8.2) indicates that the greatest length (31.6
and 30.5 respectively) is comparable to those from the Paleolithic sites, in the upper size
range of the modem wild goats of northem and central Zagros, and larger than the modem
wild goats of southem Zagros (Zeder 2005: Table 4; Zeder 2006). It should also be notedthat there are a few relatively small specimens with LSI values at -0.07 and -0.1. It is likelythat the goats from Proto-Neolithic Layers of TB75 are mostly wild goats {Capra aegagrus),
however, in the absence of data on the kill-off patterns it is difficult to assess wild,

predomestic or domestic status of goats at the site. This question needs to be further
investigated, including direct dating of the specimens at the smaller end of the size
distribution.

Discussion

The Province of Pars is little known from an archaeozoological point of view andconstitutes not only one probable passage of the currents of Neolithisation between the west
and east, but also a passage between the low and the high altitude zones of Zagros

143

144

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

mountains. During the last 5 years, a number of important archaeological investigation in theFars Province made it possible to investigate the most debated topic of the archaeozoologists
working in the Middle/Near East, the process of domestication, on the Iranian Plateau after
the pioneer work of William Sumner in 1972. In 2002-2003 within the framework of a
French-Japanese collaboration project(CNRS/ JSPS) archaeozoologists began the analysis of
the faunal remains of several site of the Marvdasht plain (Tal-i-Mushki, Jari B and Jari A,
Tal-i-Gap) excavated by a Japanese archaeological team during the late 1950's (Fukai et al.
1973; Nishiaki & Mashkour 2006; Mashkour et al. 2006; Mashkour & Vigne Unpublishedreport 2008). Until then, the only part of the material that had been partially investigatedwere the equid bones, studied by Sebastian Payne who was interested in documenting thepresence ofEquus hydruntinus in the region (Payne, 1991).
In the mean time an archaeological team directed by K. Abdi, Susan Pollock andReinhard Bembeck began an archaeological investigation in Tol-e-Bashi (Abdi et al. 2003;

Mashkour & Bailon in press). In 2004, Abbas Alizadeh of the Oriental Institute of Chicago(2004) re-visited the Marvdasht sites (Mushki, Jari B, Jari A, Bakun), previously excavatedby the Japanese archaeologists and the faunal material of which has been analysed(Mashkour et al. 2006). Also, an Irano-Australian team investigated the Nurabad plain wherelate Neolithic layers were also present. Other recent investigations in Fars are more focusedon salvage projects due to massive dam constructions (Tepe Mehr Ali - Lapui period, now
immersed). Faunal remains from these sites have been also studied (Mashkour 2006, Sheikhi
2008 and Sheikhi & Mashkour in prep.). An abundant radiocarbon set of data now exists for
all these sites and it clearly appears that the earliest Neolithic sites in the Province are Tall-i

Mushki followed by Jari B [7500 BP](partially contemporary to some contexts of Tol- eBashi). It is especially in Mushki that we could trace the history and the process of theungulate domestication in southern Zagros, where goat is clearly domesticated and sheep isvery scarcely represented with the shy presence of domestic cattle in parallel to the Aurochs.
On the basis of our present knowledge on the process of animal domestication in thesouthern Zagros, it is clear that sites such as TB75 are of great importance for a better
description of the domestication process. If still possible, and the logistic situation makes it

feasible, the site of TB75 and similar sites in the vicinity of the dam that might haveremained out ofthe water should be investigated deeper for more data collection.

Summary

The results of analysis of faunal remains from TB75 suggest that a wide range of fauna
was exploited during the prehistoric periods at the site. Medium sized bovids were the mostimportant game in this broad-spectrum resource exploitation, of which gazelles were themost significant during the Epipaleolithic and Proto-Neolithic period. An increase in the
proportion of sheep and goats, especially goats, from the Epipalaeolithic Period to the ProtoNeolithic Period is evident at the site. Whether or not this change in the exploitation patternsof bovids in the Proto-Neolithic Period was related to the beginning of domestication of
sheep and goats could not be determined with the evidence at hand. Distribution of LSI for

both sheep and goats suggest a rather homogeneous population, and comparison ofindividual measurements of goats also indicated that the specimens are within the size range
for wild goats.

Pigs and cattle were not found in the Epipalaeolithic Layers, but appear from the ProtoNeolithic Layers. Although a cattle tooth was found in the Proto-Neolithic Layer, cattle
might be a later arrival in the region, and it was only in the Achaemenid Period that its
significance increased.

FAUNAL REMAINS FROM TB75

Most of the sheep, goat, cattle, and pig remains in the Achaemenid and Islamic Layers
are probably domestic. These taxa together make up more than half of the identified
specimens in the Achaemenid Period. Gazelle hunting still continued, but its importance was
reduced compared to the prehistoric period. Equid remains also increased dramatically in the
Achaemenid Period, reflecting the strategic importance of the site in the vicinity ofPresepolis.

Acknowledgement: The research of H. Hongo was supported by Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research on Priority Area(#17063007).

References

Abdi, K., Pollock, S. and Bembeck,R.
2003 "Pars Archaeology project 2003", Iran 41: 339-44.
Alizadeh, A.

2004 "Recent archaeological investigations on the Persepolis Plain", The Oriental Institute of the
University of Chicago News and Notes 183: 1-7.
Eisenmann, V., Alberdi, N.T., De Giuli, C. and Staesche, U.

1988 "Studying Fossil Horses. Leiden, E. J. Brill.
Fukai, S., Horiuchi, K. and Matsutani, T.

1973

Marv-Dasht III. The excavation at Tall-i-Mushki, 1965 (The Tokyo University Iraq-IranArchaeological Expedition, Report 14). Tokyo, The Yamakawa publishing Co., Ltd.
Mashkour, M.

2006 "Faunal Remains from Tol-e Nurabad and Tol-e Spid", in Potts, D.T. and Roustaei (eds). The

Mamasani Archaeological Project Stage One: A report on the first two seasons of the ICAR University of Sydney expedition to the Mamasani District, Pars Province, Iran: 135-146.
Tehran: ICAR.

Mashkour, M. with Bailon, S.

(in press) "Animal remains from Tol-e-Bashi (Ramjerd plain- Pars), a Late Neolithic / Chalcolithic
settlement in South-West Iran", in S. Pollock, R. Bembeck & K. Abdi (eds). Excavation at
Tol-e-Bashi(2003), Pars- Iran. University of Binghamton.
Mashkour, M. with Mohaseb, A. and Debue, K.

2006 "Chapter 10: Towards a specialized subsistence economy in the Marvdasht Plain. Preliminary
zooarchaeological analysis of Mushki, Jari B, Jari A and Bakun A and B", in Alizadeh (ed)with contributions of M. Kimiaie, M. Mashkour and N. Miller, The Origins of State

Organizations in Prehistoric Highland Pars, Excavations at Tall-e Bakun: 101-105. (Oriental
Institut Publications 128). Chicago. Illinois.
Mashkour, M., Eisenmann V., Hashemi, N. and Biglari, P.

(in prep.) The Mousterian fauna of Qaleh Bozi(Mobarakeh- Esfahan).
Mashkour, M. and Vigne, J.-D.

2008 Analysis of Tal-i-Mushki and Jari B faunal remains. Unpublished report.
Meadow, R. H.

1981 "Early animal domestication in South Asia: a first report of the faunal remains from Mehrgarh,
Pakistan", in Hartel, H.(ed). South Asian Archaeology 1979. Berlin, Dietrich Reimer Verlag:
143-179.

1983 "Appendix G, The vertebrate faunal remains from Hasanlu period X at Hajji Pimz", in Voigt,
M.M.(ed), Hajji Pimz Tepe, Iran: The Neolithic Settlement (Hasanlu Excavation Reports I):
369-422. The University Museum of University ofPennsylvania, Philadelphia.
1999 "The use of size index scaling techniques for research on archaeozoological collections from
the Middle East, in Becker, C., Manhart, H., Peters, J. & Schibler, J.(eds), Historia Animalium

ex Ossibus: Beitrage aur Palaoanatomie, Archaologie, Agyptologie, Ethnologie undGeschichte der Tiermedizin: 285-300. RahdenAVestf, Verlag Marie Leidorf.
Nishiaki, Y. and Mashkour, M.

2006 "The stratigraphy of the Neolithic site of Jari B, Marv Dasht, southwest Iran", Orient Express
Paris, 3: 77-81.

145

146

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

Payne, S.

1969 "A metrical distinction between sheep and goat metacarpals". In Ucko, P.J., Dimbleby, G.W.
(eds)The domestication and exploitation of plants and animals: 295-305. London, Duckworth.
1991 "Early Holocene Bquids from Tal-i-Mushki (Iran) and Can Hassan III (Turkey)", in R. H.
Meadow, R.H. & and Uerpmann, H.-P. (eds), Equids in the Ancient World, vol. II: 132-177.
Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
Sheikhi, Sh.

2008 The subsistence economy of Tepe Mehr Ali Ears based on an archaeozoological study. Masterthesis. Tehran University Faculty of Litterature and Human Sciences.
Sheikhi, Sh. and Mashkour, M.

(in prep.) Analysis ofthe faunal remain oftrenches F and J of Tepe Mehr Ali Fars.
Sumner, W.M.

1972 Cultural development in the Kur River Basin, Iran: An archaeological analysis of settlement
pattems. PhD Thesis, Philadelphia.
Uerpmann, H.-P.

1979 Probleme der Neolithisierung des Mittelmeerraums.(Tiibinger Atlas des vodem Orients, Reihe
B,Nr. 28). Dr. Ludwig Reichert, Wiesbaden.
1987 The ancient distribution of ungulate mammals in the Middle East. (Tiibinger Atlas des vodem
Orients, Reihe A,Nr. 27). Dr. Ludwig Reichert. Wiesbaden.
Uerpmaim, M. and Uerpmaim, H.-P.

1994 "Animal bone finds from Excavation 520 at Qala'at al-Bahrain". Hojlund, F. & Andersen,
H.H.(eds.) Qala'at al-Bahrain vol.1: The Northem City Wall and the Islamic Fortress (Jutland
Archaeological Society Publications 30,1): 417-444. Aarhus, Jutland Archaeological Society.
Zeder, M.A.

2005 "A view from the Zagros: New perspectives on livestock domestication in the Fertile
Crescent", n Vigne J.-D., Peters J., & Helmer D . (eds) New methods and the first steps ofmammal domestication:125-146. Oxford, Oxbow Books.

2006 "A critical assessment of marker of initial domestication in goats (Capra hircus)", in Zeder,
M.A., BradleY, D.G., Emshwiller, E. & Smith, B.D.(eds). Documenting Domestication: New
Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms: 181-208, Berkley, University of Califomia Press.

FAUNAL REMAINS FROM TB75

148

Hitomi HONGO and Marjan MASHKOUR

nrnT
Plate 8.6b Occlusal surface of #31

Plate 8.6a Mandibular tooth of equid (Trench
D Layer 4,#31).

]i!|i 1 1 i|i !Im1 1 i|i 1 1
Plate8.8 Shell (Trench D Layer4)

Plate 8.7 Medium size birds (Trench D Layer 4,#76&77).

CHAPTER 9

PLANT REMAINS FROM TB75

9. PLANT REMAINS FROM TB75

Ken-ichi TANNO

Charred remains collected with a small-scale manual water-sieve during the excavation
were sent to me for analysis. Location, date and other sample information are given in Table
9.1. The source amounts of soil were not measured, and only small numbers of charred seeds
were recovered. The identifiable seeds are reported here to provide an initial plant list for thesite. The sample results are given in Table 9.2; four of the samples received did not containbotanical material and are not described further here.

Sample 2(Epi-Paleolithic)

Three Leguminosae, one Gramineae and one indeterminable seeds were found insample 2. Among the three Leguminosae, one seed is probably either to Astragalus sp. or
Trigonella sp. (Fig. 9.1). These two genera are difficult to distinguish, except in the case ofcertain distinctive species. This is mainly because the morphology of Astragalus seeds canbe highly variable, even within one pod. The other Leguminosae seeds and one Gramineae
Table 9.1 Sampling location of botanical remains.
Sample Number

TrenchLayer

PeriodDate of sampling

No.l

C

5

No.2

C

5

2006.7.26

No.3

C

6

Epi-Paleolithic
Epi-Paleolithic
Epi-Paleolithic

No.4

D

4

Proto-Neolithic

2006.8.2

No.5

D

5

Epi-Paleolithic

2006.7.31

No.6

D

4-5

Proto-Neolithic

2006.8.2

No.7

C

5

D

5

Epi-Paleolithic
Epi-Paleolithic

2006.7.26

No.8
No.9

C

3

Proto-Neolithic

2006.8.2

No.10

C

4

Proto-Neolithic

2006.8.2

2006.8.2

2006.8.2

2006.8.2

Ken-lchi TANNO

Table 9.2 Results of archaeobotanical remains.
Sample Number
Recovered charred remain (ml)Stipa sp.

No.2

No.3

0.5

0.05

No.4

No.5

No.6

No.7

No.9

No.lO

0.3

0.05

Triticum of. aestivum

Triticum lower spikelet baseHordeum vulgare
Gramineae {Setaria sp.)
Lens sp.
Astragalus/Trigonella-type
Leguminosae
Papaveraceae
Prunus/Amygdalus sp.
Nut shell
indeterminable seed

Mouse dropping
None

Note

None

Fig.9.1 Astragalus/Trigonella-type.

Fig.9.2 Papaveraceae.

Fig.9.3 Triticum cf. aestivum.

Fig.9.4 Gramineae remain (left) andmodern Setaria italica (right).
seed were difficult to identify due to damage. The cylindrical shape of the latter is close to
the characteristic shape of Stipa sp. The indeterminable seed in sample 2 may belong to
Malva sp., but its morphology is not very typical for this species and has a degraded surface,
so identification was not possible.

PLANT REMAINS FROM TB75

Sample 6(Proto-Neolithic)
One fragment of lentil {Lens sp.) was found, and a mouse dropping that may containfurther botanical material(see also sample 9, Table 9.2).

Sample 7(Epi-Paleolithic)

This sample yielded the largest number of identifiable items: an intact wheat grain, abarley grain fragment, Prunus or Amygdalus nut fragments, a Papaveraceae seed (Fig. 9.2)
and Leguminosae seeds. The intact wheat grain was most probably a bread wheat (Fig. 9.3),
although spike-intemodes are needed to most accurately distinguish bread wheat from durum
wheat. As the oldest known naked wheats (bread and durum wheats) are from 7250-6650 BC

of Tell Bouqras, Syria, the wheat grain appearing here in the Epi-Paleolithic layer of Haji
Bahrami may be intrusive from a younger layer.

Sample 8(Epi-Paleolithic)

The remains in sample 8 were somewhat similar to those in sample 2. Two
Leguminosae and two Gramineae seeds were found. Of the two Leguminosae, one was
Astragalus / Trigonella type. One Gramineae seed is probably Stipa sp. and another issimilar in morphology to Setaria sp.(Fig. 9.4, see also Acknowledgements). The latter is notvery common from early archaeological sites in West Asia.

Discussion

Haji Bahrami is thought to comprise of Epi-Paleolithic and Proto-Neolithic levels. Plant
remains from these periods in this region have not been reported previously.
Astragalus/Trigonella—iy^Q legumes and probable Stipa are frequently found in earlyarchaeological sites in West Asia, and the present results are consistent with this. The
unexpected presence of naked wheat (sample 7) may indicate intrusion or contamination in
the excavation area. The very small number of charred remains recovered limits the accuracyof identification. Indeed, no botanical remains were found in samples 1, 3, 4 and 10. Moredetailed investigations are needed to detect any general trends in vegetation history and plantuse in this region.

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Prof. Tsuneki for allowing me to work on the samples. Dr. George

Willcox(CNRS, France) who checked some seeds for identification and Dr. Peter Matthews(National Museum of Ethnology, Japan) for correction of English. This botanical analysis
was partly supported by JSPS grant (No. 18820056) and by RIHN, Japan (SATO projectcontribution No.7).

After this manuscript was submitted. Dr. Dorian Fuller (University College of London)
kindly identified the presumed Setaria seed in this sample as definitely Setaria^ and mostprobably S. italica. I thank him for this observation.

1 53

CHAPTER 10

RADIOCARBON DATING

10-1. RADIOCARBON DATING OF CHARCOAL REMAINS EXCAVATEDFROM TB75

Toshio NAKAMURA and Masayo MINAMI

Abstract

Ten charcoal samples collected from an archeological site of TB75 (Haji BahramiCave) located in the Bolaghi Valley, Fars Province, of southern Iran were radiocarbon datedwith a Tandteron AMS system at Nagoya University. Four charcoal samples collected fromexcavation layers attributed to the Proto-Neolithic period were dated at 8480±45 BP to10190±45 BP and five samples from the Epi-Paleolithic at 12225±50 BP to 16650±70 BP inage. Theages were calibrated to be 7590-7490 cal BC to 10115-9760 cal BC and12290-11980 cal BC to 18000-17600 cal BC,respectively, within a two-sigma error range byusing the IntCal04 data set. The ^^C ages and the calibrated dates of the samples from the two
historical stages are quite consistent with their respective age classifications, Proto-Neolithic
and Epi-Paleolithic periods, as estimated from their archeological context.

1. Introduction

In chronological studies of archeology worldwide, radiocarbon ('^C) dating iscommonly used to estimate the period when archeological sites were intensively used forresidence or living, on human organic remains excavated at the sites, for ages of younger
than 50,000BP (Libby 1955). In particular, ''^C age measurements based on accelerator mass
spectrometry(AMS) have been applied to the remains of small sample sizes, because AMS
dating normally requires only a few milligrams of carbon in the final stages ofmeasurement(Nakamura et al. 2000).

Ten charcoal samples collected from an archeological site of TB75 located in the
Bolaghi Valley in the Fars district of southern Iran were delivered to the authors for precise
age estimation, by Prof. Akira Tsuneki of the University of Tsukuba. The meaning ofages for the samples is described in the other part of this volume. The authors dated the158Toshio NAKAMURA and Masayo MINAMI

samples with a Tandteron '^C AMS system at the Center for Chronological Research,
Nagoya University, and report the results here.

2.Sample preparation

Characteristics of the charcoal samples for the '^C dating are summarized in Table 10.1.
Four samples are classified as being from the Proto-Neolithic period and six samples arefrom the Epi-Paleolithic. The second column of Table 10.1 denotes the trench, basket andlayer number ofthe sampling points, as described in other part ofthis volume.
Chemical and physical cleaning of the charcoal samples, CO2 separation from them,graphite target production and AMS '"^C dating were performed at the Center for
Chronological Research, Nagoya University (Nakamura et al. 2004). We describe theprocedure briefly as follows. The charcoal samples were rinsed with distilled water by using
a supersonic cleaner, and treated twice with 1.2 M HCl for 2 hours at 80°C, to remove any
possible carbonate contaminants. Next, the samples were treated with 0.4 M NaOH solution
for 2 hours at 80°C. The alkaline treatment was repeated several times with different
concentrations of up to 1.2M NaOH,depending on the sample condition. When a serious lossof the charcoal sample occurred during this process, the treatment was stopped immediately.
After the NaOH treatment, the samples were then treated again with 1.2 M HCl for 2 hours at
80°C, and rinsed with distilled water to remove the HCl component completely.
Two charcoal samples nos. 24 and 33 easily dissolved during the first treatment with the

0.4M NaOH solution that followed after the HCl treatment. These samples may have been
produced under lower temperatures so they were not charred perfectly and easily dissolved in
NaOH solution. We therefore recovered a humic acid fraction from the NaOH solution for

Table 10.1 Characteristics and some specific values during sample preparation
procedures for charcoal fragment remains excavated from TB75.
Trench -SampleWeight ofCO2 yield(CO26"Cpdbmaterials forcollection(%o)

combustion

efficiency)

by IRMS**

6.15

1.42

n.m.

Proto-neolithic

7000-10000-26.4

Proto-neolithic

8000-10000-25.3

Proto-neolithic

8000-10000-23.3

Proto-neolithic

8000-10000-23.8

Epi-paleolithic

10000-12000-26.2

Epi-paleolithic

10000-12000-26.6

Epi-paleolithic

10000-12000

n.m.

n.m.

Epi-paleolithic

10000-12000

3.83

-23.4

Epi-paleolithic

10000-12000-25.1

Epi-paleolithic

10000-12000

materials

layer*
2

D-4-3

7

D-9-4

charcoalcharcoalcharcoal

D-16-4charcoal

6.20

D-19-5

humic acid

3.91

(63.0%)
6.30

fragment
24

3.69(59.1%)

fragment
22(cal BC)(23.1%)
6.21

fragment
D-12-4

Supposed date
Periodfragment13

Age expected from archeological contexts

Datedbasket No.No.

3.75(59.5%)
n.m.

from charcoal

5.90(n.m.)

fragment25

D-19-5charcoal

6.20

fragment
28

D-19-5charcoal

6.15

fragment
33

D-23-6

Humic acid

4.53

(73.1%)
3.70(60.2%)
n.m.

from charcoal

fragment
34

D-23-6charcoal

6.30

fragment
35

D-24-6charcoal(60.8%)
6.27

fragment

3.45(55.1%)* denotes the trench, basket and layer number ofthe excavated points for each sample.
** defmed as 8"Cpdb =[('^C/'^C)samp,c/('^C/'^C)PDB - 1.0] X 1000(%o),

where ('^C/'^C)pdb means the carbon stable-isotope ratio for a Pee Dee Belemnite standard material. The values were measured by anisotope-ratio mass spectrometer (Finnigan MAT-252) for CO2 prepared from charcoal samples as described in the text, with one-sigma
uncertainty of±0.l%o.

n.m. denotes not measured because of small sample size.

RADIOCARBON DATING OF CHARCOAL REMAINS EXCAVATED FROM TB75

use in the '"'C measurements. We added 1.2M HCl to the NaOH solution to solidify thehumic acid component. After decantation of its solution part, HCl and water components
were evaporated to produce solid and dry humic acid fractions, in a hot-water bath. It is

normally accepted that acid and alkali treatments of the samples may remove contaminantcarbon fractions that have adsorbed on sample surfaces when the samples were kept underenvironmental conditions. Thus the two humic acid fractions separated from charcoal
samples nos. 24 and 33, may be partly contaminated with foreign carbon and therefore theages of the two are less reliable than those of the other charcoal samples which remained
after the complete set oftreatments with acid and alkali solutions.
The eight charcoal and two humic-acid samples were then dried in an electric oven at

90°C. The charcoal samples of about 6 mg in weight, and all of the two humic-acid fractionsindividually were placed in Vycor tubes of about 350mm long and 9mm outer diameter, with
granular CuO of about SOOmg, and then the tubes were connected to a vacuum line,
evacuated completely and sealed to a tube length of 300mm. The Vycor tubes were heated to
900°C for 2 hours to oxidize the charcoal and humic acid to CO2 completely and the

produced CO2 was purified cryogenically in a vacuum line. The Vycor tube containing
sample no.33 was broken during the heating and all combusted gases were lost. For eightcharcoal samples, the amounts of CO2 recovered ranged from 1.42 mg to 4.53 mg in carbon
weight, and the corresponding recovery rates were between 23.1% and 73.1%, as shown in
Table 10.1. A typical recovery rate of CO2 for normal charcoal samples is 40-60%. The
rather small yield rate for sample no.2 may be caused by the incomplete separation of
charcoal from sand or soil materials in the combustion procedure.

3.

analysis with AMS

The graphite prepared from carbon samples was pressed into an aluminum holder andused as a target for dating with a Tandetron AMS system (model 4130-AMS by HVEE,
the Netherlands) at Nagoya University (Nakamura et al. 2000; 2004). We obtainedandratios for a sample as well as for a NIST oxalic acid standard (HOxll). We thencalculated R [=(''C/''C)sp\/(''C/'^C)sid] to represent the carbon isotope ratio for a sample[(»^C/'^C)spi] in the ratio to the NIST oxalic acid standard [('^C/'2C)std], corrected for sample
blank caused by sample preparation and carbon-isotope measurements with AMS as well ascarbon isotopic fractionation, and finally multiplied a constant to normalize R and to define
the sample whose R value is unity as being formed in AD 1950 (Mook and van der Plicht1999). Conventional ages were calculated from R, and were calibrated to calendar years
using the lntCal04 data set(Reimer et al. 2004). All errors quoted for ''C dates are ±1 sigma
uncertainty. We obtained calibrated dates for both ±1 and ±2 sigma error ranges, withrespective probabilities, as shown in Table 10.2. The carbon stable-isotope ratio, 8'^Cpdb, wasalso measured and defined as

8'^CpDB=[(l^C/'2C)sample/C^C/»^C)pDB- 1.0] X 1000(%o),

where ('^C/'^C)pdb means the carbon stable-isotope ratio for a Pee Dee Belemnite standard
material. The 8^^Cpdb has been measured both for CO2 prepared from charcoal sample, as well

as for graphite converted from the CO2, as shown in Tables 10.1 and 10.2, respectively.

159

160

ToshioNAKAMURAandMasayoMINAMI

Table 10.2 8"Cpdb,"C dates and calibrated ages of charcoal fragment remains
excavated from TB75.
Trench -S'^Cpdbbasket No.-(%o)'"•C age

SampleNo.

Dates calibrated from '""C ages

Dates calibrated from '"C ages

(Reimer et al, 2004), with 11a(Reimer et al, 2004), with ±2aLab. No.

(BP)(NUTA2-)layer*by AMS**

uncertainty (probability)

uncertainty (probability)

2

D-4-3

-28+1

8480±457575 - 7530 cal BC(100%)

7590- 7490cal BC(100%)

12455

7

D-9-4

-26±1

9265+458595 - 8590 cal BC(2.0%)8620 - 8340 cal BC(100%)12456

9645 - 9610 cal BC(14.5%)9665 - 9570 cal BC(20.2%)12457

9520 - 9505 cal BC(6.6%)

9560 - 9300 cal BC(79.8%)

8570-8435 cal BC(91.0%)
8370 - 8350 cal BC(7.0%)
13

D-12-4-22±1

9965±459455 - 9320 cal BC(78.9%)
22

D-16-4-22±110190+45

10040 - 9860 cal BC(94.8%)10115-9760 cal BC(100%)12459

9835 - 9820 cal BC(5.2%)
24

D-19-5-23±112640±5013090- 12820 cal BC(100%)

13215- 12690 cal BC(100%)

12460

25

D-19-5-26±112255±5012235- 12090 cal BC(100%)

12430- 12010 cal BC(100%)

12461

28

D-19-5-26±112225±5012200 - 12065 cal BC(100%)

12290 - 11980 cal BC(100%)

12462

33

D-23-6

n.m.

n.m.

34

D-23-6-22±116330160

17830- 17740 cal BC(7.8%)

12463

17590 - 17480 cal BC(100%)

17630- 17360 cal BC(92.2%)
35

D-24-6-24±116650170

17940 - 17840 cal BC(57.2%)

18000 - 17600 cal BC(100%)

12464

17730 - 17642 cal BC(42.8%)* denotes the trench, basket and layer number of the excavated points for each sample.

** the same 8'^Cpdb defined in Table 1, but measured by a Tandetron AMS system on graphite material synthesized from CO2, with onesigma uncertainty of±1 %o.
n.m. denotes not measured because of small sample size.

4. Results and discussion

Four charcoal samples nos. 2 to 22 collected from excavation layers attributed to theProto-Neolithic period were dated as 8480±45 BP to 10190±45 BP,and five samples nos. 24

to 35 from the Epi-Paleolithic as 12225±50 BP to 16650±70 BP in '"C age. The '"C ages were
calibrated to be 7590-7490 cal BC to 10115-9760 cal BC and 12290-11980 cal BC to 18000-

17600 cal BC, respectively, within two-sigma error range by using the IntCal04 data set, asshown in Table 10.2. The "C ages and the calibrated dates for the two groups of the samples
are quite consistent with the respective age classifications, Proto-Neolithic and EpiPaleolithic periods, based on archeological contexts(Table 10.1).
Samples nos. 24, 25 and 28 are from the same layer and their '"C dates are consistent
with one another, although the '"C age of no.24 is a bit older than those ofthe other two. Thismay be as a result of contamination of the extracted humic-acid fraction for no.24 sample byforeign older carbon, as described in sample preparation. All other '""C ages get older as the
sample collection layers become deeper, and are quite consistent with the ones expectedarcheologically (Table 10.1), although the calibrated dates for samples nos. 34 and 35 areolder by 5000-6000 years than expected. Fig.10.1 compares the "C ages with the IntCal04
data set.

The 8'^Cpdb values measured for CO2 prepared from charcoal samples by an isotopicratio mass spectrometer(IRMS) were almost consistent with respective values measured forgraphite material by a Tandetron AMS system. Because carbon isotopic fractionation
occurred during the production of graphite from CO2, the 8'^Cpdb values measured by aTandetron AMS system are a bit different from those from an IRMS. Previous research

indicates that (Nakamura et al. 2004), the difference of relevant values, which can beconsidered as the uncertainty of the 8'^Cpdb measured by a Tandetron AMS system, isnormally ±1 %o. The 8'^Cpdb values measured by an IRMS are normally accepted as realistic
values and used for further analyses. The 8"CPDB ranged from -23.3 to -26.6%o for the
charcoal samples, and this suggests that all charcoal samples were produced from C3 plants

RADIOCARBON DATING OF CHARCOAL REMAINS EXCAVATED FROM TB75

18000

IntCal 04 data set
No.35

16000

No.34

CD 14000
No.24
O12000

No.25

No.28
No.22

10000
No.13

-18000 -16000 -14000 -12000 -10000 -8000

Calibrated age (cal BC)

Fig.10.1 Comparison of ^"^C ages with the lntCal04 calibration data sets,forcharcoal samples collected from TB75.
(O'leary 1988).
References

Libby, W.F.

1955 Radiocarbon dating. University of Chicago Press, 175p.
Mook, W.G. and van der Plicht, J.

1999 Reporting

activities and concentrations. Radiocarbon,41: 227-239.

Nakamura, T., Niu, E., Oda, H., Ikeda, A., Minami, M., Takahashi, A.H., Adachi, M.,Pals, L., Gottdang, G.
and Suya, N.

2000 The HVEE Tandetron AMS system at Nagoya University. Nucl Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res.,
B 172: 52-57.

Nakamura,T., Niu, E., Oda, H.,Ikeda, A., Minami, M., Ohta, T., Oda, T.

2004 High precision '"C measurements with the HVEE Tandetron AMS system at Nagoya
University. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res., B 223-224:124-129.
OTeary, M.H.

1988 Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis. Fractionation techniques may reveal new aspects of carbon
dynamics in plants. Bioscience, 38: 328-336.

Reimer, P.J., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E.,
Burr, G., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, K.A.,
Hughen, T.P., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Manning, S., Bronk Ramsey, C., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S.,
Southon, J.R„ Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer, C.E.
2004 IntCal04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0-26 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon,46: 1029-1058.

161

10-2. RADIOCARBON DATING OF CHARCOAL SAMPLESFROMTB75

Minoru YONEDA

The lumps of charcoal collected from the excavation in 2006 at TB75 (Haji BahramiCave) were measured for conventional radiocarbon ages by an accelerator mass spectrometer(Table 10.3). The samples were cleaned by acid-base-acid(ABA)treatment to remove humic
contamination from the surrounding matrix (de Vries and Barendsen, 1954). At first, 0.1 Mhydrochloric acid removed the adhered secondary carbonates at a temperature of 80°C for 12hours. Then the samples were washed with disorganized distilled water (MilliQ water) andthe same acid treatment was conducted again. The alkali treatment was started using weakeralkali solution (0.00001 M NaOH) and then stronger solution was used if the charcoal did
not dissolve. Each reaction took 12 hours at a temperature of 80°C. The highest content of

NaOH for each sample is shown in Table 10.4. For the removal of absorbed atmosphericcarbon dioxide, the samples were reacted with 1.0 M HCL for 12 hours at a temperature of
80°C. After removing the acid completely with pure water, the samples were freeze-dried.
About 1.0 ~ 1.5 mg of each charcoal was burnt in an elemental analyzer into CO2 andtrapped by cryogenic traps(Yoneda et al., 2004). The purified CO2 was heated at 650°C withhydrogen and iron catalysis to turn carbon dioxide into graphite (Kitagawa et al. 1993). The
Table 10.3 Samples analyzed for radiocarbon dating.
sample no.

Sample type

TrenchBasket No.

Layer

Assigned period
Proto-Neolithic

3

charcoal

D

6

4

5

charcoalD

7

4

Proto-Neolithic

6

charcoalD

8

4

Proto-Neolithic

9charcoalC

13

4

Proto-Neolithic

11

charcoalC

13

4

Proto-Neolithic

12

charcoalC

13

4

Proto-Neolithic

18

charcoalC

15

5

Epi-Paleolithic
Epi-Paleolithic
Epi-Paleolithic
Epi-Paleolithic

19

charcoal

C

15

5

27

charcoal

C

17

5

29-1

charcoal

C

17

5

164

MInoru YONEDA

Table 10.4 The contents of NaOH for alkali treatment.

sample no.

NaOH(M)

3

0.01

5

0.01

6

0.01

9

0.01-1.0

11

0.001

12

0.001

18

0.001

19

0.001

27

0.001

29-1

0.001

Table 10.5 Conventional radiocarbon and calibrated ages.
sample3

range of 1 sigma(calBP)

Conventional

(BP)

8403

+/-

43

-26.1

9490

9330

Lab IDTERRA-070407a30

5

9421

+/-

47

-28.9

10710

-

10580

TERRA-070407a33

6

9452

+/-

47

-28.8

10750

-

10590

TERRA-070407a34

9

1368

+/-

33

-24,9

1310

1270

TERRA-070407a35

11

1448

+/-

33

-25.1

1365

1305

TERRA-070407a36

12

1407

+/-

36

-27.8

1340

1290

TERRA-070407a37

18

ND

19

11930

+/-

56

-21.6

13850

-

13720

TERRA-072307a03

27

14774

+/-

61

-25.7

18050

-

17780

TERRA-072307a04

29-1

13231

+/-

56

-22.3

15850

-

15480

TERRA-072307a05

mixture of graphite (1 mg)and iron (1 mg) was pressed into an aluminum sample holder for
accelerator mass spectrometry(AMS). The AMS at the National Institute for Environmental

Studies, NIES-TERRA, was employed for this study. Each sample was measured for 30
minutes forand

The ratio between

andwas standardized with NBS oxalic

acid (SRM-4990c) andratios were applied for correcting isotopic fractionation ineach sample. The typical uncertainty with conventional radiocarbon age is 0.5%
corresponding to about 40
years(Tanaka et al., 2000).
The results are shown in Table 10.5. Conventional radiocarbon ages were calibrated

into calibrated radiocarbon ages based on IntCAL04 by using OxCAL ver. 3.10 (Bronk
Ramsey 1995, 2001; Reimer et al. 2004). Three charcoal samples indicated much younger
ages, around 1400 BP than the others between 8400 BP and 15000 BP. Because all of theyounger ages were produced from samples from basket #13, it is highly possible that they
were contaminated from the upper layers in this basket. It is likely that the other older ages
matched the general archaeological context recorded at the site. The stratigraphy andmaterials were held in situ at Loci 4 and 13.

References

Bronk Ramsey, C.

1995 "Radiocarbon calibration and analysis of stratigraphy: the OxCal Program", Radiocarbon 31(2): 425-430.
Bronk Ramsey, C.

2001 "Development of the radiocarbon calibration program". Radiocarbon 43(2A): 355-363.
de Vries, H. and G.W. Barendsen

1954 "Measurements of age by the carbon-14 technique". Nature 174: 1138-1141.

RADIOCARBON DATING OF CHARCOAL SAMPLES FROM TB75

Kitagawa, H., et al.

1993 "A batch preparation method for graphite targets with low-background for AMS C-14
measurements", Radiocarbon 35 (2): 295-300.
Reimer,PJ., et al.

2004 "IntCal04 Terrestrial Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 0-26 Gal Kyr BP", Radiocarbon 46 (3):1029-1058.

Tanaka, A., et al.

2000 "Recent advances in C-14 measurement at NIES-TERRA",Nuclear Instruments & Methods inPhysics Research 5 172:107-111.
Yoneda, M., et al.

2004 "AMS •'^C measurement and preparative techniques at NIES-TERRA", Nuclear Instruments
and Methods in Physics Research B 223-224: 116-123.

^65

CHAPTER 11

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY
AND ITS VICINITY

11. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND
ITS VICINITY

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

1. Introduction

The archaeological survey by the Iran-Japan joint expedition to the Sivand dam salvage
area was carried out in 2005 and 2007 to investigate past transhumance routes and relatedarchaeological remains in the Bolaghi (locally pronounced bolaghi) Valley and its vicinity,
especially in the Pasargadae Plain (fa. dasht-e pasargad or dasht-e morghab)(Fig.11.1).
Although the primary aim ofthe survey was to record the archaeological remains which were
to be submerged under dam water, the survey more specifically focused on two aspects ofthe given geographic area, namely (1) investigation of the relationship between pasttranshumance routes and related archaeological remains, and (2) investigation ofarchaeological remains related to the road, water management and defence systems during
the Achaemenid period (ca. 6-4th century BC).

For (1), our goal was to clarify the relationship of archaeological remains distributed
along past transhumance routes through the comparison of transhumance routes and thelifestyle of modem nomadic pastoralists. Therefore we conducted the survey not only in the
Bolaghi Valley (though this was our main research area), but also in Toll-e Gholam in thenorth of the Pasargadae Plain where one of the transhumance routes which passes throughthe Bolaghi Valley is located. Since the activities of nomadic pastoralists are one of thecharacteristic features of historical development in Fars (Alizadeh 2003), we chose to
conduct the survey from such a viewpoint.

For (2), in order to clarify the historical importance of the Bolaghi Valley, we cannot

ignore the relationship of the valley with the site of Pasargadae, the first capital of the
Achaemenid Empire. Although the valley is considered to be one of the major entrances to
the Pasargadae Plain, no detailed surveys conceming the Achaemenid period have been
conducted in the valley up till today. To understand the importance of the valley as a whole,
we intended to focus on inffastmcture works, namely road, water management and defence
systems, executed and maintained by the Achaemenid Empire.

170

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

52°50'0"E

52'^55'0"E

53°0'0"E

53"05'0"E

53°10'0"E

53°15'0"E

Dasht-eNane-arab

30®15'0"N

Pasarga
Bolaghi Valley
30°10'0"N\u

But^htBozorg<—I-

Tang-e:BoiaghiSivaiid-adat^hahr-

30°05'0"N

Sivand Rive

Naqsh-e30°00'0"NRu^am

29"55'0"N

Persepolis

fA'-1^ ^29°50'0"N

20km

Fig.l 1.1 Vicinity of the Boiaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain with the main surveyedarea.

To obtain sufficient results to fulfil the above goals, an intensive field walking survey
was conducted in the study area (see below). Such survey methods have proved useful in
identifying the remains of nomadic pastoralists and archaeological features located in
mountainous areas.

The survey results show a wide range of archaeological remains in the Boiaghi Valleyand Pasargadae Plain that can be interpreted from the transhumance routes of nomadic

pastoralists. The large-scale construction works of the Achaemenid period inform us of thewell-planned and systematic development of the vicinity of the Pasargadae Plain, including
the Boiaghi Valley. As a whole, the survey results convey the importance of studying thepast movement of people, mainly nomadic pastoralists, for understanding the wide range ofhuman activities in Ears.

To avoid confusion with geographic names the following names are defined and used inthis report. The Boiaghi Valley refers to the complex of Tang-e Boiaghi, BoiaghiBozorg, andBoiaghiKuchak (Fig.l 1.2). Tang-e Boiaghi refers to a narrow gorge in the northeastern partof the Boiaghi Valley (Pis.11.1-2). Boiaghi Bozorg refers to the main valley of the Boiaghi
Valley including the so-called Dasht-e Boiaghi(Pis.11.3-4). Boiaghi Kuchak refers to a small
valley extending to the south from the Boiaghi Bozorg (PI.11.5). The southern part of the
Boiaghi Kuchak connects to the RahmatabM Plain. Tang-e Khorkhore refers to a valleyFig.l 1.2 Bolaghi Valley: Major topographic features and the surveyed area (after QuickBIrd satellite image taken on 4 November 2004).

111

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

s

u

4
i

m

faz-1S;|^Bn i|h^^Ir

Fig.11.3 Pasargadae Plain: Major topographic features and the surveyed area (after QuickBird
satellite image taken on 16 August 2004).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

connecting to the east of the Bolaghi Bozorg (PL 11.6). Finally, the Sivand River (fa. rud-esivand) or the Pulvar River (fa. rud-e pulvar) refers to the main river running from north tosouth in the Bolaghi Valley (PI.11.7).

2. Survey Aims

The aims of the survey are summarised as follows:

1) Record archaeological remains in the Bolaghi Valley to be submerged by the Sivanddam,2) Investigate the past transhumance routes of nomadic pastoralists focusing on campsites, caims, and cemeteries, which are located in the foothills of small valleys which

are distributed along the mountains/hills. This is to place the Bolaghi Valley within thelarger spatial movement of people in Fars and to provide a new perspective on thehistorical significance ofthe Bolaghi Valley in southern Iran.

3) Investigate the large infrastructure works of the Archaemenid period, especiallyroads, water canals, and defence walls which are not only distributed in the valley floor,
but also in the mountains/hills surrounding the Bolaghi Valley.

3. Survey Method and Areas

Prior to our survey around 130 archaeological sites in the Bolaghi Valley were alreadyrecorded and reported by M.'Ata'i (2003; 2007). His report submitted to the ICAR (IranianCentre for Archaeological Research) included a gazetteer of sites and a site distribution map
which was made available to us. Thus, we avoided surveying the entire area of the valley andconcentrated on archaeological remains along the transhumance routes of the valley as wellas in the surrounding moutains which were previouly not investigated. In addition, thenorhem part of the Pasargadae Plain was surveyd to obtain additional information about thetranshumance routes which pass through the Bolaghi Valley.

The survey was carried out by intensive field walking and using high-resolution satellite

images. The satellite images were taken by the QuickBird satellite of DigitalGlobe®: of the
Bolaghi Valley on 4 November 2004, and the Pasargadae Plain on 16 August 2004. The
archaeological remains were directly recorded on the satellite image magnified to a scale of
1:3000. A GPS was also used to confirm the location ofthe remains.

The main survey area (Figs.l 1.2-3) included the Bolaghi Valley and the Toll-e Gholam
area to the north of the Pasargadae Plain. Additonal surveys were carried out in thenorthwest, and south of the plain around Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (before called Sa'adatabad)(Appendices 1-7). A brief visit was conducted to the west of the plain around Dasht-eNane'arabi and Cheshme-ye Khorkhore(Appendix 8).

The survey was conducted during two field seasons: the 2005 season between 29 Julyand 5 August 2005, and the 2007 season during 12-27 February 2007L

4.Transhumance Routes of Modern Nomadic Pastoralists around the Bolaghi Valley and
the Pasargadae Plain

During fieldwork we conducted an ethnographic survey, interviewing the locals to gain
information on the modem transhumance routes of nomadic pastoralists who transit the

Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain (Fig.11.4). The aim was to obtain supporting

1 73

1 74

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Dasht-e Namdiin

A(summer pasture)Aspas(summer pasture)

A

Chenaru
Bavdndt

X(summer pasture)

I Baseri I

Chahha-ye Oman

'Arab-e Abdolyusefi I

iKordshuliI

Aushenasun

I'Arab Shi^
I'Arab FarsT
Dasht-e Nane'arabr

Gardan-e Khersi

I 'Abade-'Abdolyusefi

iQashqa'i 1
iKordshuli|

Pasargadae Plain(summar pasture)
BaseriKordshuli

Qashqa'i
1—
Tang-e BolaghiTang-e Khorkhore
Rdh-e Shiri

Bolaghi Valley

Tang-e Panirdn
Tang-e Sa*ddatshahr

BaseriKordshuli

QashqaArsenjdn

Arsenjdn

Geographic Names

iQashqa'i| Tribe Names<

Tranhumance Toute

Fig.l 1.4 Schematic depiction of transhumance routes of nomadic pastoralists who transit
the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain.

evidence of past transhumance routes and the historical importance of the Bolaghi Valley asa transit point of nomadic pastoralists. The interview was administered to the locals who now
dwell in Pasargad (Madar-e Soleyman).

Due to time constraints this ethnographic survey was very limited in nature and should

be carried out in the future by proper ethnographers to obtain a more comprehensive

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

understanding of the nomads' movement and to increase the reliability of such survey
information.

If we compare the transhumance routes according to tribes, clans, and families, theroutes are more complex and contain various seasonal patterns of transhumance. Since it wasdifficult at that time to record these routes and patterns in detail, we focused on the maintranshumance routes and the tribes who use those routes. To avoid confusion, we looked at

the movement from winter pasture (fa. garmsir) to summer pasture (fa. sarhadd).
4.1. Tribes of Nomadic Pastoralists

Major tribes of nomadic pastoralists who transit the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae
Plain are as follows: Kordshuli, Baseri, Qashqa'i, 'Arab Shiri, 'Arab Farsi, 'Arab-e'Abdolyusefi, and Lor (locally known as Lor-e Esfahani). Among them, the Kordshuli andBaseri are the major two with the other tribes being minor ones.
4.2. Bolaghi Valley

A transhumance route enters the Bolaghi Valley from the south through Bolaghi

Kuchak and separates into two routes: the east route leads to the Pasargadae Plain throughTang-e Bolaghi, while the west route leads to Tang-e Khorkhore. The tribes of nomadic
pastoralists who transit the Bolaghi Valley are the Kordshuli, Baseri, and Qashqa'i(Fig.11.4).
4.2.1. East route of the Bolaghi Valley

The tribes who use the east route of the Bolaghi Valley are the Kordshuli, Baseri, andpart of the Qashqa'i. After entering the Pasargadae Plain, these groups advance to the northalong the foot of the mountains to the west of the plain. They camp along the foot of themountains to the west of the village of MobarakabM. From this point, different routes aretaken by each tribe.
BaseriThe Baseri progress to the Aushenasun basin which lies to the north of the
Pasargadae Plain, and through Chenaru and then head to the summer pastures locatedaround the Dasht-e Namdun Plain.
Kordshuli

The Kordshuli, on the other hand, after advancing north along the foot of themountains, further separate into two groups heading to the north and west,

respectively. The north group progresses to Chahha-ye 'Omari and advances to thesummer pastures around the Dasht-e Namdun Plain. The west group advances to awide valley which extends to the west of the Pasargadae plain and passes through theplains of Gardan-e Khersi and Dasht-e Nane'arabi. The group finally reaches thesummer pastures located further to the north, such as the plains of Aspas and Dasht-e
Namdun.

Qashqa^iPart of the Qashqa'i also follows a similar route to the latter (west) group of
Kordshuli mentioned above.

4.2.2. West Route of the Bolaghi Valley
Qashqa^i

The Qashqa'i who follow the west route ofthe Bolaghi Valley utilize the westem partof the Bolaghi Valley for their camps. From this point, they head to the northwest
passing through Tang-e Khorkhore and reach the summer pasture in the north.

1 75

176

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMALor

The Lor move in a different direction from the tribes mentioned above. They movefrom north to south. Part of the Lor, who dwell around Isfahan (fa. Esfahan), do notpass through the Pasargadae Plain, but travel through Tang-e Khorkhore to reach the
Bolaghi Valley. They use the Bolaghi Valley for their camps especially during theearly spring. The majority of circular stone-built enclosure walls for tents and stonebuilt animal pens with a rectangular plan, both built using large stones and located in
the small valleys along the foot of mountains surrounding the Bolaghi Valley belong
to the Lor.

4.3. Pasargadae Plain
There are four gateways to enter the Pasargadae Plain from the south: from east to west,
Tang-e Paniran, Tang-e Sa'adatshahr, Rah-e Shiri, and Tang-e Bolaghi. The former three
gateways are used by 'Arabs, namely 'Arab Shiri, 'Arab Farsi, and 'Arab-e 'Abdolyusefi(Fig.11.4). After entering the Pasargadae Plain, these groups advance along the foot of themountains in the east. The 'Arab Shiri progresses to the northeast and reach a summer

pasture around Bavanat. Tribes belonging to the 'Arab Farsi and 'Arab-e 'Abdolyusefi headto the northwest, and arrive at the Aushenasun basin and from this point, they follow thesame route as the Baseri (see above) and reach the summer pastures around Dasht-e
Namdun.

4.4. Summary

Although from a very limited survey, the above information suggests that the majority
of nomadic pastoralists who move in north-south directions in the Bolaghi Valley and thePasargadae Plain pass through the Bolaghi Valley, except the 'Arab. The importance of the
Bolaghi Valley in the seasonal movement of nomadic pastoralists is further supported by theevidence of abundant camp sites and cemeteries recorded in the Bolaghi Valley (see below).
It can be assumed that further ethnographic studies of nomadic pastoralists in northern Fars
will highlight the importance of the Bolaghi Valley as one of the main transhumance routes
in the region.

5. Survey Results

The survey results of the Bolaghi Valley are described according to three geographic
sectors: (1) Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg,(2) Bolaghi Kuchak and (3) Pasargadae
Plain. Within each section, we further grouped the description related to the survey aims,
namely 1) archaeological remains related to transhumance movement, and 2) large
infrastructure works apparently or possibly related to the Achaemenid period, including road,canal and defence systems.

5.1. Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg

Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg form the main part of the Bolaghi Valley, which islocated southwest of the Pasargadae Plain. Tang-e Bolaghi has an L-shaped plan and the total
length measures ca. 7 km. It consists of a gorge which runs in a northeast-southwest direction(ca. 4 km in length), and a valley which runs in an east-west direction (ca. 3 km in length).
The average width of Tang-e Bolaghi is ca. 200-300 m\ Tang-e Bolaghi can be separated bythree major cliffs/bluffs standing at the west/north bank of the Sivand: from the north tosouth, Dokhtarbor, Tirandaz, and Puze-ye Sorkh (Fig.11.2). The altitude is ca. 1830 m asl(above sea level) at the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi and ca. 1800 m asl around Puze-

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

ye Sorkh.

Bolaghi Bozorg measures ca. 0.5-2 km (north-south) and ca. 6 km (east-west). The
altitude is ca. 1800 m asl. The northern foot of the mountains measures ca. 1830-40 m asl.

The survey of Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg was carried out both in the 2005 and2007 seasons. We recorded camp sites, cemeteries, building structures, cairns, stone linings(of roads, canals, and defence walls), settlements, and animal pens on the valley floor, in thesmall valleys, at the foot of the mounatins, and in the surrounding mountains. The following
describes each category of remains.
5.1.1. Traces of Transhumance Movement

A "camp site" is defined here as the archaeological traces which include both ancientand modem remains of nomadic pastoralists. Some camp sites we recorded were used until
quite recently. The usual camp sites include remains of post holes and stone walls for tents,
hearths and sometimes stone-built enclosures (animal pens) for their herds (Pis.11.8-9).

Since, at the moment, it is impossible to date those camp sites precisely, we use the term
"camp sites" more in an ethnographic sense rather than in an archaeological one.
A "caim" is defined as a burial mound which is deliberately constmcted using piles ofstones (Pls.l 1.10-11; see Stronach 1978: PI. 145 for caims in Tang-e Bolaghi). The cairns
found in the Bolaghi Valley and in the north of the Pasargadae Plain usually contained asingle rectangular burial chamber made of stones (PI.11.12). Sometimes in a large caim,
double or triple burial chambers were observed. Similar caims were also observed in the
Toll-e Gholam area (see below), Tappe-ye Hazrat-e Ya'qub in the north ofPasargadae Plain,
and in the Arsenjan area ca. 40 km southeast ofthe Bolaghi Valley. The caim burial seems tobe the common burial style of nomadic pastoralists in the northem Pars, however few

detailed surveys or excavations have been conducted. If caims are considered burial places
particularly related to nomadic pastoralists, the structures have to be investigated in detail in
the future to understand the nomadic aspects of history in Pars.

Pirst, we would like to point out the following general characteristics in the relationshipbetween camp sites and cemeteries. The majority of camp sites are found in small valleys, on
the edge of alluvial fans and on the river terraces along Tang-e Bolaghi and along the northand south foot of the mountains of Bolaghi Bozorg (Pigs.11.5-6, 8-17). These camp sites

were obviously formed by nomadic pastoralists who moved along the small valleys.
Cemeteries were often found in the middle part of the alluvial fans, on both ridges of the hills

that rise from the valley floor, and at the foot of the mountains (Pigs.l 1.5-6, 8-12, 14-17).
A wide variety of burial types were recorded during the survey: caims, graves withquadrate, ellipse, or circular stone linings (Pis.11.13-15), graves with irregular clustering oflarge stones from human-head to slightly larger sizes (PI.11.16-17), and graves formed
beside a large standing stone (PI.11.18). There were also graves with circular stone linings
with paved stones inside the circular enclosure (probably the foundation of a caim with theupper part totally destroyed) (PI.11.19). Although further investigation is required, themajority of cemeteries were formed near the camp sites. The caim burials however were notnecessarily constructed near the camp sites.
1)Tang-e Bolaghi

In Tang-e Bolaghi, camp sites and cemeteries are mainly located on the west bank of
the Sivand. This is because the east bank of the Sivand is narrower in parts and difficult topass. The major archaeological settlement site on the east bank appears only after ca. 1.4 km
southwest of Dokhtarbor: around the site of TB 34. The camp sites on the west bank of theSivand are mainly located on the alluvial fans of small valleys. In Tang-e Bolaghi thecemeteries are usually located away from the camp sites. The major cemetery is ca. 1.5 km

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They are normally constructed apart from the above mentioned cemeteries, except at
Cemetery A where the caims are mixed with other types of graves.

The caims first appear on the east bank of the Sivand at the northern entrance of Tang-e
Bolaghi (Fig.11.5). Almost all the caims are located direcly on or near the stone linings
which can be assumed to be the sidewalls of the road. On the east bank, the caims aresparsely distributed from the northem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi to the area around the siteof TB 34, ca. 1.5 km southwest of Dokhtarbor (Figs. 11.6 and 9).
On the west bank, the majority of caims are located around Cemetery A to Tirandaz.
Here, similar to the east bank, several caims are located directly on the stone linings which
can be assumed to be sidewalls of the road (see below). This shows that the caims wereconstmcted using the stones of the stone linings after they were abandoned. If the majority ofcaims were dated to the post-Achaemenid or the Parthian-Sasanina periods (see below), thenthe stone linings should be dated earlier than the caims, namely to the Achameneid period.
The caim burials have been widely identified in southem Iran from the Kerman to theFars provinces (cf. Lamberg-Karlovsky and Humphries 1968: 271, Fig. 3)f The dating of
caim burials has been in much dispute and seems to fall into a very wide time-span: from thefirst millennium BC to the Islamic period (Lamberg-Karlovsky and Humphries 1968: 271:
276; Whitcomb 1985: 211). Nevetheless, there are a number of excavated caims which may
provide a hint for the dating of caim burials in Fars. The first example comes from a caim

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

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located in Tang-e Bolaghi which was excavated by a British expedition in the 1960s. The
excavators assumed the date of the caim to the Parthian period based on a square-shoulderd,glazed pilgrim flask (Stronach 1978: 167, Pis. 145 a and b, Fig. 115, 8). Another example
derives from the result of an American expedition which excavated several calms on theridge of mountains near Qasr-i Abu Nasr (old Shiraz) in the 1930s (Whitcomb 1985: 210216, Pis. 55-59). Although the finds were poor, including some coins, pottery, beads, andmetal objects (Whitcomb op cit. Fig. 76), the excavation result suggests the date from thelate Parthian to the Sasanian period (Whitcomb op cit. 216). Therefore, at the moment, we
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fan and on the river terrace. The area of the site measured ca. 400 x 300 m and can be said tobe one of the largest camp sites in the survey area. Remains of recently used walls for tents,
animal pens, and hearths suggest that the site has been used until recent times. The cemeteryof the site was located on the edge of the alluvial fan and on the river terrace. Obviously, thesite was an important camp site just before entering or after leaving Tang-e Bolaghi.
Caims and cemeteries were also distributed in the mountains to the east of the northern

entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi and in the mountains which lie to the east of it (Figs.11.6 and 8).
These cairns and cemeteries were formed to the northeast of the defence wall on themountain to the south of Kuh-e Kuchakak (see below), and on the eastern foot of themountains which extends to the southeast of Kuh-e Kuchakak (Fig.11.6; Pis.11.21-22). Thus,
these caims and cemeteries were obviously built by the nomadic pastoralists who moved
towards the defence wall from the southeast and also along the foot of the mountains towards
the northem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi. The fact that the majority of these caims andcemeteries were formed on the ridges visible from the transhumance routes which probably
mn along the foot of mountains to the east of Tang-e Bolaghi also supports the view thatthese remains were built by the nomadic pastoralists who pass through such routes. In
addition, some camp sites were identified along the one of the route which leads to thenorthern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi. The area is located ca. 2 km southeast from thenorthem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi(Fig.l 1.27).
A cluster of caims were also identified on the lower part of the ridge of a mountainwhich lies to the west of the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi (Fig.l 1.5; PI.11.23).

Around the cairns, graves with stone clustering were also observed (PI.11.24). As weclimbed higher up the mountain, the caims disappeared. These caims were probably built by
the nomadic pastoralists who took the westward route from the northem entrance of Tang-e

Bolaghi. Although no caims were found on the ridges of the mountains just to the west ofTang-e Bolaghi, the remains of caims were visible on the mountains lying further to thewest. Thus there is a possibility that another transhumance route lies further west of thenorthem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.

Finally, an animal pen was found to the west of a camp site which is located ca. 350 m
northwest of Tirandaz on the north bank of the Sivand. An animal pen is defined here as arectangular stmcture built using various sizes of natural stones to store the livestock (mainly
sheep and goats) of nomadic pastoralists. Usually dry masonry is applied.
2)Bolaghi Bozorg

In Bolaghi Bozorg, camp sites are located on the northem and southwestem foot of themountains (Figs.11.14-16). They are generally located in the alluvial fans which wereformed at the entrance of small valleys. Relatively large camp sites are located on both thenorth and south banks of the Sivand. The northem one is located ca. 500 m to the east of TB
91 and 92. The southem one is located ca. 1.2 km to the east of the Sivand dam and ca. 200

m to the south of TB 76, at the edge of the alluvial fan of a relatively large valley.
Cemeteries are either located at the back (i.e. closer to the mountains) of the sites,

slightly down the slope from the sites, or at the edge of the alluvial fans. A large cluster ofcemeteries were located at northem foot of the mountains from the north-central to thenorthwest part of Bolaghi Bozorg.

Two large cemeteries were located (Figs.11.15-16). One is a cluster of cemeteries
located to the northwest of TB 92, including the cemeteries of TB 93 and 107. The other islocated at the northwest comer of Bolaghi Bozorg with an area of ca. 500 (north-south) x

300 (east-west) m. Both cemeteries include caims and graves with various styles of stonelinings but the majority comprised the latter type of graves.

Caims were sporadically found in the cemeteries in Bolaghi Bozorg, but particular

183

184

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

concentrations of cairns were observed in the northwestern as well as in the southwesternpart of the valley (Figs.11.16-17). A cluster of cairns was also found around the easternentrance of Tang-e Khorkhore (PI.11.25).

Other than camp sites, cairns and cemeteries, clusters of animal pens which wereconstructed using large stones with dry mansory were located deep in the small valleys at thenorthwest part of Bolaghi Bozorg. Some structural remains and stone clusters which seem tobe graves were also located around the animal pens. These structures were probably used by
the Lor tribes (see Section 4).

As mentioned above, a large number of cairns and cemeteries were identified in Tang-e
Bolaghi, Bolaghi Bozorg and its surrounding mountains. A large cluster of cairns andcemeteries were found in five locations: Tang-e Bolaghi, north-central, northwestern andsouthwestern parts of Bolaghi Bozorg, and at the eastem entrance of Tang-e Khorkhore. The
camp sites were mainly found in the northern foothills of Bolaghi Bozorg and on the westbank of Tang-e Bolaghi. Fewer camp sites were located on the southwestern andsoutheastern foothills of Bolaghi Bozorg.

This suggests that the main transhumance routes in Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg
were active in the northern sector. The southern sector was less used. The result also suggeststhat the transhumance routes from Bolaghi Bozorg were not only through Tang-e Bolaghi,
but also the route through Tang-e Khorkhore was important. Large cemeteries located in thenorthwestern foothills of Bolaghi Bozorg suggest that the latter route was used until quite
recently.

5.1.2. Roads, Canals, Defence Wails, and the "Royal Hunting Ground"
The archaeological remains which we consider apparently or possibly related to the

Achaemenid period are described here. The remains mainly consist of stone linings and rockcut passages which we estimated to function as roads, canals and defence walls. The stonelinings were made of human-head sized stones or sometimes slightly larger stones. The stonelinings were observed not only in the valley floors, but also on the ridges of the mountains.
We classified them into four categories according to different functions:(la) Stone lining as the side wall of road,(lb) Stone lining as the embankment of canal,(Ic) Stone lining as the defence wall,(Id)Stone lining as an enclosure wall of the "royal hunting ground".
Along with the stone linings, rock-cut passages which are most noticeable on the westbank of the Sivand at Dokhtarbor in Tang-e Bolaghi (Stein 1936: 220; Sami 1971: 23-4;
Stronach 1978: 166-67 and Pis. 142-43, 144a; Kleiss 1988a: 27-30, Abb. 6-7) should beconsidered here as well. Since the rock-cut passages, particularly those distributed in Tang-e
Bolaghi, have a strong relationship with the stone linings. This is because the route of thestone linings and rock-cut passages interchange especially in the western part of Tang-e
Bolaghi. The function of the rock-cut passages can be considered as follows:(2a)Rock-cut passage as a road, and(2b)Rock-cut passage as a canal.

We shall describe categories la to Id below based on the survey results. Categories 2aand 2b are referred to when necessary.
1) Category la: Stone Linings as the Sidewall of a Road
The stone linings belong to this category, i.e., stone linings as the sidewalls of a road,basically run at the foot of the mountains often winding into the small valleys which are

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

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(3) By observing a number of trenches opened along the stone linings, the accumulationof soil is rather horizontal and no traces of miming water were observed.
(4) Although the water source and the sluice gate of the canal located inthe eastem partof Tang-e Bolaghi has been identified (see below), the water source and the sluicegate of the "canal" in the eastem part of Tang-e Bolaghi has not been identified.
The Iranian-French joint expedition which surveyed the stone linings and rock-cut
passages in the Bolaghi Valley has concluded that both structures found in the valley floor
belong to a canal system ('Ata'i and Boucharlat 2006: 22). They also conducted small
excavations along the stone linings. Although we do not totally agree with some of theirobservations and interpretations, it is highly possible that some part of the stone linings androck-cut passages were used as canals (see below). What we are emphasizing is that not allof the stmctures can be inteipreted as canals, but some were constmcted as sidewalls of theroad.

Just to the west of the rock-cut passage of Dokhtarbor, an unfinished engraving on the1 92

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi N1SHIYA^

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

to the one in Dokhtarbor (cf. Stonach 1978: 166). Another possibility is that this engraving
was intended to widen the rock-cut passage of Dokhtarbor further to the west.
Approaching from Pasargadae to the Bolaghi Valley, the stone linings of the sidewall ofa road can be first encountered at the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi (Fig.11.5). The
road which lies in the western part of Tang-e Bolaghi leads to a rock-cut passage ofDokhtarbor (Pis.11.28-30). From this point on, the road continues into the eastern part of
Bolaghi Bozorg (Fig.11.6, 9-12; Pis.11.31-32). Although it is difficult to trace the stonelinings especially after entering Bolaghi Bozorg, the road at least reaches a settlement in the
Darre-ye Haji Bahrami valley where the site of TB 64 is located (Fig.11.12)^ The site was
excavated by the Iranian-Polish joint expedition and revealed occupation dated to the
Achaemenid period (Asadi and Kaim 2007)^As mentioned above, although there is poor evidence to provide dating for the road at
the moment, if we rely on the presence of cairns constructed directly on the road structure,
the road structure must be dated most likely to the Achaemenid period.
On the east and south banks of the Sivand, the stone linings of the sidewall of a roadappear at ca. 700 m from the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi. The road continues along
the foot of the mountains to the site of TB 34, parallel to the canal which runs at a slightly
higher elevation than the road (Figs.11.6-7, 9; Pis.11.33-34). The road becomes fragmentary
after TB 34 and disappears around Tirandaz. However, the road re-appears ca. 500 m east of

Puze-ye Sorkh. The road seems to continue from the area of TB 64 on the north bank of theSivand. A crossing point of the Sivand was identified on the south bank of the river just ca.
150 m southwest of the cliff of Puze-ye Sorkh (Fig.11.12; PI.11.35). The remains of hardmortar, which were probably used to maintain the crossing point, were observed here. Thiscrossing point where the river terrace becomes low and when the water level is low, it is an
ideal crossing point. The re-appearance of the road structure on the south bank just after
climbing to the river terrace supports such estimation. In addition, another possible corssing
point was identified in Tirandaz (Fig.11.10). Although no traces of mortar remains were
found, stone scattered on the river bank and the narrow point of the river may suggest thepossibility of crossing point.

The major intersections of the road within Bolaghi Bozorg can be summarised asfollows:(1) At Point A (see Fig.11.12), the road coming from the east along the north bank of
the Sivand, advances to the southeast and to the west. The southeast branch leads to
the river bank and arrives at the above mentioned crossing point of the Sivand. The
west branch continues to the further west of TB 64, but disappears soon (ca. 500 m).

(2) At Point B (see Fig.11.12), the three roads intersect. One comes in from thenorthwest at the crossing of the Sivand. The second comes in from the east(This one
is fairly short and cannot be followed ftxrther to the east). The third one comes infrom the south. At this intersection, the foundation of a large structure, probably abarrier station was found. The third branch of the road derives from the west where

the Sivand dam is now constructed. This road was probably connected to the road in

Bolaghi Kuchak. However, between the western end of the third branch, andBolaghi Kuchak, the road was completely destroyed by the Sivand dam and it was
not possible to follow it through to Bolaghi Kuchak.
(3) At Point C (see Fig.11.13), the three roads intersect. One comes in from the east, thesecond comes in from the west, and the third branch comes in from the south.

An Achaemenid settlement(TB 76) is located near the three way intersection of Point
C,just to the south of a "royal hunting ground"(see below) and has been excavated by the
Iranian-Italian joint expedition (Askari Chaverdi and Callieri 2006; 2007). The site has been

1 93

194

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

interpreted as a rural settlement of ca. 1 ha in size. However, considering the location along
the road system, it was not a simple rural settlement, but probably existed to support the
royal activities which took place in the "royal hunting ground" as well as being an important
way station on the south bank of the Sivand.
The road at the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi continues to the north from Tang-e
Bolaghi by turning southwest from the west bank of Sivand River. The road apparently
continues from Tang-e Bolaghi and advances towards the west part of the Pasargadae Plain(Fig.11.5). We also looked for some crossing points of the Sivand towards the site of
Pasargadae, but no clear evidence was discovered. We surveyed an area of ca. 1 x 1 km justto the north of the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi. However, no major stone linings
were identified. Probably the accumulation of alluvial soil carried by the Sivand as well as
the destruction by human causes (e.g. cultivation and canal construction) have made thestone linings invisible on the present ground surface.
As mentioned above, to the west of the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi, a large
camp site and cemetery were recorded which is distributed to the north and south of themodem track. In the northem part of the camp site and cemetery, on the river terrace, somefragmentary remains of stone linings were identified. We assumed these remains as the roadcontinuing from Tang-e Bolaghi. Although we did not find a road connecting Tang-e
Bolaghi and Pasargadae, it is certain that one of the branches of the road from Tang-e
Bolaghi continued to the west.
We also identified a stone lining perpendicular to the road structure, ca. 500 m north of
the northem entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi. Such stone linings can be also observed at several
places along the roads in Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg. The clear function of thestmcture is unknown, but we assume that due to its relationship with the road, it contributed
to controlling the movement of people, especially nomadic pastoralists. The stone linings
perpendicular to the road were often found just before reaching at an open space (e.g. alluvial
plain, or riverbank). In some locations in Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg, stmctural

remains assumed to be "barrier stations" were found adjacent to the above stone linings (e.g.
Fig.11.12; PI.11.36). Considering that the road leads to the capital city of Pasargadae, it isnatural that a number of barrier stations were built along the road.
2) Category lb: Stone Linings as the Embankment of a Canal

The stone linings which can be assumed as the embankment of canals were mainly
observed in the eastem part of Tang-e Bolaghi and constmcted in the lower part or on theedge of the foothills (Figs.11.6-7, 9-10). The stone linings of this category sometimes mn inparallel with category la and probably functioned to connect the rock-cut passages ofcategory 2b.

Canals with similar constmction have been reported in north Fars, particularly in the
Kur River basin or the Persepolis Plain. For example, Sumner (1986: 14) describes the huge
canal (ca. 50 km in length) derived from Band-e Dokhtar. The canal mns along the foot of
the mountains and consists of rock-cut passage ("a ditch dug into the talus") and more
typically a stone lining type. This type he describes that "form of an embankment following
the lower contours of the mountain" and the core strcucture is made of cobble stones"covered by a thin mantle of earth"(Sumner ibid). He assumed that water probably flowed
between the mountain and the embankment. Probably this was the case with the canal we
encountered in the Bolaghi Valley and in the Toll-e Gholam area in the Pasargadae Plain (seebelow). If the stone masonry is covered by thin earth, no mortar was needed, and indeed theembankments of the canal which we encountered in the survey area were constructed by dry
masonry. Probably the earthen mantle was completely destroyed due to natural causes aswell as humans who reused the stones ofthe embankment for other purposes.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

A major canal system was encountered in the northeast part of Tang-e Bolaghi(Fig.11.6; Pis.11.37-38). The canal system consists of a mixture of stone linings and rock-cut
passages. Slightly below the canal, a road runs in parallel to the canal. The rock-cut passages
were often found where a rock ridge extends towards the Sivand River. An average width of
the rock-cut passage was ca. 50-70 cm and was not suitable for numbers of people or animals
to pass through. The canal seems to flow following the contour line and leads to the area
where the site of TB 34 is located. The site has been excavated by the Iranian-French joint
expedition and unearthed the Achaemenid structural remains with Achaemenid-style stone
column bases ('Ata'i and Boucharlat 2007). Although the remains of the canal seem tocontinue further to TB 34 and some remains of rock-cut passages were found further to thesouth of the site, the final destination ofthe canal was not identified.

The water source of the above canal was confirmed to be located outside the BolaghiValley. Following the remains of rock-cut passage and stone linings continuing to thesoutheast from the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi, we identified the old spring of
Cheshme-ye Darre-ye Sorkh located halfway up the hill ca. 1 km southeast from the northern
entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi(Fig.11.7; PI.11.39). Although the stone linings disappear aroundthe spring, considering the location and possible extent of the canal, we assumed that theCheshme-ye Darre-ye Sorkh (or Cheshme-ye Qermez) is most likely to be the water sourceof the canal.

Another water source, not related to the above canal was also found ca. 2.5 km

southeast of the Cheshme-ye Darre-ye Sorkh spring. This spring (Cheshme-ye Mouri) is
located in the foot hills and presumably one of the main springs which watered thePasargadae Plain (Fig.11.28). To the northwest of Cheshme-ye Mouri, a stone-built
causeway-dam of Sadd-e Domdariya (Sadd-e Dom-e Dariya)(see Fig.11.26 and Appendix 2)
was recorded and to the southwest of the spring, the old route of Rah-e Shiri which leads to
Qasr-e Dokhtar (see Appendix 7:5) is located.
3)Category Ic: Stone Lining as the Defence Wall

The stone linings of category Ic, which is a defence wall, were recorded mainly on theridges of the mountains on the east bank of the Sivand. The defence wall is constructed oflarge sized stone linings and sometimes the wall was preserved to ca. 1-2 m in height.
A defence wall was discovered to the southeast of Kuh-e Kuchakak at the northern

entrance to Tang-e Bolaghi (Fig.11.8; Pis.11.40-41). The wall measured ca. 800 m in lengthand ca. 1.5-1.8 m in thickness. Only the foundation of the wall was visible on the groundsurface. The wall is located on a mountain ridge and probably had an opening to thesoutheast. To the east of the wall, there exists an easy access route from the southeast passing

through a low mountain ridge. Around the possible opening of the wall, the stone-built
foundation of a building was identified. The building might be a "gate structure" of the
defence wall. The northwestern end of the defence wall is located on the cliff which projects
towards the east bank of the Sivand. The defence wall was constructed by connecting thecliffs located to the northwest and southeast respectively to restrict access to Tang-e Bolaghifrom the east. Considering the scale of the structure and the style of masonry, the defence
wall probably dated to the Achaemenid period. No potsherds were observed around the stonelinings.

Another defence wall was identified on the slope of the mountain on the east bank of
the Sivand in Tang-e Bolaghi (Fig.11.8; Pis.11.42-43). The previously mentioned defence
wall is located ca. 350 m northeast of this defence wall. Thus, it can be suggested that thenortheast part of Tang-e Bolaghi was protected by a double defence wall system.
The defence wall runs in an approximately north-south direction on a cliff located at thefoot of the mountain. The wall was extremely well preserved and had ca. 1.5-2 m in width.

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

ca. 400-500 m in length and maximum of ca. 2 m in remaining height. The wall wasconstructed as if crossing the cliff. The northern end of the wall seems to be connected to astone lining of the road which surrounds the cliff. On top of the cliff, three cairns were built
on the wall. It is highly possible that the cairns were constructed using the stones of the wall.
Among the three cairns, one of them was the largest cairn (ca. 16 m in diameter) we had
encountered during the survey. The amount of stones used in this large cairn suggests that
there might have been a watch tower or other structures on top of the cliff and that the cairn
was built using stone remains of stones from those buildings.
This defence wall was probably preventing the movement of people from the mountains
to the east of Tang-e Bolaghi. Immediately to the south of the defence wall, a flat alluvial
terrace (ca. 650 x 320 m) is located. The defence wall was probably constructed to protect
the alluvial terrace and the road and canal running at the edge of the alluvial terrace.
Furthermore, we assumed that the stone linings of category la, which we considered to
be roads, had another different function as a part of defence system. Although we do notknow how high the sidewalls of the road were, it was certainly some sort of obstacle to those
approaching from the mountain slope and at the same time, functioned as a protection wall
for those moving along the road. In addition, a number of barrier stations which were locatedat some points on the road (see above) may also function as watch stations facing themountain side. Therefore, the sidewalls of the road system probably also functioned as a partof a defence system mainly preventing or controlling the access from the mountains around
Bolaghi Valley to the valley floor.

4)Category Id: Stone Lining as the Enclosure Wall of a "Royal Hunting Ground"
The stone linings of category Id were found in the east central part of Bolaghi Bozorg
on the south bank of the Sivand River (Figs.11.12-13; Pis.11.44-45). The walls constructedusing boulder stones were found along the edge of a flat river terrace. The stone linings seemto enclose a rectangular area of ca. 2.5 x 0.3-0.18 km. The stone linings of the wall remain in
better preservation in the south, east and west sides of the enclosure. The north side whichfaces the Sivand is poorly preserved. The stones used in the western part of the enclosure
were much larger than the ones in other parts and the the walls were much thicker.

According to the locals, there was once a mound (fa. tappe) in the west part of theenclosure. We also observed scatters of Achaemenid and Islamic potsherds within theenclosure, suggesting the presence of some structural remains. The scatter of potsherds
gradually fades as we moved from the west to the central part of the enclosure. No potsherds
were observed in the eastern part. This may confirm the past presence of a mound in thewestern part of the enclosure. The thickness of the surrounding walls measured ca. 2.5-3.2 m
in the east and west sides. Compared to the thickness of normal stone linings, which is ca.
1.5-1.8 m,the walls surrounding the enclosure are extremely thick.
Considering the above factors, if this was built during the Achaemenid period, theenclosure surrounded by a thick wall should have been an important structure for the
Achaemenid Empire. Thus, at the moment, considering that the structure is located in thecentral part of the Bolaghi Valley and close to a river channel, this enclosure may havefunctioned as a "royal hunting ground"(Gk. paradeisos: a "walled garden or hunting
grounds")(cf. Sumner 1986: 10; Boucharlat 2003: 265 as "royal hunting park and garden")which was utilized by Achaemenid kings dwelling in Pasargadae. The tappe or possible
presence of structural remains can be interpreted as a royal structure for the hunting ground.
The thick and large stone walls to the west of this area were to protect the royal structure andthe east part ofthe area was probably used more as a hunting ground.
In addition it is already known that the Achaemenid palace complex at Pasargadaecontained a royal garden consisting of stone-lined water channels, small pools and a square

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

pavilion (Stronach 1978: 107-112). Thus, it is not peculiar that the Empire constructedsimilar recreation places for royal and elite personnel near Pasargadae.
5)Summary

The survey has confirmed that the rock-cut passages and stone linings located on thewest bank of the Sivand River in Tang-e Bolaghi were a road system. On the other hand, therock-cut passage and stone linings located on the east bank of the Sivand include canals,
roads, and defence walls.

As mentioned above each stone lining has various functions, excepting the stone linings
as canals, the stone linings were part of the defence system of Bolaghi Valley and eventuallythat of Pasargadae Plain. The survey of transhumance routes of modem nomadic pastoralist
informs us that the Bolaghi Valley located to the southwest of Pasargadae is a strategicallyimportant location for the Achaemenid Empire as well as the main transhumance routearound Pasargadae. Therefore, it was cmcial to control the movement of nomadic pastoralists
in and around the Bolaghi Valley. The presence of stone linings perpendicular to the roadstructure, and as possible barrier stations adjacent to the road (see above) can be understoodas the installations which control or limit the movement of people along the roads. The
defence walls on the mountain ridges also acted to prevent enemies entering the important
imperial route. Along the Sivand, the construction of a road system together with its
defensive sidewalls also controlled the movement of people. Therefore, the so-called "royalroad" seems to be built on the transhumance route itself. We can further assume that the roadsystem found in Bolaghi Bozorg was obviously part of the "royal road" which connects
Pasargadae and Persepolis.

Although the distribution of stone linings and rock-cut passages in the Bolaghi Valley
has already been reported by 'AtaT (2003; 2007), no detailed studies have been undertaken
yet. Our attempt to consider different functions for the stone linings and rock-cut passages byfollowing the stmctures in detail hopes to bring a new challenge to interpret such structures
which are distributed in the much wider area of Ears.

5.1.3. Other Finds

1)Lime Kilns

Two kiln remains possibly lime/gypsum kilns were located (Figs.l 1.12-13). One issitutated at Puze-ye Sorkh, ca. 300 m southeast of TB 64. Another example is located ca. 1
km southwest of TB 75. Both were on the north bank ofthe Sivand. The dating of the kilns is
unknown, but due to the condition of the kilns, they were probably used during the theIslamic period.
2)Seasonal Springs
Few springs are located in Tang-e Bolaghi and Bolaghi Bozorg. Nevertheless, in ancient
times, more seasonal springs were available in the small valleys, especially in the northernfoothills of Bolaghi Bozorg where the main transhumance route lay. Seasonal springs usually
gushed water only during the winter and spring. Two seasonal springs were located on thewest bank of the Sivand in Tang-e Bolaghi (Fig.11.6). The first spring is located in a small

valley ca. 1 km southwest from the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi. The second springis located ca. 200 m southeast of the first spring.
3)Rock-Cut "Fire Altar"

According to D. Stronach (1978: Fig. 3) a "fire altar" is located at the northern entranceof Tang-e Bolaghi, on the west bank of the Sivand (Fig.11.5). We have reexamined thelocation and found a limestone rock ca. 30 m from the northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi,

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

just to the west of the modem track. On top of the rock, a hole of ca. 25 cm in diameter andca. 20 cm in depth was perforated (PI.11.46).

The rock-cut "fire altar" is usually represented by a circular indentation in the rocksurface. Such stmctures were found not only around Pasargadae, but also at Istakhr andNaqsh-e Rustam (cf. Triimpelmann 1984: 323-26; Huff 1998: 74-5). The structures are
assumed to be dated to the late Sasanian period and various interpretations have been madeon the function of such structures including mortars, funeral-cists/ossuaries, fire-holes/firebowls, column bases, and support of an um. More recently, R. Boucharlat agrees with theuse of either column bases or ossuaries dated probably to the post-Achaemenid period(Boucharlat 2003: 264), though the dispute of their function is not yet conclusive.
5.2. Bolaghi Kuchak

Bolaghi Kuchak is located to the southwest of Bolaghi Bozorg (Figs.11.1-2). The valley
is the main southem entrance as well as an important strategic point of the Bolaghi Valley.

The valley measures ca. 3.8 km (northeast to southwest) in length and 0.5-2 km (east-west)
in width with the altitude of ca. 1780 m asl. Both the east and west sides are surrounded by
mountains and the Sivand mns close to the eastem foothills of the mounatins. The valley

consists of narrow gorges at the north and south ends with an alluvial plain (ca. 1.5 x 2 km)
located to the south. The survey of the valley was carried out in the 2007 season.
5.2.1. Traces of Transhumance Movement

Bolaghi Kuchak is an important gateway for nomadic pastoralists who pass throughBolaghi Bozorg and Tang-e Bolaghi (see Section 4). However, in Bolaghi Kuchak few campsites were identified compared to those of Bolaghi Bozorg and Tang-e Bolaghi. In addition
caims and cemeteries were rarely found in the valley floor and on the ridge of mountains.
This was because Bolaghi Kuchak was mainly used as a traverse point rather than a camping
location for nomadic pastoralists.
1) Camp Site and Settlement

The only major camp site was found at the foot of the mountain to the west of Bolaghi
Kuchak (Fig.11.19; PI.11.47). The site seems to contain a long-term occupation since both
potsherds from the Bakun/Lapui periods (late 5th to 4th millennium BC) and the
Achaemenid period were observed on the site (PI.11.48). On the south edge of the site, astone lining of the road (see below) was identified, suggesting that the camp site was not
only on the transhumance route, but most likely on the road system of the Achaemenid
period. Since this site seems to be the largest camp site in Bolaghi Kuchak, it was probably
used by the nomadic pastoralists since ancient times.
Just to the southwest of the camp site, a settlement site was found between the foothillsof the mountain to the north and the alluvial plain to the south (Fig.11.19; PL 11.49). The
settlement, which extends to the east-west, has an area of ca. 100 m (north-south) x ca. 350
m (east-west). In the area of the site, several stone linings considered to be the foundations of
the walls were observed. Abundant potsherds probably dated to the Achaemenid period werealso observed on the surface, especially to the west of the site. A circular stone-built well
was located in the west of the site. Considering its size, the site was probably the main
settlement in Bolaghi Kuchak.
2)Carins and Cemeteries

Hardly any caims or cemeteries were identified at the foot and on the ridges of the east
and west hills of Bolaghi Kuchak. A possible cemetery is located just to the west of theabove mentioned settlement site (Fig.11.19). The scarcity of cairns and cemeteries is

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fragmentary than those in the first two areas.

Since the northern gorge of Bolaghi Kuchak is completely destroyed by the Sivanddam, we were not able to identify any stone linings. The stone linings start to appear, ca. 1
km southwest from the northern entrance of Bolaghi Kuchak, on the west bank of the Sivand.

A stone lining (ca. 1-1.5 m in width) was found to the east of the modem road which leads to
the Sivand dam. Then, the stone lining disappers after ca. 250-300 m and re-appears at thefoot of the mountain further to the southwest (Figs.11.18-19; PI.11.50). From this point,

fragmentary stone linings continue to the camp site and settlement mentioned above
following the foot of the mountain.

Considering the relationship with the camp site and settlement, the stone linings
mentioned above are most likely to be the sidewalls of a road structrure. In addition, a stonelining perpendicular to the road structure was identified in the central part of the settelement
We were not able to follow the road stmcture from the settlement site to the west.

However, some fragmentary stone linings probably the sidewalls of the road were identified
in the foothills of the mountain to the southwest of Bolaghi Kuchak (Fig. 11.20; PI. 11.51). If

this is part of the road structure the road continued from the northem entrance of Bolaghi
Kuchak ran along the foothills and then, crossing somewhere on the alluvial plain and lead tothe road at the southwest of Bolaghi Kuchak. Neverthless, due to the fragmentary state of thestone linings, the above hypothesis is difficult to prove.

202

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

5.2.3. Water Management System

Our survey identified two ancient dams and a canal in Bolaghi Kuchak. One is Sadd-e
Sabz'ali located at the point where the newly built Sivand dam (Sadd-e Makhzani-ye Sivand)now stands. Another dam, Sadd-e Bolaghi, was recorded further down the channel of Sivand.
A canal probably connected to the two dams was identified in the eastern foothills of Bolaghi
Kuchak.

1)Sadd-e Sabz'ali Dam

According to the locals, at the point where the Sivand dam is located, there was anancient dam called Sadd-e Sabz'ali (Fig.11.18). Considering the presence of the Jub-e
RahmatabM canal (see below), it is highly possible that such a dam was located there in thepast. The presence of such a dam should be examined by satellite images or aerial
photographs taken before the construction of Sivand dam. Although it is impossible to givethe date of the dam at this moment, if we consider the planning and execution of such a large
construction project, we temporally assume that the dam is dated to the Achaemenid period.
2)Sadd-e Bolaghi Dam
Slightly down the channel of the Sivand from the Sivand dam, an ancient dam was
discovered on the west bank of the Sivand (Fig.11.19; PI.11.52). The area is where the cliffs
from the east and west mountains, respectively hang over the valley and form a narrow point.
The dam was consructed using earth and has a large earthen rampart shape. The structure
measures ca. 40 m in width, ca. 60 m in length and ca. 10m in height from the current riversurface. The upper part of the rampart, especially on the eastern side is covered by cobble
stones. The dam seems to run in a northeast and southwest direction: the northeast end isburied beneath the soils of land elevation, while the southwest end is cut by the Sivand.
Although we have little evidence to date the structure, considering the size and construction
method, it can be temporarily dated to the Achaemenid period.
3)Jub-e Rahmatabad (Canal of Sadd-e Bolaghi Dam)
The canal of Sadd-e Bolaghi is located at the foothills of the mountain to the east of
Bolaghi Kuchak, and slightly down the channel of the Sivand from the Sivand dam(Fig.11.19; PI.11.53). According to the locals, before the construction of the Sivand dam, thesluice gate of the canal was located around the Sadd-e Sabz'ali dam,just to the north of theSivand dam.

For water to flow in the canal the presence of a dam structure is neccesary. Thus, twoancient dams (Sadd-e Sabz'ali and Sadd-e Bolaghi) were constructed. However, it is rather
strange that only one canal was found. This was probably the original canal that was built
when Sadd-e Sabz'ali was constructed. When this dam was abandoned, the second dam(Sadd-e Bolaghi) was built and utilized the same canal to deliver water.

The date of this canal is also unknown, but considering its relationship with the dams,
the Achaemenid period is most likely.

The presence of dams and the canal indicates that Bolaghi Kuchak was not only
important as a transhumance route, but also a crucial water source for the alluvial plain to thesouth of Bolaghi Kuchak and moreover for the Rahmatabad plain. If the above dams and thecanal were dated to the Achaemenid period, the Empire intended the systematic irrigationand cultivation of the the Rahmatabad plain. Although the dams were destroyed, the canal
was renovated and still irrigates the plain around Rahmatabad and QavamabM.
5.2.4. Defence System

Compared to Bolaghi Bozorg, Bolaghi Kuchak was less used for camps by nomadic

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

pastoralists and the canal system was rather limited. However, the defence system was
relatively well organized in Bolaghi Kuchak. On the ridges of hills to the west of Bolaghi
Kuchak, we identified two new defence walls and a watchtower.
1)Defence Walls

The first defence wall was discovered on a cliff overhanging the west bank of theSivand (Fig.11.19; Pl.11.54). It is located ca. 1 km southwest of the Sivand dam. The
defence wall runs approximately north-north-west to south-south-east. The south end of thewall is located near the end of the cliff top and continues north along the steep ridge of thehill towards the area ca. 10 m below the top of the hill. The total remaining length of the wallmeasures ca. 500 m as the crow flies and the wall wound slightly towards the northeast andthus to some degree off from the ridge of the hill. The wall was ca. 1.5-2 m in average
thickness.

The second defence wall was found to the northwest of a watchtower (see below). The

wall is located on a steep slope of the hill and continues down the slope to the north(Fig.11.18; Pis.11.55-56). The wall continues for ca. 50 m and turns at a right angle to theeast. Then the wall continues for ca. 10 m and ends. The thickness of the wall measures ca.

2.5 m,but after turning to the east, the thickness was slightly reduced.
2)Watchtower

A watchtower was found on the ridge of a cliff projecting just to the west of the Sivanddam (Fig.11.18; PL 11.57). The location overlooks both Bolaghi Bozorg and Bolaghi Kuchak,and is suitable for guarding the routes which pass the valley floor. The watchtower was built
by human-head size stones but the south part utilized natural rock. The plan of thewatchtower seems to be a triangular one with stone-built walls in the west and north. The
west wall has a thickness of ca. 3 m and three rectangular rooms (probably tombs) wereattached to the inner side. These rooms (or tombs) were probably built later after thewatchtower was abandoned. The watchtower was built slightly offset to the north side of thecliff ridge. This is probably because the access route to this structure was easier from thenorth rather than from the south. Several potsherds were observed around the watchtower.

Although the dating of potsherds was difficult, it seems that they resemble those of the
Achaemenid period.
The above observation indicates to us that the defence walls and the watchtower wereconstructed on the cliffs to the west of Bolaghi Kuchak. The location of these structurescommands a fine view of Bolaghi Kuchak and offered an advantage to control the movementof people along the valley floor. Although the evidence is weak, if these structures are dated
to the Achaemenid period, the two defence walls and a watchtower must be part of the
defence system to protect the Pasargadae Plain (see below).

In comparison with the west side of Bolaghi Kuchak, no defence walls or watchtowers
were discovered to the east of Bolaghi Kuchak, although several cliffs are located there. Oneof the reasons for such a lack is probably due to the presence of the Sivand close to theeastern foothills of Bolaghi Kuchak and was therefore difficult to utilize as the main route.
The presence of a canal here might also prevent the construction of a road. In any case, theroad system ran to the west of Bolaghi Kuchak and thus one had to put emphasis onprotecting and controlling the west part of the valley. The lesser utilization of the east part of
Bolaghi Kuchak is also evidenced by the lack of any cairns and cemeteries. In other words,
even the nomadic pastoralists seem to use the west part of Bolaghi Kuchak as theirtranshumance route. Such movement of the nomadic pastoralists contributed fundamentallycontributed to the necessity of establishing a secure defence system in this part of valley.

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Finally, considering the presence of the above mentioned defence walls, watchtower,roads, and the natural defence barriers of the Sivand and canal, we can say that the
movement of people was fairly well controlled in Bolaghi Kuchak.
5.2.5. Other Finds

1)Land Elevation

A large tract of elevated land (ca. 1.2 km in length and ca. 15 m in width at present) was
observed on the west bank of the Sivand, in the west central part of Bolaghi Kuchak(Fig.11.20). The elevated land runs from northeast to southwest and the surface was in someparts covered by cobble stones.
Although the function and the date of the elevated land is unknown, we can provide an
hypothesis which suggests it as a part of the road system which connects the stone linings in
the north, and the fragmentary one in the southwest of Bolaghi Kuchak; since in the westernpart of Bolaghi Kuchak where the modem road is located, the land seems to slide eastward
toward the Sivand. Probably the elevated land was intended to be used to constmct a flat
surface to lay a road within Bolaghi Kuchak.
The area around the elevated land is now used as cultivated fields since theestablishment of the Islamic Republic. If we were to observe the satellite images or aerial
photographs prior to cultivation, we may observe the better preserved state of land evelationand other stmctures which may have been located in the vicinity.
5.3. Pasargadae Plain

The Pasargadae Plain is located to the northeast of Bolaghi Valley and measuresapproximately 11 km (north-south) x 4.5 km (east-west) with the altitude of ca. 1860 m asl(Fig.11.3). The survey of the plain was conducted in the 2007 season. The result of thesurvey can be summarised as follows.
5.3.1. Toll-e Gholam Area

Toll-e Gholam is a cluster of natural hills located ca. 4 km north of the Pasargadaepalace complex (Fig.11.3; PI.11.58). Just to the east of Toll-e Gholam, a small basin called
Aushenasun is located. Aushenasun has been an important transhumance route for nomadic
pastoralists moving between the Bolaghi Valley and the summer pastures to the north of the
Pasargadae Plain (see Section 4). The remains of transhumance can be seen in camp sites,
caims and cemeteries. In particular, abundant cairns were observed in the area.
In the Achaemenid period, the area around the Aushenasun basin was obviously one of
the crucial areas for protecting the northern hinterland of Pasargadae. We have identified
some archaeological remains possibly dated to the Achaemenid period that relate to theprotection and exploitation of the plain. These remains closely resemble those found in the
Bolaghi Valley and can be classified into road, canal and defence systems.
5.3.1.1. Trances of Transhumance Movement

1)Camp Sites
Abundant small camp sites can be found in the small basins or at the foot of small
valleys (fa. darband) which are located around the foot of natural hills at Toll-e Gholam area

(Figs.11.21-23). The camp sites were recorded in a small valley located to the east of thehills located at the southern end of Toll-e Gholam, and to the west of a small basin located in

the north of the same hills at the southern end of Toll-e Gholam. At Aushenasun, the campsites are distributed in the flat plain to the east of the basin or in the small valleys to the west.
Among many camp sites, the noteworthy ones are the following two. First is the campsite located in the east foot of a hill where a caravanserai (see Section 5.3.2) is situated to its

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

south (Fig.11.23; PI.11.59). We observed lithic fragments and Bakun type painted wares.
Just to the east of the site, an Achaemenid road structure (stone lining) runs north-south.
Thus the site was not only along the transhumance route, but also along the ancient road.
Another camp site is located in a small valley to the east side of the eastern hill of

Aushenasun (Fig.11.22; PI.11.60). An Islamic building with a square plan, probably a small
caravanserai, was recorded. On the surface, some potsherds dated to the Bakun /Laupi
periods were observed together with the abundant Islamic sherds. On a hill located to thewest of the site, a large number of cairns were located. This suggests that the plain lying to
the east of the above hill was part of a transhumance route. In other words, this camp site
was formed on the ancient transhumance route.

The survey evidence shows that some camp sites were used from the prehistoric period
to the Achaemenid period or even to the Islamic period (see also the case of anothercaravanserai in Section 5.3.2). The transhumance routes around Aushenasun were apparently
used since the ancient times up to recent times by the nomadic pastoralists.
2)Cairns and Cemeteries

Around the Aushenasun area, numerous caims and cemeteries were found on the ridgesof hills, slopes of low hills, and deep in the small valleys. Caims are the one of the mostdistinctive archaeological remains that we encountered at Toll-e Gholam (Figs.l 1.21-22).
The location of the caims can be classified into three groups as follows:(a)Located on the ridge of a hill/mountain (Pis.11.61-62)(b)Located on a point slightly below the ridge (PI.11.63), and(c) Located on the lower slope of a hill/mountain (PI.11.64).

The characteristics conceming the location ofthe caims can be summarised as follows:(a) Cairns located on the ridge of a hill/mountain are constmcted in roughly equal
distances.

(b)Apart from the caims located on the ridge of a hill/mountain, the caims are locatedon similar contours with similar distances to one another.

(c)Caims located on the lower part of the slope and on the ridge of a hill/mountainoften accompany a cemetery in the vicinity.

(d)Caims located on the lower part of the slope and on the ridge of a hill/mountain arenormally visible from the transhumance routes around the hill/mountain.
(e)Caims located on the lower part of the slope are often formed on a small cliff
projecting to the transhumance route.

The above observation suggests that the caims are formed along the transhumanceroutes and the caims and cemeteries around them were obviously formed by nomadic

pastoralist who used the above mentioned camp sites. The caims and cemeteries werelocated along the modem transhumance routes and especially intriguing is that they wereconstmcted on the points which are visible from the transhumance routes, such as on theridge or slope of the mountains. Whatever meanings are there for the locations of caims andcemeteries, it shows that these remains can be used as markers to identify past transhumanceroutes, i.e. if there is a series of caims and cemeteries, for example, along a certain ridge ofthe mountain, a route which can view such stmctures is a transhumance route of the nomadic
pastoralists who constmcted the stmctures.
Almost all the caims were looted and few had the complete remains of stone-built

rectangular burial chambers. The size of caims can be classified into three groups:(1) small(2-3 m in diameter),(2) medium (ca. 5-8 m in diameter), and (3) large (ca. 10-15 m or larger
in diameter). The caims group belonging to (2) were most frequently encountered. The

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in diameter). Such small sized circular chambers probably belong to a child burial. Finallythe cairns normally had a single burial chamber, but especially for the large size ones, double

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basin (PL 11.65). According to this cairn, the stones covering the structure seem to haveoriginally formed a cylindrical shape. Thus, the caims we see now are the remains which do

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not show their original condition due to later looting.
As mentioned above, the cairns often accompany various sizes of cemeteries in theirvicinity. The graves of these cemeteries are formed by using surrounding stones. The
different styles of graves can be summarised as follows:ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY(a)Placing the stones in a circular form (PL 11.66)(b)Paving the stones in a circular form (possibly a destroyed cairn?)(PL 11.67)(c) Cluster of several stones(PL 11.68)(d) Circular or semi-circular stone linings placed in front of a rock(PL 11.69), and(e) Using space between the rocks(PL 11.70).
The cemeteries are often formed on the ridge of hill/mountain in between the caims, on
top of a low hill, or on the slope at the foot of hill/mountain. Graves of such cemeteries are
considered to be those of nomadic pastoralists and reflect the distribution of transhumanceroutes as mentioned above. The size of the cemetery may represent the lifestyle and size ofcamps of nomadic pastoralists.
At the moment, due to time constraints, it was not possible to observe the location andform of each grave in detail. However, if we have to obtain more detailed information
concerning the movement of nomadic pastoralists, such research should be carried out in the
future.

The above result suggests that Toll-e Gholam centering on the Aushenasun basin was
utilized by pastoral nomads from the ancient times to the present and it is highly possible thatthe camp sites, caims and cemeteries in Toll-e Gholam have a strong relationship with thoseofthe Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain.
5.3.1.2. Road System

A similar type of stone lining to the sidewalls of the road, which we observed in the
Bolaghi Valley, was identified in Toll-e Gholam. The stone lining was clearly visible fromthe Aushenasun to the north (Figs.11.21-22; Pis.11.71-72). Some fragmentary remains ofstone lining were also identified to the east of the southem end of the hills of Toll-e Gholam.
Since the stone lining was constmcted without concem to the contour line, we consider thestmcture as a sidewall of the road system. The road structure continues parallel to the below
mentioned canal until the northeast area of Toll-e Gholam. A stone lining perpendicular to

the road was also identified just to the north of Aushenasun (Figs.11.21-22; PL 11.73).
5.3.1.3. Canal System

The canal with a stone lining embankment was found at the southem end of Toll-e
Gholam, in the northem foothill of a small valley which mns east-west (Figs.11.21-22).

Although some parts of the canal were rebuilt recently, it had a firmly built stone lining
embankment. This canal continues to the west of Aushenasun where we identified a rock-cut

passage. The embankment of the canal consists of at least two steps (Fig.11.22; PL 11.74).
Since the canal was constructed on the slope, it aimed to reinforce the embankment toprevent collapse. The stones used for the canal were quite large in size (ca. 50-60 cm) andwere carefully constmcted.

After passing through the Aushenasun basin, the canal continues to the slope of hills
located to the east of the Toll-e Gholam area following the contour line. Unfortunately we

did not identify the water source of the canal which is located somewhere to the north of

Aushenasun (according to the locals there was once a spring near Aushenasun). Although thedating of the canal is not clear, observing the constmction method in stone lining as well asthat of rock-cut passage, it is highly possible that the canal dates back to the Achaemenid
period. If so, the structure delivered water to the cultivated fields to the west of the
Pasagrdagae Plain and was an important stmcture for the systematic development aroundPasargadae.

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

5.3.1.4. Defence System
1) Watchtower

A watchtower is located to the southeast of Aushenasun on a hill projecting towards thebasin from the east (Fig.11.22; Pis.11.75-76). On top of the hill, abundant human-head sizedstones and potsherds dated to the Achaemenid period (including those storage jars withprojected horizontal bands, see Adachi this volume) were observed. There were two looting
holes (ca. 3 m in depth) opened at the central part of the site. The location of the site is at a
strategic point where one can overlook the transhumance route crossing the Aushenasun
basin from north to south or vice versa. Based on the above evidence, we assumed that thesite was a watchtower constructed during the Achaemenid period.
2)Polygon-Shaped Stone Lining

From the northeast hill of Aushenasun to the northeast of the Aushenasun basin, werecorded a large polygon-shaped stone lining (Figs.11.21-22, ca. 120 x 180 m). Although theoriginal use of it is unknown, the stone lining was constructed using larger stone than thestone linings of the road structure and there is a possibility that it is related to a defence
system. The stone lining has an opening to the southeast.

The presence of the road system and the watchtower indicate that the Aushenasun was
one of the main gateways to the Pasargadae Plain facing north and probably needed to becarefully controlled by the Achaemenid Empire. The presence of canals here together withsome remains in the heart of Pasargadae Plain (see below) implies that water was

systematically delivered from the north area to the west of the Pasargadae Plain, probably
due to an imperial cultivation scheme delivered by the Empire.
5.3.2. Other Finds in the Pasargadae Plain
1) Caravanserai

The site is located on the southern slope of a hill and the adjacent plain located to thesouthern end of Toll-e Gholam (Fig.11.23; Pis.11.77-78). Abundant fragments of earthen andglazed wares, porcelain and baked bricks were scattered on the surface to the west of the site.

A structure considered to be the caravanserai and a water reservoir (fa. abanbar) are locatedto the east of the site (PI.11.79). Considering the above distribution of artefacts, some related

structures of caravanserai were located to the east of the site. In addition, fragments of
Achaemenid large storage jars and Bakun type painted wares were also observed on the site
surface, we can assume that the site was occupied from the prehistoric times. Thus, the site
was along an important transhumance and transport route connecting Toll-e Gholam andPasargadae.
2)Rock-Cut "Fire Altar"

In the southeast comer of the hill where the above mentioned caravanserai is located tothe south, a top-flat grayish limestone rock with a hole perforated on the top was observed(Fig.11.23; PI.II.80). Since this artificial hole was perforated on the top, we assumed it to bea "fire altar" of the late Sasanian period (see Section 5.1.3). The hole measures ca. 45 cm indiameter and ca. 25 cm in depth.
3)Old Canal near the Sacred Precinct

Near the Sacred Precinct, which lies ca. 1.4 km northwest of the Pasargadae palace
complex, an old canal with stone covered side walls was observed (Fig.11.24). Since the newcanal was recently built just next to the old one, the walls of the old canal were revealed. The

soil dug out by the new canal contained numerous stones which were probably derived fromthe old canal. Both old and new canals mn in a north-south direction, but unfortunately the

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new canal has heavily destroyed the old one (Pls.l 1.81-82). By examining satellite imagery,the old canal seems to run in a straight line in a northest-southwest direction (Fig.11.24). If
this old canal was constructed during the Achaemenid, it provides other evidence of a canalsystem to systematically develop the Pasargadae Plain.

21 1

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

6. Discussion

6.1. Relationship between the Transhumance Route and the Distribution ofArchaeological Remains
As mentioned in Section 4, the transhumance routes of the modem nomadic pastoralists
seem to locate mainly in the Bolaghi Valley which leads to the Pasargadae Plain.
Neverthless, there are tribes who use Tang-e Khorkhore which lies to the west of Bolaghi
Bozorg. The presence of abundant cemteries and camp sites at the northwest of Bolaghi
Bozorg indicates the importance of this route. Keeping such movement of pastoral nomads in
mind, a following hypothesis for the relationship between the transhumance routes and the
distribution of archaeological remains in the Bolaghi Valley is given.
According to the locals, the modem nomadic pastoralists who enter Bolaghi Bozorg
through Bolaghi Kuchak in the spring, move either towards the west along the southwestm
foot of the mountains or to the north and then to the west along the northem foot of themountains. The latter route leads to Tang-e Khorkhore, then to Toll-e Qorbangoli and Dashte Nane'arabi. Obviously the reserve route was taken in autumn. Such transhumance routes

must have been in use for a long period of time which is supported by the presence of Bakun
period remains (e.g. TB 91) as well as the large settlements (TB 92) and surrounding
cemeteries in the north-central area of Bolaghi Bozorg.

Probably just before the Achaemenid period, the east route which traversed the BolaghiValley from Bolaghi Kuchak to Tang-e Bolaghi gradually became important. The
importance of the route was dramatically increased during the Achaemenid period due to theconstmction of the "royal road" which connects Pasargadae and Persepolis. Along with theroad, a canal system was introduced to systematically deliver water into Tang-e Bolaghi.
After the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire, i.e. during the post-Achaemenid orParthian-Sasanian periods, the "royal road" presumably lost its importance and wasabandoned. This is supported by the presence of caims which were constructed directly on
the road structures or by dismantling the stones from the road stmctures. The abandonmentof the "royal road" probably led to the revival of the above west route as the main traverseroute ofthe Bolaghi Valley.

Although the main route shifted to the west, the route which passed through Tang-e
Bolaghi probably continued to be used by nomadic pastoralists. This is evidenced by thepresence ofcamp sites, caims, and cemeteries in Tang-e Bolaghi.
The west route as the main route in the Bolaghi Valley must have continued in use to
the present through the Islamic period. An Islamic cemetery at the north-central area of
Bolaghi Bozorg, which was in use until quite recent times, and an Islamic period settlement(TB 89)provides evidence of this.

6.2. Road system of the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain

The road structures found in the Bolaghi Valley and around the Pasargadae Plain
indicate the careful and systematic exploitation of the area (Fig.11.35). If these stmctures
were dated to the Achaemenid period, the road system in the Bolaghi Valley can be assumed
to be part of the "royal road" which must have been established and maintained by the
Achaemenid Empire. Unfortunately there is no clear textual evidence which shows theitinerary between Pasargadae and Persepolis, if we carefully surveyed the foothills of themountains between the two areas the remains of a road stmcture should be located.

The importance of the road connecting Pasargadae and Persepolis can be referred tosome extent by the description of Plutarch. He noted that after Darius I, the Achaemenid

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

kings were inaugurated at Pasargadae {Lives, Life of king Artaxerxes, § 3.1). Although thismay not reflect historical facts, it at least indicates the importance of Pasargadae as the first
capital ofthe Empire.

The road system was arranged to not only pass through the Bolaghi Valley, but
probably also used by royal families for their recreation. The site of TB 34 which revealed asmall but royal camp site and a possible "royal hunting ground" indicate that the road wasmaintained to access these places.
On the other hand, the road was considered an important factor in the defence system(see below). The road seems to have many barrier stations and related structures such asstone linings perpendicular to the road structure. Controlling the movement of goods andpeople including nomadic pastoralists brought security eventually to the Pasargadae Plain.
Although the road system in the Pasargadae Plain was not surveyed in detail, thepresence of road in Toll-e Gholam suggests that a similar road system was also available tothe north of Pasargadae. Since the road found here is also located along importanttranshumance routes like the ones in the Bolaghi Valley, it can be assumed that the "royalroads" were principally constructed along the major transhumance routes. Thus, theimportant way stations or barrier stations during the Achaemenid period were probably
constructed around or on top of the camp sites of nomadic pastoralists as we saw the longterm use of camp sites from the prehistoric period to the Achaemenid or Islamic periods
elsewhere in Toll-e Gholam and Bolaghi Valley.
Finally, comparing the "royal roads" reported in other areas of north Pars, the scale of
the road seems to have been much larger. The "royal road" located in the Persepolis Plain,for example, had a width of ca. 5-7 m and was paved with cobble stones or made of rock-cut

passages(Sumner 1986: 17). Although the dating of such roads should be re-examined withfresh evidence (cf. Boucharlat 2003: 264), the difference in scale seems to be probably
related to the location and the importance of the road. Probably the Persepolis Plain becamemuch more important for transportation, especially with the Susa area to the west the roads
were probably constructed in large scale. The road system which runs in the Bolaghi Valley
and in the north of Pasargadae Plain was fundamentally based on transhumance routes andprobably not so important for the Empire compared to the road system in the Persepolis
Plain, particularly after the Empire's capital moved there.

6.3. Water Management System of the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain
During the survey, we were able to collect information related to water management in
the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain based on interviews with local informants,
observation of satellite images, and brief visits to the locations. Although it requires moredetailed study by specialists in hydrology, hydrogeology, and hydraulic engineering, we shallprovide preliminary consideration ofthe survey results in brief.
In addition, during these few decades, the Pasargadae Plain seems to alter rapidly due toexpanding cultivation fields, and the development of infrastructure including the constructionof roads and railways. Thus, the study of the past water management system should utilise
the past satellite images and aerial photographs as much as possible. Since the structures
related to water management, such as canals, dams, and canals are due to its large scale often
over looked by archaeological investigation and may rapidly be destroyed by local
development. Thus, future study of the water management system around the Pasargadae
Plain requires a preservation scheme along with archaeological investigation.
The water management system of the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain largely
consists of canals and dams (Fig.11.35). Due to its scale and construction, it is most likelythat the remains are dated to the Achaemenid period, though additional evidence is required
to evaluate the dating.

213

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMAWe shall list below the major remains which are important for the water management
system in the surveyed area.

1) Canal System in Tang-e Bolaghi

A well-developed canal system is located in Tang-e Bolaghi on the east bank of theSivand. The canal collects water from the spring of Cheshme-ye Darre-ye Sorkh locatedoutside Tang-e Bolaghi. The canal is probably related to watering the site of TB 34 andpossibly to the "royal hunting ground".
2)Dams and Canal in Bolaghi Kuchak
Two dams are located near the Siavnd dam. One is Sadd-e Sabz'ali and the other is

Sadd-e Bolaghi. The Canal of Jub-e Rahmatabad was probably connected to the above twodams and ran along the foothills of the mountain to the east of Bolaghi Kuchak.
3)Irrigation Canals in the Pasargade Plain

During the Achaemenid period, irrigation water of the Pasargadae Plain was probably
taken from the upper stream of the Sivand and numerous canals constructed in the plain musthave delivered water to the cultivated fields. One of them is the old canal identified near the

Sacred Precinct by the modem canal constmction (see Appendix 1). In addition, some stream
channels around the plain which have unsually straight channel lines can be assumed to be
the old canals.

4)Canal to the North of Pasargadae Plain

In Toll-e Gholam, a canal mns along the foothills of the mountains to the east andsouth. The water source of the canal is unknown, but probably located further north.
Although we did not identify the related canal in the plain area, the above canal must haveprovided water to the west part ofthe Pasargadae Plain.
5) Canal and Dam in the Southwest of Pasargadae Plain

In the southwest of the Pasargadae Plain, just to the north of Tang-e Sa'Matshahr, thelarge canal of Ju-ye Dokhtar is located in the foothills of the mountains (see Appendix 7).
The canal is probably connected to the earthen dam of Sadd-e of Ju-ye Dokhtar (seeAppendix 7). From the dam, another canal of Ju-ye Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (see Appendix 7)
extends to the south towards the district of Sa'adatshahr where the town of Sa'Matshahr is
now located.

Although above mentioned dam and canals around Tang-e Sa'adatshahr were used toirrigate the Pasargadae Plain, they were probably more important for irrigating the district ofSa'adatshahr. This is because, the southwest part of Sa'adatshahr plain can be irrigated by
the Sivand which passes through the Bolaghi Valley, but the northeast part is poor in water
sources. Therefore, construction of canal form a dam extending to the south was necessary toirrigate the northeast part of Sa'Matshahr plain with the water of Sivand. It is possible that
the Achaemenid Empire which successfully irrigated and expanded the cultivation fields in
the Pasargadae Plain aimed next to develop the fields in the Sa'adatshahr plain. For thisreason, it was necessary to set up a water management system around Tang-e Sa'adatshahr.
After successfully irrigating the northeastern part of Sa'adatshahr plain, the Empire not
only expanded the fields to the south but by obtaining new water resources, reinforced the
direct control of one of the important southem gateways to the Pasargadae Plain.
Furthermore, such successful irrigation of the area around Tang-e Sa'adatshahr musthave increased the importance of the transhumance route. Originally the area around Tang-e

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Sa'adatshahr has been located along at one of the important transhumance routes which passthrough the Pasargadae Plain. However scarcity in water sources must have made it difficult
for the majority of nomadic pastoralists to pass through. Once the irrigation scheme wascompleted, probably the route became more suitable for nomadic pastoralists to pass andthus the importance of the transhumance route was enhanced. It can be assumed that

controlling such a route was also beneficial for the Empire both economically and militarily.
If all the above series of remains can be certainly dated to the Achaemenid period, then
the water management system of the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain was carefullyplanned and maintained by the Empire to give maximum benefit from the fruitful water
sources in the surveyed area as the water management system around Tang-e Sa'adatshahr
indicates.

In addition, W. Kleiss has reported several irrigation works and dams to the northeast of
the Pasargadae Plain around Didgan and QMerabM (Kleiss 1987:99-101; 1988a; 1998b;
1992) His survey informs us that abundant dams and irrigation works are located ca. 10-15
km northeast ofPasargadae Plain, which was constructed on the tributaries ofthe Sivand (seeKleiss 1992: Abb. 1 and 7b). Moreover, two dams were reported further to the north from
Toll-e Gholam (Kleiss 1988a: 25-27, Abb. 4-5; 1992: 134-136, Abb. 6-7, Taf. 32.3 and33.1). The evidence provides another example for the well-organized water management
system around the Pasargadae Plain.

6.4. Defence System of the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain
The defence system probably dated to the Achaemenid period was found in a wide
geographical area including the Bolaghi Valley and the Pasargadae Plain. The main

components of the defence system were 1) defence walls and watchtowers, and 2)roads withsidewalls and related structures (Fig.11.35).
6.4.1. Defence Wall and Watchtowers

The stone linings which can be considered as defence walls were identified not only on
the ridges of mountains or hills which surround the Bolaghi Valley and Pasargadae Plain, butalso as far as the plain of Dasht-e Nane'arabi, which is located ca. 30 km west ofPasargadae.
Defence walls were identified in the following areas (Fig.11.35):(a)On the ridge of the hills to the northeast of the Pasargadae Plain (see Appendix 6),(b)On the ridge of the mountains to the east of Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (see Appendix 74),(c)In the Kuh-e Domdariya mountain to the southeast ofPasardage Plain,(d)On the ridge of a mountain to east ofthe northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi,(e) On the ridge of the mountain to the west of Bolaghi Kuchak,(f)In the Dasht-e Nane'arabi plain to the northwest of Pasargadae Plain (see Appendix
8), and(g)In the valley of Tang-e Khorkhore, to the east of Cheshme-ye Khorkhore (seeAppendix 8. This wall may be the same group of walls as mentioned in f).
The watchtowers were found on a hill in the Aushenasun basin, and on a cliff in thenorthwest of Bolaghi Kuchak.
In addition there is local information that similar defence walls are located in Gardan-ePaniran, and in Rah-e Shiri to the southeast and the south of Pasargadae Plain, respectively(see Appendix 5).

The defence walls are constructed at strategic points along the transhumance routes (aand e), or at points in the mountains where approach is relatively easy(b to d). Defence wallsof(f) and (g) are constructed at a location which divides the summer pasture of Dasht-e

21 5

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Nane'arabi and the area to the west of Pasargadae Plain from Bolaghi Valley and Pasargadae
Plain. The defence wall of(e)is accompanied by a watchtower.

It is apparent that the above mentioned defence walls were constructed to protect the
Pasargadae Plain. The large-scale of defence walls and their strategic distribution must havebeen not only symbolized the powerful imperial authority of the Achaemenid Empire, butalso had an important military function to prevent advance of enemies and control the
movement of nomadic pastoralists. In other words, the movement of people which included
the transhumance of nomadic pastoralists was a crucial factor for maintaining economic,
political and social infrastructures of the Empire.
6.4.2. Roads with Sidewalls and related Structures

The roads with the sidewalls, stone linings perpendicular to the road structure, andbuildings adjacent to the road (probably barrier points) were identified in Bolaghi Bozorg,
Bolaghi Kuchak and in the northern part of Aushenasun.
The roads with sidewalls are identified in the Bolaghi Valley as well as to the north ofToll-e Gholam. At various points along the roads, the stone linings perpendicular to the roadstructure and some building structures adjacent to the road were observed. In addition, as we
saw in Aushenasun, a watchtower was constructed on the hill overlooking the road structure.
These roads with sidewalls probably not only functioned as the so-called "royal road"during the Achaemenid period, but also played a crucial role for nomadic pastoralists andother travellers (e.g merchants, messengers, and tribute bearers). The stone linings
perpendicular to the road and building structures adjacent to the road probably functioned as
facilities to control the movement of people along the road.
6.4.3. Strategic Importance of the Bolaghi Valley
Not only the above mentioned defence walls and watch towers are distributed in the

Bolaghi Valley but also the roads with sidewalls. In addition, at the western end of Tang-e
Khorkhore, a large defence wall crossing the Dasht-e Nane'arabi plain is located. It is
obvious that the Bolaghi Valley was on the "royal road" connecting Pasargadae andPersepolis, and located at the strategic point for the protection of the Pasargadae Plain. Also
important royal structures, including the site TB 34 and the "royal hunting ground" (seeabove) was located in the Bolaghi Valley. Moreover, the Bolaghi Valley was utilized bymany nomadic pastoralists who moved between the summer and winter pastures. Therefore,
it is crucial to protect and control the Bolaghi Valley for the Achaemenids in Pasargadae.
The highly developed defence system in the Bolaghi Valley and its vicinity apparently shows
the strategic importance of the Bolaghi Valley.

7. Conclusion

The survey has confirmed that the Bolaghi Valley has been an important transhumanceroute for nomadic pastoralists since ancient times. The importance of the routes within thevalley may have shifted from period to period. Nevertheless similar routes were used for along period of time which was evidenced by the distribution of camp sites, cairns, andcemeteries. Similar types of archaeological remains were observed also in the northern partof the Pasargadae Plain, and some of them have been used from the prehistoric to the Islamic
periods. Thus, the tranhumance routes in the Bolaghi Valley and Persepolis Plain have been
the main pipeline for human activities in the region.
Although Alizadeh (2003) and others (e.g. Sumner 1986: 30-31; Boucharlat 2003: 264265) have emphasised the important role of nomadic pastoralists in archaeological research

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

in Pars, the focus of archaeologists had been largely fixed on settlement sites, especiallyartificial mounds (tappe). Although it is normally difficult to identify the past remains ofnomadic pastoralists, we have to challenge them to understand and interpret the unique
history of Pars. In our survey, we placed emphasis on surveying the foothills of small valleys
where remains of camp sites and cemeteries are most likely to be found. Although the datingof these remains is a large issue, we hope that our non-site (here meaning non-tappe)
approach has proven it can collect much information concerning the past transhumance
movement.

Concerning the Achaemenid period remains, we have shown that road, water
management, and defence systems are strongly related to the transhumance movement ofnomadic pastoralists. Although there were other categories of people, such as merchants andtravellers moving along the routes or roads constructed by the Empire, it seems that
controlling the seasonal movement of nomadic pastoralists was much more cruciall tomaintain the sovergnity of the Achaemenids. Thus, probably vast amounts of labour andbudget were devoted to contruct those systems. We hope that future investigation of theestablishment and development of such systems will shed new light on the emergence of the
Achaemenid Empire in Pasargadae.

In addition, imperial exploitation of the Bolaghi Valley and Pasargadae Plain shows anexample of how imperial power can exploit the vicinity of a capital city. The evidencecollected from the Bolaghi Valley and Pasargadae Plain suggests that probably soon after the

Empire was established the systematic and extensive development of the vicinity of thecapital city started. Further study in the vicinity of Pasargadae Plain including the BolaghiValley will, we hope, provide not only a model of imperial exploitation of the capital city,
but also the development of imperial structure in southern Iran.

8. Appendices

The following are additional results we collected during our survey. The majority ofthese are simply derived form brief visits to the locations. Thus, the information is limited
and should be re-examined or re-evaluated in the future.

Appendix 1: Vicinity of the Pasargadae Palace Complex and the Do Tollun Area
We made a brief visit around the palace complex of the Pasargadae site and its vicinity
including the Do Tollun area along the Sivand River. This visit was intended to confirm thesite distribution of Pasargadae published as Fig. 3 of Stronach 1978 (hereafter mentioned as
the Stronach report).

1) Artificial Mounds and Distribution of Artifacts
We visited a hill which is located to the south of 'Abolvardi village. The Stronach

report mentions that there is a scatter of Achaemenid period potsherds. Nevertheless, due toheavy constraints of modem houses, it was not possible to investigate the surface scatter of
potsherds. The hill itself is a natural mound and does not contain archaeological remains.
Next, we observed the Sacred Precinct of Pasargadae. The south altar was recently
destroyed partly by treasure seeking looters (PI.11.83). To the northwest of the two altars, theStronach report mentions a prehistoric mound. However, our investigation revealed that it
was dated to the Achaemenid period or later. In addition, several small artificial mounds
were located around the above mound (Fig.11.24; PI.11.84). The surface collections fromthese mounds all include Achaemenid period potsherds. In one mound, a scatter of Bakun

type painted wares was observed. These mounds are now in danger of destruction by

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

cultivation progressing in the surrounding area.

To the east of the Pahlavi inscribed rock (see below), on the west bank of the Sivand, amound which is mentioned by the Stronach report (Stronach 1978: Fig. 3) as a prehistoricmound is located (Fig.11.24). The site is locally known as Tall-e Se Asiyabl On the surfaceof the mound, potsherds of the Bakun/Lapui periods along with the Achaemenid period
sherds are scattered. Thus, the mound was also occupied during the Achaemenid period.
On the east bank of the Sivand, to the southeast of the Pasargadae palace complex, twomounds called Do Tollun (Do Tallun) are located (Fig.11.25; Pl.11.85). The larger east
mound (Do Tollun A) has been examined by Sir M. Aurel Stein (1936). We observed thepotsherds of the Bakun/Lapui periods as well as those of the Achaemenid period. At thesmaller west mound (Do Tollun B), abundant Islamic earthen and glazed wares wereobserved. The main occupation of this mound seems to be during the Islamic period.
Around 300 m to the southeast of Do Tollun, two low mounds were identified byexamining the satellite image (Fig.11.25). On the north mound (ca. 50 m in diameter)abundant Islamic earthen and glazed wares were observed. On the south mound (ca. 40 m indiameter), potsherds belonging to the Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid periods wereobserved together with some worked stone fragments. Several looting holes were also foundon the mound (PI.11.86).
2)Sasaninan "Fire Bowl" on Mound B of Pasargadae
According to the Stronach report, a Sasanian "fire bowl" is located on Mound B of
Pasargadae. When we reexamined the location, the structure, which we believe to be the one

identified by Stronach, was located further the northeast of the place mentioned in the report(Fig.11.24; PI.11.87). On the mound which the structure is located, numerous natural rocks

were exposed on the surface and a cluster of stones which can be assumed to be graves wereobserved. Currently Mound B is in the fenced area together with the palace complex.
3)Pahlavi Inscribed Rock and a Sasanian "Fire Bowl"

According to the Stronach report, on the foot of the northeast hill ofPasargadae, several
Pahlavi inscriptions were engraved on the rock surface and four "fire bowls" were locatedaround the inscribed rock (Stronach 1978: 163-65, Pis. 137-40).
Our visit to the site showed that the inscribed rock is now located ca. 1 m from themodem canal and one set of inscription (Inscriptions A-C) was found more wom than thephotograph published in the Stronach report (PI.11.88). The area of the inscribed rock is now

outside of the fenced area of Pasargadae and the possibility of destmction is relatively high at
the moment.

Around 1.5 m north of the inscribed rock, a "fire bowl" engraved on the rock was
identified (PI.11.89). This stmcture was apparently one of the four "fire bowls" mentioned in

the Stronach report (Stronach 1978: PI. 137). Unfortunately it was not possible to identify
other three during our visit. A scatter of potsherds was observed around the inscribed rockand the "fire bowl", suggesting that the surrounding area of these remains can be identified
as a site.

Appendix 2: Sadd-e Domdariya Causeway-Dam

To the southwest of the Pasargadae Plain, in the place called domdariya (edge of a lakeor marshland) by the locals, a dam called Sadd-e Domdariya is located (Figs.11.25-28;
PI.11.90). It is an earthen dam covered by stones and measures ca. 10-15 m in width. The
dam extends in straight line in a north-south direction. The earthen stmcture of Sadd-e
Domdariya extends from Toll-e Domdariya, which is located at the southwestem end of

domdariya, and the northern entrance of Rah-e Shiri, which is the old route connecting

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

I

Pasargadae and Sa'Matshahr, to the north at ca. 1.9 km (Fig.11.28).
Although the northern end of Sadd-e Domdariya is buried under the present soil surface,according to the locals, this earthen structure extends to the west mound of Do Tollun (DoTollun B)(Fig.11.26). If this is con'ect the total length of the structure is ca. 2.6 km.
The locals informed us that this earthen structure is called "sadd" ("dam" in Persian)

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Defence. ' Yoll-e Gholam

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Fig.11.26 Pasargadae plain (3): Sadd-e Domdariya Causeway-Dam (Appendix 2), the road fromKordshuli to Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (Appendix 4), and the Northeast defence wall
(Appendix 6) (after QuickBird satellite image taken on 16 August 2004).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

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Fig.l 1.27 Pasargadae Plain (4): The causeway-dam and camp sites along the foot of mountains tothe southwest of Pasargadae Plain (after QuickBird satellite image taken on 16 August2004).

and prevents the water, which accumulated in the domdariya area after the heavy rain, toflood the land to the west of domdariya. In fact the area of domdariya is said to be like amarshland before the drainage channel (fa. zehkesh) was constructed at the foothills of themountain to the west of domdariya. It is possible that such a situation has left a local legend
concerning Sadd-e Domdariya.

However, considering that Rah-e Shiri was the old route connecting Pasargadae Plainand the Sa'adatshahr area, the earthen structure probably not only functioned as a dam but

was also used as a causeway connecting the northern entrance of Rah-e Shiri and the central

part of Pasargadae (at least to the south bank of the Sivand). Since it had to build a straightpassage crossing the marshland of domdariya, the causeway had to be levelled by soil andcovered by stones.

At the moment, no evidence is available to date the earthen structure. However,comparing it with other monumental structures, the structure can be considered to belong to
the Achaemenid period.

If this is a causeway-dam, we have to consider the crossing point of the Sivand from thesouth to the north bank. Although no clear evidence is available, two remains of bridge piers
were recorded along the Sivand (see Appendix 3), such locations can be possible locations

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA✩

Spring□Architectural Remains

Camp Site
Causeway Dam
Possible Stone Liningr. B^rier Station

Gheshme-ve Mouri

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image taken on 16 August 2004).

for a crossing point.

Appendix 3: Bridge Piers along the Sivand
1) Bridge Pier 1

The trace of a bridge pier is located to the north of the east mound of Do Tollun (DoTollun A) (Fig.11.25; PI.11.91). It is constructed of human-head sized stones and mortar.

Some fragments of baked bricks were also used. Due to heavy destruction, estimation of its
structural form was difficult. The construction method suggests a date of the Archaemenid
period or later.
2) Bridge Pier 2

The second bridge pier is located just to the south of present bridge which connects thevillages of Kordshuli and Pasargad (Fig. 11.25; PI. 11.92). According to the locals, recent
flooding has revealed the bridge pier which consists of two piers: on in the middle of theriver and the other on the west bank.

The bridge pier was made of white dressed limestone blocks and no traces of mortar

were observed. Based on the one pier left in the middle of the river, the shape seems to be an

ellipse in cross-section. The dating of the bridge pier is not certain. Nevertheless, considering
the use of dressed limestone blocks and absence of mortar, there is a possibility that thestructure is dated to the Achaemenid period.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Appendix 4: Road from Kordshuli to Tang-e Sa'adatshahr

A straight road extending between the village of Kordshuli to the Tang-e Sa'adatshahr
was recorded (Figs.11.25-26; PI.11.93). The road starts from the south of Kordshuli andreaches a low hill. Then the road emerged from the west of the low hill and heads to thesouth-south-east straight towards Tang-e Sa'adatshahr. The southern end has been destroyedby the modem cultivation and the new Shiraz-Isfahan highway. According to the locals, theroad continues to a checkpoint (fa. toroqkhane) which was destroyed by the newly built
highway. It is said that the road was the main route connecting the Pasargadae Plain and
Sa'adatshahr. The date ofthe road is unknown at the moment.

Appendix 5: Defence Wall on the Mountain to the Southwest of the Pasargadae Plain
A defence wall was found on the ridge of the mountain (Reshte-ye Kuh-e Kuchakak) to
the southwest of Pasargadae (Fig.11.30; PL 11.94). The wall is on the northem side of theridge and is constmcted of natural stones. Based on the observation of the wall at a small
valley where the wall crosses over the valley (N 30° 07' 21"; E 53° 11' 02"), the wallmeasures ca. 2-2.5 m in width. Although it was not possible during the survey to identify thewhole length of the defence wall, it is possibly located between Tang-e Sa'Matshahr andRah-e Shiri. In addition, the eastern end of the wall may connect to the defence wall
observed to the east of Tang-e Sa'Matshahr.

Appendix 6: Defence Wall on the Mountains to the Northeast of the Pasargadae Plain
To the northeast of the Pasargadae Plain and to the east of the new Shiraz-Isfahan
highway, a defence wall (ca. 1.6 km in length and ca. 7-8 m in width) is located on threehills: the first hill to the northwest, the second hill to the southeast, and the third hill to thesouth (Fig.11.29; PL 11.95). The hills are just to the east of the Sivand River. The stone liningof the defence wall starts from the westem foothill of the first and continues to the northeast

up to the summit. From the summit, the wall extends to the southeast towards the second hill.
Then passing two shallow valleys which lie between the first and the second hills, and thesecond and the third hill, the wall reaches the northeastem foothill of the third hill. The wall

climbs the ridge of the third hill towards southwest and seems to disappear just over thesummit. The entire shape of the defence wall has an elongated U-shape with thesouthwestem part lacking. Considering the location and its shape, the wall must have beenpart of the defence system protecting the northeast part ofthe Pasargadae Plain.
In addition, abundant caims were located along the above or in the vicinity of the
defence wall. This indicates that the caims were built after the wall was abandoned andstones which constmcted the wall were used to build caims.

Appendix 7: Sites around Tang-e Sa'adatshahr
1)Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar Dam

An earthen stmcture which extends in straight line ca. 450 m (northwest to southeast)
with ca. 15m in width is located to the southeast of Pasargadae Plain and to the north of thenorthem entrance of Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (Fig.11.30-31). The stmcture was heavily damagedby the Shiraz-Isfahan highway to the west and the southeastern end disappears before
reaching the mountain located to the east of Tang-e Sa'adatshahr. The stmcture has been
widely known to the locals for some time, but its characteristic, function, and date have been
unknown.

The earthen stmcture is made of hard-beaten light brown soil which does not containlarge stones or gravel (PL 11.96-97). The northeastem face of the stmcture is covered byhuman-head sized stones. Considering the constmction method and its location, as well as

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Kazuya YAMAUCHl and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

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structure can be assumed to be an ancient dam.

We have observed a cairn, which can be dated to the Parthian-Sasanian period, locatedon the earthen structure, suggesting that the dam was dated earlier than the Parthian-Sasanianperiod. Since the dam is located in an important sector of Pasargadae Plain, an imperialooCNARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Tang-eKamin

Fig.11.30 Surveyed archaeological remains in the southern end of the Pasargadae Plain andaround Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (after Google Earth 2007 ®).

capital of the Achaemenid period, we can assume that the dam was originally constructed in
the Achaemenid period.

The soil of the dam is now rapidly removed by road and other construction works. If we
do not conduct some preservation schemes for the structure, the dam may disappear in thenear future.

The dam was previously reported by W. Kleiss (Kleiss 1982; 361-62, Abb. 1; 1988b:
65-66, Abb. 4) who surveyed the dams and related structures in the north of Pasargadae
Plain. He surveyed the dam in 1973 and again in 1987 and mentioned that it had ca. 560 m inlength, ca. 45 m in width and ca. 8 m in height (Kleiss 1982: 361-62, Abb. 1; 1988b: 65). He
also considers the structure to be dated to the Achaemenid period.
2)Ju-ye Dokhtar CanalA huge ditch is located ca. 1 km to the north of the above mentioned Sadd-e Ju-ye
Dokhtar dam at the foothills of mountains to the east of the Pasargadae Plain,just to the eastof Shiraz-Isfahan highway (Figs.11.30, 32; Pls.l 1.98-99). The ditch follows the contour line
and continues meandering slightly to the north for ca. 2 km. Unfortunately, the northern endof the ditch is covered by the elevated land of the currently progressing Shiraz-Isfahan
railway construction, and the southern end is damaged by the Shiraz-Isfahan highway At one
point(N 30° 06' 52"; E 53° 12' 23"), the entire width is ca. 70-80 m with the ditch width of

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA- v: *»♦.

iiij
Fig.11.31 Sadd-e JCi-ye Dokhtar Dam in the southern end of the Pasargadae Plain (after Google
Earth 2007 ©).

ca. 40-45 m. The ditch is located in between an earthen rampart which measures ca. 5-6 m inheight from the surrounding ground surface. The depth of the ditch is ca. 10 m from the topof earthen rampart. The ditch is now abandoned and not in use.

Considering the location to the above mentioned Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar dam and thescale of the structure, the huge ditch is probably a large canal constructed during the
Achaemenid period. This canal is probably part of a canal reported by D. Stronach (1978:00). Stronach dated the canal to the Islamic period, but as for this large canal, it is more
likely to have been built during the Achaemenid period.
Although we were not able to identify the water source of the canal, the water sourcemust be located to the north of Pasargadae Plain and probably taking water also from theSivand River.

Since the canal is not properly recorded as archaeological remains, if the construction
work progresses in its vicinity, this important structure is in danger of disappearing.
3) Ju-ye Tang-e Sa'adatshahr Canal
A canal is located on the foothills of the mountain to the west of the southern entranceof Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (Fig. 11.30). Unfortunately, a large portion of the canal has been
destroyed by the road and railway construction. Observing a small remaining part of thecanal, it was constructed by cutting the rocks on the mountain surface and extending to thesouth towards Sa'adatshahr. A recently built stone wall covered with cement is located on

the lower east side of the canal (PI. 11.100). The sluice gate of the canal was probably locatedaround the Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar dam. Although we do not have any clear evidenee as todate the canal, if Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar can be dated to the Achaemenid period, so does thiscanal probably connecting to the dam can be dated to the same period.

Since the destruction of the canal is still in progress due to the ongoing road and railway

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY^ Shiraz-lsfahan Highway
Shiraz-lsfaHah Railway (Under Gonstructfon)\

Ju-ye Dokhtar Canal

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Fig.11.32 Ju-ye Dokhtar Canal in the southern end of the Pasargadae Plain (after Google Earth2007 ©).

construction, an urgent preservation scheme should be applied.

At present, the water is supplied to the Sa'adatshahr area from a well dug at the Sadd-e
Ju-ye Dokhtar dam using qanat.
4)Defence WallA stone lining identified as a defence wall is located in the northern part of Tang-e
Sa'adatshahr, ca. 600 m from the northem entrance (Pis.11.101-102). The stone lining is on

the ridge of a cliff extending to the east. Although we could not identify whether the wall
continues to the west towards the Bolaghi Valley, this wall was probably part of the defence
wall system surrounding the Pasargadae Plain.
5) Qasr-e Dokhtar

The site of Qasr-e Dokhtar (fort of girl) is located ca. 1.2 km to the southwest from thesouthem entrance of Tang-e Sa'adatshahr (Fig.11.30; PI.11.103). The site is just to the northof the Shiraz-Isfahan highway and is on a cliff extending to the southeast. Some structural
remains were observed on the cliff. At the foot of the cliff, several house and animal pens are

situated using the caves engraved into the cliff surface. These caves may have been used in
the ancient times since on the southem slope below the cliff we observed potsherds probably
dated to the Achaenienid period. Thus, it is highly possible that an ancient settlement may

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have been located in Qasr-e Dokhtar.

Just to the northwest of Qasr-e Dokhtar, is the southern entrance of Rah-e Shiri, whichis the old route leading to the Pasargadae Plain. In addition, from Qasr-e Dokhtar, we canoverlook the plain of Sa'adatshahr as well as Tang-e Sa'adatshahr. Considering the locationof the site at such a strategic point, Qasr-e Dokhtar must have guarded the two routes leading
to the Pasargadae Plain.

Appendix 8:Transhumance Route of Nomadic Pastoralists from Mobarakabad to
Cheshme-ye Khorkhore
On 26 February 2008, we made a short trip to the west from the Pasargadae Plain inorder to investigate the transhumance routes of nomadic pastoralists who advance to the west
from Pasargadae Plain as well as those move towards northwest from Bolaghi Bozorg
through Tang-e Khorkhore. We headed west from the village of Mobarakabad and surveyed
the route to reach the spring of Cheshme-ye Khorkhore (PI.11.104). Since we followed themodem road, it was not possible to observe in detail at the foothills of mountains where thenomadic pastoralists form their camps. Following is a brief note ofthe trip.
First, the transhumance route from Mobarakabad to Cheshme-ye Khorkhore can besummarized as follows.

MobarakabM—>Chahbid^Chahtak->Gel-e Sarshuli—»Tomb-e Khersi-^Tang-e Mari /Cheshme-ye Mari^Gardan-e Khersi—>Cheshme-ye Khersi—>Cheshme-ye Zamanbegi /Jub-e Zamanbegi^Nane'arabi-^Dasht-e Nane'arabi-^Toll-e Oorbangoli->Cheshmeye Khorkhore
The underlined locations are described below.

The following are the brief notes of what we encountered during the trip. It is divided
into several points on the transhumance route.
1)Chahbid and Chahtak

These places are located on the transhumance route heading west from the Pasargadae
Plain. According to the locals, many graves are located in the foothills to the south of thesepoints.
2) Gel-e Sarshuli

The place is located in a valley and is a transit point for nomadic pastoralists. Abundantpiles of stones and stone masonry which can be considered as graves were observed here.
According to the locals, there is a building stmcture (probably a watchtower?) located on thesummit of a mountain to the south ofthe place.
3)Gardan-e Khersi and Cheshme-ye Khersi

Cheshme-ye Khersi (spring of bear) is rich in water throughout the year. A large
number of nomadic pastoralists use the spring. No graves were observed around Gardan-eKhersi and Cheshme-ye Khersi.

4)Cheshme-ye Zamanbegi / Jub-e Zamanbegi
Cheshme-ye Zamanbegi is also rich in water. A canal (Jub-e Zamanbegi) is constructedusing the water ofthe spring. The date of the canal is unknown.
5)Nane'arabi

According to the locals, there was a settlement here but now it is abandoned. A mosque
is now being built here by benevolent people.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

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rol' oO ■: .•Fig.11.33 "Wall of Parsa" in the Dasht-e Nane'arabi plain, west of the Pasargadae Plain (after
Google Earth 2007 ©).

6) Dasht-e Nane'arabi(6a) Summer Pasture

A large plain is located from Dasht-e Nane'arabi to Cheshme-ye Kliorkhore throughToll-e Qorbangoli (Figs.11.33-34; PI.11.105). The entire area of the plain is used as thesummer pasture of nomadic pastoralists, especially the Kordshuli and Baseri tribes.
According to the locals, a wide range of social life, including marriage, was performed inthis summer pasture. A part of the Lor tribe uses the eastern part of the plain to Tang-e
Khorkhore as a winter pasture. Currently cultivation of the plain is in progress which is
causing a change in the landscape of this area.
(6b) Stone Lining as the Defence Wall

A huge stone lining (ca. 3.5 km in length based on the satellite image; ca. 5-6 m inwidth) crossing the east part of Dasht-e Nane'arabi was identified (Fig.11.33; Pis.11.106107). The stone lining has a north-south direction and extends almost in a straight line. The
northern and southern ends of the stone lining are uncertain, but extend from Tang-e Qachi,
which lies to the northeast of Dasht-e Nane'arabi, to the mountains located in the south. If

the stone lining continues to the western foothills of the mountains in the north, the estimatedlength would be approximately 6-7 km.
The stone lining is in a location which separates the area of summer pasture and the

229

230

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'khi NISHIYAMA

I

- i!

-_-»K

1

Fig.n.34 Defence wall near Cheshme-ye Khorkhore, northwest of the Bolaghl Valley (after
Google Earth 2007 ®).

transhumance route leading into the Pasargadae Plain. Thus, it can be assumed to be a large
defence wall to control the movement of nomadic pastoralists as well as other travelling
people who pass through the Dasht-e Nane'arabi plain. It may also have functioned as adefence against enemies from the west. No related artifacts were observed at the wall, but its
scale and the stone masonry possibly suggest the Achaemenid period.
This defence wall is the largest of its kind compared to the defence walls located aroundthe Pasargadae Plain. This may show not only the powerful authority of the Achaemenid
dynasty to built such a wall, but also how crucial it was for the dynasty to control the
movement of people and defend enemies from the west.
Considering its grand scale and importance, we would like to propose that the wall becalled the "wall of Parsa"(fa. divar-e pars).
In addition, since the cultivation area is expanding in the plain, an urgent preservation
scheme should be executed to protect the structure.
7) Toll-e Qorbangoli and its Vicinity(7a) Toll-e Qorbangoli
Toll-e Qorbangoli is a small natural hill located in the above mentioned plain(Fig.11.33). On top of the hill, an Islamic cemetery is located (PI.11.108). At the foot of thehill, a spring called Cheshme-ye Toll-e Qorbangoli is situated. Part of the hill was destroyed

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

5■

Bolaghi Valley%
Tang-e\Sa'adatshahr

taqe-yeT<a[B?aMajor Watch Tower/S/ Defence System/\/ Road System/"x/ Water Management System

Ponler

30"09'03.41

Fig.11.35 Road, water management, and defence systems around the Bolaghi Valley and thePasargadae Plain (after Google Earth 2007 ©).

by a bulldozer.

In the vicinity of Toll-e Qorbangoli, some natural hills with Islamic cemeteries on thehill top are located. These hills were also partly destroyed by a bulldozer.
(7b) Culster of Large Building Struictures

A cluster of large building structures was observed to the west of a small stream (PI.
11.109). These structures are built by dry stone masonry and are located in an enclosure
measuring 100 x 100 m. The potsherds observed on the site surface mainly belong to theearly Islamic period.
8)Defence Wall near Cheshme-ye Khorkhore

The spring of Cheshme-ye Khorkhore is located ca. 3.5 km to the east from the westernentrance of a valley leading to Tang-e Khorkhore/Bolaghi Valley. To the north of Cheshmeye Khorkhore, a stone lining (ca. 1.7 km in length and ca. 3 m in width) was identified(Fig.11.34; PI.11.110). The stone lining seems to cross a large valley from the southwest tonorthwest direction. This stone lining can be also considered as a defence wall. Both ends ofthe wall seem to be located in the middle of mountains which lie to the south and to the northrespectively. Unfortunately, we were not able to identify the both ends due to time
constraints.

231

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Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Since the construction method and the scale are similar to the other defence walls, it

was probably constructed during the Achaemenid period and may be considered as a seriesof defence systems as the "wall of Parsa"(see above). It divides the summer pasture in theplain mentioned above and Tang-e Khorkhore or eventually the Bolaghi Valley. Therefore,
the presence of this defence wall indicates the importance of protecting the Bolaghi Valley
during the Achaemenid period.

Bibliography
Alizadeh, Abbas

2003 Some observations based on the nomadic character of Pars prehistoric cultural development, in
Naomi F Miller, and Kamyar Abdi (eds.) Yeki bud, yeki nabud: Essays on the archaeology of
Iran in honor of William M. Sumner (The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University ofCalifornia, Monograph Series 48), 83-97, Los Angeles: The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology,
University of Califomia.
Asadi, Ahmad'ali, and Kaim, Barbara

2007 Kavosh-e mohavvate-ye shomare-ye 64 Tang-e Bolaghi (fasl-e sevvom), in Vizhendme-ye
hamdyesh-e dkharin dastdvardehd-ye kdvoshhd-ye bdstdnshendsi dar Tang-e Boldghi(Pdsdrgdd - Fdrs)(Ddnesgdh-e tarbiyat-e modarres, 30 dey 1385), 21-22, Tehran: Sazman-emiras-e farhangi va gardeshgari.
Askari Chaverdi, Alireza, and Callieri, Pierfrancesco

2006 A rural settlement of the Achaemenid period in Pars, Journal ofInner Asian Art andArchaeology, 1,65-70.
2007 Kavoshha-ye nejatbakhshi dar Tang-e Bolaghi; Pasargad - Pars (mohawate-ye 76 va 77), in

Vizhendme-ye hamdyesh-e dkharin dastdvardehd-ye kdvoshhd-ye bdstdnshendsi dar Tang-e
Boldghi (Pdsdrgdd - Fdrs)(Ddnesgdh-e tarbiyat-e modarres, 30 dey 1385), 17-18, Tehran:Sazman-e miras-e farhangi va gardeshgari.
'Ata'i, Mohammad Taqi

2003 Preliminary report of the archaeological survey in the Bolaghi valley (report submitted toICAR)(In Persian).

2007 Barresi-ye bastanshenakhti dar Tang-e Bolaghi, in Vizhendme-ye hamdyesh-e dkharin
dastdvardehd-ye kdvoshhd-ye bdstdnshendsi dar Tang-e Boldghi (Pdsdrgdd Fdrs)(Ddnesgdh-e tarbiyat-e modarres, 30 dey 1385), 8-9, Tehran: Sazman-e miras-e farhangi
va gardeshgari.

'Ata'i, Mohammad Taqi, and Boucharlat, Remy
2006 Preliminary report on excavations in Tang-i Bolaghi, Pars. Joint Iranian/French team(settlement site 85, graveyard 88, trenches on canals along the Sivand river), in Abstracts.
Symposium on the archaeological rescue excavations in the Bolaghi valley, 19-22, Tehran:Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research.

2007 Chekide-ye gozaresh-e kavoshha-ye nejatbakhshi-ye heyyat-e moshtarak-e iran-faranse(mohavvate-ye TB-34, TB-85, TB-88, divare-ye «rah-e shahi»(TB-2) va majraha-ye«dokhtarbor»(TB-l) dar Tang-e Bolaghi), in Vizhendme-ye hamdyesh-e dkharin dastdvardehdye kdvoshhd-ye bdstdnshendsi dar Tang-e Boldghi (Pdsdrgdd - Fdrs)(Ddnesgdh-e tarbiyat-e
modarres, 30 dey 1385), 14-16, Tehran: Sazman-e miras-e farhangi va gardeshgari.
Boucharlat, Remy

2003 The Persepolis area in the Achaemenid period, in Naomi P Miller, and Kamyar Abdi (eds.)
Yeki bud, yeki nabud: Essays on the archaeology ofIran in honor of William M. Sumner(TheCotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of Califomia, Monograph Series 48), 261-265,
Los Angeles: The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of Califomia.
Beck, Lois

2003 Qashqa'i nomadic pastoralists and their use of land, in Naomi P Miller, and Kamyar Abdi
(eds.) Yeki bud, yeki nabud: Essays on the archaeology ofIran in honor of William M. Sumner(The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of Califomia, Monograph Series 48), 289304, Los Angeles: The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of Califomia.
Huff, Dietrich

1998 'Fire alters' and astodans, in V Curtis, R Hillenbrand, and J M Rogers (eds.), The art andarchaeology of ancient Persia. New light on the Parthian and Sassanian Empires, 74-83,
London: 1. B. Tauris.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Kleiss, Wolfram

1982 Safavidische Staudamme bei Saveh und Qom,Archdologische Mitteilungen aus Iran, 15, 361374.

1987 Staudamme bei Qaderabad (Fars) und siidwestlich von Kashan, Archdologische Mitteilungen
aus Iran, 20, 99-106.

1988a Wasserschutzdamme und Kanalbauten in der umgebung von Pasargadae, Archdologische
Mitteilungen aus Iran, 21, 23-30.
1988b Achaemenidische Staudamme in Pars, Archdologische Mitteilungen aus Iran, 21, 63-68.
1992 Dammbauten aus achamenidischer und sasanidischer Zeit in der Provinz Fars, Archdologische
Mitteilungen aus Iran, 25, 131-145.

Lamberg-Karlovsky, C C,and Humphries, James
1968
Sami, Ali

The cairn burials of southeastern Iran, East and West, 18, 269-276.

1971 Pasargadae. The oldest imperial capital ofIran, 2nd ed., Shiraz: Musavi Printing Office (firstpublished in 1956).
Stein, Marc Aurel

1936 An archaeological tour in the ancient Persis,Iraq 3, 111-225.
Stronach, David1978 Pasargadae: A report on the excavations conducted by the British Institute ofPersian Studies
from I96I to 1963. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Sumner, William M

1986 Achaemenid settlement in the Persepolis plain, American Journal ofArchaeology,90, 3-31.
Triimpelmann, Leo

1984 Sasanian graves and burial customs, in R Boucharlat and J.-F. Salles (eds.). Arable orientale,
Mesopotamie et Iran meridional: de I'dge dufer au debut de la periode islamique:reunion detravail, Lyon, 1982, 317-329, Paris: Editions Recherche sur les civilisations.
Whitcomb, D S

1985 Before the roses and nightingales: Excavations at Qasr-i Abu Nasr, old Shiraz, New York:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Zeidi, Mohsen, and Tsuneki, Akira

2007 Kavoshha-ye bastanshenakhti-ye heyyat-e moshtarak-e iran-zhapon dar darre-ye Bolaghi, inVizhendme-ye hamdyesh-e dkharin dastdvardehd-ye kdvoshhd-ye bdstdnshendsi dar Tang-e
Boldghi (Pdsdrgdd - Fdrs)(Ddnesgdh-e tarbiyat-e modarres, 30 dey 1385), 10-11, Tehran:Sazman-e miras-e farhangi va gardeshgari.

Notes' Alizadeh used the term "mobile pastoralist" rather than nomadic pastoralist. The term "nomadic

pastoralists" is defined here as those migrate semiannually hundreds of kilometres between winter pastures
at low altitude and summer pastures high in the mountains(Beck 2003: 289, and 291).

2 Participants of the archaeological survey were as follows: Kazuya Yamauchi (2005 and 2007), Shin'ichi
Nishiyama(2005 and 2007), Mohsen Zeidi(2007), and Mozafar Zarinkouh (2005).
^ The narrowest part of Tang-e Bolaghi is located at Tirandaz(ca. 100 m), while the widest part is at aroundPuze-ye Sorkh (ca. 500-600 m).

^ Although the article of Lamberg-Karlovsky and Humphries (1968: 271) mentions that, based on the survyof Sir A. Stein, the number of caim burials decreases in Fars compared to the regions in the east, our survey
revealed that numerous cairns do exist in Fars as well.

^ By discussing the rock-cut passage at Dokhtarbor in Tang-e Bolaghi, Kleiss assumed this as a canal(Kleiss 1988a: 27-30, Abb. 6-7).

^ Further to the west of TB 64, a possible Achaemenid period occupation was discovred at the cave site of
TB 75 (see Zeidi and Tsuneki 2007, and Adachi this volume). Although no architectural remains wereidentified in Layer 2, the presence of abundant fragments of Achaemenid style large storage jars and thestrategic position of the site overlooking Bolaghi Bozorg and Bolaghi Kuchak, suggest that the site waspossibly functioned as a "watch station" during the Achaemenid period. The storage jars were probably used
to store water or other necessary foodstuffs for the guards.

'The main result of the Iranian-Polish joint expedition was the discovery of a large building structure and awine factory dated to the Sasanian period (ca. AD 3-7 century)(Asadi and Kaim 2007).
® In the Stronqch report; Site No. 14 in Fig.11.3 corresponds to the site. However, the report mentions thesite name as "Tall-i Khari" which was excavated by an Iranian expedition in the 1950s. Tall-e Khari iscorresponds to Site No. 13 in Fig.11.3.

233

234

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Plate n.l The northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi(from the southwest).

Plate 11.2 The northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi(from the north).

Plate 11.3 Bolaghi Bozorg from the site of TB 75 Plate 11.4 Bolaghi Bozorg: mountains In thelooking at Bolaghi Kuchak (from thenorth).

southwest and a discarded chicken farm(from the north).

M

Plate 11.5 General view of Bolaghi Kuchak: The
Rahmatabad Plain in the back (from thenorth).

Plate 11.6 General view of Tang-e Khorkhore (fromthe northeast),

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

235

Plate 11.7 The Sivand River in Tang-e Boiaghi, Plate 11.8 Tang-e Boiaghi: modern camp site on thearound Puze-ye Sorkh (from the north).
foot of mountain (from the southeast).

•

~

liil

Plate 11.11 Toll-eGholam, north of Pasargadae Plain: Cairn burial (from the north).

Plate 11.12 Tang-e Boiaghi: a burial chamber of thecairn burial (from the northwest).

236

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Plate 11.13 Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with a quadratestone lining.

Plate 11.15 Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with an ellipse, or
circular stone lining.

Plate 11.14 Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with an ellipse, or
circular stone lining.

Plate 11.16 Bolaghi Bozorg : grave with an irregularclustering of large stones (1).

«.T

'm:8 Bolaghi B

large stan

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

237

Platen.19 Bolaghf Bozorg : grave with a circular

Piate11.20 A large complex of camp site andstone lining with paved stones inside
the circular enclosure (probably thecemetery located just to the west of thenorthern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.

foundation of a cairn with the upper

part totally destroyed).

Platen.21 Tang-e Bolaghi : cairn burial on themountain to the south of Kuh-e

Plate11.22 Cairn on the mountain which extends tothe southeast of Kuh-e Kuchakak.

Kuchakak.

Plate 11.23 Tang-e Bolaghi: cairns on the mountain

Plate 11.24 Tang-e Bolaghi : graves with stone

to the west of the northern entrance ofclustering on the mountain to the west

Tang-e Bolaghi.

of the northern entrance of Tang-e
Bolaghi.

238

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIVAMAm

Plate 11.25 Tang-e Khorkhore : cairn on the easternentrance of Tang-e Khorkhore.

Plate 11.26 Dokhtarbor: an unfinished engraving on
the rock surface to the west of the rockcut passage.

Plate 11.27 Two paralleled rock-cut passages which

Plate 11.28 Dokhtarbor: a rock-cut passage on theare located between Dokhtarbor andwest bank of the Sivand River (from the

Tirandaz.

northwest).

-

Plate 11.29 Dokhtarbor: a rock-cut passage on thewest bank of the Sivand River (from theeast).

--

Plate 11.30 Dokhtarbor: a rock-cut passage on thewest bank of the Sivand River (from thenorthwest).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

239

Plate 11.31 Tang-e Bolaghl: a stone lining constructed

Plate 11.32 Tang-e Bolaghi: a stone lining constructed

as the sidewall of the road.

as the sidewall of the road.

m

Plate 11.33 Tang-e Bolaghl: a stone lining of the

Plate 11.34 Tang-e Bolaghl: a stone lining of the

sidewall of the road on the east bank ofsidewall of the road on the east bank of

the Sivand (1)(from the north).

the Sivand (2)(from the north).

Plate 11.35 A possible crossing point of the Sivand
near Puze-ye Sorkh and TB 64 (from thePlate 11.36 Bolaghl Bozorg: a possible "barrier
station" on the south bank of the Sivandeast).

(from the north).

240

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA':%
Plate 11.37 Tang-e Bolaghi: a rock-cut passage as aPlate 11.38 Tang-e Bolaghi : a stone lining as thecanal on the east bank of the Sivand atembankment of a canal on the east bankthe northern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghiof the Sivand at the northern entrance of(from the northeast).

Tang-e Bolaghi (from the northeast).

1

Plate 11.39 The old spring of Cheshme-ye Darre-ye
Sorkh, ca. 1 km southeast from thenorthern entrance of Tang-e Bolaghi.

Plate 11.40 A defence wall on the ridge of themountain to the east of Tang-e Bolaghi(1)(from the northwest).

Plate 11.41 A defence wall on the ridge of the

Plate 11.42 A defence wall (in the centre) on themountain to the east of Tang-e Bolaghi(2)(from the norteast).

slope of the mountain on the east bankof the Sivand in Tang-e Bolaghi(1)(fromthe south).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Plate 11.43 A defence wal l on the slope of themountain on the east bank of the Sivandin Tang-e Bolaghi (2) (from thesoutheast).

Plate11.45 A stone lining of the "royal hunting
ground" on the south bank of the Sivandin Bolaghl Bozorg (2) (from thePlate 11.44 A stone lining of the "royal hunting
ground" on the south bank of the Sivandin Bolaghl Bozorg (1) (from thesouthwest).

Plate11.46 A "fire altar" at the northern entrance ofTang-e Bolaghi, (from the southwest),
The hole is shown in the upper right,

southwest).

Plate 11.47 A camp site on the foot of west
mountain of Bolaghl Kuchak (from thesouth).

Plate 11.48 Surface collection from the camp site on
the foot of west mountain of Bolaghi
Kuchak. The potsherds include Bakun
and Lapui wares, and possibly
Achaemenid period storage jar.

Plate n.49 Western part of the settlement site on
the foot of west mountain of Bolaghi
KCichak. (from the east).

Plate 11.50 A stone lining of the road system on thefoot of west mountain of Boiaghi
Kuchak. (from the northeast).

■'-p•/IK'S..'5,

Plate 11.53 Jub-e Rahmatabad (Canal of Sadd-e
Bolaghi Dam) to the east of Bolaghi
Kuchak (from the south). The canal is stillin use with recently built embankmentin cement.

Plate 11.54 Bolaghi Kuchak: A defence wall on theridge of mountain to the west of Bolaghi
Kuchak (from the northwest).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Plate 11.55 Bolaghi Kuchak: a defence wall on themountain slope overlooking Bolaghi
Bozorg (from the southeast).

243

Plate 11.56 Bolaghi KCichak: a defence wall on themountain slope overlooking Bolaghi
Bozorg (from the west).

Plate 11.57 Bolaghi Kuchak: a watchtower on the Plate 11.58 General view of the Toll-e Gholam arearidge of a cliff projecting just to the west
(from the west),of the Sivand dam (from the west).

Plate 11.59 Toll-e Gholam: a prehistoric camp site at

Plate 11.60 Toll-e Gholam: a camp site located in a

the southern end of Toll-e Gholam (fromsmall valley to the east side of thethe northeast).

eastern hill of Aushenasun (from thenorth). A square structure in the valley
floor is presumably a caravanserai.

244

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Platel1.61 Toll-e Gholam: a series of cairns locatedPlate11.62 Toll-e Gholam: cairns located on theon the ridge of the mountain (from theridge of the mountain (from the south).

S^T''

0^m
k

Platen.63 Toll-e Gholam: cairns located on a point

slightly below the ridge (from thePlate11.64 Toll-e Gholam: cairn located on thelower slope of a hill (from the west).

eserved cairns

Plate 11.66 T

D the east ofs

the east).

n

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Plate 11.67 T■' h: ,

Plate 11.69 Toll-e Gholam: a grave with circular or
semi-circular stone linings placed in
front of a rock (from the northeast).

;4

Plate 11.71 Toll-e Gholam: A stone lining as the
sidewalls of the road in the Aushenasun
basin (from the southwest).

Plate 11.70 Toll-e Gholam: a grave with using space
between the rocks (from the east).

246

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Plate n.72 Toll-e Gholam: a stone lining as the
sidewalls of the road in the north of

Aushenasun basin (from the south).

Plate 11.73 Toll-e Gholam: A stoneliningstone
perpendicular to the road just to thenorth of Aushenasun (from thesoutheast).
Plate 11.74 Toll-e Gholam:embankment of the canalconsists of two steps of stone linings(from the southwest).

Plate 11.75 Toll-e Gholam: watchtower (marked by

Plate 11.76 Toll-e Gholam: watchtower (marked byarrow) to the southeast of thearrow) to the southeast of the

Aushenasun basin (1) (from the

Aushenasun basin (2) (from thesouthwest).

northwest).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

Plate11.77 Toll-e Gholam; caravanserai on the

Plate11.78 Toll-e Gholam: caravanserai on thesouthern slope of a hill in the southernsouthern slope of a hill in the southernend of Toll-e Gholam (1)(from the east).

end of Toll-e Gholam (2)(from the east).

il

Plate 11.79 Toll-e Gholam: water reservoir (marked

Plate 11.80 Toll-e Gholam: a "fire altar" in theby arrow) of the caravanserai in thesouthern end of Toll-e Gholam (from thesouthern end of Toll-e Gholam (from thewest),east).

Plate 11.81 Pasargadae: an old canal (layer ofPlate 11.82 Pasargadae: an old canal (layer ofstones) near the Sacred Precinct (1)stones) near the Sacred Precinct (2)(from the northwest).

(from the west).

8

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Plate 11.83 Pasargadae:the south altar in the Sacred
Precinct damaged by treasure seeking
looters (from the north).

Plate 11.84 Pasargadae: one of the artificial mounds(tappe) near the Sacred Precinct (fromthe north).

Platen.85 Pasargadae: Do Tollun. Do Tollun A on
the left and Do Tollun B on the right

Plate 11.86 Pasargadae: the south mound near Do
Tollun (from the south).

(from the west).

r>'

'V

Plate 11.87 Pasargadae: a "fire bowl" on Mound B of
Pasargadae.

s®"-,Plate 11.88 Pasargadae: Pahlavi inscribed rock on
the foot of the northeast hill of
Pasargadae. Inscriptions A-C of theStronach report (from the west).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

h V

v>

Plate 11.89 Pasargadae: a "fire bowl" engraved on

Plate 11.90 The Sadd-e Domdariya causeway-dam

the rock near the Pahlavi inscribed rockto the south of the Pasargadae piain(from the west).

(from the south).

Plate11.91 Pasargadae: Bridge Pier 1 nearDoTollun
A (from the northeast).

Plate11.92 Pasargadae: Bridge Pier 2 near thebridge connecting the villages ofKordshuli and Pasargad (from the north).

iWS:•

'

i

Plate 11.93 Pasargadae: The road from Kordshuli toTang-e Sa'adatshahr (from the north).

Plate 11.94 Pasargadae: Defence wall on the Reshteye KCih-e Kuchakak mountain to thesouthwest of the Pasargadae piain (fromthe south).

Kazuya YAMAUCHI and Shin ichi NISHIYAMA

Platen.95 Pasargadae: defence wall on themountains to the northeast of the
Pasargadae plain (from the northwest).

%

Plate 11.97 Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar dam (marked by

Plate11.96 Sadd-e Ju-ye Dokhtar dam: A destroyed
earthen rampart(from the northeast).

' ^

r'"

Plate 11.98 Ju-ye Dokhtar canal (from the north)arrows)(from the southwest).

-is;

m-.

Plate 11.99 Ju-ye Dokhtar canal (from the south). Plate 11.100 Ju-ye Tang-e Sa'adatshahr canal with
Compare with the size of human in themodern canal wall constructed byright hand.

cement and stones(from the south).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BOLAGHI VALLEY AND ITS VICINITY

251

Plate 11.101 A defence wall in the northern part ofTang-e Sa'adatshahr (from the north).

Plate 11.102 Enlarged view of Plate 101.

Plate 11.103 Qasr-e Dokhtar (from the east).

Plate 11.104 The spring of Cheshme-ye Khorkhore(marked by arrow) (from thesouthwest).

mdefence wall
/Vail of Parsa".

asht-e Nane'arabi

252

Kazuya YAMAUCHl and Shin'ichi NISHIYAMA

Platen.107 A defence wall in Dasht-e Nane'arabi :Plate 11.108 A small natural hill with a Islamic"Wall of Parsa".(from the north).

cemetery at Toll-e Qorbangoli. (fromthe southwest).

llfcK*

m

I'eSs

^

4S..> .
4»:

Plate 11.109 Toll-e Qorbangoli : enclosure wall (left) Plate 11.110 A defence wall near Cheshme-ye
and building structures (right) (fromthe north).

Khorkhore (from the east),

CHAPTER 12

SUMMARY AND
CONCLUSION

12. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Akira TSUNEKI

This volume describes the results of Iran-Japan joint archaeological project for theSivand Dam salvage area. The studies presented by each contributor will be summarized
here first with the most important results from the project being discussed later.

1. Introduction

The purpose, operation, and procedure of our project were summarized in the firstchapter. The climate of Tang-e Bolaghi is an inland one, experiencing drastic temperaturechanges during the day and between seasons. Precipitation is at the very limit for dryfarming. The top soil is heavily covered with limestone pebbles, and the vegetation of
Tang-e Bolaghi is comprised of oak steppe-forest. The valley provides relatively poor
conditions for agriculture, but could be suitable for hunter-gathers or pastoralists. After ashort trip to the Bolaghi area, we believed that the area showed great potential
archaeologically for the study of hunter-gathers, transhumance and trade activities both in theprehistoric and historic periods. Therefore, we decided to carry out two main operations, i.e.
1)Excavations at two caves and 2)Investigation oftravel routes and site distribution patterns
in the valley. An Iran-Japan joint archaeological mission was organized, and the research
was undertaken in 2005-2007.

2. Geology of the Bolaghi area

A summary of the tectonic significance and stratigraphy of Tang-e Bolaghi werediscussed in this chapter. The geology of Tang-e Bolaghi must be discussed in tandem with
the Zagros Suture. The Zagros Suture is defined as a zone including ophiolite remnants andis a product of the final collision between the Gondwana-Land derived Cimmerian continentand Affo-Arabia. The Zagros thrust can be regarded as the compressed expression of the256

AkiraTSUNEKI

northeast edge of the Zagros Suture on the surface. Limestone extensively underlies Tang-e
Bolaghi, and the stratigraphy of Tang-e Bolaghi was reconstructed. A large-scale injection
structure was observed along the wadi where TB75 is located, and the injection probably
occurred during and immediately subsequent to the Cretaceous. The chemical composition of
the massive, injected and alternated material collected in Tang-e Bolaghi was analyzed byfluorescent X-ray with the abundance order of inferred clay minerals being injected, bedded
and massive. The geological structure of Tang-e Bolaghi was studied, and the dip differenceis the result of the topographical difference between the Bolaghi basin and the valley. A
wider open syncline may have formed the Bolaghi basin. The folded structures are developedin the extensive area between Pasargadae and Persepolis. The fold axis trends from NW to
SE,and its wavelength ranges from a few kilometers to several kilometers.

3. Geological prospect for source rocks of prehistoric raw materials in the Bolaghi and
Arsanjan area

This chapter also discusses the geology of Tang-e Bolaghi, but it concentrates on the
problem of source rocks used by the prehistoric people there. At first, the authors clarified
the terminology regarding flint and chert, and then classified the origins of chert into threemajor categories. They examined the source rocks from the Epi-Paleolithic and ProtoNeolithic suitable to be utilized for artifacts from exposed rocks on the ground and from river
bed pebbles in Tang-e Bolaghi. Then, candidate rocks for artifacts, i.e. 1) siliceous nodule inlimestone, 2) river gravel, were discussed. The distribution, production, and the chemicalcomposition of the rocks were examined. The geological characteristics of more appropriate
raw materials for artifacts were also studied, based on the species and occurrence ofradiolarians in the chert. These studies indicated that the procurement zones for theprehistoric artifacts might be located not in the Bolaghi area, but in the Abadeh Tashk
ophiolite, which is tens of kilometers from the Bolaghi area. They seem to have beentransported as river pebbles and/or as trading material.

4. Excavations atTB75 (Haji Bahrami Cave)

TB75 is the most conspicuous cave in the Bolaghi Valley, having a c. 9 m wide and 2.8

m high opening. It was chosen for excavation because of its strategic location in the valley
and for the presence of prehistoric materials on the surface. We dug three trenches (Trenches
A, C and D totaling lOm^)inside the cave and one 2 x Im trench (Trench B)in the middle ofthe terrace slope. We reached virgin soil at around 2m deep inside the cave trenches. They
produced almost the same cultural deposits, consisting of six cultural layers. Layer 1 isIslamic, layer 2 is Achaemenid, layers 3 and 4 are Proto-Neolithic, and layers 5 and 6 are
Epi-Paleolithic. Layer 2 produced characteristic large ribbed pithoi and an iron trilobate
arrowhead. It is supposed that the cave was used as an army post during the Achaemenid or

post-Achaemenid period. On the other hand, lower prehistoric layers produced a large
number of chipped stones and some animal bones. Their characteristics indicated theexistence of Proto-Neolithic and Epi-Paleolithic cultural sequence there, and they suggest
new data for the study of Neolithization in the eastern Zagros. The cultural deposits ofTrench B on the terrace slope are about 1 m thick, and could be divided into various layers.
However, except recently accumulated surface soil, all of the layers showed similarlithofacies and produced a great number of flint chipped stones belonging to the ProtoNeolithic period. Therefore, most of the Trench B deposits were accumulated at the same

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

time as layers 3 and 4 ofthe cave trenches.

5. Excavations at TB130

TB130 is one of the caves on the southern skirt of Kuh-e Bolaghi Bozorg, about 1.2km
east of TB75. It is not so deep so we called it a shelter rather than a cave. The shelter is 9m
wide by 6m long, and the height of the opening is about 9m. The front terrace slope is steep
but produced many chipped stones on the surface, especially on the middle and lower
terraces. One 2 x 2m trench (Trench A)inside the shelter and five 2 x Im trenches(Trench B- E) on the terrace outside were sunk. Therefore, the excavated area covered 12m^ in all. A
few modem potsherds were the only objects recovered from Trench A, and we concluded
that the shelter was used only by modem sheepherders, or that the prehistoric deposits hadcompletely eroded away. In contrast, all trenches on the terrace produced many chippedstones, which seem to belong to the Proto-Neolithic period. The most important feature is astone floor paved with many angular limestone pebbles, which was discovered in Trench DE. The chipped stone assemblages discovered from these trenches essentially belong to thesame lithic industry, and they are quite similar to those from layers 3 and 4(Trenches A, B
andC)ofTB75.

6. Lithic assemblages from TB75 and TB130

Chipped stones obtained from the excavations at TB75 and TB130 were summarized
and reported in this chapter. A hypothetical dating of these lithic assemblages within the EpiPaleolithic to Proto-Neolithic chronological framework of the Zagros Mountains was also
discussed. Firstly, overall characteristics of the lithic artifacts were outlined. The study
material contained 10,703 pieces of chipped stones from both sites. The material, the types,

the shapes, and the flaking techniques were considered. Then, a layer by layer description of
the lithic artifacts followed. Five phases can be established for the lithic assemblages at

TB75 and TB130 designated in chronological order as Phase 1 to Phase 5. The oldest. Phase
1 is represented by layer 6(Trench D)of TB75. Phase 2 is represented by layer 5(Trench D)
of TB75, showing the characteristics of late Zarzian lithic industry. Phase 3 consists of layer4(Trench D)of TB75, layer 4(Trench C)of TB75, layer 3(Trench B)of TB75 and layer 4(Trench B) of TB130. The people made pressure-flaked micro-blades, using good quality
raw materials obtained from distant places. Phase 4 consists of layer 3 (Trench D)of TB75,

layer 3 (Trench C) of TB75, and layer 3 (Trench D)of TB130. For micro-blade production
they used pressure flaking and finer quality raw materials than those used for blade
production which utilized percussion. The latest Phase 5 is represented by layer 2(Trench B)
of TB75 and layer 2 (Trench E) of TB130. The presence of geometric microliths of the
lunate and trapezoid categories is the most indicative characteristic of this phase. These fivephases were compared with those of sites in the surrounding areas. Then, the hypotheticaldating of these phases was ordered within the Epi-Paleolithic to Proto-Neoltihic
chronological framework of the Zagros Mountains. Phase 1 is dated to the Zarzian, andPhase 2 is dated to the Late Zarzian, contemporary with KMC Cave in the south-east Zagros.
Phases 3 and 4 are dated to the Proto-Neolithic in the Zagros, particularly to a period

subsequent to MTefaat and Karim Shahir. Phase 5 can be dated to the Aceramic Neolithic,
contemporary with the Aceramic Jarmo.

257

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AkiraTSUNEKI

7. Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid objects from TB75,TB130 and the general survey

Layer 2 (Trenches A, C and D) of TB75 produced a relatively large number of
Achaemenid-like pottery and other objects. Most of the pottery from layer 2 at TB75 arewheel made and well fired. The most diagnostic type is the fragments of ribbed pithos. One
high quality canteen jar fragment is also notable. Based on t3q)ology, they seem to belong to
the late Achaemenid and/or post Achaemenid period. Besides pottery, the most remarkableobject from layer 2 is an iron trilobate arrowhead. Similar specimens were reported from theTreasury of Persepolis and Susa. The historic period pottery from TB130 and the generalsurvey were also reported in this chapter.

8. Fauna! remains from TB75

About 4300 pieces of animal bone were recovered from Trenches A and D of TB75 andwere analyzed in order to reconstruct subsistence patterns. The results of analysis suggestthat a wide range of fauna was exploited during the Epi-Paleolithic and Proto-Neolithic
periods at the site. However, gazelle was the most important game species exploited during
layers 6-5, i.e. the Epi-Paleolithic period. An increase in the proportion of sheep and goatsfrom layers 6-5 to layers 4-3, i.e. the Proto-Neolithic period, is evident at TB75. Distributionof LSI for both sheep and goats suggest a rather homogeneous population, and comparison ofindividual measurements of goats indicated that the specimens are in the size range of wildgoats. However, the intensive use of sheep and goats in the Proto-Neolithic period is quite
impressive for considering the neolithization in this region. Pigs and cattle also appeared
only from the Proto-Neoltihic layers. It is suggested that most of the sheep, goat, cattle andpig remains in the Achaemenid and Islamic layers are domestic. Gazelle hunting still
continued. Equid remains increased dramatically in the Achaemenid layer, reflecting thestrategic importance ofthe site.

9. Plant remains from TB75

The plant remains collected with a small-scale manual water-sieve during the
excavations were sent to a specialist for analysis. All of the plant remains were obtained
from inside the cave trenches (Trenches C and D) in the 2006 season. Wheat, barley,
legumes, and other charred remains were identified in the samples. One grain of bread wheat,discovered from one of the Epi-Paleolithic samples, is considered intrusive. This
paleobotanical study based on the samples from TB75 gives us a first glance for EpiPaleolithic and Proto-Neolithic botanical aspects of the region, but more materials anddetailed study are necessary to draw any general picture about prehistoric vegetation andplant use by the people at that time.

10. Radiocarbon dating

Two radiocarbon dating groups measured the charcoal samples collected from theprehistoric layers of Trenches C and D of TB75. Each group measured ten samples using an
AMS. The Nagoya University group results were as follows; One sample of layer 3 (TrenchD) dated to 8480 ± 45BP; Three samples of layer 4 (Trench D) dated to 9265 ± 45BP -SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

10190 ±45BP; Three samples of layer 5(Trench D)dated to 12225 ± 50BP - 12640 ± 50BP;
Two samples of layer 6(Trench D)dated to 16330 ± 60BP - 16650 ± 70BP. The Universityof Tokyo group results were as follows; Three samples oflayer 4(Trench D)dated to 8403 ±43BP - 9452 ± 47BP; Three samples of layer 5(Trench C)dated to 11930 ± 56BP - 14774 =b
61BP. Three samples obtained at locus 12 of layer 4(Trench C)dated to 1368 ± 33BP - 1448
± 33BP, and it is highly possible that there was contamination from the upper layers. One
sample of each group did not produce any results. Therefore, we can say that the dates
proposed by the two groups are compatible. Based on their results, layer 3 dates to the
middle of the 9* millennium cal BC; layer 4 to the 10"^ - early 9*^ millennium cal BC; layer 5
to theH"^ -13*^ millennium cal BC; and layer 6 to the 18"^ millennium cal BC.

11.The archeological survey in the Bolaghi Valley and its vicinity
We undertook an archaeological survey to investigate the relationship between pasttranshumance routes and related archaeological remains in the Bolaghi Valley and its
vicinity. We also carried out the analysis of archaeological remains related to road, water
management and defence system during the Achaemenid period. The survey was carried out

by employing an intensive field walking method using high-resolution satellite images. The
archaeological remains were directly recorded on to a satellite image magnified to a scale of
1:3000. GPS was also used to confirm the location of the remains. Transhumance movement

was reconstructed by analyzing the distribution and situation of camp sites, caims andcemeteries with reference to modem nomadic pastoralists around the Bolaghi Valley and thePasargadae Plain. Based on the distribution of transhumance remains, Tang-e Khorekhore,i.e. the west route, was considered to be the most important gateway to and from the BolaghiValley except during the Achaemenid period. During the Achaemenid period, the east routewhich traversed the Bolaghi Valley from Bolaghi Kuchak to Tang-e Bolaghi became

increasingly important, due to the construction of the "royal road" which connected
Pasargadae and Persepolis. After the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire, the abandonmentof the "royal road" probably led to the revival of the west route as the main traverse route for
the Bolaghi Valley. The west route as the main route within the Bolaghi Valley must havecontinued throughout the Islamic period to the present. The remains of stone linings whichindicate road, water management and defence systems are not dateable. However, somecairns located directly on these stone linings. These cairns were dated to the postAchaemenid or Parthian-Sasanian periods based on the collected potsherds, therefore thestone linings should be dated earlier than these caims, namely to the Achaemenid period.
Our intensive field survey identified the remains of a dynamic road, water management
system and defense system during the Achaemenid period. These systems were strongly
related to the transhumance movement of nomadic pastoralists. Based on these results, weconcluded that the protection and control of the Bolaghi Valley was crucial for the
Achaemenids in Pasargadae.

Conclusion

We believe that our three seasons' investigation in the Bolaghi Valley sheds new lighton the prehistory and the study of transhumance in the Ears province. The most remarkable
results are the first discovery of a cultural sequence from the Epi-Paleolithic to the ProtoNeolithic in the eastem Zagros region. The eastem Zagros curiously lacks sites with thistransitional cultural deposit, and no archaeological reports showing this transition have been

259

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AkiraTSUNEKI

published up until now. As mentioned in Chapter 1, many Epi-Paleolithic caves and shelters,
and Pottery Neolithic tappeh-type settlements have been discovered and investigated in Pars
Province, especially in the Marvdasht Plain. However, the transition period between the endof the Epi-Paleolithic and the beginning of the Pottery Neolithic remains as a strange hiatus
in the eastern Zagros. Of course, this transitional period holds the key to the problem ofNeolithization. Such a gap in the archaeological record made us suppose that the eastern
Zagros did not play an important role in this transition. Previously it was thought that there
were no archaeological sites of this transitional period in this region. It has been supposedthat Neolithic way of life in the eastern Zagros started quite late around the beginning of thePottery Neolithic period. However, our investigation revealed the existence of occupationthat dated to this key period. We tentatively call this transitional phase the "Proto-Neolthic"
in this report, and the discovery of this phase at TB75 and TB130 reveals new data whichsuggests a need to reconsider the traditional view, that is, the eastern Zagros is one of theregions which lagged behind the Fertile Crescent in terms of Neolithization. As you see inthis report, we discovered a series of archaeological sequences and a series of '^'C sequencesfrom the Epi-Paleolithic to Proto-Neolithic and / or Aceramic Neolithic at TB75. ProtoNeolithic and / or Aceramic Neolihtic cultural deposits were also revealed at TB130.
We still need more material to define the way of life and subsistence during the EpiPaleoltihic and Proto-Neolithic periods in the Bolaghi Valley. The lithic artifacts mainly
consist of blades, micro-blades and scrapers with a few notches, burins and geometricmicroliths. These artifacts indicate activities which relate to hunting, butchering andwoodworking. Not a single sickle element or flake with silica-sheen was discovered either inthe Epi-Paleolithic or in the Proto-Neolithic layers. With the slight paleoethnobotanic
evidence, we have no evidence for farming at all. The analysis of faunal remains indicatedthat the prehistoric people of TB75 hunted mainly gazelle, sheep and goats. It seems that thegame of these medium sized bovids had been most important for subsistence. Therefore, thepeople of the Epi-Paleolithic and Proto-Neolithic periods in the Bolaghi Valley mainly
engaged in the hunting of wild bovids and probably gathering of wild plants. Thesesubsistence activities are in accord with the natural environment of the Bolaghi Valley
discussed in Chapter 1. We found a hearth and a spread of limestone in the Epi-Paleolithic
layers of TB75 and a rough stone floor in Proto-Neolithic layer of TB130. These structural
remains were probably used by temporal hunter-gathers for cooking, butchering animals, as alithic workshop, and so on. All things considered, nomadic hunter-gatherers came to the
Bolaghi Valley repeatedly for hunting gazelles, sheep, and goat, and for gathering wild
legumes and nuts during the Epi-Paleolithic and Proto-Neolithic periods.
It does not seem that the fundamental subsistence and way of life between the EpiPaleolithic and Proto-Neolithic in the Bolaghi Valley differed drastically. The occupation
debris in both periods were observed in similar locations such as caves and terrace slopes,
and the major types of lithic artifacts were also similar though a technological jump could beobserved between them. However, it is notable that the proportion of sheep and goats in thefaunal assemblage increases drastically from 17% in the Epi-Paleolithic layers to 46% in the
Proto-Neolithic ones. Though the goats in the Proto-Neolithic seem to have been wild

species from the point of size, such an inclination to sheep and goat indicates a tendency
toward domestication. Only further investigation will resolve this problem.
The excavations at TB75 also provided new data for the Achaemenid period. It is very
probable that the cave was used as an army post during the Achaemenid and / or postAchaemenid period. This hypothesis is supported by the excavated remains and the strategic
location of the site itself. If we discuss TB75 within a framework of traffic routes andtranshumance not only within the Bolaghi Valley but also in the context of the whole region
between Persepolis and Pasargadae, we can understand the dynamics of the site more clearly.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Therefore, the results of our excavations at TB75 must be discussed together with the resultsof our general survey.

Our general survey proposed a new perspective for the Bolaghi Valley for its role intranshumance and trade routes. The importance of the routes within the valley shifted fromperiod to period. The west was the most important gateway for the Bolaghi Valley from theprehistoric to modem periods. The exception was during the Achaemenid period, when theeast and south routes gained prominence. The location of TB75 as a vital location wasunderstood within this context. Our general survey provided substantial data forunderstanding past transhumance movement, and the authors who carried out the generalsurvey suggested that the Bolaghi Valley played a role within the defence system for
Pasargadae during the Achaemenid Empire. It is a fascinating suggestion though theevidence must be reviewed further.

Many archaeological teams have worked in the Bolaghi Valley and provided a lot of
precious data for studying human history and the natural environment. I believe that our joint
Iran-Japan mission also contributed to this research. At the same time, I pray thatcooperation between Iranian and foreign archaeologists will progress further.

261

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